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HAYDN'S 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES 
 
 COMPREHENDING 
 
 REMARKABLE OCCURRENCES, ANCIENT AND MODERN, 
 
 THE FOUNDATION, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENTS OF COUNTRIES — THEIR PROGRESS IN ARTS, 
 
 SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE — THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS IN ARMS — AND 
 
 THEIR CIVIL, MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND PHILANTHROPIC 
 
 INSTITUTIONS, PARTICULARLY OF 
 
 THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 
 
3-,. ., ^ "HAYDN'S 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES 
 
 RELATING TO ALL AGES AND NATIONS: 
 
 FOR 
 
 UNIVERSAL REFERENCE. 
 
 TWELFTH EDITION, 
 CORRECTED TO FEBRUARY, 1866. 
 
 By benjamin VINCENT, 
 
 ASSISTANT SECRETARY AND KEEPER OF THE LIBRARY OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 LONDON : 
 EDWARD MOXON AND CO., DOVER STREET. 
 
 1866. 
 
>■ 
 
 
 • 
 
 $>•" 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 BnADUuay, evaks, and cc, printers, wniiEFniARa. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE TWELFTH EDITION. 
 
 In 1855, when the printing of the Seventh Edition of this Dic- 
 tionary had begun, and Mr. Haydn's failing health prevented the 
 continuance of his labours, I acceded to the request of the publisher 
 to correct the press and supply the continuations of the articles. In 
 doing so I soon perceived that the execution of the work was far from 
 being equal to the merit of its conception ; and after much considera- 
 tion, I was eventually induced to undertake its gradual revision and 
 completion, in order to render the book more worthy of its established 
 reputation. During the last ten years the chronological tables have 
 been examined and continued ; a great number of articles have been re- 
 written, and new ones inserted, and much geographical, biographical, 
 literary, and scientific information supplied, together with a Table of 
 the Populations and Governments of the various countries of the world ; 
 and the Index has been greatly augmented by the insertion of dates 
 relating to eminent persons of past and present times. With the 
 present edition is given a table of Contemporary European Sovereigns 
 since the Norman Conquest. To afford room for these additions, the 
 size of the page and the bulk of the volume have been enlarged, 
 and very many articles have been condensed. My aim has been 
 throughout to make this book not a mere Dictionary of Dates, but a 
 dated Encyclopaedia, a digested summary of every department of human 
 history brought down to the very eve of publication. The latest Addi- 
 tions and Corrections will be found at the end of the volume. 
 
 Benjamin Vincent. 
 
 Febkuaky, 1866. 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 The design of the Author has been to attempt the compression of the 
 greatest body of general information that has ever appeared in a single volume, 
 and to produce a Book of Reference whose extensive usefulness may render its 
 possession material to every individual— in the same manner that a London 
 Directory is indispensable, on business affairs, to a London merchant. 
 
 He grounds his hope of the Public taking an interest in this work altogether 
 upon its own intrinsic utility. Its articles are drawn principally from historians 
 of the first rank, and the most authentic annalists ; and the Dictionary of 
 Dates will, in almost every instance, save its possessor the trouble of turning 
 over voluminous authors to refresh his memory, or to ascertain the date, order, 
 and features of any particular occurrence. 
 
 The volume contains upwards of Fifteen Thousand Articles, alphabeti- 
 cally arranged ; and, from the selection of its materials, it must be important 
 to every man in the British Empire, whether learned or unlearned, or whether 
 connected with the professions or engaged in trade. 
 
 It would be difficult to name all the authors from whose works the Compiler 
 of this volume has copiously extracted ; but he may mention among the classics, 
 Herodotus, Livy, Pliny, and Plutarch. He has chosen in general chronology, 
 Petavius, Usher, Blair, Prideaux, and the Abbe Lenglet Dufresnoy. For the 
 events embraced in foreign history, he has relied upon Henault, Voltaire, La 
 Combe, Rollin, Melchior Adam, the Noiiveau Dictionnaire, and chief authors of 
 their respective countries. On subjects of general literature, his authorities 
 are Cave's Historia Literaria, Moreri, Bayle, Priestley, and others of equal 
 repute. And English occurrences are drawn from Camden, Stow, Hall, Baker, 
 Holinshed, Chamberlayne, Rapin, Hume, Gibbon, Goldsmith, &c. Besides 
 these, the Compiler has freely used the various abridgments that have brought 
 facts and dates more prominently forward; and he is largely indebted to 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 Chambers, Aspin, Beatson, Anderson, Beckmann, the Cyclopcedias, Annual 
 Register, Statutes at Large, and numerous other compilations. In almost eveiy 
 instance the authority is quoted for the extract made and date assigned, 
 though inadvertence may have prevented, in some few cases, a due 
 acknowledgment. 
 
 The leading events of every country, whether ancient or modern kingdoms, 
 are to be found in the annals of each respectively, as in the cases, for instance, 
 of Greece, Rome, the Eastern Empire, England, France, and Germany. 
 But, independently of this plan of reference, when any historical occurrence 
 claims, from its importance, more specific mention, it is made in a separate 
 article, according to alphabetical arrangement. Thus, in the annals of 
 England, the dates are given of the foundation of our universities, the 
 institution of honorary orders, and signature of Magna Charta; we find, in 
 those annals, the periods of our civil wars, and remarkable eras in our history, 
 set down as they have occurred; but if more ample information be necessary 
 to the Reader, and if he desire to know more than the mere date of any fact or 
 incident, the particulars are supplied under a distinct head. In the same way, 
 the pages of battles supply the date of each, in the order of time ; yet in all 
 instances where the battle has any relation to our own country, or is 
 memorable or momentous, the chief features of it are stated in another part 
 of the volume. 
 
 The Compiler persuades himself that the Dictionary op Dates will be 
 
 received as a useful companion to all Biographical works, relating, as it does, 
 
 to things as those do to x>ersons, and affording information not included in the 
 
 range or design of such publications. 
 
 Joseph Haydn. 
 London, May, 1841. [Died Jan. 17, 1856.] 
 
POPULATION AND GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 
 {According to the Almanack de Gothafor 1866.) 
 
 COUNTEIES. 
 
 Anhalt, Population in Dec. 1864 
 Argentine Confederation . . 1859 
 Austrian Empire . . . Oct. 1857 
 
 Baden Dec. 1864 
 
 Bayaria Dec. 1864 
 
 Belgium Dec. 1863 
 
 BoUvia 1858 
 
 Brazil 1856 
 
 Bremen (free city) . . . Deo. 1864 
 Brunswick- WoUenbilttel . Dec. 1864 
 
 ChUi (estimated) 1857 
 
 Chinese Empire (estimated) . 1849 
 Costa Rica (estimated) . . . 1861 
 Denmark and colonies . . . 1865 
 Equator (estimated) .... 1858 
 
 Egypt 1859 
 
 France and colonies (estimatd.) 1862 
 Frankfort (free city) . . Dec. 1864 
 Great Britain & colonies (estm.) 1861 
 Greece and Ionian Islands (est.) 1865 
 
 Guatemala 1858 
 
 Hamburg (free city) .... 1860 
 
 Hanover Dec. 1864 
 
 Hayti and St. Domingo"(est.) . 1865 
 
 Hesse-Cassel Deo. 1864 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt . . . Dec. 1864 
 Hesse-Hombiu-g .... Deo. 1864 
 Holland and colonies .... 1863 
 
 Holstein 1865 
 
 Honduras 1858 
 
 Italy (estimated) 1864 
 
 Japan (estimated) 
 
 Liechtenstein 1858 
 
 Lippe Deo. 1864 
 
 Lubeck (free city) 1862 
 
 Meoklenburg-Schwerin . Dec. 1864 
 Mecklenburg-StreUtz .... 1860 
 
 Mexico (estimated) 1865 
 
 Monaco 1864 
 
 Montenegro (estimated) . . . 1859 
 
 Morocco about 
 
 Nassau Dec. 1864 
 
 New Granada . ■ 1864 
 
 Nicaragua 1858 
 
 Oldenburg Dec. 1864 
 
 Panama 1864 
 
 Papal States (estimated) . . . 1863 
 
 Paraguay 1857 
 
 Persia (estimated) 1869 
 
 Peru 1859 
 
 Portugal and colonies . . Deo. 1863 
 
 Prussia Deo. 1865 
 
 Eeuss-Greiz Dec. 1864 
 
 Eeuss-Schleiz Dec. 1864 
 
 Roumania(Dan. Prncip.)e3tmi. 1862 
 Russia, Poland, &c. (estim.) . 1865 
 Sandwich Islands (Hawaii, &e.) 1861 
 San Marino ........ 1858 
 
 San Salvador 1858 
 
 Saxony Dec. 1864 
 
 Saxe-Altenburg .... Deo. 1864 
 Saxe-Coburg-Gothii . . Dec. 1864 
 Saxe-Meiningen .... Dec. 1864 
 Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach . Dec. 1864 
 Schaumburg-Lippe . . Dec. 1864 
 Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, Dec. 1864 
 Schwaxtzburg-Sondershausen ,, 1864 
 
 Servia 1865 
 
 Sleswig 1865 
 
 Spain and colonies 1864 
 
 Sweden and Norway (estimtd.) 1863 
 
 Switzerland Dec. 1860 
 
 Turkish Empire (estimated) . 1865 
 
 Uruguay 1860 
 
 Venezuela 1859 
 
 Waldeck Dec. 1864 
 
 Wurtemberg Dec. 1864 
 
 XTuited States of America . . 1860 
 
 POPULA- 
 TION. 
 
 193,046 
 
 1,171,800 
 
 35,018,988 
 
 1,434,754 
 
 4,807,440 
 
 4,893,021 
 
 1,987,352 
 
 7,677,800 
 
 104,091 
 
 293,388 
 
 1,559,000 
 
 415,000,000 
 
 135,000 
 
 1,825,220 
 
 1,040,371 
 
 5,125,000 
 
 43,534,245 
 
 91,180 
 
 223,820,099 
 
 1,325,341 
 
 850,000 
 
 229,941 
 
 1,923,492 
 
 572,000 
 
 745,063 
 
 853,315 
 
 27,374 
 
 21,805,607 
 
 554,510 
 
 350,000 
 
 22 104,789 
 
 35 to 40 mil. 
 
 7,150 
 
 111,336 
 
 50,614 
 
 552,612 
 
 99,060 
 
 8,218,080 
 
 1,687 
 
 125,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 468,311 
 
 2,794,473 
 
 400,000 
 
 301,812 
 
 2,784,473 
 
 700,000 
 
 1,337,431 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 8,037,194 
 
 19,304,843 
 
 43,924 
 
 86,472 
 
 4,003,000 
 
 80,255,430 
 
 69,800 
 
 8,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 2,343,994 
 
 141,839 
 
 164,527 
 
 178,065 
 
 280,201 
 
 31,382 
 
 73,752 
 
 66,189 
 
 1,220,000 
 
 406,486 
 
 21,031,258 
 
 5,700.000 
 
 2,510,494 
 
 39,000,000 
 
 240,965 
 
 1,565,500 
 
 59,143 
 
 1,748,328 
 
 31,445,080 
 
 Leopold, duke 
 
 Bartolomeo Mitre, president . 
 Francis-Joseph, emperor . . 
 Frederick, grandrduke . . . 
 
 Louis II., king 
 
 Leopold II., king 
 
 Gen. M.Melgarejo, president. 
 Pedro II., emperor .... 
 C. Mehr, burgomaster . . . 
 
 Wilham, duke 
 
 Jos§ J. Perez, president . . . 
 Ki-tsiang, emperor .... 
 J. Ximenes, president^ . . . 
 Christian IX., king .... 
 G. OaTTSon, president . . . 
 Ismail Pacha, viceroy . . . 
 Napoleon III., emperor . . . 
 Two Burgomasters. 
 
 Victoria, queen 
 
 George I., king 
 
 Vincent Cerna, president . . 
 
 Senate 
 
 George V., king 
 
 N. Fabre Geffrard, president 
 Frederic- William I., elector . 
 Louis III., grand-duke . . . 
 Ferdinand, landgrave . . . 
 Wihiam III., king .... 
 Held by Austria. 
 J. M. Medina, president . . 
 Victor-Emmanuel, king . . 
 Mikado {spiritual) ; Tycoon 
 
 John II., prince 
 
 Leopold, prince 
 
 Burgomasters and Senate. 
 Frederic Francis, grand-duke . 
 Frederic WiUiam, grand-duke 
 Maxirailian I., emperor . . . 
 
 Charles, prince 
 
 Nicholas I., prince .... 
 Sidi Mohamed, sultan . . 
 
 Adolphus, duke 
 
 M. Murillo, president . . 
 T. Martinez, president . . 
 Peter, grand-duke .... 
 Jil Colunje, gfowerjior. . . 
 
 Pius IX., pope 
 
 F. S. Lopez 
 
 Nassir-ed-Deen, sAa^ . . 
 M. Canseco, president . . 
 
 Louis I., king 
 
 William I., king .... 
 Henry XXII., prince . . 
 Henry LXIX., prince . . 
 Alex. John I. (Cousa) hospodar 
 Alexander II., cza/r .... 
 
 Kamehameha V. 
 
 Capitani reggenti. 
 
 F. Duenas, president .... 
 
 John, king 
 
 Ernest, dtike 
 
 Ernest II., duke 
 
 Bernard, duke 
 
 Charles- Alexander, grand-duke 
 
 Adolphus, prince 
 
 Gunther, prince . ... 
 
 Gunther, prince 
 
 Michael III. (MUosoh) . . . 
 Held by Prussia. 
 
 Isabella II., queen 
 
 Charles XV., king 
 
 Annual president 
 
 Abdul-Aziz, sultan .... 
 Gen. V. Floras, prov. president 
 J. E. Falcon, president . . . 
 
 George V., prince 
 
 Charles, king 
 
 Andrew Jolmson, president . 
 
 Oct. 1, 1794. 
 
 Aug. 18, 1830 
 Sept. 9, 1826 
 Aug. 25, 1845 
 April 9, 1835 
 
 Dec. 2, 1825. 
 April 25, '1806 
 
 AprU 5, 1855 
 April's, 1818 
 
 April 20, 1808 
 
 May 24, 1819 
 Deo. 24, 1845 
 
 May 27, 1819 
 
 'Aug. 20, 'l80'2 
 June 9, 1806 
 April 26, 1783 
 Feb. 19, 1817 
 
 March 14, 1820 
 [temporal). 
 Oct. 5, 1840 . 
 Sept. 1. 1821 . 
 
 Feb. 28, 1823 . 
 Oct. 17, 1819 . 
 July 6, 1832. . 
 Dec. 8, 1818 . . 
 1840 .... 
 
 July 24, 1817 
 
 Julys, 1827. 
 May 13, 1792 
 
 ■ 1829. '. ; 
 
 Oct. 31, 1838 . 
 March 22, 1797 
 March 28, 1846 
 May 19, 1792 . 
 March 10, 1820 
 AprU 29, 1818 . 
 Dec. 11, 1830 . 
 
 Deo. 12, 1801 
 Sept. 16, 1826 
 June 21, 1818 
 Dec. 17, 1800 
 June 24, 1818 
 Aug. 1, 1817 
 Nov. 6, 1793 
 Sept. 24, 1801 
 Sept. 4, 1825 
 
 Oct. 10, 1830 
 May 3, 1826 . 
 
 Feb. 9, 1830. 
 
 Jan. 14, 1831. . 
 
 March 6, 1823 . 
 
 1809, . . . 
 
 Aug. 9, 1817. 
 Oct. 12, 1862. 
 Dec. 2, 1848. 
 April 24, 1852. 
 March 10, 1864. 
 Dec. 10, 1865. 
 Deo. 1864. 
 April 7, 1831. 
 Dec. 31, 1863. 
 April 25, 1831. 
 Sept. 18, 1861. 
 Aug. 22, 1861. 
 April 3, 1863. 
 Nov. 15, 1862. 
 
 1865. 
 Jan. 18, 1863. 
 Dec. 2, 1853. 
 
 June 20, 1837. 
 June 5, 1863. 
 May 3, 1865. 
 
 Nov. 18, 1851. 
 Jan. 23, 1859. 
 Nov. 20, 1847. 
 June 16, 1848. 
 Sept. 8, 1848. 
 March 17, 1849. 
 
 Feb. 1864. 
 March 17, 1861. 
 
 Nov. 12, 1858. 
 Jan. 1, 1851. 
 
 March 7, 1842. 
 Sept. 6, 1860. 
 April 10, 1864. 
 June 20, 1856. 
 Aug. 14, 1860. 
 Sept. 1859. 
 Aug. 20, 1839. 
 April 1, 1864. 
 March 1, 1859. 
 Feb. 27, 1853. 
 March 10, 1865. 
 June 16, 1846. 
 Sept., 1862. 
 
 1848. 
 Nov., 1865. 
 Nov. 11, 1861. 
 Jan. 2, 1861. 
 Nov. S, 1859. 
 Sept. 16, 1856. 
 Jan. 1859. 
 March 2, 1855. 
 Nov., 1863. 
 
 April, 1865. 
 Aug. 9, 1854. 
 Aug. 3, 1853. 
 Jan. 29, 1844. 
 Deo. 24, 1803. 
 July 8, 1853. 
 Nov. 21, 1860. 
 AprU 28, 1807. 
 Aug. 19, 1835. 
 Sept. 26, 1860. 
 
 Sept. 29, 1833. 
 July 8, 1859. 
 July 4, 1864. 
 June 25. 1861. 
 Feb., 1865. 
 March 18, 1865. 
 May 15, 1845. 
 June 25, 1864. 
 April 15, 1865. 
 
TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 Peninsula. 
 
 
 
 
 France. 
 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Hungary. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 
 Castile. 
 
 Aeragon. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 
 
 1066. -Will. I. 
 
 1057. Male 3. 
 1093. Donald 
 
 1060. PhiUp. I. 
 
 1066. Sancho II. 
 
 1065. Sancho. 
 
 1065. Sancho of 
 Castile. 
 
 1056. Hen. 4, 
 emperor. 
 
 1064. Solom. 
 
 1087. Wil. II. 
 
 1094 Dune. 
 1094. Donald 
 
 
 1072. Alfonso VJ. 
 
 
 1072. Alfonso VI. 
 
 
 1075. Geisa. 
 
 1076. Lad. I. 
 
 
 again. 
 1C98. Edgar. 
 
 
 
 1094. Peter. 
 
 1093. Henry, 
 count. 
 
 
 1098. Colo- 
 man. 
 
 1 1 00. Hen I. 
 
 1107. Alex. I. 1108. Louis VI. 
 
 1 109. Urracaand 1104. Alfonso I. 
 
 1112. Alfonso, as 1106. Hen.s. 
 
 1114. Step.2. 
 
 
 
 
 Alfonso VII. 
 
 
 cou.nl. 
 
 
 
 1124. Dav. I. 
 
 
 1126. Alfon.Vn. 
 
 
 ii2S.Loth.2. 
 
 1131. Bela 2. 
 
 1135. Stept. 
 
 
 IT 37. Louis VII. 
 
 
 1 134. Ramiro. 
 
 
 
 1154. Hen. 2. 
 
 iiS3.Mal.IV. 
 
 
 
 1 137. Petronella 
 
 1139. Alfonso I.,iii38.Conr.3. 
 
 ii4i.Gei8a3. 
 
 
 
 
 1157. Sancho III. 
 
 and Raymond. 
 
 as king. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n58.Alfon.VlII. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 72. (Jreld. 
 
 1165. Will. 
 
 
 
 
 
 iiS2.Fred.i. 
 
 1 161. Step. 3. 
 
 annexed. ) 
 
 
 u8o. Philip IL 
 
 
 1163. Alfonso II. 
 
 
 
 1173. Bela 3. 
 
 1 1 89. Rich. I. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1185. Sancho I. 
 
 1 190. Hen.6. 
 
 
 1 199. John. 
 
 
 
 
 1196. Peter II. 
 
 
 ii98.Phihp. 1196. Emerid 
 
 i2t6. Hen. 3. 
 
 1214. Alex.2. 
 
 
 1214. Henry I. 
 
 1213. James I. 1212. Alfonso II. 
 
 i2o8. Oiho 4. 
 
 1204. Ladis- 
 
 
 
 1223. Louis VIII. 
 
 
 
 
 1215. Fred.2. 
 
 las II. 
 1205. An- 
 
 
 
 1226. Louis IX. 
 
 1230. Ferdin.III. 
 
 
 1223. Sancho II. 
 
 
 drew II. 
 1233. Bela 4 
 
 
 1249. Alex.3. 
 
 
 1252. Alfonso X. 
 
 
 1248. Alfon. III. 
 
 1250. Con. 4. 
 1254. WiU. 
 1237. Rich. 
 
 
 1272. Ed. I. 
 
 
 1270. Philip HI. 
 
 
 1276. Peter III. 
 
 1279. Dionysius 
 
 1273. Ro- 
 
 1270. Ste. 4, 
 1272. Lad. 3 
 
 1282 (Wales' Interregnum. 
 
 
 1284. Sancho IV. 
 
 or Denis. 
 
 dolph. 
 
 
 annexed.) 
 
 1792. John 
 Baliol. 
 
 1285. Philip IV. 
 
 1283. Alfons. III. 
 129s. Perdin. TV. 1291. James II. 
 
 
 1292. Adolp. 
 1298. Alb. 1. 
 
 1290. And. 3. 
 
 1307. Ed. II. 
 
 1306. Robert 
 
 
 
 
 1308. Hen. 7. 
 
 1 301. Charo- 
 
 
 (Bruce) 1.1314. Louis X. 
 
 1312. AlfonsoXI. 
 
 
 
 1314. Lou. 5. 
 
 bert. 
 
 
 1316. John. 
 
 
 1327. AlfonsoIV. 
 
 1325. AlfonsoIV. 
 
 
 
 1327. Ed. III. 
 
 1329. Dav. II. Phil. V. 
 1332.Ed.Bal. 1321. Chas. IV. 
 1342.Dav.IL 1328. Phil. VI. 
 again. 
 
 
 1336. Peter IV. 
 
 
 
 1342. Louis. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1347. Chas.4. 
 
 
 
 
 1350. John. 
 
 1350. Peter. 
 
 
 1357. Peter. 
 
 
 
 1377. Rich. 2. 
 
 1371.R0b.II. 
 
 1364. Chas. V. 
 
 1369. Henry. 
 
 
 1367. Ferdinand. 
 
 1378. Wen- 
 
 
 
 (Stuart). 
 
 1380. Chas. VI. 
 
 1379. John I. 
 
 1387. John I. 
 
 1383. John I. 
 
 ceslas. 
 
 1382. Mary. 
 1387. Mary* 
 
 1399. Hen. 4. 1390. Rob. 3. 
 
 
 1390. Henry II. 
 
 1395. Martin. 
 
 
 1400. Rupert 
 
 S>igismund. 
 
 1413. Hen.s- 
 
 1406. Jas. I. 
 
 
 1406. John II. 
 
 1410. Interregnin. 
 
 
 1410. Sigismvmd. 
 
 1422. Hen.6. 
 
 1437. Jas. II. 
 
 1422. Chas. VII. 
 
 1454. Henry IV. 
 
 1412. Ferdinand 
 
 of Sicily. 
 1 416. Alfonso V. 
 
 1433. Edward. 
 1438. Alfonso X- 
 
 1438. Albert. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1458. John II. 
 
 
 1440. Fred. 3. 
 
 1440. Lad. 4 1 
 
 1461. Ed.IV. 
 
 1460.Jas.III. 
 
 1 461. Louis XI. 
 
 1474. Isabella. 
 
 1479. Ferdin. II. 
 
 
 
 1445. LaH. 5I 
 1458. Mat- 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1483. Ed. V. 
 Rich. 3. 
 
 
 
 Spain. 
 
 
 
 tbias. 
 
 
 1483. Chas.VIII. 
 
 1479. Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 
 1481. John II. 
 
 1493. Max. I. 
 
 
 1485. Hen. 7. 
 
 1488.Jas.IV. 
 
 
 
 
 1499 Switz. 
 
 
 
 
 1498 Louis XII. 
 
 
 1495. Emanuel. 
 
 independ. 
 
 1490. Lad. t 
 
EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS. 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 Poland. 
 
 Eastern 
 Empire. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Popes. 
 
 Naples and Sicilt. 
 
 30. Ingo. 
 
 io6g. Olaf. 
 
 1093. Magnus. 
 
 1047. Sweyn II. 
 1076. Hai'old. 
 1080. Canute IV. 
 10S6. Olaus IV. 
 1095. Eric I. 
 
 1058. Boles- 
 las. 
 
 1082. Ladis- 
 las. 
 
 1071. Mich. 7 1073. Greg-. VII. 
 
 io78.Nicep.,^if-7/°^t°'""/- 
 1081. Alexius: ^°88. Urban n. 
 
 1099. Pascal II. 
 
 t2. PhiUp. 
 t8. Ingo II. 
 29. Swei'ker. 
 
 55. Eric I. 
 5i. Char. VII. 
 57. Canute. 
 
 59. Swerk. II. 
 
 1 103. Sigurd I., 
 and others. 
 
 T122. Sigurd I. 
 
 1130. MagnusIV. 
 and others. 
 
 Civil war and 
 anarchy. 
 
 1 1 86. Swerro. 
 
 1 105. Eric II. 
 
 1137. Eric III. 
 
 1147. Sweyn III. 
 Canute V. 
 1 1 57. Waldemar. 
 
 1 182. Canute VI. 
 
 1 102. Boles. 3 
 
 1138. Lad. 2 
 1145. Boles. 4 
 
 1173. Miecis- 
 
 las III. 
 1 1 78. Ca- 
 
 semir II. 
 
 1194. Lesk.5. 
 
 1118. John 
 Comnenus. 
 
 1 1 43. Manuel 
 Comnenus. 
 
 1180. Alex.2. 
 1183. Andro- 
 
 nicus C. 
 1185. Isaac 2. 
 1 195. Alex. 3. 
 
 1118. 
 1119. 
 1 1 24. 
 1130. 
 1143. 
 1144. 
 II4S- 
 II53- 
 "54- 
 II59- 
 n8i. 
 1185. 
 
 Gelas. II. 
 CaUxt. II. 
 Honor. II. 
 Innoc. II. 
 Celest. II. 
 Lucius II. 
 Eugen. III. 
 Anasta. IV. 
 Adrian IV. 
 Alex. III. 
 Lucius III. 
 Urban III. 
 Greg. VIII. 
 Clem III. 
 Celest. III. 
 Innoc. III. 
 
 1131. Roger I. 
 
 1154. William I. 
 1166. WiUiam II. 
 
 1 1 89. Tancred. 
 1 194. William III. 
 
 1 197. Fred. II. of Germny. 
 
 10. Eric II. 
 16. John I. 
 
 22. Eric III. 
 
 50. Birger, Jarl 
 56. Waldemar. 
 
 75. Magnus I. 
 
 30. Birger II. 
 
 1202. Hako III. 
 
 and others. 
 1207. Hako IV. 
 
 1263. Magnus VI, 
 
 1280. Eric. 
 
 1299. Hako V. 
 
 1202. Walde. II. 
 
 1241. Eric IV. 
 1250. Abel. 
 1252. Christoph. 
 1259. Eric V. 
 
 1200. Miec.3. 
 1202. Lad. 3. 
 1227. Boles.s 
 
 1279. Lesk.6, 
 
 1289. Anarch. 
 i2go.Premis 
 
 las. 
 1296. Ladis.4 
 
 i2o4.Theodo. 
 
 1222. John 
 
 Ducas. 
 
 1255. Theo.2. 
 
 1258- John 
 Lascaris. 
 1 259. Mich. 8. 
 
 1282. Andro- 
 nicus II. 
 
 1216. Honor. III. 
 1227. Greg. IX. 
 1241. Celest. IV. 
 1243. Innoc. IV. 
 1254. Alex. IV. 
 1261. Urban IV. 
 1265. Clem. IV. 
 1268-9. Vacant. 
 1271. Gregory X. 
 1276. Innoc. V. 
 Adrian V. 
 
 1276. John XXI. 
 
 1277. Nichol.III. 
 1281. Martin IV. 
 1285. Honor. IV. 
 1288. Nich. IV. 
 1292-3. Vacant. 
 1294. Celest. V. 
 
 Bonif.VIII. 
 
 1250. Conrad. 
 
 1254. Conradin. 
 
 1258. Manfred. 
 
 1266. Charles of Anjou. 
 
 Sicily. 
 
 1285. Chas.2. 1282. Peter 
 of Arragon. 
 1285. James. 
 
 1293. Fred. 2. 
 
 tg. Magn. II. 
 
 1319. United to 
 Sweden. 
 
 1350. EricIV. 
 1359. Magnus II. 
 1363. Albert. 
 
 ig. Margaret. 
 
 1380. United to 
 Denmark. 
 
 1320. Christo- 
 pher II. 
 
 1334. Interregnni. 
 
 1340. Wald. III. 
 
 1375. Inierregnm. 
 
 1376. Olaus V. 
 
 1387. Margaret. 
 
 1300. Winces- 
 las. 
 
 1333. Cas. 3. 
 
 1370. Louis. 
 
 1382. Mary. 
 1384. Hedw. 
 1396. Lad. s. 
 
 1303. Bened. XI. 
 1305. ClementV. 
 (Avignon). 
 1314-15. Vocani. 
 1332. And.3. I1316. JohnXXII. 
 1334. Bene. XII. 
 1341. Johns. 1 1342. Clem. VI. 
 1352. Innoc. VI. 
 1362. Urban V. 
 (Rome). 
 1370. Greg. XI. 
 1391. Man- ■ 1378. Urban VI. 
 uel VI. 1389. Bonif. IX. 
 
 1309. Robt. 
 
 1337. Peter 2. 
 1343. Joan.2. i342.Louis. 
 & Andrew 1355. Fred. 3. 
 of Hung. 
 1349. Louis. 1376. Maria 
 <fc Martin . 
 1381. Chas.3. 
 1385. Ladislas. 
 
 1412. Eiic. XIIL 
 
 1440. Christopher III. 
 j3. Chas. Vm. 
 1457. Christian I. 
 
 ; 1483. John of Denmark. 
 
 1448. Christn. I. 
 
 1481. John. 
 
 1434. Lad. 6. 
 1445. Casi. 4. 
 
 1492. Albert 
 
 1423. John 6. 
 
 1448. Con- 
 stant. 13. 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 1433. Ma- 
 homet II. 
 
 1404. Innoc. VII. 
 1406. Greg. XII. 
 
 1409. Alex. V. 
 
 1410. John 23. 
 1417. Martin V. 
 1431. Eugen. IV. 
 1447. Nicholas V. 
 1455. Cahx. III. 
 1458. Pius II. 
 1464. Paul II. 
 1471. Sixtus IV. 
 1484. Inno. VIII. 
 1492. Alex. VI. 
 
 1402. Mart. I. 
 
 1409. Mart.2. 
 1414. Joan.2. (United to 
 
 Arragon) 
 
 1 410. Ferd.i. 
 1416. Alfo.i. 
 
 1433. Alfonso I. 
 1438. Ferd.i. 1458. John. 
 
 1494. Alfo.2. 
 I4g5. Ferd.2. 
 1496. Fred. 2. 
 
 i47g. Ferd. 
 
TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 France. 
 
 Peninsula. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Hungary. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 
 Castile. 
 
 Arragon. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 
 
 1509. Hen. 8. 
 
 1513. Jas. V. 
 
 1515. Francis I. 
 
 '^Ihiirp'T^ ^ Ferdinand II. 
 1512. Ferd.V.(Cast.)lI. (Arragon). 
 
 1521. John III. 
 
 1519. Ch!»s.s 
 (I. of Sp.) 
 
 1516. Lou. 2 
 
 1526. Jn. Za 
 
 polski an( 
 
 Ferdiu. 2. 
 
 1547. Ed. VI. '1542. Mary. 
 
 1547. Henry II. 
 
 1516. Charles I. (V. of Germ. 1519). 
 
 
 
 
 1553. Mary. 
 1558. Eliz. 
 
 1567. Jas. VI. 
 
 1559. Francis II. 
 
 1560. Charles IX. 
 
 
 
 (Kings of Hungaev.) 
 X558. Ferdinand. 
 
 
 
 
 1556. Philip II. ' 
 
 
 1 557- Sebastian. 
 
 1564. Maximilian II. 
 
 
 
 1574. Henry III. 
 
 
 Holland. 
 
 1578. Henry. 
 
 
 1579. William of 
 
 1576. Rodolph II. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Or.'-.nge, $tadt- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 holder. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1589. Henry IV. 
 
 
 
 1580. Annexed to 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1598. Philip III. 
 
 1587. Maurice. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 
 1633. Jas. I. (VI. of Scot.; 
 
 1610. LouisXIII. 
 
 
 
 
 1612. Mathias. 
 
 1625. Charles I. 
 
 
 1621. Philip IV. 
 
 1625. Fred. Hen. 
 
 Kingdom restored 
 
 1619. Ferdinand II. 
 1637. Ferdinand III. 
 
 I6^9. Commonwealth. 
 
 1643. Louis XIV. 
 
 
 1647. William II. 
 1650-72. No 
 
 1640. John of 
 Braganza. 
 
 
 16C0. Charles II. 
 
 
 1665. Charles II 
 
 stadtholder. 
 
 1656. Alfonso VI. 
 1667. Peter, 
 
 1658. Leopold I. 
 
 i6'3s. James II. 
 
 
 
 1672. Will. Hen. 
 
 regent. 
 
 
 1639. William and Mary. 
 
 
 
 (Will. III. of 
 
 1683. Peter II. 
 
 
 i6)S. William III. 
 
 
 
 England.) 
 
 
 
 1702. Anne. 
 
 
 1700. Philip V. 
 
 1702-47. No 
 
 1706. John V. 
 
 1705. Joseph 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 1714. George I. 
 1727. George II. 
 
 171 5. Louis XV. 
 
 (abdicated). 
 1724. Louis. 
 
 stadtholder. 
 
 
 1711. Chas 6. 
 
 
 
 
 Philip V. 
 
 
 
 
 1701. Fred. I 
 
 
 
 again. 
 
 
 
 
 1 713. Fred.- 
 
 
 
 
 
 1742. Chas. 7. 
 
 William i. 
 
 
 1746. Ferd. VI. 1747. Will. Hen. 1750. Joseph. 
 
 1 745. Francis 
 
 1740. Fred .-2 
 
 
 1759. Chas. III. .757. Will. IV. | 
 
 
 
 i7.ki. George III. 
 
 1774. Louis XVI. 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 1777. Maria and 
 Peter III. 
 
 1765. Jos. a. 
 
 1786. Fred.- 
 
 
 1788. Chas. IV. 1786. Maria, 
 
 
 WiUiam 2 
 
 
 
 (abdicated.)', 1 alone. 
 
 
 
 
 1793. Lou. XVII. 
 
 ■1793. Amiexed to 
 
 i790.Leop.2. 
 
 1797. Fred.- 
 
 
 Republic. 
 
 France. |i79i. John,r«£fCJi« 
 
 1 792. Fran. 2. 
 
 William 3 
 
 
 1802. Consulate. 
 
 1808. Ferd. VII. 
 
 1806. Louis,i-ingr. 
 
 
 
 
 iBiz. (George Prince of 
 
 i8o4.Napoleon I. 
 
 (dethroned). 
 
 
 
 Austria. 
 
 
 
 
 Wales, regent.)* 
 
 1814.L0U.XVIII. 
 
 Jos. Bonap. 
 1814. Ferd. VII. 
 (restored). 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 1816. John VI. 
 
 1826. Peter IV. 
 
 Maria II. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1814. Will. Fred. 
 
 1806. Fran.i. 
 
 
 18.TO. George IV. 
 
 1824. Charles X. 
 
 
 king.* 
 
 1828. Miguel. 
 
 
 
 1830. William IV. 
 
 i830.Lou.Philip. 
 
 1S33. I.<iabena II. 
 
 
 1833. Maria II. 
 
 1835. Ferd.2. 
 
 
 1837. Victoria. 
 
 
 
 1840. William II. 
 
 
 
 1840. Fred.- 
 
 
 1848. Republic. 
 
 
 1849. WiU. III. 
 
 
 i848.Francis 
 Joseph. 
 
 William4. 
 
 
 1852. Napol. III. 
 
 
 
 1853. Peter V. 
 i86i. Luis I. 
 
 
 i860. Will. I 
 
 Belgium.— 1831. Leopold I. 
 ,, 1865. Leopold II. 
 
EUROPEAlSr SOVEREIGNS, continued. 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Denmark, 
 
 Poland. 
 
 Eastei^ 
 Empire. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Popes. 
 
 Naples and Sicily. 
 
 1520. Christian II. 
 
 3. Gustavus 
 Vaaa. 
 
 3. Eric XIV. 
 3. John III. 
 
 Eussia.^ 
 
 1533. Ivan IV. 
 
 1584. Feodor I. 
 
 . Sigismund 1598. Boris 
 
 1513. Christn.II. 
 
 1523. Fredrick I. 
 and Norway. 
 
 1534. Christ. III. 
 1559. Fred. II. 
 
 is88.Christn.IV. 
 
 1501. Alex. 
 1506. Sig. I. 
 
 1548. Sig.II. 
 
 iS73.Henry. 
 1575. Staph. 
 1587. Sig. 3. 
 
 1512. Selim. 
 
 1520. Soly- 
 man II. 
 
 1566. Sel. 2. 
 
 1574. Amu- 
 rath III. 
 
 1595. Mah. 3. 
 
 J. Chas. IX. 
 :. Gustavus 
 dolphus. 
 
 [. Christina. 
 
 ^. Chas. X. 
 ). Chas. XI. 
 
 . Chas. XII. 
 
 1606. Basil. 
 1613. Michael 
 (Bomanoff). 
 
 1645. Alexis. 
 
 1676. Feodor. 
 
 1682. Ivan V. 
 
 Peter I. 
 
 1689. Peter I. 
 
 1632. Lad. 7. 
 1648. John C. 
 1648. Fred. III. 1669. Mich 
 
 1670. Christn. V. 
 
 1699. Fred. IV. 
 
 1674. John 
 Sobieski. 
 
 1697. Predk. 
 August. I. 
 
 1603. Ach. I . 
 
 161 7. Mus. I. 
 
 1618. Osm.2. 
 
 1622. Musta- 
 pha, again. 
 
 1623. Am. 4. 
 1640. Ibrah. 
 1648. Mah. 4. 
 1687. Sol. 3. 
 1691. Ach. 2. 
 1695. Mus. 2. 
 
 IS03' 
 
 ISI3' 
 1522 
 
 IS23' 
 I534' 
 1550. 
 IS5S- 
 
 I5S9. 
 1566. 
 1572. 
 1585- 
 1590. 
 
 1591- 
 1592- 
 
 Pius III. 
 Julius II. 
 LeoX. 
 Adrian VI. 
 Clem. VII. 
 Paul III. 
 Julius III. 
 Marcel. II. 
 Paul IV. 
 Pius IV. 
 Pius V. 
 Greg. XIII. 
 Sixtus V. 
 Urban VII. 
 Greg. XIV. 
 Innoc. IX. 
 Clem.VIII. 
 
 1501. United to Sjpain. 
 
 1605. Leo XL 
 Paul V. 
 1621. Greg. XV. 
 1623. UrbanVIIl, 
 1644. InnocentX. 
 1665. Alex. Vll. 
 1667. Clem. IX. 
 1670. Clem. X. 
 1676. Innoc. XI. 
 1689. Alex. VIII 
 1691. Innoc. XII. 
 
 ). Ulrica and 
 rederick I. 
 
 :. Fred. I. 
 . Adolphus 
 rederick. 
 
 .Gustav.III. 
 
 1725' 
 1727. 
 
 I730' 
 
 1740. 
 1741. 
 
 1762. 
 
 Gather. I. 
 Peter II. 
 Anne. 
 
 Ivan VI. 
 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 Peter III. 
 Cather. II. 
 
 '. Gustav.IV. 1796. Paul I. 
 
 . Chas.XIII. 1801. 
 
 . Norway an- 
 
 xed. 
 
 . Chas. XIV. 
 
 Oscar. 
 Chas. XV. 
 
 Alexand. I. 
 Nicholas. 
 
 1855. Alex. II. 
 
 1730. Christn. VI. 
 
 1746. Fred. V. 
 
 1766. Christ. VII. 
 
 i784.PrinceFred. 
 regent. 
 
 1808. Fred. VI. 
 
 1814. Norway 
 
 taken away. 
 
 1839. Chris. VIII, 
 1848. Fred. VII. 
 
 '1S63. Chrisn. IX. 
 
 1704. Stan.i' 
 
 1709. Fredk. 
 
 Augustus, 
 
 restored. 
 
 1733. Fredk. 
 
 August. 2. 
 
 1764. Stan. 2. 
 
 1793. Parti- 
 tion. 
 
 1703. Ach. 3. 1700. Clem. XI. 
 
 1721. Inno.XIII. 
 1730. Mah. 5. [1724. Bene.XIII, 
 
 1730. Clem.XII. 
 1740. Bene. XIV. 
 
 1734. Osm.3. 
 1737. Mus. 3. 
 
 1774. Ach. 4. 
 i789.8elm.3. 
 
 1758. Clem.XIII. 
 1769. Clem. XIV. 
 1 773. 'Pius VI. 
 
 1800. Pius VII. 
 
 Ifaples and 
 Sicily. 
 
 1 713. Chas. 3, 
 Naples. 
 Victor- 
 Am. of Sa- 
 voy, Sicily. 
 
 fj2o Annexed 
 to Germany. 
 
 1738. Chas. 4. 
 Naples. 
 
 1759. Fred. 4. 
 Sicily. 
 
 Sardinia. 
 
 1720. Victor- 
 Amadeus. 
 
 1730. Charles 
 Emmau.i. 
 
 1773. Victor- 
 Amade. 2. 
 
 1 796. Charles 
 Emman.2. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 1832. Otho I. 
 
 1S63. Geo. L 
 
 1807. Mus. 4, 
 
 1808. Mah.6. 
 
 1839. Abdul 
 Medjid. 
 
 1 861. Abdul 
 Aziz. 
 
 1823. Leo XII. 
 1829. Pius VIII. 
 1831. Greg. XVI, 
 
 1846. Pius IX. 
 
 Naples. 
 
 1806. Joseph 
 Bonaparte 
 
 1808. Joach. 
 Murat. 
 
 Naples and 
 Sicily. 
 
 18x3. Ferd. I. 
 1823. Fran. I. 
 1830. Perd. 2, 
 1859. Fran.2. 
 i86o.Annea:ed 
 to Italy. 
 
 1802. Victor- 
 
 Emman. 1. 
 iSo5.Annexed 
 
 to kingdom 
 
 of Italy. 
 1814. Victor- 
 
 Bmman. i. 
 1821. Charles 
 
 Felix. 
 1 83 1. Charles 
 
 Albert. 
 1849. Victor- 
 
 Emman.2. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 1 861. Victor-Emmanuel. 
 
 See Article Kussia for preceding Eulers. 
 
DICTIONABY OF DATES. 
 
 AAR ABC 
 
 AARGAU (Switzerland,) formerly included in Berne, was formed into an independent 
 canton in 1803, and iinally settled as such in 1815. It was much disturbed by religious dis- 
 sensions in 1 841 — 44. 
 
 ABACUS, the capital of the Corinthian order of architecture, ascribed to Callimachus, 
 about 540 B.C. — This name is also given to a frame traversed by stiff wires, on which beads 
 or counters are strung, used by the Greeks, Romans, and Chinese. M. Lalanne published 
 an ABACUS at Paris in 1845. — The multiplication table has been called the Pythagorean 
 abacus. 
 
 ABATTOIRS, slaughter-houses for cattle. In 18 10 Napoleon decreed that five should be 
 erected near Paris ; they were opened in 181 8. An abattoir was erected at Edinburgh in 
 1851 ; and abattoirs form part of the new London metropolitan cattle-market, opened on 
 June 13, 1855. 
 
 ABBASSIDES, descendants - of Mahomet's imcle, Abbas-Ben- Abdul-Motalleb. Abul 
 Abbas defeated Merwan II., the last caliph of the Ommiades, in 750, and became the ruler 
 of the faithful. The Abbasside colour was black. Thirty-seven caliphs of this race reigned 
 from 750 to 1258. 
 
 ABB AYE, a military prison near St. Germain des Pres, Paris, where 164 prisoners were 
 murdered by infuriated republicans led by Maillard, Sept. 2 and 3, 1 792. 
 
 ABBEYS, monasteries. for men or women. See MonacMsm and Commits. The first abbey 
 founded in England was at Bangor in 560 ; in France, at Poitiers, about 360 ; in Ireland in 
 the fifth century ; in Scotland in the sixth century. 1 10 monasteries and priories were sup- 
 pressed in England, 2 Heniy V. 1414. Salmon,. These institutions (containing then about 
 47,721 persons) were totally suppressed throughout the realm by Henry VIII., I539-* 
 Abbeys were suppressed in France in 1790 ; and in the kingdom of Italy in i86i. 
 
 ABBOT (from .45, father), the head of an abbey. In England, mitred abbots were lords of 
 parliament ; there were twenty-seven abbots and two priors thus distinguished in 1329 ; but 
 the number was reduced to twenty-five in 1396. Coke. The abbots of Reading, Glastonbury, 
 and St. John's, Colchester, were hanged and quartered for denying the king's supremacy, and 
 not surrendering their abbeys, 1539. See Glastonhury. 
 
 ABC CLUB. A name adopted by a number of republican enthusiasts in Paris, their 
 object being to relieve the abaisses or depressed. They broke out into an insurrection on 
 June 5, 1832, which was suppressed with bloodshed, after Paris had been put into a state of 
 siege on June 6. These events are described by Victor Hugo in Les Mis6rables, published 
 in 1862. 
 
 * Viz., 374 large monasteries (revenue jo/^,gxgl. 13s. 3A), 186 less monasteries Crevenue 33,479?. 13s. 7%d.), 
 and 48 houses of the knights hospitallers (revenue 2385?. 12s. d,d.) : total, houses, 608 ; revenue, 
 140,784?. 199. 6fcJ. 
 
 B 
 
ABD 
 
 ABE 
 
 Sylla, Roman dictator B.C. 
 Diocletian, Roman emperor 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Stephen II., of Hungary- 
 Albert, the Bear of Bran- 
 denburg . . ... 
 Lescov V. of Poland 
 Uladlslaus III. of Poland . . 
 John Balliol, of Scotland 
 Otho (of Bavaria), of Hun- 
 
 gajy 
 
 Eric IX., of Denmark, &.O. . 
 
 Pope Felix V 
 
 Charles V., as emperor . 
 
 ,, as king of Spain . 
 Christina, of Sweden 
 John -Casimir, of Poland . . 
 James II., of England . 
 Frederick Augustus II., of 
 Poland 1704 
 
 79 
 
 30s 
 1131 
 
 1 142 
 1200 
 1206 
 1306 
 
 1309 
 
 1439 
 1449 
 
 1555 
 1556 
 1654 
 1669 
 
 Napoleon, of France, April 5, 1814 
 Victor Emmanuel, of Sar- 
 dinia . . March 13, 1821 
 Pedro IV., of Portugal, 
 
 May 2, 1826 
 Charles X., of France, 
 
 Aug. 2, 1830 
 Pedro I., of Brazil . April 7, 1831 
 Dom Miguel, of Portugal 
 
 (by leaving it) . May 26, 1834 
 William I. , of Holland, Oct. 8, 1840 
 Louis-Philippe, of France, 
 
 Feb. 24, 1848 
 Louis Charles, of Bavaria, 
 
 March 21, 1848 
 Ferdinand of Austria, Dec. 2, 1848 
 Charles Albert, of Sardinia, 
 
 March 26, 1849 
 Leopold II., grand-duke of 
 Tuscany . . . July, 1859 
 
 ABDICATIONS of sovereigns, voluntary and compulsory, are numerous in history. The 
 following are the most remarkable : — 
 
 Phihp v., of Spain (re- 
 sumed) 1724 
 
 Victor Amadeus, of Sardinia 1730 
 Charles, of Naples . . . 1759 
 Stanislaus, of Poland . . 1795 
 Charles Emmanuel II., of 
 
 Sardinia . . June 4, 1802 
 Francis II., of Germany, 
 
 who became emperor of 
 
 Austria . . Aug. ii, 1804 
 Charles IV., of Spain, in 
 
 favour of his son, March 19 ; 
 
 in favovir of Bonaparte. 
 
 See Spain . . May i, 1808 
 Gustavus IV. , of Sweden . . 1809 
 Joseph Bonaparte, of Naples 
 
 (for Spain) . June i, 1808 
 Louis, of Holland . July i, 1810 
 Jerome, of Westphalia, 
 
 Oct. 20, 1813 
 
 ABECEDARIANS, followers of Stork, an Anabaptist in the sixteenth century, deriving 
 their name from their rejection of all worldly knowledge, even of the alphabet. 
 
 ABELARD anu Heloise, celebrated for their passionate love, which commenced at 
 Paris, 1 1 18, when Heloise (a canon's daughter) was under seventeen years of age. Abelard 
 built the convent of the Paraclete and made her abbess in 1121. Here he taught wbat was 
 condemned as heresy, 1122 and 1140. After sufiering an ignominious injury, he became 
 a monk of the abbey of St. Denis, and died of grief in 1 142, at St. Marcel. Heloise begged 
 his body, buried it in the Paraclete, and was interred beside him in 1163. The ashes of both 
 were carried to the Museum of Fi-ench Monuments in 1800 ; and the museum having been 
 subsequently broken up, they were finally removed to the burying-ground of P^-e La Chaise, 
 in 181 7. Their works and letters were published in one volume in 1616. Pope's imitations 
 of the latter are well known. 
 
 ABENCERRAGES, a powerful Moorish tribe of Granada, opposed to that of the Zegiis. 
 From 1480 to 1492 their quarrels deluged Granada with blood and hastened the fall of the 
 kingdom. They were extenninated by Boabdil (Abu Abdallah), the last king, who was 
 detiironed by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492 ; his dominions were annexed to Castile. 
 
 ABENSBERG. See Eckmuhl. 
 
 ABERDEEN (N. Scotland), said to have been founded, in the third century after Christ. 
 Gregory the Great conferred peculiar privileges on Aberdeen, in 893. Old Aberdeen was 
 made a royal burgh in 1154; it was burnt by the English in 1336 ; and soon after New 
 Aberdeen was built. The university was founded by bishop William Elphiustone, who had a 
 bull from the pope Alexander VI. in 1494. King's college was erected in 1500-6. Marischal 
 college was founded by George Keith, earl marischal of Scotland, in 1593 ; rebuilt in 1837. In 
 1858 the universities and colleges were united. — Malcolm III. having gained a great victory 
 over the Danes in tlie year loio, resolved to found a new bishopric, in token of his gratitude 
 for his success, and pitched upon Mortlach in Banffshire, where St. Beaniis was first bishop, 
 1015. The see, removed to Aberdeen early in the twelfth century, was discontinued at the 
 revolution, 1689, and is now a post-revolution bishopric, instituted in 1721. See Bishops, 
 
 ABERDEEN ADMINISTRATION, called the Coalition Ministry, as including Whigs, 
 Radicals, and followers of Sir R. Peel. Formed in consequence of the resignation of tlie first 
 Derby administration; sworn in Dec. 28, 1852; resigned Jan. 30, 1855; succeeded by the 
 Palnicrston administration, which see. 
 
 Earl of Aberdeen, */r«« lord of the treasury. 
 
 Lord Cranworth, lord chancellor. 
 
 Earl Granville, pretident of the council. 
 
 Duke of Argyll, lord privy seal. 
 
 Lord John Russell, t foreign. 
 
 Viscount Palmerston, home secretary. 
 
 Duke of Newcastle, t colonial and war seerttary. 
 
 William Ewart Gladstone, chancellor of exchequer. 
 
 Sir James Graham, .rtr«< lord of the admiralty. 
 Sir Charles Wood, preaident of the India hoard. 
 Edward Cardwell, -president of board of trade. 
 Hon. Sidney Herbert, secretary-at-war. 
 Sir William Moles worth, chief commissioner of works. 
 Marquess of Lansdovnie (without office). 
 Viscount Canning, Lord Stanley of Alderley, right 
 hon. Edward Strutt, &c. 
 
 * Born in 1784; engaged in foreign diplomacy, 1813 ; became foreign secretary, Jan. 1828; joined 
 the party of Sir R. Peel, 1846; died, Dec. 14, i86o. 
 
 t Lord John Russell was succeeded as foreign secretary by the earl of Clarendon, but continued a 
 member of the cabinet, vrithout office ; he afterwards became president of the council, in the room of 
 earl Gr.inville, appointed to the duchy of Lancaster. 
 
 X On June 11, 1854, the offices were separated ; the duke of Newcastle remained secretary of icar, and 
 sir George Grey was made colonial secretary. 
 
ABH 3 ABS 
 
 ABHORREES, a political court-party in England, in the reign of Charles 11. the 
 opponents of the Addressers (afterwards Whigs), so called from their address to the king 
 praying for the immediate assembly of the parliament which was delayed on account of its 
 being adverse to the court. The first mentioned (afterwards Tories) expressed their abhorrence 
 of those who endeavoured to encroach on the royal prerogative, 1680.* Hivme. 
 
 ABINGDOlSr LAW. In 1645, lord Essex and Waller held Abingdon, in Berks, against 
 Charles I. The town was unsuccessfully attacked by sir Stephen Hawkins in 1644, and by 
 prince Rupert in 1645. On these occasions the defenders put every Irish prisoner to death 
 without trial ; hence the term "Abingdon law." 
 
 ''ABJURATION of certain doctrines of the church of Rome was enjoined by statute 25 
 Charles II. 1672. The oath of abjuration of the pope and the pretender was first administered 
 by statute 13 William III. 1701 ; the form was changed in after reigns. By 21 & 22 Vict, 
 c. 48 (1858) an alteration in this oath was authorised for Jews. 
 
 ABO, a port of Russia, founded prior to 1157, was till 1809 capital of Swedish Finland. 
 It has suffered much by fire, especially in 1775 and 1827; was seized by the Russians in 
 Feb., 1808 ; ceded to them in 1809 ; and rebuilt by them after the fire in 1827. A university 
 was erected by Gustavus Adolphus and Christina, 1640, et seq., and removed to Helsingfors 
 in 1827. The peace of Abo, between Russia and Sweden, was signed in 1743. 
 
 ABORIGINES (from ah origine, without origin), a name given to the earliest known 
 inhabitants of Italy (whence came the Latini) ; now applied to the original inhabitants of 
 any country. — The Aborigines Protection Society was established in 1838. Reports on the 
 condition of the aborigines in the British colonies were presented to parliament in 1834 
 and 1837. 
 
 ABOUKIR (Egypt), the ancient Canopus. The bay is famous for the defeat of the 
 French fleet by Nelson, August 1, 1798. See Nile. A Turkish army of 15,000 was defeated 
 here by 5000 French under IJonaparte, July 25, 1799. A British expedition to Egypt under 
 general sir Ralph Abercromby landed here, and Aboukir siu-reudered to them after an 
 obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 8, 1801. See Alexandria. 
 
 ABRAHAM, Era of, used by Eusebius ; so called from the patriarch Abraham, who died 
 B.C. 1821. It began October i, 2016 b.c. To reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 
 2015 years and three months. 
 
 ABRAHAM, Heights of, near Quebec, Lower Canada. The French were defeated here 
 by general Wolfe, who fell in the moment of victory, Sept. 13, 1759. See Quebec. 
 
 ABRAHAMITES, a sect which adopted the errors of Paulus, and was suppressed by 
 Cyriacus, the patriarch of Antioch. In the ninth century, there sprang uj) a community of 
 monks imder a like designation : it, too, was suppressed, or rather exterminated, for v/orshipping 
 images. A mongrel sect of this name was banished from Bohemia by Joseph II. in 1783. 
 
 ABSALOM'S REBELLION, ending in his death (1024-3 B.o.) is described in 2 Sam. 
 XV. — xix. 
 
 ABSENTEE TAX (four shillings in the pound) was first levied in Ireland in 1715 on the 
 incomes and pensions of absentees (persons who derive their income from one country and 
 spend it in another) but ceased in 1753. -^ *^^ ^^ ^s. in the pound was vainly proposed by 
 Mr. Flood in 1773 and by Mr. Molyueux in 1783. 
 
 ABSOLUTION, Ecclesiastical. Till the third century, the consent of the congregation 
 was necessary to absolution ; but soon after the power was reserved to the bishop ; and in 
 the twelfth century the form " /absolve thee" had become general. ' 
 
 ABSTINENCE. It is said that St. Anthony lived to the age of 105 on twelve ounces of 
 bread and water daily, and James the hermit to the age of 104. St. Epiphanius lived 
 thus to 115; Simeon the Stylite to 112; and Kentigern, commonly called St. Mungo, 
 to 185 years of age. Spottisioood. Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, 
 was said to have lived twenty months without food ; but her imposture was detected by Dr. 
 A. Henderson, Nov. 1808. At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to 
 have lived two years without meat or drink, Aug. 1840. His imposture was afterwards 
 discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See Fasts. 
 
 * The commons expelled several members for being Abborrers, among tbem sir Francis Withens 
 (whom they sent to the Tower), and prayed his majesty to remove others from places of trust. They also 
 resolved, " that it is the undoubted right of the subject to petition for the calling of a parliament, and 
 that to traduce such petitions as tumultuous and seditious, is to contribute to the design of altering the 
 constitution." Oct, i68q. Salmon. 
 
 B 2 
 
ABS 
 
 ACA 
 
 ABSTINENTS, ascetics tliat wholly abstained from wine, flesh, and marriage, appeared 
 in France and Spain in the third century. 
 
 ABYSSINIA, a large country in N. E. Africa. Its ancient history is very uncertain. 
 The kingdom of AuxumitfE (from its chief town Auxnme) flourished in the ist and 2nd 
 centuries after Christ. The religion of the Abyssinians is a corrupt form of Christianity 
 introduced about 329 by Frumeutius. About 960, Judith, a Jewish princess, murdered a 
 great part of the royal family, and reigned forty years. The youTig king escaped : and the 
 royal house was restored in 1268 in the person of his descendant Icon Amlac. In the middle 
 ages it was said to be ruled by Prester John or Prete Janni. The Portuguese missions com- 
 menced in the I5tli century, but were expelled about 1632 in consequence of the tyranny of 
 Mendez and the Jesuits. The encroachments of the Gallas and intestine disorders soon after 
 broke up the empire into petty governments. Missions were sent from England in 1829 and 
 1841. Much information respecting Abyssinia has been given by Bruce (1790), Salt 
 (1805—9), Riippell (1838), and Parkyns (1853).* 
 
 ABYSSINIAN ERA is reckoned from the creation, which the Abyssinians place in the 
 5493rd year before our era, on the 29th Aug. old style : and their dates consequently exceed 
 ours by 5492 years and 125 days. To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 
 5492 years and 125 days. 
 
 ACADEMIES. Acadcmia was a shady grove without the walls of Athens (bequeathed to 
 Academus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato first taught philosophy, and his followers 
 took the title of Academics, 378 B.C. Stanley. — Rome had no academies. — Ptolemy Soter is 
 said to have founded an academy at Alexandria, about 3 14 B. c. Abderahman I., caliph of 
 Spain, founded academies about a.d. 773. Theodosius the Younger, Charlemagne, and 
 Alfred are also named as founders of academies. Italy is celebrated for its academies ; and 
 Jarckius mentions 550, of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The following are among the 
 principal academies : — 
 
 American Academy of Sciences, Boston, 1780. 
 
 Ancona, of the Caglinosi, 1642. 
 
 Basil, 1460. 
 
 Berlin, Royal, 1700; of Princes, 1703; Architecture, 
 
 1799. 
 Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1687 ; Mathematics, 1690 ; 
 
 Sciences and Arts, 1712. 
 Brescia, of the Erranti, 1626. 
 Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682, 
 Brussels, Belles Leitres, 1773. 
 Caen, Belles Leitres, 1705. 
 Copenhagen, of Sciences, 1743. 
 Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. 
 
 Dublin, Arts, 1742; Painting, Sculpture, &c., 1823. 
 Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. 
 Faenza, the Philoponi, 1612. 
 Florence, Belles Lettres, 1272 ; Delia Crnsca (now 
 
 united with the Florentine, and merged imder 
 
 that name), 1582 ; Del Clmento, 1657 (by cardinal 
 
 de' Medici); Antiquities, 1807. 
 Geneva, Medical, 1715. 
 Genoa, Painting, (fee., 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. 
 Germany, Natures Curiosi, now Jjiopoldine, 1662. 
 Gottingen, 1750 
 Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760. 
 Irish Academy, Royal, DubUn, 1782. 
 Lisbon, History, 1720 ; Sciences, 1779. 
 London. See Societies. Royal Academy of Fine 
 
 Arts, 1768 ; of Music, 1734-43 ; and 1822. 
 Lyons, Sciences, 1710; Physic and Mathematics 
 
 added, 1758. 
 Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 1730; 
 
 Painting and the Arts, 1753. 
 Manheim, Sciences, 1755 ; Sculpture, 1775. 
 Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. 
 Marseilles, Belles Lettres, 1726. 
 Massachusetts, Arts and Sciences, 1780. 
 
 Milan, Architecture, 1380; Sciences, 1719. 
 
 Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759. 
 
 Naples, Rossana, 1540; Mathematics, 1560; Sciences, 
 1695 ; Hercalaneuvi, 1755. 
 
 New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814. 
 
 Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 
 
 Padua, for Poetry, 1613 ; Sciences, 1792. 
 
 Palermo, Medical, 1645. 
 
 Paris, Sorbonne, 1253 ; Painting, 1391 ; Music, 1543 
 and 1672 ; French (by Richelieu), 1635 ; Fine Arts, 
 1648 ; Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (by Colbert), 
 1663 ; Sciences (by Colbert), 1666 ; Architecture, 
 1671 ; Surgery, 1731 ; Military, 1751 ; Natural 
 philosophy, 1796. 
 
 Parma, the Innominati, isso. 
 
 Perousa, Insensati, 1561 ; Filigirti, 1574. 
 
 Philadelphia, Arts and Sciences, 1749. 
 
 Portsmouth, Naval, 1722; enlarged, 1806. 
 
 Rome, Umoristi, 161 1 ; Fantascici, 1625.; Infecondi, 
 1653 ; Painting, 1665 ; Arcadi, 1690 ; Enghsh, 
 1752 ; Lincei, about 1600 ; Nuovi Lincei, 1847. 
 
 St. Petersburg, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732 ; the 
 School of Arts, 1764. 
 
 Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles Leitres, 1753; 
 Agriculture, 1781 ; Royal Swedish, 1786. 
 
 Toulon, Military, 1682. 
 
 Turin, Sciences?, about 1759; Fine Arts, 1778. 
 
 Turkey, Military School, 1775. 
 
 Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 
 
 Venice, Medical, <fec., 1701. 
 
 Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780. 
 
 Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Surgery, 
 1783 ; Oriental, i8io. 
 
 Warsaw, Languages, and History, 1753. 
 
 Washington, United States, America, 1863. 
 
 Woolwich, Military, 1741. 
 
 * Abyssinia has long been in a state of anarchy. In 1855 the emperor Ras Ali was deposed by his 
 son-in-law Theodore, the present ruler, who invited the European sovereigns to join him in a crusade 
 against his neighbours the Turks. Our consul (Plowden) at iUassowah imprudently joined this sovereign, 
 and lost his hfe while opposing an insun-ection ; and his successor (col. Cameron) and other persons are 
 now imprisoned by Theodore, who is jealous of their favouring the Turks. The subject was discussed 
 in parliament in July, 1865, and the consul was censured by government for having disregarded his 
 instructions. 
 
ACA 5 ACH 
 
 ACADIA. See Nova Scotia. 
 
 ACANTHUS, the foliage forming the volutes of the Corinthian capital, ascribed to 
 Callimachus, about 540 B. c. 
 
 ACAPULCO, a Spanish galleon, from Acapulco, laden with gold and precious wares 
 (estimated at above i,cx)0,oooZ. sterling), taken by lord Anson, who had previously acquired 
 booty in his voyage amounting to 600,000?. He arrived at Spithead in the Centurion, after 
 having circumnavigated the globe, June 15, 1744. 
 
 ACAEISTANIA, N". Greece. The people became prominent in the Peloponnesian war, 
 having invited the help of the Athenians against the Ambracians, 432 B.C. The Acarnanians 
 were subdued by the Lacedaemonians in 390 ; they took part with Macedon against the Komans 
 in 200, by whom they were subjugated in 197 ; finally, in 145. 
 
 ACCENTS. The most ancient manuscripts are written without accents, and without any 
 separation of words ; nor was it until after the ninth century that the copyists began to leave 
 spaces between the words. Michaelis, after Wetstein, ascribes the insertion of accents to 
 Euthalius, bishop, of Sulca, in Egj-pt, A.D. 458. Accents were first used by the French in 
 the reign of Louis XIIL (about 1610). 
 
 ACCESSION, The, i.e. that of the house of Hanover to the throne of England, in the 
 person of George I., elector of Hanover, the son of Sophia, the daughter of Elizabeth, the 
 daughter of James I. He succeeded to the crown, Aug. i, 1714, by virtue of the act of 
 settlement passed in the reign of William III., June 12, 1701, which limited the succession 
 to liis mother (as a protestant) in the event of queen Anne dying without issue. 
 
 ACCESSORIES to Crimes. The law respecting them consolidated and amended in 186L 
 
 ACCIDENTS. See Coal, Fires, Railways, &c. Eor compensation for accidents, see 
 Caiwphell's Act and Passengers. 
 
 ACCLIMATISATION of Animals. This has been prosecuted with great vigour since the 
 establishment of the Zoological society of London in 1829, and of the Society d'Acclimata- 
 tion in Paris. Numbers of European animals have been naturalised in Australia ; the 
 camel has been conveyed to Brazil (1859) ; alpacas are bred at Paris ; and ostriches in Italy 
 (1859). On Oct. 6, i860, the Bois de Boulogne, near Paris, was opened as a zoological 
 Garden, containing only acclimatised animals. An English acclimatisation society was 
 founded June 10, i860, by hon. Grantley Berkeley, Mr. J. Crockford, Mr. F. Buckland, &c., 
 and the prince of "Wales became president in April, 1865. An acclimatising garden was 
 established at Melbourne, Australia, in Feb. i86i, and efforts are being made to naturalise 
 English birds, fishes, &c. 
 
 ACCORDION, a small wind-instrument with keys, introduced into England from Germany 
 about 1828. 
 
 ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL in Chancery. The office was appointed in 1726, and 
 abolished in 1841 ; it was always held by a master in chancery. Hardy. 
 
 ACCUSERS, By the occult writers, such as Agrippa, accusers are the eighth order of 
 devils, whose chief is called Asteroth, or Spy. In the Revelation, ch. xii. 10, the devil is 
 called " the accuser of the brethren." — False accusers were to be hanged, by 24 Henry YI. 
 1446 ; and burnt in the face with an F, by 37 Henry VIII. 1545. Stow. 
 
 ACELDAMA, a field, said to have been the one bought with the thirty pieces of silver given 
 to Judas Iscariot for betraying Christ, is still shown to travellers. It is covered M'ith an arched 
 roof, and retains the name Aceldama, that is "the field of blood," to this day. Matthew 
 xxvii. 8; Actsi. 19. — This name was given to an estate purchased by judge Jeffreys after 
 the "bloody assizes" in 1685. 
 
 ACETYLENE, a luminous hydrocarbon gas resembling coal gas, discoveredby Berthelot, 
 and made known in 1862. 
 
 ACHAIA (N. Peloponnesus), Greece ; the capital was settled by Achseus, the son of 
 Xuthus, about 1330 B.C. ( ?) The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the Jitolians 
 until about 284 B. c. The Achsei, descendants of Achseus, originally inhabited the neigh- 
 bourhood of Argos ; but when the Heraclidse drove them thence, they retired among the 
 lonians, expelled the natives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz., Pellene, JJgira, /Egium, 
 Bura, Tritaea, Leontium, Rhypes, Cerynea, Olenos, Helice, Patrse, Dyme, and Phai'se, form- 
 ing the AcH.ffi;AN League, which was broken up soon after the death of Alexander of Macedon, 
 323 B.C. 
 
ACH 
 
 ACR 
 
 Achala invaded by Epaminondas . . B.C. 366 
 The Achaean league revived by four cities 
 
 about 280 — 
 
 Aratus made prsetor 245 
 
 The league joined by Corinth, Megara, &c. 243—236 
 Supported by Athens and Antigonus Doson . . 229 
 War with the Spartans ; the Achseans defeated 
 at Ladocea, by the Spartans under Cleo- 
 menes III., 226; but totally defeat them at 
 
 Sellasia 221 
 
 The Social war begun ; battle of Caphyas, in 
 
 Arcadia ; Aratus defeated . ... 220 
 
 The Peloponnesus ravaged by the iEtolians . 219 
 
 Aratus poisoned at jEgium 213 
 
 Philopoemen, leader of the league, defeats the 
 
 Spartan tyrant Machanidas . . . . 208 
 Alliance of the league with the Romans . . 198 
 Philopoemen defeated by Nabis in a naval 
 
 battle 194 
 
 Sijarta joined to the league . . . .191 
 War with Messene : Philopoemen made pri- 
 soner and slain 183 
 
 TheAchfeansoverrunMesseniawitb fire&sword 182 
 The Romans enter Achaia, and carry off num- 
 bers of the people, among whom is the cele- 
 brated Polybius 163 
 
 Metellus enters Greece ... . . 147 
 
 The Achajans defeated by Mummius at Leuco- 
 petra ; the league dissolved by Mummius ; 
 Corinth taken ; Greece subjected to Rome, 
 and named the province of Achaia . . . 146 
 Achaia made a Latin principality, a.d. 1205 ; 
 founded by William of Champlitte, 1205 ; ob- 
 tained by Geoffrey Villehardomn, 1210 ; by 
 Geoffrey II., 1218 ; by his brother William, 
 1246 ; who conquers the Moors, 1248 ; makes 
 war with the emperor Michael, 1239, and 
 gains three fortresses, 1262 ; succeeded 
 by Isabella, 1277 ; who marries Florenz 
 of Hainult, 1291 ; their daughter Maiid, 
 princess, 1311 ; thrice married ; forcibly mar- 
 ried to John de Gravina, and dies in prison ; 
 Achaia subject to the kings of Naples . . 1324 
 
 Conquered by the Turks 
 
 about 1540 
 
 ACHONRY, Sligo (N. Ireland) ; a bishopric founded by St. Finian, wbo erected the 
 church of Achad, usiially called Achonry, about 520, and conferred it on his discijJe Nathy 
 (Dathy, or Uavid), the first bishop. The see, held with Killala since 1612, was united with 
 Tuam in 1834. 
 
 ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES, in which colour is got rid of, were invented by John 
 Dollond, and described in Phil. Trails, of the Royal Society, London, 1 753-8. 
 
 ACIDS (now defined as salts of hydrogen) are generally soluble in water, redden organic 
 blues, decompose carbonates, and destroy the properties of alkalies, forming alkaline salts. 
 The number was increased by the Arabs ; Geber (8th centuiy) knew nitric acid and 
 sulphuric acid. Theories of the constitution of acids were put forth by Becher (1669), 
 Lemery (1675), and Stahl (1723). After the discoveiy of oxygen by Priestley, Aug. i, 1774, 
 Lavoisier (1778) concluded that oxygen was a constituent of all acids ; but about 1810 Davy, 
 Gay-Lussac, and others, proved the existence of acids free from oxygen. In 1816 Dulong 
 proposed the binary or hydrogen theoiy of acids, and in 1837 Liebig applied the theories of 
 Davy and Dulong to explain the constitution of several organic acids. Oxygen acids are 
 now termed anhydrides. An innumerable number of acids have been discovered through the 
 advance of organic chemistry. Watts. 
 
 ACOLYTES, an inferior order of clergy in the Latin church, unknown to the Greek 
 church for four hundred years after Cluist. 
 
 ACOUSTICS (from akouo), Greek, I hear), the science of sound, so named by Sauveur in 
 the 17th century. The communication of sounds to the air by the vibrations of the 
 atmosphere, strings, &c., was explained by Pythagoras about 500 b.c., and by Aristotle, 
 330 B.C. 
 
 Velocity of sound said to be 1473 feet in a second, 
 by Gassendi ; 11 72 feet by Cassini, Romer and 
 others ; 968 by Newton, about 1700. 
 
 Chladni (who raised acoustics to an independent 
 science) published his important discoveries on 
 the figures produced in layers of sand by harmonic 
 chords, (fee, in 1787, and since. 
 
 Cagniard-Latour invented the sirint (which ?fe), iBig. 
 
 Biot, Savart, Wheatstone, Lissajous, Helmholtz, 
 Tyndall, and others in the present century have 
 greatly increased our knowledge of acoustics. 
 
 The speaking trumpet is said to have been used by 
 Alexander the Great, 335 B.C. 
 
 Galileo's discoveries, about a.d. 1600. 
 
 His theorem of the harmonic curve demonstrated 
 by Dr. Brook Taylor, in 1714 ; further perfected 
 by D'Alembert, Euler, Bemouilli, and La Grange, 
 at various periods of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Hooke calculated the vibration of sounds by the 
 striking of the teeth of brass wheels, 168 1. 
 
 Sauveur determined the number of vibrations be- 
 longing to a given note, about 1700. 
 
 ACRE. This measure was formerly of uncertain quantity, and differed in various parts 
 of the realm, until made standard by statute 31 Edward I. 1303, and fixed at 40 poles or 
 perches in length, and 4 in breadth — or 160 square poles, containing 4840 square yards, 
 or 43,560 square feet. In certain counties and places the measure is larger. Pardon. 
 
 ACEE, Acca, anciently Ptolemais, in Syria, was taken by the Saracens in 638 ; by the 
 crusaders under Baldwin I. in 1104 ; by Saladin in 1187 ; and again by Richard I. and other 
 crusaders, July 12, 1191, after a siege of two years, with a loss of 6 archbishops, 12 bishops, 
 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 soldiers. It was then named St. Jean d'Acre. It was 
 retaken by the Saracens in 1291, when 60,000 Christians perished. This capture was 
 rendered memorable by the murder of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the 
 
ACE 7 ACT 
 
 lust of the infidels. — Acre, gallantly defended by Djezzar Eacha against Bonaparte in July, 
 1798, was relieved by Sir Sidney Smith, who resisted twelve attempts by the French, between 
 March 16 and May 20, 1799, when Bonaparte retreated. — St Jean d'Acre, as a pachalic 
 subject to the Porte, was seized July 2, 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted. On 
 Nt)v. 3, 1840, it was stormed by the British fleet under sir Eobert Stopford, and taken after 
 a bombardment of a few hours, the Egyptians losing upwards of 2000 in killed and wounded, 
 and 3000 prisoners, while the British had but twelve killed and 42 wounded. See Syria and 
 Turkey. 
 
 ACEOPOLIS, the citadel of Athens, was built on a rock, andaccessible only on one side ; 
 Minerva had a temple at the bottom. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood above 
 2000 years, was destroyed by the Venetians who took Athens in 1687. 
 
 ACS (Hungary). The Hungarians under Gorgey were defeated here by the Austrians 
 and Eussians, on July 10, 1849. 
 
 ACT OF Settlement, &c. See Accession, Succession, Supremacy, and Uniformity Acts. 
 
 ACTA SANCTOEUM (acts of the saints), a work commenced by the Jesuits in the 
 seventeenth century. The first volume appeared in 1643 : the publication was interrupted 
 in 1734, when the fifty -third volume was published, but was resumed in 1846, and is still in 
 progress : having advanced in the order of the months as far as October. From one of the 
 first editors, Bolland, the writers have been named BoUandists. 
 
 ACTINOMETEE, an instrument to measure the power of the solar rays, invented by sir 
 J. F. Herschel, about 1825. See Sun. 
 
 ACTIUM, a promontory of Acarnania, "W. Greece, near which was fought, on Sept. 2, . 
 31 B c, the battle between the fleets of Octavianus Ctesar on the one side, and of Marc Aiitony 
 and Cleopatra on the other, which decided the fate of Antony ; 300 of his galleys going over 
 to Cffisar. This victory made Octavianus master of the world, and the Eoman empire is 
 commonly dated Jan. i, 30 B.C. (the Actian Era). The conq[ueror built Nicopolis (the city 
 of victory), and instituted the Actian games. Blair. 
 
 ACTEESSES appear to have been unknown to the ancients ; men or eunuchs performing 
 the female parts. Chai'les 11. is said to have first encouraged the public appearance of 
 women on the stage in England, in 1662 ; but the queen of James I. had previously per- 
 formed in a theatre at court. Theat. Biog. Mrs. Colman was the first actress on the stage ; 
 she performed the part of lanthe in Davenant's "Siege of Ehodes," in 1656. Victor. 
 
 ACTS OF Parliament, or Statutes. See Parliament, The following are among the 
 most celebrated early statutes : — 
 
 Statutes of Clarendon, to restrain the powetr of the 
 clergy, enacted in 10 Hen. II. 1164. Provisions 
 of Merton, 1235-6. Statute of Marlborough, 1267. 
 Of Bigamy, 1275-6. Of Gloucester, the earliest 
 statute of which any record exists, 6 Bdw. I., 
 1278. Of fMortmain, 1279. Quo Warranto, Oct. 
 1280. Statutes of Wales, 1284. Of Winchester, Oct. 
 1284. Of Westminster, 1285. Statute forbidding 
 the levying of taxes without the consent of par- 
 liament, 1297. Magna Charta, 1297. Of Prae- 
 munire, 1306. 
 
 Between 1823 and 1829, 1126 acts were wholly re- 
 pealed, and 443 repealed in pai-t, chiefly arising 
 out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. (after- 
 wards sir Robert) Peel ; of these acts, 1344 related 
 to the kingdom at large, and 225 to Ireland solely; 
 and in 1856 many obsolete statutes (enacted be- 
 tween 1285 and 1777) were repealed. 
 
 By the Statute Law Revision Act of 1861, 770 acts 
 were wholly repealed, and a great many pai-tially. 
 By the similar Act of 1863, a great number of 
 enactments were repealed, commencing with the 
 Provisions of Merton, 20 Henry III. (1236), and 
 ending with i James II. (1685). 
 
 The greatest number of acts passed in any one year 
 
 ACTS, in dramatic poetry, first employed by the Eomans. Five acts are mentioned by 
 Horace (Art of Poetry) as the rule (about b. c. 8). 
 
 ACTUAEY, AcTUAUius, the Eoman accountant. The Institute of Actuaries founded in 
 1848, publishes its proceedings in the "Assurance Magazine." 
 
 since i8oo, was 570, in 1846 (the railway year) ; 
 402 were local and personal, 51 private, and 117 
 public acts. In 1841, only 13 were passed (the 
 lowest number), of which two were private. In 
 three instances only, the annual number was 
 under a hundred. The average number of the first 
 ten years of the present century was 132 public 
 acts. In the ten years ending 1850, the average 
 number of acts, of public interest, was 112. 
 
 The number of public general acts passed in 1851 
 was 106 ; in -1852, 88 ; in 1853, 137 ; in 1854, 125 ; 
 in 1855, 134; in 1856, 120; in 1857, 86; in 1858, 
 109 ; in 1859, loi ; in i860, 154; in 1861, 134; in 
 1862, 114 ; in 1863, 125 ; in 1864, 121. 
 
 In 1850. 13 Vict. c. 13, was passed to curtail Repeti- 
 tions in statutes. 
 
 Statutes first printed in the reign of Richard III., 
 1483. 
 
 Statutes of the Realm, from Magna Charta to 
 George I., printed from the original records and 
 MSS. in 12 vols, folio, under the direction of com- 
 missioners appointed in 1801, 1811 — 28. 
 
 The statutes passed during each session are now 
 printed annually in 4to. and 8vo. Abstracts are 
 given in the Cabinet Lawyer. 
 
Lord Hawkcsbiiry, foreign secretary. 
 Lord Hobart, colonial secretary. 
 Earl St. Vincent, admiralty. 
 Earl of Chatbani, ordnance. 
 Charles Yorke, secrctary-at-tBar. 
 Viscount Lewisham, Lord Auckland, &c. 
 
 ADA 8 ADM 
 
 ADAM AND EVE, Era of, set down by most Christian writers as being 4004 B.C. There 
 have been as many as one hundred and forty opinions on the distance of time between the 
 creation of the world and the birth of the Kedeemer : some make it 3616 years, and some as 
 great as 6484 years. See Creation. 
 
 ADAMITES, a sect said to have existed about 130, and to have assembled quite naked 
 in their places of worship, asserting that if Adam had not sinned there would have been no 
 marriages. Their chief was named Prodicus ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and 
 said it was not necessary to confess Christ. Eusehius. A similar sect arose at Antwerp in the 
 twelfth century, under Taudemus, or Tanchelin, whose followers, 3000 soldiers and others, 
 committed many crimes under spiritual names. The sect became extinct soon after the 
 death of its chief; but another of the same kind, named Turlupins, appeared shortly after in 
 Savoy and Dauphiny. A Fleming named Picard, revived this sect in Bohemia, about 1415 ; 
 it was sujjpressed 'by Ziska. 
 
 ADDINGTON ADMINISTRATION. Mr. Pitt, having engaged to procure Roman 
 Catholic emancipation to secure the union with Ireland, and being unable to do so as a 
 minister, resigned Feb. 3, 1801. A new ministry was formed by Mr. Addington, March 
 iSoi ; after various changes it terminated May 11, 1804. 
 
 Henry Addington,* first lord of the treasury and 
 
 chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 
 Duke of Portland, lord president. 
 Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 
 Lord Pelham, home secretary. 
 
 ADDISCOMBE COLLEGE, near Croydon, Surrey, established by the East India 
 company, in 1809, for the education of candidates for the scientific branches of the Indian 
 army, was closed in 1861. 
 
 ADDLED PARLIAMENT. See Parliament, 1614. 
 
 ADDRESSERS. ^q& Ahhorrers. 
 
 ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia, was founded in 1836. It contained 14,000 
 inhabitants in 1850, and 18,259 in 1855. It was made a bishopric in 1847. 
 
 ADELPHI (Greek for brothers), a series of streets on the south side of the Strand, London, 
 erected about 1 768 by the brothers, John, Robert, James, and William Adam, after whom 
 the streets are named. Adelphi Theatre, see under Tlicatres. 
 
 ADEN, a free port on the S. W. corner of Arabia, where in 1837 a British ship was 
 wrecked and plundered. The sultan promised compensation, and agreed to cede the place 
 to the English. The sultan's son refusing to fulfil this agreement to captain Haynes, a 
 naval and military force, under captain H. Smith, of the Volage, Avas dispatched to Aden, 
 which captured it, Jan. 19, 1839. It is now a coal depot for Indian steamers, &c. 
 
 ADIGE, a river in N. Italy, near which the Austrians defeated the French on March 26, 
 30, and April 5, 1799. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS of England, and of Gkeat BRiTAiN.t For a fuller account of 
 each, since 1 700, see separate articles headed with the name of the premier. 
 
 * BomT757; became viscount Sidmouth in 1805; held various ofiSces afterwards, and died in 1S44. 
 His circular to the lords lieutenants, dated March 27, 1817, dii'ecting them to adopt severe measures against 
 the authors of blasphemous and seditious pamphlets, was greatly censured, and not carried into effect. 
 
 t Until the Restoration, there was not in fact anything that could be exclusively called a Cabinet. 
 The sovereign latterly governed by a collection of privy councillors, sometimes of larger, sometimes of 
 smaller number, the men and offices being frequently changed. The separation of the Cabinet from the 
 Privy Council became greater during the reign of William III., and the control of the chief, now termed 
 the "premier," was e.stablished in the reign of Anne. "The era of ministries may roost properly be 
 reckoned from the day of the meeting of the parliament after the general election of 1698." — Lord 
 Macaulay. " In Walpole's time there was an interior council, of Walpole, the chancellor, and secretaries 
 of state, who. in the first instance, consulted together on the more confidential points." — Croker's 
 Memoirs of Lord Hervey. Till 1850 the cabinet council usually consisted of the following twelve members : 
 — First lord of the treasury ; lord chancellor ; lord president of the council ; chancellor of the exchequer ; 
 lord privy seal ; home, foreign, and colonial secretaries ; first lord of the admiralty ; president of the 
 board of trade; president of the board of control; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1850, the 
 number was fifteen, and included the secretary-at-war, the postmaster-general, and the chief secretary for 
 Ireland. In the Palmerston-llussell cabinet (which see), the president of the poor-law-board replaced the 
 secretary for Ireland. The average duration of a ministry has been set down at four, five, and six years ; 
 but instances have occurred of the duration of a ministry for much longer periods : sir Robert Walpole 
 was minister from 1721 to 1742 (21 years); Mr. Pitt, 1783 to 1801 (18 years); and lord Liverpool, 1812 to 
 1827 (15 years). Several ministries have not endured beynnd a few months, a,R the CnaMtion Miiiistry in 
 1783, and the " Talents" Ministry in 1806. The " Short-lived" Administration lasted Feb. 10 to 12, 1746. 
 
ADM 
 
 ADM 
 
 Administkations of England, and of Great Britain. 
 
 Henry VIII. — Abp, Warham ; Bps. Fiaher and 
 Pox ; earl of Surrey, &c. . . . a.d. 1509 
 
 Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, &c. . . . . 1514 
 
 Earl of Surrey ; Tunstall, bishop of London, &,c. 1523 
 
 Sir Thomas More ; bishops Tunstall and Gardi- 
 ner, and Cranmer (afterwards abp. of Canter- 
 bury) 1529 
 
 Abp. Cranmer; lord Cromwell, aft. earl of 
 Essex ; Thos. Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire, &o. . 1532 
 
 Thomas, duke of Norfolk; Henry, earl of 
 Surrey ; Thomas, lord Audley ; bishop Gardi- 
 ner ; sir Ralph Sadler, &c 1540 
 
 LordWriothesley; Thomas, duke of Norfolk; lord 
 I;isle; su-William Petre; sir William Paget, &c. 1544 
 
 Edward VI. — Lord Wriothesley, now earl of 
 Southampton, lord chancellor (expelled) ; 
 Edward, earl of Hertford, lord protector, 
 created duke of Somerset; John, lord Rus- 
 sell ; Henry, earl of Arundel ; Thomas, lord 
 Seymour ; sir William Paget ; sir William 
 Petre, &c. ..... . . 1547 
 
 John Dudley, late lord Lisle and earl of War- 
 wick, created duke of Northumberland ; 
 John, earl of Bedford; bishop Goodrich, sir 
 WiUiam Cecil, &c 1551 
 
 Mary. — Stephen Gardiner, bp. of Winchester ; 
 Edmund Bonner, bp. of London ; William, 
 marquess of Winchester ; sir Edwd. Hastings, 
 &c. . 1554 
 
 Elizabeth. — Sir Nicholas Bacon ; Edward, lord 
 CUnton ; sir Robert Dudley, aftd-:. earl of 
 Leicester ; sir Wm. Cecil, aftds. lord Burleigh. 1558 
 
 Lord Burleigh (minister during nearly all the 
 reign) ; sir N. Bacon,. &c 1572 
 
 WUliam, lord Burleigh ; sir Thomas Bromley ; 
 Robert Devereux, earl of Essex (a favoiirite) ; 
 earl of Leicester ; earl of Lincoln ; sir Walter 
 Mildmay ; sir Francis Walsingham, &c. . 1579 
 
 Lord Burleigh ; Robert, earl of Essex ; sir 
 Christoj)her Hatton, <&c 1587 
 
 Thomas Sackville, lord Buckhurst, afterwards 
 earl of Dorset ; sir Thomas Egerton, a/tei'- 
 wards lord Ellesmere and viscovuit Brackley ; 
 sir Robert Cecil, &c. 1599 
 
 James I. — Thomas, earl of Dorset; Thomas, 
 lord Ellesmere ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; 
 Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; Edward, earl of 
 Worcester; Robert Cecil, aftei-wards earl of 
 Salisbury, <&c 1603 
 
 Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury ; Thomas, lord 
 BUesmere ; Henry, earl of Northampton ; 
 Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, earl of 
 Suffolk, (fee. 1609 
 
 Henry, earl of Northampton ; Thomas, lord 
 Ellesmere ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; sir 
 Ralph Winwood ; Charles, earl of Notting- 
 ham ; Robert, viscount Rochester, afterwards 
 earl of Somerset, (fee 161 2 
 
 Thomas, lord Ellesmere ; Thomas, earl of 
 Suffolk ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; sir 
 George VUliers (a favourite), afterwards vis- 
 count Villiers, and successively earl, mar- 
 quess, and duke of Buckingham . . . 1615 
 
 Sir Henry Montagu, afterwards viscount Man- 
 deville and earl of Manchester . . . . 1620 
 
 Lionel, lord Cranfield, afterwards earl of Middle- 
 sex ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; John, eai-1 
 of Bristol ; John WiUiams, dean of West- 
 minster ; George Villiers, now marquess of 
 Buckingham ; sir Edward Conway, &c. . 1621 
 
 Charles I. — Richard, lord Weston, afterwards 
 earl of Portland ; sir Thomas Coventry, after- 
 wards lord Coventry ; Henry, earl of Man- 
 chester (succeeded by James, earl of Marl- 
 borough, who, in turn, gave place to Edward, 
 lord, afterwards viscount, Conway); William 
 Laud, bishop of London ; sir Albert Morton, 
 &c 1628 
 
 William Laud, noio archbishop of Canterbury ; 
 Francis, lord Cottington ; James, marquess 
 
 of Hamilton ; Edward, earl of Dorset ; sir 
 John Coke ; sir Francis Wiudebank, &c. . 1635 
 
 William Juxon, bishop of London ; sir John 
 Finch, afterwards lord Finch ; Francis, lord 
 Cottington ; Wentworth, earl of Strafford ; 
 Algernon, earl of Northumberland ; James, 
 marquess of Hamilton ; Laud, archbishop of 
 Canterbury ; sir Francis Windebank ; sir 
 
 Henry Vane, &c 1640 
 
 [The king beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649.] 
 
 Commonwealth. — Oliver Cromwell, protector, 
 named a council, the number at no time to 
 exceed twenty-one members, or be less than 
 thirteen 1653 
 
 Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded on 
 the death of the latter. A council of officers 
 ruled at Wallingford house . . . . 1658 
 
 Charles II. — Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl 
 of Clarendon : George Monk, created duke of 
 Albemarle ; Edward Montagu, created earl of 
 Sandwich ; lord Saye and Sele ; earl of Man- 
 chester; lord Seymour; sir Robert Long, <fcc. 1660 
 
 George Monk, duke of Albemarle, made first 
 commissioner of the treasury, <fec. . . . 1667 
 
 "Cabal" Ministry: Clifford, Ashley, Bucking- 
 ham, Arlington, Lauderdale. (See Cabal.) . 1670 
 
 Thomas, lord Clifford ; Anthony, earl of Shaftes- 
 bury ; Henry, earl of Arhngton ; Arthur, 
 earl of Anglesey; sir Thomas Osborne, created 
 viscount Latimer ; Henry Coventry ; sir 
 George Carteret ; Edward Seymour, &c. . 1672 
 
 Thomas, viscount Latimer, afterwards earl of 
 Danby, made lord high treasurer June 26, 1673 
 
 Arthm-, earl of Essex (succeeded by Lawrence 
 Hyde, aft. earl of Rochester) ; Robert, earl of 
 Sunderland, (fee 1679 
 
 [The king nominated a new council on April 21, 
 consisting of thirty members only, of whom 
 the principal were the great officers of state 
 and great officers of the household.] 
 
 Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Lawrence, earl of 
 Boctiester : Daniel, earl of Nottingham ; 
 Robert, earl of Sunderland ; sir Thomas 
 Chicheley ; George, lord Dartmouth ; Henry, 
 earl of Clarendon ; earls of Bath and Radnor, 
 •fee 16.S4 
 
 James II. — Lawrence, earl of Rochester ; George, 
 marquess of Halifax ; sh- George Jeffreys, 
 afterwards lord Jeffreys ; Henry, earl of Cla- 
 rendon ; sir John Ernley ; viscount Preston, 
 <&c 1685 
 
 The earl of Rochester was displaced, and John, 
 lord Belasyse, made first commissioner of 
 the treasury in his room, Jan. 4 ; the earl of 
 Sunderland made president of the council ; 
 viscount Preston, secretary of state ; and 
 various other changes took place in this and 
 the following year 1687 
 
 [The king left WliitehaU. in the night of Dec. 17, 
 and quitting the kingdom, landed at Amble- 
 teuse, in France, on Dec. 23, 1688.] 
 
 William III. and Mary. — Charles, viscount 
 Mordaunt ; Thomas Osborne, earl of Danby, 
 created marquess of Carmarthen, afterwards 
 duke of Leeds ; George, marquess of Halifax ; 
 Arthur Herbert, afterwards lord Torrington ; 
 earls of Shrewsbury, Nottingham and Sun- 
 derland ; earl of Dorset and Middlesex ; 
 William, earl {afterwards duke) of Devon- 
 shire ; lord Godolphin ; lord Montagu ; lord 
 De la Mere, <&c. 1689 
 
 Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Thomas, earl of 
 Danby; Richard Hampden ; Thomas, earl of 
 Pembroke; Henry, viscount Sydney; Daniel, 
 earl of Nottingham, <fec. .... 1690 
 
 Sir John Somers became lord Somers in 1697, 
 and lord chancellor ; Charles Montagu, after- 
 vjards lord Halifax, was made fu'st commis- 
 sioner of the treasury. May i, i6g8, succeeded 
 by Ford, earl of TankerviUe, in 1699. 
 
ADM 
 
 10 
 
 ADM 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS of Great Britain, continued. 
 
 Anne. — Sidney, lord {afterwards earl of) Godol- 
 phin: Thomas, earl of Pembroke, &c. May, 1702 
 
 Kobert Harley, earl of Oxford ; sir Simon Har- 
 court, &o June i, 171 1 
 
 Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, made lord trea- 
 surer three days before the queen's death, 
 &c July 30, 1714 
 
 George I. — Charles, earl of Halifax (succeeded 
 on his death by the earl of Carlisle), &c. . 1714 
 
 Robert Walpole, first lord of the treasury and 
 chanceUor of the exchequer, &c. . . . 1715 
 
 James {afterwards earl) Stanlwpe; William, lord 
 Cowper, &c 1717 
 
 Charles, earl of Sunderland, &c 1718 
 
 Kobert Walpole, afterwards sir Robert Walpole, 
 and earl of Orford, &c 1721 
 
 George II. — Robert Walpole, continued . . 1727 
 
 [Sir Robert remained prime minister twenty- 
 one years ; numerous changes occurring in 
 the time. See Walpole.] 
 
 Earl of jritmm£r<on ,- lord Hard wicke, &c. . 1742 
 
 Henry Pelham, in the room of earl of Wilming- 
 ton, deceased Aug. 1743 
 
 "Broad Bottom," administration— Henry Pel- 
 ham; lord Hard wicke, &c. . . Nov. 1744 
 
 "Short-lived" administration — earl of Bath; 
 lords Winchilsea and Granville Feb. 10-12, 1746 
 
 Henry Pelham, &c., again . Feb. 12, 1746 
 
 Thos. H. Pelham, duke of Newcastle; earl of 
 Holdemesse, &c April, 1754 
 
 Duke of Devonshire ; William Pitt, &c. Nov. 1756 
 
 Duke of Nnocastle, and Mr. Pitt, afterwards 
 earl of Chatham, &c. - . . . June, 1757 
 
 George III.— Dvike of Newcastle, Mr. Pitt's 
 ministry, continued ..... 1760 
 
 Earl of Bide; lord Henley, &c. . . May, 1762 
 
 George Grenville; earls of Halifax and Sand- 
 wich, &c. April, 1763 
 
 Marquess of Rockingham; earl of Winchilsea, 
 
 <Sic - . . July, 1765 
 
 Earl of C^a</(a»i/ duke of Grafton, &c. Aug. 1766 
 
 Duke of Gr«/<on; lord North, (fee. . Dec. 1767 
 
 Frederick, lord A'br(A; earl Gower, &c. Jan 1770 
 
 [Lord North was minister during the whole of 
 the American war.] 
 
 Marquess oi Rockingham ; lord Camden; C. J. 
 Fox ; Edmund Burke, &c. . . March, 1782 
 
 Earl of Shelburne {afterwards marquess of Lana- 
 downe) ; WiUiam Pitt, &c. . . . July, ,, 
 
 "Coalition Ministry," duke of Portland; lord 
 North ; C. J. Fox ; Edmund Burke, &c. April, 1783 
 
 William Pitt ; Henry Dundas, &c. . Dec. „ 
 
 [During Mr. Pitt's long administration, nume- 
 rous changes in the ministry took place.] 
 
 Henry Addington ; duke of Portland ; lord 
 Eldon, &c March, et seq. 1801 
 
 William Pitt; lord Eldon; George Canning, 
 &c May, et seq. 1804 
 
 [Mr. Pitt died Jan. 23, 1806] 
 
 "All the Talents" administration— lord Gren- 
 ville ; lord Henry Petty ; lord Erskine ; C. J. 
 Fox ; sir Charles Grey {afterwards earl Grey). 
 
 Feb. i8o6 
 
 [Mr. Fox's death, Feb. 13, 1806, led to nume- 
 rous changes.] 
 
 Duke of Portland; lord Eldon, &c.* March, 1807 
 
 Spencer Perceval ; earl of Liverpool ; viscoimt 
 Palmerston, ifec. . . . Nov. and Dec. 1809 
 
 Regency. — Mr. Spencer Perceval (shot by 
 Bellingham, May 11, 1812), <&c., continued 
 
 Feb. s, 1811 
 
 Earl of Liverpool ; lord Eldon ; Mr. Vansittart ; 
 lord Melville ; viscount Castlereagh, &c. 
 
 May, June, 1812 
 
 George IV. — Earl of Liverpool, &c., continued 
 
 Jan. 29, 1820 
 
 [Dui-ing lord Liverpool's long administration. 
 
 numerous changes in, and accessions to, 
 oflBce occurred] 
 
 George Canning ; lord Lyndhurst ; viscount 
 Goderich ; Mr. Huskisson ; lord Palmerston ; 
 duke of Clarence, <fec. . . . April, 
 
 [Mr. Canning died Aug. 8, 1827.] 
 
 Viscount Goderich : viscount Palmerston ; mar- 
 quess of Lansdowne ; Mr. Huskisson, &c. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Duke of Wellington ; Robert Peel ; Mr. Hus- 
 kisson, &c Jan. 
 
 [The ministry was reconstructed on the retire- 
 ment of the earl of Dudley ; lord Palmerston ; 
 Mr. Grant ; and Mr. Huskisson.] May and 
 
 June, 
 
 William IV. — Duke of Wellington, &c., coii- 
 tinutd June 26, 
 
 Earl Ch-ey ; marquess of Lansdowne ; lord 
 Brougham ; viscount Althoipe ; earl of Dur- 
 ham ; viscounts Melbourne, Palmerston, and 
 Goderich ; sir James Graham ; lord John 
 RusseU, &c Nov. 
 
 [Earl Grey resigns office, owing to a majority 
 against him in the lords, on the Reform Bill, 
 May 10; but resumes his post] . May 18, 
 
 Viscount Melbourne ; &c. . . . July, 
 
 [Viscount Alelboume's administration dissolved, 
 Nov. 1834. The duke of WeUington held the 
 seals of office till the return of sir Robert 
 Peel from Italy, Dec. 1834.] 
 
 Sir Robert Peel ; lord Lyndhurst ; duke of 
 
 Wellington ; earl of Aberdeen ; &c. Nov. 
 
 and Dec. 
 
 Viscount Melbourne, &c. . . . April, 
 
 Victoria. — Viscount Melbourne, &c., continued 
 
 June 20, 
 
 [Among the subsequent accessions were F. T. 
 Baring ; earl of Clarendon ; T. B. Macaulay, 
 &c.] 
 
 [Viscount Melbourne resigns, and sir Robert 
 Peel receives the queen's commands to form 
 a new administration. May 8. This command 
 is withdrawn, and on May 10, lord Melbourne 
 and his friends return to power] . 
 
 Sir Robert Peel ; duke of Wellington ; lord 
 Lyndhurst ; sir James Graham ; earl of Aber- 
 deen ; lord Stanley, &c. . Aug. and Sept. 
 
 [Among the accessions were, Sidney Herbert ; 
 W. E. Gladstone, &c.] 
 
 Lord John Russell ; viscount Palmerston ; earl 
 Grey, &c July, 
 
 [Among the accessions were : earl Granville ; 
 Mr. Fox Maule ; earl of Carlisle ; sir Thomas 
 Wilde, created lord Truro, <fec.] 
 
 [Feb. 24. Lord John Russell annoimced to the 
 commons, and the marquess of Lansdowne 
 to the lords, that the ministers had resigned, 
 owing to their defeat on Mr. Locke King's 
 motion respecting the franchise, the majo- 
 rity against them being 48 (loo to 52) ; and 
 on March 3, the same personages informed 
 parliament, that it having been foimd im- 
 possible to construct a coalition mmistry, 
 the queen, by the advice of the duke of Wel- 
 lington, had called upon her late ministers 
 to res\ime office. Lord Stanley {since earl of 
 Derby) had been charged by her majesty, in 
 the interval, to form a new cabinet, but had 
 not succeeded] 
 
 Lord John Russell and his colleagues continued. 
 
 March, 
 
 Earl of Derby {late Lord Stanley) ; lord St. Leo- 
 nards ; Benjamin Disraeli ; Spencer H. Wal- 
 pole ; earl of Malmesbury ; sir John Paking- 
 ton ; duke of Northumberland, &c. Feb. 27, 
 
 Earl of Aberdeen ; lord John Russell ; viscount 
 Palmerston, &c Dec. 28 
 
 1827 
 
 1830 
 
 1832 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 1837 
 
 1839 
 1841 
 
 1846 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 * The duel between lord Castlereagh and Mr. Canning, Sept. 22, 1809, led to the breaking up of this 
 administration. 
 
ADM 11 ADM 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS of Great Britain, continued. 
 
 On the second reading of the Foreign Con- 
 spiracy bill, the government (defeated by a 
 vote of censure being passed by a majority of 
 19, on the motion of Mr. MUner Gibson) re- 
 signed immediately .... Feb. 19, ^58 
 
 Earl of Derby : B. Disraeli ; Spencer Walpole ; 
 lord Stanley ; sir F, Thesiger (lord Chelms- 
 ford), &c Feb. 26 „ 
 
 [The Derby administration, in consequence of 
 a vote of want of confidence in it being 
 carried by a majority of 13, June 10, 1859, 
 resigned the next day. Earl Granville at- 
 tempted to form an administration in vain ; 
 and lord Palmerston and lord John Russell 
 came into office.] 
 
 PALMEESTON-BnssELL administration — viscount 
 Palmerslon; lord John (since earl) Russell, &c. 
 
 June 18, 1S59 
 
 [In this last ministry various changes of offices 
 took place ; a fourth seci'etary of state was 
 appointed, by a separation of the toar from the 
 colonial department. See Secretaries of State.] 
 [I'be retirement of Lord J. RusseU, Jan. 24, 
 iBss, and a majority in the commons against 
 ministers of 157(305 to 148) on Mr. Roebuck's 
 motion respecting the conduct of the war, 
 led to the resignation of lord Aberdeen and 
 his colleagues, Jan. 30 ; the cabinet was re- 
 constructed under lord Palmerston."] 
 Viscount Falmerstmi; lord Cranworth ; &c. 
 
 Feb 7, i8ss 
 [Viscount Palmerston, owing to the secession 
 of Sir J. Graham, Mr. Gladstone, and Mr. S. 
 Herbert, had to reconstruct his ministry.] 
 Viscount Palmerston ; lord John Russell ; earl 
 of Clarendon ; sir G. Grey ; sir G. C. Lewis ; 
 sir W. Molesworth, (fee. . . Feb. 24, ,, 
 
 ADMmiSTRATIVE REFOEM ASSOCIATION" derived its origin from a general opinion 
 that the disasters which occun-ed to the army in the Crimea in 1854-5 were attributable to 
 the inefficient and irresponsible management of the various departments of the state. The 
 association was organised in London, May 5, 1855. A meeting was held in Drury-lane 
 theatre, on June 13, and Mr. Layard's motion on the subject in parliament was negatived 
 June 18 following. The association was reorganised in 1856, Mr. Roebuck, M.P., becoming 
 chairman, but soon became unimportant. See Civil Service. 
 
 ADMIRAL. This distinction does not appear to have been adopted in these realms until 
 about the year 1300, but the title was in use some time previously in France. Sir Harris 
 Nicolas. Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, had been previously the com- 
 manders of their own fleets. The first French admiral is said to have been appointed 1284. 
 The rank of admiral of the English seas was one of great distinction, and was first given to 
 William de Leybourne by Edward I. in 1297. Spelman ; Rymer. The first Lord High 
 Admiral in England was created by Richard 11. in 1385 : there had been previously high 
 admirals of districts — the north, west, and south. This office has seldom been entrusted to 
 single hands, the duties being generally executed by lords commissioners. A similar dignity 
 existed in Scotland from the reign of Robert III. : in 1673, the king bestowed it upon his 
 natural son Charles Lennox, afterwards duke of Richmond, then an infant, who resigned the 
 office to the crown in 1703 : after the union it was discontinued. — The dignity of lord high 
 admiral of Ireland (of brief existence) was conferred upon James Butler by Henry VIII., in 
 May, 1534. The Admiral of the Fleet is the highest rank in the Royal Navy, corresponding 
 to that of marshal in the army. "We have now three admirals of the fleet, twenty-one 
 admirals, and twenty-seven vice-admirals (1865). ^qq Navy. 
 
 ADMIRALTY, Court of, said to have been erected by Edward III., in 1357 ; a civil 
 court for the trial of causes relating to maritime affairs. It was enacted in the reign of 
 Henry VIII., that criminal causes should be tried by witnesses and a jury, some of the 
 judges at "Westminster (or, as now, at the Old Bailey) assisting. The judgeship of the 
 admiralty was constituted in 15 14, and was filled by two or more functionaries until the 
 Revolution, when it was restricted to one. Beatson. The judge has usually been an 
 eminent doctor of the civil law. In 1844 the criminal jurisdiction of this court was 
 removed, and by 20 & 21 Vic. c. 77 (1857) the judge of the Probate court was to be also 
 judge of the Admiralty court. Sir John Dodson, the last admiralty judge, died in 1858. 
 The jurisdiction of this court was extended in 1861. 
 
 ADMIRALTY OFFICE dates from 15 12, when Henry VIII. appointed commissioners to 
 inspect his ships of war, &c. In 1662 the admiralty was first put into commission, the 
 great officers of state being the commissioners. During the commonwealth the admiralty 
 aflairs were managed by a committee of the parliament; and at the restoration in 1660, 
 James, duke of York, became lord high admiral. See succeeding changes below. In 1688-9, 
 the admiralty was put into commission, and the board appears to have assembled at admiral 
 Herbert's lodgings, in Channel-row, "Westminster, he being at that time first lord. In 
 1830, 1832, and 1836 various changes were made in the civil departments, several offices 
 being abolished or consolidated with others. In March, 1861, a royal commission recom- 
 mended the abolition of the board of admiralty and the appointment of a minister of the 
 navy department. 
 
ADM 
 
 12 
 
 ADU 
 
 FIRST LORDS OF THE ADMIRALTY, ETC. 
 
 1660. James, duke of York, lord high admiral, June 6. 
 1673. King Charles II , June 14. 
 
 „ Prince Rupert, July g. 
 1679. Sir Henry Capel, Feb. 14. 
 16801. Daniel Finch, esq., Feb 19. 
 1681. Daniel, lord Finch, Jan. 20. 
 
 1683. Daniel, earl of Nottingham, April 17. 
 
 1684. Kino Charles II. 
 
 1685. King Jame.s II., May 17. 
 
 Office in commifdon. 
 
 1689. Arthur Herbert, esq. , March 8. 
 
 1690. Thomas earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 
 
 Jan. 20. 
 
 1692. Charles, lord Comwallis, March 10. 
 
 1693. Anthony viscount.Falkland, April 15. 
 
 1694. Edward Russell, esq. (aft. earl of Orford), May 2. 
 1699. John, earl of Bridgewater, June 2. 
 
 1701. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, Apiul 4. 
 
 1702. George, prince of Denmark, lord high ad- 
 
 miral, May 20. 
 
 1708. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, ditto, Nov. 29. 
 
 Office in commission. 
 
 1709. Edward, earl of Orford, Nov. 8. 
 
 1710. Sir John Leake, Oct 4. 
 
 1712. Thomas, earl of Strafford, Sept. 30. 
 1714. Edward, earl of Orford, Oct. 14. 
 1717. James, earl of Berkeley, March 19. 
 1727. George, viscount Torrington, Aug 2. 
 1733. Sir Charles Wagner, knt., June 25. 
 1742. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, March 19. 
 1744. John, duke of Bedford, Dec. 27. 
 1748. John, earl of Sandwich, Feb. lo. 
 1751. George, lord Anson, June 22. 
 
 1756. Richard, earl Temple, Nov. 19. 
 
 1757. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, April 6. 
 „ George, lord Anson, July 2. 
 
 1762. George M. Dunk, earl of Halifax, June ig. 
 
 1763. George Grenville, esq., Jan. i. 
 
 ,, John, earl of Sandwich, April 23. 
 
 ,, John, earl of Egmont, Sept. 10. 
 1766. Sir Charles Savniders, Sept. 10. 
 
 ,, Sir Edward Hawke, Dec. 10. 
 1771. John, earl of Sandwich, Jan. 12. 
 
 1782. Hon. Augustus Keppel, April i. 
 
 ,, Augustus, viscount Kejipel, July 18. 
 
 1783. Richard, viscount Howe, Jan. 28. 
 1788. John, earl of Chatham, July 16. 
 1794. George John, earl Spencer, Dec. 20. 
 1801. John, earl St. Vincent, Feb. 19. 
 
 1804. Henry, viscount Melville, May 15. 
 
 1805. Charles, lord Barham, May 2. 
 
 1806. Hon. Charles Grey, Feb. 10. 
 
 „ Thomas Grenville, esq., Oct. 23. 
 
 1807. Henry, lord Mulgrave, April 6. 
 1809. Charles Yorke, esq.. May 10. 
 
 1812. Robert, viscount Melville, March 25. 
 
 1827. William Henry, duke of Clarence, lord 
 
 high admiral, Alay 2, resigned Aug. 12, 1828. 
 
 1828. Robert, viscount Melville, Sept. 19. 
 1830. Sir James R. G. Graham, bart., Nov. 25. 
 
 1834. George, lord Auckland, June 11. 
 
 ,, Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, Dec. 23. 
 
 1835. George, lord Auckland, April 25. 
 ,, Gilbert, earl of Minto, Sept. 19. 
 
 1841. Thomas, earl of Haddington, Sept. 8. 
 1846. Edward, earl of EUenborough, Jan. 13. 
 
 ,, George, earl of Auckland, July 24. 
 1849. Sir Francis Thornhill Baring, Jan. 18. 
 
 1852. Algernon, duke of Northuniberland, Feb. 28. 
 
 1853. Sir James Robert George Graham, Jan 5. 
 1855. Sir Charles Wood, bart., Feb. 24. 
 
 1858. Sir John Pakiiigton, Feb. 26. 
 
 1859. Edward, duke of Somerset, the present First 
 
 Lord {1865). 
 
 ADMIRALTY, Wliiteliall. " At the south end of Duke-street, AVestminster, was seated 
 a large house, made use of for the admiralty office, until the business was removed to 
 Greenwich, and thence to Wallingford-house, against Whitehall. " It was relniilt by Eipley 
 about 1726 ; the screen was erected, to conceal the ugliness of the building, by the brothers 
 Adam, in 1776. — Lord Nelson lay in state in one of the apartments on Jan. 8, 1806 ; and on 
 the next day was buried at St. Paul's. 
 
 "ADMONITION to the Parliament," condemning all religions ceremonies but those 
 commanded in the New Testament, was published by certain Puritans in 1571. It was 
 answered by abp. Whitgift. Its presumed authors, Field and Wilcox, were imprisoned. 
 
 ADRIAN'S WALL (to prevent the irruptions of the Scots and Picts into the northern 
 counties of England, then under the Roman government) extended from the Tyne to Solway 
 firth, and was eighty miles long, twelve feet high, and eight in thickness, with watch-towers; 
 built 121. It was named after its second founder, the emperor Adrian, and was repaired by 
 SeVerus, 208. 
 
 ADRIANOPLE, in Turkey, so named after its restorer the emperor Adrian (who died 
 July 10, 138). Near here was fought the battle bj' which Constantine gained the empire, 
 July 3, 323 ; also, near here the emperor Valens was defeated and slain by the Goths, Aug. 
 9, 378. Adrianople was taken by the Turks under Amurath in 1361, and was the seat of 
 their empire till the capture of Constantinople in 1453. Mahomet II. was born here in 1430. 
 Priestley.- — Adrianople was taken by the Russians on Aug. 20, 1829 ; but was restored at 
 the close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See Turkey. 
 
 ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic sea (instituted 
 about 1 1 73), took place annually on Ascension-day. The doge dropped a ring into the sea 
 from his bucentam-, or state barge, being attended by his nobility and foreign ambassadors. 
 The ceremony was first omitted in 1 797. 
 
 ADULTERATION of Food was the subject of legislation in England in 1267. Much 
 attention was drawn to it in 1822, through Mr. Accum's book, popularly called "Death 
 in the Pot," and in 1855 through Dr. Hassall's book, " Food and its Adulterations." By an 
 act for preventing the adulteration of food, passed in i860, parochial chemical analysts may 
 be appointed. 
 
ADU 13 ^L 
 
 ADULTERY, by the law of Moses (1490 B.C.) was pimished with death, Lev. xx. 10. — 
 Lycurgus (884 B.C.) punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the Locrians and Spar- 
 tans tore out the offender's eyes. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, and erected a 
 gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. The ears and nose were cut off 
 iinder Canute, 1031. Ordained to be punished capitally under Cromwell, May 14, 1650 : 
 but there is no record of this law taking effect. In New England a law was ordained 
 whereby adultery was niade capital to both parties, even though the man were immarried ; 
 and several suffered under it, 1662. Hardie. Till 1857 the legal redress against the male 
 offender was by civil action for a money compensation ; the female being liable to divorce. 
 By 20 & 21 Vic. c. 85 (1857) the " action for criminal conversation" was abolished and the 
 "Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes" was established, with power to grant divorces 
 for adultery and ill usage. See Divorce. 
 
 ADVENT (adveniens, coming). The season includes four Sundays, previous to Christmas, 
 the iirst being the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew's day (Nov. 30), before or after. Homilies 
 respecting Advent are mentioned prior to 378. Advent Sunday, 1865, Dec. 3 ; 1866, Dec. 2 ; 
 1867, Dec. I. 
 
 ADVENTURE BAY, at the S.E. end of Van Diemen's Land, discovered in 1773 by capt. 
 Furneaux in his first voyage to the Pacific, and named from his ship Adventure. It was 
 visited by captain Bligh in 1788. 
 
 ADVENTURERS, Merchaj^t, a celebrated company of enterprising merchants, originally 
 formed for the discovery of territories, and the extension of commerce, by John, duke of 
 Brabant, in 1296, was transferred to England in the reign of Edward III. Elizabeth formed 
 it into an English corporation in 1564. Anderson. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENTS in Newspapetis, as now published, were not general in England 
 till the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty of 50?. was inilicted on persons 
 advertising a reward with " No questions to be asked" for the return of things stolen, and 
 on the printer, 25 Geo. II. 1754. Statutes. The advertisement duty was formerly charged 
 according to the number of lines ; it was afterwards fixed, in England, at 3s, 6d. , and in 
 Ireland at 2s. 6d. each advertisement. The duty was further reduced, in England, to is. 6d. 
 and in Ireland to is. each, in 1833, and was altogether abolished in the United Kingdom, by 
 16 & 17 Vic. c. 63 (Aug. 4, 1853).* Advertising Vans, a gi-eat nuisance, were prohibited 
 by 16 & 17 Vic. c. 33 (1853). 
 
 ADVOCATE, The King's. This office was instituted about the beginning of the sixteenth 
 century ; and the advocate (always a doctor of the civil law) was empowered to prosecute at 
 his own instance certain crimes, 1597. The Lord Advocate in Scotland is the same 
 as the attorney-general in England. — It was decided in the parliament of Paris, in 1685, 
 that the king's advocate of France might at the same time be a judge ; so in like manner it 
 was allowed in Scotland, where sir John Nesbit and sir William Oliphant were lord advocates 
 and lords of session at the same time. Beatson. — The Advocates' library in Edinburgh was 
 established by sir G. Mackenzie in 1682. 
 
 jEDILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 492 B.C. There v/ere three degrees of these 
 officers, with functions similar to those of our justices of the peace. The plebeian sediles 
 presided over the more minute affairs of the state, the maintenance of order, the reparation 
 of the streets, the supply of provisions, &c. Varro. 
 
 jEGATES isles, W. of Sicily : near these, during the first Punic war, the Roman 
 consul Lutatius Catuhis gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno, 
 March 10, 241 B.C. Peace ensued, the Romans obtaining Sicily and a tribute of 3200 talents. 
 
 iEGINA, a Greek island, a rival of Athens, was humbled by Themistocles, B.C. 485'; and 
 taken 455. Its inhabitants, expelled 431, were restored by the Spartans, 404 : they renewed 
 war with Athens 388, and made peace, 387. 
 
 jEGOSPOTAMOS, the Goat-river, in the Chersonesus, where Lysander, the Lacedsemouian, 
 defeated the Athenian fleet, 405 B.C., and ended the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 jELIA CAPITOLINA, built on the ruins of Jerusalem by the emperor Adrian, 131. 
 
 * On Ofit. 16, i860, tie -whole of the lihretto of MacParren's opera, UoUn Hood, was inserted as an 
 advertisement in the Times (4^ columns). 
 
^M 14 AFF 
 
 iEMILIA, the name given to the provinces of Parma, Modena, and the Romagna, united 
 to Sardinia in i860 ; and now part of the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 ^NEID, the great Latin epic poem, relating the adventures of jEneas, written about 24 
 B.C. by Virgil, who died Sept. 22, 19 B.C., before he had finally corrected the poem. It was 
 first printed in 1469, at Rome. 
 
 ENIGMA. Samson's riddle (about 1141 B.C. ; Judges xiv. 12) is the eai-liest on record. 
 The ancient oracles frequently gave responses admitting of perfectly contrary interpretations. 
 Gale attributes renigmatioal speeches to the Egyptians. In Nero's time, the Romans were 
 often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing truth under obscure language. 
 The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond (mistiness of our Henry II. about 1173) is a medi- 
 aeval specimen : — " Hie jacet in tomba Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda ; Non redolet, sed 
 olet, qu£e redolere solet." 
 
 .lEOLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonised by a principal branch of the Hellenic race : begin- 
 ning about 1 124 B.C. The jEolians built several large cities both on the mainland and the 
 neighbouring islands ; Mitylene, in Lesbos, was considered the capital. 
 
 .iEOLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed to Kircher, 1653, but it was known before. 
 
 jEOLOPILE, a hollow ball with an orifice in which a tube might be screwed, was used in 
 the 17th centmy as a boiler for experimental steam-engines. 
 
 jEQUI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued by the Romans, and their lands annexed 
 after a conflict, 471-302 B.C. 
 
 .^RAS. See Eras. 
 
 AERATED WATERS. Apparatus for combining gases with water have been patented by 
 Thomson in 1807 ; Bakewell in 1832 and 1847 ; Tvlor in 1840, and by several other 
 persons. Aerated bread is made by processes patented by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7. 
 
 AERIANS, followers of Aerius, a presbyter, in the 4th century, who held that there was 
 no distinction between a bishop and a presbyter ; that there was no Pascli to be observed by 
 Christians ; that the Lent and other fasts should not be observed ; and that prayers should 
 not be offered for the dead. Upiphaiiitis. 
 
 AERONAUTICS, and AEROSTATICS. See Flymg, and Balloons. 
 
 ^SOP'S FABLES, said to have been written about 619, 571, or 565 B.C. They are, no 
 doubt, a compilation from various sources. Phajdrus's Latin paraphrases in Iambics (about 
 A.D. 8) are very elegant. 
 
 J5STHETICS (from the Greek aistJiesis, perception), the science of the beautiful (especially 
 in art) ; a term invented by Baumgarten, a German philosopher, whose work "^Esthetica" 
 was published in 1750. 
 
 ETHIOPIA. ^e& Ethiopia. ^TNA. ^e& Etna. 
 
 jETOLIA, in Greece, a country named after ^Etolus of Elis, who, having accidentally 
 killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus, and settled here. After 
 the ruin of Athens and Sparta, the ^tolians became the rivals of the Achseans, and alter- 
 nately allies and enemies of Rome. 
 
 The ^tolians join Sparta against Athens B.C. 453 
 Subdued by Aiitipater during the Lamian war . 322 
 Aid in the expulsion of the Gauls . . . 279 
 Invade the Peloponnesus, and ravage Messenia 
 (Social War), and defeat the Achajans at 
 
 Caphyaa 220 
 
 Philip V. , of Macedon, invades .^tolia, and takes 
 • Thermum — Peace concluded .... 217 
 Alliance with Rome 211 
 
 War with Philip, 202 ; deserted by the Romans, 
 
 the ^tolians make peace . . . B.C. 205 
 They invite the kings of Macedon, Syria, and 
 Sparta, to coalesce with them against the 
 Romans ....... 193-2 
 
 Defeat of the allies near Thermopylfe . . . 191 
 Conquered by the Romans under Fulvius . . 189 
 Leading patriots massacred by the Roman party 167 
 Made a province of Rome 146 
 
 AFFINITY. Marriage within certain degrees of kindred was prohibited in almost every 
 age and coimtry, but has yet taken place to a considerable extent. See Leviticns, chap, xviii. 
 (1490 B.C.). In England, a table restricting marriage within certain near degi-ees was set 
 forth by authority, 1563. Prohibited marriages were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful 
 by the 99th canon, in 1603. All marriages within the forbidden degrees are declared to bo 
 absolutely void by statute 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54, 1835. See Marriage {qf deceased Wi/b's 
 Sister). 
 
AFF 
 
 15 
 
 AGA 
 
 AFFIRMATION. See Quakers. The affirmation was altered in 1702, 1721, 1837, and 
 in April, 1859.^ — The indulgence was granted to persons who were formerly Quakers, but 
 who had seceded from that sect, 2 Vic. 1838 ; and extended to other dissenters by 9 Geo. IV. 
 c. 32 (1828), and 18 & 19 Vic. c. 2 (1855). 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, a large country in central Asia, formerly part of the Persian and Greek 
 empires, was conquered by the Tartars about 997. 
 
 His son and successor, Timour, died in 1793 ; whose 
 son, Zemaun, was dettironed and blinded after 
 reigning ten years. Since then the history is a 
 series of broils, crimes, and murders. 
 
 Ruujeet Sing, the Sikh chief of Lahore, conquers a 
 large part of the country in 1818. 
 
 Dost Mohammed becomes ruler, 
 
 The Mahommedan dynasty, the Ghaznevides, said 
 
 to have ruled from 11 86 to 1206. 
 They were conquered by Genghis Elhan about 1221, 
 
 and by Tamerlane, 1398. 
 Baber conquered Caubiil in 1523. 
 On his death Afghanistan divided between Persia 
 
 and Hindostan. 
 The Afghans revolt in 1720 ; invade Persia and take 
 
 Ispahan ; repulsed by Nadir Shah in 1728, who 
 
 subdues the whole of the country, 1737. 
 On his assassination, one of his officers, Ahmed Shah, 
 
 an Afghan, forms Afghanistan into an independent 
 
 kingdom, and reigns prosperously, 1747-73. 
 
 [For the Afghan war with England, see India, 1838.] 
 
 Dost Mohammed takes Herat, May 26 ; dies, after 
 designating his eldest son. Shir- Ah, his successor. 
 May 29, 1863 ; a war of succession ensues. 
 
 The English remain neutral, June, &c. 1863. 
 
 Treachery and anarchy prevailing, June, 1865. 
 
 AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient world, and 
 the gi'eatest peninsula of the universe ; said to have been first peopled by Ham. For its 
 history see Egypt, Carthage, Cyreiw, Abyssinia, Algiers, Morocco, ikc. 
 
 unexplored. His book was published in Nov. 
 
 1857. In Feb. 1858, he was appointed British 
 
 consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, 
 
 and left England shortly after. 
 The pubUcation of M. du Chaillu's travels in central 
 
 Africa created much controversy and excitement 
 
 in 1 861. 
 Second expedition of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1858. 
 Captains Speke and Grant announce the discovery 
 
 of the source of the Nile in Lake Nyanza Victoria, 
 
 Feb. 23, 1863. 
 [Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by his own gun 
 
 while alone near Bath, Sept. 15, 1864.] 
 Sonje Dutch ladies unsuccessfully explore the White 
 
 Nile, and undergo many privations, July, 1863 — 
 
 Carthage subdued by the Romans 146 B.C. ; other 
 provinces gained by Pompey, 82. 
 
 N. Africa conquered by the Vandals under 
 Genseric, a.d. 429-35, reconquered by Belisarius, 
 533-5- 
 
 The Saracens subdue the north of Africa 637 — 709. 
 
 Portuguese settlements begun 1450. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope discovered by Diaz, 1487. 
 
 EngUsh merchants visit Guinea in 1550 ; and EUza- 
 beth granted a patent to an African company in 
 1588. 
 
 Dutch colony at the Cape founded, 1650. 
 
 Capt. Stubbs sailed up the Gambia, 1723. 
 
 Bruce commenced his travels in 1768. 
 
 Sierra Leone settled by the English 1787. ' 
 
 Mungo Park, who made his first voyage to Africa, 
 May 22, 179s ; and his second voyage, January 30, 
 1804, but from which he never returned (see 
 Park). 
 
 Visited by Salt in 1805 and 1809 ; Burckhardt in 
 1812 ; Homemann in 1816 ; Denham and Clapper- 
 ton in 1S22 ; the brothers Lander in 1830. 
 
 The great Niger expedition (for which parliament 
 voted 6i,ooo?.), consisting of the Albert, Wilber- 
 force, and Soudan steam-ships, commenced the 
 ascent of the Niger, Aug. 20, 1841 ; but when they 
 reached Iddah, fever broke out among the crews, 
 and they were successively obliged to return, the 
 Albert having ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles 
 from the sea, Sept. 28. The expedition was, in 
 the end, relinquished owing to disease, heat, and 
 hardships, and all the vessels had cast anchor at 
 Clarence Cove, Fernando Po, Oct. 17, 1841. 
 
 James Richardson explored the great Sahara in 
 1845-6, and in 1849 (by direction of the Foreign 
 Office) he left England to explore central Afi-ica, 
 accompanied by Drs. Earth and Overweg. 
 Richardson died, March 4, 1851 ; and Overweg, 
 Sept. 27, 1852. 
 
 Dr. Vogel sent out with reinforcements to Dr. 
 Barth, Feb. 20, 1853; in April, 1857, said to have 
 been assassinated. 
 
 Dr. Barth retm-ned to England, and received the 
 Royal Geographical Society's medal. May 16, 1856. 
 His travels were published in 5 vols, in 1858. 
 
 Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveller, re- 
 turned to England in Dec, 1S56, after an absence 
 of 16 years, duriug which he traversed a large 
 part of the heart of S. Africa, and walked about 
 11,000 miles, principally over country hitherto 
 
 Oxford mission. Bishop Mackenzie sent out : dies 
 1863. 
 
 Du Chaillu starts on a fresh expedition, 6 Aug. 1863. 
 
 Dr. Livingstone returns July 23, 1864. 
 
 Death of Dr. W, B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, Nov. 30 
 1864. 
 
 [He was sent as special envoy to the Negro tribes 
 near the Niger by the Foreign Office about 1854. 
 He opened commercial relations with Central 
 Africa.] 
 
 Mr. Samuel Baker discovered a lake, supposed to be 
 another source of the Nile, which he named Lake 
 Nyanza Albert, March, 1864. 
 
 Dr. Livingstone appointed British consul for Inner 
 Africa, March 24, 1865. 
 
 African Association, for promoting the exploration 
 of Central Africa, was formed in June, 178S, 
 principally by Sir Joseph Banks ; and under its 
 auspices many additions were made to African 
 geography by Ledyard, Park, Burckhardt, 
 Hornemann, &;c. It merged into the Royal Geo- 
 graphical Society in 1831. 
 
 Afbican Company (merchants trading to Africa), 
 arose out of an association in Exeter, formed in 
 1588. A charter was granted to a joint-stock 
 company in 161 8; a third company was created in 
 1631 ; a fourth corporation in 1662 ; another was 
 formed by letters-patent in 1672; remodelled in 
 1695. In 1821 the company was aboUshed. 
 
 African Institqtion, founded in London in 1807, for 
 the abolition of the slave trade, and the. civilisa- 
 tion of Africa. Many schools have been established 
 with success, particularly at Sierra Leone. 
 
 AGAPiE {agape, Greek for love, charity), "feasts of diarity," referred to Jude 12, and 
 described by Tertullian, of which the first Christians of all ranks partook, in memory of the 
 
AGA 16 AGI 
 
 last time when Christ ate Avith his disciples. In consequence of disorders creeping in, these 
 feasts were forbidden to be celebrated in churches by the councils of Laodicea (366), and 
 Carthage (390). These feasts are still recognised by the Greek church, and are held in their 
 original form weekly by the Sandenianiaus, and also in some measure by the Moravians 
 and Wesleyans. 
 
 AGAPEMONIANS, a sect which originated with Henry James Prince, an ex-clergjTnan of 
 the church of England, who claimed the attributes of omnipotence, and thereby obtained 
 great influence over his wealthy dupes in 1845. They professed to live in a state of brotherly 
 love, delivering themselves up to innocent amusements, not vexing themselves with the 
 cares of ordinary mortals. Various disclosures did not at all confirm these statements. 
 They resided in a building called "Agap^mone" (Greek for "the abode of love"), near 
 Bridgewater, in Somersetshire.* /% 
 
 AGE. Chronologers have commonly divided the time between the creation and the birth 
 of Christ into periods called ages. Hesiod (about 850 B.C.) described the Golden, Silver, 
 Brazen, and Iron Ages. See DarTc Ages. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 First Age (from the Creation to the 
 
 Deluge) 4004—2349 
 
 Second Age (to the coming of Abraham 
 
 into Canaan) 2348 — 1922 
 
 Thibd Age (to the Exodus from Egj^pt) 1921 — 1491 
 
 Fourth Age (to the founding of Solo- 
 mon's Temple) 1490 — 1014 
 
 Fifth xVge (to the capture of Jeru.salem) 1014 — 588 
 Sixth Age (to the birth of Christ) . 588 — 4 
 
 Seventh xVge (to the present time) b.c. 4 — a.d. 1865 
 
 AGE, OF. Varied in different countries. In Greece and Rome twenty-five was full age 
 for both sexes, but a greater age was requisite for the holding certain offices : e.g. thirty for 
 tribunes ; forty-three for consuls. In England the minority of a male terminates at twenty- 
 one, and of a female in some cases, as that of a q\ieen, at eighteen. In 1547, the majority of 
 Edward VI. was, by the will of his father, fixed at eighteen years ; previously to completing 
 which age, Henry VIII. had himself assumed the reins of government, in 1509. — A male of 
 twelve may take the oath of allegiance ; at fourteen he may consent to a marriage, or 
 choose a guardian ; at seventeen he maj' be an executor, and at twenty-one he is of 
 age ; but according to the statute of wills, 7 Will. IV. and i Vict. c. 26, 1837, no will 
 made by any person under the age of twenty-one years shall be valid. A female at 
 twelve may consent to a marriage ; at fourteen she may choose a guardian, and at twenty- 
 one she is of age. 
 
 AGINCOUKT (N. France), a village, where Henry V. of England, with about 9000 men, 
 defeated about 60,000 French on St. Crispin's day, Oct. 25, 1415. Of the French, whose 
 leaders acted with little judgment, there were according to some accounts 10,000 killed, 
 including the dukes of Alen9on, Brabant, and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one marshal, 
 thirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights ; and 14,000 prisoners, among whom 
 were the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 liarons, knights, and gentlemen. The 
 English lost the duke of York, the earl of Suffolk, and about 20 others. St. E^my asserts 
 with more probability that the English lost 1600 men. Henry V. soon after obtained the 
 kingdom of France. 
 
 AGITATORS (or Adjutators), officers appointed by the English army in 1647, to take care 
 of its interests : each troop or company had two. The protector Cromwell was eventually 
 obliged to repress their seditious power. At a review he seized the ringleaders of a mutiny, 
 shot one instantly, in the presence of his companions and the forces on the ground, and thus 
 restored discipline. Hume. — Daniel O'Connell, called the agilator of Ireland, was born in 
 1775. He began to agitate at the elections in 1826; was elected for Clare, July 5, 1828 ; 
 the election being declared void, he was re-elected July 30, 1829. After the pa.ssing of the 
 Catholic emancipation bill, he agitated in vain for the repeal of the union, 1834 to 1843. 
 He died May 15, 1847. — Richard Cobden and Johij Bright were the chief Anti-corn-law 
 agitators, 1841-45. 
 
 * On May 22, 1850, Thomas Robinson sought to recover the possession of his child from the care of its 
 mother (from whom Thomas had separated) ; the application was refused by the vice-chancellor, on the 
 ground that the father would instil the doctrines of this sect into the child in educating it, and the court 
 held it a duty to " save it from the poUution of the parent's teaching." Several suicides have been com- 
 mitted by the deluded females of this sect.— On Aug. 21, 1858, Miss Louisa Jane Nottidge died, having 
 transferred her property to Mr. H. J. Prince. Her brother, Mr. Nottidge, by an action, recovered from 
 Prince 5728^., as having been fraudulently obtained. Extraordinary disclosures were made during the 
 trial, July 25, i860. In the autumn of i860, the R^v. Mr. Price, after several v.iin attempts, succeeded in 
 rescuing his wife ft-om the Agapetnone. They h:id both been early supporters of it. 
 
AGN 
 
 17 
 
 AGR 
 
 AGNADELLO (N". E. Italy). Here Louis XII. of France gained a great victory over the 
 Venetians, some of whose troops were accused of cowardice and treachery ; May 14, 1509. 
 The conflict is also termed the battle of the Rivolta. 
 
 AGlSrOITJi (from agnoia, Greek, ignorance), i. a sect founded by Theophronius of 
 Cappadocia about 370 : said to have doubted the omniscience of God. 2. the followers of 
 Themistius of Alexandria about 530, who held peculiar views as to the body of Christ, and 
 doubted his divinity. 
 
 AGONISTICI (from agon, Greek, a conflict), also termed circutores, a branch of the Donatists 
 (lohich see). They preached their heretical doctrines with great boldness in public places, 
 and hence incurred the severe persecution of the emperors in the 4th and 5th centuries. 
 
 AGRA (N. W. India), founded by Akbar in 1566, was the capital of the great mogul. See 
 Mausoleums. In 1658 Aurimgzebe removed to Delhi. — The fortress of Agra, termed the key 
 of Hindostan, in the war with the Mahrattas, surrendered to the British forces, under general 
 Lake, Oct. 17, 1803, after one day's siege : 162 pieces of ordnance and 240,000^. were captured. 
 — In June, 1857, the city was abandoned to the mutineers by the Europeans, who took 
 refuge in the fort, from which they were rescued by major Montgomery and colonel 
 Greathed. — Allahabad was made capital of the JST, W. provinces of India, instead of Agra, in 
 i86r. 
 
 AGRARIAN LAW (Agraria lex) decreed an equal division among the Roman people of 
 all the lands acquired by conquest, limiting the acres which each person should enjoy. It 
 was first proposed by the consul Spurius Cassius, 486 B.C., and occasioned his judicial murder 
 when he went out of office in 485. It was re-introduced by the tribune Licinius Stolo, 376, 
 and by the tribune Tiberius Gracchus, 132 B.C. The law at last proved fatal to the freedom 
 of Rome under Julius Cfesar, 60 B.C. Livy ; Vossius. In modern times the term has been 
 misinterpreted to signify a division of the lands of the rich among the poor, frequently 
 proposed by demagogues, such as Gracchus Babeuf,* editor of the I'ribun du Peuple, in 1794. 
 
 AGRIGOLA'S WALL. See Roman Walls. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. "Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground," 
 Genesis iv. 2. The Athenians asserted that the art of sowing corn began with them ; and 
 the Cretans, Sicilians, and Egyptians made the same claim. 
 
 Cato the Censor (died 149 b.c.) and Varro (died 28 
 B.C.) were eminent Roman writers on agriculture. 
 It was brought into England by the Romans about 
 A.D. 27. 
 
 Fitzherbert's "Book of Husbandry," printed in 
 1524. 
 
 Tusser's "Five Hundred Points of Husbandry," 
 1562. 
 
 Blythe's "Improver," 1649. 
 
 Hartlib's " Legacy," 1650. 
 
 Jethro T\iirs " Horse-hoeing Husbandry," 1701. 
 
 About the end of the i8th century fallowing was 
 gi'adually superseded by turnips and other green 
 crops. 
 
 AGRtcuLTUBA.L SOCIETIES. — The earUest mentioned 
 in the British Isles was the Society of Improvers 
 of Agriculture in Scotland, instituted in 1723. 
 The Dubhn Agricultural Society (1749) gave a 
 stinuilus to agriculture in Ireland ; its origin is 
 attributed to Mr. Prior of Rathdowney, Queen's 
 County, in 1731. The Bath and West of England 
 Society established, 1777 ; and the Highland 
 Society of Scotland, 1793. County Agricultural 
 Societies are now numerous. 
 
 London Board of Agriculture established by act of 
 paiiiament, 1793. 
 
 Francis, duke of Bedford, a great promoter of agri- 
 culture, died, March 2, 1802. 
 
 Royal Agricultural Society of England established 
 in 1838, by noblemen and gentlemen, the chief 
 landed proprietors in the kingdom, and incor- 
 porated by roya;l charter, 1840. It holds two 
 
 meetings annually, one in London the other in 
 the country ; the first country meeting at Oxford, 
 in 1839. It awards prizes, and publishes a 
 valuable journal. The London meeting at Batter- 
 sea in June, 1862, was highly successful. 
 
 " Chambers of Agriculture " were established ill 
 France in 1851. 
 
 The Royal Agi-icultural College at Cirencester 
 organised, 1842 ; chartered, 1845. 
 
 AoRictTLTUEAL Chemistky. — Sir Humphry Davy 
 delivered lectures on this subject (afterwards 
 published), at the instance of the Board of Agri- 
 culture, in 1812 ; but it excited little attention 
 tiU the publication of Liebig's work in 1840, which 
 made a powerful impression. Boussingault's 
 " Economic Rurale," an equally important work, 
 appeared in 1844. The immoderate expectations 
 from this study having been somewhat dis- 
 appointed, a partial reaction took place. Liebig's 
 " Letters on Agriculture " appeared in 1859. 
 
 Agricultural Hall, Islington, N.' London, chiefly 
 for the meetings of the Smithfield Club. The 
 foundation stone was laid by the president, lord 
 Berners, Nov. 5, i86i. A remarkable exhibition 
 of dogs was opened here on June 24, 1862 ; and of 
 horses and of donkeys', in July, 1864, 1865. 
 
 In Aug. 185 s, a committee presented a report on 
 the best mode of obtaining accurate Agricultural 
 Statistics, which has not been acted on. There 
 were, in 1831, 1,055,982 agi-icultural labourers in 
 Great Britain, and in Ireland, 1,131,715. 
 
 * In 1796 he conspired against the directory with the view of obtaining a division of property, and was 
 executed. 
 
 C 
 
AGR 
 
 18 
 
 AIR 
 
 AGRICULTURE, continued. 
 
 The following Table, drawn up by Mr. "William CouUng, C.E., in 1827,* is extracted from the Third 
 Report of the Emigration Committee : — 
 
 
 
 Wastes 
 
 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 capable of 
 Improvement. 
 
 Unprofitable. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 England 
 
 25,632,000 
 
 3,454,000 
 
 3,256,400 
 
 32,342,400 
 
 Wales 
 
 3,117,000 
 
 530,000 
 
 1,105,000 
 
 4,752,000 
 
 Scotland 
 
 5,265,000 
 
 5,950,000 
 
 8,523,930 
 
 19.738,930 
 
 Ireland 
 
 12,125,280 
 
 4,900,000 
 
 2,416,664 
 
 19,441,944 
 
 British Islands 
 
 383,690 
 
 166,000 
 
 569,469 
 
 1,119,159 
 
 46,522,970 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 15,871,463 
 
 77.394.433 
 
 AGRIGENTUM (now Girgenti), a celebrated city of Sicily, built about 582 B.C. It was 
 governed by tyrants from 566 to 470 ; among these were Phalaris (see Brazen Bull) ; 
 Alcamanes ; Theron who, with his step-father Gelon, defeated the Carthaginians at Himera ; 
 and Thrasydseus, his son, expelled in 470 ; when a republic was established and Agrigeritura 
 became opulent and luxurious. 'It was taken by the Carthaginians in 405 B.C., and held, 
 except during short intervals, till wrested from them by the Romans in 262 B. c. Erom 
 A.D. 825 till 1086 it was held by the Saracens. 
 
 AHMEDNUGGUR (W. India), once capital of a state founded by Ahmed Shah, about 1494, 
 which after having fallen into the hands of the Moguls and the Mahrattas, was taken from the 
 latter by Arthur WeUesley, Aug. 1 2, 1 803, and finally annexed to the British dominions in 1 8 1 7. 
 
 AID. See Ayde. 
 AILANTINE. See Silk. 
 
 AIR, OR Atmosphere. Anaximenes of Miletus (530 b. c. ) declared air to be a self-existent 
 deity, and the first cause of everything created. Posidonius (about 79 B. c.) calculated the 
 height of the atmosphere to be 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about 15 lbs. to the square 
 inch, was di.scovered by Torricelli A.D. 1645, and was found by Pascal, in 1647, to vary with 
 the height. Halley, Newton, and others, up to the present time have illustrated the agency 
 and influences of this great power by various experiments, and numerous inventions have 
 followed ; among others the Air-gun of Guter of Nuremberg about 1656 ; the Air-pump, 
 invented by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg about 1650 ; improved by the illustrious 
 Boyle in 1657 ; and the Air-pipe, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1756. 
 The density and elasticity of air were determined by Boyle ; and its relation to light and 
 sound by Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The extension of our atmosphere above the sur- 
 face of the earth, long considered as about 45 miles, was thought by admiral FitzRoy to be 
 only about 9 or 10 miles (1862). — Its composition, about 77 parts of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, 
 and 2 of other matters (such as carbonic acid, watery vapour, a trace of ammonia, &c. ), was 
 gradually ascertained by Priestley (who discovered oxygen gas in 1774), Scheele (1775), 
 Lavoisier, and Cavendish ; and its laws of refraction were investigated IjyDr. Bradley, 1737. 
 Dr. Stenhouse's Air-filters (in which powdered charcoal is used) were first set up at the 
 Mansion-house, London, in 1854. In 1858, Dr. R. Angus Smith made known a chemical 
 method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter in the air. The researches of Dr. 
 Schbnbein, a German chemist of Basel, between 1840 and 1859, led to the discovery of two 
 states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozone. See Oxygen, Nitrogen, 
 Ozone, Atmospheric Railway, and Pneumatic Despatch. — The force of compressed air has been 
 employed in boring the Cenis tunnel, which see. 
 
 * At that period it was computed that the soil of the United Kingdom was annually cropped in the 
 following proportions : — 
 
 ACRES. I 
 
 Brought forward . . 
 
 Nursery-grounds 
 
 Inclosed fruit, flower, kitchen, and other 
 
 gardens 
 
 Pleasure-grounds ..... 
 Land depastured by cattle . . . . 
 Hedge-rows, copses, and woods . . 
 Ways, water, (fee 2,100,000 
 
 Wheat ........ 7,000,000 
 
 Barley and rye 1,950,000 
 
 Potatoes, oats, and beans . . . . 6,500,000 
 
 Turnips, cabbages, and other vegetables . 1,150,000 
 
 Clover, rye-grass, &c. .... 1,750,000 
 
 Fallow 2,800,000 
 
 Hop-grounds 60,000 
 
 Forward 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 21,210,000 
 20,000 
 
 110,000 
 
 1CKD,000 
 
 21,000,000 
 2,000,000 
 
 21,210,000 Cultivated land . . 46,540,000 
 
 It was reckoned by the Agricultural Committee, that the cultivation of waste lands would yield above 
 
 2o,ooo,ooo(. a year. It was calculated in 1854 that there were in England 32,160,000 acres in cultivation, of 
 
 the annual value of 37,412,000!;. Since that time much laud has been brought into cultivation. See Wheat. 
 
AIX 
 
 19 
 
 ALB 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Eoman city, now in Rhenish Prussia. Here Charle- 
 magne was bom 742, and died 814 ; having built the minster (796-804), and conferred many 
 privileges on the city, in which fifty-five emperors have since been crowned. The city was 
 taken by the French in 1792 ; retaken by the Austrians, 1793 ; by the French, 1794 ; reverted 
 to Prussia, 1814. — The first Treat]) of peace sigaed here was between France and Spain, 
 when France yielded Franche Comte, but retained her conquests in the Netherlands, May 2, 
 1668. — The second, or celebrated treaty, was between Great Britain, France, Holland, 
 Germany, Spain, and Genoa. (By it the treaties of "Westphalia in 1648, of Nimeguen in 
 1678 and 1679, of Eyswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of Baden in 1714, of the Triple 
 Alliance in 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed 
 and confirmed.) Signed on the part of England by John, earl of Sandwich, and sir Thomas 
 Robinson, Oct. 7, 1748. — A Congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 
 assisted by ministers from England and France, was held at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a conven- 
 tion signed, Oct. 9, 1818. The sum then due from France to the allies was settled at 
 265,000,000 of francs. 
 
 AJAGCIO. See Corsica. 
 
 AJNADIN (Syria). Here the Mahometans defeated the army of the emperor Heraclius, 
 in July, 633. They took Damascus in 634. 
 
 AKERMAN (Bessarabia). After being several times taken, it was ceded to Russia in 18 12. 
 Here the celebrated treaty between Russia and Turkey was concluded in 1826, which secured 
 for the former the navigation of the Black Sea, recognised the Danubian principalities, &c. 
 
 ALABAMA, a Southern slave state, originally part of Georgia, N". America ; made an 
 independent state in 1819 : commercial metropolis, Mobile. It seceded from the Union by 
 an ordinance passed Jan. 11, 1861, and was reunited in 1865.* 
 
 ALAND ISLES (Gulf of Botlmia), taken from Sweden by Russians, 1809. See Bomar- 
 sund. 
 
 ALANI, a- Tartar race, invaded Parthia, 75. They joined the Huns in invading the 
 Roman empire, were defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. They were subdued by the Visigoths, 
 452 ; and were eventually incorporated with them. 
 
 A LARGOS (Central Spain). Here the Spaniards under Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were 
 totally defeated by the Moors, July 19, 1195. 
 
 ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Italy, said to have been founded by Ascanius, son of 
 j3Eneas, 1152 B.C. Its history is of doubtfiil authenticity. 
 
 Ascanius, son of ^neas, 1152 B.C. ; Sylvius Pos- 
 thumus, 1143; .aineas Sylvius . . B.C. 1114 
 
 Keign of Latinus, 1048 ; Alba, 1038 ; Atys, or 
 Capetus, 1002 ; Capys, 976 ; Capetus 
 
 Reign of Tiberinus, 903 ; being defeated in 
 battle, near the river Albula, he throws him- 
 self into the stream, is drowned, and hence 
 this river is now called the Tiber . . . 
 
 916 
 
 895 
 
 Agrippa ; Romulus Silvius, 864 ; Aventinus, 
 845 ; Procas, 808 ; Numitor . . . b. c. 
 
 Amulius,f the brother of Numitor, seizes the 
 throne, 794 ; kiUed by his grandson, 
 Romulus, who restores Numitor . . . 
 
 Romulus builds and fortifies Rome (see Rome) 
 
 Alba conquered by Tullus Hostilius, and in- 
 corporated with Rome 665 
 
 795 
 
 754 
 753 
 
 ALBANIA, a province in European Turkey, formerly part of the ancient Epirus. The 
 Albanians became independent during the decline of the Greek empire. They were success- 
 fully attacked by the Turks in 1388. About 1443, under George Castriot (Scanderbeg), they 
 bafiled the efforts of Mahomed II. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1478, when 
 they partially submitted. Albania became independent under Ali Pacha, of Janina, in 181 2, 
 who defeated the Turkish pachas, and governed ably, but cruelly and despotically, till Feb. 
 1822, when he and his two sons were slain, after surrendering under a solemn promise of 
 safety. A revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843. 
 
 * The " Alabama," a steam-vesael belonging to the Southern States of North America, was built at 
 Birkenhead, and sailed under a false name from the Mersey, July 28, 1862. Under the command of 
 captain Semmes it made much havock in the Federal trading vessels. The " Alabama " was attacked and 
 sunk by the Federal iron-clad "Kearsage " near Cherbourg, on Sunday morning, June 19, 1864. Part of 
 the crew were saved by Mr. John Lancaster in an English yacht. 
 
 t Early traditions state, that when Amulius dethroned his brother, he condemned Ilia, the daughter 
 of Numitor, to a life of celibacy, by obUging her to take the vows and oflEioe of a vestal, thereby to assure 
 his safety in the usurpation. His object was, however, frustrated ; violence was offered to Ilia, and she 
 became the mother of twins, for which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring to be 
 throvTO into the Tiber, 770 b.c. But the little bark in which the infants were sent adrift stopped near 
 mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by Faustulus, the king's chief shepherd, who reared the children 
 as his own, and called them Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was sumamedZw^a,- whence 
 arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were suckled by a she-wolf. At sixteen years of age, Romulus 
 avenged the wrongs of Ilia and Numitor, 754 B.C., and the next year founded Rome. Varro. 
 
 C 2 
 
ALB 20 ALB 
 
 ALBAN'S, ST. (Hertfordshire), near the Roman Verulam, derived its present name from 
 Alban, the British protomartyr, said to have been beheaded during the persecution by 
 Diocletian, June 23, 286. A stately monastery to his memory was erected by Otfa, king 
 of Mercia, about 793, who granted it many privileges. Its superior sat as premier abbot in 
 parliament till the dissolution in 1539. It was taken from Cassivelaunus by Julius Caesar, 54 
 'B.C., and retaken with much slaughter by Boadicea or Bunduica, queen of the Iceni, a.d. 61, 
 On May 22 or 23, 1455, was fought thejirst battle of St. Alban' s, when the Lancastrians were 
 defeated, their leader, Edmund duke of Somerset slain, and king Henry VI. taken prisoner, 
 by the duke of York and his partisans. In the second battle, on Shrove Tuesday, Feb. 17, 
 1461, queen Margaret totally defeated the Yorkists under the earl of "Warwick and rescued 
 the king. There was much blood shed in tliese desperate conflicts. St. Alban's was incor- 
 porated by Edward VI. iii,i5S3, and disfranchised for bribery, June 17, 1852. St. Alban's 
 raid, see United States, 1804. 
 
 ALBANY (or Albainn), the ancient name of the Scottish Highlands. The brother of 
 Robert III. of Scotland was made duke of Albany in 1398. Frederick, son of George III., 
 was duke of York and Albany. He died Jan. 5, 1827. 
 
 ALBERT MEMORIAL. The Prince Consort died on Dec. 14, 1861, deeply lamented by 
 the whole civilised world. A meeting to organise a method of receiving contributions for a 
 great national memorial was held at the Mansion-house, Jan. 14, 1862 ; and a large sum 
 was quickly subscribed. 36,000/. had been received on March i, and 50,220/. on June ii, 
 
 1862. The nature of the memorial was referred to the queen herself. In a letter to the 
 lord mayor, dated Feb. 19, 1862, sir Charles Grey says, on behalf of her majesty, "It would 
 be more in accordance with her own feelings, and she believes with those of the countrj' in 
 general, that the monument should be directly personal to its object. After giving the 
 subject her maturest consideration, her majesty has come to the conclusion, that nothing 
 would be more appropriate, provided it is on a scale of sufficient grandeur, than an obelisk 
 to be erected in Hyde-park on the site of the Great Exhibition of 185 1, or on some spot 
 immediately contiguous to it. Nor would any proposal that could be made be more 
 gratifying to the queen herself personally, for she can never forget that the prince himself 
 had highly approved of the idea of a memorial of this character being raised on the same spot in 
 remembrance of the Great Exhibition." In a second letter the queen expressed her intention of 
 personally contributing towards erecting the memorial, that "it might be recorded in future 
 ages as raised by the queen and people of a gi-ateful country to the memory of its benefactor." 
 Shortly after a committee was appointed to fulfil her majesty's desire. As a suitable block 
 of granite could not be obtained, the proposal for an obelisk was given up. On April 22, 
 
 1863, the queen approved of the design of Mr. Gilbert G. Scott for an Eleanor Cross, with a 
 spire 150 feet high, accompanied by statues, &c. ; and on April 23, parliament voted 50,000/., 
 in addition to the 60.000/. received by voluntary contributions. The sculptors employed 
 are M'Dowell, Foley, Theed, John Bell, and Armistcad : material, Sicilian marble. (Jan. 
 1865.) Many memorials of the prince have been set up throughout the empire.* 
 
 ALBIGENSES, a name given to various bodies of persons who opposed the doctrines and 
 corruptions of the church of Rome, living at Albiga, in Languedoc, and at Toulouse in the 
 1 2th century. They were persecuted as Manichseans, 1163, and a crusade (proclaimed by 
 pope Innocent III.) commenced against them in 1207. Simon de Montfort (to whom Toulouse 
 was given) commanded, and at Beziferes he and the pope's legate put friends and foes to the 
 sword, saying, "God will find his own !" At Minerba he burnt 150 of the Albigenses 
 alive ; and at La Vaur he hanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, drowning the 
 governor's wife, and murdering other women. He next defeated the count of Toulouse, but 
 was himself killed in 1218. Louis VIII. and IX., kings of France, patronised the crusade ; 
 count Raymond was subdued in 1229 ; and the heretics were given up to the Inquisition. 
 See Waldenses. 
 
 ALBION (probably derived from alUos or alp, white). Britain is said to have been so 
 called by Julius Csesar and others, on account of the chalky cliflTs upon its coast. 
 
 ALBUERA (or Albuhera), Estremadura, Spain, where a battle was fought between the 
 French, commanded by marshal Soult, and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, under 
 marshal, afterwards lord Beresford, May 16, i8ii. The allies obtained the victory, one of 
 
 * Inscription on the "Memorial Cairn" on a high mountain overlooking Balmoral palace: — "To the 
 beloved memory of Albert the great and good Prince Consort, erected by his broken-hearted widow, 
 Victoria R., 21st Aug. 1S62." Upon another dressed slab, a few inches below the above, is this quota- 
 tion :— " He being made perfect in a short time, fulfilled a long time : for his soul pleased the Lord, 
 therefore basted he to take him away from among the wicked." — Wisdom 0/ Sulomon, chap. iv. 13, 14. 
 
ALB 21 ALD 
 
 the most brilliant achievements of the war. The French loss exceeded 8000 men previously 
 to their retreat ; but the allies lost a large number. The chief brunt of the action fell on 
 the British ; colonel Inglis, 22 officers, and more than 400 men, out of 570 who had 
 mounted a hill, fell, — out of the 57th regiment alone ; the other regiments were scarcely 
 better off, not one-third being left standing ; " 1500 unwounded men, the remnant of 6000 
 unconquerable British soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal hill. " Napier. 
 
 ALBUFERA (Spain, East Central), a lagoon, near which the French marshal Suchet 
 (afterwards duke of Albufera) defeated the Spaniards under Blake, Jan. 4, 1812 : this led to 
 his capture of Valencia on Jan. 9. 
 
 ALCANTARA, an illustrious Spanish military order of knighthood, established in 11 56. 
 The sovereign of Spain has been grand master since 1495. 
 
 ALCAZAR-QUIYER, near Fez, IST. W. Africa, where the Moors totally defeated the 
 Portuguese, whose gallant king Sebastian was slain, Aug. 4, 1578. The Portuguese 
 disbelieved his death and anxiously expected his return ; this led to the successive appear- 
 ance of five impostors. 
 
 ALCHEMY, the forerunner of the science of chemistry : its chief objects being the 
 discovery of the philosopher's stone (which was to effect the transmutation of inetals into 
 gold), an alkahest or universal menstruum, and the elixir of life. Alchemy is said to be as 
 old as the Flood ; yet few writers, from Homer till 400 years after Christ, mention any such 
 thing. The alchemists assert that their founder was Heimes Trismegistus (thrice greatest), 
 an ancient Egyptian king. — Pliny says, the emperor Caligula was the first who prepared 
 natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it off, because the charge exceeded the 
 profit. Others say, the Egyptians knew the secret. Zosimus wrote on the subject about 
 410. The Arabians are said to have invented this art, wherein they were vainly followed 
 (in the 13th century) by Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Aquinus, and Raymond Lullius, 
 by Basil Valentine (born 1394), and by Paracelsus (died 1541), and others.— In 1404 the 
 craft of multiplying gold and silver was made felony by 5 Hen. IV. c. 4, which act was 
 repealed in 1689. A licence for practising alchemy with all kinds of metals and minerals 
 was granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. Rymer's Feed. Dr. Price, of Guildford, in 1782 
 published an account of his experiments in this way, and pretended to success : he brought 
 his specimens of gold to the king, affirming that they were made by means of a red and 
 white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain of expulsion, 
 to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Wolfe (some say Higgins) ; but after 
 much equivocation and delay he took poison and died, Aug. 1783. 
 
 ALCOHOL. Pure spirit of wine or hydrated alcohol was obtained by the distillation of 
 fermented liquors by Abucasis in the 12th century ; and the dehydration of this liquor 
 was first partially effected by Raymond Lullius in the 13th century by carbonate of potas- 
 sium. Alcohol has never been reduced to the solid state, but becomes viscid at very low 
 temperatures. In 1820, Faraday and Hennell obtained traces of alcohol by passing olefiant 
 gas (bi-carburetted hydrogen) through sulphuric acid ; and in 1862 this process was 
 examined and confirmed by Berthelot. See Distillation, Spirits, Brandy, Gin, Rum. 
 
 AL-CORAN. See Koran, MaJiometanism, &c. 
 
 ALDERMAN. The Saxon ealdorman was next to the king and frequently a viceroy : but 
 after the settlement of the Danes the title was gradually displaced by that of earl. Aldermen 
 are now next in dignity to the mayor. They were appointed in London (where there are 
 twenty-six) in 1242; and in Dublin (where there are twenty-four) in 1323. Aldermen 
 chosen for life, instead of annually, 17 Richard II. 1394. Present mode of election 
 established 11 Geo. I. 1725. Aldermen made justices of the peace 15 Geo. 11. i74i' 
 
 ALDERNEY (English Channel), with Jersey, &c., was incorporated with the kingdom by 
 "William the Conqueror, 1066. The "Race" is celebrated for two fatal occurrences; 
 William of Normandy, son of Henry I. of England, and many young nobles (140 youths of 
 the principal families of France and Britain), were overtaken by a stonn, and all lost, Nov. 
 25, 1 120. The British man-of-war Victory, of 100 guns and 1160 men, was wrecked here, 
 Oct. 5, 1744 ; the admiral, sir John Balchan, and all his crew perished. Through this strait 
 the French escaped after their defeat at La Hogue by admiral Rooke, May, 1692. 
 
 ALDERSHOT CAMP, a moor near Farnham, about 35 miles from London. In April, 
 1854, the War office, having obtained a giant of 100,000/., purchased 400° ^cres of land 
 for a permanent camp for 20,000 men. Additional land was purchased in 1856. Barracks 
 
ALD 
 
 22 
 
 ALE 
 
 have been since erected for 4000 infantry, 1500 cavalry, and several batteries of artillery. 
 Great improvements in military cookery were introduced here under the superintendence of 
 captain John Grant in 1857. See Cookery.— It was visited by the queen April 19, 1856 ; 
 and on July 7 the queen reviewed the troops returned from the Crimea ; and again on the 
 i6th, in the presence of both houses of parliament. In 1859, about 15,000 men were 
 stationed here. (Cost, up to Feb. i860, said to be 1,291,531^.) An industrial and fine art 
 exhibition, furnished by officers and men and their wives, was opened here June 29, and 
 closed July 14, 1864. 
 
 ALDINE PRESS, that of Aldus Manutius, at Venice, where were printed many of the 
 first editions of the Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, commencing in 1494 with Musaeus, 
 
 ALE, Beer (and Wine) are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the first in Egypt, 
 where the soil was considered unable to produce grapes. Ale was known as a beverage at 
 least in 404 B. c. Herodotus ascribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to 
 Isis, the wife of Osiris. — A beverage of this kind is mentioned by Xenophon, 401 B.C. The 
 Eomans and Germans very early learned from the Egyptians the process of preparing a 
 liquor from corn by means of fermentation. Tacitus. Ale-houses are made mention of 
 in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex (a.d. 688). Booths were set up in England 728, when 
 laws were passed for their regulation. Ale-houses were subjected to regulation by 5 & 6 
 Edw. VI. c. 25 (1551). By i James I. c. 9 (1603), one full quart of the best, and two 
 quarts of small ale were to be sold for one penny. Excise duty on ale and beer was imposed 
 by the parliament in 1643, and continued by Charles II. (1660). See Beer, Porter, Wine. 
 
 ALEMANNI, or All Men {i.e. men of all nations), hence AUemand, German. A body 
 of Suevi, who took this name, were defeated by Caracalla, 214. After several repulses, they 
 invaded the empire under Aurelian, who subdued them in three battles, 270. They were 
 again vanquished by Juhan, 356, 357. They were defeated and subjugated by Clovis at 
 Tolbiac (or Zulpich), 496. The Suabians are their descendants. 
 
 ALEN^ON (N. France) gave title to a count and duke. 
 
 1268. Peter made count by his father king Louis IX. 
 1293. Charles I., of Valois, made count by his bro- 
 ther king Philip the Fair. 
 1325. Charles II., his son, killed at Crecy. 
 1346. Charles III. (his son), became a priest. 
 1 361. Peter, his brother. 
 
 1404. John (his son), made duke in 1414, killed at 
 Agincourt, 141 5. 
 
 1415. John II. fhis son), intrigued against the king. 
 
 1476. Charles IV. fled after the battle of Pa via in 
 1525, and died shortly after of chagrin. The 
 duchy was absorbed by the crown. 
 
 ALEPPO (anciently Beroea), a large town, N. Syria, so named by Seleucus Nicator about 
 299 B.C. The pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments of Syria. It was taken by 
 the Turks, a.d. 638, who restored its ancient name Haleb or Chaleb ; by Saladin, 1193 ; and 
 sacked by Timour, 1400. Its depopulation by the plague has been frequent ; 60,000 persons 
 were computed to have perished by it in 1797. It suff'ered by the plague in 1827, and the 
 cholera in 1832. Aleppo suff'ered severely from the terrible earthquakes in 1822 and 1830 ; 
 and has often been the scene of fanatical massacres. On Oct. 16, 1850, the Mahometans 
 attacked the Christian inhabitants. They burnt everything in their way ; three churches 
 were desti'oyed, five others were plundered, thousands of persons were slain, and the total 
 loss of property amounted to about a million sterling ; no interference was attempted by the 
 pacha or the Turkish soldiers. 
 
 ALESSANDRIA, a city of Piedmont, built in 1168 under the name of Csesarea by the 
 Milanese and Cremonese, to defend the Tanaro against the emperor, and named Alessandria 
 after pope Alexander III. It has been frequently besieged and taken. The French took 
 Alessandria in 1798, but were driven out July 21, 1799. They recovered it after the battle 
 of Marengo, in 1800. Alessandiia was strongly fortified by Napoleon. Its works were 
 destroyed at the peace in 1814, but a European subscription was commenced in 1856, to 
 restore them. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Era of, dated from the death of Alexander the Great, Nov. 12, 323 B.C. 
 In the computation of this era, the period of the Creation was considered to be 5502 years 
 before the birth of Christ, and, in consequence, the year i a.d. was equal to 5503. This 
 computation continued to the year a.d. 284, which was called 5786. In the next year (a.d. 
 285), which should have been 5787, ten years were diseai'ded, and the date became 5777. 
 This is still used in the Abyssinian era, which see. The date is reduced to the Christian era 
 by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that time by subtractuig 5492, 
 
 "ALEXANDRA CASE." See TWa^s, 1862-64. 
 
ALE 
 
 23 
 
 ALG 
 
 ALEXANDRA PARK, Muswell Hill, London, N., purchased by a company, and named 
 after the Prmcess of "Wales, was opened with a flower show, July 23, 1863. A portion of 
 the Exhibition of 1862 is to be erected within it. The work, which rapidly proceeded in 
 1864, is now suspended (1865). 
 
 ALEXANDRIA (Egypt), the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, was built by 
 Alexander the Great, 332 B.C., who was buried here, 322. It became the residence of the 
 Greek sovereigns of Egypt, the Ptolemies. 
 
 Ptolemy Soter erects the Museum, the Sera- 
 
 peum, the Pharo, and other edifices, and 
 
 begins the library about .... B.C. 298 
 These works completed by his son P. PhUadel- 
 
 phus and his grandson P. Bnergetes . 283-222 
 
 Alexandria taken by Julius Csesax ; when a 
 
 library is burnt .48 
 
 Which Antony replaces by one brought from 
 
 Pergamus 36 
 
 The city restored by Adrian . . . a.d. 122 
 Massacre of the youth by CaracaUa, in revenge 
 
 for an old insult 211 
 
 Alexandria supporting the usurper Achilleus is 
 
 taken by Diocletian after a long siege . . 297 
 Alexandria disturbed by the feuds between the 
 
 Athanasians and Arians 321 
 
 George of Cappadocia was killed 362, and 
 
 Athanasius finally restored .... 363 
 50,000 persons perish by an earthquake . . 365 
 
 Paganism suppressed by Theodosius, when a 
 
 second library is burnt 390 
 
 Alexandria captured by Chosroes II. of Persia, 
 616 ; and by Amrou, the general of the caliph 
 Omar, who ordered the library to be burnt,* 
 ■whereby the baths were supplied with fuel 
 for six months .... Dec. 22, 640 
 
 Cairo founded by the Saracens ; which tends to 
 the decay of Alexandria 969 
 
 Alexandria surprised and plimdered by the 
 Crusaders 13^5 
 
 The French invade Egypt and capture Alex- 
 andria July, 1798 
 
 A British army under gen. Ralph Abercromby 
 land, and defeat the French imder Menou, 
 
 March 21, 1801 
 
 Abercromby dies of his wounds, March 28 ; 
 Menou and 10,000 French surrender to 
 Hutchinson, who transmit them to France, 
 
 Sept. 1801 
 
 Alexandria taken by the British under Fraser, 
 March 20 ; evacuated by them . Sept. 23, 1807 
 
 Kailway to Cairo formed 1851 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN CODEX, a MS. of the Bible in Greek, said to have been written bya 
 lady named Thecla, in the 6th century, and to have belonged to the patriarch of Alexandria 
 in 1098. It was presented to Charles I. of England in 1628 b}"- Cyrillus Lascaris, patriarch 
 of Constantinople, and was placed in the British Museum in 1753. It was printed in fac- 
 simile, 1 786-1821. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philosophy. The first school arose soon after the 
 foundation of Alexandria, 332 B.C. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemies till 
 about TOO B.C. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287—212), ApoUonius (250), Hippar- 
 chus (150), and Hero (150). The second school arose about A.D. 140, and lasted till about 
 400. Its most eminent members were Ptolemy, the author of the Ptolemaic system (150), 
 Diophantus, the arithmetician (200), and Pappus, the geometer (350). 
 
 . ALEXANDRINES, verses of twelve syllables, first written by Alexander of Paris, about 
 1 164, and since called after him. The last line of the Spenserian stanza is an Alexandiine. 
 In Pope's Essay on Criticism, this verse is thus happily exemplified : — 
 
 "A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 
 ■ That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along." 
 
 The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine verse is Drayton's Polyolbion, published 
 in 1612. Chapman's Homer's Iliad (1598) is in this measure. 
 
 ALFORD (N. Scotland), Battle of. General Baillie, with a large body of Covenanters, 
 was defeated by the marquess of Montrose, July 2, 1645. 
 
 ALGEBRA : Diophantus, said to be the inventor, first wrote upon it, probably about 
 200. It was much cultivated in the 9th century by the Arabs, who brought it into 
 Spain. Among its votaries in Italy was Leonardo Bonaccio of Pisa, in 1220. In 1494 
 Luca Paciolo published the first printed book on algebra in Europe. Serret. Some of the 
 algebraic signs were introduced either by Christophe Rudolph (1522-6) or Michael Stifelius 
 of Nuremberg, 1544, and others by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into general 
 use. Moreri. Descartes applied algebra to geometry about 1637. The binomial theorem 
 of Newton, the basis of the doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. Dean 
 Peacock's "Algebra" is a first-class work, 
 
 ALGERIA. See Algiers. 
 
 * The celebrated saying of Omar—" That if the books agreed with the book of God, they were useless; 
 if they disagreed, they were pernicious"— is denied by Mahometans. It is also attributed to Theophilus, 
 archbishop of Alexandria (390), and to cardinal Ximenes (1500). 
 
ALG 
 
 24 
 
 ALI 
 
 ALGESIRAS, or Old Gibraltar (S. Spain). By this city, the Moors entered Spain in 
 710, and held it till 1343. — Two engagements took place here between the English fleet 
 under sir James Saumarez and the united French and Spanish fleets, July 6 and 12, 1801. 
 In the first the enemy was victorious, the English losing the Pomjyey ; but their honour was 
 redeemed in the latter conflict, the <S'a?i Antonio, 74 guns, being captured. By an unfortu- 
 nate error, two Spanish ships fired on each other and took fire ; of 2000 men on board, 250 
 were saved by the English. Alison. 
 
 ALGIERS, now Algeria, N. W. Africa ; part of the Ancient Mauritania, which was 
 conquered b)- the Romans, 46 B.C. ; by the Vandals, 439 a.d. ; recovered for the empire by 
 Belisarius, 534 ; and subdued by the Arabs about 690. 
 
 The town Algiers founded by the Arabs on the General Damremont attacked Constantina 
 
 site of Icosium ..... about 935 
 Becoming the seat of the Barbary pirates, it 
 
 is captured by Ferdinand of Spain, 1509; but 
 
 is retaken by Horuc and Hayreddin Bar- 
 
 baros.sa, and made the capital of a state ; 
 
 governed by a c7ey, nominally subject to the 
 
 sultan of Turkey 1516 — 20 
 
 The emperor Charles V. loses a fine fleet and 
 
 army in an unsuccessful expedition against 
 
 them 1541 
 
 Algiers terrified into pacific measures by 
 
 Blake, 1655 ; by Du Quesne .... 1683 
 In consequence of the continued piracy of the 
 
 Algerines, the city was successfully bom- 
 barded by the British fleet, under admiral 
 
 lord Exmouth Aug. 27, 1816 
 
 A new treaty followed, and Christian slavery 
 
 was abolished. 
 Algiers surrendered to a French armament 
 
 under Bourmont and Duperr^, after severe 
 
 conflicts; the dey is deposed, and the bar- 
 barian government wholly overthrown July 
 
 5, 1830. The French ministry announce their 
 
 intention to retain Algiers permanently. 
 
 May 20, 1834 
 The Arab chief, Abd-el-Kader, preaches a holy 
 
 war, becomes powerful, and attacks the 
 
 French, at first successfully . . . 1834-5 
 Marshal Clausel defeats the Arabs in two 
 
 battles, and enters Mascara . . Dec. 8, 1836 
 
 ALHAMBRA, a Moorish palace and fortress near Granada, S. Spain, founded by Moham- 
 med I. of Granada about 1253. It surrendered to the Christians Jan. 6, 1496. The remains 
 have been described in a magnificent work by Owen Jones and Jules Goury, published 
 1842-5. There is a fac-simile of a part of this palace in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. 
 The Panopticon {which see) was opened as a circus, &c., under this name, in March 1858. The 
 Alhambra Palace Company, incorporated in July 1863, applied for dissolution in Jan. 1865. 
 
 ALI, Sect of, founded by Ali (who married Mahomet's daughter Fatima), about 632. 
 He became Mahomet's vizir, 613; and caliph, 655. Ali was called by the prophet, "the 
 lion of God, always victorious ; " and the Persians follow the interpretation of the Koran 
 according to All, while other Mahometans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. Ali was 
 assassinated in 6G0.J — This sect is called Shiites and Fatimites. * 
 
 ALIETS'S, OR Foreigners, were banished in 1155, being thought too numerous. In 1343 
 they were excluded from enjoying ecclesiastical benefices. By 2 Rich. II. st. i, 1378, they 
 were much relieved. When they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to be half 
 foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or 
 handicraft by retail, 1483, a prohibition which was relaxed in 1663. The celebrated 
 
 * He, with his suite, embarked at Oran, and landed at Toulon on Dec. 28 following. He was removed 
 to the castle of Amboiso, near Tours, Nov. 2, 1848, and released from his confinement by Louis Napoleon, 
 Oct. 16, 1852, after swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa again ; he was to reside henceforward at 
 Broussa, in Asia Minor ; but in consequence of the earthquake at tbat place Feb, 28, 1855, he removed to 
 Constantinople. In July, i860, Abd-el-Kader held the citadel of Damascus, and there protected many of 
 the Chiistians whom he had rescued from the massacres then in perpetration by the Turks. He received 
 honours from the English, French, and Sardinian sovereigns. 
 
 t 500 Arabs in a cave refuse to siu-ronder : suffocated by smoke ; said to have been ordered by general 
 Peli.ssier, June 18, 1845. 
 
 t Th<; first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and Ali, his chief agents in estab- 
 lishing his religion and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the " cutting swords 
 of God," all died violent deaths ; and his family was wholly extirpated within thirty years after his own 
 decease. 
 
 (which see) ..... Oct. 13, 1837 
 After various engagements Abd-el-Kader sur- 
 renders Dec. 22, 1847* 
 
 An insurrection of the Kabyles subdued by the 
 
 French, after several sharp engagements . 1851! 
 The government entrusted (for a shore time) 
 
 to prince Napoleon 1858 
 
 The Arab tribes attack the French ; defeated, 
 
 Oct. 31 and Nov, 6, 1859 
 Algiers visited by the emperor Napoleon III., 
 
 Sept. i860 
 Marshal PeUssier, duke of Malakhoflf, appointed 
 
 governor-general of Algeria . . Nov. i86o 
 The emperor promises a constitution securing 
 the rights of the Arabs, saying : "I am as 
 much emperor of the Arabs as of the French. " 
 
 Feb. 1863 
 Insurrection of the Arabs — May; submission 
 
 announced Jvme 15, 1864 
 
 Death of Pelissier— dies May 22 ; marshal 
 M'Mahon, duke of Magenta, succeeds him, 
 
 Sept. 8, 1864 
 Fresh revolt ; insvirgents defeated by Jolivet, 
 
 Oct. 2, 1864 
 The emperor well received during his visit. 
 
 May 3 — June 1865 
 More rights and privileges promised to the 
 natives July, 1865 
 
ALI 
 
 25 
 
 ALL 
 
 Alien 5z7Z passed, Jan. 1793. Act to register aliens, 1795. — The celebrated baron Gerainb, 
 a conspicuous and fashionable foreigner, known as court, was ordered out of England, 
 April 6, 1812. — Bill to abolish their naturalisatiju by the holding of stock in the banks of 
 Scotland, June, 1820. New registration act, 7 Geo. IV. 1826. This last act was repealed 
 and another statute passed, 6 WlH. IV. 1836. The rigour of the alien laws was much 
 mitigated by 7 & 8 Vict, c, 66 (1844). — Alien Priories were suppressed in England 
 in 1414.* 
 
 ALIWAL, a village in N". "W. India, the site of a battle on Jan. 28, 1846, between the 
 Sikh army under sirdar Eunjoor Singh Majeethea, 19,000 strong, supported by 68 pieces of 
 cauuon, and the British under sir H. Smith, 7000 men, with 32 guns. The contest was 
 obstinate, but ended in the defeat of the Sikhs, who lost nearly 6000 killed or drowned in 
 attempting to recross the Sutlej. 
 
 ALKALIES (from kali, the Arabic name for the plant from which an alkaline substance 
 was first procured) are ammonia, potash, soda, and lithia. Black discovered the nature of 
 the difference between caustic and mild alkalies in 1736. 
 
 The fixed alkalies, potash and soda, decomposed by- 
 Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, London, 
 1808. Dr. Ure invented an alkalimeter, 1816. 
 
 The manufacture of alkalies, very extensive in 
 Lancashire and Cheshire, are based on the decom- 
 position of common salt (chloride of sodium 1, by 
 a process invented by a Frenchman named Le 
 Blanc, about 1792. 
 
 Mr. Losh obtained crystals of soda from brine about 
 1814. Various modifications of these processes 
 are now in use. 
 
 "Alkali works " are defined as works for the manu- 
 facture of alkali, sulphates of soda, siilphate of 
 potash, and in which muriatic gas is evolved. 
 
 Mr. Wm. Gossage's process for condensing muriatic 
 acid gas patented in 1836. 
 
 In consequence of the serious injury to vegetation 
 produced by the numerous alkali works in Lanca- 
 shire and Cheshire, the Alkali act "for the more 
 effectual condensation [of 95 per cent.] of muriatic 
 acid gas " (or hydrochloric acid) was passed, July 
 28, 1863, to come into operation Jan. i, 1864. 
 
 ALKMAER. See Bergen. 
 
 ALLAHABAD (N. W. Hindostan), the "holy city " of the Indian Mahometans, situated 
 at the junction of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. The province of Allahabad was succes- 
 sively subject to the kings of Delhi and Oude, but in 1803 was wholly incorporated with the 
 British posses.sions. By treaty here, Bengal, &c., was ceded to the English in 1765. — 
 During the sepoy mutiny several regiments of the East India company rose and massacred 
 their officers, June 4, 1857 ; colonel Neil marched promptly from Benares and suppressed 
 the insurrection. In' Nov. 1861, lord Canning made this city the capital of the N. W. 
 provinces. 
 
 ALLEGIANCE. See Oaths. 
 
 ALLEGORY is as old as language, and abounds in the S'criptures and Homer : see 
 Jacob's, blessing upon his sons. Genesis siMx. (B.C. 1689), Psalm Ixxx., and all the prophets. 
 Spenser's Faerie Queene (1590) and Bitnyan's Pilgrim's Progress (1678) are allegories 
 throughout ; Addison's writings in the Spectator (171 1) abomid in allegories. 
 
 ALLIA (Italy), a small river flowing into the Tiber, where Brennus and the Gauls 
 defeated the Romans, July 16, 390 B.C. The Gauls sacked Rome and committed so much 
 injury that the day was thereafter held to be unlucky (nefas), and no public business was 
 permitted to be done thereon. 
 
 ALLIANCE, Treaties of, between the high European powers. The following are the 
 princij)al. See Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties, United Kingdom, &c. 
 
 ALLIANCE. 
 
 Of Leipsic . 
 Of Vienna . 
 The Triple 
 Of Warsaw . 
 The Grand 
 The Hague . 
 The Quadruple 
 Of Vienna . 
 
 April 9, 
 
 1631 
 
 May 27, 
 
 1657 
 
 Jan. 28, 
 
 1668 
 
 March 31, 
 
 1683 
 
 May 12, 
 
 1689 
 
 Jan. 4, 
 
 1717 
 
 Aug. 2, 
 
 1718 
 
 March 16, 
 
 1731 
 
 ALLIANCE. 
 
 Of Versailles . . 
 
 Germanic 
 
 Of Paris . . . 
 
 Of St. Petersburg 
 
 Austrian 
 
 Of Sweden . . 
 
 Of Toplitz . 
 
 Holy Alliance 
 
 May I, 1756 
 
 July 23, 1785 
 
 May 16, 179s 
 
 April 8, 1805 
 
 March 14, 1812 
 
 March 24,. ,, 
 
 Sept. 9, 1813 
 Sept. 26, 1815 
 
 ALLIANCE. 
 
 Of England, France, & Turkey 
 (at Constantinople) Mar. 12, 1854 
 
 Of England and France rati- 
 fied . . . April 3, ,, 
 
 Of Sardinia with the Western 
 Powers (at Turin) Jan. 26, 1855 
 
 Of Sweden with the Western 
 Powers . . Deo. 19, ,, 
 
 ALLOTMENTS. See Land, note. 
 
 ALL SAINTS' DAY (Nov. l), or All-Hallows, a festival said to have been begun by pope 
 Boniface IV. about 607, and celebrated in the Pantheon at Rome, and established by pope 
 Gregory IV. (about 830) for the commemoration of all those saints and martyrs in whose 
 
 * " Foreigners have reclaimed our marshes, drained our fens, fished our seas, and built our bridges 
 and harbours." Smiles, 1S61. 
 
ALL 26 ALM 
 
 honour no particular day is assigned. The reformers of the English church, 1549, struck 
 out of their calendar altogether a great numher of anniversaries, leaving only those which at 
 their time were connected with popular feeling or tradition. 
 
 ALL SOULS' DAY (Nov. 2), a festival of the Roman Catholic church to commemorate 
 the souls that are in purgatory, instituted, it is said, at Cluny about 993 or 1000. 
 
 "ALL THE TALENTS " ADMINISTRATION. See GrenviUe Administrations. 
 
 ALMA, a river in the Crimea, near which was fought a great battle on Sept. 20, 1854. See 
 Russo- Turkish War and Crimea. The English, French, and Turkish army (about 57,000 
 men) moved out of their first encampment in the Crimea on Sept. 19, and bivouacked tor the 
 night on the left bank of the Bulganac. The Russians (commanded by Prince MenschikofF ), 
 mustering 40,000 infintiy, had 180 field-pieces on the heights, and on the morning of Sept. 
 20th were joined by 6000 cavalry from Theodosia (or Kaffa). The English forces, under 
 lord Raglan, consisted of 26,000 men ; the French of 24,000, under marshal St. Arnaud. 
 At 12 o'clock the signal to advance was made ; the river Alma was crossed, while prince 
 Napoleon took possession of the village under the fire of the Russian batteries. At 4, after 
 a sanguinary fight, the allies were completely victorious. The enemj', utterly routed, threw 
 awaj' their arms and knapsacks in their flight, having lost about 5000 men, of whom 900 
 were made prisoners, mostly wounded. The loss of the British was 26 officers and 327 men 
 killed, and 73 officers and 1539 men wounded (chiefly. from the 23rd, 7th, and 33rd regi- 
 ments) ; that of the French, 3 ofiicers and 233 men killed, and 54 officers and 1033 men 
 wounded. Total loss of allies, about 3300. 
 
 ALMACK'S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, King-street, St. James's, London, at first very 
 exclusive, were erected by a Scotchman named Almack, and opened Feb. 12, 1765. 
 
 ALMANACS (from the Arabic al mavah, to count).* The Egj^Dtians computed time by 
 instruments. The Alexandrians had almanacs. Log calendars were anciently in use. In 
 the British Museum and universities are curious specimens of early almanacs. Michael 
 Nostradamus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an almanac in the style of Merlin, 1556. 
 Dufresnoy. Professor Aiigustus De Morgan's valuable '^ Book of Almanacs, with an index 
 of reference, by which the almanac may be found for every year," was published in March, 
 1 85 1. Among the earlier and more remarkable almanacs were 
 
 John Somer's Calendar, written in Oxford . 1380 
 
 One in Lambeth palace, written in . . . 1460 
 
 First printed one, published at Buda . . 1472 
 
 First printed in England, by Richard Pynson . 1497 
 
 T3'balt'.s Prognostications 1533 
 
 Almanac Li^geois ...... 1636 
 
 Lilly's Ephemeris 1644 
 
 Poor Robin's Almanac ..... 1652 
 
 British Merlin 1658 
 
 Edinburgh Almanac 1683 
 
 Connaissance des Temps (by Picard) . . . 1699 
 
 Moore's Almanac .... 1698 or 1713 
 
 Lady's Diary 1705 
 
 Season on the Seasons 1735 
 
 Gentleman's Diary 1741 
 
 Nautical Almanac, begun by Dr. Neville Mas- 
 
 kelyne (materially improved in 1834) . . 1767 
 British Imperial Kalendar ..... 1809 
 
 Hone's Every-Day Book 1826 
 
 British Almanac and Companion . . . 1828 
 Anniversary Calendar, published by W. Kidd 1832 
 Chambers' Book of Days .... 1862 — 3 
 
 ALMANZA (S. E. Spain). Here, on April 25 (0. S. 14), 17 14, the English, Dutch, 
 and Portuguese forces under the earl of Galway, were totally defeated by the French and 
 Spanish commanded by James Fitzjames, duke of Berwick (illegitimate son of James II.). 
 Most of the English were killed or made prisoners, having been abandoned by the 
 Portuguese at the first charge. 
 
 ALMEIDA (Portugal), a frontier town, captured by Massena, Aug. 27, 1810. The French 
 crossed into Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, blockaded by the English, April 6, 181 1. 
 Almeida was retaken by Wellington (May 10), who eventually compelled Massena to retire 
 from Portugal, his route being tracked by horrid desolation. 
 
 AIjMENARA, a village, N. E. Spain, where, on July 28, 17 10, an English and German 
 army defeated the Spanish army suji^orting Philip V., the grandson of Louis XIV. of France. 
 Stanhope, the English general, killed the Spanish general, Amezaga, in single conflict, an. 
 act almost unexampled in modern warfare. 
 
 • Of Moore's (under the management of Henry Andrews, the able computer of the JSautical Eyihemerii) 
 at one time upwards of 430,000 copies were annually sold. He died in 1820. The Stationers' company 
 claimed the exclusive right of publishing almanacs in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the 
 privilege to them and the two universities ; but the monopoly was broken up by a decision of the Court of 
 Common Pleas in 1775. A bill to renew the privilege was lost in 1779. The stamp duty on English 
 almanacs, first impcsed in 1710, was abolished in August, 1834; since when almanacs have become in- 
 numerable, being issued by tradesmen with their goods. Of Foreign Almanacs, the principal are the 
 " Almanach de France," first published in 1699, and the " Almanach de Gotha," 1764. 
 
ALM 
 
 27 
 
 ALP 
 
 ALMOHADES, Mahometan partisans, followers of El-Mehidi in Africa, about 1120. 
 They subdued Morocco, 1145 ; entered Spain and couk beviile, Cordova,, and Granada, 
 1146-56 ; nded Spain till 1232, and Africa till 12/6. 
 
 ALMONER, an office of uncertain origin, anciently allotted to a dignified clergj'man, who 
 had the privilege of giving the fir ,t disii from the royal table to the poor, or instead thereot 
 an alms in money. By an ancient canon all bishops were required to keep almoners. The 
 grand almoner of France {le grand aumonier) was the highest ecclesiastical dignity in that 
 kingdom before the revolution, 1789. Queen Victoria's almoner (now the bishop of Oxford) 
 or his sub-aliuoner distributes the queen's gifts on Maundy Thursday (which see). 
 
 ALMORAYIDES, Mahometan partisans in Africa, rose about 1050 ; entered Spain by 
 invitation, 1086 ; were ovei'come by the Almohades in 1145. 
 
 ALMSHOUSES for aged and infirm persons have been erected by very many public 
 companies and benevolent individuals, particularly since the destruction of religious houses 
 at the time of the Reformation in the i6th century. A list of them, with useful information, 
 will be found in " Low's Charities of London," ed. 1862. 
 
 Dame Owen's almshouses, Islington, built in 
 161 3 (in gratitude for her escape from an 
 arrow-shot) were rebuilt by the Brewers' 
 company 1839 
 
 Bancroft's almshouses, Mile End, were erected 1735 
 
 The London almshouses, in commemoration of 
 the passing of the Reform Bill, built at 
 Brixton 1833 
 
 Numerous almshouses since erected for 
 printers, bookbinders, &c. 
 
 Cornelius Van Dun founded the Red Lion alms- 
 houses, Westminster 1577 
 
 Emmanuel CoUege, Westminster, founded by 
 Lady Dacre 1594 
 
 Whittington's almshouses, founded in 1621, 
 were rebuilt near EQghgate-hill by the Mer- 
 cers' company 1826 
 
 The Fishmongers' company founded alms- 
 houses in 1618, and rebuilt them on Wands- 
 worth common 1850 
 
 Haberdashers' almshouses, Hoxton, founded 
 by Robert Aske 1692 
 
 ALNEY. A combat is asserted to have taken place between Edmund Ii'onside and Canute 
 the Great, on Alney, an island on the Severn, Gloucestershire, in sight of their armies ; 
 when the latter was wounded, he proposed a division of the kingdom, the south part falling 
 to Edmund. Edmund was murdered at Oxford shortly after the treaty, according to some 
 by the treachery of MAxic Streon, and Canute obtained possession of the whole kingdom, 
 1016. 
 
 ALNWICK (Saxon Ealmvic), on the river Alne in Northumberland, was given at the 
 conquest to Ivo de Vesco. It has belonged to the Percies since 13 10. Malcolm, king of 
 Scotland, besieged Alnwick in 1093, when he and his sons were killed. It was taken by 
 David I. in 1136, and attempted in 11 74 by William the Lion, who was defeated and 
 taken prisoner. It was burnt by king John in 1215, and by the Scots in 1448. Since 1854 
 the castle has been repaired and enlarged with great taste and at xmsparing expense. 
 
 ALPACA (or Paco), a species of the S. American quadruped the Llama, the soft hairy 
 wool of which is now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It was introduced into 
 this country about 1836, by the earl of Derby. An alpaca factory, &c. (covering 11 acres), 
 was erected" at Saltaire, near Shipley, Yorkshire, ■% Mr. Titus Salt in 1852. 
 
 ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, is said to have been the author of hieroglyphics, 
 and to have written thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 B.C. Blair. But Josephus 
 afiirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; this is deemed fabulous. 
 
 The Egyptian alphabet is ascribed to Memnon, 
 
 1822 B.C. 
 
 The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew 
 alphabet was ahph, called by the Greeks alpha, and 
 abbreviated by the modems to A. The Hebrew 
 is supposed to be derived from the Phoenician. 
 
 Cadmus the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., is said 
 to have brought the Phoenician letters (fifteen in 
 number) into Greece, viz. : — A, B, T, A, I, K, A, 
 M, N, O, n, P, 2, T, r. These letters were 
 originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian 
 characters, and changed gradually in form till 
 
 they became the ground of the Roman letters, 
 now used aU over Europe. Palamedes of Argos 
 invented the double characters, 0, X, *, E, about 
 1224 B.C. ; and Simonides added, Z, ■*■, H, n, about 
 489 B.C. Arundelian Marbles. — When the E was 
 introduced is not precisely known. The Greek 
 alphabet consisted of i6 letters till 399 (or 403) 
 B.C., when the Ionic of 24 characters was intro- 
 duced. The small letters, for the convenience of 
 writing, are of later invention. The alphabets of 
 the different nations contain the following number 
 of letters : — 
 
 English 
 
 . 26 
 
 German 
 
 . 26 
 
 Greek 
 
 . 24 
 
 French . 
 
 . . 25 
 
 Slavonic 
 
 . . 42 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 . . 22 
 
 Italian 
 
 . 20 
 
 Russian . 
 
 • 35 
 
 Arabic 
 
 . 28 
 
 Spanish 
 
 . . 27 
 
 Latin . 
 
 . . 22 
 
 Persian . 
 
 - . 32 
 
 Turkish . 
 
 28 
 
 Sansciit . . . 
 
 44 
 
 Chinese radical cha- 
 
 
 racters . 
 
 214 
 
 ALPHONSINE TABLES, astronomical tables, composed by Spanish and Arab astro- 
 nomers, and collected in 1253 under the direction of Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the 
 
ALP 28 ALU 
 
 Wise, who is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 crowns in completing the work ; he 
 himself wrote Ijhe preface. The Spanish government ordered the work to be reprinted from 
 the best MSS. ; three volumes have appeared, 1863-5. 
 
 ALPS, a European range of mountains. Those between France and Italy were passed by 
 Hannibal 218 B.C., by the Romans 154 B.C., and by Napoleon I. in a.d. 1800. Roads over 
 Mont Cenis and the Simplon, connecting France and Italy, were constmcted by order of 
 Napoleon, between 1801-6. See Simplon. A sub-alpine tunnel through Mont Cenis to 
 connect Savoy and Piedmont has been in progress since 1857.* In 1859 the " Alpine Club," 
 which consists of British travellers in the Alps, published their first work, "Peaks, Passes, 
 and Glaciers." 
 
 ALSACE (N. E. France), formerly part of the kingdom of Austrasia, now the departments 
 of the Ujjper and Lower Rhine. It was incorporated into the German empire in the loth 
 century. A portion was restored to France, 1648, and the whole, including Strasburg, in 
 1697. The precinct of Whitefriars, London, called Alsatia, is described in Scott's "Fortunes 
 of Nigel." Its privilege of sanctuary was abolished in 1696. 
 
 ALTAR. One was built by Noah, 2348 B.C. {Gen. viii. 20) ; others by Abraham, 1921 
 {Gen. xii. 8). Directions for making an altar are given Exod. xx. 24, 1491 B.C. Altars 
 were raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, 1556 B.C. He introduced among the Greeks 
 the worship of the deities of Egj'pt. Herodotus. The terra "altar" was applied to the 
 Lord's table for the first three centuries after Christ (Heb. xiii. 10). Christian altars in 
 churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I., a.d. 135 ; and were first consecrated by pope 
 Sylvester. The first Christian altar in Britain was in 634. Stow. The church of England 
 terms the table on which the elements are placed an altar. Since the time of Elizabeth 
 there has been much controversy on the subject, and the Puritans in the civil war destroyed 
 many of the ancient stone altars, sub.stituting wooden tables. In 1845 it was decided in 
 the Arches Court that stone altars were not to be erected in English churches. 
 
 ALTER EGO {another or second I), a, term applied to Spanish viceroys when exercising 
 regal power ; used at Naples when the crown prince was appointed vicar-general during an 
 insurrection in July, 1820. 
 
 ALT-RANSTADT (Prussia), where the treaty of peace dictated by Charles XII. of Sweden, 
 to Frederick Augustus of Poland, was signed, Sept. 24, 1706. Frederick, deposed in 1704, 
 regained the throne of Poland after the defeat of Charles XII., in 1709. 
 
 ALUM is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about 1300 ; it was found 
 in Tuscany about 1470 ; was brought to perfection in England by sir T. Challoner, who 
 established large alum works near "Whitby in 1608; was discovered in Ireland in 1757; 
 and in Anglesey in 1790. Alum is a salt used as a mordant in dyeing ; and also to harden 
 tallow, to whiten bread, and in the paper manufacture. It may be made of pure clay 
 exposed to vapours of sulphuric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley ; but is 
 usually obtained by means of ore called alum slate. 
 
 ALUMBAGH, a fort near Lucknow, Oude, India, seized and heroically defended by the 
 British under sir James Outram during the mutiny in 1857. He defeated an attack of 
 30,000 sepoys on Jan. 12, 1858, and of 20,000 on Feb. 21. He was relieved by sir Colin 
 Campbell in March. 
 
 ALUMINIUM, a metal, the base of the earth alumina (clay), which was shown to be a 
 distinct earth by Marggraff in 1754, having been previously confounded with lime. Oerstedt 
 in 1826 obtained the chloride of aluminium ; and in 1827 the metal itself was first obtained 
 by F. Wbhler, but was for some time merely a scientific curiosity, the process being 
 expensive. The mode of production was afterwards simplified by Bunsen and others, more 
 especially by H. Ste. -Claire Deville, who in 1856 succeeded in procuring considerable quan- 
 tities of this metal. It is very light (sp. g. 2-25), malleable, and sonorous ; when pure does 
 not laist, and is not acted on by sulphur or any acid except hydrochloric. These qualities 
 will render it very useful when improved processes render it cheaper. In March, 1856, it 
 was 3Z. the ounce ; in June, 1857, lis. or 12s., and it is now much cheaper (1865). The eagles 
 of the French colours have been made of it, and many other ornamental and useful articles. 
 Deville's work, "De I'Aluminium," was published in 1859. An aluminium manufactory 
 was established at Newcastle in i860, by Messrs. Bell. They obtain the metal from a 
 
 * At first the boring was effected by ordinary machinery ; in i860 steam power was employed; but 
 afterwards compressed air was used as a motive power with great success. It is confidently expected that 
 the tunnel will be completed in 1870. In 1865 Messrs. Brassey proposed laying down a line of steeply 
 incUned railway for 47 miles, to be used till the tunnel is completed. 
 
AMA 29 AMB 
 
 French mineral, bauxite. Their aluminium bronze, an alloy of copper and aluminium, 
 invented by Dr. John Percy, F.R.S., came into use for watch-cases, &c., manufactured by 
 Messrs. Reid of Newcastle, in 1862. 
 
 AMADIS OF Gaul, a Spanish or Portuguese romance, stated to have been written about 
 1342 by Vasco de Lobeiro. It was translated and enlarged by De Montalvo, about 1485. 
 
 AMALEKITES (descendants of Amalek, grandson of Esau or Edom, the brother of Jacob) 
 attacked the Israelites 1491 B.C., Avhen perpetual war was denounced by God against them. 
 They were subdued by Saul about 1079 ; by David, 1058 and 1056 ; and by the Simeonites 
 about 715 B.C. 
 
 AMALEI, a city on the gulf of Salerno, Naples, in the 8th century became the seat of 
 a republic, and flourished by its commerce till 1075, when it was taken by Roger Guiscard. 
 It eventually was incorporated into the kingdom of Naples. The Pisans, in their sack of the 
 town in 1135; are said to have found a copy of the Pandects of Justinian, and thus to have 
 induced the revival of the study of Roman law in Western Europe. Flavio Gioia, a native 
 of Ainalfi, is the reputed discoverer of the mariner's compass, about 1302. 
 
 AMAZON, West India mail steam ship, left Southampton on her first voyage, Friday, 
 Jan. 2, 1852, and on Sunday morning, Jan. 4, was destroyed by fire at sea, about no miles 
 W. S. W. of Scilly (ascribed to the spontaneous ignition of combustible matter placed near 
 the engine-room). Out of 161 persons on board, 102 persons must have perished by fire or 
 drowning. 21 persons were saved by the life-boat of the ship ; 25 more were carried 
 into Brest harbour by a Dutch vessel passing by ; and 13 others were picked up in the bay 
 of Biscay, also by a Dutch galliot, Eliot Warlaurton, a distinguished writer in general 
 literature, was among those lost. 
 
 AMAZONIA (S. America) was discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1540. Coming from 
 Peru, he sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing companies of women 
 in arms on its bank, he called the country Amazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the 
 river, which had previously been called Maranon. 
 
 AMAZONS. Three rations of Amazons have been mentioned — the Asiatic, Scythian, and 
 African. They are said to have been the descendants of Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, 
 where their husbands, having made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades 
 by their enemies. Their widows resolved to form a female state, and having firmly established 
 themselves, tliej' decreed that matrimony was a shameful servitude. Quinttis Curtius. They 
 were said to have been conquered by Theseus, about 1231 B.C. The Amazons were constantly 
 employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more force, their right 
 breasts were burned off, whence their name from the Greek, a, no, mazos, breast. Others 
 derive the name from maza, the moon, whom they are supposed to have worshipped. About 
 330 B.C. their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the Great, while he was pursuing his 
 conquests in Asia ; three hundred females were in her train. Herodotus. 
 
 AMBASSADORS. Accredited agents, and representatives from one court to another, are 
 referred to early ages. In most countries they have great privileges ; and in England, they 
 and theu" servants are secured against arrest. England usually has twenty-five ambassadors 
 or envoys extraordinary, and about thirty-six chief consuls, resident at foreign courts, exclu- 
 sive of inferior agents ; the ambassadors and other chief agents from abroad at the court of 
 London in 1865 were 47. 
 
 The Russian ambassador's being imprisoned for breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them 
 
 debt by a lace-merchant, July 27, 1708, led to the to be itnprisoned three months, and the other 
 
 passing the statute of 8 Anne, for the protection fined, May 12, 1780. 
 
 of ambassadors, 1709. The first ambassador from the United States of 
 
 Two men, convicted of arresting the servant of an America to England, John Adams, presented to 
 
 ambassador, were sentenced to be conducted to the king, June 2, 1785 ; the first from Great 
 
 the house of the ambassador, with a label on their Britain to America was Mr. Hammond, in 1791. 
 
 AMBER, a carbonaceous mineral,* principally found in the northern parts of Europe, of 
 great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a medicine before the Christian 
 era : Theophrastus wrote upon it ; 300 B.C. Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found 
 in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau. Phillips. 
 
 * Much diversity of opinion stiU prevails among naturalists and chemists, respecting the origin 01 
 amber, some referring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal kingdom ; its 
 natural history and chemical analysis affording something in favour of each opinion. It is considered by 
 Berzelius to have been a resin dissolved in volatile oil. It often contains delicately-formed insects. Sir D. 
 Brewster concludes it to be indurated vegetable juice. When rubbed it becomes electrical, and from its 
 Greek name, electron, the ttrm Electricity is derived. 
 
AMB 
 
 30 
 
 AME 
 
 AMBOISE (C. France). A conspiracy of the Huguenots against Francis II., Catherine de 
 Medicis, and the Guises, was suppressed at this place in Jan. 1560. On March 19, 1563, 
 the Pacification of Amboise was published, whereby toleration was granted to the Huguenots. 
 The civil war was however soon renewed. 
 
 AMBOYNA, one of the Molucca isles, discovered about 1512 by the Portuguese, but not 
 wholly occupied by them till 1580. It was taken by the Dutch in 1605. The English 
 factors at this settlement were cruelly tortured and put to death, Feb. 17, 1623-4, by the 
 Dutch, on an accusation of a conspiracy to expel them from the island, where the two 
 nations resided and jointly shared in the pepper trade of Java. Cromwell compelled the 
 Dutch to give a sum of money to the descendants of the sufferers. Amboyna was seized by 
 tlie English, Feb. 16, 1796, but was restored by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. It was 
 again seized by the British, Feb. 17-19, 1810 ; and again restored at the peace of 1814. 
 
 AMBROSIAN CHANT. See Chant. 
 
 AMEN", an ancient Hebrew word meaning true, faithful, certain. At the end of a prayer, 
 it implies so be it ; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It is used in the Jewish and 
 Christian assemblies, at the conclusion of prayer. See i Cor. xiv. 16 (a.b. 59). 
 
 AMENDE Honorable, in France, in the 9th century, was an infamous punishment 
 inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the offender was delivered into the hands of 
 the hangman : his shirt was stripped off, a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand ; 
 he was then led into court, and was obliged to beg pardon of God and the country. Death 
 or banishment sometimes followed. 
 
 AMERCEMENT, in Law, a fine assessed for an offence done, or pecuniary punishment at 
 the mercy of the court : thus differing from a fine directed and fixed by a statute. By 
 Magna Charta a freeman cannot be amerced for a small fault, but in proportion to the offence 
 he has committed, 9 Henry III. 1225. 
 
 AMERICA,* the great Western Continent, is about 9000 miles long, with an area of about 
 13,668,000 square miles. It is now believed to have been visited by the Norsemen or 
 Vikings in the lotli and nth centuries ; but the modem discovery is due to the sagacity 
 and courage of the Genoese navigator, Christopher Columbus,+ who, after having his scheme 
 long contemptuously rejected, sailed on his first expedition from Palos in Andalusia on 
 Friday, Aug. 3, 1492, with vessels supplied by the sovereigns of Spain. 
 
 Columbus lands on Guanahani, one of the Baha- 
 mas ; takes possession of it in the name of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, and names 
 it San Salvador . . . Friday, Oct. 12, 1492 
 
 He discovers Cviba, Oct. 28 ; and Hispaniola 
 (now Hayti), where he builds a fort, La Navi- 
 dad Dec. 6, ,, 
 
 He returns to Spain, March 15 ; sails from Cadiz 
 on his second expedition, Sept. 25 ; discovers 
 the Caribbee isles,— Dominica, Nov. 3 ; Gua- 
 daloupe, Nov. 4 ; Antigua, Nov. 10 ; founds 
 Isabella in Hispaniola, the first Christian 
 citv in the New World . . . Dec. , 1493 
 
 He discovers Jamaica, May 3 ; and Evanefelista 
 (now Isle of Pines), June 13 ; war with the 
 natives of Hispaniola 1494 
 
 He visits the various isles ; and explores their 
 coasts ........ 1495-6 
 
 Returns to Spain to meet the charges of his 
 enemies June 11, 1496 
 
 Cabot (sent out by Henry VII. of England) dis- 
 covers Labrador on the coast of North Ame- 
 rica [he is erroneously said to have dis- 
 covered Florida, and also Newfoundland, 
 and to have named it Prima Vista] June 24, 1497 
 
 Columbus sails on his third voyage, May 30 ; 
 discovers Trinidad, July 31 ; lands on Terra 
 Firma, without knowing it to be the new 
 continent, naming it Isla Santa . Aug. i, 1498 
 
 Ojeda discovers Surinam, June ; and the gulf 
 of Venezuela 1499 
 
 * The name is derived from Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine merchant, who died in 1512. He accom- 
 panied Ojeda in his voyage on the eastern coasts in 1498 ; and described the country in letters sent to his 
 friends in Italy. He is charged with presumptuously inserting " Tierra de Amerigo " in his maps. Ir\'ing 
 discusses the question in the Appendix to the Life of Columbus, but comes to no conclusion. Humboldt 
 asserts that the name was given to the continent in the popular works of Waldseemiiller, a German geo- 
 grapher, without the knowledge of Vespucci. To America we are indebted, among other things, for 
 maize, the tiirkey, the potato, Peruvian bark, and tobacco. 
 
 f Christoforo Columbo was bom about 1445 ; first went to sea about 1460 : settled at Lisbon in 1470, 
 where he married Felipa, the daughter of Perestrello, an Italian navigator ; whereby he obtained much 
 geographical knowledge. He is said to have laid the plans of his voyage of discovery before the republic 
 of Genoa, in 1485, and other powers, and finally before the court of Spain, where at length the queen 
 Isabella became his patron. After undergoing much ingratitude and cruel persecution from his own 
 followers and the Spanish court, he died on May 20, 1506 ; and was buried with much pomp at Valladolid. 
 His remains were transferred, in 1513, to Seville; in 1536 to San Domingo; and in Jan. 1796 to the 
 Havanna, Cuba. The original inscription on his tomb is said to have been : " A Castilla y & Leon Nuevo 
 Mundo di<5 Colon." "To Castile and Leon Colon gave a New World." Humboldt says beautifully, that the 
 8ucees3 of Columbus was " a conquest 0/ refieciion! " 
 
AME 
 
 31 
 
 AME 
 
 AMERICA, continued. 
 
 Vicente Yanez Pinzon discovers Brazil, South 
 America, Jan. 26 ; and the river Maraiion (the 
 Amazon) ; Cabral the Portuguese lands in 
 Brazil (see Brazil) .... May 3, 1500 
 Gaspar Cortereal discovers Labrador . . ,, 
 Columbus is imprisoned in chains at San Do- 
 mingo by Bobadilla, sent out to investigate 
 into his conduct, May; conveyed to Spain, 
 where he is honourably received Dee. 17, „ 
 Columbus sails on his fourth voyage, May 9 ; 
 discovers various isles on the coast of Hon- 
 duras, and explores the coast of the isthmus, 
 July, &c. ; discovers and names Porto Bello, 
 
 Nov. 2, 1502 
 Negro slaves imported into Hispaniola . 1501-3 
 
 Worried by the. machinations of his enemies, he 
 returns to Spain, Nov. 7; his friend, queen 
 Isabella, dies .... Nov. 20, 1504 
 He dies while treated with base ingratitude by 
 
 the Spanish government . . May 20, 1506 
 
 Soils and Pinzon discover Yucatan . . . „ 
 Ojeda founds San Sebastian, the first colony on 
 
 the mainland 1510 
 
 Subjugation of Cuba by Velazquez . . . 1511 
 The coast of Florida discovered by Ponce de 
 
 Leon . . • 1512 
 
 Vasco de Balboa crosses the isthmus of Darien, 
 
 and discovers the South Pacific Ocean . . 1513 
 Grijalva penetrates into Yucatan, and names it 
 
 New Spain 1518 
 
 I'a.'isage of Magellan's Straits by him . . 1520 
 Conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortes . 1519-21 
 Pizarro discovers the coast of Quito . . . 1526 
 He invades and conquers Peru . . . 1532-5 
 Cartier, a Frenchman, enters the Gulf of St. 
 
 Lawrence, and sails up to Montreal . 1S34-5 
 Grijalva's expedition, equipped by Cortes, dis- 
 covers California 1535 
 
 Mendoza founds Buenos Ayres, and conquers 
 
 the adjacent country ,, 
 
 Chili conquered by Valdivia 1541 
 
 Orel] ana sails down the Amazon to the sea . . ,, 
 Louisiana conquered by De Soto . . . ,, 
 Eebellion in Peru — tranquillity estabUshed by 
 
 Gasoa 1548 
 
 Davis's Straits discovered by him . . . 1585 
 Ealeigh establishes the first English settlement 
 
 — at Roanoke, Virginia , 
 
 Falkland isles discovered by Davis . . . 1592 
 De Monts, a Frenchman, settles in Acadia, now 
 
 Nova Scotia 1604 
 
 Jamestown, in Virginia, the first Enghsh settle- 
 
 ment on the mainland, founded by lord de la 
 
 Warr 1607 
 
 Quebec founded by the French .... 1608 
 Hudson's bay discovered by him . . . , 1610 
 The Dutch build Manhattan, or New Amster- 
 dam (now New York) on the Hxidson . . 1614 
 Settlement in New England begun by capt. 
 
 Smith „ 
 
 New Plymouth built by the banished English 
 
 nonconformists 1620 
 
 Nova Scotia settled by the Scotch under sir 
 
 Wm. Alexander 1622 
 
 Delaware settled by the Swedes and Dutch . 1627 
 Massachusetts, by sir H. Boswell . . . ,, 
 
 Maryland, by lori Baltimore 1632 
 
 Connecticut granted to lord Say and Broke in 
 1630; but no English settlement was made 
 
 here till 1635 
 
 Rhode Island settled by Roger Williams and his 
 
 brethren, driven from Massachusetts . . ,, 
 New Jersey settled by the Dutch, 1614, and 
 Swedes, 1627 ; granted to the duke of York, 
 who sells it to lord Berkeley .... 1664 
 New York captured by the English . . . „ 
 Carolina settled by the English .... 1669 
 Pennsylvania settled by William Penn, the 
 
 celebrated Quaker 1682 
 
 Louisiana settled by the French . . . „ 
 
 The Mississippi explored 1699 
 
 The Scotch settlement at Darien (1698-9) aban- 
 doned 1700 
 
 New Orleans built 1717 
 
 Georgia settled by general Oglethorpe . . 1732 
 Kentucky, by colonel Boon . . . . . 1754 
 Canada conquered by the Enghsh, 1759-60; 
 
 ceded to Great Britain 1763 
 
 American war — declaration of independence by 
 the United States, 1776; recognised by Great 
 
 Britain 1783 
 
 Louisiana ceded to Spain, 1762 ; transferred to 
 
 France, 1800 ; sold to the United States . 1803 
 Florida ceded to Great Britain, 1763 ; taken by 
 Spain, 1 78 1 ; to whom it is ceded, 1783; ceded 
 
 to the United States 1820 
 
 Revolution in Mexico — declaration of indepen- 
 dence 1821 
 
 Revolutions in Spanish America ; independence 
 established by Chili, 1810 ; Paraguay, 181 1 ; 
 Buenos Ayres, and other provinces, 1816 ; 
 
 Peru 1826 
 
 [See United States, Mexico, and other states, 
 throughout the volume.] 
 
 AMERICA, British. See British America. 
 
 AMERICA, Central, including the states of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nica- 
 ragua, and Costa Rica, which see, declared their independence Sept. 21, 1821, and separated 
 from the Mexican confederation, July 21, 1823. The states made a treaty of union between 
 themselves March 21, 1847. There has been among them since much anarchy and blood- 
 shed, aggravated gi-eatly by the irruption of American filibusters under Kenny and "Walker, 
 1854-5. In Jan. 1863, a war began between Guatemala (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) and 
 San Salvador (afterwards supported by Honduras). The latter were defeated at Santa Rosa 
 June 16, and San Salvador was taken Oct. 26 ; the president of San Salvador, Barrios, fled ; and 
 Carrera, the dictator of Guatemala became predominant over the confederacy. — Population, 
 1859, about 2,355,000. See Nicaragua, Darien, and Panama. 
 
 AMERICA, South. See Brazil, Argentine, Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, &c. 
 
 "AMERICA," an American yacht, schooner-built, 171 tons burthen. On Aug. 22, 1851, 
 at Cowes regatta, in a match round the Isle of Wight for a cup worth 100^., open to 
 all nations, she came in first by 8 miles, due to her superior construction on the wave 
 principle. 
 
 AMERICANISMS : a useful dictionary of these expressions was compiled by John R. 
 Bartlett, and first published in 1848. 
 
AME 32 AMS 
 
 AMETHYST, the ninth stone upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priest ; and on it 
 was engraved the name Issachar. It is of a rich violet colour. One worth 200 rix-doUars, 
 having been rendered colourless, equalled a diamond in lustre, valued at 18,000 gold 
 crowns. De Boot, Hist. Gemmarum. — Anieth3'sts discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775. 
 
 AMIENS, an ancient city in Picardy (N. France) : the cathedral was built in 1220. It 
 was taken by the Spanish and English Sept. 25, 1597. The preliminary articles of the 
 memorable peace between Great Britain, Holland, France, and Spain, fifteen in number, 
 were signed in London by lord Hawkesbury and M. Otto, on the part of England and 
 France,"Oct. i, 1801 ; and the definitive treaty was subscribed at Amiens, on March 27, 1802, 
 by the marquess of Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, 
 and Schimmelpenninck for Holland. — War was declared again in 1803. 
 
 AMMONIA, the volatile alkali, mainly produced by the decomposition of organic sub- 
 stances. Its name is ascribed 1;o its having been procured from heated camel's dang near 
 the temple of Jupiter Ammon in Libya. The discovery of its being a compound of nitrogen 
 and hydrogen is ascribed to Joseph Priestley in 1774. By the recent labours of chemists the 
 o.dde of the once hypothetical metal ammonium, and ammonium amalgam, have been 
 formed ; and specimens of each were shown at the Royal Institution in 1856 by Dr. A. W. 
 Hofmann, who has done veiy much for the chemical history of ammonia. 
 
 AMMONITES, descended from Ben-Animi, the son of Lot (1897 B.C.). They invaded 
 the land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated by Jephthah, 
 1 143 B.C. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, with an intention to put out the 
 right eye of all those they subdued ; but Saul overthrew them, 1095 B.C. They were after- 
 wards many times vanquished ; and Antiochus the Great took Kabbah their capital, and 
 destroyed all the walls, 198 B.C. Josephus. 
 
 AMNESTY (a general pardon after political disturbances, &c.) was granted by Thrasy- 
 bulus, the Athenian patriot, after expelling the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only 
 thirty friends, 403 B.C. Acts of amnesty-were passed after the civil war in 165 1, and after 
 the two rebellions in England in 1715 and 1745. — After his victorious campaign in Italy, 
 Napoleon III. of France granted an amnesty to all political offenders, Aug. 17, 1859. An 
 amnesty, with certain exemptions, was granted to the vanquished southern states of 
 North America by president Johnson, May 29, 1865. 
 
 AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, asserted traditionally to have been established at Ther- 
 mopylae by Amphictyon, for the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This cele- 
 brated council, composed of twelve of the wisest and most virtuous men of various cities of 
 Greece, began 1498 [1113, Clinton] B.C. Other cities in time sent also chosen citizens to 
 the council of the Amphictyons, and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased 
 to the number of thirty. Suidas. Its immediate office was to attend to the temples and 
 oracles of Deli:)hi. Its interference caused the Sacred wars, 595 — 586, and 356—346. 
 
 AMPHION, a British frigate, of 38 guns, blown up while riding at anchor in Plymouth 
 Sound, and the whole of her crew then on board, consisting of more than two hundred and 
 fifty persons, officers and men, perished Sept. 22,- 1796. Butler. 
 
 AMPHITHEATRES, said to have been first constructed by Curio, 76 B.C., and Julius 
 CjEsar 46 B. c. In the Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round or oval buildings, the people 
 assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhibitions. They were 
 generally built of. wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of stone, under Augustus Csesar. 
 See Coliseum. The amphitheatre of Vespasian (capable of holding 87,000 persons) was built 
 between A. D. 75 and 80; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 13 12. The amphi- 
 theatre at Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes. 
 
 AMPHITRITE, the Ship. See Wrecks, Aug. 30, 1833. 
 
 AMPUTATION, in surgery, was greatly aided by the invention of the tourniquet by 
 Morel, a French surgeon in 1674 ; and of the flap-method by Lowdham of Exeter in 1679. 
 
 AMSTERDAM (Holland). The castle of Amstel was commenced in iioo; the build- 
 inct of the city in 1203. Its commerce was greatly increased by the decay of that of Antwerp 
 afFer 1609. The exchange was built in 1634 ; and the noble stadthouse in 1648 ; the latter 
 cost three millions of guilders, then a large sum. It is built upon 13,659 piles. Amsterdam 
 surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland, in favour of the 
 stadtholder, in 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The 
 Dutch government was restored in December, 1813. The crystal palace for an industrial 
 exhibition was opened by prince Frederick of the Netherlands Aug. 16, 1864. 
 
AMU 33 ANA 
 
 AMULETS, OR Ckakms, employed from tlie earliest times. Amulets were made of the 
 wood of the true cross, about 328. They have been sanctioned in modern times by 
 medical men — witness the anodyne necklace, &c. 
 
 AMYLENE, a colourless, very mobile liquid, first procured by M. Balard of Paris in 1844 , 
 by distilling fousel oil (potato-spirit) with chloride of zinc. The vapour was employed 
 instead of chloroform first by Dr. Snow in 1856. It has since been tried in many hospitals 
 here, and in France. The odour is more unpleasant than chloroform, and more vapour must 
 be used. It is, however, thought less dangeroiis. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS. The sect arose about 1521, and was known in England before 1549. 
 John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusiasts, about the time of the 
 Reformation, taught that infant iDaptism was a contrivance of the devil, that there is no 
 original sin, that men have a free will in spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild 
 and absurd. They committed many violences, and in 1534 seized Miinster, calling it Mount 
 Zion, and declared one Mathias, a baker, to be the king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led 
 them to the maddest practices, and they at length rose in arms rmder pretence of gospel 
 liberty. Miinster was taken June 24, 1535, and the chiefs of the Anabaptists were put to 
 death. — On Jan. 6, 1661, about 80 anabaptists in London appeared in arms, headed by their 
 preacher, Thomas Venner, a Avine-cooper. They fought desperately, and killed many of the 
 soldiers brought against them. Their leader and sixteen others were executed, Jan. 19 and 
 21. Annals of England. — For the modern Anabaptists see Ba^ptists. 
 
 ANACREONTIC VERSE, commonly of the jovial or bacchanalian strain, named after 
 Anacreon of Teos, the Greek Ij^ric poet, whose odes are much prized. He is said to have 
 been choked by a grape-stone in his eighty-fifth year, about 514 B.C. His odes have been 
 frequently translated; Thomas Moore's celebrated version was published in 1800. 
 
 AN.iESTHETICS. See Chloroform, Ether, Amylcne, Kerosolene. Intense cold is also 
 emploj'^ed in deadening pain. 
 
 ANADOLIA (Asia Minor), comprises the ancient Lycia, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia, 
 Paphlagonia and Phrygia, which see. 
 
 ANAGRAMS, formed by the transposition of the letters of a name or sentence : as army 
 from Mary, are said to have been made by ancient Jews, Greeks, &c. On the question put 
 by Pilate to Our Saviour, "Quid est Veritas f (what is truth?) we have the remarkable 
 anagram, ''Est vir qioi adesf" (themanwho is here). Another good one is ''Horatio Nelson," 
 and " Honor est a Nilo " ("there is Honour from the Nile"). — The French are said to have 
 introduced 'the art as now practised, about the year 1560, in the reign of Charles IX, 
 Henaxdt. 
 
 AN AM. See Anoiam. 
 
 ANASTATIC PRINTING. See Printing, 1841. 
 
 ANATHEMA, among the Jews, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction, 
 as in the case of Jericho {Joshua vi. 17). The word occurs i Cor. xvi. 22. Anathemas were 
 used by the primitive churches, 387. See Excommibnication. 
 
 ANATOMY (Greek, cutting up). The study of the human body was part of the philo- 
 sophical investigations of Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle ; and it became a branch of medical 
 art binder Hippocrates, about 420 B. c. Erasistratus and Herophilus rs\z.j be regarded as 
 the fathers of anatomy ; they were the first to dissect the human form, as anatomical 
 research had been previously confined to animals : it is mentioned that they practised upon 
 the bodies of living criminals, about 300 and 293 B.C. Galen, who died A. D. 193, was a 
 great anatomist. In England, the schools were supplied with subjects unlawfully exhumed 
 from graves ; and until lately, the bodies of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. * 
 Pope Boniface VIII. forbade the dissection of dead bodies, 1297. The first anatomical 
 plates, designed by Titian, were employed by Vesalius, about 1538. Leonardo da Vinci, 
 Raphael, and Michael Angelo, studied anatomy. The great discoveries of Harvey were 
 
 * By 32 Henry VIII., c. 42 (1540X surgeons were gi-anted four bodies of executed malefactors for 
 " anatUomyes," which privilege was extended in following reigns : but in consequence of the crimes com- 
 mitted by resurrection-men in order to supply the surgical schools (robbing churchyards and even com- 
 mitting murder, see Burking), a new statute was passed in 1832, which abated the ignominy of dissection 
 by prohibiting that of executed murderers, and made provision for the wants of surgeons by permitting, 
 under certain regulations, the dissection of pei-sons dying in workhouses, (fee. The act also appointed 
 inspectors of anatomy, regulated the schools, and required persons practising anatomy to obtain a 
 licence. It repealed the clause of the act of 1828, which directed the dissection of the body of an executed 
 murderer. 
 
 D 
 
ANC 31 AND 
 
 made in 1616. William and John Hunter -were great anatomists; they died in 1783 and 
 1 793- Qnain's and Wilson's large anatomical jilates were published in 1842. Comparative 
 anatomy has been treated systematically Ly Cnvier, Owen, Midler, Huxley, and others. 
 The anatomy of plants has been studied since 1680, See Botany, 
 
 ANCHORITES. See Monachism. 
 
 ANCHORS are of ancient use, and the invention belonj^s to the Tuscans. Pliny. The 
 second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the Scythian (592 B.C.) Strdbo. Anchors 
 Avere first forged in England a.t>. 578. Those of a first-rate ship of war (four) will weigh 99 
 cwt. each, costing 450Z. P/iilUi's. The Admiralty anchor was introduced about 1841. 
 Improved anchors were made by Pering and Rodgers about 1831 ; by Porter 1846 ; by 
 Costell 1848 ; by Trotman 1853 ; and by several other persons. Trotmau's is attached to 
 the Queen's yacht the Fairy. The anchors of the Great Eastern are of enormous size. An 
 act for the proving and sale of chain cables and anchors, was passed in 1864. 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the Holy Scriptures, and in the history of 
 
 Herodotus about 1687 b.c. It is considered as ending with the destruction of the Roman 
 
 empire in Italy, a.d. 476. Modern history begins with Mahomet (a.d. 622), or Charle- 
 magne (768). 
 
 ANCIENTS. See Councils. 
 
 ANCONA, an ancient Roman port on the Adriatic. The mole was built by Trajan, 
 A.D. 107. After many changes of rulers Aucona was finally annexed to the papal states in 
 1532, In 1798 it was taken by the French ; but Avas retaken by the Austrians in 1799. 
 It was occupied bj'' the French in 1832 ; evacuated in 1838 ; after an insurrection it was 
 bombarded and captured by the Austrians, June 18, 1849. The Marches (comprising this 
 city) rebelled against the Papal government in Sept. i860. Lamorici^re, the papal general, 
 fled to Ancona after his defeat at Castelfidardo, but was compelled to surrender himself, the 
 city, and the garrison, on Sept. 29. The king of Sardinia entered soon after. 
 
 ANCYRA, in ancient Galatia, now Angora or Engour, Asia Minor. A council was held 
 here in 314. Near this city, on July 28, 1402, Timour or Tamerlane defeated and took 
 prisoner the sultan Bajazet, and is said to have conveyed him to Samarcand in a cage. 
 
 ANDALUSIA (S. Spain), a province forming part of the ancient Lusitania and Bretica. 
 The name is a corruption of Vandalitia, acquired in consefjuence of its having been held by 
 the Vandals from 419 to 421, when it was acquired by the Visigoths. The latter Avere 
 expelled by the Moors in 711, who established in it the kingdom of Cordova, Avhich they 
 retained till their final overthrow in 1492. 
 
 ANDERNACH, Rhenish Prussia, once an imperial cit5\ Near here, the emperor Chai-les 
 the First, while attempting to deprive his nephews of their inheritance, Avas totally defeated 
 by one of them, Louis of Saxony, Oct. 8, 876. 
 
 ANDORRA, a small republic in the Pyrenees, bearing the title of "the valleys and 
 sovereignties of Andorra," was made independent by Charlemagne about 778, certain rights 
 being reserved to the bishop of Urgel. The feudal sovereignty, Avhich long appertained to 
 the counts of Foix, reverted to the French king, Henry IV., in 1589 ; but Avas given up in 
 1790. On March 27, 1806, an imperial decree restored the old relations between Andorra 
 and France. The republic is noAV governed by a council elected for life ; but the magistrates 
 are appointed alternately by the French government and the Spanisli bishop of Urgel. The 
 population Avas about 18,000, in 1850. Gniberf. 
 
 ANDRfi'S Execution. See United States, 1780! 
 
 ANDREW, ST., said to have been martyred by crucifixion, Nov. 30, 69, at Patra?, in 
 Achaia. The festiAval Avas instituted about 359. Andrew is the titular saint of Scotland, 
 OAving to Hungus, the Pictish prince, having dreamed that the saint was to be his friend in 
 a pending battle Avith the Northumbrians. St. Andrew's cross ( x ) appeared in the air 
 during the fight, and Hungus conquered. The collar of an order of knighthood, founded on 
 this legend, is formed of thistles (not to be touched) and of rue (an antidote agwinst poison) ; 
 the motto is N^emo me impune lacessit (No one assails me with impunity). The institution of 
 the order is attributed to A chains about 809 ; its revival is due to king James V. in 1540, 
 and to James II. of England in 1687. See TJiistlc. The Russian order of St. Andrew was 
 instituted in 1698 by Peter I. 
 
 ANDREW'S, St. (E. Scotland). Here Robert Bruce held his first parliament in 1309 ; 
 and here AVishart was burnt by archbishop Beaton, Avho liimself was murdered liere in 
 
AND 35 ANH 
 
 1546. The university w<as founded ill 141 1 by bishop Wardlaw. The bishopric originated 
 M'ith the establishment of Christianity in Scotland. Sir R. Sibbahl's list of the bishops of 
 St. Andrew's commences with Killach, 872. Tlie see became archiepiscopal in 1470, and 
 ceased soon after the Eevolutiou, 1689. St. Andrew's is now a post-revolution bishopric, 
 re-instituted in 1844. See Bisliops, 
 
 ANDEtrSSOV, Peace of (Jan. 20. 1667), between Russia and Poland, by which the 
 latter lost the greater part of her conquests among the Cossacks. 
 
 AiSTEilOMETER (Greek, anemos, the wind), a measurer of the strength and velocity of 
 the wind, was invented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind to 
 lie 93 miles x^er hour. Osier's and Whewell's anemometers were highly approved of in 1844, 
 
 ANEROID, See Barometer. 
 
 ANGEL, an ancient gold coin, weighing four ])ennyweights, was valued at 6s. 8^. in the 
 reign of Henry VI., and at 105. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The ancjelot, a gold coin, 
 value half an angel, Avas struck at Paris when held by the English, in 143 1. Wood. 
 
 ANGELIC KNIGHTS of St. Geokge. This order is said to have been instituted 
 in Greece, 456. The Angclici were instituted by the emperor Angelus Comnenus, 1191. 
 — The Anqelicce, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa Torelli, 1534. 
 
 ANGERS (AV. Central France), formerly the Roman city Juliomagus, possessing an amphi- 
 Iheatre ; afterwards Andegarum, the capital of the county of Anjou, ^oliicJi see. It was 
 frequently besieged, and many councils were held in it between 453 and 1448, relating to 
 (^^clesiastical discipline. 
 
 ANGERSTEIN GALLERY. See National Gallery. 
 
 ANGLESEY, called by the Romans Mona (N. Wales), the seat of the Druids, who were 
 massacred in great numbers, when Suetonius Paulinus took the isle, 6r. It was conquered 
 l)y Agricola, in 78 ; occupied by the Normans, 1090 ; and with the rest of Wales was annexed 
 by Edward I. in 1284. He built the fortress of Beaumaris in 1295. The Menai suspension 
 Tu'idge was erected 1818-25, ^^'^^ the Britannia tubular bridge 1849-50. 
 
 ANGLICAN CHURCH. See Church of England. 
 
 ANGLING. Its origin is uncertain ; allusion is made to it by the Greeks and Romans, 
 and in the Bible; Amos, iv. 2 (787 e.g.) 
 
 Oppian wrote liis " Halieutics," a Greek epic 
 poem on Fishes and Fishing, probably about 
 A.D. 198. 
 
 In the book on " Ilaickynge and Huntynge," by Juliana 
 Berners or Barnes, prioress of Sopwith, near St. 
 
 Albans, " emprinted at Westmestre by Wynkyn 
 de Worde," in 1496, is " The Treatise of fyssliyng 
 Kith CM Avgle. 
 Izaac Walton's "Complcai Angler " was first published 
 in 1653. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXONS, or Axgles, derive their name from a village near Sleswick, called 
 Anglen, whose population (called Angli by Tacitus,) joined the first Saxon freebooters, 
 lilast Anglia was a kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the xingles, one of whose chiefs, 
 Uffa, assumed the title of king, 571 ; the kingdom ceased in 792. See Britain. Cffidmon 
 paraphrased part of the Bible in Anglo-Saxon about 680 ; a translation of the gospels was 
 made by abbot Egbert, of lona, 721 ; of Boethius, Orosius, &c., by Alfred, 888. The Anglo- 
 Saxon laws were printed by order of government, in 1840. 
 
 ANGOLA (S. W. Africa), settled by the Portuguese soon after the discovery, by Diego 
 Cam, about i486. Loanda, their capital, was built 1578.- Their authority over the interio]' 
 is very limited. 
 
 ANGORA. See Ancyra. 
 
 ANGOULEME, capital of the old province of Angov.mois, Central France, W., was a 
 bishopric in 260. After sharing the fortunes of the country, Angouleme became an inde- 
 pendent county about 856. It was united to the French crown in 1308. It was held bj' 
 the English, 1360 to 1372, in the reign of Edward III. The count of Angouleme became 
 king of France as Francis I. in 15 15. 
 
 ANGRIA'S Fort. See India, 1756. 
 
 ANHALT, HotrsE of, in Germany, deduces its origin from Berenthobaldus, whomade 
 war upon the Thuringians in the sixth century. In 1606, the principality was divided 
 among the four sons of Joachim Ernest, by the eldest, John George. Tims began the four 
 
 I) 2 
 
ANH 36 ANN 
 
 lu'imches — Aulialt-Uessau (descended from John-George) ; Beniboiirg,* extinct, 1863 ; 
 Plotsgau or Coethen, extinct, 1847 ; and Zerhst, extinct, 1793. The princes of Auhalt 
 became dnkes in 1.809. 
 
 Duke OF Anh ALT (SH6jec<,4 181,824). •^«""> 1"'^ ^o"« Pi"'nce Frederic, bom April 29, 
 
 Leopold (born Oct. i, 1794', became duke of Anhalt- 1831. 
 Dessau, 1817, and of Aiihalt-Bernbourg 1863. 
 
 ANHOLT, Island of, Denmark, was taken possession of by England, May 18, 1809, in 
 the French war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring British commerce. The Danes 
 made an attempt to regain it with a force which exceeded 1000 men, but were gallantly 
 repulsed by the British force not amounting to more than 150, March 27, 181 1, 
 
 ANILINE, a basic oily body discovered in 1826 by Unverdorben among the products of 
 distillation of indigo. Beehamp, in 1856, obtained it from benzole by the successive treat- 
 ment of this substance with concentrated nitric acid and reducing agents. The scientific 
 relations of aniline have been carefully examined by several chemists, more especially by 
 Dr. A. "W. Hofmaun. It was long known to yield a series of coloured compounds, but it was 
 only in '1856 that Mr. W. A. Perkin showed how a violet oxidation-product (mauve) could 
 be applied in dyeing. Aniline is now manufactured upon a large scale for the commercial 
 production of " Mauve" and "Magenta" (rosaniline), and several other colouring matters. 
 
 ANIMALCULiE. Leeuwenhoek's researches in 1677 produced the most astonishing 
 revelations. His Arcana Natures was published at Leyden in 1696. The great Avorks of 
 Ehrenberg of Berlin, on the Infusorial Animalculre, &c., were issued 1838-57. Pritchard's 
 Infusoria, ed. i860, is a valuable summary of oiir present knowledge of animalculfe. 
 
 ANIMAL MAGNETISM was introduced by father Hehl, a Jesuit, at Vienna, about 
 1774 ; and had its dupes in France and England in about i7S8-89.t See Mesmerism. 
 
 ANIMALS, Cruelty to. The late Mr. Martin, M.P., as a senator, zealously laboured 
 to repress this odious offence ; and a society in London, which was established in 1824, 
 effects much good this way. See Crueltij to Animals Society. Jlr. Martin's act passed 
 3 Geo. IV. (1822). Similar acts Avere passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs 
 were forbidden to be used for draught by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 47 (1839). 
 
 ANJOU, a province in France, was inherited by Henry II. of England from his father 
 Geoffrey Plantagenet, coimt of Anjou, who married the empress Matilda in 1127. It was 
 taken from his son John by Philip of France in 1205 ; was reconquered by Edward III., but 
 relinquished by him in 1360 ; and Avas given by Charles V. to his brother Louis with the 
 title of duke. It afterwards became an appanage of the French croAATi. The \iniversity 
 was formed in 1349. 
 
 DUKES OF ANJOU. 
 
 of Naples, 1433 ; his daughter, Margaret, 
 man-led Henry VI. of England, 1445 ; he was 
 expelled from Anjou by Louis XL, 1474, and 
 his estates confiscated. 
 Francis, duke of Alen<;on, brother to Henry IIL 
 of France, became duke of Anjou ; at one 
 time he favoured the protestants, and vainly 
 offered marriage to Elizabeth of England, 
 1581-82; died 1584. 
 
 1360. Louis I. invested by the pope with the 
 
 dominions of Joanna of Naples, 1381 ; his 
 
 invading army destroyed by the plague, 1383 ; 
 
 he dies, 1384. 
 1384. Louis II., his son, receives the same grant, 
 
 but is also unsuccessful. 
 Louis III., adopted by Joanna as heir; dies 
 
 1434. 
 1434. Kegiiier or Renfie (a prisoner) declared king 
 
 ANJOU, OR Beaug:^, Battle of, betAveen the English and French ; the latter com- 
 manded by the dauphin of France, March 22, 1421. The English Avere defeated : the duke 
 of Clarence was slain by sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, and 1 500 men perished on the 
 field ; the earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Huntingdon Avere taken prisoners. Beaug^ was 
 the first battle that turned the tide of success against the English. 
 
 ANNAM, OR Anam, an empire of Asia, to the east of India, comprising Tonquin, Cochin 
 China, part of Cambodia, and various islands in the Chinese Sea ; said to have been 
 conquered by the Chine.se 234 b.c, and held by them till a.d. 263. In 1406 they recon- 
 
 * Alexander, the last duke of Anhalt-Bernbourg, (bom March 2, 1805 ; duke, March 24, 1834 ;) died 
 without issue, Aug. 22, 1863, when his duchy reverted to the duke of Anhalt-Dessau. 
 
 t It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympatlietic affection between 
 the sick person and the operator. The effect on the patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of 
 the fingers and features of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose eyes 
 were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagination and enfeebled mind of the sick, 
 and performing a number of distortions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. Hehl, for a 
 short time associated with Mesmer, but they soon quaiTelled. — Mr. Perkins (who died in 1799) invented 
 " Metallic Tractors for collecting, condensing, and applying animal magnetism;" but Drs. Falconer and 
 Ilaygarth put an end to his pretensions by performing many wonders with a pair of wooden tractors. 
 Brandt. 
 
ANN 37 ANO 
 
 quered it, but abandoned it in 1428. After mucli anarcliy, bishop Adran, a French 
 missionary, obtained the friendship of Louis XVI. for his pupil Gia-long, tlie son of tlie 
 nominally reigning monarch, and with the aid of a few of his countrymen established Gia- 
 long on the throne, who reigned till his death in 1821, when his sou became king. In 1859 
 war broke out with the French, who defeated the arm}' of Annam, 10,000 strong, about 
 April 22, when 500 were killed. On June 3, 1S62, peace was made ; three provinces were 
 ceded to the French, and toleration of the Christians granted. An insurrection in these 
 ]>rovinces against the French, begun aboirt Dec. 17, 1862, was suppressed in Feb. 1863. 
 Ambassadors sent from Annam with the view of regaining the ceded provinces arrived at 
 Paris in Sept. 1863, had no sirccess. A new treaty with France was concluded July 26, 
 1864, which established a French protectorate, toleration for Christian missionaries, &c. 
 
 ANNATES. See First Fridls. 
 
 ANNO DOMINI, a.I)., the year of Our Lord, of Grace, of the Incarnation, of the Cir- 
 cumcision, and of the Crucifixion (Trabeationis). The Christian era commenced Jau. i, in 
 the middle of the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd year of the building of Rome, 
 and in 4714 of the Julian period. It is now held that Christ was born Friday, April 5, 
 4 B.C. This era was invented by a monk, Dionysius Exiguus, about 532. It was intro- 
 duced into Italy in the 6th century, and ordered to be used by bishops by the council of 
 Chelsea, in 816, but not generally employed for several centuries. Charles III. of Germany 
 was the first who added "in the year of our Lord" to his reign, in 879. 
 
 "ANNOYANCE JURIES," of Westminster, chosen from the householders in conformity 
 with 27 Eliz. c. 17 (1585), were abolished in 1861. 
 
 ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the history of each year (beginning with 1758, and 
 continued to the present time), was commenced by R. & J. Dodsley. (Edmund Burke at 
 first wrote the whole work, but afterwards became only an occasional contributor. Prior.) 
 The somewhat similar but more elaborate work, the "Annuaire des Deux Mondes," began in 
 Paris in 1850. 
 
 ANNUALS, the name given to richly bound volumes, containing poetry, tales, and essays, 
 by eminent authors, illustrated by engravings, published annually. They were imitations 
 of similar books in Germany, and first appeared in London in 1823. The duration of the 
 chief of these publications is here given : 
 
 Forget-me-not (Ackerman's) . . . 1823 — 48 
 
 Friendship's Offering 1824—44 
 
 Literary Souvenir (first as " the Graces ") 1824 — 34 
 
 Amulet 1827—34 
 
 K^eepsake 1828—56 
 
 Hood's Comic Annual 1830 — 38 
 
 ANNUITIES, OR Pensions, were first granted in 15 12, when 20I. were given to a lady 
 of the court for services done ; and 61. 13s. 4rZ. for the maintenance of a gentleman, 1536. 
 12,1. 6s. 8d. deemed comipetent to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 1554. An 
 act was passed empowering the government to borrow one million sterling upon an annuity 
 of fourteen per cent., 4 — 6 "Will. & Mary, 1691-3. This mode of borrowing soon afterwards 
 became general among civilised governments. An annuity of iZ 2s. iicl. -per annum, accu- 
 mulating at loiMT cent, compound interest, amounts in 100 years to 20,oooZ. The Govern- 
 ment Annuities and Life Assurances Act was passed in 1864, for the benefit of the Avorking 
 classes ; since it enables the government to grant deferred annuities on condition that the 
 sum required may be payable in small instalments. 
 
 ANNUITY TAX : a tax levied to provide stipends for ministers in Edinburgh and 
 Montrose, and which caused much disafitection, was abolished in i860, and other provisions 
 made for the purpose. These, however, have proved equally unpalatable. 
 
 ANNUNCIATION of the Virgin Mary, the 25th of March, Lady-day {wUch see). 
 A festival commemorating the tidings brought to Mary by the angel Gabriel [Luke i. 26) : its 
 origin is referred variously by ecclesiastical writers to the fourth and seventh century. The 
 religious order of the Annunciation was instituted in 1232, and the 'niilitary order, in Savov, 
 by Amadeus, count of Savoy in memory of Amadeus I., who had bravely defended Rhodes 
 against the Turks, 1355. 
 
 ANOINTING, an ancient ceremony observed at the inauguration of kings, bishops, and 
 other eminent personages. Aaron was anointed as high priest, B.C. 1491; and Saul, as king, 
 B.C. 1095. Alfred the Great is said to have been the first English king anointed, a.d. 871 ; 
 and Edgar of Scotland, 1098. — The religious rite is derived from the epistle oi James, ch. v. 
 14, about A.D. 60. Some authors assert that in 550, dying persons, and persons in extreme 
 danger of death, were anointed with consecrated oil, and that this was the origin of Extreme 
 Unction (one of the sacraments of the Roman Catholic church). 
 
AXO 38 A XT 
 
 ANONYMOUS LETTEIJS. The sending of auoiiymou.s letters denouncing pcrson.s, or 
 flemanding moncj', or using threats to obtain money, was made felony by the Black Ael, y 
 Geo. I. (1722). ^i:e ThrcateniiKj Letters, 
 
 ANTAJX'IDAS, Tkace of. In 387 n.c. Antalcidas the Lacediemonian made peace witii 
 Artaxerxcs of Tersia, strongly in favour of Sjjarta, and generally in favour of Greece, but 
 giving up the cities of louia to the king. 
 
 ANTARCTIC POLE, the opposite to the north or arctic pole. See Southern Continent. 
 
 ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. AVliiston, the nimiber of people in 
 the ancient world, as it existed previous to the Flood, reached to the enormous amount of 
 549,755 millions in the year of the world 1482.* 
 
 ANTHEMS, OK Hymns (see Hymns). Hilary, bishop of Poictiei-s, and St. Ambrose were 
 the first who composed them, about the middle of the foui-th centuiy. Lcnrjlet. They were 
 introduced into the church service in 386. Balccr. Ignatius is said to have introduced 
 them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the Western Church. They were introduced 
 into the Reformed churches in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. 
 
 ANTHROPOPHAGI (caters of human flesh) have existed in all ages of the woild. 
 Homer says that the Cyclops and Lestrygones were such ; and the Essedonian Scythians 
 were so, according to Herodotus. Diogenes asserted that we might as ■\\ell eat the flesh of 
 men as that of other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa and the South Sea 
 Islands. The annals of Milan assert that a ililanesc woman, named Elizabeth, had an 
 invincible inclination to human flesh ; she enticed children to her house, and killed and 
 salted them ; and on a discovery being made, she was broken on the wheel and burnt, in 
 15 19. Cannibals were detected in Perthshire about 1339. 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY {anthrupos, Greek, man) fur promoting the science of 
 man and mankind, held its first meeting on Feb. 24, 1863. Dr. James Himt, president, in 
 the chair. The "Anthropological Review" first came out in May, 1863. 
 
 ANTICHRIST (opponent of Christ), the name given by St. John (i Ep. ii. 18) to him 
 whom St. Paid calls the Man of Sin (2 Thess. ii. 3), who, as some assert, at the latter end 
 of the world, is to appear very remarkably in opposition to Christianity. + 
 
 ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an association formed for the purpose of procuring the 
 repeal of the laws charging duty on the importation of foreign corn. Sec Corn-Lav:s. 1 L 
 sprang from various metropolitan and provincial a.ssociations (1834-8), headed by Messrs. C. 
 Yilliers, R. Cobdcn, J. Bright, &c. See Protectionists. 
 
 The Anti-Corn-Law League funned at Man- ; Baziwr at Covent- Garden opened . . Mays, 'S-13 
 
 Chester Sept. 18, 1838 , Great Manchester ineethig, at wliich the 
 
 Meetings held in various places March «fc April, 184X1 League proposed to rai.'jo a (piarter of a 
 
 E.xcited meeting at Manchostcr . May 18, ,, \ million sterling .... Dec. 23, ,. 
 
 A bazaar held at Manchester, at which the . The Corn Imjiortation Bill having passed,. Juno 
 
 League realised lo.oooL . . . Feb. h, 1842' 26 ; the League is formally l?i«»o^4•erf,• and Mr. 
 
 About 600 deputies connected with provincial | t'obden vs'as rewarded by a nationiil suli- 
 
 asRociations assemble in I,oudoxi, J'eb. — Aug. „ ; scription, amounting to nearly 80,000'. 
 
 The League at Manchester proposed to raise ! July 2, 1846 
 
 50,000!., to depute lecturers throughout the -Appointment of the Derby ministry, a revival 
 
 counti-y, and to print pamphlets Oct. 20, „ ' of the Anti-Com-Law League was proposed 
 
 rii-st meeting at Drury-lane Theatre, March 15, 1843 •■ at a meeting held at Manchester, and a sub- 
 
 fecries of monthly meetings at C'ovent-Garden, | scription for the purpose was opened, which 
 
 eommenced Sept. 28; and great free-trade 1 produced withhi half an hour 27, 520?. Mar. 2, i85-j 
 
 meeting .at Manchester Nov. 14, 1843, and [Subsequently, the reconstruction of the League 
 
 Jan. 22, 1845 i was deemed to be unnecessary.] 
 
 * Buniet has supposed that the first human pair might have left, at the end of the first centuiy, ten 
 nuirried couples ; ancl from these, allowing them to multiply in the same decuple proportion .as the first 
 ])nir did, would rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the e.arth was cap.able of holduig. 
 He therefore suggc-it.s a quadniplo multiplication only ; and then exhibits the following table of increase 
 during the first sixteen centuries that preceded the Flood (at least ten times the present number of 
 mankind) :— 
 
 t to I \'. . -,560 
 
 II. . . . . 40 VI. . . T0,2.)0 
 
 III. . i6<3 I Vll. 40,960 
 ini 0.40 I VIII. . . iGj,8.io 
 
 t liis reign, it is sui>poseil, \vill eoiitinuo three years and a half, duruig which time there will be a 
 persecution. This is the opinion of the Koinaii Catholics ; but the Protestants, as they differ from them, 
 so they differ among themselves. Grotius and Dr. Hammond suijposc the time to be past, and the cha- 
 racters to be furnished in the jiersons of C.abgula, Simon Magus, .and the Guo.stics. Some have believed 
 the pojie to be the true .\ntichrist, as at the council held .at (iap, in 1603. Many consider that the king- 
 dom of .\ntiobrist comprchonds all who are ojiposod to ("'hrist, openly or secretly. 
 
 IX. 
 X. 
 M. . 
 
 655,360 
 
 2,621,440 
 
 . 10,485,760 
 
 XIII. 
 
 XIV. . 
 
 XV. . 
 
 167,172,160 
 
 671,088,640 
 
 • =,''84,354,560 
 
 Xll. . 
 
 ■ • 41,943,040 
 
 XM. 
 
 • '0,7371418,240 
 
ANT 39 ANT 
 
 ANTIETAM CREEK, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, IT. S. Here was fought a terrible, 
 battle on Sept. 17, 1862, between the Federals under general M'Clellan and the Confederates 
 tinder Lee. The latter after his Adctory at Bull Hun or Manassas, Aug. 30, having invaded 
 Maryland, was immediately followed by M'Clellan. On the l6th Lee was joined by Jackson, 
 and at five o'clock next morning the conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, and 
 the conflict raged with great fury from daylight to dark. The Federals were repeatedlv 
 repulsed ; but eventually "the Confederates retreated and repassed the Potomac on Sept. iS 
 and 19. The loss of the Federals was estimated at 12,469 ; of the Confederates, 14,000. 
 
 ANTIGUA, a West India Island, discovered by Columbus in Nov. 1493 ; settled by ths 
 English in 1632 ; made a bishopric, 1842. Poiralation in 1861, 36,412. 
 
 ANTILLES, an early name of the West Indies, ^cMcJi sec. 
 
 ANTIMONY, a white brittle metal. Compounds of this mineral were early known, and 
 a[)plied. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and women's eyes, as appears from 
 2 kinr/s ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 30, and in eastern countries it is used to this day. When 
 mixed with lead it forms printing type metal. Basil Yalentine wrote on antimony about 
 1 4 10. Priestley. 
 
 ANTINOMIANS (from the Gree\ anti, against, and 7iomos, law), a name given by Luther 
 (in 1538) to John Agricola, who is said to have held "that it mattered not how wicked a 
 man Avas if he had but faith." (Opposed to Rom. iii. 28, and v. i, 2). He retracted in 
 1540. Tliese doctrines were condemned by the British parliament, 1648. 
 
 ANTIOCH, Syria, built by Seleucus, 300 B.C., after the battle of Ipsus, in such grandeur 
 as to acquire the name " Queen of the East." Here the disciples were first called Christians, 
 A.D. 42 (Acti xi. 26). Antioch was taken by the Persians, 540 ; by the Saracens about 638 ; 
 recovered for the Eastern emperor, 966 ; lost again in 1086 ; retaken by the Crusaders in 
 1098, and held by them till 1268, when it was captured by the Sultan of Egj'pt. It was 
 taken from the Turks in the Syrian war, Aug. i, 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, but restored at the 
 peace.— The Era of Antioch is much used by tlie early Christian writers of Antioch and 
 Alexandria ; it placed the Creation 5492 years r.c. 
 
 ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that antipodes existed 
 (about 368 B.C.). Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of pope Zachary, is said to have 
 tleuounced a bishop as a heretic for maintaining this doctrine, a.d. 741. The antipodes of 
 England lie to the south-east of New Zealand, near Antipodes Island. BrooJces. 
 
 ANTI-POPES, rival popes elected at A-arious times, especially by the French and Italian 
 factions, from 1305 to 1439. In the article Popes, the Anti-popes are printed in italics, 
 
 ANTIQUAEIES. A college of antiquaries is said to have existed in Ireland 700 
 years b.c. 
 
 A society was founded by arclibishop Parker, Cam- 
 den, Stow, and others in 1572. Spelman. 
 
 Ai-iplication was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for a 
 charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, 
 James I., was far from favouring ihe design. 
 
 The Society of Antiquaries revived, 1707 ; received 
 its charter of incorporation from George II., 1751 ; 
 and apartments in Somerset-house granted to it 
 in 1777. Its Memoirs, entitled Archwologia, first 
 published in 1770; present jji-esident, earl Stan- 
 hoj)e, elected, 1846. 
 
 Biitish Archa3ological Association founded Dee. 
 
 1843; the Archajological Institute of Great 
 
 Britain was formed by a seceding part of the 
 
 Association, 1845. Journals are published by 
 
 both societies. 
 Society of Antiquaries of Edinbui'gh founded in 
 
 1780. 
 Since 1845 many county archaeological societies 
 
 have been formed in the United Kingdom. 
 The Society of Antiquaries of France (1814) began iu 
 
 1005 as the Celtic Academy. 
 
 ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been the first 
 who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the second century. _ This 
 doctrine, advocated by Arius about 318, spread widely after the Reformation, when it was 
 adopted by Ltelius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. See Atians, Socinians, Unitarians. 
 
 ANTIUM, maritime city of Latium, now Porto d'Anzio, near Rome, after a long struggle 
 ibr independence, became a Roman colony, at the end of the great Latin war, 340-338 e.g. 
 Tt was mentioned by Horace, and was a favourite retreat of the emperors and wealthy 
 Romans, who erected many villas in its vicinity. The treasures deposited in the temple of 
 Fortune here were taken by Octavius Cjesar during his war with Antony, 41 b. c. 
 
 AKTWERP, the principal sea-port of Belgium, is mentioned in history in A.D. 517. It 
 
APA 
 
 40 
 
 APO 
 
 Wi\s a small republic in the cleventli century, 
 till the wars of the i6th and 17th centuries. 
 
 Its fine exchange built in 1531 j 
 
 Taken after a long siege by the prince of Pai-ma 1 585 j 
 Truce of Antwerp (between Spain and United 
 
 Provinces) 1609 
 
 Much injured by the imposition of a toll on the [ 
 
 Scheldt by the treaty of Mtinster . . . 1648 | 
 After Marlborough's victory at Ramillies, 
 
 Antwerp sm-renders without firing a shot j 
 
 June 6, 1706 ' 
 The Ban-ier treaty concluded here Nov. 16, 1715 ! 
 Taken by marshal Saxe ...... 1746 
 
 Occupied by the French . . 1792-3,1794-1814 
 
 Civil war between the Belgians and the House 
 
 of Orange. See Belgium . . . 1830-31 
 
 The Belgian troops, having entered Antwerp, 
 
 were opxJosed by the Dutch garrison, who. 
 
 It was the first commercial city in Europe 
 
 after a dreadful conflict, being driven into 
 the citadel, cannonaded the town with red- 
 hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief 
 
 Oct. 27, 1830 
 The citadel bombarded by the French, Dec. 4 ; 
 
 suiTcndered by gen. Chas.s^ . . Dec. 23, 1832 
 The exchange burnt ; and valuable archives, 
 
 &c. destroyed .... Aug.' 2, 1858 
 
 Proposal to strengthen the fortifications adopted 
 
 Aug. 1859 
 A Fine Art fete held . . . Aug. 17-20 1861 
 j Groat Napoleon wharf destroyed by fire, loss 25 
 t lives and about 400,000/. . . Dec. 2 „ 
 
 Great fete at the opening of the port by the 
 aboUtion of the Scheldt dues . . Aug. 3, 1863 
 
 APATITE, mineral plios])hate of lime. About 1856 it began to be largely employed as 
 manure. It is abundant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small West India island. 
 
 APOCALYPSE, OE Rea'ELATion, written by St. John in the isle of Patmos about 95. 
 Ircnceus. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and others to John, 
 the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the 
 fourth century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was 
 again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in 154S, et seq. 
 Although the book has been rejected by Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority 
 questioned in all ages, from the time of Justin Martyr (who wrote his first Apology for 
 the Christians in a.d. 139), yet its canonical authority is still almost universally ac- 
 knowledged. 
 
 APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, " These books are neyther 
 found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." JBiblc, 1539. The history of the Apocrypha 
 ends 135 B.C. The books were not in the Jewish canon, were rejected at the council of 
 Laodicea aboxit A.D. 366, but were received as canonical by the Roman Catliolic church, at 
 the council of Trent on April 8, 1546. Parts of the Apocrypha are read as lessons by 
 the Anglican church. 
 
 1 Esdras, from about B.c 
 
 2 Esdras ,, 
 Tobit 
 
 Judith „ 
 Esther 
 
 445 I Wisdom of Solomon . . * * 
 , . . * * Ecclesiasticus (John) 300 or 180 
 , . . 734-678 Baruch . . . * * . 
 
 „ . . 656 Song of the Three Children * * 
 
 , • . . 510 I History of Susannah . * . * ; 
 
 There are also Apocryphal writings in connection with the New Testament. 
 
 Bel and the Dragon . . * * 
 Prayer of Manasses b. c. 676 
 
 1 Maccabees, about . . 323-135 
 
 2 Maccabees, from about . 187-161 
 
 APOLLINARISTS, followers of ApoUinaris, a reader in the church of Laodicea, who taught 
 (366) that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; that his flesh was pre- 
 existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent down from heaven, and conveyed 
 through the Virgin, as through a channel ; that there were two sons, one born of God, the 
 other of tlie Virgin, &c. These opinions were condemned by the council of Constanti- 
 nople, 381. 
 
 APOLLO, the god of the fine arts, medicine, music, poetry, and eloquence, had many 
 temples and statues erected to him, particularly in Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most 
 splendid temple was at Delphi, built 1263 13. c. See Delphi. His temple at Daphne, built 
 434 B. c. , during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt A. x>. 362, and the Christians 
 were accused of tlie crime. LengleL The statue of Apollo Belvedere, discovered in the 
 remains of Autium, in Italy, in 1503, was purchased by pope Julius II., who placed it in 
 the Vatican. 
 
 APOTyLONlCON", an elaborate musical instrument, constructed on the principle of the 
 organ, was invented by Messrs. Flight and Robsou, of St. Martin's lane, Westminster, and 
 exhibitedby tliem first in 1817, Timbs. 
 
 APOSTLES (Greek cqmstolos, one sent forth). Twelve were appointed by Christ, 31 ; 
 viz. Simon Peter and Andrew (brothers), James and John (sons of Zebedee), PhUip, Nathanael 
 (or Bartholomew), Matthew (Levi), Thomas, James the Less (son of Alphfeus), Simon the 
 Canaanite and Jude or Thaddseus (brothers), and Judas Iscariot. Matthias was elected in 
 the room of Judas Iscariot, 33 {Acts \.) ; aud Paul and Barnab;is were appointed by the Holy 
 Spirit, A.D. 45 {Acts xiii. 2). 
 
APO 41 APP 
 
 APOSTLES' CREED, a summary of the Christian faith, attributed to the apostles, is 
 mentioned by Ruffinus, 390, and is generally believed to have been gradually composed 
 a great while after their time. Irenseus, bishop of Lyons (a.d. 177), gives a similar creed. 
 Its repetition in piTblic worship was ordained in the Greek church at Autioch, and in the 
 Roman church in the nth century, whence it passed to the Church of England. 
 
 APOSTOLICI, a sect which arose at the end of the 2nd century ; they renounced 
 marriage, wine, flesh, meats, &c. A second sect was founded by Segarelli about 126 1. 
 They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled hair, and bare heads, 
 accompanied by women wliora they called their spiritual sisters, preaching against the 
 growing corruption of the church of Rome, and predicting its downfall. They renounced 
 baptism, the mass, purgatory, &c., and by their enemies are accused of gross licentiousness. 
 Segarelli was burnt alive at Parma in 1300 during a crusade against his followers, who w-ere 
 all dispersed in 1307. 
 
 APOTHECARY (literally a keeper of a storehouse). On Oct. 10, 1345, EdAvard III. 
 settled six pence ^jer diem for life on Coursus de Gaugeland, " Apothecarius London," iov 
 taking care of him during his severe illness in Scotland. Rymer's Fcadcra. Apothecaries 
 were exempted from serving on juries or other civil offices in 1712. The London Apothecaries' 
 Company was separated from the Grocers' and incorporated 1617. Their hall was built in 
 1670 ; and then- practice regulated and their authority extended over all England, by 55 
 Geo. III. c. 19 (1815), amended by 6 Geo. IV. c. 133 (1825). The Botanical Gardenat 
 Chelsea was left by sir Hans Sloane to the company of Apothecaries, Jan. 1753, on condition 
 of their introducing every year fifty new plants, until their number should amount to 2000. 
 The Dublin guild was incorporated, 1745. See Plmrmacij. 
 
 APOTHEOSIS, a ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, by which they raised 
 their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The deifying a deceased emperor was begun at 
 Rome by Augustus, in favoiu- of Julius Ceesar, B.C. 13. TilUmont. 
 
 APPEAL, OR Assize op Battle. By the old laAV of England, a man charged with 
 murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or innocence. In 
 1 81 7, a young maid, Mary Ashford, Avas believed to have been violated and murdered by 
 Abraham Thornton, who, in an appeal, claimed his right by his Avager of battle, which the 
 court alloAved ; but the appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the 
 accused escaped, April 16, 1818. This laAV was immediately afterwards struck fi-om oft" the 
 statute-book, by 59 Geo. III. (1819). 
 
 APPEALS. In the time of Alfred (a.d. 869-901), appeals lay from courts of justice to the 
 king in council ; but being soon overwhelmed Avith appeals from all parts of England, he 
 framed the body of laAVs Avhich long served as the basis of English jurisprudence. The house 
 of lords is the highest court of appeal in civil causes. Courts of appeal at the Exchequer 
 Chamber, in error from the judgments of the King's Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer, 
 Avere regulated by statutes in 1830 and 1831. Appeals from English tribunals to the pope 
 were first introduced about 1151 ; Avere long vainly opposed, and Avere finally abolished by 
 Henry VIII. in 1534. See Privy Council. 
 
 APPENZELL, a Swiss canton, thrcAV off the feudal supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall 
 early in the 15th century, and became the thirteenth member of the Swiss confederation 
 ill 1513- 
 
 APPIAlSr "WAY, an ancient Roman road, made by Appius Claudius Csecus, Avhile 
 censor, 312 B.C. 
 
 APPLES. Several kinds are indigenous to England ; but those in general use have been 
 brought at various times from the continent. Richard Harris, fruiterer to Henry VIIL, is 
 said to have planted a great number of the orchards in Kent, and Lord Scudamore, ambas- 
 sador to France in the reign of Charles I., planted many of those in Herefordshii'e. Ray 
 reckons 78 varieties of apples in his day (1688). 
 
 APPRAISERS. The valuation of goods for another was an early business in England ; 
 and so early as 1283, by the statute of merchants, "it Avas enacted that if they valued tlie 
 goods of parties too high, the appraisers should take them at such price as they have limited. " 
 In 1845 their annual licence Avas raised from los. to 405. 
 
 APPRENTICES. Those of London Avere obliged to Avear Wue cloaks in summer, and 
 blue gOAvns in Avinter, in the reign of queen Ehzabeth, 1558. Ten pounds Avas then a great 
 apprentice fee. From tAventy to one hundred pounds Avere given in the reign of James I. 
 Stow's Survey. The apprentice tax, enacted 43 Geo. III. 1802. An act for the protection 
 
APP 42 AQU 
 
 of apprentices, &c., was passed in 1851, The term of seven years, not to expire till tlio 
 apprentice was 24 years old, required by the statute of Elizabeth (1563), was abolished in 
 1814. The apprentices of London have been at times very riotous ; they rose into insurrection 
 against foreigners on Evil May-day, which see. 
 
 APPIIOPEIATION CLAUSE, or the Irish Tithe Bill of 1835, brought fonvard by lord 
 John Russell, whereby any snijilus revenue that might accrue by the Avorking of the act was 
 to be appi'opriated for the education of all classes of the peojile. The clause was adopted by 
 the commons but rejected by the loids in 1835 and 1836, whereupon it was totally 
 abandoned. 
 
 APPROPRIATIONS (property taken from the church), began in the time of William I., 
 the parochial clergy being tlien commonly Saxons, and the bishojis and higher clergy 
 Normans. These impoverished the inferior clergy to enrich monasteries, which Avem 
 generally possessed by the concpieror's friends, Wliei'e the churches and titlies were so 
 appropriated, the vicar had only such a com])etency as the bishop or superior thought lit ti> 
 iiUow. Pope Alexander IV. complained of this as the bane of religion, the destruction of 
 the church, and a poison that had infected tlie A\hole nation. Pardon. 
 
 APRICOT, Primus Armoiiaca, iirst planted in England about 1540, by the'gardener of 
 Henry \lll. It originally came from Asia ilinor. 
 
 APRIL, the fourtli month of our year, the second of the ancient Romans. 
 
 APTERYX (wingless), a bird, a native of New Zealand, first brought to this country in 
 1813, and deposited in the collection of the earl of Derby. Fossil specimens of a gigantic 
 species of this bird (named Uuiornis) were discovered in New Zealand by Mr. Walter llantcll 
 in 1843, and since. 
 
 APULIA, a province in S. E. Italy, conquered liy the Normans, whose leader Guiscard 
 leceived the title of duke of Apulia from pope Nicholas II. in 1059. After man)' changes 
 of masters, it was absorbed into the kingdom of Naples, in 1265. 
 
 AQUARII, a sect said to have been founded by Tatian in the 2nd century, who forbore 
 the use of wine even in the sacrament, and used nothing but water, during persecution when 
 they met secretly in the night, for fear of discovery. For this they Averc censured by 
 Cyprian (martyred 258). 
 
 AQUARIUM on AciUAVivArJU.\r, a vessel containing water (marine or fresh) in which 
 animals and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each other ; snails being introduced 
 as scavengers. In 1S49, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing sea-weeds in artificial sea- 
 water ; in 1850, Mr. R. Warington den^onstrated the conditions necessary for the growth of 
 animals and plants in jars of water ; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological Gardens, 
 Regent's Park, were set up under the skilful direction of Mr. D. Mitchell. In 1854, Mr. 
 Gosse published "The Aquarium." Mr. W. Alford Lloyd, late of Portland-road, Loudon, 
 by his enterprise in collecting specimens did much to increase the value and interest of 
 aquaria. The great aquarium (50 yards long and 12 wide) at the Jardin d'Acclimatation at 
 Paris, was constructed under his direction in i860. 
 
 AQUATINT. See Engraving. 
 
 AQUEDUCT, an artificial Avatercourse on an inclined ])liuie. No remains of Greek 
 aqueducts exist. Appius Claudius advised and constnicted the first Roman aqueduct, as well 
 as the Aj}2nan way, about 312 B.C. Aqueducts of every kind were among the wonders of 
 Rome. Livy. There are now some remarkable aqueducts in Europe : that at Lisbon is of 
 great extent and beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three 
 miles long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupendous 
 aqueduct on the EUesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and 126 feet high ; it 
 was completed by T. Telford, and opened Dec. 26, 1805. The Lisbon aqueduct was com- 
 pleted in 1738, and the Croton aqueduct, near New York, was constructed between 1837 and 
 1842. The aqueduct to supply Marseilles with water was commenced in 1830. 
 
 AQUILEIA (Istria), made a Roman colony about 180 B.C., and fortified a.d. 168. 
 Constantine II. Avas slain in a battle with Constans, fought at Aipiileia towards the close of 
 ^larch 340. Maximus defeated and slain bj^ Theodosius, near Aquileia July 28, 388. 
 Theodosius defeated Eugenius and x\rbogastcs, the Gaul, near Aquileia, and remained sole 
 emperor, Sept. 6, 394. Eugenius was ]>ut to death, and Arbogastes died by his own hand, 
 mortified by his overthroAV. St. ^\mbrose held a synod here in 381. In 452 Aquileia Avas 
 almost totally destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 489 Theodoric and the Ostrogoths 
 totally defeated Odoacer, the king of Italy. 
 
AQXJ 43 AEC 
 
 AQUITAINE, <a province (S.W. Friincc). Subdued by the Yisigotlis, 418, iuid taken 
 IVoni them by Clovis in 507. Henry II. of England inherited it from his mother, 1152. It^vas 
 erected into a principality for Edivard the Black Prince in 1362 ; but was annexed to France 
 in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on the 
 com [uest of this duchy by Henry V. in 141 8. The province was lost in the reign of Henry A" 1 . 
 
 AlJzVBIA (W. Asia). The terms Pdrcca (stony), FdU (happy), and Dcserla are said to 
 have been applied to its divisions by Ptolemy, abont A.D. 140. The Arabs claim descent 
 JVom Ishmael, the eldest son of Abraham, born 19 10 B.C., Gen. xvi. The country was unsnc- 
 cessfully invaded by Gallus, the Roman governor of Egypt, 24 B.C. In a.d. 622, the Arabians 
 under the name of Saracens, followers of Mahomet (born at Mecca, 570), their general and 
 proxihet, commenced their course of conquest. See Maliomctanism. The Arabs greatly favoured 
 literature and the sciences, especially mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry. To them we 
 owe our ordinary numerals and arithmetical notation. The Koi'an was written in Arabic 
 ^622-632). The Bible was printed in Arabic in 1671. 
 
 ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS (or looi Tales) were translated into French 
 by tialland, and published in 1704 ; but their authenticity was not acknoAvlcdged till many 
 years after. The best English translation from the Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, pub- 
 lished in 1839, with valuable notes and beautiful illustrations. 
 
 ARABICI, a sect which sprung up in Arabia, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the 
 soul died with the body, and rose again with it, 207. 
 
 ARAGON, part of the Roman Tarraconensis, a kingdom, N. E. Spain. It was 
 conquered by the Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans abont 200 B.C. It jiar- 
 took of the fortunes of the country, but became an independent monarchy in 1035. Sec 
 under /S^jauz. 
 
 ARAM, the ancient name of Syria, wlikh sec. 
 
 ARANJ UEZ (Central Sxiain), contains a fnie royal palace, at which several important 
 treaties were concluded. On March 17, 1808, an insurrection broke out here against Charles 
 IV. and bis favourite, Godoy, the prince of peace. The former was compelled to abdicate in 
 favour of his son, Ferdinand VII. 
 
 ARBELA. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius 
 Codomanus decided the fate of Persia, Oct. i, 331 B.C., on a plain in A.ssyria, between Arbela 
 and Gaugamela. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 40,000 horse; the 
 Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. Airian. The gold and 
 silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, Avhich fell to Alexander from thin 
 victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling ; and the jewels and other precious spoil, 
 belonging to Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5000 camels. Plutarch. 
 
 ARBITRATION. Submission to arbitration was authorised and made equivalent in 
 Ibice to the decision of a jxiry, by 9 & 10 "Will. III. (1698). Submissions to arbitration may 
 be made rules of an}^ court of laAV or equity, and arbitrators may compel the attendance of 
 Avitnesses, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 42 (1833). See Ouzel Galley. The Common Law Procedure 
 Act (1854) authorises the jxidges of su]5erior courts to order compulsory arbitration ; and, by 
 an act passed in 1859, railway companies may settle disputes with each other by arbitration. 
 
 ARBUTUS. The Arluius And recline, oriental strawberry-tree, was brought to England 
 from the Levant about 1 724. 
 
 ARCADES, OR Walks arched over. The principal in London are the Burlington - 
 arcade, opened in March, 1819 ; and the Lowther-arcade, Strand, opened at the period of the 
 Strand improvements. See Strand. Exeter Change, London, Avas rebuilt and opened in 
 1845. See Exeter Change. The Royal-arcade, Dublin, opened June, 1820, ivas burnt to the 
 ground, April 25, 1837. 
 
 ARCADIA, in the centre of the Peloponnesus, Grcci'C. The Ai'cadians regarded their 
 nation as the most ancient of Greece, and older than the moon (Proselsnl, which word 
 Doderlein conjectures to mean Pre-Hellenic). They were more simple in their manners and 
 moderate in their desires than the other Greeks, from whom they were separated by 
 mountains. Pelasgus is said to Lave taught them to feed on acorns, as being more nutritious 
 tiian herbs, their foi'mer food ; for which they honoured him as a god, 152 1 B.C. Arcadia 
 bad twenty-fivo kings, wlioso history is altogether faltuloun. 
 
is abolished by the Thebans ; Megalopolis 
 
 founded by Epaminondas 371 
 
 The Arcadians make alliance with Athens, and 
 arc defeated bj' Archidamus .... 367 
 
 ARC 44 ARC 
 
 ARCADIA (continued). 
 
 Magna Gvfecia, in S. Italy, said to have been I beaten by the women of the country, in the 
 
 colonised by Arcadians under CEnotrus, about | absence of their husbands (?) . . B.C. 
 
 1710 B.C. ; and under Evander . . B.C. 1240 1 Ari.stocrates I. (of Orchomenus) is put to death 
 
 Pelasgus begins his reign 1521 for offering violence to the priestess of Diana 
 
 Supposed institution of the Lupercalia, in Aristocrates II. stoned to death, and a republic 
 honour of Jupiter by Lycaon ; reigned. . 1514 established 
 
 Areas, from whom the kingdom received its | The supremacy of Sparta (acknowledged 560 1 
 
 name, and who taught his subjects agricul- 
 ture and the art of spinning wool . . . 1514 
 
 Lyciean games instituted, in honour of Pan . 1320 
 
 Agapenor appears at the head of the Ai'cadians 
 at the siege of Troy (Homer) .... 1194 I Arcadia, having joined the Achsean league, on 
 
 The Lacedajmonians iuvade Arcadia, and arc its suppression becomes part of the Roman 
 
 I empire 146 
 
 ARCH, It a]"iiieavs in early Egyptian and Assyrian architecture. The oldest arch in 
 Europe is probably in the Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, constnicted under the early kings, 
 about 588 B.C. The Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of gi'eat magnitude, aud 
 are built with stone arches similar to those that have been considered a Roman invention.* 
 The Triumphal arches of the Romans formed a leading feature in their architecture. The 
 arch of Titus (a.d. 80), that of Trajan (114), and that of Coustantine (312), were magnificent. 
 The arches in our parks in London were erected about 1828. The JMarble Arch, which 
 formerly stood before Buckingham Palace (whence it was removed to Cumberland-gate, 
 Hyde Park, in 185 1) was modelled from the arch of Constantiue. See Hyde Park. 
 
 ARCHANGEL (N. Russia), a city, is thus named from a nionasteiy founded here, and 
 dedicated to St.' Michael in 1584. The jjassage to Archangel was discovered by the English 
 navigator Richard Chancellor in 1553, and it was the only seaport of Russia till the formation 
 of the docks at Cronstadt, aud foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703. The dreadful fire here 
 by which the cathedral and upwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred in June, 1793. 
 
 ARCHBISHOP (Greek archiepisco2>os), a title given in the 4th and 5th centmies to the 
 bishops of chief cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople, who pre- 
 sided over the other metropolitans and bishops in the districts attached to those places. The 
 word is first found in the Apology against the Arians by Athanasius, who died 373. The 
 Eastern archbishops have since been styled j^air/arc/w.f Riddle. 
 
 ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN. The elector of Brandenburg was appointed the hereditary 
 arch-chamberlain of the German Empire by the golden bull of Charles IV. iu 1356, and in 
 that quality he bore the sceptre before the emperor. 
 
 ARCH-CHANCELLORS M-ere appointed under the two first races of the kings of France 
 C418 — 986), and when their territories were divided, the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and 
 Treves became arch-chancellors of Germany, Italy, and Aries. 
 
 ARCHDEACON. The name was early given to the first or eldest deacon, who attended 
 on the bishop without any power ; but since the council of Nice, his function is become a 
 dignity, aud set above that of priest, though anciently it was quite otherwise. The ap- 
 pointment in these countries is referred to 1075. There ai'e seventy-one archdeacons iu 
 England (1865), and thirty- three in Ireland. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in eccle- 
 siastical polity : an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, by 24 Henry VIII. (1532), 
 
 * The new bridge of Chester, whose span is 200 feet, was commenced in 1829. The central arch of 
 London Bridge is 152 feet ; and the three cast iron arches of Southwark bridge, which rest on massive stone 
 piers and abutments are, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 feet : thus the centre arch 
 exceeds the admired bridge of Sunderland by four feet iu the span, and the long-famed Rialto at Venice, 
 by 167 feet. See Bridges. 
 
 t In these realms the dignity is nearly coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the 
 S.axons came into England there were three sees : London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; but soon after 
 the arrival of St. Austin he settled the metropolitan see at Cantei'bm-.y, 602. See CanUrbunj. Vork 
 continued archiepiscopal ; but London and Caerleon lost the dignity. Caeileon was found, previously, to 
 be too near the dominions of the Saxons ; and iu the time of King Arthur the archbishopric was transferred 
 to St. David's, of which St. Sampson was the 26th and last Welsh archbishoii. See St. David's. The 
 bishoprics in Scotland were under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of York until the erection of the 
 archiepiscopal sees of St. Andrew's and Glasgow, in 1470 and 1491; these last were discontinued at the 
 Revolution. Seo Glasgow and St. Andreic's. The bishop of Moray, &c., is now (1865) styled /"ruaMS. The 
 rank of archbishop was of early institution in Ireland. See Ferns. Four archliishoprics were constituted 
 in Ireland, 1151, namely, Armagh, CAshel, Dublin, and Tuam ; until then the archbishop of Canterbur\- 
 had jurisdiction over the Irish as well as English bishops, in like manner as the archbishop of York had 
 jurisdiction over those of Scotland. Of these four archbishoprics two were reduced to bishoprics, namely, 
 Cashel, and Tuam, conformably with the statute 3 & 4 Will. IV. 1833, by which also the number of sees in 
 Ireland was to be reduced (as the incumbents often of them respectively died) from twenty- two to twelve, 
 the present numbe;-. See i?(i/io^«, C'li.sAci, Taam ; Fuliium, dc. 
 
ARC 
 
 45 
 
 ARC 
 
 AIICIIERY. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was communicated to 
 the Cretans. Ishmael "became an archer" {Gen. xxi. 20), 1892 b.o. The Philistine 
 archers overcame Saul (i Sam. xxxi. 3), 1055 B.C. David commanded the use of the bow 
 to be taught (2 Sam. i. 18). Aster of Amphipolis, having been slighted by Philip, king of 
 Macedon, at the siege of Methone, 353 B.C., shot an arrow, on which was written " Aimed 
 at Philip's right eye," which struck it and put it out ; Philip threw back the arrow with 
 these Avords : "If Philip take the town, Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his 
 word. 
 
 Archery introduced into England previously to 
 
 Harold and his two brothers were killed by 
 aiTOws shot from the cross-bows of the Nor- 
 man soldiers at the battle of Hastings in 
 
 Richard I. revived archery in England in iigo, 
 and was himself killed by an arrow in . 
 
 The victories of Crecy (1346), Poitiers (1356), 
 and Agincourt (141 5), were won chiefly by 
 archers.* 
 
 Fom- thousand -archers surrounded the houses 
 
 of parliament, ready to shoot the king and 
 the members, 21 Richard II. (Stmo.) 
 
 The citizens of London formed into com- 
 panies of archers in the reign of Edward 
 III. ; and into a-corporate body by the style 
 of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry 
 VIII 
 
 Roger Ascham's " Toxopldlus, the School of 
 Shooting," published in . . . 
 
 See Artilkry Company, Toxophilites, d:c. 
 
 1338 
 
 ARCHES, Court of, the most ancient consistory court, chiefly a court of appeal from 
 inferior jurisdictions within the province of Canterbury ; it derives its name from the church 
 of St. Mary-le-Bow {Sanda Maria de Arcuhun), London, where it was held ; and whose top 
 is raised on stone pillars built archwise. Cowell. Appeals from this court lie to the judicial 
 committee of the privy council, by statute, 1832. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE (from the Greek arcJii-tekion, chief artificer), ornamental building. 
 The five gi'eat orders of architecture are, — the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian {Greek} ; — the 
 Tuscan and Composite {Roman). The Gothic began to prevail in the ninth century. See 
 the Orders res'pectively and GotMc. 
 
 The Pyramids of Egypt, begtm about . B.C. 1500 
 
 Solomon's Temple, begun 1004 
 
 Birs Nimrond, in Assyi'ia about . . . 900 
 
 .The Doric order begins about . . . . 650 
 
 Doric Temple at Jigina 550 
 
 Temple of Jupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, 
 
 founded 616 
 
 Babylon built 600 
 
 The Ionic order begins about . . . 500-420 
 The Corinthian order begins . . . .33s 
 Choragic Monument of Lysikrates . . . 335 
 Architecture flourishes at Athens . . 480-320 
 Erechtheum at Athens 450-420 
 
 The Parthenon finished . . . .B.C. 438 
 
 The Pantheon, &c. , built at Rome . a.d. 13 
 The Colosseum (or Coliseum) .... 70 
 
 Hadrian builds temples at Rome, &c. . . . 117 
 
 Diocletian's palace at Spalatro .... 284 
 
 Basilicas at Rome ...... 330-900 
 
 St. Sophia, at Constantinople, begun . . 532 
 Rock-cut temples in India— Caves of EUora . 500-800 
 Canterbury cathedral, founded . . . . 602 
 
 Mosque of Omar, at Jerusalem .... 637 
 
 York Minster, begun about 741 
 
 St. Peter's, Rome 1450-1626 
 
 St. Paul's, London 1675-1710 
 
 EMINENT ARCHITECTS. 
 
 Vitruvius, about . 
 
 Born. Died. 
 B.C. 27 
 
 A.V. 
 
 William of Wickham . 1324—1405 
 Michael Angelo Buo- 
 narotti . . . 1474 — 1564 
 
 A. PaUadio 
 Inigo Jones . 
 Bernini . 
 Christopher Wren 
 J. Vanbrugh 
 
 Bom. Died. | 
 
 . 1518 — 1580 James Gibbs . 
 
 . 1572 — 1652 R. and J. Adams. 
 
 . 1598— 1680 A. W. Pugin . 
 
 . 1632 — 1723 C. Barry 
 
 . 1670 — 1726 1 
 
 Boi-n. Died. 
 
 ■ 1674— 1754 
 . 1728— 1794 
 . 1811 — 1852 
 • 179s — i860 
 
 An Architectural Club was formed in 1791. An Architectural Society existed in London in 1808. 
 The Royal Institute of British Architects was founded in 1834— Earl de Grey, president, 1835-61. 
 The Architectural Society, estabUshed in 1831, was united to the Institute in 1842. The Architectural 
 Association began about 1846. 
 
 ARCHON'S. "When royalty was abolished at Athens, in memory of king Codrus, killed in 
 battle, 1044 B.C. (or 1070), the executive government was vested in elective magistrates 
 called archons, whose oflice continued for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, was the first 
 archon. The office was limited to ten years, 752 B.C., and to one year 683 B.C. 
 
 ARCOLA (Lombardy), the site of battles between the French under Bonaparte, and the 
 Austrians under field-marshal Alvinizi, fought Nov. 15 — 17, 1796. The result was the loss 
 on the part of the Austrians of 18,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags, 
 and eighteen guns. The loss of the French was estimated at 15,000. They became masters 
 of Italy. In one of the contests Bonaparte was in most imminent danger, and was only 
 rescued by the impetuosity of his troops. 
 
 • The long-low was six feet long, and the aiTow three feet ; the usual range from 300 to 500 yards. 
 Robin Hood is said to have shot from 600 to 800 yards. A Persian hero, Arish, is sfcited to have shot over 
 between 400 and 500 miles, as related by Ferdousi ! The cross-bow was fixed to a stock, and discharged 
 with a trigger. 
 
ARC 46 ARG 
 
 ARCOT (East Indies). Tlii« city (fonndecl 1716) was taken by colonel Clive, Aug. 31, 
 1751 ; was retaken, but again surrendered to colonel C'oote, Feb. 10, 1760. Besieged by 
 llyder All, when the British under colonel Baillie suffered severe defeats, Sept. 10 and 
 Oct. 31, 1780. Arcot has been subject to Great Britain since i8or. See India. 
 
 ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See Korth-West Passage and FranUins EvjiedUion. 
 
 ARDAGH, an ancient prelacy in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, who made his nephew, 
 ^lell, the first bishop, previously to 454. This prelacy was formerly held with Kilmore ; but 
 .since 1742 it has been held iii commendam with Tuam (vhicli see). It was united with 
 Kilmore in 1839, and with Elphin in 1841. 
 
 ARDFERT and AGHADOE, bishopricks in Ireland long united ; the former was called 
 the bishoprick of Kerry ; Ert presided in the 5th century. William Fuller appointed in 
 1663, became bishop of Limerick in 1667, .since when Ardfert and Aghadoe have been united 
 to that prelacy. Near the cathedral an anchorite tower, 120 feet high, the loftiest and finest 
 in the kingdom, suddenly fell, 1770. 
 
 ARDOCH. See Grampians. 
 
 AREIOPAGUS OR AREOPAGUS, a venerable Greek tribunal, .said to have heard causes 
 in the dark, because the judges should be blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens about 
 1507 B.C. Arund. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Arieos pagos, the hill of 
 Mars, through the tradition that Mars was the iirst who was tried there for the murder of 
 Ilalirrhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippe. The powers of this court were enlarged 
 by Solon, about 594 i;.r., biit diminished by the jealousy of Pericles, 461 B.C. Paul preaclied 
 on Mars' hill, .v.i). 52 {Acts xvii.). 
 
 AREZZO, near the ancient Arretium, or Aretinum, an Etrurian city, which made peace 
 with Rome for 30 years, 308 B.C., was besieged by the Galli Senones, about 283 B.C., who 
 defeated the Roman army Metellus sent to its relief — a disgrace avenged signally by Dolabella. 
 Arezzo was an ancient bishopric : the cathedral was founded in 1277. It is renowned a.s 
 the birthplace of Mfecenas, Petrarch, Yasari, and other eminent men. Michael Angclo was 
 born in the vicinity. 
 
 ARGAUM, in the Deccan, India, where sir A. A\'ellesley, on Nov. 29, 1803, thoroughly* 
 defeated the rajah of Berarand the Mahratta chief Scindiah, who became in con.sequencc quite 
 sub,servient to the British, 
 
 ARGENTARIA, Alsace (now Colmau, N. E. France), where the Roman emperor Gratian 
 totally defeated the Alemanni, and secured the peace of Gaul, 378. 
 
 ARGENTINE (on LA PLATA) CONFEDERATION, S. America, 14 provinces, Thi.s 
 country was discovered by the Spaniards in 15 15 ; settled by them in 1553, and formed part 
 of tlie gi-eat vice-royalty of Peru till 1778, when it became that of Rio de la Plata. It joined 
 the insurrection in 181 1, and became independent in 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 
 1826 to 1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became independent as Monte- Video, 
 and at war with France from 1838-40. Buenos Ayres seceded in 1853, and was reunited in 
 1859. An insurrection began in San Juan, in Nov. i860, and was suppressed in Jan. i86r. 
 J. Urquiza, elected president, Nov. 20, 1853, was succeeded by Dr. S. Derqui, Feb. 8, i860. 
 Gen. B. Mitre, elected for six years, assumed the president's office, Oct, 12, 1862. In April, 
 IS'iS, Lopez, president of Paraguay, made an alliance with Buenos Ayres, declared war 
 against ilitre, and invaded the Argentine territories, Ma}'. ]\Iitre made an alliance with 
 Brizil. Population in 1859, about 1,171,800. See Buenos Ayres for the disputes with 
 that state. 
 
 ARGINUS.E ISLES, between Lesbos and Asia Minor ; near these Conon and the 
 Athenian fleet defeated the Spartan admiral Callicratidas, 406 B.C. 
 
 ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, 1263 b.c. (1225, Clinfon), undertaken by Jason to 
 avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by his murderer, 
 ..Eetes, king of Colchis. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been 
 adorned with the figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason 
 v.'as for the recovery of the golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition on record. 
 Alany kings and heroes accompanied Jnson, who.se ship was called .4 ?(/o, from its btiilder. 
 Dvfresnoij. 
 
AEG 
 
 47 
 
 AIU 
 
 46S 
 
 420 
 
 Sparta becomes superior to Argos . b. c. 493-490 
 Themistocles an exile at Argos . . . .471 
 The Argives destroy Mycente and regain their 
 
 superiority 
 
 Peloponnesian war — Argos long neutral ; but 
 
 joins Athens 
 
 The aristocratical party makes peace with 
 
 Sparta, and overthrows the democratical 
 
 government 417 
 
 A reaction — alliance with Athens resumed . 395 
 Pyrrhus of Macedon slain while besieging 
 
 Argos 272 
 
 Argos long govei'ned by tyrants supported by , 
 
 Macedon ; it is freed and joins the Achsean 
 
 league 229 
 
 Subjugated by the Romans .... 146 
 Argos taken from the Venetians . . a.d. 168O 
 Taken by the Turks 1716, who held it until . 1826 
 United to Greece under King Otho (see Greece) 
 
 Jan. 25, 1833 
 
 ARGOS, the most ancient city of Greece, said to have been founded eitlier by Inachus, 
 1S56 B.C., or his son, Phoroneiis, 1807, received its name from Argns, the fourth of the 
 Inachida;, 171 1 B.C. 
 
 Reign of Triopas ; Polycaon seizes part of the 
 
 kingdom, and calls it after his wife, Messenla 
 
 B.C. 1552 
 Gelanor, last of the Inachidaj, deposed by 
 
 Dana\is, an Egyptian . ' . . . . 1475 
 Feast of \hQ Flambeaux, instituted in honour of 
 
 Hypermnestra, who saved her husband, Lyn- 
 
 ceus, son of ^Egyptus, on his nuptial night, 
 
 while her forty -nine sisters sacrificed theirs, 
 
 at the command of their father, Danaus . 1425 
 
 T^ynneus dethrones Danaus 1425 
 
 The kingdom divided by the brothers Acrisius 
 
 and Prcetus . . . . 1344(1313. CI.) 
 
 Perseus, gi-andson of Acrisiu.", leaves Argos, 
 
 and founds Mycenae (which see) . ... 1313 
 The Heraclidai retake the Peloponnesus, and 
 
 Temenus seizes Argos 1102 
 
 Pheidon's prosperous rule .... 770-730 
 The Argives fine Sicyon and jEgiua for helloing 
 
 Cleomenes of Sparta, with whom they ai'e at 
 
 war 514 
 
 ARGYLE (W. Scotland), Bisitonuc of, founded about 1200, Evaldus being the first 
 bi.shop ; the diocese was previously part of the see of Dunkeld ; it ended with the abolition 
 of episcopacy in Scotland, 1688. Argyle and the Isles is a post-revolution bishopric, 1847. 
 See Bislio]}rics. 
 
 AEIAISr, OR Aeyax (in Sanskrit signifying noble, warlike), a term now frequently 
 npplied to the hypothetical Indo-Germanic family of nations. 
 
 ARIANS, the followers of Arius of Alexandria, who preached against the divinity of 
 Christ, about 315, and died iu 336. The controversy was taken up by Constantiue, who 
 presided at the council of Mce, 325, when the Ariaus were condemned ; but their doctrine 
 prevailed for a time iu the East. It was favoured by Constantius II. 341 ; aud carried into 
 Africa under the Vandals in the 5th century, and into Asia under the Goths. Servetus 
 publi.shed his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and was burnt, 1553. See Athanasian 
 Creed. Leggatt, an Arian, was burnt at Smithfield in 16 14. 
 
 AEISTOTELIAj^ philosophy : the most comprehensive system ever devised by man. 
 Aristotle was born at Stagyra (hence termed the Stagyrite), 384 B.C. ; was a pupil of Plato 
 from 364 to 347 ; became preceptor of Alexander, sou of Philip of Macedon, iu 342 ; and died 
 in 322. He divided the circle of knowledge into Metaphysics and Logic, Physics, including 
 part of the science of mind, and Ethics. His philosophy was too much exalted by the 
 schoolmen during the middle ages, and too much depreciated after the Reformation. His 
 works on natural science contain a vast collection of facts and an extraordinary mixture of 
 sound and chimerical opinions. To him is attributed the assertion that natm'e abhors a 
 vacuum, an opinion now maintained by some eminent modern philosophers. 
 
 ARITHMETIC is said to have been introduced from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 
 600 B.C. The Chinese used the abacus at an early period. It is asserted that the ancient 
 Hindus adopted a system having ten as a basis. 
 
 The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid 
 
 (7th, 8th, and gth books of his ELemenU), 
 
 about B.C. 300 
 The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was 
 
 used A.D. 130 
 
 Piophantus, of Alexandria, was the author of 
 
 thirteen books of arithnretioal questions (of 
 
 which six are now extant) . . . about 156 
 Xotation by nine digits and zero, known at 
 
 least as early as the sixth century in Hindo- 
 
 stan— introduced from thence into Arabia, 
 
 about 900 — into Europe, about 980 — into 
 
 France, by Gerbert, 991— into Spain, 1050— 
 
 into England 1253 
 
 ARIZONA, a territory of the United States, originally part of New Mexico, was organised 
 Feb. 24, 1863 ; capital, Tucson, 
 
 The date iu Caxton's Mirrovj' of the World, 
 Arabic characters, is 
 
 Arithmetic of decimals invented 
 
 John Shirwood bishop of Durhana's LvaIus 
 Arithmo Machince," printed at Rome . . . 
 
 First work printed in England on arithmetic 
 (de Arte Si'.pputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop 
 of Durham 
 
 The theory of decimal fraetion.9 was perfected 
 by Napier in his Rhahdologia, in . 
 
 Cocker's Arithmetic appeared in . . _ . • 
 
 Xystrom's Tonal system with 16 as a basis pub- 
 lished 
 
 148.1 
 T482 
 
 14S2 
 
 1617 
 1677 
 
AUK 48 A KM 
 
 AKK. ]\lount Ai-arat is venerak-d by the Aniieiiians, from a beliLf of its being the place 
 on which Noah's ark rested, after the universal deluge, 2347 B.C. But Apamea, in Phrygia, 
 claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck there with a chest on the waters, and 
 the letters NOE, and two doves : this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 
 cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit 
 to be about a foot and a-half, and not the geometrical one of six. 
 
 ARKANSAS, originally part of Louisiana, purchased from France by the United States 
 in 1803, was admitted into the Union, 1836, and seceded from it May 6, 1861. Several 
 battles were fought in this state in 1862. C'apital, Little Rock. 
 
 ARKLOW (in Wicklow), where a battle was fought between the insurgent Irish, amount- 
 ing to 31,000, and a small regular force of British, which signally defeated them, June 10, 
 1798. Tlie town was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in May previous. — Native gold was 
 discovered in Arldow, in Sept. 1795. Phil. Trans, vol. 86. 
 
 ARLES, an ancient town in France, in 879 the capital of the kingdom of Aries or Lower 
 Burgundy. Here are the remains of a Roman amphitheatre, capable of holding between 
 20,000 and 30,000 persons. English bishops are said to have been^present at the council 
 held here against the Donatists, 314. 
 
 ARMADA, THE Invincible. The famous Spanish armament, so called, consisted of 130 
 ships of war, besides transports, &o., 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 11,000 sailors, and 
 2000 volunteers, imder the duke of Medina Sidonia, and 180 priests and monks. It sailed 
 from the Tagus, May 28-30, 1588, and arrived in the channel, July 19, 1588, and was 
 defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten fire-ships having been sent into the 
 enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put to sea and endeavoured to return to their rendezvous 
 between Calais and Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral 
 Howard maintained a running fight from the 2 1 st July to the 28th, obliging the shattered fleet 
 to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dispersed them, and the remainder of 
 the armament returned by the North Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships 
 in the engagement, and 5000 men ; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, 
 and iipwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The English lost but 
 one ship. About one-third of the armament returned to Spain. 
 
 ARMAGH, in N. Ireland, of which it was the metropolis from the 5th to the 9th century, 
 was the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, about 
 444, who is said to have built the first cathedral 450. Six saints of the Roman calendar 
 have been bishops of this see. In the king's books, by an extent taken 15 James I., it is 
 valued at 400Z. sterling a year ; and until lately, was estimated at 15,000?. jier annum. The 
 see was re-constituted (see Pallium) in 1151. Bcatson. Armagh was ravaged by the Danes 
 on Easter-day, 852, and by O'Neilin 1564. 
 
 ARMAGNACS, a political party in France, followers of the duke of Orleans, derived their 
 name from his father-in-law, the count of Armaguac. About 3500 of this party were 
 massacred at Paris in May, 1418, by their opponents, the followers of the duke of Burgundy. 
 
 ARMED NEUTRALITY, the confederacy of the northern powers against England, 
 formed by the empress of Russia in 1780 ; ended in 1781. The confederacy was renewed, 
 and a treaty ratified in order to. cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent powers, 
 Dec. 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary to 
 the maritime system of England, the British caliinet remonstrated, war ensued, and Nelson 
 and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. This event 
 and the murder of the emperor Paul of Russia led to the dissolution of the Armed 
 Neutrality. 
 
 ARMENIA, Asia Minor. Here Noah is said to have resided when he left the ark, 2347 
 B.C. Armenia, after forming part of the Assyrian, Median, and Persian empires, became 
 subject to the Greek kings of Syria, after the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C.; the 
 Romans established the kingdoms of Armenia Major and Minor, but their influence over 
 them was frequently interrupted by the aggressions of the Parthians. The modern Christian 
 kincfdom of Armenia arose about 1080 in the rebellion of Philaretus Brachancius against the 
 Greek emperor. It lasted amid many struggles till the 14th century. In all their political 
 troubles the Armenians have maintained the profession of Christianity, Their church is 
 governed by patriarchs, not subject to Rome. Since 1715 an Armenian convent has existed 
 at Venice, where books on all subjects are printed in the Armenian language. 
 
ARM 
 
 49 
 
 ARM 
 
 ARMENIA, continued. 
 
 City of Arfcaxaita built . . . . B.C. i86 
 Autiochus Bpiplianes invades Armenia . . 165 
 Tigranes the Great reigns in Armenia Major . 95-60 
 Becomes king of Syria, and assumes the title 
 
 of " King of Kings " 83 
 
 Defeated by LucuUus, 69; he lays his crown at 
 
 the feet of Pompey 66 
 
 His son, Artavasdes, reigns, 54 ; he assists 
 Pompey against Julius Caesar, 48; and the 
 Partuians against Marc Antony ... 36 
 Antony subdues, wnd sends him loaded with 
 
 silver chains to Egypt 34 
 
 Artaxias, his son, made king by the Parthians 33 
 Deposed by the Bomans, who enthrone Ti- 
 granes II 20 
 
 Armenia subjected to Parthia . . a.d. 15 
 Reconquered by Germanicus, grandson of Au- 
 gustus 18 
 
 After many changes Tiridates is made king by 
 
 the Romans 58 
 
 The Parthian conquerors of Armenia are ex- 
 pelled by Trajan 115 
 
 Severus makes Volagarses king of part of 
 Armenia 199 
 
 Christianity introduced, between . , 100-200 
 
 Armenia added to the Persian empire . . 312 
 
 Tiridates obtains the throne through Dio- 
 cletian, 286; is expelled by Narses, 294; 
 restored by Galerius 298 
 
 On his death, Armenia becomes subject to 
 Persia, 342 ; is made neutral by Rome and 
 Persia, 384 ; who divide it by treaty . . 443 
 
 Armenia conquered and reconquered by the 
 Greek and Persian sovereigns . . S77-687 
 
 And by the Greek emperors and the Mahom- 
 medans 693-1065 
 
 Leon VI., last king of Armenia, taken prisoner 
 by the Saracens, 1375 ; released ; he dies at 
 Paris 1393 
 
 Overrun by the Mongols, 1235 ; by Timour, 
 1383 ; by the Turks, 1516 ; by the Persians, 
 1534 ; t>y the Turks 1583 
 
 Shah Abbas, of Persia, surrenders Armenia to 
 the Turks, but transports 22,000 Armenian 
 families into his own states . . . . 1589 
 
 Overrun by the Russians 1828 
 
 Surrender of Erzeroum .... July, 1829 
 (See Syria and Russo-Turhish War.) 
 
 ARMENIAN ERA, commenced on the gtli of July, 552 ; the ecclesiastical year on 
 the nth August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years, and 221 days ; and in 
 leap years subtract one day from March i to August 10. The Armenians used the old 
 Julian style and months in their correspondence with Europeans. 
 
 ARMILLARY SPHERE, an instrument devised to give an idea of the motions of the 
 heavenly bodies. It is commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a manner that the 
 greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their natural position and motion ; the 
 whole being comprised in a frame. It is said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 
 255 B.C. ; and was employed by Tycho Brahe and other astronomers. 
 
 ARMINIANS (OE Remonstkants) derive their former name from James Arminius (or 
 Harmensen), a Protestant divine, of Leyden, Holland (died, 1609); the latter name from 
 his followers having presented a Eemonstrance to the States-General in 1610. They 
 separated from the Calvinists, considering Calvin's views of grace and predestination in 
 opposition to free will too severe. A lierce controversy raged to 1625, when the Arminians, 
 who had been exiled, returned to their homes. Their doctrines were condemned in 1619, 
 at the synod of Dort (which see). The Calvinists were then sometimes styled Gomarists, 
 from Gomar, the chief opponent to Arminius. James I. and Charles I. favoured the doc- 
 trines of the Arminians, which still prevail largely in Holland and elsewhere. 
 
 ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the 12th centary. 
 They took their rise from the knights painting their banners with different figures, and were 
 employed by the crusaders, in order at fii'st to distinguish noblemen in battle, iioo. 
 The hues to denote colours in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by 
 Columbifere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. The armo- 
 rial bearings of the English sovereigns are given under the article England. 
 
 ARMORICA, now Brittany, N. France, was conquered by Julius Ctesar, 56 B.C. Many 
 Gauls retired there and preserved the Celtic tongue, a.d. 584. See Brittany. 
 
 ARMOUR. That of Goliath is described (about 1063 B.C.) i Sam. xvii. 5. The warlike 
 Eiuropeans at first despised any other defence than the shield. Skins and padded hides were 
 first used ; and brass and iron armour, in plates or scales, followed. The first body armour 
 of the Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the well- 
 tanned leathern cuirass. Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo-Saxon era. 
 Hengist is said to have had scale armour, A.D. 449. The Norman armour formed breeches 
 and jacket, 1066. The hauberk had its hood of the same piece, 1 100. John wore a sjirtout 
 over a hauberk of rings set edgeways, 1199. The heavy cavalry were covered with a eoat of 
 mail, Henry III. 1216. Some horsemen had vizors, and scull-caps, same reign. Armour 
 became exceedingly splendid about 1350. The armour of plate commenced 1407. Black 
 armour, used not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armour of Henry VII. 
 consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. Armour ceased 
 to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other 
 
ARM 
 
 Aim 
 
 armour than a largo gorget, whicli is commemorHted in the diminutive ornament known at 
 the present day. Mcyrick. 
 
 AEMS. The club was the first offensive weapon ; then followed the mace, battle-nxe, 
 pike, spear, javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. Pliny asciibes the invention of 
 the sling to the Phoenicians. See articles on the various weapmis throxigliout the volume, 
 
 ARMS. See Armorial hearings and Heraldry. 
 
 ARMS' BILL, for the repression of crime and insurrection in Ireland, was passed Oct. 15, 
 1831. It was a revival of the expired statiites of George III. The guns registered under 
 tliis act throughout the kingdom at the close of the first year scarcely amounted to 3000, 
 and the number was equally small of all other kinds of arms. The new Arms' bUl passed 
 Aug. 22, 1843. It has been since renewed, but has not been rigidly enforced. 
 
 ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting 
 men, 2017 B.C. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed by 
 Saul, 1093 B.C. Eusebius. The army of Xerxes invading Greece is said to have been 
 1,700,000 foot and 80,000 horse : 480 B.C. One of the first standing armies of which we 
 have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The army which Darius opposed to 
 Alexander the Great (332 B.C.) is set down as between 750,000 and a million. The first 
 standing army which existed as such, in modern times, was maintained in France by 
 Charles VII. in 1445. The chief European nations have had in their service the following 
 armies: Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 310,000; Prussia, 350,000; Turkey, 450,000 ; 
 Austria, 500,000 ; Russia, 560,000 ; and France, 680,000. Estimated number in Europe in 
 1863, 6,000,000 soldiers, 1,000,000 horses, 11,000 guns. 
 
 ARMY, British, mainly arose in the reign of Charles II. in 1661, in consequence of the 
 extinction of feudal tenures. The first five regiments of British infantiy were established 
 between 1633 and 1680. James II. established several regiments of dragoon guards (1685-8). 
 In 1685 the army consisted of 7000 foot and 1700 cavalrJ^ Standing amiies were introduced 
 by Charles I. in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles II. 1679 ; but one 
 was then gradually forming, which was maintained by "William III. 1689, when the Mutiny 
 Act was passed. See Regiments. Gross's "History of the British Army " was publi.shed in 
 1 801. The effective rank-and-file of the army actually serving in the pay of Great Britain 
 on the 24th Dec. 1800, amounted to 168,082 ; and the estimates of the whole army in that 
 year were 17,973,000/. The militia, volunteer, and other auxiliary forces were of immense 
 amount at some periods of the war ending in 1815. The strength of the volunteer corps 
 was gi-eatest between the years 1798 and 1804, in which latter year this species of force 
 amounted to 410,000 men, of whom 70,000 were Irish; and the militia had increased to 
 130,000 men, previously to the regular regiments being recruited from its ranks in 1809. 
 The following are statements of the effective military strength of the United Kingdom at 
 the periods mentioned, and of the sums voted for military expenditure : 
 
 1780, Time of war : troops of 
 the line 
 
 1800, War 
 
 1810, War : army including 
 foreign troops 
 
 1815, Last year of the war . 
 
 1820, Time of peace; war in- 
 cumbrances . . . 
 
 1830, Peace .... 
 
 1840, Peace . . . . 
 
 1850, Peace .... 
 
 1852, Peace (except KaflSr war) 101,937 
 
 1854, War with Bussia 
 
 Men. 
 
 Sum voted. 
 
 110,000 
 
 £7,847,000 
 
 168,000 
 
 17,973,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 26,748,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 39,150,000 
 
 88,100 
 
 18,253,000 
 
 89,300 
 
 6,991,000 
 
 93'47i 
 
 6,890,267 
 
 99,118 
 
 6,763,488 
 
 101,937 
 
 7,018,164 
 
 112,977 
 
 7,167,486 
 
 Men. 
 178,645* 
 
 Sum voted. 
 £13,721,158 
 
 1855, War with Russia . 
 
 1856, War with Russia (effec- 
 
 tive men 154,806) . . 206,836 14,545,059 
 (Sept. 5, 1856, reduced to 125,000 men, 
 
 exclusive of the Indian army.) 
 ,859, Prospect of European ) g 13,300,000 
 
 war m April— June (m f /riuYjtv.^^J^l y!^,r^ 
 
 Great Britain) . . j ^^"^^ *^°«^ ""^ ^°'"^> 
 
 i860, War with China . . 235,852 14,842,000 
 1861, . . . . . . 212,773 14.168,621 
 
 1862 ,, 
 
 1863, (With Indian army) . . 220,918 15,060,237 
 
 ARMY, AND NAVY, AND OTHER CHARGES OF THE WAR WITH RUSSIA 
 
 Original Estimate 1854-5 Actual Charge 1854-5 
 
 Army .... £6,287,486 . . . £7,167,486 . 
 
 Navy 7,487,948 . ... 10,417,309 . 
 
 Ordnance .... 3,845,878 . . . 5,986,662 . 
 Transports (increase in Xavy) 3,582,474 
 
 Total. . .£17,621,312 £27,153,931 
 
 Volunteers in Great Britain in 1S62, stated to be 167,291. 
 
 Eitimate for 1855-6 
 
 £13,721,158 
 
 10,716,338 
 
 7,808,043 
 
 5,181,465 
 
 £37,427.003 
 
 * Besides this national army, 14,950 foreign troops were voted for the service of the year 1855-6; and 
 the English militia was called out, and increased to the number of 130,000 men, thus forming a total of 
 3'3>S95) exclusive of 20,000 TurkisJa auxiliaries taken into British p.iy. 
 
AEM 
 
 51 
 
 AKR 
 
 ARMY, BiUTiSH, continued. 
 
 BRITISH ARMY ; NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS AND PRIVATES, IN \l 
 
 English .... 
 
 Scotoh 
 
 Irish .... 
 
 Life Guards. 
 
 Horse Guards. 
 
 Foot Guards. 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 Infantry. 
 
 724 
 67 
 19 
 
 367 
 22 
 10 
 
 4,3H 
 472 
 64 
 
 6,174 
 
 781 
 
 2,569 
 
 33,78s 
 12,046 
 36.531 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 810 . 
 
 399 
 
 4,850 
 
 9,524 
 
 84,362 
 
 The Ai'my Service Acts : 12 & 13 Vict. c. 37 
 (June 21, 1847), a^nd 18 Vict. c. 4 . Feb. 27, 1S55 
 
 The Mutiny Act is passed annually; alterations 
 ■were made in this Act and in tlie Articles of 
 War in 1855. See Militia and Volunteers. 
 
 03icers in the service of the East India Com-, 
 pany to have the same rank and precedence 
 as those in the regular army . April 25, „ 
 
 The office of Master-General of the Ordnance 
 abolished^ and the civil administration of the 
 Arnrv and Ordnance vested in the hands of 
 Lord Panuun-c, the Minister of War May 25, ,, 
 
 Examination of staff olhoers ijrevious to their 
 ajipointment ordered . . . April 9, 1857 
 
 The army largely recruited in 1857 and 1858, in 
 consequence of the war in India. 
 
 The East India Company's army was transferred 
 to the Queen 1859 
 
 Much dissatisfaction arose in that army in con- 
 
 sequence of no bounty being granted ; and 
 threatenings of mutiny appeared, which 
 sub-^ided after an arrangement was made 
 granting discharge to tho.se who desired it. 
 See Iiulia 1859 
 
 Examination of candidates for the Military 
 Academy, previously confined to pupils from 
 Sandhurst, was thrown open, 1855 ; the prin- 
 ciple of this measure was affirmed by the 
 House of Commons by vote . April 26, 1858 
 
 By 22 (fe 23 Vict. c. 42, provision made for a re- 
 serve force, not to exceed 20,000 men, who 
 had been in her majesty's service . . . 1859 
 
 Flogging virtually abolished in the ai-my : First 
 class soldiers to be degraded to second class 
 before being liable to it . . . Nov. 9, , , 
 
 A report of a commission in 1858 causes great 
 sanitary improvements in the army, barracks, 
 &c., under direction of Mr. Sidney Herbert 1859-60 
 
 ARMY OF Occupation. The allied power.';, Au.stria, Russia, and Prussia, by the treaty 
 signed Nov. 20, 1815, established the bomidavies of France, and stipulated for the occupa- 
 tion of certain fortresses by foreign troops for three years, to the intense disgust of the 
 natives. 
 
 AROMATICS. Acrou of Agrigentum is said to have been the first who caused great fii-es 
 to be made, and aromatics to be thrown into them, to purify the air, by which means he put 
 a stop to the plague at Athens, 473 b. c. No^iv. Did. 
 
 ARPINUM (S. Italy), celebrated as the birthplace of Cicero, Jan. 3, 106 r.c. ; many 
 remains still bear his name. 
 
 ARQUEBUS. Qee Fh-e Arms. 
 
 ARQUES (N. France). Near here the League army, commanded by the due de Mayeune, 
 was defeated by Henry IV. Sept. 21, 1589. 
 
 ARRACAlSr, a province of N.E. India. Arracan, the capital, was taken by the Bunnese, 
 1783 ; and taken from them by general Morrison, April i, 1825. The subjugation of the 
 whole province soon followed. 
 
 ARRAIGNMENT consists in reading the indictment by the officer of the court, and 
 calling upon the prisoner to say whether he is guilty or not guilty. Formerly, persons who 
 refused to plead in cases of felony were pressed to death by AS'eights placed upon the breast. 
 A person standing mute was declared convicted by an act passed 1772 ; but in 1827, the 
 court was directed to enter a plea of "not guilty" in such cases. See Mute. 
 
 ARRAS (N.E. of France), the ancient Atrebates, the seat of a bishop since 390. 
 Here a treaty was concluded between the king of France and duke of Burgundy, when the 
 latter abandoned his alliance with England, Sept. 22, 1435. Another treaty was concluded 
 by Maximilian of Austria with Louis XL of France, whereby the counties of Burgundy and 
 Artois were given to the dauphin as a marriage portion ; this latter was entered into in 
 1482. Velly. Arras was held by the Austrians from 1493 till 1640, when it was taken by 
 Louis XIII. 
 
 ARRAY. On Dec. 23, 1324, Edward 11. directed the bishop of Durham to make 
 "arraier" his men-of-arms, horse and foot, and cause them to proceed to Poi'tsmouth ; 
 thence to proceed to the war in Gascony. Ry^mr's Fccdcra. Hallara says that this was the 
 earliest commission of array that he could find, and that the latest was dated 1557. The' 
 
 E 2 
 
AER 
 
 ART 
 
 attempt of Charles I. to revive commissions of array in 1642, founded on a statute of Henry 
 IV., was strenuously opposed as illegaL 
 
 ARREST FOR Debt, The persons of peers, members of parliament, &c., are protected 
 from arrest. See Ambassadors ; Ferrars' Arrest, 
 
 Statute abolishing arrest for debt on mesne 
 process, except in cases wherein there is 
 gi'ound to show that the defendant designs 
 to leave the country, 2 Vict. , Aug. . . 1838 
 
 By 7 & 8 Vict. c. 96, the power of imprison- 
 ment even upon final process, that is judg- 
 ment debts, is abolished if the sum does not 
 exceed 20!. exclusive of costs, 1844 ; and by 
 9 & 10 Vict. c. 95, the judge has no power to 
 punish, except in case of fraud or contempt 
 of court 1846 
 
 By the Absconding Debtors' Arrest Act, ab- 
 sconding debtors owing 20J. and upwards are 
 liable to arrest 1851 
 
 Clergymen performing divine service privi- 
 leged, 50 Edw. Ill 137 
 
 Seamen privileged from debts under 20!- by 
 
 30 Geo. II 1756 
 
 Barristers privileged from arrest whil going 
 
 to, attending upon, and returning from court, 
 
 on the business of their clients. 
 By statute 29 Charles II. no arrest can be made, 
 
 nor process served, upon a Sunday. This 
 
 law was extended by William III. 
 Vexatious arrests prevented by act, May, 1733. 
 
 Prohibited for less than lol. on process, 1779 : 
 
 and for less than lol. . . . _ July, 1827 
 Arrests for less than 20^ were prohibited on 
 
 mesne process in Ireland, in June . . 1829 
 
 ARRETINUM. See Arezzo. 
 
 ARSENAL, a gi-eat military or naval repository. The largest in this countiy is at "Wool- 
 wich, which see. 
 
 ARSENIC, a steel-gray coloured brittle metal, extremely poisonous, known in earl}' 
 times. Brandt, in 1733, made the first accurate experiments on its chemical nature. The 
 heinous crimes committed by means of this mineral obliged the legislature to enact regula- 
 tions for its sale, 14 Vict. cap. 13, June 5, 185 1. The sale of all colourless preparations of 
 arsenic is regulated by this act. In 1858 Dr. A. S. Taylor asserted that green paper- 
 hangings prepared from arsenic were injurious to health ; which appears to be true, although 
 doubted by some chemists. See Cacodyl. 
 
 ARSENITE Schism. See Eastern Church, 1255. 
 
 ARSON was punished with death by the Saxons, and remained a capital crime on the 
 consolidation of the laws in 1827, 1837, and 1861. If any house be fired, persons being 
 therein, or if any vessel be fired, with a view to murder or plunder, it shall be death, statute 
 I Vict., July, 1837. 
 
 ARSOUF (Syria), Battle of, in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Christian 
 forces, reduced to 30,000, defeated Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels, on 
 Sept. 3 or 7, 1 191. Ascalon surrendered. Richard marched to Jerusalem, 1192. 
 
 ARTEMISIUM, a promontory in Euboea, near which indecisive conflicts took place 
 between the Greek and Persian fleets for three days; 480 B.C. The former retired on hearing 
 of the battle of Thermopylae. 
 
 ARTESIAN "WELLS (from Artesia, now Artois, in France, where they frequently occur) 
 are formed by boring through the upper soil to strata containing water, which has percolated 
 from a higher level, and which rises to that level through the boring tube. The fountains 
 in Trafalgar square and government offices near have been supplied since 1844 by two of 
 these wells (393 feet deep). At Paris the Crenelle well (1798 feet deep), was completed in 
 1841, after eight years of exertion, by M. Mulot at an expense of about i2,oooZ., and the 
 well at Passy, which it is said will supply sufficient water for neai'ly 500,000 persons, was 
 begun in 1855, and completed in i860 by M. Kind. Messrs. Amos and Easton completed 
 an artesian well for the Horticultural Society's garden in 1862. It yielded 880,000 gallons 
 of water, at the temperature of 81° Fahr., in twenty-four hours. The well at Kissingen was 
 completed in 1850. Artesian wells are now becoming common. 
 
 ARTICHOKES are said to have been introduced from the East into "Western Europe in 
 the isth century, and to have reached England about 1502. 
 
 ARTICLES OF Religion. In June 8, 1536, after much disputing, the English clergy 
 in convocation published "Articles decreed by the king's highness" Henry VIII., who 
 published in 1539 the " Statute of Six Articles," viz. transubstautiation, communion in one 
 kind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of the clergy, and auricular confession. In 
 155 1 forty-two were published without the consent of parliament. These forty-two were 
 modified and reduced to Thirty-nine in Jan. 1563 ; and they received the royal authority 
 and the authority of parliament in 1571. The Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvinistic 
 character, attempted to be imposed by archbishop "Whitgift, were withdrawn in consequence 
 
AKT 53 ARU 
 
 of the displeasure of queen Elizabeth, 1595. One liundred and four articles were drawn up 
 for Ireland bj"- archbishop Usher in 1614. On the union of the churches, the Irish adopted 
 the English articles. See Perth Articles. 
 
 ARTICLES OF Wak were decreed in the time of Richard I. and John. Those made by 
 Richard f I. in 1485 appear in Grose's "Military Antiquities." The Articles of War now in 
 force are based upon an act, passed by "William III. in 1689, to regulate the army about to 
 engage in his continental warfare. 
 
 ARTIFICERS and Manufacturers. Their affairs were severely regulated by the 
 statutes of 1349, 1351, 1360, 1562. They were pi-ohibited from leaving England, and those 
 abroad were outlawed, if they did not return within six months after the notice given them. 
 A fine of looZ,, and imprisonment for three months, were the penalties for seducing them 
 from these realms, by 9 Geo. II. (1736) and other statutes, which were repealed in 1824. 
 
 ARTILLERY, a term including properly all missiles : now applies to cannon. The first 
 piece was a small one, contrived by Schwartz, a German cordelier, soon after the invention 
 of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors of Algesiras, in Spain, 
 iu the siege of 1343 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, 
 when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the battle. "We had artillery 
 at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venetians first employed artillery against the Genoese at 
 sea, 1377. Voltaire. Said to have been used by the English at Calais in 1383, Cast in 
 England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists, in Sussex, 1543. 
 Rymer's Fcedera. Made of brass 1635 ; improvements by Browne, 1728. — See Cannon, 
 Bombs, Carronades (under Carron), Mortars, Howitzers, Petard, Rockets, Fire-arms. The 
 Royal Artillery regiment was established in the reign of Anne. 
 
 ARTILLERY COMPANY of London, Honourable, instituted in 1585, having ceased, 
 was revived in 1610. It met for military exercise at the Artillery ground, Finsbury, where 
 the London Archers had met since 1498. (See Archery.) In the civil war, 1641-8, the 
 company took the side of the parliament, and greatly contributed towards its success. The 
 company numbered 1200 in 1803 and 800 in 1861. Since 1842 the officers have been 
 appointed by the Queen. On the decease of the duke of Sussex in 1843, the Prince Consort 
 became colonel and captain-general. He died Dec. 14, 1861, and the Prince of "Wales was 
 appointed his successor Aug. 24, 1863. 
 
 ARTISTS' FUND was established in 1810 to provide allowances for sick, and annuities 
 for incapacitated members. 
 
 ARTS. In the 8th century, the whole circle of sciences was composed of seven liberal 
 arts — grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. Harris. _ The 
 Royal Society of England {wJiich see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society pf 
 Arts, to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, was instituted in 
 1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and of its first president, lord Folke- 
 stone. — Fine Arts. The first public exhibition by the artists of the British metropolis took 
 place in 1760, at the rooms of the Society of Arts, and was repeated there for several years, 
 till, in process of time, the Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society 
 of British Artists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April 
 19, 1824. The Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts was founded in Dec. 1858. 
 See British Institution ; National Gallery . 
 
 ART-UNIONS began in France and Germany early in the present century. The first in 
 Britain was established at Edinburgh ; that in London was founded in 1836, and chartered 
 in 1846, when these unions were legalised. Every subscriber is entitled to prints, and has 
 the chance of drawing prizes. 
 
 ARUNDEL CASTLE (Sussex), built by the Saxons about 800. The duke of Norfolk 
 enjoys the earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honour, by inheritance and possession of the 
 castle, without any other creation. Philip Howard, son of the attainted duke of Norfolk, 
 was made earl of Arundel, by summons, as possessor of this castle, 1580. It was thoroughly 
 repaired by a late duke at a vast expense. 
 
 ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, called also Oxford Marbles ; one containing the chronology 
 of ancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and said to have been sculptured 264 B.C. They 
 consist of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were found in the isle of Paros, in 
 the reign of James I., about i6io. They were collected by Mr. "W. Petty, purchased by 
 lord Arundel, and given by his grandson Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk, to the 
 univcnsity of Oxford in '1667 ; and are therefore called also Oxford Marbles. The 
 
AEU 
 
 ASH 
 
 characters of the inscriptions are Greek. There are .two translations : hj Selden, 1628': by 
 Pricleaux, 1676. A variorum edition of the inscriptions, hy Maittaire, appeared in 1732, 
 and a fine one by Chandler in 1763. See KidcVs Tracts; and Porson's Treatise, 1789, 
 
 ARUSPICES. See Harusjnces. 
 
 AS, a Roman weiglit and coiu : when considered as a weight, it was a pound ; when a 
 coin, it had different weights, but always tlie same value. In the reign of Servius, the as 
 weighed a pound of brass ; in the first Punic war, it weighed two ounces, 264 B.C. ; in the 
 second Punic war, one ounce, 218 B.C. ; and afterwards half an ounce ; its value was about 
 three farthings sterling. 
 
 ASAPH, ST. (N. Wales), a bishopric founded by Kentigern, bishop of Glasgow. On 
 returning into Scotland about 560, he left a holy man, St. Asaph, his successor, from whom 
 the see takes its name. It is valued in the king's books at 187/. lis. 6d. By an order in 
 council, 1838, the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to have been united on the next 
 vacancy in either ; and the bishopric of Manchester was to have been then created. This 
 order was annulled in 1846, and the two sees still exist. Present income, 42CX5Z. See 
 MancJuster. 
 
 KECENT BISHOPS OF ST. ASAPH. 
 
 Samuel HorBley, died Oct. 4, i8o6. 
 William Cleaver, died May 15, 1815. 
 John Luxmoore, died Jan. 21, 1830. 
 
 1S30. William Carey, died Sept. 13, 1846. 
 
 1846. Thomas Vowler Short (present bishop, 1865). 
 
 ASBESTOS, a native fossil stone, which may be split into threads and filaments, and 
 which is endued with the property of remaining unconsumed in fire. Cloth was made of it 
 by the Egyptians {Herodotus), and napkins in tiiu time of Pliny, 74 ; and also paper. The 
 spinning of asbestos known at Venice, about 1 500. Porta. 
 
 ASCALON (Syria), a city of the Phili-stines, shared the fate of Phccnicia and Judca. The 
 Egyptian army was defeated here by the Crusaders, under Godfrey of Bouillon, Aug. 12, 
 1099. Ascalon was besieged by the latter in I148, taken in 1153 ; and again in 1191. Its 
 fortifications were destroyed for fear of the Crusaders by the Sultan in 1270. 
 
 ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic ocean, 800 miles N. W. of St. Helena, discovered 
 by the Portuguese in 1501 ; and taken possession of by the English in 1815. 
 
 ASCENSION DAY, also called Holy Thursday, when the church celebrates the ascension 
 of our Saviour, the fortieth day after his resurrection from the dead. May 14, 33 ; first com- 
 memorated, it is said, 68. Ascension day, 1866, May 10; 1867, May 30 ; 1868, May 21. 
 
 ASCULUM, now Ascoli, a city of the Picentes, Central Ital)^, E. Near it, Pyrrhus of 
 Epirus defeated the Romans, 279 B.C. In 268 B.C., the whole country of the Picentes was 
 subdued by the consul Sempronius. In 1190 a.d. Andrea, the general of the em])eror 
 Henry VI., who was endeavouring to wrest the crown of Naples from Tancred, was defeated 
 and slain. 
 
 ASHANTEES, a warlike tribe of negroes of "West Africa. In 1807 they conquered 
 Fantee, in which the British settlement Cape Coast Castle is situated. On the death of tlic 
 king, who had been friendly to the English, hostilities began ; and on Jan. 21, 1824, the 
 Asliantees defeated about 1000 British under sir Charles M'Carthy at Accra, and brought 
 away his skull with others as trophies. They were totally defeated, Aug. 27, 1826, by col. 
 Purdon. The governor of Cape Coast Castle began a war with the Asliantees in spring of 
 1863. The British troops suflered much through disease ; and the war was suspended by 
 the government in IVIay, 1864. 
 
 ASHBURTON TREATY, concluded at Wa.shington, Aug. 9, 1842, by Alexander, lord 
 A.shburton, and John Tyler, president of the United States : it defined the boundaries of 
 the respective countries between Canada and the state of Maine, settled the extradition of 
 criminals, &c. 
 
 ASHDOD, or Azotus, the seafof the worship of the Pluenician god Dagon, Avhich fell 
 down before the ark of the Lord : captured by the Pliilistines from the Israelites, about 
 1 141 B.C. (i Sam. v.). 
 
 ASHDOWN, or Assendunc, now thought to be Aston, Berks, where Ethelred and his 
 brother Alfred defeated the Danes in 871. 
 
 . ASHMOLEAN LIBRARY (book.s, manuscripts, coins, &c.), was presented to the 
 university of Oxfonl by Eli.ns A.shmole, the herald and nntiipiary, about 1682. It included 
 
ASH 
 
 55 
 
 ASS 
 
 the collections of the Tradescaiits, to whom he was executor. He died at Lambeth in 1692. 
 The Ashmolean Society, Oxford (scientific), was established in 1828. 
 
 ASHTASOTH, a Phoenician goddess, occasionally worshipped by the Israelites (see 
 Judges ii. 13) about 1406 B.C., and even by Soloinon, about 984 B.C. (i Kings xi. 5). 
 
 ASH- WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, which in early times began on the Sunday 
 now called the fii'st in Lent. Pope Felix II L, in 487, first added the four days preceding 
 the old Lent Sunday, to raise the number of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great (pope, 
 590) introduced the sprinkling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence 
 the name of Dies Cinerum, or Ash-Wcdnosday. At the Eeformation this practice was 
 abolished, "as being a mere shadow, or vain show." 
 
 ASIA, the largest division of the globe, so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, 
 the daughter of Oceanns and Tetliys, the wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the 
 world peopled : here the law of God was first promulgated ; here many of the greatest 
 monai'chies of the earth had their rise ; and hence most of the arts and sciences have been 
 derived. Its early history is derived from Herodotus, who relates the wars of Crcesus, Cyrus, 
 and others. See China, India, Persia, and the other countries. 
 
 ASIA MINOR (now Anatolia), comprised the Ionian colonies on the coast, the early 
 seats of Greek civilisation, and the coimtries Mysia, Phrygia, Lycia, Bithynia, Caria, Lydia, 
 Cappadocia, Galatia, &c., with the cities Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna {all ivhich see). From the 
 time of the rise of the Assyrian monarchy, about 2000 B.C., to that of the Turks under 
 Osman, Asia Minor Avas the battle-field of the conquerors of the world. 
 
 First settlement of the Ionian Greeks, about B.C. 1043 
 Asia Minor subdued by the Medes . about 711 
 Conquered by Cyrus .... about 546 
 Contest between the Greeks and Persians begins 544 
 Asia Minor conquered by Alexander . . 332 
 
 Contended for by his successors ; separate 
 kingdoms established .... 321-278 
 
 Gradually acquired by the Romans B.C. i88 to A.D. 15 
 
 Possessed by the Persians 6og 
 
 Partially recovered by the emperor Basil . . 874 
 
 Invaded by Timour 1403 
 
 Taken from the Greek emperor, and established 
 as an empire by the Turks under Mahomet I. 141 3 
 
 ASIATIC SOCIETIES. The " Asiatic Society of Bengal," at Calcutta, was established 
 by sir WiUiam Jones in 1784, "the bounds of its investigation to be the geographical limits 
 of Asia." The ' ' Royal Asiatic Society, " which has several branches in India, was founded 
 in 1823. It established the " Oriental Translation Fund" in 1828, which has piiblished 83 
 volumes of Eastern literature (1865). 
 
 ASKESIAN SOCIETY (from the Greek asMsis, exercise), instituted in March, 1796, by 
 a number of young men for discussing philosox^hical subjects. Its founders were the after- 
 wai'ds celebrated Wm. Allen, Wm. Pliillips, Alex. Tillochj Luke Howard, "W. H. Pepys, and 
 others. In 1806 it merged into the Geological Society. 
 
 ASPERNE AND EssLiNG, near the Danube and Vienna, where a series of desperate con- 
 flicts took place between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles, and the Frencli 
 under Napoleon, Massena, &c., on May 21-22, 1809, ending in the defeat of Napoleon ; the 
 severest check that he had yet received. The loss of the former exceeded 20,000 men, and 
 of the latter 30,000. The daring marshal Lannes was killed ; the bridge of the Danube was 
 destroj'ed, and Napoleon's retreat endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no 
 beneficial effect on the subsequent prosecution of the war. 
 
 ASPHALT, a solid bituminous substance, which in nature probably derived its oi'igin 
 from decayed vegetable matter. The artificial asphalt obtained from gas-works began to be 
 used as pavement about 1838. Claridge's patent asphalt was laid do\Vn in Trafalgar-square, 
 Jan. 1864. 
 
 ASPROMONTE, Naples. Here Garibaldi was defeated, Wounded, and taken prisoner 
 Aug. 29, 1862, having injudiciously risen against the French occupation of Rome. 
 
 ASSAM (N. E. India) came iinder British dominion in 1825, and was surrendered by 
 the king of Ava, in 1826. The tea-plant was discovered here by Mr. Bruce in 1823. A 
 superintendent of the tea-forests Was appointed in 1836, the cultivation of the plant haviug 
 been recommended by lord William Bentinck, in 1834. The Assam Tea Company was 
 established in 1839. The tea was much in use in England in 1841. Chinese labour has 
 been introduced, and the growth of tea is enormously increasing. 
 
 ASSASSINATION PLOT, said to have been formed by the earl of Aylesbury and 
 others to assassinate William III., near Richmond, Surrey, and restore James II. Its 
 object would have been attained, Feb. I4, 1695-6, but for its timely discovery by 
 Prendergast. 
 
ASS 56 ASS 
 
 ASSASSIN'S, OR AssAssiNiANS, a band of fanatical Mahometans, collected by Hassan- 
 ben-Sabah, and settled in Persia about 1090. In Syria they possessed a large tract of land 
 among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Montferrat in 1192 ; 
 Lewis of Bavaria in 1213 ; and the khan of Tartary in 1254. They were conquered by the 
 Tartars in 1257 ; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief or king of the corps assumed the 
 title of "Ancient of the Mountain," and " Old Man of the Mountain." * They trained up 
 young people to assassinate such persons as their chief had devoted to destruction. HinaiiU. 
 From this fraternity the word assassin has been derived. 
 
 ASSAY OF Gold and Silver originated with the bishop of Salisbury, a royal treasurer in 
 the reign of Henry I. Du Cange. But certainly some species of assay was practised as 
 early as the Roman conquest. Assay was established in England 1354 ; regulated 13 "Will. 
 III. 1 700, and 4 Anne, 1705. Assay masters appointed at Sheffield and Birmingham, 1773. 
 The allo}'^ of gold is silver and copper, that of silver is copper. Standard gold is 2 carats of 
 alloy to 22 of fine gold. Standard silver is 18 dwts. of copper to 11 ozs. 2 dwts. of fine silver. 
 See Goldsmiths' Company. 
 
 ASSAYE (E. Indies), Battle of. The British armj', under general Arthur Wellesley 
 (afterwards duke of Wellington), entered the Mahratta states on the south ; took the fort of 
 Ahmednuggur, Aug. 12 ; and defeated Scindiah and the rajah of Berar at Assaye, Sept. 23, 
 1803. This was Wellington's first great battle, in which he opposed a force full more than 
 ten times greater than his own (only 4500 men). The enemy retired in great disorder, leaving 
 behind the whole of their artillerj', ammunition, and stores. 
 
 ASSEMBLY of Divines held at Westminster, July i, 1643, convoked by order of 
 parliament, to consider the liturgy, government, and doctrines of the church. Two members 
 were elected for each county. They adopted the Scottish covenant, and drew up the direc- 
 toiy for public worship, a confession, and the catechisms now used by the church of Scotland. 
 The last (1163rd) meeting was on Feb. 22, 1649. See Church of Scotland. 
 
 ASSENT. See Royal Assent. 
 
 ASSESSED TAXES. The date of their introduction has been as variously stated as the 
 taxes coming under this head have been defined — aU things have been assessed, from lands 
 and houses to dogs and hair-powder. By some the date is refeiTed to the reign of Ethelbei-t, 
 in 991 ; by others to that of Henry VIII. 1522 ; and by more, to the reign of William III. 
 1689, when a land-tax was imposed. See Land Tax. The assessed taxes yielded in 1815 
 (the last year of the war), exclusively of the land-tax, 6,524,766?., their highest amount. 
 These imposts have varied in their nature and amount, according to the exigencies of the 
 state, and the contingencies of war and peace. They were considerably advanced in 1797 
 and 1801, et scq., but considerably reduced in 1816, and in subsequent years. The last act 
 for the repeal of certain assessed taxes was passed 16 & 17 Vict. cap. 90, Aug. 20, 1853, 
 which was explained and amended by 17 & 18 Vict. cap. i, Feb. 17, 1854. — Acts for the 
 better securing and accounting for the Assessed and Income Taxes, Aug. 10, 1854. See 
 Taxes and Income Tax. 
 
 ASSIENTO, a contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for furnishing the 
 Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves, began with the Flemings. By the treaty 
 of Utrecht in 1713, the British government engaged to furnish 4800 negroes annually to 
 Spanish America for thirty years. The contract was vested in the South Sea Company ; but 
 this infamous contract was given up in 1750. See Guinea. 
 
 ASSIGNATS, a paper currency, ordered by the National Assembly of France to support 
 public credit during the revolution, April, 1790. Atone period, eight milliards, or nearly 
 350 millions of pounds sterling, of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen- 
 dencies. Alison. Assignats were superseded by mandats in 1796. 
 
 ASSIZE OF Battle. See Ai)peal. 
 
 ASSIZE OF Bread, &c. See Bread and Wood. 
 
 ASSIZE COURTS (from assideo, I sit) are of very ancient institution in England, and in 
 old law hooks are defined to be an assembly of knights and other substantial men, with 
 the justice, to meet at a certain time and place : regulated by Magna Charta, 12x5. 
 The present justices of assize and Nisi Prius are derived from the statute of Westminster, 
 13 Edw. I. 1284. Coke; Blackstone. "The king doth will that no lord, or other of the 
 
ASS 
 
 57 
 
 AST 
 
 country, shall sit upon the bench with the justices to take assize in their sessions in the 
 counties of England, upon great forfeiture to the king," 20 Kich. II. 1396. Statutes, 
 Broiigh Act. Assizes are general or special ; general when the judges go their circuits, 
 and special when a commission is issued to take cognisance of one or more causes. See 
 Bloody Assize. 
 
 ASSOCIATIOlsrS. See National Associations. 
 
 ASSUMPTIOlSr, Feast of the, Aug. 15. It is observed by the church of Eome in 
 honour of the Virgin Mary, who is said to have been taken up to heaven in her corporeal 
 form, body and spirit, on this day, 45, in her 75th year. The festival was instituted in the 
 7th century, and enjoined by the council of Mentz, 813. 
 
 ASSURANCE. See hisurance. 
 
 ASSYRIA, an Asiatic country between Mesopotamia and Media, was the seat of the 
 earliest recorded monarchy. Its history is mainly derived from Ctesias, an early Greek 
 historian of doubtful autlienticity, Herodotus, and the Holy Scriptures. The discovery of 
 the very interesting Ninevite antiquities, now in the British Museum, by Mr. Layard, and 
 the deciphering of many ancient cuneiform inscriptions, by Grotefend, sir H. Rawlinson, 
 and other scholars, have drawn much attention to the Assyrians. The chronologers, Blair, 
 Usher, Hales, and Clinton, differ much in the dates they assign to events in Assyrian 
 history, of which a large portion is now considered fabulous by modern writers. 
 
 Nimrod or Belus reigns B.C. [2554 H. 2235 C] 2245 
 " Asshur builded Nineveh " {Gen. x. 11) about 2218 
 Ninns. son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and 
 
 names his capital Nineveh . , [2182 C] 2069 
 Babylon taken by Ninus, who having subdued 
 the Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, and all 
 Asia Minor, establishes what is properly the 
 Assyrian monarchy, of which Nineveh was 
 the seat of empire. B'.air , . [2233 C] 2059 
 Ninyas, an infant, succeeds Ninus . . . 2017 
 Semiramis, mother of Ninyas, usurps the 
 government, enlarges and embellishes Baby- 
 lon, and makes it the seat of her dominion 
 
 [2130 C] 2007 
 She invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India. Lenglet 197s 
 She is put to death by her son Ninyas . . 1965 
 Ninyas put to death, and Arius reigns . . 1927 
 
 Eeigii of AraUus 1897 
 
 Belochus, the last kmg of the race of Ninus . 1446 
 He makes his daughter Atossa, surnamed Se- 
 
 mii'amis II., his associate on tbe throne . 1433 
 Atossa procures the death of her father, and 
 marries Belatores (or Belapares) who reigns 1421 
 
 The prophet Jonah appears in Nineveh, and 
 foretells its destruction. Blair . . . 840 
 
 Nineveh taken by Arbaces. [Sardanapalus, the 
 king, is mythically said to have enclosed 
 himself, his court, and women, in his palace, 
 and to have perished in the fire kindled by 
 himself.] 820 
 
 777 
 
 770 
 
 740 
 
 Phul raised to the throne. Blair, about B.C. 
 
 He invades Israel, but departs without drawing 
 a sword. Blair ; 2 Kings xv. 19, 20 
 
 Tiglath-Pileser invades Syria, takes Damascus, 
 and makes great conquests . . . . 
 
 Shalmaneser takes Samaria, transports the 
 people, whom he replaces by a colony of 
 Cutheans and others, and thus finishes the 
 kingdom of Israel. Blair 721 
 
 He retires from before Tyre, after a siege of five 
 years. Blair 713 
 
 Sennacherib invades Jndea, and his general, 
 Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusalem, when the 
 angel of the Lord in one night destroys 
 180,000 of his army. Ludali xxxvii. . . 
 
 [Commentators suppose that this messenger of 
 death was the fatal blast known in eastern 
 countries by the name of Samitl.'\ 
 
 Esar-haddon invades Judea .... 
 
 Holofernes is slain by Judith (?) . . . . 677 
 
 Sarac (Sardanapalus II.) besieged, kills his wife 
 and children, and burns himself in his 
 palace 621 
 
 Nineveh razed to the ground, and Assyria be- 
 comes a Median province 605 
 
 Assyria subdued by Alexander the Great . 332 
 
 It subsequently formed part of the kingdoms 
 of Syria, Parthia, and Persia. 
 
 It was conquered by the Turks . . a.d. 1637 
 
 710 
 
 680 
 
 ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATRE. See under Theatres. 
 
 ASTORGA (IsT. W. Spain), the ancient Asturica Augusta, was taken by the French iu 
 1 810, and treated with great severity. 
 
 ASTRACAIST (S. E. Russia), a province acquired from the Mogul's empire in 1554; visited 
 and settled by Peter the Great in 1722. 
 
 ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence was trans- 
 mitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in vogue in Italy and France 
 in the time of Catherine de Medicis (married to Francis I. of France, 1533). HenauU. The 
 early history of astrology in England is very little known. It is said that Bede, 673 — 
 735j ■^vas addicted to it ; and Roger Bacon, 1214 — 1292. Lord Burleigh calculated the 
 nativity of Elizabeth, and she, and all the European princes, were the humble servants of 
 Dee, the astrologer and conjm-or ; but the period of the Stuarts was the acme of astrology 
 amongst us. It is stated that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected 
 escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. Ferguson. Astrological almanacs are still pub- 
 li.shed in London. 
 
AST 
 
 ATH 
 
 ASTRONOMY. TJic earliest astronomical observations -were made at Babylon about 
 2234 B.C. Tlie stndy of astronomy was much advanced in Chaldfea under Nabonassar ; it 
 
 was known to the Chinese about iioo b.c. ; some say many centuries before. 
 Planets, Comets. 
 
 See Edijiscs, 
 
 720 
 546 
 
 Lunar eclipses observed 'at Babylon, and re- 
 corded by Ptolemy . . . about B.C. 
 
 Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause 
 of lunar eclipses, tauglit by Thales, died 
 
 Further discoveries by Pythagoras, wlio taught 
 the doctrine of celestial motions, and believed 
 in the plui-ality of habitable worlds, died about 470 
 
 ^leton introdiices the lunar-solar cycle iibout . 432 
 
 Treatises of Aristotle "concerning the heavens," 
 and of Autolycus " on the motion of the 
 sphere " (the earliest extant works on .astro- 
 nomy) about 350 
 
 Aratus wiites a poem on astronomy . .281 
 
 Archimedes observes solstices, &,c. . . . 212 
 
 Hipparchus, greatest of Greek astronomers, 
 determines mean motion of sun and moon ; 
 discovers precession of equinoxes, (fee. . 160-125 
 
 The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, 
 and the places and dist;mces of the plmets 
 discovered by Ptolemy . . . a.d. 130-150 
 
 Astronomy and geography cultivated by the 
 Arabs about 760 : brought into Europe about 1200 
 
 Alphonsine tables (which see) composed about . 1253 
 
 Clocks first used in astronomy . . about 1500 
 
 True doctrine of the motions of the planetary 
 bodies revived by Copernicus, founder of 
 modem astronomy, author of the almagest, 
 published 1 543 
 
 Astronomy adv.anoed by Tycho Brahe, who 3-et 
 .adheres to the Ptolemaic system . about 1582 
 
 True laws of the planetarj' motions announced 
 by Kepler i6og 
 
 Galileo constructs a telescope, 1609 ; and dis- 
 covers Jupiter's satellites, &c. . . Jan. 8, 1610 
 
 Various forms of telescopes and other instiii- 
 ments used in astronomy invented . . 1608-40 
 
 Cartesian system published by Des Cartes . 1637 
 
 The transit of Venus over the sun's disc first 
 observed by Horrocks . . . Nov. 24, 1639 
 
 Cassini draws his meridian line, after Dante. 
 Soe Bolorjn'i 1655 
 
 The .aberration of the light of the fi.xcd stars 
 discovered by Horrebow .... 1659 
 
 Hii.yghens completes the discovery of Saturn's 
 ring 1654 
 
 Gregory invents a reflecting telescope . . 1663 
 
 Discoveries of Picard 1669 
 
 Charts of the moon constructed by Scheiner, 
 Laugrenus, Hevelius, Riccioli, and others, 
 
 about 1670 
 Discoveries of Romer on the velocity of light, 
 
 and his observation of Jupiter's .satellites . 1675 
 Greenwich Observatory fotjnded . . . ,, 
 Motion of the sun round its own axis proved 
 
 by Halle.v 1676 
 
 Newton's Principia published ; and the system, 
 
 as now taught, demonstrated .... 1687 
 Catalogue of the stars made by Flamstccd . . 1680 
 C.assini's chart of the full moon executed . 1692 
 
 Stitellites of Saturn, <fec., discovered by Cassini 1701 
 Halley predicts the return of the comet (of 
 
 1758) 1705 
 
 Flamsteed's //i.s<o/-ift C(K/et< is published . . 1725 
 Aberration of the stars clearly explained by 
 
 Dr. Bradley . 1737 
 
 John Harrison produces chi'onometers for de- 
 termining the longitude, 1735 et seq., and 
 
 obt.ains the reward 1764 
 
 Nautical .almanac first published . . . 1767 
 Celesti.al inequalities found bj' La Grange . . 17S0 
 Uranus and satellites discovered by Herschel. 
 
 See Georcfium Sithni . . March 13, 1781 
 
 Mthaniqae Celeste., by La Place, published . . 1796 
 Royal Astrnnomical Society of London founded, 
 
 1820 ; ch.artered 1831 
 
 Beer and Miidler's map of the moon published 1834 
 Lord Rosse's telescope constructed . 1828-45 
 
 The planet Neptune discovered . Sept. 23, 1846 
 Bond photographs the moon (see Photographt/, 
 
 celestial) 1851 
 
 Hansen's table of the moon published at ex- 
 pense of the Briti.sh government . . . 1857 
 Trustees of the late rev. Richard Sheepshanks 
 present lo.oooJ. stock to Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, for the promotion of the study 
 of astronomy, meteorology, and magnetism, 
 
 Dec. 2, 1850 
 Large photograph of the moon by Warren De 
 
 la Rue 1863 
 
 [For the minor planets recently discovered, see 
 Flatlets. ] 
 
 ASTURIAS (N. W, Spain), an ancient principality, the cradle of the present monarchy. 
 Here Pelago collected the Gothic fugitives, about 713, and founded a new kingdom, and by 
 his victories permanently checked the progress of ]\Ioorish compicst. For a list of his 
 successors, see the article Spain. Tlie heir-apparent of the monarchy has borne the title 
 "prince of Asturias" since 1388, when it was assumed by Henry, son of John I. king of Leon, 
 on his marriage with a descendant of Peter of Castile. In 1808, the junta of Asturias began 
 the organised resistance to the French usurpation. 
 
 ASYLUMS, OR PhivilEged Place.s, at first were places of refuge for those who by 
 accident or necessity had done things that rendered them obnoxious to the law. God com- 
 manded the JeM's to build certain cities for this purpose, 145 1 B.C., Numbers xxv. — The, 
 posterity of Hercules are said to have built one at Athens, to protect themselves against sucli 
 as their father had irritated. Cadmus built one at Tlicbes, 1490 B.C., and Romulus one at 
 Mount Palatine, 751 B.C. See Sanctuaries. 
 
 ATELIERS NATIONAUX (National Workshops) were established by the French pro- 
 visional government in Feb. 1848. They interfered greatly with private trade, and about 
 100,000 workmen threw themselves upon the government for labour and payment. Tlie 
 breaking-up of the system led to the fearful conflicts in June following. The system was 
 abolished in July. 
 
 ATHAN ASIAN CREED. Atlianasius, of Alexandria, was elected bishop, 326. _ He 
 firmly opposed the doctrines of Alius (who denied Christ's divinity) ; was several times exiled ; 
 
ATH 
 
 59 
 
 ATH 
 
 and died in 373. The creed wliicli goes by his name is supposed by many authorities to 
 have been written about 340 ; by others to be the compilation of Vigilius Tapseusis, an 
 African bishop in the 5th century. It was first commented on by Venatius Fortunatus, 
 bishop of Poictiers in 570. Dr. Waterlaud's History of this creed (1723) is exhaustive. See 
 A rians. 
 
 ATHEISM (from the Greek a, without, Thcos, God, see Psalm xiv. i). This doctrine 
 has had its votaries and martyrs. Spinoza was the defender of a similar doctrine (1632 — 
 1677). Lucilio Vanini publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt 
 at Toulouse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and had 
 upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674; he travelled to make proselj'tes, 
 and his followers were called Conscienciaries, becairse they held that there is no other deity 
 than conscience. Many eminent men have jirofessed atheism. "Though a small draught of 
 philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deej) draught will certainly bring him back again 
 to the belief of a God." Lord Bacon. 
 
 ATHEN^A were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honour of Minerva. One was 
 called Panatheneaj, the other Chalcea ; they are said to have been instituted by Erechtheus 
 or Orpheus, 1397 or 1495 B.C. ; and Theseus afterwards renewed them, and caused them to 
 be observed by all the Athenians, the first every fifth year, 1234 B.C. Plutarch. 
 
 ATHEN^jUM, a place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and philosophers 
 recited their compositions. The most celebrated Athensea were at Athens, Rome, and 
 Lyons: that of Piome, of great beauty, Avas erected by the emperor Adrian, 125. — Tlie 
 Atuen^um Club of Jjondon was formed in 1823, for the association of jiersons of scientific 
 a]id literary attainments, artists, noblemen and gentlemen, patrons of learning, &c., by 
 tlie earl of Aberdeen, marquess of Lansdowne, Dr. T. Young, Moore, Davy, Scott, Mackin- 
 tosh, Croker, Chaiitrey, Faraday, Lawrence, and otliers ; the clubhouse was erected in 
 1829-30 on the site of the late Carlton-palace ; it is of Grecian architecture, and the frieze is 
 an exact copy of the Panathenaic procession which formed the frieze of tlie Parthenon. — The 
 Liverpool Athenceunr was opened Jan. i, 1799. — At Manchester, Bristol, and many other 
 places, buildings under this name, and for a like purpose, have been founded. — The J.?Ac- 
 iiccurn, a weekly literary journal, first appeared in 1828. 
 
 ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, and of the modern kingdom of Greece. The first 
 •sovereign mentioned is Ogyges, who reigned in Bojotia, and was master of Attica, then called 
 Ionia. In his reign (about 1764 B.C.) a deluge took place (by some supposed to be the 
 universal deluge), that laid waste the country, in which state it remained two himdred years, 
 until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the land was re-peopled, 
 and twelve cities founded, 1556 b.c. The city is said to have been first called Cecropia ; the 
 name having been changed to Athens in honour of Minerva (Athene), her worship having 
 been introduced by Erechtheus X383 B.C. Athens was ruled by seventeen successive kings 
 (487 years), by thirteen ^jCT'jjci-wa? archons (316 years), seven decennial archons (70 years), 
 and lastly by annual archons (760 years). It attained great power, and perhaps no other 
 city in the woi'ld can boast, in such a short space of time, of so great a number of citizens 
 illustrious for wisdom, genius, and valour. The ancients, to distinguish Athens in a more 
 pecuUar manner, called it Astic, the city, by eminence, and one of the eyes of Greece. See 
 Greece. 
 
 Arrival of Cecrops . £.c. [1558^. 143367.] 1556 
 
 The Areopagus established ...... 1507 
 
 Deucalion arrives in Attica 1502 
 
 Reign of Amphicfyon .... [1499 H.'i 1497 
 
 The Panatheiia;an Games . . [1481 H.] 1495 
 
 Erich thonius reigns 1487 
 
 Erechtheus teaches hiisbandry . . . . 1383 
 
 Eleusinian mysteries introduced by Eumolpus 1356 
 Erechtheus killed in battle with, the Eleii- 
 
 sinians 1347 
 
 yEgeus invades Attica, and ascends the throne . 1283 
 He throws himself into the sea, and is drowned ; 
 
 hence the name of the iKgean Sea. Eusebius 1235 
 
 Theseus, his son, succeeds, and reigns 30 years „ 
 He collects his subjects into one city, and 
 
 names it Athens^ 1234 
 
 Reign of Mnestheus, 1205 ; Demophoijn . .1182 
 
 Court of Ephetes established 11 79 
 
 The PrianepsEe instituted 11 78 
 
 M elan thus conquers Xuthus in single combat 
 
 and is chosen king ii^8 
 
 Reign of Cudrus, his son, the last king . . 1092 
 
 In a battle with the Heraclidse, Codrus is killed : 
 he had resolved to perish ; the oi-acle having 
 declared that the victory should be with the 
 side whose leader was killed, 1070. Royalty 
 abolished ; — Athens governed by archons, 
 Medon the first [1070 .H. ] . .... 1044 
 
 Alcmeon, last popetoo^ arch on, dies . . . 753 
 Cherops, first decennial archon ... . . 752 
 Hippomcnes deposed for his cruelty ; among 
 other acts he exposed his o^vn daughter to be 
 devoured by horses, on account of an illicit 
 
 amour 713 
 
 Erixias, seventh and last decennial archon, 
 
 dies • . . 684 
 
 Creou first annual archon . . . ■ . . 683 
 Draco, the twelfth annual ai'chon, publishes his 
 
 laws, said " to have been written in blood" 621 
 Solon supersedes them by his excellent code . 594 
 Pisistratus, the " tvrant," seizes the supreme 
 power, 560 ; flight of Solon, 559. Pisistratus 
 establisiies his governuient, 537; collects a 
 public library, 531 ; dies ...... 527 
 
ATH 
 
 60 
 
 ATM 
 
 ATHENS, continued. 
 
 I'"irst tragedy acted at Athens, on a waggon, by 
 Thespis . b c. 535 
 
 Hipparchus assassinated by Harmodius and 
 Aristogeiton 514 
 
 The law of ostracism established ; Hippias and 
 the Pisistratidfe banished . . . .510 
 
 J Socrates (aged 70) put to death . . .B.C. 399 
 
 I The Corinthian war begins 395 
 
 Cinon rebuilds the long walls, and fortifies 
 
 the Pirasns 393 
 
 The Ijacediiemonian fleet defeated at Kaxus by 
 
 Chabrias 376 
 
 Lemnos taken by Miltiades 504 Philip, king of Macedou, opposes the Atheni- 
 
 Invasion of the Persians, who are defeated at j ans. See Macedon 359 
 
 Marathon 4go Second sacred (or social) war .... 357-355 
 
 Death of Miltiades 489 , First Philippic of Demosthenes .... 352 
 
 471 
 
 338 
 336 
 
 335 
 323 
 
 322 
 
 318 
 
 256 
 229 
 
 215 
 211 
 196 
 
 483 I Battle of Chreronea, which aee ; the Athenians 
 480 ' and Thebans defeated by Philip . . . . 
 479 j Philip assas.-inated by Pausanias 
 478 Athens submits to Alexander, who spares the 
 
 orators 
 
 Death of Alexander 
 
 The Athenians rising against Macedon, defeated 
 
 at Cranon ; Demosthenes poisons himself 
 Athens surrenders to Cassander, who governs 
 
 well 
 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes expels Demetrins Pbale- 
 reus, and restores the Athenian democracy, 
 307 ; the latter takes the chair of philosophy 296 
 A league between Athens, Sparta, and Kgypt . 277 
 Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatas, king of 
 
 Macedon, 268 ; restored by Aratus 
 The Athenians join the Achiiinn league. . . 
 They join the jEtolians against Macedon, and 
 send for assistance to Eome . . . . 
 A Roman fleet arrives at Athens 
 The Romans proclaim liberty at Athens . . 
 
 Subjugation of Greece 1 
 
 The Athenians implore assistance against the 
 Romans from Mithridates, king of Pontus, 
 whose general, Archelaus, makes himself 
 
 master of Athens 88 
 
 Athens besieged by Sylla, the Roman general, 
 
 it is reduced to surrender by famine . . . 86 
 Cicero studies at Athens, 79; and Horace. . 42 
 The Athenians desert Pompey, to follow the 
 
 interests of Caesar 47 
 
 Athens visited by the Apoftle Paul . . a.d. 52 
 Many temples, &c. , erected by Hadrian . 122-135 
 Athens taken by Alaric, and spared from 
 
 slaughter 396 
 
 By Mahomet II 1456 
 
 By the Venetians 1466 
 
 Restored to the Turks 1479 
 
 hens suffered much during the insurrection, 
 
 1821-7. Taken May 17 1827 
 
 ecomes the capital of the kingdom of modem 
 
 Greece 1833 
 
 Population, 50,000 1857 
 
 (See Article Greece.) 
 
 ATHLONE, Eosconimon, Ireland, fomierly a place of great strength and beauty, was 
 burnt during the civil war in 1641. After the battle of the Boyne, colonel K. Grace held 
 Athlone for James II. against a laesieging army, but fell when it was taken by assault by 
 Ginckel, June 30, 1691. See Avghrim. 
 
 ATLANTA. See United States, 1864. 
 
 ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See Suhmarme Telegraph. 
 
 ATMOLYSIS, a method of separating the constituent gases of a compound gas (such as 
 atmospheric air) by causing it to pass through a vessel of porous material (such as graphite) ; 
 first made known in Aug., 1863, by the discoverer, professor T. Graham, F.R.S., Master of 
 the Mint. 
 
 ATMOSPHERE. See Air. 
 
 AT OSPHERIC RAILWAYS. The idea of producing motion by atmospheric pressui'e was 
 onceivedby Papin, the French engineer, about 1680. Experiments were made on a line of rail, 
 laid down across Wormwood Scrubs, London, between Shepherd's Bush and the Great Western 
 railroad, to test the efficacy of atmosphei-ic tubes, the working of the air-pump, and speed of 
 carriages upon this new principle on railroads in June, 1840, and then tried on a line between 
 Croydon and London, 1845. An atmospheric railway was commenced between Dalkoy and 
 Killiney, in the vicinity of Dublin, in Sept. 1843 : opened March 29, 1844 ; discontinued 
 
 Aiistides, sumamed the Jmt, banished 
 Athens taken by the Persian Xerxes . . . 
 Burnt to the groiind by Mardoniiis . 
 Rebuilt .ind fortified ; Piraeus built . . . 
 
 Themistocles banished 
 
 (Mmon, son of Miltiades, overruns all Thrace . 
 Pericles takes pa>-tin public affiiirs, 469; he and 
 
 Cimon adorn Athens. 464; the latter banished 
 
 throuerh his influence 461 
 
 Athens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . 459 
 Literature, philosophy, and art flourish . . 448 
 The first sacred Cor social) war ; which see . . ,, 
 Tolmidas conducts an expedition into Bceotia, 
 
 anfl is defeated and kill'^d ne ir Coronpa . 447 
 The thirty years' truce between the Athenians 
 
 and Lacedfemonians . . . . . . 445 
 
 Herodotus said to have read his history in the 
 
 council at Athens „ 
 
 Pericles obtains the government . . . . 444 
 
 Pericles subdues Samos 440 
 
 Comedies prohibited at Athens . . . . ,, 
 Alliance between Athens and Corcyra, then at 
 
 war with Corinth, 433 ; leads to the Pelopon- 
 
 nesian war (lasted 27 years) ; it began . . 431 
 A dreadful pestilence, which had ravaged 
 
 Ethiopia, Libya, Egypt, and Persia, extends 
 
 to Athens, and continues for five years . . 430 
 Death of Pericles of the plague . . . 429 
 
 Disastrous expedition against Sicily ; death of 
 
 the commanders, Demosthenes and Nicias ; 
 
 Ath'-niaai fleet destroyed by Gylippus . 415-413 
 Government of the " four hundred " . . . 411 
 Alcibiades defeats the Lacedremouians at 
 
 Cyzicu'i ; which sei 410 
 
 Alcibiades, accused of aspiring to sovereign 
 
 power, banished 407 
 
 Athenian fleet destroyed by Lysander at 
 
 .iEgospotanios 405 
 
 He besieges Athens by land and sea its walls 
 
 are destroyed, and it capitulates, and the 
 
 Peloponnesian war terminates . . . 404 
 Rule of the thirty tjrants, who are overthrown 
 
 by Thrasybulus 403 
 
ATO 61 ATT 
 
 in 1855. A similar railway was proposed to be laid down in the streets of London by Mr. 
 T. W. Rammell in 1857. Mr. RammeU's Pneumatic Railway was put in action successfully 
 at the Crystal Palace on Aug. 27, 1864, and foUomng days. An act for a pneumatic railway 
 between the "Waterloo railway station and Whitehall was passed in July, 1865. 
 
 ATOMIC THEORY, in chemistry, deals with the indivisible particles of aU substance?. 
 The somewhat incoherent labours of his predecessors (such as Wenzel in 1777) were reduced 
 by John Dalton to foiu' laws of combining proportion, which have received the name of 
 '•' Atomic Theory." His " Chemical Philosophy," containing the exposition of his views, 
 appeared in 1808. Dr. C. Daubeny's work on the Atomic Theory was piiblished in 1850. 
 In his standard oi Atomic weights Dalton takes hydrogen as i. Berzelius, who commenced his 
 elaborate researches on the subject in 1848, adopts oxygen as 100. The former standard is 
 used in this country, the latter on the continent. 
 
 ATTAINDER, Acts of, whereby a person not only forfeited his land, but his blood was 
 attainted, have been numerous. Two witnesses in cases of high treason are necessary where 
 corruption of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 & 8 
 "Will. III. 1694-5. Blackstoiie. In 1814 and 1833 the severity of attainders was mitigated. 
 The attainder of lord Russell, who was beheaded in Lincoln's-inn-fields, July 21, 1683, was 
 reversed under "William, in 1689. The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in 
 the reign of James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Amongst the last 
 acts reversed was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who was implicated 
 in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July i, 1819. 
 
 ATTICA. See Athens. 
 
 ATTILA, surnamedthe '■'■Scourge of God,'" and thus distinguished for his conquests and 
 his crimes, having ravaged the eastern empire from 445 to 450, when he made peace 
 with Theodosius. He invaded the western empire, 450, and was defeated by Aetius at 
 Chalons, 451 ; he then retired into Pannonia, where he died through the bursting of a 
 bloodvessel on the night of his nuptials with a beautiful virgin named Ildico, 453. 
 
 ATTORNEY (from tour, turn), a person qualified to act for others at law. The number 
 in Edward III. 's reign was under 400 for the whole kingdom. In the 32nd of Henry VI. 
 1454, a law reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to four- 
 teen, and restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in England, or 
 registered, or retired, is said to be about 13,000. The number in Ireland is stated at 2000. 
 The qualifications of practice of attorneys and solicitors are now regulated by acts passed in 
 1843 and 1 86 1. 
 
 ATTORNEY-GENERAL, a law officer of the crown, appointed by letters patent. He 
 has to exhibit informations and prosecute for the king in matters criminal ; and to file bills 
 in exchequer, for any claims concerning the crown in inheritance or profit. Others may 
 bring bills against tlie king's attorney. The first attorney-general was "V\''illiam de Gisilham, 
 7 Edward I. 1278. Bcatson. 
 
 ATTORNEY-GENERALS SINCE THE RESTORATION. 
 
 Sir Jeffery Palmer 1660 
 
 Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards lord Finch . . 1670 
 Sir Francis North, knt., aftds. lord Guildford . 1673 
 
 Sir William Jones 1674 
 
 Sir Cresvel Levinz, or Levinge, knt. . . . 1679 
 
 Sir Robert Sawyer, knt 168 1 
 
 Sir Thomas Powis, knt. ...... 1687 
 
 Henry Pollexfen, esq. 1689 
 
 Sir George Tre by, knt ,, 
 
 Sir John Somers, knt., afterwards lord Somers . 1692 
 
 Edward Ward, esq 1693 
 
 Sir Thomas Trevor, knt., aftds. lord Trevor . 1695 
 
 Edward Northey, esq 1701 
 
 Sir Simon Harcourt, knt 1707 
 
 Sir James Montagu, knt 1708 
 
 Sir Simon Harcotirt, again ; aft. lord Harcourt . 1710 
 Sir Edward Northey, knt., again . . . ,, 
 Nicholas Leehmere, esq., aft. lord Lechmere . 1718 
 Sir Robert Raymond, aft. lord Raymond . . 1720 
 Sir Philip Yorke, aft. earl of Hardwicke . . 1724 
 
 Sir John Willes, knt 1733 
 
 Sir Dmley Ryder, knt 1737 
 
 Hon. William Murray, aft. earl of Mansfield . 1754 
 Sir Robert Henley, kut., afl. earl of Northington 1756 
 Sir Charles Pratt, knt., afterwards lord Camden 1757 
 
 Hon. Charles Yorke 1762 
 
 Sir Fletcher Norton, knt., aft. lord Grantley . 1763 
 
 Hon. Charles Yorke, again ; afterwards lord 
 
 Morden, and lord chancellor. See Chancellors 1765 
 William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham . 1766 
 Edward Thurlow, esq., afterwarus lord Hhxivlow 1771 
 Alex. Wedderburne, aft. lord Loughborough . 1778 
 
 James Wallace, esq 1780 
 
 Lloyd Kenyon, esq. ...... 1782 
 
 James Wallace, esq 1783 
 
 John Lee, esq ,, 
 
 Lluyd Kenyon, again; afterwards lord Kenyon ,,j 
 Sir Richard P. Arden, aft. lord Alvanley . .1784 
 
 Sir Ai'chi bald Macdonald 1788 
 
 Sir John Scott, afiericards lord Eldon . . 1793 
 Sir J. Mitford, afterwards lord Redesdale . . 1800 
 Sir Edward Law, ar't. Id. Ellenborough, Feb. 14, 1801 
 Hon. Spencer Percival (murdered by Bellitig- 
 /tani, May II, 1812). . . . April 15, 1S02 
 
 Sir Arthur Pigott Feb. 12, 1S06 
 
 Sir Vicary Gibbs, afterwards chief justice of 
 
 the common pleas . . . April 7, 1807 
 Sir Thomas Plumer, afterwards fli'st vice-chan- 
 cellor of England .... June 26, 1812 
 Sir William (janow .... May 4, 1813 
 
 Sir Samuel Shepherd May 7, 1817 
 
 Sir Robert Gifford, aft. lord Gifford July 24, 1819 
 Sir John Singleton Copley, ajtenoa.rds lord 
 Lyndhurst ..... Jan. g, 1824 
 
ATT 62 AUG 
 
 ATTOllNEY-GENERAL, conliaucd. 
 
 Sii- Charles Wetherell . . . . Sept. 20, 1826 ^ir JaXm Savvlfi, afUfwarcU chief justice of the 
 
 Sir James Scarlett .... April 27, 1827 j _ common [ileas July 13, i 
 
 Sir Charles Wetherell, a;<.ain . . . Feb. 19, 1828 - - - - 
 
 Sir J.as. Scarlett, agn. ; nft. Id. Abinger, June 29, 1829 
 
 Sir Thos. Donmau, «/(. lord Donmau . Nov. 26, 1830 
 
 Sir William Home .... Nov. 26, 1832 
 
 Sir John Campbell March i, 1834 
 
 Sir Frederick Pollock .... Dec. 17, ,, 
 Sir John Campbell, again ; afUi-wanh lord 
 
 Campbell (and, 1859, Id. chancellor), April 30, 1835 
 
 Sir Thomas Wilde . • . . Julys, 1841 
 
 Sir F. Pollock, again; 0/1!. chief baron Sept. 6, ,, 
 Sir WiUiam W. Follett . . . April 17 
 
 SirJohu Romilly, nft. mast, of the rolls, July 11, 1850 
 Sir Alex. James Edmund Cockburn .March 28, 1851 
 Sir Frederick Thesiger, again ; a/lerieards lord 
 
 Chelmsford, and lord chancellor . March 2, 1852 
 Sir Alexander Cockbuni, again ; aft. ch. just. 
 
 of common pi 3as and queen's bench, Dec. 28, 1852 
 Sir Richard Bethell .... Nov. 15, 1856 
 
 Sir Fitzroy Kelly Feb. 27, 1858 
 
 Sir R. BetheU (since lord Wcstbuiy, and lord 
 
 chancellor) June 18, 1859 
 
 Sir William Atherton . . . July, 1861 
 
 Sir Frederick Tbosigor . . . . July 4, 1845 • Sir Roundell Palmer (pz-ewiii officer) . Oct. 2, 1863 
 Sir Thomas Wilde, again ; oftenoards lord 
 Truro, and lord chancellor . . July 6, 1846 
 
 ATTRACTION is described by Coperaiciis, about 1520, as an appetence or appetite whicb 
 the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter. It was described by Kepler to be a corporeal 
 affection tending to union, 1605. In 1687, sir I. Newton published liis "Principia," con- 
 taining his important researches on this subject. There are the attractions of Gravitation, 
 Magnetism, and Electricity, which see. 
 
 AUBAINE, a right of the French kings, which existed from the beginning of tho 
 monarchy, whereby they claimed the property of every stranger who died in their countrj', 
 v.ithont having been naturalised, was abolished by the national assembly in 1790; re-esta- 
 blished by Napoleon ; and finally annulled July 14, 1819. 
 
 AUCKLAND, capital of New Zealand (north island), was founded in 1840. The popu- 
 lation of the district, in 1857, was estimated at 15,000 Europeans, and 35,000 natives. 
 
 AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans, mentioned by Petronius Arbiter (about 
 66). The first in Britain was about 1700, by Eli.sha Yale, a governor of Fort George in 
 the East Indies, who thus sold the goods he had brought home. Auction and sales' tax 
 began, 1779. Various acts of parliament have regulated auctions and imposed duties, in 
 some cases as high as five per cent. By 8 Vict. c. 15 (1845), the duties were repealed, and 
 a charge imposed " on the licence to be taken out by all auctioneers in the United Kingdom, 
 of loZ." In 1858 there were 4358 licences granted, producing 43,580?. Certain .sales are 
 now exempt from being conducted by a licensed auctioneer, such as goods and chattels under 
 a distress for rent, and sales under the provisions of the Small Debts' acts for Scotland and 
 Ireland. 
 
 AUDIANI, followers of Audeus of Mesopotamia, who had been expelled from the Syrian 
 church on account of his severely reproving the vices of the clergy, about 338, formed a sect 
 and became its bishop. He was banished to Scythia, where he is said to have made many 
 converts. His followers celebrated Easter at the time of the Jewish passovcr, attributed the 
 human figure to the Deity, and had other peculiar tenets. 
 
 AUDIT-OFFICE, Somerset Hou.se. Commissioners for auditing the public accounts 
 were appointed in 1785. Many statutes regulating their duties have since been enacted. 
 
 AUERSTADT (Prussia). Here and at Jena, on Oct. 14, 1806, the French signally de- 
 feated the Prussians. See Jena. 
 
 AUGHRIM, near Athlone, in Ireland, where, on July 12, 1691, a battle was fought 
 between the Irisli, headed by the French general St. Ruth, and the English under general 
 Ginckel. The former were defeated and lost 7000 men ; the latter lost only 600 killed and 
 960 wounded. St. Ruth was slain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to the interests 
 of James II. in Ireland. Ginckel was immediately after created earl of Athlone. The 
 ball by which St. Ruth was killed is still suspended in the choir of St. Patrick's cathedral, 
 Dublin. 
 
 AUGMENTATION of Poor Livings' Office, was established in 1704. 5597 poor 
 clerical livings, not exceeding $ol. per annum, were found by the conamissioners under 
 the act of Anne capable of augmentation, by means of the bounty then established by 
 parliament. 
 
 AUGMENTATIONS COURT was established in 1535 by 27 Henry VIII. c. 27, in rela- 
 tion to the working of cap. 28 of the same session, which gave to the king the property of all 
 monasteries having 200I. a year. The court Avas abolished by Mary in 1553, and restored by 
 Elizabeth in 1558. 
 
AUG 63 AUR 
 
 AUGSBUEG (Bavaria), originally a colony settled by Augustus, about 12 B.C. ; became 
 a free city, and flourished during the middle ages. Here many important diets of the 
 empire have been held. In a.d. 952, a council confirmed the order for the celibacy of the 
 priesthood ; and on Sept. 25, 1555, the celebrated treaty of Nassau was signed, by which 
 religious liberty was secured to Germany. League, of Augsburg. A treaty between Holland 
 and other European powers, to cause the treaties of Munster and Nimeguen to be respected, 
 signed 1686. See MiinsUr and Nimeguen. Augsburg has suffered much by Avar, having 
 been frequently taken by siege, 788, 1703, 1704, and, last, by the French, Oct. 10, 1805, 
 M'ho restored it to Bavaria in March, 1806. 
 
 AUGSBURG CONFESSION (Articles of Faith, drawn up by Luther, Melanchthon, and 
 other reformers, and presented to, the emperor Charles Y. June 25, 1530), was directly 
 opposed to the abuses of the church of Rome. It was signed by the elector of Saxony, and 
 other princes of Germany, and was delivered- to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of 
 Augsburg. See Interim. 
 
 AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, long 
 before the time of Hesiod. Three augurs, at Rome, with vestals and several orders of the 
 ])riesthood, were formally constituted by Numa, 710 B.C. The mtmber had increased, and 
 was fifteen at the time of Sylla, 81 B.C., and the college of augurs was abolished by Theo- 
 dosius about a.d. 391. 
 
 AUGUST, the eighth Roman month of the year (previously called Sextilis, or the sixth 
 
 from March), by a decree of the senate received its present name in honour of Augustus 
 
 Cresar, in the year 8, or 27, or 30 B.C., because in this month he was created consul, had 
 
 ' thrice triumphed in Rome, added Egypt to the Roman empire, and made an end of the 
 
 civil wars. He added one day to the month, making it 31 days. 
 
 AUGUSTINS, a religious mendicant "order, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustin, 
 bishop of Hippo, who died 430. These monks (termed Austin friars) first appeared about 
 the nth century, and the order was constituted by pope Alexander lY., in 1256. The rule 
 requires strict poverty, humility, and chastity. Martin Luther Avas an Augustin monk. 
 The Augustins held the doctrine of free grace, and were rivals of the Dominicans. The order 
 appeared in England soon after the conquest. One of their churches, at Austin Friars, 
 London, erected in 1354, and since the Reformation used by Dutch protestants, was partiallj'^ 
 destroyed by fire, Nov. 22, 1862. A religious house of the order, dedicated to S. Monica, 
 mother of Augustin, was founded in Hoxton-square, London, 1864. 
 
 AULIC COUNCIL, a sovereign court in Germany, established by the emperor Maximilian 
 I., in 1506, being one of the two courts, the first called the Imperial Chamber, formerly 
 held at Spires, and afterwards at "Wetzlar, and the other the Aulic council at Yienna. These 
 courts, having concurrent jurisdiction, were instituted for appeals in particular cases from 
 the courts of the Germanic states. 
 
 AURAY (N."W. France). Here, on Sept. 29, 1364, the English, imder John Chandos, 
 totally defeated the French and captured their heroic leader Du Guesclin. Charles of Blois, 
 made duke of Brittany by the king of France, was slain, and a peace was made in 
 April, 1365. 
 
 AURICULAR CONFESSION. The confession of sin at the ear (Latin auris) of the 
 priest must have been an early practice, since it is said to have been forbidden iu the 4th 
 century by Nectarius, archbishop of Constantinople. It was enjoined by the council of 
 Lateran, in 1215, and by the council of Trent in 1551. It was one of the six articles of 
 faith enacted by our Henry YIII. in 1539, but was abolished in England at the Reformation. 
 Its revival here has been attempted by the church party called Puseyites or Tractarians ; but 
 without much success.* 
 
 AURIFLAMMA, OB. Oriflamme, the national golden banner mentioned in French 
 history, belonging to the abbey of St. Denis, and suspended over the tomb of that saint, 
 1 140. Louis le Gros was the first king who took this standard from the abbey to battle, 
 1 124. Henault. It appeared for the last time at Agincourt, 141 5. Tillet. 
 
 AURORA FRIGATE, sailed from Britain in 177 1, to the East Indies, and was never 
 again heard of. 
 
 * The rev. Alfred Poole, one of the curates of St. Barnabas, Knightsbridge, was suspended from his 
 office for practising auricular confession in June, 1858, by the bishop of London. On appeal, the suspen- 
 sion-was confirmed in January, 1859. Much excitement was created by a similar attempt by the rev. 
 Temple West at Boyne Hill, in September, 1858. 
 
AUR 64 AUS 
 
 AUEOR.E BOREALES anu AUSTRALES (Northern and Southern Polar Lights), though 
 rartly seen iu central Europe, are frequent in the arctic and antarctic regions. In March, 
 1 716, an aurora borealis extended from the west of Ireland to the confines of Russia. The 
 whole horizon in the lat. of 57° N. overspread with continuous haze of a dismal red during 
 the whole night, by which many people were much terrified, Kov. 1765. — Mr. Foster, the 
 companion of captain Cook, saw the aurora in lat. 58° S. Its appearance in the southern 
 hemisphere had been previously doubted.* 
 
 AUSCULTATION. See Stethoscope. 
 
 AUSTERLITZ (Moravia), where a battle was fought between the French and the allied 
 Austrian and Russian armies, Dec. 2, 1805. Three emperors commanded : Alexander of 
 Russia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded exceeded 
 30,000 on the side of the allies, who lost forty standards, 150 pieces of cannon, and thousands 
 of prisoners. The decisive victory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, signed Dec. 
 26, 1805. See Presburg. 
 
 AUSTIN FRIARS. See Attgustins. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA, tlie fifth great division of the world. This name, originally given it 
 by De Brosses, includes Australia, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, New Britain, New 
 Caledonia, &c., mostly discovered within two centuries. Accidental discoveries were made 
 by the Spaniards as early as 1526 ; but the first accurate knowledge of these southern lands 
 is due to the Dutch, who in 1605 explored a part of the coast of New Guinea. Torres, a 
 Spaniard, passed through the straits which now bear his name, between that island and 
 Australia, and gave the first correct report of the latter, 1606. The Dutch continued theif 
 discoveries. Between 1642 and 1644, Tasman completed a discovery of a great part of the 
 Australian coast, together with the island of Van Diemen's Land (also called Tasmania). 
 Wm. Dam pier, an Englishman, between 1684 and 1690, explored a part of the W. and N. 
 W. coasts. Between 1763 and 1766, Wallis and Carteret followed in the track of Dam pier, 
 and added to his discoveries; and in 1770, Cook first made known the East coast of 
 Australia. Furueaux, iu 1773, Bligh in 1789, Edwards in 1791, Bligh (a second time) in 
 1792, Portlock same year, Brampton and Alt in 1793, and Bass and Flinders explored the 
 coasts and islands in 1798-9 and discovered Bass's Straits. Grant in 1800, and Flinders 
 again (1801-5) completed the survey. M'Culloch. 
 
 AUSTRALIA (formerly New Holland), the largest island and smallest continent ; with 
 an estimated area of about three million square miles, including five provinces — New South 
 Wales, Victoria (formerly Port Phillip), South Australia, 'Xieai Australia (or Swan River), 
 and Queensland {loliich see). Population, with Tasmania and New Zealand, in 1863, about 
 1,366,956. 
 Australia said to have been known to the Per- Great distress in consequence of the loss of the 
 
 tuguese before iSSo ship " Guardian," captain Riou . . . 1790 
 
 Alleged discovery by Manoel Godinho de First church erected .... Aug. 1793 
 
 Heredia, a Portuguese 1601 Government gazette first printed . . . 1795 
 
 Torres passes through the straits named after Bass's Straits discovered by Bass and Flinders 1798 
 
 him i6o5 First brick church built 1802 
 
 The Dutch also discover Australia . March, ,, Colony of Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) 
 
 The coast surveyed by Dutch navigators : established 1803 
 
 north, by Zeachen, 161S ; west, by Edels, 1 Flinders surveys the coasts of Australia . 1801-5 
 
 1619 ; south, by Nuyts, 1627 ; north, by j Insiurection ot Irish convicts quelled . . 1804 
 
 Carpenter . . 1627 | Governor Bligh for his tyranny deposed by an 
 
 Wm. Dampier explores the W. and N.W. coasts, insurrection 1808 
 
 1684-90 I Superseded by governor Macquarie_. . . i8og 
 Tasman coasts S. Australia .... 1642 
 
 Terra Austraiis (Western Australia) named New 
 Holland by order of the States- General . . 1665 
 
 William Dampier lands in Australia . . . 1686 
 
 Capt. Cook, su- Joseph Banks, and others, land 
 at Botany Bay, and name the country " New 
 South Wales" April 28, 1770 
 
 Governor Phillip founds the city of Sydney 
 near Port Jackson, with 1030 peisons, 
 
 Jan. 26, 1788 
 
 [The seventy-first anniversary of this event was 
 kept with much festivity, Jan. 26, 1859.] 
 
 Expeditions into the interior by Wentworth, 
 
 Lawsoi), Bloxland, Oxley. &c. . 1813, 1817, 1823 
 Population, 29,783 (three-fourths convicts) . . 1821 
 Wat Australia formed into a province . . 1S29 
 Legislative council establi'^hed . . . . ,, 
 Sturt's expeditions into South Australia 1828-1831 
 South Aiistrctlta erected into a province . Aug. 1834 
 Sir T. Mitchell's expeditions into E. Australia 1831-6 
 First Rom. Cath. Bishop (Folding) amves, ;-'ept. 1835 
 Port Phillip (now Victoria) colonised . Nov. ,, 
 Fii-st Church of England bishop of Australia 
 (Broughton) arrives .... June, 1836 
 
 » The aurora is now attributed by many philosophers to the passage of electric light through the 
 rarefied air of the polar regions. In August and September, 1859, when brilliant aun^rse were very 
 frequent, the electric telegraph wires were seriously affected, and communications interrupted. Aurorte 
 were Been at Rome and Basel, and also in Australia. 
 
AUS 
 
 65 
 
 AUS 
 
 AUSTRALIA, continued. 
 
 Colony of South Australia founded . Dec. 1836 
 Eyre's expedition overland from Adelaide to 
 
 King George's Sound 1836-7 
 
 Melbourne founded Nov. 1837 
 
 Suspension of transportation 1839 
 
 Strzelecki explores the Australian Alps . . 1840 
 Great exertions of Mrs. Chisholm; establish- 
 ment of " Home for Female Emigrants" 1841-6 
 Census — 87,200 males ; 43,700 females . . . 1841 
 Very numerous insolvencies . . . 1841-2 
 Incorporation of city of Sydney . . . . 1842 
 Leichhardt's expedition (never returned) . 1844-5 
 Sturt proceeds from South Australia to the 
 
 middle of the continent 1845 
 
 Census (including Port Phillip) — 114,700 males ; 
 
 74,800 females 1846 
 
 Great agitation against transportation, which 
 
 had been revived by earl Grey . . . 1849 
 Port Phillip erected into a separate province as 
 
 Victoria 1850 
 
 Gold discovered by Mr. Hargraves, <fcc.* . . 1851 
 Census — males, 106,000; females, 81,000 (exclu- 
 sive of Victoria, 80,000) ,, 
 
 Mints established .... March, 1853 
 
 Transportation ceased . . . . . . ,, 
 
 Gregory's explorations of interior . . . 1856 
 Death of archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after 
 
 about fifty years' residence . . July, 1858 
 
 Queensland made a province . . Dec. 4, 1859 
 
 Stuart's expeditions 1858-60 
 
 Expedition into the interior under Mr. Lan- 
 
 dells organised Aug. i860 
 
 Robert O'Hara Burke, Wm. John Wills, and 
 
 others, start from Melbourne '. . Aug. 20, ,, 
 J. M'Douall Stuart's expeditions . . . 1860-1 
 Burke, Wills, and two others, cross Australian 
 
 continent to the gulf of Carpentaria ; all 
 
 perish on their return, except John King, 
 
 who arrives at Melbourne . . . Nov. 1861 
 Stuart, M'Kinlay, and Landsborough cross 
 
 AustraUa from sea to sea .... 1861-2 
 
 AUSTRASIA, CEsterreich (Eastern Kingdom), also called Metz, a French kingdom which 
 lasted from the 6th to the 8th centmy. It began with the division of the territories of Clovis 
 by his sons, 511, and ended hj Carloman becoming a monk and surrendering his power to his 
 brother Pepin, who thus became sole king of France, 747. 
 
 AUSTRIA, a Hamburg company's steamship, sailed from Southampton for New York 
 Sept. 4, 1858, with 538 persons on board. On Sept. 13, in lat. 45° 'E., long. 41° 30' "W., it 
 caught fire through the carelessness of some one in burning some tar to fumigate the steerage. 
 Only 67 persons were saved — upwards of 60 by the Maurice, a French barque ; the rest by 
 a Norwegian barque. A heartrending account was given in the Twncs, Oct. 11, 1858, by 
 Mr. Charles Brews, an English survivor. 
 
 AUSTRIA, CEsterreich (Eastern Kingdom), anciently Noricum and part of Pannonia, 
 was annexed to the Roman empire about 33 ; was overrun by the Huns, Avars, &c. , during 
 the 5th and 6th centuries, and taken from them by Charlemagne, 791-796. He divided the 
 government of the country, establishing margraves of Eastern Bavaria and Austria. Louis 
 
 * Gold Discovery. — Mr. Edward Hargraves went to California in search of gold, and was struck with 
 the similarity between the rocks and strata of California and those of his own district of Conobolas, some 
 thirty miles west of Bathurst. On his return home, he examined the soil, and after one or two months' 
 digging, found a quantity of gold, Feb. 12, 1851. He applied to the colonial government for a reward, 
 which he readily obtained, with an appointment as commissioner of crown lands. The excitement became 
 intense throughout the colony of New South Wales, rapidly spread to that of Victoria and other places ; 
 and in the first week of July, 1851, an aboriginal inhabitant, formerly attached to the WelUngton mission, 
 and then in the service of Dr. Kerr, of Wallawa, discovered, while tending his sheep, a mass of gold among 
 a heap of quartz. Three blocks of quartz (from two to three hundred weight), found in the Murroo Creek, 
 fifty miles to the north of Bathui-st, contained ii2lb. of pure gold, valued at 4000^ The " Victoria nugget," 
 a magnificent mass of vu'gin gold, weighing 340 ounces, was brought to England from the Bendigo 
 diggings ; and a piece of pure gold of 106 lb. weight was also found. From the gold fields of Mount 
 Alexander and Ballaarat, in the district of Victoria, up to Oct. 1852, there were found 2,532,422 ounces, or 
 105 tons 10 cwt. of gold; and the gold exported up to the same date represented 8,863,477?. sterling. In 
 Nov. 1856, the "James Baines " and "Lightning" brought gold from Melbourne valued at i,2oo,oooJ. The 
 "Welcome nugget" weighed 2oiqJ ounces ; value, 8376?. los. lod. ; found at Baker's Hill, Ballaarat, June 11, 
 1858. Between May 1S51, and May i86i,£old to the value of 96,000,000?. had been brought to England 
 from New South Wales and Victoria. 
 
 Remains of Burke and Wills recovered ; public 
 funeral Jan. 21, 1863 
 
 Strong and general resistance throughout Aus- 
 tralia to the reception of British convicts in 
 West AustraHa .... about June, 1864 
 
 Cessation of transportation to Australia in 
 three years announced amid much rejoicing, 
 
 Jan. 26, 1865 
 
 Morgan, a desperate bushi'anger and murderer, 
 surrounded and shot .... April, ,, 
 
 Boundary disputes between New South Wales 
 and Victoria, in summer of 1864 ; settled 
 amicably April ig, ,, 
 
 GOVERNORS. 
 
 Captain Arthur Philhp 1788 
 
 Captain Hunter 1795 
 
 Captain Philip G. King iSoo 
 
 Captain William Bligh 1806 
 
 Colonel Lachlan Macquarie (able and successful 
 
 administration) 1S09 
 
 General sir Thomas Brisbane . . . . 1821 
 
 Sir Richard Bourke 1831 
 
 Sir George Gipps ' . . 1838 
 
 Sir Charles Fitzroy, governor-general of all the 
 Australian colonies, with a certain jurisdic- 
 tion over the lieutenant-governors of Van 
 Diemen's Land, Victoria, and South and 
 
 Western Australia 1846 
 
 Sir William T. Denison 1854 
 
 Sir John Young, governor of New South Wales 
 only i860 
 
 Acts for the government of Australia, 10 George 
 IV., cap. 22, May 14 (1829), 6 & 7 William IV., 
 cap. 68, Aug. 13 (1836), 13 & 14 Victoria, 
 cap. 59, Aug. s (1850). Act for regulating the 
 sale of waste lands in the Australian colonies, 
 5 <Sj 6 Victoria, cap. 36, June 22 (1842). 
 
AUS 
 
 66 
 
 AUS 
 
 the German, son of Lonis le Debonnaire, about 817, subjugated Eadbod, mai'grave ot 
 Austria ; but in 883 the descendants of the latter raised a civil M'ar in Bavaria against the 
 emperor Charles the Fat, and eventually the margraves of Austria were declared immediate 
 princes of the empire. In 1 156 the margraviate was made a hereditary duchy by the 
 emperor Frederic I. ; and in 1453 i^' ^^^^ raised to an archduchy by the emperor Frederic III, 
 Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, elected emperor of Germany in 1273, acquired Austria in 1278 ; 
 and from 1493 to i8o4 ^^is descendants were emperors of Germany.. On Aug. 11, 1804, the 
 emperor Francis II. renounced the title of emperor of Germany, and became hereditarj' 
 emperor of Austria. The condition of Austria is now greatly improving under the enlightened 
 rule of the present emperor. The political constitution of the empire is based upon — i. The 
 pragmatic sanction of Charles VI., 1734, which declares the indivisibility of the empire and 
 rules the order of succession. 2. The pragmatic sanction of Francis II., Aug. i, 1804, when 
 he became emperor of Austria only. 3. The diploma of Francis- Joseph, Oct. 20, i860, 
 whereby he imparted legislative power to the provincial states and the council of the empire 
 (Reichsratb). 4. The law of Feb. 26, 1861, on the national representation. Population of 
 the empire in Oct. 1857, 35,018,988. 
 
 rederic II., the last male of the house of 
 Bamberg, killed in battle with the Hunga- 
 rians . _ June 15, 1246 
 
 Disputed succession : the emperor Frederic II. 
 sequestered the provinces, appointing Otto, 
 count of Eberstein, governor in the name of 
 the emperor ; they are seized by Ladislaus, 
 mari?rave of Moravia, in right of his wife, 
 Frederic's niece, Gertnide : he died childless 1247 
 
 Herman, margrave of Baden, marries Ger- 
 trude, and holds the provinces till his death 1250 
 
 Ottocar (or Premislas), of Bohemia, acquires the 
 provinces . . ' 1254 
 
 Compelled to cede Styria to Hungary, he 
 makes war and recovers it, in consequence 
 of a great victory 1260 
 
 He inherits C'arinthia, 1263 ; refuses to become 
 emperor of Germany, 1272, and to render 
 homage to Rodolph of Hapsburg, elected 
 emperor 1273 
 
 War against Ottocar as a rebel : he is compelled 
 to cede Austria, Carinthia, and Styria to 
 Rodolph 1274 
 
 The war renewed : Ottocar perishes in the 
 battle of Marchfeld . . . Aug. 26, 1278 
 
 Albert I. assassinated by his nephew and 
 others, while attempting to enslave the 
 Swiss May i, 1308 
 
 Successful revolt of the Swiss . . . 1307-9 
 
 They totally defeat the Austrians under duke 
 Leopold, at Morgarten . . . Nov. 16, 1315 
 
 The duke Leojjold imposes a toll on the Swiss ; 
 which tliey resist with violence : he makes 
 war on them, and is defeated and slain at 
 Sempach July, 1386 
 
 Duke Albert V. obtains Bohemia and Hungary, 
 and is elected emperor of Germany . . . 1437 
 
 The emperor Frederic III., as head of the 
 house of Hapsburg, creates the archduchy 
 of Austria with sovereign power . Jan. 6, 1453 
 
 Austria divided between him and his relatives, 
 '4S7 ; V7ar ensues between them till . . . 1463 
 
 Burgundy accrues to Austria by the marriage 
 of Maximilian with the heiress of that pro- 
 vince 1477 
 
 Also Spain, by the marriage of PhiUp I. of Aus- 
 tria, with the heiress of Arragon and Castile 1496 
 
 Bohemia and Hungary united to Austria under 
 Ferdinand I. 1526 
 
 Austria hai'assed by Turkish invasions . 1529-45 
 
 Charles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, 
 Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, the Netherl.ands, 
 and their dependencies, abdicates (sec Sjiain) 1556 
 
 Mantua ceded to the emperor . . Jan. 3, 1708 
 
 By treaty of Utrecht he obtains part of the 
 duchy of Milan .... April 11, 1713 
 
 By treaty of Rastadt he acquires the Nether- 
 lands 1714 
 
 The Netherlands, Naples, Milan, &c., added 
 to Austrian dominions . . . Nov. 13, 1715 
 
 Further additionson the east (Temeswar, i'c.) 
 
 by the peace of Passarowitz .... 
 Naples and Sicily given up to Spain . . . 
 Death of Charles VI., the last sovereign of the 
 
 male line of the house of Hapsburg ; his 
 
 daughter, Maria Theresa, becomes queen of 
 
 Hungary 
 
 She is attacked by Prussia, France, Bavaria, 
 
 and Saxony ; but supported by Great Britain 
 Francis, duke of Lon-aine, who had married 
 
 Maria Theresa in 1736, elected emperor . 
 By the treaty of Campo Formic, the emperor 
 
 gives up Lombardy (which ste) and obtains 
 
 Venice Oct 15, 
 
 Francis II., emperor of Germany, becomes 
 
 Francis I. of Austria . . . Aug. 11, 
 His declaration against France . . Aug. 5, 
 War ; Napoleon successful, enters Vienna, 
 
 Nov. 14, 
 Austrians and Russians defeated at AusterUtz, 
 
 Dec. 2, 
 By treaty of Presburg, Austria loses Venice 
 
 and the Tyrol Jan. i, 
 
 Vienna evacuated by the French . Jan. 12, 
 The French again take Vienna . May 13, 
 But restore it at the peace . . Oct. 24, 
 
 Napoleon marries the archduchess Maria 
 
 Louisa, the daughter of the emperor, April i, 
 Congress at Vienna .... Oct. 2, 
 Treaty of Vienna .... Feb. 25, 
 [Italian proviJices restored with additions — 
 
 Lombardo-Vcuetian kingdom established, 
 
 April 7.] 
 Death of Francis I., and accession of Ferdinand, 
 
 March 2, 
 New treaty of commerce with England, July 3, 
 Ferdinand I. is crowned at Milan . Sept. 6, 
 Insurrection at Vienna : flight of Mettemich, 
 
 March 13, 
 Insun-ections in Italy. See 3Iilan, Venice, and 
 
 Sardinia March 18, 
 
 Another insurrection at Vienna : the emperor 
 
 flies to Inspruck .... May 15-17, 
 Archduke John appointed vicar-general of the 
 
 empire ...... May 29, 
 
 A constituent assembly meet at Vienna, July 22, 
 Insurrection at Vienna : murder of Count 
 
 Latour Oct. 6, 
 
 Revolution in Hungary and war. See Hungary. 
 The emperor abdicates in favour of his nephew, 
 
 Francis-Joseph Dec. 2, 
 
 Convention of Olmiitz . . . Nov. 29, 
 The emperor revokes the constitution of 
 
 March 4, 1849 .... Dec. 31, 
 Trial by jury abolished in the empire Jan. 15, 
 Death of prince Schwartzenberg, prime minis- 
 ter April 4, 
 
 Attempted assassination of the emperor by 
 
 Libenyi, Feb. 18 ; who was executed, Feb. 28, 
 Commercial treaty with Prussia . Feb. 19, 
 
 1718 
 1735 
 
 1740 
 1741 
 1745 
 
 1797 
 
 1804 
 1805 
 
 1806 
 1809 
 
 1810 
 1814 
 1815 
 
 1835 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
AUS 
 
 67 
 
 AUS 
 
 AUSTRIA, continued. 
 
 Austrians enter Danubian Principalities Aug. 
 
 Alliance witli England and France relative to 
 eastern question Dec. 2 
 
 Great reduction of the army . . June 24, 
 
 Degrading concordat with Rome . Aug. 18, 
 
 Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-9, 
 
 July 12, 
 
 Austrians quit the Danubian PrincipaUties, 
 
 March, 
 
 Austria remonstrates against the attacks of th« 
 free Sardinian press . . . Feb. 10, 
 
 Firm reply of count Cavour . . Feb. 20, 
 
 Diplomatic relations between Austria and Sar- 
 dinia broken off in consequence, March 23-30, 
 
 Emperor and empress -visit Hungary May, 
 
 Death of marshal Radetzky (aged 92) Jan. s, 
 
 Excitement throughout Europe, caused by the 
 address of the emperor Napoleon III. to the 
 Austrian ambassador : — "I regret that our 
 relations with your government are not as 
 good as formerly, but I beg of you to tell the 
 emperor that my personal sentiments for 
 him have not changed]" . . . Jan. 1, 
 
 The emperor of Austria replied in almost the 
 same words on ... . Jan. 4, 
 
 Prince Napoleon Bonaparte marries princess 
 Olotilde of Sardinia . ■ . . .Jan. 30, 
 
 Austria prepares for war ; enlarges her armies 
 in Italy ; and strongly fortifies the banks of 
 the Ticino, the boundary of her Italian pro- 
 vinces and Sardinia . . Feb. <& March, 
 
 Lord Cowley at Vienna on a " mission of peace," 
 
 Feb. 27, 
 
 Intervention of Russia — proposal for a con- 
 gress ; disputes respecting the admission of 
 Sardinia — Sardinia and France prepare for 
 war March & April, 
 
 Austria demands the disarmament of Sardinia 
 and the dismissal of the volunteei-s from other 
 states within three days . . April 23, 
 
 This demand rejected . . . April 26, 
 
 The Austrians cross the Ticino . . April 26, 
 
 The French troops enter Piedmont April 27, 
 
 The French emperor declares war (to expel the 
 Austrians from Italy) . . . May 3, 
 
 Resignation of count Buol, foreign minister ; 
 appointment of count Rechberg, May 13-18, 
 
 The Austrians defeated at Montebello, May 20 ; 
 at Palestro, May 30-31 ; at Magenta, June 4; 
 at Malegnano (Marignano) . . June 8, 
 
 Prince Mettemich dies, aged 86 (he had been 
 actively engaged in the wars and negotia- 
 tions of Napoleon I.) . . . June II, 
 
 Austrians defeated at Solferino (near the 
 Mincio) ; the emperors of Austria and France 
 and king of Sardinia present . . June 24, 
 
 Armistice agreed upon, July 6 ; the emperors 
 meet, July 11 ; the prehminaries of peace 
 signed at Villa Franca [Lombardy given up 
 to Sardinia, and au Italian confederation 
 proposed to be formed] . . . July 12, 
 
 Manifesto justifying the peace issued to the 
 army, July 12 ; to the people . July 15, 
 
 Patent issued, granting greatly increased privi- 
 leges to the Protestants, — announced Sept. 
 
 Conference between the envoys of Austria and 
 France at Zurich . . Aug. 8 to Sept. 
 
 Many national reforms proposed . . Sept. 
 
 Treaty of Zurich, confirming the prehminaries 
 of ViUa Franca, signed . . . Nov. 11, 
 Decrees removing Jewish disabilities, 
 
 Jan 6, 10, Feb. 18, 
 
 Patent issued for the summoning the great 
 imperial council (Reichsrath), composed of 
 representatives elected by the provincial 
 .diets March 5, 
 
 Discovery of great corruption in the army 
 financial arrangements, a deficiency of about 
 i,7oo,oooZ. discovered ; general Eynatten 
 commits suicide ; 82 persons arrested, March, 
 
 i8s4 
 
 I's'ss 
 
 1856 
 1857 
 
 Austria protests against the annexation of Tus- 
 cany, &c. , by the king of Sardinia . April, ; 
 
 Baron Brilok, suspected of complicity in the 
 army frauds, dismissed April 20 ; commits 
 suicide ...... April 23, 
 
 The Reichsrath assembles, May 31 ; addressed 
 by the emperor June i, 
 
 Liberty of the press further restrained . July, 
 
 Unsettled state of Hungary (which see) July-Oct. 
 
 Friendly meeting of the emperor and the regent 
 of Prussia at Toplitz . . . July 26, 
 
 Free debates in the Reichsrath ; strictures on 
 
 the concordat, the finances, &c. ; proposals 
 
 for separate constitutions for the provinces, 
 
 Aug. & Sept. 
 
 The Reichsrath adjourned. . . Sept. 29, 
 
 Diploma conferring on the Reichsrath legis- 
 lative powers, the control of the finances, &c., 
 a manifesto issued to the populations of the 
 empire (not well received) . . Oct. 20, 
 
 Meeting of the emperor with the emperor of 
 Russia and prince regent of Prussia at 
 Warsaw : no important result . Oct. 20-26, 
 
 The government professes non-intervention in 
 
 Italy, but increases the army in Venetia, 
 
 Oct. & Nov. 
 
 The empress goes to Madeira for health Nov. 
 
 Sale of Venetia, pubUcly spoken of, is re- 
 pudiated in Dec. 
 
 Ministerial crisis : M. SchmerUng becomes 
 minister — more political concessions, Dec. 13, 
 
 The proscribed Hungarian, count Teleki, at 
 Dresden, is given up to Austria, which causes 
 general indignation, about Dec. 20 ; he is 
 released on parole .... Dec. 31, 
 
 Amnesty for political offences in Hungary, 
 Croatia, &c., published . . . Jan. 7, ■ 
 
 Reactionary policy of the court leads to ui- 
 
 creased disaffection throughout the empire, 
 
 Jan. &, Feb. 
 
 The statutes of the new constitution for the 
 Austrian monarchy published . . Feb. 6, 
 
 Civil and political rights granted to Protestants, 
 throughout the emphe, except in Hungary 
 and Venice April 8, 
 
 Meeting of Reichsrath — no deputies present 
 from Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania, Venetia, 
 or Istria April 29, 
 
 Ministry of Marine created . . . Jan. : 
 
 Inundation of the Danube, causing great 
 distress Feb. 4, 
 
 Increased taxation proposed . . March, 
 
 At an imperial council, the emperor present, 
 the principle of ministerial responsibility is 
 resolved on April 26, 
 
 Deficiency of 1,400,000?. in financial statement 
 — indignation of the Reichsrath . . June, 
 
 Amnesty to condemned poUtical offenders in 
 Himgary proclaimed . . . Nov. 18, 
 
 Reduction in the army assented to ; and a per- 
 sonal liberty law (resembling our habeas 
 corpus act) passed .... Dec. 
 
 Polish insurrection .... Jan. : 
 
 Meeting of the German sovereigns(except kings 
 of Prussia, Holland, and Denmark) with the 
 emperor of Austria, at Frankfort, by his 
 invitation : the draft of a reform of the fede- 
 rate constitution agreed to . Aug. 16-31, 
 
 The Transylvanian deputies accept the con- 
 stitution, and take their seats in the 
 Reichsrath Oct. 20, 
 
 Gallicia and Cracow declared to be in a state of 
 siege Feb. 29, 
 
 (For events of the war with Denmark, see 
 Denmark.) 
 
 The emperor and the king of Prussia meet at 
 
 Carlsbad June 22, 
 
 Proposed reduction of the army, about Oct. 9, 
 Rebignation of count Rechberg, foreign minis- 
 
 F 2 
 
AUS 
 
 68 
 
 AVE 
 
 AUSTRIA, continued. 
 
 ter, succeeded by count Mensdorff-Pouiily, 
 about Oct. 27, 1864 
 
 Emperor opens Reichsrath, Nov. 14 ; great 
 freedom of debate ; the state of siege in 
 Gallicia censured Dec. ,, 
 
 Austria supports the Confederation in the dis- 
 pute respecting the duchies . . Dec. , , 
 
 Apparent reunion between Austria and Pi-ussia, 
 
 Jan. 1865 
 
 Great financial difl&oulty ; proposed reduction 
 in the army by the chambers . . Jan. ,, 
 
 Contest between the government and the 
 chambers respecting reduction in army, &c. , 
 
 April, , , 
 
 Reported failure of Mr. Hutt's mission to 
 Vienna, to promote free trade . . June, ,, 
 
 New ministry formed, including count Mens- 
 dorff as nominal premier, and counts Bel- 
 credi and Esterhazy as ministers : concilia- 
 tory measures towards Hungary, and other 
 provinces, jiroposed ; centralisation of the 
 government to be given up, and free trade in 
 
 prospect July, „ 
 
 (See Germany, Hungary, Vienna, <fec.) 
 
 Margraves. 
 Leopold I., 928; Albert I., 1018 ; Ernest, 1056; 
 Leopold II., 107s ; Leopold III., 1096 ; Albert II., 
 1136; Leopold IV., 1136; Henry II., 1142 (made a 
 duke 1156). 
 
 Dukes. 
 1 1 56. Henry II. 
 
 1177. Leopold V. He made prisoner Richard I. of 
 England when returning incognito from the 
 crusade, and sold him to the emperor 
 Henry VI. 
 1 194. Frederic I., the catholic. 
 1198. Leopold VI., the glorious. Killed in battle. 
 
 1230. Frederic II., the warUke. Killed in a battle 
 with the Hungarians, June 15, 1246. 
 
 Interregnum. 
 
 Albert I. and his brother Rodolph. Albert 
 becomes emperor of Germany, 1298. 
 
 Frederic I. 
 
 Albert II. and Otto, his brother. 
 
 Rodolph. 
 
 Albert III. and Leopold II. or III. (killed at 
 Sempach). 
 
 William, and other brothers, and their cousin 
 Albert IV. 
 
 The same. The provinces divided into the 
 duchies of Austria and Carinthia, and the 
 county of Tyrol. 
 
 Albert V., duke of Austria ; obtains Bohe- 
 mia and Moravia ; elected king of Hun- 
 gary and emperor, 1437 ; dies, 1439 ; suc- 
 ceeded by his posthumous son. 
 
 Ladislaus, who dies childless, 1457. 
 
 The emperor Frederic III. and Albert VI. 
 
 Maximilian I., son of Frederic III. (archduke), 
 emperor. (See Germany.) 
 
 1282. 
 
 1308, 
 1330- 
 1358. 
 1365- 
 
 1395- 
 1411. 
 
 1439. 
 1457- 
 1493. 
 
 Emperors of Austria. 
 
 1804. Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany), 
 emperor of Austria only, Aug. 11, 1804 > died 
 March 2, 1835. 
 
 1835. Ferdinand, his son, March 2 ; abdicated in 
 favour of his nephew, his brother Francis- 
 Charles having renounced his rights. 
 
 1848. Fr.ancis-Joseph, Dec. 2, 1848, emperor of 
 Austria, son of Francis-Charles [born Aug. 
 18, 1830; married April 24, 1854, to Eliza- 
 beth of Bavaria]. 
 
 [Heir; their son, the archduke Rodolph, bom 
 Aug. 21, 1858.] 
 
 AUTHORS. Tor the law securing copyright, see Copyrights. 
 
 AUTO DA FE (Act of faith), tlie term given to the punishment of a heretic, generally 
 ■burning alive, inflicted by the Inquisition {ivhich see). Since 1203, more than 100,000 
 victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the inquisitions of Roman Catholic countries. 
 One of the last executions of this kind was at Goa, where twenty sufferers perished in the 
 ilames, 17 17. An auto da /etook place at Lisbon, in 1761, when Malagrida, a Jesuit, was 
 strangled and burnt for heresy. 
 
 AUTOMATON" FIGURES (or Andeoides), made to imitate living actions, are of early 
 invention. Archytas' flying dove was formed about 400 B.C. Friar Bacon is said to have 
 made a brazen head which spoke, A.D. 1264. Albertus Magnus spent thirty years in making 
 another. A coach and two horses, with a footman, a page, a lady inside, were made by 
 Camus for Louis XIV. when a child ; the horses and figures moved naturally, vaiiously, 
 and perfectly, 1649. Vaucanson, in 1738, made an artificial duck, which performed every 
 function of a real one, even an imperfect digestion — eating, drinking, and quacking. He 
 also made a flute-player. The Avriting automaton, exhibited in 1769, was a pentagraph 
 worked by a confederate out of sight. The automaton chess-player, exhibited the same 
 year, was also worked by a hidden person, and so was "the invisible girl," 1800. Maelzel 
 made a trumpeter about 1809. Early in this century, an automaton was exhibited in London 
 which pronounced several sentences with tolerable distinctness. In July, 1864, the "anthro- 
 poglosson, " exhibited in St. James's-hall, London, seemed to utter songs. 
 
 AUTOTYPOGRAPHY, a process of x)roducing a metal plate from drawings, made known 
 by Mr. Wallis, in April, 1863 ; it resembled Nature-Printing (which see). 
 
 AVA in 1822 became the capital of the Burmese empire, it is said, for the third time. A 
 British embassy was received here in Sept. 1855. 
 
 AVARS, barbarians who ravaged Pannonia, and annoyed the eastern empire in the 6th 
 and 7th centuries, subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after an eight years' war. 
 
 AVEBURY, on Abtjey ("Wiltshire). Here are the remains of the largest Celtic or 
 Druidical work in this country. They have been surveyed by Aubrey, 1648 ; Dr. Stukely, 
 
AVE 69 AZO 
 
 1720; and sir E. 0. Hoare, in 1812, and others. Much information may be obtained from 
 Stukely's " Abury" (1743), and Hoare's "Ancient "Wiltshire" (1812-21). Many theories 
 have been put forth, but the object of these remains is still unknown. They are considered 
 to have been set up during the " stone age," i.e., when the weapons and implements 'v^ere 
 mainly formed of that material. 
 
 AVEIIST, OR AvAiNE (Luxemburg, Belgium) . Here the French and Dutch defeated the 
 Spaniards, May 20, 1635. 
 
 ''AVE MARIA/ " the salutation of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin (LuTce i. 28), was 
 made a formula of devotion by pope John XXI. about 1326. In the beginning of the 15th 
 century Vincentius Ferrarius used it before his discourses. Bingham. 
 
 AVIGNOISr, a city, S. E. France, ceded by Philip III. to the pope in 1273. The papal 
 seat was removed by Clement V. to Avignon, in 1309. In 1348 Clement VI. purchased the 
 city from Jane, countess of Provence and queen of Naples. In 1408, the French, wearied 
 of the schism, expelled Benedict XIII., and Avignon ceased to be the seat of the papacy. 
 Here were held nine councils (1080 — 1457). It was seized and restored several times by the 
 French kings ; the last time restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. It was claimed 
 by the national assembly, 1791, and was confirmed to France by the congress of sovereigns 
 in 1815. In Oct. 1791, horrible massacres took place here. 
 
 AXE, WEDGE, "WIMBLE, LEVEE, and various tools in common use, are said to have 
 been invented by Dsedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is ascribed the invention of 
 masts and sails for ships, 1240 B.C. Many tools are represented on the Egyptian 
 monuments. 
 
 AYACUCHO (Peru). Here the Peruvians finally achieved their independence by 
 defeating the Spaniards, Dec. 9, 1824. 
 
 AYDE, OR Aide, the tax paid by the vassal to the chief lord upotl urgent occasions. In 
 France and England an aide was due for knighting the king's eldest son. One was demanded 
 by Philip the Fair, 13 13. The aide due upon the birth of a prince, ordained by the statute 
 of Westminster (Edward I.) 1285, for the ease of the subject, was not to be levied until he 
 was fifteen years of age. The aide for the marriage of the king's eldest daughter could not 
 be demanded in this country untU her seventh year. In feudal tenures there was an aide 
 for ransoming the chief lord ; so when our Eichard I. was kept a prisoner by the emperor of 
 Germany, an aide of 20s., to redeem him, was enforced upon every knight's fee. 
 
 AYLESBUEY, Buckinghamshire, was reduced by the West Saxons in 571. St. O'Syth, 
 beheaded by the pagans in Essex, was buried there, .600. William the Conqueror invested 
 his favourites with some of its lands, under the tenure of providing ' ' straw for his bed- 
 chambers ; three eels for his use in winter ; and in summer, straw, rushes, and two green 
 geese thrice every year." Incorporated by charter in 1554. 
 
 AYLESFOED (Kent). Here, it is said, the Britons were victorious over the Saxon 
 invaders, 455. 
 
 AZmCOUE. ^&& AgincoiirL 
 
 AZOFF, Sea of, the Palus Mseotis of the ancients, communicates by the strait of 
 Tenikal^ (the Bosphorus Cimmerius) with the Black Sea, and is entirely surrounded by 
 Eussian territory ; Taganrog and Kertch being the principal places. An expedition com- 
 posed of British, French, and Turkish troops, commanded by sir G. Brown, arrived at 
 Kertch, May 24, 1855, when the Eussians retired, after blowing up the fortifications. On 
 the 25th the allies marched upon Yenikale, which also off"ered no resistance. On the same 
 evening the allied fleet entered the sea of Azoff, and in a fe^ days completed their occupa- 
 tion of it, after capturing a large number of merchant vessels, &c. An immense amount of 
 stores was destroyed by the Eussians to prevent them falling into the hands of the allies. 
 
 AZOEES, OR Westeek Isles (E". Atlantic), belonging to Portugal, the supposed site of 
 the ancient Atlantis, are said to have been discovered in the 15 th century by a Dutchman 
 who was driven on their coasts by the weather. Cabral, sent by the Portuguese court, fell in 
 with St. Mary's in 1432, and in 1457 they were aU discovered. Martin Behem found one of 
 them covered with beech trees, and he called it therefore Fayal ; another abounding in sweet 
 flowers, he called it Flores; and all, being full of hawks, were therefore named Azores. They 
 were colonised about 1450. A violent concussion of the earth took place here for twelve 
 days in 1591. A devastating earthquake in 1757. Here are fountains of boUing water. A 
 volcano at St. George's destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808 ; and in 181 1 a volcano 
 
AZO 70 BAB 
 
 appeared near St. Michael's, in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island 
 called Sabrina gradually disappeared, Dec. 1812. 
 
 AZOTE, the name given liy French chemists to nitrogen {wliicli see). 
 
 AZTECS, the ruling tribe in Mexico at the time of the Spanish invasion (15 19). In 
 1853 some pretended Aztec children were exhibited in London. They were considered to be 
 mere dwarfs. 
 
 B. 
 
 BAAL (Lord), the male deity of the Phoenician nations, frequently made the object of 
 worship by the Israelites ; and established as such by Ahab, 918 B.C. His worshippers 
 were massacred by Jehu and his temple defiled, 884 b. c. 
 
 BAALBEC, Heliopolis (both meaning "City of the Sun"), an ancient city of Syria, 
 of which magnificent ruins remain, described by Wood (in 1757), and others. Its origin 
 (referred to Solomon) is lost in antiquity. Here Septimus Severus built a temple to the sun, 
 200. Tlie city was sacked by the Moslems, 748, and by Timom- Bey, 1400. 
 
 BABEL, Tower OF, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 B.C. (Genesis, ch. xi.) The mag- 
 nificent temple of Belus, asserted to have been originally this tower, is said to have had lofty 
 sj)ires, and many statues of gold, oue of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this 
 temple was the tomb of the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred scriptures), who was 
 deified after death. Blair. The Birs ISTimroud, examined by Rich, Layard, and others, is 
 considered by some persons to be the remains of the tower of Babel. 
 
 BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, to assassinate queen Elizabeth, and make Mary of 
 Scotland queen, was devised by John Savage, a soldier of Philip of Spain, and approved by 
 Wm. Gifford and John Ballard, catholic jiriests. Anthony Babingtou and other gentlemen 
 were induced to join in the scheme. They were betrayed by Pooley Aspy, and fourteen were 
 executed, Sept. 20, 21, 1586. Babington was deluded by a romantic hope that Mary, in 
 gratitude, would accept him as a husband. 
 
 BABCEUF'S CONSPIRACY. See Agrarian Law. 
 
 BABYLON,* an Asiatic empire (see Assyria), founded by Belus, supposed to be the 
 Nimrod of holy writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 B.C. Lencjlet. Ninus 
 of Assyi-ia seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assyiian empire, by 
 uniting the two sovereignties, 2059 B. c. 2233 CI. The second empii-e of Babylon com- 
 menced about 725 B.C. 
 
 Earliest astronomical observations, at Babylon, 
 
 B.C. 2234 [2230, H. 2233, CI.'] 
 
 Nabonassar governs 747 
 
 Nabopolasser, the Assyrian governor, revolts, 
 and makes himself king of Babylon . . 725 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar invades Syria, 606 ; Judea, 
 60s ; defeats Pharaoh Neoho, and annihilates 
 the Egyptian power in Asia . . . . 604 
 
 He returns to Babylon with the spoils of Jeru- 
 salem. Blair ; Lenr/kt ,, 
 
 Daniel interprets the king's dream of the gol- 
 den-headed imtige. Daniel ii 602 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar goes a fhird time against Jeru- 
 salem, takes it and destroys the temple. 
 Blair : Usher 5S9 to 587 
 
 The golden image set up, and Shadrach, 
 Meshach, and Abed-nego thrown into the 
 
 furnace for refusing to worship it Daniel 
 
 iii. B.C. 570 
 
 Daniel interprets the king's second dream, and 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar is driven from among men. 
 
 Daniel iv 569 
 
 The king recovers his reason and his throne, 
 
 562; dies 561 
 
 Evil Merodach (Neriglassar), king . . . 559 
 Labynetus (Nabonadius or Belshazzar?) king . 555 
 Babylun taken by the Medes and Persians, 
 
 under Cyrus, and Belshazzar slain . . . 538 
 Daniel thrown into the lions' den. Daniel vi. . 537 
 Babylon revolts, and is taken by Darius . . 518 
 Taken by Alexander, 331 ; he dies here . . 323 
 Seleucus Nic*tor, who died B.C. 280, transfers 
 
 the .'■eat of government to Seleucia, and 
 
 Babylon is deserted. 
 
 * The city of Babylon was at one time the most magnificent in the world. The Hanging Gardens are 
 described as having been of a square form, and in terraces one above another initil they rose as 
 higli as the walls of the city, the ascent being from terrace to terrace by steps. The whole pile was 
 sustained by vast arches raised on other aiches ; and on the top were flat stones closely cemented 
 together with piaster of liitumen, and that covered with sheets of lead, upon which lay the mould of 
 the garden, where there were large trees, shrubs, and flowers, with various sorts of vegetables. There 
 were five of these gardens, each containing about (our English acres, and disposed in the form of an 
 amphitheatre. Slrabo: Diodorus. PHuy said that in his time it was but a desolate wilderness. Mr. Eich 
 visited the ruins in 1811, and sir R. Kerr Porter in 1818. The laborious researches of Jlr. Layard, sir H. 
 Rawlinson, JI. Botta, and others, and the interesting relics excavated and brought to this country between 
 the years 1849 and 1855, have caused very much attention to be given to the historv of Babylon. M.any of 
 the inscriptions in the cuneiform or wedge-like character have been translated, jjrincip.ally by col. (now 
 sir Henry) Rawhnson, and published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. In the spring of 1855, he 
 returned to Englimd, bringing with him many valuable relics, drawings, &c., which are now m the British 
 Museum. He gave discourses on the subject at the Royal Institution, London, in 1851, 1855, and 1865. 
 
BAG 
 
 71 
 
 BAG 
 
 BACCHANALIA (games celebrated in honour of Bacchus) arose in Egypt, aud were 
 brought into Greece by Melampos, aud were there called i)iore?/5;'a, 'about 1415 b.c. Diodorus. 
 In Rome the Bacclmnalia were suppressed, 186 B.C. The priests of Bacchus were called 
 Bacchanals. 
 
 BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried men ; aud 
 men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at certain games laid hold of old 
 bachelors, dragged them round their altars, and inflicted on them various marks of infamy 
 and disgrace. Vossius. A tax was laid upon bachelors in England, twenty-five j'^ears of 
 age, 12I. los. for a duke, and for a common person one shilling, 7 Will. III., 1695. 
 Bachelors were subjected to an extra tax on their male and female servants, in 1785. 
 
 BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game, about 
 1224 B.C. It is stated by some to have been invented in Wales in the period preceding the 
 conquest, Henry. 
 
 BACTRIANA, a province in Asia, was subjugated by Cyi'us aud formed part of the 
 Persian empire, when conquered by Alexander, 330 B.C. About 254 b.c, Theodotus or 
 Diodotus, a Greek, threw off the yoke of the Seleucidas, and became king. Eucratides 
 reigned prosperously about 181 B.C., and Menander about 126 B.C. The Greek kingdom 
 appears to have been broken up by the irruption of the Scythians shortly after. 
 
 BADAJOZ (S. W. Spain). An important barrier fortress, siirrendered to the French, 
 mider Soult, March 11, 181 1 ; was invested by the British, under lord Wellington, on March 
 16, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6 following. The French retreated in haste. 
 
 BADDESDOWN HILL, or Mount Badon, near Bath, where Bede says the Britons 
 defeated the Saxons in 493 ; others say in 511 or 520. 
 
 BADEN (S. W. Germany). The house of Baden is descended from Herman, regarded 
 as the first margrave (1052), son of Berthold I., duke of Zahringen. From Christopher, who 
 united the branches of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden- 
 Baden and Baden-Dourlach. By the treaty of Baden, between France and the emperor, when 
 Landau was ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 17 14, Baden was elected into a grand duchj'-, as a 
 member of the Rhenish confederation, Aug. 13, 1806. Its territorial acquisitions by its 
 alliances with France were guaranteed by the congress at Vienna, in 181 5. In May, 1849 
 the grand-duke was expelled by his subjects, but was restored in June. In July, 1857, an 
 amnesty was decreed for political ofi'ences. A concordat made with the pope, June 28, 1859, 
 having greatly displeased the representative assembly, wadset aside by the grand-duke, 
 April 8, i860. On June 16, i860, the emperor of the French met the regent of Prussia, the 
 kings of Hanover, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Saxony, and the German princes at Baden- 
 Baden. The population of Baden, Dec. 1861, was 1,369,291. 
 
 Loiiis William, margrave of Baden-Baden, a great 
 general, born 1665 ; sallied out from Vienna and 
 defeated the Turks, 1683 ; died 1707. 
 
 Charles 'William, margrave of Baden-Dourlach, born 
 1679, died 1746; succeeded by his son, 
 
 Charles Frederic, margrave, afterwards grand-duke 
 of Baden-Dourlach, born 1728, who joiaed to his 
 dominions Baden-Baden in 1771, which were also 
 increased by the favour of Napoleon. 
 
 GEAND-DnKES. 
 
 1806. Charles Frederic ; diesiSii; succeeded by his 
 
 grandson, 
 181 1. Charles Louis Frederic, who died without issue 
 
 in 1818 ; succeeded by his uncle, 
 1818. Louis William, died withoub issue in 1830 ; 
 
 succeeded by his brother, 
 1830. Leopold, died in 1852 ; succeeded by his second 
 
 son (the first being imbecile), 
 1852. Frederic (born Sept. 9, 1S26), regent April 24, 
 
 1852; declared grand-duke, Sept. 5, 1S56. 
 [Heir: his son Frederic WiUiam, bom July 9, 1857.] 
 
 BAFFIN'S-BAY (N. America), discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. 
 The extent of this discovery was much doubted, until the expeditions of Ross and Parry 
 proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his statement. Parry entered Lancaster 
 Sound, and discovered the islands known by his name, in 18 18. See North- West Passage. 
 
 BAGDAD, in Asiatic Turkey, built by Al Mansour, and made the seat of the Saracen 
 empire, about 762. — Taken by the Tartars, aud a jieriod put to the Saracen rule, 1258. 
 Often taken by the Persians, and retaken by the Tm-ks, with great slaughter : the latter 
 took it in 1638, and have held it since. 
 
 BAGPIPE, an ancient Greek and Roman instrament. On a piece of ancient Grecian 
 sculptiu'e, now in Rome, a bagpiper is represented dressed like a modern highlander. Nero 
 is said to have played upon a bagpipe, 51, Our liighland regiments retain their pipers. 
 
BAH 72 BAL 
 
 BAHAMA ISLES (N. America) were the first poiats of discovery by Columbus. San 
 Salvador was seen by liim on the night of the nth of October, 1492. New Providence was 
 settled by the English in 1629. They were expelled by the Spaniards, 1641 ; returned, 1666 ; 
 again expelled in 1703. The isles were formally ceded to the English in 1783. Population 
 in 1861, 35,287. 
 
 BAHAR (K India), a province (conquered by Baber in 1530), with Bengal and Orissa, a 
 princely dominion, became subject to the English East India company in 1765 by the treaty 
 of Allahabad for a quit-rent of about 30o,oooX 
 
 BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the conquest, all felonies were bailable, 
 till miirder was excepted by statute ; and by the 3 Edward I. (1274) the power of bailing in 
 treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken away. Bail was further regulated in 
 later reigns. Bail is now accepted in all cases, felony excepted ; and where a magistrate 
 refuses bail, it may be gi-anted by a judge. 
 
 BAILIFFS, OR Sheriffs. Said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire-revc prior 
 to the conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for counties in England in 1079. 
 Hen. Cornehill and Rich. Reynere were appointed bailiffs or sheriffs in London in 1189. 
 Stow. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the name of bailiffs, in 1308 ; and the name 
 was changed to sheriff in 1548. There are still some places where the chief magistrate is 
 called bailiff, as the high bailiff of Westminster. Bum-hailiff is a corruption of bound- 
 bailiff, every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good behaviour. 
 Blackstone. 
 
 BAIRAM, Mahometan festivals. In 1865 the Little Bairam, following the fast of 
 Ramadan {which see), fell on Feb. 28, March i and 2. The Great Bairam began on May 10, 
 
 BAIZE, a species of coarse woollen mamifacture, was brought into England by some 
 Flemish or Dutch emigrants who settled at Colchester, in Essex, and had privileges granted 
 them by parliament in 1660. The trade is under the control of a corporation called the 
 governors of the Dutch baize-hall, who examine the cloth previous to sale. Anderson. 
 
 BAKER. See Bread. 
 
 BAKERIAN LECTURES, Royal Society, originated in a bequest of lool. by Henry 
 Baker, F.R.S., the interest of which was to be given to one of the fellows, for a scientific 
 discourse to be delivered annually. Peter Woulfe gave the first lecture in 1765. Latterly 
 it has been the custom to nominate as the lecture a paper written by one of the fellows. 
 Davy, Faraday, Tj-ndall, and other eminent men have given the lecture. 
 
 BALAKLAVA, a smalltown in the Ciimea, with a fine harbour, 10 miles S.E. from 
 Sebastopol. After the battle of the Alma, the allies advanced upon this place, Sept. 26, 
 1854. On Oct. 25 following, about 12,000 Russians, commanded by gen. Liprandi, 
 attacked and took some redoubts in the vicinity, which had been entnisted to about 250 
 Turks. They next assaulted the English, by whom they were compelled to retire, mainly 
 through the charge of the heavy cavahy, led by brigadier Scarlett, under the orders of lord 
 Lucan. After this, from an iinfortunate misconception of lord Raglan's order, lord Lucan 
 ordered lord Cardigan with the light cavalry, to charge the Russian army, which had re- 
 formed on its own gi-ound with its artillery in front. This order was most gallantly obeyed. 
 Great havoc was made on the enemy ; but of 607 British horsemen, only 198 returned. The 
 British had altogether 9 officers killed, 21 wounded, and 620 men piit hars de combat. The 
 Russians had 550 men killed, and 6 officers (among whom was one general), and 190 men 
 wounded. — A sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol on the night of March 22, 1855, led to a 
 desperate engagement here, in whicli the Russians were vigorously repulsed, with the loss of 
 2000 men killed and wounded, the allies losing about 600. — The electric telegraph between 
 London and Balaklava was completed in April, 1855, and communications were then received 
 by the British government. — A railway between Balaklava and the trenches was completed 
 in June, 1855. See Bmso-Ttirkiih War. 
 
 BALANCE OF Power, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and control 
 the ambition of sovereigns ; the principle is said to have been first laid down by the Italian 
 politicians of the 15th century, on the invasion of Charles Vlll. of France. Robertson. 
 It was first recognised by the treaty of Munster, Oct. 24, 1648. The arrangements for the 
 balance of power in Europe made in 1815, without the consent of the people of the countries 
 concerned, have been greatly set aside since 1830. 
 
BAL 
 
 73 
 
 BAL 
 
 BALEAEIC ISLANDS, in the Mediterranean, called by the Greeks Balearides, and by 
 the Komans Baleares, from the dexterity of the inhabitants at slinging : they include Majorca 
 and Minorca, -with the small isle of Cabrera. These islands were conquered by the Romans, 
 123 B.C. ; by the Vandals, about 426 B.C., and formed pai't of Charlemagne's empire in a.d. 
 799. They have belonged to Spain since 1232. See Minorca. 
 
 BALIZE . See Honduras. 
 
 BALKAN", the ancient Hsemus, a range of mountains extending from the Adriatic to 
 the Euxine. The passage, deemed impracticable, was completed by the Russians under 
 Diebitsch, during the Russian and Turkish war, July 26, 1829. An armistice was the 
 consequence ; and a treaty of peace was signed at Adrianople, Sept. 14 following. 
 
 BALLADS may be traced in the British history to the Anglo-Saxons. Turner . Adhelme, 
 who died 709, is mentioned as the first who introduced ballads into England. ' ' The 
 harp was sent round, and those might sing who could." Bede. Alfred sung ballads. 
 Malmesbury. Canute composed one. Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of 
 Edward IV. ; but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made pimishable among rogues, 
 vagabonds, "and sturdy beggars. Viner. "Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may 
 make the laws." Fletcher of Saltoim. The sea-baUads of Dibdin were very popidar in the 
 French war ; he died Jan. 20, 1833. 
 
 BALLETS began through the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One performed at 
 the interview between our Henry VIII. and Francis I. of France, in the field of the Cloth of 
 Gold, at Ardres, 1520. Guicciardini. They became very popular in France ; their zealous 
 patron, Louis XIV., bore a part in one, 1664. They were gradually introduced with operas 
 into England in the i8th century. 
 
 BALLINAMUCK, Longford. Here, on Sept. 8, 1798, the Irish rebels and their French 
 auxiliaries were defeated and captured. 
 
 BALLOONS.* A just idea of the principle of the construction of balloons was formed 
 by Albert of Saxony, an Augustin monk in the 14th centuiy, and adopted by a 
 Portuguese Jesuit, Francesco Mendoza, who died at Lyons in 1626. The idea is also 
 attributed to Bartolomeo de Guzmao, who died in 1 724. The theory of aeronautics includes : — 
 "I, the power of a balloon to rise in the air ; 2, the velocity of its ascent ; and 3, the 
 stability of its suspension at any given height. The application of sails and rudders has 
 been duly considered, and judged to be futile. Fatal accidents to the voyagers have been 
 estimated at 2 or 3 per cent. 
 
 Francis Lana, a Jesuit, proposed to navigate 
 tbe air by means of a boat raised by four thin 
 balls made of thin copper, from which the air 
 had been exhausted 1670 
 
 Joseph Galien suggested the filling a bag with 
 the fine difi'use aii- of the upperregions of the 
 atmosphere 1755 
 
 Henry Cavendish discovered that hydrogen gas 
 is lo' 8 times lighter than common air . . 1766 
 
 And soon after Black of Edinburgh filled a bag 
 ■with hydrogen, which rose to the ceiling of 
 the room 1767 
 
 Cuvallo filled soap bubbles with hydrogen . 1782 
 
 Joseph Montgolfier caused a silken bag to 
 ascend with heated air (the &rsi fire-balloori) 
 
 Nov. ,, 
 
 Joseph and Stephen Montgolfier ascend and 
 descend safely by means of a fire-balloon at 
 Annonay, for which they received many 
 honours June 5, 1783 
 
 First ascent in a balloon filled with hydrogen, at 
 Paris, by MM. Robert and Charles, Aug. 27, ,, 
 
 Joseph Montgolfier ascends in a balloun inflnted 
 with the smoke of burnt straw and wool, 
 
 Sept. 19, ,, 
 
 First aerial voyage in a fire-balloon — Piiatre de 
 Eozier and the marquis d'Arlandes Nov. 21, ,, 
 
 Second ascent of Charles in a hydrogen baUooa 
 to the height of 9770 feet . . Dec. i, ,, 
 
 Ascents become numerous : Andreani, Feb. 
 25.; Blanchard, March 24 Guyton-Morveau, 
 
 the chemist, April 25 and Jtine 12 ; Fleurant 
 and Madame Thible (the first female aero- 
 naut), June 28 ; the duke of Chartres (Philip 
 EgaUt^) Sept. 19, 
 
 The first ascent in England, made by Lunardi 
 at Moorfields, London . . Sept. 15, 
 
 Blanchard and Jeffries ascend at Dover and 
 cross the Channel, alighting near Calais, 
 
 Jan. 7, 
 
 The first ascent in Ireland, from Ranelagh 
 gardens, Dublin Jan 19, 
 
 Rozier and Remain killed in their descent near 
 Boulogne ; the balloon took fire . June 15, 
 
 Parachutes constructed and used by Blanchard, 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Gamerin's narrow escape when descending in 
 one, in London Sept. 2, 
 
 Sadler, who made many previous expeditions 
 in England, fell into the sea, near Holyhead, 
 but was taken up . . . . Oct. g, 
 
 Jfadame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at 
 night : the balloon, being surrounded by fire- 
 works, took fire, and she was precipitated to 
 the ground and killed . . July 6, 
 
 Mr. Charles Green's first ascent . July 19, 
 
 Lieut. Harris killed descending in a balloon. 
 
 May 25, 
 
 Sadler, jun., killed, falling from a balloon, in . 
 
 The great Nassau balloon, which had for some 
 time previously been exhibited to the inha- 
 bitants of London in repeated ascents from 
 
 1784 
 
 178s 
 
 1819 
 1S21 
 
 1S24 
 1S25 
 
 in 1S65. 
 
 ' Astra Castra ; Experiments and Adventures in the .'Vtmosphere : by Hatton Turner," appeared 
 
BAL 
 
 74 
 
 BAL 
 
 BALLOONS, continued. 
 
 Vauxhall gardens, started from that place on 
 an experimental voyajje, having three indi- 
 viduals in the car, and after having been 
 eighteen hours in tbe air descended at Weil- 
 burg, in the duchy of Nassau . Nov. 7, 1836 
 
 Mr. Cocking ascended from Vauxhall in order 
 to try his parachute, in which he had great 
 faitli ; ia its descent from the ball' ion it 
 collapsed, and he was thrown out and killed, 
 
 July 24, 1837 
 
 An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, 
 in Denmark ; his corpse was subsequently 
 found on the sea-shore in a coutiguous isUiid, 
 d;vshed to pieces .... Sept. 14, 1S51 
 
 Mr. Wise and three others ascended from St. 
 Louis (afti-r tx-a veiling 11 50 miles they de- 
 scended in Jefferson county, New York, 
 nearly dead) .... June 23, 185Q 
 
 Nadar's great balloon (largest ever made) when 
 fully inflated contained 215,363 cubic feet of 
 gas ; the car, a cottage in wicker work, 
 raised 35 soldiers at Paris ; Nadar hoped by 
 means of screw to steer a balloon In the 
 heavens. 
 
 Nadar's first ascent, with 14 others, successful, 
 
 Oct. 4, 1863 
 
 Second ascent, nearly all voyagers injm-ed ; 
 saved by presence of mind of M. Jules 
 Godard ; descend at Nieuburg, Hanover, 
 
 Oct. 12, ,, 
 
 Nadar and his balloon at the . Crystal Palace, 
 Sydenham Nov. „ 
 
 Society for promoting aerial navigation formed 
 at M. Nadar's at Paris ; president, M. BaiTal, 
 
 Jan. 15, 1864 
 
 Godard's great Montgolfier or fire-balloon as- 
 cends . . . July 28 and Aug. 3, ,, 
 
 Ascent of Nadar and others in his great balloon 
 at Brussels Sept. 26, ,, 
 
 Mr. Coxwell ascends from Belfast in a new 
 balloon ; seveial persons are injured by the 
 balloon becoming uncontrollable ; it escapes, 
 
 July 3, 1865 
 
 MILITARY APPLICATIONS. 
 
 Guyton-Morveau ascended twice during the 
 battle, and gave important information to 
 Jourdain June 17, 1794 
 
 BaUnons were used during the battle of 
 Solferino, June 24, 1859; and by the Federal 
 army near Washington, in . . July, 1861 
 
 EQUESTRIAN ASCENTS. 
 
 Mr. Green afiirms that he ascended from 
 London, on a horse attached to a balloon, 
 though few persons seem to be aware that 
 the experiment was made . . . May, 1828 
 
 He did so from Vauxhall gardens with a very 
 diminutive pony .... July, 1850 
 
 Lieut. Gale, an Englishman, made an ascent 
 with a horse from the Hippodrome of Vin- 
 cennes, near Bordeaux. On descending, and 
 detaching the animal from the balloon, the 
 people who held its ropes, from some miscon- 
 ception, prematurely let them go, and the 
 unfortunate aeronaut was rapidly borne in 
 the air before he was quite ready to resume 
 his voyage. (He was discovered next morning 
 dashed to pieces in a field a mile from where 
 the balloon was found.) . . Sept. 8, ,, 
 
 The ascent of Madame Poitevin from Cremorne 
 gardens, neir London, as "Europa on a 
 buU" (a feat she had often perfonned in 
 France), and several ascents on horses, 
 brought the parties concerned before the 
 police-courts on a charge of cruelty to animals, 
 and put an end to experiments that outraged 
 public feeling Aug. 1852 
 
 M. Poitevin ascended on ahorse, in the vicinity 
 of Paris, about the time just mentioned ; was 
 nearly drowned in the sea, near Malaga, 
 while descending from his balloon in 1858, 
 and died soon after. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC ASCENTS. 
 
 Gay-Lussac and Biot at Paris, Aug. 23 ; Gay- 
 Lussac (to the height of 22,977 feet) Sept. 15, 1804 
 
 Bixio and Barral at Paris (to the height of, 
 19,000 feet. They passed through a cloud' 
 9000 feet thick) 1850 
 
 Mr. Welsh ascends, Aug. 17, 26; Oct. 21 and 
 
 Nov. ID, 1852 
 
 Scientific balloon ascents having been recom- 
 mended by the British Association and funds 
 provided, Mr. James Glaisher commenced 
 his series of ascents, provided with suitable 
 apparatus, in Mr. Cox well's great balloon, at 
 Wolverhampton : he reached the height of 
 5 miles . . . " . . . July 17, 1862 
 
 He ascended to the height of about 7 miles at 
 Wolverhampton ; at 5 J miles high he became 
 insensible; Mr. Coxwell lost the use of his 
 hands, but was able to open the valve with his 
 teeth; they thus descended in safety, Sept. 5, ,, 
 
 He ascended at Newcastle during the meeting 
 of the British Association . . Aug. 31, 1863 
 
 His 1 6th ascent ; surveys London . Oct. g, ,, 
 
 His 17th ascent at Woolwich ; descends at Mr. 
 Brandon's, Stiffolk (ist winter ascent this 
 century) Jan. 12, 1864 
 
 He ascends from Woolwich (24th time) Dec. 30, ,, 
 
 His 25th ascent Feb. 27, 1865 
 
 (Mr. Glaisher has laid the result of his 
 observations before the scientific world.) 
 
 BALLOT (Fi-encli hallotte, a little ball). Secret voting was practised by the ancient 
 Greeks and the modern Venetians, and is now employed in France and in the United States 
 of North America. 
 
 The ballot-box used in a political club at Miles's 
 coffee-house, Westminster .... 1659 
 
 A tract entitled " The Benefit of the Ballot," 
 said to have been written by Andrew Marvell, 
 was published in the " State Tracts " . . 1693 
 
 Proposad to be used in the election of members 
 of Parliament in a pamphlet .... 1705 
 
 A bill authorising vote by ballot passed the 
 commons, but rejected by the lords . . . 1710 
 
 The ballot has been an open question in whig 
 governments since 1835 
 
 The Ballot Society is very energetic. The ballot 
 was adopted in Victoria, Austraha, in . . 1856 
 
 Secret voting existed in the chamber of deputies 
 in France fron 1840 to 1845. It has been 
 employed since the coup d'etat in . Dec. 1851 
 
 The house of commons rejected the ballot — 257 
 being against, and 189 for it . June 30, 1851 
 
 For several years it has been annually proposed 
 and rejected. 
 
 BALL'S BLUFF, on the banks of the Potomac, on the Virginia side, North America. 
 On October 21, 1861, by direction of the Federal general C. P. Stone the heroic col. Baker 
 crossed the river to reconnoitre. He attacked the Confederate camp at Leesburg, and was 
 
BAL 75 BAN 
 
 thoroughly defeated with great loss. The disaster was attributed to great mismanagement, 
 and in Feb. 1862, general Stone was arrested on suspicion of treason. 
 
 BALLYNAHINCH (Ireland), where a sanguinary engagement took place between a large 
 body of the insurgent Irish and the British troops, under gen. Nugent, June 13, 1798. A 
 large part of the town was destroyed, and the royal army suffered very severely. 
 
 BALMOEAL CASTLE, Deeside, Aberdeenshire ; visited by her majesty in 1848, 1849, 
 1850. The estate was purchased for 32,000?. by prince Albert in 1852. In 1853 the new 
 building, in the Scotch baronial style, was commenced, from designs by Mr. "W. Smith of 
 Aberdeen. 
 
 BALTIC EXPEDITIONS against Denmaek. In the first expedition under lord 
 Nelson and admiral Parker, Copenhagen was bombarded, and twenty-eight sail of the Danish 
 fleet were taken or destroyed, April 2, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. In the second expe- 
 dition under admiral Gambler and lord Cathcart, eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, and 
 thirty-one brigs and gun-boats surrendered to the British, July 26, 1807. 
 
 BALTIC EXPEDITION against Eussia. The British fleet sailed from Spithead in 
 presence of the queen, who led it out to sea in her yacht, the Fairy, March 11, 1854. It 
 consisted of a crowd of steam-ships of the line, of which, five were each of 120 guns and 
 upwards : the whole under the command of vice-admiral sir Charles Napier, whose flag 
 floated on board the Duke of Wellington, of 131 guns. The fleet arrived in Wingo Sound, 
 March 15, and in the Baltic, March 20, following. The gulf of Finland was blockaded, 
 April 12. 10,000 French troops embarked at Calais for the Baltic in English ships of war, 
 in presence of the emperor, July 15. The capture of Bomarsund, one of the Aland islands, 
 and surrender of the garrison, took place, Aiig. 16. See Bomarsund. The English and 
 French fleets, the latter having joined June 14, commenced their return homeward to 
 winter, Oct. 15, 1854. — The second expedition (of which the advanced or flying squadron 
 Tsailed March 20) left the Downs, April 4, 1855. In July it consisted of 85 English ships 
 (2098 guns), commanded by admiral E. S. Dundas, and 16 French ships (408 guns), under 
 admiral Pernand. On July 21, three vessels silenced the Eussian batteries at Hogland 
 island. The fleet proceeded towards Cronstadt. Many infernal machines * were discovered. 
 Sveaborg was attacked Aug. 9. See Sveahorg. Shortly after, the fleet returned to 
 England. 
 
 BALTIMOEE, a maritime city in Maryland, United States, founded in 1729. On Sept. 
 12, 1 814, the British army under col. Boss advanced against this place. He was killed in a 
 skirmish ; and the command was assumed by col. Brooke, who attacked and routed the 
 American army, which lost 600 killed and wounded and 300 prisoners. The projected attack 
 on the town was however abandoned. Alison. See United States, 1861. 
 
 BAMBEEG (Bavaria), said to have been founded by Saxons, in 804, and endowed with a 
 
 church by Charlemagne. It was made a bishopric in 1 107, and the bishop was a prince of 
 
 the empire till the treaty of Luneville, 1801, when Bambei-g was secularized. It was 
 
 . incorporated with Bavaria in 1803. The noble cathedral, rebuilt in iiio, has been recently 
 
 repaired. Bamberg was taken and pillaged by the Eussians in 1759. 
 
 BAMBOEOUGH, or Bamburg, Northumberland, according to the " Saxon Chronicle," 
 was built by king Ida about 547, and named Bebbanburgh. The castle and estate, the 
 property of the Forsters, and forfeited to the crown, through their taking part in the 
 rebellion in 17 15, were purchased by Nathaniel lor-d Crewe, bishop of Durham, and 
 bequeathed by him for various charitable purposes. The valuable library was founded by 
 the trustees in 1778. The books are lent to persons residing within 20 miles of the castle. 
 
 BAMPTON LECTUEES (Theological), delivered at Oxford annually, began in 1780, with 
 a lecture by James Bandinel, D.D. The lecturer is paid out of the proceeds of an estate 
 bequeathed for the purpose by the rev. John Bampton, and the lectures ai-e published. 
 Among the more remarkable lectures were those by White (1784), Heber (1815), Whately 
 (1822), Milman (1827), Hampden (1832), and Mausel (1858). 
 
 BANBUEY, Oxfordshire, a Saxon town. The castle, erected by Alexander de Blois, 
 bishop of Lincoln, 1125, has been frequently besieged. In 1646 it was taken by the parlia- 
 mentarians and demolished. At Danesmore, near Banbury, Edward IV. defeated the 
 Lancastrians under the earl of Pembroke, July 26, 1469, and their leader and his brother 
 
 * These were cones of galvanised iron, 16 inches in diameter, and 20 inches long. Each contained 
 9 or 10 lb. of powder, with apparatus for firing by sulphuric acid. Little damage was done by them. 
 They were said to be the invention of the philosopher Jacobi. 
 
BAN 
 
 76 
 
 BAN" 
 
 were soou after taken prisoners and executed. Banbury cakes were renowned in the time of 
 Ben Jonson, and Banbury Cross was destroyed by the Puritans. 
 
 BAND OF GENTLEMEN PENSIONERS, See Gentlemen-at-Arms. 
 
 BANDA ISLES (ten), Eastern Archipelago, visited by the Portuguese in 15 ii, who settled 
 on them, 1521, but were expelled by the Dutch about 1600. Rohun island was ceded to the 
 English in 16 16. The Bandas were taken by the latter in 1796 ; restored in 1801 ; retaken 
 in 181 1 ; and restored in Aug. 18 14. 
 
 BANGALORE (S. India) was besieged by the British under lord Cornwallis, March 6, and 
 taken by storm, March 21, 1791. Bangalore was restored to Tippoo in 1792, when he 
 destroyed the strong fort, deemed the bulwark of Mysore. 
 
 BANGOR (Banchor Iskoed, or Monachorum), Flintshire, the site of an ancient monastery, 
 very populous if it be true that 1200 monks were slain by Ethelfrid, king of the Angles, for 
 praying for the "Welsh in their conflict with him in 707. Taniur. 
 
 BANGOR (N. Caernarvonshire). Its bishopric is of great antiquity, but its founder is 
 unknown. The church is dedicated to St. Daniel, who was a bishop, 516. OweQ Glendower 
 greatly defaced the cathedral ; but a more cruel ravager than he, the bishop Bulkeley, 
 alienated many of the lands, and even sold the bells of the church, 1553. The see is valued 
 in the king's books at 13 iZ. 165. /^d. An order in council directing that the sees of Bangor 
 and St. Asaph be united on the next vacancy in either, was issued in 1838 ; but rescinded by 
 the 10 & n Vict. c. 108 (1846). Present income, 4200Z. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OF BANGOR. 
 
 1800. Wm. Cleaver, translated to St. Asaph, 1806. 
 1806. John Eandolph, translated to London, 1809. 
 1809. Henry William Majendie, died July 9, 1830. 
 
 1830. Christopher Bethell, died April 19, 1859. 
 1859. James Colquhoun Campbell (the present 
 bishop, 1865). 
 
 BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY was occasioned by Dr. Benjamin Hoadly, bishop of 
 Bangor, preaching a sermon befoi-e George I., March 31, 17 17, upon the text, " My kingdom 
 is not of this ivorld " {John xviii. 36), in which he demonstrated the spiritual nature of the 
 kingdom of Christ. He thereby drew upon himself the indignation of almost aU the clergy, 
 who published hundreds of pamphlets. 
 
 BANISHMENT, an ancient punishment. By 39 Eliz. c. 4 (1597) dangerous rogues 
 were to be banished out of the realm, and to be liable to death if they returned. See 
 Tra^isportation. 
 
 BANK. The name is derived from banco, a bench, erected in the market-place for the 
 exchange of money. The first was established in Italy 808, by the Lombard Jews, of 
 whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still reside. The Mint 
 in the Tower of London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles I, 
 laid his hands upon the money and destroyed the credit of the Mint in 1640. The traders 
 were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, which, when kept at home, 
 their apprentices frequently absconded with to the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented 
 to lodge it with the goldsmiths in Lombard-street, who were provided with strong chests 
 for their own valuable wares ; this became the origin of banking in England. See Savings 
 Banks. 
 
 Samuel Lamb, a London banker, recommended 
 the Protector Cromwell to establish a public 
 
 bank 1656 and 1658 
 
 Francis Child, a goldsmith, established a bank 
 
 about 1663 ; he died . . . Oct. 4, 1713 
 Run on the London bankers (said to be the first) 1667 
 Charles II. arbitrarily suspends all payments 
 to bankers out of the exchequer of monies 
 deposited there by them ; they lost ultimately 
 3,321,313/. ...... Jan 2, 1672 
 
 Hoare's bank began about .... 1680 
 
 Bank of England established (see next article) . 1694 
 Wood's bank at Gloucester, the oldest county 
 
 bank, established 1716 
 
 A list of bankers given in the " Royal Kalendar " 1 765 
 Forgeries of Henry Fauntleroy, banker ; exe- 
 cuted Nov. 30, 1824 
 
 Act passed permitting establishment of joint- 
 stock banks, w/irc/i see 1826 
 
 Rogers's bank robbed of nearly 50,000?. (bank 
 notes afterwards returned) . . Nov. 24, 1844 
 
 Rowland Stephenson, M.P., banker and trea- 
 surer of St. Bartholomew's hospital, absconds ; 
 defaulter to the amount of 2oo,oooJ. ; 70,000^. 
 in exchcqiier bEls ; (caused a great depression 
 
 among bankers) Dec. 27, 1828 
 
 Establishment of joint-stock banks (see p. 78) . 1834 
 Failure of Strahan, Paul, and Bates (secui-ities 
 unlawfully used); private banking much 
 injured June 11, 1855 
 
 Banks in 1855. Hotes allowed to he issued. 
 
 Bank of England . . . . i 14,000,000 
 
 English private banks . . . . 196 4,999,444 
 English joint-stock banks (which see) 67 3,418,277 
 
 264 22,417,721 
 
 . 18 3,087,209 
 
 8 6,354,494 
 
 Banks in Scotland 
 Banks in Ireland 
 
 290 31,859,424 
 
BAN" 
 
 77 
 
 BAN 
 
 BANK, continued. 
 
 Bank of 
 
 
 Venice formed 
 
 • IIS7 
 
 Geneva 
 
 ■ • I34S 
 
 Barcelona 
 
 . 1401 
 
 Genoa 
 
 . . 1407 
 
 Amsterdam . 
 
 . 1607 
 
 Hamburg . 
 
 . . 1619 
 
 Banh of 
 Eotterdani .... 1635 
 
 Stockholm 1688 
 
 England 1694 
 
 Scotland 1695 
 
 Copenhagen .... 1736 
 Berlin. . . ... 1765 
 
 Banh of 
 Caisse d'Escompte, France 
 Ireland .... 
 St. Petersburg 
 In the Bast Indies 
 In North America . 
 France* .... 
 
 1776 
 1783 
 1786 
 1787 
 1 791 
 
 BANK OP England was projected by "William Paterson, a Scotch mercliaiit (see 
 JDarien), to meet the difficulty experienced by "William III. in raising the supplies for the 
 war against France. By the influence of Paterson and Michael Godfrey, 40 merchants sub- 
 scribed 500,000?. towards the sum of 1,200,000?. to be lent to the government at 8 per cent., 
 in consideration of the subscribers being incorporated as a bank. The scheme was violently 
 opposed in parliament, but the bill obtained the royal assent April 25, 1694, and the charter 
 was granted July 27 following, appointing sir John Houblon the first governor, and Michael 
 Godfrey the first deputy governor. The bank commenced active operations on Jan. i, 1695, 
 at Grocers' hall, Poultrj", t issuing notes for 20Z. and upwards, and discounting bills for 4^ 
 to 6 per cent. The charter was renewed in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1716, 1721, 1742, 1746, 1749, 
 1764, 1781, 1800, 1808, 1816, 1833, 1844. Lawson. 
 
 Bun on the bank ; its notes at 20 per cent, dis- 
 count; capital increased to 2,201,171^. los., 
 
 Nov. 1696 
 
 The bank monopoly established by the prohibi- 
 tion of any company exceeding six persons 
 acting as bankers (Scotland not included in 
 the act) 1708 
 
 Capital raised to 5,559,995?. los. . . . 1710 
 
 Bank post bills issued (ist record) . Dec. 14, 1738 
 
 Run for gold through rebellion in the North ; 
 bank bills paid in silver; the city support 
 the bank Sept. 1745 
 
 Eichard Vaughan hanged for forging bank-notes, 
 
 May I, 1758 
 
 xol. notes issued 1759 
 
 Gordon riots ; since, the bank has been pro- 
 tected by the mihtary 1780 
 
 5J. notes issued 1793 
 
 Cash payments suspended, in conformity with 
 an order in council . . . Feb. 26, 1797 
 
 il. and 2I. notes issued . . . March, „ 
 
 Bank restriction act passed (continued by other 
 acts) May 3, ,, 
 
 Voluntary contribution of 2oo,oool to the go- 
 vernment ■ 1798 
 
 Loss by Aslett's frauds (see Exchequer) 342,697?. 1803 
 
 Kesignation of Abraham Newland, 50 years 
 cashier Sept. 18, 1807 
 
 The bank issues silver tokens for 3s. and is. 6d., 
 
 July 9, 181 1 
 
 Peel's act for the gradual resumption of cash 
 payments July, 1819 
 
 Cash payments for notes to be in biilUon at the 
 mint price, May i, 1821 ; in the cmxent coin 
 of the realm May i, 1823 
 
 Great commercial panic — many il. notes (acci- 
 dentally found in a box) issued with most 
 beneficial effects Dec. 1825 
 
 The act for the establishment of joint-stock 
 banks breaks up the monopoly . . . 1826 
 
 By the advice of the government, branch banks 
 opened at Gloucester, July 19 ; Manchester, 
 Sept. 21 ; Swansea, Oct. 23 , 
 
 And at Birmingham, Jan. i ; Liverpool, July 
 
 2 ; Bristol, July 12 ; Leeds, Aug. 23 ; Exeter, 
 Dec. 17 1827 
 
 The bank loses 360,000?. by Fauntleroy 's forgeries 1830 
 
 Statements of the bank aflairs pubUshed 
 quarterly . 1833 
 
 Peel's bank charter act : renews charter tUl 
 Aug. I, 185s, and longer, if the debt due from 
 the public to the bank (11,015,100?.), with in- 
 terest, <fcc., be not paid after due notice ; 
 established the issue department; requires 
 weekly returns to be published ; limited the 
 issue of notes to 14,000,000?., &c. . July 19, 1844 
 
 Commercial panic : lord John Russell autho- 
 rises relaxation of restriction of issuing 
 notes (not acted on); bank discount 8 per 
 cent Oct. 25, 1847 
 
 Bank clerks establish a library and fidelity 
 guarantee fund .... March, 1850 
 
 Gold bullion in the bank (consequent on dis- 
 covery of gold in Australia), 21,845,390?. 
 
 July ID, 1852 
 
 Branch bank, Burlington-gardens, London, W., 
 opened Oct. i, 1856 
 
 Committee on the bank acts appointed July, 1857 
 
 Bank discount 9 per cent. ; lord Palmerston 
 authorises addition to issue of notes [to the 
 amount of 2,000,000?. were issued] Nov. 12, ,, 
 
 Committee on the bank acts appointed in Dec. 
 I, 1857 ; report recommending continuance 
 of present state of things . . July i, 1858 
 
 Bank discount, 3 per cent. Feb. 1858 ; 6 per 
 cent, (demand for gold in France), Nov. 15, 
 i860 ; 7 per cent. Jan. 7 ; 8 percent, (demand 
 for money in France, India, and United States, 
 &c.), Feb. 14; 3 per cent. Nov. 7, 1861 ; 2g per 
 cent. Jan. ; 3 per cent. April ; zi per cent. 
 July ; 2 per cent. July 24 ; 3 per cent. Oct. — 
 Dec 1S62 
 
 Much alarm through the announcement of the 
 bank sohcitor that a quantity of bank paper 
 had been stolen from the makers (forged 
 notes soon appeared) . . Aug. 16, ,, 
 
 The culprits, soon detected, were tried and con- 
 victed (see rj'ia?s) . , . . Jan. 7 — 12, 1S63 
 
 * Instituted by laws passed April 14, 1803, and April 22, 1806. The statutes were approved Jan. 16, 
 1808. In 1810, Napoleon said that its duty was to provide mcney at all times at 4 per cent, interest. 
 
 t The foundation of the bank in Threadneedle-street was laid, Aug. i, 1732, by sir Edward Bellamy, 
 governor ; it was erected by G. Sampson, architect. Great additions have been made from time to time 
 by successive architects : sir Robert Taylor, sir John Soane, and Mr. C. B. Cockerell. It now occupies 
 the site of the church, and nearly all the parish of St. Christopher-le-Stocks. The churchyard is now 
 termed "the garden." 
 
BAN 
 
 78 
 
 BAN 
 
 BANK, continued. 
 
 Bank discount, 1863, raised to 4 per cent., Jan. 
 16 ; to 5, Jan. 28 ; reduced to 4, Feb. ; to 3J and 
 3, April ; raised to 4, May ; raised to 5, 6, io 
 Nov. ; to 7 and 8, and reduced, to 7, in Dec. 
 
 Bank discount, 1864, raised to 8, Jan. 20; rcdwccrf 
 to 7, Feb. 12 ; to 6, Feb. 25 ; rai'sfcJ to 7, April 
 i6 ; to 8, May 2 ; to 8, May 5 ; reduced to 8, May 19 ; 
 
 to 7, May 26 ; to 6, June 16 ; ratscti to 7, July 25 ; 
 to 8, Aug. 4 ; to 9, Sept. 5 ; reduced to 8, Nov. 10 ; 
 to 7, Nov. 24. 
 Bank discount, 1865, reduced to 5J, Jan. 12 ; to 5, 
 Jan. 20 ; raised to 5J, March 2 ; reduced to 4, March 
 30 ; raised to 47, May 4 ; reduced to 3I, June i ; to 
 3, June 15 ; raised to 3J, July 27 ; to 4, Aug. 3. 
 
 AVERAGE AMOUKT OF BANK OF ENGLAND NOTES IN CIRCUtATION, 
 
 1718 . 
 1778 
 1790. 
 1800 
 
 . £1,829,930 1810 . 
 . 7,030,680 
 . 10,217,000 
 • 15,450,000 
 
 i»i5 
 1820. 
 
 £23.904,000 
 
 26,803,520 
 27,174,000 
 20,620,000 
 
 1835. 
 
 . . .£18,215,220 
 
 1855 . 
 
 . £19,616,627 
 
 1840 . 
 
 17,231,000 
 
 1857 
 
 . 21,036,430 
 
 1845. 
 
 . . 19,262,327 
 
 1859 • 
 
 22,705,780 
 
 1850 . 
 
 . 19,776,814 
 
 
 
 Dec. 27, 1856. 
 
 .^sse<«-Securities . . £29,484,000) £30589,000 
 
 Buluon . . . 10,105,000) ■'="-' ^' 
 
 Liabilities 36,329,000 
 
 Balance £3,260,000 
 
 Nov. II, 1857. (Time of Panic.) 
 Assets — Securities . . £35,480,281 \ £ f.. o 
 
 Bullion . . . 7,170,508) *'4^>°s°>7°9 
 Liahililies 39,286,433 
 
 Balance £3,364,356 
 
 1694 
 1708 
 1716 
 
 PUBLIC DEBT TO THE BANK OF ENGLAND. 
 
 1816 
 
 £1,200,000 
 2,175,027 
 
 4>i75>o27 
 
 1721 . . . . . £9,100,000 
 1742 .... 10,700,000 
 1746 ..... 11,686,000 
 
 . £14,686,000 
 . 11,015,100 
 
 BANK OF Ireland. On Dec. 9, 1721, tlie Irish house of commons rejected a bill for 
 establishing a national bank. Important failures in Irish banks occurred in 1727, 1733, and 
 1758 : this led gradually to the establishment of the bank of Ireland at St. Mary's-abbey, 
 Dublin, June l, 1783. The business was removed to the late houses of parliament, in 
 College-green, in May, 1808. Branch banks of this establishment have been formed in most 
 of the provincial towns in Ireland, all since 1828. Irish banking act passed, July 21, 1845, 
 
 BANKS OF Scotland. The old bank of Scotland was set up in 1695, at Edinburgh, and 
 began Nov. I, the second institution of the kind in these kingdoms : lending money to the 
 crown was prohibited. The Eoyal bank was chartered July 8, 1727 ; the British Linen 
 Company's bank, 1746 ; the Commercial bank, 1810 ; National bank, 1825 ; Union bank, 
 1830. The first stone of the present bank of Scotland was laid June 3, 1801. The Western 
 bank of Scotland and the Glasgow bank stopped in Nov. 1857, causing much distress, 
 Scotch banking act passed, Jiily 21, 1845. 
 
 BANK OF Savings. See Scwmgs' Banks. 
 
 BANKS, Joint Stock. Since the act of 1826, a number of these banks have been esta- 
 blished. In 1840, the amount of paper currency issued by joint-stock banks amounted to 
 4,138,618/. ; the amount in circulation by private banks, same year, was 6,973,613/.— the 
 total amount exceeding eleven millions.* In Ireland similar banks have been instituted, 
 the first being the Hibernian bank, in 1825. The note-circulation of joint-.stock banks, on 
 
 * The Royal British Bank was established in 1849, by Mr. John McGregor, M.P., and others, under 
 sir R. Peel's joint-stock banking act, 7 <fc 8 A'ict. c. 113(1844); as an attempt to introduce the Scotch 
 banking system of cash credits into England. On Sept. 3, 1856, it stopped payment, occasioning much 
 distress and ruin to many small tradesmen and others. In consequence of strong evidence of the existence 
 of fraud in the management of the bank, elicited during the examination before the court of bankruptcy, 
 the government instructed the attomey-general to file ex-officio informations against the manager, Mr. H. 
 Innes Cameron, and several of the directors. They were convicted Feb. 27, 1858, after 13 days' trial, and 
 sentenced to various degrees of imprisonment. Attempts to mitigate the punishment failed (Maj', 1858) ; 
 but all were released except Cameron and Esdailo, in July, 1858. In April, i860, dividends had been paid 
 to the amount of 15s. in the por.nd. The attorney -general brought in a bill called the Fraudulent Trustees' 
 Act 20 & 21 Vict. c. 54, to prevent the recurrence of such transactions. — On April 19, i860, a deficiency of 
 263,000'. was discovered in the Union Bank of London. Mr. George PuUinger, a cashier, confessed himself 
 guiity of forgery and fraud, and was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. — In Feb. 18, 1861, it was dis- 
 covered that John Durden, a clerk of the Commercial Bank of London, had robbed his employers of 67,000?., 
 of which 46,000!. might be recovered. — In Dec. 1864, J. W. Terry and Thomas Burch, manager and secre- 
 tary of the Unity Bank, were committed on a charge of conspiracy for fabricating accounts ; but acquitted 
 on their trial. 
 
BAN 
 
 BAN 
 
 Oct. I, 1855, was, in England, 3,990,800?. ; in Scotland, 4,280,000/. ; and in Ireland, 
 6, 785,000/. ; total, witli English private banks, about 19,000,000/. : and witli the bank of 
 England, above 39,000,000/, 
 
 Chief London Banks. Founded 
 
 London and Westminster 1834 
 
 London Joint-Stock 1836 
 
 Union Bank of London 1839 
 
 Oommercial Bank of London . . . . ,, 
 
 Chief London BanTcf. Founded. 
 
 London and County 1839 
 
 City Bank 1855 
 
 Bank of London 
 
 Joint-StocJc Banks, Jan. i860 : — 
 England and Wales (including Loudon) 
 Scotland 
 
 I Ireland 8 
 British and foreign colonial banks with offices 
 in London iS 
 
 BANKRUPT (signifying either bank or bench brokenl, a trader declared to be nnable 
 to pay his just debts. The laws on the subject (1543, 1571 et seq.) were consolidated and 
 amended in 1825, 1849, 1852, 1854, and 1861. 
 
 Lord chancellor Thurlow refused a bankrupt 
 his certificate, because he had lost five pounds 
 at one time in gaming . . July 17.. 1788 
 
 Enacted that members of the house of com- 
 mons becoming bankrupt, and not paying 
 their debts in full, should vacate their seats 1812 
 
 Present Bankruptcy Court was erected by 2 
 Will. IV. cap. 56, 1831 ; bills for reforming 
 bankruptcy law were in vain brought before 
 parliament, 1859, i860; at length in i86i was 
 passed the bill brought in by the lord chan- 
 cellor (formerly sir E. BetheU), 24 & 25 Vict. 
 
 c. 134 (1861), by which great changes were 
 made ; the court for relief of insolvent debtors 
 was aboUshed, and increased powers given to 
 the commissioners in bankruptcy, &c. ; the 
 new orders were issued . . Oct. 12, 
 [This act has not produced public satisfac- 
 tion (186s).] 
 
 The Irish bankruptcy laws consolidated in 
 1836, and further amended in . . . 
 
 The Scotch bankruptcy laws consolidated in 
 1856, and further amended in . 
 
 1857 
 
 NUMBER OF BANKBUPTS IN GEEAT BPaTAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 
 
 1700 . 
 
 . . 38 
 
 1800 . 
 
 ■ 1339 
 
 1830 . 
 
 ■ 1467 
 
 i8s7 1 
 
 Snglan 
 
 1725 . 
 
 . . 416 
 
 I8IO . 
 
 . . 2000 
 
 1840 ■ . 
 
 . 1308 
 
 1859 
 
 ditto 
 
 1750 . 
 
 • 4.l2 
 
 1820 . 
 
 • 1358 
 
 184s England . 
 
 . 1028 
 
 i860 
 
 ditto 
 
 1775 ■ 
 
 . .520 
 
 1825* . 
 
 . . 2683 
 
 1850 ditto 
 
 . 1298 
 
 1863 
 
 ditto 
 
 8470' 
 
 In 1857 there were in Scotland, 453 ; Ireland, 73 ; in the United Kingdom, 2014. 
 i860 ,, 44s ,, 113 ,, 1826. 
 
 BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George Bannatyne (the publisher), was established 
 in 1823 by sir "Walter Scott and others, for printing works illustrative of the history, 
 antic[uities, and literature of Scotland, of which about 113 volumes were issued. 
 
 BANNERET, a personal dignity between baron and knight, anciently conferred by the 
 king under the royal standard. Its origin is of uncertain date : Edmondson says 736 ; but 
 it was probably created by Edward I. John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret 
 by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Najara, April 3, 1367. The dignity was con- 
 ferred on John Smith, who rescued the royal standard at Edgehill fight, Oct. 23, 1642. 
 It fell into disuse, but was revived by Geo. III. in the person of sir William Erskine, in 
 1764. 
 
 BANNERS were common to all nations. The Jewish tribes had standards or banners -^ 
 Nicrn. ii. (1491 B.C.) The standard of Constantine bore the inscription. In hoc signo vinces — 
 " By this sign thou shalt conquer," under the figure of the cross. See Cross. The magical 
 banner of the Danes (said to have been a black raven on a red ground) was taken by Alfred 
 when he defeated Hubba, 878. St. Martin's cap, and afterwards the celebrated auriflamma, 
 or oriflamme, were the standards of France about iioo. See Aurifiamma, Standards, &c. 
 
 BANNOCKBURN (Stirlingshire), the site of the battle between Robert Bruce of Scotland 
 and Edward II. of England, June 24, 13 14. The army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 ; that 
 of Edward of 100,000 men, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed a rivulet to 
 the attack, and Bruce having dug and covered pits, they fell into them, and were thrown 
 into confusion. The rout was complete : the English king narrowly escaped, and 50,000 
 were killed or taken prisoners. At Sauchieburn, near here, James II. was defeated and 
 slain on June 11, 1488, by his rebellious nobles. — A national monument was founded here, 
 June 24, 1 861, 
 
 * According to a return to parliament made at the close of February, 1826, there had become bankrupt 
 in the four months preceding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establish- 
 ments had been declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy to a hundred 
 merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was, however, the period of bubble 
 speculation, and of unprecedented commercial embarrassment and ruin. 
 
BAN 80 BAR 
 
 BANNS, ia the feudal law, were a solemn proclamation of any kind : hence arose the 
 present custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage ; said to have been intro- 
 duced into the church about 1200. 
 
 BANQUETING-HOUSE, Whitehall, London, built by Inigo Jones, about 1607. 
 
 BANTAM (Java), where a rich British factory was established by captain Lancaster, in 
 1603. The English and Danes were driven from their factories by the Dutch in 1683. 
 Bantam surrendered to the British in 181 1, but was restored to the Dutch at the peace in 
 1814. It was not worth retaining, the harbour being choked up and inaccessible. 
 
 BANTINGISM. See Corpulence. 
 
 BANTRY BAY (S. Ireland), where a French fleet, bringing succour to the adherents of 
 James II., attacked the English under admiral Herbert, May i, 1689 : the latter retired to 
 form in line and were not pursued. A French squadron of seven sail of the line and two 
 frigates, armed en flute, and seventeen transports, anchored here for a few days, isithout 
 effect, Dec. 1796. Mutiny of the Bantry Bay squadron under admii-al Mitchell was in 
 Dec. 1 80 1. In Jan. 1802, twenty-two of the mutineers were tried on board the Gladiator, at 
 Portsmouth, when seventeen were condeuined to death, of whom eleven were executed ; the 
 others were sentenced to receive each 200 lashes. The executions took place on board the 
 Majestic, Centaur, Formidable, Temeraire, and VAcMlle, Jan. 8 to 18, 1802. 
 
 BAPTISM, the ordinance of admission into the Christian church, practised by all sects 
 professing Christianity, except Quakers. John the Baptist baptized Christ, 30. (Matt, iii.) 
 Infant baptism is mentioned by Irenaus about 97. In the reign of Constantine, 319, 
 baptisteries were built and baptism was performed by dipping the person all over. In the 
 west sprinkling was adopted. Much controversy has arisen since 1831 (particularly in 1849 
 and 1850), in the church of England, respecting the doctrine of baptismal regeneration, 
 which the Arches' Court of Canterbury decided to be a doctrine of the church of England. 
 See Trials, 1849, and note. 
 
 BAPTISTS (see Anabaptists). A sect distinguished by their opinions respecting (i) the 
 proper subjects, and (2) the proper mode of baptism : the former they affirm to be those who 
 are able to make a profession of faith ; the latter to be total immersion. There are seven 
 sections of Baptists— Arminian, Calvinistic (or Particular), &c. The first Baptist church 
 formed in London was in 1608. They published a confession of faith in 1689. In 1851 
 they had 130 chapels in London and 2789 (with sittings for 752,353 persons) in England and 
 "Wales. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in 1635. 
 
 BARBADOES, discovered by the Portuguese, was the iirst English settlement in the West 
 Indies. About 1605 it gave rise to the sugar trade in England ; and was, with other 
 Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to James, earl of Marlborough, 2 Charles I ., 
 1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental visitations ; in a di'eadful hurricane, 
 Oct. 10, 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabitants lost their lives. A large plantation with 
 all its buildings was destroyed, by the land removing from its original site to another, 
 and covering everything in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795; and 
 two great fires. May and Dec. 1796. Bishopric established, 1824. Awful devastation, with 
 the loss of thousands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane,^ Aug. 10, 1831. 
 Nearly 17,000 persons died of cholera here in 1854. On Feb. 14, i860, property to the 
 amount of about 300,000?. was destroyed by a fire at Bridgetown, the capital. 
 
 BARBARY, in N. Africa, considered to comprise Algeria, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, and 
 Tripoli, with their dependencies. Piratical states (nominally subject to Turkey) were 
 founded on the coast by Barbarossa, about 1518. 
 
 BARBERS existed at Rome in the 3rd century B.C. In England, formerly, the business 
 of a surgeon was united to the barber's, and he was denominated a Barbeb-Surgeon. A 
 London company was formed in 1308, and incorporated, 1461. This union was partially 
 dissolved in 1540, and wholly so in 1745. "No person using any shaving or barbery in 
 London shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, except only drawing of 
 teeth." 32 Henry VIII. 1540. 
 
 BARCA (N. Africa), the Greek Barce, a colony of Cyrene. It was successively subju- 
 gated by the Persians, Egyptians, and Saracens. In 1550 the sultan Solyman combined 
 Barca with the newly conquered pashalik of Tripoli. 
 
BAR 81 BAR 
 
 BARCELONA, an ancient maritime citj', (N. E. Spain), said to have been rebuilt by 
 Hamilcar Barca, father of the great Hannibal, about 233 B.C. "With the surrounding 
 cpuntry, it was held by the Romans, Goths, Moors, and Franks, and, with the province of 
 which it is the capital, was made an independent county about A.D. 864, and incorporated 
 into Aragon in 11 64, the last count becoming king. The city has suffered much by war. The 
 siege by the French, in 1694, was relieved by the approach of the English fleet, commanded 
 by admiral Russell ; but the city was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1 706. It was 
 bombarded and taken by the duke of Berwick and the French in 17 14, and was taken by 
 Napoleon in 1808, and retained till 1814. It revolted against the queen in 1841, and was 
 bombarded and taken in Dec. 1842, by Espartero. 
 
 BARCLAY, Captain. See Pedestrianis^n. 
 
 BARDESAISTISTS, followers of Bardesanes, of Mesopotamia, who embraced the errors of 
 Valentinus, after refuting them, and added the denial of the incarnation, the resurrection, 
 &c., about 175. 
 
 BARDS. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; and we find bards, according 
 to Strabo, among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The Welsh bards formed an 
 hereditary order, regulated, it is said, by laws, enacted about 940 and 1078. They lost their 
 privileges at the conquest by Edward I. in 1284. The institution was revived by the Tudor 
 sovereigns ; and their Eisteddfodds (or meetings) have been and are frequently held ; at 
 Swansea, Aug. 1863 ; at Llandudno, Aug. 1864; and in the vale of Conway, Aug. 7, 1865. 
 The Gwyneddigion Society of Bards was founded in 1770. Turlogh O'Carolan, the last of 
 the Irish bards, died in 1737. Chambers. 
 
 BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. Cromwell, supreme in the three kingdoms, summoned 
 122 persons, such as he thought he could manage, who with six from Scotland, and five from 
 Ireland, met, and assumed the name of parliament, July 4, 1653. It obtained its appellation 
 from a nickname given to one of its members, a leather-seller, named "Praise-God Barbon," 
 a great haranguer and frequent in prayer. Although violent and absurd propositions were 
 made by some of the members, the majority evinced much sense and spirit, j)roposing to 
 reform abuses, improve the administration of the law, &c. The parliament was suddenly 
 dissolved, Dec. 13, 1653, at the instance of Sydenham, an independent, and Cromwell was 
 invested with the dignity of Lord Protector. 
 
 BAREILLY, province of Delhi (N. W. India), ceded to the East India company by the 
 ruler of Gude in 1801. A mutiny at Bareilly, the ca]3ital, was suppressed in April, 1816. 
 On May 7, 1858, it was taken from the sg^oj rebels, who had here committed many 
 enormities. 
 
 BARFLEUR (N. France), where William, duke of Normandy, equipped the fleet by 
 which he conquered England, 1066. Near it, prince William, son of Henry I., in his 
 passage from Normandy, was shipwrecked, Nov. 25, 1120.* Barfleur was destroyed by 
 the English in the campaign in which they won the battle of Crecj'', 1346. The French 
 navy was destroyed near the cape by admiral Russell, after the victory of La Hogue, in 1692. 
 
 BAR! (S. Italy), the Barium of Horace, was, in the 9th century, a stronghold of the 
 Saracens, and was captured by the emperor Louis II., a descendant of Charlemagne, in 871. 
 In the loth century it became subject to the eastern empire, and remained so till it was 
 taken by Robert Guiscard, the Norman, about 1060. A great ecclesiastical council was held 
 here on Oct. i, 1098, when the Jilioque article of the creed and the procession of the Holy 
 Spirit were the subjects of discussion, 
 
 BARING ISLAND, Arctic Sea, discovered by captain Penny in 1850-1, and so named by 
 him after sir Francis Baring, first lord of the admiralty in 1849. 
 
 BARIUM (Greek, bai-ys, heavy), a metal fomid abundantly as carbonate and sulphate. 
 Tlie oxide baryta was first recognised as an earth distinct from lime by Scheele, in 1774; and 
 the metal was first obtained by Humphrey Davy, in 1808. Walts. 
 
 BARK. See Jesuits' Bark. 
 
 * In tliis shipwreck perished his legitimate son, 'William, duke of Kormandy, and his newly married 
 ■ bride, Matilda, daughter of Fulke, earl of Anjou ; the king's natural son, Eichard; his niece, Lucia; 
 the earl of Chester, and the flower of the nobility, with 140 oflBcers and soldiers, and 50 sailors, most 
 of the latter being intoxicated, which was the cause of their running upon the rocks near Barfleur. 
 This lamentable catastrophe had such an effect upon Henry that he was never afterv.'ards seen to smile. 
 HenauU ; Hume. 
 
BAR 82 BAR 
 
 BARMECIDES, a powerful Persian family, celebrated for virtue and courage, were 
 massacred through the jealousy of the caliph Haroun-al-Easchid, about 802. His visir Giafar 
 was a Barmecide. The phrase Barmecide (or imaginary) feast originated in the story of the 
 barber's sixth brother, in tlie Arabian Nights' Entertainments, 
 
 BAENABITES, an order of monks, established in Milan about 1530, were much engaged 
 iu instructing youth, relieving the sick and aged, and converting heretics. 
 
 BARNARD'S, Sir John, Act (7 Geo. II., cap. 8), entitled, " an act to prevent the 
 infamous practice of stock-jobbing," Avas passed in 1734, and repealed in i860. Sir John 
 Barnard (born 1685, died 1764) was an eminent and patriotic lord mayor of Loudon. 
 
 BAENET, Hertfordshire. Here Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lancas- 
 trians, on Easter-day, April 14, 1471, when the earl of Warwick and his brother the marquis 
 of Montacute, or Montague, and 10,000 men were slain. A column commemorative of this 
 battle has been erected at the meeting of the St. Alban's and Hatfield roads. 
 
 BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principle of .suction 
 existed, and that water did not rise in a pump through nature's abhorrence of a vacuum, 
 imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and made the first barometer, about 1643. 
 Pascal's experiments (1646) enhanced the value of the discovery by applying it to the measure- 
 ment of heights. AVheel barometers were contrived in 1668 ; pendent barometers in 1695 ; 
 marine in 1700, and many improvements have been since made. In the Aneroid barometer 
 (from a, no, and news, watery) no liquid is employed ; the atmospheric pressui-e being 
 exerted on a metallic spring. Its invention (attributed to Cont^ in 1798, and to Vidi, about 
 1844) excited much attention in 1848-9. Barometers were placed at N.E. coast stations in 
 i860, by the duke of Nortliumberland and others. 
 
 BARON, now the lowest title in our peerage, is extremely ancient. Its original name in 
 England, Vavasour, was changed by the Saxons into Thane, and by the Normans into ^a?-o?i. 
 Many of this rank are named in the history of England, and undoubtedly had assisted in, or 
 had been summoned to parliament (in 1205) ; but the first precept found is of no higher date 
 than the 49 Henry III. 1265. The first raised to this dignity by patent was John de Beau- 
 champ, created baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1387! The barons took arms against 
 king John, and compelled him to sign the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of 
 our forests, at Runnymede, near Windsor, June, 1215. Charles II. granted a coronet to 
 barons on his restoration. 
 
 BARONETS, the first in rank among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is here- 
 ditary, were instituted by James I. 1611. The rebellion in Ulster seems to have given rise 
 to this order, it having been required of a baronet, on his creation, to pay into the exchequer 
 as much as would maintain ' ' thirty soldiers three years at eightpence a day in the province 
 of Ulster in Ireland.'- It was further required that a baronet should be a gentleman born, 
 and have a clear estate of 1000?. per annum. The first baronet was sir Nicholas Bacon (whose 
 successor is tlierefore styled Prhmis BaroncUorum Anglia:), May 22, 161 1. The baronets of 
 Ireland were created in 1619 ; the first being sir Francis Blundell. — Baronets of Nova Scotia 
 were created, 1625 ; s'r Robert Gordon the iirst baronet. — All baronets created since the Irish 
 union in 1801 are of the United Kingdom. 
 
 BARONS' WAR, arose in consequence of the faithlessness of king Henry III. and the 
 oppression of his fa vonrites. The barons, headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, 
 and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted statutes to 
 wdiich the king objected. In 1263 their disputes were in vain referred to tlie decision of 
 Louis IX. of France. War broke out, and on May 14, 1264, the king's party were totally 
 defeated at Lewes : and De Montfort become the virtual ruler of the kingdom. Through 
 treachery the v,-ar was renewed ; and at the battle of Evesham, Aug. 4, 1265, De Montfort 
 was slain, and the barons were defeated. They, however, did not render their final sub- 
 mission till 1268. A history of this war was published by Mr. W. H. Blaauw in 1844. 
 
 BARRACKS (from " Ba^raque — Nictte que font Ics soldats en campagne pour sc inettre a 
 couvert,") were not numerous in these countries until aliout 1789. A superintendent-general 
 Avas appointed iu 1793, since when commodious barracks have been built in the various 
 garrison towns and central points of the empire. — A report, censuring tlie condition of many 
 barracks, Avas presented to parliament in 1858 ; and great improvements were effected under 
 the direction of Mr. Sydney Herbert. See Aldersliot. 
 
 BARRICADES, mounds formed of trees and earth, and for military defence. During 
 the wars of the League in France, in 1588, the people made barricades by means of chains, 
 
BAR 83 BAR 
 
 casks, &c., and compelled the royal troops to retire. Barricades composed of overturned 
 vehicles, &c., were erected in Paris in the insurrections of July, 27-30, 1830, and June 23, 
 1848. 
 
 BARRIER TREATY, by which the Low Countries were ceded to the emperor Charles VI., 
 Avas signed by the British, Imperial, and Dutch ministers, Nov. S, 1715. 
 
 BARRISTERS are said to have been first appointed by Edward I., about 1291, but there 
 is earlier mention of professional advocates in England. They are of various rank, as 
 King's or Queen's Counsel, Serjeants, &c., ichicJi sec. Students for the bar must keep a 
 certain number of terms at the Inns of Court, previously to being called ; and by the 
 regulations of 1853 must pass a public examination. Irish students must keep eight terms 
 in England. 
 
 BARROSA, OR Barossa (S. Spain), where a battle was fought on March 5, 181 1, between 
 the British army, commanded by major-general sir Thomas Graham, afterwards _ lord 
 Lynedoch, and the French under marshal Victor, After a long conflict, the British achieved 
 one of the most glorious triumphs of the Peninsular war. Although they fought at great 
 disadvantage, the British compelled the French to retreat, leaving nearly 3000 dead, six 
 pieces of cannon, and an eagle, the first that the British had taken ; the loss of the British 
 was 1 169 men kiUed and wounded. 
 
 13ARR0W ISLAND (N. Arctic Sea), discovered by captain Penny in 1850-51, and named 
 by him in honour of John Barrow, Es(j^., son of sir John. 
 
 BARROW'S STRAITS (N. Arctic Sea), explored by Edwd. Parry, as far as Melville 
 Island, lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait, named after sir John Barrow, was 
 entered on Aug. 2, 1819. The thermometer was 55° below zero of Fahrenheit. 
 
 BARROWISTS, a name given to the Brownists, ivMch see. 
 
 BARROWS, circular mounds found in Britain and other countries, were ancient 
 sepulchres. Sir Ricliard Hoare caused several barrows near Stonehenge to be opened ; in 
 them were found a number of curious remains of Celtic ornaments, such as beads, buckles, 
 and brooches, in amber', wood, and gold : Nov. 1808. 
 
 BARS in music appear in the madrigals of Bonini, 1607. Their common use in this 
 country is attributed to Henry Lawes, about 1653. Encj. Cyc. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW, ST., martyred, 71. The festival (on Aug. 24, O.S., Sept. 3, N.S.) 
 is said to have been instituted in 1130.* The monastery and hospital of St. Bartholomew 
 (Austin Friars), founded in the reign of Henry I. , by Rahere, about 1 100. On the dissolution 
 the Hospital was re-founded, 1539, and was incorporated in 1546-7. It was rebuilt by 
 subscription in 1729. In 1861 it contained 580 beds, and relieved aboirt 70,000 patients : 
 it has since been considerably enlarged. The Massacre commenced at Paris on the night of 
 the festival of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. According to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, or 
 French Protestants, including women and children, were murdered throughout the kingdom 
 by secret orders from Charles IX., at the instigation of his mother, the queen dowager, 
 Catherine de Medicis.f 
 
 BARTPIOLOMEW, ST., a West Indian island, held by Sweden. It was colonised by 
 the French in 1648 ; and has been several times taken and restored by the British, It was 
 ceded to Sweden by France in 1785. 
 
 BARTHOLOMITES, a religious order of Armenia, settled 1307, at Genoa, where is pre- 
 served in the Bartholomite church the image which Christ is said to have sent to king 
 Abgarus. The order was suppressed by pope Innocent X. 1650. 
 
 BARTON AQUEDUCT (near Manchester) was constructed by James Brindley, to carry 
 the Bridgewater canal over the Irwell, which was done at a height of 39 feet abov3 the river. 
 It is said to be in as good a state now as it was on the day it was completed, in 1761. 
 
 * The charter of the Pair was granted by Henry II. , and was held on the ground which has been the 
 former scene of tournaments and martyrdoms. The shows at the fair were discontinued in 1850, and 
 the fair was pi-oclaimed for the last time in 1855. In 1858 Mr. H. Morley published his " History of Bar- 
 tholomew Fair," with many illustrations. See Sniitlifield. 
 
 + The number of the victims is differently stated by various aTithors. La Popelionere calculates the 
 whole at 20,000 ; Adriani, De Serres, and De Thou say 30,000 ; Davila states them at 40,000 ;_ and P^r^fixe 
 makes the number 100,000. Above 500 persons of rank, and 10,000 of inferior condition, perished in Paris 
 alone, besides those slaughtered in the provinces. The pope, Gregory XIII., ordered a TeSeuni to be per- 
 formed on the occasion, with other rejoicings. 
 
 G 2 
 
BAS 84 BAT 
 
 BASLE, a ricli city in Switzerland. The i8th general council sat here from 1431 to 
 1443. Many important reforms in the church were proposed, but not carried into effect : 
 among others the union of the Greek and Roman churches. The university was founded in 
 1460. Treaties of peace between France, Spain, and Prussia were concluded here in 1795. 
 
 BASHI-BAZOUKS, in-egular Turkish troops, partially employed by the British in tho 
 Crimean war, 1854-6. 
 
 BASIENTELLO (S. Naples). Here the army of the emperor Otho II. fell into an 
 ambuscade, and was nearly cut to jneces by the Greeks and Saracens on July 13, 982 ; the 
 emperor himself barely escaped. 
 
 BASILIANS, an order of monks, which obtained its name from St. Basil, who died 380, 
 The order was reformed by pope Gregory, in 1569. — A seijt, founded by Basil, a physician 
 of Bulgaria, held most extravagant notions ; they rejected the books of Moses, the eucharist, 
 and baptism, and are said to have had everything, even their wives, in common, 11 10. Basil 
 was burnt alive in 11 18. 
 
 BASILIKON DOEON' (Koyal Gift), precepts on the art of government, composed by 
 James I. of England for his son, and first published at Edinburgh in 1599. The collected 
 works of this monarch were published at London, 1616-20, in one vol. Ibl. 
 
 BASQUE PROVINCES (N. W. Spain, Biscay, Guipuscoa, and Alava). The Basques, 
 considered to be descendants of the ancient Iberi, were termed Vascones by the Romans, 
 whom they successfully resisted. They were subdued vntli great difficulty by the Goths 
 about 580 ; and were united to Castile in the 13th and 14th centuries. Their language, 
 distinct from all others, is conjectured to be of Tartar origin. 
 
 BASQUE ROADS. Four French sliips of the line, riding at anchor here, were attacked 
 by lords Gambier and Cochrane (the latter commanding the fireships), and all, with a gi-eat 
 number of merchant and other vessels, were destroyed, April 12, 1809. Cochrane accused 
 Gambier of neglecting to support him, and thereby allowing the French to escape. At a 
 court-martial (July 26 — Aug. 4), lord Gambier was acquitted. 
 
 BASSORAH, Basrah, or Bussorah (Asia Minor), a Turkish city, founded by the caliph 
 Omar, about 635. It has been several times taken and retaken by the Persians and Turks. 
 
 BASS ROCK, an isle in the Firth of Forth (S. Scotland), was granted to the Lauders, 
 1316; purchased for a state-prison, 1671 ; taken by the Jacobites, 1690; surrendered, 1694; 
 granted to the Dalrymples, 1 706. 
 
 BASS'S STRAIT, Australia. Mr. Bass, surgeon of the Reliance, in an open boat from 
 Port Jackson, in 1797, penetrated as far as Western Port, and affirmed that a strait existed 
 between New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. Lieutenant Flinders circumnavigated 
 Van Diemen's Land, and named the strait after Mr. Bass, 1 799. 
 
 BASSET, OR Bassette, or Pour ct Contre, a game at cards, said to have been invented 
 by a noble Venetian, in the 15th century ; introduced into France, 1674. 
 
 BASTARD, a child not born in lawful wedlock. An attempt was made in England, in 
 1236, to make bastard children legitimate by the subsequent marriage of the parents, but it 
 failed, and led to the memorable answer to the barons assembled in the parliament of 
 Merton : Nolumus leges Anglue mutari — "We will not have the laws of England changed." 
 Women concealing their children's birth deemed guilty of murder, 21 James I., 1624. 
 Viners Statutes. In Scotland bastard children had not the jiower of disposing of their 
 moveable estates by will, until 6 AVill. IV. 1836. A new act, facilitating the clnims of 
 mothers, and making several provisions for proceeding in bastardy cases, was passed 8 Vict, 
 cap. 10(1845). 
 
 BASTILLE, Paris, a castle built by Charles V., king of France, in 1369, for the defence 
 of Paris against the English ; completed in 1383. It was afterwards used as a state prison, 
 and became the scene of much suffering. Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in 
 vain in the siege of Paris, during the war that desolated France between 1587 and 1594. 
 On July 14-15, 1789, it was pulled down by the infuriated populace; the governor and 
 other officers were seized, conducted to the Place de Grove, and had their hands and heads 
 cutoff. The heads fixed on spikes were carried in triumph through the streets. — "The 
 man with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner ever known, died here, Nov. 19, 
 1703. See Iron Mask. 
 
 BATAVIA AND Batavian Republic. See Holland. 
 
BAT 
 
 BAT 
 
 BATAVIA, the capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East Indies, built 
 by that people about 1619. Taken by the English, Jan. 1782. Again, by the British, under 
 general sir Samuel Auchniuty, Aug. 26, 181 1 ; restored in 18 14. 
 
 BATH (Somerset), a favourite station of the Eomans. About 44 B.C. was remarkable 
 then for its hot springs. Coel, a British king, is said to have given this city a charter, an d 
 the Saxon king Edgar was crowned hei'e, A.D. 973. 
 
 Bath plundered and burnt in tlie reign of "Wil- 
 liam Rufus, and again in .... 1137 
 The abbey church commenced in 1405 ; finished 1606 
 
 Assembly-rooms built 1771 
 
 Pump room erected 1797 
 
 Theatre, Beaufort-square, opened . . . . 1805 
 
 Bath philosophical society formed . . . 1817 
 
 Victoria park opened by princess Victoria . . 1830 
 
 British association met here . . Sept. 14, 1864 
 
 1802. Richard Beadon, died 
 1824. George Henry Law, died 
 
 BATH AND WELLS, Bishopric op. The see of Wells, whose cathedral church was 
 built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, in 704, was established in 909. The see of Bath was 
 established in 1078. John de Villula, the sixteenth bishop, having purchased the city of 
 Bath for 500 mai'ks of Henry I., transferred his seat from Wells to Bath in 1088. Disputes 
 arose between the monks of Bath and the canons of Wells about the election of a bishop, 
 which were compromised in 1135. Henceforward the bishop was to be styled from both 
 places ; the precedency to be given to Bath. The see is valued in the king's books at 
 531?. IS. yl. per annum. Present income, 5000Z. 
 
 EECENT BISHOPS OF BATH AND WELLS. 
 
 April 21, 1824 I 1845. Richard Bagot, died . . . May 15, 1854 
 Sept. 22, 1845 I 1854. Robert John, baron Auckland (PBESENT bishop). 
 
 BATH ADMINISTEATlOlSr. Mr. Pelham and his friends having tendered their resigna- 
 tion to the king (George II.), Feb. 10, 1746, the formation of a new'ministry was undertaken 
 by William Pulteney, earl of Bath ; but it expired on Feb. 12, while yet incomplete, and 
 received, the name of the "Short-lived" administration. The members of it actually 
 appointed were : the earl of Bath, Jirst lord of the treasury ; lord Carlisle, lord privy seal ; 
 lord Winchilsea, first lord of the admiralty ; and lord Granville, one of the secretaries of state, 
 with the seals of the other in his pocket, "to be given to whom he might choose." Mr. 
 Pelham and his colleagues returned to power. Cox's Life of Pelham. 
 
 BATH, Order of the, said to be of early origin, but formally constituted Oct. 11, 
 1399) l^y Henry IV., two days previous to his coronation in the Tower ; he conferred the 
 order upon forty-six esquires, who had watched the night before, and had bathed. After 
 the coronation of Charles II. the order was neglected until May 18, 1725, when it was 
 revived by George I., who fixed the number of knights at 37. On Jan. 2, 1815, the prince 
 regent enlarged the order, forming classes of knights grand crosses (72), and knights com- 
 manders (180), with an unlimited number of companions. By an order published May 25, 
 1847, all the existing statutes of this order were annulled ; and by the new statutes, the 
 order, hitherto exclusively military, was opened to civilians. In 1851, Dr. Lyon Plavfair, 
 and other promoters of the Great Exhibition of that year, received this honour. 
 
 Constitution: — ist Class. Knights grand cross, 50 miUtary, 25 civil. 
 znd Class. Knights commanders, 100 „ £o ,, 
 
 3?-cJ Class. Companions, 525 „ 200 ,, 
 
 BATHS were long used in Greece, and introduced by Agrippa into Eome. The thermte 
 of the Eomans and gymnasia of the Greeks (of which baths formed merely an appendage) 
 were sumptuous. The marble groiip of Laocoon was found in 1506 in the baths of Titus, 
 erected about 80, and the Farnese Hercules in those of Caracalla, erected, 211. See £ath. 
 
 BATHS IN LONDON. 
 
 In London, St. Agnes Le Cehre, in Old-street- 
 road, was a spring of great antiquity ; baths 
 said to have been formed in 1502. 
 
 St.Chad's-well, Grey's-inn-road, derives its name 
 from St. Cliad, the fifth bishop of Lichfield . 
 
 Old Bath-house, Coldbath-square, in use . 
 
 A bath opened in Bagnio-court, now Bath-street, 
 Newgate-street, London, is said to have been 
 the first bath in England for hot bathing 
 
 Peerless (Perilous) Pool, Baldwin-street, City- 
 road, mentioned by Stow (died 1605) ; en- 
 closed as a bathing place 1743 
 
 Turkish sweating-baths very popular in . . i860 
 
 The Oriental baths in Victoria-street, West- 
 minster, were completed in . . . . 1862 
 
 667 
 1697 
 
 1679 
 
 PUBLIC BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES. 
 
 The first established by Mr. Bowie in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the London docks 
 
 Acts were passed to encourage the establishment 
 of public baths and wash-houses, "for the 
 health, comfort, and welfare of the inhabi- 
 tants of populous towns and districts," in 
 England and Ireland 
 
 In the quarter ending Sept. 1854, 537,345 
 bathers availed themselves of the baths in 
 London, and in this period there were 85,260 
 washers. 
 
 Public baths and wash-houses have since been 
 estabhshed throughout the empire. 
 
 1844 
 
BAT 
 
 86 
 
 BAT 
 
 BATON, a truncheon borne by generals in the French army, and afterwards by the 
 marshals of other nations. Henry III. of France, before he ascended the throne, was made 
 generalissimo of the aimy of his brother Charles IX., and received the bdton as the mark of 
 the high command, 1569. Henmdt. • 
 
 BATTERIES along the coasts were constructed by Henry VIII. (who reigned 1509-47). 
 The famous floating batteries with which Gibraltar was attacked, in the memorable siege of 
 that fortress, were the scheme of D'Arcon, a French engineer. There were ten of them, and 
 they resisted the heaviest shells and 32-pound shot, but ultimately yielded to red-hot shot, 
 Sept. 13. 1782. See Gibraltar. 
 
 BATTERING-RAM, Testudo Arietaria, with other military implements, some of which 
 are still in use, are said to have been invented by Artemon, a LacedBemonian, and employed 
 by Pericles, about 441 B.C. These ponderous engines (from Soto 120 feet long) by their 
 own weight exceeded the utmost effects of the battering cannon of the early part of the last 
 century. Desaguliers. Sir Christopher Wren employed a battering-ram in demolisbing the 
 old walls of St. Paul's church, previously to rebuilding the edifice in 1675. 
 
 BATTERSEA PARK originated in an act of parliament passed in 1846, which 
 empowered Her Majesty's commissioners of woods to form a royal park in Battersea- 
 fields. Acts to enlarge the powers of the commissioners were passed in 1848, 185 1, and 
 1853. The park and the new bridge connecting it with Chelsea were opened in April, 1858. 
 
 BATTLE-ABBEY, Sussex, foimded by William I., 1067, on the plain where the battle 
 of Hastings was fought, Oct. 14, 1066. It was dedicated to St. Martin, and was given to 
 Benedictine monks, who were to pray for the souls of the slain. The original name of the 
 plain was Hetheland. See Hastings. After the battle of Hastings, a list was taken of 
 William's chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the Battel-eoll ; and amongst these chiefs 
 the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were distributed. 
 
 BATTLE, Wager of, a trial by combat formerly allowed by our laws, where the defen- 
 dant in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, and make proof thereby of his 
 guilt or innocence. See Appeal. 
 
 BATTLE-AXE, a weapon of the Celt?e. The Irish were constantly armed with an axe. 
 Bums. At the battle of I3annockburn king Robert Bruce clove an English champion down 
 to the chine at one blow with a battle-axe, 13 14. Hume. The battle-axe guards, or beau- 
 fetiers, Avho are \iilgarly called beef-eaters, and whose arms are a sword and lance, were first 
 raised by Henry VII. in 1485. They were originally attendants upon the king's buffet. See 
 Yeoman oj the Guard. 
 
 BATTLEFIELD, Battle of. See Shrcivshury. 
 
 BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos is said to have been the first who ranged an army in a 
 regular line of battle, placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the soldier's vigilance by 
 giving him a watchword. Lenglet. See Naval Battles, British. The following are the most 
 memorable battles, arranged in chronological order. The fifteen battles marked by a f are 
 termed " decisive " by Professor Creasy ; n. signifies naval. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 Abraliam defeats kings of Canaan (Gen. xiv.) . 1913 
 Joshua subdues five liings of Canaan (Jush. x.). 1451 
 Gideon defeats the Midianites (Judges vii.) . 1245 
 Trojan war commenced ... . . 1193 
 Troy talion and destroyed .... 1184 
 Jephtliah defeats Ammonites . . . . 1143 
 Ethiopians defeated by Asa (2 Clivoa. xiv.) . 941 
 
 *Horatii vanquisli Curiatii 669 
 
 *Halys (Medes and Lydians, stopped hy eclipse) . 585 
 f *Marathnn (Greeks defeat Persiaim) Sept. 28, 490 
 *Thermo'pylai (heruism of Leonidas) Aug. y-g, 480 
 * Sal amis, 5). (Greeks defeat Persians) . Oct. 20, ,, 
 *Mycale (ditto) .... Sept. 22, 479 
 *'P\Atsea. (ditto : Pausanias) . . Sept. 22, „ 
 *Eurymedon ?i. (ditto: Cimon) .... 466 
 •Coronea (Jiceoiians defeat Athenians) . . . 447 
 Romans totally defeat Veientes . . . 437 
 Torone (Clean killed : Athenia'iis defeat Spartans) 422 
 *'!s1a.-ntmQ\ (Spartans deieat Athenians) . . . 418 
 t Athenians defeated before Syi-acuse . .413 
 *Cjzic\i3 n. (Alcibiades defeats Spartanf) . . 410 
 
 *ATgimisie (Canon defeats Spaiians) . .B.C. 406 
 
 *yEgospotamos n. (AiJuniun fleet destroyed) . . 405 
 
 *Cunaxa(Cy)-H« defeated a7id killed by Artaxerxes) 401 
 
 Cnidus, 71. (Canon defeats Spadans) . . . 394 
 
 'Coronea. (Argesilaus defeats Athenians and allies) „ 
 
 *A\lia,(Jirenmcs and the Gauls defeat Homanh) . 390 
 
 VoLsci defeated by Camillus 381 
 
 Volsci defeat the Romans 379 
 
 Naxus (Chabrias defeats Laceda;monians) 376 or 377 
 *Xjenctra, ( 2 hebans defeat SjMrians) . . -371 
 
 Camillus defeats the Gauls 367 
 
 *Cynocepha!je (Ihebans defeat Thessalians) . 364 
 
 *}ild.ntinea, (Ihebansvictors: Epaminondos slain) 362 
 
 *Crimesus (Timoleon defeats Carlha/jinians) . 339 
 
 ^Chasri'Tiea. (Philip defeats Athenians, d:c.) . . 338 
 
 Thebes destroyed by Alexander . . . 335 
 
 *Gra.nicus (Alexander defeats Da.rius) May 22, 334 
 
 -Issus (ditto) Oct. 333 
 
 *randosia (Alexander of Epinut dfld. and islain) 332 
 
 \*ATbela. (Alexander defeats Darius) . Oct. i, 331 
 
 *Cranon (Antipater defeats Greeks) . . . . 322 
 iCaudine Forks (Roman army captured) . .321 
 
 [The battles which are thus m.arked ■ are more f\illy de.'^cribcd in their .alphabetical order ] 
 
BAT 
 
 87 
 
 BAT 
 
 BATTLES, contmued. 
 
 ^GrSLZix. (Ptolemy defeats Demetrius) . , B.c, 312 
 
 Fabius defeats the Tusnans .... 310 
 
 "Himera (Gelon defeats Agatlwcles) . . . ,, 
 
 ■■'Ipsus (Seleucus defeats Antigonus, who is slain) . 301 
 
 ■■■Seiitinuni (Romans defeat Samnites) . . . 295 
 
 Asculum (Pyrrhua defeats Romans) . . . 279 
 
 Beneventum (Romans defeat Pi/rrhus) . . 275 
 
 *Punic Wars begin 264 
 
 "Mylfe, n. (Romans defeat Carihaffinians) . . 260 
 
 Xautippus defeats Regulus 255 
 
 '''Pnuornins (Asdrubal defeated by Metellus) . 2.50 
 
 +Drepanum n. (Carthaginians defeat Romans) . 249 
 
 ■•'Agates n. (Romans defeat Cariha^ginioMs) . . 241 
 
 Cliisium (Gauls defeated) 225 
 
 Sellasia (Macedonians defeat SpaHans) . . 222 
 
 Caphyaj (Achceans defeat Italians) . . . 220 
 
 *Saguutum taken by Hannibal .... 219 
 2nd Pwiic War. — Ticinus (Hannibal defeats 
 
 Romans) 218 
 
 *Trebia (ditto) ,, 
 
 Thrasymenes (ditto) 217 
 
 Eaphia (Antiochus defeated by Ptol. Philopater) ,, 
 
 ^'Ceainie (Victory of Hannibal) . . Aug. 2, 216 
 
 Scipio defeats Hasdrubal in Spain . . . 215 
 
 Marcellus and Hannibal (former killed) . . 209 
 
 t*Metaurus (Nero defeats Asdrubal, who is killed) 207 
 
 *Za,m.a, (Scipio defeats Hannibal) . . . . 202 
 
 Abydos (siege of) 200 
 
 *Cynoceplial£e (Romans defeat Macedonians) . 197 
 
 •■Magnesia 1 Scipio defeats Antiochus) . . . 190 
 
 ■ Pydna (Romans defeat Perseus) . . June 22, 168 
 
 '■Punic War (the Third) 149 
 
 ■■Carthage taken by Publius Scipio . . . 146 
 
 Mummius takes Corinth . . . . . , , 
 
 "Metellus defeats Jugurtha .... 109 
 
 Aqua? Sextise (Aix ; Alarius defeats the Teutones) 102 
 
 ■•Cimbri and Romans (defeated by Marius) . . loi 
 
 ^Chseronea (Sylla defeats Milhridates' army) . . 86 
 
 Marius defeated by Sylla 82 
 
 Tigranocerta (Lucullus defeats Tigranes) . . 69 
 
 Pistoria (Catiline defeated) 62 
 
 Cfesar defeats Cassivelamius . . . . 54 
 
 Carrhaj (Crassus defeated by the Parthians) 
 
 June 9, 33 
 
 *Pharsalia (Ccesar defeats Pompey) . . Aug. 9, 48 
 ■*2iela (Ccesar defeats Pharnaces ; writes, "Yeni, 
 
 Tidi, vici ") 
 
 Thapsus (Ccesar defeats Pompey' s friends) 
 Miuida, in Spain (Pompey's sons subdued) 
 
 Mar. 17, 
 *Philippi (Brutus and Cassius defeated) . 
 Agrippa defeats Pompey the Younger 
 *Actium, n. (Octavius defeats Antony) . Sept. 
 
 tVarus defeated by Herman (or Arminius) . 
 "Drusus defeats Germans .... 
 *Shropshire (Caractacus taken) 
 
 Sunbury (Romans defeat Roadicea) . 
 ^Jerusalem taken 
 
 Agricola conquers Mona .... 
 
 He defeats Galgacus and Caledonians . 
 
 Dacians defeated and Decebalus slain 
 
 Issus (Niger slain) 
 
 Lyons (Severus defeats Albinu~^) 
 
 Naissus (Claudius defeats Goths, 300,000 slain] 
 
 Verona (emperor Philip d-feated) 
 
 Decius defeated and slain by Goths 
 
 Valerian defeated and captured by Sapor . 
 
 Chalons (Aurelian victor over rivals) . 
 
 Alectus defeated in Britain 
 
 Constantine def. Maxentius (see Cross), Oct. 2 
 *Adrianople (Constantine deleats Licinius) . 
 *Aquileia (C nslantine 11. slain) 
 *Argentaria (Gratian defeats Gauls) . 
 *Aquileia (Maximus slain) .... 
 ■"Aquileia (Eugenius slain) .... 
 
 PoUentia (Stilicho defeats Alaric) . Mar. 29, 
 
 Eome taken by Alaric . . . Aug. 24, 
 
 47 
 46 
 
 45 
 42 
 36 
 31 
 
 A.D. 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 so 
 
 61 
 70 
 
 78 
 84 
 
 106 
 
 194 
 197 
 
 269 
 
 249 
 251 
 
 260 
 
 274 
 
 296 
 
 312 
 323 
 340 
 
 394 
 403 
 410 
 
 Ravenna taken by Aspar 
 *Franks defeated by Aetius . 
 
 Genseric takes Carthage 
 t*Chalons-sur-Mame (Atilla defeated by AHius) 
 
 Aylesford (Britons defeat Saxons) 
 
 Crayford, Kent (Hengist defeats Britons) . 
 *Soissons (Clovis defeats Syagrius) . 
 *Tolbiach or Zi-ilpich (Clovis defeats Alemanni) 
 
 Saxons defeat Britons .... 
 
 Victories of Belisarius .... 
 
 Narses defeats Totila 
 
 Heraclius defeats the Persians (Chosroes) 
 
 Beder (first victoi'y of Mahommed) 
 
 Muta (Mahometans defeat Romans) . 
 
 Hatfield (Heathfield ; Penda defeats Edwin) 
 
 Saracens subdue Syria 
 
 'K.a.diSe&h. (Arabs def eat Persians) . . 
 
 Saracens take Alexandria .... 
 *Near Os^w^estry (Penda defeats Oswald of North 
 
 umberland) 
 
 *Leeds (Oswy defeats Penda, who is slain) 
 *Saracens defeated by Wambo, in Spain 
 *Xeres (Saracens defeat Roderic) 
 t'Tours (Chas. Martel defeats the Saracens) 
 
 Victories of Charlemagne , 
 
 *Roncesvalle (death of Roland) 
 
 Clavijo (Moors defeated) 
 
 Albaida (Musa and Moors defeated,) 
 
 DANISH INVASION, ETC. 
 
 Hengestdo-wn (Danes defeated by Egbert) . 
 Chaxmonth. (Elhelwolf defeated by the Dan's) . 
 Danes defeat King Edmund of East Anglia 
 Assendon or Ashdovvn (Danes defeated) . . 
 
 Merton (Danes victorious) 
 
 Wilton (Danes victorious over Alfred) . . . 
 fAndernach (Charles the Bald defeated) Oct. 8, 
 Ethandun (Alfred defeats Danes) . . . . 
 Parnham (Danes defeated) .... 
 Bury (EdAuard defeats Ethehoald and Dane-') 
 
 42s 
 428 
 439 
 451 
 455 
 457 
 486 
 496 
 508 
 533-4 
 552 
 622 
 623 
 629 
 
 633 
 636-8 
 
 642 
 
 65s 
 67s 
 711 
 732 
 ;-8oo 
 
 844^ 
 852 
 
 83s 
 840 
 870 
 871 
 
 905 
 
 • 923 
 934 or 938 
 962 
 
 982 
 
 1016 
 
 'Soissons (king Robert victor, killed) . 
 *Semincas (Spaniards defeat Moors ?) 
 
 Nicephorus Phocas defeats Saracens 
 
 Basientello (Otho 11. defeated by Greeks, (i;c.) 
 
 July 13, 
 [The Saxons and Danes fought with different 
 success from 638 to 1016.] 
 
 Assingdon, Ashdon (Canute defeats Edmund) 
 'Clontarf (i)a?ies defeated) ..... 1014 
 
 Civitella (Normans defeat Leo IX ) ... 1053 
 *Dunsinane (Macbeth defeated) .... 1056 
 
 Stanford Bridge (Harold defeats Tostig) Sept. 25, 1066 
 ^*'S.a,s,tiTigs, (William 1. defeats Harold) Oct. 14, ,, 
 
 Fladenheim (emperor Henry defeated) . . . 1080 
 *Ahiwick (Scots defeated, Malcolm slain) . . 1093 
 
 ■*Crusades commence .Y-^ogS"*"^ 
 
 *Ascalon (Crusaders victorious) . . Aug. 12, 1099 
 *Jinchehriij (Robert of Normandy defeated) . 1106 
 
 Brenneville, Normandy (Henry L victorious) . 1119 
 ^Northallerton, or Battle of the Standard, 
 
 (David 1. and Scots defeated) . Aug. 22, 1138 
 *Ourique (Alfonso of Portugal defeats Moors,) 
 
 July 25, 1139 
 "•Lincoln (Stephen defeated) . . Feb. 2, 1141 
 *Aln.v/ic^ (II illiam the Zion defeated) . July 13, 1174 
 *Legnano (Italians defeated Erd. Barbarossa), 
 
 May 29, 1176 
 
 Ascoli (Tancred defeats emperor Henry VI.) . . ii9q__L- 
 
 *Ascalon surrendei-s (Richard 1.) 
 
 Sept 7, iigi 
 
 Arcadiopolis (Bulgarians defeat Emp. Isaac) . 1194 
 
 Marcos (Moors defeat Spaniards) . .July 19, 1195 
 
 *Gisors (Richard 1. defeats French) . Oct. 10, 1198 
 
 *Arsoul (Richard, 1. defeats Saracens) Sept. 7, 1199 
 
 Tulosa,( Moors defeated) 1212 
 
 ■"Bouvines (French defeat Germans) . . . 1214 
 
 *Lincoln (French defeated) . . May 19, 1217 
 
 *Mausourah (Louis IX. and Crusaders defeated) . 1250 
 
 [The battles vsrhich are thus marked ■■ are more ixxWy described in their alphabetical order.] 
 
BAT 
 
 BAT 
 
 -^: 
 
 BATTLES, continued. 
 
 »Lewes (English baroyis victorious) . May 14, 1264 
 •Evesham (Barons defeated) . . Aug. 4, 1265 
 *Benevento (Cfias. of Anjou defeats Manfred) 
 
 Feb. 26, 1266 
 
 »Tagliacozzo (Charles defeats Conrad.in) Aug. 23, 1268 
 
 ■^yLa,rc\\te\di,(Aastriansdefeat Bohemians) \\\a. 26, 1278 
 
 Llandewyer (Llewellyn of Wales defeated) . . 1282 
 
 Unnhax (King nf Scots taken) . . April 27, 1296 
 
 Ca.m\>\\s\iGm\^th. (Wallace defeats English) . 1297 
 
 *'PAY&.irk. (Wallace defeated) . . July 22, 1298 
 
 *Co\xrtra,j (Flemings deft. Count of Artois) July 11, 1302 
 
 Roslin, Scotland .... Feb. 24, 1303 
 
 ^Cephiaus (Duke of Athens defeated) . . .1311 
 
 *Bannockbum (Sruce di'feats English) June 24, 1314 
 
 »Morgarten (Sioiss defeat Austrians) . . . „ 
 
 •Fougbard or Dundalk (Ed. Brvxe defd.) Oct. 5, 1318 
 
 Boroughbridge (Edward II. defeats Barons) . 1322 
 
 \^\i\dovt (Bavarians defeat Austrians) . . ,, 
 
 uplin (Edicard Ballot defeats Mar) Aug. 11, 1332 
 
 •Halidon Hill (Edward III. defs. Scots) July 19, 1333 
 
 Anberoche (earl of Derby defeats French) . .1345 
 
 *Cressy (Ennlish defeat French) . Aug. 26, 1346 
 
 •Durham, Nevil's Cross (Scots defeated) Oct. 17, „ 
 
 La Roche Darien (Charles of Slois defeatal) . 1347 
 
 *Poitiers (English defeat French) . Sept. 19, 1356 
 
 Cocherel (Da Guesciin defeats Navarre) May 16, 1364 
 
 *Aur9Ly (Da Guesclin defeased) . Sept. 29, ,, 
 
 *'Saja.ra.(Black Prince defts. Henry of Trastamare) 
 
 April 3, 1367 
 'Montiel (Peter of Castile defeated) March 14, 1369 
 *Rosbecque (French defeat Flemings) . Nov. 17, 1382 
 *SemTpa.ch (Swiss defeat Austrians) . . July 9, 1386 
 ^Otterbum (Chevy Chase ; Scots victors) Aug. 10, 1388 
 *Nicopolis (Turls defeat Christians) . Sept. 28, 1396 
 *Ancyra (Timour defeats Bajazet) . . July 28, 1402 
 "Homeldon Hill (English defeat Scots) Sept. 14, „ 
 ^Shrewsbury (Percies, <t-c. , defeated) . July 23, 1403 
 Monmouth (Glendower defeated) . , May 11, 1405 
 *Harlaw (Lord of the Isles defeated) . July 24, 141 1 
 Agincourt (English detiot French) . Oct. 25, 1415 
 3njou, Be:iug6 (English d<!ft. hy Scots) March 22, 1421 
 Crevant (English deft. French and Scots),3u\\6 11, 1423 
 *Vemeuil (d'Uo) .... Aug. 27, 1424 
 *Herrings (English d'feat French) . Feb. 12, 1429 
 t*Patay (English defeated, Joan of Arc), June 18, „ 
 
 Yiuxiobitza. (Huniades defe(KtstheTurls),'DQC. 24, 1443 
 *Brechin, Scotland (Huntly defeats Crawford) . 1452 
 ♦Castillon, Chatillon (French defeat Talbot) 
 
 July 23, 1453 
 
 'a. 
 
 -+1 
 
 ^Ma.rigna.no (French defeat Swiss) Sept. 13-15, 1515 
 Bicocca, near Milan (Lautrec defeated) . . 1522 
 *Fa.Yia. (Frnncis I. defeated) . . Feb. 24, 1525 
 *Mohatz (Turks defeat Hungarians) Aug. 29, 1526 
 *Ca,Tppo\ (Zuinglius slaiji) . . . Oct. 11, 1531 
 Aaaens (Christian III. defeats Danish rebels) . 1535 
 Solway Moss (English defeat Scots) Nov. 25, 1542 
 \Ceresuo\ii, (French defeat /mperi'tiists) April 14, 1544 
 *Muhlberg(CTias. V. defts. Protestants) April 24, 1547 
 Pinkey (English defeat Scots) . . Sept. 10, „ 
 *Ket's rebellion suppressed by Warwick, Aug. 1549 
 *St. Quintiu (Spanish and English defeat French), 
 
 Aug. 10, 1557 
 
 'Calais (taken) Jan. 7, 1558 
 
 Graveliiies (Spanish and English defeat French), 
 
 July 13, „ 
 *T>rBU-!i,\\i'¥ra.T\ca (Huguenots defeated), Dec. 19, 1562 
 St. Denis (ditto) .... Nov. lo, 1567 
 *lja.ngs,id.e (Mary of Scotland defeated) May 13, 1568 
 *Jamac (Huguenots defeated) . . Jfarch 13, 1569 
 Mouoontour (Coligny defeated) . Oct. 3, ,, 
 
 'lispa.nto n. (Don John defeats Turks) Oct. 7, 1571 
 *iUcazar (Moors defeat Portuguese) Aug. 4, 1578 
 
 *Zutphen (Dutch and English defeat Spaniards) 
 
 Sept. 22, 1586 
 
 •Coutras (Henry IV. defeats League) Oct. 20, 1587 
 
 t»Spanish Armada defeated, n. . . Aug. 1588 
 
 •Arques (Henry IV. defeats League) . Sept. 21, 1589 
 
 *Ivry (Henry JV. defeats League) . March 14, 1590 
 
 Blackwater (Tyrone defeats Bagnal) . . 1598 
 
 Nieuport (Maurice defeats Austrians) . 
 
 vKinsale (Tyrone reduced by Mountjoy) 
 
 Kirchholm (Poles defeat Swedes) . 
 
 Gibraltar (Dutch defeat Spaniards) 
 
 •Prague (king of Bohemia defeated) . Nov. 8, 1620 
 
 "^Rochelle (taken) 1628 
 
 *Leipsic (Gustavus defeats Tilly) . Sept. 7, 1631 
 *ljiich(IniiieriaUsts defeated; Tilly killed) April 5, 1632 
 *Lippstadt, Lutzingen, or Lutzen (Swedes vic- 
 torious ; Gustavus slain) . . Nov. 16, ,, 
 *Nordlingen (Swedes defeated) . . Aug. 27, 1634 
 An-as (taken hy the French) .... 1640 
 
 1600 
 160 1_ 
 1605 
 1607 
 
 WAR OF THE ROSES — ^TORKISTS AND LANCASTRIANS. 
 
 - ^t. AVoaa's (Yorkins victorious) . May 22 or 23, 1455 
 
 'Belgrade (Mahomet II. rejmlsed) . Sept. 10, 1456 
 
 •Bloreheath ( ro?-i-is<« rictors) . . Sept. 23, 1459 
 ^Northampton (ditto Henry VI. taken) 
 *Wakefield (Lancastrians victors) 
 
 Mortimer's Cross, (Yorkists victorious) _Feb. 2, 146 
 
 *Chalgj-ove (Hampden killed) . 
 Bramham Moor (Fairfax defeated) 
 *Stratton (Royalists victorious) . 
 *Rocroy (French defeat Spaniards) 
 *Lansdown (Royalists victorious) 
 Round-away-down (ditto) 
 *Newbury (Royalists defeated) 
 July 10, 1460 /Chenton or Alresford (ditto) 
 Dec. 31, — - -. - 
 
 *St. Alban's (Lancastrians victors) . Feb. 17, 
 
 "^Towton (Yorkists victo7-ious) . . March 29, ,, 
 *'Kexha,rQ. (Yorkists victors) . . May 15, 1464 
 *Banbury (ditto) .... July 26, 1469 
 
 Stavaiord (Lancastrians defeated) March 13, 1470 
 
 •Barnet (ditto) April 14, 1471 
 
 _ S^Friedburg (Tarenne victor) 
 i~ /^Oropredy Bridge (Charles I. victor) 
 
 ♦Tewkesbury (ditto) 
 
 May 4, 
 
 ♦Granson (Swiss defeat Charles the Bold) April 5, 1476 
 
 ♦Morat (ditto) June 22, ,, 
 
 *tia,i^cy (Chart's the Bold killed) . . Jan. 4, 1477 
 
 *Bosworth (Richard III. defeated) . Aug. 22, 1485 
 
 Stoke (Lambert Simnel taken) .... 1487 
 
 St. Aubin (Bretons defeated) 1488 
 
 *Blackheath (Cornish rebels defeated) June 22, 1497 
 'Cerignola, (Cordova defeats French) April 28, 1503 
 •Agnadello (French defeat Venetians) May 14, 1509 
 *Ravenna (Gaslpn de Foix, victor, killed) April 11, 1512 
 *Novara (Papal Suiss defeat French) June i, 1513 
 *Guinega.te (Spurs) (French defeated) Aug. 16, „ 
 *Flodden (English defeat Scots) . Sept. 9, 1515 
 
 CIVIL WAR IN ENOLAND COMMENCES . 
 
 Worcester ( prince Rupert victor) . Sept. 23, 
 *Edgehill fight (issue doubtful) . Oct. 23, 
 *Leipsic or Breitenfeld (Swede* ric(or«), Oct. 13, 
 
 (£.6iD 
 
 June 18, 1643 
 March 29, „ 
 May 16, „ 
 May 19, „ 
 
 July 5. ,. 
 July 13. „ 
 , Sept. 20, ,, 
 March 29, 1644 
 
 June 29, ,," * 
 Marston Moor (7?iti)crt de/'cci<ed) . July 2, ,, 
 *Newbury (indecisive) .... Oct. 27, ,, 
 *Naseby {king totally defeated) . June 14, 1645 
 
 *Alford (Montrose defeats Covenanters) July 2, „ 
 Kilsyth (ditto) . . . . . Aug. 15, „ 
 'Nordlingen (Turenne defeats Austrians) . . „ 
 *Benburb (O'Neill defeats Englisli) . June 5, 1646 
 *Dungan-hill (Irish defeated) . . July 10, 1647 
 *Preston (Cromwell victor) . . . Aug. 17, 1648 
 *Rathmines (Irish Royalists defeated) Aug. 2, 1649 
 *Drogheda (taken by storm) . . Sept. 12, ,, 
 *Corbiesdale (Montrose defeated) . April 27, 1650 
 *Dunbar (Cromwell defeats Scots) . Sept. 3, ,, 
 
 ^Worceater (Cromwell defeats Charles II.), Sept. 3, 1651 
 [End of the civil war in England.] 
 
 Galway (surrendered) 1652 
 
 Arras, France (Titrenne de/ea<s Co»d^) . . .1654 
 
 ^Dunkirk (ditto) June 14, 1658 
 
 Estremoz (Don John defeated hy Schomberg), 
 
 June 8, 1663 
 Candia (taken by Turks) . . . Sept. 6, 1669 
 
 [The battles which are thus marked * are more fully described in their alphabctic.1l order.] 
 
BAT 
 
 BAT 
 
 1700 
 1 701 
 
 Sept. I, ,, 
 
 July 26, 1702 
 May I, 1703 
 
 Sept. 20, „ 
 
 . July 2, 
 
 July 24, 
 
 ,1704 
 
 BATTLES, continued. 
 
 Chocziin (Sobiesl-l defeats Turks and Condi) . 1673 
 Senefife {indecisive) .... Aug. i, 1674 
 MvlhsMsen {Turenne defeats Allies) Dec. 31, ,, 
 Saltzbacli {Turemie killed) . . July 27, 1675 
 *Drumolog (Covenanters defeat Claverhouse), 
 
 June I, 1679 
 *Bothwell Brigg (Monmouth defea's Covenanters), 
 
 June 22, ,, 
 *Vienna (Turks defeated hy Sohkski) Sept. 12, 1683 
 *Sedgemoor (Monmouth defeated) . July 6, 16S5 
 *M.oha,tz (Turks defeated) . . . Aug. 12, 1687 
 *Killiecrankie (Highlanders defeat Mackay), 
 
 July 27, 1689 
 *Newton-butler (James II.' s adherents defeated) 
 
 July 30, ,, 
 ■*Boyne (William III. defeats James II.), July i, 1690 
 *Fleurus (Charleroi, Luxembourg victor), July i, „ 
 * Aughrim (/("tnies //.'.s cawse ruireecQ . July 12, 1691 
 ■*Salenckemen (Louis of Baden defeats Turks), 
 
 A\ig. 18, ,, 
 *Enghein (Steenkirk, William III. defeated), 
 
 July 24, 1692 
 '^'Landen (William III. defeated) . July 19, 1693 
 Marsaglia (Pignerol) (French victors) Oct. i, „ 
 *Zenta (prince Eugene defeats Turks) . Sept. 11, 1697 
 *Narva (Charles XII. defeats Russians) Nov. 30, 
 Carpi, Modena (Allies defeat French) July g, 
 __£ihiari (Austrians defeat French) 
 Santa Vittoria (French victors) . 
 •"Poltusk (Sioedes defeat Poles) 
 "Hochstadt (French defeat Austrians) 
 Schellenberg (Marlborough victor) 
 *Gibraltar taken by Rooke 
 f*Blenlieini (Marlborough defeats French), Aug. 
 
 13, N. s. ,, 
 MittsAx (taken by Russians) . . Sept. 14, 1705 
 Ca,SBino (prince Eugene ; indecisive) Aug. 16, ,, 
 Tirlemont (Marlborough successful) July 18, „ 
 *Ramilies (Marlborough defeat^ French) May 23, 1706 
 Turin (French defeated) . . . Sept. 7, ,, 
 ■^Almanza (French defeat Allies) April 14 or 25, 1707 
 *Oudenarde (Marlborough defeats French), July 
 
 II, 1708 
 Liesna, Lenzo (jRwssians defeat Swedes) autumn, ,, 
 XAsle {taken by the Allies) . . . Dec. ,, 
 t*Pultowa (Peter defeats Charles XII.) July 8, 1709 
 Dobro (Russians defeat Swedes) . Sept. 20, „ 
 
 "*Malplaquet (Marlborough defeats French), Sept. 
 
 II, ,, 
 *Almenara (Austrians defeat French) July 28, 1710 
 Saragossa (ditto) .... Aug. 20, „ 
 — »^illa Viciosa (Austrians defeated) . Dec. 20, ,, 
 Arleux (Marlborough forces French lines), 
 
 Aug. 5, 1711 
 Boueliain (taken by Marlhoroug''i) . Sept. 13, ,, 
 *Dena,in (Fillars defeats Allies) . July 24, 1712 
 Priburg (taken by French) . . Nov. 26, 171 3 
 
 *Preston (rebels defeated) . . Nov. 12, 13, 1715 
 
 ■^Dumblane ; Sherifi-Mmr (indecisive) Nov. 13, ,, 
 *Peterwardein (Eugene defeats Turks) Aug. 5, 1716 
 ^Belgrade (taken by Eugene) . . Aug. 22, 1717 
 *"Bitonto (Spaniards defeat Germans) May 26, 1734 
 *Parma (Austrians and French, indecisive), June 
 
 29, )) 
 
 Gns.siAVi3, (Austrians defeated) . . Sept. 19, ,, 
 
 Erivan (Nadir Shah defeats Turks) . June, 1735 
 
 Ki'otzka (Turks defeat Austrians) . July 22, 1739 
 
 *'M.olwitz (Prussians {lefeat Austrians) April 10, 1741 
 
 *Dettingen (George II. defeats French) June 16, 1743 
 
 *Pontenoy (Saxe defeats Cumberland) April 30, 1745 
 
 Friedberg (Prussians defeat Austricrns), June 4, „ 
 
 St. Lazzaro (Sardinians def. Austrians) June 4, 1746 
 
 1747 
 
 Rocoux (Saxe defeats Allies) 
 
 Oct. 
 
 SCOTS REBELLION. — GEORGE II. 
 
 ^Preston Va.ns (rebels defeat Co23e) . Sept. 21, 1745 
 
 /~,i.-j.i-__ "' - ' ■ ' Dec. 18, ,, 
 
 Jan. 17, 1746 
 April 16, ,, 
 
 Clifton Moor (rebels defeated) 
 *Falkirk (rebels defeat HaiDley) . 
 *Culloden (Cumberland defeats rebels) 
 
 *Bergen-op-Zoon (taken) . . . Sept. 16, 
 
 T-isSeldit (Saxe defeats Cumberlan'l) . June 20, 
 
 Exilles (Sardinians defeat French) July 8, ,, 
 
 Fort du Quesne (Braddock killed) . July 9, 1755 
 
 *Calcutta (taken) .... June 18, 1756 
 
 SEVEN tears' war, 1756-63. 
 
 *Prague (Frederick defeats Allies) . May 6, 1757 
 *Kollin (Frederick defeated) . . . June 18, ,, 
 *Pla.ssey (Clive's victory) . . . June 23, ,, 
 
 Norkitten (Russians defeated) . . Aug. 13, ,, 
 *liosba.ch. (Frederick defeats French) . Nov. 5, ,, 
 *BveslB,\i (Austrians victoi's) . . . Nov. 22, ,, 
 *liissa, (Frederick defeats Austrians) . Decs, >> 
 
 *Creveldt (Ferdinand defeats French) . June 23, 1758 
 
 Zoradorfl (Frederick defeats Riissicms) Aug. 25, ,, 
 *Iloch'k.irchen (Austrians def. Prussia7is) Oct. 14, ,, 
 ^Bergen (French defeat Allies) . . April 13, 1759 
 ''"'Sia.gaxa, (English take Fort) . . . July 24, ,, 
 *Minden (Ferdinand defeats French) . Aug. i, „ 
 -Spunnersdorf (Russians def. Prussians) Aug. 12, ,, 
 *Qneheo (Wolfe, victor, killed) . . Sept. 13, „ 
 
 Wandewasb (Coote defeats Lally) . Jan. 22, 1760 
 
 Landshut, Silesia (Pras.siaws cie/«a^ec?) June 23, ,, 
 
 Warburg (Ferdinand defeats French) July 31, ,, 
 *Pfaffendorf (Frederick def. Austrians) Aug. 15, ,, 
 
 Campen (French defeat Russians) . Oct. 15, ,, 
 *Torgau (Frederick defeats Danes) . . Nov. 3, ,, 
 
 Johannisberg (French defeat Prussians) Aug. 30, 1762 
 
 *Buxar (Munro defeats army of Oude) , Ocb. 23, 1764 
 Choczim (Russians defeat Turks) . . , . 1769 
 Silistria (taken) 1774 
 
 AMERICAN WAR. 
 
 *Lexington (Gage victor, with grMt loss) April 19, 1775 
 
 *Bw.ik.er's Jlilll, Americans repulsed) June 17, ,, 
 
 ■*Long Island (Americans defeated) . Aug. 27, 1776 
 
 *'White Plains (ffowe defeats Americans) Oct. 28, ,, 
 
 'Rhode Island (takeii 6'/ Royalists) . Dec. 8, ,, 
 
 *Brandywine(/^owe cic/eat'! fFas7mig'fora)Sept. 11, 1777 
 
 *Germanstown (Burgoyne's victory) . Oct. 3, 4, ,, 
 
 ^*^si,rsA,oga, (he is compelled to surrender) Oct. 17, ,, 
 
 *Briar's Qreek. (Americans defeated) March 16, 1779 
 
 *Camden (Cornwallis defeats Gates) . Aug. 16, 17S0 
 
 *G:mldiord (di«o) .... March 16, 1781 
 "Eutaw Spring s(A7'nold def. Americans) Sept. 8, ,, 
 *York Town (Cornwallis surrenders) . Oct. 19, ,, 
 
 [Many inferior actions with various success.] 
 Hyder Ali defeated by Coote. . . July i, ,, 
 
 Bednore (taken by Tippoo Saib) . April 30, 17S3 
 
 *Martinesti (Austrians deft. Turks) . Sept. 22, 1789 
 
 *Ismae] (taken by storm by Suwarrow) Dec. 22, 1790 
 *Seringapatam (Tippoo defeated) May 15, 1790, 
 
 Feb. 6, 1792 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WAR BEGINS. 
 
 Quievi-ain (French repulsed) . . April 28, 1793 
 
 Menin (French defeat Austrians) . June 20, ,, 
 
 t*Valmy (French defeat Prussians) . Sept. 20, ,, 
 
 *Jemappes (French victorious) . . Nov. 6, ,, 
 
 'SQQrwixidLeyi (French beaten) . . March 18, 1793 
 
 St. Am.a,jid( French defeated) . . May 8, ,, 
 
 *Valenciennes (riitto) . . May 23, July 26, ,, 
 
 *'LinceUes (Lake defeats French) . Aug. 18, ,, 
 
 *Dunkirk (Duke of York defeated) Sept. 7, 8, ,, 
 
 *Quesnoy (reduced by Austrians) . Sept. 11, ,, 
 
 Wattignies (French defeat Coburg) . Oct 16, ,, 
 
 *Toulon (evacuated by British) . , Dec. 17, „ 
 
 *C9.iabra,y (French defeated) . . April 24, 1794 
 
 -^roisville, Landrecy (taken by Allies) April 30, „ 
 
 *Tourcoing (Moreau defeats Allies) May, 18-22, ,^ 
 
 *Espierres (taken by Allies). . . May 22, ,, 
 
 Howe's naval victory. . . . June i, ,, 
 
 * Charleroi, Fleurus (French defeat Allies) June 26, , , 
 
 [The battles which are thus marked * are more fully described in their alphabetical order.] 
 
BAT 
 
 90 
 
 BAT 
 
 BATTLES, continued. 
 
 ■*Bois-le-Duc {ihi,ke of York defeated) Sept. 14, 1794 
 
 *Bo'x.te\ (ditto) Sept. 17, ,, 
 
 *War.saw or Maciejowice {Poles defeated) Oct. 4, ,, 
 
 *Nimeguen . . . Oct. 28, and May 4, ,, 
 
 *Warsaw (taken by Suwarrow) . , Nov. 4, „ 
 
 Bridport's victory of L/'Orient, n. 'June 22, 1795 
 
 '^Quiberon (Emigrants defeated) . July 21, „ • 
 
 *Mannlieim (taken) . . . Sept. 20, „ 
 
 liaono (Frendi defeat Atistrians) . Nov. 23, ,, 
 
 *Montenotte (Bonaparte victorious) . April 12, 1796 
 
 *Mondovi (ditto) .... April 22, „ 
 
 •Lodi (ditto) May 10, ,, 
 
 Altenkiichen (Ausirians defeated) . June 4, 
 
 and Sept. i6, ,, 
 
 Bassano (French defeat Austrians) . Sept. 8, ,, 
 
 *Biberacli (ditto) Oct. 10, ,, 
 
 *Castiglione and Lonato . . . Aug. 3-5, ,, 
 
 J^Jieresheiia (Moreau def. Archd. Charles) Ang. io,___„. — 
 
 *Xrcola. (Bonaparte victorious) . Nov. 15-17, ,, 
 
 Rivoli (ditto) Jan. 14, 15, 1797 
 
 *Cape St. Vincent, n. (French defeated) Feb. 14, ,, 
 •Tagliamento (Bonaparte defeats Ausirians) 
 
 March 16, ,, 
 
 ' Camperdown n. (Duncan defeats Dutch) Oct. 11, „ 
 
 IRISH REBELLION BEGIN,? . . . May, 1798 
 
 "KilcuUen (Rebels sxiccessful) . ■ May 23, 1798 
 
 *Naas (Rebels defeated) .... May 24, „ 
 
 "lara, (ddlo) May 26, ,, 
 
 *On\a,rt (Rebels successful) . . . May 27, ,, 
 
 ■'Gorey, *Ross ((iJHo) . . . June 4, ,, 
 
 tArklow (Rebels beaten) . . . June 10, „ 
 
 * Bally nahincli (NuqeiU defeats Rebels) June 13, ,, 
 
 "yinegM- HUl (Lake defeats Rebels) . June 21, ,, 
 
 fNile (Nelson defeeds French fleet) . Aug. i, ,, 
 
 *Ca.Bi\Q\>ax (French auxiliaries defeated) Aug. 28, ,, 
 Balliuamiick (French and Rebels defeated) 
 
 Sept. 8, „ 
 
 *Pyramids {Bonaparte defeats Mamelukes) July 
 
 21, ,, 
 
 *3?ifiA (Stormed by French) . . March 7, 1799 
 
 Hto\:.ac:h.(Axi,Urians defeat French) March 27, „ 
 
 Verona (Austrians defeat French) March 28-30, ,, 
 
 Naguano (Kray defeats French) . . April 5, ,, 
 
 Mount Thabur Api-il 16, „ 
 
 *Cassano (Huioarrow defeats Moreau) April 27, „ 
 
 ''Seringapataiu (Tippoo i-4<ted) . . May 4, ,, 
 
 *Acre [relieved : Sir Sydney Smitlt) . May 20, ,, 
 
 Adda, (Suwarrow defeats French) . . May 27, ,, 
 
 *Zurioh (French defeated) . . . June 5, ,, 
 
 *Treiiia (Suwarrow defeats French) June 18, 19, ,, 
 
 *Alessandria {taken by French) . . July 2, ,, 
 
 *Ahoxi'kir (Turks defeated by Bonaparte) July 25, ,, 
 
 *Novi {Suwarrow defeats French) . Aug. 15, ,, 
 *Be\gen and AXkiaaer (Allies aefeated) Sept. 19, 
 
 Oct. 26, ,, 
 
 ^Znvich (Massena defeats Russians) . Sept. 25, ,, 
 
 yingeii (Moreau defeats AustiHans) . May 3, 1800 
 
 MoBskn-ch (ditto) May 5, ,, 
 
 -Biberach (rfi«o) May 9, ,, 
 
 ■yionteheiXo I Austrians defeated) . . June 9, ,, 
 
 "■'Marengo (Bonaparte defeats Ausirians) June 14, ,, 
 
 *Hochstadt {Mo7-eau defeats Austrians) June 19, ,, 
 
 ■■■Hohenlinden (ditto) .... Dec. 3, ,, 
 
 Mincio {French defeat Austrians) . Dec. 26, ,, 
 
 ^Alexandria, { A bercrombie's victory) March 21, iSoi 
 
 fCopenhageu {bombarded by Nelson) April 2, ,, 
 
 Ahuiednuggur ( Wellesley victorious) Aug. 12, 1803 
 
 *Assa,ye (ditto, his first great victory) . Sept. 23, ,, 
 
 *Alga,Vinx(]Vetlesley V'Ctor) . . . Nov. 29, ,, 
 
 Furriickabad (Lake defeats Holkar) . Nov. 17, 1804 
 
 *Bhurtpore {taken by Lake) . . April 2, 1805 
 
 *Uhn surrend. (Ney defeats Austrians) Oct. z-j -20, „ 
 ■Trafalgar (Nelson destroys French fleet, killed) 
 
 Oct. 21, ,, 
 
 " Austerlitz (Napoleon defeats Austrians) Dec. 2, 
 •Buenos Ayrea {take7i by Popham) . June 28, 
 'Maida (Stuart defeats French) , . July 4, 
 
 *Jenr*^*^* I (French defeat Prussians) Oct. 14, 
 
 *Piiltusk (French and Allies, indecisive) Dec 26, 
 
 Mohrungeu {French defeat Russians and 
 
 Prussians) Jan. 25, 
 
 *Eylau (indecisive) .... Feb. 7, 8, 
 *Friedland (French defeat Russians) June 14, 
 *Buenos Ayrcs (W/iilelock defeated) . July 7, 
 ^Copenhagen (bombarded by Cathcart) Sept. 6-8, 
 'Baylen (Spaniards defeat French) . July 20, 
 
 PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN BEGINS. 
 
 *'Vhmera, (Wellesley defeats Junot) . Aug. 21 
 Tudola, (French d^eat Spaniards) .Nov. 23, 
 
 ->Corunna (Moore defeats French) , Jan 16, 
 lja.udshut (Austrians defeated) . April 21 
 
 *Eckmuhl (Davoust defeats Austrians) April 22, 
 Oporto {taken) . . . March 29, May 12 
 
 *Es^ling 1 (Napoleon defeated) . May 21, 22^ 
 *Wagram (Austrians defeated) . . July 5, 6, 
 *T:a\a,\era, (Wellesley defeats Victor) July 27, 28, 
 miisiria, (Turks d.efeo.t Russians) , Sept. 26, 
 
 Oca,na, (Mortier defeats Spaniards) . Nov. 19, 
 *Busaco (Wellington repulses Massena) Sept. 27 
 ■'■Bairosa (Graham defeats Victor) . March 5 
 *Badajos {taken by the French) . March 11 
 
 *Fuentes d'Ouore ( Wellingt. def. Massena) May 5 
 *Albuera (Beresford defeats SouU) . May 16, 
 *Ciudad Rodrigo (stormed by English) . Jan 19, 
 
 • Badajos (taken by Wellington) . April 6, 
 '■Salamanca(l( W(M!p/o)!. defts. Marmonl) 3u\y 22 
 *yAcihi\ov^ (French defeat Russians) . July 23 
 *Polotzk (t'renth and Russians) . July 30,31 
 
 • Smolensko (French defeat Russians) Aug. 17-19. 
 
 ■*Bortdro } (''^"o) .... Sept. 7 
 "Queenstown (Americans defeated) , Oct. 13 
 '"M0.SCOW (burnt by Russians) . . Sept. 14, 
 'Polotzk (retaken by Russians) . Oct. 20 
 
 Malo-Jaroslavcatz, or Winkowa . Oct. 24, 
 *Witepsk (French defeated) . . Nov. 14 
 *Krasnoi (ditto) .... Nov. i5-i8, 
 *Beresina (ditto) .... Nov 25-29, 
 'French Town (taken by Americans) . Jan. 22 
 "Kalitsch (Saxons defeated) . . Feb. 13 
 Castella (Sir J. Murray defeats Suchet) April 13 
 ■ Lutzen (Napoleon checks Allies) . . ilay 2 
 ■■Bautzen (Nap. and Allies: indecisive) May 20, 
 "Wurtzchen (ditto) .... Miiy 21 
 
 "\ittoria,(Welling. defeats king Joseph) June 21 
 *Pyrenees (Wellington defeats Soult) . July 28 
 Katzbach (Blticher defeats Ney) , Aug. 26; 
 *Dresden (Napoleon checks Allies) Aug. 25, 27 
 St. Sebastian (stormed by Graham) . Aug. 31 
 *Dennewitz (Ney defeated) . . Sept. 6. 
 
 *Mockern (indecisive) .... Oct. 14, 
 *Leipzic (Napoleon defeated) . . Oct. 16-18, 
 *Hanau (Napoleon defeats Bavarians) Oct. 30, 
 ■"St. Jean de huz(Welling. defeats Soult)Nov. 10, 
 [Passage of the Neve ; several engagements 
 between the Allies and French, Dec. lo to 13 
 1813] 
 *St. Dizier, France (French defeated) . Jan. 27 
 
 *Brienne (ditto) Jan. 29, 
 
 "^La Rothifere {Napoleon defeats Allies) Feb. i 
 
 Bar-sur-Aube (/^'iies ric( org). . . Feb. 7 
 
 Mincio (p?-. Eugene defeats Austrians) Feb. 8 
 
 Champ Aubert (/i'rmc/t defeat Allies) Feh. 10-12 
 
 Montmirail (ditto) .... Feb ii, 
 
 Vauchamps (ditto) . . . Feb. 14. 
 
 *Fontaiuebleau (ditto) . . . Feb. 17 
 
 *Montereau (ditto) .... Feb. 18 
 
 *Orthez (Wellington defeats Soult) . Feb. 27 
 
 *Bcrgen-op-Zoom (Graham defeated) M.arch 8, 
 
 1805 
 1806 
 
 1807 
 
 [The b.attles which are thus marked '■ arc more fully described in their alphabetical order.] 
 
BAT 
 
 91 
 
 BAT 
 
 BATTLES, continued. 
 
 *Laon (French defeated) , . . Marcli 9-10, 
 Bheims (Napoleon defeats St. Priest) March 13, 
 "Tarhes (Welluigton defeats Soult) . March 20, 
 "Pfere Champenoise (French defeated) March 25, 
 Paris, Montmartre, Eomainville (ditto) Mar. 30, 
 Battle of the Barriers — Marmont evacuates 
 Paris, and the aUied armies enter that capital, 
 March 31, 
 '^TovlovLse (Wellington defeats Soidt) . April, 10, 
 
 AMERICAN WAR. 
 
 Fort George (tdl-eii bi/ Americans) . May 27, 
 "Burlington HeightslAmeHcaiis routed) Jiuie 6 
 
 Nov. II 
 Dec. 28, 
 March 7, 
 
 • July S; 
 
 July 25 
 Aug. is; 
 Aug. 14, 
 Aug. 30^ 
 
 1814 
 
 Chi-ystler's Point, Canada 
 
 Blaok-rock, America 
 *Craonne (Blucher defeated) . 
 ^Phirmiwa UJ^^tish defeated) 
 
 omppawa j- ^^ ,nericans defeated) 
 *Port Erie (British repulsed) . 
 "'■Bladensburg (Americans defeated) 
 *BeUair (ditto) ... 
 
 "Baltimore (British defeated, and victor iou. 
 
 Sept. II 
 *New Orleans (British repulsed) Jan. 8, 12, <fe 13 
 
 "Tolentino (Murat defeated) . . May 3 
 
 *Ligny (BlUcher repulsed) . . June 16, 
 
 *Quatre Bras (Ney repulsed) . . June 16 
 
 ]*WsAerloo (Napoleon finalhj beaten) June 18, 
 
 ^Algiers (bombarded hy ExmoiUh) . . Aug. 27. 
 Kirkee (Hastings defeats Pindarrees) Nov. s 
 Maheidpore (Hislop defeats Holkar) . Dec 21 
 Dragaschau (Ipsilanii defeated) . . June 19. 
 Valtezza (Turks defeated) . . May 27, 
 Tripolitza (stormed by Greeks) . . Oct. 5 
 Thermopylae (Greeks defeat Turks) . July 13 
 Corinth (taken) .... Sept. 16, 
 *Ayacucho (Peruvians defeat Spaniards) Dec. 9, 
 *Bhurtpore (taken by Combermere) . Jan. 18, 
 Athens (taken) .... May 17 
 
 ""■Navarino (Allies destroy Turkish fleet) Oct. 20, 
 Brahilow (Russians and Turks) . . June 18; 
 Akhalzikh (ditto) . . . . Aug. 27 
 
 *Varna (surrenders to Russians) . . Oct. 11 
 
 *Silistria (ditto) - June 30 
 
 Kainly (Russians defeat Turks) . . July i 
 
 "Balkan (passed by Russians) . . July 26, 
 
 *Adrianople (Russians enter) . . Aug^o. 
 
 *Algiers (conquered by French) . July 5, 
 
 ^Paxis (Bays of July) . . July 27, 28, 29 
 
 *Grochow (Poles defeat Russians) . . Feb. 20, 
 
 Praga (Poles and Russians) . . Feb. 2^. 
 
 *Wawz (Skrzynecki defeats Russians) March 31 
 
 *Seidlice (Pules defeat Russians) . April 10, 
 
 "O.strolenka (ditto) .... May 26! 
 
 Wilna (Poles and Russiatis) . . June 18 
 
 *Warsa-w (taken by Russiaiis) . . Sept. 7, 
 
 Beylau (Ibrahim defeats Turks) . . July 29, 
 
 * Ant^er'^ (taken by Allien) . . Dec. 23 
 
 *Konieh (Egyptians defeat Turks) . Dec. 21 
 
 Hemani (CaHists defeated) . . May 5, 
 
 *St. Sebastian (ditto) .... Oct. i! 
 
 *Bilboa (siege raised ; British Legion) Dec. 24, 
 
 Hemani March 15! 
 
 *Irun (British Legion defeats Carlists) May 17 
 Valentia (Carlists attacked) . . July 15 
 *Herera (Don Carlos defeats Buerenn) Aug. 24, 
 *Constantina (^i^icrs,- taken by French) Oct. i; 
 *St. Eustace (Canadian rebels defeated) Dec. 14 
 Pennecerrada (Carli.-ts defeated) . June 22! 
 *Presoott (Canadio.n re'iels defeated) Nov. 17 
 *Ghizriee (taken by Keane) . . July 23 
 
 *Sidon (taken by Hopford) . . Sept. 26, 
 
 ^'BeyroxiX ( Allies defeat Egyptians) . Oct. 10! 
 Afghan War. See India. 
 
 * Xcre (stormed by Allies) . . Nov. 3 
 
 Kotriah (Scinde : English victors) . . Dec. i 
 
 1816 
 1817 
 
 1824 
 1826 
 
 i»3o 
 1S31 
 
 1832 
 1836 
 1837 
 
 Chuen-pe (English victors) . . Jan. 7, 
 Canton (English take Bogue forts) . Feb. 26, 
 Amoy (taken) ..... Aug. 27, 
 
 Chin-hae (taken) Oct. 10, 
 
 Candahar (Afghans defeated) . . March 10, 
 '^m.gx>o (Chinese defeated) . . March 10. 
 *Jellalabad (.K'/i?/6«'Pa.?s/o)x«?) . April 5, 6, 
 Chin-keang (taken) .... July 21 
 "Ghiznee (Afghans defeated) . . Sex^t. 6, 
 ^"Meeanee (Napier defeats Ameers) . Feb. 17, 
 ^Maharajpoor (ffoM(;/i defeats Mahrattas), Dec. 29. 
 
 Isly (French defeat Moors) 
 "Moodkee (Hardinge defeats Sikhs) 
 *Ferozeshah (ditto) 
 *iUiwal (Smith defeats Sikhs) . 
 *Sobraon (Qough defeats Sikhs) . 
 *Montery (Mexicans defeated by 
 
 Aug. 14, 
 . Dec. 18, 1845 
 Dec. 21, 22 
 Jan. 28, 
 . Feb. 10, 
 Americans 
 Sept. 21-23 
 Palo Alto (Taylor defeats Mexicans) May 8, 9, 
 Bueno Vista (Americans deft. Mexicans), Feb. 22, 1847 
 St. Ubes (Portugal) . . . May g. 
 
 Ozoiitero (Americans def. Mexicans), Aug. 19, 20, 
 "^"Curtalone (Austriayis defeat Italians) May 29, 
 Custoza (ditto) .... July 23 
 yelencze (Croats and Hungarians) . Sept. 29, 
 "■■Mooltan (Sikhs repulsed,) . . . Nov. 7, 
 "Chilianwallah (Gough defeats Sikhs) Jan. 13' 
 
 '•'Goojerat (ditto) Feb. 
 
 ''Novara (Radetzky defeats Sardinians) March 23 
 Pered (Russians defeat Hungarians) June 21 
 Acs (Hungarians repulsed) . . . July 10, 
 Waitzen (taken by Russians) . July 17, 
 
 Schassberg (Russians defeat Bein) . July 31 
 ''■''Veraosvr&x(Haynau defeats Hungarians) Aug. 10, 
 Idstedt (Banes defeat Holsteiners) . July 25, 1850 
 
 EUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 
 
 *01tenitza (Turks repulse Russians) 
 "Citate (Turks defeat Russians) 
 *Silistria (ditto) .... 
 
 Giurgevo (ditto) 
 
 Bayazid (Russians defeat Turks) . 
 *Km-uk-Derek (ditto) 
 *Alma (Allies defeat Russians) 
 "Balaklava (ditto) .... 
 ■'Inkermann (ditto) 
 
 Eupatoria (Turks defeat Russians) 
 •■Malakoflf Tower (Allies and Russians) 
 
 May 22, 23, 24, 
 
 Capture of the Mamelon, <&c. . June 7, 
 
 Unsuccessful attempt on MalakoS tower, and 
 
 Redan (Allien and Russian-i) . . June 18, 
 
 "Tchernaya or Bridge of Traktir (^Uies defeat 
 
 Russians) Aug. 16, 
 
 *Malakoflf taken by the French . Sept. 8, 
 *Ingour (Turks defeat Russians) . . Nov. 6, 
 
 Baidar (French defeat Russians) . . Dec. 8, 
 
 . Nov. 4, 
 
 18^3 
 
 . Jan. 6, 
 
 i8t;4 
 
 June 13-15, 
 
 
 July 8, 
 
 
 . Jxily 30, 
 
 
 • Aug. 5, 
 
 
 . Sept. 20, 
 
 
 . Oct. 25, 
 
 
 . Nov. 5, 
 
 
 . Feb. 17, 
 
 1855 
 
 PERSIAN WAR. 
 
 *Bushire (English defeat Persians) 
 Kooshab (ditto) 
 Mohammerah (ditto) . 
 
 . Dec. 10, 1856 
 . Feb. 8, 1857 
 March 26, ,, 
 
 INDIAN MUTINY. (See Indig.) 
 
 ^Conflicts before Delhi. May 30, 31 ; June 8 ; 
 
 July 4, 9, 18, 23, 
 
 Victories of General Havelock, near Futteh- 
 
 pore July 11, Cawnpore, &c. July 12 to Aug 16, 
 
 Pandoo NudHee (rifto-yo/ iVeiZZ) . Aug. 15, 
 
 Niijuffghur(rfenWi, of Nicholson, victor) Aug. 25, 
 
 Assault and capture of Delhi . Sept. 16-20, 
 
 Conflicts before Lucknow, Sept. 25, 26; 
 
 Nov. 18, 25, 
 
 Victoi-ies of Col. Greathed, Sept 27 ; Oct. 10, 
 
 *Cawnpore (victory of Campbell) . Deo. 6, 
 
 Futteghur (ditto) Jan. 2, 
 
 Calpi .(J'ic^or?/ of Inglis) . . . Feb. 4, 
 *Alumbagh (victory^f Oittram) . . Feb. 21, 
 
 [The battles which are thus marked *■ are more fully de.<?cribed in their alphabetical order.] 
 
BAT 
 
 92 
 
 BAY 
 
 BATTLES, continued. 
 
 Conflicts at Lucknow {taken) . Jfarch 14-19, 
 Jhansi {Rose victorious) . . . April 4, 
 
 Koonoh {ditto) May 11, 
 
 Gwalior {ditto) .... June 17, 
 RaighuT {Mitchell defeats Tantia 3'op««),Sept.i5, 
 Dhoodea Khera («//(te rfe/. BeniAfahdn)Nov. 24, 
 Gen. Horsford defeats the Begiim of Oude, 
 
 Feb. 10, 1859 
 
 ITALIAN WAR. (ScC Ital^.) 
 
 Austrians cross the Ticino . . April 27, 1859 
 
 French troops enter Piedmont . . May, ,, 
 
 *MontebeUo {Allies victorious) . . May 20, ,, 
 
 Palestro {ditto) .... May 30, 31, ,, 
 
 *Magenta {ditto) ..... June 4, „ 
 
 *Malegnano {ditto) .... June 8, , , 
 
 *Solferino {ditto) June 24, ,, 
 
 (Armistice agreed to, July 6, 1859 ) 
 
 *Taku, at the mouth of the Peiho or Tien- 
 Tsin-ho {English attack on the Chinese Forts 
 
 defeated) June 25, ,, 
 
 *Castillejo {Spaniards defeat Moors) . Jan i, i860 
 
 *Tetuan ('/i«o) Feb. 4, 
 
 "Guad-el-Ras {ditto) .... March 23, ", 
 
 ^Oalatifimi {Garibaldi defs. Neapolitans) May 15, ,, 
 
 *Melazzo {Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) July 21, „ 
 
 Taku forts taken (see CAina) . . Aug. 21, ,, 
 *Castel Fidardo {Sardinians defeat Papal troops) 
 
 Sept. 18, ,. 
 Insun-ection in New Zealand; English re- 
 pulsed, March 14, 28 ; June 27 ; Sept. 10, 19 ; 
 
 Oct. 9, 12, ,, 
 
 Maohetia (JV/oom (?e/?atoO . . Nov. 6, ,, 
 
 Chang-kia wan, Sept 18; and Pa-li-chiau 
 
 {Chinese defeated) .... Sept. 21, ,, 
 
 *Voltumo {Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) Oct. i, „ 
 
 Isemia {Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) Oct. 17, „ 
 
 *Garigliano {ditto) .... Nov. 3, ,, 
 
 Sardinians defeat Neapolitan re-actionists, 
 
 Jan. 22, 1 861 
 
 Gaeta taken by the Sardinians , Feb. 13, ,, 
 
 CIVIL WAR IN UNITED STATES BEGUN, f 
 
 *'Big Bethell {Federals repulsed) . . June 10, „ 
 ''Carthage {Federal victory) . . July 10, „ 
 Rich Mountain (di«o) . . . July 11, 
 *Bull Run or Manassas {Federal defeat and panic) 
 
 July 21, ,, 
 Wilson's Creek {Federals, victors, lose Gen. Lyon) 
 
 Aug. 10, „ 
 Carnifex ferry {Rosencrans defeats Floyd. Con- 
 federate) Sept. 10, „ 
 
 Lexington {taken by Confederate.^) . Sept. 20, ,, 
 Pavon, South America {Mitra defeats Vrquiza) 
 
 Sept. 17, ,, 
 
 Turks defeat Montenegrins . Oct. 19, Nov. 21, 
 *Jia.\\'s 'BUxn {Federals defeated) . Oct. 21, 
 Mill Springs, Kentucky {Confederates defeated, 
 and tlieir geyteral ZoUicoffer killed) Jan 19, 
 Roanoke island, N.C. {Federals victors) Feb. 
 
 7.8, 
 Sugar Creek, Arkansas {Confederates defeated) 
 
 Feb. 8, 
 Fort Donnelson {taken, by Federals) . Feb. 16, 
 Pea Ridge, Arkansas {Federals vict. ) March 6, 7, 
 Hampton roads {Mernmac and Monitor used) 
 
 March 9, 
 "^Pittsburg landing, or Shiloh {indecisive) April 
 
 6,7, 
 Williamsburg {Federals repiilscd) , May s, 
 Puebla {Mexicans de.feat French) . May 5, 
 Successful sortie of Confederates from Rich- 
 
 • mond May 14, 
 
 Orizaba {Mexicans defeat French) , May 18, 
 AVinchcster {Federals repulsed) . May 25, 
 
 Near Orizaba {French defeat Mexicans) June 13, 
 ^Fairoaks {before Richmond, indecisive) May 31, 
 
 June I, 
 ^Severe conflicts between Federals and Con- 
 federates before Richmond — the former re- 
 treat . . ■. . June 26 to July i, 
 Cedar Mountain {favourable to Confederates) 
 
 Aug. 9, 
 
 Severe confiictp on the Rappahannock 
 
 Aug. 23-29, 
 
 *Bull Run {defeat of Federals) . . Aug. 29, 
 
 Aspromonte {Garibaldi and his volunteers cap- 
 
 tiired by Royal Italian Troops) . Aug. 29, 
 
 *Antietam {severe; Confederates retreat) Sept. 17, 
 
 Perryville {Confederates worsted) . . Oct. 8, 
 
 *Fredericksburgh {Federals defeated by Lee) 
 
 Dec. 13, 
 
 *Murfrcesburg {indecisive) . . Dec. 29-31, 
 
 Nashville {Confederates defeated) . . -Jan. 2, 
 
 *Chancellorsville {Confederates victors) May 2-4, 
 
 Winchester {Ewell defeats Com federates) 3\xn& 13, 
 
 *Gettysburg (sei'oc 6i<J indecisive), . July 1-3 
 
 *Chicamauga (Con/edera<e« yictorioKs) Sept. 19-20, 
 
 Campbell's Station, &c. {Longstreet defeats 
 
 Burnside) ..... Nov. 14-17, 
 
 Spottsylvania, *c., in the Wilderness, near 
 
 Chancellorsville (indecisive) . May 10-12, 
 
 Petersburg, near Richmond {indecisive, but 
 
 Gran^ advances) . . . June 15-18, 
 
 Petersburg {lee defeated ; Richmond evacuated) 
 
 March 31; April 2, 
 
 Ta,Tm\iile{Lee finally defeated) . . April 6, 
 
 i86i 
 1862 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 Oeversee {Danes and Allies) . . Feb. 6, 
 Dtippel {taken by the Prussians) . . April 18, 
 Alsen {ditto) June 29, 
 
 [The battles which are thus marked * arc more fully described in their alphabetical order.] 
 BAUGE. See Anjou. 
 
 BAUTZEN and WURTZCHEN (in Nortli Germany), the sites of battles fought May 20, 
 and 21, 1813, between the French commanded by Napoleon, and the allies nnder the 
 emperor of Taissia and the king of Prussia. The struggle commenced on the 19th with a 
 contest on the outposts, which cost each army a loss of above 2000 men. On the 20th (at 
 Bautzen) the French were more succes.sful ; and on the 21st (at Wurtzchen) the Allies 
 were compelled to retire ; but Napoleon obtained no permanent advantage from these san- 
 guinary engagements. Duroc was among the hilled at Bautzen, to the great soitow of the 
 emperor and the French army. 
 
 BAYAEIA (part of ancient Noricum and Vinddicia), a "kingdom in South Germany, 
 conquered from tlie Celtic Gauls (Boii) by the Franks between 630 and 660. The country 
 was afterwards governed by dukes subject to the French monarchs. Tassillon II. was 
 deposed by Charlemagne, who established margraves in 788, The first duke was Leopold I. 
 
 t We have no space for the numerous smaller conflicts, of which the accounts are verj' uncerfaiin. 
 
BAY 
 
 93 
 
 BAY 
 
 1071. 
 
 IIOI. 
 
 1 120. 
 1 1 26. 
 
 1 1 38. 
 1 1 42. 
 
 II54- 
 
 1231. 
 
 12=13. 
 1294. 
 1347- 
 1375- 
 1397- 
 1438. 
 1460. 
 1465. 
 1508. 
 
 1579- 
 
 DUKES. 
 
 Guelf I. , an illustrious warrior. 
 
 Guelf II. 
 
 Henry the Black. 
 
 Henry the Proud. He competed with Conrad 
 
 of Hohenstaufen for the empire and failed,- 
 
 and was deprived of Bavaria. 
 Leopold of Austria. 
 Henry of Austria. 
 Henry the Lion (son of Henry the Proud), 
 
 restored by the emperor Frederick Barba- 
 
 rossa, but afterwards expelled by him ; and 
 Otho, count of Wittelsbach, made duke. 
 Louis of Wittelsbach. 
 Otho II., the Illustrious: his son Louis was 
 
 raised to the electoi-al dignity. 
 Henry and Louis the Severe. 
 Louis III. (the palatinate separated). 
 Stephen I. 
 John. 
 Ernest. 
 Albert I. 
 
 John IF. and Sigismuud. 
 Albert II. 
 William I. 
 Albert III. 
 William II. 
 
 895. Guelf of the house of Este was made duke by the emperor Henry IV. in 1071. His 
 descendant Henry the Lion, dulce of Saxony, Bavaria, and Brunswick (ancestor of the 
 present Brunswick family, see BrunsivicTc) , was dispossessed in 11 80 hj the emperor Frede- 
 rick Barharossa (who had been previously his friend and benefactor). Otho of Wittelsbach 
 became duke, whose descendants reigned till 1777, when the elector palatine acquired 
 Bavaria, which was made an electorate 1623. In Dec. 1805, Bavaria was erected into a 
 kingdom by Bonaparte, and obtained by the treaty of Presburg the incorporation of the 
 whole of the Italian and German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. 
 Bavaria suffered much by its alliances with France against Austria in 1726 and 1805. The 
 king joined the Allies in Oct. 1813. Population, Dec. 1861, 4,689,837. 
 
 1596. Maximilian the Great ; the first Elector ot 
 Bavaria, 1623 ; the palatinate restored, 1648. 
 
 1651. Ferdinand and Mary. 
 
 1679. Maximilian Emanuel ; allies with France, 
 1702 ; defeated at Blenheim, 1704 ; restored 
 to his dominions, 1714 
 
 1726. Charles Albert ; elected emperor of Germany 
 in 1742 ; defeated, 1744. 
 
 1745. Maximihan- Joseph I., as elector. The house 
 of Wittelsbach extinct at his death, 177S. 
 
 1778. Charles Theodore (the elector palatine of the 
 Khine since 1743). The French take Munich ; 
 treats with them, 1796. 
 
 1799. Maximilian- Joseph II. , as elector; territories 
 changed by treaty of Luneville, 1801 ; made 
 king, by treaty of Presbui-g, Dec., 1S05. 
 
 KINGS OF BAVAEIA. 
 
 1805. Maximilian-Joseph I. deserts Napoleon, and 
 has his enlarged territories confirmed to him, 
 Oct. 1813 ; grants a constitutional charter, 
 i8i8. 
 
 1825. Louis-Charles, Oct. 13; abdicated March 20.* 
 
 1848. Maximihan-Joseph II. (son) born Nov. 28, 
 1811 ; dies March 10, 1864. 
 
 1864. Louis II. (son) March 10; born, Aug. 25, 1845 : 
 Heir : his brother Otho, born April 27, 1848. 
 
 BAYEUX TAPESTRY, said to have been wrought by Matilda, queen of William I. It 
 is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compartments showing the events, from 
 the visit of Harold to the Norman court, to his death at Hastings ; it is now preserved in 
 the town house at Eouen. A copy, drawn by C. Stothard, and coloured after the original, 
 was published by the Society of Antiquaries in 182 1-3. 
 
 BAY ISLANDS (the chief, Ruatan), in the Bay of Honduras, Central America, belonged 
 to Spain till 1821, then to Great Britain, which formed them into a colony in 1852, but 
 ceded them to Honduras, Nov. 28, 1859. See Honduras. 
 
 BAYLEN (S. Spain), where on July 20, 1808, the French, consisting of 14,000 men 
 commanded by generals Dupont and Wedel, were defeated by the Spaniards under Reding, 
 Coupigny, and other generals, Avhose force amounted to 25,000. The French had nearly 
 3000 killed and wounded, and the division of Dupont (about 8000 men) was made pri- 
 soners. 
 
 BAYONET, the short dagger fixed at the end of fire-arms, said to have been invented at 
 Bayoune, in France, about 1647, 1670, or 1690. It was used at Killiecrankie in 16S9, and 
 at Marsaglia by the French, in 1693, "with great success, against the enemy unprepared for 
 the encounter with so formidable a novelty." The ring bayonet was adopted by the British, 
 Sept. 24, 1693. Aspin. 
 
 BAYONNE (S. France), an ancient city. It was held by the English from 1265 till it 
 was taken by Charles VII. The queens of Spain and France met here in 1565 the cruel 
 duke of Alva, it is supposed to arrange the massacre of St. Bartholomew. Charles IV. of 
 Spain abdicated here in favour of "his friend and ally" the emperor Napoleon ; and Ferdi- 
 nand, prince of Asturias, and Don Carlos and Don Antonio renouuced their rights to the 
 Spanish throne, ]\Iay 5, 1S08. In the neighbourhood of Bayonne was mucli desperate 
 fighting between the French and British armies, Dec. 10, 11, and 13, 1813. Bayonne was 
 
 » The abdication of Charles-Louis was mainly caused by his attachment to an intriguing woman, 
 known throughout Europe by the assumed name of Lola Montes, who, in the end, was expelled the king- 
 dom for her interference in state affairs, and afterwards led a wandering life. She dehvercd lectuz-es iu 
 London, in 1859, and thence proceeded to the United States. She died at New York, Jan. 17, 1S61. 
 
BAY 94 BEA 
 
 invested by the British, Jan. 14, 1814 ; on April 14 the French made a sally, and attacked 
 the English with success, but were at length driven back. The loss of the British was con- 
 siderable, and lieut.-gen. sir John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner. — A Franco-Spanish 
 industrial and fine-arts exhibition was opened at Bayouue in July, 1864. 
 
 BAYEEUTH (N. Germany), a margraviate, held formerly by a branch of the Branden- 
 burg family, was with that of Anspach abdicated by the reigning prince in favour of the 
 king of Prussia, 1790. The archives were brought (in 1783) from Plassenburg to the city of 
 Ba;^euth, which was incorporated with Bavaria by Napoleon in 1806. 
 
 BAZAAR, or Covered Market, a word of Arabic origin. The bazaar of Ispahan is magni- 
 ficent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has several times held 30,000 men in order 
 of battle. In London, the Soho-square bazaar was opened by Mr. Trotter in 1816 to relieve 
 the relatives of persons killed in tlie war. Tlie Queen's bazaar, Oxford-street, a very exten- 
 sive one, was (with the Diorama) burnt down, and the loss estimated at 50,000/., May 27, 
 1829. It was rebuilt, and converted into the Princess's Theatre, opened Sept. 30, 1841. 
 The St. James's bazaar was built by Mr. Crockford in 1832. There are also the Pantheon, 
 the Western Exchange, &c. The most imposing sale termed a bazaar was opened for the 
 benefit of the Anti-Corn-Law League, in Covent-garden theatre, May 5, 1845 ; in six weeks 
 25,000?, was obtained, mostly by admission money. 
 
 BE ACHY HEAD, a promontory on the S.E. coast of Sussex, where the British and 
 Dutch combined fleet, commanded by the earl of Torrington, was defeated by a superior 
 French force, iinder admiral Tourville, June 30, 1690 ; the allies suffered very severely. 
 The Dutch lost two admirals, 500 men, and several ships — sunk to ]n-event them from 
 falling into the hands of the enemy ; the English lost two ships and 400 n^en. The 
 admirals on both sides were blamed ; ours, for not fighting ; the French, for not pursuing 
 the victory. 
 
 BEACONS. See Lighthouses. 
 
 BEADS were early used in the East for reckoning prayers. St. Augustiu mentions them, 
 366. About 1090, Peter the Hermit is said to have made a series of 55 beads. To Dominic 
 de Guzman is ascribed the invention of the Ilosary (a series of 15 large and 150 small beads), 
 in honour of the Blessed Virgin, about 1202. Beads soon after were in general use. The 
 Bead-roll was a list of deceased persons, for the repose of whose souls a certain number of 
 prayers was recited, which the devout counted by a string of beads. Beads appear to have 
 been used by the Druids, being found in British barrows. 
 
 BEAM AND Scales. The apparatus for weighing goods was so called, "as it weighs so 
 much at the king's beam.'" A public beam was set up in London, and all commodities 
 ordered to be weighed by the city officer, called the weigh-raaster, who was to do justice 
 between buyer and\seller, statute 3 Edw. II. 1309. Sto^u. Beams and scales, M'ith weights 
 and measures, were ordei-ed to be examined by the justices at quarter ses.sious, 35 Geo. III. 
 1794. See Weights and Measures. 
 
 BEANS, Black and White, were used by the ancients in gathering the votes of the 
 people for the election of magistrates. A M'liite bean signified absolution, and a black one 
 condemnation. The precejit of Pythagoras to abstain from beans, ahslinc a fabis, has been 
 variously interpreted. "Beans do not favour mental tranquillitj-. " Cicero. The finer 
 kinds of beans were brought to these countries at the j)eriod of the introduction of most 
 other vegetables, in Henry YIII.'s reign. 
 
 BEAE-BAITING, an ancient popular English sport, prohibited by act of parliament in 
 
 1835- 
 
 BEAPiDS.* The Egyptians did not wear beards ; the Assyrians did. They have been 
 worn for centuries by the Jews, who were forbidden to mar their beards, B.C. 1490. Lev. 
 xix. 27. The Tartars waged a long war with the Persians, declaring them infidels, because 
 they would not cut their beards, after the custom of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards 
 
 * A bearded woman was taken Ly the Russians at the battle of Piiltowa, and presented to the czar, 
 Peter 1. 1724: ber beard measured i| yard. A ^voman is said to have been seen at Pari.s with a bushy 
 beard and her whole body eovcrcd with hair. Diet, de Trevoiu. The great Margaret, governess of the 
 Nethe'rhands, had a very long stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black 
 beard Mdlle. Bois de Chene, borne at Geneva (it was said) in 1834, was exhibited in London, in 1852-3, 
 when consequently, eighteen years of age: she had a profuse head of hair, a strong black beard, large 
 whiskers and thick hair on her arms and down from her neck en her back, and mascuJine features. 
 
BEA 95 BEE 
 
 till the time of Alexander, wlio ordered the Macedonians to be shaved, lest the beard should 
 give a handle to their enemies, 330 B.C. Beards were worn by the Romans, 297 b.c. The 
 emperor Julian wrote a diatribe (entitled " Misopogon") against wearing beards, a.d. 362. — 
 In England, they were not fashionable after the Conquest, 1066, until the I3tli centurjr, and 
 were discontinued at the Restoration. Peter the Great enjoined-the Russians, even of rank, 
 to shave, but was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the beard by force. Since 185 1 
 the custom of wearing the beard has gradually increased. 
 
 BEAUGE. See Anjm. 
 
 BEAULIEU, Abbey of, founded by king John, in the New Forest, Hampshire, in 1204. 
 It was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, had the privilege of sanctuary, and was devoted to 
 monks of the reformed Benedictine order. It aff'orded an asylum to Margaret, queen of 
 Henry VI., after the defeat of the earl of "Warwick at Barnet, April 14, 1471. Here, too, 
 Perkin "VVarbeck obtained refuge in the reign of Henry VII., in 1497. 
 
 BEAUVAIS (N. France), the ancient Bellovaci, and formerly capital of Picardy. On the 
 town being besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men, the 
 women under the conduct of Jeanne Fourquet, or Lain^, also De la Hachette, from her using 
 that weapon, particularly distinguished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the 
 siege, July 10, 1472. In memory of this, the women of Beauvais walk first in the procession 
 on the anniversary of their deliverance. Renault. 
 
 BECKET'S MURDER.* Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at 
 the altar, Dec. 29, 11 70. The king was absolved of guilty knowledge of the crime in 11 72, 
 and did penance at the tomb in 11 74. Tlie bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and 
 jewels in 1220 ; but were burned in the reign of Henry VIII. 1539. 
 
 BED. The ancients slept on skins. Beds were afterwards made of loose rushes, heather, 
 or straw. The Romans are said to have first used feathers. Feather-beds were in use in 
 England in the reign of Henry VIII. The bedsteads of the Egyptians and later Greeks, like 
 modern couches, became common among the Roman upper classes. The ancient great bed 
 at "Ware, Herts, capable of holding twelve persons, was sold, it is said, to Charles Dickens, 
 Sept. 6,1864. A bedstead of gold was presented to the queen on ifov. 2, 1859, by the 
 Maharajah of Cashmere. Air-beds and water-beds have been made since the manufacture of 
 india-rubber cloth by Clark in 1813 ; and by Macintosh in 1823. Dr. Aruott's hj'drostatic 
 bed was invented in 1830. 
 
 BED OF Justice, a French court jjresided over by the king, whose seat was termed 
 a " bed." It controlled the ordinances of the parliament. The last was held by Louis XVI. 
 at Versailles in 1787. 
 
 BEDER (Arabia). Here Mahomet gained his first victory (over the Koreish of 
 Mecca), 623. It was considered to be miraculous. 
 
 BEDFORD, a town, IST.JST.W. London, renowned for its many free educational establish- 
 ments endowed in i56i~bysir "Wm. Harpur, a London alderman. Here John Bunyan 
 j)reached, wrote " The Pilgrim's Progress," and died (in 1688). 
 
 BEDFORD LEVEL, a portion of the great fen districts in the eastern corrnties, drained 
 in the early part of the 17th century by the earl of Bedford, aided by the celebrated Dutch 
 engineer, sir Cornelius Vermuyden, amid great opposition. See Levels. 
 
 BEDLAM. See Bctlilehcm. 
 
 BEDOUIN'S, wandering tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of travellers, &c. They 
 profess a form of Mahoniedanism, and are governed by sheikhs. They are said to be descen- 
 dants of Ishmael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respecting him, Gen. xvi. 12, 1911 B.C. 
 They are the scourge of Arabia and Egj'pt. 
 
 BEEF-EATERS. See Battle-axz. 
 
 * Thomas Becket was bom in iiig. His father Gilbei-t wa.s a London trader, and his mother is stated 
 to have been a convert from Mahomedanism. He was educated at Oxford, and made archdeacon by Theo- 
 bald, archbishop of Canterbnrjr, who introduced him to the king Henry II. He became chancellor in 11 55, 
 but on being elected archbishop of Canterbury in 1162, he resigned the chancellorship, to the gi-eat offence 
 of the king. He opposed strenuously the constitutions of Clarendon in 1164, and fled the country ; and, 
 in 1 166, excommunicated all the clergy who agreed to abide by them. He and the king met at Fretville, 
 in Touraine, on July 22, 11 70, and were formaUy reconciled. On his return he re-commenced his struggle 
 with the king, which led to his tragical death. The Merchant- Adventurers were at one time termed " the 
 Brotherhood of St. Thomas a Becket." 
 
BEE 96 BEL 
 
 BEEF-STEAK SOCIETY, the members of which dine together in a room hehind the 
 Lyceum theatre, was founded in 1735 by John Eich, patentee of Covent-garden theatre, and 
 George Lambert, the scene-painter, in whose work-room the society originated. Beef-steak 
 clubs existed in 1709 and 1733. 
 
 BEER. ^QQ Ale, Porter, Victuallers. 
 
 BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous flowers, thjine, and abundance of 
 honey, has been poetically called the "empire of bees." Hymettus, in Attica, was also 
 famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was admired in the earliest ages ; and 
 Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on bees, 741 B.C. There are 292 species of the bee or 
 apis genus, and 1 1 1 in England. Bees were first introduced into Boston, New England, by 
 the English in 1670, and have since spread over the whole continent. Mandeville's satirical 
 " Fable of the Bees" appeared in 1723. Huber published his observations on bees in 1792. 
 The Apiarian Society had an establishment at Muswell Hill, near London (1860-2). The 
 Ligurian variety of the honey-bee was successfully introduced into England in i860. 
 
 BEET-ROOT is of recent cultivation in England. Beta vulgaris, red beet, is used for 
 the table as a salad. Margraff first produced sugar from the ■jy/iite beet-root in 1747. M. 
 Achard produced excellent sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France, at the 
 instance of Bonaparte, largel}' extracted 'sugar from the beet-root in 1800. 60,000 tons of 
 sugar, about half the consumption, are now manufactured in France from beet. It is also 
 largely manufactured in other countries. A refinery of sugar from beet-root has been erected 
 at the Thames-bank, Chelsea. 
 
 BEGGARS were tolei-ated in ancient times, being often musicians and ballad-singers. In 
 modern times severe laws have been passed against them. In 1572, by 14 Eliz. c. 5, sturdy 
 beggars were ordered to be "giievously whipped and burnt through the right ear." By the 
 Vagi'ant Act (1824), 5 Geo. IV. c. 83, all public beggars are liable to a month's imjirisoument. 
 See Poor Laws and Mendicity Society. The "Beggar's Opera," bj' John Gay, a satire 
 against the government of sir Robert Walpole, was produced at the Lincoln's-inn-fields 
 theatre, 1727, and had a run of 63 nights, 
 
 BEGUINES, a congregation of ni;ns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, 
 in 1207, some say 1226. The "Grand Beguinage" of Bruges was the most extensive. Some 
 of these nuns imagined that they could in this life arrive at impeccability. The council of 
 Vicnne condemned this error, and abolished a branch of the order in 131 1. They still exist 
 in Geimany and Belgium, acting as nurses to the sick and wounded, &c. 
 
 BEHEADING, the Dccollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Normandy 
 (as. a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by William the Conqueror, 
 1076, when Walthcoff, eaii of Huntingdon, Northampton, and Northumberland, was first so 
 executed. Since then this mode of execution became frequent, particularly in the reigns of 
 Henry VIII. and Mary, when even women of the noblest blood thus perished,* 
 
 BEHISTUN, in Persia, At this place is a rock containing important inscriptions in 
 three languages, in cuneiform (or M'edge-shaped) characters, which were deciphered and 
 translated by sir H. Rawlinson in 1844-6 and published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic 
 Society. Each paragraph commences with " I am Darius the Great King." 
 
 BEHRING'S STRAIT, discovered by captain Vitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the 
 service of Russia. He thus proved that the continents of Asia and America are not united, 
 but are distinct from each other about thirty-nine miles, 1728. He died at Behring's island 
 in 1741. The current from the west between the shores is very inconsiderable, the depth 
 not being more than from twelve to thirty fathoms. In 1788 captain James Cook accurately 
 surveyed the coast of both continents. 
 
 BELFAST, capital of Ulster, Ireland, First mentioned about 1315 ; its castle, supposed 
 to have been built by John do Courcy, was then destroyed by the Scots under Edward Bruce. 
 See Orange. 
 
 * Among other instances (besides queens of England) m.ay be mentioned the hidy Jane Grey, beheaded 
 Feb. 12, 1554; and the venerable countess of Salisbury, — the latter remarkable for her resistance of the 
 executioner. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused to do it : telling him that 
 she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die like a criminal. He pursued her round and round the 
 scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at length took it off, alter mangling the neck and shoulders of the 
 illustrious victim in a horrifying manner. She was daughter of George, duke of Clarence, and last of the 
 royal line of Plants genet. May 27, 1541. Hume. 
 
BEL 
 
 97 
 
 BEL 
 
 1613 
 682-6 
 
 BELFAST, continued. 
 
 Belfast granted by James I. to sir Arthur 
 
 .Chichester, then lord deputy, 1612; and 
 
 erected into a corporation .... 
 
 The long bridge with 21 arches, 2362 feet long, 
 
 built . . ■ I 
 
 The first edition of the Bible published in Ire- 
 land, printed here 1704 
 
 The castle burnt April, 1708 
 
 The bank built 1787 
 
 The mechanics' institute established . . . 1825 
 The Queen's bridge (5 arches) built on site of 
 
 the long bridge 1841 
 
 Of three colleges established in Ireland under 
 the act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66, passed in 1845, one 
 
 was inaugurated in Belfast . . . Oct. 1849 
 (See Colleges in Ireland.) 
 Much rioting at Belfast through Mr. Hanna 
 persisting in open-air preaching, July, Aug., 
 
 and Sept 1857 
 
 Victoria chambers were burnt down ; the loss 
 
 was estimated at 100, 000 J. . . July 2, 1859 
 Exciting religion* revivals , . . Sept. ;, 
 Fierce conflicts between Roman Catholics and 
 Protestants on account of the foundation of 
 the O'Connell moniiment at Dublin — 9 lives 
 lost and ISO persons injured . Aug. 10 — 27, 1864 
 
 Rioting again April 30, 1865 
 
 Election riots July, „ 
 
 BELGIUM, late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and anciently 
 ■ the territory of the Belgse, who were finally conquered by Julius Caesar, 51 b. c. Its size is 
 about one-eighth of Great Britain. The population, December 31, 1862, was 4,836,566. Its 
 government is a liberal constitutional monarchy, founded in 1831. For previous history, 
 see Flanders, Netherlands, and Holland. 
 
 The revolution commences at Brussels, Aug. 25, 
 The Provisional Government declares Belgium 
 
 independent Oct. 4, 
 
 Antwerp taken .... Dec. 23, 
 
 Belgian independence acknowledged by the 
 
 alhed powers Dec. 26, 
 
 Duke de Nemours elected king (his father, the 
 
 French king, refused his consent) . Feb. 3, 
 Surlet de Chokier is elected regent Feb. 24, 
 Leopold, prince of Coburg, elected king, July 12, 
 
 enters Brussels .... July 19, 
 
 The king of the Netherlands commences war 
 
 Conference of ministers of the five great powers 
 held in London : acceptance of 24 articles of 
 pacification Nov. 15, 
 
 France sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, 
 and an armistice ensues . . . Aug. 
 
 Antwerp besieged, Nov. 30 ; and taken by the 
 French Dec. 23, 
 
 The French army returns to France Dec. 27, 
 
 Riot at Brussels (see Brussds) . . April 6, 
 
 Treaty* between Holland and Belgium signed 
 in London April 19, 
 
 Queen of England visits Belgium . . Aug. 
 
 1830 
 
 1832 
 
 1834 
 
 1839 
 1852 
 
 The king and his son visit England . Oct. 1852 
 
 Increase of army to 100,000 men voted May 10, 1853 
 Opposition to religious charities' bill t June, 1857 
 A new ministry under M. Charles Rogier Nov. g, „ 
 The chambers dissolved ; re-assembled Dec. 10, ,, 
 The king proclaims Belgium neutral in the 
 
 Italian war May, 1859 
 
 Death of M. Potter .... July 22, ,, 
 The king visits England . . . June, i860 
 Vague rumours of annexation to France produce 
 
 warm loyal addresses to the king . June 13, „ 
 The octrois abolished . . . July 21, „ 
 Successful military volunteer movement Aug. ,, 
 Commercial treaty with France signed May i, i86i 
 Continued illness of the king ; with occasional 
 
 amendment .... May, June, 1862 
 Commercial treaty with Great Britain adopted 
 
 by the chamber .... Aug. 22, ,, 
 Great distress through decay of trade Aug. „ 
 Fierce dissensions between Roman Catholics, 
 Jan. ; the ministry resigns, but resumes 
 office, Feb. 4 ; dissolution of the chambers, 
 July 17 ; the Protestants superior in the 
 election Aug. 1864 
 
 KING OF THE BELGIANS. 
 
 31. Leopold,t first king of the Belgians ; bom 
 Dec. 16, 1790 ; inaugurated July 21, 1831, at 
 Brussels ; married Aug. g, 1832, Louise, 
 eldest daughter of Louis PhiUppe, king of 
 
 the French; she died Oct. 11, 1850. The 
 PRESENT king, 1865. J 
 Heir : his son Leopold, duke of Brabant ; bom 
 April 9, 183 s ; married archduchess Maiia 
 of Austria, Aug. 22, 1853. 
 
 BELGRADE, an ancient city in Servia, on the right bank of the Danube. It was taken 
 from the Greek emperor by Solomon, king of Hungary, in 1086 ; gallantly defended by 
 John Huniades against the Turks, under Mahomed II., July to Sept. i486, when the latter 
 was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men. Belgrade was taken by sultan Solyman, 1522, and 
 retaken by the Imperialists in 1688, from whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. It 
 was besieged in May, 171 7, by prince Eugene. On Aug. 5 of that year, the Turkish army, 
 200,000 strong, approached to relieve it, and a sanguinary battle was fought at Peter- 
 waradein, on August 22, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men ; after this battle Belgrade 
 sun-endered. In 1739 it was ceded to the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been 
 demolished. It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach, in 
 1790. The Servian insurgents had possession of it in 1806. In 1815 it was placed under 
 
 * This treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian question ; by the decision 
 of which, the treaty of Nov. 15, 1831, was maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty miUions of 
 francs offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared inadmissible. 
 
 _ t At the revolution in 1830, the Roman CathoUc clergy lost the administration of the public charities, 
 which they have struggled to recover ever since. In April, 1857, M. Decker, the head of the ministry, 
 brought in a bill for this purpose; the principle of which was carried. This led, however, to so much 
 agitation that the ministry were compelled to witbdi-aw the bill, and eventvially to resign. 
 
 t Leopold married, in May, 1816, the princess Charlotte of "Wales, daughter of the prince regent, 
 afterwards George lY. of England; she died in childbed, Nov. 6, 1817. 
 
BEL 
 
 98 
 
 BEL 
 
 prince Miloscli, subject to Turkey. The fortifications were restored in 1820. On June 19, 
 1862, the Turkish pacha was dismissed for firing on the town during a riot. University 
 established by private munificence, 1863. See Servia. 
 
 BELL, Book, axd Candle : in the Eomish ceremony of Excommunication (tchich sec), 
 the bell is rung, the book is closed, and candle extinguished ; the effect being to exclude the 
 excommunicated from the society of the faithful, divine service, and the sacraments. Its 
 origin is ascribed to the 8th century. 
 
 BELL-ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, nearly in front of the Frith of Taj^ one of the finest in 
 Great Britain ; it is 115 feet high, is built upon a rock that measures 427 feet in length 
 and 200 feet in breadth, and is about 12 feet under water.* It was erected in 1806-10 ; it is 
 provided with two bells for hazy weather. 
 
 BELLAIE, in North America. The town was attacked by the British forces under sir 
 Peter Parker, who, after an obstinate engagement, were repulsed with considerable loss ; 
 their gallant commander M'as killed, Aug. 30, 1814. 
 
 BELLEISLE, an isle on the south coast of Brittany, France, was erected into a duchy in 
 favour of marshal Belleisle, in 1742, in reward of his brilliant military and diplomatic 
 services, by Louis XV. Belleisle was taken by the British forces under commodore Keppel 
 and general Hodgson, after a desperate resistance, June 7, 1761, but was restored to France 
 in 1763. 
 
 BELLES-LETTRES, ok Polite Learning, ^qq Academies and Literature. 
 
 BELLMEN", appointed in London to proclaim the hour of the night before public 
 clocks became general, were numerous about 1556. They were to ring a bell at night and 
 cry " Take care of your fire and candle, be charitable to the poor, and pray for the dead." 
 
 BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor of them, about 
 569 B.C. ; to him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, the potter's wheel, anchors for 
 ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furnaces of the Romans. The production of thi 
 great le\-iathan bellows of our foundries (suggested by the diminutive domestic bellows) must 
 have been early, but we cannot trace the time. See Blowing-Machines. 
 
 BELLS were used among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The responses of the Dodonrean 
 oracle were in part conveyed by bells. Strabo. The monument of Porsenna was decorated 
 by pinnacles, each surmounted by bells. Pliny. Introduced by Paulinus, bishop of Nola, 
 in Campagna, about 400. First knoA\-n in France in 550. The army of Clothaire II., king of 
 France, was frightened from the siege of Sens by the ringing of the bells of St. Stephen's 
 church. The second excerption of our king Egbert commands every priest, at the proper 
 hours, to sound the bells of his church. Bells were used in churches by order of pope John 
 IX., about 900, as a, defence, hy ringing them, against thunder and lightning. First cast in 
 England by Turketel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor improved the 
 invention, and caused the first tuneable set to be put up at Croyland abbey, 960. Stow. 
 The celebrated "Song of the Bell," by Schiller (died 1805), has been freq^uently translated. 
 The following list is that given by Mr. E. Beckett Denison in his discourse on bells at the 
 Royal Institution, March 6, 1857. 
 
 Weight— Tons Cwt. 
 Moscow, 1736 ;t broken, 
 
 1737 ..... 250 ? 
 Auother, 1817 . . . 110 1 
 
 Weight— Tons. Cwt. 
 Three others . 16 to 31 
 Novgorod . , . . 31 o 
 Ohntitz 17 iS 
 
 Weigh'— Ton% Cwt. 
 Vienna, 1711 . . . 17 14 
 Westminster, 18564 "Big 
 Ben" . . ' . . 15 8i 
 
 ♦ Upon this rock, tradition says, the abbots of the ancient monasteiy of Aberbrothock succeeded in 
 fixing a bell in such a manner that it was rung by the impulse of the sea, thus warning mariners of their 
 impending danger. Tradition also tells us that this apparatus was carried away by a Dutchman, who was 
 afterwards lost uison the rock, with his sihrp and crew. 
 
 t The metal has been valued, at the lowest estimate, at 66,565?. Gold and silver are said to have been 
 thrown in as votive offerings, 
 
 t The largest bell in England (named Big Ben, after sir Benjamin Hall, the then chief commissioner 
 of works), cast at Houghton-le-Siiring, Durham, by Messrs. Wai-ner, under the superintendence of Mr. E. 
 Beckct Denison and the rev. W. Taylor, .at an expense of 3343?. i4«. gd. The composition wa.s 22 parts 
 copper and 7 tin. The diameter was 9 ft. sJ in. ; the height 7 ft. loi iu. The clai)per weighed 12 cwt. 
 Rev. W. Taylor. 
 
 I 
 
BEL 
 
 99 
 
 
 BEN 
 
 BELLS, continued. 
 
 
 
 
 Weight— Tons Cwt. 
 
 We!g7it—ToTi3 Cwt. 
 
 WeigJit— Tons Cwt. 
 
 Erfiirt, 1497 . . . . 13 IS 
 
 York, 1S4S 
 
 . 10 15 
 
 Lincoln, 1834 . ..58 
 
 Westminster, 1858,* " St. 
 
 Bruges, 1680 
 
 • 10 s 
 
 St. Paul's, 17 16 1 . .54 
 
 Stephen " . ' . . . 13 io| 
 
 St, Peter's, Rome . 
 
 8 
 
 Ghent 4 18 
 
 Sens 13 ? 
 
 Oxford, 1680 . 
 
 7 12 
 
 Boulogne, new . . . 4 18 
 
 Paris, 1680 . . . . 12 16 
 
 Lucerne, 1636 . 
 
 7 " 
 
 Exeter, 1675 . . . 4 10? 
 
 Montreal, 1847 . . . 12 15 
 
 Halberstadt, 1457.. 
 
 7 10 
 
 Old Lincoln, 16 10 . . 48 
 
 Cologne, 1448 . . . II 3 
 
 Antwerp . 
 
 7 3 
 
 Fourth quavtei--bell, West- 
 
 Breslau, 1507 . . . 11 
 
 Briissels . ... 
 
 7 4 
 
 minster, 1857 . ..40 
 
 Gorlitz 10 17 
 
 Dantzic, 1453 . 
 
 6 I 
 
 
 Ringing of Bells, in changes of regular peals, 
 Is almost peculiar to the BngUsh, who boast of 
 having brought the practice to an art. There 
 were formerly societies of ringers in London. 
 Holden. A sixth bell was added to the peal of 
 five, in the church of St. Michael, 1430. Stow. 
 Nell Gwynne left the ringers of the , bells of St. 
 Martin's- in-the-fields money for a weekly entertain- 
 ment, 1687, and many others have done the same. 
 
 Baptism of Bells. — They were anointed and 
 baptized in churches it is said from the loth century. 
 Du Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dun- 
 mow, in Essex, were baptized by the names of St. 
 Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, <&c., 
 in 1501. Weever. The great bell of Notre Dame, in 
 Paris, was baptized by the name of Duke of Angou- 
 l§me, 1816. On the continent, in Roman Catholic 
 states, they baptize bells aa we do ships, tout. with 
 religious solemnity. Ashe. 
 
 BELOOCHISTAlSr, tlie ancient Gedrosia (S. Asia). The capital was taken by the British 
 in the Afglian war, in 1839 ; abandoned in 1840 ; taken and held for a short time in 1841. 
 
 BELYIDEEE EXPLOSIOJST. See Gunpowder (note). 
 
 BEISTARES, in India, a holy city of the Hindoos, abounding in temples. It was ceded 
 by the nabob of Oude, Asoph-ud-Dowlah, to the English in 1775. An insurrection took 
 place here, which had nearly proved fatal to the British interests in Hindostan, 1781. The 
 rajah, Cheyt Sing, was deposed in consequence of it, in 1783. Mr. Cherry, capt. Conway, 
 and others, were assassinated at Benares, by vizier Aly, Jan. 14, 1799. In June, 1857, col. 
 ISTeil succeeded in suppressing attempts to join the Sepoy mutiny. See India. 
 
 BEISTBURB, near Armagh (JS. Ireland). Here O'lSTeill totally defeated the English under 
 Monroe, Jime 5, 1646. Moore says that it was "the only great victory since the days of 
 Brian Boru, achieved by an Irish chieftain in the cause of Ireland." 
 
 BElSTCOOLEISr (Sumatra). The English East India Company made a settlement here 
 which preserved to them the pepper trade after the Dutch had dispossessed them of Bantam, 
 1682. Anderson. York Fort was erected by the East India Company, 1690. In 1693 a 
 dreadful mortality raged here, occasioned by the town being built on a pestilent morass : 
 among others the governor and council perished. The French, under count D'Estaign, 
 destroyed the English settlement, 1760. Bencoolen was reduced to a residency under the 
 government of Bengal, in 1801, and was ceded to the Dutch in 1825, in exchange for their 
 possessions in Malacca. See India. 
 
 BENDEE (Bessarabia, European Eussia) is memorable as the asylum of Charles XII. of 
 Sweden, after his defeat at Pultowa by the czar Peter the Great, July 8, 1709. The peace of 
 Bender was concluded in 171 1. Bender was taken by storm, by the Eussians, in Sept. 
 1770 ; was again taken by Potemkin in 1789, and again stormed in 1809. It was restored 
 at the peace of Jassy, but retained at the peace of 1812. 
 
 BENEDICTINES, an order of monks founded by St. Benedict (lived 480— 543^ who 
 introduced the monastic life into western Europe, in 529, when he founded the mona.stery 
 on Monte Cassino in Campania, and eleven others afterwards. His Regicla Monachorum {vvile 
 of the monks) soon became the common rule of western monachism. No religious order has 
 been so remarkable for extent, wealth, and men of note and learning, as the Benedictine. 
 Among its branches the chief were the Cistercians, founded in 1098, and reformed by St. 
 Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in 11 16; and the Carthusians, from the Chartreux (hence 
 Charter-house), founded by Bruno about 1084. The Benedictine order was introduced into 
 England by Augustin, in 596 ; and William I. built an abbey for it on the plain where the 
 
 * The bell "Big Ben," having been found to be cracked on Oct. 24, 1857, it was broken up and another 
 bell cast with the same metal, in May, 1858, by Messrs. Mears, Whitechapel. It ia rather different in shape 
 to its predecessor, "Big Ben," and about 2 tons lighter. Its diameter is 9 ft. 6 in. ; the height 7 ft. 10 in. 
 It was struck for the first time, Nov. 18, 1858. The clapper weighs 6 cwt.— -half that of the former bell. 
 The note of the bell is E natural; the quarter-beUs being G, B, E, F. On Oct. i, 1859, this bell was also 
 found to be cracked. It remains in this state (Sept. 1865). 
 
 + The clapper of St. Paul's bell weighs 180 lbs. ; the diameter of the beU is 10 feet, and its thickness 10 
 inches. The hour strikes upon this beU, the quarters upon two smaller ones. See Clocks. 
 
 H 2 
 
BEN 
 
 io.:i 
 
 BEO 
 
 battle of Hastings was fought, 1066. See Battle- Abbey. William de Warrenne, eaii of 
 Warrenne, built a convent at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1077. "At Hammersmith is a nunnery, 
 whose inmates are denominated Benedictine dames." Leigh. Of this order it is reckoned 
 that there have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 4600 bishops, 
 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 queens, and 36CX) saints. Their founder was 
 canonised. Baronius. The Benedictines have taken little part in politics, but have 
 produced many valuable works : especially tlie congregation of St. ilaur, who published the 
 celebrated I' Art de Va-ifier les Dates, in 1750, and edited many ancient authors. 
 
 BENEFICE (literally a good deed or favour), OE Fief. Clerical benefices originated in 
 the 12th century, when the priesthood began to [imitate the feudal lay system of holding 
 lands for performing certain duties : till then the priests were supported by alms and oblations 
 at mass. Vicarages, rectories, perpetual curacies, and chaplaincies, are termed benefices, in 
 contradistinction to dignities, bishoprics, &c. A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; a vicar, 
 to a small part or to none. — All benefices that should become vacant in the space of six 
 months, were given by pope Clement YII. to his nephew, in 1534. Notitia Monastica. An 
 act for the augmentation of poor benefices, by the sale of some of those in the presentation 
 of the lord chancellor, was passed in 1863. 
 
 BENEFIT OF CLERGY. See Clergij. 
 
 BENEFIT SOCIETIES. See Friendhj Societies. 
 
 BENEVENTUM (now Benevento), an ancient city in South Italy, said to have been 
 founded by Diomedes the Greek, after the f^ill of Troy. Pyrrhus of Macedou, during his 
 invasion of Italy, was totally defeated near Beneventum, 275 B.C. Near it was erected 
 the triumphal arch of Trajan, a.d. 114. Benevento was fonned into a duchy by the 
 Lombards, 571. A.t a battle fought here, Feb. 26, 1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, was 
 defeated and slain by Charles of Anjou, who thus became virtually master of Italy. The 
 castle was built 1323 ; the town was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 168S, when the 
 archbishop, afterwards pope Benedict XIII. , was dug out of the ruins alive, and contributed 
 to its subsequent rebuilding again, 1703. It was seized by the kiug of Naples, but restored 
 to the pope on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Talleyrand de Perigord, Bonaparte's 
 arch-chancellor, had the title of prince of Benevento conferred upon him. Benevento was 
 restored to the pope in 18 14. 
 
 BENEVOLENCES (AMs, Free Gifts, actually Forced Loans) appear to have been claimed 
 Tjy our Anglo-Saxon sovereigns. Special ones were levied by Edward IV. 1473, ^V Kichard 
 III. 1485 (although a statute foi-bidding them was enacted in 1484), by Henry VII. 1492 ; 
 and by James I. in 1613, on occasion of the marriage of the princess Elizabeth with the king 
 -of Bohemia. In 1615 Oliver St. John, M.P., was fined 5000?., and chief justice Coke 
 disgraced, for severely censuring such modes of raising money. Benevolences were declared 
 illegal by the bill of rights, Feb. 1689. 
 
 BENGAL, the chief presidency of British India, containing Calcutta, the capital. It 
 -was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Dellii, till 1340, when it became 
 independent. It was added to the Mogul empire by Baber, about 1529. See India and 
 Calcutta. 
 
 The Englisli first permitted to trade to Bengal 1534 
 They establish a settlement at Hooghly about 1652 
 Factories of the French and Danes set up . . 1664 
 Bengal made a distinct agency . . . . 1680 
 The English settlement removed to Hooghly . 1698 
 Imperial grant vesting the revenues of Bengal 
 in the companj', by which it gained the 
 sovereignty of the covin try . . Aug. 12, 1765 
 
 India Bill ; Bengal made the chief presidency ; 
 supreme court of judicature established 
 
 June 16, 1773 
 Bishop of Calcutta appointed . . July 21, 1813 
 Railvray opened Aug. 15, 1854 
 
 See India. 
 
 BENZOLE, a compound of hydrogen and carbon, discovered by Faraday in oils (1825), 
 and by C. B. Mansfield in coal tar (1849), the latter of whom unfortunately died in con- 
 sequence of being severely burnt while experimenting on it (Feb. 25, 1855). Benzole has 
 become useful in the arts. Chemical research has produced from it aniline {loliich see), the 
 source of the celebrated modern dyes, mauve, magenta, &c. 
 
 BEOWULF, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic poem, describing events which probably 
 occurred in the middle of the 5 th century, and supposed to have been written subsequent 
 to 597. An edition by Keiuble was published in 1833. It has been translated by Kemble, 
 Thorpe, and Wackerbath. 
 
BER 101 BER 
 
 BERBICE (British Guiana, S. America), settled by tlie Dutch, who surrendered it to the 
 British, April 23, 1796, and again Sept, 22, 1803. It was finally ceded to England in 
 1814. 
 
 BERENGARIANS, followers of Berenger, or Berengarius, ai'chdeacon of Angers, a 
 learned man, who about 1049 uttered opinions opposed to the Romish doctrine of transub- 
 stantiation or the real presence in the Lord's supper. Several councils of the church were 
 held condemning his doctrine. After much controversy he recanted about 1058. He 
 died grieved and wearied in 1088. 
 
 BERESIISTA, a river in Russia, crossed by the French main army after its defeat by the 
 Russians, Nov. 25-29, 18 12. The French lost upwards of 20,000 men, and their retreat was 
 attended by great calamity and suffering. 
 
 BERG (W. Germany), on the extinction of the line of its counts, in 1348, was incorporated 
 with Juliers. Napoleon I., made Murat grand-duke in 1806. The principal part is now held 
 by Prussia. 
 
 BERGEN (in Germany), Battle of, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, 
 April 13, 1759. — (In Holland) The allies under the duke of York were defeated by the 
 French, under gen. Brune, with great loss, Sept. 19, 1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 
 2, same year, the duke gained the victory over Brune ; but on the 6th, the duke was 
 defeated before Alkmaer, and on the 20th entered into a convention, by which he exchanged 
 his army for 6000 French and Dutch prisoners in England. 
 
 BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, in Holland. This place, whose works were deemed impregnable, 
 was taken by the French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. An attempt made by the 
 British under general sir T. Graham (afterwards lord Lynedoch), to carry the fortress by 
 storm, was defeated ; after forcing an entrance, their retreat was cut off, and a dreadful 
 slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, March 8, 18 14. 
 
 BERKELEY CASTLE, Gloucestershire, was begun by Henry I. in 1 108, and finished in 
 the next reign. Here Edward II. was cruelly murdered by the contrivance of his queen 
 Isabella (a princess of France), and her paramour, Mortimer, earl of March, Sept. 21, 1327. 
 Mortimer was hanged at the Elms, near London, Nov. 29, 1330 ; and Edward III. confined 
 his mother in her own house at Castle Rising, near Lynn, in Norfolk, till her death. 
 
 BERLIN (capital of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg), was founded by the mar- 
 gi'ave Albert, surnamed the Bear, about 1163. Its five districts were united under one 
 magistracy, in 17 14 ; and it was subsequently made the capital of Prussia. It was taken by 
 an army of Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1760 ; but they were obliged to retire in a 
 few days. On Oct. 27, 1806, after the battle of Jena (Oct. 14), the French entered Berlin ; 
 and from this place Napoleon issued the famous Berlin decree or interdict against the com- 
 merce of England, Nov. 20. It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, 
 and ordered all Englishmen found in countries occupied by French troops to be treated as 
 prisoners of war. On Nov. 5, 1808, Napoleon entered into a convention with Prussia, by 
 which he remitted to Russia the sum due on the war-debt, and withdrew many of his troops 
 to reinforce his armies in Spain. An insurrection commenced here in March 1848. Berlin 
 was declared in a state of siege, Nov. 1848. The continuation of this state of siege was 
 declared to be illegal Avithout its concurrence by the lower chamber, April 25, 1849. The 
 railway to Magdeburg was opened, Sept. 10, 1841. The first constituent assembly was held 
 here on June 21, 1842. 
 
 BERMUDAS, ok Someks' Isles, a group in the North Atlantic ocean, discovered by 
 Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522 or 1527, but not inhabited until 1609, when sir George 
 Somers was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute 9 James I. 1612. Among 
 the exiles from England during the civil war, was Waller, the poet, who wrote, while resi- 
 dent here, a poetical description of the islands. There was an awful hurricane here, Oct. 31, 
 1780, and another, by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven 
 ashore, July 20, 18 13. 
 
 BERNAL COLLECTION of articles of taste and virtu, formed by Ralph Bernal, Esq., 
 many years chairman of committees of ways and means in the house of commons. He died 
 Aug. 26, 1854. The sale in March, 1856, lasted 31 days, and enormous prices were given. 
 The total sum realised was 62,68oZ. 6s. Sd. 
 
 BERNARD, MOUNT ST., so called from a monastery founded on it by Bernardine 
 Menthon in 962. Velan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet high, covered with perpetual 
 snow. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian army by this pass into Italy 
 
BER 102 BHO 
 
 (218 B.C.); and it was by the same route, in May, 1800, that Bonaparte led his troops to 
 the plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo, fought June 14, 1800. On the 
 summit of Great St. Bernard is a large community of monks, who entertain travellers in 
 their convent. 
 
 BERNARDINES, a strict order of Cistercian monks, established by St. Bernard, of 
 Clairvaux, about 11 15. He founded seventy- two monasteries. 
 
 BERNE, the sovereign canton of Switzerland, joined the Swiss League 1352 ; the to^vn 
 Berne surrendered to the French under general Bruue, April 12, 1798. The town has bears 
 for its arms, and some of these animals are still maintained on funds specially provided for 
 the purpose, 
 
 BERRY, an ancient province {Biturigum regis), central France, held by the Romans 
 since the conquest of Gaul by Csesar (58 — 50 B.C.) till it was subdued by the Visigoths; 
 from whom it was taken by Clovis in 507. It was erected into a duchy by John in 1360, 
 and was not incorporated into the royal domains till 1 601 ; since then the title of duke has 
 been merely nominal. 
 
 BERSAGLIERI, the sharpshooters of the Sardinian anny, first employed about 1848. 
 
 BERWICK-ON-TWEED, a fortified town on the north-east extremity of England. It 
 has been the theatre of many bloody contests between the English and Scots ; and while 
 England and Scotland remained two kingdoms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging 
 to them, because it stood on their side of the river. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed 
 to England in 1333 ; and after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded 
 to England in 1482. In 155 1 it was made independent of both kingdoms. The town 
 surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterwards to general Monk in 1659. Since the union 
 of the crowns (James I. 1603), the fortifications, which were formerly very strong, have been 
 much neglected. 
 
 BESSARABIA, a frontier province of European Russia, part of the ancient Dacia. After 
 being possessed by the Gotlis, Huns, &c., it was conquered by the Turks in 1474, and ceded 
 to Russia in 1812. 
 
 BETHLEHEM (Syria) now contains a large convent, enclosing, as is said, the very birth- 
 place of Christ ; a church erected by the empress Helena, in the form of a cross, about 
 325 ; a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where they pretend to show the manger in 
 which Christ was laid ; another, called the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy 
 Innocents. Bethlehem is much visited by pilgrims, — The Betlilehemite monks existed in 
 England in 1257. 
 
 BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL (so called from having been originally the hospital of St. 
 Mary of Bethlehem), a royal foundation for the reception of lunatics, incorporated by Henry 
 VIII. in 1546. The old Bethlehem Hospital, Moorfields, erected in 1675, pulled down in 1814, 
 was built in imitation of the Tuileries at Paris. The present hospital in St. George's-fields 
 was begun April, 1812, and opened in 1815. In 1856 extensive improvements were 
 completed under the direction of Mr. Sydney Smirk, costing between nine and ten 
 thousand pounds. 
 
 BETTING-HOUSES, affording much temptation to gaming, and consequent dis- 
 bonesty, in the lower classes, were suppressed by an act passed in 1853 (16 & 17 Vict, c. 119), 
 a penalty of lool. being enforced on the owners or occupiers. 
 
 BEYROUT (the ancient Beiytus), a seaport of Syria, colonised from Sidon. It was 
 destroyed by an earthquake, 566 ; was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the 
 Christians and Saracens ; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into the power of 
 Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman empire up to the revolt of Ibrahim 
 Pacha, in 1832. The total defeat of the Eg)rptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and 
 Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyrout (the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, 
 and prisoners, and twenty pieces of cannon), took place Oct. 10, 1840. Sir C. Napier was 
 the English admiral engaged. • Beyrout suffered greatly in consequence of the ma-ssacres in 
 Syria in May i860. In Nov. i860 above 27,000 persons were said to be in danger of starving. 
 See Syria. 
 
 BHOOTAN, a country north of Lower Bengal, with whom a treaty was made April 25, 
 1774. After fruitless negotiations, Bhootan was invaded by the British in Dec. 1864, in 
 consequence of injurious treatment of an envoy. Sec India, 1864-5. 
 
BHU 
 
 103 
 
 BIB 
 
 BHURTPORE (India), capital of Bhurtpore, was besieged by the Biitisli, Jan. 3, 1805, 
 and attacked Jive times up to March 21, without success. Tlie fortress was taken by general 
 Lake, after a desperate engagement with Holkar, the Mahratta chief, April 2, 1805. The 
 defeat of Holkar led to a treaty, by which the rajah of Bhurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs 
 of rupees, and ceded the territories that had been granted to him by a former treaty, 
 delivering up his son as hostage, April 17, 1805. On the rajah's death, during a revolt 
 against his son, Bhurtpore was taken by storm, by lord Conibermere, Jan. 18, 1826. See 
 India. 
 
 BIAN'CHI ("Whites), a political party at Florence, in 1300, in favour of the Ghibelines 
 or imperial party, headed by Vieri de' Cerchi, opposed the Neri (or Blacks), headed by 
 Corso de' Douati. Tlie latter expelled their opponents, among whom was the poet Dante, 
 in 1301. 
 
 BIARCHY. "When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons, twins, Eury- 
 sthenes and Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom precedence should be given, 
 placed both upon the throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102 B.C. The descen- 
 dants of each reigned alternately for 800 years. Herodotus. 
 
 BIARRITZ, a bathing-place, near Bayonne. Here resided the comtesse de Montijo and 
 her daughter Eugenie, now empress of the French, tiU her marriage Jan. 29, 1853; since 
 when it has been annually visited by the emperor and empress. 
 
 BIBERACH ("Wurtemberg). Here Moreau twice defeated the Austrians, — under Latour, 
 Oct. 2, 1796, and under Kray, May 9, 1800. 
 
 BIBLE (from the Greek hiblos, a book), the name especially given to the Holy Scriptures. 
 The Old Testament is said to have been collected and arranged by Ezra between 458 and 
 450 B.C. The Apocrypha are considered as inspired writings by the Roman Catholics, but 
 not by the Jews and Protestants.* See Apocrypha. 
 
 OLB TESTAMENT.! 
 
 Genesis contains the history 
 
 of the world from B.C. 4004 — 1635 
 Exodus . . . 1635 — 1490 
 Leviticus . . . 1490 
 Numbers . . . 1490 — 1451 
 Deuteronomy. . . 1451 
 Job . . about 1520 
 
 Joshua . . from 1451 — 1420 
 Judges .... 1425 — 1 120 
 Buth . . . . 1322 — 1312 
 ist and 2nd Samuel . 1171 — 1017 
 ist and 2nd Kings . . 1015 — 562 
 1st and 2nd Chronicles 1004 — 536 
 Book of Psalms (princi- 
 pally by David) . . 1063 — 1015 
 Proverbs wi'itten about 1000 — 700 
 Song of Solomon about 1014 
 Ecclesiastes . about 977 
 Jonah. . . about S62 
 Josl . . . about 800 
 
 Hosea . 
 
 Amos 
 
 Isaiah . 
 
 Jlioah 
 
 Nahum . 
 
 Zephaniah 
 
 Jeremiah 
 
 Lamentations 
 
 Habakkuk 
 
 Daniel 
 
 Ezekiel 
 
 Obadiah . 
 
 Ezra 
 
 Esther 
 
 Haggai . 
 
 Zeohariah 
 
 I>rehemiah 
 
 Malaohi . 
 
 about 
 about 
 about 
 about 
 about 
 about 
 about 
 about 
 about 
 from 
 
 about 
 about 
 about 
 about 
 about 
 about 
 about 
 
 783—725 
 787 
 
 760 — 698 
 750 — 710 
 
 713 
 
 630 
 
 629—588 
 
 588 
 
 626 
 
 607— 534 
 
 595—574 
 
 587 
 
 536—456 
 
 521—495 
 
 520 
 
 520 — 518 
 
 446—434 
 
 397 
 
 NEW TESTAltENT. 
 
 Gospels by Matthew, Mark, 
 
 Luke, and John. B.C. 5 — a.d. 33 
 
 Acts of the Apostles . ad. 33 — 65 
 
 Epistles — istand 2nd,toThes- 
 
 salonians . . about 54 
 
 Galatians . . . . 58 
 
 ist Corinthians . . .59 
 
 2nd Corinthians . . . 60 
 
 Bomans .... 60 
 
 Of James 60 
 
 1st of Peter .... 60 
 To Ephesians, Philippians, 
 Colossians, Hebrews, 
 Philemon . . .64 
 Titus and ist to Timothy 65 
 2nd to Timothy . . . 66 
 2nd of Peter . . . .66 
 OfJude . . . ; . 66 
 ist, 2nd, and 3rd of John 
 
 after 90 
 Revelation ... .96 
 
 The most ancient copy of the Hebrew Scriptures 
 existed at Toledo, called the Codex of Hillel ; it 
 was of very early date, probably of the 4th century 
 after Christ, some say about 60 years before Christ. 
 The copy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made 
 about 1 100. 
 
 The oldest copy of the Old and New Testament in 
 Greek, is that in the Vatican, which was written 
 in the 4th or 5th century, and published in 1586. 
 The next in age is the Alexandrian Codex (referred 
 to the 5th century) in the British Museum, pre- 
 sented by the Greek patriarch to Charles I. in 
 
 1628. It has been printed in England, edited by 
 Woide and Baber, 1786 — 1821. — Codex Ephraemi, 
 or Codex Begins, ascribed to the 5th century, in 
 the Boyal Library, Paris : published by Tischen- 
 
 • dorf in 1843. 
 
 The Hebrew Psalter was printed at Bologiia in 1477. 
 The complete Hebrew Bible was first printed by 
 Soncino in Italy in 1488, and the Greek Testament 
 (edited by Erasmus) at Botterdam, in 1516. Aldus's 
 edition was printed in 1518; Stephens' in 1546; 
 and the textus receptus (or received text) by the 
 Elzevirs in 1624. 
 
 * In April, 1865, was published a proposal for raising a fund for exploring Palestine in order to 
 illustrate the Bible by antiquarian and scientific investigation. The first meeting was held June 22, 1865, 
 the archbishop of York in the chair. 
 
 t The division of the Bible into chapters has been ascribed to archbishop Lanfranc in the nth and to 
 archbishop Langton in the 13th century ; but T. Hartwell Home considers the real author to have been 
 cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro, about the middle of the 13th century. The division into sections was 
 commenced by Babbi Nathan (author of a Concordance), about 1445, and completed by Athras, a Jew, in 
 1661. The present division into verses was introduced by the celebrated printer, Robert Stephens, i7i his 
 Greek Testament (1551) and in his Latin Bible (1556-7). 
 
BIB 
 
 104 
 
 BIB 
 
 BIBLE, continued. 
 
 TRANSLATIONS. 
 
 The Old Testament, in Gretl; termed the Septnagint 
 (which see), generally considered to have been made 
 by order of Ptolemj' Philadelphus, king of Egypt, 
 about 286 or 285 b.c. ; of this many fabulous ac- 
 counts are given 
 
 Origen, after spending twenty-eight years in col- 
 lating MSS., commenced his jioh/plot Bible at 
 Cajsarea in a.d. 231 ; it contained the Greek ver- 
 sions of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotiou, all 
 made in or about the 2nd century after Christ. 
 
 The following are ancient versions : — Syriac, ist or 
 and century ; the old Latin version, early in 
 the 2nd century, revised by Jerome, in 384 ; who, 
 however, completed a new version in 405, now 
 called the Vulgate, which see; the first edition 
 was printed in 1462 ; — Coptic, 2nd or 3rd century ; 
 Sthiopic ; Armtnian, 4th or 5th century ; Sclavoyiic, 
 9th century ; and the Maso-Gothic, by Ulfilas, 
 about 370, a manuscript copy of which, called the 
 Codex Argentcus, is at Upsal. The Psalms were 
 translated into Saxon by bishop Aldhelm, about 
 706 ; and tbe Gospels by bishop Egbert, about 
 721 ; the whole Bible by Bede, in the loth 
 century. 
 
 ENGLISH VERSIONS AND EDITIONS.* 
 
 MS. paraphrase of the whole Bible at the 
 Bodleian Library, Oxford, dated by Usher . 1290 
 
 Versions (from the Vulgate) by 'Wickliffe and 
 his followers about 1380 
 
 [Part published by Lewis, 1731 ; by Baber, iSio ; 
 the whole by Madden and Forshall, 1850.] 
 
 William Tyndale's version of Matthew and Mark 
 from the Greek, 1524 ; of the whole New Testa- 
 ment 1525 or 1526 
 
 Miles Coverdale's version of the whole Bible . 1535 
 
 [Ordered by Henry VIII. to be laid in the choir 
 of every church, "for every man that would 
 to look and read therein."] 
 
 T. Matthews' (fictitious name for John Rogers) 
 version (partly by Tyndale f and Coverdale) . 
 
 Cranmer's Great Bible (Matthews' revised) 
 
 Geneva version (the first with figured verses) 
 
 1540— 1557 
 
 Archbishop Parker's, called "The Bishop's 
 Bible " (eight of the fourteen persons em- 
 ployed being bishops) 
 
 King James' Bible, J the present authorised ver- 
 sion — Translation began 1604 ; published 
 
 Roman Catholic authorised version : New Tes- 
 tament, at Rheims, 1582 ; Old Testament, at 
 Douay 1609-10 
 
 Dr. Benjamin Blayney's revised edition . . 1769 
 
 Authorised Jewish English version . . . 1851-61 
 
 1537- 
 IS39 
 
 1568 
 1611 
 
 N. 
 
 TEST. 
 
 BIBLE. 
 
 N. 
 
 TEST. 
 
 BIBLE. 
 
 
 N. TEST. 
 
 BIBLE 
 
 Flemish . 
 
 . A.D 
 
 1477 
 
 Italian . 
 
 
 I471 
 
 Irish 
 
 1602 
 
 1686 
 
 Spanish (Valencian) 
 
 
 1478 
 
 Spani.sh . . . 
 
 1343 
 
 1569 
 
 Georgian . 
 
 
 1743 
 
 German . 
 
 1522 
 
 1530 
 
 Russian (parts) 
 
 1519 
 
 1822 
 
 Portuguese . 
 
 1712 
 
 1748 
 
 English . . . 
 
 1526 
 
 153s 
 
 AVelsh . . . 
 
 1567 
 
 1588 
 
 Manks 
 
 1748 
 
 1767 
 
 French . 
 
 1512 
 
 1530 
 
 Hungarian . 
 
 1574 
 
 1589 
 
 Turkish . 
 
 1666 
 
 1814 
 
 Swedi.sh . . . 
 
 1526 
 
 1541 
 
 Bohemian . , . 
 
 
 1488 
 
 Sanscrit 
 
 1808 
 
 1822 
 
 Danish . 
 
 1524 
 
 1550 
 
 Polish . 
 
 1551 
 
 1561 
 
 Modern Greek 
 
 1638 
 
 1821 
 
 Dutch . . . 
 
 
 1560 
 
 Virginian Indians . 
 
 1661 
 
 1663 
 
 Chinese . . . 
 
 1814 
 
 1823 
 
 The British and Foreign Bible Society continue to make and print translations of the Bible 
 in all the dialects of the world. See Polyglot. 
 
 BIBLE DICTIONARIES. The most remarkable are Calmet's "Dictionary of the Bible," 
 1722-8 ; Kitto"s "Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature," 1843 ; and Smith's " Dictionary of 
 the Bible,"' i860. See Coiuordances.X 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have made the 
 dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object, are the following : — The 
 Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was formed 1698 ; Society for Propagating the 
 Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701 ; Society in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 
 1 709 ; Societj' for Promoting Religious Knowledge among the Poor, 1 750 ; Naval and 
 Military Bible Society, 1780; Sunday School Society, 1785; French Bible Society, 1792; 
 British and Foreign Bible Society, 1804 ;§ Hibernian Bible Society, 1806 ; City of London 
 Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812. AbuUfrom the Pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817. 
 
 BIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for the Poor), consisting of engravings illustrating 
 scripture histoiy, with texts, carved in wood, a "block book," printed early in the 15th 
 century, was compiled by Bonaventura, general of the Franciscans, about 1260. A fac- 
 simile was published by J. Russell Smith, in 1859. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY, the Science of Books. Gcsncr's " Bibliotheca Universale " appeared 
 in 1545 : and De Bure's "Bibliographic Instructive" in 1763. The following works on this 
 subject are highly esteemed : Peignot, Manuel, 1823 ; Home, Introduction to the Study of 
 
 * " The Bible of Every Land," ed. i860, published by Messrs. Bagsters, London, is full of information 
 respecting ancient and modem versions of the Bible. 
 
 t He was strangled at Antwerp in 1536, at the instigation of Henry VIII. and his council. His last 
 words were, " Lord, open the king of England's eyes ! " 14 editions of his Testament had then been 
 published. 
 
 t An " Index to the Persons, Places, and Subjects occurring in the Holy Scriptures," by B. Vincent, 
 editor of the present work, is sold by the Queen's printers. 
 
 § At the end of 1850 this society had issued 24,247,667 copies of the Bible or parts of it ; in May, 1863, 
 the number had risen to 43,044,334. In 1857 they published a catalogue of their library, which contains a 
 large number of remarkable editions of the Bible. 
 
BIB 105 BIL 
 
 Bibliography, 1814 ; Scriptural, Orme, Bibliotlieca Biblica, 1824 ; Darling, CyclopEedia, 
 Bibliographica, 1854-8 ; Classical, the works of Fabricius, Clarke, and Dibdin ; English, 
 Watts' Bibliotlieca Britannica, 1824 ; Lowndes, Manual, 1834 (new edition by Bohn, 
 1857-64) ; French, Querard, 1828-64 ; Brimet's Manuel du Libraire (first published in 18 10) 
 is exceedingly valuable : the 5th edition, 1862-5; British Catalogues, by Sampson, Low, 
 1835-62.. . 
 
 BIBLIOMANIA (or book-madness) very much prevailed in 181 1, when Dr. Dibdin's 
 work with this title was published. See Boccaccio. 
 
 BIDASSOA. The allied army under lord "Wellington, having driven the French from 
 Spain, effected the passage of this river, Oct. 8, 18 13, and entered France, 
 
 BIDDENDEN MAIDS. A distribution of bread and cheese to the poor takes place at 
 Biddenden, Kent, on Easter Sundays, the expense being defrayed from the rental of twenty 
 acres of land, the reputed bequest of the Biddenden maids, two sisters named Chalkhurst, 
 who, tradition states, were born joined together by the hips, and shoulders, in iioo, and 
 having lived in that state to the age of thirty-four, died within six hours of each other. 
 Cakes, bearing a corresponding impression of the figures of two females, are given on Easter 
 day to all who ask for them. Hasted deems this tale fabulous, and states that the print on 
 the cakes is of modern origin, and that the land was given by two maiden ladies named 
 Preston, See Siamese Tivins. 
 
 BIGAMY. The Eomans branded the guilty party with an infamous mark ; with us 
 the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act respecting it was passed 
 5 Edw. I. 1276. Viners Statutes. Declared to be felon}^, without benefit of clergy, i James 
 I. 1603. Subjected to the same punishments as grand or petit larceny, 35 Geo. III. 1794. 
 K'ow punished, according to cii'cumstances, by imprisonment or transportation. 
 
 BIG BETHEL (Virginia, U.S.). On June 10, 1861, the Federals were defeated in an 
 attack on some Confederate batteries at this place. 
 
 BILBOA (KE. Spain), was taken by the French in 1795. This place, which had 
 been invested by the Carlists under Yillareal, and was in considerable danger, was delivered 
 by the defeat of the besiegers by Espartero, assisted by British naval co-operation, Dec. 24, 
 1836. Espartero entered Bilboa in triumph next day. 
 
 BILL OF EXCEPTIONS. The right of tendering to a judge upon a trial between parties 
 a bill of exceptions to his charge, his definition of the law, or to remedy other errors of the 
 court, was provided by the 2nd statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1284. Such bills are 
 tendered to this day, 
 
 BILL OF PAIN'S, &c. See Queen Caroline's Trial. BILL of Eights, &c. See Rights. 
 
 BILLIARDS. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an artist in 
 the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate billiard tables were introduced in England 
 in 1827. 
 
 BILLINGSGATE, the celebrated market-place for fish in London, is said to have derived 
 its name from Belinus Magnus, a British prince, the father of king Lud, 400 B.C., but Stow 
 thinks from a former owner. Mortimer. It was the old port of London, and the customs 
 werepaidhereunder EthelredlL, A.D. 979. Stoic. Billingsgate was made a perfect free market, 
 1669. Chamberlain. Fish by Zaiw^- carriage, as well as seaborne, now arrives daily here. 
 In 1849, the market was very greatly extended and improved, and is now well cleaned, 
 lighted, and ventilated. 
 
 BILLS OF EXCHANGE were invented by the Jews as a means of removing their 
 property from nations where they were persecuted, 1160. Anderson. Bills are said to have 
 been used in England, 1307. The only legal mode of sending money from England, 4 
 Eichard II. 1381. Eegulated, 1698; firfet stamped, 1782; duty advanced, 1797; again, 
 June, 1 801 ; and since. It was made capital to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 
 1825, the year of disastrous speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 
 400 millions of pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes. The 
 present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many statutes regarding bills of 
 exchange were consolidated by act 9 Geo. IV. 1828. An act regulating bills of exchange 
 passed 3 Vict. July, 1839. Great alterations were made in the law on the subject by 17 & 
 18 Vict. c. 83 (1854), and 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 (1855). 
 
 BILLS OF MORTALITY for London. These hills were first compiled by order of 
 Cromwell, about 1538, 30 Hen. VIII., but in a more formal and Tccognised manner in 
 
BIN 
 
 106 
 
 BIR 
 
 1603, after the great plague of that j^ear. No complete .series of them has been preserved. 
 They are now superseded by the weekly returns of the registrar-general. The following 
 show the numbers at decennial periods : — 
 
 1780 . 
 1790. 
 180Q . 
 
 Christenings 
 ■ 16,634 
 . . 18,980 
 • 19.176 
 
 
 Burials. 
 
 ■ 20.507 
 . 18,038 
 . 23,068 
 
 1810. 
 1820 
 1830. 
 
 IN 
 
 Christenings. Burials. 
 
 , . 19,930 . . 19,892 
 
 . 26,158 . . 19,348 
 
 . . 27,028 . . 23,524 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 Christenings. 
 1840 , . 30,387 . 
 1850. . . 39,973 
 
 iBuriaU. 
 
 ■ 26,774 
 
 • • 36,947 
 
 
 Births. 
 
 
 Deatlis. 
 
 
 Births. Deaths. 
 
 Birt7L'. 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 1840 . 
 
 1845 
 1849 . 
 
 X853 
 
 ■ 502,303 . 
 • . 543.521 
 
 • 578.159 • 
 . . 612,391 
 
 
 ■ 356,634 
 
 • 349.366 
 
 • 440,839 
 
 • 421,097 
 
 1856 . 
 1858 
 1859 . 
 i860 
 
 IN 
 
 ■ 657,453 • • 390.506 
 . • 655,481 . . 449,656 
 
 . 689,881 . . 441,790 
 . . 684,048 . . 422,721 
 
 LONDON AND SUBURBS. 
 
 1861 . . 696,406 . 
 
 1862 . . 712,684 . 
 
 1863 . . 729.399 • 
 
 1864 . . 739,763 . 
 
 ■ 436,114 
 
 • 436,573 
 
 • 475,582 
 
 • 495,520 
 
 
 
 BiHJis. 
 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 
 Births. 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 i8s4 . 
 1856 
 1858 {Fe 
 
 males, 43,400). 
 
 84,684 ; 
 86,833 • 
 88,620 (Fema 
 
 les, 31,3 
 
 • 73.697 
 
 ■ 57,786 
 9) 63,882 
 
 1859 (Females, 45 
 1862 . 
 1864 . 
 
 367). g2,ss6 (Feriiales, 2°, 
 
 ■ 97.114 
 . . 102,187 • • • 
 
 166) 61,617 
 , 66,950 
 • 77.723 
 
 BINARY ARITHMETIC, that which counts by twos, for expeditiously ascertaining the 
 property of numbers, and constructing tables, was invented by Baron Leibnitz of Leipsic, 
 the celebrated statesman, philosojiher, and poet, 1694. Morei-i. 
 
 BINOMIAL ROOT, in Algebra, composed of only two parts connected with the signs 
 plxis or minus ; a term first used by Recorda, about 1550, when he published his Algebra. 
 The celebrated binomial theorem of Newton was first mentioned in 1688. Hutton. 
 
 BIOGRAPHY (from the Greek bios, life, and gra2)hu, I write), defined as history teaching 
 by example. The book of Genesis contains the biography of the patriarchs ; and the Gospels 
 that of Christ. Plutarch wrote the Lives of Illustrious Men ; Cornelius Nepos, Lives of 
 Military Commanders ; and Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Ctesars (all three in the first 
 century after Christ); Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Philosojihers (about 205). — Boswell's 
 Life of Johnson (published in 1 790) is the most remarkable English biography. 
 
 BIOLOGY, a name given to the science of life and living things, by Treviranus, of 
 Bremen, in his work on Physiology, published 1802-22.- Biology includes zoology, antlu'o- 
 pology, and ethnology, ivhich see. 
 
 BIRCH TREE. The black (Behda nigra), brought from North America, 1736. The 
 birch tree known as the Bctula jntmila, introduced into Kew-gardens, England, by Mr. 
 James Gordon, from North America, 1762. The tree known as the ^w'c/i is now largely 
 cultivated in all the countries of Europe. Hardy's Annals. 
 
 BIRDS were divided by Linnre.us into six orders (1735) ; by Blnmenbach, into eight 
 (1805) ; and by Cuvier, into six (1817). The most remarkable works on birds are those 
 published by John Gould, F.R.S. ; they are to consist of about 31 folio volumes of coloured 
 j)lates, &c. Each set bound will cost about 500Z. 
 
 BIRKENHEAD (Cheshire), a prosperous modern town on the Mersey, immediately 
 opposite to Liverpool. The great dock here was projected by Mr. John Laird, constructed 
 by Mr. Rendell, and opened in Aug. 1847 by lord Morpeth. In 1861 Birkenhead was made 
 a parliamentary borough, and Mv. Laird was elected first representative. Population in 1831, 
 200; in 1861, 51,649. See Wrecks, 1852. 
 
 BIRMAN EMPIRE, or Empire of Ava, See Burmese Empire and India. 
 
 BIRMINGHAM, formerly Bromwicham and Bruromegem (Warwickshire), existed in the 
 reign of Alfred, 872 ; and belonged to the Bermengehams, at Domesday survey, 1086. 
 There were "many smythes " here in the time of Henry VIII. {Leland), but its great 
 importance commenced in the reign of William III. It has been st3-led "the toyshop of 
 Europe. " 
 
 Grammar scliool founded 1552 
 
 Besieged and taken by prince Eupert . . . 1643 
 Button manufactures established . . . 1689 
 Soho works established by JIatthew Eoulton 
 
 about 1764 ; and steam engine works about . 1774 
 Birmingham canal was originated . . . . 1768 
 Kiots against petsons commemorating the 
 
 French revolution .... July 14, 1791 
 
 Theatre destroyed by fire . , Aug. 17, 1792 
 
 More commotions Nov. 1800 
 
 Theatre burnt Jan. 7, 1820 
 
 Political Union, headed by T. Attwood, formed, 
 
 Feb. 1831 
 
 Birmingham made a borough by Refonn Act . 1832 
 
 Town-hall built 1833 
 
 Political Union dissolved itself . . May 10, 1834 
 
BIR 
 
 107 
 
 BIS 
 
 BIRMINGHAM, continued. 
 
 Birmingham and Liverpool railway opened as 
 
 the Grand Junction . . . July 4, 1837 
 London and Birmingham railway opened its 
 
 entire length ' . . . . Sept. 17, 1838 
 Great Chartist riot ; houses biimt . July 15, 1839 
 Town incorporated, and PoUce Act passed . ,, 
 Meeting of British Association . Aug. 29, ,, 
 
 Queen's College incorporated 1843 
 
 Com Exchange opened . . . Oct. 27, 1847 
 Meeting of British Association (2nd time) 
 
 Sept. 12, 1849 
 Queen's College organised . . . Jan. 1853 
 Public park opened (ground virtually given by 
 
 Mr. Adderley) Aug. 3, 1856 
 
 New music-haU opened . . . . Sept. 3, ,, 
 Another park opened by the duke of Cambridge, 
 
 100,000 persons present (gi-ound given by 
 lord Calthorpe) .... June i, 1857 
 Death of G. P. Muntz, M.P. . . July 30, ,, 
 
 J. Bright elected M.P., A\]g. 10, 1857, <fc April, 1859 
 The Queen and Prince Consort visit Birming- 
 ham, Warwick, <&c., for the first time, and 
 open Aston park . . . June 14-16, 1858 
 
 The Free Library opened . . . April 4, i85x 
 Dreadful factory explosion ; g kUled and many 
 
 injured June 23, 1862 
 
 The people's park purchased by the corpora- 
 tion Sept. 1864 
 
 New Exchange solemnly opened . . Jan. 2, 1865 
 The bank of Attwoods and Spooner stop pay- 
 ment and cause much distress . March 10, ,, 
 Meeting of British Association (3rd time) 
 
 Sept. 6, „ 
 
 BIRTHS. The births of children were taxed in England, viz., birth of a duke 30Z., of a 
 common person 2S., 7 Will. III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of four children 
 at a birth are niunerous ; but it is recorded that a woman of Konigsberg had five children at 
 a birth, Sept. 3, 1784, and that the wife of Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-Market, 
 London, had also five children at a birth, in Oct. 1800. See Bills of Mortality and Registers. 
 The Queen usually presents a small sum of money to a poor woman giving birth to three or 
 more children at one time. 
 
 BISHOP (Greek episco2)os, overseer), a name given by the Athenians to those who had 
 the inspection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also lilce officers. The bishop has 
 the government of chnrch affairs in a certain district. St, Peter, st3ded the first bishop of 
 Rome, was martyred 65. The episcopate became an object of contention about 144. The 
 title of pope was anciently assumed by all bishops, and was exclusively claimed by Gregory 
 VII. (1073-85). 
 
 BISHOPS IN England* were coeval with the introduction of Christianity. 
 London is said to have been founded by Lucius, king of Britain, 1 79. 
 
 The see of 
 
 Bishops made barons 
 
 The Conge d'Mire of the king to choose a bishop 
 
 originated in an arrangement of king John. 
 Bishops were elected by the king's Congd 
 
 d'^iire, 25 Hen. VIILt 
 
 Bishops to rank as barons by stat. 31 Hen. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 1540 
 
 Seven were deprived for being married . . 1554 
 Several suffered martyrdom under queen Mary, 
 
 See Cranmer. iSS5-6 
 
 Bishops excluded from voting in the house of 
 
 peers on tempoi'al conceriis, 16 Charles I. . 1640 
 Several committed for protesting against the 
 
 legality of all acts of parliament passed while 
 
 they remained deprived of their votes, Dec. 28, 1641 
 The order of archbishops and bishops abolished 
 
 by the parliament . . . . Oct. 9, 1646 
 Bishops regain their seats . . . Nov. 1661 
 Seven sent to the tower for not reading the 
 king's declaration for liberty of conscience 
 (intended to bring the Eoman Catholics into 
 ecclesiastical and civil power), June 8, and 
 tried and acquitted . . June 29-30, 1688 
 The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Sancroft) 
 and five bishops (Bath and Wells, Ely, Glou- 
 cester, Norwich, and Peterborough) sus- 
 pended for refusing to take the oaths to 
 WUliam and Mary, 1689 ; deprived . . 1690 
 
 ENGLISH BISHOPRICS. 
 
 Sees. Founded. 
 
 London (a&jjc.) . (?) 179 
 Tork(a6;3C.) . 4th cent. 
 Sodor and Man . 4th cent. 
 LlandafE . . 5th cent. 
 St. David's , . 5th cent. 
 Bangor t . . about 516 
 
 St. Asaph . . about 560 
 Canterbury . . 598 
 London (see above) . 609 
 Rochester . . 604 
 
 Sees. Founded. 
 
 East Anglia (after- 
 wrfs. Norwich, 1091) 630 
 
 Lindisfame, or Holy , 
 Island (afterwards 
 Durham, 995) . . 634 
 
 West Saxons (after- 
 wards Winchester, 
 70s) . . .63s 
 
 Mercia (afterwards 
 Lichfield, 669) . . 656 
 
 Sees. Founded 
 
 Hereford . . . 676 
 Worcester . . . 680 
 Lindisse (afterioards 
 
 Lincoln, 1067) . . „ 
 Sherborne (afterioards 
 
 Salisbury, 1042) . 705 
 Cornwall (afterwards 
 
 Devonshire, aflw- 
 
 ■wrds. Exeter, 1050) 909 
 WeUs . . . ,, 
 
 Sees. 
 Bath . 
 Ely . . 
 Carlisle 
 Peterborough 
 Gloucester § 
 Bristol § . 
 Chester 
 Oxford 
 Ripon . 
 Manchester 
 
 Founded. 
 
 1541 
 1542- 
 
 * Bishops have the titles of Lord and Righl Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and 
 York, taking place of aU dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester 
 have precedence of all bishops ; the others rank according to seniority of consecration. 
 
 t Retirement of Bishops. In 1856 the bishops of London and Durham retired on annuities. The new 
 bishops held their sees subject to future provision. In 1857 the bishop of Norwich also resigned. 
 
 I An order in council, Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next 
 vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created thereujwn : this order, as regarded the union 
 of the sees, was rescinded 1846. 
 
 § The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united, 1856. 
 
BIS 
 
 108 
 
 BIS 
 
 BISHOPS IN Ireland are said to have been consecrated in the 2nd century. 
 
 Prelacies were constituted, find divisions of the 
 bishoprics in Ireland made, by cardinal Pa- 
 paro, legate from pope Eugene III. . . 1151 
 
 Several prelates deprived by queen Alary . . 1554 
 Bp. Atherton suffered death ignominiously . 1640 
 Two bishops deprived for not taking the oaths 
 
 to William and Mary 1691 
 
 Church Temporalities Act, for reducing the 
 number of bishops in Ireland, 3 <fe 4 Will. IV. 
 c. 37, passed Aug. 14,. 1833 
 
 [By this statute, of the four archbishoprics of 
 Armagh, Dublin, Tuam, and Cashel, the last 
 two were to be abolished on the decease of the 
 then archprelates which has since occurred ; and 
 it was enacted that eight of the then eighteen 
 bishoprics should, as they became void, be 
 henceforth united to other sees, which was ac- 
 complished in. 1850: so that the Irish Church 
 establishment at present consists of two arch- 
 bishops and ten bishops.] 
 
 IRISH BISHOPRICS. 
 
 Ossoi-y . . . 402 
 Killala . about 434 
 
 Trim . . .432 
 Armagh, 445 ; abpc. 11 52 
 Emly . . about 448 
 Elphin . . . 450 
 Ardagh . . . 454 
 Clogher . before 493 
 Down . . about 499 
 Ardfert and Aghadoe 
 
 before 500 
 
 Connor . about 500 
 Tuam, .about 501 ; 
 
 ab]K. 
 Dromore 
 Kildare . 
 Meath . 
 Achonry . 
 Louth . 
 Clonmacnois 
 Clonfert 
 Ross 
 
 . 1152 
 
 about 510 
 
 before 519 
 
 . . 520 
 
 • S30 
 
 - • 534 
 
 . • 548 
 
 • • 558 
 
 about 570 
 
 Ferns . . 
 Cloyne 
 Cork . 
 Glandalagh . 
 Derry 
 
 KUmacduach, 
 Lismore 
 LeighUn . 
 Mayo . 
 Raphoe . 
 
 aBout 
 
 ';q8 
 
 before 
 
 604 
 
 about 
 
 606 
 
 before 
 
 612 
 
 before 
 
 618 
 
 about 
 
 620 
 
 about 
 
 631 
 
 
 632 
 
 about 
 
 66s 
 
 before 
 
 885 
 
 Cashel, before goi ; 
 
 jabpc. . . .1152 
 Killaloe, abpc. . . loig^ 
 Waterford . . . 1096 
 Limerick . before 1106 
 Kihnore . . . 1136 
 Dublin, of-pc. . .1152 
 Kilfenora . before 1254 
 (For the new combina- 
 tions, see the sepa- 
 rate articles.) 
 
 BISHOPS IN Scotland were constituted in the 4th century. Episcopacy was abolished 
 in 1638 ; but restored by Charles II. 1661, which caused an insurrection. Episcopacy was 
 again abolished in Scotland in 1689.* 
 
 Orkney . Uncertain. 
 Isles . . . 360 
 Galloway . before 500 
 St. Andrew's, 800 ; 
 
 abpc. . . . 1470 
 Glasgow, about 560 ; 
 
 abpc. . . . 1488 
 Caithness . about 1066 
 
 SCOTCH BISHOPRICS. 
 
 Brechin . 
 
 before 1155 
 
 Moray . 
 
 . . 1115 
 
 Ross . 
 
 . 1124 
 
 Aberdeen 
 
 . . 1125 
 
 Dunkeld . 
 
 . 1 130 
 
 Dunblane . 
 
 before 11 53 
 
 ArgyU . 
 
 . 1200 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 • • 1633 
 
 POST-RE VOL CTION 
 BISHOPS. 
 
 Edinbiu-gh . . 1720 
 Aberdeen and the 
 
 Isles . . . 1721 
 
 Moray (and Ross) . 1727 
 
 1731 
 
 Brechin 
 
 Glasgow (and Gallo- 
 way) . . . „ 
 
 St. Andrew's (Dun- 
 keld, Dunblane, 
 
 &C.) . . . . 1733 
 
 Ai-gyll and the Isles 1847 
 
 BISHOPS, Colonial. The first was Samuel Seabury, conseofated bi.shop of Connecticut 
 by four nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New 
 York and Pennsylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, Feb. 
 4, 1787, and the bishop of A''irgiuia in 1790. The first Roman Catholic bishop of the United 
 States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 17S9. By 15 & 16 Vict. c. 52, and 16 & 17 Vict. 
 0. 49, the colonial bishops may perform all episcopal functions in the United Kingdom, 
 but have no jurisdiction. 
 
 COLONIAL BISHOPRICS. 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 • ^787 
 
 Quebec 
 
 • 1793 
 
 Calcutta . 
 
 . 1814 
 
 Barbadoes . 
 
 . 1824 
 
 Jamaica . 
 
 • >. 
 
 Madras 
 
 . 1S35 
 
 Australia 
 
 . 1836 
 
 Montreal . 
 
 . •> 
 
 Bombay . 
 
 • 1837 
 
 NewfoJindland . 
 
 . 1839 
 
 Toronto .. 
 
 • .1 
 
 Gibraltar .. 
 
 . 1841 
 
 Now Zealand . 
 Antigua . , . 
 Guiana , 
 Huron. . . . 
 Tasmania 
 
 Columbo . . . 
 Fredericton 
 Adelaide . . . 
 Cajie Town 
 Mellx)ume 
 Newcastle . . - 
 Sydney (formerly 
 
 1845 
 1847 
 
 Australia) . 
 Rupert's Land 
 Victoria . 
 Sierra Leone 
 Graham's-town 
 Natal . 
 Mauritius 
 Labuan 
 Christchurch . 
 Perth . 
 Wellington 
 Nelson 
 
 1847 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 
 Brisbane . 
 British Columbia 
 Goulbum . . „ 
 St. Helena . . . „ 
 Waiapu . . . ,, 
 Melanesian Lslands . i860 
 King.ston, Canada . 1861 
 Ontario, Canada . ,, 
 Nas.sau, Bahamas 
 Central Africa . 
 Grafton, Australia 
 Niger territory 
 
 1859 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 BIS5IUTH was recognised as a distinct metal by Agricola, in 1529. It is very fusible 
 and bi-ittle, and of a yeUowish white colour. 
 
 BISSEXTILE. See Calendar and Zea2} Year. 
 
 * Bishop Rose connected the established episcopal church of Scotland with that foiin of it which is now 
 merely tolerated, he having been bishop of Edtnbiu-gh fi-om 1687 till 1720, when, on his death, Dr. FuUarton 
 became the first jxjst-revolution bishop of that see. Fife (now St. Andrew's, so called m 1844) now unites 
 the bishopric of Dunkeld (re-instituted in 1727) and that of Dunblane (re-instituted in 1731). Ross (of 
 uncertain d.ate) was united to Moray (re-instituted in 1727) in 1838. Argyll and the Isles never existed 
 independently until 1847, having been conjoined to Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone, previously to that 
 year. Galloway has been added to the see of Glasgow. 
 
BIT 
 
 109 
 
 BLA 
 
 BITHYNIA, a province in Asia Minor, previously called Behricia, is said to have been 
 invaded by the Thracians under Bithynus, son of Jupiter, -who gave it the name of Bithynia. 
 It was subject successively to the Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, and Macedonians. Most of 
 the cities were built by Grecian colonists. 
 
 Dydalsus revolted and reigned about . B.C. 430 — ^440 
 
 Botyras, his son, succeeds 378 
 
 Bas, or Bias, son of Botyras, 376 ; repulses the 
 
 Greeks 328 
 
 Zipoetas, son of Bias, resists Lysimachus . . 326 
 He dies, leaving four sons, of whom the eldest, 
 Nicomedes I., succeeds (he invites the Gauls 
 
 into Asia) 278 
 
 He rebuilds Astacus, and names it Nicomedia . 264 
 Zielas, son of Nicomedes, reigns . . . . 243 
 Intending to massacre the chiefs of the Gauls 
 at a feast, Zielas is detected in his design, 
 and is himself put to death, and his son 
 Prusias I. made king, about .... 
 Prusias defeats the Gauls, and takes cities . . 
 Prusias alUes with Philip of Macedon, and 
 marries Apamea, his daughter 
 
 228 
 223 
 
 208 
 
 He receives and employs Hannibal, then a 
 
 fugitive 
 
 Who poisons himself to escape betrayal to the 
 
 Eomans i 
 
 Prusias II. succeeds i 
 
 Nicomedes II. kills his father Prusias and 
 
 reigns 
 
 Nicomedes III., sumamed PhUopator 
 Deposed by Mithridates, king of Pontus . . 
 
 Restored by the Romans 
 
 Bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans . . 
 Pliny the younger, pro-consul . . . a.d. 
 The Oghusian Tartars settle in Bithynia . . 
 The Othman Turks take Prusa, the capital (and 
 
 make it the seat of their empire till they 
 
 possess Constantinople) . . . . . 1327 
 
 187 
 
 149 
 91 
 
 1231 
 
 BITONTO (ISTaples). Here Montemar and the Spaniards defeated the Germans, on May 
 26, 1 730, and eventually acquii-ed the kingdoua of the Two SicUies for Don Carlos. 
 
 BLACK ASSIZES. See under Oxford. 
 
 BLACK BOOK* (Libir Niger), a book kept in the exchequer, which received the orders 
 of that court. It was'published by Hearn in 1 728. 
 
 BLACKBURN', Lancashire, so called in Domesday-book. The manufacture of a cloth 
 called Blackburn cheque, carried on in 1650, was superseded by Blackburn greys. In 1767, 
 James Hargreaves, of this town, invented the spinning-jenny, for which he was eventually 
 expelled from the county. About 1810 or 1812, the townspeople availed themselves of his 
 discoveries, and engaged largely in the cotton manufacture, now their staple trade. 
 
 BLACK DEATH. 
 BLACK FRIARS. 
 
 See Plagues, 1340. 
 See Dominican. 
 
 BLACKFRIARS BRIDGE, London. The first stone was laid Oct. 31, 1760, and it was 
 completed by Mylne, in 1770. It was the first work of the kind executed in England, in 
 which arches, approaching to the form of an ellipsis, were substituted for semicircles. It was 
 repaired in 1834, and in 1837-1840. Since 1850 the bridge gradually sank. The old bridge 
 was pulled down : and a new temporary one opened for use in 1864. The foiindation stone 
 of the new bridge (to be erected according to a design by Mr. J. Cubitt) was laid by the lord 
 mayor, Hale, July 20, 1865. The first railway train (London, Chatham, and Dover) entered 
 the city of London over the new railway bridge, Blackfriars, Oct. 6, 1864. 
 
 BLACKHEATH, near London. Here Wat Tyler and his followers assembled June, 
 1381 ; and here also Jack Cade and his 20,000 Kentish men encamped, June i, 1450. See 
 Tyler and Cade. Battle of Blackheath, in which the Cornish rebels were defeated and 
 Flannock's insurrection quelled, June 22, 1497. The cavern, on the ascent to Blackheath, 
 the retreat of Cade, and the haunt of banditti in the time of Cromwell, was re-discovered 
 in 1780. 
 
 BLACK-HOLE. See Calcutta. 
 
 BLACK LEAD. See Graphite. 
 
 BLACK LETTER, employed in the first printed books in the middle of the 15 th 
 century. The first printing types were Gothic ; but they were modified into the present 
 Roman type about 1469 ; Pliny's Natural History being then printed in the new characters. 
 
 BIjACK-MAIL, a compulsory payment made in parts of Scotland by the lowlanders 
 to the highlanders, for the protection of their cattle, existed till within a few months 
 of the outbreak of the rebellion, 1745. It rendered agricirltural improvement almost 
 impossible. 
 
 * A book was kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the scandalous enoi-mitie%. practised 
 in religious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, under Henry VIII. 1535, in order to blacken 
 them and hasten their dissolution : hence possibly the phrase, " I'll set you down in the black book." 
 
BLA 110 BLE 
 
 BLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday, April 6, 1351, "when the hailstones are said to 
 have killed both men and horses, in the army of onr king Edward III. in France." Bailey. 
 "This was a memorable Easter Monday, which in the 34th of Edward III. happened to he 
 full dark of mist and hail, and so cold that many men died on their horses' hacks with the 
 cold," 1351. Stow. In Ireland, Black Monday Avas the day on which a number of the 
 English were slaughtered at a village near Dublin, in 1209. 
 
 BLACK KOD has a gold lion at the top, and is carried by the usher of the Order of the 
 Knights of the Garter (instituted 1349), instead of the mace. He also keeps the door when 
 a chapter of the order is sitting, and during the sessions of parliament attends the house of 
 lords and acts as their messenger to the commons. 
 
 BLACK SEA, the Euxine (Pontus Euxinus of the Ancients), a large internal sea 
 between the S. W. provinces of Eussia and Asia INIinor, connected with the sea of Azoff by 
 the straits of Yenikale, and with the sea of Marmora b}'' the channel of Constantinople. 
 This sea -was much frequented by the Greeks and Italians, till it was closed to all nations by 
 the Turks after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The Russians obtained admission by the 
 treaty of Kainardji, in 1774. In 1779 it was partially opened to British and other traders, 
 since which time the Russians gradually obtained the preponderance. It was entered by the 
 British and French fleets, Jan. 3, 1854, at the requisition of the Porte, after the destruction 
 of the Turkish fleet at Sinope by the Russians, Nov. 30, 1853. A dreadful storm in this 
 sea raged from Nov. 13 to 16, 1854, and caused gi-eat loss of life and shipping, and valuable 
 stores for the allied armies. See Russo-TurJash War. By the treaty of 1856 the Black Sea 
 was opened to the commerce of all nations. 
 
 BLACKWALL (London). The site of fine commercial docks and warehouses. See 
 Docks. The Blackwall railway was opened to the public, July 4, 1840'; the eastern terminus 
 being at Blackwall wharf, and the western in Fenchurch-street. 
 
 BLACK WATCH, armed companies of the loj'al clans (Campbells, Mouros, &c.) 
 employed to watch the Highlands from about 1725 to 1739, when they were formed into the 
 celebrated 42ud regiment, which was formally enrolled " The Royal Highland Black Watch," 
 in 1861. Their removal probably facilitated the outbreak in 1745. They wore dark tartans, 
 and hence were called Black Watch. 
 
 BLACKWATER, Battle of, in Ireland, Aug. 14, 1598, when the Irish chief- O'Neal 
 defeated the English under Sir Henry Bagnall. Pope Clement Vlll. sent O'Neal a conse- 
 crated plume, and granted to his followers the same indulgence as to cmisaders. 
 
 BLADENSBURG. See Washington, 1814. 
 BLANK VERSE, See Verse. 
 
 BLANKETEERS. A number of operatives who on March 30, 1817, met in St. Peter's 
 field, near Manchester, many of them having blankets, I'ugs, or great coats rolled up and 
 fastened to their backs. This was termed the Blanket meeting. They proceeded to march 
 towards London, but were dispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that their object was 
 to comuience a general insurrection. See Derby. Eventually the ringleaders had an inter- 
 view with the cabinet ministers, and a better understanding between the working classes and 
 the government ensued. 
 
 BLANKETS are said to have been first made at Bristol by T. Blanket, about 1705. 
 
 BLASPHEMY was punished with death by the law of Moses (Lev. xxiv. 149 1 B.C.) ; 
 and by the code of Justinian, a.d. 529. It is punishable by the civil and canon law of 
 England, regulated by 60 Geo. III. c. 8 (1819). In Scotland the blasphemer's tongue was 
 cut out ; he was punished with line and imprisonment by law, 1696-7. Daniel Isaac Eaton 
 •was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, IMarch 6, 1812. Robert Taylor, a protestant 
 clergj'man, was tried twice for the same crime. He was sentenced to two years' imprison- 
 ment, and largely fined, July, 1831. In Dec. 1840, two publishers of blasphemous writings 
 were convicted. 
 
 BLAZONRY. Bearing coats-of-arms was introduced and became hereditary in France 
 and England about 1192, owing to the knights painting their banners with difl'erent figures, 
 thereby to distinguish them in the crusades. Dugclale. 
 
 BLEACHING was known in Egypt, SjT-ia, India, and Gaul. Pliny. An improved 
 chemical system was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 
 1768. J'here are large bleach-fields in Lancashire, Fife, Forfar, and Renfrew, and in the 
 vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The application of the gas chlorine to bleaching is due 
 to BerthoUet about 1785. Its combination with lime (as chloride of lime) was devised by 
 
BLE 
 
 111 
 
 ELO 
 
 Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, who took out a patent for the process in 1798, and by his firm it 
 is stUl extensively manufactured. In 1822 Dr. Ure published an elaborate series of experi- 
 ments on this substance. In i860 bleaching and dyeing works were placed under the regu- 
 lations of the Factories' Act. 
 
 BLENHEIM, or Blindheim, in Bavaria, the site of a battle fought Aug. 2 (new style, 13) > 
 1 704, between the English and confederates, commanded by the duke of Marlborough, and 
 the French and Bavarians, under marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria. The latter 
 were defeated with the loss of 27,000 killed, and 13,000 prisoners (including Tallard). 
 Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The British nation gave Marlborough the 
 honour of Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him the house of Blenheim.* 
 
 BLIND. The first public school for the blind Avas established by Valentine Haiiy, at 
 Paris, in 1784, The first in England was at Liverpool, in 1791 ; in Scotland, in Edinburgh, 
 in 1792 ; and the first in London in 1799. Printing in raised or embossed characters for the 
 use of the blind was begun at Paris by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible was printed at 
 Glasgow in raised Eoman characters about 1848. A sixpenny magazine for the blind, edited 
 by the rev. W. Taylor, F.E.S., so eminent for his exertions on behalf of these sufferers, was 
 published in 1855-6. There is hardly any department of human knowledge in which blind 
 persons have not obtained distinction. + Laura Bridgman, born in 1829, became dumb and 
 blind two years after : she was so well taught by Dr. Howe, of Boston, U.S., as to become 
 an able instructor of blind and dumb persons. By the census of 1851, there were in Great 
 Britain, 21,487 blind persons, 11,273 males ; 10,214 females : about one blind in 975. 
 
 BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, was a punishment 
 inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the middle ages the penalty 
 was frequently changed from total blindness to a diminution of sight. A whole army was 
 deprived of their eyes, by Basil, in the i ith century. See Bulgarians. Several of the 
 eastern emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. 
 
 BLISTEES, used by Hippocrates (460-357 B.C.), made, it is said, of cantharides, tvJiich see. 
 
 BLOCK BOOKS. See Printing. 
 
 BLOCKADE is the closing an enemy's ports to all commerce ; a practice introduced by 
 the Dutch about 1584. The principle recognised by the European powers is that every 
 blockade, in order to be binding, must be effective. The Elbe was blockaded by Great 
 Britain, 1803 ; the Baltic, by Denmai'k, 1848-49 and 1864 ; the gulf of Finland, by the 
 AUies, 1854 ; and the ports of the Southern States of North America by president Lincoln, 
 April 19, 1 86 1. See Orders in Council, and Berlin. 
 
 BLOCKS employed in the rigging of ships were much improved in their construction by 
 "Walter Taylor, about 1781. In 1801, Mark I. Brunei invented a mode of making blocks 
 which was put into operation in 1808, and in 18 15 was said to have saved the country 
 2o,oooZ. a year. 
 
 BLOOD. The circulation of the blood through the lungs was 'known to Michael 
 Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Csesalpimis published an account of the general 
 circulation, of which he had some confused ideas, improved afterwards by experiments, 1569. 
 Paul of Yenice, or Father Paolo (real name Peter Sarpi), discovered the valves which serve for 
 the circulation ; but the honour of the positive discovery of the circulation belongs to 
 William Harvey, between 1619 and 1628. Freincl. 
 
 Eating Blood was prohibited, to Noah, Gen. ix., to 
 the Jew9, lev. xvii., (fee, and to the Geutile con- 
 verts by the apostles at an assembly at Jerusalem, 
 A.D. 52, Acts XV. 
 
 Blood- Drinking was anciently tried to give vigour 
 to the system. Louis XI. , iu his last illuess, drank 
 the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of 
 restoring his decayed strength, 1483. HenaxM. 
 
 In the 15th century an opinion prevailed that the 
 dechning vigour of the aged might be rex)aired by 
 
 TRANSFUSING into their veins the blood of young 
 persons. It was countenanced in Krance by the 
 physicians about 1668, and prevailed for many 
 years, till the most fatal effects having ensued, it 
 was suppressed by an edict. It was attempted 
 again in France in 1797, and more recently there, 
 in a few cases, with success ; and in England (but 
 the instances are rare) since 1823. Med. Journ. 
 "An Enghsh physician (Louver, or Lower) prac- 
 tised in this way; he died in 1691." Freind. 
 
 * On Feb. 5, 1861, a fire broke out at this place, which destroyed the " Titian Gallery " and the 
 pictures ; the latter, a present from Victor Amadous, king of Sardinia, to John, the great duke of 
 Marlborough. 
 
 t James Holman, the " blind traveller " (bom 17S6, died 1857), visited almost every place of note in the 
 world. His travels were published in 1825. In April, 1858, a blind clergyman, rev. J. Sparrow, was 
 elected chaplain to the Mercers' Company, London, and read the service, <fec., from embossed books. 
 Viscount Cvanbourne (bhnd) was the avithor of many interesting historical essays. He died in June, 
 1865. On July 13, 1865, Henry Fawcett, the blind professor of pohtical economy at Cambridge, was elected 
 M.P. for Brighton. 
 
BLO 112 BOD 
 
 BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's household, 
 Tvith his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, and had got him to Tyhum, 
 intending to hang him, when he was rescued by his friends, Dec. 4, 1670. Blood after\vards, 
 in the disguise of a clergyman, attempted to steal the regal crown from the Jewel-office in 
 the Tower, May 9, 1671 ; yet, notwithstanding these and other oifences, he was not only 
 pardoned, but had a pension of 500Z. per annum settled on him by Charles II., 1671. He 
 died in 1680, in prison, for a libel on the duke of Buckingham. 
 
 "BLOODY ASSIZES," held by Jeffreys in the west of England, in Aug. 1685, after the 
 defeat of the duke of Monmouth in the battle of Sedgmore. Upward of 300 persons were 
 executed after short trials ; very many were whipped, imprisoned, and fined ; and nearly 
 JOOO were sent as slaves to the American plantations. 
 
 BLOOMER COSTUME. See a note to article Dress. 
 
 BLOOMSBURY GANG, a cant term applied to an^ influential political party in the 
 Teign of George III., in consequence of the then duke of Bedford, the chief, being the 
 owner of Bloomsbury square, &c. The marquess of Stafford, the last survivor, died Oct. 
 26, 1803. 
 
 BLOREHEATH (Staffordshire), Battle of, September 23, 1459, in which the earl of 
 Salisbury and the Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians, whose leader, lord Audley, was slain 
 •with many Cheshire gentlemen. A cross commemorates this conflict. 
 
 BLOWING-MACHINES, the large cylinders, used in blowing-machines, were erected 
 hy Mr. Smeaton at the Carron iron works, 1760. One equal to the supply of air for forty 
 forge fires was erected at the king's dock-yard, Woolwich. The hot-air blast, a most 
 important improvement, was invented by Mr. James B. Neilson, of Glasgow, and patented 
 in 1828. He died Jan. 18, 1865. It causes great economy of fuel. 
 
 BLOW-PIPE. The origin is unknown. An Egyptian using a blow-pipe is among the 
 paintings on the tombs at Thebes. It was employed in mineralogy, by Andrew Von Swab, a 
 Swede, about 1733, and improved by AVoUaston and others. In 1802, professor Robert Hare, 
 of Philadelphia, increased the action of the blow-pipe by the apiDlication of oxygen and 
 hj'drogen. By the agency of Newman's improved blow-pipes, in 1816, Dr. E. D. Clarke 
 fused the earths, alkalies, inetals, &c. The best work on the blow-pipe is by Plattner and 
 Muspratt, 1854. 
 
 BLUE was the favourite colour of the Scotch covenanters in the i6th centur}'. Blue 
 and orange or yellow, became the wliig colours after the revolution in 1688 ; and were 
 adopted on the cover of the whig periodical, the "Edinburgh Review," first published in 
 1802. The Prussian blue dye was discovered by Diesbach, at Berlin, in 1710. Fine blues 
 are now obtained from coal-tar, 1864. See Aniline. Blue-coat Schools, so called in 
 reference to the costume of the children. The Blue-coat school in Newgate-street, London, 
 was instituted by Edward VI. in 1552. See Christ's Hosintal. Blue-stocking, a term 
 •applied to literary ladies, was originally conferred on a society comprising both sexes 
 (1760, et seq.). Benjamin Stillingfleet, the naturalist, an active member, wore blue worsted 
 stockings ; hence the name. The beautiful Mrs. Jerningham is said to have worn blue 
 •stockings at the conversaziones of lady Montagu. 
 
 BOARD OF ADMIRALTY, Control, Gkeen-Cloth, Health, Trade, &c. See 
 under Admiralty, &c. 
 
 BOATS. Flat-bottomed boats, made in England in the reign of William I. ; again 
 "brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. See Life-Boat. A mode of 
 building boats by the help of the steam-engine was invented by Mr. Nathan Thompson 
 of New York in i860, and premises were erected for its application at Bow, near London, 
 in f86i. 
 
 BOCCACCIO'S DECAMERONE, a collection of a hundred stories or novels (many 
 very immoral), severely satirising the clergy, feigned to have been related in ten days, during 
 the plague of Florence in 1348. Boccaccio lived 13 13 — 75. A copy of the first edition 
 (that of Valdarfer, in 1471) was knocked down at the duke of Roxburgh's sale, to the duke 
 of Marlborough, for 2260^., June 17, 1812. This identical copy was afterwards sold by 
 public auction, for 875 guineas, June 5, 1819, 
 
 BODLEIAN LIBRARY, Oxford, founded in 1598, and opened in 1602, by sir Thos. 
 J3odley (died, 1612). It is open to the public, and claims a copy of all works published in 
 this country. For rare works and JISS. it is said to be second only to the Vatican. 
 
BCE 
 
 113 
 
 BOH 
 
 BQiOTIA, ta division of Greece, north of Attica, known successireJy as Aonia, Messapia, 
 Hyantis, Ogygia, Cadmeis, and Boeotia. Thebes, the capital, was celebrated for its exploits 
 and misfortunes of its kings and heroes. The term Boeotian was used by the Athenians as a 
 synonym for dulness ; but unjustly, — since Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epami- 
 nondas, and Corinna, were Boeotians. The earlv dates are doubtful. See Thebes. 
 
 Arrival of Cadmus, founder of Oadmea {Hales, 
 1494; Clinton, 1313) .... B.C. 1493 
 
 Reign of Polydore 1459 
 
 Labdachus ascends the throne .... 1430 
 
 Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and de- 
 throne Laius 13S8 
 
 CEdipus, not knowing his father Laius, kills 
 him in an affray, confirming the oracle fore- 
 telling his death by the hands of his son 
 
 CEdipus resolves the Sphinx's enigmas . . 
 
 War of the Seven Captains .... 
 
 Thebe.i besieged and taken 
 
 Tber.sander reigns 1198 ; slain .... 
 
 The Thebans abolish royalty (ages of obscurity 
 follow) about 1 1 20 
 
 The Thebans fight with the Persians against 
 the Greeks at Platasa 479 
 
 1276 
 1266 
 1225 
 1213 
 "93 
 
 Battle of Coronea, in which the Thebans defeat 
 the Athenians b.c. 447 
 
 The Thebans, under Epaniinondas and Pelopi- 
 das, enrol their Sacred Band, and join Athens 
 against Sparta 377 
 
 Epaminondas defeats the Lacedaimonians at 
 Leuctra, and restores Thebes to independence 371 
 
 Pelopidas kiUed at the battle of Cynoscephalae . 364 
 
 Epaminondas gains the victory of Mantiuea, 
 but is slain 362 
 
 Philip, king of Maoedon, defe'ats the Thebans 
 
 and Athenians near Chseronea " . . . 338 
 
 Alexander destroys Thebes, but" spares the 
 house of Pindar 335 
 
 Boeotia henceforth partook of the fortunes of 
 Greece ; and was conquered by the Turks 
 under Mahomet II. .... a.d. 1456 
 
 BOGS, probably the remains of forests, covered with peat and loose soil. An act for 
 the drainage of Irish bogs, passed March, 1830. The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated 
 at 3,000,000 acres ; that of Scotland at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England at near 
 1,000,000 of acres. In Jan. 1849, Mr. Rees Reece took out a patent for certain valuable 
 products from Irish peat. Candles and various other articles produced from peat have been 
 since sold in London. 
 
 BOHEMIA, formerly the Hercynian Forest (Boiemum, Tacihis), derives its name from. 
 the Boii, a Celtic tribe. It was governed by dukes, till Ottocar assumed the title of king, 
 1 198. The kings at first held their territory from the empire, but at length threw off 
 the yoke : and the crown was elective till it came to the house of Austria, in which it is 
 now hereditary. Prague, the capital, is famous for sieges and battles. Population in 1857, 
 4,705,525. See Prague. 
 
 The Slavonians seize Bohemia about . . 550 
 
 City of Prague founded 795 
 
 Introduction of Christianity .... 894 
 Bohemia conquered by the emperor Henry 
 III., who spreads devastation through the 
 
 country 1041 
 
 Ottocar (or Premislas) I., first king of Bohemia 1198 
 Ottocar II., rules over Austria, and obtains 
 
 Styria, &c., 1253; refuses the imperial crown 1272 
 Ottocar vanquished by the emperor Budolph, 
 and deprived of Austria, Styria, and Car- 
 niola, 1277 ; killed at Marchfeld . . . 1278 
 King John (blind), slain at the battle of Crecy 1346 
 John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two of the 
 first Reformers, are burnt for heresy, which 
 occasions an insurrection . . 141S, 1416 
 
 Ziska, leader of the Hussites, takes Prague, 
 
 1419 ; dies of the plague 1424 
 
 Albert, duke of Austria, naarries the daughter 
 of the late emperor and king, and receives 
 the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary . . 1437 
 The succession infringed by Ladislas, son of 
 
 the king of Poland, and George Podiebrad, a 
 
 Protestant chief 1440-145 8 
 
 Ladislas, king of Poland, elected king of Bo- 
 hemia, on the death of Podiebrad . . . 1471 
 The emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, sister 
 
 of Louis the late king, and obtains the crown 15:27 
 The emperor Ferdinand II., oppressing the 
 Protestants, is deposed, and Frederic the 
 elector-palatine, elected king . Sept. 5, 1619 
 Frederic, totally defeated at Prague, flies to 
 
 Holland Nov. g, 1620 
 
 Bohemia secured to Austria by treaty . . 1648 
 Silesia and Glatz c eded to Prussia . . . 1742 
 Prague taken by the Prussians .... 1744 
 The Prussians defeat the Austrians at Prague 
 
 May 6, 1757 
 
 Revolt of the peasantry 1775 
 
 Edict of Toleration promulgated . . .1781 
 The French occupy Prague . . . . . 1806 
 Insurrection at Prague, June 12 ; submission, 
 state of siege raised . . . . July 20, 1848 
 
 119S. Premislas I., or Ottocar I. 
 
 1230. Wenceslas III. 
 
 1253. Premislas II., or Ottocar II. 
 
 1278. Wenceslas IV., king of Poland. 
 
 1305. Wenceslas V. 
 
 1306. Rudolph of Austria. 
 
 1307. Henry of Carinthia. 
 
 1310. John of Luxemburg (killed at Crecy). 
 
 1346. Charles I., emperor (1347). 
 
 1378. Wenceslas VI., emperor. 
 
 1419. Sigismund I., emperor. 
 
 1437. Albert of Austria, emperor. 
 
 1440. Ladislas V. 
 
 1458. George von Podiebrad. 
 
 1471. Ladislas VI., king of Hungary (in 1490). 
 
 1 5 16. Louis king of Hungary (killed at Mohatz). 
 
 1 526. Bohemia united to Austria under Ferdinand I. , 
 elected king. 
 
 BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, a body of Christians in Bohemia, appear to have separated 
 from the Calixtines {which see), a branch of the Hussites in 1467. Dupin says "They 
 
 I 
 
BOI 
 
 114 
 
 BOM 
 
 rejected the sacrament of the church, were governed l)y simple laics, and held the scriptures 
 for their only rule of faith. They presented a confession of faith to king Ladislas in 1504 to 
 justify themselves from errors laid to their charge." They appear to have had communica- 
 tion with the Waldenses, but were distinct from them. Luther, in 1533, testifies to their 
 purity of doctrine, and Melanchthon commends their severe discipline. They were doubt- 
 less dispersed during the religious wars of Germany in the 1 7th century. 
 
 BOII, a Celtic people of N. Italy, who emigi-ated into Italy, and were defeated at the 
 Yadimonian lake, 283 B.C. They were finally subdued by Scipio Nasica, 191 B.C. 
 
 BOILING OF Liquids. Dr. Hooke, about 1683, ascertained that liquids were not 
 increased in heat after they had once begun to boil, and that a fierce fire only made them 
 boil more rapidly. The following boiling points have been stated : — 
 
 Ether . 
 
 . 94° Fahr. 
 
 Nitric acid 
 
 . .187° Fahr. 
 
 Oil of turpentine . 
 
 .312' Fahi- 
 
 Alcohol . 
 
 • • 173 ;. 
 
 Sulphuric acid . 
 
 . 600 ,, 
 
 Sulphur . 
 
 • 822 ,, 
 
 Water . 
 
 . . 212 ,, 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 • • 554 » 
 
 Mercury 
 
 . 662 „ 
 
 BOILING TO Death, made a capital punishment in England, by .statute 22 Henry VIII., 
 1531. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been poisoned by John Eoose, 
 the bishop of Kochester's cook, two of whom died. Margaret Davie, a young woman, suffered 
 in the same manner for a similar crime, in 1542. 
 
 BOIS-LE-DUC, Dutch Brabant, the site of a battle between the British and the French 
 republican army, in which the British were defeated, and forced to abandon their position 
 and retreat to Schyndel, Sept. 14, 1794. This place was captured by the French, Oct. 10 
 following ; it surrendered to the Prussian army, under Bulow, in Jan. 18 14. 
 
 BOKHAEA, the ancient Sogdiana, after successively fonning part of the empires of 
 Persia, of Alexander, and of Bactriana, was conquered by the Turks in the 6th century, by 
 the Chinese in the 7th, and by the Arabs about 705. After various changes of masters it 
 Avas subdued by the Uzbek Tartars, its present possessors, in 1505. The British Envoys, 
 colonel Stoddart and captain ConoUy, were murdered at Bokhara, the capital, by the khan, 
 in 1843. 
 
 BOLIVIA, a republic in South America, foiTaerly part of Peni. Population in 1858, 
 1,987,352. 
 
 The insurrection of the ill-\ised Indians, headed 
 
 by Tupac Amaru Andres, took place here, 1780-2 
 The country declared its indei^endence, Aug. 6, 1824 
 Took the name of Bolivia, in honour of general 
 
 Bolivar Aug. 11, 1825 
 
 First congress met .... May 25, 1826 
 
 Slavery aboUshed 1836 
 
 General Sucre governed ably . . . 1826-8 
 
 BOLLANDISTS. See Acta Sanctorum. 
 
 Santa Cruz ruled 1828-34 
 
 Free-trade proclaimed 1853 
 
 General Cordova, jjresident .... 1855-7 
 Succeeded by the dictator Jos^ Maria Linares, 
 
 March 31, 1859 
 George Cordova, constitutional president . . i860 
 Succeeded by Jos^ M. de Acha. . May, i86t 
 
 BOLOGNA, central Italy, the ancient Bononia, a city distinguished for its architecture. 
 
 University founded by Theodositis , 
 Bologna joins the Lombard league . . . 
 Pope Julius II. takes Bologna ; enters in 
 
 triumph Nov. 11, 
 
 It becomes part of the States of the Chm-ch 
 In the church of St. Petronius, remarkable for 
 its pavement, Cassini drev? his meridian hne 
 (over one drawn by Father Ignatius Dante 
 
 in 1575) 
 
 Bologna was taken by the French, 1796; by 
 the Austrians, 1799; again by the French, 
 
 433 
 1 167 
 
 1506 
 1515 
 
 1653 
 
 after the battle of Marengo, in iSoo ; and re- 
 stored to the pope in 
 
 A revolt suppressed by Austrian interference . 
 
 The Austrians evacuate Bologna : and cardmal 
 Fei-retti departs : the citizens rise and form 
 a provisional government . . June 12, 
 
 Which decrees that all piiblic acts shall be 
 headed "Under the reign of king Victor 
 Emmanuel," &c Oct. i. 
 
 He enters Bologna as Sovereign , May 2, 
 
 i8is 
 183 1 
 
 1859 
 
 BOIMARSUND, a strong fortress on one of the Aland isles in the Baltic sea, taken by 
 sir Charles Napier, commander of the Baltic expedition, aided by the French military con- 
 tingent under general Baragtiay d'Hilliers, Aug. 16, 1854. The governor Bodisco, and the 
 garrison, about 2000 men, became prisoners. The fortifications were destroyed. 
 
 BOMBAY, the most westerly and smallest of our Indian presidencies, was visited by the 
 Portuguese in 1509, and acquired by them in about 1530. It was given (with Tangier in 
 Africa, and 300,000?. in money) to Charles II. as the marriage portion of the infanta, 
 Catherine of Portugal, 1661. In 1668, it was granted to the East India Companj'-, who had 
 
BOM 
 
 115 
 
 BOO 
 
 long desired it, "in free and common socage," as of the manor of East Greenwich, at an 
 annual rent of lo?. Confirmed by William III. 1689. The two principal castes at Bombay 
 are the Parsees (descendants of tlie ancient Persian fire-worshippers) and the Borahs (sprun" 
 from early converts to Islamism). They are both remarkable for commercial activity. '^ 
 
 First British factory established at Ahmed- 
 nuggur 
 
 Mr. Gyfford, deputy-governor, 100 soldiers, and 
 
 other English, perish through the chmate, 
 
 Oct. 1675— Feb. 
 
 Captain Keigwin usurps the government . i6i 
 
 Bombay made chief over the company's settle- 
 ments . . ' 
 
 The whole island, except the fort, seized and 
 held for a time by the mogul's admiral . 
 
 Bombay becomes a distinct presidency . . 
 
 Additions to the Bombay territory : — Bancoot 
 river, 1756 ; island of Salsette 
 
 Bishopric established 
 
 Population of the presidency, 12,034,483 . 
 
 1676 
 
 1687 
 
 1690 
 1708 
 
 177s 
 18,^ 
 
 The benevolent sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, a 
 Parsee (who erected several hospitals, &c.) 
 dies April 15, 
 
 His son, sir Cursetjee, visits England 
 
 Rioting against the income-tax suppressed 
 Nov. ii Dec. 
 
 Sir Henry Bartle Frere appointed governor 
 
 March, 
 
 Greatly increased prosperity through the cot- 
 ton trade, leads to immense speculation, Nov. 
 
 Reported failure of Mr. Byramjee Cama, a Par- 
 see, for 3,300,000?. ; other failures, and great 
 depression ; the projected international ex- 
 hibition in 1:867 abandoned . . . May, 
 
 Recovering from commercial crisis . Aug. 
 
 ;862 
 
 BOMBS (iron shells filled with, gunpowder), said to have been invented at Venlo, in 
 1495, and used by the Turks at the siege of Khodes in 1522. They came into general use 
 in 1634, having been previously used only by the Dutch and Spaniards. Bomb- vessels were 
 invented in France in 1681. Voltaire. The shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls, and 
 a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy ; a thirteen-inch bomb-shell 
 Aveighs 198 lbs. 
 
 BOIfAPARTE FAMILY, &c. See France, I'jgs, and note. 
 
 BONDAGE, or Villanage. See Yillanage. 
 
 BONE-SETTING cannot be said to have been practised scientifically iintil 1620. Bell. 
 
 BONES. The art of softening bones was discovered about 1688, and they were used in 
 the cutlery manufacture, &c., immediately afterwards. The declared value of the bones of 
 -cattle and of other animals, and of fish (exclusive of whale-fins) imported into the United 
 Kingdom from Russia, Prussia, Holland, Denmark, &c., amounts annually to more than 
 300,000^. (in 1851 about 32,000 tons). Bone-dust has been extensively employed in manure 
 since the publication of Liebig's researches in 1840. 
 
 BONHOMMES, hermits of simple and gentle lives, appeared in France about 1257 ; in 
 England about 1283. The prior of the order was called le bon Jiotnme, by Louis YI. 
 
 BONN, a town on the Rhine (the Roman Bonna), was in the. electorate of Cologne. It 
 has been frequently besieged, and was assigned to Prussia in 1814. The Prince Consort of 
 England was a student at the university, founded in 181 8. 
 
 BOOK OF SPORTS. See Sjjorts. 
 
 BOOKS (Anglo-Saxon, boc; Geiman, huch). Books were originally made of boards, or 
 the inner bark of trees : afterwards of skins and parchment. Papyrus, an indigenous plant, 
 was adopted in Egypt. Books with leaves of vellum were invented by Attains, king of 
 Pergamus, about 198 B.C., at which time books were in volumes or rolls. The MSS. in 
 Herculaneum consist of Papyrus, rolled and charred and matted together by the fire, and 
 are aboi;t nine inches long, and one, tAvo, or three inches in diameter, each being a separate 
 treatise. The most ancient books are the Pentateuch of Moses and the poems of Homer and 
 Hesiod. The first Ppjnted Books (see Printing) were printed on one side only, the leaves 
 being pasted back to back. 
 
 Books of astronomy and geometry were or- 
 dered to be destroyed in England as being 
 infected with magic, 6 Edw. VI. Stoio . . 1552 
 
 2032 volumes of new works, and 773 of new 
 editions, were published in London in , . 1839 
 
 3359 new works, and 1159 new editions, exclu- 
 sive of 908 pamphlets, were published in . 1852 
 
 3SS3 volumes were published in . . . . 1864 
 
 In Paris, 6445 volumes were published in 1842 ; 
 and 7350 in 1851. See Bibliograxihy. 
 
 Prices of Books. — Jerome (who died 420) states 
 that he had ruined himself by buying a copy of the 
 works of Origen. A large estate was given by 
 Alfred for one on cosmography, about 872. The 
 Roman de la Rose was sold tor about 30?. ; and a 
 homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quar- 
 ters of wheat. Books frequently fetched double or 
 treble their weight in gold. They sold at prices 
 varying from lol. to 40I. each in 1400. A copy of 
 Macklin's Bible, ornamented by Mr. Tomldns, was 
 declared worth 500 guineas. Butler. A j-et more 
 superb copy was insured in a Loudon office for 3000?. 
 See Boccaccio. 
 
 I 2 
 
1300 
 
 116 
 
 130R 
 
 BOOKS {continued). 
 
 Book-Binding. — The book of St. Cuthbert, the 
 earliest orniimental book, is supposed to have 
 been bound about 650 
 
 A Latin Psalter, in oak boards, was bound in 
 the gth century. 
 
 A MS. copy of the Four Evangelists, the book 
 on which our kings from Henry I. to Edward 
 VI. took their coronation oath, was bound in 
 oakfen boards, nearly an inch thick . . iioo 
 
 Velvet was the covering- in the 14th century ; 
 and silk soon after. Vellum was introduced 
 early in the 15th century ; it was stamped 
 and ornamented about 1510 
 
 Leather came into use about the same time. 
 
 The rolling machine, invented by Mr. Wm. 
 Burr, was substituted for the beating-ham- 
 mer, and gas-stoves began to take the place 
 of the charcoal fires used to heat the gilder's 
 finishing tools about 1830 
 
 Cloth binding superseded the common boards 
 generally about 1831 
 
 Caoutchouc, or India-rubber, backs to account- 
 books and large volumes, were introduced in 1841 
 
 Book-Hawking Societies (already in Scotland) 
 began in England in 1851 by archdeacon 
 Wigram (since bishop of Rochester). The 
 hawkers vend moral and religious books in 
 a similar manner to the French colporteurs. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entrj-, called originally Italian book-keeping, 
 was taken from the course of Algebra published by Burgo, in the 15th century, at Venice. 
 John Gowghe, a printer, published a treatise "on the kepyng of the famouse reconynge 
 . . . Debitor and Creditor," London, 1543. This is our earliest work on book-keeping. 
 James Peele published his Book-kccinng in 1569. John Mellis published " ABriefe Instruc- 
 tion and Manner how to Keepe Bookes of Accompts," in 1588. Improved sj'stems were pub- 
 lished by Benjamin Booth in 1789 and by Edw. Thos. Jones in 1821 and 1831. 
 
 BOOKSELLERS, at first migratory like hawkers, became known as stationarii, from 
 their y^ractice of having booths or stalls at the corners of streets and in markets. They 
 were long subject to vexatious restrictions, from which they were freed in 1758.* 
 
 BOOTHIA FELIX, a large peninsula, the N.W. point of America, discovered by sir 
 John Eoss in 1831, and named after sir Felix Booth, who had presented him with 20,ocx)?. 
 to fit out his Polar expedition. Sir Felix died at Brighton in Feb. 1850. 
 
 BOOTS, said to have been the invention of the Carians, were made of iron, brass, or 
 leathei'. Leather boots were mentioned by Homer 907 B.C., and frequently by the Roman 
 historians. A variety of forms may be seen in Fairholt's " Costume in England." An 
 instrument of torture termed " the boot'' was used in Scotland so late as 1690. 
 
 BORAX (Boron), known to the ancients, is used in soldering, brazing, and casting gold 
 and other metals, and was called clirysocolla. Borax is produced naturally in the mountains 
 of Thibet, and was brought to Europe from India about 17 13. Homberg in 1702 discovered 
 in borax boracic add, which latter in 1808 was decomposed by Gaj^-Lussac, Thcnard, and H. 
 Davy, into oxygen, and the previously unknown element, boron. Borax has lately been 
 found in Saxony ; and is now largely manufactured from the boracic acid found by Hcefer to 
 exist in the gas arising from certain lagoons in Tuscany ; an immense fortune has been made 
 by their owner M. liardarel since 181 8, 
 
 BORDEAUX. See Bourdeaux. 
 
 BORNEO, an island in the Indian Ocean, the largest in the world except Australia, was 
 discovered by the Portuguese about 1520. 
 
 The Dutch trade here in 1604, and establish 
 factories in 1776 
 
 The pirates of Borneo chastised by the British 
 in 1813, and by captain Keppel in March, 1843 
 
 By a treaty with the sultan, the island of La- 
 booan, or Labuan (N.W. of Borneo), and its 
 dependencies, incorporated with the British 
 empire, and formally taken possession of in 
 presence of the Bomean chiefs . Dec. 2, 1846 
 
 James Brooke, rajah of Sarawak, by whose 
 exertions this island was annexed to the 
 British crown, governor of Labuan and 
 consul-general of Borneo, visits England and 
 receives many honours . . . Oct. 1847 
 
 He destroys many of the Bomean pirates . 1849 
 
 Labuan made a bishopric ; the bishop was con- 
 
 secrated at Calcutta, the first English bishop 
 consecrated out of England . . Oct. 18, 1855 
 
 The Chinese in Sarawak rise in insurrection, 
 and massacre a number of Europeans ; sir J. 
 Brooke escapes bj' swimming across a creek ; 
 he speedily returns with a force of Malays, 
 &c., and chastises the insurgents, of whom 
 2000 were killed .... Feb. 17, 18, 1857 
 
 He comes to England to seek help from the 
 government, without success 1858 
 
 His health being broken up, an appeal for a 
 subscription for him made ,, 
 
 Deputation of merchants waits on the earl of 
 iJerby, recommending the purchase of Sara- 
 wak, which is decUned . . . Nov. 30, „ 
 
 Sir J. Brooke returns to Borneo . . Nov. 20. i860 
 
 * Booksellers' Association. In 1829 a number of eminent publishers m London formed themselves 
 into an association for the regulation of the trade, and fixed the amount of discount I0 be allowed, Dec. 
 29, 1829, and for some years re>tiicted the retail booksellers from selling copies of works under the full 
 publishing price. A dispute afterwards arose as to the right, maintained by the latter, to dispose of 
 books (when they hnd once become theirs by purchase) at siich less profit as they might deem sufficiently 
 remuneivative. The dispute was rtfcrred to lord chief justice Campbell, before whom the parties argued 
 their respective cases, at Stratheden House, Ajiril 14, 1852. His lordship gave judgment in eSect a^-ainst 
 the association ; this led to its immediate dissolution. May 19 fullovring. ° 
 
BOR 
 
 117 
 
 BOS 
 
 BORNOtr, an extensive kingdom in central Africa, explored by Denliam and Clapperton, 
 who were sent out by the British government in 1822. The population is estimated by 
 Denham at 5,000,000, by Barth at 9,000,000. 
 
 BOEODINO, a Russian village on the river Moskwa, near which a sanguinary battle was 
 fought, Sept. 7, 1812, between the French under Napoleon, and the Russians rrnder Kutusoff ; 
 240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, but it was rather in favour of 
 Napoleon ; for the Russians retreated, leaving Moscow, which the French entered, Sept. 14. 
 See Moscow. 
 
 BORON. See Borax. 
 
 BOROUGH, or Buegh, anciently a company of ten families living together, now such 
 towns as send members to Parliament, since the election of bm-gesses in the reign of Henry 
 III. 1265. Charters were granted to towns by Henry I., 1132; which were remodelled by 
 Charles II. in 1682-4, but restored in 1688. 22 new English boroughs were created in 1553. 
 Burgesses were first admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 ; and 
 into the Irish, 1365. The "Act to amend the Representation of the Peoi^le in England and 
 Wales" was passed June 7, 1832 ; and the Act for the Regulation of Municipal Corporations, 
 Sept. 9, 1835. See Constituency. 
 
 BOROUGH-BRIDGE (W. R. of York), the site of a battle between the earls of Hereford 
 and Lancaster and Edward II., March 16, 1322. The latter, at the head of 30,000 men, 
 pressed Lancaster so closely, that he had not time to collect his troops together in sufficient 
 force, and being defeated and made prisoner, was led, mounted on a lean horse, to an 
 eminence near Pontefract, or Pomfret, and beheaded by a Londoner. 
 
 BOROUGH-ENGLISH, an ancient tenure by which the younger son inherits, is men- 
 tioned as occurring 834. It was abolished in Scotland by Malcolm III. in 1062. 
 
 BOSCOBEL, near Donington, Shropshire, where Charles II. concealed himself after his 
 defeat at Worcester {wliich see), Sept. 3rd, 1651.* The " Boscobel Tracts " were first pub- 
 lished in 1660. In 1861 Mr. F. Manning published " Yiews," illustrating these tracts. 
 
 BOSNIA, a province in Turkey, formerly a dependent upon Sema, was couc[uered by 
 the Turks about 1526, who still retain it after losing it several times. 
 
 BOSPHORUS, Theacian (now channel of Constantinople). Darius Hystaspes threw a 
 bridge of boats over this strait when about to invade Greece, 493 B.C. See Constantinople. 
 
 BOSPORUS (improperly Bosphoeus), now called Circassia, near the Bosphorus 
 Cimmerius, now the straits of Kertch or Yenikale. The history of the kingdom is involved 
 in obscurity, though it continued for 350 years. It ■was named Cimmerian, from the 
 Cimmeri, who dwelt on its borders, about 750 B.C. 
 
 Battle of Zela, gained by Julius Csesar over 
 Phamaces II. (Csesar writes home, Veni, vidi, 
 vici, " I came, I saw, I conquered ") . b.c. 47 
 
 Asander usurps the crown 
 
 Caesar makes Mithridates of Pergamus king 
 
 Polemon conquers Bosporus, and, favoured by 
 Agrippa, reigns j , 
 
 Polemon killed by barbarians of the Palus 
 Ma^otis x.D. 2q 
 
 Polemon II. reigns, 33; Mithridates 1 1, reigns' 41 
 
 Mithridates conducted a prisoner to Eome, by 
 order of Claudius, and his kingdom made a 
 province of the empire. 
 
 The Archeenactidse from Mitylene rule, B.C. 502-480 
 
 They are dispossessed by Sj)artacus I. . 480-438 
 
 Seleucus, 431 ; Satyrus 1 407 
 
 Leucon, 393 ; Spartacus II., 353 ; Parysades . 34S 
 
 Eumelus, aiming to dethrone his brother Saty- 
 rus II., is defeated ; but Satyrus is killed . 310 
 
 Prytanis, his next brother, ascends the thi'one, 
 but is murdered by Eumelus . . . 310-9 
 
 Eumelus puts to death all his relations, 309 ; 
 and is killed /304 
 
 The Scythians conquer Bosporus . . . . 285 
 
 Mithridates VI. , of Pontus, conquers Bosporus 80 
 
 He poisons himself ; and the Ronaans make his 
 son, Phamaces, king 63 
 
 BOSTON, a city in the United States, built about 1627. Here originated that resistance 
 to the British authorities which led to American independence. The act of parliament laying 
 duties on tea, papers, colours, &c. (passed June, 1767), so excited the indignation of the 
 citizens of Boston, that they destroyed several himdreds of chests of tea, Nov. 1773. Boston 
 seaport was shut by the English parliament, until restitution should be made to the East 
 India Company for the tea lost, March 25, 1774. The town was besieged by the British 
 next year, and 400 houses were destroyed. A battle between the royalists and independent 
 troops, in which the latter were defeated, took place on June 17, 1775. The city was 
 evacuated by the king's troops, April, 1776. The inhabitants were very zealous against 
 slavery. An industrial exhibition was opened here in Oct. 1856, and lasted two weekst 
 
 * The king, disguised in the clothes of the Pendrills, remained from Sept. 4-6, at White Ladies ■ on 
 Sept. 7 and 8 he lay at Boscobel house, near which exists an oak, said to be the scion of the Eoyal Oak in 
 which the king was part of the time hidden with col. Careless. Sharpe. 
 
BOS 118 BOU 
 
 BOSWORTH FIELD, Leicestershire, the site of the thirteenth and last battle between 
 the houses of York and Lancaster, Aug. 22, 1485 ; Richard III. was defeated by the earl 
 of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., and slain. Sir Wm. Stanley at a critical moment 
 changed sides, and thus caused the loss of the battle. It is said that Henry was crowned on 
 the sjiot Avith the crown of Richard found in a hawthorn bush, near the field.- 
 
 BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the science of botany (about 347 B.C.). 
 Historia Plantarum of Theophrastus was written about 320 B.C. Authors on botany 
 hecame numerous at the close of the 15th century. Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Cresalpinus, 
 and others, wrote between 1535 and 1600. The system and arrangement of the^ great 
 Linneeus was made known about 1750; and Jussieu's system, founded on Tournefort's, and 
 called "the natural system," in 1758. At Linnoeus's death, 1778, the species of plants 
 actually described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of species now recorded 
 cannot fall short of 100,000.* J. C. Loudon's " Encyclopajdia of Plants," a most compre- 
 hensive work, first appeared in 1829. De Candolle's " Prodromus Systematis Naturalis 
 Regni Vegetabilis" (of which Vol. I. ai^peared in 1818), is nearly completed (1865). 
 
 BOTANIC GAKDEXS. 
 
 Edabl 
 
 ished alov.t 
 
 Padua 
 
 
 1545 
 
 Leyden 
 
 
 1577 
 
 Leipsic . 
 
 
 1580 
 
 Paris (Jardin 
 
 des 
 
 
 Plantes) . 
 
 
 1624 
 
 Jena 
 
 
 1629 
 
 Oxford 
 
 
 1632 
 
 EatahlisUed about 
 Upsal . • .1657 
 Chelsea . . . 1673 
 Edinburgh . . 1680 
 Vienna , . . 1753 
 Madrid . . . ,, 
 Kew (greatly im- 
 proved, 1841-65) , 1760 I 
 
 Established about 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 1763 
 
 Coimbra 
 
 1773 
 
 St. Petersburg 
 
 178s 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 1793 
 
 Dublin . 
 
 1800 
 
 Horticultural Soci- 
 
 
 ety's, Chiswick 
 
 1821 
 
 Established 
 Royal Botanic So- 
 ciety's, Regent's 
 Park . . . 1839 
 Eoyal Hoi-ticultural 
 Society's, S. Ken- 
 sington . . . i860 
 
 BOTANY BAY, Australia, was discovered by captain Cook, April 28, 1770, and took its 
 name from the great variety of plants which abounded on the shore. It was fixed on for a 
 colony of convicts from Great Britain. The first governor, capt. Arthur Phillip, who sailed 
 from England in May, 1787, arrived at the settlement in Jan. 1788. The colony was 
 eventually established at Port Jackson, about thirteen miles to the north of the bay. See 
 New South Wales and Transportation, 
 
 BOTHWELL BRIDGE, Lanarksliire. The Scotch covenanters took up arms against 
 the intolerant government of Charles II. in 1679, and defeated the celebrated Claverhouse 
 at Drumelog. They were however totally routed by the earl of Monmouth at Bothwell 
 Bridge, Jtiue 22, 1679, and many of the prisoners were cruelly tortured and afterwards 
 €xecuted. 
 
 BOTTLE-CONJUROR. On Jan. 16, 1748, a charlatan at the old Ha3'market theatre 
 had announced that he would jump into a quart bottle. The theatre was besieged by 
 thousands anxious to gain admittance and witness the feat. The duped crowd nearly pulled 
 down the edifice. 
 
 BOTTLES in ancient times were made of leather. Bottles of glass were first made in 
 England about 1558. See Glass. The art of making glass bottles and drinking-glasses was 
 known to the Romans at least before 79 ; for these articles and other vessels have been found 
 in the ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads was blown, we are told, 
 at Leith, in Scotland, in Jan. 1747-8. 
 
 BOULOGNE, a seaport in Picardy, N. France, was taken by the British under Henry 
 VIII. on Sept. 14, 1544, but restored at the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, 
 disabling ten vessels and sinking five, Aug. 3, 1801. In another attempt he was repulsed 
 with great loss, and captain Parker of the Medusa and two-thirds of his crew were killed, 
 Aug. 18 following. In 1804 Bonaparte assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, and a 
 flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to invade England. The coasts of Kent and 
 Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of defence ; and nearly half the adult 
 population of Britain was formed into volunteer corps. It is suj)posed that this French 
 armament served merely for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended 
 the invasion. Sir Sidney Smith imsuccessfully attempted to burn the flotilla with fire- 
 machines called catamarans, Oct. 2, 1804. Congreve-rockets wore used in another attack, 
 and they set the town on fire, Oct. 8, 1806. The army was removed on the breaking out of 
 war with Austria in 1805. Louis Napoleon (now emperor) made a descent here with about 
 
 * Robert Brown, who accompanied Flinders in his survey of New Holland in 1803, died June lo, 1858, 
 aged 85. Ho was acknowledged to be the chief of the botanists of his day {facile princeps). 
 
BOU 119 BOW 
 
 50 followers, Aug. 6, 1840, without success. Oa July 10, 1854, he reviewed the Frencli 
 troops destined for the Baltic, and on Sept. 2, following, he entertained prince Albert and 
 the king of the Belgians. See France. 
 
 BOUNTIES,^ premiums granted to the producer, exporter, or importer of certain articles ; 
 a principle introduced into commerce by the British parliament. The first granted on corn. 
 in 1688, were repealed in 1815. They were first legally granted in England for raising naval 
 stores in America, 1703, and have been granted on sail-cloth, linen and other goods. 
 
 BOUNTY MUTINY, took place on board the Bounty, an armed ship which quitted 
 Otaheite, with bread-fruit trees, April 7, 1789. The mutineers put their captain, Bligh, and 
 nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka, one of the Friendly Isles, April 28, 1789 ; 
 these reached the island of Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage 
 of nearly 4000 miles ; their preservation was next to miraculous. Some of the mutineers were 
 tried, Sej)t. 15, 1792; six av ere condemned and three executed. For the fate of the others, 
 see Pitcairn's Island. 
 
 BOUEBON, HoxTSE of (from which come the royal houses of France, Spain, and Naples), 
 derives its origin from the Archambauds, lords of Bourbon in Berry. Robert, count of 
 Clermont, son of Louis IX. of France, married the heiress Beatrice in 1272 : their son 
 Louis 1. was created duke of Bourbon and peer of France by Charles IV. in 1327. The last 
 of the descendants of their elder son Peter I. was Susanna, wife of Charles, duke of Mont- 
 pensier, called constable of Bourbon, who, offended by his sovereign Francis I. , entered into 
 the service of the emperor Charles Y., and was killed at the siege of Rome, May 6, 1527- 
 From James, the yoionger son ot Louis I., was descended Antony, duke of Yendonie, who 
 married (1548) Jean d'Albret, daughter of Henry, king of Navarre. Their son the great 
 Henry lY. was born at Pau, Dec. 23, 1553, and became king of France, July 31, 1589- — 
 The crown of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, 1700, and guaranteed by 
 the peace of Utrecht, 17 13. Bapin. The Bourbon Family Compact (w/wc/i see) was made 
 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791 ; restored, 1814 ; again expelled on the 
 return of Bonaparte from Elba, and again restored after the battle of Waterloo, 181 5. The 
 elder branch was expelled once more, in the person of Charles X. and his family, in 1830, in 
 consequence of the revolution of the memorable days of July in that year. The Orleans 
 branch ascended the throne in the person of the late Louis- Philippe, as " king of the 
 French," Aug. 9, following. He was deposed Feb. 24, 1848, when his family also was 
 expelled. The Bourbon family fled from Naples, Sept. 6, i860 ; and Francis 11. lost his 
 kingdom. See France, Spain, Naples, Orleans, Parma, Conde, and Legitimists. 
 
 BOURBON, Isle of (in the Indian Ocean), discovered by the Portuguese about 1545. 
 The French are said to have first settled here in 1642. It surrendered to the British, 
 under admiral Rowley, Sept. 21, 1809, and was restored to France in 181 5. Alison. An 
 awful hurricane in Feb. 1829 did much mischief. See Mauritms. 
 
 BOURDEAUX, ok Bokdeatjx (W. France), was united to the dominions of Henry 11. 
 of England by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black Prince In'oughfc 
 his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the battle of Poictiers in 1356, and 
 here held his court during eleven years : his son, our Richard II., was born at Bourdeaux, 
 1366. Bourdeaux finally surrendered to Charles YII. of France in 1453. The fine eques- 
 trian statue of Louis XY. was erected in 1743. Bourdeaux was entered by the victorious 
 British army after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 27, 1814. 
 
 BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by Antoinette Bourignon, who, in 1658, took the 
 Augustine habit and travelled in France, Holland, England, and Scotland ; in the last .she 
 made many converts about 1670. She maintained that Christianity does not consist in faith 
 and practice, but in inward feeling and supernatural impulse. A disciple named Court left 
 her a good estate. She died in 1680, and her works, in 21 volumes 8vo, were published 
 in 1686. 
 
 BOURNOUS, the Arabic name of a hooded garment worn in Algeria, which has been 
 introduced in a modified form into England and France since 1847. 
 
 BOUYINES (N. France), the site of a desperate battle, July 27, 12 14, in which Philip 
 Augustus of France obtained a complete victory over the emperor Otho and his allies, 
 consisting of more than 150,000 men. The earls of Flanders and Boulogne were taken 
 prisoners. 
 
 BOWIjS, or Bowling, an English game as early as the 13th century. Charles I. played 
 at it, and also Charles II. at Tunbridge. Grammont. 
 
EOW 120 BRA 
 
 BOW-STKEET. See Magistrates. 
 
 BOWS AND Arrows. See Archery. 
 
 BOXING, OR Prize-Figiitixg, tlie jmoilaius of the Koraans, once a favourite sport with 
 the British, who possess an extraordinary strengtli'in the arm, an advantage which gives the 
 British soldier gi-eat superiority in battles decided by the bayonet. A century ago boxing 
 formed a regular exhibition, and a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court. — Brough- 
 ton's ampliitheatre, behind Oxford-road, was built 1742. Schools were opened in England 
 to teach boxing as a science in 1790. Mendoza opened the Lyceum in the Strand in 1791. 
 Boxing was much patronised from about 1820 to 1830, but is now out of favour.* John 
 Gully, originallj' a butcher, afterwards a prize-fighter, acquired wealth and became M.P. for 
 Pontefract in 1835. He died March 9, 1863. 
 
 BOXTEL (in Dutch Brabant), where the British and allied army, commanded by tlie 
 duke of York, was defeated by the French republicans, who took 2000 prisoners and eight 
 jneces of cannon, Sept. 1 7, 1 794. 
 
 BOX-TREE, indigenous to this countrj^ and exceedingly valuable to wood-engravers. 
 In 1815 a large box-tree at Box-hill, Surrey, was cut down, and realised a large sum. 
 Macculloch says, that "the trees were cut down in 1815, and produced upwards of 10,000?." 
 About 1820 the cutting of aU the trees on the hill produced about 6000?. 
 
 BOYDELL'S LOTTERY for a gallery of paintings was got up in 1791 at a vast expense 
 by alderman Boydell, lord mayor of London, a gceat encourager of the arts. The collection 
 was called the Shakspeare gallery, and every ticket was sold at the time the alderman died, 
 Dec. 12, 1804, before the decision of the wheel. 
 
 BOYLE LECTURES, instituted in 1691 by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl of 
 Cork), a philosoiilier, distinguished by his genius, virtues, and benevolence. Eight lectures 
 (in vindication of the Christian religion) are delivered at St. Mary-le-bow church, London, 
 on the first Monday in each month, from January to May and September to November. 
 
 BOYNE (a river in Kildare, Ireland), near which William III. defeated his father-in- 
 law, James II., July i, 1690. The latter lost 1500 (out of 30,000) men ; the Protestant army 
 lost about a third of that number (out of 30,000). James lied to Dublin, thence to Water- 
 ford, and escaped to France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle, having been 
 shot by mistake by his own soldiers as he was crossing the river. Here also was killed the 
 rev, George Walker, who defended Londonderry in 1689. Near Drogheda is a splendid 
 obelisk, 150 feet in height, erected in 1736 by the Protestants of the empire in commemora- 
 tion of this victorj'. 
 
 BOYNE, man-of-war of 98 guns, destroj-ed by fire at Portsmouth, May 4, 1795, by the 
 exj)losion of the magazine ; numbers perished. Portions were recovered June, 1840. 
 
 BRABANT (now part of the kingdoms of Holland and Belgium), an ancient duchj', part 
 of Charlemagne's empire, fell to the share of his son Lothaire. It became a separate duchy 
 (called at first Lower Lorraine) in 959. It descended to Philip II. of Burgundy, and in 
 regular succession to the emperor Charles Y. In the 17th centiiry it was held by Holland 
 and Austria, as Dutch Brabant and the Walloon provinces, and underwent many changes 
 through the wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French in 1746 and 
 1794. It was united to the Netherlands in 1814, but has formed part of Belgium, under 
 Leopold, since 1830. His heir is styled duke of Brabant. See Belgium. 
 
 BRACELETS were worn by the ancients, and armillai were Roman military rewards. 
 Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies. 
 
 BRADFIELD RESERVOIR. See Sheffield, 1864. 
 
 BRADFORD. See Poison. 
 
 BRADSHAW'S RAILWAY GUIDE was first published by Mr. G. Bradshaw in Dec. 
 1 84 1. He had previously published occasionally a Railway Comjjanimi. 
 
 "' On April 17, i860, a large number of persons of all classes assembled at Famborough to witness .a 
 desperate conflict between Thomas Sayers, the (Tiiampion of England, a light Sussex man, about 5 feet 
 8 inches high, and John Heenan, the " Benecia li'iy," a huge American, in height 6 feet i inch. Strength, 
 however, was matched by skill ; and eventually the fight was interrupted. Both men received a silver 
 belt on May 31 following. Tom King beat Mace, and obtained the champion's belt, <&c., Nov. 26, 1862 ; 
 he beat Goss, Sept. i, 1863, and Heenan (nearly to death) Dec. 10, 1863. A trial, in consequence of the 
 last fight ensued : the culprits were discharged, on promising not to offend again, April 5, 1864. On Jan. 
 4, 1865, Wormald obtained the championship after a contest with Marsden. 
 
BRA . 121 BRA 
 
 BRAGANZA, a city in Portugal, gave title to Alfonso, natural son of Pedro I. of Portugal 
 (in 1422), founder of the house of Braganza. When the nation, in a bloodless revolution in 
 1640, threw off the Spanish yoke, John, duke of Braganza, as John IV., was called to the 
 throne ; his family continues to reign. See Portugal and Brazil. 
 
 BRAHMINS, the highest of tlie four castes of the Hindoos. Pythagoras is thoirght to 
 have learned from them liis doctrine of the Metempsychosis ; and it is affirmed that some of 
 the Greek philosophers went to India on purpose to converse with them. Tlie modern 
 Brahmins derive their name fi-om Brahmah, one of the three beings whom God, according 
 to their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. The modern 
 Indian priests are still the depositaries of the sacred learning of India. See Yedas. 
 
 BRAINTREE CASE (in Essex), which was decided in 1842 by Dr. Lushington, who 
 determined that a minority in a parish vestry cannot levy a chiirch rate. 
 
 BRAMHAM (W. R. York) : near here the earl of Northumberland and lord Bardolf were 
 defeated and slain by sir Thomas Rokeby, the general of Henry IV., Eeb. 19, 1408; and 
 Fairfax was defeated by the royalists under the duke of ISTeAvcastle, March 29, 1643. 
 
 BRANDENBURG, a city in Prussia, founded by the Slavonians, who gave it the name 
 of Banber, which signified Guard of the Forest, according to some ; others say. Burg, or 
 city of the Brenns. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, after defeating the Slavonians, fortified 
 Brandenburg, 926, as a ramjjart against the Huns, and bestowed the government on Sigefroi, 
 count of Ringelheim, with the title of Margrave, or protector of the marches or frontiers. 
 The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nuremburg, ancestor 
 of the Royal family of Prussia, who was made elector in. 1417. For a list of the Margraves 
 since 1 134, see Prussia. 
 
 BRANDENBURG HOUSE, Hammersmith. See Queen Caroline. 
 
 BRANDY (German Branntwein, burnt wine), the spirit distilled from wine. It appears 
 to have been known to Raymond LuUy in the 13th century, and to have been manufactured 
 in France early in the I4tli. It was at first used medicinally, and miraculous cures were 
 ascribed to its influence. In 1851, 938,280 gallons were imported with a duty of 155. per 
 gallon. It is now manufactured in Britain. 
 
 BRANDYWINE, a river in N. America, near which a battle took place between the 
 British and the revolted Americans, in which the latter (after a day's fight) were defeated 
 with great loss, and Pliiladelphia fell into the possession of the victors, Sept. 11, 1777. 
 
 BRASS was known among all the early nations. Usher. Tlie British from the remotest 
 period were acquainted with its use. WhitaJcer. When Lucius Mummius burnt Corinth * 
 to the ground, 146 B.C., he found immense riches, and during the conflagration, it is said, 
 all the metals in the city melted, and running together, formed the valuable composition 
 described as Corinthian Brass. This, however, may well be doubted, for the Corinthian 
 artists had long before obtained great credit for their method of combining gold and silver 
 with copper ; and the Syriac translation of the Bible says, that Hiram made tlie vessels for 
 Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Du Fresnoy. Some of the Englisli sepulchral 
 engraved brasses are said to be as old as 1277. 
 
 BRAURONIA, festivals in Attica, at Brauron, where Diana had a temple. The most 
 remarkable that attended these festivals were young virgins in yellow gowns, dedicated to 
 Diana. They were about ten years of age, and not under five ; and therefore their consecra- 
 tion was called " dekateuein," from deka, ten ; 600 B.C. 
 
 BRAY, THE ViCAE, OF. Bray, in Berks, is famous in national song for its vicar, the 
 rev. Symon Symonds, who is said to have been twice a papist and twice a Protestant — in 
 four successive reigns — those of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, between 
 the years 1533 and 1558. Upon being called a turn-coat, he said he kept to his principle, 
 that of "living and dying the vicar of Bray." Fuller's Church History. 
 
 BRAZEN BULL, contrived by PeriUus, a brass-founder at Athens, for Phalaris, tyrant of 
 Agrigentum, 570 B.C. He cast a brazen bull, larger than life, with an opening in the side 
 to admit the victims. A fire was kindled underneath to roast them to death ; and the throat 
 was so contrived that their dying groans resembled the roaring of a bull. Phalaris admired 
 the invention and workmanship, but said it was reasonable the artist should make the first 
 experiment, and ordered his execution. Ovid mentions that the Agrigentes, maddened by 
 the tyrant's cruelties, revolted, seized him, cut his tongue out and roasted him in the brazen 
 bull, 549 B.C. 
 
BKA 
 
 122 
 
 BRE 
 
 BRAZIL, an empire in South Aruerica, was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portu- 
 guese, -who was driven upon its coasts by a tempest, Jan. 26, 1 500. He called it the land of 
 the Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently called Brazil, on account of its red wood. The 
 French having seized on Portugal in 1807, the royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil, 
 and landed March 7, 1808. The dominant religion is Roman Catholic ; but others are 
 tolerated. Population in 1856, 7,677,800. See Porhcgal. 
 
 Pedro Alvarez Cabal discovers Espirito Santo, 
 
 coast of Brazil, and lands . . . May 3 1500 
 Brazil explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about . 1504 
 Divided into captaincies by the king of Portugal 1 530 
 Martin Le Souza founds the first European 
 
 colony at San Vincente 1531 
 
 Jews banished from Portugal to Brazil . . 1548 
 San Salvador (Bahia) foimded by Thome de 
 
 Souza 1549 
 
 French Protestants occupy bay of Bio Janeiro . 1555 
 
 Expelled 1567 
 
 Sebastian founded ,, 
 
 Brazil, with Portugal, becomes subject to Spam 1580 
 James Lancaster captures Pemambuco . . 1593 
 The French estabUsh a colony at Maranham . 1594 
 
 Belem founded by C'aldeira 1615 
 
 The French expelled „ 
 
 The Dutch seize the coast of Brazil, and hold 
 
 Pemambuco 1630 
 
 Defeated at Guararapfes 1646 
 
 Give up Brazil . 1661 
 
 Gold mining commences 1693 
 
 Destruction of Palmares 1697 
 
 The French assaxilt and capture Rio Janeiro 1710-11 
 Diamond mines discovered in Sezzo Frio . . 1729 
 
 Jesuits expelled 1758-60 
 
 Capital transferred from Bahia to Rio Janeiro 1763 
 Roj'al family of Portugal arrive at Brazil, Mar. 7, 1808 
 First printing-press established . . . . ,, 
 Brazil becomes a kingdom .... 1815 
 
 King John VI. returns to Portugal, and Dom 
 
 Pedro becomes regent 1821 
 
 Brazil declares its independence . Sept. 7, 1822 
 
 Pedro I. crowned emperor . . Dec. i, ,, 
 
 Kew constitution ratified . . March 25, 1824 
 Independence recognised by Portvigal, Aug. 29, 1825 
 Abdication of Dom Pedro 1. . . Apiil 7, 1831 
 
 Reform of the constitution 1834 
 
 Accession of Pedro II. 1840 
 
 Steamship line to Europe commenced . . 1850 
 Suppression of the slave-trade ; railways com- 
 menced 1852 
 
 Rio Janeiro lit with gas 1854 
 
 The British ship "Prince of Wales" wrecked 
 at Albardas, on coast of Brazil, is plundered 
 by some of the natives, and some of the crew 
 
 killed, about June 7, 1861 
 
 Reparation long refused ; reprisals made ; five 
 Brazilian merchant ships being seized by the 
 
 British Dec. 31, 1862 
 
 The Brazilian minister at London pays 3,2001. 
 as an indemnity, under protest . Feb. 26, 1863 
 
 The Brazilian government request the British 
 to express regret for reprisals ; dechned ; 
 diplomatic intercovrrse between the two 
 countries suspended . . May 5-28, „ 
 
 Dispute between the British and Brazilian 
 governments respecting the arrest of some 
 British officers at Rio Janeiro (June 17, 1862) 
 is referred to the arbiti-ation of the king of 
 Belgium, who decides in favotu' of the latter 
 
 June 18, „ 
 
 New ministry formed ; F. J. Furtado, presi- 
 dent — prosjject of reconciliation with Great 
 Britain Aug. 30, 1864 
 
 U. S. war-steamer "Waehusett" seizes the 
 Confederate steamer " Florida," in the port 
 of Bahia, while under protection of Brazil, 
 Oct. 7 ; after remonstrance, Mr. Seward, 
 U. S. foreign minister, apologises. [Tho 
 " Florida" had been (inadvertently?) sunk.] 
 
 Dec. 26, „ 
 
 The C'omte d'Eu and the Princess Isabella (on 
 their marriage tour) land at Southampton 
 
 Feb. 7, 1865 
 
 War with Urugu.ay — the Brazilians take Pay- 
 sandti, and march upon Monte Video, Feb. 2, ,, 
 
 Lopez, jiresident of Paraguay, declares war 
 against the Argentine Republic, which unites 
 with Brazil — New combinations forming 
 
 April, May, ,, 
 
 Amicable relations with England restored 
 
 Aug. „ 
 
 The emperor joins the army marching against 
 Lopez Aug. ,, 
 
 EjrPERORS OF BRAZIL. 
 
 1825. Dom Pedro (of Portu^itl) first emperor, Oct 
 12, abdicated the throne of Brazil in favour of his 
 
 " infant son, April 7, 1831 ; died Sept. 24, 1834. 
 
 1831. Dom Pedro II. (Ijom Dec. 2, 1825) succeeded 
 on his father's abdicatii>n : assumed the govern- 
 xoent July 23, 1840 ; crowned July 18, 1841 ; mar- 
 ried Sept. 4, 1843, Princess Theresa of Naples ; the 
 PRESENT emperor (1865). 
 
 Heiress : Isabella, born July 29, 1846 ; married to 
 Louis comte d'Eu, son of the Due de Nemours, 
 Oct. 15, 1864. 
 
 BREAD. Ching-iSToung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the first who 
 taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry and the method of making bread fi'om wheat, 
 and wine from rice, 1998 B.C. Uiiiv. Hist. Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal 
 ages; see Exodus xii. 15. It became a profession at Rome, 170 B.C. After the conquest of 
 Macedon, 148 B.C., numbers of Greek bakers came to Rome, obtained special privileges, and 
 soon obtained the monopolj'^ of the baking trade. During the siege of Paris by Henry IV., 
 owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which had been sold whilst any remained for 
 a crown a pound, was at last made from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy 
 Innocents, a.d. 1594. Renault. In the time of James I. , barley bread was used by the 
 poor ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread ; potato-bread is 
 used in Ireland. The London Bakers' Compan}'- was incorporated in 1307. Bread-street 
 was once the London market for bread. Until 1302, the London bakers were not allowed 
 to sell any in their own shops, fitow. Bread was made with yeast by the English bakers in 
 1634. In 1856 and 1857 Dr. Dauglish patented a mode of making "aerated bread," in 
 which carbonic acid gas is combined •v\ith water and mixed with the flour, which is said to 
 possess the advantages of cleanliness, rapidity, and uniformity. In 1862 a company was 
 
BRE 
 
 123 
 
 BRE 
 
 An act for regulating bakehouses 
 
 1805 . . . I2jd 
 
 183s . 
 
 
 jd. 
 
 
 June. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 181O . . . . 154 
 
 1840 
 
 . 
 
 9 
 
 1858 . 
 
 . M. 
 
 yd. 
 
 1812 (Aug.) . . 2li 
 
 
 
 
 1859 
 
 . 8 
 
 7z 
 
 1814 . . . . i2i 
 
 
 June. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1S60 . 
 
 . 84 
 
 9 
 
 1820 . - .11 
 
 184s . 
 
 7ic?. 
 
 7kd. 
 
 1861 
 
 • 9 
 
 9 
 
 
 1850 
 
 7 
 
 6i 
 
 1862 . 
 
 • 9 
 
 8 
 
 Four-potmcl Loaf (iest). 
 
 1854 . 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 1863 
 
 . 8 
 
 7 
 
 1822 . . . lod. 
 
 185s 
 
 II 
 
 loi 
 
 1864 . 
 
 • 7 
 
 7 
 
 1825 . . ■ . . II 
 
 1856 . 
 
 II 
 
 loi 
 
 
 
 Sept 
 
 1830 . . . loi 
 
 1857 
 
 9i 
 
 Si 
 
 186s 
 
 • • 7 
 
 7i 
 
 formed to encourage Stevens' bread-making machinery.'' 
 was passed in July, 1863. 
 
 PEICES OF BREAD IN VABIOtTS YEARS. 
 Quartern Loaf (4^6. sioz.) 
 173s • • ■• Shd. 
 174s • • • • 4f 
 175s • • • 5 
 1765 . • • • 7 
 1775 ... 6^ 
 1785 . . . . 6i 
 1795 . . . I2i 
 
 t8oo . . . . 175 
 1800 [For 4 weeks, zz^d.l 
 
 BREAD-ERUIT TEEE, mentioned by Damx^ier, Anson, Wallis, and other voyagers. 
 A vessel under captain Bligh was fitted out to convey these trees to various British colonies 
 in 1789 (see Bounty), and again in 1791. The numbertaken on board at Otaheite was 1151. 
 Some were left at St. Helena,, 352 at Jamaica, and iive were reserved for Kew Gardens, 1793. 
 The tree was successfully cultivated in French Guiana, 1802. 
 
 BREAKWATERS. The first stone of the Plymouth breakwater was lowered August 12, 
 1812. It was designed to break the swell, and stretches 5280 feet across the sound ; it is 
 360 feet in breadth at the bottom and more than thirty at the top, and consumed 3,666,000 
 tons of granite blocks, from one to five tons ealch, up to April, 1841, and cost a million and 
 a half sterling. The architects were Mr. John Rennie and his son sir John. The first stone 
 of the lighthouse on its western extremity was laid Feb. i, 1841. Breakwaters are now in 
 course of construction at Holyhead, Portland, Dover, &c. (1865). 
 
 BREAST-PLATE. One was worn by the Jewish high priest, 149 1 B.C. {Exod. xxxix.). 
 Goliath "was armed with a coat of mail," 1063 B.C. (i Sam. xvii.) Breast-plates dwindled 
 to the diminutive gorgets. Ancient breast-plates are mentioned as made of gold and silver. 
 
 BRECHIlSr, Scotland; sustained a siege against the army of Edward III., 1333. The 
 battle of Brechin was fought between the forces of the earls of Himtly and Crawfurd ; the 
 latter defeated, 1452. The see of Brechin was founded by David I. in 1150. One of its 
 bishops, Alexander Campbell, was made prelate when but a boy, 1556. The bishopric, dis- 
 continued soon after the revolution in 1688, was revived in 1731. 
 
 BREDA, Holland, was taken by prince Maurice, of Nassau, in 1590; by the Spania:rds, 
 under Spinola, in 1625 ; and by the Dutch, in 1637. Our Charles II. resided here at the 
 time of the restoration, 1660. Bee Restoration. Breda was taken by the French in 1793. 
 The French garrison was expelled by the burgesses in 1813. The " Comj^i'omise of Breda" 
 was a proposal to Philip II., deprecating his harsh measures in the Netherlands, presented 
 and refused in 1566. cu i^.Cc^ U P^ .^.^.L^"-— -^- v-- ^X*,vU»w-J <2^o.w£*-- -'^.Sv ^/. 
 
 BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garnient indicated slavery. It was worn by the 
 Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Italy, it is said, Avas worn in the 
 time of Augustus Ccesar. In the reign of Honorius, about 394, the braccarii, or breeches- 
 makers, were expelled from Rome ; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted iu 
 "other countries, and at length became general. 
 
 BREHOISTS, ancient judges in Ireland, are said to have administered justice with religious 
 impartiality, but in later times with a tendency to love of coimtry. " It was enacted by the 
 statute of Kilkenny, that no English subject should submit to the Brehonlaws, 40 Edw. III., 
 1365. These laws, however, were recognised by the native Irish till about 1650. A trans- 
 lation of them was proposed in 1852, the publication of which may be expected. 
 
 BREITI^NFELD, Battle op. 8ee Leipsic. 
 
 BREMEN (N. Germany), said to have been founded in 788, and long an archbishopric 
 and one of the leading towns of the Hanseatic league, was allowed a seat and a vote in the 
 college of imperial cities in 1640. In 1648 it was secularised and erected into a duchy and 
 
 * Assize of Bread. The first statute for the regulation of the sale of bread was 3 John, 1203. The 
 chief justiclaiy, and a baker commissioned by the king, had the inspection of the assize. Mattheio Paris. 
 The assize was further regulated by statute in 51 Henry III. 1266, and 8 Anne, 1710. Bread Act, Ireland, 
 placing its sale on the same footing as in England, i Vict. 1838. Bi-ead was directed to be sold by weight 
 in London in 1822 ; the statute " Assessa Panis " was repealed in 1824 ; and the sale of bread throughout 
 the country was regulated in 1836. 
 
BRE 124 BRI 
 
 held by Sweden till 171 2, ■when it was taken possession of by Denmark in 1731, by whom 
 it was ceded to Hanover. It was taken by the French in 1757, who were expelled by the 
 Hanoverians in 1758. Bremen was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; 
 but its independence was restored in 1813, and all its old franchises in 1815. Population of 
 the province in 1862, about 90,000. See Hanse, Toums. 
 
 BRESCIA, N. Italy (the ancient Brixia), became important under the Lombards, and 
 suffered by the wars of the Italian Repiiblics. It was taken by the French under Gaston de 
 Foix in 15 12, when it is said 40,000 of the inhabitants were massacred. It surrendered to 
 the Austrian general Haynau, Marcli 30, 1849, on severe terms. 
 
 BRESLAU,' in Silesia, was burnt by the Mongols in 1241, and conquered by Frederick 
 II. of Prussia, in Jan. 1741. A fierce battle took place here between the Austrians and 
 Priissians, the latter under prince Bevern, who was defeated Nov. 22, 1757. Breslau was 
 taken : but was regained, Dec. 21, the same year. It was besieged by the French, and sur- 
 rendered to them Jan. 1807, and again in 1813. 
 
 BREST, a sea-port, N.W. France, was besieged by Julius Caesar, 54 B.C. — possessed by 
 the English, A.D. 1378 — given up to the duke of Biittany, 1390. Lord Berkeley and a 
 British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burnt, 
 to the value of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty 
 galley slaves, burnt, 1766. The magazine again destroj'ed by fire, July 10, 1784. From 
 this great depot of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England 
 during the late war, among them the fieet which lord Howe defeated on the ist of June, 
 1794. England maintained a large blockading squadron off the harbour from 1793 to 1815 ; 
 but with little injury to France. It is now a chief naval station of that country, and from 
 the fortifications and other vast works of late construction it is considered impregnable. The 
 British fleet visited Brest, Aug. 1865. 
 
 BRETAGNE. See Brittamj. BRETHREN. See Bohemian and Plymouth BrctJiren. 
 
 BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded with France, May 8, 1360, by which England retained 
 Gascony and Guienne, and acquired other provinces ; renounced her pretensions to Maine, 
 Anjou, Touraine, and Nonnandy ; was to receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to release king John, 
 long a prisoner. The treaty not being earned out, the king remained and died in London. 
 
 BRETON. See Ccqje Breton. 
 
 BRETWALDA (wide-mling chief), one of the kings of the Saxon heptarchy, chosen by 
 the others as a leader in war against their common enemies. The following are mentioned 
 by Bede (500 to 642), Ella, king of Sussex ; Ceawlin of Wessex ; Ethelbert of Kent ; 
 Redwald of East Anglia ; Edwin, Oswald, and Oswy of Northumberland. The title (then 
 become obsolete) was bestowed upon Egbert, 828. 
 
 BREVIARY (so called as being an abridgment of the books used in the Roman Catholic 
 Service), contains the seven canonical hours, viz. : matins or lauds, primes, tierce, sexte, 
 nones, vespers, and complines. Its origin is ascribed to pope Gelasius I. about 492. It was 
 first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; and both the clergy and laity use it 
 publicly and at home. It was in iise among the ecclesiastical orders about 1080; and was 
 reformed by the councils of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and other popes. 
 The quality of type iu which the breviary was first printed gave the name to the tj'pe 
 called brevier (iu which this page is printed). 
 
 BREWERS are traced to Egypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. 
 Tindal. ' ' One William Murle, a rich maltman or bruer, of Dunstable, had two horses all 
 trapped with gold, 1414." Stoio. In Oct. 185 1, there were 2305 licensed brewers in England, 
 146 in Scotland, and 97 in Ireland ; total 2548 : these are exclusive of retail and inter- 
 mediate brewers. There were 40,418 licensed brewers in the United Kingdom in 1858 ; the 
 revenue from whom to the state was in that year 81,030?. In 1858 iu England there were 
 205 great brewers. See Ah, Porter. 
 
 BRIAR'S CREEK (N. America), near which the Americans, 2000 strong, under genei'al 
 Ashe, were totally defeated by the English under general Prevost, March 16, 1779. 
 
 BRIBERY forbidden, Dcut. xvi. 19. Samuel's sons were guilty of it, B.C. 11 12. (i Sam. 
 viii. 3.) Thomas de AVeyland, a judge, was banished for bribery in 1288 ; he was chief 
 justice of the common pleas. William de Thorpe, chief justice of the king's bench, was 
 hanged for bribery iu 135 1. Another judge was fined 20,oooZ. for the like offence, 1616. 
 Mr. Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the Tower for bribery, in 17 12. Lord Strangford 
 Avas suspended from voting in the Irish house of lords, for soliciting a bribe, January, 1784. 
 
BEI 
 
 125 
 
 BEI 
 
 BRIBERY AT Elections. In 1854 an important act was passed consolidating and 
 amending previous acts relating to this offence, from 7 "Will. III. (1695) to 5 & 6 Vict. c. 184.* 
 
 Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and im- 
 prisoned for bribery . . . March 14, 1776 
 
 Messrs. Davidson, Parsons, and Hopping, im- 
 prisoned for bribery at Ilchester . April 28, 1804 
 
 Mr. Swan, M.P. for Penryn, fined and im- 
 prisoned, and sir Manasseh Lopez sentenced 
 to a fine of io,oooZ. and to two years' im- 
 prisonment for bribery at Grampound, Oct. i8ig 
 
 The members for Liverpool and Dublin un- 
 seated in 1831 
 
 The friends of Mr. Knight, candidate for Cam- 
 bridge, convicted ofbribery . . Feb. 20, 1835 
 Elections for Ludlow and Cambridge made void 1840 
 Sudbury disfranchised, 1848 ; St. Alban's also . 1852 
 Elections at Derby and other places declared 
 
 void for bribery, in 1853 
 
 Gross bribery practised at Gloucester, Wake- 
 field, and Berwick, in 1859 
 
 Mr. Edward Leatham convicted of bribery at 
 Wakefield July 19, i860 
 
 BRICKS were used in Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome ; in England by the Romans 
 about A.D. 44. Made under the direction of Alfred the Great, about 886. Saxon Chron. 
 The size regulated by order of Charles I., 1625. Taxed 1784. The number of bricks 
 which paid duty in England in 1820 Avas 949,000,000; in 1830, above 1,100,000,000 ; in 
 1840, 1,400,000,000; and in 1850, 1,700,000,000. The duties and drawbacks of excise on 
 bricks were repealed in 1850. In 1839 Messrs. Cooke and Cunningham brought out their 
 machinery by which, it is said, 18,000, bricks may be made in ten hours. Messrs. Dixon 
 and Corbett, near Newcastle, in 1861, were making bricks by steam at the rate of 1500 per 
 hour. The machinery is the invention of Clayton & Co., London. 
 
 BRIDEWELL, originally a palace of king John, near Fleet-ditch, London, was rebuilt 
 by Henry VIII., 1522, and given to the city for a workhouse by Edward VI., 1553. The 
 New Bridewell prison, erected in 1829, was pulled down in 1864 ; that of Tothill-iields was 
 rebuilt in 1831. 
 
 BRIDGES were first of wood. The ancient stone bridges in China are of great macrai- 
 tude. Abydos is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont, 
 480 B.C. Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was built 
 in A.D. 105, Brotherhoods for building bridges existed in S. France about 1180.+ 
 
 Triangular bridge at Croyland Abbey referred 
 to in a charter dated ... . 943 
 
 First stone bridge erected at Bow, near Strat- 
 ford, by queen Matilda . . about iioo-i8 
 
 Bishop's bridge, Norwich 1295 
 
 London Bridge : one existed about 978 ; one 
 built of wood 1014 ; one by Peter of Cole- 
 church 1 1 76- 1 209 ; new London Bridge 
 finished 1831 
 
 The first large iron bridge erected over the 
 Severn, Shropshire 1777 
 
 Sunderland bridge by Wilson, 100 feet high, an 
 arch, with a span of 236 feet . . . . 1796 
 
 The fine chain suspension bridge at the Menai 
 Strait 
 
 "Westminster, 1750 ; Blackfriars, 1769 ; Water- 
 loo, 1817; Southwark, 1819; Hungerford, 
 1845 ; Chelsea, 1858 ; Vauxhall, 1816. 
 
 A railway bridge 2i miles long is projected 
 over the Firth of Forth . . . Dec. 
 
 Probably the widest bridge in the world at pre- 
 sent is the Victoria bridge over the Thames 
 (by which the London, Chatham, and Dover 
 railway will enter the Victoria station, Pim- 
 lico) ; founded by Lord Harris . Feb. 22, 
 
 For details see separate articles, and also Tubu- 
 lar bridge, Victoria bridge, &o. 
 
 1825 
 
 i86s 
 
 BRIDGEWATER, Somersetshire, was incorporated by king John, in 1200. In the war 
 between Charles I. and the parliament, the forces of the latter reduced part of the town 
 to ashes, 1643. Here stood an ancient castle in which the ill-advised duke of Monmouth 
 lodged when he was proclaimed king in 1685. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was begun by 
 the duke of Bridge water, styled the father of canal navigation in this country, in 1759, and 
 opened 1761. Mr. Brindley was the engineer. It commences at Worsley, seven miles from 
 Manchester ; and at Barton Bridge is an aqueduct which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys 
 the canal across the river Irwell. The length of the canal is about twenty-nine miles. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The rev. Francis, earl of Bridgewater, died in April, 
 1829, leaving by will 2>oool. to be given to eight persons, appointed by the president of the 
 
 * On April 17, 1858, in the case of Cooper v. Slade, it was ruled that the payment of travelling expenses 
 was bribery ; and in the same year an act was passed which permits candidates to provide conveyances 
 for voters, but forbids payment of travelling expenses. 
 
 t The Devil's bridge, in the canton of Uri, so called from its frightful situation, was built on two high 
 rocks, so that it could scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were invented 
 to account for it. At Schaffhausen an extraordinary bridge was buUt over the Rhine, which is there 400 
 feet wide : there was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon 
 it : a man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet waggons heavily laden passed over 
 without danger. The bridge was destroyed by the French in 1799. 
 
BRI 
 
 126 
 
 BRI 
 
 Royal Society, who should write an essay "on the Power, "Wisdom, and Goodness of God, 
 as manifested in the Creation." The essays (by sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. Chalmers, John 
 Kidd, William Buckland, William Front, Peter M. Roget, and the revs. William. Whewell 
 and William Kirby) were published 1833 — 5. 
 
 BRIEF, a ^^Titten instrument in the Roman Catholic church, of early but imcertain date. 
 Briefs arc the letters of the pope despatched to princes and others on public affairs, and are 
 usually written short, hence tlie name, and without preface or preamble, and on paper ; in 
 which particulars they are distinguished from hulU. The latter are ample and are always 
 written on parchment. Briefs are sealed with red wax and the seal of the fisherman, or St. 
 Peter in a boat, and always in the presence of the pope. The Queen's letter authorising 
 collections in churches for charitable pui'poses are called "briefs." 
 
 BRIENNE (N.E. France). Here the allied armies of Russia and Prassia were defeated 
 by the French, Feb. i and 2, 1814. 
 
 BRIGHTON, or Brighthelmstone, in Sussex, formerly inhabited chiefly by fishermen, 
 now a place of fashionable resort. The length of the esplanade here from the Steyne is 
 about 1250 feet. 
 
 Here Charles II. embarked for France after tlie 
 battle of Worcester 1651 
 
 The Pi-ince of Wales (afterwards George IV.) 
 founded the Pavilion, 1784; greatly enlarged 
 and made to resemble the Kremhn at Mos- 
 cow, 1784-1823; it was sold to the town for 
 S3,ocoi 1849 
 
 The Block-house swept away . . March 26, 1786 
 Part of the cliff fell ; gi-eat damage Nov. 16, 1807 
 Chain-pier, 1,134 feet long, 13 wide, completed 1823 
 Brighton made a parliamentary borough . 1832 
 The railway to London opened . Sept. 21, 1841 
 Collision of trains in Clayton tunnel, 23 per- 
 sons killed and many wounded . Aug. 25, 1861 
 
 BRILL (or Briel), Holland. A seaport, seized by the expelled Dutch confederates, 
 became the first seat of their independence. Brill was given up to the English in 1585 as 
 security for advances made by Queen Elizabeth to the states of Holland. It was restored in 
 1616. 
 
 BRISTOL (W. England), built by Brennus, a British prince, 380 B.C., is mentioned in 
 A.D. 430 as a fortified city. It was called Caer Oder, a city in the valley of Bath ; and 
 sometimes Caer Brito, the British city, and by the Saxons Brightstowe, pleasant place. 
 Gildas and Nennius speak of Bristol in the 5 th and 7th centuries. 
 
 Taken by the earl of Gloiicester, in his defence 
 of his sister Maud, the empress, against king 
 
 Stephen 1138* 
 
 Eleanor of Brittany (daughter of Geoffrey, son 
 of Henry 1.) dies in the castle after 39 years' 
 
 imprisonment 1241 
 
 St. Mary's church built 1292 
 
 Bristol made a distinct county by Edward III. 1373 
 Bishopric founded by Heni-y VIII. . . . 1542 
 
 A new charter obtained 1581 
 
 Taken by prince Rupert, July 26, 1643 ; by 
 
 Cromwell Sept. 1645 
 
 Edwd. Colston's hospital, a free school, and 
 other charities established [his birthday, 
 
 Nov. 14, kept annually] 1708 
 
 Act passed for new exchange, 1723 ; erected . 1741 
 
 Bread riots 1753 
 
 Bridge built May, 1760 
 
 Attempt to set the shipping on fii-e . Jan. 22, 1777 
 
 Riot on account of a toll ; the troops fire on the 
 populace, and many are wounded . Oct. 25, 
 
 Docks built I 
 
 Riot on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, 
 the recorder, into the city. He was opposed 
 to the reform bill, and thus obnoxious to 
 the lower classes. The mansion house, the 
 bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, 
 some of the prisons (the inmates liberated), 
 and ne:irly 100 houses had been burned and 
 many lives lost . . . Oct. 29-31, 
 Trial of rioters, Jan. 2 (four executed and 
 twenty-two transported). Suicide of Col. 
 Brereton, during his trial by court-martial 
 
 Jan. 9, 
 Meetmg of British Association . . . Aug. 
 Railway to London completed . June 30, 
 Clifton Suspension-bridge opened . Dec. 8, 
 Industrial Exhibition about be to opened . Oct. 
 
 1793 
 804-9 
 
 1B32 
 1836 
 
 1864 
 
 BRISTOL, See of, one of the six bishoprics erected by Henry VIII. out of the spoils 
 of the monasteries and religious houses which that monarch had dissolved, 1542. The 
 cathedral was the church of the abbey of St. Austin, founded here by Robert Fitz-Harding, 
 son to a king of Denmark, and a citizen of Bristol, 1 148. It is valued in the king's books 
 at 338Z. 8s. ^d. Paul Bushe, provincial of the Bons-hommes was the first bishop, in 1542 — 
 deprived for being married, 1554. The see of Bristol was united by an order in council 
 with that of Gloucester, in 1836, and they now form one see under the name of Gloucester 
 and Bristol. The cathedral (under repair since 1844) was reopened in 1861. 
 
 * Erom the period of Henry II. in the 12th to the middle of the 18th century, Bristol ranked next to 
 London, as the most poj)uloiis, commercial, and flourishing place in the kingdom ; but since the latter 
 time it has declined, and been exceeded in these respects by Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, 
 and Glasgow. 
 
BRI 
 
 127 
 
 BEI 
 
 BRISTOL, continued. 
 
 KECENT BISHOPS OP BKISTOL. 
 
 1803. Hon. G. Pelham, translated to Exeter . 1807 
 
 1807. John Luxmoore, translated to Hereford 1808 
 
 1808. Wm. Lort Mansell, died . June 27, 1820 
 1820. John Kaye, translated to Lincoln . . 1827 
 
 1827. Robert Gray died . . . Sept. 28, 18 
 1834. Joseph AUen, the last bishop, translated 
 to Ely in June, 1836. (In October the 
 diocese was united with Gloticester.) 
 
 BRITAIISr (called by the Romans Britannia, * from its Celtic name Prydliain, Caviden). 
 The earliest records of the history of this island are the manuscripts and poetry of the Cam- 
 brians. The Celts, the ancestors of the Britons and modern Welsh, were the first inhabi- 
 tants of Britain. It is referred to as the Cassiterides or tm -islands by Herodotus, 450 b. c. ; 
 as Albion or lerne by Aristotle, 350 b.c. ; Polybius, 260 B.C. Britain, including JEngland, 
 Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name of Britain being applied to all 
 the islands collectively — Albion to only one. Pliny. See Albion. It was invaded by 
 Julius Cffisar, 55 B.C. ; subdued by Agricola, a.d. 84; left by the Romans, about 426 j 
 invaded by the Saxons, 429 ; the southern part became one kingdom iinder Egbert, 828 ; 
 subdued by William I., 1066. See England, Scotland, and Wales. 
 
 Divitiaous, king of the Suessones, in Gaul, 
 said to have supremacy over part of Britain 
 
 B.C. 
 
 First invasion of Britain by the Bomans, under 
 JtUius Caesar 
 
 He defeats Cassivelatinus, general of the 
 Britons 
 
 Cymbeline (Cunobelin) king of Britain . 
 
 Aulus Plautus defeats the Britons, a.d. 43 ; he 
 and Vespasian reduce S. Britain . 
 
 Caraotacus defeated by Ostorius, 50 ; carried 
 in chains to Rome 
 
 Bomans defeated by Boadicea ; 70,000 slain, 
 and London burnt : she is defeated by Sue- 
 tonius ; 80,000 slain 
 
 Agricola conquers Anglesea, and overruns 
 Britain in seven campaigns, and reforms 
 the government . . . . . 
 
 He defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus ; 
 surrenders the islands 
 
 The emperor Adrian visits Britain, 120 ; and 
 builds a wall from the Tyne to the Solway . 
 
 Lucius, king of the Britons, said to have sent 
 an embassy on religious affairs to pope 
 Eleutherius, about 
 
 The Britons (alUes of Albinus) defeated at 
 Lyons by Severus 
 
 Southern Britain subdued and divided by the 
 Romans into two provinces . . . . 
 
 57 
 S5-S4 
 
 197 
 204 
 
 Severus keeps his court at York, then called . 
 
 Eboraciim, 208 ; finishes his wall, and dies 
 
 at York 211 
 
 Carausius usurps the throne of Britain . . 286 
 He is killed by Alectus, another usurper . 294 
 
 Constantius recovers Britain from Alectus . . 296 
 St. Alban and 17,000 Christians martyred (Bede) 304 
 Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York . 30S 
 British bishops at the council of Aries . . 314 
 Scots and Picts invade Britain, 360 ; routed by 
 
 Theodosius 368 
 
 Romans gradually withdraw from Britain . 4o2-4i8> 
 The Saxons and Angles are called in to aid the 
 
 natives against the Picts and Soots . 429 or 449 
 Having expelled these, the Anglo-Saxons attack 
 
 the Britons, driving them into Wales . . 
 Many Britons settled in Armorica (Brittany) 38 
 The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into 
 
 seven or more kingdoms .... 
 
 Supposed reigns of Vortigern, 446 ; Vortimer, 
 
 464 ; Vortigern again, 471 ; Aurelius Anibro- 
 
 sius, 481 ; and Arthur Pendragon 
 The renowned king Arthur said to reign t 506-542 
 Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and re- 
 establishment of Christianity . . . . 
 Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, reigns , 
 Landisfarne church destroyed by the Northmen 
 The Saxon Heptarchy ends, and Egbert, king 
 
 of Wessex, becomes king of England 
 
 455 
 '-457 
 
 457 
 
 500 
 
 597 
 678 
 794 
 
 Kings of the Heptarchy. + See Bretwalda. 
 
 512. 
 
 542- 
 560. 
 
 616. 
 
 640. 
 664. 
 
 773' 
 685. 
 
 694. 
 
 725- 
 748. 
 760. 
 794- 
 
 Kent. [The skire of Kent.'] 
 Hengist. [473, Saxon Chronicle.] 
 J5sc, Esca, or Escus, son of Hengist ; in honour 
 
 of whom the kings of Kent were for some time 
 
 called Jiscings. 
 Octa, son of Msc. 
 
 Hermenric, or Ermenric, son of Octa. 
 St. Ethelbert ; first Christian king (styled Rex 
 
 Angloruvi). 
 Eadbald, son of Ethelbert. 
 Ercenbert, or Ercorabert, son of Eadbald. 
 Ecbert, or Egbert, son of Ercenbert. 
 Lother, or Lothair, brother of Ecbert. 
 Bdric ; slain in 687. [The kingdom now subject 
 
 to various leaders.] 
 Wihtred, or Wihgtred. 
 Badbert, 
 Ethelbert II., 
 Alric, 
 Edbert, or Ethelbert Pryn ; deposed. 
 
 sons of Wihtred, succeeding 
 each other. 
 
 796. Cuthred, or Guthred. 
 
 S05. Baldred; who in 823 lost his life and kingdom 
 to Egbert, king of Wessex. 
 
 South Saxons. [Sussex and Surrey.] 
 490. Ella, a warlike prince, succeeded by 
 514. Cissa, his son, whose reign was long and peace- 
 ful, exceeding 70 years. 
 [The South Saxons then fell into an almost total 
 dependence on the kingdom of Wessex.] 
 648. Edilwald, Edilwach, Adelwach, or Ethelwach. 
 686. Authun and Berthun, brothers : reigned jointly ; 
 vanquished by Ina, king of Wessex, 689 ; king- 
 dom conquered in 725. 
 
 West Saxons. [Berl:s, Southampton, Wilts, Somei-sel, 
 
 Dorset, Devon, and part of Cornwall] 
 519. Cerdiciis. 
 
 534. Cynric, or Kenrick, son of Cerdic. 
 560. Ceawlin, son of Cynric ; banished ; dies in 593. 
 
 * The Romans eventually divided Britain into Britannia Prima (the country south of the Thames and 
 Severn) ; Britannia Secunda (Wales) ; Flavia Coisariensis (between the Thames, Severn, and Humber) ; 
 Maxima CceMj-iensis (between the Humber and the Tyne): and r«tei<ia (between the Tyne and the Firth 
 of Forth). 
 
 t The term, " Octarchy " is sometimes used ; Northumbria being divided into Bernicia and Deira, 
 ruled by separate kings. 
 
BRI 
 
 128 
 
 BRI 
 
 BRITAIN, continued. 
 
 591. Ceolric, nephew to Ceawlin. 
 
 597. Ceolwulf. 
 
 611. 1^ Cynegils, and in 
 
 614. ) Cwichelm, his son reigned jointlj'. 
 
 643. Cenwal, Cenwalh, or Cenwald. 
 
 672. Sexburga, his queen, sister to Penda, king of 
 
 Mercia ; of great qualities ; probably deposed. 
 674. Escwine ; in conjunction with Cent wine ; on 
 
 the death of Escwine. 
 676. Centwine rules alone. 
 685. Csedwallo : went to Rome, to expiate his deeds 
 
 of blood, and died there. 
 688. Ina or Inas, a brave and wise ruler ; journeyed 
 
 to Rome ; left an excellent code of laws. 
 728. Ethelheard, or Ethelard, related to Ina. 
 740. Cuthrcd, brother to Ethelheard. 
 
 754. Sigebright, or Sigebert, having murdered bis 
 
 friend Cumbran, governor of Hampshire, was 
 compelled to fly. He was slain by one of his 
 victim's retainers. 
 
 755. Cynewulf, or Kenwulf, or Cenulpe, a noble 
 
 youth of the line of Cerdic ; murdered by a 
 
 bani.shed subject. 
 784. Bertric, or Beorhtric : poisoned by drinking of 
 
 a cup his queen had prepared for another. 
 800. Egbert, afterwards sole monarch of England, 
 
 and Bretwalda. 
 
 East Saxoks. [Essex, MuldUscx, and pari of I^iis.] 
 526, 527, or 530, Erchenwin, or Erchwine. 
 
 587. Sledda ; his son. 
 
 597. St Sebert, or Saber t ; son of the preceding : 
 first Christian king. 
 
 614. Saxred or Sexted, or Serred, jointly with Sige- 
 bert and Seward ; all slain. 
 
 623. Sigebert II. surnamed the little : son of Seward. 
 
 655. Sigebert III. surnamed the good ; brother of 
 Sebert : put to death. 
 
 661. Swithelm (or Suidhelm), son of Sexbald. 
 
 663. Sigher, or Sigeric, jointly vrith Sebbi, or Sebba, 
 who became a monk. 
 
 693. Sigenard, or Sigehard, and Suenfrid. 
 
 700. Offa ; left his queen and kingdom, and became 
 a monk at Rome. 
 
 709. Suebricbt, or Selred. 
 
 738. Swithred, or Swithed ; a long reign. 
 
 792. Sigeric ; died in a pilgrimage to Rome. 
 
 799. Sigered 
 
 823. Kingdom seized by Egbert of Wessex. 
 
 NoRTHUMBRiA. [Lancaster, Yorlc, Cumberland, West- 
 morland, Durham, and Northumberland.] 
 \* Northumbria was at first divided into two sepa- 
 rate governments, £c)-«!cia and i)«ira,- the for- 
 mer stretching from the river Tweed to the 
 Tjme, and the latter from the TjTie to the 
 Hvimber. 
 547. Ida ; a valiant Saxon. 
 560. Adda, his eldest son ; king of Bemicia. 
 „ Ella, king of Deira ; afterwards the sole king of 
 
 Kortbumbria(to 587). 
 567. Glappa, Clappa, or Elapea : Bemicia. 
 
 572. Heodvrulf ; Bernicia. 
 
 573. Freodwulf ; Bernicia. 
 580. Theodoric ; Bernicia. 
 
 588. Ethelric ; Bernicia. 
 
 593. Ethelfrith, surnamed the Fierce. 
 
 617. Edwin, son of Ella, king of Deira in 590. The 
 
 greatest prince of the heptarchy in that age. 
 
 JJtime. blain in battle with Penda, of Mercia. 
 
 634. The kingdom divided ; Eanfrid rviles in Ber- 
 
 nicia, and Osric in Deira ; both put to death. 
 
 635. Oswald slain in battle. 
 
 642. Osweo, or Oswy ; a reign of great renown. 
 ■670. Ecfrid, or Egfrid, king of Northumbria. 
 685. Alcfrid, or Ealdferth. 
 705. Osred, son of Ealdferth. 
 
 841. 
 
 Cenric ; sprung from Ida. 
 
 Osric, son of Alcfrid. 
 
 Ceolwulf ; died a monk. 
 
 Eadbert, or Egbert ; retired to a monastery. 
 
 Oswulf, or Osulf ; slain in a sedition. 
 
 Edilwald, or Mollo ; slain by Aired. 
 
 Aired, Ailred, or Alured ; deposed. 
 
 Etheh-ed, son of Mollo ; expelled. 
 
 Elwald, or Celwold ; deposed and slain. 
 
 Osred, son of Aired ; fled. 
 
 Ethelred restored ; afterwards slain. 
 
 Erdulf , or Ardulf ; deposed. 
 
 Alfwold. 
 
 Erdulf restored. 
 
 Eanred. 
 
 Kingdom annexed by Egbert. 
 
 East Angles. [Norfolk, Suffolk; Cambridge, Ely.'] 
 571 or 575. Uffa ; a noble German. 
 578. Titilus or Tituhis ; son of Uffa. 
 599. Redwald, son of Titilus; the greatest prince 
 
 of the East Angles. 
 624. Erpwald, Eorpwald, or Eordwald. 
 627. Richbert. 
 
 629. Sigebert, half-brother to Erpwald. 
 632. Egfrid, or Egric ; cousin to Sigebert. 
 635. Anna, or Annas ; a just ruler ; killed. 
 
 654. Ethelric, or Ethelhere ; slain in battle. 
 
 655. Ethelwald ; his brother. 
 664. Aldulf, or AWwulf. 
 
 713. Selred, or Ethelred. 
 
 746. Alphwuld. 
 
 749. Beorna and Ethelred, jointly. 
 
 758. Beorna alone. 
 
 761. Ethelred. 
 
 790. Ethelbert, or Ethelbryht ; treacherously put 
 to death in Mercia in 792, when Offa, king 
 of Mercia, overran the country, which was 
 finally subdued by Egbert. 
 
 Mercia. [Glovcesler, Hereford., Chester, Stafford, 
 Worcester, Oxford, Salop, Wai-wick, Derby, 
 Leicester, Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, 
 Bedford, Rutland, Huntingdon, and part oj 
 Herts.] 
 
 586. Crida, or Cridda, a noble chieftain, 
 
 593. [Interregnvim — Ceolric ] 
 
 597. Wibba, a valiant prince, his son. 
 
 615. Ceorl, or Cheorl ; nephew of Wibba'. 
 
 626. Penda ; fierce and cruel ; killed in battle. 
 
 655. Peada, son of Penda ; killed to make way for 
 
 656. Wulfhere (brother) ; he slew his two sons with 
 
 his own hand. 
 675. Ethelred ; became a monk. 
 704. Cenred, Ceudred, or Kendred ; became a monk 
 
 at Rome. 
 709. Ceolred, Celred, or Chelred ; son of Ethelred. 
 716. Ethelbald ; slain in a mutiny by one of his own 
 
 chieftains, his successor, after a defeat in 
 
 battle. 
 755. Beornred, or Bernred ; himself slain. 
 ,, Offa ; he formed the great dyke on the borders 
 
 of Wales known by his name. 
 794. Egfrid or Egferth, son of Offa ; died suddenly. 
 ,, Cenulph, Cenwulph, or Keuulph ; slain. 
 819. Kenelm, or Cenelm, a minor ; reigned five 
 
 months ; killed by his sister Quendreda, from 
 
 the hope of reigning. Hume. 
 „ Ceolwulf, uncle to Kenelm ; expelled. 
 821. Beomulf ; killed by his own subjects. 
 823. Ludccan ; a valiant ruler ; slain. 
 825. Withlafe, or Wiglaf. 
 838. Berthulf, or Bertulf. 
 852. Burhred, or Burdred. 
 874. Ceolwulph ; deposed by the Danes 877. 
 [The kingdom merged into that of England. 
 
 BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE. See Tubular Bndge. 
 
BRI 
 
 129 
 
 BEI 
 
 BRITANNY. See Brittany. 
 
 BRITISH AMERICA compi'ises Lower and Upper Canada, Nova Scotia, New Bruns- 
 wick, Newfonndiand and Prince Edward's Island, Labrador, Britisli Columbia and Van 
 couver's Island. Population about 3,334,000. Delegates from the first six provinces 
 jnet at Quebec on Oct. 10, 1864, and on Oct. 20, agreed to the basis of a Federal union, 
 with the Queen as the executive (represented by the governor-general), a legislative council 
 of 96 members for life, and a house of commons of 194 members. The project has been 
 transmitted to lay before parliament, and the secretary for the colonies, Mr. Cardwell, ' 
 expressed his approval of the plan, Dec. 3, 1864. The plan was opposed by New Brunswick, 
 March 7, 1865. Messrs. Cartier and Gait came to England, in April, 1865, to advocate the 
 project, and were well received. 
 
 BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advancement of Science, was established by sir 
 David Brewster, sir R. I. Murchison, &c. in 1831. Professor John Phillips was secretary till 
 1863. It holds annual meetings ; the first of which was held at York on Sept. 27, 1831. 
 One of its main objects is "to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate science with 
 each other." It appoints commissions and makes pecuniary grants for scientific research ; 
 and publishes annually a volume containing Reports of the proceedings. Kew observatory 
 was presented to the association by the Queen in 1842. 
 
 1. York Meeting 
 
 2. Oxford . 
 
 3. Cambridge 
 
 4. Edinburgh . 
 
 5. Dublin 
 
 6. Bristol . 
 
 7. Liverpool . 
 
 8. Newcastle 
 
 9. Birmingham 
 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 1836 
 1837 
 
 10. Glasgow . . 1840 
 
 11. Plymouth. . 1841 
 
 12. Manchester . . 1842 
 
 13. Cork . . . 1843 
 
 14. York (2nd time) 1844 
 
 15. Cambridge (2Ud) 1845 
 
 16. Southampton . 1846 
 
 17. Oxford (2nd) . 1847 
 
 18. Swansea . . 1848 
 
 Birmingham(2d) 1849 
 Edinburgh (2nd) 1850 
 Ipswich 
 Belfast . 
 .Hull ■. 
 
 Livei-pool (2nd) 
 Glasgow (2nd) 
 Cheltenham 
 Dublin (2nd) 
 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 
 1857 
 
 28. Leeds . . 1858 
 
 29. Aberdeen . . 1859 
 
 30. Oxford (3rd) . 1S60 
 
 31. Manchester (2d) i86r 
 
 32. Cambridge (3rd) 1862 
 
 33. Newcastle (2nd) 1863 
 
 34. Bath . . . 1864 
 
 35. Birmingham (3d) 1865 
 
 36. Nottingham for 1866 
 
 BRITISH BANK. See Banks, Joint Stock. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA (N. America). In June, 1858, news came to California that in 
 April gold had been found in abrmdance on the mainland of North America, a little to the 
 north and east of Vancouver's Island. A great influx of gold-diggers (in a few weeks above 
 50,000) from all parts was the consequence. Mr. Douglas, governor of Vancouver's Island, 
 evinced much ability in preserving order. The territory with adjacent islands was made a 
 British colony with the above title, and placed under Mr. Douglas. The colony was 
 nominated and the government settled by 21 & 22 Vic. c. 99 (Aug. 1858), and a bishop 
 nominated in 1859. — Eor a dispute in July, 1859, see United States. The colony is said to 
 be flourishing. 
 
 BRITISH GUIANA, &c. See Guiana. BRITISH HONDURAS. See Honduras. 
 
 BRITISH INSTITUTION (for the encouragement of British artists. Pall Mall, founded 
 in 1805) opened Jan. 18, 1806, on a plan formed by sir Thomas Bernard. In the gallery 
 (erected hj alderman Boydell, to exhibit the paintings executed for his edition of Shaks- 
 peare), are exhibited pictures by the old masters and deceased British artists. 
 
 BRITISH LEGION, raised by lord John Hay, col. De Lacy Evans, and others, to 
 assist queen Isabella of Spain against the Carlists in 1835, defeated them at Hernani, May 
 5, 1836, and at St. Sebastian's, Oct. i. 
 
 BRITISH MUSEUM, originated with the grant by parliament (April 5, 1753) of 20,000?. 
 to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in payment for his fine library, and vast collection of 
 the productions of nature and art, which had cost him 50,000?. The library contained 50,000 
 volumes and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of virtu enumerated in the catalogue. 
 Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for their reception. The museum 
 was opened in 1759, and has since been enormously increased by gifts, bequests, and pur- 
 chases ; by the (5ottonian, Harleian, and other libraries ; by the Townley marbles (in 1812) ; 
 by the Elgin marbles (1816) ; by the Lycian marbles obtained by sir C. Fellows (1842-6) ; 
 by the Assyrian antiquities collected by Mr. Austin Layard between 1847 and 1850 ; by the 
 antiquities brought from Halicarnassiis (now Budrum), including remains of the celebrated 
 tomb of Mausolus, by Mr. C. T. Newton (Nov. 1858) ; and by antiquities from Carthage (i860), 
 Cyrene, Rhodes, and the Farnese palace (1864). George II. presented the royal library in 
 1757; and in 1823, George IV. presented the library collected at Buckingham-house by 
 
BRI 
 
 130 
 
 BRO 
 
 George III., consisting of 65,250 volumes, and about 19,000 pamphlets. In 1846 the right hon. 
 Thos. GrenviUe bequeathed to the museum his library, consisting of 20,240 volumes. Great 
 additions to, and improvements in, the buildings have since been made, independently 
 of the annual grant.* The fine iron railing enclosing the frontage, was completed in 
 1852. The magnificent reading-room, erected by Mr. Sydney Smirke, according to a plan 
 by Mr. Antonio Panizzi, the librarian, at a. cost of about 150,000?., -was opened to the 
 public, May 18, 1857. The height of the dome is 106 feet, and the diameter 140 feet. The 
 room contains about 80,000 volumes, and accommodates 300 readers. — The daily increasing 
 library contained in i860 above 562,000 volumes, exclusive of tracts, MSS., &c. In 1861 
 the incorporation of the four libi'ary catalogues into one alphabet began — three copies being 
 made. The pi'oposed separation of the antiquai'ian, literary, and scientific collections, was 
 disapproved by a commission in i860 ; and a bill to remove the natural history collections 
 to South Kensington was rejected by the commons on May 19, 1862. A refreshment room 
 for readers was opened Nov. 21, 1864. Mr. Panizzi resigned his office in 1865. 
 
 BRITISH PORTRAIT GALLERY. See National, die. 
 
 BRITTANY, on Bretagne (N. "W. France), the ancient Armorica, which see. It 
 formed part of the kingdom of the Franks. 
 
 The succession disputed between John of 
 Montfort (John IV.) supported by Edward 
 of England, and Charles of Blois, made duke 
 by Philip VI. of France. John is made pri- 
 soner ; his -wife, Jane, besieged at Henne- 
 bonne, holds out, and is relieved by tbe 
 English, 1343; John of Montfort dies . . 1345 
 
 Charks of Blois defeated and slain at Aiuray, 
 Sei:)t. 29 : John V., son of Montfort, duke . 1364 
 
 John VI., duke, 1399; Francis I. . . . 1442 
 
 Peter II., 1450; Arthur III i45T 
 
 Francis II., 1458 ; takes part with the Orlcan- 
 ists in France ; defeated at St. Aubin, July 
 28, 1488 ; he dies in 1488 ; his heiress, Anne, 
 compelled to marry Charles VIII., who 
 annexes Brittany to France . . . . 1491 
 
 Brittany held by the Spaniards, :s9i ; re- 
 covered by Henry IV. 159+ 
 
 The Bretons take part in the Vendcan insur- 
 rection (see La Vendue) in 1791 
 
 Komenoi revolts and becomes the first covmt . 841 
 Geoffroy I. , the first duke .... 992 
 
 Alan v., 1008 ; Conan II 1040 
 
 Hoel v., 1066; Alan VI 1084 
 
 Conan III 1112 
 
 Hoel VI. expelled ; Geoffroy of Anjou elected 
 
 duke iiSS 
 
 Conan IV. duke, 11 56; on the death of Geof- 
 froy, cedes Brittany to Henry II. of England, 
 and betroths his daughter, Constance, to 
 Henry's son, Geoffroy (both infants) . .1159 
 
 Geoffroy succeeds, 1171 ; killed at a tournament 1185 
 His son, Arthur, murdered by his uncle, John 
 of England ; his daughter, Eleanor, impri- 
 soned at Bristol (for 39 years) . . . . 1202 
 Alice, daughter of Constance, and her second 
 husband, GuydeThours, proclaimed duchess, 
 1203 ; marries Peter of Dreux, made duke . 1213 
 
 John I., duke, 1237; John II 1286 
 
 John III., 1312 ; dies without issue . . . 1341 
 
 BROAD ARROW, a mark for goods belonging to the royal dockyards or navy is said to 
 have been ordered to be used in 1698, in consequence of robberies. 
 
 "BROAD BOTTOM" ADMINISTRATION. The Pelham administration (jiJAicA see) 
 was so called because it formed a coalition of parties, Nov. 1 744. 
 
 BROCADE, a silken stuff, variegated with gold or silver, and enriched with flowers and 
 figures, originally made by the Chinese ; the manufacture was established at Lyons in 1757. 
 
 BROCOLI was brought to England from Italy in the 17th century. 
 
 BROKERS, both of money and merchandise, were known early in England. See 
 Appraisers. They are licensed, and their dealings regulated by law in 1695-6, 1816, and 
 1826. The dealings of stock -brokers, were regulated in 17 19, 1733, and 1736, and subse- 
 quently. See Paicnbroker and Barnard's Act. 
 
 BROMINE (from the Greek hromos, a stink), a poisonous volatile liquid element dis- 
 covered in salt water by M. Balard in 1826. It is found in combination with metals and 
 mineral waters, but not as yet in the free state. 
 
 BRONZE was known to the ancients, some of whose bronze statues, vessels, &c. are in 
 the British Museum. The bronze equestrian statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place 
 Yeudome at Paris (demolished Aug. loth, 1792), the most colossal ever made ; it contained 
 60,000 lbs. Bronze is composed of copper and tin, with sometimes a little zinc and lead. 
 Ure. The present bronze coinage, penny, halfpenny and farthing (composed of 95 parts of 
 copper, 4 tin, i zinc), came into circulation Dec. i860. 
 
 » The total expenditure by the government en the British Museum for the year ending March 31, 
 ]E6o, w.is 78,445?.; 1861, 92,776?. ; 1864, 95,500?. : the number of visitors to the general collection in 1851 
 (exhibition year), 2,524,754 ; in 1859, 517,895 ; in 1862 (exhibition year), £95,007 ; in 1863, 440,801. 
 
BRO 
 
 131 
 
 BRU 
 
 BROWNIAN MOTIOK So called from Robert Brown, the celebrated botanist, wlio, 
 ill 1827, by the aid of the microscope, observed in drops of dew a motion of minute particles 
 which at first was attributed to rudimentary life, but was afterwards decided to be due to 
 currents occasioned by inequalities of temperature and evaporation. 
 
 BROWNISTS (afterwards called Barromsts), the first Independents {wMch see), began 
 with Robert Brown, a schoolmaster in Southwark, about 1580. In 1592 there were said to 
 be 20,000 Brownists. Henry Penry, Henry Barrow, ancl other Brownists, were cruelly 
 executed for alleged sedition^ May 29, 1593. 
 
 BRUCE'S TRAVELS. James Bruce, the "Abyssinian Traveller," set out in June, 1768, 
 to discover the source of the Nile. Proceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, 
 thence crossed the desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jedda, passed some months in 
 Arabia Felix, and after various detentions reached Gondar, the capital of Abyssinia, in Feb. 
 1770. On Nov. 14th, 1770, he obtained a sight of the sources of the Blue Nile. He 
 returned to England in 1773, and died in 1794. 
 
 BRUGES, Belgium, in the 7th century was capital of Flanders, and in the 13th and I4tli 
 centuries had become almost the commercial metropolis of the world. It suffered much 
 through an insurrection in 1488, and the consequent repression. It was incorporated with 
 France in 1794, with the Netherlands in 1814, and with Belgium in 1830. 
 
 BRUNSWICK CLUBS, established to maintain the house of Hanover and the Protestant 
 ascendancy in church and state, began in England at Maidstone, Sept. 18, 1828 ; in Ireland 
 at the Rotunda in Dublin, Nov. 4, same year. Other cities formed similar clubs. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, House of. The duchy of Brunswick, in Lower Saxony, was conquered 
 by Charlemagne, and governed afterwards by counts and dukes. Albert-Azzo, marquis of 
 Italy and lord of Este, died in 1055, and left by his wife Cunegonde (the heiress of Guelph, 
 duke of Carinthia in Bavaria), a son, Guelph, who was invited into Germany by Imitza, his 
 mother-in-law, and invested with all the possessions of his wife's step-father, Guelph of 
 Bavaria. (See Bavaria.) His descendant, Henry the Lion, married Maud, daughter of Henry 
 II. of England, and is always looked upon as the founder of the Brunswick family. His 
 dominions were very extensive ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick Barbarossa 
 in a war against pope Alexander III., through the emperor's resentment he was proscribed at 
 the diet at Wiirtzburg, in 11 80. The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is 
 descended the family of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the 
 house of Anhalt ; and his other territories to different persons. On this, he retired to 
 England ; but at the intercession of our Henry II. Brunswick and Lunenburg were restored 
 to him. The house of Brunswick in 1409 divided into several branches. Brunswick was 
 included by Napoleon in the kingdom of Westphalia in 1806, but was restored to the duke in 
 1815. — Population of the duchy of Brunswick in 1858, 273,400 ; 1862, 282,400. 
 
 Lewis-Rodolph, and succeeded him. 
 
 1735. Charles (son). 
 
 1780. Charles-Wilham-Ferdinand (son) : a gi-eat 
 general <served under his uncle Ferdinand 
 in the Seven Years' War, 1756-1763) ; married 
 princess Augusta of England : was kiUed at 
 the battle of Auerstadt, Oct. 14, 1806 ; suc- 
 ceeded by his fourth son (his elder sons being 
 blind, abdicated). 
 
 1806. William-Frederick, whose reign may be dated 
 from the battle of Leipsic in Oct., 1813 ; fell 
 at Quatre-Bras, commanding the avantgarde 
 under the duke of Wellington, June 16, 1815 ; 
 succeeded by his eldest son, 
 
 1815. Charles-Frederick- William ; assumed govern- 
 ment Oct. 30, 1823. [Revolution at Bruns- 
 wick ; the duke retires to England, Sept. 7, 
 1830.] 
 
 1830. William- Augustus-Louis, brother ; born April 
 25, 1806; succeeded provisionally, Sept. 7, 
 1830 ; and, on the demand of the Germanic 
 diet, definitively, April 25, 1831 ; the pre- 
 sent duke ; unmarried. (His magnificent 
 palace was destroyed by fire, Feb. 24, 1865.) 
 
 DUKES OP BBUNSWICK-LTTNEBdRG. 
 
 1409. Bernard (son of Magnus II., duke of Bruns- 
 wick. See above). 
 1434. Otho and Frederic (his sons). 
 1478. Henry (sou of Otho). 
 
 K 2 
 
 DUKES OF EEUNSWICK. 
 
 1 1 39. Henry the Lion, succeeded by 
 
 1 195. Henry the Long and William (sons). 
 
 1213. Otho I. (son of William). 
 
 1252. Albert I. (son of preceding). 
 
 1278. Albert II. (son). 
 
 1318. Otho, Magnus I., and Ernest (sons). 
 
 1368. Magnus II. (Torquatus) (son of Magnus I.) 
 
 DUKES or BRUNSWICK- WOLFENBUTTEL. 
 
 First Branch. 
 1409. Henry I. (son of Magnus II.) 
 1416. William I. and Henry II. (sons). 
 
 1482. Frederic and William II. ) „ ^f -ht-iij,^ t 
 
 1495. Henry III. and Eric. ] ^°"^ <** "^^^ra I. 
 
 1514. Henry IV. (son of Henry II.) 
 
 1568. Julius (son of preceding). 
 
 1589. Henry Julius (son). 
 
 1613. Frederic-Ulric (son) died without issue. 
 
 Second Branch. 
 1634. Augustus (son of Henry of Luneburg). 
 1666. Rodolph-Augustus ; who associated his next 
 
 brothel", Anthony-Ulric, in the government, 
 
 from 1685 ; died, 1704. 
 1704. Anthony-Ulric now ruled alone; became a 
 
 Roman Catholic in 1710 ; died in 1714. 
 1 7 14. Augustus- William (son). 
 1731. Lewis-Rodolph (brother). 
 1735. Ferdinand-Albert, duke of Brunswick-Bevern, 
 
 married Antoinette-Amelia, daughter of 
 
BRU 
 
 132 
 
 BUG 
 
 BRUNSWICK, continued. 
 
 1532. Ernest T. (son of Otho). His sons were 
 
 1546. Henry (founder of second branch of Bnmswick- 
 
 Wolfenbuttel) and William, whose seven sons 
 
 cast lots to determine who should marry. 
 
 The lot fell on George, sixth son. Four of 
 
 the brothers reigned, viz. : — 
 1592. Ernest II. "V 
 
 1611. Christian. ' ;„„„„ 
 
 1633. Augustus. hno issue. 
 1636. Frederic II. J 
 
 1648. Christian-Lewis (son of the George above-men' 
 tioned). 
 
 1665. George-William (brother of Christian-Lewis), 
 dies in 1705 ; leaving as heiress Sophia- 
 Dorothea, his daughter, who married in 
 1682 her ' cousin, prince George-Lewis of 
 Hanover, afterwards George I. of England 
 (son of Ernest of Hanover, youngest son of 
 the ahone-maitioned George. 
 
 (See Hanover and England.) 
 
 BRUNSWICK THEATRE, Well-street, East London, was built to replace the Royalty, 
 burnt down April 11, 1826. It was opened Feb. 25, 1828. On the 29th the building was 
 destroyed by the falling in of the walls, due to too nuich weight being attached to the heavy 
 iron roof. Fortunately, the catastrophe happened in the day time (during a rehearsal of Guy 
 Mannering), and only twelve persons perished. 
 
 BRUSSELS, once capital of Austrian Brabant, now of Belgium (since 183 1), was 
 founded by St. Gary, of Cambray, in the 7th century. It is celebrated for its fine lace, 
 camlets, and tapestry. The Holel de Ville has a turret 364 feet in height ; and on its top is 
 a copper figure of St. Michael, 1 7 feet high, which turns with the wind. See Belgium. 
 
 Bombarded by marshal Villeroi, 14 churches 
 
 and 4000 hou.'!es destroyed . . Aug. 1695 
 
 Taken by the French, 1746 ; and by Dumouriez, 1792 
 
 The revolution commences . . Aug. 25, 1830 
 
 The costly furniture of 16 houses demohshed. 
 
 in consequence of a display of attachment to 
 
 the house of Orange . . . April 5, 1834 
 
 Maritime conference to obtain uniform me- 
 teorological observations held here . . 1853 
 
 International philanthropic congress meet 
 
 Sept. 1856 
 
 International 'association for social science 
 meet Sept. 22-5, 1862 
 
 BRUTTIUM (now Calabria Oltra), S. Italy, 
 slew Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 332 B.C. 
 
 BUBBLE COMPANIES. 
 
 The Bruttians and Lticanians defeated and 
 They were conq^uered by Rome, 277 B.C. 
 
 See Companies, Law's Bubble, and South-sea Bubble. 
 
 BUCCANEERS,* piratical adventurers, chiefly French, English, and Dutch, who com- 
 menced their depredations on the Spaniards of America soon after the latter had taken 
 possession of that continent and the West Indies. Their numbers were much increased by a 
 twelve years' truce between tlie Spaniards and Dutch in 1609, when many of the discharged 
 sailors joined the Buccaneers, and extended the range of then- ravages. The first levy of 
 ship-money in England in 1635 was to defray the expense of chastising these pirates. The 
 principal commanders of the first Buccaneers were Montbar, Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan, 
 said to have murdered thousands and plundered millions. The expedition of Van Horn, of 
 Ostend, was undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont in 1685 ; and that of Pointis in 1697. 
 
 BUCENTAUR, the vessel in which the doge of Venice used to proceed to wed the 
 Adriatic, from the twelfth to the eighteenth century. 
 
 BUCHANITES (in Scotland) : followers of Mrs. Buchan, who about 1779 promised to 
 conduct them to the new Jerusalem, prophesied the end of theworld, &c. She diedin 1791, 
 when her followers dispersed. 
 
 BUCHAREST (in Wallachia). Preliminaries of peace were ratified at this place between 
 Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be the frontier of the two 
 empires ; signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent war between these powers altered many of 
 the provisions of this treaty. Bucharest was occupied by the Russians, Turks, and Austrians 
 successively in the Crimean war. The last quitted it in 1856. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM PALACE, the London residence of the sovereign. Old Buckingham- 
 house was built on the " Mulberry-gardens," by John Sheffield, duke of Buckingham, in 
 1703. In 1761 it was bought by George III., who in 1775 settled it on his queen, Charlotte. 
 She made it her town residence ; and here all her children, except the eldest, were bom. 
 Here were married the duke of York and princess Frederica of Prussia, in 1791 ; the duke 
 of Gloucester and princess Mary, 1816 ; the prince of Hesse-Homburg and princess Elizabeth, 
 181 8 ; and the duke of Cambridge and princess of Hes.se the same year. The house was puUed 
 down in 1825, and the present palace commenced on its site. After an expenditure of 
 
 * Rayiial asserts that the na me is derived from a Caribbee word houcan, signifying the place where 
 the native savages dried their fo od by smoke ; a custom necessarily adopted by the pirates from their 
 mode of life. 
 
BUG 
 
 133 
 
 BUI 
 
 nearly a million sterling it was completed, and occupied by queen Victoria, July 13, 1837. 
 Further improvements were made in 1853. The marble arch, taken down from the exterior 
 of this palace was re-erected at Cumberland-gate, Hyde-park, March 29, 185 1. 
 
 BUCKLERS, used in single combat, are said to have been invented byPrcetus and 
 Acrisius of Argos, about 1370 B.C. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Samnites, he took 
 from them bucklers of gold and silver, 309 B.C. The light cuirass of the horse-soldiers called 
 cuii'assiers is something akin to the ancient buckler. 
 
 BUCKLES were first worn instead of shoe-strings in the reign of Cliiirles IL, and soon 
 became fashionable and expensive from the richness of their material ; about 1791 they had 
 fallen out of use. Buckles continue to be used in court dress and by persons of rank in most 
 countries of Europe. 
 
 BUDA, on the Danube, once called the Key of Christendom, is, in conjunction with Pesth, 
 the capital of Hungary. It was taken by Charlemagne in 799 ; and sacked by Solyman II. 
 after the battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of his 
 subjects carried away captives, 1526. Buda was sacked a second time, when the inhabitants 
 were put to the sword, and Hungary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, I54i- Retaken 
 by the Imperialists, under the duke of Lorraine, and the Mahometans delivered up to the 
 fury of the soldiers, 1686, It suffered much in 1848-9. See Hiongary. 
 
 BUDE LIGHT (so named from Bude in Cornwall, the residence of Mr. Goldsworthy 
 Giirney, its inventor), consists of two or more concentric argand gas-burners, one rising above 
 another, which produce a most brilliant flame, like the petals of a rose. The illuminating 
 powers were increased by subjecting to the action of the flame manganese, &c., in order to 
 produce oxygen and hydrogen gas. The patent was issued in 1841, 
 
 BUDDHISM, the religion (formerly of India, and now of a large part of Asia beyond the 
 Ganges and Japan) from which Brahmiuism is said to be derived. Buddha (also Bud, Bot, 
 and Poot), or the Wise, flotmshed about 1000 or 800 B.C. The Buddhists believe that the 
 soul is an emanation from God, and that if it continue virtuous, it will return to him on the 
 death of the body ; but if not so, that it will undergo various degrees and changes of abode. 
 Buddhism was expelled from India about A.D. 956. 
 
 BUDGET (from the French hougette, a small bag), a term applied to the English chan- 
 cellor of exchequer's statement of the finances of the country. The budgets of Sir R. Peel 
 in 1842 (including the income-tax) and 1846 (free trade), and of Mr. Gladstone in i860 (in 
 connection with the treaty with France), are the most important in recent times. 
 
 • BUENOS AYRES, a republic of S. America. The country was explored by Sebastian 
 Cabot in 1526, and the capital founded by Don Pedro de Mendoza in 1535.^ In 1585^10 
 city was rebuilt and recolonised, after several abandonments. Population in 1859 about 
 350,000. 
 
 A British fleet and army, under sir Home Pop- 
 liam and general Beresford, take the city 
 with slight resistance, Jiine 27 ; it is re- 
 taken Aug. 12 i8o5 
 
 Monte Video taken by storm by sir Samuel 
 Auchmuty, Feb. 3 ; evacuated July 7 . . 1807 
 
 General Whitelock and 8000 British enter 
 Buenos Ayres ; severely repulsed . July s, 1807 
 
 Independence of the province declared, July ig, 1816 
 
 Recognised as forming part of the Argentine 
 coiifederation Feb. 1822 
 
 [A prey to civil war through the violent in- 
 trigues of Rosas, Oribe, Urquiza, and others, 
 for many years.] 
 
 Oribe defeated by general Urquiza, to whom 
 Buenos Ayres capitulates . . Feb. 3, 1852 
 
 Rosas flees, arrives at Plymouth . April 25, ,, 
 
 BUFFOOKS were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres, 
 discouraged by Domitian, and abolished by Trajan, 98. See Jesters. 
 
 BUILDING. In early times men dwelt in caves ; wood and clay were the first building 
 materials. BuUdingwith stone was early among the Tyrians ; in England it may be referred 
 to Benedict the monk, about 670. In Ireland a castle was biiilt of stone at Tuam by the 
 king of Connaught, in 1161 ; and it was "so new and uncommon as to be called the 
 
 Urquiza deposed, Sept. 10 ; invests the city ; 
 after some successes he retires . . Dec. 1852 
 
 Buenos Ayres secedes from the Argentine con- 
 federation, and is recognised as an inde- 
 pendent state ; the first governor. Dr. D. 
 Pastor Obligado, elected . . Oct. 12, 1853 
 
 Dr. Valentin Alsina elected governor . May, 1857 
 
 War breaks out ; Urquiza, general of the forces 
 of the Argentine confederation, has an inde- 
 cisive conflict with the Buenos Ayres general 
 Mitre Oct. 23, 1859 
 
 A treaty signed, by which Buenos Ayres is re- 
 united with the Argentine confederation 
 
 Nov. II, 1859 
 
 Fresh contests : Mitre defeats Urquiza in an 
 almost bloodless contest at Pavon ; Urquiza 
 retu-es Sept. 17, 1861 
 
 Their shows were 
 
BUI 134 BUL 
 
 Wonderful Castle.'" Building witli brick was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. 
 Alfred encouraged it in England in 886. It was adopted by the earl of Arundel, about 1598, 
 London being then almost wholly built of wood. See Architecture. 
 
 BUILDING ACTS were passed by Elizabeth in 1562, 1580, and 1592 ; and *)y Charles II. 
 in 1667. Recent acts are very numerous ; and building is now regulated by stringent pro- 
 visions enforced by law. The Building Act for the Metropolis is 7 & 8 Vict. c. 84 (1844), 
 amended in 1855 and i860. 
 
 BUILDING SOCIETIES, formed to enable a person to purchase a house by paying 
 money periodically to a society for a certain number of years, instead of paying rent to a 
 landlord, began about 1836, when an act was passed for their regulation, 
 
 BULGARIA, anciently Mcesia, now part of European Turkey. The Bulgarians were a 
 Slavonian tribe, who harassed the Eastern empire and Italy from 499 to 678, when they 
 established a kingdom. They defeated Justinian II., 687; but were subdued, after several 
 conflicts, by the emperor Basil, in loiS, who in 1014, having taken 15,000 Bulgarian 
 prisoners, caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every hundredth man, to 
 enable him to conduct his countrymen home. The kingdom was re-established in 1096 ; but 
 after many changes, it was conquered and annexed to the Ottoman empire, about 1391. In 
 Jan. 1 86 1, it was stated that the Bulgarians had seceded from the Greek to the Roman 
 church. 
 
 BULL, OR Edict of the Pope. The bulla is properly the seal, either of gold, silver, 
 lead, or wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other the name 
 of the pope, and year of his pontificate. A bull against heresy was issued by Gregory IX. 
 in 1231. Pius V. published a bull against Elizabeth, April 25, 1570 ; in 1571 buUs were 
 forbidden to be promulgated in England. The bull Unigenilus against the Jansenites was 
 issued by Clement XI. in 1713. The Golden Bull of the emperor Charles IV., so called 
 from its golden seal, was made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet of 
 Nuremberg, 1356. See Brazen Bull. 
 
 BULL-BAITING, or Bull Fighting, a sport somewhat equivalent to the fights of the 
 gladiators among the Romans, still exists in Spain, where the ladies are among the spectators. 
 It is recorded as being an amusement at Stamford so early as the reign of John, 1209. Bull- 
 running was a sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Sjjorts of England, we read of the "Easter 
 fierce hunts, wheu foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and huge bears were 
 baited with dogs ;" and near the Clink, London, was the Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated 
 in the time of Elizabeth for the exhibition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusenient. 
 A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown out in the commons, chiefly through the influence 
 of the late Mr. Windham, who made a singular speech in favour of the custom, May 24, 
 1802. It was made illegal in 1835. See Cruelly to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced 
 into Spain about 1260 : abolished there, "except for pious and 2}atriotic purposes," in 1784. 
 In June, 1833, ninety-nine bulls were killed at bull-fights at Madrid. There was a bull- 
 fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 spectators, on Sunday, 
 June 14, 1840. 
 
 BULLETS of stone were in use, 15 14. Iron ones are mentioned in the Fcedera, 1550. 
 Leaden bullets were made before the close of the sixteenth centuiy. The cannon-ball in 
 some eastern countries was long of stone. Ashe. The conoidal cup rifle-ball was invented 
 by capt. Miui^, about 1833 ; a modification of this (conoidal but without cup), by ill-. 
 Pritchett (1853), is used with the Enfield rifle. Other bullets have been since devised. 
 
 BULLION, uncoined gold and silver. The " Bullion Report" of a parliamentary com- 
 mittee in 1810, principally guided by Mr. Horner and Mr. (afterwards Sir R.) Peel, established 
 the conclusion, that paper money is always liable to be over-issued and consequently depre- 
 ciated, unless it be at all times immediately convertible into gold. This principle has been 
 adopted in British monetary arrangements. 
 
 BULL RUN BATTLES. See Manassas. 
 
 BULWER-CLAYTON TREATY, ratified July 4, 1850, by which sir Henry Lylton 
 Bulwcr on behalf of the British, and Mr. Clayton on behalf of the American government, 
 declared that neither would obtain exclusive control over the proposed ship canal through 
 Central America, or erect any foi'tification on any part of the country. Disputes afterwards 
 arose with respect to this treaty and the connection of Great Britain with the Mosquito 
 tenitoiy {which see), which were settled in 1857. 
 
BUN 
 
 135 
 
 BUR 
 
 BUNKER'S HILL (near Boston, U.S.), the site of a severe contest on June 17, 1775, 
 between the British (nearly 3000) and the revolted Americans (about 2000) ; the latter were 
 ultimately compelled to retreat. It was one of the eai'liest actions in the war, and the 
 Americans refer to it with national pride, on account of their heroic resistance. Ralph 
 Farnham, who was present at the battle, died on Dec. 28, i860, aged 1044 years. He was 
 introduced to the prince of "Wales when in America. 
 
 BUONAPARTE. See France. 
 
 BURFORD CLUB, the appellation given (according to Mr. Layer, the banister, a con- 
 spirator, see Layer) by the Pretender and his agents to a club of Tory lords and others, of 
 which lord Orrery was chairman, and lord Strafford, sir Henry Goring, lord Cowper, Mr. 
 Hutcheson, the bishop of Rochester, sir Constantine Phipps, general Webb, lord Biugley, 
 lord Craven, Mr. Dawkins, lord Scarsdale, lord Bathurst, Mr. Shippen, and lord Gower, 
 were members. This club was said to meet at the members' houses, to form designs against 
 the government. This story was set aside by the solemn declarations of lord Cowper and lord 
 Strafford, that they did not know of its existence. The list of this pretended club was 
 published in the Weekly Journal, printed in Whitefriars ; but when Read, the printer of the 
 paper, was ordered to appear at the bar of the house, he absconded. March, 1722. Salmon. 
 
 BURGESSES, from the French Bourgeois, a distinction coeval in England with its corpo- 
 rations. They were called to parliament in England, 1265 ; in Scotland in 1326 ; and in 
 Ireland about, 1365. Burgesses to be resident in the places they represented in parliament, 
 I Hen. y. (1413). See Borough. 
 
 BURGHER SECEDERS, a small number of dissenters from the chm-ch of Scotland, 
 from a difference regarding the lawfulness of taking the burgess oath, 1 739. 
 
 BURGLARY was a capital offence till 1829. Formerly, he who convicted a burglar was 
 exempted from parish offices, 1699 ; Statute of Rewards, 5 Anne, 1706 ; and 6 Geo. 1. 1720. 
 Receivers of stolen plate and other goods to be transported, 10 Geo. III. 'i^^o. Persons 
 liavkig upon them picklock-keys, &c., to be deemed rogues and vagabonds, 13 Geo. III. 
 1772-3. The laws with respect to burglary were amended by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) 
 Peel's acts between 1823 and 1829. 
 
 BURGOS (Spain), the burial place of the Cid, 1099. Lord "Wellington entered Burgos 
 on Sept. 19, after the battle of Salamanca (fought July 22, 1812). The castle was besieged 
 by the British and allied army, but the siege was abandoned Oct. 21, same year. The forti- 
 fications were blown up by the French, June 12, 1813. 
 
 BURGUNDY, a large province in France, derives its name from the Burgundians, a 
 Gothic tribe who overran Gaul in 275, but were driven out by the emperor Probus : they 
 returned in 287, and were defeated by Maximin. In 413 they established a Kingdom, 
 comprising the present Burgundy, large parts of Switzerland, with Alsace, Savoy, Provence, 
 &c. Gondicar, their leader, was the first king. — The second kingdom, consisting of a part of 
 the first, began with Gontran, son of Clotaire I. of France, in 561. The kingdom of Aries, 
 Provence, and Transjurane Burgundy, were formed out of the old kingdom. — In 877 Charles 
 the Bald made his brother-in-law Richard the first Duke of Burgundy. In 938, Hugh the 
 Great, count of Paris, founder of the house of Capet, obtained the duchy. His descendant, 
 Henry, on becoming king of France, conferred it on his brother Robert, in whose family it 
 remained till the death of Philippe de Rouvre, without issue, in 1361. In 1363, king John 
 of France, made his fourth son, Philip, duke, who greatly enlarged his dominons by marrying 
 the heiress of Louis, count of Flanders, Artois, &c. (See Austria and Germany.) 
 
 1363. Philip the Bold. 
 
 1404. John the Fearless (son), joined English in- 
 vading France ; supposed to have been privy 
 to the assassination of the duke of Orleans 
 in 1407 ; was himself assassinated at Mon- 
 tereau, in the presence of the dauphin, Sept., 
 1419. 
 
 1419. Philip the Good (son), the most powerful duke 
 
 in the world ; married to Margaret of York, 
 
 sister to Edward IV. 
 1467. Charles the Bold : killed in an engagement 
 
 with the Swiss, before Nancy, Jan. 4, 1477. 
 1477. Mary (daughter); married Aug., 1477, to 
 
 Maximilian of Austria ; died March 27, 1482. 
 1479. Louis XI. annexed Burgundyto France. The 
 
 other dominions fell to Austria. 
 
 BURIALS. Abraham biuied Sarah at Machpelah, i860 B.C., Gen. xxiii. Places of 
 burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in A.B. 210. Eusebius. The Greeks had 
 then- burial-places at a distance from their towns ; the Romans near the highways ; hence 
 the necessity for inscriptions. The first Christian burial-place, it is said, was instituted in 
 596 ; burial in cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in churchyards, 758. Many of the 
 early Christians are buried in the catacombs at Rome. See Catacombs. Vaults were 
 
BUR 
 
 13G 
 
 BUI! 
 
 erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds were used in England, 1666. 
 Linen scarfs were introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729; and woollen shrouds used, 1733. 
 Burials were taxed, 1695 — again, 1783. The acts relating to metropolitan burials were 
 passed 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1857. See Cemeteries. Parochial registers of burials, births, 
 and marriages, were instituted in England by Cromwell, lord Essex, about 1538. Stow. 
 A tax was enacted on burials in England — for the burial of a duke 50?., and for that of a 
 common person 45. — under Will. III. 1695, and Geo. III. 1783. See Bills of Mortality. 
 
 BURKING, a new species of murder, committed in Britaiu, thus named from Burke, the 
 first known criminal by whom it was perpetrated. His victims were killed by pressure or 
 other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no marks of violence, were sold 
 to the surgeons for dissection. He was executed at Edinburgh, Jan. 28, 1829. A monster 
 named Bishop was apprehended in Nov. 1831, and executed in London, Dec. 5, with 
 Williams, one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor friendless Italian boy named 
 Carlo Ferrari. They confessed to this and other similar murders. 
 
 BURLINGTON HEIGHTS. Here a fierce contest took place between the British and 
 the United States American forces, June 6, 1813. The British carried the heights. 
 
 BURMESE, OR BIRMAN, EMPIRE, founded in the middle of the i8th century by 
 Alompra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty. Our first dispute with this formidable 
 power in 1795, was amicablj'- adjusted by general Erskine. Hostilities were commenced by 
 the British in 1824, and they took Rangoon on May 11. The fort and pagoda of Syriam 
 were taken in 1825. After a short armistice, hostilities were renewed, Dec. i, same year, 
 and pursued until the successive victories of the British led to the cession of Arracan, and to 
 the signature of peace, Feb. 24, 1826. For the events of this Avar, and of the war in 1851, 
 see h^dia. Pegu was annexed to our Indian em j)ire, Dec. 20, 1852. The war ended June 
 20, 1853. 
 
 BURNING ALIVE was inflicted among the Romans, Jews, and other nations, on the 
 betrayers of coimsels, incendiaries, and for incest. The Britons punished heinous crimes by 
 burning alive in wicker-baskets. See StoneJienge. — This punishment was countenanced by 
 bulls of the pope ; and witches suflfered in this manner. See Witches. Many persons have 
 been burned alive on account of religious principles. The first sufferer was sir William 
 Sa-\vtre, parish priest of St. Osytli, London, 3 Hen. IV., Feb. 9, 1401. In the reign of 
 Mary, numbers were burned ; among others, Ridley, bishop of London, Latimer, bishop of 
 Rochester, and Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, at Oxford in 1555 and 1556.* 
 Bartholomew Leggatt and Edward Wightman Avere burned for heresy in 1612, by warrant 
 of James I. 
 
 BURNING THE DEAD was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and the poet 
 Homer gives descriptions of it. It was veiy genei-al about 1225 B.C., and was revived by 
 Sylla about 78 B.C. It is still practised in parts of the East Indies. See Suttees, Barrows. 
 
 BURNING-GLASS and Concave Mirrors. Their power Avas knoAvn to Archimedes, 
 and it is even asserted that by their aid he burnt a fleet in the harbour of Sjracuse, 2 14 B. c. ; 
 their poAvers were increased by Settalla ; Tschirnhausen, 1680 ; Buffon, 1747 ; and Parker 
 and others more recently. The following experiments were made about 1800, with Mr. 
 Parker's lens or bui'ning mirror, which cost jool., and is said to have been the largest ever 
 made. It was sold to capt. Mackenzie, Avho took it to China, and left it at Pekin. 
 
 Substances fused. Weight. Time. 
 
 Pvire gold 20 grains 4 seconds. 
 
 Silver 20 ,, 3 ,, 
 
 Copper 33 ,',' 20 ',' 
 
 Platina 10 ,, 3 ,, 
 
 Cast iron (a cube) . . . 10 ,'' 3 ," 
 
 Steel ID ,, 12 ,',' 
 
 A topaz ..... 3 45 
 
 An emerald . . . . 2 ,'' 25 " 
 
 BURWELL FIRE. A number of persons assembled to see a puppet-shoAv in a barn at 
 Burwell near Newmarket, Sept. 8, 1727. A candle having set fire to a heap of straAV, 
 seventy-six individuals perished, and others died of their wounds. 
 
 * It is computed, that during the throe years of Mary's reign, there were 277 persons brought to the 
 stake ; besides those who were punished by imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those who 
 suffered by fire were 5 bishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, 
 and labourers, 55 women, and 4 children. The pi-incipal agents of the queen were the bishops Gardiner 
 and Bonner. The latter is said to have derived a savage pleasure from witnessing the torture of the 
 sufferers. 
 
 Siihitances fused. Weiffht. Time. 
 
 A crystal pebble . . • • 7 grains 6 seconds. 
 
 Flint ID ,, 30 ,, 
 
 Cornelian 10 ,, 75 ,, 
 
 Pumice stone . . . . 10 ,, 24 „ 
 Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils 
 immediately ; bones are calcined ; and things not 
 capable of melting at once become red-hot, like 
 
BUR 137 BUT 
 
 BURY ST. EDMUND'S, Suffolk, uamed from St. Edmund, king of East Anglia, who 
 was murdered by the Danes in 870, and buried here, and to whom its magnificent abbey was 
 founded. It shares with Runnymede the honour of producing Magna Charta in 12 15 ; it 
 having been prepared here by the barons in 1214. Henry VI. summoned a parliament in 
 1447, when Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, was imprisoned, and died here, it is supposed by 
 poison. It was almost consumed by fire in 1608 ; and was desolated by plague in 1636. 
 
 BURYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Bceotia, where Creon oi'dered Antigone, 
 the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 b.c. The Roman vestals were subjected to 
 it for any levity that excited suspicion of their chastity. The vestals buiied alive on a charge 
 of incontinence, were Minutia, 337B.C. ; Sextilla, 274B.C. ; Cornelia, A. D. 92. Lord Bacon 
 gives instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive ; the famous Duns 
 Scotus is of the number. The two assassins of Capo d'Istria, president of Greece, were 
 sentenced to be immured in brick walls built around them up to their chins, and to be 
 supplied with food in this species of torture until they died, Oct. 183 1. 
 
 BUSACO, or Buzaco (Portugal). Here the British, under lord "Wellington, repulsed 
 the French army, commanded by Massena, Sept. 27, 1810. The latter losing one general 
 and 1000 men killed, two generals and about 3000 men wounded, and several hundred 
 prisoners ; the loss of the allies did not exceed 1300 ; the British retreated to the lines of 
 Torres Vedras, which were too strong for Massena to force, and the two armies remained in 
 sight of each other to the end of the 3''ear. 
 
 BUSHEL. This measure was ordered to contain eight gallons of wheat, 12 Henry VIII. 
 1520 ; the legal Winchester bushel was regulated 9 Will. III. 1697 ; the imperial corn 
 bushel of 22i8'i92 cubic inches is to the Winchester of 2I50'42, as 32 to 31. Regulated by 
 act S Geo. IV. June, 1824, which act came into operation Jan. i, 1826. 
 
 BUSHIRE (on the Persian Gulf), attacked by sea by sir H. Leeke and by land by 
 general Stalker, was taken Dec. 10, 1856. The place proved stronger than was expected, 
 and was bravely defended. Brigadier Stopford and col. Malet were killed in a previous 
 attack on the fort at Reshire, Dec. 9. The loss of the British was four of&cers killed, and 
 one wounded ; five men killed and thirty-five wounded. 
 
 BUSSORAH. See Bassorah. 
 
 BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is the same 
 with the hcrmce of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the inventor of moulds, from 
 which he cast wax figures, 328 B.C. Pliny. Busts from the face i\\ plaster of Paris were 
 first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about A.D. 1466. Smaller busts and statuettes are now 
 accm-ately produced from larger ones by machinery. 
 
 BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were three classes : the Suarii provided hogs, 
 the Boarii oxen, which the Lanii killed. The butchers' company in London is ancient, 
 although not incorporated till 1604, 
 
 BUTE ADMINISTRATION. John earl of Bute, tutor of prince George (afterwards 
 George III.), obtained great influence over him. His administration formed in May, 1762, 
 resigned April, 1763. It was severely attacked by Juniiis and John Wilkes. 
 
 John, earl of Bute, first lord of the treasury. j Lord Ligonier, ordnance. 
 
 Sir Francis Dashwood, chancellor of the exchequer. Henry Fox, afterwards lord Holland, paymaster of 
 
 T-iOrA. QTc&a.'vi\le, president of the covMcil. the forces. 
 
 Duke of Bedford, privy seal. Viscount Barrington, treasurer of the navy. 
 
 Earl of Halifax, admiralty. Lord Handys, first lord of trade. 
 Earl of Egremont and George GrenvUle, secretaries Duke of Marlborough, earl Talbot, lord Huntingdon , 
 
 of state. I lord North, &c. 
 
 BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the early 
 Romans it was used onlj'- as a medicine — never as food. The Christians of Egypt burnt 
 butter in their lamps instead of oil, in the 3rd century. Butter forming an important article 
 of commerce as well as food in these countries, various statutes have passed respecting its 
 package, weight, and sale ; the principal of which are the 36th & 38th Geo. III. and 10 Geo. 
 IV. 1829. In Africa, vegetable butter is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of 
 richer taste, at Kebba, than any butter made from cow's milk. Mungo Park. The import 
 duty of 5s. per cwt. on foreign butter (producing in 1859, 104,587?. on 421,354 cwts.) was 
 repealed in i860. 
 
BUT 138 CAB 
 
 BUTTONS, au early manufacture in England ; tliose covered with cloth were prohibited 
 by a statute, thereby to encourage the maniifacture of metal buttons, 8 Geo. I. 1721. They 
 are now made of glass, porcelain, &c. 
 
 BUXAR, a town in Bengal, near to which, on Oct. 23, 1764, sir Hector Monro (with 
 857 Europeans and 6215 sepoys) gained a great victory over the troops of the nabob of Oude, 
 &c., 50,000 in number ; 6000 of these were killed, and 130 pieces of cannon were taken. 
 The loss of the English was trifling. 
 
 BY-LAWS, OK Bye-Laws (from Danish, bye), a town, private ordinances made by sub- 
 ordinate communities, such as corporations. These laws must not militate against the law 
 of the land. By 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1834, those made by corporate bodies become valid, if not 
 disallowed by the king's council within forty days after their enactment. 
 
 BYNG, Hon. Admiral John, was chai-ged with neglect of duty in an engagement with 
 the enemy off Minorca, May 20, 1756, condemned for an en-or of judgment, and shot on 
 board the Monarch at Spithead, March 14, 1757. 
 
 BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England on his voyage round the globe 
 June 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. He discovered the populous island in the Pacific 
 Ocean which bears his name, Aug. 16, 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his 
 general ill-fortune at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet " Foulweather Jack." 
 
 BYZANTIUM, now Constantinople, founded by a colony of Megarians, under Byzas, 
 667 B.C. ; but various dates and jiersons are given. It was taken successively by the Medes, 
 Athenians, and Spartans. In 340 B.C., in alliance with the Athenians, the Byzantines 
 defeated the fleet of Philip of Macedon. During the wars with Macedon, Syria, &c., it 
 became an ally of the Romans, by whom it was taken, A.D. 73. Rebelling, it was taken 
 after two years' siege and laid in ruins by Severus in 196. Byzantium was re-founded by 
 Constantine in 324, and dedicated in May 22, 330, all the heathen temples being destroyed ; 
 from him it received the name of Constantinople. See ConsiaiUino2}le. Byzantine Art 
 flourished from the time of Constantine to about 1204. The Byzantine or Eastern empire 
 really commenced in a.d. 395, when Theodosius divided the Roman empire. See East. 
 
 C. 
 
 CABAL (from Italian and Spanish, cabala, secret knowledge). In English history, the 
 term was applied to the cabinet of Charles II. in 1670 ; the word Cabal being formed from the 
 initials of their names : sir Thomas, afterwards lord Clifford (C) ; the lord Ashley (A), 
 (afterwards earl of Shaftesbury) ; George Villiers, duke of Buckingham (B) ; Henry, lord 
 Arlington (A) ; and John, duke of Lauderdale (L). 
 
 CABBAGE. Varieties were brought to these realms from Holland about 15 10. To sir 
 Arthur Ashley of Dorset the first planting in England is ascribed. It was introduced into 
 Scotland by the soldiers of Cromwell's army. See Gardening. 
 
 CABBALA, a Hebrew word, signifying recension or tradition, applied to a mystical mode 
 of intei-preting the Scriptures as well as natural things, said to have been given to Adam by 
 angels, and transmitted from father to son by his descendants. It is said to have been lost 
 at the Babylonian captivity (587 B.C.), but to have been revealed again to Ezra. The 
 Cabbalists were opposed by the philosophers and by Talmudists, which see. 
 
 CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England as early as the reign of Ina, 
 king of the West Saxons, 690 ; Ofl"a, king of the Mercians, 758 ; and in other reigns of the 
 Heptarchy. State councils are referred to Alfred the Great. Spelman. See Adminis- 
 trations, p. 8. 
 
 CABLES. A machine was invented in 1792, for making the largest, by which human 
 labour was reduced nine-tenths. Chain caMes were introduced into the British navy 
 about 18 1 2. 
 
 CABRIOLETS {vulgo Cabs), one-horsed vehicles, were introduced into the" streets of 
 London in 1823, when the number plying was twelve. In 183 1 they had increased to 165, 
 and then the licences were thrown open. The number in 1862 running in the meti'opolis 
 exceeded 6000 (of Avhich about 1800 only jjlied on Simday). Previous to throwing open the 
 trade, the number of hackney carriages was limited to 1200, when there were few omnibuses, 
 which see. 
 
CAB 
 
 189 
 
 C^ 
 
 1862 
 
 Cabmen's clubs began at Paddington in . Feb. 
 
 A London General Cab Company pubUsbed its 
 prospectus, professing a reformed system, 
 
 July, 
 
 Cab Tragedy. — S. H. Hunt, a servant of Butler 
 and MacCulluob's, seedsmen, Covent-garden, 
 London, poisoned his wife and children in a 
 cab, on Nov. 7, 1863 ; and himself on Nov. 9, 
 at his own house, just before his apprehen- 
 sion. 
 
 The cabmen in Pai-is strike against a company ; 
 above 3000 vehicles stopped, June 16 ; fierce 
 attack on men who give in ; strike subsides, 
 
 June 23, 1865 
 
 CABRIOLETS, continued. 
 
 Cab Strike. — On June 28, 1853, an act (called 
 Mr. FitzRoy's act) was passed for "the bet- 
 ter regulation of metropolitan stage and 
 hackney carriages, and f<>r prohibiting the 
 use of advertising vehicles," by which the 
 cab fares were reduced to 6d. a mile. It came 
 into operation July 11, and on the 27th a 
 general strike of the London cabmen took 
 place. Much inconvenience was felt, and 
 every kind of vehicle was employed to sup- 
 ply the 'deficiency. Some alterations (pre- 
 viously agreed on) having been made in the 
 act, the cabs re-appeared on the stands on 
 the'soth. 
 
 CABUL, OR Cabool, a city of Afghanistan, taken 977 hj Subuctajeen, grandfather of 
 Mahomed, founder of the Gaznevide dynasty. It was taken by Nadir Shah in 1738. It was 
 the capital of the Durani enipu'e at the end of the last century. In 1809 the sovereign Shah 
 Soojah was expelled, and eventually Cabul came into the hands of Dost Mahomed, a clever and 
 ambitious chieftain. In 1839 the Bi'itish restored Shah Soojah ; but in 1842 a dreadful out- 
 break took place. The chief Biitish civil officer, sir Wm. M'Naghten, was massacred, and 
 the British commenced a most disasti'ous retreat. Of 3849 soldiers, and about 12,000 camp 
 followers, only one European, Dr. Dryden, and four or five natives escaped. In the same 
 year (Sept. 16) general afterwards sir George Pollock retook the town, and rescued lady Sale 
 and many of the prisoners. After destroying many public buildings, he left Cabul to its 
 fate, Oct. 12, 1842. 
 
 CADDEE, OR League of God's House, the celebrated league of independence in Swit- 
 zerland, formed by the Orisons to resist domestic tyranny, 1400 to 1419. A second league 
 of the Grisons was called the Grise or Gray League, about 1424. A thii'd league, called the 
 League of Ten Jurisdictions, was formed in 1436. 
 
 CADE'S INSURRECTIOlSr. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitive on account of his 
 crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed about 20,000 Kentish men, who armed 
 " to punish evil ministers, and procure a redress of grievances." He defeated and slew sir 
 Humphrey Stafford, at Sevenoaks, Jime 27, 1450 ; entered London in triumph, and beheaded 
 the lord treasurer, lord Saye, and several other pei'sons of consequence, July 3. The insur- 
 gents at length losing ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, deserted by his 
 followers, fled. A reward was offered for his apprehension : he was discovered, and refusing 
 to surrender, was slain by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, July 11. 
 
 CADIZ (W. Spain), anciently Gadiz, the Eoman Gades ; said to have been buUt by the 
 Phcenicians. 
 
 One hundred vessels of the Spanish aiToada 
 
 destroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake . 1587 
 Cadiz was taken by the EngHsh, under the earl 
 
 of Essex, aud plundered . . Sept. 13, 1596 
 Vainly attacked by sir George Rooke . . 1702 
 Bombarded by the British in . . . . 1797 
 Blockaded by lord St. Vincent for two years 1797-9 
 Again bombarded by the British . . Oct. 1800 
 A French squadron of five ships of the line and 
 
 a frigate surrender to the Spaniards and 
 
 British June 14, 1808 
 
 Besieged by the French, but the siege was 
 
 raised after the battle of Salamanca . July, 1812 
 Massacre of a thousand inhabitants by the 
 
 soldiery March 10, 1820 
 
 Taken by the French in 1823, and held till . 1828 
 Declared a free port 1829 
 
 CADMIUM, a metal, discovered by Stromeyer in 181 8. 
 
 CAEK (N. Prance), a place of importance before 912, when it became the capital of the 
 possessions of the Normans, under whom it flourished. It was taken by the English in 1346 
 and 1417 ; but was finally recovered by the French in 1450. 
 
 CAERlSrARyOISr (S. Wales). In the castle (founded in 1283 or 1284) Edward II. was 
 born, April 25, 1284; and the town was chartered by Edward I. in the same j'-ear. The 
 town suffered by the civil war of Charles, but was finally retained for the parliament. 
 
 CjESAREAIST SECTION, which, it is said, first gave the name of Csesar to the Eoman 
 family, is performed by cutting the child out of the womb, when it cannot otherwise be 
 delivered. The case of AKce O'Neal, an Irishwoman, who survived the section, which was 
 performed by a female, is authenticated by Dr. Gabriel King, of Armagh, and surgeon Duncan 
 Stewart, of Duugannon. In Jan. 1847, the operation was performed in St. Bartholomew's 
 hospital, London, on a young woman of diminutive stature, under the influence of ether : 
 
c^ 
 
 140 
 
 CAL 
 
 but she died the next day. On Dec. 9, i860, a similar operation was successfully performed 
 l.iy Dr. James Edmunds at Bethnal Green. On the continent the operation is said to have 
 been more frequent and more successful. Cooper's Surgical Dictionary (ed. 1861) contains 
 a table, which, out of 2009 cases, gives a naortality of 55*4 per cent, of the mothers and 
 29'45 per cent, of the children. 
 
 CiESARS. See Rome : Emperors. The Era of the Caesars or Spanish Era, is reckoned 
 from the ist of Jan. 38 B.C., being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. 
 It was much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France ; but by a synod held in 1180 
 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV. of Arragon 
 abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John of Castile did the same in 1383. It 
 was used in Portugal till 1415, if not till 1422. The months and days of this era are 
 identical with the Julian calendar ; and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty- 
 eight from the year ; but if before the Christian era, subtract thirty-nine. 
 
 CiESIUM (Latin, bluish), a rare alkaline metal, found in some mineral watei'S by Bunsen 
 in 1861, by means of the "Spectrum analysis," tvhich see. 
 
 CAFFEARIA, and Caffee AVar. See Kaffraria. 
 
 CAGLIARI. See Naples, note. 
 
 CA IRA ! the burden of a popular song, during the French revolution, 1791 : 
 
 "Ah! ?a ira, ?a ira, <;a ira ! Les Aristocrates a la lanteme !" (" It will proceed ! &c. Hang the aristocrats.") 
 
 CAI-FONG (China), was besieged by 100,000 rebels, in 1642. The commander of the 
 relieving forces, in order to drown the enemy, broke down its embankments. All the 
 liesiegers perished ; but 300,000 of the citizens also. 
 
 CAIRO, OR Grand Cairo, the modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for the minarets of 
 its mosques, and the sepulchres of its caliphs, in what is called the " city of the dead." 
 
 It was built by the Saracens .... 969 
 Burnt to prevent its occupation by the Cru- 
 saders 1220 
 
 Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans 1517 
 Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, 
 
 when 4o,cx)o persons perished . . June, 1754 
 Taken by the French under Napoleon Bona- 
 parte ; they enter the city . . July 23, 1798 
 Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 
 French capitulated . . . June 27, i8oi 
 
 CALABRIA (the ancient Messapia, S.E. Italy), was conquered by the Romans, 266 B.C. 
 It fortned part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths under Theodoric, a.d. 493 ; was re-con- 
 quered (for the Eastei-n empire) by Belisarius, 536 ; subdued by the Lombards and joined 
 to the duchy of Benevento, 572. After various changes, it was conquered by Robert 
 Guiscard, the Norman, 1058, who obtained the title of duke of Calabria, and eventually 
 that of king of Naples. See Napiles. 
 
 CALAIS (N. W. France), taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1347, and 
 held by England 210 years. It was retaken by the duke of Guise, in the reign of Mary, 
 Jan. 7, 1558, and its loss so deejily touched the queen's heart, as to cause some to say it 
 occasioned her death, which occuri-ed soon afterwards, Nov. 1 7, same year. ' ' When I am 
 dead," said the queen, "Calais will be found written on my heart. " It was held by the 
 Spaniards, 1594-6 ; and was bombarded by the English, 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed 
 after his long exile from France, April 1814. 
 
 CALATRAVA. See Knighthood. 
 
 CALCIUM, tlie metallic base of lime, was discovered at the Royal Institution, London, 
 by Humphrey Davy in 1808. 
 
 CALCULATING MACHINES. With the utmost care, errors in computation and in 
 printing will always occur in logarithms and tables of figures. To avoid them, machines to 
 calculate and print have been devised. Pascal, when nineteen years of age, invented one 
 about 1650. The construction of Mr. C. Babbage's machine was commenced at the expense 
 of government, in 1821, and continued tiU 1833, when the work was suspended after an 
 expenditure of above 15,000/. The portion completed is in the library of King's College, 
 London. In 1857, Messrs. E. and G. Scheutz, two Swedish engineers, published iu London 
 specimen tables, calculated and printed by machinery constructed between 1837 and 1843, 
 after a study of the account of Mr. Babbage's machine. Messrs. Scheutz brought their 
 machine to England in 1854. It was bought for lOooL by Mr. J. F. Rathbone, an American 
 merchant, to be presented to Dudley observatory in his own town, Albany. In 1857, Messrs. 
 
CAL 
 
 141 
 
 CAL 
 
 Sclieiitz were engaged to make one for the British government, which is now completed. 
 Mr. Wiberg's machine, exhibited at Paris, Feb. 1863, was much commended. 
 
 CALCUTTA, capital of Bengal and British India, 
 here was made in 1689. 
 
 The first settlement of the English 
 
 It was purchased as a zemindary, and Fort Wil- 
 liam built, in 
 
 Made the head of a separate presidency . 
 
 The fort attacked and taken by an army of 
 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants (146 
 of the British crammed into the " Black-hole 
 prison," a dungeon, about 18 feet square, 
 from whence 23 only came forth the next 
 morning alive) .... June 18, 
 
 Calcutta retaken by Clive, and the Soubah put 
 to death Jan. 2, 
 
 1698 
 1707 
 
 1755 
 
 Supreme court of judicature established . . 1773' 
 
 College founde'd 1801 
 
 Bishopric of Calcutta instituted by act . July, 1813 
 
 An industrial exhibition held in . . Jan. 1855 
 
 Great cyclone, followed by a " bore " or spring 
 
 tide in theHooghly ; water rises 30 feet high ; 
 
 immense damage done to shipping and 
 
 houses ; 43 lives lost in Calcutta (see Cvclone) 
 
 Oct. 5, 1864 
 Population in 1850, 413,582. 
 
 See Bengal and India. 
 
 CALEDONIA (now Scotland). The name is su^Dposed by some to be derived from Gael, 
 or Gael-vien, or Gaclel-doi7ie, corrn])ted by the Eomans. Tacitus, who died 99, distinguishes 
 this portion of Britain by the appellation of Caledonia. Venerable Bede says that it 
 retained this name until 258, when it was invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scotia. 
 The ancient inhabitants appear to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, 
 who passed oA^er from the opposite coast of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth 
 century of the Christian era they were invaded (as stated by some authorities) by the 
 Scuyths or Scythins (since called Scots), who, having driven the Picts into the north, settled 
 in the Lowlands, and gave their name to the whole country. Hence the remarkable 
 distinction of language, habits, customs, and persons between the Highlanders and the 
 southern inhabitants. See Scotland. 
 
 Caledonian monarchy, said to have been 
 founded by Fergus I. , about . .B.C. 
 
 The Picts from England settle in the south 
 Agricola carries the Roman arms into Cale- 
 donia, in the reign of Galdus (Corbred II.) 
 
 A.D. 
 
 He defeats Galgacus, and builds a wall between 
 
 the Frith and Clyde 
 
 Wall of Antoninus built 
 
 Ulpius Marcellus repels their incursions . 
 Christianity introduced in the reign of Donald I. 
 
 330 
 140 
 
 140 
 184 
 201 
 
 The Caledonians invade South Britain, 207 ; 
 repelled by the emperor Severus, who ad- 
 vances to the Moray Frith .... 209 
 
 Caledonia invaded by the Souths, or Scotti, 
 from Ireland, about . . . . . 306 
 
 Caledonian monarchy revived by Fergus II. . 404 
 
 After many wars, Kenneth II., king of the 
 Scotti, subdues the Caledonians and Picts, 
 and unites the country under one monarchy, 
 then named Scotland . . . 838 to 843 
 
 CALEDONIAN" CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. The act for its 
 construction received the royal assent July 27, 1803 ; and the works were commenced same 
 year. The nautical intercourse between the western ports of Great Britain and those also of 
 Ireland to the North Sea and Baltic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others 1000 
 miles. A sum exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time ; 
 and the safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was opened Nov. i, 1822. It has 
 not paid. Annual income from tonnage, May i, 1859, 5080?. ; expenditure, 6951?. 
 
 CALENDAE. The Roman Calendar, which has in gi'eat part been adopted by almost all 
 nations, was introduced by Eomulus, who divided the year into ten months, comprising 304 
 days, 738 B.C. This year was of fifty days' less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty- 
 one less than the solar year, and its commencement did not of course correspond with any 
 fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 B.C., corrected this calendar, by adding two months; 
 and Julius Csesar, 45 B.C., desirous to make it more correct, fixed the solar year at 365 days 
 and 6 hours, every fourth year being bissextile or leap year. See Leap Year. This almost 
 perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed generally throughout 
 the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII. The calendar of Julius Csesar was 
 defective in this particular, that the solar year consisted of 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 
 minutes; and not of 365 days 6 hours. This difference, then, amounted to 10 entire da3's, 
 the vernal equinox faUing on the nth instead of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, 
 Gregory ordained, in 1582, that that year should consist of 356 days only (Oct. 5 became 
 Oct. 15) ; and to prevent fiii-ther irregularity, it was determined that a year beginning a 
 centurj' should not be bissextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century ; 
 thus, 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so : but the year 2000 will be 
 a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 years, because the lapse of 
 eleven minutes makes three days in aljout that period. The year of the calendar is thus 
 made as nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar year, and future errors of 
 chronology are avoided. See New Style and French Eevolufionary Calendar. 
 
CAL 
 
 142 
 
 CAL 
 
 CALENDAR, continued. 
 
 CORKESPONDENCE OF CALENDARS WITH A.D. 1 865. 
 
 Year of the world (Jewish) .... 5625 
 
 Julian period 6578 
 
 Hegira, 1282 (began May 27, 1865 ; ends, May 
 15, 1866). 
 
 Foundation of Eome (Varro) .... 2616 
 United States' Independence . . . 89-90 
 
 Year of Queen Victoria 29-30 
 
 Year of Napoleon III 14 
 
 CALENDER, a machine used in glazing various kinds of cloth, was introduced into 
 England by the Huguenots, who were driven by persecution from France, Holland, and the 
 Netherlands to these countries, about 1685. Anderson. 
 
 CALENDS were the first day of the Roman months. The Nones of March, May, July, 
 and October, fell on the 7th ; and their Ides on the 15th. The other months had the No7ies 
 on the 5th and the Ides on the 13th. As the Greeks had no Calends, ad Graxas CcUendas, 
 "on the Greek Calends," meant never. 
 
 CALICO, the well-known cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India, which 
 was visited by the Portuguese in 1498. Calico was first brought to England by the East 
 India Company in 163 1. Calico-printing and the Dutch loom engine were first used in 
 1676, when a Frenchman established a factory at Richmond, near London. Anderson. 
 Calicoes were prohibited to be printed or worn in 1700 ; and again in 1721, a penalty of 5?. 
 was laid on the wearer, and 20I. on the seller of calico. In 1831, by the exertions of Mr. 
 Poulett Thompson, afterwards lord Sydenham, and others, the consolidated duty of 34^. on 
 the square of printed calico was taken off. Since 1834, the manufacture has been greatly 
 increased by the applicE^tions of science. Cylinders for printing are now engraved by 
 galvanism, and new dyes have been introduced by the discoveries of Liebig, HofiTmann, 
 Perkin, &c. See Cotton and Dyeing. 
 
 CALIFORNIA (from the Spanish, Caliente Fornalla, hot furnace, in allusion to the 
 climate) was discovered by Cortez in 1537 ; others say by Cabrillo in 1542 ; and visited by 
 sir Francis Drake, who named it New Albion, in 1579. California was admitted into the 
 United States in 1850. It is advancing rapidly in wealth and importance, but society is still 
 in a very disorganised state. The population in 1856 was 506,067 ; in i860, 700,000. 
 
 The Spanish establish missionary and military Ceded to the United States . . . .1846 
 
 stations . . • 1698 Gold discovered in great abundance by Capt. 
 
 California becomes subject to Mexico . . . 1823 Sutter and Mr. Marshall . . . Sept. 1847 
 
 After a bloodless revolution, it becomes virtu- Made a sovereign state 1850 
 
 ally independent 1836 Numerous murders in San Francisco — Lynch 
 
 Occupied by the army of the United States . 1846 law prevails 1853-60 
 
 CALIPER COMPASS, whereby founders and gunners measure the bore or diameter of 
 cannon, small arms, &c. : shot is said to have been invented by an artificer of Nuremberg 
 in 1540. 
 
 CALIPH (Arabic), Vicar, or Apostle, the title assumed by the sophi of Persia, as suc- 
 cessor of Ali, and, since 1517, by the sultan of Turkey, as successor of Mahomet. The 
 caliphat began with Abubeker, the father of the prophet's second wife. 
 
 Caliphs of Arabia. 
 632. Abubeker. 
 634. Omar I. 
 644. Othman. 
 
 I 655- Ali. 
 
 661. Hassan. 
 
 The Ommiades ruled 661 — 750. 
 I The Abbasides ruled 750 — 1258. 
 
 In 775 they were styled caliphs of 
 
 Bagdad. 
 Haroun-al-Raschid ruled 786 — 809. 
 
 See Ommiades and Abbasides. 
 
 CALIPPIC PERIOD, invented bj' Calippus, to correct the Metonic cycle, consists of 
 four cycles, or of seventy-six years, at the expiration of which he imagined the new and full 
 moons returned to the same day of the solar year ; which is incorrect. This period began 
 about the end of June, in the third year of the 112th Olympiad, in the j'ear of Rome 424, 
 and 330 B.C. 
 
 CALIXTINS, a sect derived from the Hussites, aboiit 145 1, demanded the cup (Greek, 
 Kalix) in the Lord's supper. Also the followers of George Calixtus, a Lutheran, who died in 
 1656. He wrote against the celibacy of the priesthood, and proposed a re-union of Catholics 
 and Protestants based on the Apostles' creed. 
 
 CALI YUGA, the Hindoo era of the Deluge, dates from 3101 B.C. (according to some,- 
 3102), and begins with the entrance of the sun into the Hindoo sign Aswin, now on April 
 II, N.S. In 1600 the year began on April 7, N.S., from which it has now advanced four 
 days, and from the precession of the equinoxes is still advancing at the rate of a day in sixty 
 years. The number produced by subtracting 3102 from any given year of the Cali Yuga era 
 will be the Christian year in which the given year begins. 
 
CAL 143 CAM 
 
 CALLAO (Peru). Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, and returned 
 in mountainous waves, which destroj^ed the city in 1687, and on Oct. 28, 1746. 
 
 CALLIGRAPHY (beautiful writing). Callicrates is said to have written an elegant 
 distich on a sesamum seed, 472 B.C. In the i6th century Peter Bales wrote the Lord's 
 Prayer, Creed, and Decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the 
 mouth, year of our Lord, and of the reign of Queen Elizabeth (to whom he presented them 
 at Hampton-court), all within the circle of a silver penny, enchased in a ring and border of 
 gold, and covered mth crystal, so accurately done, as to be plainly legible. Holinshed. 
 
 CALMAR, Union of. The treaty, whereby Denmark, Sweden, and ]fTorway, were united 
 under one sovereign ; Margaret of "Waldemar, " the Semiramis of the North," being the first, 
 June, 1397. The deputies of the three kingdoms assembled at Calmar for the election of a 
 king ; and Margaret, having defeated Albert of Sweden (whose tyranny had caused a revolt 
 of his subjects) in 1393, was made choice of to rule over Denmark, as weU as Sweden and 
 Norway, of which she was then queen. This union was dissolved by Gustavus Yasa in 1523. 
 
 CALMUCKS. See Tartary. 
 
 CALOMEL ("beautiful black*"), a compound of mercury, sulphuric acid, and chloride of 
 sodium, first mentioned by CroUius early in the 17th century. The first directions given for 
 its preparation were by Beguin in 1608. 
 
 CALORESCENCE. In Jan. 1865 Professor Tyndall rendered the ultra-red rays of the 
 spectrum of the electric light visible by causing them to impinge on a plate of platinum 
 raised to a white heat. He termed the j)lienomenon Calorescence. See Fluorescence. 
 
 CALORIC. See Heat. 
 
 CALOTYPE PROCESS (from the Greek Tcalos, beautiful), by which negative photogra^^hs 
 are produced on paper, is the invention of Mr. Henry Fox Talbot, about 1840. 
 
 CALOYERS (meaning good old men). The monks of the Greek church, of the order 
 of St. Basil. Their most celebrated monastery in Asia is at Mount Sinai, endowed by 
 Justinian (died 565) ; the Eixropean one is at Mount Athos. 
 
 CALYARY, Mount, the place where the Redeemer sufiered death, April 5, a.d. 30 ; 
 {Hales, 31 ; Clinton, 29, others, 30). See Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian, at the time of his per- 
 secution of the Christians, erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and a temple of 
 Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, 142. The empress Helena built a church here about 
 326. See Holy Places. 
 
 CALVES' HEAD CLUB, noblemen and gentlemen, who exposed raw calves' heads at 
 the windows of a tavern, Jan. 30, 1735, t^^ anniversary of the execution of Charles I. An 
 incensed mob was dispersed by soldiers, and the club was suppressed. 
 
 CALYI (Corsica). The British forces besieged the fortress of Calvi, June 12, 1794, 
 After fifty-nine days it surrendered on Aug. 10. It surrendered to the French in 1796. 
 
 CALYINISTS, named after John Calvin (or Chauvin), who was born at ISToyon, in 
 Picardy, July 10, 1509. Adopting the reformed doctrines, he fled to Angouleme, where' he 
 composed his Insiitutio Christiance Religionis in 1533; j)ublished in 1536. He retired to 
 Basle, and settled in Geneva, where he died, May 27, 1564. He was instrumental in burn- 
 ing Servetus for denying the Trinity in 1553. A formal separation between the Calvinists 
 and Lutherans first took place after the conference of Poissy in 1561, where the former 
 expressly rejected the tenth and other articles of the confession of Augsburg, and took the 
 name of Calvinists. In France (see Hugimiots) they took up arms against their jiersecutors. 
 Henry lY., originally a Calvinist, on becoming king, secured their liberty by the Edict of 
 Nantes va. 1598 {which see). Calvinistic doctrines appear in the Articles of the Church of 
 England and in the Confession of the Church of Scotland, and are held by many Protestant 
 sects. 
 
 CAMBIUM REGIS. See Royal Exchange. 
 
 CAMBRAY (ISr. France), an independent archbishopric in 1007, and lordship in 1076, 
 gives name to cambric. It was taken by the Spaniards by surprise in 1595 ; and has been 
 taken and retaken several times. Fenelon was archbishop in 1695. 
 
 It was invested by the Austrians, Aug. 8, when 
 the repxiblican general, Declay, replied to the 
 imperial summons to surrender, that "he 
 knew not how to do that, but his soldiers 
 knew how to fight." It was, however, taken 
 
 by Clairfait, the Austrian general, on 
 
 Sept. 10, 1793 
 The French were defeated at Csesar's camp, in 
 the neighbourhood, by the allied army under 
 the duke of York .... April 24, 1794 
 
CAM 
 
 144 
 
 CAM 
 
 Charles V. of Germany fcalled Pair de» 
 Dames, because negotiated by Louisa of 
 Savoy, mother of the French king, and Mar- 
 garet of Austria, aunt of the emperor) . . 1529 
 Treaty between the emperor Charles VI. and 
 Philip V. of Spain 1724-S 
 
 CAMBRAY, continued. 
 
 Cambi-ay seized by the British, under sir 
 Charles Colville .... June 24, 1815 
 
 League of Cambray against the republic of 
 Venice, comprising pope Julian II., the em- 
 peror Maximilian, and Louis XII. of France, 
 and Ferdinand of Spain, entered into Dec. 10, 1508 
 
 Treaty between Francis I. of France and 
 
 CAMBRIA, ancient name of Wales {wliich see). 
 
 CAMBRICS were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury, 1580. Siow. 
 Their importation was restricted in 1745 ; and prohibited in 1758 ; re-admitted in 1786, 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, the Roman Camhoricum and the Saxon Granta, frequently mentioned by 
 the earliest British historians, was burnt by the Danes in 870 and loio. Roger de Mont- 
 gomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of king "William Rufus. 
 
 The university, said to have been commenced 
 by Sigebert, king of the East Angles, about 
 A.D. 630; lay neglected during the Danish 
 invasions, from which it suffered much ; was 
 restored by Edward the Elder in 915 ;" and 
 began to revive about mo 
 
 Henry I. bestows many privileges . . . ,, 
 
 Henry III. granted a charter to the university, 
 
 1230 or 1231 
 
 Incorporated by EUzabeth in .... 1571 
 
 In Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's rebellion, the 
 rebels entered the town, seize the university 
 records and bum them in the market-place . 1381 
 
 University press was set up ... . 1534 
 
 Letters patent gi-anted by Henry VIII. . . „ 
 
 The university refuses the degree of M.A. to 
 father Francis, a Benedictine monk, recom- 
 mended by the king ; and the presidency of 
 Magdalen college to Farmer, a Roman Catho- 
 lic, notwithstanding the king's mandate . 1687 
 
 Cambridge Philosophical Society estabUshed 
 in 1819, and chartered in .... 1832 
 
 Railway to London opened . . . June, 1845 
 
 Commissioners were appointed for the govern- 
 ment and extension of this university and 
 Eton college, by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 88 . . 1856 
 
 New statutes confirmed by the Queen . . . 1858 
 
 British Association met here, 1833, 1845, 1862. 
 
 Fitzwilliam museum, endowed 1816 ; founded 
 1837; completed 1847 
 
 FOIETEEN COLLEGES. 
 
 Peterhouse CoUege, by Hugo de Balsham, 
 
 bishop of Ely, founded 1257 
 
 Pembroke College, founded by the countess of 
 
 Pembroke 1347 
 
 Gonville and Caius, by Edmund Gonville . . 1348 
 Enlarged by Dr. John Caius in . . . .1558 
 
 Corpus Christi, or Bentt 1352 
 
 King's College, by Henry VI 1441 
 
 Christ's College, founded 1442; endowed by 
 
 Margaret, countess of Richmond, mother of 
 
 Henry VII 1505 
 
 Queen's CoUege, by Margaret of Anjou . . 1448 
 
 Jesus College, by John Alcock, bishop of Ely . 1496 
 St. John's Oollege, endowed by Margaret, 
 
 countess of Richmond 1511 
 
 Magdalen College, by Thomas, baron Audley . 1519 
 Trinity College, by Henry VIII. . . . 1546 
 Emmanuel College, by sir Walter Mildmay . 1584 
 Sidnej'-Sussex College, founded by Frances 
 
 Sidney, countess of Sussex . . . . 1598 
 Downing College, by sir George Downing, by 
 
 will, in 1717 ; its charter .... i8co 
 
 THREE HALLS. 
 
 Clare Hall, or College, first by Dr. Richard 
 Baden, in 1326 ; destroyed by fire and re- 
 established by EUzabeth de Burg, sister to 
 Gilbert, earl of Clare .... about 1342 
 Trinity Hall, by Wm. Bateman, bp. of Norwich 1350 
 St. Catherine's CoUege or Hall, founded . . 1473 
 [Cambridge University Calendar]. 
 
 CHANCELLORS. 
 
 Charles, duke of Somerset, elected . . .1688 
 
 Thomas, duke of Newcastle 1748 
 
 Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton . . . 1768 
 H.R.H. William Frederick, duke of Gloucester 1811 
 
 John, marquess Camden 1834 
 
 Hugh, duke of Northumberland . . . 1840 
 The Pi-ince Consort [died Dec. 14, i86i.] Feb. 28, 1847 
 Duke of Devonshire .... Dec. 31, i86i 
 
 PROFESRORSHTPS FOUNDED. 
 
 Divinity 1502 
 
 Laws, Hebrew and Greek 1540 
 
 Arabic 1632 
 
 Mathematics 1663 
 
 Music 1684 
 
 Chemistry 1702 
 
 Astronomy i704> i749 
 
 Anatomy 1707 
 
 Modem History, Botany 1724 
 
 Natural and Experimental Philosophy . . 1783 
 
 Mineralogy 1808 
 
 PoUtical Economy 1863 
 
 CAMBUSKENNETH (Central Scotland). Here Wallace defeated the English in 1297. 
 
 CAMDEN (N. America). A battle was fought here Aug. 16, 1780, between general 
 Gates and lord Cornwallis, the former commanding the revolted Americans, who were 
 defeated. At a second battle, between general Greene and lord Rawdon, the Americans 
 were again defeated, Aj)ril 25, 1781. Camden was evacuated and burnt by the British, May 
 13, 1781. 
 
 CAMERA Ltjcida, invented by Dr. Hooke about 1674 ; another by Dr. WoUaston in 
 1807. Camera Obscura, or dark chamber, constructed, it is said, by Roger Bacon in 
 1297 ; and improved by Baptista Porta, about 1500 ; and remodelled by sir Isaac Newton. 
 By the invention of M. Daguerre, in 1839, the pictures of the camera are fixed. See 
 Photograjihy. 
 
CAM 
 
 145 
 
 CAN 
 
 CAMEROISriANS, a name freqiiently given to the Reformed Presbyterian ChnrciL 
 of Scotland, the descendants of the covenanters of the 17th century, the established 
 church, 163S-50.* Charles II. signed the League and Covenant in 1650, in hopes of 
 recovering his kingdoms, but renounced it in 1661, and revived episcopacy. A revolt 
 ensued in 1666, when many covenanters were slain in battle (in the Pentland hills, &c.), 
 and many refusing to take the oaths required, and declining to accept the king's indulgence, 
 died on the scaffold, after undergoing cruel tortures. The name Cameronian is derived from 
 Richard Cameron, one of their ministers, who was killed in a skirmish, in 1680. In 1689 
 they raised a body of soldiers to support William III., who enrolled them under the 
 command of lord Angus, as the 26th regiment, since so famous. In 1712 they renewed the 
 public covenants, and are described in one of their tracts as "the suffering anti-popish, and 
 anti-prelatical, anti-erastian, true presbyterian church of Scotland." They have now between 
 thirty and forty congregations in Scotland.- — The 79th regiment {Cameron Highlanders), 
 raised in 1793 by Allan Cameron, has no connection with the Cameronians. 
 
 CAMISARDS (from chemise, a shirt, which they frequently wore over their dress in night 
 attacks), a name given to the more warlike French Protestants in the neighbourhood of tlie 
 Cevennes (mountain chains in S. France), who defended themselves and attacked their 
 enemies after the revocation of the edict of Wantes, in 1685. They were suppressed in 1704. 
 Their leader, Cavalier, is said to have been made governor of Jersey by William III. 
 
 CAMLET, formerly made of silk and camel's hair, but now of wool, hair, and silk. 
 Oriental camlet first came here from Portuguese India, in 1660. Anderson. 
 
 CAMP. The Hebrew encampment was first laid out by divine direction, 1490 B.C. 
 {Numbers a.) The Romans and Gauls had intrenched camps in open plains; and vestiges 
 of such exist to this day in England and Scotland. A camp was formed at Hyde Park in 
 1745 and 1 8 14. See Chohham and Aldershott. 
 
 CAMPANIA (S. Italy), was occupied by Hannibal and declared in his favour 216 B.C., 
 but regained by the Romans, 213. Its capital was Capua {which see). 
 
 CAMPBELL'S ACT, introduced by lord Campbell, in order to compel railway companies 
 to gi'ant compensation for accidents, was passed in 1846 ; amended in 1864. In accordance 
 Anth it the family of a gentleman killed through the breaking of a rail, obtained a verdict 
 for 13,000?. from the Great Northern Railway Company. On appeal the sum was reduced. 
 
 CAMPEACHY-BAY (Yucatan, Central America), discovered about 1520, and settled in 
 1540; was taken by the English in 1659 ; by the buccaneers, in 1678 ; and by the free- 
 booters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up the citadel. The 
 English logwood -cutters made their settlement here about 1662. 
 
 CAMPERDOWN : south of the Texel, Holland, near which admiral Duncan defeated 
 the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral De Winter ; the latter losing fifteen ships, either 
 taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797. The British admiral obtained a peerage. He died sud- 
 denly on his way to Edinburgh, Aug. 4, 1804. 
 
 CAMPO FORMIO (N. Italy). Here a treaty was concluded between France and 
 AiTstria ; the latter yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, and Milan, 
 Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic, Oct. 17, 1797. By a' secret article the 
 emperor gained the Venetian dominions. 
 
 CAMPO SANTO (Holy Field), a burial-place at Pisa, surrounded by an arcade erected 
 by archbishop Ubaldo, about 1300, which is celebrated for the frescoes painted on the walls 
 by Giotto, Memmi, and others. 
 
 CANAAN (Palestine), is considered to have been settled by the Canaanites, 1965 B.C. 
 (Clinton, 2088). The land was divided among the Israelites by Joshua, 1445 (Hales, 1602). 
 
 CANADA (N. America), was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, in June, 1497 ; 
 in 1535 Jacques Cartier (a Breton mariner), ascended the St. Lawrence as far as where 
 Montreal now stands. See Montreal and Quebec. 
 
 Quebec founded 1608 
 
 Canada taken by the English. 1628 ; restored . 1632 
 W ar begins in 1756 ; Canada conquered by the 
 English 1759 (see Quebec), confirmed to them 
 
 by the peace 
 
 Legislative council established ; the French 
 laws oonfiriiied, and religious lilierty given to 
 Boman Catholics 1774 
 
 * They were frequently called hill-men or mountain-men, and gndety people (from the places and modes of 
 worship to which they were frequently reduced), and McMillanites, from John McMillan, their first 
 minister, after their secession from the church of Scotland on accoimt of its subserviei;cy to the English, 
 government, and its decliniiig from its original rigid principles. 
 
 L 
 
CAN 
 
 146 
 
 CAN 
 
 17-30 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 CANADA, co7itinued. 
 
 The Americans under Montgomery invade 
 Canada, and surprise Montreal, Nov. 1775 ; 
 expelled by Carleton • . . March 1776 
 Canada divided into Ujiper and Lower . . 1791 
 The " clergy reserves " established by parlia- 
 ment—one seventh of the waste lands of the 
 colon}' appropriated for the maintenance of 
 
 the Protestant clergy ,, 
 
 During the debates on this bill the quarrel 
 between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose. Mr. 
 Fox seemed anxious for a reconciliation, but 
 Mr. Burke rejected it with disdain . . „ 
 
 Canada made a bishopric 1793 
 
 The Americans invade Canada at different 
 points, with 30,000 men, but are forced to 
 retire after several sangumary battles . . 1812 
 Beginnmg of opposition to the clergy reserves 
 
 18 
 First railway in Canada opened . . July, 
 The Papineau rebellion commences at Montreal 
 
 by a body called Fits de la Liberie . 
 The rebels defeated at St. Eustace . Dec. 14, 
 Repulsed at Toronto, by sir F. Head . Jan. 5. 183S 
 Earl of Durham appointed pov. -gen. . Jan. 16, „ 
 Lount and Mathews (rebels) hanged April 12, „ 
 Lord Durham resigns his government . Oct 9, „ 
 Rebellion appears in Beauhaniais Nov. 3 ; the 
 insurgents at Napierville, under Nelson, are 
 routed with great loss Nov. 6 ; the rebellion 
 
 suppressed Nov. 17, „ 
 
 Acts relating to government of Lower Canada, 
 
 passed in Feb. 183S, and . . . Aug. 1S39 
 Upper and Lower Canada reunited . July 23, 1S40 
 Lord Sydenham appointed governor . Feb. 10, 1841 
 The Canada clergy reserves, after miioh disc\is- 
 sion, abolished by the British parliament 
 
 May 9, 1853 
 Lord Elgin gov. -general (1846-54) concluded an 
 
 important treaty with United States June 7, 1854 
 The grand trunk railroad of Cauada, 850 miles 
 
 long, from Quebec to Toronto, opened Nov. 12, -1856 
 On refeieucc having been made to the queen, 
 Ottawa, formerly Bytown, appointed the 
 capital ; this decision was unpopular ; a 
 federal union of the N. American colonies 
 has been since proposed . . August, 1858 
 Canada raises a regiment of soldiers (made one 
 
 of the line, and called the looth) . . . ,, 
 The prince of Wales presents the colours at 
 
 Shorncliff Jan. 10, 1859 
 
 The prince of Wales, the duke of Newcastle, &c., 
 arrived at St. John's, Newfoundland, July 24 ; 
 
 visit Halifax July 30; Quebec Aug. 18; 
 Montreal Aujr. 25; Ottawa Sept. i ; leave 
 Canada Sept. 20 ; after visiting the United 
 States, embark at Portland Oct. 20 ; and 
 arrive at Plymouth . . . Nov. 15, i860 
 
 Lord Monck assumes office as gov. -gen. ,Nov. 28, 1861 
 
 In consequence of the " Trent" affair (see 
 Uinted States, 1861), 3000 British troops were 
 sent to Canada ; and warlike preparations 
 were made Dec. „ 
 
 Brit. N. American Assoc, founded in London Jan. 1862 
 
 Cartier's ministrj' defeated on MiUtia hill ; Mr. 
 J. Sandfield Macdonald becomes premier 
 
 May 20-23, » 
 
 Th e assembly vote only 5000 militia and 5000 re- 
 sei-ve towards the defence of the country ; 
 this caiises discontent in England . Jvily, ,, 
 
 Political changes ; Air. J. Macdonald again pre- 
 mier . . . ■ . . . May 20, 1863 
 
 New Militia bill passed . . . Sept. „ 
 
 Military measures in progress . . Sept. 1864 
 
 Meeting of about 20,000 volunteers ; delegates 
 from N. American colonies at Quebec, to de- 
 liberate on the formation of a confederation, 
 Oct. 10 ; agree on the bases . . Oct. 20, „ 
 
 Between 20 arid 30 armed confederates quit 
 Canada and enter the little town of St. Al- 
 ban's, Vermont ; rob the banks, steal horses 
 and stores, fire, and kill one man, and wound 
 others, and return to Canada, Oct. 19 ; 13 are 
 arrested, Oct. 21 ; but are discharged, on 
 account of some legal difficulty by Judge 
 Coursol Dec. 14, „ 
 
 Great excitement in the United States, general 
 Dix proclaims reprisals ; volunteers called 
 out in Canada to defend the frontiers ; presi- 
 dent Lincoln rescinds Dix's proclamation 
 
 Dec. „ 
 
 Lord Monck opens the last Canadian parlia- 
 ment Jan. 19, 1S65 
 
 The confederation scheme rejected by New 
 Brunswick March 7, ,, 
 
 The British parliament grant 50,000/. for de- 
 fence of Canada .... March 23, ,, 
 
 The St. Alban's raiders discharged by justice 
 Smith March 30, ,, 
 
 Mr. Seward gives up claim for their extradi- 
 tion April „ 
 
 Messrs. Gait and Cartier visit England to advo- 
 cate confederation .... April, ,, 
 
 Population in 1857: Lower Canada, 1,220,514; 
 Upper Canada, 1,350,923. 
 
 CANALS (artificial watercourses). A oanal in China, commenced in the loth centurj'-, 
 is said to pass over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities. 
 
 The canal of Languedoc, which joins the Medi- 
 terranean with the Atlantic Ocean, was com- 
 pleted in 1681 
 
 That of Orleans from the Loire to the Seine, 
 commenced in 1675 
 
 That between the Baltic and North Sea, at 
 Kiel, opened 17S5 
 
 That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, 
 commenced 1790 
 
 That from the Cattcgat to the Baltic . 1794-1800 
 
 The great American Erie canal, 363 miles in 
 length, was commenced in .... 1817 
 
 That of Amsterdam to the sea . . . 1819-25 
 (See Ganges Canal, the most stupendous mo- 
 dem one.) 
 
 T?RITTSH CANALS. 
 
 The first was by Henry 1., when the Trent was joined 
 
 to the Witham, 1134. 
 
 Francis Mathew in 1656, and Andrew Yarranton in 
 1677, in vain strongly urged improvement in in- 
 ternal navigation. 
 
 In England there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 
 miles of rivers, taking the length of those only 
 that are navigable — total, 5300 miles. (Mr. Porter, 
 in 1851. .says 4000 miles.) 
 
 In Ireland there are 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navi- 
 gable rivers ; and 60 miles of the Shannon, navi- 
 gable below Limerick ; in all, 510 miles. Williams. 
 
 The prosperity of canals, for a time largely checked 
 by the formation of railways, is now gi'eatly re- 
 vived. 
 
 KEMAEKABLE CANALS.'' 
 New river canal, commenced 1608 1 Kennet navigable to Reading 1715 
 
 Brought to London . . 1614 Lagan navigation commenced 1755 
 Thames made navigable to Caermarthenshire cinal . 1756 
 
 Oxford .... 1624 1 Droitwich to the Severn . ,, 
 
 Duke of Bridgewater's navi- 
 gation (first great canal), 
 commenced (see Bridye- 
 uaier) i7S9 
 
CAN 
 
 147 
 
 CAN 
 
 CANALS, continued. 
 
 Northampton navigation 
 
 Dublin to tlie Shannon (the 
 Grand) . . . 176s' 
 
 Stafford and Worcester, com- 
 menced .... 
 
 Grand Trunk commenced by 
 Briudley . . . . 
 
 Torth to Clj'de, commenced . 
 
 Birmingham to Bilston 
 
 Oxford to Coventry, com- 
 menced .... 
 
 Lea made navigable from 
 Hertford to Ware, 1739 ; to 
 Lon<ioii 
 
 Leeds to Liverpool . 
 
 Jlonkland (Scotland), com- 
 menced .... 
 
 Ellesmere and Chester . 
 
 Basingstoke canal begun 
 
 Liverpool to Wigan . 
 
 Stroud to the Severn . 
 
 Staffordshire canal, begun 
 
 Stourbridge canal, completed 
 
 1761 
 1788 
 
 1766 
 1768 
 
 1769 
 
 1770 
 
 1772 
 
 1774 
 177s 
 1776 
 
 Runcorn to Manchester . 1776 
 Trent and Mersey, opened . 1777 
 Chesterfield to the Trent . „ 
 Belfast to Longh Neagh . 1783 
 Severn to the Thames, com- 
 pleted 1789 
 
 Forth and Clyde, completed . 1790 
 
 Bradford completed . . „ 
 
 Grand Junction canal . . ,, 
 
 Birmingham and Coventry . ,, 
 
 Jlonastereven to Athy . . 1791 
 
 Worcester and Birniinghara . „ 
 Manchester, Bolton, and 
 
 Bury .... 
 
 Warwick and Birmingham . 1793 
 
 Barnsley, out . . . 1794 
 
 Rochdale, Act passed 
 Huddersfield, Act passed 
 Derby, completed 
 
 Hereford and Gloucester . 1796 
 Paddington canal begun 
 
 Kennet and Avon, opened . 1799 
 
 Peak-forest canaJ, completed 1800 
 
 Thames to Fenny Stratford . iSoo 
 Buckingham canal . . 1801 
 Grand Surrey, Act passed . ,, 
 Brecknock canal . . . 1802 
 Caledonian canal begun . . 1803 
 Ellesmere aqueduct . . 1805 
 Ashby-de-la-Zouch, ox^ened . 1805 
 Aberdeen, couapleted . .1807 
 Glasgow and Ardrossan, 
 
 opened .... 1811 
 Leed.s and Liverpool, opened 1816 
 V/ye and Avon . . . . , , 
 Edinburgh andGlasgowUnion 1818 
 Sheffield, completed . . . 1819 
 Regent's canal . . . 1820 
 Caledonian canal, completed 
 
 Oct. 30, 1822 
 Birmingham and Liverpool, 
 
 begun 1826 
 
 Gloucester andBerkeley, ship- 
 canal, completed . . . 1827 
 Norwich and Lowestoft navi- 
 gation opened . . . 1831 
 
 CANAEY ISLANDS (N. "W. Africa), known to the ancients as tlie Fortunate Isles. 
 Tlie first meridian was referred to tlie Canary Isles by Hipparclrus, about 140 B.C. They 
 were re-discovered by a Norman named Bethencourt, about 1400 ; his descendants sold them 
 to the Spaniards, Avho became masters, 1483. The canary-bird, a native of these isles, 
 brought to England about 1500. Teneriffe is the largest island. 
 
 CANCER HOSPITAL, West Brompton, near London, was founded by Miss Burdett 
 Coutts, May 30, 1859. A temporary hospital began in 185 1. 
 
 CANDIA, the ancient Crete, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, celebrated for its 100 
 cities, its centre Mount Ida ; and the laws of its king Minos, and its labyrinth to secure the 
 Minotaitr (about 1300 B.C.). It was conquered by the Romans 68 B.C. It was seized b}'' the 
 Saracens A.D. 823, when they changed its name ; taken by the Greeks in 960 ; sold to the 
 Venetians, 1204, and held by them until the Turks obtained it, after a twenty-four years' 
 siege, during v/hich more than 200,000 men perished, 1669. It was ceded to the Egyptian 
 pacha in 1830, but was restored to Turkey in 1840. An insurrection, wMch broke out here in 
 May, 1858, when a reduction of taxation was demanded, soon subsided on the adoption of 
 conciliatory measures. A persecution of the Christians took place, July 31, 1859. 
 
 CANDLEMAS DAY, Feb. 2, is kept in the church in memory of the purification of the 
 "Virgin, who presented the infant Jesus in the Temple. From the number of candles lit (it 
 is said in memory of Simeon's song, Luhe ii. 32, "a Light to lighten the Gentiles," &c.), 
 this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. Its origin is ascribed by Bede 
 to pope Gelasius in the 5th century. The practice of lighting the churches was forbidden by 
 order of council, 2 Edw. VI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome. 
 
 CANDLES.* The Roman candles were composed of string surrounded by wax, or dipped 
 in pitch. Splinters of wood fatted were used for light among the lower classes in England, 
 about 1300. At this time wax candles were little used, and esteemed a luxury ; dipped 
 candles were usually burnt. The Wax-Chandlers' company was incorporated 1484. Mould 
 candles are said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez, of Paris. Spermaceti candles are 
 of modern manufacture. The Cliinese make candles from Avax obtained from the berries of 
 a tree, which wax is fragrant, and yields a bright light, f The duty upon candles made in 
 England, imposed in 1709, amounted to about 500,000/. annually, when it was repealed in 
 1 83 1. Very great improvements in the manufacture of candles are due to the researches on 
 oils and fats, carried on by "the father of the fatty acids," Chevreul, since 181 1, and 
 published in 1823. At Price's manufactory at Lambeth, the principles involved in many 
 patents are carried into execirtion ; including those of Gwynne (1840), Jones and Price (1842), 
 
 * The custom of selling at public auctions hy inch of candle is said to have been borrowed from the 
 church of Rome, where there is an excommunication by inch of candle, and the sinner is allowed to 
 come to repentance before final excommunication, while yet the candle burns. 
 
 t The candlebury myrtle (Myrica cerifera), at Nankin, in China, flourishes with beautiful blossoms and 
 fruit. The latter, when ripe, is gathered and thrown into boiling water ; the white unctuous substance 
 which covers the kernels is thereby detached, and swims at the top ; it is skimmed off and purified by a 
 second boiUng, when it becomes transparent, of a consistence between tallow and was, and is converted 
 into candVs. It is said that specimens of this tree were brought to England from America in 1699. Its 
 cultivation in Amei-ica in a commercial point of view has been recomnaended. 
 
 L 2 
 
CAN 
 
 148 
 
 CAN 
 
 and Wilson in 1844, for caudles which require no snuffing (termed composite). Palm aud 
 cocoa-nut oils are now extensively used. In i860, at the Belmont works 9CK) persons were 
 employed, and in winter 100 tons (7000Z. worth) of candles are manufactured weekly. 
 Candles are manufactured at Belmont from the mineral oil or tar brought from Rangoon in 
 the Burmese empire and from Trinidad. 
 
 CANDLESTICKS (or lamp-stands) with seven branches were regarded as emblematical 
 of the priest's office, and were engraven on their seals, cups, and tombs. Bezaleel made 
 "a candlestick of pure gold" for the tabernacle, B.C. 1491 {Exod. xxvii. 17). Candlesticks 
 were used in Britain in the days of king Edgar, 959, ( " silver candelabra and gilt candelabra 
 well and honourably made ;") but in 1388 they were not common. 
 
 CANDY (Ceylon), was taken by a British detachment, Feb. 20, 1803, who capitulated 
 June 23 following, anxious to evacuate the place on account of its unhealthiness : on the 
 third day many were treacherously massacred at Columbo. The war was renewed in October, 
 1814 ; the king was made prisoner by general Brownrigg, Feb. 19, 1815; and the sovereignty 
 vested in Great Britain, March 2, 1815. 
 
 CANN^ (Apulia). Here on Aug. 2, 216 B.C., Hannibal with 50,000 Africans, Gauls, 
 and Spaniards, defeated Paulus yEmilius and Terentius Varro, with 88,000 Romans, of whom 
 40,000 were slain. The victor sent to Carthage three bushels of rings, taken from the 
 Roman knights. The place is now denominated by some "the iield of blood." 
 
 CANNIBALISM. See AnthropopMcji. 
 
 CANNING ADMINISTRATION.* The illness of lord Liverpool, led to the formation 
 of this Administration, April 24 — 30, 1827. See Godcrich. 
 
 George Canning, /rst lord of the treasury and chan- 
 cellor of the e I chequer. 
 
 Lord Harrowby, 'president of the council. 
 
 Duke of Portland, lord 'lyrivy senl. 
 
 Lord Dudley, viscount Goderich, and Mr. Stiirges 
 Bourne, secretaries of state. 
 
 W. W. Wynn, j resident of the India hoard. 
 
 Wm. Huskjsson, hoard of trade. 
 
 Lord Palmerston, secretary ot tear. 
 
 Lord Bexley, chancellor of the duchy of Lancagter. 
 
 Duke of Clarence, lord liigU admiral. 
 
 Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor, dkc. 
 
 Marquess of Lansdowne, without office ; afterwards 
 home secretary. 
 
 On Mr. Canning's death (Aug. 8) the cabinet was re- 
 constructed. 
 
 CANNON. See Jh-lillery. Gibbon described a cannon employed by Mahomet II. at the 
 siege of Adrianople, in 1453 5 t^6 bore was 12 palms wide, and the stone balls weighed each 
 600 lb. 
 
 1529 
 
 At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest 
 forts in Germany, opposite Coblentz on the 
 Rhine, is a prodigious cannon, eighteen feet 
 and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter 
 in the bore, and three feet four inches in the 
 breech. The ball made for it weighs 180 lb., 
 and its charge of powder 94 lb. The in- 
 scription on it shows that it was made by 
 one Simon 
 
 In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen 
 Elizabeth's pocket pistol, which was pre- 
 sented to her by the states of Holland ; this 
 piece is 24 feet long, and is beautifully orna- 
 mented, havii g on it the arms of the states, 
 and a motto in Dutch, importing thus — 
 " Charge me well, and sponge me clean — I'll 
 throw a ball to Calais green." 
 
 Some fine specimens are to be seen in the 
 Tower. 
 
 A leathern cannon was fired three times in the 
 King's park, Edinburgh — Phillips . Oct. 23, 1788 
 
 Tlie Turkish piece now in St. James's park, 
 was taken by the French at Alexandria ; but 
 was retaken, and jilaced in the park March, 1803 
 
 Messrs. Horsfall's mun^ter wrought-iron gun 
 was completed in May, 1856, at Liverpool. 
 Its length is 15 leet 10 inches, and its weight 
 
 21 tons 17 cwt. I qr. 14 lb. Its cost was 
 3,500?. With a charge of 23 Ih. it struck a 
 target 2000 yards' distance. It has been 
 since jjrtsented to government. 
 
 Of late years very great improvements have 
 been made in the construction of cannon, by 
 Messrs. W'hitworth, Mallet, Aimstrong, and 
 others. Mr. Wm. G. Armstrong knighted 
 
 Feb. 18, 1859 
 
 He had been working for four years on gun- 
 making, and had succeeded in producing " a 
 breech -loading rifled wrought-iron gun of 
 great durability and of extieme lightness, 
 c<imbining a great extent of range and ex- 
 traordinary accuracy." The range of a 32-lb. 
 gun, charged with 5 lb. of powder, was a 
 litile more than 5 miles. The accuracy of 
 the Armstrong g\in is said at equal distances 
 to be fifty-seven times more than that of our 
 common artillery, which it greatly exceeded 
 also in destructive effects. 'The government 
 engaged the service.") of sir W. Armstrong 
 for ten years (commencing with 1855) for 
 2o,ooo(., as consulting engineer of rifled ord- 
 nance Feb. 22, „ 
 
 A parliamentary committee on ordnance was 
 appointed Feb 20, and reported on JiUy 23, i860 
 
 * George Canning was born April 11, 1770 ; became foreig-n secretary in the Pitt administration, 1807 ; 
 fought a duel with Castlereagh Mud resigned in 1809 ; president of the council in 1820 ; dis-approved of the 
 queen's trial and resigned in 1821 ; Jippointed governor-general of India in 1822, but became soon after 
 foreign secretary, and remained such till 1827, when he became premier. He died Aug. 8, same year. 
 
CAN" 
 
 li9 
 
 CAN 
 
 CANNON, continued. 
 
 Sir W. Armstrong resigned the appointmt. Feb.s, i 
 
 The Armstrong gun was said to be very effec- 
 tive in the attack on the Chinese forts at 
 Taku Aug. 21, I 
 
 Mr. Whitworth's guns and rifles have also been 
 greatly commended. 
 
 An American cannon, weighing 35 tons, stated 
 to be the largest in the world, cast in . . , 
 
 Great endeavoiu-s made to improve the con- 
 struction of cannon, to counterbalance the 
 strength given to ships of war by iron plates, 
 ' and trials at Shoeb\iryness, Essex . . . i! 
 
 Targets of the thickness of the iron sides of 
 the Warrior, three s-inch plates of wrought 
 iron bolted together, were pierced three times • 
 by 1561b. shot from an Armstrong gun 
 smooth bore, 300-lb., muzzle-loaded with 
 charges of 40 lb. of powder, twice, and once 
 of 50 lt> April 8, , 
 
 The Horsfall gun mentioned above, with a 
 charge of 75 lb. of powder and a shot of 270 
 lb. totally smashed a Warrior target 
 
 Sept. 16, ,; 
 
 Mr. Whitworth's shells were sent through si- 
 CANON OF SCEIPTUEE. See BihU. 
 
 inch iron plates and the wood-work behind 
 it ...... . Nov. 12, 
 
 Armstrong's gim "Big Will" was tried and 
 pronounced to be a perfect specimen of work- 
 manship. It weighed 22 tons ; its length, 
 15 feet; range with shot weighing 510 lb., 
 748 to 4187 yards . . . Nov. ig, 
 
 Clark's target w.is destroyed . . July 7, 
 
 Reed's target was tried successfully . Deo. 8, 
 
 The competitive trial between the AiTnstrong 
 and Whitworth guns Ijegau. . April i. 
 
 The Iron-plate commission experiments closed 
 on Aug. 4, 
 
 Ca,pt. Palliser, by experiment, has shown that 
 iron shot cast in cold iron moulds instead of 
 holj sand, is much harder and equals steel ; 
 he also suggested the lining cast iron guns 
 with wrought iron exits, which is stated to 
 be successful. 
 
 The competitive trials of Armstrong's and 
 Whitworth's cannon upon the Alfred target- 
 ship at Portsmouth closed . . Nov. 15, 
 
 "Hercules target," 4ft. 2 in. thick, iij inches 
 of iron, resists 300 pounders . . June, 
 
 CANONISATION, of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted by pope Leo III., 
 800. Tall&nt. Every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. The first canonisation was 
 of St. Udalricus, in 993. Henaidt. On June 8, 1862, the pope canonised 27 Japanese, who 
 had been put to death on Feb. 5, 1597, near Nagasaki. 
 
 CANONS, Apostolical, ascribed by Bellarmin and Baronius to the Apostles ; by others 
 to St. Clement, are certainly a forgery of much later date (since 325). The Greek church 
 allows 85, the Latin 50 of them. The first Ecclesiastical Canon was promulgated 380. 
 Usher. Canon laiv was introduced into Europe by Gratian, the canon law author, about 
 1 140, and into England in 11 54. Stoio. See Decretals. The present Canons and Consti- 
 tutions of the Church of England, collected from former ordinances, were established in 1603 
 by the clergy in convocation, and ratified by king James I. An intermediate class of reli- 
 gious, between priests and monks, in the 8th centuiy, were termed canons, as living by a rule. 
 
 CANOSSA, a castle in Modena, celebrated on account of the degrading penance submitted 
 to by the emperor Henry IV. of Germany, in deference to his greatest enemy, pope Gregory 
 VII. (Hildebrand), then living at the castle, the residence of the great countess Matilda. 
 Henry was exposed for several days to the inclemency of winter, Jan. 1077, till it pleased 
 the pope to admit him. Matilda greatly increased the temporal power of the papacy by 
 bequeathing to it her large estates, to the injury of her second husband, Guelph, duke of 
 Bavaria. 
 
 CANTERBURY (Kent), the Diorovernum of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king 
 of Kent, who reigned 560 — 6x6. He was converted to Christianity by Augustin, 596, upon 
 whom he bestowed many favours, giving him land for an abbey and cathedral, which was 
 dedicated to Christ, 602.* St. Martin's church was the first Saxon Christian church in 
 Britain. The riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, produced by a fanatic called Tom or Thorn, 
 who as.suraed the name of sir William Courtenay, occurred May 31, 1838. See Thomites. 
 The railway to London was completed in 1846. — The Akchbishop is primate and metropo- 
 litan of all England, and the first peer in the realm, having precedency of all officers of state, 
 and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, 
 and the archbishop was styled a patriarch. This see has yielded to the church of Rome 18 
 saints and 9 cardinals ; and to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord 
 treasurers. The see was made superior to York, 1073. See York. The revenue is valued 
 in the king's books at 2816?. 7s. 9^ Beatson. Present income, 15,000^. 
 
 * The cathedral was sacked by the Danes, ion, and burnt down 1067 ; rebuilt by Lanfrano and Anselm, 
 and the choir completed by the pi-ior Conrad in 11 30, and in which Becket was murdered, 11 70, was burnt 
 U74. It was rebuilt by William of Sens (1174-78) and by "English William," 117S-84. A new nave was 
 built and other parts, 1378-1410. The great central tower was erected by prior Goldstone about 1495. The 
 gorgeous shrine of Bscket was stripped at the reformation, and his bones biirnt. Here were interred 
 Edward the Black Prince, Henry IV., cardinal Pole, and other distinguished persons. During the civil 
 war, Cromwell's dragoons used the cathedral as a stable. 
 
CAN 
 
 150 
 
 CAO 
 
 CANTERBURY, continued. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 602-605. St Augustine, or Aus- 
 tin, died May 26. 
 
 605-619. St. Lawrence. 
 
 619-624. St. Mellitus. 
 
 624-630. Justus. 
 
 631-653- St. Honorius. 
 
 655-664. Deusdedit (Adeodatus). 
 
 668-690. Theodore of Tai-su.s. 
 
 693-731- Berlituald. 
 
 73I-734- Taetwine. 
 
 735"74i- Notlielm. 
 
 741-758. Cuthbert. 
 
 759-762. Breogwine. 
 
 763-790. Jaenbehrt, or Lambert. 
 
 790-803. jEtliellieard. 
 
 803-829. Wulfred. 
 
 829. Fleogild. 
 
 830-870. Ceolnoth. 
 
 870-889. jEthelred. 
 
 891-923. Plegemund. 
 
 923 (?) ^thelm. 
 
 928-941. Wulfelm. 
 
 941-958. Odo. 
 
 959-988. St. Dunstan, d. May 19. 
 
 988-989. ^Ethelgar. 
 
 990-995. Sigeric. 
 
 995-1006 Jilfric. 
 
 1006-101 1. St. ^Elphage, murdered 
 by the Danes, April 19. 
 
 1013-1020. Lyfing, or jElfstan. 
 
 1020- 1038. iKthehioth. 
 
 103S-1050. St. Bad.sige. 
 
 1050-1052. Robert of Jumidges. 
 
 1052-1070. Stigand : deprived. 
 
 1070-1089. St. Lanfranc, d. May 24. 
 
 1093-1109. Anselm. 
 
 [See vacant 5 years.] 
 
 1 114-1 122. Radulphus de Turbine. 
 
 1123-1136. William de Curbellio. 
 
 1139-1161. Theobald. 
 
 ARCHBISHOPS OF CANTERBURY. 
 
 A.D- 
 
 1162-1170. Thomas Becket : mur- 
 dered Deo 29. 
 [See vacant. J 
 
 1174-1184. Richard. 
 
 1184-1190. Baldwin. 
 
 1 191. Reginald Fifcz-Joceline, 
 
 died Dec. 26. 
 [See vacant. ] 
 
 1193-1205. Hubert Walter. [Regi- 
 nald the sub-prior, and 
 John Grey, bishop of 
 Norwich, were succes- 
 sively choSen, but set 
 aside] 
 
 1206-1228.] Stephen Langton, died 
 July 6. 
 
 1229-1231. Richard Weathershed. 
 
 1233-1240. Edmund de Abingdon. 
 
 1240-1270. Boniface of Savoy. 
 
 1272-1278. Robert Kilwarby (re- 
 signed). 
 
 1279-1292. John Peckham. 
 
 1293-1313. Robert Winchelsey. 
 
 1313-1327. Walter Reynolds. 
 
 1327-1333. Simon de Mepham. 
 
 1333-1348. John Stratford. 
 
 1348-1349. John de Ufford. 
 
 1349. Thomas Bradwardin. 
 
 1349-1366. Simon Islip. 
 
 1366-1368. Simon Langham (re- 
 signed). 
 
 1368-1374. Wm. Whittlesey. 
 
 1375-1381. Simon Sudbury, be- 
 headed by the rebels, 
 June 14. 
 
 1381-1396. William Courtenay. 
 
 1397-1398. Thos. Fitzalan or Arun- 
 del (attainted). 
 
 1398. Roger Walden (ex- 
 
 pelled). 
 
 1399- 
 1414- 
 1443- 
 1452- 
 1454- 
 1486- 
 1501- 
 1503- 
 
 i.';33- 
 
 1556- 
 1559- 
 1576- 
 
 1583- 
 
 1604- 
 1611- 
 
 1633- 
 
 1660- 
 
 1663- 
 1678- 
 
 1691- 
 
 1695- 
 I7I5- 
 1737- 
 1747- 
 1757- 
 
 1758- 
 
 1768- 
 
 I4I4- 
 
 ■1443- 
 1452. 
 1454- 
 ■1486- 
 ■1500. 
 1503- 
 ■1532- 
 1556- 
 
 ■1558- 
 1575- 
 1583- 
 1604. 
 16:0. 
 1633. 
 1645. 
 
 1663. 
 1677. 
 i6gi. 
 
 i7i.'^- 
 1737- 
 1747- 
 1757- 
 175S. 
 1768. 
 1783- 
 
 1S05-182S. 
 
 1828-1848. 
 1848-1862. 
 
 1862. Chas 
 
 Tho. Arundel (restd). 
 Henry Chicheley. 
 John Stafford. 
 John Kemp. 
 Thomas Bouchicr. 
 John Morton. 
 Henry Deane or Denny. 
 Wm. Warham. 
 Thos. Cranmer (Ijurnt, 
 March 21). 
 
 ReginaldPole,d.Nov. 17. 
 Matt. Parker,d. May 17. 
 Edm.Grindal, d. July 6. 
 JohnWliitgift,d.Feb.29. 
 Rd. Bancroft, d. Nov. 2. 
 Geo. Abbot, d. Aug. 4. 
 Wm. Laud (beheaded, 
 Jan. 10). 
 
 [See vacant 16 years.] 
 Wm. Juxon, d. June 4. 
 Gilb. Sheldon, d. Nov. 9. 
 Wni. Sancroft (deprived 
 Feb. 1), d. Nov. 24,1693. 
 John Tillotson, d. No v. 22 
 Thos.Tenison, d. Dec. 14. 
 Wm. Wake, d. Jan. 24. 
 John Potter, d. Oct. 10. 
 Thos. Herring,d. Mar. 13. 
 Matt.Hutton, d Mar. 19. 
 Thos. Seeker, d. Aug. 3. 
 Fred. ComwalUs, died 
 Mar. 19. 
 
 John Moore, d. Jan. 18. 
 Chas. Manners Sutton, 
 died July 21. 
 Wm.Howley, d. Feb. 11. 
 John Bird Sumner, died 
 Sept. 6. 
 
 Thos. Longley, present 
 abp. 
 
 CANTERBURY TALES, by Geoffrey Chancer, were written about 1364 ; and first 
 printed about 1475 or 1476 (by Caxton). 
 
 CANTHARIDES, venomous green beetles (called Spanish flies), are used to raise blisters. 
 This use is ascribed to Aretteus of Cappadocia, about 50 B.C. 
 
 CANTON, the only city in China with which Europeans were allowed to trade, till the 
 treaty of Aug. 29, 1842. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of England 
 surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Merchants arrived here in 15 17. A fire destroy- 
 ing 15,000 houses, 1822. An inundation swept away 10,000 houses and 1000 persons, 
 Oct. 1833. Canton was taken by the British in 1857 ; restored, 1861. See China 1835, 
 1839, 1856, i86i. Popiilation estimated at 1,000,000. 
 
 CANULEIAN LAW, permitting the patricians and plebeians to intermarry, was passed 
 at Rome 445 b.c. 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC, OR India Rubber, an elastic resinous substance that exudes by 
 incisions from several trees that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, the Ilcevia caout- 
 chouc and Siphojiia elastica (vulgarly called syringe trees). It was first brought to Europe 
 from South America, about 1730. 
 
 In 1770, Dr. Priestley said that he had seen "a 
 sTibstance excellently adapted to the purpose 
 of wiping from paper the marks of a black 
 lead pencil." It was sold at the rate of 3s. 
 the cubic half-inch. 
 
 India rubber cloth was made by Samuel Peal 
 and jiateiited 
 
 Vulcanised rubber formed by combining India 
 rubber with sulphur, which process removes 
 the susceptibility of the rubber to change 
 under atmospheric temperatures, was pa- 
 tented in America, by Mr. C. Goodyear . . 
 
 Invented also by Mr. T. Hancock (of the firm 
 
 of Mackintosh and Co.), and patented . . 1843 
 Mr. Goodyear invented the hard rubber 
 (termed Ebonite) as a s\ibstitute for horn 
 and tortoise-shell, for combs, paper-knives, 
 
 veneer, walking-sticks, &o 1849 
 
 A mode of retaining India rubber in its natu- 
 ral fluid state (by applying to it liquid am- 
 monia) was patented in England, on behalf 
 of tho inventor, Mr. Henry Lee Norris, of 
 
 New York 1853 
 
 Caoutchouc imported in 1850, 7617 cwts. ; in 
 1856, 28,765 cwts. ; in 1S64, 71,027 cwts. 
 
CAP 
 
 151 
 
 CAP 
 
 CAP. The general use of caps and hats is referred to 1449. See Caps and Hals. 
 
 CAPE BRETO^Sr, a large island, W. coast of IST. America, said to have been discovered 
 by the English in 1584; taken by the French in 1632, but was afterwards restored ; and 
 again taken in 174$, and re-taken in 1748. It was finally captured by the English in 1758, 
 when the garrison of 5600 men were made prisoners, and eleven French ships were captured 
 or destroyed. Ceded to England in 1763. 
 
 CAPE,COAST CASTLE (S. W. Africa). Settled by the Portuguese in" 1610 ; but it 
 soon fell to the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes in 1661. All the British 
 factories and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, De Ruyter, in 
 1665. It was confirmed to the English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. See Asliantees. 
 
 CAPE DE VERDE ISLANDS (N. Atlantic Ocean), were known to the ancients as Gor- 
 gades ; but not to the moderns till discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the 
 service of Portugal, 1446, 1450, or 1460. The Portuguese possess them still. 
 
 CAPEL COURT. See under STOCKS. 
 
 CAPE LA HOGUE. See La Hague. 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a promontory on the S.W. poiut of Africa, called "Cabo 
 Tormentoso " (the stormy cape), the "Lion of the Sea, " and the " Head of Africa," dis- 
 covered by Bartholomew de Diaz in i486. Its present name was given by John II. of 
 Portugal, who augured favourably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached the 
 extremity of Africa. Population in 1856, 267,096. 
 
 The cape was doubled, and the passage to 
 
 India discovered by Vasco de Gama, Nov. 20, 1497 
 Cape Town, the capital, planted by the Dutch 1651 
 Colony taken by the English, under admiral 
 Elphinstone and general Clarke . Sept. 1795 
 
 Eestored at the jieaoe in 1802 
 
 Taken by sir D. Bairdand su- H. Popham, Jan. 8, i8o5 
 
 Finally ceded to England in 1814 
 
 British emigrants arrive in . . Mai'ch, 1820 
 ITie Kaffres make irruptions on the British set- 
 tlements ; and ravage Grahamstown. (See 
 
 Kaffraria) Oct. 1834 
 
 Bishopric of Cape Town founded . . . 1847 
 The inhabitants successfully resist the attempt 
 to make the cape a penal colony . May 19, 1S49 
 
 The constitution granted to the colony promul- 
 gated and joyfully received on . July i, 1853 
 
 General Praetorius, the chief of the Trans- Vaal 
 republic, died in . , . . Aug. ,, 
 
 The British having given up its jurisdiction 
 over the Orange river territory, a free state 
 was formed (See Ora'/jf/eT-iiie)') . March 29, 1854 
 
 The first parliament meets at Cape-Town July i, ,, 
 
 The Kaffres were much excited by a prophet 
 named Umhla-kaza. By the exertions of sir 
 George Grey, the governor, tranquillity was 
 maintained Aug. 1856 
 
 The cape visited by prince Alfred in . July, i85o 
 
 The first railway from Cape Town, about 58 
 miles long, opened . . about Dec. „ 
 
 CAPE ST. VINCENT (S. W. Portugal). Sir George Rooke, with twenty-three ships of 
 ■war, and the Turkey fleet, was attacked by Tourville, with 160 ships off Cape St. Vincent, 
 when twelve English and Dutch men of war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or 
 destroyed by the French, June 16, 1693. — Sir John Jetvis, with the Mediterranean fleet of 
 fifteen sail, defeated the Spanish fleet of twenty-seven ships of the line ofl' this cape, taking 
 four ships and destroying others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory sir John was raised to the 
 peerage, as earl St. Vincent. Nelson was engaged in this battle. 
 
 CAPET (or Capevigians), the -third race of the kings of France, named from Hugo Capet, 
 coimt of Paris and Orleans, who seized the throne on the death of Louis V., called the Indo- 
 lent, 987. Henaidt. The first line of the house of Capet expired with Charles IV., in 1328, 
 when Philip VI. of Valois ascended the throne. See France. 
 
 CAPILLARITY (the rising of liquids in small tubes, and the ascent of the sap in plants) 
 is said to have been first observed by Niccolo Aggiunti of Pisa, 1600 — 35. The theory has 
 been examined by Newton, La Place, and others. Dr. T. Young's theory was put forth in 
 1805, and Mr. Wertheim's researches in 1857. 
 
 CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. See Death. 
 
 CAPITATION TAX. See Poll-tax. 
 
 CAPITOL, so called from a human head {caput) being found when digging the founda- 
 tions of the principal fortress of Rome, on Mons Tarpeius, on which a temple was built to 
 Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Capitolinus. The foundation was laid by Tarquinius Prisons, 
 616 B.C. The building was continued by Servius TuUius, and completed by Tarquinius 
 Superbus, but was not dedicated till 507 B.C. by the consul Horatius. It was burnt during 
 the civil wars, 83 B.C., rebuilt by Sylla, and dedicated again by Lutatius Catulus, 69 B.C. 
 The Roman consuls made large donations to this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed 
 on it 2000 pounds weight of gold, of which metal the roof was composed : its thresholds were 
 of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. It was destroyed by 
 
CAP 
 
 15-2 
 
 CAR 
 
 lightning i88 B.C. ; by fire, a.d. 70, and rebuilt by Domitian. The Capiloline games, insti- 
 tuted 387 B.C., were revived by Domitian, A.D. 86. The Camiiidoglio contains jialaces of the 
 senators, erected ou the site of the Capitol by Jlichael Augelo soon after 1546. 
 
 CAPITTJLAEIES, the laws of the Fraukish kings, commencing with Charlemagne (801 ). 
 Collections have been published by Baluze (1677) and others. 
 
 CAPPADOCIA, Asia Minor. Its early history is involved in obscurity. 
 
 Roman senate declares the country free, and 
 
 appoints Ariobarzanes I. king . . B.C. 93 
 He is several times e.x^pelled by Mithridates, 
 
 &c. , but restored by tlie Romans ; dies . 64 
 Ariobarzanes II. supports Ponipey, and is slain 
 
 b}' Crassus ........ 42 
 
 Phamaces said to have founded the kingdom . 744 
 Cappadocia conquered by Pcrdiccas, regent of 
 Macedon ; the king, Ariarathes I., aged 82, 
 
 crucified 322 
 
 Recovers its independence . . . . 315 
 
 Conquered by Mithridates of Pontvis . 291 
 
 Held by Seleucus Nicator 280 
 
 Ai-iarathes V. , Philopator, reigns, 162; dethroned 
 by Holophernes, 130, but restored by the 
 Romans, 158 ; killed with Crassus in the war 
 
 against Aristonicus 130 
 
 Uis queen, Laodice, poisons five of her sons ; 
 the sixth (Ariarathes VI.) is saved; she is 
 
 p\it to death „ 
 
 Ariarathes VI. murdered by Mithridates Eu- 
 pator ; who sets up various pretenders. The 
 
 Ariai-athes VII. deposed by Antony . . 36 
 
 Archelaus is favoured by Augustus, 20 B.C. ; 
 but accused by Tiberius, he comes to Rome 
 and die.s there, oppressed with age and infir- 
 mities . . . . . . . A.u. 17 
 
 Cappadocia becomes a Roman province . . 15 
 
 Invaded by the Huns 515 
 
 And by the Saracens 717 
 
 Recovered by the emperor Basil I. . . . 876 
 
 Conquered by Soliman 1074 
 
 Annexed to Turkish Empire .... 1360 
 
 CAPPEL (Switzerland). Here the reformer Zwinglius was slain in a conflict between 
 the catholics and the men of Zurich, Oct. 11, 1531. 
 
 CAPRI (Caprca?), an island near Naples, the sumptuous residence of Augustus, and par- 
 ticularly of Tiberius, memorable for the debaiicheries he committed during the seven last 
 j'ears of his life, 27. Capri was taken by sir Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806. 
 
 CAPS AND Hats.* About 1750 Sweden was much distracted by two factions thus 
 named, the former in the interest of the Rus.sians, and the latter in that of the French. 
 They were broken up and the names prohibited by Gustavus III. in 1771, who desired to 
 exclude foreign influence. His assassination by Ankarstrom, March 16, 1792, set aside all 
 his plans for the improvement of Sweden. 
 
 CAPUA (Naples), capital of Campania, took the part of Hannibal when his army 
 wintered here after the battle of Canute, 216 B.C., and it is said became enervated through 
 luxury. In 211, when the Romans retook the city, they scourged and beheaded all the 
 surviving senators ; the others had poisoned themselves after a banquet previous to the 
 surrender of the city. Orily two poj'sons escaped degradation, a woman who had praj'ed for 
 the success of the Romans, aud another who succoured some prisoners. During the middle 
 ages Capua was in turn subjugated by the Greeks, Saracens, and Normans, and Germans, 
 It was restored to Naples in a,d, 1424, and was taken Nov. 2, i860, by Garibaldi, 
 
 CAPUCHIN FRIARS, Franciscans, so named from wearing a CapiKhon, or cowl hang- 
 ing down upon their backs. The Capuchins were founded by Matthew Baschi, about 1525. 
 
 CAR, The invention is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, about i486 B.C. Covered 
 cars (currus arcuati) were used by the Romans, The Icctica (a soft cushioned car), next 
 invented, gave place to the caiycntum, a two-wheeled car, with an arched covering, hung 
 with costly cloth. Still later were the carriiccc, in which tlie officers of state rode. Tri- 
 umphal cars, introduced by Tarquiu the Elder, were formed like a throne. 
 
 CARACAS (S. America), part of Venezuela, discovered by Columbus 1498. It was 
 reduced by arms, and assigned as property to the AVelsers, German merchants, by Charles 
 V. ; but from their tyrannj', they were dispossessed in 1550, and a crown governor appointed. 
 The province declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. The city Leon de Caracas, 
 on March 26, 1812, was visited by a violent earthquake, and nearly 12,000 persons perished. 
 See Venezuela. 
 
 CARBERRY HILL (S. Scotland). Here on Jime 15, 1567, lord Hume and the con- 
 
 * None allowed to sell any bat for abiA-c 20'/. nor cap for above 2.?. 8c/. 5 Henry VII. 1489. It was 
 enacted in 1571 that every person above seven years of age should wear on Sundays aud holidays, a cap of 
 wool, knit, made, thickened, and dressed in England by some of the trade of cappers, under the forfeiture 
 of three farthings for every day's neglect, 1571. E.\ccpted : maids, ladies, and gentlewomen, and every 
 lord, knight, and gentleman, of twenty marks of land, and their heirs, and such as had borne office of 
 worship, in any city, town, or place, and the wardens of London companies. 
 
CAR 153 CAR 
 
 federate bai'ons dis]3ersed tlie royal army under Botliwell, and took Mary queen of Scots 
 prisoner. Bothwell fled. 
 
 CARBOLIC ACID (or phenic acid), obtained by the distillation of pit-coal, is a powerful 
 antiseptic. It is largely manufactured for medical purposes, and lias been advantageously 
 used at Carlisle and Exeter in the deodorisation of sewage (1860-1). 
 
 CAEBOISr was shown to be a distinct element by Lavoisier in 1788. He proved the 
 diamond to be its purest form, and converted it into carbonic acid gas by combustion. 
 Gmclin. 
 
 CARBONARI (colliers, or charcoal-burners), a powerful secret society in Italy, which 
 derived its origin, according to some, from the Waldenses, and which became prominent 
 early in the jjresent century. It aimed at the expulsion of foreigners from Italy, and the 
 establishment of civil and religious liberty. In March, 1820, it is said that 650,000 joined 
 the society, and an insurrection soon after broke out in Naples, general Pepe taking the com- 
 mand. The king Ferdinand made political concessions, but the allied sovereigns at Laybach 
 assisted Ferdinand to suppress the liberal party. The Carbonari were henceforth denounced 
 as traitors. Tire society since 1818 spread in France, and doubtless hastened the fall of the 
 Bourbons in 1830 and 1848. It has been frequently but incorrectly confounded with free- 
 masonry. 
 
 CARBONIC ACID GAS, a comjjound of carbon and oxygen, which occurs in the air, 
 and is a product of combustion, respiration, and fermentation. The Grotto del Cane yields 
 200,000 lbs. per annum. No animal can breathe this gas. The briskness of champagne, 
 beer, &c., is due to its presence. It was liquefied by atmospheric jiressure by Faraday in 
 1823. On exposing the liquid to the air for a short time it becomes solid, in the form of 
 snow. 
 
 CARDIFF .CASTLE (S. Wales). Here Robert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of William 
 L, was imprisoned from 1106 till his death, 1135. 
 
 CARDINALS, ecclesiastical princes in the church of Rome, the council of the yjope, and 
 the conclave or sacred college, at first were the principal priests or incumbents of the 
 parishes in Rome, and were called carcUnales in 853. They began to assume the exclusive 
 power of electing the popes in 1181. They first wore the red hat to remind them that 
 they ought to shed their blood for religion, if required, and were declared princes of the 
 chm-ch by Innocent IV., 1243 or 1245. In 1586 Sixtus V. fixed their number at 70; but 
 there are generally vacancies. In i860 tliere were 69 cardinals, in 1861, 63, in 1864, 59. 
 Paul II. gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1623 or 
 1630. Ducange. 
 
 CARDROSS CASE. See Trials, 1861.' 
 
 CARDS (referred to the Chinese, Hindoos, and Romans), are said to have been invented 
 in France in 1391, to amuse Charles IV. during the intervals of a melancholy disorder. 
 Piqiret and all the early names are French. — Cards first taxed in England 17 10. 428,000 
 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 2s. 6d. 
 per pack, less than 150,000 packs were stamped ; but in 1827 the stamp duty was reduced 
 to IS., and 310,854 packs jDaid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs in the year 
 ending 5th Jan. 1840 ; and on near 300,000, year ending 5th Jan. 1850. By an act passed 
 in 1862 the duty on cards was reduced to 3^. per pack, and the sellers were required to take 
 out a licence. 
 
 CARIA, Asia Minor, was conquered by Cyrus, 546 B.C. ; by Dercyllidas, a Laced^e- 
 monian, 397; his successor Hecatomnus became king, 385 B.C.; for his son Mausolus the 
 Mausoleum was erected [which see). Caria was absorbed into the Turkish empire. 
 
 CARICATURES. Bufalmaco, an Italian painter, about 1330, drew caricatures and put 
 labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences. The modern caricatures of Gilray, Row- 
 " landson, H. B. (John Doyle J° = BB), Richard Doyle, John Leech, and John Tenniel are 
 justly celebrated. The well-known " Punch " was fii'st published in 1841. The most eminent 
 writers of fiction of the day and others (Douglas Jerrold, Thackeray, A'Becket, Professor E. 
 Forbes, &c. ) have contributed to this amusing periodical. 
 
 CARINTHIA, a Bavarian duchy, was annexed to Austria, 1363. 
 
CAR 154 CAR 
 
 CARISBROOKE CASTLE (Isle of Wiglit), said to have been a British and Roman 
 fortress, -vvas taken 530, by Cerdic, founder of the kingdom of the AVest Saxons. Its 
 Norman character has been ascribed to AVilliam Fitz-Osborne, earl of Hereford in "William 
 I.'s time. Here Charles I. was imprisoned in 1647. Here died his daughter Elizabeth, 
 aged fifteen, too probably of a broken heart, Sept. 8, 1650. 
 
 CARLAVEROCK CASTLE (S. Scotland), taken by Edward I. July, 1300, the subject of 
 a contemporary poem published, Avith illustrations, by sir Harris Nicolas in 1828. 
 
 CARLISLE (Cumberland), a frontier town of Eugland, wherein for many ages a strong 
 garrison was ke]jt. Just below this town the famous Picts' wall began, which crossed the 
 whole island to Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great Roman highway. The 
 great church, called St. Mary's, is a venerable old pile ; a great part of it was built by St. 
 David, king of Scotland, who held Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Northumberland, in 
 vassalage from the crown of England. The castle, restored in 1092 by William II., was the 
 prison of Mary queen of Scots in 1568. — Taken by the parliamentary forces in 1645, and by 
 the young Pretender, Nov. 15, 1745 : retaken by the duke of Cumberland, Dec. 30, same 
 year. The see was erected by Henry I. in 1132, and made suffragan to York. The catlie- 
 di-al had been founded a short time previously, by AValter, deputj' in these parts for AVilliam 
 Rufus. It was almost ruined by Cri)mwell, and has never recovered its former great beauty, 
 although repaired after tlie Restoration. It has been lately renovated at a cost of 15,000/. 
 and was reopened in 1S56. The see has given to the ciA-il state one lord chancellor and two 
 loixl treasurers ; it is valued in the king's books at 530Z. 4s. lid. per annum. Present 
 income 4500/. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OF CARLISLE. 
 
 1791. Edward Venables Vernon, trans, to York, 1807. 
 1808. Samuel Goodenoxigh, died Aug. 12, 1827. 
 1827. Hugh Percy, died Feb. 1856. 
 
 1856. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers, trans, to Durham 
 
 Ma3', i860. 
 i860. Hon. Samuel Waldegrave (present bishop). 
 
 CARLISLE ADMINISTRATION. See Ilcclifax. 
 
 CARLO VINGIANS, the second dynasty of the French kings. See France. 
 
 CARLOAV (S. E. Ireland). The castle, erected by king John, surrendered after a 
 desperate siege to Rory Oge O'Moore, in 1577 ; again to the parliamentary forces, in 1650. 
 Here the royal troops routed the insurgents, May, 1798. 
 
 CARLSBAD (or Charles's Bath), in Bohemia, the celebrated springs, discovered by the 
 emperor Charles IV. in 1358. — On Aug. i, 1819, a congress was held here, when the great 
 powers decreed measures to repress the liberal press, &c. 
 
 CARMAGNOLE, a Piedmontese song and dance, popular in France during the reign of 
 teiTor, 1793-4. The chorus was " Dansons la Carmagnole : vive le son du canon ! " 
 
 CARMATHIANS, a Mahometan sect. Carmath, a Shiite, about 890, assumed the title 
 of "the guide, the director," &c., including tJiat of the representative of Mahomet, 
 St. John the Baptist, and the angel Gabriel. His followers subdued Bahrein in 900, and 
 overran the east. Dissensions arose amougst themselve.s, and their power soon passed away. 
 
 CARMELITES, or AVhite Friars, of Mount Carmel, one of the four orders of mendi- 
 cants with austere rule.?, founded by Berthold about 11 56, and settled in France in 1252. 
 Henaull. These rules were moderated about 1540. They claimed descent from Elijah. 
 They had numerous monasteries in England, and a precinct in London without the Temple, 
 west of Blackfriars, is called AVhitefriars to this day, after a community of their order, 
 founded there in 1245. 
 
 CARNATIC, a district of Southern Hindostan, extending along the whole coast of Coro- 
 mandel. Hyder Ali entered the Carnatic with 80,000 trooiis, in 1780, and was defeated by 
 the British imder sir Eyre Coote, July i, and Aug. 27, 1781 ; and decisively overthrowai, 
 June 2, 1782. The Carnatic was overrun by Tippoo in 1790. The British have possessed 
 entire authority over the Carnatic since 1801. See India. 
 
 CARNATION, so called from the original species being of a flesh colour (carnis, of 
 flesh). Several varieties were first planted in England by the Flemings, about 1567. Stotv.' 
 
 CARNEIAN GAMES, observed in many Grecian cities, particularly at Sparta (instituted 
 about 675 B.C. in honour of Apollo, surnamed Carneus), lasted nine days. 
 
 CARNIVAL {Carni vale, Italian, i.e. Flesh, fareivell .'), a festival time in Italy, parti- 
 cularly at Venice, about Shrove-tide, or beginning of Lent. 
 
CAR 
 
 155 
 
 CAR 
 
 CAROLINA (N. America). Said to have been discovered hy Sebastian Cabot in 1498, 
 orbyDe Leon in 1512. A 1.iody of English, about 850 persons, landed and settled here 
 about 1660 ;_and Carolina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. 
 The cultivation of rice was introduced by governor Smith in 1695, and subsequently cotton. 
 The province was divided into North and South in 1719. See America. The Carolinas 
 were slave states. ' Great excitement prevailed in them in Nov. i860, on account of Mr. 
 Abraham Lincoln's election to the presidency of the United States, he being strongly 
 opposed to slavery. South Carolina began the secession from the United States, Dec. 20, 
 1S60: North Carolina followed, May 21, 1861. See United States, 1861-5. 
 
 CAROLINE ISLANDS were discovered by the Spaniards in the reign of Charles II. 1686. 
 
 CARP, a fresh-water or pond fish, was, it is said, first brought to these countries about 
 1525. Walton. It is mentioned by Lady Juliana Berners in 1496. 
 
 CARPETS are of ancient use in the East. The manufacture of woollen carpets was 
 introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., between 1589 and 1610. 
 Some artizans who had quitted France in disgust established the English carpet manufac- 
 ture, about 1750. A cork-carpet company was formed in 1862. 
 
 CARRACK, or Karrack (Italian, Caracca), a large ship in the middle ages. The Santa 
 Anna, the property of the knights of St. John, of about 1700 tons, sheathed with lead, was 
 built at Nice about 1530. It was literally a floating fortress, and aided Charles V. in taking 
 Tunis in 1535. It contained a crew of 300 men and 50 pieces of artillery. 
 
 CARRIAGES. Erichthonius of Athens is said to have produced the first chariot about 
 i486 B.C. Rude carriages were known in France in the reign of Henry II. a.d. 1547 ; in 
 England in 1555 ; Henry IV. of France had one without straps or springs. They Avere made 
 in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and then called whirlicotes. The duke of Bucking- 
 ham, in 1 6 19, drove six horsae ; and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. 
 Carriages Avere let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre ; hence the name, fiacre. 
 See Car, Cabriolets, and Coaches. 
 
 CARRICKFERGUS (Antrim, Ireland). Its castle is supposed to have been built by 
 Hugli de Lacy, in 1.178. The town surrendered to the duke of Schomberg, Aug. 28, 1689. 
 The castle surrendered to the French admiral Thurot, 1760. See Thurot. 
 
 CARRON IRON-WORKS, on the banks of the Carron, in Stirlingshire, established in 
 1760. The works in 1852 employed about 1600 men. Here since 1776 have been made the 
 pieces of ordnance called carronades. 
 
 CARROTS and other edible roots were imported from HoUand and Flanders, about 1540. 
 
 CARTESIAN DOCTRINES, promulgated by Rene Des Cartes, the French philosopher, 
 in 1637. His metaphysical principle is, "I think, therefore I am ;" his physical principle, 
 "Nothing exists but substance." He accounts for all physical phenomena on his theory of 
 vortices, motions excited b}^ God, the source of all motion. He was born 1596, and died at 
 Stockholm, the guest of cj^ueen Christina, in 1650. 
 
 CARTES DE VISITE. The small photograph portraits thus termed are said to have 
 been first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier in 1857. The duke of Parma had his portrait placed 
 upon his visiting cards, and his example was soon followed in Paris and London, 
 
 CARTHAGE (N. coast of Africa, near Tunis), founded by Dido or Elissa, sister of 
 Pygmalion, king of Tyre, B.C. 878 (869, Blair; 826, Niebuhr). She fled from that tyrant, 
 who had killed her husband, and took refuge in Africa. Carthage became a great com- 
 mercial and warlike ]-epubIic, and disputed the empire of the world with Rome, which 
 occasioned the Punic wars. The Carthaginians bore the character of a faithless people, 
 hence the term Punic faith. Cato the censor (about 146 B.C.) ended his speeches in the 
 senate with Carthago delenda! "Carthage must be destroyed ! " 
 
 First allianoe of Carthaginiaus and Eomans . 509 
 The Carthacrinians in Sicily defeated at Himera 
 
 by Gelo ; the elder HamUcar perishes . . 480 
 They enlarge their territories .... 410 
 They send 300,000 men into Sicily . . . . 407 
 
 Take Agi'igentum 406 
 
 The siege of Syracuse 396 
 
 The Carthaginians land in Italy . . . .379 
 Their defeat by Timoleon 339 
 
 Defeated by Agathoolep, they immolate their B.C. 
 children on the altar to Saturn . . . 310 
 The first Punic war begins (lasts 23 years) . . 264 
 The Carthaginians defeated by the Roman con- 
 sul Duilius in a naval engagement . . . 260 
 
 Xantippus defeats Regulus 255 
 
 Hasdrubal defeated by Metellus at Panormus 251 
 
 Regulus put to death 250 
 
 Romans defeated before Lilybasum . . . 250 
 The gi-eat Hannibal born 247 
 
CAR 166 CAS 
 
 CARTHAGE, couihmcd. 
 
 End of fir.~t Punic war; Sicily lost by Carthage 241 
 War between the Carthaginians and African 
 mercenaries ....... 241 
 
 Hamilcar Barcas is .sent into Spain : he takes 
 with him his son, the famous Hannibal, at 
 the age of nine years, having first made him 
 swesr an eternal enmity to the Romans . . 237 
 Hasdrubal founds New Carthage (Carthagena) . 229 
 Hasdmbal is assassinated . .... 220 
 
 Hannibal subject.s Spain, as far as the Iberus . 219 
 The second Piinic war begins (la^ts 17 years) . 218 
 Hannibal crosses the Alj^s, and enters Italy with 
 100,000 men ....... 218 
 
 He defeats the Roman consuls at the Ticinus and 
 
 B.C. ! Jletaurus B.C. 207 
 
 The Carthiginians expelled Spain . . . 206 
 
 I'-'cipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege to Utica . 204 
 Hannibal recalled from Italy .... 203 
 Hannibal totallj' defeated at Zama {which see) . 202 
 
 End of the second Punic war 201 
 
 TUe third Punic war : Scipio invades Africa . 149 
 Carthage feiken and burned, by order of the 
 
 senate 146 
 
 Colony settled at Carthage by C. Gracchus . 122 
 Its rebuilding planned by Julius Csesar . . 46 
 
 And executed by his successors. 
 It becomes an important Christian bishop- 
 ric A.D. 215 
 
 And Cyprian holds a council here . . . 252 
 
 Trebia, 21S ; at the lake Thi-asymenus, 217, | Taken by Genseric the Vandal . . . . 439 
 
 and at Cannse {which see) . . . Aug. 2, 216 
 Publius Scipio carries war into Spain and takes 
 
 New Carthage 210 
 
 Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, arrives with 
 
 an army, and is defeated and slain at the 
 
 ^...^ — . ^j ^ V — . «^..*«. . . . . ^j>^ I 
 
 Retaken by Behsarms 533 ^ 
 
 Taken and destroyed by Hassan the Saraceuic J 
 
 governor of Egypt . . " . . . . 698 ] 
 
 Carthaginian antiquities brought to the British | 
 
 Museum 1861 
 
 CARTHAGENA, or New Cauthage (S. E. Spain), built by Ha,sdrubal, the Carthaginian \ 
 general 229 B.C. ; was taken by Scipio, 210. The modeni Carthagena was taken by a British 
 force under sir John Leake in 1706, but was retaken bj' the duke of Berwick, 1707. — 
 Carthagena, in Columbia, South America, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; was 
 pillaged by the French of 1,200,000/. in 1697 ; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon 
 in 1 740- 1. 
 
 CARTHUSIANS, a religious order (springing from the Benedictines) founded by Bruno . 
 of Cologne, who retired with six companions from the converse of the world about loSo, to 
 Chartreuse {which see), in the mountains of Dauphine. Thei|^austere rules were formed by 
 Basil VII., general of the order. They appeared in England about 1180, and a Carthusian 
 monastery, founded by sir William Manny, 137 1, was the site of the present Charter-house, 
 London. See Charter-house. The Carthusian powder, of father Simon, at Chartreuse, was 
 Jirst compounded about 171 5. 
 
 CARTOONS. Those of Raphael (twenty-five in number) were designed (for tapestries) 
 in the chambers of the A''atican under Julius 11. and Leo X. aliont 1510 to 1516. The seven 
 preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of England, for Hampton 
 court palace in 1629. They represent — i, the Miraculous draught of Fishes ; 2, the Charge 
 to Peter ; 3, Peter and John healing the Lame at the Gate of the Temple ; 4, the Death of 
 Ananias ; 5, Elymas the Sorcerer struck with blindness ; 6, the Sacrifice to Paul and 
 Barnabas, at Lystra ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. — The cartoons were removed to 
 South Kensington, April 28, 1865. — The tapestries executed at Arras from these designs are 
 at Rome. They were twice carried away by invaders, in 1526 and 1798, and were restored 
 in 1815. — The Cartoons for the British Houses of Parliament were exhibited in 1843. 
 
 CARVING. &ee Sculptures. CASH-PAYMENTS. See Bank of England. 
 
 CASHEL (Tipperary, Ireland). Cormack Cuillinan, king and bishop of Cashel, was the 
 reinited founder or restorer of the cathedral, 901. In 1152, bishop Donat O'Danergan was 
 invested with the pall. See Pallium. Cashel was valued in the king's books, 29 Henry 
 A'^IIL, at 661. 13s. ^d. Irish money. By the Church Temporalities act, 1833, it ceased to be 
 archiepiscopal, and was joined to Waterford and Lismore. 
 
 CASHMERE, in the Himalayas ; was subdued by the Mahometans in the i6th century ; 'i 
 by the Affghans in 1754 ; by the Sikiis in 1819 ; and was ceded to the British in 1846 ; who ' 
 gave it to the Maharajah Gholab Singh, with a nominal sovereignty. The true Cashmere 
 shawls were first brought to England in 1666 : but are well imitated at Bradford and 
 Huddersfield. Shawls of Thibetian wool, for the omrahs, cost 150 rupees each, about 1650. 
 Bernicr. 
 
 CASSATION, Court of, the highest court of appeal in France, was established in 1790 ■ 
 by the national assembly. 
 
 CASSITERIDES. See Scilhj Isles. 
 
 CASTEL FIDARDO, near Aucona, Central Italy. Near here general Lamoriciere and 
 the papal army of 11,000 men were totally defeated by the Sardinian general, Cialdini, Sept. 
 18, i860. Lamoriciere with a few horsemen fled to Ancona, then besieged. On Sept. 29, 
 he and the garrison surrendered, but were shortly after set at liberty. 
 
■ CAS 157 CAT 
 
 CASTES, a distinct section of society in India. In the laws of Menu (see Menu), the 
 Hindus are divided into the Biahmans, or sacerdotal class ; the Kshatrya or Chuttree, 
 military class ; the Vaisj^a, or commercial class ; and the Sudras, or sooders, servile class. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE (N". Italy). Here the French under Augereau defeated the Austrians, 
 commanded by Wurmser, with great loss, Ang. 3 — 5, 1796. 
 
 CASTILE (Central Spain). A poAverful Gothic government was established here about 
 800. — Ferdinand, count of Castile, became king, 1035. Ferdinand of Arragon married 
 Isabella of Castile in 1474, and formed one monarchy, 1479. See Sjxdn. 
 
 CASTILLEJOS (IST. Africa). Here on Jan. i, i860, was fought the fir.st decisive action 
 in the war between Spain and Morocco. General Prim, after a vigorous resistance, repulsed 
 the Moors imder Muley Abbas, and advanced towards Tetuan. 
 
 CASTILLGlSr, in Guienne. Here the army of Henry VI. of England was defeated by 
 that of Charles VII. of France. An end was put to the English dominion in France, Calais 
 alone remaining, July 23, ^453. Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, v.'as killed. 
 
 CASTLEBAE (Ireland). French troops, under Humbert, landed at Killala, and assisted 
 by Irish insurgents here, compelled the king's troops to retreat, Aug. 28, 1798. 
 
 CASTLEPOLLAED (Ireland). Fatal affray at a fair here between some peasantry and a 
 body of police, when thirteen persons lost their lives, and more than twice that number were 
 wounded. May 23, 1831. The chief constable, Blake, and his men, escaped punishment. 
 
 CASTLES. The castle of the Anglo-Saxon was a tower keep, either round or square, 
 and ascended by a flight of steps in front. William I. erected 48 strong castles. Several 
 hundreds, built by permission of Stephen, between 1135 and 1154, were demolished by 
 Henry II., 1154. Many were dismantled in the civil wars. 
 
 CATACOMBS. The early depositories of the dead. The first Christians at Eome met 
 for worship in the catacombs ; and here are said to have been the tombs of the apostles 
 Peter and Paul. Belzoni in 1815 and 1818 explored many Egyptian catacombs, built 3000 
 years ago. He brought to England the sarcophagus of Psammetichus, formed of oriental 
 alabaster, exquisitely sculptured. In the Parisian catacombs (formerly stone quarries), 
 human remains from the cemetery of the Innocents were deposited in 1785 ; and many of 
 the victims of the revolution in 1792-4, are interred in them. 
 
 CATALONIA (W. Spain), was settled by the Goths and Alaui, about 409 ; conquered bj'' 
 the Saracens, 712 ; recovered by Pepin and Charlemagne. It formed part of the Spanish 
 marches and the territory of the count of Barcelona {ivhich see). The natives were able 
 seamen : being frequently unruly, their peculiar privileges were abolished in 17 14. 
 
 CATALYTIC FOECE. The discovery in 18 19 by Thenard of the decomposition of 
 peroxide of hydrogen by platinum, and by Dobereiner in 1825 of its property to ignite a 
 mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, formed the groundwork of the doctrine of Catalytic Force, 
 also termed "action of contact or presence," put forth by Berzelius and Mitscherlich. 
 Their view has not been adopted by Liebig and other chemists. 
 
 CATAMAEANS (or carcases), fire-machines for destroying ships ; tried in vain by sir 
 Sidney Smith, Oct. 2, 1804, on the Boulogne flotilla destined by Bonaparte to invade England. 
 
 CATANIA, a town near Etna, Sicily, was founded by a colony from Chalcis, about 753 
 B.C. Ceres had a temple here, open to none but women. Catania was almost totally over- 
 thrown by an eruption of Etna in 1669, and in 1693 was nearly swallowed up by an earth- 
 quake : in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried in the ruins. An earth- 
 quake did great damage, Feb. 22, 1817. In Aug. 1862, the town was held by Garibaldi and 
 his volunteers, in opposition to the Italian government. He was captured on Aug. 29. 
 
 CATAPHEYGIANS, heretics in the 2nd centuiy, who followed the errors of Mon- 
 tanus. They are said to have baptized their dead, forbidden marriage, and mingled the 
 bread and wine in the Lord's supper, with the blood of young children. 
 
 CATAPULT.^, military engines of the cross-bow kind, for throwing huge stones as well 
 as darts and arrows ; invented by Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, 399 B. c. Josephus. 
 
 CATEAU CAMBEESIS (N. France], where, on April 2, 3, 1559, peace was conchided 
 between Henry II. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and Elizabeth of England. France ceded 
 to Philip Savoy, Corsica, and nearly 200 forts in Italy and the Low Countries. 
 
 CATECHISMS. The catechism of the church of England in the second book of Edward 
 
CAT 15S CAU" 
 
 VI., 1552, contained merely the baptismal vow, the creed, the ten commandments, and the 
 Lord's prayer, with an explanation : but James I. ordered the bishops to enlarge it by adding 
 an explication of the sacraments, 1612. It was increased snbsequently by the doctrinal 
 points of the established relijjjion. Tlie catechism of the council of Trent was published in 
 1566 ; that of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster in 1648. 
 
 CATHAEI (from the Greek katharos, pure), a name given to the Novatians (about 251), 
 Montanists, and other early Christian sects. 
 
 CATHERINE. Tlie order of knights of St. Catherine was instituted in Palestine, 1063. 
 The order of nuns called Catherines was founded in 1373. An order of ladies of the highest 
 rank in Russia was foimded by Catherine, empress of Peter the Great, 1714. They were to 
 be distinguished, as the name implied (from katliaros, pure), for piirity of life and manners. 
 
 CATHOLIC MAJESTY. This title was first given by pope Gregory III. to Alphonsus I. 
 of Spain, 739. Liccnciado. The title was also given to Ferdinand V. and his queen in 1474 
 by Innocent VIII. on account of their zeal for the Roman Catholic religion, and their 
 establishment of the Impiisition in Sjiain. 
 
 CAT ISLE. See Salvador. CATHOLICS. See Ro7na7i Catholics. 
 
 CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. L. Sergius Catiline, a Roman of noble family, having 
 squandered away his fortune by debauclieries and extravagance, and having been refused the 
 consulship (B.C. 65), meditated the ruin of his country, and conspired with many of the 
 dissolute aristocracy to extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on fire. 
 This conspiracy was timely discovered and fru.strated. A second plot (in 63), was detected 
 by the cousid Cicero, whom he had resolv^ed to murder. Catiline's daring appearance in the 
 senate-house, after his guilt was known, drew forth Cicero's celebrated invective, "Quousquc 
 tandem, Catilina !" on Nov. 8. On seeing five of his accomplices arrested, Catiline retired 
 to Gaul where his partisans were assembling an army. Cicero punished the conspirators at 
 home, and Petreius routed Catiline's ill-disciplined forces ; the cousjiirator being killed in 
 the engagement, December, 62 B.C. 
 
 CATO, Suicide of, termed the "era destructive of the liberties of Rome." This Roman 
 philosopher, considering freedom as that which alone "sustains the name and dignity of man," 
 and unable to survive the independence of his country, stabbed himself at Utica, 46 B.C. 
 
 CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY, a gang of desperate politicians, formed by Arthur 
 Thistlewood, which assembled in Cato-street, Edgware-road, j^roposed the assassination of 
 the ministers of the crown, at a cabinet dinner, and the overthrow of the government. Tliey 
 were betrayed by one of their numlier, and arrested Feb. 23, 1820, and the principals, 
 Thistlewood, Brunt, Davidson, Ings, and Tidd, were executed with the horrors adjudged to 
 the punishment of traitors, on Jlay i, following. 
 
 CATTLE. The impoi'tation of horned cattle from Ireland and Scotland into England 
 was prohibited by a law, 1663 ; but the export of cattle from Ireland became verj' extensive. 
 In 1842 the importation of cattle into England from foreign countries was subjected to a 
 moderate duty, and in 1846 they were made duty free. — In 1850, were imported of all sorts 
 of cattle, 217,247 ; in 1854, 397,430 ; in 1859, 347,341 ; in 1864, 727,977. In 1849, 53,480 
 horned cattle were imported; in 1S63, 150,898; in 1864, 496,243 from all coimtries. In 
 April, 1857, great disease arose among cattle abroad, but by great care it was almost excluded 
 from this country. The cattle-plague now raging in England (Sept., 1865) ajipeared in 
 June. The nature and origin of the disease caused much dispute. It is generally considered 
 to be a typhoid fever, and of foreign origin. Active preventive and remedial measures have 
 been adopted, under the authority of the privy council. The importation of cattle from 
 England into Ireland was prohibited Aug. 25, 1865. See MctivpoUtati Cattle-market and 
 Smithfield. 
 
 CAUCASUS, a lofty mountain, a continuation of the ndge of Mount Taurus, between the 
 Euxinc and Caspian seas. Prometheus was said to have been tied on the top of Caucasus by 
 Jupiter and continually devoured by vultures, (according to ancient authors, 1548 B.C.). The 
 passes near the mountain were called Caucasice Porta, and it is supposed that through them 
 the Sarinatians or Huns invaded the provinces of Rome, A.n. 447. See Circassia. 
 
 CAUDINE FORKS, according to Livj', the Furcnlce Caudince (in Samnium, S. Italy), 
 were two narrow defiles or gorges, imited by a range of mountains on each side. The 
 Romans went through the first pass, but found the second blocked up ; on returning they 
 found the first similarly obstructed. Being thns hemmed in by the Samnites, under the 
 command of C. Pontius, they surrendered at discretion, 321 B.C. (after a fruitless contest, 
 according to Cicero). The Roman senate broke the treaty. 
 
• CAU 159 CEL 
 
 CAULIFLOWEE, said to have been first planted in England about 1603 ; it came from 
 Cypras. 
 
 CAUSTIC IN Painting, a method of burning colours into wood or ivory, invented by 
 Gausias of Sicyon. He painted his mistress Glycere sitting on the ground making garlands 
 with flowers ; the picture was hence named Stcphanoplocon. It was bought by LucuUus for 
 two talents, 335 B.C. Pliny. 
 
 CAUTIONARY TOWNS (Holland), (the Briel, Flushing, Rammekins, and Walcheren), 
 were given to queen Elizabeth in 1585 as security for their repaying her for assistance in 
 their struggle with S]Dain. They were restored to the Dutch rex^ublic by James I. in 1616. 
 
 CAVALIER. The appellation given to the supporters of the king during the civil war 
 from a number of gentlemen forming themselves into a bodA^-guard for the king in 1641. 
 They were opposed to the Roundlieads, or friends of the parliament. Hume. 
 
 CAVALRY. The Romans were celebrated for the discipline and efficiency of their 
 cavalry. Attached to each Roman legion was a body of 300 horse, in ten turmsB ; the com- 
 mander always a veteran. The Persians had 10,000 horse at Marathon, 490 B.C. ; and 10,000 
 Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 b.o, Plutarch. In the wars with 
 Napoleon I. the British cavalry reached to 31,000 men. Our cavalry force, in 1840, was, 
 in household troops, 1209; dragoons, hussars and lancers, 9524; total, 10,733. ^^ 1856 
 the total was stated to be 21,651 ; in 186 1, 23,210. See Horse Gttards, &c. 
 
 CAVENDISH EXPERIMENT. In 1798 the hon. Henry Cavendish described his 
 experiment for determining the mean density of the earth, by comparing the force of terres- 
 trial attraction with that of the attraction of leaden spheres of known magnitude and 
 density, by means of the torsion balance. Brancla. 
 
 CAWNPORE, a town in India, on the Doab, a pjeninsula between the Ganges and 
 Jumna. During the' mutiny in 1857 it was garrisoned by native troops under sir Huo-h 
 Wheeler. These broke out into revolt. An adopted son of the old Peishwa Bajee Rao, 
 Nana Sahib, who had long lived on friendly terms with the British, came, apparently to their 
 assistance, but joined the rebels. He took the place after three weeks' siege, June 26 • and 
 in spite of a treaty massacred gi'eat numbers of the British, without respect to age or sex in 
 the most cruel manner. General Havelock defeated Nana Sahib, July 16, at Euttehpore, 
 and retook Cawnpore, July 17. A column was erected here, in memory of the sufferers, by 
 their relatives of the 32nd regiment. In Dec. i860. Nana was said to be living at Thibet • 
 and in Dec. 1861 was incorrectly said to have been captured at Kurrachee. See Iwlia, 1857. 
 
 CAYENNE, French Guiana (S. America), settled by the French 1604-35. I* afterwards 
 came successively into the hands of the English (1654), French, and Dutch. The last were 
 expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was 
 ]'estored to the French in 1814. Here is produced the capsicum haccahim, or cayenne peijper. 
 Many French political prisoners have been sent here since 1848, 
 
 CECILIAN SOCIETY. See under Music. 
 
 CEDAR TREE. The red cedar {Jtonijierus Virginicma) came from North America 
 before 1664 ; the Bermudas cedar from Bermudas before 1683 ; the cedar of Lebanon (Pinus 
 Cfdrus) from the Levant before 1683. In 1850 a grove of venerable cedars, about 40 feet 
 higli, remained on Lebanon. The cedar of Goa (Ctipressus Lusitctnica) was brought to 
 Europe by the Portuguese about 1683. See Cypress. 
 
 CELERY is said to have been introduced into England by the French marshal, Tallard 
 during his captivity in England, after his defeat at Blenheim by Marlborough in 1 704. 
 
 CELESTIAL GLOBE. See Glohes. 
 
 CELIBACY (from ccelcbs, unmarried), was preached by St. Anthony in Egypt about 
 305. His early converts lived in caves, &c., till monasteries were founded. The doctrine 
 was rejected in the council of Nice, 325. Celibacy was enjoined to bishops only in 692. 
 The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of celibacy by pope Gregory VII. in 
 1073-85. The decree was opposed in England, 958-978. Its observance was finally estab- 
 lished by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. The privilege of marriage was restored to 
 the English clergy in 1547. The marriage of the clergy was jjroposed, but negatived at the 
 council of Trent "(1563). 
 
CEL 160 CER 
 
 CELL THEORY (propounded by Schwann in 1839) supposes tliat the ultimate particles 
 of all animal and vegetable tissues are small cells. Some of the lowest forms of animal and 
 vegetable life are said to be composed of merely a single cell, as the germinal vesicle in 
 the egg and the red-snow plant. 
 
 CELTIBERI. See Numantine War. CELTS, a group of the Aryan family. See Gavls. 
 
 CEMETERIES. The burying-places of the Greeks and Romans were at a distance from 
 their towns ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in gardens and in fields. (John xix. 41 ; 
 Matlhcw xxvii. 60. ) Public cemeteries planted after the manner of the great cemetery at 
 Paris, named Pere La Chaise* have been opened in all parts of the kingdom. See Catacombs. 
 
 Kensal-gveen cemetery, 53 acres ; consecrated \ Nunhead cemetery, about 50 acres ; conse- 
 
 Nov. 2, 1832 crated July 29, 1840 
 
 Soutli Metropolitan and Norwood cemetery ; 40 I City of London and Tower Hamlets cemetery, 
 
 acres ; consecrated . . . Doc. 6, 1837 [ 30 acres ; consecrated 1841 
 
 Higbgate and Kentish-towucemetery,22 acres; London Necropolis and National Mausoleum, 
 
 opened and consecrated . . May 20, 1839 ' at Woking, SuiTcy, 2000 acres ; tbe company 
 
 Abney Park cemetery, Stoke Newington, 30 | incorporated in July 1832 ; opened . Jan. 1855 
 
 acres ; opened by tbe lord mayor . May 20, 1840 1 City of London cemetery, llford ; opened 
 
 Westminster, or West London cemetery, Ken- I June 24, 1856 
 
 sington-road ; consecrated . . June 15, 1840 
 
 CENIS, Mount. See under Alfs. 
 
 CENSORS, Roman magistrates, whose duty was to survej', rate, and correct the manners 
 of the people. The two tir.st censors were appointed 443 B.C. Plebeian censors were fir.st 
 appointed 131 B.C. The office, abohshed by the emperors, was revived by Decius, 251 A. I). 
 See Press. 
 
 CENSUS. The Israelites were numbered by Moses, 1490 B.C. ; and by David, 1017 B.C. ; 
 and Demetrius Thalereus is said to have taken a census of Attica, 317 B.C. In the Roman 
 polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and personal effects, delivered to the govern- 
 ment upon oath every five years ; established by Servius TuUiu-s, 566 B.C. In England the 
 census, formerly not periodical, is now taken at decennial periods, of which the latest were 
 in 1801, 1811, 1821, 1831, 1841, 1851 and 1861 {A]»ril 7). Eor the latest census taken in 
 other countries, see Table, p. viii., after the preface. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA. See America. A large American steamer of this name was 
 wrecked during a gale in the gulf of Mexico, Sept. 12, 1857. Of about 550 persons only 
 152 were taved : several of these after drifting on rafts above 600 miles. Tlie loss of about 
 24 million dollars in specie aggravated the commercial panic at New York shortly after. 
 The captain and crew behaved heroically. 
 
 CENTRAL CRIMINAL COURT, established in 1834. Commissions are issued to the 
 fifteen judges of England (of whom three attend in rotation at the Old Bailey) for the 
 periodical delivery of the gaol of Newgate, and the trial of ofl'ences of greater degree, 
 committed in Middlesex and parts of Essex, Kent, and Surrey ; the new district is considered 
 as one county. 
 
 CENTURION, the captain, head, or commander of a .subdivision of a Roman legion 
 which consisted of 100 men, and was called a ccnturia. By the Roman census each hundred 
 of the people was called a centuria, 556 B.C. 
 
 CENTURY. The Greeks computed time by the Olympiads, beginning 776 B.C., and the 
 Roman church, by Indictions, the first of which began Sept. 24, a.d. 312. The method of 
 computing time by centuries commenced from the incarnation of Christ, and was adopted in 
 chronological history first in France. Bupin. 
 
 CEPHALONIA, one of the Ionian islands, was taken from the iEtolians by the Romans, 
 189 B.C., and given to the Athenians by Hadrian, a.d. 135. See Ionian Isles. 
 
 CEPHESUS, a river in Attica, near which Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was 
 defeated and slain by the Catalans, 131 1. 
 
 CERBERE, French brig, mounted nine large guns, had a crew of eighty-seven men, and 
 was lying at Port Louis. The harbour was entered in a ten-cared cutter manned with only 
 eighteen men, commanded by lieut. Paddou, who cut out and made good their prize, July 
 29, i8co. 
 
 » Pfere La Cbaise was the favourite and confessor' of Louis XIV. wl-.o made him superior of a great 
 establishment of the Jesuits on this spot, then named Mtnt Louis. The houfe nnd grounds were bought 
 for a national cemetay, which was laid out by M. Bronguiart, and first used on May 21, 1804. 
 
CER 161 CHA 
 
 CEREMONIES, Master of the, can office instituted for the more hononrable reception 
 of ambassadors and persons of quality at court, i James I. 1603. The order maintained 
 by the master of the ceremonies at Bath, "Beau Nash," the "King of Bath," led to the 
 adoption of the office in ordinary assemblies : he died in his 88th year, 1761. Ashe. 
 
 CERES, a planet, 160 miles in diameter, was discorered by M, Piazzi, at Palermo, Jan. i, 
 1801 ; he named it after the goddess highly esteemed by the ancient Sicilians. 
 
 . CERES UO LA (N. Italy). Here Francis de Bourbon, count d'Enghien, defeated the 
 imperialists under the marquis de Guasto, April 14, 1544. 
 
 CERIGNOLA (S. Italy). Here the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova and the Spaniards 
 defeated the due de Nemours and the French, April 28, 1503. 
 
 CERINTHIANS, followers of Cerinthus, a Jew, who lived about 80, are said to have 
 combined Judaism with pagan philosophy. 
 
 CERIUM, a very rare metal, discovered by Klaproth and others in 1803. 
 
 CEUTA (the ancient Septa), a town on N. coast of Africa, stands on the site of the ancient 
 Abyla, the southern pillar of Hercules. It was taken from the Vandals by Belisarius for 
 Jiistinian 534; by the Goths 618; by the Moors (about 709), from whom it was taken by 
 the Portuguese 1415. With Portugal, it was annexed in 1580 to Spain, which, power still 
 retains it. 
 
 CEYLON (the ancient Taprobane); an island in the Indian Ocean, called by the natives 
 the seat of paradise. It was discovered by the Portuguese Almeyda, 1505 ; but it was known 
 to the Romans in the time of Claudius, 41. The Dutch landed in Ceylon in 1602 ; they 
 captured the capital, Colombo, in 1603. Frequent conflicts ensued between the Candians 
 and the Europeans, and peaceful commercial relations were established only in 1664. Inter- 
 course with the British began in 1713. A large portion of the country was taken by them 
 in 1782, but was restored in 1783. The Dutch settlements were seized by the British; 
 Trincomalee, Aug. 26, 1795, and Jeffnapatam, in Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to 
 Great Britain by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacherously 
 massacred or imjmsoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The com- 
 plete sovereignty of the island was assumed by England in 181 5. The governor, lord Tor- 
 rington, was absolved from a charge of undue severity in suppressing a rebellion, May 1851. 
 The prosperity of Ceylon greatly increased under the administration of sir H. "Ward, 
 1855-60. Sir J. E. Tennent's work, " Ceylon," appeared in 1859. 
 
 CHJIRONEA (Bceotia). Here Greece lost its liberty to Philip ; 32,000 Macedonians 
 defeating 30,000 Thebans, Athenians, &c., Aug. 6 or 7,3388.0. Here Archelaus, lieutenant 
 of Mithridates, was defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians were slain, 86 B.C. See 
 Coronaa. 
 
 CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to be that 
 at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top of one mountain to the 
 top of another. Mr. Telford constructed the first chain-bridge on a grand scale in England, 
 over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of "Wales, 1818-25. See Menai Straits. 
 
 CHAIN-CABLES, Pumps, and Shot. Iron chain-cables were in use by the Yeneti, a 
 people intimately connected with the Belgoe of Britain in the time of Csesar, 55 B.C. These 
 cables came into modern use, and generally in the royal navy of England, in 1812. An Act 
 for the proving and sale of chain-cables and anchors was passed in 1864. — Chain-shot, to 
 destroy the rigging of an enemy's ship, were invented by^the Dutch admiral, De "Witt, in 
 1666. — Chain-Pumps were first iised on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787. 
 
 CHAINS, Hanging in. By the 25th Geo. II. 1752, it was enacted that the judge should 
 direct the bodies of pirates and murderers to be dissected and anatomised, or hung in chains. 
 The custom of hanging in chains was abolished in 1834. 
 
 CHALCEDON, Asia Minor, opposite Byzantium, colonised by Megarians, about 684 B.C. 
 It was taken by Darius, B.C. 505 ; by the Romans, 74 ; plundered by tKe Goths, a.d. 259 ; 
 taken by Chosroes, the Persian, 609 ; by Orchan, the Turk, 1338. Here was held the 
 "Synod of the Oak," 403 ; and the fourth general council, which annulled the act of the 
 "Robber Synod," Oct. 8, 451. 
 
 CHALCIS. See Eubcea. 
 
 M 
 
CHA 
 
 162 
 
 CHA 
 
 under the degree of a knight, who, if his majesty 
 api^roved of him, might officiate accordingly. Beat- 
 fon. The office is now held by the present lord Wil- 
 loughby d'Eresby (1865). 
 
 Lord Chamberlain of the Household. — An 
 ancient office. The title is from the French Cham- 
 bellon, in Latin Camerarius. He has the oversight 
 of the king's chaplains, the officers of the standing 
 and removing wardrobes, beds, tents, revels, music, 
 hunting, and of all the physicians, surgeons, apo- 
 tliecaries, messengers, tradesmen, and artisans re- 
 tained in his majesty's service. Sir William Stanley, 
 knt., afterwards beheaded, was lord chamberlain, 
 I Henry VII. 1485. A vice-chamberlain acts in the 
 absence of the chief ; the offices are co-existent. 
 Beatson. 
 
 CHALD J5A, the ancient name of Babylonia, but afterwards restricted to the S. W. portion. 
 The Chaldfeans were devoted to astronomy and astrology. See Ba^i. ii. &c. — The CHALDiEAN 
 Registeks of celestial observations were commenced 2234 B.C., and were brought down to the 
 taking of Babylon by Alexander, 331 B.C. (a period of 1903 years). These registers were 
 sent by Callisthenes to Aristotle. — Chaldean Chakactees : the Bible was transcribed from 
 the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra, about 445 b.c. 
 
 CHALGROVE (Oxfordshire). At a skirmish here with prince Rupert, June 18, 1643, 
 John Hampden, of the parliament party, was mortally wounded. A column was erected to 
 his memory June 18, 1843. 
 
 CHALONS-SUR-MARNE (N. E. France). Here the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, 
 the last of the pretenders to the throne, termed the Thirty Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 
 Aetius defeated Attila the Hun, compelling him to retire into Pannonia. 
 
 CHAMBERLAIN, early a high court officer in France, Germany, and England. The office 
 of chamberlain of the exchequer was discontinued in 1834. The chamberlain is also a civic 
 officer, as in London, of ancient origin. 
 
 _ Lord Great Chamberlain of England. — The 
 sixth great officer of state, whose duties, among 
 others, relate to coronations and public solemnities. 
 The rank long appertnined to the family of De Vere, 
 earls of Oxford, granted to it by Heniy I. in iioi. 
 On the death of Jnhn De Vere, the sixteenth earl, 
 Mary, his sole daughter, marrying lord Willoughby 
 d'Eresby, the right was established in that noble- 
 man's f:imily by a judgment of the house of peers, 
 2 Charles I. 1625. On the death of his descendant, 
 unmarried, in July 1779, the house of lords and 
 twelve judges concurred that the office devolved to 
 lady Willoughby d'Eresby, and her sister the lady 
 Georgina Charlotta Bertie, as heirs to their brother 
 Robert, duke of Ancaster, deceased ; and that they 
 had powers to appoint a deputy to act for them, not 
 
 CHAMBERS. See Commerce, Agriculture. 
 
 CHAMBERS' JOURNAL was first published in Feb., 1832. 
 
 CHAMRRE ARDENTE (fiery chamber), an extraordinary French tribmial so named 
 
 ■from the punishment frequently awarded by it. Francis L in 1535 and Henry IL in 1549 
 
 employed it for the extirpation of heres}', which led to the civil war with the Huguenots iu 
 
 1560 ; and in 1679 Louis XIV. appointed one to investigate the poisoning cases which arose 
 
 after the execution of the marchioness Brinvilliers. 
 
 CHAMP DE MARS,* an open square in front of the Military School at Paris, with 
 artificial embankments on each side, extending nearly to the river Seine. Here was held, 
 July 14, 1790, the "federation," or solemnity of swearing fidelity to the " pati'iot king" 
 and new constitution : great rejoicings followed, public balls were given by the municipality 
 in the Champs Ehjsers, and Paris was illuminated. On July 14, 1791, a second great meeting 
 was held here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the "altar of the country," 
 praying for the abdication of Louis XVI. A commemoration meeting took place July 14, 
 1792. Another constitution was sworn to here, under the eye of Napoleon I., May i, 1815, 
 at a ceremony called the Champ de Mai. The prince president (now Napoleon III.) had a 
 grand review in the Champ de Mars, and distributed eagles to the army. May 10, 1852. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province, N.E. France, formed part of the kingdom of 
 Burgund}^, and was governed by -counts from the loth century till it was united to Navarre, 
 count Thibaut beeoiiyng king, in 1234. The countess Joanna married Philip V. of France 
 in 1284 ; and in 1361 Champagne M'as annexed by their descendant king John. 
 
 CHAMPION OF THE King of England, an ancient office, which since 1377 has been 
 attached to the manor of Scrivelsby, held by the Marmion family. Their descendant, sir 
 Henry Dynioke, the seventeenth of his family who has held the office, died Apr. 28, 1865, 
 and was succeeded by his brother John. At the coronation of the English kings, the 
 champion used to cHallenge any one that should deny their title. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN. See Lake Chamiylain. 
 
 The ancient assemblies of the Prankish people, the germ of parliaments, held annually in March, 
 his name. In 747, Pepin changed the month to May. 
 
CHA 
 
 163 
 
 CHA 
 
 CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND, Lord High, ranks after the princes of the blood royal 
 as the first lay subject. Anciently the office was conferred upon some dignified ecclesiastic 
 termed cancellariics, or doorkeeper, who admitted suitors to the sovereign's presence. Arfastus 
 or Herefast, chaplain to the king (William the Conqueror) and bishop of Elmham, was lord 
 chancellor in 1067. Hardy. Thomas a Becket was made chancellor in 11 54. The first 
 person qualified by education, to decide causes upon his own judgment, was sir Thomas 
 More, appointed in 1529, before which time the ofiice was more that of a high state func- 
 tionary than the president of a court of justice. Sir Christopher Hatton, appointed lord 
 chancellor in 1587, was very ignorant, on which account the first reference was made to a 
 master in 1588. In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission ; in 
 1813 the office of Vice-Chancellor was established.* See Keeper, and Vice-Chancellor. 
 
 1487. 
 1504. 
 1515- 
 1529. 
 1532- 
 
 1533- 
 1544- 
 1547- 
 
 1551- 
 1552- 
 IS53- 
 1556. 
 1558. 
 1579- 
 1587- 
 1591- 
 1592. 
 1596. 
 1603. 
 
 1617. 
 1618. 
 162 1. 
 1625. 
 
 1640. 
 1641. 
 
 1643. 
 1645. 
 1646. 
 1649. 
 1653. 
 1654. 
 
 1660. 
 
 1667. 
 1672. 
 
 1673. 
 167s. 
 
 1682. 
 1685. 
 
 1690. 
 
 1693. 
 1697. 
 1700. 
 
 1705. 
 1707. 
 
 LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS 
 
 John Moreton, archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 William Warhani, aft. archbshp. of Canterbury. 
 
 Thomas Wolsey, cardinal and abp. of York. 
 
 Sir Thomas More. 
 
 Sir Thomas Audley, keeper. 
 
 Sir Thomas Audley, chancellor, aft. Id. Audley. 
 
 Thomas, lord Wriothesley. 
 
 William, lord St. John, keeper. 
 
 Richard, lord Bich, lord chancellor. 
 
 Thomas Goodrich, bishop of Ely, keeper. 
 
 The same ; now lord chancellor. 
 
 Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. 
 
 Nicholas Heath, archbisbop of York. 
 
 Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper. 
 
 Sir Thomas Bromley, lord chancellor. 
 
 Sir Christopher Hatton. 
 
 The great seal in commission. 
 
 Sir John Puckering, lord keeper. 
 
 Sir Thomas Bgerton, lord keeper. 
 
 Sir Thomas Egerton, now lord EUesmere, lord 
 
 chancellor. 
 
 Sir Francis Bacon, lord keeper. 
 
 SirPrancisBacon, cr. lordVerulam, Id. chancellor. 
 
 The great seal in commission. 
 
 John, bishop of Lincoln, lord keeper. 
 
 Sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards lord Coven- 
 try, lord keeper. 
 
 Sir John Finch, afterwards lord Pinch. 
 
 Sir Edward Lyttelton, afterwards lord Lyttel- 
 ton, lord keeper. 
 
 The great seal in the hands of commissioners. 
 
 Sir Richard Lane, royal keeper. 
 
 In the hands of commissioners. . 
 
 In commission for the commonwealth. 
 
 Sir Edward Herbert, king's lord keeper. 
 
 In commission during the remainder of the 
 commonwealth. 
 
 Sir Edward Hyde, lord chancellor, afterwards 
 created lord Hyde, and earl of Clarendon. 
 
 Sir Orlando Bridgman, lord keeper. 
 
 Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, lord 
 chancellor. 
 
 Sir Heneage Pinch, lord keeper. 
 
 Heneage, now lord Pinch, lord chancellor, 
 afterwards earl of Nottingham. 
 
 Sir Francis North, cr. lord Guilford, id. keeper. 
 
 Francis, lord Guilford ; succeeded by 
 
 George, lord Jeffreys, lord chancellor. 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Sir John Trevor, knt., sir Wilham Rawlinson, 
 knt. , and sir George Hutchins, knt. , commis- 
 sioners or keepers. 
 
 Sir John Somers, lord keeper. 
 
 Sh- John Somers, cr. lord Somers, chancellor. 
 
 Lord chief justice Holt, sir George Treby, chief 
 justice C. P., and chief baron sir Edward 
 Ward, lord keepers. 
 
 Sir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. 
 
 Right hon. WilUam Cowper, lord keeper, after- 
 wards lord Cowper. 
 
 WilUam, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 
 
 1710. 
 
 1713. 
 1714. 
 1718. 
 
 1725- 
 
 1733- 
 1737- 
 1756. 
 1757- 
 
 1 761. 
 
 1766. 
 1770. 
 
 1770. 
 1771. 
 
 1778. 
 17S3. 
 
 1792. 
 1793- 
 
 1827. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1865. 
 
 OP ENGLAND. 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Sir Simon Harcourt, cr. lord Harcourt, keeper. 
 
 Simon, lord Harcoiu-t, lord chancellor. 
 
 William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Thomas, lord Parker, lord chancellor; after- 
 wards earl of Macclesfield. 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Sir Peter King, cr. lord King, chancellor. 
 
 Charles Talbot, created lord Talbot, chancellor. 
 
 Phihp Yorke, lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord Henley, 
 last Inrd keeper. 
 
 Lord Henley, lord chancellor, afterwards earl 
 of Northington. 
 
 Charles, lord Camden, lord chancellor. 
 
 Hon. Charles Yorke, lord chancellor. 
 
 [Created lord Mordan ; died within three days, 
 
 and before the seals were put to his patent of 
 
 peerage.] 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Hon. Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley ; succeeded 
 as earl Bathurst. 
 
 Edward Thurlow, created lord Thnrlow. 
 
 Alexander, lord Loughborough, and others, 
 commissioners. 
 
 Edward, lord Thurlow, again. 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Alexander Wedderburne, lord Loughborough, 
 lord chancellor. 
 
 John Scott, lord Eldon. 
 
 Hon. Thomas Brskine, created lord Erskine. 
 
 John, lord Eldon, again. 
 
 John Singleton Copley, created lord Lyndhurst. 
 
 Henry Brougham, created lord Brougham. 
 
 Lord Lyndhurst, again. 
 
 Sir Chaiies Christopher Pepys, master of the 
 rolls, vice-chancellor Shadwell, and Mr. 
 justice Bosanquet, C. P., commissioners. 
 
 Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, created lord 
 Cottenham, lord chancellor. Jan. 16. 
 
 Lord Lyndhurst, a third time. Sept. 3. 
 
 Lord Cottenham, again lord chancellor. July 6. 
 
 [His lordship on signifying his intention to 
 retire, June 19, 1850, was created earl of 
 Cottenham.] 
 
 Lord Laiigdale, master of the rolls. Sir Laun- 
 celot Shadwell, vice-chancellor of England, 
 and sir Robert Monsey Rolfe, B.E., commis- 
 sioners of the great seal. June 19. 
 
 Sir Thomas Wilde, lord Truro. July 15. 
 
 Sir Edward Sugden, lord St. Leonards. Feb. 27. 
 
 Robt. Monsey RoLfe, lord Cranworth. Dec. 28. 
 
 Sir Frederic Thesiger,lord Chelmsford. Feb. 26. 
 
 John, lord Campbell, June 18 ; died June 23, 
 1861. 
 
 Richard BetheU, lord Westbury, June 26. 
 Resigned July 4, 1865. 
 
 Thomas, lord Cranworth, again. July 6. 
 
 * la 1863 was passed the Lord Chancellor's Augmentation Act. It enabled him to sell the advowson 
 of certain livings in his gift for the augmentation of poor benefices. 
 
 M 2 
 
CHA 
 
 164 
 
 CHA 
 
 CHANCELLOR OF IRELAND, Lord High. The earliest nomination was by Richard I., 
 1189, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The office of vice-chancellor was 
 known in Ireland in 1232, Geoffrey Turvillo, archdeacon of Dublin, being so named. 
 
 1690. 
 1697. 
 
 1702. 
 1705. 
 1707. 
 1710. 
 
 1711. 
 
 1714. 
 
 1725. 
 1726. 
 
 1739- 
 
 1757- 
 
 1763. 
 
 Patent. 
 
 Dec. 29. Sir Charles Porter. 
 Jan. 12. Sir John Jefifreyson, Thomas Coote, 
 
 and Nehemlah Donellan, lords keepers. 
 March ii. J. Methuen. 
 Dec. 21. Edward, earl of Meath, Francis, earl 
 
 of Longford, and Murrough, viscount Bles- 
 
 siugton, lord keepers. 
 Aug. 26. Lord Methuen, lord chancellor. 
 Aug. 6. Sir Richd. Cox, bart. ; resigned in 1707. 
 June. Richard Freeman. 
 Nov. 28. Robert, earl of Kildare, archbishop 
 
 (Hoadley) of Dublin, and Thomas Keightley, 
 
 commissioners. 
 Jan. 22. Sir Constantino Phipps ; resigned 
 
 Sept. 1 714. 
 Oct. It. Alan Brodrick, afterwards viscount 
 
 Middleton ; resigned May, 1725. 
 June. Richard West. 
 Dec. 21. Thomas Wyndham, afterwards lord 
 
 Wyndham of Finglas. 
 Sept. 7. Robert Jocelyn, afterwards lord New- 
 port and visct. Jocelyn ; died Oct. 25, 1756. 
 March 22. John Bowes, afterwards lord Bowes 
 
 of Clonlyon ; died 1767. 
 Jan 9. James Hewitt, afterwards viscount 
 
 Lifford ; died April 28, 1789. 
 
 LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS OF IRELAND. 
 From the Revolution. 
 
 I Patent. 
 
 1789. June 20. John, baron Fitzgibbon, afterwards 
 earl of Clare ; died Jan. 28, 1802. 
 
 1802. March 15. John, baron Redesdale ; resigned 
 Feb. 1806. 
 
 1806. Mar. 25. George Ponsonby ; resigned Ap. 1807. 
 
 1807. May. Thomas, lord Manners, previously an 
 
 English baron of the exchequer ; resigned 
 
 Nov. 1827. 
 1827. Nov. 5. Sir Anthony Hart, previously vice- 
 chancellor of England ; resigned Nov. 1830. 
 1830. Dec. 23. William, baron Plunket ; resigned 
 
 Nov. 1834. 
 1835. Jan. 13. Sir Edward Burtenshaw Sugden, 
 
 resigned April 1835. 
 ,, April 30. William, baron Plunket, a second 
 
 time ; resigned June, 1841. 
 1 841. June. John, baron Campbell ; resigned Sept. 
 
 1841. 
 „ Oct. Sir Edward Sugden, afterwards lord St. 
 
 Leonards, a second time ; resigned July, 1846. 
 1846. July 16. Maziere Brady ; resigned Feb. 1852. 
 
 1852. March. Francis Blackburn ; resigned Dec. 
 
 1853. J^'^i- Maziere Brady, again. 
 
 1858. Feb. Joseph Napier. 
 
 1859. June. Maziere IBrady, again. The present 
 
 lord chancellor of Ireland (1865). 
 
 CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND, Lord. In the laws of Malcolm II., who reigned 
 1004, this officer is thus mentioned : — "The chancellar sail at al tymes assist the king in 
 giving him counsall mair secretly nor the rest of the nobility. . . The chancellar sail be 
 ludgit neir unto the kingis Grace, for keiping of his bodie, and the seill, and that he may be 
 readie, baith day and nicht, at the kingis command." Sir James Balfour. Evan was lord 
 chancellor to Malcolm III., surnamed Caumore, in 1057 ; and James, earl of Seafield, after- 
 wards Findlater, was the last lord chancellor of Scotland, the office having been abolished in 
 1708, after the union. See Keeper, Lord. 
 
 CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER. See Exchequer. 
 
 CHANCELLORSVILLE, Virginia, U. S., a large brick hotel, once kept by a Mr. 
 Chancellor, was the site of severe sanguinary conflicts, on May 2, 3, and 4, 1863, between 
 the American federal army of the Potomac under general Hooker, and the confederates 
 under general Lee. On Apr. 28, the federal army crossed the Rappahannock ; on May 2, 
 general " Stouewall " Jackson furiously attacked and routed the i-ight wing, but was 
 unfortunately mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by mistake. Gen. Stuart 
 took his command, and after a severe conflict on May 3 and 4, with great loss to both 
 parties, the federals were compelled once more to retreat across the Rappahannock. The 
 struggle has been compared to that at Hougomont during the battle of AVaterloo. Jackson 
 died May 9. 
 
 CHANCERY, Court of. According to some, instituted as early as 605, to others, by 
 Alfred, in 887 ; settled upon a better footing by William I., in 1067 {Stoiv) or 1070. This 
 court had its origin in the desire to render justice complete, and to moderate the rigour of 
 other courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to or against 
 infants, notwithstanding their minority : and to or against married women, notwithstanding 
 their coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confidence, for which there is 
 no redress at common law, are relievabie here. BlacJcstone. See Chancellors of England. 
 The delays in chancery proceedings having long given dissatisfaction, the subject was brought 
 before parliament in 1825, and frequently since ; which led to the passing of important acts 
 in 1852, 1853, and 1855, to amen-d the practice in the court of chancery. See County Courts. 
 
 CHANDOS CLAUSE. See Counties. 
 
 CHANTING the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from the pagan ceremonies of the 
 Romans, about 350. Lenglet. About 602, Gregory the Great added tones to the Ambrosian 
 chant, and established singing schools. Chanting was adopted by some dissenters about 1859. 
 
CHA 
 
 165 
 
 CHA 
 
 CHANTRY, a chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the souls of the 
 donors. See Chanting. Chantries were abolished in England in 1545. 
 
 CHAPEL. There are free chapels, chapels of ease, the chapel royal, &c. Cmuel. The 
 gentlemen pensioners (formerly poor knights of "Windsor, who were instituted by the direc- 
 tion of Henry VIII. in his testament, 1546-7) were called knights of the chapel. See Poor 
 Knights of Windsor. — The place of conference among printers, and the conference itself, are 
 by them called a chai^d, it is said because the first work printed in England by Caxton was 
 executed in a ruined chapel in "Westminster-abbey. 
 
 CHAPLAIN", a clergyman who pei'forms divine service in a chapel, or who is retained by 
 a prince or nobleman. About seventy chaplains are attached to the chapel royal. The chief 
 personages invested with the privilege of retaining chaplains are the following, with the 
 number that was originally allotted to each rank, by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1529) : — 
 
 Arcli bishop . 
 
 . 8 
 
 Earl 
 
 • 5 
 
 Duke 
 
 . . 6 
 
 Viscount . 
 
 • ■ 4 
 
 Bishop . 
 
 . 6 
 
 Baron . 
 
 • 3 
 
 Marquess . 
 
 • • 5 
 
 Chancellor 
 
 • • 3 
 
 Knight of the Garter . 3 
 Duchess . . .2 
 Marchioness . . . 2 
 Countess . . .2 
 
 Baroness . . .2 
 
 Master of the Rolls . 2 
 
 Almoner . . . . 2 
 
 Chief Justice . . i 
 
 CHAPLETS, the string of beads used by the Eoman Catholics in reciting the Lord's 
 prayer, Ave Maria, &c. See Beads. 
 
 CHAPTER. Anciently the bishop and clergy lived in the cathedral, the latter to assist 
 the former in performing holy ofiices and governing the church, until the reign of Henry VIII. 
 The chajiter is now an assembly of the clergy of a collegiate church or cathedral. Cowel. 
 The chapter-house of "Westminster-abbey was built in 1250. By consent of the abbot, the 
 commoners of England held their parliaments there from 1377 until 1547, when Edward VI. 
 granted them the chapel of St. Stephen. 
 
 CHARCOAL AIR-FILTERS were devised by Dr. John Stenhouse, F.R.S., in 1853, 
 About the end of the last century Lowitz, a German chemist, discovered that charcoal 
 (carbon) possessed the property of deodorising putrid substances, by absorbing effluvia and 
 gases. Air-filters, based on this property, have been successfully applied to public build- 
 ings, &c. Dr. Stenhouse also invented charcoal respirators. 
 
 CHARING CROSS, so called from one of the crosses which Edward I. erected to the 
 memory of his C[ueen Eleanor, who died 129 1 ; Charing being the name of the village in which 
 it was built. Some contend that it derived its name from being the resting-place of the chere 
 reyne, dear queen. It was yet a small village in 1353, and the cross remained till the civil 
 wars in the reign of Charles L, when it was destroyed as a monument of popish superstition. 
 A new cross was erected by the South Eastern Railway Company in 1865. — Charing-cross 
 was built about 1678, nearly as it appeared before the new buildings were commenced in 
 1829, The first stone of Charing-cross hospital was laid by the duke of Sussex, Sept. 15, 
 1831. Hungerford-bridge (or Charing-cross bridge) was opened May i, 1845; taken down 
 July, 1862, and the materials employed in erecting Clifton suspension bridge, beginning 
 March, 1863. See Clifton. The Chaeing-Cross Railv^^ay. The first train passed over it 
 Dec. 2, 1863, and it was opened to the public on Jan. 11, 1864. TliC new Hungerford rail- 
 way bridge is built of iron with brick piers. It was constructed by Mr. Hawkshaw. 
 
 CHARIOTS. Chariot racing was one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the 
 Ethiopian officer {Acts viii. 27), is supposed to have been in the form of our chaise with four 
 wheels. Caesar relates that Cassibelaunus, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no 
 fewer than 4000 war-chariots about his person. See Carriages, Coaches, &c, 
 
 CHARITABLE BEQUESTS, &c. Boards for their recovery were constituted in 1764 
 and 1800, and a board for Ireland (chiefly prelates of the established church), in 1825. The 
 Roman Catholic Charitable Bequests act passed in 1844, and an act for the better adminis- 
 tration of Charitable Trusts in 1853, when commissioners were appointed, who have from 
 time to time published voluminous reports. The law relating to the conveyance of land for 
 Charitable Uses was amended in 1861. 
 
 CHARITABLE BRETHREN, an order founded by St. John of God, and approved by 
 pope Pius V. 1572 ; introduced into France, 1601 ; settled at Paris, 1602. HenauU. 
 
 CHARITIES AND Charity Schools are very numerous in this country. The Charity 
 Commission reported to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain 
 amounted to 1,500,000?. annually, in 1840. Pari. Rep. Charity schools were instituted in 
 London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James 
 
CHA 1G6 CHA 
 
 II., 1687. RaiJin. ^tQ Education. Mr. Low's "Charities of Loudon" (2nd edition) was 
 published 1862. 
 
 CHARLEROI, in Belgium. Great battles have been fought near this town in several 
 wars ; the principal in 1690 and 1794. See Fleurus. Charleroi was besieged bj' the prince 
 of Orange in 1672, and was again invested by the same prince with 60,000 men, in 1677 ; 
 but he was soon obliged to retire. Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked the Prassian 
 line, making it fall back upon Wavres, June 16, 1815. 
 
 CHARLES-ET-GEORGES. Two French vessels of this name, professedly conveying free 
 African emigrants (but really slaves), were seized by the Portuguese, in Conducia Bay, 
 Nov. 29, 1857, sent to Lisbon, and condemned as slavers. They were demanded haughtily 
 by the Frencli government, who, on the hesitation of the Portuguese, sent two ships of war 
 to the Tagus. The captxired vessels were then surrendered under protest. Tlie conduct of 
 the British government (that of Lord Derby), to whom the Portuguese had referred the dis- 
 pute, was considered more prudent than dignified. The emperor of France, however, gave 
 up the free emigration scheme. 
 
 CHARLESTOWN (Massachusetts) was burnt by the British forces under general Gage, 
 June 17, 1775. Charleston taken by the British, May 7, 1779. 
 
 CHARLESTON (South Carolina). The English fleet here was repulsed with great loss, 
 June 28, 1776. It was besieged b}"- the British troops at the latter end of March, 1780, and 
 surrendered May 13 following, with 6000 prisoners ; it was evacuated April 14, 1783. Great 
 commotion arose here on Nov. i860, through the election of Mr. Lincoln for the presidency, 
 he being opposed to slavery. On April 12, 1861, the war began, by the confederates capturing 
 Fort Sumter, See United States, 1863. In Dec. 1861, the federals sank a number of vessels 
 laden with stone in order to clioke up the entrance to Charleston harbour. On Feb. 17, 1865, 
 the confederates were compelled to retire from Charleston, and the federals replacecl their 
 standard on Fort Sumter, April 14, the day on wdiich president Lincoln was assassinated. 
 
 " CHARTE," the French political constitution acknowledged by Louis XVIII. in 1814. 
 The infraction of this constitution led to the revolution of 1830. The " Charte " was 
 sworn to by Ijouis-Philippe, Aug. 29, 1830 ; but set aside by the revolution of 1848. 
 
 CHARTER-HOUSE (a coiTuption of Chartreuse, which see), London, formerly a Carthu- 
 sian monastery, founded in 1371 by sir Walter de Manny, one of the knights of Edward III., 
 now an extensive cliaritable establishment. The last prior, John Houghton, was executed 
 as a traitor, for denying the king's supremacy, in 1535. After the dissolution of monasteries 
 in 1539, it passed through various hands till Nov. i, 161 1, when it was sold by the earl of 
 Suffolk to Mr. Thomas Sutton for 13,000/., who obtained letters patent directing that it 
 should be called "the hospital of king James, founded in the Charter-house," and that 
 "there should be for ever 16 governors," &c. On the foundation are 80 poor brothers, and 
 44 poor scholars. Sutton died Dec. 12, 161 1. The expenditure for 1853-4 was 22, 396Z.; 
 the receipts 28,908/. 
 
 _ CHARTER-PARTY, a covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating to the 
 ship and cargo, is said to have been first used in England about 1243. 
 
 CHARTERS granted to corporate towns to protect their manufactures by Henry 11. in 
 1 132 ; called in and modified by Charles II. in 1682 ; the ancient charters restored in 1698. 
 Alterations were made by the Municipal Reform Act in 1835. See Magna Charta and 
 Boroughs. 
 
 CHARTISTS, the name assumed by large bodies of the working people, shortly after the 
 passing of the Reform Bill in 1832, from their demanding the people's Cluirter, the six 
 points of which were Universal Siiffragc, Vote by Ballot, Annual Parliaments, Payment of 
 the Members, the Abolition of the Property Qualification (which was enacted, June, 1858), 
 and Equal Electoral Districts. In 1838 the Chartists assembled in various parts of the 
 country, armed with guns, pikes, and other weapons, and carrying torches and flags. They 
 conducted themselves so tumultuously, that a proclamation wa.s issued against them, Dec. 12, 
 Their petition (agreed to at Birmingham, Aug. 6, 1838) was presented by Mr. T. Attwood, 
 June 14, 1839. They committed great outrages at Birmingham, July 15, 1839, and at 
 Newport (xohich sec), Nov. 4, 1839. They held for some time a sort of parliament called 
 the " National Convention," the leading men being Feergus O'Connor, Henry Vincent, Mr. 
 Stephens, &c. On April 10, 1848, they proposed to hold a meeting of 200,000 men on 
 Kennington Common, London, to march thence in procession to Westminster, and present 
 a petition to parliament ; but only about 20,000 came. The bank and other establisliments 
 
CHA 167 CHA 
 
 were fortified by niilitarj^ ; and the preventive measures adopted by the government proved 
 so completely successful, that the rioters dispersed after some slight encounters with the 
 police. The monster petition, in detached rolls, was sent in cabs to the house of commons, 
 and not less than 150,000 persons of all ranks (including Louis Napoleon, now emperor) 
 were voluntaril}'^ sworn to act as special constables. From this time the j)roceedings of the 
 Chartists became insignificant. 
 
 CHAETEEUSE, La Grande, famoi;s as the chief of the monasteries of the Carthusian 
 order, is situated among the rugged mountains near Grenoble, in France. It was founded by 
 Bruno of Cologne about 1084. At the revolution in 1792, the monks were expelled and 
 their valuable library destroyed. They returned to the monastery after the restoration in 
 1814. 
 
 CHAETS AND MAPS. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical and 
 celestial charts, about 570 B.C. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by Bartholomew 
 Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory res]3ecting a western continent, 1489. The first 
 tolerably accurate map of England was drawn by George Lilly, who died in 1559. Gerard 
 Mercator published an atlas of maps in 1595. See Mercator. 
 
 CHASTITY. The Roman laws justified homicide in defence of one's self or relatives ; 
 and our laws justify a woman for killing a man in defence of her chastity ; and a hushand or 
 a father in taking the life of him who attempts to violate his wife or daughter. In 1000 
 years from the time of ISTuma, 710 B.C., to the reign of Theodosius the Great, a.d. 394, only 
 eighteen Roman vestals had been condemned for incontinence. See Vestals, Acre, and 
 Coldingliam. 
 
 CHATHAM (Kent), a principal station of the royal navy. Its dockyard, commenced by 
 queen Elizabeth, contains immense naval magazines. The Chatham Chest, for the relief of 
 wounded and decayed seamen, originally established here by the queen and admirals Drake 
 and Hawkins, in 1588, was removed to Greenwich in 1803. In 1667, on the loth June, the 
 Dutch fleet, under admiral De Ruyter, sailed up to this town and burnt several men-of-war ; 
 but the entrance into the Medway is now defended by Sheeruess and other forts, and 
 additional fortifications were made at Chatham. On Feb. 8, 1861, a violent outbreak of the 
 convicts was suppressed by the military, and many of the rioters severely flogged. About 
 lOOoZ. worth of property was destroyed, and many persons were seriously hurt. 
 
 CHATHAM ADMmiSTRATIOK* Formed Aug. 1766; terminated Dec. 1767. 
 
 Earl of Chatham, first minister and lord privy seal. 
 Duke of Grafton, first lord, of the treasury. 
 Lord Camden, lord chancellor. 
 Charles Townshend, clianeellor of the exchequer. 
 Earl of Northing ton, lord president. 
 Earl of Shelbume and general Conway, secretaries of 
 state. 
 
 Sir Charles Saunders (succeeded by sir Edward 
 
 Hawke), adniiralty. 
 Marquess of Granby, ordnance. 
 Lord Hillsborough, /csi lord of trade. 
 Lord Barrington, secretary at war. 
 Lord North and Sir George Cooke, joint paymaiters. 
 Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 
 Duke of Ancaster, lord le Despenser, &c. 
 
 CHATILLON (on the Seine, France). Here a congress was held by the four gi-eat 
 powers allied against France, at which Caulaincourt attended for ISTapoleon, Feb. 5, 1814 ; 
 the negotiations for peace were broken oft" on March 19, following. 
 
 CHAT MOSS (Lancashire), a peat bog twelve miles square, in most places so soft as to 
 be incapable of supporting a man or horse, over which George Stephenson, the railway 
 engineer, carried the Liverpool and Manchester railway, after overcoming diOiculties con- 
 sidered invincible. The road (literally a floating one) was completed by Jan. I, 1830, when 
 the first experimental train, drawn by the Rocket locomotive, passed over it. 
 
 CHATTANOOGA (Tennessee). Near here the federal generals, Sherman and Thomas, 
 defeated the confederate general Bragg, after storming the entrenchments, Nov. 25, 1863. 
 The result was very injurious to the confederates. Bragg retreated into Georgia, and Long- 
 street into Virginia. 
 
 CHAUMONT (on the Marne, France), Treaty of, entered into between Great Britaiii, 
 Austria, Russia, and Prussia, and signed by these powers respectively, March i, 1814. This 
 
 * William Pitt, earl of Chatham (called the great commoner), was horn Nov. 15, 1708, entered parliament 
 in 1735 ; became secretary of state' (but virtually the premier) in the Devonshire admmistration, Nov. 
 1756, and secretary in the Newcastle administration, Jan. 1757. In 1766 he became premier, lord privy 
 .seal, and earl of Chatham, which lord Chesterfield called a fall upstairs. He opposed the taxation 01 the 
 American colonies, but protested against the recognition of their independence, April 7, 1778, ana died 
 May 1 1 following. 
 
CUE 168 CHE 
 
 treaty was succeeded by the celebrated treaty of Paris, April ii following, by which 
 Napoleon renounced his sovereignt}'- over France. See Paris. * 
 
 CHEATS are punishable by jiillory (since abolished), imprisonment, and fine, i Ilawlc. 
 L.C. 1 88. A rigorous statute was enacted against them in 1542. Persons cheating at play, 
 or winning at any time more than lol. or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous, and 
 were to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 171 1. Blackstone. 
 
 CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned cheese- 
 making from the Romans about the Christian era. Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire make 
 vast quantities ; the last alone, annuallj'-, about 31,000 tons. In 1840 we imported from 
 abroad about 10,000 tons ; and in 1864, 41,742 tons. The duty on foreign cheese, pro- 
 ducing annually about 50,000^., was taken off in i860. 
 
 CHELSEA. On the site of a college founded by James I. in 1609 for theological dispu- 
 tations against popery, but converted by Charles II. in 1682 to its present purpose, stands 
 Clielsea college, an asj'lum for wounded a)id superannuated soldiers. — The erection was 
 carried on by James II., and completed by William III. in 1690. The real projector was sir 
 Stephen Fox, grandfather of the orator C. J. Fox. The architect Avas sir Christopher Wren, 
 and the cost 150,0007. In 1850 there were 70,000 out- and 539 in-jyeiisioiuers. — The body of 
 the duke of Wellington lay here in state, Nov. 10 — 17, 1852. — The physic garden of sir 
 Hans Sloane, at Chelsea, was given to the Apothecaries' company in 1721. The Chelsea 
 waterworks were incorporated 1722. The first stone of the Military Asylum, Chelsea, was 
 laid by Frederick, duke of York, June 19, 1801. — The bridge, constructed by Mr. T. Page 
 to connect Chelsea with Battersea-park, was opened in the spring of 1858. 
 
 CHELTENHAM (Gloucestershire). Its celebrated mineral spring was discovered in 
 1718. The king's-well was sunk in 1778 ; and other wells by Jlr. Thompson in 1806. 
 Magnesian salt was first found in the waters in 181 1. The theatre was erected in 1804. 
 
 CHEMICAL SOCIETIES. One formed in London in 1780, did not long continue. 
 The present chemical society was established in 1841. The Chemical Society at Paris was 
 established in 1857. 
 
 CHEMISTRY was introduced into Europe by the Spanish Moors, about 1150 ; they had 
 learned it from the African Moors, and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt they had, in 
 very early ages, extracted salts from their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine ; 
 and embalming was a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an early acquaint- 
 ance with chemistry. Tl)e first chemical students in Europe were the Alchemists (see 
 Alchemy); but cliemistry could not be said to exist as a science till the 17th century; 
 during which its study was promoted by the writings of Bacon and the researches of Hooke, 
 Mayow, and Boyle. In the early pai-t of the i8th century. Dr. Stephen Hales laid the 
 foundation oi Pneumatic Chemistry, and his contemporary Boerhaave combined the study of 
 chemistry with medicine. These were succeeded by Black, Bergman, Stahl, &c. In 1772, 
 Priestley published his researches on air, having discovered the gases oxygen, ammonia, &c. ; 
 and thus commenced a new era in the history of chemistry. He was ably seconded bj' 
 Lavoisier, Cavendish, Scheele, Chaptal, &c. The 19th century opened with the brilliant 
 discoveries of Davy, continued by Dalton, Faraday, Thomson, &c. Organic Cliemistry has 
 been very greatly advanced by the labours of Berzelius, Liebig, Dumas, Laurent, Hofmann, 
 Cahours, Frankland,* &c., since 1830. See Pharmacy, Electricity, Galvanism. For the 
 analytical processes termed ^'Spectrum analysis," invented by Kirchhoff and Bunsen (1861), 
 and ''Dialysis" (1861), and "^^jmoZ^sw" (1863), invented by Mr. T. Graham, see those 
 articles. The Royal College of Chemistry, Oxfoid Street, London, was established in 1845. 
 The publication of Watt's great " Dictionary of Chemistry " began in April, 1863. 
 
 CHEQUES. See Drafts. 
 
 CHERBOURG, the great naval fortress and arsenal of France on the coast of Brittany, 
 about 60 or 70 miles equi-distant from Portsmouth and Plymouth. It was captured by our 
 Henry V. in 1418, and lost in 1450. Under the direction of Louis XIV., some works were 
 erected here by the great Vauban, which with some shipping, &c., were destroyed by the 
 British, Aug. 6, 7, 1758. The works were resumed on a stupendous scale by Louis XVI. ; 
 
 * In 1828 'Wohler succeeded in producing artificially urea, a body hitherto known only as a product of 
 the animal organism. Since then, acetic acid, alcohol, gi-ape sugar, various essential oils, similar to those 
 of the pine apple, pear, garlic, <fec. , have been formed by combinations of the gases, oxygen, hydrogen, and 
 carbonic acid. The barrier formed by chemists between organic and inorganic bodies is thus broken down, 
 though the names are still retained. 
 
CHE 169 CHI 
 
 but their progress was interrupted by the revolution. The break-water, cominenced in 1783, 
 resumed by Napoleon I. about 1803, and finally completed in 1813, is a magnificent work, 
 forming a secure harbour, capable of affording anchorage for nearly the whole navy of 
 France, and protected by strong fortifications, increased by the present emperor. On Aug. 
 4, 5, 1858, the railway and the Grand Napoleon docks were opened, the latter in the 
 pi-esence of the queen of England and court. The British fleet visited Cherbourg, Aug. 
 15-17, 1865, and the officers and men were treated with much hospitality. 
 
 CHERITON DOWN" (Hants). Here sir Wm. Waller defeated the royalists under lord 
 Hopton, May 29, 1644. 
 
 CHEERY, the Primus Cerasus (so called from Cerasus, a city of Pontus, whence the 
 tree was brought by LucuUus to Eonie, about 70 B.C.), was first planted in Britain, it is said, 
 about 100. Fine kinds were brought from Flanders, in 1540, and planted in Kent, with 
 much success. 
 
 CHEESOK See Kherson. CHEESONESUS. See Crimea. 
 
 CHESAPEAKE. At the month of this river a contest took place between the British 
 admiral Greaves and the French admiral De Grasse, in the interest of the revolted states of 
 America ; the former was obliged to retire, 1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were 
 blockaded by the British fleet in the American war of 1812, and the bay was, at that 
 period, the scene of great hostilities of various results. — The Chesapeake American frigate, 
 commanded by capt. Lawrence (50 guns, 376 men), struck to the Shannon British fiigate 
 (49 guns, 330 men), commanded by capt. Philip Vere Broke, after a severe action of eleven 
 minutes, June i, 1813. Capt. Lawrence, who had invited the contest, died of his wounds. 
 
 CHESS, a game invented, according to some authorities, by Palamedes, 680 B.C. ; and 
 according to others, in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and sir William Jones 
 concur in stating that the origin of chess is to be traced to Lidia. The automaton chess- 
 player (a piece of machinery) was exhibited in England in 1769.* A chess congress was 
 held at New York in 1857, and an international one in London in June and July, 1862. 
 
 CHESTER (England, N. W.), the British Caerleou and the Roman Deva, the station of 
 the twentieth legion, Valeria Vidrix, quitted by them about 476. The city wall was 
 first built by Edelfleda, 908 ; and Hugh Lupus, the earl, nephew of William L, rebuilt the 
 Saxon castle in 1084, and the abbey of St. Werbnrgh. Chester was incorporated by 
 Henry IlL and made a distinct county. It was ravaged by the Danes, 980 ; and nearly 
 destroyed by an accidental fire in 1471. A fatal gunpowder explosion occurred Nov. 5, 
 1772. The exchange and town hall were burnt Dec. 30, 1862. — The see was anciently part 
 of Lichfield, one of whose bishops, Peter, removing the seat hither in 1075, occasioned his 
 successors to be styled bishops of Chester ; but it was not erected into a distinct bishopric 
 until the dissolution of monasteries. Henry YIII. in 1542 raised it to this dignity, and 
 allotted the church of the abbey of St. Werburgh for the cathedral. This see is valued in 
 the king's books at 420Z. is. 2>d. per annum. Present income 4500Z. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OF CHESTER. 
 
 1828. John Bird Sunmer, trans, to Canterbury, 1848. 
 1848. John Graham, died June 15, 1865- 
 1865. William Jacobson (present bishop). 
 
 1800. Henry Wm. Majendie, trans, to Bangor, 1809. 
 1810. Bowyer Edward Sparkle, trans, to Ely, 1812. 
 1812. George Henry Law, translated to Bath, 1824. 
 1824, Chas. J. Blomfield, trans, to London, Aug. 1828. 
 
 CHEYALIER D'EON. See D'Eon. CHEYY CHASE. See Otterhurne. 
 
 CHICAMAUGA ("the stream of death"), near the Chattanooga, Tennessee, North 
 America. Near here the confederates under general Bragg, aided by Longstreet, totally 
 defeated the federals under Eosencrans, Sept. 19, 20, 1863. The loss was severe on both 
 sides. The credit of the victory is attributed to Longstreet ; its fruitlessness is assigned to 
 
 CHICHESTER (Sussex), built by Cissa, about 540. The cathedral was completed 
 about 1088, burnt with the city in 11 14, and rebuilt by bishop Seffrid about 1187. The 
 present cathedral was erected during the 13th century. The spire fell Feb. 20, 1861, and the 
 foundation of a new one was laid May 2, 1865. The bishopric originated thus : Wilfrida, 
 archbishop of York, compelled to flee by Egfrid, king of Northumberland, preached the 
 gospel in this country, and built a church in the Isle of Selsey, about 673. In 681 Selsey 
 
 * A chess-club was formed at Slaughter's coffee-house, St. Martin's lane, in 1747. M. F. A. Danican, 
 known as Phillidor, played three matches blindfold at the Salopian ; he died in 1795. The London Chess- 
 club was founded in 1807, and St. George's in 1833. In Dec. 1861 Herr Paulsen played ten games at once, 
 of which he won five, and lost one ; three were drawn, and one not played out. 
 
CHI 
 
 170 
 
 CHI 
 
 became a bishopric, and so continued until it was removed to Chichester, then called Cissan- 
 Caester, from its builder, Cissa, by Stigand, 1070. This see has yielded to the church two 
 saints, and to the nation three lord chancellors. It is valued in the king's books at 
 677Z. IS. yl. per annum. Present income, 4200^. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OF CHICHESTER. 
 
 1798. 
 1824. 
 1831. 
 
 John Buckner, died May 2, 1824. 
 
 Kobert J. Carr, trans, to Worcester, Sept. 1831. 
 
 Edward Maltby, translated to Durham, 1836. 
 
 1836. Charles Otter, died Aug. 20, 1840. 
 
 1840. Philip Nicholas Shuttleworth, died Jan. 7,1842. 
 
 1842. Ashurst Turner Gilbert (presekt bishop). 
 
 CHICKAHOMINY BATTLES. See Fairoaks. 
 
 CHICORY, the wild endive, or CicJiormni Intijhus of Linnaeus, grows wild in calcareous 
 soils. It has been raised to some extent in England as herbage, its excellence in this respect 
 having been much insisted upon by Arthur Young.* 
 
 CHILDERMAS DAY, Dec. 28, observed by the Roman church, in memoiy of the 
 slaughter of the Holy Innocents. {Matt, ii.) 
 
 CHILDREN. Manj' ancient nations exposed their infants, — the Egyptians on the banks 
 of rivers, and the Greeks on highways, — when they could not support or educate them ; in 
 such cases, they were taken care of, and humanely protected by the state. The custom, 
 which long previously existed, of English parents selling their children to the Irish for 
 .slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017. Mat. Paris. See Foundling. 
 
 CHILI (S. America), discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru, 
 1535. When Almagro crossed tlie Cordilleras, the natives, regarding the Spaniards on 
 their first visit as allied to the Divinity, collected for them gold and silver amounting to 
 290,000 ducats, a present which led to the subsequent cruelties and rapacity of the invaders. 
 Chili was subdued, but not wholly, in 1546. Population in 1857, 1,558,319. 
 
 The Chilians declare their independence of 
 Spain Sept. 18, iSio 
 
 Fight with varying success ; decisive victory 
 gained by San Martin over the roy.al forces, 
 Feb. 12 ; the province was declared inde- 
 pendent 1817 
 
 Present constitution established in . . . 1833 
 
 Manuel Montt elected president . Oct. 18, 1856 
 
 Insurrection headed by Pedro Gallo, Dec. 
 1858, suppressed .... April, 1859 
 
 Jos6 Perez, president . . . Sept. 18, 1861 
 
 Conflagration of the Jesuits' church at San- 
 tiago (see Santiago), more than 2000 persons 
 peri.shed Dec. 8, 1863 
 
 Rupture between ChiU and Bolivia respecting 
 the " Guano " isles . . . March i, 1864 
 
 CHILLIANWALLAH, Battle of, India, between the Sikh forces in considerable 
 strength, and the British commanded by lord (afterwards viscount) Gough, fought Jan. 13, 
 1849. The Sikhs were completely routed, but the loss of the British was very severe : 26 
 oflicers were killed and 66 wounded, and 731 rank and file killed, and 1446 wounded. The 
 Sikh loss was 3000 killed and 4000 wounded. f On Feb. 21, lord Gough attacked the Sikh 
 ai-my, under Shere Singh, in its position at Goojerat, with complete success ; and the whole 
 of the enemy's camp fell into the hands of the British. 
 
 CHILTERN HUNDREDS (viz. Burnham, Desborough, and Stoke), an estate of the 
 crowu on the chain of chalk hills that pass from east to west through the middle of 
 Buckinghamshire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, with a salary of 20s., conferred 
 on members of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an office 
 under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again returned by his con- 
 stituents. The strict legality of the practice is questioned. 
 
 CHIMNEY-TAX. See Ifearth. 
 
 CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chimneys, whicli 
 wei'e first introduced into these countries, in 1200, when they were confined to the kitchen 
 and large hall. The family sat round a stove, the fimnel of which passed through the 
 
 * Chicory had been for many years so largely mixed with cofifee in England, that it became a matter 
 of serious complaint, the loss of revenue being estimated at 100,000?. a-year. An excise order was i.ssued, 
 Aug 3, 1852, interdicting the mixture of chicory with coffee. The admixture, however, has since been 
 permitted, provided the word " chicorj' " be plainly printed on each jiarcel .sold. In f86o a duty of 3s. per 
 cwt. was put upon English-grown chicory until April 1861 ; after that date to be 5.S. 6d. per cwt 
 
 t The duke of Wellington (commander in chief) did not think the victory complete. Gough was 
 superseded, and sir C. Napier sent out (March 1849), who did not arrive in India till Gough had redeemed 
 his reputation. 
 
CHI 
 
 171 
 
 CHI 
 
 ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys were general in domestic architecture in 13 10. Act to regulate 
 chimney-swee]iing, 28 Geo. III. 1789. The chimney-siveejnng machine was invented 
 by Smart in 1805. A statute regulating the trade, the apprenticeship of children, the 
 construction of flues, preventing calling "sweep" in the streets, &c., passed 1834. By 
 5 Vict. 1840, it is not lawful for master sweeps to take apprentices under sixteen years 
 of age : and since July I, 1842, no individual under twenty-one may ascend a chimney. In 
 1864, the enforcement of this law was made more stringent, it having been neglected. At 
 the chemical works, Glasgow, is a chimney (there terjned a stalk) 420 feet in height ; the 
 height of the Monument in London being 202 feet ; of St. Paul's, 404 feet. 
 
 CHINA, the "Celestial Empire," in Eastern Asia, for which the Chinese annals claim an 
 antiquity of from 80,000 to 100,000 years B.C., is allowed to have commenced about 2500 B.C. ; 
 by others to have been founded by Eohi, supposed to be the ISToah of the Bible, 2240 b. c. 
 We are told that the Chinese were acute astronomers in the reign of Yao, 2357 b.c. 
 Towards the close of the 7th century B.C., the history of China becomes more distinct. 
 Twentj^-two dynasties have reigned, including the present. In the battle between Phraates 
 and the Scythians, 129 B.C., the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the coasts 
 of the Caspian, which is their first appearance in history. Lenglet. The population of 
 China was estimated at 190,348,228 in 1757 ; and at 414,607,000 in i860. 
 
 Tlie Chinese state their first cycle to have com- 
 menced B.C. 2700 
 
 The first dates fixed to his history, by Se-ma- 
 
 tsien, begin 651 
 
 Supposed age of Confucius (Kungfutze), the 
 
 Chinese philosopher 550 
 
 Stupendous wall of China completed 298 or 211 
 The dynasty of Han .... 202 or 206 
 Literature and the art of printing encouraged^?) 202 
 Religion of Tao-tse commenced ... 15 
 
 BeUgion of Fo commenced . . about a.d. 60 
 Pretended embassy from Rome . . . 166 
 
 Mankin becomes the capital 420 
 
 The atheistical philosopher, San-Shin, flourishes 449 
 The Nestorian Christians permitted to preach 635 
 They are proscribed and extirpated . . . 845 
 China ravaged by Tartars, 9th to nth centuries 
 Seat of government transferred to Pekin . . 1260 
 Marco Polo introduces missionaries . . . 1275 
 Canal, called the Yu Ho, completed . about 1400 
 Europeans first arrive at Canton . . . . 1517 
 Macao is granted to the Portuguese . . . 1536 
 Jesuit missionaries are sent from Rome . . 1575 
 The country is conquered by the eastern or 
 Mantchou Tartars, who estabUsh the present 
 
 reigning house 1616-47 
 
 Tea brought to England 1660 
 
 An earthquake throughout China,buries 300,000 
 
 persons at Pekin alone 1662 
 
 Commerce with East India Company begins . 1680 
 
 Jesuit missionaries preach 1692 
 
 Commercial relations with Russia . . 1719-27 
 
 The Jesuits expelled 1724-32 
 
 Another general earthquake destroys 100,000 
 
 persons at Pekin, and 80,000 in a suburb . 1731 
 In a salute by one of our India ships in China, 
 a loaded gun was inadvertently fired, which 
 killed a native ; the government demanded 
 the gunner to be given up ; he was soon 
 strangled. — Sir George Staunton . July 2, 1785 
 Earl Macartney's embassy* arrives at Pekin ; 
 
 his reception by the emperor . Sept. 14, 1793 
 He is ordered to depart . . . Oct. 7, ,, 
 And arrives in England . . . Sept 6, 1794 
 The affair of the Company's ship Neptune, when 
 
 a Chinese was killed 1807 
 
 Edict against Christianity ... 
 Lord Amherst's embassy ; f he leaves England 
 
 Feb 8. 
 
 1812 
 
 1816 
 
 Exclusive rights of the E. I. Co. cease April 22, 
 
 Opium dispute begins 
 
 Free-trade ships sail for England . April 25, 
 Lord Najiier arrives at Macao, to superintend 
 British commerce .... July 15, 
 Affair between the natives and two British 
 shiiDS of war ; several Chinese killed, Sept. 5, 
 Lord Napier dies, and is succeeded by Mr. 
 (aftei-wards sir John) Davis . . Oct. n, 
 Opium trade interdicted by the Chiuese,Nov. 7, 
 Cliinese seize the Argyle and crew . Jan. 31, 
 Opium burnt at Canton hy the Chinese, Feb. 23, 
 Captain Elhot becomes chief British commis- 
 sioner . . . . . Dec. 14, 
 Admiral Maitland arrives at Macao . Jtily 12, 
 Commissioner Lin orders seizure of opium, 
 March 18 ; British and other residents for- 
 bidden to leave Canton, March 19 ; the fac- 
 tories surrounded, and outrages committed, 
 March 24 ; captain Elliot requires of British 
 subjects their surrender to him of all opium, 
 promising them on the part of government 
 the full value of it, March 27 ; half of it is 
 given up as contraband to the Chinese, April 
 20 ; the remainder (20,283 chests) surrendered, 
 May 21 ; captain Elliot and the British mer- 
 chants leave Canton, May 24 ; the opium 
 destroyed by the Chinese . . June 3, 
 Affair between the British and American sea- 
 men and the Chinese ; a native killed, July 7, 
 Hong-Kong taken .... Aug. 23, 
 The British boat Blach Joke attacked, and the 
 crew murdered, Aug. 24 ; the British mer- 
 chants retire from Macao . . Aug-. 26, 
 Affair at Kow-lung between British boats and 
 
 Chinese junks Sept 4, 
 
 Attack by 28 armed junks on the British 
 frigates Volage and Hyacinth : several junks 
 
 blown up Nov. 3, 
 
 The British trade with China ceases, by an 
 edict of the emperor, and the last servant of 
 the con:ipany leaves this day . . Dec. 6, 
 Edict of the emperor interdicting all trade and 
 intercourse with England for ever . Jan. 5, 
 The Hellas ship attacked by armed junks, May 
 22 ; blockade of Canton by a British fleet, 
 by orders from sir Gordon Bremer, June 
 28 ; the Blonde with a flag of truce fired on 
 at Amoy, July 2 ; Ting-hai, in Chusan, sur- 
 
 183s 
 
 1839 
 
 * This embassy threw some lighten the political circumstances of the empire; it appeared to be 
 divided intoisx^rovinces, containing 4402 walled cities ; the population ofthe whole was given at 333,000,000: 
 its annual revenues at 66,ooo,oooi : and the army, including the Tartars, 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800,000 
 cavalry ; the religion Pagan, and the government absolute. Learning, and the arts and sciences, were 
 encouraged, and ethics studied. 
 
 t His lordship failed in the objects of his mission, having refused to make the prostration of the 
 Icou-tuu, lest he should thereby compromise the majesty of England. 
 
CHI 
 
 172 
 
 CHI 
 
 CHINA, continued. 
 
 renders, July 5 ; blockade established along 
 the Chinese coast, July 10 ; Mr. Sfciunton 
 carried off to Canton . . . . Aug. 6, lE 
 
 Captain Elliot, on board a British steam-ship, 
 enters the Peiho river, near Pekin, Aug. 11, ,, 
 
 The ship Kite lost on a sand-bank, and the cap- 
 tain's wife and a part of the crew are captured 
 by the natives, and confined in cages Sept. 15, ,, 
 
 Lin finally degraded ; Keshin appointed im- 
 perial commissioner, Sept. 16 ; capt. Elliot's 
 truce with him Nov. 6, , 
 
 British plenipotentiaries arrive off Macao, 
 
 Nov. 20, , 
 
 Admiral Elliot's resignation announced, Nov. 29, , 
 
 Jlr. Staunton released . . . Dec. 12, , 
 
 Negotiations cease, owing to breaches of faith 
 on the i^art of the Chinese emperor . Jan. 6, 18 
 
 Chuen-pe and Taecoc-tow, and 173 guns (some 
 sent to England), captured . . Jan. 7, , 
 
 Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great Britain, 
 and 6,000,000 dollars agreed to bo paid within 
 ten days to the British authorities . Jan. 20, , 
 
 Hong-Kong taken possesiion of . Jan. 26, , 
 
 The emperor rejects Keshin's treaty, Feb. 11 ; 
 hostilities resumed, Feb. 23 ; Chusan evacu- 
 ated, Feb. 24; rewards proclaimed at Canton 
 for the bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 
 50,000 dollars to be given for ringleaders and 
 chiefs Feb. 25, , 
 
 Bogue forts taken by sir G. Bremer ; admiral 
 Kwan killed ; 459 gvins captured . Feb. 26, , 
 
 The British squadron proceeds to Canton 
 March i ; sir H. Gough takes command of the 
 army, March 2 ; hostilities again suspended, 
 March 3 ; and again resumed, March 6 ; 
 Keshin degraded by the emperor March 12, , 
 
 Flotilla of boats destroyed. Canton threatened, 
 the foreign factories seized, and 461 guns 
 taken by the British forces . March 18, , 
 
 New commissioners from Pekin arrive at 
 Canton April 14, , 
 
 JJoiig Kong Gazette first published . May i, , 
 
 Capt. EUiot prepares to attack Canton May 17, , 
 
 Heights behind Canton taken . May 25, , 
 
 The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars ; 
 S,ooo,ooopaiddown ; hostilities cease May 31, , 
 
 British forces withdrawn, June i ; and British 
 trade re-opened .... July 16, , 
 
 Arrival at JIacao of sir Henry Pottinger, who, 
 as plenipotentiary, proclaims the objects of 
 his mission ; capt. Elliot .superseded Aug. 10, ,. 
 
 Amoy taken, and 296 guns destroyed . Aug. 27, ,. 
 
 The Bogue forts destroyed . . Sept. 14, ,! 
 
 Ting-hae taken, 136 guns captured, and Chusan 
 re-occupied by the British, Oct. i ; they take 
 Chinhae, Oct. 10; Ning-po, Oct. 13 ; Yu-yaou, 
 Tsze-kee, and Foung-hua . . Dec. 28, ,, 
 
 Chinese attack Ningpo and Chiu-hae, and are 
 repulsed with great loss, March 10 ; 8000 
 Chinese are routed near Tsze-kee March 15, 
 
 Cha-pou attacked ; its defences destroyed. 
 
 May 18, 
 
 The British squadron enters the river Kiang, 
 June 13 ; capture of Woosung, and of 230 
 guns and stores, June i6 ; Shang-hae taken, 
 June 19 ; the British armament anchors near 
 the "Golden Isle," July 20; Chin-Keang 
 taken ; the Tartar general and many of the 
 gan'i.son commit suicide, July 21 ; the ad- 
 vanced ships reach Nankin, Aug. 4 ; the whole 
 fleet arrives, and the disembarkation com- 
 mences, Aug. 9 ; Keying arrives at Nankin, 
 with full powers to treat for peace . Aug. 12. 
 
 Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, on board 
 the Comwall'is by sir Henry Potliinger for 
 England, and Keying Elepoo* and Neu-Kien 
 on the part of the Chinese emperor — [Con- 
 ditions : lasting peace and friendship between 
 the two empires; China to pay 21,000,000 of 
 dollars ; Canton, Amoy, Foochoofoo, Ning- 
 po, and Shang-hae to be thrown open to the 
 British, and consuls to reside at these cities ; 
 Hong-Kong to be ceded in perpetuity to Eng- 
 land, (fee. ; Chusan and Ku-lang-su to be held 
 by the British until the provisions are ful- 
 filled] t Aug. 29, 
 
 The ratifications signed by queen Victoria and 
 the emperor formallj- exchanged, July 22 ; 
 Canton opened to the British by an imperial 
 edict July 27, 
 
 Aiipointmeut of Mr. Davis in the room of sir 
 Henry Pottinger .... Feb. 16, 
 
 Bogue forts captured by the British . April 5, 
 
 Hong-Kong and the neighbourhood visited by 
 a violent typhoon ; immense damage done to 
 the shipping ; upwards of 1000 boat-dwellers 
 on the Canton river drowned . . Oct. 
 
 H.M. steam-.ship Medea destroys 13 pirate 
 junks in the Chinese seas . . March 4, 
 
 Kebellion breaks o\it in Qviang-si . . Aug. 
 
 Appearance of the pretender Tien-teh,J March 
 
 Defeat of Leu, the imperial commissioner, and 
 destruction of half the army . June 19, 
 
 Successful progress of the rebels ; the emperor 
 applies to the Europeans for lielp, without 
 success .... March and April, 
 
 The rebels take Nankin, March 19, 20 ; Amoy, 
 May 19 ; Shang-hae . . . Sept. 7, 
 
 And besiege Canton without success Aug. -Nov. 
 
 The scanty accounts are unfavourable to the 
 rebels, the imperialists having retaken Shang- 
 hae, Amoy, and many important places . . 
 
 Outrage on the British lorcha Arrow, in Canton 
 river § Oct. 8, 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 1847 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 * He took part (it was said without authority) in arranging the treaty of Tien-sin in June, 1858. He 
 was in consequence condemned to death — by suicide. 
 
 \ The non-fulfilment of this ti-eaty led gradually to the war of 1S56-7. 
 
 t The emperor Taou-Kwang, who died Feb. 25, 1850, during the latter part of his reign, became liberal 
 in his views, and favoured the introduction of European arts ; but his son, the late emperor, a rash and 
 narrow-minded prince, quickly departed from his father's wise policy, and adopted reactionary measures, 
 particularly against English influence. An insurrection broke out in consequence, Aug. 1850, and quickly 
 became of alarming importance. The insurgents at first proposed only to expel the Tartars ; but in March 
 1851, a pretender was announced among them, first by the name of Tien-teh (Celestial Virtue), but after- 
 wards assuming other names. He is stated to have been a native of Quang-si, of obscure origin, but to have 
 obtained some literary knowledge at Canton about 1835, and also to have become acquainted at that time 
 with the principles of Christianity from a Chinese Christian, named Leang-afa, and also from the mis- 
 sionary Roberts in 1844. He announced himself as the restorer of the worship of the true God, Shang-ti, 
 but has derived many of his dogmas from the Bible. He declared himself to be the monarch of all beneath 
 the sky, the true lord of China (and thus of all the world), the brother of Jesus, and the second son of God, 
 and demanded universal submission. He made overtures for alliance to lord Elgin, in November, i860. 
 His followers are termed Taephujs, " princes of peace," a title utterly belied by their atrocious deeds. 
 The rebellion was virtually terminated July 18, 1864, by the capture of Nankin, the suicide of the 
 Tien-wang, and the execution of the militai-y leaders. 
 
 § It was boarded by the Chinese officers, 12 men out of the crew of 14 being carried oflf, and the national 
 ensign taken down. Sir J. Bowring, governor of Hong-Kong, being compelled to resort to hostilities. 
 
CHI 
 
 173 
 
 CHI 
 
 CHINA, continued. 
 
 After vain negotiations with commissioner Yeh, 
 Canton forts attacked and taken . Oct. 23, 1856 
 
 A Chinese fleet destroyed and Canton bom- 
 barded, by sir M. Seymour . Nov. 3, 4, ,, 
 
 Imperialists defeated, quit Shang-hae Nov. 6, ,, 
 
 The Americans revenge an attack by capturing 
 three forts .... Nov. 21 — 23, ,, 
 
 Eebels take Kuriking . . . Nov. 25, ,, 
 
 Other forts taken by the British . . Dec. ,, 
 
 The Chinese biu-n Em-opean factories Dec. 14, ,, 
 
 And murder the crew of the r/iis/^s . Dec. 30, ,, 
 
 A-lum, a Chinese baker, acquitted of charge of 
 poisoning the bread .... Feb. 2, 1857 
 
 Troops arrive from Madras, and England ; and 
 lord Elgin appointed envoy . . March, ,, 
 
 No change on either side : Teh said to be 
 straitened for money ; the imperiaUsts seem 
 to be gaining ground upon the rebels May, ,, 
 
 Total desti-uction of the Chinese fleet by com- 
 modore Elliot, May 25, 27; and sir M. Sey- 
 mour and comimodore Keppel . . June i, ,, 
 
 Blockade of Canton .... Aug. ,, 
 
 Stagnation in the war — lord Elgin departs to 
 Calcutta, with assistance to the English 
 against the Sepoys, July 16 ; returns to Hong- 
 Kong Sept. 25, ,, 
 
 Gen. Ashbumham departs for India, and gen. 
 Straubenzee assumes the command Oct. 19, ,, 
 
 Canton bombarded and taken by English and 
 French, Dec. 28, 29, 1857 ; who enter it Jan. 5, 1858 
 
 Yeh* sent a prisoner to Calcutta . . Jan. ,, 
 
 The allies proceed towards Pekin, and take the 
 Pei-ho forts , . . . . May 20, ,, 
 
 The expedition arrives at Tien-Sin . May 20, ,, 
 
 Negotiations commence June s ; treaty of peace 
 signed at Tien-sin by lord Elgin, baron Gros, 
 and Keying (who signed the treaty of 1842) — 
 [Ambassadors to be at both courts ; freedom 
 of trade; toleration of Christianity ; expenses 
 of war to be paid by China ; a revised tariff ; 
 term libarharian) to be no longer apphed to 
 Europeans] .... June 26, 28, 29, „ 
 
 Lord Elgin visits Japan, and concludes an im- 
 portant treaty with the emperor . Aug. 28, „ 
 
 The British destroy about 130 piratical junks 
 in the Chinese seas . . Aug. and Sept. ,, 
 
 Lord Elgin proceeds up the Yang-tse-Kiang to 
 Nankin, Jan. ; returns to England . May, 1859 
 
 Mr. Bruce, the British envoy, on his way to 
 Pekin, is stopped in the river Pei-ho (or Tien- 
 sin); admiral Hope attempting to force a 
 passage, is repulsed with the loss of 81 killed, 
 and about 390 wounded . . . June 25, „ 
 
 The American envoy Ward arrives at Pekin, 
 and refusing to submit to degrading cere- 
 monies, does not see the emperor, July 29 ; 
 the commercial treaty with America is con- 
 cluded Nov. 24, „ 
 
 The English and French prepare an expedition 
 against China Oct. „ 
 
 Lord Elgin and baron GroS sail for China, April 
 26; wrecked near point de Galle, Ceylon, 
 May 23 ; arrive at Shang-hae . June 29, i860 
 
 The war begins : the British commanded by sir 
 Hope Grant, the French by general Montau- 
 ban. The Chinese defeated in a skirmish 
 near the Pei-ho .... Aug. 12, „ 
 
 The allies repulse the Tae-ping rebels attacking 
 Shang-hae, Aug. 18-20 ; and take the Taku- 
 forts, losing 500 killed and wounded ; the Tar- 
 tar general San-ko-hn-sin retreats Aug. 21, „ 
 
 After vain negotiations, the allies advance to- 
 wards Pekin ; they defeat the Chinese at 
 Chang-kia-wan and Pa-li-chiau Sept. 18 & 21, ,, 
 
 Consul Parkes, captains Anderson and Bra- 
 
 bazon, Mr. De Noi-man, Mr. Bowlby (the 
 Times' correspondent), and 14 others (Euro- 
 peans and Sikhs), advance to Tung-chow, to 
 arrange conditions for a meeting of the minis- 
 ters, and are cajjtured by San-ko-lin-sin ; 
 capt. Brabazon and abb^ de Luc beheaded, 
 and said to be thrown into the canal ; others 
 carried into Pekin . . . Sept. 21, 
 
 The allies march towards Pekin ; the French 
 ravage the emperor's summer palace, Oct. 6 ; 
 Mr. Parkes, Mr. Loch, and others, restored 
 ahve, Oct. 8 ; capt. Anderson, Mr. De Norman, 
 and others die of ill-usage . Oct. 8-11, 
 
 Pekin invested ; surrenders, Oct. 12 ; severe 
 proclamation of sir Hope Grant . Oct. 15, 
 
 The bodies of Mr. De Norman and Mr. Bowlby 
 buried with great solemnity in the Russian 
 cemetery in Pekin, Oct. 17 ; the summer 
 palace (Tuen-ming-yuen) iDurnt by the 
 British, in memory of the outraged prisoners 
 
 Oct. 18, 
 
 Convention signed in Pekin by lord Elgin and 
 the prince of Kung, by which the treaty of 
 Tien-sin is ratifled ; apology made for the 
 attack at Pei-ho (June 25, 1859) ; a large in- 
 demnity to be paid immediately, and com- 
 pensation in money given to the families of 
 the murdered prisoners, &c. ; Kow-loon ceded 
 in exchange for Chusan, and the treaty and 
 convention to be proclaimed throughout the 
 empire Oct. 24, 
 
 AUies quit Pekin .... Nov. s, 
 
 Treaty between Russia and China — the former 
 obtaining free trade, territoi-ies, &c. Nov. 14, 
 
 Mr. Loch arrives in England with the treaty 
 
 Dec. 27, 
 
 First instalment of indemnity paid . Nov. 30, 
 
 Part of the allied troops comfortably settled at 
 Tien-sin Jan. 5, 
 
 Adm. Hope examines Yang-tse-Kiang, <fec. Feb. 
 
 English and French embassies established at 
 Pekin March, 
 
 The emperor Hienfung dies . . Aug. 24, 
 
 Canton restored to the Chinese . Oct. 21, 
 
 Ministerial crisis ; several ministers put to 
 death ; Kung appointed regent . Dec. 13, 
 
 Advance of the rebels ; they seize and desolate 
 Ning-po and Hang-chow . . . Dec. 
 
 They advance on Shang-hae, which is placed 
 under protection of the English and French, 
 and fortified Jan. 
 
 Rebels defeated in two engagemenls . April, 
 
 English and French assist the government 
 against the rebels — Ning-po retaken May 10, 
 
 French admiral Protet killed in an attack on 
 rebels May 17, 
 
 Captain Sherard Osborne permitted by the 
 British government to organise a small fleet 
 of gim-boats to aid the imperialists to 
 establish order July, 
 
 Imperialists gaining ground, take Kah-sing,&c 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Commercial treaty with Prussia ratified Jan. 14, 
 
 The imperialists under Gordon, defeat the 
 Taepings under Burgevine, (fee. . Oct. 
 
 Gordon, commanding the imperiaUsts, captures 
 Sow-chow (after a severe attack on Nov. 27, 
 28) ; the rebel chiefs treacherously butchered 
 by the Chinese .... Dec. 4, 5, 
 
 Capt. Osborne came to China ; but retired in 
 consequence of the Chinese government de- 
 parting from its engagements . Dec. 31, 
 
 Gordon's successes continue . Jan. to April, 
 
 After a severe repulse he takes Chang-chow-foo, 
 
 Mar. 23, 
 
 i860 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 
 applied to India and Ceylon for troops. On March 3, 1857, the house of commons, by a majority of 19, 
 censiired sir John for the " violent measures " he had pursued. The ministry (who took his part) dissolved 
 the parhament ; but obtained a lai-ge majority in the new one. 
 
 * He died peacefully at Calcutta, April 9, 1859. He is said to have beheaded above 100,000 rebels. 
 
CHI 
 
 174 
 
 CHO 
 
 CHINA, conlinucd. 
 
 He takes Nankin (a heap of ruins) ; the Tien- 
 wang, the rebel emperor, commits suicide 
 by eating gold leixf. Chang- wang and Kan- 
 wang, the rebel generals, are " cut into a 
 thousand pieces ;" . . . . July i8, 1864 
 
 The Taepings hold Ming-chow ; the Mahome- 
 tan i-ebellion progressing in Honan March, 1865 
 
 Taepings evacuate Ming-chow . . May 23 ,, 
 
 A rebellion in the north, headed by Nien-Cei ; 
 Pekin in danger .... July ,, 
 
 The Chinese general San-ko-lin-sin defeated 
 and slain ; his son more successful . July ,, 
 
 CHINESE EMPERORS. 
 
 1627. Chwang-lei. 
 
 1644. Shun-che (first of the Tsing dynasty). 
 
 1669. Kang-he. 
 
 1693. Yung-ching. 
 
 1735. Keen-lung. 
 
 1795. Kea-king. 
 
 1820. Taou-Kwang. 
 
 1850. Hieng-fung, Feb. 25. 
 
 1861. Ki-tsiang, Aug. 22 ; bom April 5, 1855. 
 
 CHINA PORCELAIN introduced into England about 1531. See Pottery. 
 
 CHINA ROSE, &c. The Hosa indica was brought from China, and successfully planted 
 in England, 1786 ; the Cliiuese apple-tree, or Pyrus spcdabilis, about 1780. 
 
 CHIOS (now Scio), an isle in the Greek Archipelago, revolted against Athens, 412 B.C. 
 It partook of the fortunes of the Greeks, being conquered by the Venetians, a.d. 1124; by 
 the Crusaders, 1204 ; by the Greek emperor and Romans, 1329 ; by the Genoese, 1329, and 
 by the Turks in 1459. A dreadful massacre of the inhabitants by the Turks took place April 
 II, 1822, diiring the Greek insurrection.* 
 
 CHIPPAWA (N. America). Here the British under Eiall were defeated by the 
 Americans under Browne, July 5, 1814. The Americans were defeated by the British, 
 under generals Drummoud and Riall, July 25 following, but the latter was Avounded and 
 taken prisoner. 
 
 CHIVALRY arose out of the feudal system in the latter part of the 8th century 
 {chevalier, or knight, being derived from the caballarius, the equijiped feudal tenant on 
 horseback). From the 12th to the 15th century it tended to refine manners. The knight 
 swore to accomplish the duties of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies ; 
 to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect the dis"tressed, to practise courtes}', to 
 fulfil obligations, and to vindicate in every perilous adventure his honour and character. 
 Chivalry, which owed its origin to the feudal system, expired with it. See Toiu-naments. 
 By letters patent of James I. the earl-marshal of England had " the like jurisdiction in the 
 courts of chivalry, when the office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter and the 
 marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. See Knighthood. 
 
 CHLORINE (Greek chloros, pale green), a gas first obtained by Scheele in 1774, by 
 treating manganese with muriatic (hyili'ochloric) acid. Sir H. Davy, in 1810, proved this 
 gas to be an element, and named it chlorine. Combined with sodium it forms common 
 salt (chloride of sodium), and combined with lime, the bleaching powder and disinfectant — 
 cliloride of lime. The bleaching powers of chlorine wei'e made known by Berthollet in 1785. 
 In 1S23 chlorine was condensed into a liquid by Faraday. 
 
 CHLOROFORM (the ter-chloride of the hypothetical radical formyl) is a compound of 
 carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine, and was made from alcohol, water, and bleaching powder. 
 It was discovered by Soubeiran in 1831, and its composition was determined by Dumas in 
 1834. The term " chloric ether" was applied in 1820 to a mixture of chlorine and olefiant 
 gas. Chloroform was first applied as an anDesthetic by Dr. Simpson of Edinburgh ; it was 
 first administered in England on Dec. 14, 1848, by Mr. James Robinson, surgeon-dentist. f 
 
 CHOBHAM COMMON, in Surrey. A military camp was formed here on June 14, 1853, 
 by a force between 8000 and 10,000 strong. The last field-day took place Aug. 17, i860. 
 Only one serious case of misconduct was reported during all the time. 
 
 CHOCOLATE, made of the cocoa berry, introduced into Europe (from Mexico and the 
 Brazils) about 1520, was sold in the London coffee-houses soon after their establishment, 1650. 
 
 * The slaiighter lasted 10 days : 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the fire, which 
 raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the ground. 7000 Greeks, who 
 had fled to the mountains, were induced to surrender by a promise of amnesty, guaranteed by the consuls 
 of England, France, and Austria : yet even they were all butchered I The onlj' exception made during the 
 massacre was in favour of the young and more beautiful women and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved 
 for the markets. 
 
 t A committee of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society in July, 1864, after examining statistics, 
 reported that the use of anesthetics had in no degree increased the rate of mortaUty. 
 
CHO 
 
 175 
 
 CHE 
 
 CHOIE, This was separated from the nave of the cliurch iu the time of Constantiue. 
 The choral service was first used in England at Canterbury, 677. See Chanting. 
 
 CHOLERA MORBUS, known in its more malignant form as the Indian cholera, made 
 great ravages in the north, east, and south of Europe, and in Asia, where alone it carried off 
 more than 900, ocx) persons, in 1829-30. In England and "Wales in 1848-9, 53,293 persons 
 died of cholera, and in 1854, 20,097. 
 
 Cholera appears at Sunderland . . Oct. 26, 1831 
 
 And at Edinburgh . . . . Feb. 6, 1832 
 
 First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, 
 London, Feb. 13 ; and in Dublin . March 3 „ 
 
 The mortality very ffreat, but more so on the 
 Continent; 18,000 deaths at Paris, between 
 
 March and August, 1832 
 
 Cholera rages in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, 
 Berlin, &c. , in . . July and August, 1837 
 
 Another visitation of cholera in England : the 
 number of deaths in London, for the week 
 ending Sept. 15, 1849, was 3183 ; the ordinary 
 average 1008 ; and the number of deaths 
 by cholera from June 17 to Oct. 2, in London 
 alone, 13,161. The mortality lessened and 
 the distemper disappeared . . Oct. 13, 1849 
 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Hexham, Tynemouth, 
 
 and other northern towns, suffer much, from 
 cholera Sept. 1853 
 
 It rages in Italy and Sicily ; above 10,000 are 
 said to have died at Naples ; it was also very 
 fatal to the allied troops at Varna, autumn, 1S54 
 
 Cholera very severe for a short time in the 
 southern parts of London, and in Soho and 
 St. James's^ Westminster . Aug. and Sept. ,, 
 
 Raging in Alexandria, June ; abated . July, 1865 
 
 Prevailmg in Ancona (S43 deaths) Aug., sub- 
 siding Sept. ,, 
 
 Very severe in Constantinople, nearly 50,000 
 deaths, Aug. ; subsides after the great fire, 
 
 Sept. 6 „ 
 
 Cases at Marseilles, Toulon, and Southampton, 
 end of Sept. ,, 
 
 CHORAGUS, a Greek officer who regulated the chorus in the public feasts, worship, 
 &c. Stesichorus (or Tysias) received this name, he having first taught the chorus to dance 
 to the lyre, 556 B.C. Quintil. 
 
 CHORUS-SUSTGIISrG was early practised at Athens. Hypodicus, of Chalcides, carried 
 off the prize for the best voice, 508 b. c. Parian marbles. See Mzisic. 
 
 CHOUAjN'S, a name given to the Bretons during the war of La Vendee in 1792, from 
 their chief Jean Cottereair, using the cry of the Chat-haunt, or screech-owl, as a signal. He 
 was killed in 1794. Georges Cadoudal, their last chief, was connected with Pichegru in a 
 conspiracy against Napoleon when first consul, and Avas executed in 1804. 
 
 CHRISM, consecrated oil, was used early in the ceremonies of the Roman and Greek 
 churches. Musk, saffron, cinnamon, roses, and frankincense, are mentioned as used with the 
 oil, in 1 541. It was ordained that chrism should consist of oil and balsam only ; the one 
 representing the human nature of Christ, and the other his divine nature, 1596. 
 
 CHRIST. See Jesits Christ. Christ's Hospital (the Blue-Coat school) was established 
 by Edward VI. 1553, on the site of the Grey Friars monastery. A mathematical ward was 
 founded by Charles 11. , 1672, and the city of London and the community of England have 
 contributed to render it a richly endowed charity. The Times ward was founded in 1841. 
 Large portions of the edifice having fallen into decay, it was rebuilt ; in 1822 a new infirmary 
 was completed, and in 1825 (April 25) the duke of York laid the first stone of the magnificent 
 new hall. — On Sept. 24, 1854, the master. Dr. Jacob, in a sermon, in the church of the 
 hospital, censured the system of education and the general administration of the establish- 
 ment, and many improvements have since been made. The suboixiinate school at Hertford, 
 for 416 younger boys and 80 girls, was founded in 1683. Christ's-thoen, conjectured to 
 be the plant of which our Saviour's crown of thorns was composed, came hither from the 
 south of Europe before 1596. 
 
 CHRISTIAN Era. See Anno Domini. Christian Knovpledge Society was founded 
 in 1698 to promote charity schools, and to disperse bibles and religious tracts. It has an 
 annual revenue of about 100,000?. Most Christian King ; Christianissimus Rex, a title 
 conferred by pope Paul II. in 1469 on the crafty Louis XL of France. 
 
 CHRISTIANIA, the capital of Norway, built in 1624, by Christian IV. of Denmark, to 
 replace Opslo (the ancient capital founded by Harold Haardrade, 1058), which had been de- 
 stroyed by fire. On April 13, 1858, Christiania suflfered by fire, the loss being about 250,000?. 
 The univei'sity was established in 181 1. New Storthing (parliament house) built 186 1-2. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. The name Christian was first given to the believers and followers of 
 Christ's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, 43 {Acts xi. 26, i Peter iv. 6). The first Christians 
 were divided into episcopoi (bishops or overseers), preshyteroi (elders), diaconoi (ministers or 
 deacons), and pistoi (believers) ; afterwards were added catechumens, or learners, and ener- 
 gumens, who were to be exorcised. See Persecutions. 
 
CHR 
 
 17G 
 
 CHR 
 
 CHRISTIANITY, continued. 
 
 Christianity said to be taught in Britain, about 
 
 64 ; and propagated with some success (Bede) 156 
 Christianity said to be introduced into Scotland 
 
 in the reign of Donald I., about . . . 212 
 Constantino the Great professes tne Christian 
 
 religion 312 
 
 Frumentiiis preaches in Abyssinia . about 346 
 
 Introduced among the Goths by Ulfilas . . 376 
 Into Ireland in the second century, but with 
 
 more success after the arrival of St. Patrick in 432 
 
 Christianity established in France by Clovis . 496 
 
 Conversion of the Saxons* by Augustin . . 597 
 
 Introduced into Helvetia, by Irish missionaries 643 
 Into Flanders in the 7th century. 
 
 Into Saxony, by Charlemagne .... 785 
 
 Into Denmark, under Harold . . . . 827 
 
 Into Bohemia, under Borzivoi . . . 894 
 
 940 
 992 
 994 
 
 1227 
 
 Into Russia, by Swiatoslaf . . . about 
 Into Poland, under Meicislaiis I. . . . 
 
 Into Hungary, under Geisa 
 
 Into Norway and Iceland, under Olaf I. . 
 Into Sweden, between loth and nth centuries. 
 Into Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, when 
 
 they were returning from the holy wars 
 Into Lithuania; paganism was abolished about 1386 
 Into Guinea, AJigola, and Congo, in the 15th 
 
 century. 
 Into China, where it made some progress (but 
 
 was afterwards extirpated, and thousands of 
 
 Chinese Christians were put to death) . . 1575 
 Into India and America, in the i6th century. 
 Into Japan, by Xavier and the Jesuits, 1549; 
 
 but the Christians were exterminated in . 1638 
 Christianity re-estabUshed in Greece . . . 1628 
 
 CHRISTMAS-DAY, Dec. 25 (from Christ and the Saxon mcesse, signifying the mass 
 and a feast), a festival in commemoration of the nativity of our Saviour, said to have heen 
 first kept 98 ; and ordered to be lield as a solemn feast, by pope Telesjihorus, about 137. f 
 In the eastern church, Christmas and the Epiphany (ivhich sec) are deemed but one and the 
 same feast. The holly and mistletoe used at Christmas are said to be the remains of the 
 religious observances of the Druids. See Aiuio Domini. 
 
 CHRISTMAS ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, so named by captain Cook, who landed 
 here on Christmas-day, 1777. He had passed Christmas-day at Christmas-sound, 1774. On 
 the shore of Christmas Harbour, visited by him in 1776, one of his men found a piece of 
 parchment with this inscription : " Zudovico XV. Galliarum rege, et d. JBoyncs regi a sccretis 
 ad res maritimas, annis 1772 et 1773." On the other side of it captain Cook wrote : 
 "Naves Resolution et Discovery de rege Magnce Britannice, Dec. 1776," and placed it in a 
 bottle safely. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER'S, St. (or St. Kitt's), a AVest India island, discovered in 1493, by 
 Columbus, who gave it his own name.. Settled by the English and French 1623 or 1626. 
 Ceded to England by the peace of Utrecht, 17 13. Taken by the French in 1782, but 
 restored the next year. The town of Basseterre sulfered from a fire, Sept. 3, 1776. 
 
 CHROMIUM (Greek, chrome colour^ a rare metal, discovered by Vauquelin in 1797. It 
 is found combined with iron and lead, and forms the colouring matter of the emerald. 
 
 CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY. See Printing in Colours. 
 
 CHRONICLES. The earliest are those of the Jews, Chinese, and Hindoos. In Scrip- 
 ture there are two "Books of Chronicles." Collections of the British chroniclers have been 
 published by Camden, Gale, &c., since 1602 ; in the present century by the Engli.sh Historical 
 Society, &c. In 1858, the publication of " Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and 
 Ireland during the Middle Ages," commenced under the direction of the Master of the Rolls. 
 Macray's " Manual of British Historians" was published 1845. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY (the science of time) has for its object the arrangement and exhibition 
 of the various events of the history of the world in the order of their succession, and the 
 ascertaining the intervals between them. See Eras and E'pochs. Valuable works on the 
 subject are V Art de Verifier Ics Dates, compiled by the Benedictines (1783 — 1820). Play- 
 fair's Chronology, 1784; Blair's Chronology, 1753 (new editions by sir H. Ellis, in 1844, 
 and by Mr. Rosse, in 1856). The Oxford Chronological Tables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas' 
 Clironology of History, 1833 ; new edition, 1852. Hales' Chronology, 2nd edition, 1830 ; 
 Mr. H. Fynes-Clinton's Fasti Hellenici and Fasti Romani (1824-50). 
 
 CHRONOMETER. See Clocks and Harrison. 
 
 * It is, traditionally, said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, 
 chanced one day to pass through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some children of great beauty 
 who were set up for sale, he inquired about their country, and finding they were English pagans, he is said 
 to have cried out in the Latin langiiage, " Non Angli sed Amjeli foreat, si essent Christiani ;" that is, "They 
 would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time he was struck with an ardent 
 desire to convert that unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk named Austin, or Augustin, and others 
 of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain in the year 596. 
 
 t Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the Christians 
 were assembled on this day in great multitudes to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered the doors to be shut, 
 and the church to be set on fire, and 600 perished in the burning pile. This was the commencement of the 
 tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, 303. 
 
CHR 
 
 177 
 
 CHU 
 
 CHRONOSCOPE, an apparatus invented by professor Wlieatstone in 1840, to measure 
 small intervals of time. It has been applied to the velocity of projectUes, and of the electric 
 current. Chronoscopes were invented by Pouillet, and others in 1844. 
 
 CHUNAR, Treaty of, concluded between the nabob of Oude and governor Hastings,- 
 by which the nabob was relieved of all his debts to the East India Company, on condition of 
 his seizing the property of the begums, his mother and grandmother, and delivering it up to 
 the English, Sep. 19, 1781. This treaty enabled the nabob to take the lands of Fyzoola 
 Khan, a Rohilla chief, who had settled at Rampoor, under guarantee of the English, The 
 nabob presented to Mr. Hastings ioo,oooZ. 
 
 CHURCH (probably derived from the Greek Tcyriakos, pertaining to the Lord, Kijrios), 
 signifies a collective body of Chi'istians, and also the place where they meet. In the New 
 Testament, it signifies "congregation," in the original ekklesia. Christian architecture 
 commenced with Constantine, who, after he was settled in his government, erected, at Rome, 
 churches (called basilicas, from the Greek basileus, a king) ; St. Peter's being erected about 
 330. His successors erected others ; and adopted the heathen temples as places of worship. 
 Several very ancient churches exist in Britain and Ireland. See Architecture ; Choir and 
 Chanting ; Rome, Modern : and Popes. 
 
 CHURCH OF England.* The following are important facts in her history : for details, 
 refer to separate articles. — See Clergy. 
 
 Britain converted to Christianity ("Christo 
 
 subdita," Tertullian) . . . 2nd century 
 
 Invasion of the Saxons, 477 ; converted by 
 
 Augustin and his companions . . . 596 
 Dunstan establishes the supremacy of the n\o- 
 
 hastic orders, about 960 
 
 The aggrandising policy of the Church, fostered 
 by Edward the Confessor, was checked by 
 WiUiam I. and his successors . . 1066 et seg_. 
 Contest between Henry II. and Becket re- 
 specting the " Constitutions of Clarendon," 
 
 1164-1170 
 John surrenders his crown to the papal legate 1213 
 Rise of the Lollards — Wiokliflfe publishes tracts 
 against the errors of the Church of Rome, 
 1356 ; and a version of the Bible, about . 1383 
 Ihe clergy regulated by parHanient, 1529 ; they 
 
 lose the first fruits 1534 
 
 The royal supremacy imposed on the clergy by 
 Henry VIII., 1531 ; many suffer death for re- 
 fusing to acknowledge it 153S 
 
 Coverdale' s translation of the Bible commanded 
 
 to be read in churches ,, 
 
 " Six Articles of Religion " promulgated . . 1539 
 First book of Common Prayer issued . . . 1548 
 The clergy permitted to marry . . . 1549 
 
 " Forty-two Articles of Religion " issued . . 1552 
 Restoration of the Roman forms, and fierce 
 
 persecution of the Protestants by Mary . 1553-8 
 The Protestant forms restored by EUzabeth ; 
 
 the Puritan dissensions begin . . 1 558-1603 
 " Thirty-nine " Articles published . . . 1563 
 Hampton Court conference with the Puritans 1604 
 New translation of the Bible published . .1611 
 Book of Common Prayer suppressed and Direc- 
 tory estabUshed by parliament . . . 1644 
 Presbyterians established by the Common- 
 wealth 1649 
 
 Act of Uniformity (14 Chas. II. c. 4) passed — 
 2000 nonconforming ministers resign their 
 
 livings 1662 
 
 Attempts of James II. to revive Romanism ; 
 
 1704 
 1710 
 
 1717 
 1738 
 
 " Declaration of Indulgence " published . 16S7 
 Acquittal of the seven bishops on a charge of 
 
 " seditious hbel" 16S8 
 
 The Non-juring bishops and others deprived ; 
 
 (they formed a separate communion) Feb. i, 1691 
 " Queen Anne's Bounty," for the augmentation 
 
 of poor livings 
 
 Act for building 50 new churches passed . . 
 Fierce disputes between the low church and 
 
 high church ; trial of Sacheverell . . . 
 The Bangorian controversy begins . 
 John Wesley and George Whitefield commence 
 
 preaching 
 
 Rise of the Evangelical party in the church, 
 
 under Newton, Romaine, and others, in the 
 
 latter part of the iSth century. 
 Church of England united with that of Ireland 
 
 at the Union iSoo 
 
 Clergy Incapacitation Act passed . . . 1801 
 
 Acts for building and enlarging churches 182S, 1838 
 200 new churches erected in the diocese of 
 
 London during the episcopate of C. J. Blom- 
 
 field 1828-56 
 
 "Tracts for the Times" (No. 1-90) published 
 
 (much controversy ensued) . . . 1833-41 
 Ecclesiastical Commission established . . 1834 
 New Church Discipline Act (3 & 4 Vict. c. 86) . 1841 
 " Essays and Reviews " published, i860 ; nume- 
 rous Replies issued (see i'ssays and Reviews) 1 861-2 
 
 [The Church of England is now said to be 
 divided into High, Low (or Evangehcal), and 
 Broad Church : the last including persons 
 who hold the opinions of the late Dr. Arnold, 
 the Rev. F. D. Maurice, and others.] 
 
 Dr. Colenso, bishop of Natal, publishes his work 
 on "The Pentateuch," about Oct., 1862; 
 great cry against it ; the bishops, in convo- 
 cation, declare that it contains "errors of 
 the gravest and most dangerous character," 
 
 May 20, 1863 
 
 A Church Congress at Manchester, Oct. 13, 14, 15, „ 
 
 * The church of England consists of three orders of clergy — ^bishops, priests, and deacons; viz., two 
 archbishops and twenty-five bishops, exclusive of the see of Sodor and Man. The other dignities are 
 chancellors, deans (of cathedrals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor canons, 
 and priest-vicars : these and the mcumbents of rectories, vicarages, and chapelries, make the number 
 of prefei-ments of the estabUshed church, according to official returns, 12,327. The number of henc-ficesxa 
 England and Wales, according to parliamentary returns, in 1844, was 11,127, ^^^ the number of ^lebe- 
 houses 5527. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapels about 14,100. The number 01 
 benefices in Ireland was 1495, to which there were not more than about goo glebe-houses attached, the I'^st 
 having no glebe-houses. An act was passed in 1S60 for the union of contiguous benefices. See Church of 
 England. 
 
CHU 178 CIL 
 
 CHURCH OF England, continued. 
 
 Bishop Colenso deposed by his metropolitan, I are said to have signed ; it was presented to 
 
 Dr. Gray, bishop of Capetown . April i6, 1864 | the archbishop of Canterbury^ l^^^/JJ^l. 
 Bishop Colenso's appeal came before the privy " ""' ' ' ^ --j- < ^.. j " t _.,„.,«, ^,„„ 
 
 council, which declared bishop Gray's pro- 
 
 ceednigs null and void (since a colonial 
 
 bishop can have no authority except what 
 
 is granted by parliament or by the colonial 
 
 . legislature) .... March 21, 1865 -„ „ „ „ ., - -i ozr 
 
 Church congress at Bristol . . . Oct. 1864 ' April, 1865 
 
 "Bishop of London's Fund," for remedying 
 
 spiritual destitution in London, establi.shed ; 
 
 the Queen engages to give (in three years) 
 
 3ooo<., and prince of Wales looof. . March 7, 
 
 ioo,456(. received ; 72,003?. promised, Dec. 31, 
 
 The Queen engages to give 15,000?. in lo years, 
 
 ' Oxford Declaration " (authorship ascribed to 
 archdeacon Denison and Dr. Pusey), respect- 
 belief in eternal puni.shment, drawn up 
 and signed on Feb. 25, and sent by post to 
 
 New form of clerical subscription proposed by 
 a commission izi 1864 ; adopted by parliament, 
 
 July, 
 Church congress met at Norwich . Oct. 3-7 
 
 the clergy at large for signature : about 3000 ' Congress to be at York in , . . . 1866 
 
 • CHURCH OF IRELAND is no-sv in connection witli that of England— the United 
 Church of England and Ireland. Previously to the Church Temporalities Act of Will. IV. 
 in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which two 
 archbishoprics and eight bishoprics have ceased ; that act providing for the union or abolition 
 of certain sees, according as the possessors of them died. See BisJiojJS. 
 
 CHURCH OF North America. The Episcopal church was established in Nov. 1784, 
 when bishop Seabury, chosen by the churches in Connecticut, was consecrated in Scotland. 
 The first convention was held at Philadelphia in 1785. On Feb. 4, 1787, two more American 
 bishops were consecrated at Lambeth, In 1851 there were 37 bishops. 
 
 CHURCH of Scotland. See Bishops in Scotland. On the abolition of Episcopacy in 
 Scotland in 1638, Presbyterianism became the e.stabli.shed religion. Its distinguishing tenets 
 were first embodied in the formulary of faith, said to have been compiled by John Knox, in 
 1560, which was approved by the parliament and ratified in 1567, finally settled by an act of 
 the Scottish senate in 1696, and secured by the treaty of union with England in 1707. The 
 chui'ch of Scotland is regulated by four courts — the general assembly,* the synod, the presby- 
 tery, and kirk sessions. See Presbyterians. A large body seceded from this church in 
 1843, and took the name of the " Free Church of Scotland," wJiich see. 
 
 CHURCH-RATES. The maintaining the church {i. e. the !building) in repair belongs 
 to the parishioners, who have the sole power of taxing themselves for the expense when 
 assembled in vestry. The enforcement of payment, which is continually disputed by dis- 
 senters and others, belongs to the ecclesiastical courts. Many attempts have been made to 
 abolish church-rates. A bill for this purpose has passed the commons only several times 
 since 1855 ; one was thrown out in Maj% 1861. See Braintree. 
 
 CHURCH-SERVICES were ordered by pope A^itellianus to be read in Latin 663 ; by 
 queen Elizabeth in 1558 to be read in English. 
 
 CHURCH-WARDENS, officers of the church, appointed by the first canon of the synod 
 of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish were also appointed by the same body, and 
 they continue now nearly as then constituted. Johnson's Canons. 
 
 CHURCHING OF Women is the act of retrrrning thanks in the church by women after 
 child-birth. It began about 214. Whcatlcy. See Piirification. 
 
 CHUSAN, a Chinese isle. See China, 1840, 1841, i860. 
 
 CIDER (Zider, German), M'hen first made in England, was called wine, about 1284. The 
 earl of Manchester, when ambassador in France, is said to have frequently passed off cider 
 for a delicious wine. It was subjected to the excise in 1763 ct scq. A powerful spirit is 
 drawn from cider by distillation. —Many orchards were planted in Herefordshire by lord 
 Scudamore, ambassador from Charles I, to France. John Philips i^ublished his poem 
 "Cider" in 1706. 
 
 CILICIA, in Asia Minor, partook of the fortunes of that country. It became a Roman 
 province 67 B.C., and was conquered by the Turks, a.d. 1387. 
 
 • The first general assembly of the church was held Dec. 20, 1560. The general assembly constitutes 
 the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annualJy in Edinburgh in May, and sits about 
 ten days. It consists of a grand commissioner, appointed by the sovereign, and delegates from presbyteries, 
 royal boroughs, and universities, some bcmg laymen. To this court all appeals from the inferior ecclesias- 
 tical courts lie, and its decision is final. 
 
CIM 
 
 179 
 
 cm 
 
 CIMBRI, a Teutonic race, who came from Jutland, and invaded the Roman empire about 
 I20 B.C. They defeated the Romans, under Cn. Paperius Carbo, 113 B.C. ; under the consul, 
 Marcus Silaniis, 109 B.C., and under Manlius, on the banks of the Rhine, where 80,000 
 Romans were slain, 105 B.C. Their allies, the Teutones, were defeated by Marius in two 
 battles at Aquae Sextise (Aix) in Gaul ; 200,000 were killed, and 70,000 made i)i'i-ioners, 
 IQ2.B.C.. The Cimbri were defeated by Marius and Catulus, as they were again endeavouring 
 to enter Italy; 120,000 were killed, and 60,00,0 taken prisoners, loi B.C. They were 
 afterwards absorbed into the Teutones or Saxons. 
 
 CIMENTO (Italian, experiment). The "Accademia del Cimento," at Florence, held its 
 first meeting for making scientific experiments, June 18, 1657. It was patronised by 
 Ferdinand, grand duke of Tuscany. Its establishment was followed bj'^ the foundation of 
 the Royal Society of London in 1660, and the Academy of Sciences at Paris in 1666, 
 
 CIlSrCIE'lSrATI. a society established in the American army soon after the peace of 
 1783, "to perpetuate friendship," and to raise a fund for relieving the widows and orphans 
 of those who had fallen during the war." On the badge was a figure of Cincinnatus. The 
 people dreading military influence, the officers gave up the society. 
 
 CINNAMON", a species of laurel in Ceylon, is mentioned among the perfumes of the 
 sanctuary, Exodus sxx. 23. It was found in the American forests, by Don UUoa, in 1736, 
 and was ci;ltivated in Jamaica and Dominica in 1 788. 
 
 CINQUE-CENTO (five hundred) ; ter-cento, &c., see note to article Italy. 
 
 CINQUE PORTS, on the south coast of England, were originally five (hence the name) 
 — Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich : Winchelsea and Rye were afterwards 
 added. Jecike. Their jurisdiction was vested in barons, called wardens, for the better security 
 of the coast, these ports being nearest to France, and considered the keys of the kingdom ; 
 instituted by William I. in 1078. Rapin. The latest lord-wardens were the duke of 
 Wellington, 1828-52 ; the marquess of Dalhousie, 1852-60 ; lord Palmerston, appointed 
 March, 1861. 
 
 CINTRA (Portugal). The convention of Cintra was concluded between the British army 
 under sir Hew Dalrymple, and the French under marshal Junot. By this compact, on Aug, 
 30, 1808, shortly after the battle of Vimeira (Aug. 22), the defeated French army was allowed 
 to evacuate Portugal in British ships, carrying with them all their spoil. The convention 
 was publicly condemned, and in consequence a court of inquiry was held at Chelsea, which 
 exonerated the British commanders, who, however, were never again employed. Wellington. 
 and Napoleon both justified sir Hew Dalrymple. 
 
 CIRCASSIA (Asia, on N. side of the Caucasus). The Circassians are said to be descended 
 from tlie Albanians. They were unsubdued, even by Timour. In the .i6th century the 
 greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the czai", Ivan II. of Russia, and aboiit 
 1 745, the princes of Kabarda took oaths of fealty. Many Circassians became Mahometans in 
 the 1 8 th century. 
 
 Circassia surrendered to Russia by Turkey by 
 
 the treaty of Adrianople (but the Circassians, 
 
 under Schamyl, long resisted) . , . 1830 
 Victories of OrbeUiani over them 
 
 June, Nov., Dec, 1857 
 He subdues much of the coimtry, and expels 
 
 the inhabitants .... April, 1858 
 Schamyl, their great leader, captured, and 
 
 treated with much respect . . Sept. 7, 1859 
 About 20,000 Circassians emigrate to Constan- 
 
 CIRCENSIAN GAMES were combats in the Roman circus (at first in honour of Census, 
 the god of councils, but afterwards of Jupiter, Neptune, Juno, and Minerva), instituted by 
 Evander, and established at Rome 732 B.c. by Romulus, at the time of the rape of the 
 Sabines. They were an imitation of the Olympian games among the Greeks, and, by way 
 of eminence, were called the Great games, but Tarquin named them Circensian ; their 
 celebration continued from Sept. 4 to 12. 
 
 CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the diameter of the circle to its circumference, 
 has exercised the ingenuity of mathematicians of all ages. Archimedes, about 221 e.g., 
 gave it as 7 to 22 ; Abraham Sharp (1717) as I to 3 and 72 decimals, and Laguy (1719) as 
 I to 3 and 122 decimals. 
 
 X 2 
 
 tinople, and suffer much distress, and are 
 relieved 
 
 The last of the Circas.sian strongholds cap- 
 tured, and the grand duke Michael declares 
 the war at an end . . . June 8, 
 
 Above a million Circassians emigrate into 
 Turkey, and suffer many privations, par- 
 tially relieved by the sultan's government, 
 June, et seq. 
 
cm 180 CIR 
 
 CIECLES OF Germany (formed about I5CX3, to distinguisTi the members of the diet of 
 the empire) were, in 15 12, Franconia, Bavaria, Upper and Lower Ehine, Westphalia, and 
 Saxony ; in 1789, Austria, Burgundy, Westphalia. Palatinate, Upper Rhine, Suabia, Bavaria, 
 Franconia, and Upper and Lower Saxony. In 1804 these divisons were annulled by the 
 establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine, in 1806 {which see). 
 
 CIRCUITS IN England were divided into three, and three justices were appointed to 
 each, 1 1 76. They were afterwards divided into four, with five justices to each division, 
 1 180. ilainn. They have been frequently altered. England and Wales are at present 
 divided into eight — each travelled in spring and summer for the trial of civil and criminal 
 cases ; the larger towns are visited in winter for trials of criminals only : this is called 
 "going the circuit." There are monthly sessions for the city of London and county of 
 Middlesex, 
 
 CIRCULATING LIBRARY. Stationers lent books on hire in the middle ages._ The 
 public circulating library in England, opened by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister 
 of Salisbury, about 1740, failed ; but similar institutions at Bath and in London succeeded, 
 and others were established throughout the kingdom. There was a circulating library at 
 Crane-court, London, in 1748, of which a catalogue in two vols, was published. — No books 
 can be taken from the British Museum except for judicial purposes, but the libraries of the 
 Roj'al Society and the princij^al scientific societies, except that of the Royal Institution,' 
 London, are circulating. — The London Library (circulating) was founded in 1841, under the 
 highest auspices, and is of great value to literary men. — Of the subscription libraries 
 belonging to individuals, that of Mr. C. E. Mudie, in New Oxford-street, is the most 
 remarkable for the large quantity and good quality of the books : several hundreds, some- 
 times thousands, of copies of a new work being in circulation. It was founded in 1842, and- 
 grew into celebrity in Dec. 1848, when the tirst two volumes of Macaulay's History of 
 England were published, for which there was an unprecedented demand, which this library 
 supplied. The hall, having the walls covered with shelves filled with new books, was 
 opened in Dec. i860. The "Circulating Library Company" was founded in Jan. 1862, 
 
 CIRCULATION of the Blood. See Blood.. 
 
 CIRCUMCISION (instituted 1897 B.C.) was the seal of the covenant made by God with 
 Abraham. It was practised by the ancient Egyptians, and is still by the Copts and some 
 oriental nations. The Festival of the Circumcision (of Christ), originally "the Octave of 
 Christmas," is mentioned aboiit 487. It was introduced into the Liturgy in 1550. 
 
 CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the most daring human enterprises at the period 
 when it was first attempted, was the circumnavigation of the earth in 1519.* 
 
 Miigellan first entered the Tasman, Dutch . . . 1642 James Cook .... 1768 
 
 Pacific Ocean . . . 1519I Cowley, British , . . 16S3 On his death the voyage was 
 
 Groalva, Spaniard . . . 1537! Dampier, English . . . 1689 continued by King . . 1779 
 
 Avalradi, Spaniard . • >> Cooke, English . . . . 1708 Bougainville, French , . 1776 
 
 Mendana, Spaniard^ . . 1567 Clipperton, British . . 1719 Portlocke, British . . . 1788 
 
 Sir Francis Drake, first Eng- \ Roggewein, Dutch . . . 1721 King and Fitzroy, British 1826-36 
 
 lish 15771 Anson (n/<(;rK'a?'rfs lord) . 1740 Belcher, British . . 1836-42 
 
 Cavendish, first voyage . . 1586 Byron, English . . . . 1764 Wilkes, American . . 1838-42 
 
 Le Maire, Dutch . . . 1615 ' Wallis, British . . . 1766 1 See JVortA- JFest Passape. 
 
 Quiros, Spaniard . . . 1625 Carteret, English . • . ,> 
 
 CIRCUS. There were eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ; the largest, 
 the Circus Maximus, was built by the elder Tarquin, 605 B.C. It was an oval figure ; length 
 three stadia and a half, or more than three English furlongs ; breadth 960 Roman feet. It 
 was enlarged by Julius Csesar so as to seat 150,000 persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus. 
 Julius Ca;sar introduced in it large canals of water, which could be quickly covered with 
 vessels, and represent a sea fight. Pliny. See Ampliitheatrcs. In the 5th and 6th centuries 
 after Christ, Constantinople was greatly disturbed by the white, red, green, and blue factions 
 of the circus. In 501, about 3000 persons were killed. In Jan. 532 a fierce conflict between 
 the blue and green factions lasted five days, and was only suppressed by the efforts of 
 Bolisarius after a frightful slaughter. The watchword was " Nika ! " (conquer). 
 
 CIREHA, a town of Phocis (N. Greece), razed to the ground in the Sacred War, 586 B.C., 
 for sacrilege. 
 
 * The first ship that sailed round the earth, and hence determined its being globular, was Magellan's, 
 or Magelhaen's ; he was a native of Portugal, in the service of Spain, and by keeping a westerly course he 
 returned to the same place he had set out from in 1519. The voj'agc was completed in 3 years and 29 days ; 
 but Magellan was killed on his homeward passage, at the Philippines, in 1521. 
 
CIS 181 CIV 
 
 CISALPINE REPUBLIC (N. Italy) was formed by the French in May, 1797, out of the 
 Cispadane and Transpadane republics, acknowledged by the emperor of Germany to be 
 independent, by the treaty of Campo Formio {which see), Oct. 17 following. It received 
 a new constitution in Sept. 1798 ; but merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805. 
 See Italy. 
 
 CISTERCIANS, an order of monks founded by Robert, a Benedictine, abbot of Citeaux 
 (the order of Citeaux), in France, near the end of the nth century. For a time it governed 
 almost all Europe. The monks observed silence, abstained from flesh, lay on straw, and 
 wore neither shoes nor shirts. De Vitri,. They were reformed by St. Bernard. See 
 Bernardines. 
 
 CITATE. The Russian general Gortschakoff, intending to storm Kalafat, threw up 
 redoubts at Citate, close to the Danube, which were stormed by the Turks under Onier 
 Pacha, Jan. 6, 1854. The fighting continued on the 7th, 8th, andgth, when the Russians 
 were compelled to retire to their former position at Krajowa, having lost 1500 killed and 
 2000 wounded. The loss of the Turks was estimated at 338 killed and 700 wounded. 
 
 CITY. (French cite, Italian cittd,, Latin civitas.) The word has been used in England 
 only since the conquest, when London was called Londonhurgh. Cities were iirst incorporated 
 1079. A town corporate is called a city when made the seat of a bishop and having a 
 cathedral church. Camden. 
 
 CITIZEN. It is not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome. Livy._ In England a citizen 
 is a person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on a trade therein. Camden. Various 
 privileges have been conferred on citizens as freemen, in several reigns. — The wives of citizens 
 of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) were obliged to wear 
 minever cap&, being white woollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks projecting three or 
 four inches beyond their foreheads ; aldermen's wives made them of velvet, i Eliz. i55^- 
 Stow/ On Oct. 10, 1792, the convention decreed that "citoyen"and "citoyenne" should 
 bethe only titles in France. 
 
 ' CIUDAD RODRIGO, a strong fortress of Spain, invested by the French, June 11, 18 10, 
 and surrendered to them July 10. It remained in their possession until it was stormed by 
 the British, under Wellington, Jan. 19, 18 12. 
 
 ,■ CIVIL ENGINEERS. ^q& Engineers. 
 
 CIVIL LAW. A body of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, 
 was first collected by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, who flourished about 66 b. c. ; and a 
 digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, 53 b. c. The Gregorian code 
 was issued a.d. 290 ; the Theodosian in 438. Many of the former laws having grown out of 
 use, the emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them (in 529-534), which was called the 
 Justinian code, and constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil law was restored 
 in Italy, Germany, &c. 1127. Blair. It was introduced into England by Theobald, a 
 Norman abbot, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury in 1138. It is now used in the spiritual 
 courts only, and in maritime aflairs. See Doctors' Commons, and Laws. 
 
 CIVIL LIST. This now comprehends the revenue awarded to the kings of England in 
 lieu of their ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue of Elizabeth was not more than 
 600,000^., and that of Charles I. was about 8oo,oooZ. After the revolution a civil list 
 revenue was settled on the new king and queen of 700,000?., the parliament taking into its 
 own hands the support of the forces both maritime aaid military. The civil list of George II. 
 was increased to 800,000?. ; and that of George III. in the 55th year of his reign, was 
 1,030,000?. 
 
 In 1831, the civil list of the sovereign was fixed j Sir H. Parnell's motion for inquiry into the 
 
 at5io,oooZ., and in Dec, 1837, the civil list civil list led to the resignation of the Wel- 
 
 of the queen was fixed at 385,000^. Ungton administration . . Nov. 15, 1830 
 
 Prince Albert obtained an exclusive sum from A select committee was appointed by the house 
 
 parliament of 30,000!. per an. on . Feb. 7, 1840 | of commons for the purpose . Peb. 2, 1863 
 
 CIVIL SERVICE. Nearly 17,000 persons are employed in this service under the 
 direction of the treasury, and the home, foreign, colonial, post, and revenue offices, &c. In 
 1855 a commission reported most unfavourably on the existing system of appointments, 
 and on lilay 21 commissioners were appointed to examine into the qualifications of the 
 candidates, who report annually. The civil service superanniiation act passed in April, 
 1859. Civil service for the year (ending March 31) 1855, cost 7, 735,515^-; 1865, 10,205,413?. 
 
CIV 
 
 182 
 
 CLA 
 
 CIVIL WARS. See England, France, &c. 
 
 CLANSHIPS were tribes of the same race, and comiiionly of the same name, and 
 originated in feudal times. See Feudal Laios. They are said to have arisen in Scotland, in 
 the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008. The legal power of the chiefs of clans and other 
 remains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scotland, and the liberty of the English 
 was granted to clansmen in 1747, in consequence of the rebellion of 1745. The following 
 is a list of all the kno^^^l clans of Scotland, with the badge of distinction anciently worn by 
 each. The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's feathers in 
 his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan. Chambers. A history of the 
 clans by Wm. Buchanan was published in 1775. 
 
 Name. 
 
 BaiUje. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Badge. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Badge. 
 
 Buchanan 
 
 Birch. 
 
 Lament . 
 
 . Crab-apple tree. 
 
 jrNeil . 
 
 Sea-ware. 
 
 Cameron 
 
 Oak. 
 
 M'Alister 
 
 . Five-leaved heath. 
 
 M'Pherson 
 
 Varieg.ated box-wd 
 
 Campbell 
 
 Myi-tle. 
 
 M'Donald 
 
 . Bell-heath. 
 
 M'Quarrie 
 
 . Blackthorn. 
 
 Chisholm 
 
 Alder. 
 
 M'Donnell 
 
 . Mountain heath. 
 
 M'Rae . 
 
 Fir-club moss. 
 
 Colqulioun . 
 
 Hazel. 
 
 M'Dougall 
 
 . Cypre.=:s. 
 
 Menzies 
 
 . Ash. 
 
 dimming 
 
 Common sallow. 
 
 M'F.arlane 
 
 . Cloud-ben-y bush. 
 
 Munro 
 
 Eagle's feathers. 
 
 Di-ummond 
 
 Holly. 
 
 M'Gregor 
 
 . Pine. 
 
 Murray 
 
 Juniper. 
 
 Farquharson 
 
 Purple fo.xglovo. 
 
 M'Intosh 
 
 . Box-wood. 
 
 Ogilvie . 
 
 Hawthorn. 
 
 rer>,'Hson . 
 
 Poplar. 
 
 M'Kay . 
 
 . Bull-rush. 
 
 Ohphant 
 
 Great maple. 
 
 Forbes , . 
 
 Broom. 
 
 M'Kenzie 
 
 . Deer-grass. 
 
 Robertson 
 
 Fern, orbrechans. 
 
 Frazor . 
 
 Yew. 
 
 M'Kinnon 
 
 . St. John's wort. 
 
 Rose 
 
 Briar-rose. 
 
 Gordon . . 
 
 Ivy. 
 
 M'Lacblan 
 
 Mountain- ash. 
 
 Ross 
 
 Bear-bei-ries. 
 
 Graham 
 
 Laurel. 
 
 M'Lean , 
 
 . Blackberry heath. 
 
 Sinclair . 
 
 Clover. 
 
 Grant 
 
 Cranbon-y heath. 
 
 M'Leod 
 
 . Red whortle-berries. 
 
 Stewart 
 
 . Thistle. 
 
 Gun . 
 
 Rosowort. 
 
 M'Nab . 
 
 . Rose blackbeiTies. 
 
 Sutherland 
 
 Cat's-tail grass. 
 
 CLARE AND Clarence (Suffolk). Richard de Clare, earl of Gloucester, is said to have 
 seated here a monastery of the order of Friars Eremites, the first of this kind of mendicants 
 who came to England, 1248. Tanner. Lionel, third son of Edward III. becoming possessed 
 of the honour of Clare, bj' marriage, was created duke of Clarence. The title has ever since 
 belonged to a branch of the royal family.* — Clare was the first place in Ireland for 140 
 years that elected a Roman Catholic member of parliament. See Roman Catholics. At the 
 election, held at Ennis, the coimty town, Mr. Daniel O'Connell was returned, July 5, 1828^ 
 He did not sit till after the passing of the Catholic Emancipation Act, in 1829, being re- 
 elected July 30, 1829. 
 
 CLARE, NuN.s OF St., a sisterhood, called Minoresses, founded in Italy about 1212. 
 This order settled in England, in the Minories without Aldgate, London, about 1293. 
 by Blanche, queen of Navarre, wife of Edmund, carl of Lancaster, brother of Edward I. 
 At the suppression, the site was granted to the bishopric of Bath and Wells, 1539. Tanner. 
 
 CLAREMONT (Surrey), the residence of the princess Charlotte (daughter of the prince- 
 regent, afterwards George IV.), and the .scene of her death, Nov. 6, 1817. The house was 
 originally built by sir John Vanbrugh, and was the seat successiveh' of the earl of Clare, 
 afterwards duke of Newcastle, of lord Clive, lord Galloway, and the" earl of Tyrconnel. It 
 was purchased of Mr. Ellis by government for 65,000?. for the prince and princess of Saxe- 
 Coburg ; and the former, now king of Belgium, assigned it to prince Albert in 1840. The 
 exiled royal family of France took up their residence at Claremont, March 4, 1848 ; and the 
 king, Louis- Philippe, died there, Aug. 29, 1850. 
 
 CLARENCIEUX, the second king-at-arms, formerly subject to the duke of Clarence ; 
 his duty was to arrange the funerals of all the lower nobility, as baronets, knights, esquires, 
 and gentlemen, on the south side of the Trent, from whence he is also called sur-roy or 
 soutli-roy. 
 
 CLARENDON, Constitutions of, were enacted at a council held Jan. 25, 1164, at 
 Clarendon, in Wiltshire, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous power of the 
 clergy. They were the ground of Becket's quarrel with Henry II., and were at first con- 
 demned by the pope, but afterwards agreed to in 11 73. 
 
 * DrKES OF Clarence: 1362, Lionel, bom 1338, died 1369. See Torlc, dul-es of. — 1411, Thomas (.second 
 son of Henry IV.), bom 1389, killed at Baug^ 7421.-1461, George (brother of Edward IV.), murdered 1478. 
 —1789, William (third son of George HI.), afterwards William IV. 
 
CLA 183 CLE 
 
 CLARENDOoSr, Constitutions oi?, continued. 
 
 I. All suits concerning advowsons to be deter- 
 mined in civil courts. 
 
 II. The clergy accused of any crime to be tried by 
 civil judges. 
 
 III. No person of any rank whatever to be per- 
 mitted to leave tbe realm without the royal licence. 
 
 IV. Laics not to be accused in spiritual courts, 
 except by legal and reputable promoters and wit- 
 nesses. 
 
 V. No chief tenant of the crown to be excommu- 
 nicated, or his lands put under interdict. 
 
 VI. Revenues of vacant sees to belong to the king. 
 
 VII. Goods forfeited to the crown not to be pro- 
 tected in churches. 
 
 VIII. Sons of villains not to be ordained clerks 
 without the consent of their lord. 
 
 IX. Bishops to be regarded as barons, and be sub- 
 
 jected to the burthens belonging to that rank. 
 
 X. Chm-ches belonging to the king's see not to be 
 granted in perpetuity against his will. 
 
 XI. Excommunicated persons not to be bound to 
 give security for continuing in their abode. 
 
 XII. No inhabitant in demesne to be excommuni- 
 cated for non-appearance in a spiritual court. 
 
 XIII. If any tenant in capite should refuse sub- 
 mission to spiritual courts, the case to be referred 
 to the king. 
 
 XIV. The clergy no longer to pretend to the right 
 of enforcing debts contracted by oath or promise. 
 
 XV. Causes between laymen and ecclesiastics to 
 be determined by a jury. 
 
 XVI. Appeals to be ultimately carried to the king, 
 and no further without his consent. 
 
 CLARE:srDOI^ PRmTmG-OFFICE, OxFOED, erectedby sir John Vanbrugh, in 1711-13, 
 the expen.se being defrayed out of the profits of lord Clarendon's History of the Rebellion, 
 the copyright of which was given by his son to the university. The original building has 
 been converted into a museum, lecture-rooms, &c., and a new printing-office erected by 
 Blore and Robertson, 1826-9. Sharp. 
 
 CLARIOlSr, it is said by Sj)anish writers, invented by the Moors in Spain, about 800, was 
 at iirst a trumjiet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding tenor and bass. Ashe, Its tirbe 
 is narrower and its tone shriller than the common trumpet. Pardon, 
 
 CLARIONET, a wind instrument of the reed kind, invented by Joseph Denner, in 
 Nuremberg, about 1690, 
 
 CLASSIS. The name was first used by TuUius Servius (the sixth king of ancient Rome), 
 in making divisions of the Roman people, 573 B.C. The first of the six classes were called 
 classici, by way of eminence, and hence authors of the first rank (especially Greek and Latin) 
 came to be called classics, 
 
 CLAVICHORD, a musical instrument in the form of a spinnet (called also a manichord) ; 
 much in use in France, Spain, and Germany, in the 17th century. 
 
 CLEARING-HOUSE. In 1775, a building in Lombard-street was set apart for the use 
 of bankers, in which they might exchange cheques, bills, and securities, and thereby save 
 labour and curtail the amount of floating cash requisite to meet the settlement of the different 
 houses, if effected singly. By means of transfer tickets, transactions to the amount of 
 millions daily are settled without the intervention of a bank note. In 1861, the clearing- 
 house was used by 117 companies, and on May, 1864, it was joined by the Bank of England. 
 The raAlway cUarincj-house in Seymour-street, near Euston-square, is regulated by an act 
 passed in 1850. 
 
 CLEMENTINES, apocryphal pieces, attributed to Clemens Romanus, a contemporary of 
 St. Paul, and said to have succeeded St. Peter as bishop of Rome. He died 102. Niceron. 
 Also the decretals of pope Clement V. who died 13 14, published by his successor. Bowyer. 
 Also Augustine monks, each of whom having been a superior nine j'-ears, then merged into 
 a common monk. Clementines were the adherents of Robert, son of the coiint of Geneva, 
 who took the title of Clement VII. on the death of Gregory XL, 1378, and Uebanists, 
 those of pope Urban VI. All Christendom was divided by the claims of these two pontiffs : 
 France, Castile, Scotland, &c., adhering to Clement ; Rome, Italy, and England, declaring 
 for Urban. The schism ended in 1409, when Alexander V. was elected pope, and his rivals 
 resigned. See Anti-Popes. 
 
 CLEPSYDRA, a water- clock. ^&q OlocTcs. 
 
 CLERGY (from the Greek Jcleros, a lot or inheritance) in the first century were termed 
 presbyters, elders, or bishops, and deacons. The bishops [exnscopoi or overseers), elected from 
 the presbyters, in the second century assumed higher functions (about 330), and, under 
 Constantine, obtained the recognition and protection of the secular power. Under the Lombard 
 and Norman kings in the 7th and 8th centuries, the clergy began to possess temporal power, 
 as owners of lands : and after the establishment of monachism, a distinction was made 
 
CLE 184 OLI 
 
 between the regular clergy, who lived apart from the world, in accordance with a regula or 
 rule, and the secular (worldly) or beneficed clergy. See Church of England. * 
 
 CLERGY CHARITIES. The Clergymen's Widows' and Orphans' Corporation was 
 established in England, 1670, and iHeorporated 1678. William Assheton, an eminent theo- 
 logical writer, was the first proposer of a plan to provide for the families of deceased clergy. 
 Watts' s Life of Assheton. The festival of the "Sons of the Clergy," held annually at St. 
 Paul's cathedral, was instituted about 1655 ; the charity called the "Sons of the Clergy" 
 was incorporated July i, 1678. There are several other charities for the relatives of the 
 clergy. 
 
 ,. CLERICAL SUBSCRIPTION ACT, passed July, 1865. 
 
 CLERK. See ClergT/. 
 
 CLERKENWELL, a parish near London, so called from a well (fans clericorum) in Ray- 
 street, where the parish-clerks occasionally acted mystery-plays ; once before Richard II. iu 
 1390. Hunt's political meetings in 1817 were held in Spa-fields in this parish. In St. 
 John's parish are the remains of the prioiy of the knights of St. John of Jerusalem. 
 Clerkenwell prison was built in 1615, in lieu of the noted prison called the Cage, which was 
 taken down in 1614 ; the then Bridewell having been found insufiicient. The prison called 
 the House of Detention, erected in 1775, was rebuilt in 1818 ; again 1844. At Clerkenwell- 
 close formerly stood the house of Oliver Cromwell, where some suppose the death-warrant of 
 Charles I. was signed, Jan. 1649. 
 
 CLERMONT (France). Here was held the coimcil under pope Urban II. in 1095, in 
 which the first crusade against the infidels was determined npon, and Godfrey of Bouillon 
 appointed to command it. In this council the name of pope was first given to the head of 
 the Roman Catholic Church, exclusively of the bishops who used previously to assume the 
 title. Philip I. of France was (a second time) excommunicated by this assemblj'. HmauU. 
 
 CLEVES (N.E. Germany). Rutger, count of Cleves, lived at the beginning of the nth 
 century. Adolphus, count of Mark, was made duke of Cleves by the emperor Sigismund, 
 141 7. John William, duke of Cleves, Berg, Juliers, &c., died without issue, March 25, 1609, 
 which led to a war of succession. Eventually Cleves was assigned to the elector of Brandenburg 
 in 1666 ; seized by the French in 1757 j restored at the peace in 1763, and now forms part of 
 the Prussian dominions. 
 
 CLIFTON SUSPENSION-BRIDGE, over the Avon, connecting Gloucestershire and 
 Somersetshire, constructed of the removed Hungerford-bridge, was completed in Oct. 1864 ; 
 opened Dec. 8, 1864. It is said to have the largest span (702 feet) of any chain bridge in 
 the world. In 1753 alderman Vick of Bristol, bequeathed loooZ. to accumulate for the 
 erection of a bridge over the Avon. In 1831 Brunei began one which was abandoned, after 
 the exiDenditure of 45,000?. 
 
 CLIMACTERIC, the term applied to certain periods of time in a man's life (multiples of 
 • 7 or 9), in which it is affirmed notable alterations in the health and constitution of a person 
 happen, and expose hiin to imminent dangers. Cotgrave says, "Every 7th or 9th or 63rd 
 year of a man's life, all very dangerous, but the last most." The grand climacteric is 63. 
 Hippocrates is said to have referred to these periods iu 383 b.c. Much misemployed 
 erudition has been expended on this subject. 
 
 * The clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen after the Xorman custom from 
 the sacred order, and the officers being clergy : this gave them that denomination, which they keep to this 
 day. BlarkHone's Comm. " As the Druids," says Pasquier, " kept the keys of their religion and of letters, 
 so did the priests keep both these to themselves ; they alone made profession of letters, and a man of letters 
 was called a clerk, and hence learning went by the name of clerkship." The English clergy add " clerk" to 
 their name in legal documents.— In 992, the distinction began in France. Htnaidt.—T]ie Benefit or Clergy, 
 Privileyium Clerkale, arose in the regard paid by Christian princes to the church, and consisted of: ist, an 
 exemption of places consecrated to religious duties from criminal an-ests, which was the foundation of 
 sanct\iarics ; 2nd, exemption of the persons of clergjTiien from criminal process before the secular judge, 
 in particular cases, which was the original meaning of the privilegium clerkale. In the course of time, how- 
 ever, the bcnejil of clergy extended to every one who could read, which was thought a great proof of learn- 
 ing ; and it was enacted, that there should be a prerogative allowed to the clergy, that if any man who 
 could road were to be condemned to death, the bishop of the diocese might, if he would, claim him as a 
 clerk, and dispose of him in some places of the clergy as he might deem meet. The ordinary gave the 
 prisoner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a vei-se or two ; and if the 
 ordinary said, " Legit ut Clericus " (" He reads like a clerk "), the offender was only burnt in the hand ; 
 otherwise he suffered death, 3 Edw. I. (1274). This privilege was restricted by Henry VII. in 14S9, and 
 abolished, with respect to murderers and other great criminals, by Henry YIII., 1512. Stow. The reading 
 was discontinued by 5 Anne, c. 6 (1706). Benefit of clergy was wholly repealed by statute 7 & 8 Geo. IV. 
 c. 28 (1827). 
 
CLI 
 
 185 
 
 CLO 
 
 CLIO. The iaitials C. L. I. 0., forming the name of the muse of history, were rendered 
 famous from the most admired papers of Addison, in the Spectator, having been marked by 
 one or other of them, signed consecutively, in 1713. Gibber. 
 
 CLOACA MAXIMA, the chief of the celebrated sewers at Kome, the construction of 
 which is attributed to king Tarquinius Priscus (588 B.C.) and his successors. 
 
 CLOCK. The clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Kome about 158 b.c. by 
 Scipio JSTasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesibius, about 140 b. c. Said to 
 have been found by Csesar on invading Britain, 55 B.C. The only clock supposed to be then 
 in the world was sent by pope Paul I. to Pepin, king of France a.d. 760. Pacificus, arch- 
 deacon of Genoa, invented one in the 9th century. Originally the wheels were three feet in 
 diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record was made by 
 a Saracen mechanic in the thirteenth century. Alfred is said to have measured time by wax 
 tapers, and to have invented lanterns to defend them from the wind about 887. 
 
 The scapement ascribed to Gerbert . . . 1000 
 A great clock put up at Canterbury cathedral, 
 cost 30J. ........ 1292 
 
 A clock constructed by Richard, abbot of St. 
 
 Alban's, about 1326 
 
 John Visconte sets up a clock at Genoa . . 1353 
 A striking clock in Westminster . . . 1368 
 A perfect one made at Paris, by Vick . . . 1370 
 The first portable one made .... 1530 
 In England no clock went accurately before 
 that set up at Harupton-court (maker's 
 
 initials, N.O.) 1540 
 
 Eichard Harris (who erected a clock at St; 
 Paul's, Covent-garden) and the younger 
 GaUleo con.stl-ucted the pendulum . . 1641 
 Christian Huygens contested this discovery, 
 and made his pendulum clock some time pre- 
 viously to ■ ; 1658 
 
 PromantU, a Dutchman, improved the pendu- 
 
 lum, about 1659 
 
 Repeating clocks and watches invented by 
 
 Barlow, about 1676 
 
 The dead beat, and horizontal escapements, by 
 
 Graham, about . 1700 
 
 The spiral balance spring suggested, and the 
 
 duplex scapement, invented by Dr. Hooke ; 
 
 pivot holes jewelled by Facio ; the detached 
 
 scapement, invented by Mudge, and improved 
 
 by Berthould, Arnold, Earnshaw, and others 
 
 in the i8th century. 
 Harrison's time-piece (which see) constructed . 1735 
 Clocks and watches taxed, i^qy ; tax repealed 1798 
 The Horological Institute established . . 1858 
 The great Westminster clock set up . May 30, 1859 
 266,750 clocks and 88,621 watches imported into 
 
 the United Kingdom in 1857 > the duty came 
 
 off in 1861. 
 
 (See Electric Clock, under Electricity.) 
 
 CLOGHER (Ireland). St. Macartin, a disciple of St. Patrick, fixed a. bishopric at 
 Clogher, where he also built an abbey "in the street before the royal seat of the kings of 
 Ergal." He died in 506. Clogher takes- its name from a golden stone, from which, in times 
 of paganism, the devil used to pronounce juggling answers, like the oracles of ^j7o?^o PytMus. 
 Sir James Ware. In 1041 the cathedral was built anew and dedicated to its founder. 
 Clogher merged, on the death of its last prelate (Dr. Tottenham), into the archiepiscopal see 
 of Armagh, by the act of 1834. 
 
 CLONFERT (Ireland). St. Brendan founded an abbey at Clonfert in 558 : his life is 
 extant in jingling monkish metre in the Cottonian library at Westminster. In his time the 
 cathedral, famous in ancient days for its seven altars, was erected ; and Colgan makes St. 
 Brendan its founder and the first bishop ; but it is said in the Ulster Annals, under the 
 year 571, " Mcena, bishop of Clonfert-Brenain, went to rest." Clonfert, in Irish, signifies a 
 wonderful den or retirement. In 1839 the see merged into that of Killaloe. See Bishops. 
 
 CLONTARF (near Dublin), the site of a battle fought on Good Friday, April 23, 1014, 
 between the Irish and Danes, the former headed by Bryan Boroimhe, monarch of Ireland, 
 who signally defeated the invaders, after a long and bloody engagement, but was wounded, 
 and soon afterwards died. His son Murchard also fell with many of the nobility ; ii,ocx) of 
 the Danes are said to have perished in the battle. 
 
 CLOSTERSEVEN (Hanover), Convention of, was entered into Sept. 8, 1757, between 
 the duke of Cumberland, third son of George II., and the duke of Richelieu, commander of 
 the French armies. By its humiliating stipulations, 38,000 Hanoverians laid down their 
 arms, and were dispersed. The duke immediately afterwards resigned all his military 
 commands. The convention was soon broken by both parties. 
 
 CLOTH. See Woollen Cloth and Calico. 
 
 CLOUD, St., a palace, near Paris, named from prince Clodoald or Cloud, who became a 
 monk there in 533, after the murder of his brothers, and died in 560. The palace was built 
 in the i6tli century, and in it Henry II. was assassinated by Clement in 1589. 
 
 CLOUDS consist of minute particles of water, often in a frozen state, floating in the air. 
 In 1803 Mr. Luke Howard published his classification of clouds, now generally adopted, 
 consisting of three primary forms — cirrus, cumulus, and stratus ; three compounds of these 
 
CLO 
 
 186 
 
 COA 
 
 forms ; and the nimbus or black rain-clouds (cumulo- cirro-stratus). A new edition of 
 Howard's Essay on the Clouds appeared in 1865. 
 
 CLOVESHOO (now Cliff), Kent. Here was held an important council of nobility and 
 clergy concerning the government and discipline of the church, Sept. 747 ; and others were 
 held here 800, 803, 822, 824. 
 
 CLOYNE (S. Ireland), a bisliopric, founded in the 6th century by St. Coleman, in 
 143 1 united to that of Cork, and so continued for 200 years. It was united with that of 
 Cork and Koss, 1834. Sec Bislw^is. 
 
 CLUBMEN, associations formed in the southern and western counties of England, to 
 restrain the excesses of the armies during the civil wars, 1642-9. They professed neutrality, 
 tut inclined towai'ds the king, and were considered enemies by his opponents. 
 
 CLUBS, originally consisted of a small number of persons of kindred tastes and pursuits, 
 who met together at stated times for social intercourse. The club at the Mermaid tavern, 
 established about the end of the i6th century, consisted of Ealeigh, Shakspeare, and 
 others. Ben Jonson set up a club at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, fre- 
 quently met at Button's coffee-house, as described in the SjKclator. The present London 
 clubs, some comprising 300, others about 1500 members, possess luxuriously furnished 
 edifices, several of great architectural pretensions, in or near Pall Mall. The members 
 obtain the choicest viands and wines at veiy moderate charges. Many of the clubs possess 
 excellent libraries, particularly the Athenfeum {which see). The annual payment varies from 
 61. to 11^. 115. ; the entrance fee from gl. gs. to 31Z. lis. The following are the principal 
 clubs : — 
 
 Kit-Cut (whiih see) . , . 1703 
 Beef-Steak (which see) . . 1735 
 White's (ror?/), established . 1736 
 
 Boodle's 1762 
 
 Literary Club (uhich see), 
 termed also " The Club," 
 and Johnson's Club . . 1763 
 Brooke's ( IFAis) • • • 1764 
 
 Alfred 1808 
 
 Guards' . . . May i, 1810 
 Arthur's . . . . .1811 
 Eoxburgho, London . . .1812 
 
 United Service , . .1815 
 
 Travellers' 1819 
 
 Union 1821 
 
 United University . . . 1822 
 Bannatyne, Edinburgh . . 1823 
 Athenfeum (which see) . . 1824 
 
 Oriental ,, 
 
 United Service (Junior) . 1827 
 Wyndham . . . . . 1828 
 Maitland, Glasgow . . . ,, 
 Oxford and Cambridge . . 1829 
 Carlton (Conservative) . . 1832 
 
 Abbotsford, Edinburgh . . 1835 
 Reform (Liberal) . . . 1836 
 Parthenon . . . . ,, 
 Army and Navy . . . 1837 
 Etching, London . . . 1838 
 Spalding, Aberdeen . . . 1839 
 Consei-vative .... 1840 
 Whittington (founded by 
 Douglas Jerrold and others) 1846 
 
 See Working Men's Clubs. 
 
 CLUBS, French. The first of these arose aboiit 1782. They were essentially political, 
 and were greatly concerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became the celebrated Club 
 cles Jacobins, and the Ch(b des Cordeliers comprised among its members Danton and Camille 
 Desmoulins. From these two clubs came the Mountain party which overthrew the Giron- 
 dists in 1793, and fell in its turu in 1794. The clubs disappeared with the Directory in 
 1799. They were revived in 1848 in considerable numbers, but did not attain to their 
 former eminence, and were suppressed by decrees, in June 22, 1849, and June 6, 1850. 
 £cniillet. 
 
 CLUB-FOOT, a defonnity produced by the shortening of one or more of the muscles, 
 although attempted to be cured by Lorenz in 1784, by cutting the tendo Achillis, was not 
 effectually cured till 1831, when Stromeyer of Erlangen cured Dr. Little by dividing the 
 tendons of the contracted muscles with a very thin knife. Judicious after-treatment is 
 required. 
 
 CLUGNY, OR Cluny, Abbey of, in France, formerly most magnificent, founded bj'' 
 Benedictines, under the abbot Bern, about 910, and sustained afterwards by William, duke 
 of Berry and Aquitaine. English foundations for Cluniac monks were instituted soon after. 
 
 CLYDE AND FORTH Wall was built by Agi-icola 84. The Forth and Clyde Canal 
 was commenced by Mr. Smeaton, July 10, 1768, and was opened July 28, 1790. It forms a 
 communication between the seas on the eastern and western coasts of Scotland. 
 
 CNIDUS, in Caria, Asia Minor ; near here Conon the Athenian defeated the Lacede- 
 monian iieet, under Peisander, 394 B. c. 
 
 COACH (from couchcr, to lie). Beckmann states that Charles of Anjou's queen entered 
 Naples in a carcita (about 1282). Under Francis I. there were but two in Paris, one 
 belonging to the queen, the other to Diana, the natural daughter of Henry II. There were 
 but three in Paris in 1550 ; and Henry IV. had one without straps or sj>rings. John de 
 Laval de Bois-Dauphin set up a coach on account of his enormous bulk. The first coach 
 seen in England was about 1553. Coaches were introduced by Fitz- Allen, earl of Arundel, 
 
COA 
 
 187 
 
 COA 
 
 in 1580. Stoio. A bill was brought into parliament to prevent the effeminacy of men 
 riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* Carte. Kepealed 1625. The coach-tax commenced in 
 1747. Horace Walpole says that the present royal state coach (first used Nov. 16, 1762) 
 cost 7528?. See Car, Carriages, Chariots, Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. 
 
 COAL.f It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coal, a,lthough not mentioned 
 by the Eomans in their notices of Britain, Avas yet in use by the ancient Britons. Brandt. 
 Henry III. is said to have granted a licence to dig coals near Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1234,- 
 some say earlier, and others in 1239. Sea-coal was prohibited from being used in and near 
 London, as being "prejudicial to human health ; " and even smiths wore obliged to burn 
 wood, 1273. Stow. In 1306 the gentry petitioned against its us% Coal was first made an 
 article of trade from ISTewcastle to London, 4 Eich. II. 1381. Mymc7-'s Fcedera. JSTotwith- 
 standing the many previous complaints against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length 
 generally burned in Loudon in 1400 ; but it was not in common use in England until the 
 reign of Charles I. 1625. 
 
 1700 
 1750 
 
 COAL. CONSUMED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 
 
 . 317,000 chald. 1810 . . . ,980,372 chald. | 1835 . . . 2,299,816 tons.- 
 
 . . 510,000 ditto. 1820. . . . 1,171,178 ditto. 1840 . . . . 2,638,256 ditto. 
 
 . 814,000 ditto. 1830 . . . 1,588,360 ditto. I 1850 . . . 3,638,883 ditto. 
 
 i860. — Coal brought to London, 3,573,377 tons coast ways; 1,499,899 tons by railways and canals. 
 1861. — ,, „ ,, 5,232,082 tons; in 1862, 4,973,823 tons. 
 
 The coal-fields of Great Britain are estimated at 
 S400 square miles ; of Durham and Northum- 
 berland, 723 square miles. Bakewell. In 
 1857 about 655 milUons of tons were ex- 
 ti-acted (value about 16,348,676?.) from 2095 
 collieries ; about 25 millions are consumed 
 annually in Great Britain. 
 
 Coal obtained in Great Britain and Ireland : — 
 In 1861, 86,417,941 tons; in 1862, 81,638,338 
 tons ; in 1S63, 86,292,215 tons (valued at 
 51,000,000?.); in 1864 (from 3268 collieries), 
 92,787,873 tons. 
 
 Mr. SoiJwith, in 1855, computed the annual 
 product of the coal-mines of Durham and 
 Northumberland at 14 million tons : — 6 mil- 
 hons for London, 2^ niillions exported, 2-^ 
 millions for coke, i milKon for colliery en- 
 gines, (fee, and 2 millions for local consump- 
 tion. 
 
 By a stipulation in the commercial treaty ot 
 i860, in consequence of the French govern- 
 ment greatly reducing the duty on imported 
 coal, the British government (it is thought 
 by many imprudently) engaged to lay no 
 duty on exported coal for ten years. In 1859 
 about 7,000,000 tons of British coals were 
 exported, of which 1,391,009 tons went to 
 France. 
 
 The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in 
 Dublin from Newry ..... 
 
 Sale of Coal flegalation Act 
 
 The duties on the exportation of British coal, 
 which had existed since the 16th century, 
 were practically repealed 
 
 Sir R. Peel imposed a duty of 4s. a ton in 1S42 ; 
 caused much dissatisfaction ; repealed . 
 
 Women were prohibited from working in Eng- 
 Ush collieries in 
 
 The consumption of coal in France, in 1780 only 
 
 400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in 1845. 
 
 The United States produced between 8 and 9 
 
 miUions of tons ; Belgium, 5,000,000; and 
 
 France, 4,500,000, in . . . ^ . 
 
 1742 
 1831 
 
 1834 
 1845 
 1842 
 
 185s 
 
 An act for the regulation and inspection of 
 mines was passed in iggg 
 
 Coal-pitmen's strikes frequently occur ; a long 
 and severe one arose in Staffordshire in ° 1864 
 
 Accidents.— About 1000 lives are lost annually by 
 accidents ui coal-mines. 
 
 In 1858, by explosions in coal-mines, 52 persons 
 perished at Bardsley ; 20 at Duffrjn, near Newport ; 
 52 at Tyldesley, near Leeds ; and about 36 in different 
 parts of the country. 
 
 On April 5, 1859, 26 lives were lost at the chain 
 coUiery, near Neath, through the irruption of water. 
 
 In 1S60, 76 lives were lost on March 2, at Burra- 
 don, near Killingworth ; 145 at the Eiscamino, near 
 Newport, Dec. i ; and 22 at the Hetton mine, North- 
 umberland, Dec. 20. 
 
 On June n, 1861, 21 lives were lost through an 
 inundation in the Claycross mines, Derbyshire. 
 
 In 1862, 47 lives were lost at Cethin mine, Merthyr 
 TydviU, S. Wales, Feb. 19; at Walker, near New- 
 castle- on-Tyne, 15 lives lost, Nov. 22 ; Edmund's 
 Main, near Barnsley, 60 hves lost, Dec. 8. 
 
 In 1863, 13 lives lost atCoxbridge, near Newcastle, 
 March 6 ; 39 lives lost at Margam, S. Wales, Oct. 17 ; 
 14 lives lost at Moestig, S. Wales, Dec. 26. 
 
 In 1865, 6 hves lost at Claycross, May 3; 24 at 
 New Bedwelty pit, near Tredegar, June 16. 
 
 (For still more fatal accidents, see LundUll and 
 Hartley.) 
 
 85 lives were lost at LaUe coal-mine, in France, in 
 Oct. 1861. 
 
 Coal Exchange, London, established by 47 
 Geo. III. c. 68 (1807). The present building 
 (a most interesting structure) was erected by 
 Mr. J. B. Bunning, and opened by prince 
 Albert Oct. 30, 1849 
 
 CoAL-WHiPPEEs' Board, to protect the men 
 employed in unloading coal-vessels from pub- 
 licans, formed by an act of parliament in 
 1843, lasted till 1856, when the coal-owners 
 themselves established a whipping-oflace. 
 
 * In the beginning of the year 1619, the earl of Northumberland, who had been imprisoned ever since 
 the gunpowder plot, obtained his liberation. Hearing that Buckingham was drawn about with six horses 
 in his coach (being the first that was so), the earl put on eight to his, and in that manner passed from the 
 Tower through the city. Rapin. 
 
 t There are five kinds of fossil fuel : anthracite, coal, lignite, bituminous shale, and bitumen. No satis- 
 factory definition of coal has yet been given. The composition of wood is 49'i carbon, 6'3 hydro^^en, 44-6 
 oxygen ; oicoal 82 '6 carbon, 5 '6 hydrogen, 11 '8 oxygen. 
 
COA 
 
 188 
 
 COG 
 
 COALITIONS AGAINST France generally arose through England subsidising the great 
 powers of the continent. They were entered into as follows : — 
 
 Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain . 
 Great Britain, Germany, Russia, Naples, Por- 
 ' tugal, and Turkey, signed . . June 22, 
 Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Naples, 
 
 Aug. 5, 
 
 Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony, 
 
 Oct. 6, i8o6 
 England and Austria . . . April 6, 1809 
 
 Russia and Prussia; the treaty ratified at 
 
 Kalisch March 17, 1813 
 
 See Ti-eatiet. 
 
 COALITION MINISTRY. See Portland. 
 
 COAST GUARD. In 1856, the raising and governing this body was transferred to the 
 admiralty. A coast brigade of artillery was established in Nov, 1859. 
 
 COAST VOLUNTEERS. See under Navy of England. 
 
 COBALT, a rare mineral found among the veins of ores, or in the fissures of stone, at an 
 early date, in the mines of Cornwall, where the workmen call it mundic. Hill. It was 
 distinguished as a metal by Brandt, in 1733. 
 
 COBURG. See Saxc-Coburg. 
 
 COCCEIANS, a small sect founded by John Cocceius, of Bremen, about 1665, who held, 
 amongst other opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world, after a general 
 conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian faith. 
 
 COCHIN (India), held by the Portuguese, 1503 ; by the Dutch, 1663 ; taken by the 
 British, 1735 ; ceded to them 1814. 
 
 COCHIN CHINA on ANAM, wMcJi see. 
 
 COCHINEAL INSECT (Cocctis cacti), derives its colour from feeding on the cactus, and 
 became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of Mexico in 15 18. Cochineal 
 was brought to Europe about 1523, but was not known in Italy in 1548, although the art of 
 dyeing then flourished there. In 1858 it was cultivated successfully in Teneriffe, the 
 vines having failed through disease. 260,000 lbs. of cochineal were impoi-ted into England 
 in 1830 ; 1,081,776 lbs. in 1845 ; 2,360,000 lbs. in 1850 ; and 3,034,976 lbs. in 1859. Duty 
 repealed 1845. 
 
 COCKER'S ARITHMETIC, The work edited by John Hawkins, first appeared in 1677. 
 
 COCK-FIGHTING, practised by the Gi-eeks. It was introduced at Rome after a victory 
 over the Persians, 476 B.C. ; and was brought by the Romans into England. William Fitz- 
 Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sjiort of school-boys on 
 Shrove-Tuesday. It was prohibited by Edward III. 1365 ; by Henry VIII. ; and by 
 Cromwell, 1653. Part of the site of Drmy-lane theatre was a cock-pit in the reign of James 
 I. ; and the cock-pit at Whitehall was erected by Charles II. Till within these few years 
 there was a Cock-jnt Royal in St. James's Park ; but the governors of Christ's Hospital would 
 not renew the lease for a building devoted to cruelty.* Cock-fighting is now forbidden 
 by law. 
 
 COCK-LANE GHOST, an imposition practised by William Parsons, his wife, and 
 daughter, by means of a female ventriloquist, during 1760 and 1761, carried on at No. 
 33, Cock-lane, London, was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the 
 pillory and imprisonment, July 10, 1762, 
 
 COCOA, OR Cacao, the kernel or seed of the tree Thcohroma cacao (Linn.), was introduced 
 into this coimtry shortly after the discovery of Mexico, where it forms an important article 
 of diet. From cocoa is produced chocolate. The cocoa imported into the United Kingdom, 
 chiefly from the British West Indies and Guiana, was in 1849, 1,989,477 lbs. ; in 1851, 
 4,349,051 lbs.; in 1855, 7,343.458 3bs. ; in 1859, 6,006,759 lbs'. ; iu 1861, 9,080,288 lbs.; 
 in 1864, 7,920,912 lbs., about half for home consumption. • 
 
 * Mr. Ardesoif, a gentleman of large fortune and gi-eat hospitality, who was almost unrivalled in the 
 splendour of his eqxiipages, had a favourite cock, upon which he had won many pi-ofitable matches. The 
 last wager he laid upon this cock he lost, which so enraged him, that in a fit of passion he thrust the bird 
 into the fire. A delirious fever, the result of his rage and inebriety, in three days put an end to his life. 
 He died at Tottenham, near London, April 4, 178S. — On April 22, 1865, 34 persons were fined at Marl- 
 borough-street police-office, for being present at a cock-fight. 
 
coo 
 
 189 
 
 COH 
 
 COCOA-NUT TREE {Cocos nucifera, Linn.), supplies the Indians with almost all they 
 need, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, hrandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, clothes, 
 thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, cordage, nails, covering 
 for their houses, &c. Ray. In Sept. 1829, Mr. Soames patented his mode of procuring 
 stearine and elaine from cocoa-nut oil. It is said that 32 tons of candles have been made in 
 a month from these materials at the Belmont works, Lambeth, 
 
 CODES, see Lmvs. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 
 66 B.C. ; and Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 B.C. The Gregorian 
 and Hermoginian codes were published a.d. 290 ; the Theodosian code in 438 ; the celebrated 
 code of the emperor Justinian, in 529— a digest from this last was made in 533. Alfred's 
 code of laws is the foundation of the common law of England, 887. The Code Napoleon, 
 the civil code of France, was promulgated from 1803 to 1810. The emperor considered it 
 his most enduring monument. It was prepared under his supervision by the most eminent 
 jurists, from the 400 systems previously existing. It has been adopted by other countries. 
 
 CODFISH. ^QQ Holland, 1347. 
 
 COD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a remedy for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival 
 in 1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1838. De Jongh's treatise on cod-liver oil was 
 published in Latin in 1844 ; in English in 1849. 
 
 CCEUR DE LION, OR THE Lion-Heaeted, a surname given to Richard I. of England, 
 on accoimt of his courage about 1192 ; and also to Louis VIII. of France, who signalised 
 himseK in the crusades, and in his wars against England, about 1223. 
 
 COFFEE. The tree was conveyed from Mocha in Arabia to Holland about 1616 ; and 
 carried to the "West Indies in 1726, First cultivated at Surinam by the Dutch, 1718. The 
 cultm-e was encouraged in the plantations about 1732, and the British and French colonies 
 now grow the coffee-tree abundantly. Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians. It 
 came into great repute in Arabia Felix, about 1454 ; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, 
 and thence (in 1511) to Constantinople, where a coffee-house was opened in 1551. M. 
 Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into France, to which country he returned 
 after an absence of seven years, in 1662. Chambers. 
 
 Coffee was brought into England by Mr. Natha- 
 niel Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his 
 common beverage at Balliol college, Oxford, 
 in 1641. Anderson. 
 
 The quantity of coffee imported into these 
 realms and entered for home consumption in 
 1843 was 29,,97g,404fts. ; in 1850, 31,166,358 
 lbs. ; in 1857, 34,367,484 lbs. ; in 1859, 
 34,492,947 lbs. ; in i860, 35,674,381 lbs. (duty 
 3d. per lb. raw coffee; i\d. roasted.) Total 
 imported in 1861, 83,532,525^)8.; in 1863, 
 117,354,217 lbs. ; in 1864, 109,370,213 lbs. 
 
 The first. coft'ee-house in England was kept by 
 a Jew, named Jacobs, in Oxford . 
 
 1650 
 
 Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, 
 brought home with him a Greek servant, 
 named Pasquet, who opened the first coffee- 
 house in London, in George-yard, Lorabard- 
 street 1652 
 
 Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened 
 the first house in that country. Andenson. 
 
 The Eainbow coffee-house, near Temple-bar, was 
 represented as a nuisance to the neighbour- 
 hood 1657 
 
 Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation 
 in 1675 ; but the order was revoked in 1676, 
 on the petition of the traders in tea and 
 coffee. 
 
 COFFERER of the Hotjsehold, formerly an officer of state, and a member of the 
 privy council, who had special charge of the other officers of the household. Sir Henry 
 Cocks was cofferer to queen Elizabeth. Some of the highest statesmen filled the office up to 
 1782, when it Was suppressed by act of parliament, and the duties of it ordered to be dis- 
 charged by the .lord steward and the paymaster of the household, Beatson. 
 
 COFFINS. Athenian heroes were bmied in coffins of cedar ; owing to its aromatic and 
 incorruptible qualities. Thucydides. Coffins of marble and stone were used by the Romans, 
 Alexander is said to have been buried in one of gold ; and glass coffins have been foimd in 
 England. Gough. The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us is that of the burial of 
 king Arthur in an entire trunk of oak hollowed, a.d. 542, ■ Asser. Patent coffins were 
 invented in 1796. Air-tight metallic coffins were advertised at Birmingham in 1861. 
 
 COHORT. A division of -the Roman army consisting of about 600 men. It was the 
 sixth part of a legion, and its number, consequently, was under the same' fludtuation as that 
 of the legiouSr being sometimes more and sometimes less. The cohort was divided into 
 centuries'. In the time of the empire the cohort often amounted to a thousand -men. 
 
COI 
 
 190 
 
 COI 
 
 COIF. The Serjeant's coif was originall}' an iron skull-cap, worn by knights under their 
 helmets. The coif was introduced before 1259, and was used to hide the tonsure of such 
 renegade clergymen as chose to remain advocates in the secular courts, notwithstanding 
 their prohibition by canon. Blackstone. The coif was at first a thin linen cover gathered 
 together in the form of a skull or helmet, the material being afterwards changed into white 
 silk, and the form eventually into the black patch at the top of the forensic wig, which is 
 now the distinguishing mark of the degree of serjeant-at-law, Foss's Lives of the Jiulgei. 
 
 COIMBRA was made the capital of Portugal by Alfonso, the first king, 1139. The only 
 Portuguese university was transferred from Lisbon to Coimbra in 1308 ; but only and finally 
 settled in 1527. In a convent here, Alfonso IV. caused Inez de Castro, at first mistress and 
 aftei-wards wife of his sou Pedro, to be cruelly murdered in 1355. 
 
 COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 B.C. The invention of coin is 
 ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and wdiose money was of gold and silver. 
 Both were coined by Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, 862 B.C. Money was coined at Rome under 
 Servius Tullius, about 573 B.C. The most ancient known coins are Macedonian of the fifth 
 century B.C. ; but others are believed to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at 
 Rome previously to 269 B.C. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a proof that little correspon- 
 dence was then held with the east, where gold and silver were in use long before. Gold was 
 coined 206 B.C. Iron money was used in Sparta, and iron and tin in Britain. Dufrcsnoy. 
 Julius Cffisar M-as the first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his 
 portrait on the coins, and the examjde was soon followed. In the earlier days of Rome the 
 heads were those of deities, or of those who had received divine honours. The gold and 
 silver coinage in the -world is about 250,000,000^. sUver, and 150,000,000?. gold. Times, 
 June 25, 1852. See Gold, Silver, and Co232}er. 
 
 COIN OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The first coin.ige in Eugland was under tlic 
 Romans at Camalodunmn, or Colchester. 
 
 ■ English coin was of different shapes, as 
 square, oblong, and round, until the middle 
 ages, when round coin only was used. 
 
 Coin was made .sterling in 1216, before which 
 time rents were mostly paid in kind, and 
 money was fovmd only in the coffers of the 
 Isarons. Stow. 
 
 Queen Elizabeth caused the hase coin to be re- 
 called and genuine issued in 1560. During - 
 the reigns of the Stuarts the coinage was 
 greatly debased by clipping, &c. 
 
 A commission (lord Somers, sir Isaac Newton, 
 and John Locke) was appointed by ^Villiam 
 III. to reform the coinage, an act was 
 passed, withdrawing the debased coin from 
 circulation, and 1,200.000/. was raised by a 
 house duty to defray the expense . . 1696 
 
 English and Irish money were assimilated 
 
 Jan. I, 1826 
 
 The coin of the realm was valued at about 
 12,000,000!. in 171 1. Davenanf. At 16,000,000?. 
 in 1762. Anderson. It was 20,000,000?. in 
 1786. Chalmers. 37,000,000?. in 1800. Phil- 
 lips. The gold is 28,000,000?., and the rest 
 of the metallic currency is 13,000,000?., while 
 paiaer largely supplies the place of coin. 
 Duke of Wellitiglon, 1S30. The metallic cur- 
 rency calculated as reaching 45,000,000?., 
 1840; and was estimated as approaching 
 in gold and silver 60,000,000?. . . . . 1853 
 
 Napier's coin-weighing machine at the bank of 
 England was constructed in . . . . 1844 
 
 The law respecting coinage offences was con- 
 soUdated in 1861 
 
 The first gold coins on certain record, struck 
 42 Hen. HI 
 
 Gold florin first struck, Edw. III. (Ca.mden) 
 
 He introduced gold 6s. pieces, and nobles of 
 6s. 8'-?. (hence the lawyer's fee), afterwards 
 half and quarter nobles. 
 
 Old sovereigns first minted .... 
 
 Shillings first coined (Dr. Kell>/) . . . . 
 
 Edw. IV. coined angels with a figure of Michael 
 and the dragon, the original of George and 
 the dragon. 
 
 Hen. yill. coined sovereigns and half-sove- 
 reigns of the modern value. 
 
 Crowns and half-crowns coined 
 
 Irish shilling strack 
 
 Milled shilling of Elizabeth .... 
 
 First large copper coinage, putting an end to 
 the circulation of private leaden pieces, &c. , 
 
 Modern miUing introduced 
 
 Halfpence and farthings coined 
 
 By the government, 23 Car. II 
 
 Guineas first coined, 25 Car. II. 
 
 Double guineas 
 
 Five guineas 
 
 Half-guineas 
 
 Quarter-guineas coined, 3 Geo. I. . . . 
 
 Seven-shilling pieces coined 
 
 Two-penny copper pieces 
 
 Gold 78-pieces authorised . . Nov. 29, 
 
 Sovereigns, new coinage 
 
 Half-farthings 
 
 Silver florin 
 
 Bronze coinage issued .... Dec. r, 
 
 1257 
 1337 
 
 1494 
 1503 
 
 1553 
 1560 
 1562 
 
 1620 
 1631 
 1665 
 1672 
 1673 
 
 1 716 
 1797 
 
 1817 
 1843 
 
 i860 
 
 AMOrNT OF MONET COINED IN THE FOLLOWING EEIGNS : — 
 
 Elizabeth 
 James 1. . 
 Charles I. 
 Cromwell 
 
 £5,832,000 
 2,500,000 
 
 10,500,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 Charles II. . 
 James II. 
 Wilham III. 
 Anne 
 
 £7,524,100 
 3,740,000 
 
 10,511,900 
 2,691,626 
 
 George I. 
 George II. 
 George III. 
 George IV. 
 
 £8,725,920 
 11,966,576 
 74,501,586 
 41,782,815 
 
COI 191 COL 
 
 COIN, continued. 
 
 William IV. . . £10,827,603 
 Victoria, from 1837 to 1848, gold, 
 29,886,457^. ; silver, 2,440,614?. ; 
 copper, 43,743?. 1848-1852, gold, 
 silver, and copper, 19,838,377?. 
 Coined in 1859, 1,547,603 sove- 
 reigns, and 2,203,813 half sove- 
 
 reigns. 
 
 Value of ten years (1849-59) gold 
 coinage . . . 54,490,265?. 
 
 Coined from July i, 1854, to Dec. 
 31, i860; gold, 27,632,039?. ; sil- 
 ver, 2,432,116?. 
 
 Coined in 1861 : gold, 8,053,069?. ; 
 
 silver, 209,484?.; bronze, 273,578?, 
 13s. 4d. (No crowns, half-crowns, 
 or four-penny pieces coined.) 
 Coined in 1862 : gold pieces, 
 7,836,413; silver pieces, 4,035,412; 
 iironze pieces, 4,125,977,600. 
 
 COINHSTG. Originally performed by the metal being placed between two steel dies, 
 struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill, invented by Antonie Brucher, -was introduced into 
 England, 1562. An engine was invented by Balancier, 16 17. Great improvements were 
 effected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 1788. The erection of the Mint machinery, London, 
 beganiSii. 
 
 COLCHESTER (Essex), Camalodunum, a Eoman station, supposed to be the birthj^lace 
 of Constantine the Great; obtained its first charter from Richard I. in 1189. Its sixteen 
 churches and all its- buildings sustained great damage at the ten weeks' siege, 1648. Two of 
 its defenders, sir George Lisle and sir Charles Lisle, were tried and shot after surrendering. 
 The baize manufacture was established here, 1660. Anderson. The railway to London was 
 opened in 1843. 
 
 COLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the same perceptions on the 
 skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, the sensation is the same as 
 touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost in 1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Peters- 
 burg. Greig. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow, Jan. 13, 1810. Perhaps the coldest 
 day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796, when the thermometer was 16° below zero. 
 On Jan. 3, 1854, the thermometer marked 4° below zero ; and on Dec. 25, i860, it fell in 
 some places to 18° and in others to 15° below zero ; at Torquay, Devon, 20° below zero. 
 Erom Dec. 23 to 30 the cold was- excessive. See Frosts, Ice, Congelatmij and Begelation. 
 
 COLDIlSrGHAM, near Berwick, is celebrated for the heroism of its nuns, who, on the 
 attack of the Danes, in order to preserve their chastity, cut off their noses and lips. The 
 Danes burnt the whole sisterhood, with the abbess Ebba, in their monasterj^, 875. 
 
 COLDSTREAM GUARDS. General Monk, before marching from Scotland into England 
 to restore Chaides II., raised this regiment in the town of Coldstream, 1660. The town is 
 situated at the confluence of the Leet with the Tweed. 
 
 COLENSO CONTROYERSY. See Chitrch of JSngland, 1S62, 
 
 COLIK SeeEoU7i. ■ ' 
 
 COLISEUM, OE Colosseum, at Rome, an elliptical amphitheatre, of which the external 
 diameter is 1641 Italian feet, is supposed to have been able to contain 80,000 spectators of 
 the fights with wild beasts, and other sports in the arena. It was erected between 75 (some 
 say 77) and 80, by the emperors Yespasian and Titus, at an expense sufficient to have built 
 a metropolis. Its remains are still very imposing. 
 
 COLLAR, generally a gold enamelled chain with ciphers and other devices, having the 
 badge of some order suspended at the bottom. The collar of the order of the Garter consists- 
 of SS., with roses enamelled red, within a garter enamelled blue, 1349-50. The fashion of 
 ■wearing the collar of SS., in honour of St. Simplicius, began about 1407. One was given to 
 the mayor of Dublin, RolDert Deey, by Charles II., 1660. A second was presented as a royal 
 donation to the chief magistrate of Dublin, the former one having been lost. 
 
 COLLECTS are short prayers introduced into the Roman mass by pope Gelasius, about 
 493, and into the English Liturgy in 1548. The king of England coming into Kormandy, 
 appointed a collect for the relief of the Holy Land, 1166. Rapin. 
 
 COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which were muni- 
 ficent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of living at lodging-houses and 
 at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said to have been first conferred at the univer- 
 sity of Paris, 1140 ; but some authorities say not before 12 15. In England, it is contended 
 that the date is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a decree formerly at Cam- 
 bridge, and John de Beverley at -Oxford, that they were the first docf;ors of these universities. 
 See Cambridge, Oxford, AUrdeen, Queen's Colleges, Working Men's Colleges, &c. 
 
COL 
 
 192 
 
 COL 
 
 COLLEGES, continued. 
 
 Founded A. D. 
 Addiscombe Jlilitary College 1809 
 Binninglitim, Queen's College 1853 
 Cheshunt College . . . 1792 
 Doctors' Commons, civil law 1670 
 Dulwich College . . . 1619 
 Durham University . . 1837 
 Edinbvn-gh University . . 1580 
 Eton College .... 1441 
 Glasgow University . . . 1451 
 Gresham College . . . 1581 
 
 Harrow 1585 
 
 Haleybury, or East India 
 
 College . 1806; closed, 1858 
 Highbury College 
 Highgate 
 
 King's College, London 
 Maynooth College . 
 JliUtary College, Sandhurst . 1799 
 Naval College, Portsmouth . 1722 
 New College, St. John's Wood 1850 
 Physicians, London . . 1523 
 
 1564 
 1829 
 
 1795 
 
 Physicians, Dublin . . . 1667 
 
 Physicians, Edinburgh . . 1681 
 
 St. Andrew's, Scotland . . 1410 
 
 Sion College, incorjwrated . 1630 
 
 Surgeons, London . . 174s 
 
 Surgeons, re-incorporated . 1800 
 
 Surgeons, Dublin . . . 1786 
 
 Surgeons, Edinburgh (new) . 1803 
 
 Trinity College, Dublin . .1591 
 
 University, London . . 1826 
 
 Winchester College . . . 1387 
 
 COLLIERY ACCIDENTS. See under Coal. 
 
 COLLODION, a film obtained from the solution of gim-cotton in ether. The iodised 
 collodion extensively employed in photography, was discovered by Mr. F. Scott Archer, and 
 announced in the " Chemist," in March, 1851. On the premature death of himself and wife, 
 a pension of $ol. per annum was gi-anted by government to his three orphan children. 
 
 COLOGNE {Colonia Agripinna), on the Rhine, the site of a colony founded by the 
 empress Agiippina, about 50 ; became a member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews 
 were expelled from it in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, and it then fell into decay. 
 Cologne was taken by the French, under Jom'dan, Oct. 6, 1 794. In the cathedral are shown 
 the heads of the thi'ee Magi ; and in the church of St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint, and 
 bones said to be those of 11,000 virgins put to death with her. The archbishopric was 
 secularised in 1801, and Cologne was made over to Prussia in 1814. The building of the 
 cathedral, begun in 1248, and suspended in consequence of the Reformation, was vigorously 
 continued by king Frederick William IV. since 1842. An international industrial exhibi- 
 tion was opened at Cologne by the crown prince, June 2, 1865. 
 
 COLOMBIA, a republic of S. America, formed of states which declared their independence 
 of the crown of Spain, Dec. 1819, but its several chiefs afterwards contending against each 
 other, the states became a prey to civil war, and the union was dissolved. 
 
 Union of New Grenada and Venezuela, Dec. 17, 1819 
 
 The Royalists defeated at Carabobo . June 24, 1821 
 
 Bolivar named dictator . . . Feb. 10, 1824 
 AUiance between Colombia and Mexico 
 
 June 30, ,, 
 
 Alliance with Guatemala . . March, 1825 
 
 Congress at Lima names BoUvar president of 
 
 the republic ..... Aug. 1826 
 
 BoUvai-'s return to Bogota . . . Nov. „ 
 
 He assumes the dictatorship . . Nov. 23, 1826 
 Padilla's insurrection . . . April 9, 1828 
 
 Conspiracy of Santander against the Ufa of 
 
 Bolivar Sept. 23, ,, 
 
 Venezuela separates from Grenada . Nov. 1829 
 Bolivar resigns the office of president^ April 4 ; 
 
 and dies Dec. 17, 1830 
 
 Santander dies May 26, 1840 
 
 (See New Grenada and Venezuela.) 
 
 COLOMBO (Ceylon) was built in 1638, by the Portuguese, who were expelled by the 
 Dutch in 1666 ; the latter surrendered it to the British, Feb. 15, 1796. The British troops 
 were murdered here in cold blood by the adigar of Candy, June 6, 1803. See Ceylon. 
 
 COLON (:), a point known to the ancients, but not expressed. The colon and period 
 were adopted and explained by Thras}Tnachus about 373 b.c. Suidas. It was known to 
 Aristotle. The colon and semicolon (;) were both first used in British literature in the i6th 
 century. 
 
 COLONEL (from Italian, colonna, a column), the highest regimental military officer. 
 The term had become common in England in the i6th centurj'. 
 
 COLONIAL NAVAL DEFENCE. Act to enable the colonies to take effectual measures 
 for their defence against attacks by sea was passed in 1865. 
 
 COLONIES. The Phoenician and Greek colonies being frequently founded by political 
 exiles, soon became independent of the mother country. The Roman colonies on the contrary 
 continued in close connection with Rome itself ; being governed almost entirely by military 
 law. — The Colonies of Great Britain partake of both these characters. The N. American 
 colonies revolted in consequence of the attempt at taxation without their consent in 1764. 
 The loyal condition of the present colonies now is due to the gradual relaxation of the 
 pressure of the home government. The population of the British colonies in all parts of the 
 world was estimated, in 1861, at 142,952,243 (of which 135,442,911 belong to the East 
 Indies). The revenue of the colonies was estimated in 1865 to be 51,492,000/., the 
 expenditure, S9,353,oooZ. The act for the abolition of slavery in the British colonies, and 
 
COL 
 
 193 
 
 COL 
 
 for compensation to the owners of slaves (20,000,000?. sterling), was passed in 1833. All 
 the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on Aug. i, 1834. See tie-parate 
 Articles. 
 
 Date of Settlement, &c. 
 
 about 1618 
 
 Colony, or Possesnon, 
 
 African Forts 
 
 Angiiilla Settlement . . 1666 
 
 Antigua -. . . . Settlement . . 1632 
 
 Australia, South . . . Settlement . . 1834 
 
 Australia, West . . . Settlement . . 1829 
 Bahama Island . . . Settlement 1629, et seq. 
 
 Barbadoes .... Settlement . . 1605 
 
 Bengal See India. 
 
 Berbice 
 
 Bermudas 
 
 Bombay 
 
 British Burmah . 
 
 Canada, Lower . 
 
 Canada, Upper 
 
 Cape Breton 
 
 Cape Coast Castle" . 
 
 Cape of Good Hope . 
 
 Ceylon .... 
 
 Demerara and Essequibo 
 
 Dominica 
 
 Falkland Islands 
 
 Gambia . 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Gold Coast . 
 
 Goza .... 
 
 Grenada .... 
 
 Guiana, British . 
 
 Heligoland 
 
 Honduras . 
 
 Hong Kong (Victoria) . 
 
 Ionian Islands (under British Protectimi) 
 
 Jamaica .... Capitulation 
 
 Lagos . . . . . Ceded 
 
 Labuan . . ' . . See Borneo 
 
 . Capitulation, Sept. 1S03 
 . Settlements 1609, et seq. 
 . See India. 
 
 . See Pegu . . . 1862 
 . Capitulation, Sept. 1759 
 . Capitulation, Sept. 1760 
 . Settlement, in . . 1584 
 . By cession . . 1672 
 . Capitulation, Jan. 1806 
 . Capitulation, Sept. 1795 
 . Capitulation, Sept. 1S03 
 . Ceded by France . 1763 
 . See Falkland Islands 18^2 
 . Settlement in . . 1631 
 . Capitulation, Aug. 1704 
 . Settlement . . * * 
 . Capitulation, Sept. 1800 
 . Ceded by France . 1763 
 . Capitulation . . 1803 
 . Capitulation . . 1807 
 . By treaty, in . . 1670 
 . Ceded in . . . 1841 
 . 1815 
 . 1665 
 
 Colony, or Possession. 
 Madras .... 
 Malacca (under Bengal). 
 Malta . . . " . 
 Mauritius 
 Montserrat 
 
 Natal .... 
 Nevis .... 
 New Brunswick . 
 British Columbia 
 Newfoundland 
 New South Wales 
 Nova Scotia . 
 New Zealand 
 Pegu .... 
 Port Phillip 
 Prince Edward's Island 
 Prince of Wales' Island 
 Queensland, N. S. Wales 
 Sierra Leone 
 Singapore 
 St. Christopher's 
 St. Helena 
 St. Lucia . 
 St. Vincent . 
 Swan Kiver 
 Tobago . 
 Tortola 
 Trinidad 
 
 Van Diemen's Land 
 Vancouver's Island 
 Victoria (Port PhUlip) 
 Victoria . 
 Virgin Isles 
 
 Date of Settlement, <S:c 
 See India. 
 
 Capitulation, Sept. 
 Capitulation, Dec. 
 Settlement, in 
 Settlement . . 
 Settlement, in 
 Settlement, in . . 
 Settlement 
 Settlement, about . 
 Settlement, in . . 
 Settlement, in 
 Settlement . . 
 Conquered 
 See Victoria. 
 Capitulated, in . . 
 Settlement, in 
 Settlement, in . . 
 Settlement, in 
 Purchased, in . . 
 Settlement, in 
 Capitulated, in . . 
 Capitulation, June, 
 Ceded by France . 
 See West Australia. 
 Ceded by France . 
 Settlement in . . 
 Capitulation, Feb. 
 Settlement, in . . 
 Settlement, in 
 Settlement, in . , 
 See Honrj Kong. 
 
 1810 
 1632 
 1823 
 
 1500 
 1787 
 1622 
 1840 
 1852 
 
 1745 
 1786 
 i860 
 1787 
 1819 
 1623 
 1600 
 1803 
 1763 
 
 1763 
 1666 
 1797 
 
 1850 
 1666 
 
 COLORADO, a territory of the United States of JSTorth America, M-as organised March 2, 
 1861. Capital, Golden City. 
 
 COLOSSEUM, see Coliseum. The building in Eegent's Park, London, was planned hy 
 Mr. Hornor, a land surveyor, and commenced in 1824, by Peto and Gri,ssell, from designs by 
 Decimus Burton. The chief portion is a polygon of 16 faces, 126 feet in diameter externally : 
 the walls are three feet thick at the ground : the height to the glazed dome 112 feet. On 
 the canvas walls of the dome is painted the panoramic view of London, completed in 1829 
 from sketches by Mr. Hornor taken from the siimmit of St. Paul's cathedral in 1821-2. 
 The picture covers above 46,000 square feet, more than an acre of canvas. The different 
 parts were combined by Mr. E. T. Pan-is, who in 1845 repainted the whole. In 1848 a 
 panorama of Paris was exhibited ; succeeded, in 1850, by the lake of Thorn in Switzerland ; 
 in 1 85 1 the panorama of London was reproduced. In i848 the theatre with the panorama 
 of Lisbon was added. In 1831, when Mr. Hornor failed, the establishment was sold for 
 40,000?. to Messrs. Braham and Yates. In 1843 it was bought by Mr. D. Montague for 23,000 
 guineas. Timbs. After having been closed for some time, the building was opened to the 
 public at Christmas, 1856, all the several charges being reduced to one "shilling. Under the 
 superintendence of Dr. Bachholfner it continued open till the spring of 1864, when it was 
 again closed. 
 
 COLOSSUS OF EHODE.S, a brass statue of Apollo, seventy ciibits high, esteemed one of 
 the wonders of the world, was erected at the port of Ehodes in honour of the sun, by Chares 
 of Lindu.s, disciple of Lysippus, 290 or 288 B.C. It was thrown down by an earthquake 
 about 224 B.C. The figure is said to have stood upon two moles, a leg being extended on 
 each side of the harbour, so that a vessel in full sail could enter between. A winding 
 staircase led to the top, from which could be discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that 
 sailed on the coast of Egypt. The statue was in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had 
 never been repaired ; when the Saracens taking Rhodes, piiUed it to pieces, and sold the 
 metal, weighing 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camels in transporting 
 it to Alexandria about 653. Dufresnoy. 
 
 COLOUR is to light what pitch is to sound, according to the undulatory theory of 
 Huyghens (about 1678) established by Dr. T. Young, and others. The shade varies accordins 
 
 
 
COL 194 COM 
 
 to the number of vibrations. The number of millions of millions of vibrations in a second 
 attributed to the red end of the spectrum is 458 ; to the violet, 727, See Spectnun.* 
 
 COLUMBIA, a federal district round the city of Washington in Maryland : established 
 1800. In 1862, slavery was abolished therein. It has no political rights. See British 
 Columbia. 
 
 COMBAT, Single. Trial by this commenced by the Lombards, 659. Baronius. It 
 Avas introduced into England for accusations of treason, if neither the accuser nor the accused 
 could produce good evidence, 9 Will. II. 1096. The first battle by single combat was that 
 fought before the king and the peers between Geoffrey Baynard and William earl of Eu, who 
 was accused by Baynard of high treason ; and Baynard having conquered, Eu was deemed 
 convicted. The last combat proposed was between lord Eeay and David Eamsay, in 1631, 
 but the king prevented it. See High ConstctbU and Ainmd of Battle. Tlie same metliod of 
 
 ^, 1446. ,„ 
 
 combat in Dublin castle, before tlie lords justices and council, between Connor MacCormack 
 O'Connor and Teig Mac-Gilpatrick O'Connor, in which the former had his head cut off and 
 j)resented to the lords justices, 1553. ' 
 
 COMBHSTATIOK Laws were enacted from the time of Edward I. downwards, re^u- 
 lating the price of labour and the relations between masters and workmen, and prohibitfn"- 
 the latter from comlining for their own protection. All these laws were repealed in 1825^ 
 duo protection being given to both parties. The act was amended in 1859, when the subject 
 was much discussed, in consequence of the strike in the building trades. 
 
 COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion and Dolon the 
 inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 B.C., performed the first comedy at Athens, on a 
 waggon or moveable stage, on four wheels, for which they were rewarded with a basket of 
 figs and a cask of wine. Arundclian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient 
 comedy, 434 e.g., and Menander that of the new, 320 B.C. Of Plautus, 20 comedies are 
 extant ; he flourished 220 b. c. Statins Caecilius wrote upwards of 30 comedies • he 
 flourished at Eome i8o B.C. The comedies of Lffilius and Terence were first acted 154' B.C. 
 The first regular comedy was performed in England, about A.D. 155 1. It was said" of 
 Sheridan that he wrote the best comedy (the School for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna) 
 and the best afterpiece (the Critic), in the English language (1775-1779). See Drama. 
 
 COMETS (Greek comS, a hair). It is recorded that more than 600 have been seen. Mr. 
 Hind, in his little work on comets, gives a chronological list of comets. The first discovered 
 and described accurately was by Nicephorus. At the birth of tlie great Mithridates two 
 large comets appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days together, whose splendour 
 eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied the fourth part of the heavens, about 
 135 B.C. Justm. A grand comet was seen in 1264. Its tail is said to have extended 100° 
 It is considered to have re-appeared in 1556, with diminished splendour ; and was expected 
 to appear again about Aug. 1858 or Aug. i860. Hind. A remarkable one was seen in 
 Lngland, June 1337. Stoiv. Comets were first rationally exjilained by Tycho Brahe who 
 about 1577, demonstrated that comets are extraneous to our atmosphere. A comet which 
 terrified the people from its near approach to the eartli, was visible from Nov 3 1679 to 
 March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses by Newton 1704 ' A most 
 brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed within two millions of miles of the earth t 
 One still more brilliant appeared in Sept. Oct. and Nov. 181 1, visible all the autumn to the 
 naked ej^e. Another in 1823. 
 
 Hallet's Comet, 1682. Named after one of the [ demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same 
 
 greatest astronomers of England He first proved ^iih the comet of 1456, 1531, and 1607 dediS 
 
 that many of the appearances of comets were but this fact from a minute observation of the first? 
 
 the periodical retiuns of the same bodies, and he | mentioned comet, and being struck by its wou- 
 
 * Some persons (about 65 out of 1154) cannot distinguish between colours, andare tei-med ColourUind 
 In 1839, iJrofessor J. Clerk Maxwell invented spectacles to remedy this defect, which is also called " Dalton* 
 ism," after John Dalton, the chemist, to whom scarlet appeared drab-coloured 
 
 rt J!?i!.?®*?A^^"l?.°™!.l\,^°T.^LT?*i^A swiftness, was seeniii London; its tail stretched across 
 
COM 
 
 195 
 
 COM 
 
 COMETS, continued. 
 
 derful resemblance to the comets described aa 
 having appeared in those years : Halley, there- 
 fore, first fixed the identity of comets, and pre- 
 dicted their periodical returns. Vince's Astronomy. 
 The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in 
 about 75 years.; it appeared in 1759, and came to 
 its periheUon on March 13 ; its last appearance 
 was 1835. 
 
 Encke's Comet. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 
 26, 181S, but justly named by astronomers after 
 professor Encke, for his success in detecting its 
 orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, hke the 
 jjreoeding, one of the three comets which have 
 appeared according to prediction, and its revolu- 
 tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. 
 
 Biela's Comet has been an object of fear to many 
 on account of the nearness with which it has ap- 
 proached, not the earth, but a point of the earth's 
 path ; it was first discovered by M. Biela, an 
 Austrian ofiicer, Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the 
 three comets whose re-appearance was predicted, 
 its revolution being performed in 6 years and 38 
 weeks. Its second appearance was in 1832, when 
 the time of its perihelion passage was Nov. 27 ; its 
 third was in 1839 ; its fourth in 1845 ; and its fifth 
 in 1852. 
 
 DoNATi's Comet, so called from its having been first 
 observed by Dr. Donati, of Florence, June 2, 1858, 
 
 being then calculated to be 228,000,000 miles from 
 our earth. It was very brilliant in England in the 
 end of September and October following, when 
 the tail was said to be 40,000,000 miles long. On 
 the loth of October it was nearest to the earth ; on 
 the 1 8th it was near coming into colhsion with 
 Venus. Opinions varied as to this comet's bril- 
 liancy compared with that of 1811. 
 
 The Great Comet of 1861 was first seen by Mr. 
 Tebbutt, at Sydney, in Australia, May 13 ; by M. 
 Goldschmidt and others in France and England 
 on June 29, 30. The nucle\is was about 400 miles 
 in diameter, with a long bush-Uke tail, traveUing 
 at the rate of 10,000,000 miles in 24 hours. On 
 June 30 it was suggested that we were in the 
 tail, — ^there being "a phosphorescent auroral 
 glare." * 
 
 A tailless comet was discovered in the constellation 
 Cassiopoeia, by M. Seehng, at Athens, on July 2, 
 and by M. Tempel, at Marseilles, July 2 & 3, 1862. 
 
 M. Eosa (at Rome) discovered a comet on July 25, 
 1862. It was visible by the naked eye in Aug-ust 
 and September. 
 
 Six telescopic comets were observed in 1863, and 
 sevei-al in 1864. 
 
 A fine comet appeai'ed in the southern hemisphere, 
 and was visible in South America and AiistraUa, 
 in Jan., Feb., 186=;. 
 
 COMMAISTDER-IN-CHIEF. This office in the Bi-itish army has been very frequently- 
 vacant, and sometimes for several years consecutively. When the duke of "Wellington, 
 resigned the office, on becoming minister, in 1828, his grace's successor, lord Hill, assumed 
 the rank of commander of the forces, or general commanding in chief. 
 
 CAPTAINS-GENEEAL. 
 
 Duke of Albemarle 1660 
 
 Duke of Monmouth 1678 
 
 Duke of Marlborough 1702 
 
 DukeofOrmond 1711 
 
 Duke of Marlboroixgh, again . . . . 1714 
 
 Duke of Cumberland 1744 
 
 Duke of York , . 1799 
 
 COMMANDERS-IN CHIEF. 
 
 Duke of Monmouth 1674 
 
 Duke of Marlborough 1690 
 
 Duke of Schomberg 1691 
 
 Duke of Ormond 1711 
 
 Earl of Stair 1744 
 
 Field-Marshal Wade 1745 
 
 Lord Ligonier ....... 
 
 Marquess of Granby 
 
 Lord Amherst, general on the staff . . . 
 Gen. Seymour Conway • . . . . 
 
 Lord Amherst, again 
 
 Frederick, duke of York ..... 
 Sir David Dundas .... March 25, 
 Fx-ederick, duke of York, again . May 29, 
 
 Duke of Welhngton . . . Jan. 22, 
 
 Lord Hill, general commanding in chief , Feb. 25, 
 Duke of Wellmgton, again . . Dec. 28, 
 
 Viscount Hardinge (died Sept. 24, 1856), gene- 
 ral commanding in chief . . Sept. 28, 
 Duke of Cambridge, commander-in-chief (the 
 PRESENT, 186s) ..... July 15, 
 
 I7S7 
 1766 
 177S 
 1782 
 1793 
 1795 
 1809 
 i8ir 
 1827 
 
 1852 
 1856. 
 
 COMMENDAM. By 6 & 7 "Will. IV. c. 77 (1836), future bishops were prohibited from 
 holding in commendam the livings, &c. they held when consecrated. 
 
 COMMERCE flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in the earliest ages. 
 In later times it was spread over Europe by a confederacy of maritime cities, 1241. See 
 Hanse Towns. The discoveries of Columbus, and the enterprises of the Dutch and Por- 
 tuguese, enlarged the sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England, to 
 engage extensively in its pursuit. + See the various articles connected with this subject through 
 the volume. 
 
 The first treaty of commerce made by England 
 with any foreign nation was entered into with 
 the Flemings, i Edw. I. 1272. The second 
 was with Portugal and Spain, 2. Edw. II. 
 1308. Andason. See Treaties. Hertslett's 
 
 Collection, in 10 vols. 8vo., published 1827-59, 
 has a copious index. 
 An important commercial treaty was con- 
 cluded with France in i86a 
 
 * M. Babinet, on May 4, 1857, considered that comets had so little density that the earth might pass 
 through the tail of one without our being aware of it. 
 
 t Chambers of Commerce originated at Marseilles in the 14th century, and similar chambers were insti- 
 tuted in all the chief cities in France about 1700. These chambers were suppressed in 1791, but afterwards 
 restored, and their great utility was recognised by a decree of Sept. 3, 1851. The chamber of commerce at 
 Glasgow was estabhshed 1783 ; at Edinburgh, 1785 ; Manchester, 1820 ; Hull, 1837 ; and at other important 
 places. On Feb. 21, 1865, 27 of these chambers of commerce (not including Liverpool, Manchester, and 
 Glasgow) met at Westminster for interchange of opinions on various questions. 
 
 2 
 
COM 
 
 196 
 
 COM 
 
 COMMISSION. See High Court of Commission^.- 
 
 / 
 
 COMMISSIONAIRES. The street messengers' thus named (pensioners wounded either in 
 tlie Crimea or India) were iirst employed in the west-end of London. They were appointed 
 by a society, founded in Feb. 1859 by capt. Edward Walter, which is now under the 
 patronage of the queen and the commander-in-chief. The charges are regidated by a tarifif. 
 In Jan. 1861 the society commenced the gratuitous issue of a Monthly Advertising Circular. 
 In March, 1864, there were 250 commissionaires in London. In June 17, 1865, capt. 
 "Walter resigned the superintendence, and a permanent system of administration was formed. 
 In 1865 commissionaires began to be employed in London as private night watchmen. Com- 
 missionaires have long existed in France. 
 
 COMMON COUNCIL of Londox. Its organisation began about 1208. The charter 
 of Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, this being a Saxon appellation, and which may fairly be 
 rendered the court or assembly of the people. The general place of meeting of the folk-mote 
 was in the open air at St. Paul's Cross, St. Paul's churchyard. It was not discontinued till 
 after Henry II I. 's reign ; when certain representatives were chosen out of each ward, who, 
 being added to the lord mayor and aldermen, constituted the court of common council. At 
 first only two were returned for each ward ; but the number was enlarged in 1347, and 
 since. This council became the parent of similar institutions throughout the realm. It is 
 elected annually on Dec. 21, St. Thomas's day. A Common Hall is held occasionally. The 
 common council supported the jiiiuce of Orange in 1688 ; and queen Cai'oline in 1820. 
 
 COMMON LAW of England, an ancient collection of unwritten maxims and customs 
 (Leges 7ion scriptce), of British, Saxon, and Danish origin, which has subsisted immemorially 
 in this Ivingdom ; and although somewhat impaired by the rude shock of the Norman con- 
 quest, has weathered the violence of the times. This endeared it to the people in general, 
 as well because its decisions were universally known, as because it was found to be excel- 
 lently adapted to the genius of the English nation ; and accordingly, at the famous parlia- 
 ment of Merton, 1236, "all the earls and barons," says the parliament roll, "with one voice 
 answered, that they would not change the laws of England, which have hitherto been used 
 and approved ;" eminently the law of the land. See Bastard. The process, practice, and 
 mode of pleading in the superior courts of common law, were amended iu 1852 and 1854. 
 
 COMMON PLEAS, Court of, in England. This court in ancient times followed the 
 king's person, and is distinct from that of the King's Bench ; but on the confirmation of 
 Magna Charta by king Jolm, in 1215, it was fixed at Westminster, where it still continues. 
 In 1833 the mode of procedure in all the superior courts was made unifonn. In England, 
 no barrister xander the degi-ee of a serjeant could plead in the court of common pleas ; 
 Taut in 1 846 the privilege was extended to barristers ' practising iu the superior courts at 
 Westminster. 
 
 CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE cojiMON PLEAS OF ENGLAND [from the rcign of Elizabeth). 
 
 1558. f^^ir Anthony Browne. 
 
 1559. Sir James Dyer. 
 
 1582. Sir Edmund Anderson. 
 
 1605. Sir Francis Gawdy. 
 
 1606. Sir Edward Coke. 
 1613. Sir Henry Hobart. 
 1626. Sir Thomas Richardson. 
 1631. Sir Robert Heath. 
 1634. Sir John Finch. 
 
 1639. Sir Edward Lyttleton. 
 J640. Sir John Bankes. 
 1648. Ohver St. John. 
 1660. Sir Orlando Bridgman, o^/ilcr- 
 
 ■wards lord keeper. 
 1668. Sir John Vauglian. 
 ■1675. Sir Francis Noi-th, after- 
 
 wanU lord keeper Guilford 
 16S3. Sir Francis Pemborton. 
 
 ,, Sir Thomas Jones. 
 1686. Sir Henry BeHingfleld. 
 16S7. Sir Robert Wright. 
 ,, Sir Edward Herbert. 
 
 1692. 
 1 701. 
 
 1714. 
 
 1725- 
 1736. 
 1737- 
 1 761. 
 
 1766. 
 1771. 
 
 1780. 
 
 1793- 
 1799. 
 
 Sir Henry PoUexfen. 
 
 Sir George Treby. 
 
 Sir Thomas Trevor, after- 
 wards lord Trevor. 
 
 Sir Peter King, afterwards 
 lord chancellor King. 
 
 Sir Robert Eyre. 
 
 Sir I'homas Reeve. 
 
 Sir John Willes. 
 
 Sir Charles Pratt, afterwards 
 lord chancellor Camden. 
 
 Sir John Eardley Wilmot. 
 
 Sir William de Grey, after- 
 wards lord Walsingliam. 
 
 Alexander Wedderbume, 
 afte^-wo.rds lord chancellor 
 Loughborough. 
 
 Sir James Eyre. 
 
 Sir John Scott, afterwards 
 lord chancellor Eldon. 
 
 Sir Richard Pepper Arden 
 (lord Alvanley^, May 22. 
 
 1804. Sir James Mansfield, Apr. 21. 
 
 1814. Sir Vicary Gibbs, Feb. 24. 
 
 1818. Sir Robert D.allas, Nov. 5. 
 
 1824. Sir Robert Gifford, Jan. 9 
 (lord Gifford); n/<. master 
 of the Rolls. 
 ,, Sir William Draper Best, aft. 
 lord Wynford, April 15. 
 
 1829. Sir Nicolas C. Tindal, 
 June 9 ; died July 1846. 
 
 1846. Sir Thomas Wilde, July it ; 
 aft. lord chancellor Truro. 
 
 1850. Sir John Jorvis, July 16; 
 died November i, 1856. 
 
 1856. Sir Alexander Cockbum, 
 Nov. 15 ; made chief jus- 
 tice of the Queen's Bench, 
 June, 1859. 
 
 1859. Sir William Erie, June. The 
 PRESENT (1865) chief jus- 
 tice. 
 
COM 
 
 197 
 
 COM 
 
 COMMON PLEAS, continued. 
 
 CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE COMMON PLEAS IN IRELAND {shice the Bcvolutioil) . 
 
 1691. Richard Pyne, Jan. 5. 
 1695. Sir John Hely, May 10. 
 1701. Sir Bichard Cox, May 4. 
 1703. Robert Doyne, Dec. 27. 
 1714. John Forster, Sept. 30. 
 ' 1720. Sir Richard Levinge, Oct. 13. 
 1724. Thomas Wyndham, Oct. 27. 
 1726. William Whitshed, Jan. 23. 
 
 1727. James Reynolds, Nov. 8. 
 1740. Henry Singleton, May 11. 
 1754. Sir William Yorke, Sept. 4. 
 1 761. William Aston, May 5. 
 1765. Richard Clayton, Feb. 21. 
 1770. Marcus Patterson, June 18. 
 1787. Hugh Carleton, aft. viscount 
 Carleton, April 30. 
 
 1800. John Toler, afterwards lord 
 Norbury, Oct. 22. 
 
 1827. Lord Plunket, June 18. 
 
 1830. JohnDoherty, Dec. 23. 
 
 1850. James Henry Monahan, 
 Sept. 23. The PRESEjir 
 (1865) chief justice. 
 
 COMMON PRAYER, Book of, was ordered bj' parliament to Le printed in the Englisli 
 language in April i, 1548. It was voted out of doors by parliament, and tlie Directory 
 (ivhich see) set up in its room in 1644, and a proclamation was issued against it in 1647. 
 ■With, a few changes the English Common Prayer-book is used by the episcopal churches iu 
 Scotland and North America. 
 
 The king's primer published . . . . 1545 
 
 First book of Edward VI. printed . . . 1549 
 
 Second book of Edward VI 1552 
 
 First book of Elizabeth 1559 
 
 King James's book . . . . . . 1604 
 
 Scotch book of Charles 1 1637 
 
 Charles II. 's book (Savoy Conference) . . . 1662 
 (The one, with alterations, now in use.) 
 
 The State services (which had never formed part of 
 the Prayer-book, but were annexed to it at the be- 
 ginning of every reign) for November 5 (Gunpowder 
 treason), January 30 (Charles I.'s execution), and 
 May 29 (Charles II. 's restoration), were ordered to 
 be discontinued on January 17, 1859. 
 
 COMMONS, House of, the great representative assembly of the people of Great Britain, 
 originated with Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who by the Provisions of Oxford 
 ordered returns to be made of two laiights from every shire, and deputies from certain 
 boroughs to meet such of the barons and clergy as were his friends, with a view thereby to 
 strengthen his own power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry IIL, 1258. Stoic, 
 See Parliament. The following is the constitution of the house of commons since the 
 passing of the Reform Bill in 1832 : — 
 
 English.— County members 
 
 Universities 
 
 Cities and boroughs 
 Welsh. — County members 
 
 Cities and boroughs 
 
 English and Welsh 
 
 144 
 
 English and Welsh 
 
 502 
 
 4 
 
 Scotch. — County members 
 
 30 
 
 325—473 
 
 Cities and boroughs 
 
 23— S3 
 
 15 
 
 Irish. — County members . 
 
 64 
 
 14— 29 
 
 University 
 
 
 
 Cities and boroughs 
 
 39—105 
 
 502 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total (see Parliament) . 
 
 660* 
 
 England. — County 
 
 Borough 
 Wales. — County 
 
 Borough 
 
 CONSTITUENCY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1851. 
 [Population, 27,452,252.] 
 Sectors. 
 
 461,463 
 378,384-839,847 
 
 36,984 
 
 11,035— 48,019 
 
 England and Wales 
 
 Medors. 
 
 England and Wales . . 887,866 
 
 Scotland. — County . . . . 48,456 
 
 Borough 41,849 — 90,305 
 
 Ireland. — County . . . . 31,832 
 
 Borough 40,234 — 72,066 
 
 Constituency . . . 
 
 In 1859, Mr. Newmarch estimated the constituency of England and Wales at 934,000 
 
 i>o5o,237 
 
 COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. The term is applied to the interregnum between 
 the death of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. The form of the government was 
 changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I., Jan 30, 1649, — a new oath called the 
 "Engagement" was framed, which the people were obliged to take.f Salmon. Oliver 
 Cromwell was made Protector, Dec. 16, 1653. Richard CromweU was made Protector, Sept. 
 
 * In 1848 Sudbury, and in 1852 St. Alban's were disfranchised for bribery and corruption ; each having 
 previously returned two members ; the aggregate number of the house then became 656. In 1861, the 
 forfeited seats were thus distributed by act of parliament — two additional to the west riding of York, one 
 additional to south Lancashire, and one to a newly-created borough, Birkenhead. 
 
 t By this oath they swore to be true and faithful to the commonwealth, without king or house of 
 lords. The statues of Charles were next day demolished, particularly that at the Royal Exchange, and one 
 at the west end of St. Paul's; and in their room the following inscription was conspicuously sot up ; — 
 " Exit Tyrannus Regwn ultimus, Anno Libertatis Anglia JRestitutoi Prima, Anno Dom. 1648, Jan. 30." 
 
COM 
 
 198 
 
 COM 
 
 3, 1658. Monarchy was restored in the xjerson of Charles II., who entered London, May 
 29, 1660. See Rome. 
 
 COMMUNION, one of the names given to the ordinance of the Lord's supper, in the 
 primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is said to have had its 
 rise in the West, under pope Urban II., 1096. The fourth Lateran council, 1215, decreed 
 that every believer should receive the commimion at least at Easter. The cup Avas first 
 denied to the laity by the council of Constance, 1414-18. The communion service, as now 
 performed in the church of England, was instituted in 1548. 
 
 COMMUNISTS. ^&G Socialists. COMORN. See A'omora. 
 
 COMPANIES.* Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be named 
 the Steel-yard Society, established 1232. Tlie second company was the merchants of St. 
 Thomas a Becket, in 1248. Stoio. The third was the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated 
 by Elizabeth, 1564. The following are the city companies of London, in the order of pre- 
 cedence ; the first twelve are the chief, and are stjded "the Honourable." Several com- 
 panies are virtually extinct, and many of the dates are doubtful. 
 
 I. 
 
 Mercer3 . 
 
 1393 
 
 2. 
 
 Grocers . . . 
 
 1345 
 
 3- 
 4- 
 S- 
 
 Drapers . 
 Fishmonger.s . 
 Goldsmiths . . 
 
 1439 
 12S4 
 
 1327 
 
 6. 
 
 Skinners . 
 
 
 7- 
 8. 
 
 MerohantTaylors 1416 
 H.aberdasbiors . 1447 
 
 q- 
 
 Salters 
 
 ISS3 
 
 10. 
 
 Ironmongers 
 
 1464 
 
 II. 
 
 Vintners . 
 
 1437 
 
 12. 
 
 Clotliworkers . 
 
 1482 
 
 13- 
 14. 
 
 Dyers . . . 
 Brewers . 
 
 1469 
 1438 
 
 !=;• 
 
 Leather-sellers . 
 
 1442 
 
 16. 
 
 Pewterers . 
 
 1474 
 
 17- 
 18. 
 
 Barber Surgeons 
 Cutlers . . . 
 
 1308 
 1417 
 
 iq. 
 
 Bakers 
 
 1307 
 
 20. 
 
 Wax-chandlers . 
 
 1484 
 
 21. 
 
 TaUow-chandlera 146^ 
 
 22. 
 
 Armourers and 
 
 
 
 Braziers . . 
 
 1463 
 
 2^. 
 
 Girdlers . 
 
 1448 
 
 24. 
 
 Butchers . . 
 
 1604 
 
 25. Saddlers . . 
 
 26. Carpenters . . 
 
 27. Cordwainers 
 
 28. Paper-stainers . 
 
 29. Curriers . 
 
 30. Masons . . . 
 
 31. Plumbers . 
 
 32. Inn-holders . . 
 
 33. Founders . 
 
 34. Poulterers . . 
 
 35. Cooks 
 
 36. Coopers . . 
 
 37. Tilers and Brick- 
 
 layers . 
 
 38. Bowyers . . 
 
 39. Fletchers . 
 
 40. Blacksmiths. . 
 
 41. Joiners 
 
 42. Weavers . . 
 
 43. Woolmen . 
 
 44. Scriveners . . 
 
 45. Fruiterers. 
 
 46. Plasterers . . 
 
 47. Stationers. 
 
 48. Embroiderers . 
 
 1344 
 1410 
 1580 
 1605 
 1677 
 i5ii 
 1515 
 1614 
 
 1503 
 1481 
 1501 
 
 1568 
 1620 
 1536 
 1577 
 1564 
 1 164 
 * # 
 
 1616 
 1604 
 1500 
 1556 
 1591 
 
 1627 
 1604 
 
 1637 
 1638 
 1673 
 
 1617 
 1610 
 
 49. Upbolders . 
 
 50. Musicians . 
 
 51. Turners 
 
 52. Basket-makers 
 
 53. Glaziers 
 
 54. Horners . 
 
 55. Farriers . , 
 
 56. Paviors 
 
 57. Lorimers . 
 
 58. Apothecaries 
 
 59. Shipwrights . 
 
 60. Spectacle-makrs. 1630 
 
 61. Clock-makers . 1632 
 
 62. Glovers . . 1556 
 
 63. Comb-makers . 1650 
 
 64. Felt-makers . 1604 
 
 65. Framework-knit- 
 
 ters . . . 1664 
 
 66. Silk-throwsters 1629 
 
 67. Silk-men . . 1608 
 
 68. Pin-makers . 
 
 69. Needle-makers 
 
 70. Gardeners 
 
 71. Soap-makers 
 
 1636 
 1656 
 i6i6 
 1638 
 
 72. Tinplate-workrs. 1670 
 
 73. Wheelwrights . 1670 
 
 74. Distillers . . * * 
 
 75. Hatband-makrs. 1638 
 
 76. Pattern-makers 1670 
 
 77. Glass-sellers . 1664 
 
 78. Tobacco-pipe 
 
 makers . . 1663 
 7g. Coach and Har- 
 ness makers . 1677 
 
 80. Gunmakers . 1638 
 
 81. Gold and silver 
 
 wire -drawers 1623 
 
 82. Bowstring- 
 
 makers . . ■•' * 
 
 83. Card-makers 
 
 84. Fan-makers 
 
 85. Wood-mongers . * 
 
 86. Starch-makers . 1632 
 
 87. Fishermen . . 1687 
 
 88. Parish clerks . 1232 
 
 89. Carmen . . * * 
 
 90. Porters. . . * * 
 
 91. Watermen. . 1556 
 
 1629 
 1709 
 
 COMPASS, MAEINER'S, is said to have been known to the Chinese, 11 15 ac. ; and 
 is ascribed to Marco Polo, a Venetian, a.d. 1260 ; and to Flavio Gioja, of Amalfi, a na\d- 
 gator of Naples, t Until this time the needle M'as laid upon a couple of pieces of straw, or 
 small split sticks, in a vessel of water ; Gioja introduced the suspension of the needle, 
 1302. It is also said to have been known to the Swedes in the time of king Jail Birger, 
 1250. Its variation was discovered first by Columbus, 1492 ; afterwards by Sebastian 
 Cabot, 1540. The compass-box and hanging compass used by navigators were invented by 
 William Barlowe, an English divine and natural philosopher, in 1608. Sec Magnetism. The 
 measuring compass was invented by Jost Bing, of Hesse, in 1602. 
 
 COMPIEGNE, a French city north of Paris, the residence of the Cailovingian kings. 
 Dm-ing the siege, Joan of Arc was captured by the English, May 24, 1430. The emperor 
 Napoleon III. and the king of Prussia met here on Oct. 6, 1861. 
 
 COMPLUTENSIAN BIBLE. See Polyglot. 
 
 COMPOSITE ORDER, princiimlly a mixture of the Corinthian and Ionic, and also called 
 the Roman order, is of uncertain date. 
 
 COMTE PHILOSOPHY. See Positive Pliilosophij. 
 
 * Bubble companies have been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's bubble, in 1720-1, was 
 perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less 
 memorable for its ruin of thousands of families. Many companies were established in these countries in 
 1824 and 1825, and turned out to be bubbles. Immense losses were incurred by individuals, and the families 
 of thousands of speculators were totally ruined. Many railway enterprises (1844-5) may be termed 
 bubbles. See Law's Bubble ; South Sea; Railivuyx : Joint-Stock CompoMes. 
 
 t The statement that Viie fleur-de-lis was made tlie ornament of the northern point of the compass in 
 compliment to Charles, the king of Naples, at the time of the discovery, has been contradicted. 
 
CON" ]99 CON 
 
 CONCEPTION, Immaculate. A festival (on Dec. 8) appointed in 1389, is observed 
 with, great devotion in the Roman Catholic Church in honour of the Vii'gin Mary's having 
 been conceived and born immaculate, or without original sin. Pope Paul V. in 161 7 forbade 
 any one to stand up against the opinion of the immaculate conception ; this order was 
 confirmed by Gregory XV. and by Alexander VII. Henaidt. On December 8, 1854, the 
 pope, Pius IX., promulgated a bull witli great solemnity, declaring this dogma to be an 
 article of faith, and charging with heresy those who should doubt it or speak against it. — 
 The CoNCEPTiONiSTS were an order of nuns in Italy, established in 1488. See Santiago. 
 
 CONCERTINA, a musical instrument invented by prof. "VVheatstone, about 1825, and 
 improved by Mr. G. Case, The sounds are produced by free vibrating metal springs. 
 
 CONCERTS. The Eilavmonia gave concerts at Vicenza in the i6th century. The first 
 public subscription concert was performed at Oxford in 1665. The first concert in London 
 is said to have been in 1672. Tlie Academy of Ancient Music began in 1710 ; the Concerts 
 of Ancient Music in 1776; and the present Philharmonic Society in 1813. See Music; 
 Crystal Palace and Handel, 
 
 CONCHOLOGY, the science of shells, i|^ientioned by Aristotle and Pliny. It was first 
 reduced to a system by John Daniel Major, of Kiel, who published his classification of the 
 Testacea in 1675. Listei-'s system was published in 1685 ; and that of Largius in 1722. 
 Johnston's Introduction (1850) and Sowerby's Manual of Conchology (1842), are useful. 
 Forbes and Hanley's "British Mollusca and their Shells" (1848-53) is a magnificent work. 
 
 CONCLAVE. This term is derived from the conclave, a range of small cells in the hall 
 of the Vatican, or palace of the pope of Rome, where the cardinals usirally meet to elect a 
 pope, and is also used for the assembly of the cardinals shut up for the purpose. Tlie 
 conclave had its rise in 1271. Clement IV. having died at Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals 
 were nearly three years unable to agree in the choice of a successor, and were on tlie point 
 of breaking up, when the magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo, 
 shut the gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical palace till they 
 agreed. Hence the custom of shutting up the cardinals while they elect a pope. 
 
 CONCORDANCE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all the words and also a chrono- 
 logical account of all the transactions in the Bible. The first concordance was made under the 
 direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500 monks upon it, 1247. AIM 
 LengUt. Cruden's well-known Concordance was published in London in i737- The Index 
 to the Bible, published by the Queen's printers, was prepared by B. Vincent, editor of this 
 volume, and completed in May, 1848.* 
 
 CONCORDAT. The name is given to an instrument of agreement between a prince and 
 the pope, usually concerning benefices. The concordat between the emperor Henry V. of 
 Germany and pope Calixtus II., in 1122, has been regai'ded as the fundamental law of the 
 ■church in Germany. The concordat between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII. , signed 
 at Paris, July 15, 1801, re-established the Catholic church and the papal authority in 
 France. Napoleon was made in efi"ect the head of the Galilean church, as bishops were to 
 have their appointments from him and their investiture from the pope. Another concordat 
 between the same persons was signed at Fontainebleau, Jan. 25, 1813. These were almost 
 nullified in 1817 and 1819. A concordat, signed Aug. 18, 1855, between Austria and Rome, 
 by which a great deal of the liberty of the Austrian churcli was given up to the Papacy, 
 caused much dissatisfaction. 
 
 CONCUBINES were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, but strictly 
 forbidden by Christ {Mark x. i Cor. Adi. 2). They are mentioned as having been allowed 
 to the priests, 1 132. Sea Morganitic Marriage. 
 
 " CONDOTTIERI, conductors or leaders of mercenaries and their bands, became so 
 troublesome in Italy in the middle ages, that the various cities formed a league to suppress 
 them in 1342. 
 
 CONDUITS. Two remarkable conduits, among a number of others in London, existed 
 early in Cheapside. Tlie Great Conduit was the first cistern of lead erected in the city, and 
 was built in 1285. At the procession of Anna Boleyn, on the occasion of her marriage, it 
 ran with white and claret wine all the afternoon, June i, 1533. Stoiv. 
 
 * Verbal indexes accompany good editions of the ancient classics. An index to SJiaLrpcare, by 
 Aysoough, appeared in 1790; another by Twiss in 1805; and Mrs. Cowden Clarke's (late Mary NoveUo) 
 complete concordance to Shakspeare (on which she sj)ent 16 years' labour) in 1847. Todd's verbal index to 
 Milton was iDublished in i8oq. 
 
CON 
 
 200 
 
 CON 
 
 CONFEDERATE STATES of America. Tlie efforts of the Soutliern States for the 
 extension of slavery, and the zeal of the Northern States for its abolition, with the conse- 
 quent political dissensions, led to the great secession of 1 860-1. On Nov. 4, i860, Abraham 
 Lincoln, the Republican or Abolitionist candidate, was elected president of the United States. 
 Hitherto, a president in the interest of the South had been elected. On Dec. 20, South 
 Carolina seceded from the Uiiion ; and Alabama, Florida, j\Iississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, 
 Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina also 
 seceded early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated president of the Southern Con- 
 federacy at Montgomery in Alabama, Feb. 18, 1861. For the events of the war which 
 ensued, and the restoration of the Southern States to the Union, see United States, 1861-5. 
 
 CONFEDERATION at Parls, July 14, 1790. See Chami)s de Mars, and Bastile. 
 
 CONFEDERATION of the Rhine. The League of the Germanic States, formed by 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, July 12, 1806, when he abolished the Holy Roman Empire, and the 
 emperor of Germany became emperor of Austria. It consisted of the kingdoms of Bavaria, 
 Wurtemberg, Saxony, and Westphalia ; seven grand duchies ; six duchies ; and twenty 
 piincipalities. The German princes collectivelj^ngaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in 
 case of war, and established a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806. This league terminated 
 with the career of Bonaparte in 18 14, and was replaced by the Germanic Confederation 
 (v:hich see). 
 
 CONFERENCES. One was held at Hampton Court Palace, between the prelates of the 
 church of England and the dissenting ministers, in order to effect a general imion, at the 
 instance of the king, James I. Jan. 14-16, 1604. It led to a new translation of the Bible, 
 that now in general use in England ; executed in 1607-11. Some alterations in the church 
 liturgy were agreed upon ; but these not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was done. — 
 Another conference of the bishojjs and presbyterian ministers, with the same view, was held 
 in the Savoy, April 25 to July 25, 1661. The dissenters' objections were generally disallowed, 
 but some alterations were recommended in the Prayer-book. See Wcsleyans. 
 
 CONFESSIONAL. See Auricular Confession. 
 
 CONFESSIONS of Faith, or Creeds. See Apostles', Niccnc (325), and Athanasian 
 (about 434) Creeds. 
 
 The confession of faith of the Greek church w.is 
 presented to Mahommed II. in 1453. This 
 gave way in 1643 to one composed by Mogila, 
 metropolitan of Kiev, which is the present 
 standard of the Rnsso-Greek church. 
 
 The creed of Pius VI., composed of the Nicene 
 creed, with additional articles which embody 
 all the peculiar dogmas of the Roman Catho- 
 Uc church, pubUshed by the council of Trent 1564 
 
 The church of England retains the Apostles', 
 Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, with Ar- 
 
 ticles : — 42 in 1552 ; reduced to 39 . . . 1563 
 The confession of Augsburg (that of the 
 Lutherans) was drawn up principally by 
 Melanchthon, in 1530, and has since under- 
 gone modifications, the last of which is called 
 the " Form of Concord " .... 1579 
 The Westminster confession was agreed to in 
 1643 ; and adopted by the presbyteiian 
 church of Scotland. See Weitminster . . 1647 
 The congi-egational dissenters published a de- 
 claration of faith 1833 
 
 CONFIRMATION, or Laying on Hands, was practised by the apostles in 34 and 56 
 (.4 c^s viii. 17; xix. 6), and was general, according to some church authorities, in 190. In 
 the church of England it is the public profession of the Christian religion by an adult person, 
 who has been baj)tized in infancy. It is made a sacrament by the church of Rome. 
 
 CONFLANS (near Paris), Treaty of, between Lonis XL of France and the dukes of 
 Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, 1465. By its provisions Normandy was ceded to the duke 
 of Berry, and an end was put to the " AVar of the Public Good." It was confirmed by that 
 of Peronne in 1468. 
 
 CONG;^ D'^fiLIRE (permission to elect), tlie licence of the sovereign as hetid of the 
 church, to chapters and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops, asserted by 
 Henry VIII. 1535. After the interdict of the pope upon -England had been removed in 1214, 
 king John made an arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops. 
 
 CONGELATION, the act of freezing. Ice was produced in summer by means of chemical 
 mixtures, by Mr. Walker, in 1783. The congelation of quicksilver was effected without 
 snow or ice, in 1787. In 1810 Leslie froze water in an air-pump bj' placing a vessel of 
 sulphuric acid under it. Numerous freezing mixtures have been discovered since. Intense 
 cold is produced by the aerification of liquefied carbonic acid gas. In 1857 Mr. Harrison 
 patented a machine for manufacturing ice for commercial purposes, by means of ether and 
 
CON 
 
 201 
 
 CON 
 
 salt water, and made large blocks. In i860, M. Carrel devised a method of freezing to 60° 
 below zero by making water in a close vessel absorb and give oif the gas ammonia. Siebe's 
 ice-making machine, exhibited at the International Exhibition of 1862, excited much 
 admiration. 
 
 CONGREGATION of the Lord. A name taken by the Scotch Reformers, headed by 
 John Knox, about 1546. Their leaders (the duke of Argyle, &c.) were called Lords of the 
 Congregation about 1557. 
 
 CONGREGATIONALISTS. See Independents. 
 
 CONGRESS, ^n assembly of princes or ministers for the settlement of the affairs of 
 nations or of a people. * The following are the most remarkable congresses of Europe : — 
 
 Munster 1648 
 
 Nimeguen 1678 
 
 Byswick 1697 
 
 Utrecht 1713 
 
 Soissons 1728 
 
 Antwerp . . April 8, 1793 
 
 Eastadt . . 
 Chatillon . 
 Vienna 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle 
 Carlsbad . 
 Troppau 
 
 Dec. g, 1797 
 Feb. 5, 1814 
 Nov. 3, ,, 
 Oct. 9, 1818 
 Aug. I, 1819 
 Oct. 20, 1820 
 
 Laybach . . . May 6, 1821 
 Verona . . . Aug. 25, 1822 
 Paris . Jan 16 — April 22, 1856 
 Frankfort (see Germamj) 
 
 Aug. 16-31, 1863 
 See Alliances, Conventions, etc. 
 
 The first general CONGRESS of the United States 
 of America, preparatory to their declaration 
 of independence, when strong resolutions 
 were passed, also a petition to the king, and 
 an address to the people of England, was held 
 Sept. s, 1774. The second was held May 10, 
 1775 ; the third, when the independence was 
 declared July 4, 1776 
 
 The first federal American congress, under the 
 
 constitution, was held at New York ; George 
 Washington, president . . . March, 17S9 
 The first congress of the seceding southern 
 states was held at Montgomery, Alabama, 
 Feb. 4 ; it elected Jefferson Davis president 
 of the confederate states on Feb. 9. For 
 political reasons it adjourned on May 24, to 
 meet at Richmond, in Virgmia, on . July 20, 1861 
 
 •^CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general sir William Congreve, in 1803. They 
 were used with great effect in the attack iipon Boulogne, Oct. 8, 1806, when they set a part 
 of the town on fire, which burned for two days : they were employed in various operations 
 in thei French war with much success, by a corps called rocket-men. 
 
 CONIC SECTIONS. Their more remarkable properties were probably known to the 
 Greeks, four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of them was cultivated in 
 the time of Plato, 390 B.C. The earliest treatise on them was written by Aristseus, about 
 330 B. c. Apollonius's eight books were written about 240 b. c. The pai'abola was applied 
 to projectiles by Galileo, who died 1608 ; the ellipse to the orbit of planets by Keplei', 
 about 1609. 
 
 CONJURATION. See Witchcraft. 
 
 CONNECTICUT granted to lords Say and Brooke, 1631, See America, and United States. 
 
 CONNOR, Bishopric of, in Ireland. The see was united to that of Down, 1442. The 
 first prelate was ^ngus Macnisius, who died 507. The united sees were added to Dromore on 
 the death of the last bishop of the latter, 1842, in accordance with the "provisions of the 
 Irish Church Temporalities' Act, passed 1833. 
 
 CONQUEST. The memorable era in British history, when "William duke of Normandy 
 overcame Harold II. at the battle of Hastings, Oct. 14, 1066, and obtained the crown which 
 had been most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the confessor (for Edgar was the 
 rightful heir). William has been erroneously styled the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the 
 crown of England by compact. He defeated Harold, who was himself a usurper, but a large 
 portion of the kingdom afterwards held out against him ; and he, unlike a conqueror, took 
 an oath to observe the laws and customs of the realm, in order to induce the submission of 
 the people. Formerly our judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar 
 who said casually William the conqueror instead of William I. Selden. Maclise exhibited 
 forty-two drawings on the events of the Norman conquest, in May, 1857. 
 
 CONSCIENCE, Courts of, or RecJuests, first constituted by a statute of Henry VII. 
 1493, and re-organised by statute 9 Hen. VIII. 15 17. These courts were improved and 
 amended by various acts ; their jurisdiction in London reached to $1. and (until superseded 
 by county-courts) to 40s. in other towns. The practice was by summons, and if the party 
 did not appear, the commissioners had power to apprehend and commit. See Countij Courts. 
 — James II. proclaimed Liberty of Conscience in 1687. Conscience Clause, see Education. 
 
 ■* In 1863, the emperor Napoleon invited the sovereig-ns of Europe to a congress ; which was declined 
 by England Nov. 25, and only conditionally acceded to by other powers. 
 
CON 
 
 202 
 
 COX 
 
 CONSCEIPT FATHERS (patres conscripti) was the lionoiirable designation given to the 
 Roman senators, because their names were written in the registers of the senate. 
 
 CONSCRIPTION', a mode (derived from the Romans) adopted for recruiting the French 
 and otlier armies. On Sept. 5, 1798, a military conscription was ordained in France, com- 
 prehending all the young men from 20 to 25 years of age : from these selections were 
 made. The present law of 1818 (modified in 1824 and 1832) requires a certain annual 
 contingent from each department, — for all the country, 80,000 men, — which may be 
 increased. The duration of service is seven years. Substitutes and exemptions are permitted. 
 A conscription for 350,000 men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous Russian 
 campaign, and in Dec. same year, another for 300,000 after the battle of Leipsic. 
 
 CONSECRATION. Aaron and his sons were consecrated priests, 1490 B.C. (Lev. viii.). 
 The Jewish Tabernacle was dedicated 1490 B.C., and Solomon's Temple, 1004 B.C. 
 (i Kings, viii.). The consecration of churches was instituted in the 2nd century, the temple 
 of worship being dedicated with pious solemnity to God and a patron saint. Anciently the 
 consecration of popes was deferred until the emperor had given his assent to their election. 
 Gregory IV. desired to have his election confirmed by the emperor Louis, in 828. HenauU. 
 The consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is admitted in the reformed religion. 
 The consecration of bishops was ordained in the church of England in 1549. Stow. 
 
 CONSERVATION OF FORCE. The philosophical doctrine that no physical force 
 can be created or destroyed, but may be transferred, is maintained by Grove, Faraday, 
 Helmholtz, Tyndall, and otlier philosophers. See Correlation, 
 
 CONSERVATIVES, a name of modern date, is given to, and accepted by a political 
 party, whose leading principle is the conservation of our ancient national institutions. It 
 sprang up in England at the time when the Orange Societies and lodges were discouraged, 
 1836, and was substituted for Orangemen as a less obnoxious term, and as indicative of 
 milder, but equally constitutional opinions. Conservative has, however, in some measure, 
 changed its signification, and in popular parlance is now opposed to Liberal. Sir Robert 
 Peel acknowledged himself a conservative when reproached by the Irish party in parliament 
 with being an Orangeman ; but the party that afterwards separated from him called their 
 princijiles conservative in contradistinction to his, — his policy and measures being changed. 
 — The Conservative Club was founded in 1840. See Protectionists. 
 
 CONSERVATOIRES, a name given to schools for the cultivation of music on the 
 continent. The celebrated Conservatoire de Musique at Paris began in 1793. 
 
 CONSERVATORS of the Public Liberties. Officers chosen in England to inspect 
 the treasury and correct abuses in administration, 28 Hen. III. 1244. Eapin. Conservators 
 were appointed to see the king's peace ke]it. Pardon. Conservators were formally 
 appointed in every sea-]iort to take cognizance of all ofi"ences committed against the peace 
 uj)on the main sea out of the liberty of the Cinque Ports. Bailey. 
 
 CONSISTORIES for regulating ecclesiastical discipline and divine worship in the 
 Lutheran church in Germany, were established at the reformation — the first at Wittenberg 
 in 1542 ; other consistories were establislied after the peace of Augsburg in 1555. 
 
 CONSISTORY COURT, anciently joined with the hundred coiu-t ; and its original, as 
 divided therefrom, is found in a law of William I., 1079, quoted by lord Coke. The chiei 
 and most ancient consistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is 
 called the Court of Arches (icJiicJi see). 
 
 CONSOLIDATED FUND was formed of the other funds in 1786. On Jan. 5, 1816, the 
 exchequers of Great Britain and Ireland, previously separate, were amalgamated. 
 CONSOLS. See Stocks. 
 
 CONSPIRACIES AND Insurbectioks in Great Britain. Among the recorded con- 
 spiracies, real or suj)posed, the foUowiug are the mqgt remarkable : — 
 
 Of the NoiTuan barons and Waltheof against 
 
 ■yVilUam I. the Conqueror .... 1074 
 Bishop Odo, (fee, against William II. . . . 1088 
 Against Henry II. by his queen and children . 11 73 
 The barons against Henry III. (Sec Barons' 
 
 War) 1258 
 
 Of barons against Henry IV. .... 1400 
 Of the earl of Cambridge and others against 
 Henry V. . , 1415 
 
 Of Lambert Simnel (1487) and Perkiia Warbeck 
 against Henry VII. 1492 
 
 Insurrection of the London apprentices. (See 
 Svil May-dajf) 1517 
 
 Of Anthony Babington and others against Eliza- 
 beth. (See Babington) 1586 
 
 Of Lopez, a Jew, and others . . . . 1594 
 
 Of Patrick York, an Irish foncing-master, hired 
 by the Spaniards to kill the queeu . . „ 
 
CON 
 
 203 
 
 CON- 
 
 CONSPIRACIES, continued. 
 
 Of Walpole, a Jesuit, and squire . . . . 1598 
 Tyrone's insurrection in Ireland . . . ;, 
 The Gunpowder Plot (vjhich see) . . . . 1605 
 Tyrone's conspiracy to surprise the castle of 
 
 Dublin 1607 
 
 Of Sindercomb and others to assassinate Oliver 
 
 Cromwell 1656 
 
 Insurrection of the Puritans .... 1657 
 Insurrection of the Fifth-monarchy men against 
 
 Charles II. 1661 
 
 Of Blood and his associates, who seized the duke 
 of Ormond, wounded him, and would have 
 hanged him ; and who afterwards attempted 
 
 to steal the regalia 1671 
 
 -The pretended conspiracy of the French, 
 Spanish, and English Jesuits to assassinate 
 Charles U., revealed by the infamous Titus 
 Oates, Dr. Tongue, and others . . . 1678 
 The Meal-tub plot (which see) . . . . 1679 
 
 The Rye.-house plot to assassinate the king on 
 his way to Newmarket. (See Rye-house Plot) 1683 
 
 Of lord Preston, the bishop of Ely, and others 
 
 to restore James II. iggj 
 
 Of Granville, a French chevalier, to murder 
 
 king William in Flanders 1692 
 
 The assassination plot (which see) . . . 1696 
 Of Simon Eraser, lord Lovat, against queen 
 
 Anne. (See Rebellions) 1703 
 
 Of the marquess Guiscard . . . ... 1710 
 
 Of James Sheppard, an enthusiast, to assassi- 
 nate George 1 1718 
 
 Of counsellor Layer and others, to bring in the 
 
 Pretender 1722 
 
 Of the Corresponding Society, &c. (which see) 1796-8 
 
 Of colonel Despard 1802 
 
 Of Robert Emmett, in Dublin, when lord Kil- 
 
 warden was kiUed . . . July 23, 1803 
 Of Thistlewood and others, to assassinate the 
 
 king's ministers. (See Cato-street) . . 1820 
 
 Of the Sepoys in India. (See India) . May 10, 1857 
 See Rebellions, Chartists,' &c. 
 
 CONSTABLE OP England, Loed High, The seventh great ofBcer of the crown, and, 
 with the earl marshal, formerly a judge of the court of chivalry, called, in the time of 
 Henry IV., cima militaris, and subseq[uently the court of honour. The power of this officer 
 was so great, that in 1389 a statute was passed for abridging it, and also the power of the 
 eaii marshal {which see). The office existed before the conquest, after which it went by 
 inheritance to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and next in the line of Stafford. . In 1521 it 
 became forfeited to the king in the person of Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, that 
 year attainted for high treason, and has never since been granted to any person, otherwise 
 than pro hdc vice (for this occasion), and that to attend at a coronation or trial by combat. 
 The only instance of a trial by combat being ordered since this office fell into the hands of 
 the crown, was that commanded between lord Eeay and sir David Eamsay, in Nov. 163 1 ; 
 but the king prevented it.* 
 
 CONSTABLE of Scotland, Lokd High. The office was instituted by David I. about 
 1 147. The holder had the keeping of the king's sword, which the king, at his promotion 
 delivered to him naked (and hence the badge of the lord high constable is a naked sword) ; 
 and the absolute command of the king's armies while in the field, in the absence of the king. 
 The jurisdiction of this office came at last to be exercised only in dealing with crimes during 
 the time of parliament, which some extended likewise to all general conventions. The 
 office was conferred heritably in 132 1 on sir Gilbert Hay, created earl of ErroU, by Robert 
 Bruce, and with his descendants it still remains, being expressly reserved by the treaty of 
 union in 1707. The present earl of ErroU is the twenty-second lord high constable (1865). 
 
 CONSTABLES of Hundreds and Franchises, instituted in the reign of Edward I., 1285, 
 are now called high constables. There are three kinds of constables, high, petty, and S2)ecic(,l; 
 the high constable's jurisdiction extends to the whole hundred ; the petty constable's to the 
 parish or liberty for which he is chosen ; and the special constable is appointed for particular 
 occasions and emergencies (as in April, 1848, on account of the Chartists), 
 
 CONSTABULARY FORCE, For that of London, see Police. The Constabulary of 
 Ireland act passed in 1823, when this species of force was embodied throughout the country. 
 Several subsequent acts were consolidated in 1836, 
 
 CONSTANCE, a city in Baden (S. Germany), Here was held the seventeenth general 
 council, 1414, which condemned John Huss j and here he was burnt, July 6, 1415. See 
 Hussites. 
 
 CONSTANTINA, the ancient capital of Numidia, was taken by the French, Oct. 13, 
 1837, During the assault on Oct. 12, the French general Damremont was killed. Achmet 
 Bey retired with 12,000 men, as the victors entered Constantina, 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, formerly Byzantium {which see), derives its name from Constantino 
 the Great, who removed the seat of the Eastern Empire here in 330. It was continually 
 
 " The lord high constable at the coronations respectively of — queen Anne, Wriothesley, duke of Bed- 
 ford, 1702; — of George I., John, duke of Montagu, 1714 ; — of George II., Charles, duke of Eichmond, 
 1727 ;— of George III., John, duke of Bedford, 1761 ;— of George IV., 1821, WiUiam IV., 1831, and Victoria, 
 1838, Arthur, duke of Wellington. 
 
CON 204 CON 
 
 convulsed by factions and religious dissensions. General Ecclesiastical councils were held 
 here in 381, 553, 680, and 869. See Eastern Empire and Turkey. — The Era of Constan- 
 tinople has the creation placed 5508 years B.C. It was used by the Russians until the time 
 of Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. The civil year begins Sept. i, 
 and the ecclesiastical year towards the end of March ; tlie day is not exactly determined. To 
 reduce it to our_era subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 5509 from Sept. to the 
 end. Nicolas. 
 
 CONSTELLATIONS. Arcturus, Orion, the Pleiades, and MazzarolJi, are mentioned in 
 the book of Job, ix. 9, and xxxviii. 31, about 1520 B.C. Homer and Hesiod notice constel- 
 lations ; but though some mode of grouj^ing the visible stars had obtained in veiy early ages, 
 ciir first direct knowledge was derived from Claudius Ptolemajus, about A. D. 140. Hipparchus 
 (about 147 B.C.) made a catalogue of forty-eight constellations. Others were added by Tycho 
 Brahe, Hevelius, Halley, and others. The number at present acknowledged is 29 northern, 
 45 southern, and 12 zodiacal. 
 
 CONSTITUENCIES. See Commo7is. 
 
 CONSTITUTION of England. It comprehends the whole body of laws by which the 
 British people are governed, and to which it is presumptively held that every individual has 
 assented. Zord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government 
 in this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought to govern at 
 all times ; and government is that by which he does govern at any particular time. Lord 
 Bolinghroice. The king of England is not seated on a solitary eminence of power ; on the 
 contrary, he sees his equals in the co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognises 
 his supei'ior in the law. Slicridan. Hallam's "Constitutional History of England " was 
 first published in 1827. 
 
 CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome, 509 B.C., when the Tarquins were 
 expelled. They possessed regal authority for the space of a year ; Lucius Junius Brutus, 
 and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, were the first 
 consuls. A consular government was established in France in 1799, when the directoiy was 
 abolished : on Nov. 10, Bonaitarte, Si^yes, and Roger Ducos were made provisional consular 
 commissioners ; and on Dec. 13, Ijonaparte, Canibaceres, and Lebrun were made consuls. 
 Bonaparte was made first consul for life, May 6, 1802. Commercial agents were first dis- 
 tinguished by the name of consuls in Italy in 1485, being appointed by Richard III. A 
 British consul was first appointed in Portugal in 1633. 
 
 CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, the name given to Napoleon's plan to exclude the British 
 merchandise from the entire continent. It began with his Berlin decree in 1806, and 
 occasioned by the Orders in Council {which see). 
 
 CONTRABAND of War, a term said to have been first employed in the treaty of 
 Southampton between England and Spain in 1625. During the struggle between Spain and 
 Holland both powers acted with much rigour towards ships of neutrals conveying goods to 
 the belligerents. This pirovoked the resistance of England. A milder policy was adopted by 
 the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650 ; and by the declaration of Paris, April 26, 1856. The subject 
 has been much discussed during the North American conflict, 186 1-4. 
 
 CONTRACTORS with Government, disqualified from sitting in parliament, 1782. 
 
 CONTRIBUTIONS, Volxtntary, to a vast amount have been several times made by 
 the British people in aid of the government. The most remarkable of these in 1798, to 
 support the war against France, amounted to two millions and a half sterling. Several men 
 of wealth, among others Sir Robert Peel, of Buiy, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,000?. ; 
 and 200,000?. were transmitted from India in 1799. See Patriotic Fund. 
 
 CONTROL, Board of. Mr. Pitt's biU, establishing this board for the purpose of aiding 
 and controlling the executive government of India, and of superintending the territorial 
 concerns of the company, was passed May 18, 1784. Act amended and the board remodelled, 
 1793. The president of the board was a chief minister of the crown, and necessaiily one 
 of the members of the cabinet. This board was abolished in 1858, when the government of 
 India was transfen-ed from the company to the crown. See India Bills, and India. 
 
 CONVENTICLES, private assemblies for religious worship, held by dissenters from the 
 established church ; but first applied to the schools of Wicklift'. They were strictly forbidden 
 by Elizabeth in 1593, and by Charles II., 1664 ; and persons attending them were liable to 
 severe punishment. The statutes were repealed by "William 111. in 1689, 
 
Of England and United States . Nov. 26, 1826 
 
 Of Spain, for satisfying the claims of British 
 
 merchants June 26, 1828 
 
 Ot the Viceroy of Egypt and sir E. Codrington, 
 
 for restoring Greek captives, &c. . Aug. 6, ,, 
 Of France with Brazil . . . Aug. 74, „ 
 Convention between Holland and Belgium, 
 
 signed in London . . . April 19, 1839 
 Of England with Austria, Russia, Prussia, and 
 
 Turkey, for the settlement of the Eastern 
 
 question July 15, 1810 
 
 Of France and England, respecting the slave 
 
 trade May 29, 1845 
 
 Of England with the Argentine Republic 
 
 Oct. 24, 1849 
 Of France and Italy, respecting the occupation 
 
 of Rome Sept. 15, 1864 
 
 Of Austria and Prussia, respecting Holstein, 
 
 Schleswig, and Lauenburg (see Gastein) 
 
 CON 205 COO 
 
 CONVENTION" PARLIAMENTS. Two memorable parliaments (especially distinguished 
 by this term), assembled without the king's writ upon extraordinary occasions. The first 
 held on April 25, 1660, voted the restoration of Charles II. ; the second, held Jan. 1689, by 
 a majority of two voices, declared for a new sovereign William III. (and Mary), in preference 
 to a regent, which had been proposed. See National Convention. 
 
 CONVENTIONS. The following are the principal conventions between Great Britain 
 and foreign powers, and by foreign powers with each other. They are more fully described 
 in their respective j)laces through the volume : — 
 
 Of Closterseven Sept. 8, 1757 
 
 Of Armed Neutrality . . . July 9, 1780 
 
 Of POnitz July 20, 1791 
 
 Of Paris (French National) instituted Sept. 17, 1792 
 
 Of Cintra Aug. 30, 1808 
 
 Of Berlin Nov. 5, ,, 
 
 Of Peterswalden July 8, 1813 
 
 Of Paris . . . . ■ . . April 23, 1814 
 Of the Dutch with England . . Aiig. 13, ,, 
 Of Vienna ; Saxony placed under the control 
 
 of Prussia Sept. 28, ,, 
 
 Of Zurich, signed ■. . . . May 20, 1813 
 Of Capua, with Murat . . . May 20, „ 
 Of St. Cloud, between Davoust, and Wellington, 
 
 and Blucher July 5, „ 
 
 Of Paris, with the allies . . . April 25, 1818 
 Of Aix-la-chapelle .... Oct. g, ,, 
 Of Austria, with England : the latter agrees to 
 
 accept 2, 500,000^ as a composition for claims 
 
 on Austria, amountingto 30,000,000?. sterhng 1824 I ~ Aug. 14, 
 
 Of England with Russia . . Feb. 28, 1825 | See Treaties. 
 
 CONVENTS were first founded, according to some authorities, 270. The first in 
 England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. Camden. The first in Scotland 
 was at Coldingham, where Ethelreda took the veil in 670. They were founded earlier than 
 this last date in Ireland. They were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly 
 in that of Henry VIII., and few existed in Great Britain till lately.* A very great 
 number have been suppressed in Europe in the present century. The emperor of Russia 
 abolished 187 convents of monks by an ukase dated July 31, 1832. The king of Prussia 
 followed his example, and secularised all the coiivents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro 
 put down 300 convents in Portugal in 1834 ; and Spain has abolished 1800 convents. Many 
 were abolished in Italy and Sicily in i860 and 1861 ; and in Russia in Nov. 1864. 
 
 CONVICTS. See Transioortation. 
 
 CONVOCATION. A general assembly of the clergy in the nation, convened by the 
 sovereign's writ, to consult on the affairs of the church, and directed to the archbishop of 
 each province, requiring him to summon all the bishops, deacons, archdeacons, &c. The 
 convocation is divided into two houses, called the upper, consisting of the bishops ; and 
 lower, consisting of the deans, prebendaries, archdeacons, and members elected from the 
 lower clergy. The clergy were summoned to meet the king by writ, 23 Edw. I. 1295. The 
 power of the convocation was limited by a statute of Henry VI II., in whose reign the 
 convocation was reorganised. The two houses of convocation were deprived of various 
 privileges in 17 16. Formal meetings of the clergy have been held annually since 1854, and 
 attempts have been made to obtain the power of dealing summarily with ecclesiastical ati'airs, 
 but without effect. 
 
 CONVOLVULUS, The Canary Convolvulus {Convolvulus Canariensis) came to England 
 from the Canary Isles, 1690. The many-floM'ered convolvulus in 1779. 
 
 COOKERY, an art connected with civilised life. Animals were granted as food to Noah, 
 2348, B.C., the eating blood being expressly forbidden {Gen. ix. 3, 4). In 1898 B.C. a calf was 
 cooked by Abraham to entertain his guests {Gen. xviii. 7, 8). " The Forme of Cury " {i.e. 
 cookery) is dated 1390. An English cookery-book was printed 1498. t See Cottager's Stove. 
 
 * Iw 1597, lady Mary Percy founded a convent at Brussels, which flourished there tiU 1794, when the 
 nuns were compelled to remove to England. They were received by bishop Milner, and placed at "Winches- 
 ter, at which place they remained till their removal to East Bergholt, in Suffolk, June, 1857. This was 
 the first English conventual establishment founded on the continent after the Reformation.— It is stated 
 that there were 16 convents in England in 1841, 53 in 1861, and 189 in 1865. 
 
 t Military Cookery. — Capt. Grant devised a system of cooking for the camp at Aldenshot, which has 
 continued in successfixl operation for the service of between 12,000 and 14,000 men. Froni April to August, 
 ill 1857, the plan was subjected to the severe test of cookim? for 92,000 men, wbo marched in and out of the 
 encampment during that period. The consumption of fuel requisite for this system of cooking is one halfv 
 
coo 206 COP 
 
 COOK'S VOYAGES. James Cook, accompanied by sir Joseph Banks, sailed from 
 England in the Endeavour on liis first voyage, July 30, 1 768 ; * and returned home after 
 haAdng circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead July 13, 1771. Captain Cook sailed 
 to explore the southern hemisphere, July, 1772, and returned in July, 1775. In his third 
 expedition he was killed by the savages of Owhyliee, Feb. 14, 1779. His ships, the B£So- 
 luiion and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780. 
 
 COOPERAGE, an ancient art, probably suggested for preserving wine. The coopers of 
 London were incorporated in 1501. 
 
 CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES are composed of working men, having for their object 
 the sale cf articles of daily consumption to the members at low prices. The Rochdale 
 Equitable Pioneers Society began in 1844, with a capital of 28^. In i860, the business done 
 amounted to 152,063?., the profits being 15,906?. These societies (in 1862, 332) are registered 
 pursuant to 13 & 14 Vict. c. 115 (1849). 
 
 COORG, a province (S. India). War broke out between the rajah and the East India 
 Company, 1832, which ended by col. Lindsay defeating and deposing the rajah, April 10, 
 1834 ; his territories were soon after annexed to the British possessions. In 1853 the rajah 
 brought his daughter to be educated in England, where she was baptized.' 
 
 COPENHAGEN (Denmark), built by "VValdemar I., 1157, and made the capital 1443 ; 
 university founded 1479. In 1728, more than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were 
 burnt. Its palace, valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 
 persons lost their lives. In a fire Avhich lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal, admiralty, and 
 fifty .streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bombarded by the English under lord 
 Nelson and admiral Parker ; and in their engagement Avith the Danish fleet of twenty-three 
 ships of the line, eighteen were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, 
 after a bombardment of three days, the city and Danish fleet surrendered to admiral Gambler 
 and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen 
 frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun-boats, and immense naval stores. See Denmark. 
 
 COPENHAGEN FIELDS (N. London). Here the Corresponding Society met on 
 Oct. 26, 1796 ; and the Trades' Union, April 21, 1834. The fields are now occupied by the 
 Metropolitan Cattle-market, opened June 13, 1855. 
 
 COPERNICAN SYSTEM, so called from its author Nicolas Coperniciis, born at Thorn, 
 Feb. 19, 1473, died May 2, 1543. A few days before his death, the printing of his book on 
 the "Revolution of the Celestial Bodies" was completed. The system, which resembles that 
 attributed to Pythagoras, Avas condemned by a decree of pope Paul V. in 1616, which was 
 not revoked till 1821 by Pius VII. The sun is supposed to be in the centre and immoveable, 
 and the earth and the rest of the planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens 
 and stars are imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion wliich they seem to have from 
 east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east. 
 
 COPLEY MEDAL. See Royal Society. 
 
 COPPER. One of the six primitive metals, said to have been first discovered in Cj^nis. 
 Pliny. We read in the Scriptirres of two vessels of fine copper (or brass), "ijrecious as 
 gold," 457 B.C. {Ezra\i\\. 27). The mines of Fahlun, in Sweden, are the most surprising 
 artificial excavations in the world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and 
 copper now forms an immense branch of trade : there are upwards of fifty mines in Cornwall, 
 ■where mining has been increasing since the reign of William III. In 1857, 75,832 tons of 
 copper ore were imported, and 25,241 tons extracted. The Burra-Burra copper-mines, iu 
 S. Australia, were discovered in 1842. They have brought great prosperity to that colony. The 
 
 pound of coal per man per day, and the official report states the cost to be one halfpenny per man per 
 week for the thi'ee daily meals. — Self-sui)porting Cooking Depots for the working classes were set up at 
 Glasgow (by Mr. Thomas Corbett), Sept. 21, i860; and proved successful in Manchester, London, and other 
 places soon after. 
 
 * A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 1768, setting forth the advantages 
 •which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit of Venus over 
 the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavour was, in consequence, prepared for that pur- 
 pose, and the command of her given to lieutenant James Cook. He sailed in July, 1 768, touched at Madeira 
 and Bio de Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous voyage reached Otabeitc, the place of desti- 
 nation, in ApiH, 1769. By a comparison of the observations made on this transit (June 3, 1769) from the 
 various parts of the globe on which it was viewed by men of science, the system of the universe has, in some 
 particulars, been better vjnderstood ; the distance of the siui from the earth, as calculated by this and 
 the transit in 1761, was settled at 108,000,000 miles, instead of the commonly received computation of 
 95,000,000. Butler. It is now computed to be 95,298,260 miles (1865). 
 
COP 
 
 207 
 
 COP 
 
 Copper Money. The Romans, prior to the reign of 
 Servius TuUiiis, used rude pieces of copper for 
 money. See Com. In England, copper money 
 was made at the instance of sir Robert Cotton, 
 in 1609 ; but was fii-st really coined (when Miss 
 Stewart sat for the figure of Britannia) . . 1665 
 
 Its regular coinage began in 1672, and it was 
 largely issued in 1689 
 
 In Ireland, copper was coined as early as 1339 ; 
 in Scotland, in 1406; in France, in . . . 1580 
 
 Wood's coinage (which see) in Ireland com- 
 menced in 1723 
 
 The copper coinage was largely manufactured 
 at Birmingham, by Boulton and Watt, in . 1792 
 
 first sliip towhicli a slieatliins; of copper was applied was liis majesty's ship A larm, at Woolwich, 
 in 1 76 1, "to preserve her from worms in southern climates :" it gave great satisfaction, and 
 in 1780 all ships in the British navy were copper-bottomed. — About 1850 the electro-type 
 process was first employed to face with copper printing types and casts from woodcuts. 
 
 Penny and two-penny pieces wei-e extensively 
 issued, 1797. The half-farthing was coined 
 in, but disused Xsee ii'art/m!(/) . ... 1843 
 
 io,oooi!. voted towards replacing the copper 
 
 coinage July, 1853 
 
 See Bronze. 
 
 Copper-Plate Printing was first invented in 
 Germany, about 1450; and rolUng-presses for 
 working the plates about .... 1545 
 
 Messrs. 'Perkins, of Philadelphia, invented a 
 mode of engraving on soft steel, which, when 
 hardened, will multiply copper-plates and 
 fine impressions indefinitely (see Engraving) 1819 
 
 COPPERAS, a mineral composed of copper or iron combined with sulplmric acid (vitriol), 
 found in coinper-mines, commonly of a green or blue colour ; first produced in England by 
 Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. 
 
 COPPERHEADS, a name given about 1863 to such members of the Democrat party ,ia 
 the United States as were in favour of peace with the South on any terms. 
 
 COPTS, in Egypt, the supposed descendants of the ancient Egyptians, mingled with 
 Greeks and Persians. Their religion is a form of Christianity derived from the Eutychians. 
 
 COPYHOLDERS, who hold an estate by a copy of the rolls of a manor made by a 
 steward of the lord's court. They Avere enfranchised by 5 Vict. c. 35, 1841. By. the Reform 
 Act in 1832, copyholders to the amount of lol. became entitled to a vote for the county. The 
 copyhold acts were amended by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 94 (1858). 
 
 COPYRIGHT. Decree of the Star-chamber regarding it, 1556. Every book and publi- 
 cation ordered to be licensed, 1585. 
 
 12 months' copyright granted to designs ap- 
 plied to all tissues except lace and those 
 already provided for ; for the modelling, em- 
 bossing, and engraving of any manufacture 
 not being a tissue ; and for the shape or con- 
 figuration of any article .... 1839 
 
 By s & 6 Vict. c. 100, the existing designs acts 
 all repealed (except that for sculpture), and 
 provision made for including all ornamental 
 designs under 13 classes, and conferring upon 
 them terms of protection, varying from nine 
 
 months to three years 1842 
 
 [Pees on registration vary from is. to iL] 
 
 The " non-ornamental designs act," securing 
 the configuration of articles of utility (fee 
 loJ.), passed in 1843 
 
 By the ''designs act," the Board of Trade is 
 empowered to extend the copyright for an 
 additional term of three years . . . 1850 
 
 Copyright of photographs secured by the act, 
 protecting works of art, passed in . July, 1862 
 
 Ordinance forbidding the printing of any work 
 without the consent of the owner . . 1649 
 
 The first copyright act (for 14 years, and for the 
 author's life if then living) was that of 8 
 Anne ........ ^1709 
 
 Protection of copyright in prints and engrav- 
 ings, 17 Geo. Ill 1777 
 
 Copyright protection act (for 28 years, and the 
 remainder of the author's life if then living), 
 54 Geo. III. 1814 
 
 jpramatic authors' protection act, 3 Will. IV. 
 c. IS 1833 
 
 Act for preventing the publication of lectures 
 without consent, 6 WiU. IV. c. 65 . . . 1835 
 
 International copyright bill, I Vict. . . 1838 
 
 S & 6 Vict. c. 45 (Talfourd's or lord Mahon's 
 act),t to amend the copyright act passed . 1842 
 
 The colonies' copyright act, 10 & 11 Vict., c. 95, 
 
 ti847 
 
 COPYRIGHT FOR DESIGNS. 
 
 Protection granting security for two months to 
 new designs applied by printing to linens, 
 caUcoes, and muslins 1787 
 
 Extended to three months 1794 
 
 A copyright of 14 years conferred on sculpture 1798 
 
 and 1814 
 
 The designs act of Geo. III. made to embrace 
 printed designs on wool, silk, and hair ; and 
 
 INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. 
 
 In 1838 and 1852 acts were passed to secure to 
 authors, in certain cases, the benefits of inter- 
 national copyright (i <fe 2 Vict. c. 59, and 15 
 Vict. c. 12), and conventions have, in conse- 
 quence, been entered into with Prance, Prus- 
 sia, &c. 
 
 ■* This act was confirmed by a memorable decision at the bar of the house of lords, and the claim of 
 perpetual copyright was overruled, Feb. 22, 1774. The statute declared the author to have an exclusive 
 right for 14 years, and if at the end of that term he were living, the right to return to him again for the 
 same term of years. Later acts extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that 
 time, then to the remainder of his Ufe. 
 
 + By this act, the right is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years after bis death ; but 
 if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is still to endure for 42 years, for which term also any 
 work published after the author's death is to continue the property of the owners of the manuscript. 
 
 t The important question of a foreigner possessing a copyright in this country was finally decided in 
 the negative by the house of lords, in August, 1854, which reversed the decision of the court of exchequer. 
 
COR 
 
 208 
 
 COR 
 
 CORBIESDALE, Caithness (N. Scotland). Here, on April 27, 1650, the gallant mar- 
 quess of Montrose was defeated by the Covenanters. He was taken soon after, treated with 
 gi-eat contumely, and hanged at Edinburgh, on May 21. 
 
 CORCYRA (now Corfu, chief of the Ionian Isles), a colony founded by the Corin- 
 thians about 734 B.C. It had frequent wars with the mother country, one about the 
 possession of Epidamnus (431 B.C.) led to the Peloponnesian war. It was subdued by the 
 Spartans in 373, and by the Romans, 230. At the decline of the eastern empire it fell into 
 the hands of the Venetians about a.d. 1149. The Turks attacked Corfu in 1716, but were 
 gallantly repulsed. It was subdued by the Russian and Turkish fleets in 1799, and formed 
 (with the other isles) into the Ionian republic. See Ionian Isles. 
 
 CORDELIERS, friars of the order of St. Francis d'Assisi (the Minorites) instituted about 
 1223. Tliey are clothed in coarse grey cloth, with a small cowl and cloak of the same 
 material, having a girdle of cord or rope, tied with three knots, and hence the name, which 
 was first given to them by St. Louis of France, about 1227. Several members of the French 
 revolutionary party, termed "Cordeliers," established at Paris in 1790, Hebert Cloots, &c., 
 were executed March 24, 1794. 
 
 CORDOVA, the ancient Corduba, a Roman city in Spain, taken by the Goths in 572, 
 and made the capital of an Arab kingdom by Abderahman in 757. It became eminent 
 for its learned men, and was the birthplace of Seneca and Lucan under the Romans, and of 
 the great Arabian physician AA'errhoes. It was rescued from the Arabs by Ferdinand III., 
 of Castile, in 1236, and was taken by the French in 1809 ; but abandoned by them in 1813. 
 
 CORFU. See Corcyra. 
 
 CORINTH (Greece), a city, said to have been built, 1520 B.C., on the ruins of Ephyra. 
 It was defended by an elevated fortress called Acrocorinth, suiTOunded Avith strong walls. 
 Its situation was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the Eye of Greece, and declared, that 
 of all the cities known to the Romans, Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great 
 empire. — For Corinth, in North America, see United States, 1862, 1863. 
 
 The Isthmian games instituted, it is stated, by 
 
 ■^ Sisyphus, who founded a kingdom . B.C. 1326 
 
 Return of the HeraclidiU 1107 
 
 Their dynasty established by Aletes . . 1074 
 
 The Corinthians invent ships called triremes, 
 
 with three benches of oars . . 786 or 758 
 
 Eeign of Bacchis, 925 ; oligarchy of the Bacchidfe 
 
 747-657 
 Thelestes deposed, and the government of the 
 
 Prytanes instituted : Automenes is the first 
 
 on whom this dignity is confeiTed, about . 745 
 A colony goes to Sicily, and founds the colonies 
 
 of Syracuse and Corcyra, about . . . 734 
 
 Revolt of the Corcyreans : they defeat the 
 
 Corinthians at sea ...... 664 
 
 Cypselus, a despot, sets aside the Prytanes . 655 
 His son Periander rules, and favours genius 
 
 and learning 627-585 
 
 Psammetichus deposed, and a republic formed 580 
 
 The Corinthians engaged in the Persian war b. c. 480 
 
 War with the Corcyreans 435 
 
 The Corinthian war (which see) .... 395 
 Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus, and an- 
 nexed to the Achwan League . . . . 243 
 The Roman ambassadors first appear at Corinth 228 
 Corinth destroyed by Lucius Mummius, who 
 sends to Italy the first fine paintings there 
 seen, they being part of the spoil {Liv>/) . 146 
 
 Rebuilt by Julius Cassar 46 
 
 Visited by St. Paul (Acts xviii.) . .a.d. 54 
 His two epistles to the Corinthians . . 59, 60 
 
 Ravaged by Alaric 396 
 
 Plundered by Normans from Sicily . . . 1146 
 Taken by Turks, 1446 ; by Venetians, 1687 ; by 
 Turks, 1715 ; from whom it was finally taken 
 
 by the Greeks in 1823 
 
 Coriuth nearly destroyed by an earthquake 
 
 Feb. 21, 1858 
 
 CORINTHIAN ORDER, the richest of the ordefs of ancient architecture, called by 
 Scamozzi, the virginal order, is attributed to Callimachus, 540 b. c. See A hocus. 
 
 CORINTHIAN WAR, which began 395 B.C., received this name, because the battles 
 were mostly fought in the neighbourhood of Corinth, by a confederacy of the Athenians, 
 Thebans, Corinthians, and 'Argives, against the Lacedaemonians. It was closed by the 
 l^eace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C. The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuctra ■ 
 {which see). 
 
 CORK, S. Ireland, built in the 6th century. The principality of the M'Cartys was 
 converted into a shire by king John, as lord of Ireland. The foundation of the see is 
 ascribed to St. Barr, or Finbarr, early in the 7th century. About 143 1, this see and that of 
 Cloyne were canonically united; but on the death of bishop Synge, ini678, theywere separated, 
 the see of Ross having been added to Cork about a century before, 1582. No valuation is 
 returned of this see iu the king's books ; but in a manuscript in Marsh's library, it is taxed 31 
 
 on an appeal by the defendant in the case of Boosey v. Jeffrey. (In 1S31, Mr. Boosey purchased the copy- 
 right of Bellini's opera. La SonnambvXa, from which Mr. Jeffrey published a cavatina. Six of the judges 
 were for protecting foreign copyrights, and seven of a contrary opinion.) 
 
COR 
 
 209 
 
 COR 
 
 Eliz. at 40^., sterling ; and in a MS. in the college library at 25Z. The sees of Cork and 
 Cloyne were again united in 1833. A chapter was gi-anted to the city by Henry III. in 
 1242 ; its great charter was granted by Charles I. 
 
 Explosion of gunpowder here . Nov. 10, 1810 
 One of the three colleges, endowed by govern- 
 ment pursuant to act 8 & g Vict. c. 66, passed 
 July 31, 1845, was inaugurated in this city. 
 See Queen's Colleges. . . . Nov. 7, 1849 
 Railway to Dubhn finished in . . . . 1850 
 Cork industrial exhibition opened, June 10, 
 and closed Sept. 11, 1852 
 
 A large part of the town was consumed by an 
 
 awful fire in 1621 
 
 Taken by Cromwell in 1649 
 
 The earl of Marlborough besieged and took 
 
 Cork from king James's army, when the 
 
 duke of Grafton, a natural son of Charles II., 
 
 was slain 1690 
 
 The cathedral was rebuilt by the produce of a 
 
 coal duty, between the years . . 1725 & 1735 
 
 CORK-TREE, Quercus suber, a species of the oak ; part of its bark is the cork used for 
 stopping bottles. The Egyptians made coffins of cork. The tree grows in great abundance 
 on the Pyrenean mountains, and in other parts of Spain, in Erance, and in the north 
 of New England. It was brought to England about 1690. A cork carpet company was 
 fonned in 1862. 
 
 CORN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who, having taught the art 
 to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 B.C. Arundelicin Marbles. The art of 
 husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed 
 by the Chinese to Ching Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 
 B.C. Univ. Hist. Corn provided a common article of food from the earliest ages of the 
 world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages. See Exodus xii. 15. Wheat 
 was introduced into Britain in the 6th centmy by Coll ap Coll Erewi. Roberts's Hist. Anc. 
 Britons, The first importation of corn, of which we have a note, was in 1347. A law 
 restricting it was made in 1361. Bounties were granted on its importation into England in 
 1686. — The new London Corn Exchange, Mark-lane, London, erected at an expense of 
 90,000?., replacing one established in 1747, was opened June 24, 1828. 
 
 CORN-LAWS. 
 
 The restrictions on the importation of com are 
 felt, in consequence of the increase of manu- 
 factures, about 1770 ; they were relaxed in . 1773 
 
 Mr. Robinson's act passed, permitting its im- 
 portation when wheat should be 80s. per 
 quarter 1815 
 
 During the discussions on this bill, mobs as- 
 sembled in London, and many of the houses 
 of its supporters were damaged, Jan. 28 ; and 
 a riot in Westminster continued several days 
 and occasioned much mischief, March 21, et 
 seq „ 
 
 The corn bill, after passing in the commons, is 
 
 Average per quarter. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 Shtllinga. Shillinga. 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 
 under 51 
 
 100 
 
 SI and under 52 
 
 19 
 
 52 and under 55 
 
 18 
 
 55 and under 56 
 
 17 
 
 56 and under 57 
 
 16 
 
 57 and under 58 
 
 IS 
 
 58 and under 59 
 
 14 
 
 The Corn Importation Bill (introduced by sir 
 Robert Peel), 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22 (by which the 
 duty on wheat was reduced to 4s. when im- 
 ported at or above S3«-. until ist Feb. 1849; 
 after which day the duty became is. per 
 
 defeated in the house of lords by a clause, 
 proposed by the duke of Wellington, which is 
 carried by a majority of 4 . . June i, 1827 
 
 The act (called the sliding scale) ■wherebywhe^t 
 was allowed to be imported on payment of a 
 duty of il. 5s. Sd. per quarter, whenever the 
 average price of all England was under 62s. ; 
 from 62s. to 63s., il. 4-5. 8d. ; and so gradually 
 reduced to is., when the average price was 
 73s. and upwards, passed . . July 15, 1828 
 
 The act s Viot. c. 14, passed 29th April, 1842, 
 the second " sliding scale act," regulated the 
 duty on wheat as follows, with sliding duties, 
 also, on other articles of corn : — 
 
 quarter only, on all kinds of grain imported 
 into the United Kingdom, at any prices), re- 
 ceived the royal assent . . June 26, 
 See Anti-Corn- Law League. 
 
 Average per quarter. 
 
 Duty 
 
 
 Average per quarter. 
 
 Shillings. Shillings. 
 
 £ «. 
 
 d. 
 
 Shillings. Shillings 
 
 S9 and under 60 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 66 and under 69 
 
 60 and under 61 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 69 and under 70 
 
 61 and under 62 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 70 and under 71 
 
 62 and under 63 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 71 and under 72 
 
 63 and under 64 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 72 and under 73 
 
 64 and under 65 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 73 and upwards 
 
 6s and under 66 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 CORNWALL, S.W. extremity of England, originally called Kcrnou, a term, connected 
 with the Latin cornu, a horn, in allusion to its numerous promontories or projecting points. 
 On the retreat of the ancient Britons, Cornwall is said to have been formed into a kingdom, 
 and to have existed many years under different princes, among whom Avere Ambrosius 
 Aurelius, and the celebrated Arthur. It was erected into a dukedom by Edward III. March 
 17, 1337, and the heir to the crown of England, if a prince, is born duke of Cornwall, but is 
 immediately afterwards created prince of Wales. The Cornish insurgents, iinder Thomas 
 Hammock, were defeated at Blackheath, June 22, 1497. A powerful insun-ection on account 
 of the establishing the Protestant liturgy in place of the mass, began in Cornwall and Devon 
 in June, and was suppressed, after much bloodshed, in December, 1549. The last person 
 
COR 210 COR 
 
 who spoke the Cornish dialect is said to have been Dolly Pentreath, who died aged 102 at 
 Penzance in 1778. The prince and princess of "Wales visited Cornwall in July, 1865. See 
 Stannary Courts. 
 
 CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop was that of Majocianns, at Constan- 
 tinople, 457. Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the west by the pope, Leo III., Dec. 
 25, 800, The ceremony of anointing at coronations was introduced in England in 872, and 
 into Scotland in 1097. The coronation of Henry III. took place, in the first instance, 
 without a crown, at Gloucester, Oct. 28, 1216. A plain circle was used on this occasion in 
 lieu of the crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John, in 
 passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach. At the coronation of William 
 and Mary, the bishop of London put the croM'n on the king's head, as Dr. Bancroft, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, would not take the oaths to their majesties. George IV. was crowned 
 July 19, 1821. William IV. crowned, with his queen, Sept. 8, 1831 : and Victoria, June 
 28, 1838. 
 
 Coronation Chair. In the cathedral of Cashel, 
 formerly the metropolis of the kings of Ahmster, 
 was deposited the Lia Fail, or Fatal Stone, on 
 which they were crowned. In 513, Fergus, a 
 prince of the royal line, having obtained the Scot- 
 tish throne, procured the use of this stone for his 
 coronation at Dunstaffnage, where it continued 
 until tlie time of Kenneth II., who removed it to 
 
 Scone ; and in 1296, it was removed by Edward I. 
 from Scone to Westminster. 
 The Coronation Oath was first administered to the 
 kings of England by Dunstan (archbshop of Can- 
 terbury), to Ethelred II., in 978. An oath, nearly 
 coiTespondiiig with that now in use, wa^ adminis- 
 tered in 1377, and was altered in 1689. 
 
 CORONEA, Battles of. i. (or Chseronea). The Athenians Avere defeated and their 
 general Tolmidcs slain in a battle with the Boeotians at Coronea near Ch^ronea, 447 B.C. 
 2. The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having entered into a league, ofiensive 
 and defensive, against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror of his anns, from his many 
 victories, even into Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coronea, a town of Boeotia, and 
 achieved a great victory over them, 394 B.C. 
 
 CORONERS, officers of the realm in 925. Coroners for every county in England were 
 first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edw. I. 1276. Stow. They are chosen for life 
 by the freeholders, and their duty is to inquire into the cause of violent or unnatural death, 
 upon view of the body. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Malcolm II., 
 about ICXD4. By an act passed in 1843, coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act 
 for them in case of illness. — 20,531 coroners' inquests were held in England and Wale.s^ 
 in 1859 ; 21,178 in i860 ; 21,038 in 1861 ; 50,591 in 1862 ; 22,757 in 1863 ; and 24,787 
 in 1864. 
 
 CORONETS, caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish the rank of the 
 nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry III. ; for viscounts by Henry 
 VIIL; and for barons by Charles II. Baker. But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, 
 earl of Salisbury, was the first of the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604. It is uncer- 
 tain when the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled. JBeatson. 
 
 CORPORATIONS are stated by Livy to have been of very high antiquity among the 
 Romans, by whom they were introduced into other countries. They were finst planned by 
 Nunia, in order to break the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by insti- 
 tuting separate societies of every manual trade and profession. Plutarch. 
 
 CORPORATIONS, Municipal, in England. Bodies politic, authorised by the king's- 
 charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and members, who are able, by 
 their common consent, to grant or receive in law any matter within the compass of their 
 charter. Cowel. Corporations were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of 
 England to various towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. granted charters, iioo : 
 ♦and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them to numerous large 
 communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths, and conditions. Blackstone. The 
 Corporation and Test act, passed in i66i, was repealed in May, 1828. The Corporation 
 Reform act, for the regulation of municipal corporations in England and Wales, 5 & 6 Will. 
 IV. c. 76 (1835). The Irish Municipal Corporation act, 4 Vict. c. 108, passed in 1840, was 
 amended in 186 1. 
 
 CORPULENCE. In Germany some fat monks have weighed eighteen stone. Render. 
 Of modern instances known in this country was Mr. Bright, a tallow-chandler and grocer, 
 of Maldon, in Essex, who died in the 29th year of his age. Seven persons of the common 
 size were with ease enclosed in his waistcoat. He was buried at All Saints, Maldon, Nov. 
 12, 1750. Daniel Lambert, supposed to have been the heaviest man that ever lived, died 
 
COR 211 COR 
 
 in his 40th year, at Stamford, in Lincolnshire, weighing ten stone more than Mr. Bright, 
 Jnne 21, 1809. He is said to have weighed 52 stone, 11 pounds. James Mansfield died at 
 Debden, Nov. 9, 1856, aged 82, weighing 34 stone.* 
 
 CORPUS CHRISTI, a festival in the Roman catholic church, in honour of the doctrine 
 of transiibstantiation, kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. It was institiited by 
 pope Urban IV. between 1262 and 1264, and confirmed by the council of Vienne in 131 1. 
 
 "CORRELATION or the PHYSICAL FORCES" is the title of a book by Mr. W. R. 
 Grove, F.R.S., who in 1S42 enunciated the theory of the correlation or mutual dependence 
 and convertibility into each other of all the forces of nature (viz. heat, light, electricity, 
 magnetism, chemical affinity, and motion). 
 
 CORRESPONDING SOCIETY of LONDON, was formed about 1791 to spread liberal 
 opinions and check the tyranny of the British government, then much alarmed by the 
 French revolution. Home Tooke and other members were tried and acquitted, Oct. 1794. 
 See Trials, 1794. The meetings of the society at Copenhagen-fields and elsewhere, in Oct. 
 and Nov. 1796, were termed treasonable. — On AprU 21, 1798, Messrs. O'Connor, O'Coigley, 
 and others, were tried for corresponding with the French directory ; and James O'Coigley 
 was executed as a traitor {protesting his innocence) on June 7th. 
 
 CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, ^qq Mercury. 
 
 CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT, respecting elections for members of parliament, was 
 passed in 1854, and continued in 1861. 
 
 CORSICA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, called by the Greeks Cijrnos. The 
 ancient inhabitants were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists, 
 according to Seneca when he lived among them. Corsica was colonised by Phocteans 564 
 B.C., and afterwards held by the Carthaginians, from whom it was taken by the Romans, 
 231 B.C. In modern times, it was nominally dependent upon Genoa, until 1768, when it 
 was ceded to France. During a revolt it was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its 
 first and only king, in I736.f The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by 
 the Corsicans, in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vaux, and fled to England, 1769. 
 The people acknowledged Geo. III. of England for their king, June 17, 1794, when sir 
 Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, who opened a parliament in 1795. A revolt was sup- 
 pressed in June, 1796 ; and the island was relinquished by the British, Oct. 22, same year, 
 when the people declared for the French, who still retain it. Napoleon I. was born at 
 Ajaccio in Corsica on Aug. 15, 1769. A statiie to his memory was inaugurated by prince 
 Napoleon Jerome, May 15, 1865. 
 
 CORTES, the Spanish parliament, originating in the old Gothic councils. The coivtes 
 were assembled after a long interval of years, Sept. 24, 1810 ; and settled the new constitxi- 
 tion, March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who banished 
 many members of the assemblj^ in May, 1814. The cortes were opened by him in 1820, and 
 dissolved in 1823 ; again assembled in 1834, and have since been regularly convened. The 
 cortes of Portugal assembled by virtue of don Pedro's charter, Oct. 30, 1826 ; they were 
 suppressed by don Miguel in 1828, and restored in 1833. 
 
 CORUNNA (N."W. Spain). The' British army, about 15,000 men, tinder the command 
 of sir John Moore, had just accomplished a safe retreat when they were attacked by the 
 French, whose force exceeded 20,000 : the enemy were completely repulsed, but the loss of 
 the British in the battle was immense, Jan. 16, 1809. Sir John was struck by a cannon- 
 ball, which carried away his left shoulder and part of the collar-bone, leaving the arm hang- 
 ing by the flesh ; he died universally lamented. The remains of the army hastily embarked 
 at Corunna, Jan. 17, under sir David Baird. 
 
 * In 1863, Mr. Wm. Banting piiblislied a letter on corpulence, recommending, from his own experience, 
 as a remedy, great moderation in the use of sugar and starch in diet. 50,000 copies of this letter were 
 speedily sold or given away. 
 
 t He came to England, where he was imprisoned in the King's Bench prison for debt, and for many 
 years subsisted on the benevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insolvency, in 
 1756, he gave in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica as an estate to his creditors, and died the same year 
 at his lodgings in Soho. The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet near his gi-ave in St. 
 Anne's church. Dean-street : — 
 
 " The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 
 Heroes and beggai-s, galley-slnves and kings. 
 But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ; 
 Pate pour'd its lesson on his living head, 
 Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." 
 
 P 2 
 
cou 
 
 212 
 
 COT 
 
 CORUS (or Corupedion), a plain in Plirygia, Asia Minor, where the aged Lysimachus 
 was defeated by Seleucns, and slain, 281 B.C. These two were the only survivors of the 
 warlike companions of Alexander the Great. 
 
 COEYPHjEUS, the principnl person of the chorus in the ancient tragedy. The name 
 was given to Tysias, afterwards named Stesichorus, who tirst instracted the chorus to dance 
 to the lyre, 556 B.C. 
 
 COSMOGRAPHY. See Astronomy and Geograpluj. 
 
 COSSACKS, the warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia, Tartary, and 
 Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys and the people of Natolia : 
 but were formed into a regular army by Stephen Bathori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of 
 Russia from the incursions of the Tartars. They joined the Russians in 1654, and in the 
 great war of Europe against France (1813-15), they fonned a valuable portion of the Russian 
 army. 
 
 COSTA RICA, a republic in Central America, established in 1848. It has been much 
 disturbed by the American filibusters. See Nicaragua and America, Central. On Aug. 14, 
 1859, the president Juan Mora was suddenly deposed, and Dr. Jose Montealegre made 
 president. Population in 1861, 131,000. . 
 
 COSTERMONGERS, itinerant dealers in fruit, vegetables, fish, &c., deriving their name, 
 it is said, from costard, a favourite apple. The Ijondon costermougers are useful frequently 
 in relieving the markets when glutted ; and it was said, in i860, that 3,000,000?. passed 
 through their hands annual!}-. Previous to fasting and thanksgiving days, they sell the 
 appointed forms of prayers in great numbers. On Nov. 22, i860, they held a meeting in 
 order to represent to the city authorities the hardships they felt hj the police restricting 
 their means of livelihood, 
 
 COSTUME. See Dress. 
 
 COTTAGE. The term was originally applied to a small house without land, 4 Edw. I. 
 1275. "No man may build a cottage, except in towns, unless he lay four acres of land 
 thereto," &c., 31 Eliz. 1589. This statute was repealed, 15 Geo. III. 1775. By retiu'ns to 
 tlie tax office, in 1786, the number of cottages was 284,459. The number in 1800 was 
 428,214; the number in 1840 was about 770,000. In i860 the public attention was much 
 drawn to the deplorable state of cottages in many parts of the country, and the law of 
 settlement was altered in 1865.* 
 
 COTTON, a vegetable wool, the produce of the Gossypium, a shrub indigenous in the 
 tropical regions of India and America. Indian cotton clotli is mentioned by Herodotus, was 
 known in Arabia in the time of Mahomet, 627, and was brought into Europe by his followers. 
 It does not appear to have been in use among the Chinese till the 13th century ; to them we 
 are indebted for the cotton fabric termed nankeen. Cotton was the material of the principal 
 articles of clothing among the Americans when visited by Columbus. It was grown and 
 maniifactured in Spain in the loth century ; and in the 14th century was introduced into 
 Italy. Indian muslins, chintzes, and cottons were so largely imported into England in the 
 17th century, that in 1700 an act of parliament was passed, ]n-ohibiting their introduction. 
 Cotton became the stajile commodity of England in the present century. About 1841 the 
 "cotton" or " Manchester" interest began to obtain political influence, which led to the 
 repeal of the corn laws in 1846. See Calico, Myelin, &c, 
 
 PROGRESS OF THE COTTON MANUFACTURE IN ENGLAND. 
 
 Fustian and Velveteen made of cotton, about 1641. 
 
 Calico, Sheeting, dx. The fly-shuttle was invented by 
 John Kay, of Bury, 1738 ; the drop box by Robert 
 Kay, 1760 ; spinning by rollers falso attributed to 
 JohnWyutt) patented by Louis Paul, 1738; the 
 spinning-jenny, by Hargreaves, 1767; the water- 
 frame, by Arkwright, 1769 ; the power-loom, by 
 Kev. Dr. Edmund Cartwright, 17S5 ; the dressing 
 machine, by Johnson and Radcliffe, 1802-4; another 
 power-loom, by Horrocks, 1803-13. A combing ma- 
 chine was patented by Joshua Heilmann, in 1845. 
 
 British Muslin (totally superseding that of India) is 
 due mainly to the invention of the Mule {which 
 see) by Samuel Crompton, 1774-9 ! ^^^ to the self- 
 acting mule of Mr. Roberts, 1025. 
 
 Calico Printing commenced 1764. 
 
 The Steam-Engine first applied to the cotton manu- 
 facture (by Boulton and Watt) 1785. 
 
 Bleaching by means of chloride of lime introduced by 
 Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, 1798. 
 
 Stockings. The stocking-frame was invented by 
 William Lee, in 1589. Cotton Stoctings were first 
 
 * The Cottager's Stove was designed by captain John Grant, registered Dec, 1849, and presented by him 
 to the metropolitan association for improving the dwellings of the industrious classes. It requires no 
 fixing, is extremely simple in its construction, and all the operations of cooking may be carried on with 
 any description of fuel. 100 lb. of meat and 115 lb. of vegetables have been cooktd in one of these stoves 
 with less than 20 lb of coal. See Cooktry. 
 
COT 
 
 213 
 
 cou 
 
 COTTON, cmtinucd. 
 
 made by hand about 1730 ; Jedidiab Stnitt ob- 
 tained a patent for Derby ribbed stockings in 
 1759 ; and Horton patented his knotter frame in 
 1776 ; Crompton's mule was employed in making 
 thread for the stocking manufacture about 1770. 
 
 Cotton Lace — Bohhin-net. The stocking-fi-ame of Lee 
 was applied to lace-making by Hammond, about 
 1768 ; the process perfected by John Heathcoat, 
 
 COTTON FIBRE IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 
 Ih. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 1697. 
 
 ■ 1.976,359 
 
 1782 
 
 . 11,828,039 
 
 1820 . 
 
 151,500,000 
 
 1861 . 
 
 ■ 1,256,984,736 
 
 1710 
 
 • ■ 7iS>oo8 
 
 1790. 
 
 . . 31,500,000 
 
 1830 
 
 264,000,000 
 
 1862 
 
 • 523,973,296 
 
 1730 . 
 
 • 1,545.472 
 
 1800 
 
 . 56,000,000 
 
 1840 . 
 
 592,500,000 
 
 1863 . 
 
 669,583,264 
 
 1764 . 
 
 ■ • 3,870,392 
 
 1810. 
 
 . . 132,500,000 
 
 i860 . 
 
 • 1,390,938,752 
 
 1864 
 
 • 893,304,720 
 
 American Cotton. Previous to 1795, our cotton fibre 
 came from the East and West Indies, the Levant, 
 and a Uttle from the United States. About 1786, 
 the growth of cotton began in Georgia. In 1793, 
 EU Whitney, an American, invented the saw-gm, 
 a machine by which cotton wool is separated from 
 the pod and cleaned with great ease and expedi- 
 tion. This led to such increased cultivation that 
 the United States soon exported 1,500, 000 lb. of cot- 
 ton; in 1795, 5,250,000 R). ; in 1820, 89,999,174 lb. ; 
 in 1830, 210,885,3581b.; in 1840, 487,856,50411).; 
 in 1847, 364,599,2910).; in 1859, 961,707,26416.; 
 in i860, 1,115,890,6080). ; in 1861, 819,500,52816. 
 
 Cotton imported from other countries : In 1847, 
 110,208,3241b.; in 1859, 264,281,8081b.; in i860, 
 215,048,14416. ; in 1861, 437,481,208 B). 
 
 Australian Cotton is said by Manchester manufac- 
 turers to be superior to the best American cotton, 
 Jan., 1861. A company was formed at Manchester 
 in Sept., i860, to endeavour to obtain cotton from 
 India, Africa, and other places. It arose out of the 
 Cotton Supply Association, formed in 1857. Since 
 
 1861, the cultivation of cotton in India, Egypt, 
 Italy, (fee, has greatly increased. 
 
 Cotton Factories were regulated by acts of parliament 
 passed in 1825, 1831, 1833, and 1844. The hours of 
 labour were Umited, and the employment of chil- 
 dren under nine years of .age prohibited. In 1846, 
 1724 cotton mills employed 197,500 persons. In 
 
 1862, the persons employed were stated to be 
 451,000 : 315,000 in Lancashire. 
 
 EXPORTS OF COTTON GOODS, YARN, &C. FROM LT^ITED KINGDOM. 
 
 1697 
 1701 
 1751 
 1780 
 1790 
 
 cial Value. 
 
 £5,915 
 
 23,253 
 
 45,986 
 
 355,000 
 
 1,662,369 
 
 1020 
 1847 
 
 Official Value. 
 . £5,406,501 
 . 20,509,926 
 • 23,333,225 
 48,202,225 
 . 52,012,430 
 
 1S61 
 1862 
 
 Official Valw , 
 
 ■ 36,750-' 
 
 • 47,587 
 
 • 54,85 , 
 
 ^71 
 
 In i860, 12,4x9,096 cwt. of raw cotton was imported, 
 of which 9,963,309 cwt. came from the United 
 States, and 1,822,689 cwt. from India. 
 
 The supply of cotton from North America has nearly 
 ceased, in conseqiience of the secession of the 
 southern states from the union in 1860-61. In 
 1852, Mr. T. Bazley warned the country on the 
 danger of trusting to this source. In May, 1862, 
 he stated that through its failure the loss of the 
 labouring classes was 12,000,000?. sterling a year, 
 and that the loss, including the employing classes, 
 might be estimated at nearly 40,000, oooi. a year. 
 
 At a meeting of the noblemen and gentlemen con- 
 nected with the cotton manufaetui'ing districts at 
 Bridge water-house, St. James's, on July 19, 1862, 
 the earl of Derby in the chair, lo.oooJ. were sub- 
 scribed to the Cotton District Relief fund. The 
 viceroy of Egypt, in London at the time, gave 
 loooJ. and the queen gave 2000^ on July 24. Libe- 
 ral subscriptions flowed in from all parts. On Aug. 
 28, the lord mayor had received 41,902?. 
 
 In the Lancashire district (population about 4, 000, 000) 
 
 there were receiving parish relief, Sept gg 
 
 43,500 persons; in Sept., 1862, 163,498. Earl of 
 Derby, Dec. 2, 1862. 
 
 In July, 1863, about the value of 700,000'. remained 
 of the donations which had been receive'' j jj^ money 
 and goods, amounting to about 1,900,0- j^j 
 
 On Feb. 9, 1863, the "George Griswc id"' arrived 
 containing contributions of provisioi ^g ^^ fj.Q^-^{ 
 North America, for the relief of t! ^g sufferers in 
 Lancashire. 
 
 The Union Relief Act (passed in 186? ^nd continued 
 in 1863) gave much reUef by euab xi'no- overseers to 
 borrow money to be expended ir ^ pifbijQ works to 
 be executed by the unemploye'' _j workmen. 
 
 In Oct. 1864, much distress stil'i existed, aiid fears 
 were entertained for the a"- jproachin^ winter— 
 90,000 more paupers than o" /dinary in cotton dis- 
 tricts. Times, Jan. 18, 186"^. 
 
 In Jime, 1865, Mr. Famal'i, f^e special commission-ir 
 was recalled by the poor-\aw board, and the famine 
 was declared to be en.dcd. 1,000,000?. had been 
 expended in two y'jars. 
 
 COTTONIAN LIBRARY, formed with great labour and jucjgmeiit by sir Robert Cotton 
 1600, et seq. It was with difficulty rescued from the fury of tl\e republicans durino' the pro- 
 tectorate, and was secured to the public by a statute in 1 700 . It was removed to Essex- 
 house in 1712 ; and in 1730 to Dean's-yard, Westminster, v/here on Oct. 23, 1731, a part 
 of the books sustained damage by fire. The library was removed to the British Museum 
 in 1757. 
 
 COUNCILS. King Alfred, in about 886, is said to have so arranged the business of the 
 nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first was a select council, to 
 which those only high in the king's confidence were admitted ; here were debated all affairs 
 that were to be laid before the second council, — bishops and nobles appointed by the king 
 like the present privy council. The third was a general assembly of the nation, called, in 
 Saxon, Wittenagemot, to wliich quality and offices gave a right to sit, independent of the 
 king. In these three councils we behold the origin of the cabinet and privy councils and 
 the antiquity of parliaments. See Cabinet, Common and Privy Councils, &c. 
 
cou 
 
 214 
 
 COU 
 
 1123 
 
 COUNCILS OF THE Chukch. The following are among the most memorable. Those 
 numbered are the General Councils. Sir Harris Nicolas in his " Cluonology of History" 
 enumerates 1604 councils, and gives an alphabetical list. 
 
 Of the church at Jerusalem (^c<« XV.) . . . 50 
 Of the western bishops at Aries, in France, to 
 
 suppress the Donatists ; three fathers of the 
 
 EngUsh church attended .... 314 
 
 I. First Ecumenical or General, at Nice (Con- 
 stantine the Great presided), decreed the con- 
 substantiality of the Son of God, condemned 
 Arianism, and composed the Niceue creed . 325 
 
 At Tyre, against Athanasius . . . . 335 
 
 The first at Constantinople, when the Arian 
 heresy gained ground 337 
 
 At Rome, in favour of Athanasius . . . 342 
 
 At Sardis : 370 bishops attended ; Arians con- 
 demned 347 
 
 At Rimini : 400 bishops attended ; Constantine 
 obliged them to sign a new confession . . 359 
 
 II. Constantinople : 350 bishops attended, and 
 pope Damasus presided . May to July, 381 
 
 III. Ephesus, when pope Celestine presided ; 
 Pelagius censured . June 22 to July 31, 431 
 
 IV. Chalcedon : Marcian and his empress at- 
 tended ; Eutychianism censured . Oct. 8, 451 
 
 v. Constantinople : pope Vigilius presided ; 
 
 against errors of Origen . May 4 to June 2, 553 
 TI. Constantinople, when pope Agatho pre- 
 sided ; against Monothelites, 
 
 Nov. 7, 6S0, to Sept. 16, 681 
 'fc liUiority of the six general councils re-estab- 
 ).!ished by Theodosius . . . . .715 
 , 111. Second Nicene council ; 350 bishops at- 
 t^ided ; agamst Iconoclasts, 
 
 Sept 24 to Oct. 23, 787 
 
 VIII ' Constantinople : the emperor Basil at- 
 ^ ^ ded ; against Iconoclasts and various 
 
 her> '^'®® ■ • O*^*- 5' 2^9' '^° ^'=''- ^^> ^7° 
 
 At Cle ''^'°^t> Convened by Urban II. to autho- 
 rise t ^ crusades : 310 bishops attended . 1095 
 
 IX Firt '^ Lateran : right of investiture settled 
 
 COUl ^C'lLS, French EEPtrBLiCAN. The council of Ancients was an assembly of 
 revolution, ^ry France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. i, 1795, together 
 with the cl ""^i^cil of Fi-\e hundred : the executive was a Directory of Five. Bonaparte 
 dispersed tht ^ coimcil of Five hundred at St. Cloud, Nov. 9, 1799, declaring himself, Koger 
 Ducos and s/'<^jcs, consuls j;?-omo2Ves. ^qq France, 
 
 COUNSEL *^'6 supposed to be coeval with the curia regis. Advocates are referred to the 
 time of Edward \' ^ut earlier mention is made of them. Counsel who were guilty of deceit 
 or colbrsion were tjuni.shable by the statute of AVestmiuster, 13 Edw. I. 1284. Cotmsel were 
 allowed to persons "i-hargcd with treason by act 8 Will. IIL 1696., The act to enable persons 
 indicted for felony tv*^ make their defence by counsel, passed Aug. 1836. See Banisters and 
 King's Counsel. 
 
 COUNT, from the Lah'u coincs, a companion, and French comtc ; somewhat equivalent 
 to the Eno-lisli earl, whose w.'fe is still termed a countess. Count corresponds to the German 
 firaf. See Cham^mjne and Tyoulouse. 
 
 COUNTEEPOINT (in mit&ic), writing the chords to a melody. The earliest specimen of 
 contrapuntal writing extant is by Adam de la Halle in the 12th centurj'. 
 
 ■ COUNTIES on Shires. The division of this kingdom into counties began, it is said, 
 with kinf Alfred ; but some counties borei their ^jrcsent names above a centuiy before. The 
 division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. Lord-lieutenants were appointed in 
 ic;4.Q in Eno-land and in 183 1 in Ireland. Counties first sent members to pai'liament, before 
 wdiich period knights met in their own counties, 1285. Chando.s, Clause, Sect. 20 of the 
 Reform act 2 Will. IV. c. 45 (1832), inserted by the motion of the marquis of Chandos. 
 Bv it occuijiers as tenants of land paying an annual rent of 50?. became entitled to a vote for 
 the knio-ht of the shire. It had the effect of increasing the number of tory voters, ami 
 in consequence several vain attempts have been made to repeal the clause. 
 COUNTRY PAPvTY. See Court Party. 
 
 by treaty between pope Calixtus II. and the 
 emperor Henry V. . March 18 to April 5, 
 
 X. Second Lateran : Innocent II. presided ; 
 preservation of temporalities of ecclesiastics, 
 the principal subject ; 1000 fathers of the 
 church attended . . . April 20, 11 39 
 
 XL Third Lateran, against schismatics, 
 
 March $ to 19, 1179 
 
 XII. Fourth Lateran : 400 bishops and 1000 
 abbots attended ; Innocent III. presided ; 
 against Albigenses, (fee. . Kov. 11 to 30, 1215 
 
 XIII. Lyons ; under pope Innocent IV. : em- 
 peror Frederick II. deposed, 
 
 June 28 to July 17, 1245 
 
 XIV. Lyons ; under Gregory X. : temporary- 
 union of Greek and Latin churches. 
 
 May 7 to June 17, 1274 
 
 XV. Vierme in Dauphind : Clement V. pre- 
 sided, and the kings of France and Aragou 
 attended ; the order of the Knights Tem- 
 plars sujipressed, 
 
 Oct. 16, 1311 ; April 3 and May 6, 1312 
 
 XVI. Pisa : Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. 
 deposed, and xVlexandcr elected, 
 
 March 5 to Aug. 7, 1409 
 
 XVII. Constance : Martin V. is elected pope ; 
 and John Huss and Jerome of Prague con- 
 demned to be burnt .... 1414-1418 
 
 XVIII. Basil 1431-1443 
 
 XIX. Fifth Lateran : begun by Julivis II. 
 Continued under Leo X. for the suppression of 
 
 the pragmatic sanction of France, against the 
 council, of Pisa, &c. , till ..... 
 
 XX. Trent : the last styled OEcumenical ; was 
 held to condemn the doctrines of the re- 
 formers, Luther, Zuinglius, and CaU-in. (See 
 Trent.) . . Dec. 13, 1545, to Dec. 3, 
 
 1512 
 
 1563 
 
COU 215 COU 
 
 COUNTY-COURTS* for the recovery of debts under 20?., superseding courts of requests, 
 wei^ instituted in 1846 by 9 & 10 Viet. c. 95. The counties of Enghuid and Wales are 
 divided into sixty districts, each district having a county-court, and a barrister as judge, 
 and juries sworn when necessary. These courts having been found to work well, their 
 jurisdiction was extended by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 61 (1850), to sums not exceeding 50?., and 
 their proceedings were facilitated in 1852 and 1854. There are now (1865) 59 county- 
 courts in England and Wales. In 1850 the number of plaints entered at the courts of the 
 sixty circuits was 306,793 for 1,265, 115^. ; in 1857, 744,652 plaints for 1,937,745^. ; of the 
 217,173 causes tried, 4297 were for sums between 20Z. and 50Z. Official Returns. From 
 1847 to 1858 judgment was obtained in these courts for 8,309,236?. An act passed in 1865 
 conferred on these courts equity powers, like those of the court of chancery, in cases relating 
 to sums under 500?., to begin on Oct. i, 1865. 
 
 COURIERS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus ; and Herodotus says that 
 they were common among the Persians. The Greeks or Romans had no regular couriers till 
 the time of Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 B.C. Couriers or posts are said 
 to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne about a.d. 800. The couriers for letters 
 were employed in the early part of the reign of Louis XL of France, owing to this monarch's 
 ■extraordinary eagerness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, 
 1463. Henault. See Post-office. 
 
 COURLAND, a duchy of Livonia, subjected to Poland in 1582, conquered by Charles 
 XIL of Sweden in 1701 ; afterwards restored to Sweeden, but annexed to Russia in 1795. 
 
 COURT PARTY— COUNTRY PlRTY, classes of politicians of fluctuating numbers and 
 varying power in the parliaments of England, beginning about 1620. At the end of the 17th 
 •century the latter embodied toryism and high church principles with a strenuous mainten- 
 ance of the assumed rights of "the land," as opposed to the innovations of whiggism and 
 the corruptions of the trading interests. Its most distinguished statesman was sir Thomas 
 Hanmer (the Montalto of Pope's Satires), who died in 1746. Ashe. 
 
 COURTRAI (Belgium). Here Robert, count of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings 
 in 1297, was defeated and slain by them, July 11, 1302. The conflict was named tlie 
 ■"Battle of Spurs," from the number of gilt spurs collected. 
 
 COURT BARON, an ancient court which ever}"- lord of a manor may hold by prescrip- 
 tion in some part of the manor. It is supposed to have originated with the nobility. In it 
 duties, heriots, and customs are received, and estates and surrenders are passed. Its 
 jurisdiction was restricted in 1747 and 1833. 
 
 COURT LEET, an ancient court of record, belonging to a hundred, instituted for 
 punisliing encroachments, nuisances, and fraudulent weights and measures, and also off"enees 
 against the crown. The steward is the judge, and all persons residing within the hundred 
 (peers, clergymen, &c., excepted) are obliged to do suit within this court. 
 
 COURT OF HONOUR. In England the court of chivahy, of which the lord high 
 constable was a judge, was called Curia Militaris, in the time of Henry IV., and subse- 
 quently the Court of Honour. In Bavaria, to prevent duelling, a court of honoxrr was 
 instituted in April, 18 19. Mr. Joseph Hamilton for many years ardently laboured to 
 establish a similar institution in Britain. 
 
 COURT OF SESSION, the highest civil tribunal in Scotland, was instituted by 
 James V. by statute, May 17, 1532. It consisted originally of 14 judges and a president, 
 and replaced a committee of parliament. In 1830 the number of judges was reduced ; and 
 the court now consists of the lord president, the lord justice clerk, and 11 ordinary 
 judges (1865). 
 
 COURT OF REQUESTS (also called a Court of Conscience) was first instituted in the 
 reign of Henry VII. 1493, and was remodelled by Henry VIII. in 15 17. Stoic. Established 
 for the summary recovery of small debts under forty shillings ; but in the city of London 
 the jiu'isdiction extends to debts of five pounds. Ashe. The courts of requests in the 
 principal towns of the kingdom were superseded in 1847 (those of the city of London only 
 excepted) by the County-Courts (which sec). 
 
 '" CouNTY-coxiRTS, Or scliyremotes, are of such remote antiquity that their origin is lost. In the time 
 of the Saxons they were the most important tribunals in this country. Alfred is said to have divided Eng- 
 land into counties, and counties into hundreds ; but the county-courts, the creation of which is generallj- 
 attributed to him, in 896, seem to have existsd at a period long anterior to his reign, and to have been an 
 essential part of the Saxon judicial system. 
 
COU 216 CRA 
 
 COURTS OF JUSTICE were instituted at Athens, 1507 B.C. (sec Areiopagits) ; \>y 
 Moses, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xviii. 25). They existed under various denominations in Rome. 
 For these realms, see Chancery, Common Pleas, Exchequer, King's Boich, &c. The citizens 
 of London were privileged to plead their own cause in the courts of judicature, without 
 employing lawyers, except in pleas of the crown, 41 Hen. III. 1257. Slotv. The rights of 
 the Irish courts were established by the British parliament in April, 1783. 
 
 COURTS MARTIAL are regulated by the Mutiny act, first passed in 1690. 
 
 COUTRAS (S.W. France). Here Heniy of Navarre totally defeated the due de Joyeuse 
 and the royalists, Oct. 20, 1587. 
 
 COVENANTERS, a name particularly applied to those persons who in the reign of 
 Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby miitually engaging to stand by each 
 other in opposition to the projects of the king ; it was entered into in 1638. The COVENANT 
 or league between England and Scotland (the preceding one modified) was adopted and 
 solemnly received by the parliament, Sept. 25, 1643 ;* and was accepted by Charles II. 
 Aug. 16, 1650, but repudiated by him on his restoration in 1661, when it was declared to 
 be illegal by parliament, and copies of it ordered to be burnt all over England. See 
 Cameronians. 
 
 COVENT GARDEN (London), so called from having been the garden of St. Peter's 
 convent. The square was built about 1633, and the ])iazza on the noi'th side and the 
 church were designed by Inigo Jones. The fruit and vegetable markets were rebuilt in 
 1829-30, from designs by Mr. Fowler (on about three acres of ground belonging to the duke 
 of Bedford). 
 
 COVENT GARDEN THEATRE sprang out of one in Lincolu's-inn-fields, through a 
 patent granted 14 Chas. II. 1662, to sir William Davenant, whose eompanj' was denominated 
 the "duke's servants," as a compliment to tlie duke of York, afterwards James II. See 
 under TJicatres. — The present theatre by Barry was opened May 15, 1858. The Floral Ifall 
 adjoining it was opened in March 17, i860, with the volunteers' ball. 
 
 COVENTRY ACT. Sir John Coventry, K.B., M.P., was maimed and had his nose slit 
 in the streets of London, by sir Thomas Sandys and others, the adherents of the duke of 
 Monmouth, Dec. 21, 1670. This outrage caused the Coventry act to be passed, to prevent 
 malicious maiming and wounding, March 6, 1671 : repealed in 1828. 
 
 COVENTRY (AVai-wickshire). Leofric, earl of Mercia, lord of Coventry, is said to have 
 relieved it from heavy taxes, at the intercession of his wife Godiva, on condition of her 
 riding naked througli the streets, about 1057. Processions in her memory took place in 
 1851, and on June 23, 1862. A parliament was held here in the reign of Henry IV. called 
 2Mrliamentum imloctum, or the unlearned parliament, Ijecause lawyers were excluded ; and 
 in the reign of Henry VI. another met here afterwards called parliamentum didbolicum, 
 from the acts of attainder passed against the duke of York and others. The town was 
 surrounded with strong walls, three miles in circumference, and twenty-six towers, which 
 were demolished by order of Charles II. in 1662. The ribbon-makers here suftered much 
 from want of work in the winter of 1 860-1. — The Bishopric was founded by Oswy, king of 
 Mercia, 656, and had the double name of Coventry and Lichfield, which was reversed by 
 later bishops. It was so wealthy, that king Olfa, by the favour of pope Adrian, made it 
 archiepiscopal ; but this title was laid aside on the death of that king. In 1075 the see was 
 removed to Chester ; in 1 102 to Coventr}' ; and afterwards to its original foundation, Lich- 
 field, but with great opposition from the monks of Coventry. Coventry has lately merged 
 into the bishopric of Lichfield. Beatson. See Lichfield. 
 
 COW-POCK INOCULATION. See Small Pox, and Vaccination. 
 
 CRACOW (a city in Austrian Poland). The Poles elected Cracus for their duke, who 
 built Cracow with the spoils taken from the Franks, 700 et seq. Cracow was taken by 
 Charles XII. in 1702. Taken and retaken several times by the Russians and other confede- 
 rates. The sovereign was crowned at Cracow until 1764. Kosciusko expelled the Russians 
 from the city, March 24, 1794; but it surrendered to the Prussians, June 15, same year, 
 
 » It consisted of six articles : 1, the preservation of the reformed church in Scotland, and the reforma- 
 tion of religion in England and Ireland ; 2,'the extirpation of popery, prelacy, schism, &c. ; 3, the preser- 
 vation of the liberties of parUament and the king's person and authority ; 4, the discovery and punishment 
 of all malignants, &c. ; 5, the preservation of "a blessed peace between these kingdoms ;" 6, the a.ssisting 
 aU who enter into the covenant : " Thii will ice do as in the sight of God." 
 
CRA 217 ORE 
 
 and, in 1795 was awarded to Austria. Ci-acow was formed into a republic in 1815. 
 Occupied by 10,000 Russians, who followed here the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831. Its inde- 
 pendence was extinguished : and it was seized by the emperor of Austria, and incorporated 
 with his empire, Nov. 16, 1846, Avhich was protested against by England, France, Sweden, 
 and Turkey. See Poland, A dreadful fire laid the greater part of the city in ashes, July 
 18, 1850. ' 
 
 CRANES are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may be so called. In 
 1857 a crane had been erected at Glasgow capable of lifting 50 tons. 
 
 CRAlSriOLOGY (or Phrenology), names given to the study of the external form of the 
 hiunan skull, as indicative of mental powers and moral qualities. Dr. Gall, the first pro- 
 pounder, was a German physician, born March, 175S. His first observations were among 
 his schoolfellows. Afterwards he studied the heads of criminals and others, and eventuall}' 
 reduced his ideas to a system, marking out the skull like a map. His first lectiire was 
 given at Vienna in 1796 ; but in 1802 the Austrian government prohibited his teaching. In 
 1800 he was joined by Dr. Spurzheim ; and in 1810-12 they published at Paris their great 
 work on the "Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System, and of the Brain in par- 
 ticular." Gall died in 1828. "Whatever opinion may be entertained of phrenology, there is 
 no doubt that the researches of Gall and Spurzheim have contributed greatly to physiological 
 science, animal and mental. Combe's " Phrenologj'-, " first published in 18 19, is the popular 
 English work on this subject. Phrenological societies were formed early in Loudon and 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 CRANMER, Latimer, and Ridley, Martyrdom of, see Persecutions, note. 
 
 CRANON, Thessaly, N. Greece. The Macedonians under Antipatcr and Craterus 
 defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by sea, and once by land, near Cranon. The 
 Athenians demanded peace, and Antipater put their orators to death, among whom was 
 Hyperides, who, that he might not betray the secrets of his country when under torture, 
 cut out his tongue, 322 B.C. Demosthenes is said to have taken poison shortly after. 
 Bufresnoy. 
 
 CRAONNE, (N. France) . Here Victor and Ney defeated the Prussians under Blucher, 
 after a severe contest, March 7, 18 14. • 
 
 CRAPE, a light kind of stuff like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and twisted on the 
 mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said some crape was made by St. 
 Badour, when qiaeen of France, about 680. It was first made at Bologna. 
 
 CRAYFORD (Kent). Hengist the Saxon is said to liave defeated the Britons here, 457. 
 
 CRAYONS, coloured substances made into paste, and dried into pencils, were known in 
 France about 1422 ; and were improved by L'Oriot, 1748. 
 
 CREASOTE, or Keeasote (discovered by Reichenbach about 1833), a powerful anti- 
 septic and coagulator of albuminous tissue, is obtained from the destructive distillation of 
 wood and other organic matters. It is successfully applied to the preservation of meat, 
 timber, &c. 
 
 CREATINE (from the Greek hreas, flesh), the chemical principle of flesh, was discovered 
 in 1835 by E. Chevreul, and has been fully investigated by Liebig and Gregory. 
 
 CREATION OF THE World. The date given by the English bible, and by Usher, Blair, 
 and others, is 4004 B.C. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the Creation, vary- 
 ing from 3616 years to 6984. Dr. Hales fixes it at 541 1. 
 
 CRECY, or Cressy (N. France), where Edward III. and his son, Edward the Black 
 Prince, and an -army of about 36,000, obtained a great victory over Philip, king of France, 
 with about 130,000, Aug. 26, 1346. John, king of Bohemia (nearly blind) ; James, king 
 of Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; and a number of French nobles, 
 together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the English was very small. 
 The crest of the king of Bohemia (three ostrich feathers, with the motto Ich Dien — in Eng- 
 lish, " I serve,") has since been adopted by princes of Wales. 
 
 CREDIT FONCIER. A plan of providing loans to landowners was introduced by 
 Frederick the Great of Prussia, in 1763, in some of the Prussian provinces, as the best 
 method of alleviating the distresses of the landed interest caused by his wars. The system 
 consists of lending money to landowners on the security of their estates, and providing the 
 loan capital by the issue of debentures charged upon the aggregate mortgaged estates. 
 
CRE 218 CRI 
 
 There are two modes of carrying out this scheme ; (i) by means of an association of laiid- 
 owners ; (2) by means of a proprietary public company. The former obtains in Eastern 
 Prussia, but the latter is exclusively found in Western Europe. Credit Ponder companies 
 have been founded in Hamburg (1782), Western Prussia (1787), Belgium (1840, France 
 (1852), England (1863). Sinvlar companies are now formed, or in course of formation, in all 
 the states of Europe, in India, and in our colonies and dependencies. Henriques. 
 
 CRfiDIT MOBILIER : a joint-stock company with this name was established at Paris, 
 Nov. 18, 1852, by Isaac and Emile Percire, and others. It takes up or oiiginates trading 
 enterprises of all kinds, applying to them the ]irinciple of commandite, or limited liabilities ; 
 and is authorised to supersede or buy in any other companies (replacing their shares or 
 bonds in its own scrip), and also to carry on the ordinary business of banking. The funds 
 were to be obtained by a paid-up capital of 2| millions sterling, the issue of obligations at 
 not less than 45 days' date or sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current account. 
 The society ajiiiarently prosj^ered ; but is, nevertheless, considered by experienced persons 
 as a near approach to Law's bank of 1716. In Se2)t. 1857, several of the directors failed ; 
 and in May, 1858, no dividend was paid. The system still exists, and many companies 
 based on its principles were established in London in 1863. 
 
 CREEDS. See Confessions of Faith. 
 
 CREMERA, Battle of. See Fabii. 
 
 CREMONA (N. Italy), a city founded by the Romans, 221 B.C. It became an inde- 
 pendent republic in 1107, but was frequently subjugated by its neighbours, Milan and 
 Venice, and partook of their fortunes. In 1859 it became part of the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 CRESCENT, a symbol of sovereignty among the Greeks and Romans, and the device of 
 Byzantium, now Constantinople, whence the Turks adopted it. The crescent has given 
 name to three orders of knighthood ; founded by Charles I. of Naples, 1268 ; by R^ne of 
 Anjou, in 1448 ; by the sultan Selim, in 1801 ; the last is still in existence. 
 
 CRESTS are ascribed to the Carians. There are several representations of Richai-d I. 
 (1189), with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume of feathers. The English kings had 
 generally crowns«bove their helmets ; that of Richard II. 1377, was surmounted by a lion 
 on a cap of dignity. See Crccy. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a plume of feathers ; 
 and the helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306 ; and that of James I. by a 
 lion, 1424. In the 15th and i6th centuries, the crest was described to be a figure placed 
 upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of maintenance. Gwillim. 
 
 CRETE, now Candia {which see). 
 
 CREVANT-SUR-YONNE (N. France). John Stuart, earl of Buchan, with a French 
 army, was besieging this place in July, 1423, when it was relieved by the earl of Salisbury 
 with an army of English and Burgundians ; after a severe contest, the French were totally 
 defeated. 
 
 CREVELDT, near Cleves (W. Prussia). Here, on June 23, 1758, prince Frederick of 
 Brunswick defeated the French under the count of Clermont. 
 
 CRICKET, an ancient English national game, said to be identical with "club ball" 
 plaj'ed in the 14th century. The present rules of the game were laid down in 1774 by a 
 committee of noblemen and gentlemen, including the duke of Dorset and sir Horace Mann. 
 In 1861 the All England Eleven gained and lost games in Australia. 
 
 CRIME. About 1856 it was computed that a fifteenth part of the population of the 
 United Kingdom lived by crime. The increase in education and manufactures is gradually 
 reducing this proportion. From 1848 to 1865 there has been no conrmitment for political 
 olfenccs, such as treason or sedition. See Executions and Trials. 
 
 CONVICTIONS (by TRIAL) IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 
 Persom. 
 
 Capital Offences. 
 
 
 Persons. Capitol 
 
 1847 . 
 
 ■ 21,542 
 
 
 1854 . 
 
 ■ 23.047 49 
 
 1849 
 
 . . 21,001 
 
 66 
 
 1855 
 
 • • 19.971 50 
 
 1850 . 
 
 • 20,537 
 
 49 
 
 1856 . 
 
 • 14,734 69 
 
 I85I 
 
 . • 21,579 
 
 70 
 
 1857 
 
 • • 15-307 54 
 
 1852 . 
 
 • 21,304 
 
 6i 
 
 1858 . 
 
 • 13.246 53 
 
 1853 
 
 . . 20,756 
 
 55 
 
 1859 
 
 • • 12,470 52 
 
 i860 . 
 
 Persons. 
 
 . 12 068 
 
 Capital Offences. 
 48 
 
 1861 
 1862 . 
 
 • • 13.879 
 • 15.312 
 
 so 
 29 
 
 1863 
 1864 . 
 
 • • 15.799 
 • 14,726 
 
 29 
 32 
 
 Convictions, in 1847 : Scotland, 3558 ; Ireland, 15,233. In i36i : Scotland, 2428 ; Ireland, 3271. 
 
CRI 219 OKI 
 
 CRIME, continued. 
 
 Tho Cviininal Justice act of 1855 authorises justices, with the consent of the prisoners, to pass sen- 
 tence for short periods, instead of committing them to trial. 
 
 In 1856, the expenses for criminal prosecutions were 194, 912?. 4s. 8(Z. 16 persons were executed for 
 imirdor in 1S56 (four foreigners), 14 in 1857, 11 in 1858 (four foreigners), and 9 (four for wife-murder) in 1859. 
 2,666 persons were liberated on ^JfA'c/s-o/'-it'tttifi in 1856. On Feb. 17, 1857, of 12O persons thus liberated, 58 
 wore believed to bo living honestly. But in 1861, 1862, and 1863, the system was considered to have failed 
 thro\igh tho numerous crimes committed by ticket-of-leavcrs ; it was modified by the Penal Servitude act, 
 in 1864. 
 
 ''Judicial Statistics" of crime, police, and law, with a report, were first published by goverumont, 
 in 1857. 
 
 CRIMEA, or Ckim Tautary, a peninsula in tho Euxine or Black Sea, the ancient 
 Taurica Chersoncsus, colonised by the Greeks about 550 B.C. The Milesians founded the 
 kingdom of Bosporus, now Kertch, which about 108 b.c. formed jiart of the dominions of 
 Mithridates, king of Pontus, whoso descendants continued to rule the country under Roman 
 protection till tlic irruption of the Goths, Huns, &c., about a.d. 258. About 1237, it fell 
 into tho hands of the Mongols under Genghis Khan ; soon after the Venetians established 
 commercial stations, with a lucrative trade, but were supplanted by the Genoese, who were 
 permitted to rebuild and fortify Katfa, about 1261. In 1475 Mahomet II. expelled the 
 Genoese, and subjected tho peninsula to the Ottoman yoke ; permitting the government to 
 remain in the hands of tho native khans, but closing the Black sea to Western Europe. In 
 ^774) ^^y the intervention of the empress Catherine II., the Crimea recovered its inde- 
 pendence : but on the abdication of the khan in 1783, the Kussians took possession of the 
 country, after a war with Turkey, and retained it by a treaty of peace in 1792. The Crimea 
 (now Taurida), was divided into eight governments in 1S02. AVar having been declared 
 against Russia by England and France, March 28, 1854, large masses of troops were sent to 
 the East, which, after remaining some time at Gallipoli, and other places, sailed for Varna, 
 whore they disembarked May 29tli. An expedition against the Crimea having been detcr- 
 niined on, tho allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 men (25,000 
 British), commanded by lord Raglan and marshal St. Arnaud, sailed fron Varna, Sept. 3rd, 
 and landcel on the 14th, 15th, and i6th, without opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, 
 about 30 miles from Sebastopol. On tho 20th they attacked the Russians, between 40,000 
 and 50,000 strong (under prince Menschikofi), entrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed 
 to be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. SeeJZ;«aand 
 Russo-Turkish War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 1856, and tho allies quitted the 
 Crimea July 12 following. 
 
 CRIMESUS, a river in Sicily, near which Timoleon defeated tho Carthaginians, 339 b.c. 
 
 CRIMINAL LAWS of ENGLAND. Their great severity, pointed out by sir Samuel 
 Romilly, sir James Mackintosh, and others, about 1818, was considerably mitigated by sir 
 R. Peel's acts, passed 1826-8. The criminal law was consolidated in six acts passed in 1861. 
 
 CRIMPING-HOUSES were used to entrap persons into the army ; hence the name of 
 "crimp sergeant." In a riot in London, some of these receptacles were destroyed by the 
 populace, in consequence of a young man who had been enticed into one being killed in 
 endeavouring to escape, Sept. 16, 1794. 
 
 CRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff made of crin, hair) is the modern name of 
 tho " fardingalo " of tho time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-liko petticoats made of whalebone, 
 &c., revived in Franco and England since 1855. They have frequently occasioned loss of 
 life, by coming in contact with tire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Tatler, published 
 Jan. 5, 1 7 10, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat then in fashion. 
 
 CRlPPLECtATE (London), was so-called from the lamo beggars who sat there, so early 
 as the year 10 10. The gate was new built by the brewers of London, in 1244; and was 
 pulled down and sold for 91 Z. in July, 1760. Tho poet Milton was buried in the church 
 near it, Nov. 12, 1674. See London Gates. 
 
 CRISPIN and CiuswANUS are said to have been two saints, born at Rome, from whence 
 they travelled to Soissons, in France, to propagate the Christian religion. Not to be charge- 
 able to others, they worked as shoemakers ; but the governor of tho town discovering tliem 
 to be Christians, ordered them to bo beheaded, about 2S8. Ou this account, the shoemakers 
 chose them for their tutelar saints. Their day is Oct. 25, 
 
 CRITICS. Tho first society of them was formed 276 B.C. Blair. Of this class M'cre 
 
CKO 
 
 220 
 
 CRO 
 
 Varro, Cicero, ApoUonius, and many distinguished men. In modern times, the Journal des 
 Sfavans was the earliest work of tlie system of periodical criticism, as it is now known. It 
 Avas originated by Denis de Sallo, ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and 
 was first published at Paris, May 30, 1655, and is still continued. The first work of this 
 kind in England was the Jtevuiu of Daniel Defoe (the term being invented by himself), 
 published in Feb. 1703. The ]Vaics of Literature was commenced in 17 14, and was dis- 
 continued in 1 722. &ee Jleviews.* 
 
 CROATIA was conquered by Coloman, king of Hungary, in 1102, and was with that 
 country united to Austria in 1526. The Croatian diet was abolished in Nov. 1861. 
 
 CROCKERY-WARE. See Eartlienware. 
 
 CROCODILES were fed well and reverenced as divinities by the Egyptians. Tlie 
 emperor Augustus is said to have collected twenty-five at one time in his ami)hitheatre, 
 where they were killed by gladiators. A fossil crocodile was found at Doddridge, Gloucester- 
 shire, in 1806. 
 
 CROIX, ST., a W. India Island, purchased from the French by Christian VI., king of 
 Denmark, in 1733 ; taken by sir Alexander Cochrane, Dec. 22, 1807 ; restored in 1814. 
 
 CROPREDY-BRIDGE, near Banbury, Oxfordshire. Here the royalists defeated sir- 
 William Waller and the army of the parliament, June 29, 1644. 
 
 CROSIER, a staff surmounted by a cross, borne before an archbishop. The pastoral staff 
 or bishop's staff, with which it is often confounded, was in the form of a shepherd's crook, 
 intended to admonish the ]n-elate to be a true spiritual shepherd. The beaiiug a crosier 
 before ecclesiastics is mentioned in the life of St. C?esarea of Aries, about 500. 
 
 CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suffered on ilount Calvary, was said to have 
 been found at Jerusalem, deep in the ground with two others, by St. Helena, May 3, 328 ; 
 Christ's being distinguished from those of the thieves by a sick woman being cured by 
 touching it. It was carried away by Chosroes, king of Persia, on tlie plundering of Jeru- 
 salem ; but was recovered by the emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in battle) Sept. 14, 
 615, and that day has since been commemorated as "the festival of the Exaltation of the 
 Cross," established in 642. — It is asserted by church writers that a shining cross, two miles 
 in length, was seen in the heavens by Constantine, and that it led him to adopt it on his 
 standards, with the inscription ^^ Iibhoc signo vinces ;" "in this sign thou shalt conquer." 
 With these he advanced to Rome, where he vanquished Maxentius, Oct. 27, 312. Lcnglet. 
 
 Crosses in honour of queen Eleanor were set up 
 in the places where her hearse rested, be- 
 tween 1296 (when she died) and . . . 
 
 Crosses and idolatrous jiictures were removed 
 from churches, and crosses in the streets de- 
 molished by order of parliament . 
 
 The order of Ladies of the Star of the Cross was 
 instituted by the empress Eleonora de Gon- 
 zaga, queen of Leopold I., in . 
 
 1641 
 
 Sigdln<i vith the Cross was first practised by 
 
 Christians to distinguish themselves from 
 
 the Pagans, about no; and in the time of 
 
 Tertuliian, 260, it was deemed efficacious 
 
 against poison, witchcraft, <fec. 
 Crosses in churches and chambers were intro- 
 duced about 431 ; and set up on steeples about 568 
 Ulakls of the Cross were a community of young 
 
 women who made vows of poverty, chastity, 
 
 and obedience, instituted in . . . . 1265 
 
 CROSSED CHEQUES. Sec Dra/ls. 
 
 CROTONA (S. Italy), a city founded by the Achaean Greeks about 710 B.C. Here Pytha- 
 goras taught about 520 B.C. 
 
 CROWS. An act passed for their destruction in England (which breeds more of them, 
 it is said, than any other country in Europe), 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. Crows were anciently 
 employed as letter-bearers, as carrier-pigeons are now. 
 
 CROWN. An Amalekite brought Saul's cro\vn to David, 1056 b.c. (zSam. i.) The first 
 Roman who wore a crown was Tarquin the Elder, 616 b.c. The crown was first a fillet tied 
 round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and also of stufi's adorned 
 with jewels. See Tiara. 
 
 * The legality of fair criticism was established in the English courts, in Feb., 1794, when an action that 
 excited great attention, brought by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was 
 determined in favour of the defendant, on the principle that criticism is allowable, however sharp, if just, 
 and not malicious. 
 
CEO 
 
 221 
 
 CRY 
 
 CROWN, continued. 
 
 The crown of Alfred had two little bells attached 
 (872) ; it is said to have been long preserved at 
 Westminster, and may have been that described 
 in the parliamentary inventory taken in 1649. 
 
 Athelstan's crown resembled an earl's coronet, 929. 
 
 William I. wore his crown on a cap, adorned with 
 points, 1066. 
 
 Eichard III. introduced the crosses, 1483. 
 
 Henry VII. introduced the arches, 1485. 
 
 The crown of Charles II., made in i66o, is the oldest 
 existing in our day. See Blood's Conspiracy. 
 
 The crown and regalia of England were pledged to 
 the city of London by Bichard II. for ■zoooL. in 
 1386. See the king's receipt on redeeming them. 
 Rymer. 
 
 The Impenal State Crown of England was made by 
 Eundell and Bridges, in 1838, principally with 
 jewels taken from old crowns. It contains i large 
 ruby, I large sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 
 4 rubies, 1363 brilliants, 1273 rose diamonds, 147 
 table diamonds, 4 drop-shaped pearls, and 273 
 pearls. Professor Tennant. 
 
 CROWN" LANDS. The revenue arising from those in England is now nearly all subject 
 to parliament, which annually provides for the support of the sovereign and government. 
 The annual revenue now arising from crown lands is about 284, 500?. The revenues of 
 the duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster belong to the prince of Wales, and accumulate 
 during his minority. Henry YIL (1485) resumed those which had been given to their 
 followers by the sovereigns of the house of York. The hereditary estates of the crown were 
 largely bestowed on their courtiers by the sovereigns— especially by the Stuarts. 
 
 CROWNS AND Half-ceowns were coined in England by Edward VI. in 1553. None 
 were coined in 1861, and they will gradually be withdrawn from circulation. 
 
 CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians, Persians, 
 Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans, esteemed the most dreadful on account of the shame 
 attached to it ; it was usually accompanied by other tortures. Ariarathes of Cappadocia, 
 aged 80, when vanquished by Perdiccas, was discovered among the prisoners, and by the 
 conqueror's orders was flayed alive, and nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, 322 B. c. 
 Jesus Christ was crucified April 3, A.D. 33 Bible. (April 15, A.D. 29, Clinton; March 28, 
 A.D. 31. Hales). Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constantine, 330. Lenglet. 
 See Death, Punishment of. 
 
 CRUELTY TO ANIMALS, Royal Society for the Pkevention of, was instituted in 
 1824. Through its exertion hundreds of cases of cruelty are annually prosecuted. Acts for 
 the protection of animals were passed in 1835 and 1839. A similar society exists in Paris. 
 In i860 both societies endeavoured to repress vivisection (physiological experiments on 
 living animals). 
 
 CRUSADES (French Croisades), wars undertaken by the Christian jjowers to drive the 
 infidels from Jerusalem and the adjacent countries, called the Holy Laud. Thej"- were 
 projected by Peter Gautier, or Peter the Hermit, an enthusiastic French officer of Amiens, 
 who turned pilgrim. Having travelled in the Holy Land, on his return, he deplored to pope 
 Urban II. that infidels should be in possession of the city where Christ had taught. Urban 
 convened a council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the 
 chief Christian potentates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe 
 to a general war, 1094. The first crusade was published ; an army of 300,000 men was raised, 
 Peter had the direction of it, and Godfrey de Bouillon the command, 1095. Voltaire. The 
 warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulder, with the name of Croises, Crossed, or 
 Crusaders; their motto was Volonti de Dieu, "God's will." — The French goA^ernment are 
 publishing the Western Historians of the Crusades in a magnificent form (1844-60). 
 
 I. Crusade (1096) ended by Jerusalem being taken by 
 assault, July 15, 1099, and in establishing God- 
 frey de Bouillon as king. 
 
 II. Preached by St. Bernard in 1146, headed by 
 emperor Conrad II., and Louis VII. of France. 
 Crusaders defeated; Jerusalem lost in 11 87. 
 
 III. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, &c., in 1188, 
 joined by Philip II. of France and Richard I. of 
 England, in 1190. Glorious, but fruitless. 
 
 IV. 119s, by emperor Henry VI. ; successful till his 
 death in 1197. 
 
 V. Proclaimed by Innocejit III., 1198. Baldwin, 
 count of Flanders, attacked the Greeks, and took 
 Constantiuople in 1202. His companions returned. 
 
 VI. In 1228, by emperor Frederick II., who obtained 
 possession of Jerasalem on a truce for ten years. 
 In 1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, arrived at 
 Palestine, but soon departed. 
 
 VII. By Louis IX. (St. Louis), who was defeated and 
 taken prisoner at Mansourah, Aprils, 1250; re- 
 leased by ransom ; truce of ten years. 
 
 VIII. And last, in 1270, by the same prince, who died 
 on his way of a contagious disease, at Carthage, in 
 Africa. Other princes followed him, among others 
 prince Edward, afterwards our Edward I. In 1291, 
 the soldan took Acre, and the Christians were 
 driven out of Syria. 
 
 CRYOPHORUS, an instrument (invented by Dr. Wollaston about 1812) to demonstrate 
 the relation between evaporation at low temperatures and the production of cold. 
 
CRY 
 
 222 
 
 cue 
 
 CRYPTOGRAPHIC MACHINE, for carrying on secret correspondence, patented i860. 
 
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is the science relating to the sjonmetrical forms assumed by 
 substances passing from the liquid to the solid state. Rome de Lisle published his "Essai 
 de Cristallogi-aphie," in 1772 ; but Rene-Just Haiiy is justly regarded as the founder of the 
 modern school of crystallography (1801). W/uwdl. Dana, Dufresnoy, and Miller, are 
 eminent modern writers on this subject. 
 
 CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Paek, Londox. See Exkihiiion of 185 1. 
 
 CRYSTAL PALACE, Sydenham. The Exhibition building of 185 1 having been 
 surrendered to Messrs. Fox & Henderson on Dec. i, 1851 ; the materials were sold for 
 70,000?. to a company (formed by Mr. Leach), who soon after commenced erecting the present 
 Crystal Palace on its present site, near Sydenham in Kent (300 acres having been purchased 
 for the purpose) under the direction of sir Joseph Paxton, Messrs. Owen Jones, Digby Wyatt, 
 and other gentlemen engaged in the erection of the preceding structui'e. The proposed 
 capital of 500,000?. (in 100,000 shares of 5?. each) was increased in Jan. 1853 to a million 
 pounds. In addition to the permanent exhibition, there are extensive gardens, with 
 magnificent fountains, &c., illustrations of zoology, geology, botany, ethnologj'', &c. 
 
 Pirst column raised by S. Laing, M.P. , Aug. 5, 1852 
 
 During the progress of the works as many as 
 6400 men wore engaged at one time. By the 
 fall of scaffolding, 12 men killed . Aug. 15, 1.S53 
 
 Dinner given to professor Owen and a party of 
 savans in the interior of the model of the 
 iguanodon, constructed by Mr. Waterhouse 
 Hawkins Dec. 31, ,, 
 
 The palace opened by the queen . June 10, 1854 
 
 Grand musical feU on behalf of the Pati-iotic 
 Fund Oct. 28, „ 
 
 The palace visited by the emperor and empress 
 of the French, &c. . . . April 20, 1855 
 
 First grand display of the great fountains, in 
 presence of the queen and 20,000 spectators, 
 
 June 18, 1856 
 
 The receipts were 115,6271!.; the expenditure, 
 87,872^. ; not including payments for pre- 
 ference shares, &c. , in the year ending 
 
 April 30, 1857 
 
 The preliminary Handel festivals, June 15, 17, 
 19, 1857 ; and July 2, 1858 (see Handel) ; the 
 Handel festival itself took place on 
 
 June 20, 22, and 24, 1859 
 
 On the Fast day (for the Indian mutiny) rev. 
 C. Spurgeon preached here to 23,000 persons; 
 
 4y6l. were collected, to which the C. P. com- 
 pany added 200? Oct. 7, 1857 
 
 Centenary of the birth of Robert Bums cele- 
 brated : the directors awarded 50Z to a prize 
 poem on the subject, which was obtained by 
 Miss Isa Craig .... Jan. 25, 1859 
 
 Festival kept in honour of Schiller, Nov. 10, 
 1859; of Mendelssohn . . . May 4, i860 
 
 London charity children sing here . June 6, ,, 
 
 3000 Orpheonistes (French musical amateiu-s) 
 perform choral music, June 25 ; the imperial 
 band of Guides perform, June 26 ; both dine 
 in the palace .... June 30, ,, 
 
 About 100 English brass bands perform, July 10, ,, 
 
 North wing injured by a gale of wind, Feb. 21, i86r 
 
 Haydn's "Creation" performed (Costa, con- 
 ductor) May I, „ 
 
 Bloiidin's performances on an elevated rope 
 begin here (he plays on violin, cooks, simu- 
 lates faUing, &c.) .... June i, ,, 
 
 Another successful Handel festival : a new 
 arched roof constructed for the orchestra ; 
 about 4000 vocal and instrumental performers, 
 
 June 23, 25, 27, 1862 
 
 Successful Handel festival . June 26, 28, 30, 1865 
 
 CUBA, an island (W. Indies) discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, Oct. 28, 1492, 
 conquered by Velasquez, 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. 
 
 1851 
 
 The buccaneer Morgan took the Havannah. See 
 Buccaneers 1669 
 
 The fort of Havannah erected by admiral Ver- 
 non 1741 
 
 The Havannah taken by admiral Pococke and 
 lord Albemarle, in 1762 ; but restored at the 
 peace 1763 
 
 " Lone Star " society (vhich see), for the acqui- 
 sition of Cuba, &c. , formed . . . . 1848 
 
 Expedition, under general Lopez and a large 
 body of Americans, with the view of wresting 
 this island from the dominion of Spain, 
 landed at Cuba (defeated) . . May 17, 1850 
 
 The president of the United States (Taylor) had 
 previously pubUshed a strong proclamation, 
 denouncing the object of the invaders, 
 
 Aug. II, 1849 
 
 CUBIT, a measure of the ancients, by which the ark of Noah was measured (b.c. 2448). 
 Holdcn. The Hebrew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven English 
 feet. Originally, it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards, to the extremity of 
 the middle finger. Ccfhnet. 
 
 CUCUMBERS, noticed by Virgil and other ancient poets, were brought to England 
 from the Netherlands about 1538. 
 
 Cuba again invaded by Lopez and his followers, 
 
 Aug. 13, 
 
 They were defeated and taken ; 50 were shot, 
 and Lopez garrotted at Havannah. See Lone 
 Star Sept. i, ,, 
 
 The ijresident of the United States again issued 
 a proclamation against an intended expedi- 
 tion against Cuba . . . May 31, 1854 
 
 Messrs. Buchanan, Mason, and Soul^, United 
 States envoys, met at Ostend and Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, and reported, recommending the 
 purchase of Cuba .... Oct. „ 
 
 The Spanish minister in cortes declared that 
 the sale of Cuba would be " the sale of Spanish 
 honour itself " .... Dec. 19, ,, 
 
CUD 223 CUF 
 
 CUDDALORE (India), on the coast of the Carnatic, was acquired by the English in 
 l68i. It was reduced by the French in 1758, but was recax3tured in 1760 by sir Eyre 
 Coote. Again lost in 1781, it underwent a destructive siege by the British under general 
 Stuart, in 1783, which was continued until peace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784. 
 
 CUIRASS, a part of armour much in use by the Greeks and Romans. Tacitus. The 
 skins of beasts, and afterwards tanned leather, formed the cuirass of the Britons until the 
 Anglo-Saxon era. It was afterwards made of iron and brass, and covered the warrior from 
 neck to waist before and behind. The cuirass was worn by the heavy cavalry in the reign of 
 Henry III. 1216 et scq* Napoleon had several regiments of cavalry wearing cuirasses, 
 
 CULDEES (said to derive their name from mltores Dei, worshippers of God,) monks of 
 simple and peaceful lives in Scotland and Ireland in early times. They had their principal 
 seat at St. Andrew's ; and it is said that in 11 85 at Tip per ary there was a Culdean abbey 
 whose monks were " attached to simple truth and pure Christian worship, and had not yet 
 conformed to the reigning superstition." They were eventually subjected to the papal yoke. 
 
 CULLEN'S-WOOD (Ireland) : a horrible slaughter of the English by the Irish took place 
 at a village near Dublin, on Easter or Black Monday, so called from this massacre, March 30, 
 1209. The English were a colony from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, whence they went to 
 divert themselves at Cullen's-wood, when the 0' Byrnes and O'Tooles fell upon them, and 
 destroyed 500 men, besides women and children.' 
 
 CULLODEIST, near Inverness, where the English, under William, duke of Cumberlandj 
 defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the last of the Stuarts, April 16, 
 1746. The Scots lost 2500 men in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred 
 in the pursuit, while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. After the battle, the 
 duke's army practised great cruelties upon the vanquished and the defenceless country 
 people, Smollett. Prince Charles fled, aud wandered among the wilds of Scotland for six 
 months, while 30,000?. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were 
 constantly in search. He at length escaped from Uist to Moiiaix, and died at Rome in 
 1788. 
 
 CULYERINS, ordnance so called from the French coulevrhie, introduced into England 
 from a French model in 1534. It was originally five inches and a quarter diameter in the 
 bore, and carried a ball of eighteen pounds. Bailey. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, a N."W. county of England, was granted to Malcolm I. of Scotland in 
 945, by king Edmund, " on condition that he should be his fellow- worker." It was seized 
 by "William I., but restored to Malcolm III., "Avho became his man," 1072. William the 
 Lion, after his defeat at Alnwick, resigned Cumberland to Henry II., and it was finally 
 annexed to England in 1237. 
 
 DUKES OF CXTMBEELAND. 
 
 1726. Williara Augustus, second son of George II., 
 
 died Oct. 13, 1765. 
 1766. Henry Frederic, son of Frederic, prince of 
 
 Wales, died Sept. 18, 1790. 
 
 1799. Ernest Augustus ; became king of Hanover 
 June 20, 1837 ; died Nov. 18, 1S51. 
 
 1 8:; I. George V., the present king of Hanover 
 (1865). 
 
 CUMJi! (S. Italy), an old Greek colony, 1050 B.C., said to have been the residence of 
 the ancient Sibyl, was taken by the Samnites 420 b. c, and annexed and enfranchised by the 
 Romans, 338 B.C. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, The. See Naval Battles, 181 1, 
 
 CUNAXA, in Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, where Cyrus the younger was defeated 
 and slain by his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had conspired (b.c. 401), narrated 
 in Xenophon's Anabasis. His Greek auxiliaries in the battle were successful. See Retreat 
 of the Greeks. 
 
 CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS (from cuneus, Latin for a wedge), in characters resem- 
 bling arrow-heads, found at Babylon, Behistun, &c., have lately been deciphered by English 
 and foreign scholars, who date some of them as far back as 2000 B.C. This is impugned by 
 other scholars. See Assyria, Babylon, Behisttm. 
 
 * The use of cuirasses and helmets, as well as the use of bows and arrows, which had been hardly 
 known under the first race of the kings of France, became a military law under the second race. {Capit. of 
 Ckarlem.) Chivalry at this time began to be introduced ; the knight, who was called Miles, held a rank in 
 the army, independently of his military rank. Eeign of Louis V., year 987. HdnauU. 
 
CUN" 
 
 224 
 
 CUS 
 
 CUNNERSDORF (in Prussia), Battle of. The king of Prussia, with 50,000 men, 
 attacked the Austrian and Russian army of 90,000 in their camp, and at fii-st gained con- 
 siderable advantages ; but pursuing them too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and 
 gained a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 pieces of cannon and 20,000 men in 
 killed and wounded, Aug. 12, 1759. 
 
 CUPOLA SHIPS. See Navy of England. 
 
 CUPPING, a mode of blood-letting. The skin is scarified by lancets, and a glass cup in 
 which the air has been rarilied by flame, is immediately applied to it, when the blood usually 
 flows into the cup. This operation Mas well known to the ancients, and is described by 
 Hippocrates (u.c. 413) and Celsus (b.c. 20), who highly commend it. It was common in 
 England about 1820, but is not much employed in the present day. 
 
 CUR AGO A, an island in the Caribbean sea, settled by the Spaniards about 1527, was 
 seized by Holland in 1634. In 1800, the French having settled on part of this island, 
 quarrelled with the Dutch, who surrendered it to a single British frigate. It was restored 
 to the Dutch in 1802 ; taken from them by the British in 1807, and again restored in 
 1814. 
 
 CURATES were of early appointment as coadjutors in the Romish church, and are men- 
 tioned in England in the 7th century. Among the acts passed for the relief of this laborious 
 class of the clergy, are the 12th Anne, 1713, and 36th, S3rd, and 58th Geo. III., aiid 
 especially the beneficent act 2 Will. IV. Oct. 1831. It appeared by parliamentary reports 
 on ecclesiastical revenues, that there were in 183 1, 5230 curates in England and Wales, 
 whose stipends amounted to 424,695/. The greatest niunber of curates in one diocese was 
 Lincoln, 629 ; and the smallest that of St. Asaph, 43. 
 
 CURFEW BELL (from the French cmivrefcu), was introduced into England by Will. I. 
 1068. On the ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening all fires and candles 
 were to be extinguished under a severe penalty. Rapin. The curfew was abolished I Hen. 
 I. 1 100. A curfew bell was rung at West Ham so lately as Nov. 1859. 
 
 CURRANTS, from Corinth, whence, probably, the tree was first brought to us about 
 1533. The name is also given to a small kind of dried grape, brought from the Levant and 
 Zante. The duty on these currants (44s. /^d. per cwt. in 1834) has been reduced to 7s. The 
 hawthorn currant {Ribcs Oxijacantlioides) came from Canada in 1705. 
 
 CURRENCY ACTS. Those of sir Robert Peel were passed in 1819 and in 1844. 
 
 CURT ATONE, near Mantua, N. Italy. Here the Austrians, under Radetzky, crossed the 
 Mincio, May 28, 1848, and defeated the Italians after a severe conflict. 
 
 CUSHEE PIECES, invented by Richard Leake, the master-gunner of the Rmjal Prince 
 man-of-war, renowned for bravery shown in the engagement with the Dutch admiral Van 
 Tromp, in 1673. 
 
 CUSTOM is a law, not written {lex non scrijHa), established by long usage and consent, 
 and it is distinguished from lex scripta, or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is 
 derived from 11 89 downwards. Sixty years' custom is bmding in the civil law, and forty 
 3'ears' in ecclesiastical cases. 
 
 CUSTOMS were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethelred II. in 979. 
 The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was established 3 Edw. I. 1274. Tiie 
 customs were farmed to sir Thomas Smith for annual sums varying from 14,000/. to 50,000/. 
 in the reign of Elizabeth. SMv. They were farmed by Charles II. for 390,000/. in 1666. 
 Davenant. In 1671 commissioners were appointed. The customs were consolidated by Mr. 
 Pitt in 1787- Between 1820 and 1830 so many reductions and consolidations were made in 
 the customs department, that above a quarter of a million was saved in salaries, though the 
 work has enormously increased. — Acts consolidating the customs duties were passed in 1853, 
 1854, and i860, whereby the number of articles in the tariff" and the amount of the customs 
 were greatly reduced. See Revemu:. Custom-house officers and officers of excise were dis- 
 qualified from voting for the election of members of parliament, in 1782. 
 
 Customs in 
 185s . , . £21,630,081 
 1858 . . 23,109,105 
 i860 . . . 24,460,901 
 1862 . . 23,674,000 
 1864 . . . 23,232,000 
 
 Customs in 
 
 
 Customs in 
 
 
 Customs in 
 
 1580 . 
 
 . £14,000 
 
 1684 . . . 
 
 £530,000 
 
 1830 . . £17,540,323 
 
 1592 
 
 50,000 
 
 1720 
 
 1,555,600 
 
 1835 . . . 18,612,906 
 
 1614 . 
 
 . 148,000 
 
 1748 . • • 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 1840 . . 19,915,296 
 
 T622 
 
 . 168,000 
 
 1808 
 
 9,973,240 
 
 1845 . . . 20,196,856 
 
 1642 . 
 
 . 500,000 
 
 1823 . . . 
 
 11,498,762 
 
 1850 . . 20,442,170 
 
cus- 
 
 225 
 
 CYP 
 
 The custom-house once more burnt down, and 
 immense property and valuable records des- 
 troyed Feb. 12, 1814 
 
 The present edifice opened . . May 12, 1817 
 
 Dublin custom-house commenced in 1781 ; 
 opened in 1791. The eastern wing of its 
 warehouse was destroyed by fire, with pro- 
 perty to the amount of 400,000^. . Aug. 9, 1833 
 
 CUSTOMS, continued. 
 
 The customs in Ireland, in 1224, a sack of wool, 
 
 2,d. ; a last of hides, 6d. ; a barrel of wine, 2d. 
 The customs business of Ireland was transferred 
 
 to the London board . . . Jan. 6, 
 
 Custom-house. A custom-house was erected in 
 
 London on a large scale, 1304 ; and a yet 
 
 larger in 1559. The last was burnt down in . 
 A new one, built by Charles II., was burnt 
 
 down in 1718, and again rebuilt. 
 
 CUTLERY. ^QQ Steel. 
 
 CUTTING-OUT MACHINES. Wearing capparel was first cut out by machinery in 
 England in the factory of Messrs. Hj'anis in 1853. The machine, invented, by Mr. Fre- 
 derick Osbonrn, consists of a reciprocating vertical knife working through a slot in the 
 table that siTpports the pile of cloth to be eut. The cloth being pressed up to the edge of 
 the knife by the attendant, the knife will sever it in the direction of the lines marked on 
 the upper layer. This system of cutting oiit is now generally adopted in the slop-work 
 trade, and, with the aid of the sewing-machine (which see), has tended greatly to improve 
 the condition of the persons employed in the manufacture of wearing apparel "for the home 
 and foreign markets. 
 
 CYANOGEN, a colourless gas (composed of nitrogen and carbon), irritating to the nose 
 and eyes, derived from Prussian blue, was discovered by Gay Lussac in 18 14. 
 
 CYCLE of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of the week return to the 
 same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen lunar years and seven intercalary 
 mqnths, or nineteen solar years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty years, or sexagenary. The 
 Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years 
 by Victorius, 463. Blair. See Metanic Cycle, Cali2:)pic Period. 
 
 CYCLONES, circular whirlwinds, or hiirricanes, common in the East and "West Indian 
 and Chinese seas, varying from 200 to 500 miles in diameter. Many details respecting them 
 will be found in Reid's " Law of Storms," first published in 1838. By the great cyclone of 
 Oct. 5, 1864, immense damage was done on sea and land. About 100 ships are said to have 
 been lost, and about 60,000 persons perished, and whole towns were nearly destroyed. See 
 Calcutta. Captain Watson, of the "Clarence," observing the barometer falling, and fore- 
 telling the approach of the cyclone, saved his ship by steering out of its range. 
 
 CYCLOPiEDIA. See EncyclopcecUa. 
 
 CYCLOPEAN MASONRY, a term given to very ancient buildings in Greece, Italy, and 
 Asia Minor, probably the work of the Pelasgi, more than 1000 B.C. 
 
 CYMBAL, the oldest known musical instrument, was made of brass, like a kettle-drum. 
 Xenophon mentions the cymbal as invented by Cybele, who, we are told, used it in her 
 feasts, about 1580 B.C. 
 
 CYMRI or Ktmri (hence Cambria), the name of the ancient Britons who belonged to the 
 great Celtic family, which came from Asia and occupied a large part of Europe about 1500 
 B.C. About A.D. 640 Dyvnwal Moelmud reigned " King of the Cymry.'" See Wales, 
 
 CYNICS, a sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes (about 396 B.C., Biog. Laert., 
 Clinton), who professed to contemn all worldly things, even all sciences, except morality ; 
 were verj' free in reprehending vice ; lived in public, and practised great obscenities without 
 blushing. Diogenes was one (died 323 B.C.). 
 
 CYNOSCEPHAL^ {dogs' heads, so named from the shape of the heights), in Thessaly, 
 where Pelopidas and the Thebans defeated Alexander tyrant of Pherse and the Thessalians, 
 364 B.C. (Pelopidas being slain) ; and where the consul Elaminius totally defeated Philip V. 
 of Macedon, 197 B.C., and ended the war. 
 
 CYPRESS, Cupressus Sempervirens, a tree originally found in the isle of Cj^Drus. The 
 Athenians buried their heroes in coffins made of this wood, of which many of the Egyptian 
 mummy-chests were also fabricated. The ancients planted it in cemeteries. The cypress 
 was brought to England about 1441. The deciduous cypress, or Civin-essus disticha, came 
 from North America before the year 1640. 
 
 Q 
 
CYP 226 DAH 
 
 CYPRUS, in island in the Mediterranean, was divided among several petty kings till the 
 time of Cyrus of Persia, who siibdiied them. It was taken by the Greeks 477 B.C., and 
 ranked among the proconsular provinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Sara- 
 cens, A.D. 648 ; but recovered by the Greeks, in 957. Cyprus was reduced by Eichard I. of 
 England, in 1191. He gave it to Guy de Lusignan, who became king in 1192, and whose 
 descendants reigned till the last, Catherine de Cornano, sold it to the Venetians, 1489, from 
 whom it was taken by the Turks, 157 1. They still retain it. 
 
 CYR, St., near Versailles, where a conventual college for ladies was founded by Madame 
 De Main tenon, in 1686. It is now a military college. 
 
 CYRENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus the Elder, 365 B.C. They maintained the 
 doctrine that the supreme good of man in this life is pleasure, particularly that of the 
 senses ; and said that even virtue ought to be commended only because it gave pleasure. 
 
 CYRENE (N.W. Africa), a Greek colonj-, founded by Battus about 630 b.c. Aristseus, 
 who M'as chief of the colonists here, gave the »ity his mother's name. It was also called 
 Pentapolis, on account of its five towns ; namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apollonia, 
 and Arsinoe. It was conquered by Ptolemy Soter I., who placed many Jews here (286 B.C.). 
 Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 B.C. It is now a desert. Some 
 Cyrenaic sculptures were placed in the British iluseum in July, 1861. 
 
 CYZICUS (Asia Minor). In the Peloponnesian war, the Lacedemonian fleet under the 
 command of Mindarus, assisted by Pharnabazus, the Persian, was encountered by the 
 Athenians under Alcibiades, and defeated with great slaughter, near Cyzicus. Mindarus 
 was slain 410 B.C. Plutarch. 408 B.C. Lencjlet. 
 
 CZAR. Ivan Basilowitz, having severely defeated the Tartars, took the title of Tzar or 
 Czar about 1482. The eldest son is called Czarowitz, and the empress Czarina. 
 
 D. 
 
 DACIA, a Roman province, part of Hungary, and the adjoining provinces, after many 
 contests finally subdued by Trajan, 106, when Cecebalus, the [Dacian leader, was killed. 
 Dacia was abandoned to the Goths by Aurelian, -in 270; subdued by the Huns, 376; by 
 Scythians, 566 ; by Charlemagne, and by the Magyars, in the 9th century. 
 
 DAGHISTAN (S.W. Asia), was conquered by the czar Peter, 1723 ; restored to Persia, 
 1735 ; but re-annexed to Russia by Alexander I., 1813. 
 
 DAGUERREOTYPE PROCESS, invented by Daguen-e, 1838. See Photography. 
 
 DAHLIA. This beautiful flower was brought from Mexico, of which it is a native, in the 
 present century. It was first cultivated by the Swedish botanist, professor Dahl, and soon 
 became a favourite in England. In 181 5, about two months after the battle of Waterloo, it 
 was introduced into France, and the celebrated florist Andre Thouine suggested various 
 practical improvements in its management. The botanist Georgi shortly before introduced 
 it at St. Petersburg ; hence the dahlia is known in Germany as the Georgina. 
 
 DAHOMEY, a negro kingdom, "West Africa, became known to Europeans early in the 
 last century, when Trudo Andati or Guadjor Trudo, a man of energy and talent, was king. 
 He died in 1 732, and was succeeded by a series of cruel tyrants : a large part of whose 
 revenue was derived from the slave trade. Abbeokuta, which was a robber's cave in 1825, is 
 now a strong-walled populous town, inhabited by free blacks ; and is consequently opposed 
 by the king of Dahomey. His army has been severely defeated in its attacks on this place, 
 and in one on March 16, 1864, a great number of his Amazons were slain. During the last 
 few j'ears this kingdom has been visited by Captain Burton and other travellers, who have 
 described the sanguinary customs of the royal court. 
 
 DAHRA (Algeria). On June 18, 1845, above 500 Kabyles at war with the French were 
 sufl'ocated in a cave by smoke, the fire having been kindled by order of general Pelissier, 
 afterwards duke of Malakoffl They had fired on the messenger bearing an ofier of a truce. 
 The massacre was condemned by marshal Soult, the minister of war, but justified by marshal 
 Bugeaud. 
 
DAK 
 
 227 
 
 DAN 
 
 DAKOTA (North America) was organised as a territory of the United States on March 2, 
 1861. 
 
 DALECARLIANS (Sweden), revolted against Christian of Denmark, 1521, and placed 
 Gustavus Vasa on the throne of Sweden. 
 
 DALMATIA, an Austrian province, N.E. of the Adriatic Sea, was finally conquered by 
 the Eomans, 34B.C. The emperor Diocletian erected his palace at Spalatro, and retired 
 there, A.D. 305. Dalmatia was held in turns by the Goths, Hungarians, and Turks, till its 
 cession to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of Campo Formio in 1797 it was given to Austria. 
 In 1805 it was incorporated into the kingdom of Italy, and gave the title of duke to marshal 
 Soult, but in 1814 it reverted to. Austria. 
 
 DALTONISM. See Colour, note. 
 
 DAMASCUS (Syria), a city in the time of Abraham, 1913 B.C. {Ge,n. xiv.), consequently 
 one of the most ancient in the world, now the capital of a Turkish pachalic. 
 
 Taken by David (1040 b.c), but retaken sbortly 
 after, and made the capital of Syria under 
 Benhadad and his successors . . b.o. 
 
 Taken by Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria 
 
 From the Assyrians it passed to the Persians, 
 and from them to the Greeks, under Alex- 
 ander ; and afterwards to the Ilomans, about 
 
 Paul, converted, preaches here {Ads ix.) a.d. 
 
 Taken by the Saracens, 633 ; by the Turks in 
 107s ; destroyed by Tamerlane . . . . 
 
 Taken by Ibrahim Pacha in ... . 
 
 The disappearance of a Greek priest, named 
 father Tommaso, from here, Feb. i, 1S40, led 
 to the torture of a number of Jews, suspected 
 of his murder, and to a cruel persecution of 
 
 95 1 
 740 
 
 1400 
 1832 
 
 that people, which caused remonstrances from 
 many states of Europe. 
 Damascus was restored to Turkey . . .18 
 In consequence of a dispute between the Druses 
 and Maronites, the Mahommedans massacred 
 above 3000 Christians and destroyed the 
 houses, rendering vast numbers of persons 
 homeless and destitiite ; a large number 
 were rescued by Abd-el-Kader,* who held 
 the citadel . . . . July 9, lo, 11, iS 
 Summary justice executed for these crimes by 
 Puad Pacha : 160 persons of all classes exe- 
 cuted, including the Turkish governor ; and 
 11,000 persons made soldiers by conscription, 
 
 Aug. Sept. , 
 
 DAMASK LINENS and SILKS, first manufactured at Damascus, have been beauti- 
 fully imitated by the Dutch and Flemish. The manufacture was brought to England by 
 artisans who fled from the persecutions of the duke of Alva, 1571-3. The Damask Rose was 
 brought here from the south of Europe by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about 
 1540. 
 
 DAMIENS' ATTEMPT. Louis XV. of France was stabbed with a knife in the right 
 side by Damiens, a native of Arras, Jan. 5, 1757. The culprit endured the most excruciating 
 tortures, and was then broken on the wheel, March 28. 
 
 DAMIETTA (Lower Egypt), was built about 1250. Here, it is said, was first manufac- 
 tured the cloth termed dimity. 
 
 DAMON AND PYTHIAS (or Phintias), Pythagorean philosophers. "When Damon was 
 condemned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, about 387 B.C., he obtained leave 
 to go and settle some domestic affairs, on the promise of returning at the appointed time of 
 execution, and Pythias became surety for the performance of his engagement. "When the 
 fatal hour approached, Damon did not appear, and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led 
 away to execution ; but at this critical moment Damon returned to redeem bis pledge. 
 Dionysius was so struck with their fidelity that he remitted the sentence and entreated them 
 to permit him to share their friendship. 
 
 DANAI : an ancient name of the Greeks derived from Danaus king of Argos, 1474 B.C. 
 
 DANCE OF DEATH. The triumph of death over all ranks of men was a favourite 
 subject with the artists of the middle ages, and appears in rude carvings and pictures in 
 various countries. The Cliorea Machahceorum or Danse Macabre was the first printed repre- 
 sentation, published by Guyot Marchand, a bookseller of Paris, in 1485. Holbein's cele- 
 brated Dance of Death (concerning the authorship of which there has been much contro- 
 versy), was printed at Lyons in 1538, and at Basil, 1594. Since then many editions have 
 appeared ; one with an introduction and notes was published by Mr. Russell Smith in 
 1849. — The term Dance of Death was also applied to the frenzied movements of the Flagel- 
 lants, who had sometimes skeletons depicted on their clothing, about the end of the 14th 
 century .f , ' 
 
 * Abd-el-Kader visited England in August, 1865. 
 
 t The Dancing Mania, accompanied by aberration of mind and distortions of the body, was very preva- 
 lent in Germany in 1374, and in the i6th century in Italy, where it was tei-med Tarantism, and erroneously 
 supposed to be caused by the bite of the Tarantula spider. The music an^ songs employed for its cure are 
 still preserved. 
 
 q2 
 
DAN 
 
 228 
 
 DAN 
 
 DANCING to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes, 1534 B.C. EitseUus. 
 The Greeks were the first who united the dance to their tragedies and comedies. Pantomimio 
 dances were first introduced on the Roman stage, 22 B.C. Usher. Dancing by cinque paces 
 was introduced into England from Italy, A.D. 1541. In modern times the French were the 
 first who introduced ballets analogues in their musical dramas. The country dance {contre- 
 danse) is of French origin, but its date is not precisely known. SpelmaJi. The waltz and 
 quadrille were introduced into England about 1S13. See Morice Dances. 
 
 DANE-GELD, or Danegelt, a tribute jiaid to the Danes to stop their ravages in this 
 kingdom ; first raised by Ethelred II. in 991, and again in 1003 ; and levied after the 
 expulsion of the Danes to pay fleets for clearing the seas of them. The tax was suppressed 
 by Edward the Confessor in 105 1 ; revived by William the Conqueror, 1068; and formed 
 part of the i-evenue of the crown, until abolished by Stephen, 1136. Every hide of land, 
 i.e. as much as one plough could plough, or as Bcde says, maintain a family, was taxed at 
 first 15., afterwards as much as 7s. Camden says that once 24,360?. was raised. 
 
 DANES. See Denmark. During their attacks upon Briton and Ireland they made a 
 descent on France, where, in 895, under Rollo, they received presents imder the walls of 
 Paris. They returned and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They 
 attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by Ihe king of France to Rollo and his 
 Normans (North-men), hence Normandy, in 911. The invasions of England and Ireland 
 were as follows : — 
 
 First hostile appear.ance of tlie Danes . . . 7S3 
 They hmd near Piirbeck, Dorset . . . 7S7 
 Descend in Nortliuniberland : destroy the 
 
 chnrch at Lindisfarne ; are repelled, and 
 
 perish by shipwreck 794 
 
 They invade Scotland and Ireland . . 795, 796 
 They enter Dublin with a fleet of 60 sail, and 
 
 possess themselves of Dublin, Fingal, and 
 
 other places 798 
 
 They take the Isle of Sheppey .... 832 
 Defeated at Hengeston, in Coniwall, by Egbert 835 
 They land in Kent from 350 vessels, and take 
 
 Canterbury and London 851 
 
 They descend on Northumberland, and take 
 
 York 867 
 
 They defeat the Saxons at Merton . . . 871 
 ■ I'hey take Warehani and Exeter . . . S76 
 
 They take Chippenham : but 120 of their ships 
 
 are wi-ecked S77 
 
 Defeated : Guthrum, their leader, becomes 
 
 Christian, and many settle in England . 878 
 
 Alfred enters into a treaty with them . . . 882 
 Their fleet totally destroyed by Alfred at Api^le- 
 
 dore 894 
 
 Defeated near Isle of Wight 897 
 
 They invade and waste Wales .... 900 
 Defeated by Edward the Elder . . . . 922 
 They defeat the people of Leinster, whose king 
 
 is killed 956 
 
 Bavage Coi-nwall, Devon, and Dorset . . . 982 
 And ravage Essex and Suffolk .... 990 
 Said to assume the title lord dane about . . 991 
 Their fleet dsfeated after a breach of treaty, 
 
 purchased bj' money 992 
 
 They land in Essex, and in the west, and are 
 
 paid a sum of money (i6,oooi.) to quit the 
 
 kingdom ........ 994 
 
 A general massacre of the Danes, by order of 
 
 Ethelred II Nov. 13, 1002 
 
 Swein revenges the death of his countrj'meii, 
 
 and receives 36,000^. (which he afterwai'ds 
 
 demands as an annual tribute) to depart . 1003 
 Their fleet anchors at Isle of Wight . . . 1006 
 1 hey make fresh inroads, and defeat the Saxons 
 
 in Suffolk loio 
 
 They sack Canterbury , imprison the archbishop, 
 
 and kill the inhabitants loii 
 
 They receive 48,000?. as tribute, and murder 
 
 Alphege, archbishop of Canterbury . . 1012 
 Vanquished at Clontarf, Ireland (see Clontarf). 1014 
 Their conquest of England completed ; Canute 
 
 king 1017 
 
 They settle in Scotland 1020 
 
 They land again at Sandwich, carrying off 
 
 much plunder to Fliuiders . . . . 1047 
 
 They bum York, and kill 3000 Normans . . 1069 
 Once more invade England to aid a consjiiracy ; 
 
 but compelled to depart .... 1074 
 
 DANGEROUS ASSOCIATIONS (IRELAND) BILL, ^ae Roman Catholic Association. 
 
 DANNEWERKE, or Dannawiike, a series of earthworks, considered almost impregnable, 
 stretching across the long narrow peninsula of SchlesAvig, Holstein, and Jutland— said to 
 have been constructed during the "stone age," long before the art of metal-working. It was 
 rebuilt in 937 by Thyra, queen of Gormo the old, for which she was named " Dannabod," 
 the pride of the Danes. It was repaired by Olaf Tryggveson between 995 and 1000. The 
 retreat of the Danes from it Feb. 5, 1864, occasioned much dissatisfaction in Copenhagen. 
 
 DANTE'S DIVINA COMMEDIA was first printed in 1472. He was born May 14, 
 1265, and died at Ravenna, Sept. 14, 1321. A festival in his honour, at Florence, was 
 opened by the king, May 14, 1865, when a large statue of Dante by Pazzi of Ravenna was 
 uncovered. 
 
 DANTZIC (N. Germany), a commercial city in 997 ; but according to other authorities, 
 built by Waldemar I. in 1165. Poland obtained the sovereignty of it in 1454. It was 
 seized by the king of Prussia, and annexed in 1793. It surrendered to the French, May, 
 1807 ; and by the treaty of Tilsit Avas restored to independence, under the protection of 
 Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and surrendered to them, 
 
DAN" 
 
 229 
 
 DAR 
 
 Jan. I, 1 8 14. By the treat}'' of Paris it again reverted to tlie king of Prussia. By an inunda- 
 tion liere, owing to tlie Vistula breaking through its dykes, 10,000 head of cattle and 4000 
 houses were destroyed, and a vast number of lives lost, April 9, 1829. 
 
 DAi^LTBE (German, Donau ; anciently Ister, in its lower part). Except the Wolga, the 
 largest river in Europe, rising in the Black Forest and falling into the Black Sea. Its 
 navigation has been considered an object of great importance, fi-om the time of Trajan to the 
 present time. Part of Trajan's bridge at Gladova still remains. It was desti-oyed by Adrian, 
 to prevent the barbarians entering Dacia. Steam navigation was projected on this river by 
 count Szenechyi in 1830, and in that j'ear the iirst steam-boat was launched at Vienna, and 
 the Austrian company was formed shortly after. The Bavarian company was formed in 
 1836. Charlemagne, in the 8th century, contemplated uniting the Danube and Ehine by a 
 canal. At the peace of 1856 the free navigation of the Danube was secured. 
 
 DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES ; Wallachia and Moldavia ; capitals, Bucharest 
 and Jassy. United, as Roumania, under the government of prince Alexander Cousa in 1859. 
 Population of the two i86o, 4,200,000. These provinces formed part of the ancient Dacia, 
 which was concjuered by Trajan about 106, and abandoned by Aurelian about 270. Eor some 
 time after they were alternately in the possession of the barbarians and the Greek emperors ; 
 and afterwards of the Hungarians. In the 13th century they were subdued by the Turks, 
 but permited to retain their religious customs, &c. 
 
 Part of Moldavia ceded to Russia . . . 1S12 
 
 The provinces having participated in the Greek 
 insurrection in 1821, were severely treated by 
 the Turks ; but by the treaty of Adrianople 
 were placed under bhe protection of Russia . 1829 
 
 The Porte appointed as hospodars prince Stir- 
 bey for Wallachia, and prince Ghika for Mol- 
 davia ...... June, 1849 
 
 They retire from their governments when the 
 Russians enter Moldavia. See Rassu-Tarkis/i 
 War .... ... July 2, 1853 
 
 The Russians quit the provinces and the Aus- 
 trians enter Sept. 1854 
 
 The Austrians retire .... March, 1857 
 
 The government of the principalities finally 
 settled at the Paris conference (there were to 
 be two hospodars, elected by elective assem- 
 blages, and the suzeraiuty of Turkey was to 
 
 be preserved) .... Aug. ig, 1858 
 
 Alexander Cousa was elected hospodar of Mol- 
 davia, Jan. 17 ; of Wallachia . Feb. 5, xSsg 
 
 The election acknowledged by the allies as an 
 exceptional case .... Sept. 6, ,, 
 
 The definitive union of the provinces (under 
 the name of Roumania) acknowledged by the 
 Porte Deo. 1861 
 
 M. Catargi, the president of the council of 
 ministers, assassinated as he was leaving the 
 chamber of deputies . . . June 20, 1862 
 
 The united chambers of the two principalities 
 meet at Bucharest . . . Feb. 5, „ 
 
 Coup d'etat of prince Cousa against the aristo- 
 crats : a plebiscite for a new constitution, 
 May 2 ; which is adopted . . May 28, 1864 
 
 A law passed enabhng the peasan';s to hold land, 
 
 Aug. ,, 
 
 DARDANELLES, The, are two castles (Sestos, in Romania, and Abydos, in ISTatolia), 
 commanding the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli, built by the sultan Maliomet IV. in 1659, 
 and named Dardanelles from the contiguous town Dardanus. — The passage of the Dardanelles 
 was achieved by the British squadron under sir John Duckworth, Eeb. 19, 1807; but the 
 admiral was obliged to repass them, which he did with great loss, March 2, following, the 
 castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down stones of many tons weight, upon the British 
 sliips. The allied English and French fleets passed the Dardanelles at the sultan's request, 
 Oct. 1853. See Helles^wnt. 
 
 DARIC, a Persian gold coin, issued by Darius, hence its name, about 538 B.C. About 
 556 cents. Knoiolcs. It weighed two grains more than the English guinea. Br. Bernard. 
 
 DARIEN, Isthmus of, central America, discovered by Columbus, 1494. About 1694, 
 William Paterson, founder of the Bank of England, published his plan for colonising Darien. 
 In consequence a company was formed in 1695 and three ill-fated expeditions sailed there in 
 1698 and 1699, from Scotland, where 400,000/. had been raised. The first consisted of 1200 
 young men of all classes, besides women and children. The enterprise not having been 
 recognised by the English government, the settlements were threatened by the Spaniards, to 
 whom they were finally surrendered, March 30, 1700. Paterson and a few survivors from 
 famine and disease, had set off shortly before the arrival of the second expedition. Several 
 years after, a sum of 398,085/. was voted by parliament to the survivors as "Equivalent 
 money." A sum of money was also voted to Paterson ; but the bill was rejected in the 
 house of lords. See Panama. 
 
 DARK AGES, a term applied to the period of time called the Middle Ages ; according 
 to Hallam, comprising about 1000 years — from the invasion of France by Clovis, 486, to 
 that of Naples by Charles VIII. 1495. During this time learning was at a low ebb. 
 
 DARMSTADT. See Hesse Darmstadt. 
 
DAR 230 DAY 
 
 DARTFORD (Kent). Here commenced the insurrection of Wat Tyler, 1381. A con- 
 vent of nuns, of the order of St. Augustin, endowed here by Edward III., 1355, was converted 
 by Henry VIII. into a royal palace. The first paper-mill in England was erected at Dartford 
 by sir John Spielman, a German, in 1590 {Stow), and about the same period was erected here 
 the first mill for splitting iron bars. The powder-mills here were blown up four times 
 between 1730 and 1738. Various explosions have since occurred, in some cases with loss of 
 life to many persons : Oct. 12, 1790 ; Jan. i, 1795 ; and more recently. 
 
 DARTMOUTH (Devon). Burnt by the French in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry 
 IV. In a third attempt (1404), the invaders were defeated by the inhabitants, assisted by 
 the valour of the women. The French commander, Du Chaste!, three lords, and thirty-two 
 knights were made prisoners. In the war of the parliament, Dartmouth was taken after a 
 siege of four weeks, by pi'ince Maurice, who garrisoned the place for the king (1643); but 
 it was retaken by general Fairfax by stonn in 1646. 
 
 DATES were affixed to grants and assignments 18 Edw. I. 1290. Before this time it 
 was usual at leiist to pass lands without dating the deed of conveyance. Lewis. Numerous 
 instruments of assignment enrolled among our early records establish this fact. The date is 
 determined by the names of the parties, particularly that of the grantor : the possession of 
 land was proof of the title to it. Hardie. A useful glossary of the dates given in old 
 charters and chronicles will be found in Nicolas's " Chronology of History." 
 
 DAUPHIN. It is a vulgar error to suppose that, by the treaty of 1343, which gave the 
 full sovereignty of Dauphiny to the kings of France, it was stipulated that the eldest son of 
 the king should bear the title of dauphin. So far from it, the first dauphin named in that 
 treaty was Philip, second son of Philip of Valois. Henault. The late duke of Orleans, 
 eldest son of Louis- Philij)pe, was not called the dauphin. 
 
 DAVID'S, St. (S.W. Wales), the ancient Menapia, now a poor decayed place, but once 
 the metropolitan see of Wales, and archiepiscopal. When Chi'istianity was planted in 
 Britain, tliere were three archbishops' seats appointed, viz. London, York, and Caerleon upon 
 Usk, in Monmouthshire. That at Caerleon being too near the dominions of the Saxons, was 
 removed to Menew, and called St. David's, in honour of the archbishop who removed it, 519. 
 St. Sampson was the last archbishop of the Welsh ; for he, withdrawing himself on account 
 •of a pestilence to Dole, in Brittany, carried the pall with him ; but his successors pre- 
 served the archiepiscopal power, although they lost the name. In the reign of Henry I. 
 these prelates were forced to submit to the see of Canterbury. Beatsmi. Present income 
 4500?. 
 
 RECEN-T BISHOPS OF ST. DAVID'S, 
 
 1800. Lord George Murray, died June 3, 1803. 
 
 1825. John Banks Jenkinson, died July 7, 1840. 
 
 1803. Thomas Burgess, translated to Salisbury, June 1840. Connop Thirlwall (present bishop, i86s-) 
 1825. 
 
 DAVID'S DAY, St., March i, is annually commemorated by the Welsh, in honour of 
 St. David. Tradition states that on St. David's birthday, 540, a great victory was obtained 
 by the Welsh over their Saxon invaders ; that the Welsh soldiers were distinguished by order 
 of St. David by a leek in their cap. 
 
 '^DAVIS'S STRAIT (N. America), discovered by the English navigator, [John Davis, on 
 his voyage to find a N. W. passage, between 1585 and 1587. He made two more voyages 
 for the same purpose, and afterwards performed five voyages to the East Indies. In the 
 last he was killed by Japanese pirates, in the Indian seas, on the coast of Malacca, Dec. 
 27, 1605. 
 
 DAVY LAMP. ■ See Safdij Lamp. 
 
 DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sunset among 
 the Athenians and Jews. _ Among the Romans, day commenced at midnight, as it now does 
 among us. The Italians in many places, at the present time, reckon the day from sunset to 
 sunset, making thek clocks strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day, as 
 is done in all other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but partially 
 used in the larger towns of Italy ; most public clocks in Florence, Rome, and Milan, being 
 set to the hour designated on French or English clocks. The Chinese divide the day into 
 twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil day is distinguislied from the astronomical day, 
 which begins at noon, is divided into twenty-four hours (instead of two parts of twelve 
 
DEA 231 DEB 
 
 liours), and is the mode of reckoning used in the Nautical Almanack. At Rome, day and 
 night were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of Scipio Nasica, 
 158 B.C. 
 
 DEACON'S (literally servants), an order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise 
 from the institution of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a long 
 period in many churches, about 53. {Acts vi.) The originaldeacons were Stephen, Philip, 
 Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parmenas, and Nicolas. The qualifications of a deacon are 
 mentioned by St. Paul (65), ist Timothy Hi. 8 — 14. 
 
 DEACONESSES, or ministering widows, are mentioned in early Christian history. Their 
 qualifications are given in i Tun. v. 9, 10 (65). Their duties were to visit the poor and sick, 
 assist at the agapte or love feasts, admonish the young women, &c. The office was discon- 
 tinued in the Western church in the 5 th and 6th centuries, and in the Greek church about 
 the 12th, but has been recently revived in Germany. 
 
 DEAD, Prayers for, began about 190, Eusebius. See Prayer. 
 
 DEAD "WEIGHT LOAN acquired its name from, its locking up the capital of the Bank 
 of England, which in 1823 advanced ii,ooo,oooZ. to the government (to construct new 
 ordnance, &c.). The latter engaged to give an annuity of 585,740?. for 44 years ; which, 
 ceases in 1867. 
 
 DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was 
 Hiade by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about 1570. Bonet, also a monk, 
 published a system at Madrid in 1620. Dr. "Wallis published a work in England on the 
 subject in 1650. The first regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Britain was opened ia 
 Edinburgh in 1773. In modern times the abbe de I'Epee (1712-89), and his friend and pupil 
 the abbe Sicard of Paris (1742 — 1822) ; the rev. Mr. Townsend and Mr. Baker, of London ; 
 Mr. Braidwood of Edinburgh ; and surgeon Orpen, of Dublin, have laboured with muck 
 success in promoting the instruction of the deaf and dumb. The asylum for deaf and 
 dumb children was opened in London through the exertions of Mr. Townsend, in 1 792 ; one 
 in Edinburgh by Mr. J, Braidwood, in 1810 ; and one in Birmingham by Mr. T. Braidwood, 
 in 1815. The asylum at Claremont, Dublin, was opened in 1816. In 1851, there were in 
 Oreat Britain, 12,553 deaf and dumb out of a population of 20,959,477. 
 
 DEAN, Forest of, Gloucestershire. Anciently it was wooded quite through, and of 
 great extent ; and in the last century, though much curtailed, was twenty miles in length 
 and ten in breadth. It was famous for its oaks, of which most of our former ships of war 
 were made. The memorable riots in this district, when more than 3000 persons assembled 
 in the forest, and demolished upwards of fifty miles of wall and fence, throwing open 10,000 
 acres of plantation, took place on June 8, 1831. 
 
 DEATH, Punishment op. The ancients inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women, 
 suffered on the cross. Mithridates, a Persian soldier, who boasted that he had killed Cyrus 
 the Younger, at the battle of Cunaxa, was by order of Artaxerxes Mnemon eighteen days in 
 a. state of torture exposed to the action of the sun. Drowning in a quagmire was a 
 punishment among the Britons, about 450 B.C. Stow. Maurice, the son of a nobleman, 
 was hanged, drawn, and quartered for piracy, the first execution in that manner in England, 
 25 Hen. III. 1241. The punishment of death was abolished in a great number of cases by 
 sir R. Peel's acts, 4 to 10 Geo. IV. 1824-9 \ ^^^ by the criminal law consolidation acts of 
 1 86 1, was confined to treason and wilful mui'dei*. See Ravaillac, Boiling, Burning, 
 Hanging, Forgery, and Execution. A parliamentary commission respecting capital punish- 
 ment was appointed early in 1864. Capital punishment was restricted in Italy in 
 April, 1865. 
 
 DEATHS, Registers of. See Bills of Mortality and Registers. 
 
 DEBT. See National Debt, Bankrupts and Insolvents. Debtors have been subjected to 
 imprisonment in almost all countries and times ; and until the passing of the later bankrupt 
 laws and insolvent acts, the prisons of these countries were crowded with debtors to an extent 
 that is now scarcely credible. It appears by parliamentary returns that in the eighteen 
 months, subsequent to the panic of Dec. 1825, as many as 101,000 writs for debts were issued 
 from the courts in England. In the year ending 5th Jan. 1830, there were 7114 persons 
 sent to the several prisons of London ; and on that day, 1547 of the number were yet 
 confined. On the ist of Jan. 1840, the number of prisoners for debt in England and "Wales 
 was 1732 ; in'Ireland the number was under 1000 ; and in Scotland under 100. The operation 
 of statutes of relief, and other causes, considerably reduced the number of imprisoned 
 
DEB 232 DEE 
 
 debtors. When the new Bankruptcy Act (abolishing imprisonment for debt except when 
 fraudulently contracted) came into operation, in Nov. 1861, a number of debtors who had been 
 confined, were released.* Arrest of Absconding Debtors bill, 14 & 15 Vict. c. 52, 1852. 
 See Arrest and King's Bench. 
 
 DEBUSCOPE, an instrument of French origin, somewhat similar to the kaleidoscope, 
 said to be useful for devising patterns for calico-printers, &c., made its appearance in i860. 
 
 DECAMERONE (10 days). See Boccaccio. 
 
 DECAPITATION. See Beheading. 
 
 DECEMBER (from decern, ten), the tenth month of the year of Romulus, commencing 
 in March. In 713 b.c. Numa introduced January and February before March, and thence- 
 foi-ward December became the twelfth of the year. In the reign of Commodus, A.n. 181 — 
 192, December was called by the way of flattery, Amazonius, in honour of a courtesan whom 
 that prince had loved, and had painted like an Amazon. The English commenced their 
 year on the 25th December, until the reign of William the Conqueror. See Year. 
 
 DECEMVIRI, or Ten Men, who were appointed to draw up a code of laws, and to whom 
 for a time the whole government of Rome was committed, 451 B.C. The laws they drew 
 up were approved by the senate and general assembly »f the people, written on ten metallic 
 tables, and set up in the place where the people met (comilium), 450 B.C. The Decemviri 
 at first ruled well, but the tyranny of Appius Claudius towards Virginia occasioning an 
 insurrection, they were forced to resign ; and consuls were again appointed, 449 B.C. 
 
 DECENNALIA, festivals instituted by Augustus, 17 B.C., celebrated by the Roman 
 emperors every tenth year of their reign, with sacrifices, games, and largesses. Livy. And 
 celebrated by Antoninus Pius, A. p. 148. They do not appear to have been continued after 
 the reigns of the Ctesars. 
 
 DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coinage, Weights, &c. See Metric System. 
 
 DECLARATION of Rights. See Rights. 
 
 DECORATIVE ART. The true principles of decoration enunciated by A. W. Pugin, 
 in his "Designs," published in 1835, have since been greatly advanced by Owen Jones, 
 Redgrave, and others. Owen Jones's elaborate "Grammar of Ornament" was j)ublished in 
 1856. A Decorative Art society, founded in 1844, existed for a short time only. 
 
 DE COURCY'S PRIVILEGE, that of standing covered before the king, granted by king 
 John, to John de Courcy, baron of Kingsale, and his siiccessors, in 1203. He was the first 
 nobleman created by an English sovereign, 27 Hen. II. 1181 ; and was entrusted with the 
 government of Ireland, 1185. The privilege has been exercised in most reigns, and was 
 allowed to the baron of Kingsale by Will. III., Geo. III., and by Geo. IV. at his court held 
 in Dublin, in Aug. 1821. The present baron is the 29th in succession. 
 
 DECRETALS. The decretals formed the second part of the canon law, or collection of 
 the pope's edicts and decrees and the decrees of councils. The first of these acknowledged 
 to be genuine is a letter of Siricius to Himerus, the bishop of Spain, written in the first 
 year of his pontificate, 385. IIoivcl. Certain false decretals were used by Gregory IV. in 
 S37. The decretals of Gratian, a Benedictine (a collection of canons), were compiled iu 
 1 150. HenauU. Five books were collected by Gregory IX. 1227 ; a sixth by Boniface VIII. 
 in 1297 ; the Clementines by Clement V. in 1313 ; employed by John XXII. in 1317 ; the 
 Extravagantes range from 1422 to 1483. 
 
 DEDICATION of the Jewish tabernacle took place 1490 B.C. ; of the temple, 1004 B.C. ; 
 of the second temi^le, 515 b.c. The Christians under Constantine built new churches and 
 dedicated them with great solemnity, in A.D. 331, et scq. The dedication of books (by 
 authors to solicit patronage or testify respect) began in the time of Maecenas, 17 B.C. He 
 was the friend and counsellor of Augustus Cfesar, and a patron of genius and learning ; 
 hence it is customary to style any nobleman, imitating his example, a Maecenas. 
 
 DEED, a written contract or agi-eement. The formiila, " I deliver this as my act and 
 deed," occurs in a charter of 933. Foshrookc. Deeds in England were formerly written in 
 the Latin and French languages : the earliest known instance of the English tongue having 
 been used is the indenture between the abbot of Whitby and Robert Bustard, dated at York 
 in 1343. See English. 
 
 * Imprisonment for debt still continues. In 1863 nearly 18,000 persons were imprisoned by order of 
 the county courts: average time, 15 days, amount of debt, 3(. los. 
 
DEF 233 DEL 
 
 DEFAMATIOiST. The jm-isdictiou of the ecclesiastical courts on this suhject was 
 abolished by i8 & 19 Yict. c. 41 (1855). 
 
 DEFENCE OF the REALM ACT was passed in Ang. i860, in consequence of the 
 ■'•unsettled state of Europe, aggravated by the doubtful policy of the emperor Napoleon. See 
 Fortification. 
 
 DEFENDER of the FAITH {Fidei Defensor), a title of the British sovereign, conferred 
 bj' Leo X. on Henry VIII. of England, for his tract on behalf of the Church of Rome, then 
 accounted Domicilium field Catliolicoe, against Luther, in Oct. 11, 1521. 
 
 DEFENDERS, a faction in Ireland, whicb arose out of a quarrel between two residents of 
 Market-hill, July 4, 1784. Each was soon aided by a large body of friends, and many battles 
 ensued. On Whit-Monday, 1785, an armed assemblage of one of the parties (700 men), 
 called the Nappagh Fleet, prepared to encounter the Bmvn Fleet, but the engagement was. 
 prevented. They subseqiiently became religious parties. Catholic and Presbyterian, distin- 
 guished a.s Defenders and Peep-o' -day-hoys : the latter were so named because they usually 
 visited the dwellings of the Defenders at daybreak in search of arms. Sir Richard Musgrave. 
 
 DEGREES. Eratosthenes attempted to determine the length of a geographical degree 
 about 250 B.C. Sncllius. See Latitude and Longitude. Collegiate degrees are coeval with 
 universities. Those in medicine are traced up to a.d. 1384 : in music to 1463. In Oct. 
 1863, women were permitted to compete for degrees. 
 
 DEI GRATIA. See Grace of God. 
 
 DEIRA, a part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northiimbria. See Britain. 
 
 DEISM OR THEISM (Greek, tJieos, Latin, deus, God), the belief in a God. About the 
 middle of the i6th century some gentlemen of France and Italy termed themselves 
 deists, to disguise their opposition to Christianity by a moi-e honourable appellation than that 
 of Atheism {which see). Deists reject revelation, and profess to go by the light of nature, 
 believing that there is a God, a providence, vice, and virtue, and an after-state of punishments 
 and rewards : they are sometimes called free-thinkers. The most distinguished deists were 
 Herbert, baron of Cherbury, in 1624 ; Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Gibbon, 
 Hume, Holcroft, Paine and Godwin. 
 
 DELAWARE, one of the United States of North America, named after lord de la Warre, 
 governor of Virginia, who entered the bay 1610. It was settled by Swedes, sent there by 
 Gustavus in 1627. 
 
 DELEGATES, Cotjut of. Appeals to the pope in ecclesiastical causes having been 
 forbidden (see Appeals), those causes were for the future to be heard in this court, established 
 by stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1533 ; soon afterwards the pope's authority was susperseded 
 altogether in England. Stow. This court was abolished ; and appeals now lie to the Judicial 
 Committee of the Privy Council, as fixed by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 41 (1833). See Arches. 
 
 DELFT (S. Holland), a town founded by Godfrey le Bossu, about 1074 ; famous for 
 the earthenware known by its name ; first manufactured here about 13 10. The sale of 
 Dutch delft greatly declined after the introduction of potteries into Germany and England. 
 Delft was an important place during the struggle against Spain. The renowned Grotius was 
 born here, April 10, 1583 ; and here the great AVilliam prince of Orange was assassinated, 
 July 10, 1584, by Gerard. 
 
 D£LHI, the once great capital of the Mogul empire, and chief seat of the Mahomedan 
 power in India ; it was taken by Timour in 1398. It. is now in decay, but contained a 
 million of inhabitants in 1 700. In 1 739, when Nadir Shah invaded Hindostan, he entered 
 Delhi ; 100,000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword, and plunder to the amount of 
 62,000,000?. sterling is said to have been collected. The same calamities were endured in 
 1761, on the invasion of Abdalla king of Candahar. In 1803, the Mahrattas, aided by 
 the French, took Delhi ; but were afterwards defeated by general Lake, and the aged Shah 
 Aulum, emperor of Hindostan, was restored to his throne with a pension. See India, 1803. 
 On May 10, 1857, a mutiny arose in the sepoy regiments at Meerut. It was soon checked ; 
 but the fugitives fled to Delhi, and combined with other troops there, seized on the city ; 
 proclaimed a descendant of the Mogul as king, and committed the most frightful atrocities. 
 The rebels were anxious to possess the chief magazine, but after a gallant defence it was 
 exploded by order of lieutenant Willoughby, who died of his wounds shortly after. The 
 other heroes in this exploit were lieutenants Forrest and Rajaier, and the gunners Buckley 
 and Scully. Delhi was shortly after besieged by the British, but was not taken till Sept. 20, 
 
DEL 
 
 234 
 
 DEL 
 
 following. The final struggle began on the i6th ; brigadier (since sii- Arch dale) Wilson being 
 the commander. Much heroism was shown ; the gallant deaths of Salkeld and Home at the 
 explosion of the Cashmere gate created much enthusiasm. The old king and his sons were 
 captured soon after : the latter were shot, and the former after a trial was sent for life to ■» 
 Kangoon. &ee India, 1857. 
 
 "DELICATE INVESTIGATION," The, into the conduct of the princess of Wales 
 (afterwards queen of England, as consort of George IV. ), was commenced by a committee of 
 the pri\7- council, under a warrant of inquiry, dated May 29, 1806. The members were lord 
 Orenville, lord Erskine, earl Spencer and lord Ellenborough. The inquiry, of which the 
 coimtess of Jersey, sir J. and lady Douglas, and other persons of rank were the prompters, 
 and in which they conspicuously figured, led to the publication called "The Book;" 
 afterwards suppressed. The charges against the princess were disproved in 1807, and again 
 in 1813 ; but not being permitted to appear at court, she went on the continent in 1S14. 
 
 DELIUM, Boeotia, N. Greece, the site of a celebrated temple of Apollo. Here, in a 
 conflict between the Athenians and the Boeotians, in which the former were defeated, 
 Socrates the philosopher is said to have saved the life of his pupil Xenophon, 424 b.c. 
 
 DELLA CRUSCA ACADEMY of Florence merged into the Florentine in 1582.— The 
 Della Crusca School, a term aj^plied to some English persons residing at Florence, who 
 wrote and printed a quantity of inferior sentimental poetry and prose in 1785. They came 
 to England where their- works were popular for a short time, but were severely satirised by 
 Gilford in his "Baviad and Moeviad" (1794-5). 
 
 DELOS, a Greek isle in the JSgean sea. Here the Greeks, during the Persian war, 
 477 B.C., established their common treasury, which was removed to Athens, 461. 
 
 DELPHI (N. Greece), celebrated for its enigmatical oracles delivered by the Pythia, in the 
 temple of Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 B.C. 
 The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came to consult the oracle, and was 
 supposed to be suddenly inspired. The temjile was burnt by the Pisistratidse, 548 B.C. A 
 new temple was raised by the Alcmteonidse. The Persians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 B.C.) 
 were deterred from plundering the temple by awful portents. It was, however, robbed and 
 seized by the Phocians, 357 B.C., which led to the sacred war, and Nero carried from it 500 
 costly statues, a.d. 67. The Pythian games were first celebrated 586 B.C. The oracle was 
 consulted by Julian, but silenced by Theodosius. 
 
 DELPHIN CLASSICS, a collection of thirty-nine of the Latin authors in sixty volumes, 
 made for the use of the dauphin {in usum Delphini) son of Louis XIV., and published in 
 1674-91. Ausonius was added in 1730. The due de Montausier, the young prince's governor, 
 proposed the plan to Huet, bishop of Avranches, the dauphin's preceptor ; and he, with 
 other learned persons, including Madame Dacier,* edited all the Latin classics except Lucan. 
 Each author is illustrated by notes and an index of words. An edition of the Delphiu 
 Classics, with additional notes, &c ., was published by Mr. Valpy of London, early in the 
 present century. 
 
 DELUGE. The deluge was threatened in the year of the world 1536 ; and began Dec. 7, 
 1656, and continued 377 days. Genesis vi. vii. viii. The ark rested on Mount Ararat, May 
 6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark Dec. 18 following. The year corresponds mth that of 
 2348 B. c. Blair. The following are the epochs of the deluge, according to Dr. Hales : — 
 
 Septuagint 
 
 . B.C. 3246 
 
 Persian . 
 
 . B.C. 3103 
 
 Jackson 
 
 • • 317° 
 
 Hindoo 
 
 • . 3102 
 
 Hales 
 
 • 3155 
 
 Samaritan 
 
 . 2998 
 
 Josephus . 
 
 . . 3146 
 
 Howard 
 
 . . 2698 
 
 Clinton . .B.C. 2482 
 Playfair . . . 2352 
 Usher & Eng. Bible 2348 
 Marsham . . . 2344 
 
 Petavius. . b.c. 2329 
 
 Strauchius . . 2293 
 
 Hebrew . . . 2288 
 
 Vulgar Jewish . . 2104 
 
 In the reign of Ogyges, king of Attica, 17648.0., a 
 deluge so inundated Attica, that it lay waste for 
 nearly 200 years. Blair. Biiffon thinks that the 
 Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and 
 arose from the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting 
 into the valley of the Mediterranean, t 
 
 The deluge of Deucalion, in Thessaly, is placed 1503 
 B.C. according to Eusebius. It was often con- 
 founded by the ancients with the general flood ; 
 
 but considered to be merely a local inundation, 
 occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, 
 whose course was stopped by an earthquake be- 
 tween the mounts Olympus and Ossa. Deucalion, 
 who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife 
 Pyrrha, and some of their subjects, are stated to 
 have saved themselves by climbing up mount 
 Parnassus. 
 
 * This beautiful and gifted woman translated Callimachus at the .age of 23 ; and also Anacreon, Sappho, 
 Plautus, Terence, and Hoiaer. She died in 1720. 
 
 t A general deluge was predicted to occur in 1524, and arks were built ; but the season happened to 
 ho a fine and dry one. 
 
DEM 
 
 235 
 
 DEN 
 
 DEMERARA and Esrequibo, colonies in Guiana, South America, founded by tlie 
 Dutch, 1580, were taken by the British, under major-general Whyte, April 22, 1796, but 
 were restored at the peace of 1802. They again surrendered to the British under general 
 Grinfield and Commodore Hood, Sept. 1803, and became English colonies in 18 14. 
 
 DEMOCRATS, advocates for government by the people themselves {demos, people, and 
 Jcratein, to govern), a term adopted by the French republicans in 1790 (who termed their 
 opponents aristocrats, from aristos, bravest or best). The name Democrats was adopted by 
 the pro-slavery party in IST. America (the southern states), and the abolitionists were called 
 Republicans. Into these two great parties a number of smaller ones were absorbed at 
 the presidential election in 1856. In i860, the Republicans formed "Wide-awake" clubs 
 for electioneering purposes, and succeeded in getting their candidate, Abraham Lincoln, 
 elected president, Nov. 4. See United States, i860. 
 
 DENAIN" (N. France). Here marshal Vniars, by his skill, defeated the Imperialist army, 
 July 12, 1712. 
 
 DENARIUS, the chief silver coin among the Romans, weighing the seventh part of a 
 Roman ounce, and value "j^d. sterling, first coined about 269 B.C., when it exchanged for ten 
 ases (see .4s). In 216 b.c. it exchanged for sixteen ases. A pound weight of silver was 
 coined into 100 denarii, Digby. A poi;nd weight of gold was coined into twenty denarii 
 aurei in 206 b. c. ; and in Nero's time into forty-five denarii aurei, Lempriere. 
 
 DENIS, St., an ancient town of France, near Paris, famous for its abbey and church, 
 the former abolished at the revolution : the latter the place of sepultureof the French kings, 
 from its foundation, by Dagobert, in 613 ; is a small beautiful Gothic edifice. On the 12th 
 October, 1 793, the republicans demolished most of the royal tombs, and emptied the leaden 
 coffins into the dunghUls, meltiug the lead for their own use. By a decree of Bonaparte, 
 dated Feb. 20, 1806, the church (which had been turned meanwhile into a cattle-market !) 
 was ordered to be cleansed out and redecorated as ' ' the future burial place of the emperors 
 of France." On the return of the Bourbons, more restorations were effected, and when the 
 due de Berri and Louis XVIII. died, both were buried there. 
 
 DENMARK (N. Europe). The most ancient inhabitants were Cimbri and Teutones, 
 who were driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones settled in Germany and Gaul ; 
 the Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they were defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland 
 obtains its name from the Jutes ; and the name of Denmark is supposed to be derived from 
 Ban, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and mark, a German word signifying country. 
 For their numerous invasions of Britain, &c., see Banes. Population of the kingdom of Den- 
 mark in i860, 1,600,551 ; of the duchies of Schleswig, Holsteiu, and Lauenburg, 1,004,473 »' 
 of the colonies, 120,283. By the treaty of peace, signed Oct 30, 1864, the duchies were 
 taken from Denmark. Sclileswig and Holstein were to be made independent, and Lauenburg 
 was to be incorporated, by its desire, with Prussia. For the result, see Gastein. 
 
 Reign of Sciold, first king . . . b. c. 60 
 
 The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings to the 
 time of Ragnor Lodbrog, a.d. 750, killed in 
 an attempt to invade England . . . 794 
 
 Canute the Great conqiiers Norway . 1016-28 
 
 Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are united into 
 one kingdom under Mai-garet . . . 1397 
 
 Copenhagen made the capital . . . . 1440 
 
 Accession of Christian I. (of Oldenburg), from 
 whom the late royal family sprang . . 1448 
 
 Christian II. is deposed; independence of 
 Sweden acknowledged under Gustavus Vasa 1523 
 
 Lutheranism introduced in 1527 ; established 
 by Christian III. 1536 
 
 Danish East India Company established by 
 Christian IV 1612 
 
 Christian IV. chosen head of the Protestant 
 league against the emperor . . . . 1629 
 
 Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades Den- 
 mark, besieges Copenhagen, and makes 
 conquests 1658 
 
 The crown made hereditary and absolute . . 1665 
 
 Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Schleswig, Ton- 
 ningen, and Stralsund ; reduces Weismar, 
 and drives the Swedes from Norway 1716 et seq. 
 
 Copenhagen nearly destroyed by a fire, which 
 consumes 1650 houses, 3 churches, the uni- 
 versity, and 4 colleges 1728 
 
 The peaceful reign of Christian VI. . . 1730-46 
 
 Plot of the queen dowager against the ministers 
 
 and Matilda (sister of our George III. and 
 queen of Christian VII., a weak monarch). 
 Matilda, entrapped into a confession of 
 criminality to save the life of her supposed 
 lover Struenzee, condemned to imprison- 
 ment for life in the castle of Zell . Jan. 18, 1772 
 Count Struenzee and Brandt beheaded, Apr. 28, ,, 
 Queen Matilda dies, aged 24 ... . 1775 
 Christian VII. becomes deranged, and prince 
 
 Frederick is appointed regent . . . 17S4 
 One-fourth of Copenhagen biimt . Jime 9, 1795 
 Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard Copen- 
 hagen, and engage the Danish fleet, taking or 
 destroying 18 ships of the line, of whose crews 
 1800 are killed. (Confederacy of the North, 
 see Armed Neutrality, dissolved.) . April 2, 1801 
 Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart bombard 
 Copenhagen, Aug. 23 ; the Danish fleet of 18 
 ships of the line, 15 frigates, and 37 brigs, 
 (fee, surrender .... Sept. 8, 1807 
 
 Peace of Kiel : Pomerania and Rugen are 
 annexed to Denmark in exchange for Norway 
 
 Jan. 14, 1814 
 Commercial treaty with England . . . 1824 
 
 Frederick VI. grants a new constitution . . 1831 
 Christian VIII. declares the right of the crown 
 
 to Schleswig, Holstein, &c. . . July 11, 1846 
 Accession of Frederick VII. Jan. 20 ; _ he pro- 
 claims a new constitution, uniting the 
 duchies more closely with Denmark, Jan. 28, 1848 
 
DEN 
 
 236 
 
 DEN 
 
 DENMAEK, continued. 
 
 Insurrection in the duchies : a provisional 
 
 government formed . . . March 23, 1848 
 Tlie rebels seize the strong fortress of Rends- 
 burg March 24, „ 
 
 They are defeated near Flensburg . April 9, ,, 
 
 The Danes defeated by the Russians (helping 
 the duchies) at Schleswig . . April 23, ,, 
 
 The North sea blockaded by Denmark Aug. i, ,, 
 
 Hostihties suspended : the European powers 
 recommend peace . . . Aug. 26, ,, 
 
 Hostilities re-commence . . March 25, 1849 
 
 Victory of the Danes over the Holstoiners and 
 Germans April 10, 1849 
 
 Several conflicts with varj-irig success, . June, ,, 
 
 Armistice signed at JIalmo . . July 10 ,, 
 
 Separate peace with Prussia . . July 2, 1850 
 
 Integrity of Denmark guaranteed by England, 
 France, Prussia, and Sweden . July 4, ,, 
 
 Battle of Idstedt, and defeat of the Schleswig- 
 Holsteiuers by the Danes . . July 25, ,, 
 
 Protocol signed'in London by the ministers of 
 all the great powers . . . Aug. 23, „ 
 
 Bombardment of Friedrichstadt by the Hol- 
 steiners, and the town almost destroyed but 
 not taken ■ . . Sejit. 29 to Oct. 6, ,, 
 
 Proclamation of the stadtholders of Schleswig- 
 Holstein placing the rights of the country 
 under the protection of the Germanic eon- 
 federation Jan. 10, 1851 
 
 The integrity of the Danish monarchy and the 
 independence of Scbleswig and its old union 
 with Holstein guaranteed by treaty, Feb. 18, 1852 
 
 Austrians evacuate Holstein, &c. . March 2, ,, 
 
 Treaty of European powers settling the suc- 
 cession of the Danish crown . May 8, ,, 
 
 [The line of Augustenburg is put aside ; the 
 succession in the line of Sonderburg-Gliicks- 
 burg settled, and the integrity of the Danish 
 kingdom guaranteed. ] 
 
 The king promulgates a new constitution, July 
 29, 1854 ; adopted .... Oct. i, 1855 
 
 The sound dues abolished for a compensation 
 (see Sound) .... March 14, 1857 
 
 Fortification of Copenhagen decreed March 27, 1858 
 
 Di.ssension between the government and the 
 duchies Oct. 1857-1S62 
 
 New ministry appointed Dec. 3, 1859 ! I'esigns, 
 Feb. 9 ; Bp. Monrad forms a ministry, Feb. 24, i860 
 
 The assembly of Scbleswig complain that the 
 promi.se of equality of national rights in 1852 
 has not been kept, Feb. 1 1 ; protest against 
 the annexation to Denmark . March i, ,, 
 
 The Prussian chamber of deputies receive a 
 petition from Schleswig, and declare that 
 they will aid the duchies. May 4 ; at which 
 the Danish government protests . May 16, ,, 
 
 CoiTcspondence ensues between the Prussian, 
 Danish, and British governments ; the Danish 
 government declare for war, if the forces 
 of the Germanic confederation enter the 
 duchies Jan. 1861 
 
 Energetic warlike pi'eparations in Denmark, 
 
 Feb. „ 
 
 Decimal coinage adopted . . . June, ,, 
 
 Agitation in favour of union of Denmark with 
 Sweden, June ; the king of Sweden visits 
 Denmark, and is wai-mly received . July 17, 1862 
 
 Earl Russell recommends the government to 
 give to Holstein and Lauenburg all that the 
 Germanic confedei-ation desire for them, and 
 to give self-government to Schleswig, Sept. 24, „ 
 
 M. Hall, the Danish minister, declines to ac- 
 cede ; stating that to do so would imperil the 
 existence of the monarchy itself . Nov. 20, ,, 
 
 Princess Alexandra of Denmark maiTied to the 
 Prince of Wales at Windsor . JIarch 10, 1863 
 
 The king grants, by patent, independent rights 
 to Holstein, but annexes Schleswig, Mai-ch 30, ,, 
 
 Austria and Prussia protest against this decree, 
 
 April 17, ,, 
 
 Further diplomatic correspondence . May, 1863 
 The king accepts the crown of Greece for his 
 relative, prince William-George, and gives 
 him sound pohtical advice . . June 6, „ 
 Death of the crown prince Frederick-Ferdi- 
 nand, the king's uncle . . June 29, „ 
 The German diet demands annulment of the 
 patent of March 30, and that Holstein and 
 Schleswig should be united with the same 
 rights ; and threatens an army of occu- 
 pation July 9, „ 
 
 The king re}ilics that he wUl consider occupa- 
 tion to be an act of war . . Aug. 27, 
 
 Vain efforts for a defensive alliance with Sweden 
 
 Aug. „ 
 
 Extraordinary levy to strengthen the army de- 
 creed Aug. I, ,, 
 
 New constitution (uniting Schleswig with l3en- 
 mark) projiosed in the Rigsraad . Sept. 29, „ 
 
 Death of Frederick VII. and accession of 
 Chiistian IX Nov. 15, „ 
 
 Prince Frederick of Augustenburg claims the 
 duchies of Schleswig and Holstein Nov. 16, ,, 
 
 Great excitement in Holstein ; many o£BcialS 
 refuse to take oath to Christian, Nov. 21 et seq. „ 
 
 Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse, and other German 
 powers resolve to support the prince of 
 Augustenburg .... Nov. 26 et seq. „ 
 
 New constitution affirmed by the Rigsraad, 
 Nov. 13 ; signed by king, Nov. 18 ; published, 
 
 Dec. I, 2, ,, 
 
 The Austrian and Prussian ministers say that 
 they will quit Copenhagen if the constitution 
 of Nov. 18 is not annulled . . Dec. ,, 
 
 Great excitement in Norway : proposals to 
 support Denmark . . " . . Dec. 
 
 Prince Frederick's letter to the emperor Napo- 
 leon, Dec. 2, obtains an ambiguous reply, 
 
 Dec. 10, ,, 
 
 Denmark protests against federal occupation, 
 
 Dec. 19, ,, 
 
 900 representatives of different German states 
 meet at Frankfort, and resolve to support 
 Prince Frederick as duke of Schleswig and 
 Holstein, and the inseparable union of those 
 duchies Dec. 21, „ 
 
 The federal execution takes place ; a Saxon 
 regiment enters Altona, Dec. 24; and the 
 federal commissioners assume administrative 
 powers Dec. 25, ,, 
 
 Hall's ministry resign, but soon after reassume 
 office Dec. 28, „ 
 
 The Danes retire from Holstein, to avoid col- 
 lision with federal troops . Dec. 24 e< s<'5. ,, 
 
 Prince Frederick enters Kiel, and is pro- 
 claimed duke of Schleswig and Holstein, 
 
 Dec. 30, ,, 
 
 The Danes evacuate Rendsburg . Dec. 31, ,, 
 
 Ministerial crisis : Hall retires, and bishop 
 Monrad forms a cabinet . . Dec. 31, ,, 
 
 Dissension among the Germans ; the Austro- 
 Prussian proposition rejected by the diet ; 
 the former declare that they will settle the 
 question if the diet exceeds its powers, 
 
 Jan. 14, 1864 
 
 Austria and Prussia demand the abrogation of 
 the constitution (of Nov. 18) within 2 days, 
 Jan. 16 ; the Danes require 6 weeks' time, 
 
 Jan. 18, 
 
 The German troops, imder marshal Wrangel, 
 enter Holstein .... Jan. 21, 
 
 The Prussians enter Schleswig, and tike Ecken- 
 forde Feb. i. 
 
 They bombard Missunde, Feb. 2; which is 
 burnt Feb. 3, 
 
 The Danes defeated by Wrangel, at Over-selk, ' 
 
 Feb. 3, 
 
 The Danes abandon the Dannewerke to save 
 their army, Feb. 5 ; great discontent in Copen- 
 bagen Feb. 6, 
 
DEN 
 
 237 
 
 DEN 
 
 DENMARK, contimied. 
 
 Schleswig taken ; prince Frederick proclaimed, 
 
 Feb. 6, 
 
 The allies occupy Flensburg, Feb. 7 ; com- 
 mence their attack on Duppel . Feb. 13, 
 
 The fedei'al commissioners protest against the 
 Prussian occuisation of Altona . . Feb. 13, 
 
 The Prussians enter Jutland, and take Koi- 
 ding, Feb. 18; the Danes fortify Alsen, 
 
 Feb. 18 etseq. 
 
 A conference on Danish affairs proposed by 
 England ; agreed to by allies . Feb. 23, 
 
 A subscription for the wounded Danes begun 
 in London Feb. 24, 
 
 The Rigsraad vote a firm address to the king, 
 Feb. 26 ; adjourned . . . March 22, 
 
 The Prussians bombard and take the village of 
 Duppel, or Dybbol, March 16, 17 ; and bom- 
 bard Fredericia, March 20 ; repulsed in an 
 attack on the fortress, March 28 ; bombard 
 Sonderberg : much slaughter, April 23; -which 
 causes bishop Monrad to appeal to European 
 powers April 9, 
 
 The opening of the conference adjourned from 
 April 12 to 20, 
 
 The Prussians take the fortress of Duppel, 
 
 AprU 18, 
 
 Meetings of the conference at London ; result 
 unfavourable to Denmark . April 25 et seq. 
 
 The Danes retreat to Alsen ; and evacuate 
 Fredericia and the fortresses of Jutland, 
 
 April 29, 
 
 Agreement for an armistice for one month from 
 May 12 . . - . . . May 9, 
 
 Jutland subjected to pillage for not paying a 
 war contribution to Prussians, May 6 et seq. 
 
 The Danes defeat the allies in a naval battle otf 
 Heligoland ..... May 9, 
 
 The armistice prolonged for a fortnight, from 
 
 June 9, 
 
 The conference ends . . . June 22, 
 
 Hostilities resumed, June 26 ; the Prussians 
 bombard Alsen ; take the batteries and 2400 
 prisoners June 29, 
 
 The Monrad ministry resigns ; coimt Moltki 
 forms an administration . . July 8-10, 
 
 Alsen taken ; — Jutland placed under Prussian 
 administration ; — Prince John of Denmark 
 .sent to negotiate at Berlin . . July 9, 
 
 Formation of the Bluhme administration, 
 
 July II, 
 
 Armistice agreed to . . . July t8. 
 
 Beginning of conference for peace at Vienna, 
 
 July 26, 
 
 Treaty of peace signed at Vienna ; — the king of 
 Denmark resigns the duchies to the disposal 
 of the allies, and agrees to a rectification of 
 his frontier, and to pay a large sum of money 
 to defray the expenses of the war . Oct. 30, 
 
 Proclamation of the king to the inhabitants of 
 the duchies, releasing them from their alle- 
 giance Nov. 16, 
 
 Project of a new constitution pubUshed, Deo. 30, 
 
 1S64 
 
 SOVEEEIGNS OF DENMAEK. 
 
 803. 
 
 824. 
 
 855. 
 
 936. 
 
 985- 
 1014. 
 1016. 
 
 1042. 
 1047. 
 1073. 
 1076. 
 1080. 
 1086. 
 1095. 
 1103. 
 1105. 
 
 II35- 
 1137. 
 
 1147. 
 
 II57- 
 11S2. 
 1202. 
 1241. 
 1250. 
 
 1252. 
 
 ^259- 
 1286. 
 1320. 
 
 1334 
 1340. 
 
 1373- 
 1376. 
 
 ^397- 
 1412. 
 
 1438. 
 1440. 
 
 Sigurd Snogoje. 
 
 Hardicanute I. 
 
 Gormo, the Old ; reigned 53 years. 
 
 Harold II., sumamed Blue Tooth. 
 
 Suenon, or Sweyn, the Forked-beard. 
 
 Harold IIL 
 
 Canute II. the Great, king of Denmark and 
 
 England. 
 Canute III.'s son, Hardicanute of England. 
 Magnus, sumamed the Good, of iSTorway. 
 Suenon or Sweyn II. 
 [Interregnum.] 
 Harold, called the Simple. 
 Canute IV. 
 
 Olaus IV. the Hungry. 
 Eric I. styled the Good. 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 Nicholas I. killed at Sleswick. 
 Eric II. surnamed Harefoot. 
 Eric III. the Lamb. 
 
 ( Suenon, or Sweyn III : beheaded. 
 
 \ Canute V. until 1157. 
 Waldemar, styled the Great. 
 Canute VI. sumamed the Pious. 
 Waldemar II. the Victorious. 
 Eric IV. 
 Abel : assassinated his elder brother Eric ; 
 
 killed in an expedition against the Prisons, 
 Christopher I. : poisoned. 
 Eric V. 
 Eric VI. 
 Christopher II. 
 [Interregnum of seven years.] 
 Waldemar III. 
 [Interregnum.] 
 Olaus V. 
 Margaret, styled the " Semiramis of the 
 
 North," queen of Sweden, Norway, and Den- 
 mark. 
 Margaj-et and Eric VIL (Eric XIII. of Sweden.) 
 Eric VII. reigns alone ; obliged to resign both 
 
 crowns. 
 [Interregnum. ] 
 Christopher III. king of Sweden. 
 
 1448. Christian I. count of Oldenhurg ; elected king 
 of Denmark, 1448; oi Sweden, 1457 ; succeeded 
 by his son, 
 
 1481. John ; succeeded by his son, 
 
 1513. Christian II. called the Cruel, and the "Nero 
 of the North ;" among other enormous crimes 
 he caused all the Swedish nobihty to be mas- 
 sacred : dethroned for his tyranny in 1523 ; 
 died in a dungeon iu 1559. 
 
 [In this reign Sweden succeeded in separating 
 itself from the crown of Denmark.] 
 
 1523. Frederick I. duke of Holstein, son of Christian 
 I. ; a liberal ruler ; king of Denmark and iVoj-- 
 tcay. 
 
 1534. Chrisfcan III. son of Frederick ; established 
 the Lutheran religion; esteemed the '"Father 
 of his People." 
 
 1559. Frederick II. son of Christian III. 
 
 1588. Chiistian IV. son. 
 
 1648. Fredei-ick III. ; changed the constitution from 
 an elective to an hereditary monarchy, 
 vested in his own family, 1665. 
 
 1670. Chiistian V. son of Frederick III. ; succeeded 
 by his son, 
 
 1699. Frederick IV. ; leagued with the czar Peter 
 and the king of Poland against Charles XII. 
 of Sweden. 
 
 1730. Chi'istian VI. his son. 
 
 1746. Frederick V. his son : married the princess 
 Louisa of England, daughter of George II. 
 
 1766. Christian VII. his son. See p. 235. 
 
 1784. Prince Frederick declared regent, in conse- 
 quence of the mental derangement of his 
 -father. - 
 
 1S08. Frederick VI. previously regent, now king. 
 
 1839. Christian VIII. (son of Frederick, brother of 
 Christian VII.) king of Denmark only. 
 
 1848. Frederick VII. son of Chi-istian VIII. : Jan. 
 
 bom Oct. 6, 1808 ; separated from his first 
 wife, Sept. 1837 ; from his second wife. Sept, 
 1846 ; married morganaticalhj Louisa, coun 
 tess of Danner, Aug. 7, 1850 ; died Nov. 15 
 
DEN 
 
 238 
 
 DER 
 
 April 8, 1818; married princess Louisa of 
 HesseCassel, May 26, 1842. [He is descended 
 from Christian III. and she from Frederick 
 Y. ; both from George II. of England.] 
 
 DENMARK, continued. 
 
 1863. Christian IX. son of William, duke of Sleswig- 
 Holstein-Sonderburg-Glticksburg ; Nov. 15 
 (succeeded by virtue of the protocol of Lon- 
 don, May 8, 1852, and of the law of the Danish 
 succession, July 31, 1853). He was born 
 
 DENNEWITZ (Prassia), where a remarkable victoiy was obtained by marshal Bemadotte 
 (afterwards Charles XIV., king of Sweden), over marshal Ney, Sept. 6, 1813. The loss of 
 the French exceeded 13,000 men, several eagles, and much cannon, &c. ; of the allies, 6000. 
 The defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic, on the i8th of October following, closed his disastrous 
 campaign. 
 
 DENOMINATIONS, The Theee (presbyterians, congregationalists or independents, 
 and baptists), Avere organised in 1727 as an association, with the privilege of direct appeal to 
 the reigning sovereign of Great Britain. 
 
 DEODAND (Latin, "to be given to God") : formerly, anything (such as a horse, carnage, 
 &c.), which had caused the death of a human being became forfeit to the sovereign or lord 
 of the manor, and was to be sold for the benefit of the poor. The forfeiture was abolished 
 by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 62 (1846). 
 
 D'EON, Chevalier, who had acted in a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and 
 been minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was affirmed to be a, female, at a trial 
 at the King's Bench in 1771, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex. He subsequently 
 wore female attire : but at his death it was fully manifested that he was of the male sex. 
 
 DEPARTMENTS. See France. 
 
 DEPTFORD (near London). The hospital here was incorporated by Henry VIII., and 
 called the Trinity-house of Deptford Strond ; the brethren of Trinity-house hold their 
 corporate rights by this hospital. Queen Elizabeth dined at Deptford on board the Pelican, 
 the ship in which Drake had made his first voyage round the globe, April 4, 1581. The 
 Deptford victualling-office was burnt Jan. 16, 1748-9; the store-house, Sept. 2, 1758 ; the 
 red-house, Feb. 26, 1761 ; and the king's-mill, Dec. i, 1755. Peter the Great of Russia 
 lived at Evelyn's-house, gay's-court, while learning ship-building, &c, in 1698. 
 
 DEPUTIES, Chamber of, the title given to the French legislative assembly, from the 
 restoration of the Bourbons in 1814 till 1852 ; when it took the name of Cotys Legislatif. 
 
 DERBY was made a royal burgh by Egbert (about 828). Alfred expelled the Danes 
 from it and planted a colony in 880. His heroic daughter, Ethelfleda, again expelled the 
 Danes in 918. William I. gave Derby to his illegitimate son William Peveril. Lombe's 
 silk-throwing machine was set up in 1718 ; and in 1756, Jedediah Strutt invented the Derby 
 ribbed stocking-frame. The young Pretender reached Derby Dec. 3, 1745, ^nd retreated 
 thence soon after.* — The Derby day (see Races) is the second day ("Wednesday) of the Grand 
 Spring Meeting at Epsom in the week preceding "Whitsunday. 
 
 DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS : the first formed after the re.signation of lord John 
 Russell, Feb. 21, 1852 : the second after that of lord Palmerston, Feb. 19, 1858, 
 
 FIRST ADMINISTRATION, Feb. 27, 1852. 
 
 First lord of ike treasury, earl of Derby. \ 
 
 Lord chancellor, lord St. Leonards (previously sir 
 
 Edward Sugden). 
 President of the council, earl of Lonsdale. 
 Lord privy seal, marquess of Salisbury. 
 Home, foreign, and colonial s'creiaries, Mr. Spencer 
 
 Horatio Walpole, earl of Malmesbury, and sir John 
 
 Fakington. 
 
 Chancellor oftlie exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 
 
 Board of control, John Charles Herries. 
 
 Board of trade, Joseph Warner Henley. 
 
 Poatmaster-general, earl of Hardwicke. 
 
 Secretary-at-war, William Beresford. 
 
 First commissioner of works and public buildings, lord 
 
 John Manners. 
 Eobert Adam Christopher, lord Colchester, &c. 
 
 * Derby Trials. Brandreth, Turner, Ludlam senior, Ludlam junior, Weightman, and others, con- 
 •victed at this memorable commission of high treason, Oct. 15, 1817 ; and Brandreth, Turner, and the elder 
 Ludlam executed, Kov. 7, following. 23 were tried, and 12 not tried. Phillips. 21 prisoners were indicted 
 at Derby for the murder of several miners in the Red-soil mine ; but were acquitted on the groimd that 
 the mischief was not wilful, March 23, 1834. 
 
 t Bom 1799; M.P. for Stockbridge (as hon. B. Q. S. Stanley) in 1820; chief secretary for Ireland 
 1830-33 ; secretary for the colonies, 1833-4, *iid 1841-5. 
 
DER 
 
 239 
 
 DIA 
 
 DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS, continued. 
 
 SECOND ADMINISTRATION, Feb. 2$, 1858. 
 
 First lord of the treasury, earl of Derby. 
 
 Lord chancellor, lord Chelmsford (previously sir F. 
 Thesiger). 
 
 Chancellor of the exchequer, B. Disraeli. 
 
 Secretaries— foreign, earl of Malmesbury ; home, 
 Spencer H. Walpole (resigned March, 1859), T. 
 Sotheron Estoourt ; colonies, lord Stanley — in 
 June, 1858, sir B. Bulwer Lytton ; icar, col. Jona- 
 than Peel. 
 
 Presidents — of the council, marquess of Salisbury; of 
 board of control (India), i, earl of EUenborough 
 (who resigned in May, 1858 ; he had sent a letter, 
 on his own authority, censuring the proclamation 
 
 of lord Canning to the Dude insurgents ; the 
 government hardly escaped a vote of censure) ; 2, 
 in June, 1858, lord Stanley ;— board of trade, Mr. 
 Joseph W. Henley (resigned in March, 1859) > earl 
 of Donoughmore ; — board of works, lord John 
 Manners. 
 
 lord privy seal, earl of Hardwicke. 
 
 First lord of the admiralty, sir John S. Pakington. 
 
 Postmaster, lord Colchester. 
 
 Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, duke of Montrose. 
 
 [This ministry resigned in consequence of a vote of 
 want of confidence, June 11, 1859 ; it was succeeded 
 by the Pahnerston-RusseU cabinet {which see)]. 
 
 DERRICKS are lofty, portable, crane-like structures, used on land and water for lifting 
 enormous loads, and in some cases depositing them at an elevation. They are extensively 
 used in the United States, and were introduced into England as floating derricks for raising 
 sunken vessels, by their inventor, A. D. Bishop, in 1857. 
 
 DERRY (N. Ireland), a bishopric first planted at Ardfrath ; thence translated to 
 Maghera ; and in 1158 to Derry. The cathedral, built in 1164, becoming ruinous, was 
 rebuilt by a colony of Londoners, who settled here in the reign of James I., The see is 
 valued in the king's books at 250^. sterling ; but it has been one of the richest sees in 
 Ireland. Beatson. The see of Raphoe was united to Derry, 1834. See Bishops; 
 Londonderry. 
 
 DESIGN, Schools of, established by government, began at Somerset-house, London, 
 in 1837. 
 
 DESPARD'S CONSPIRACY. Colonel Edward Marcus Despard, a native of Ireland, 
 and Broughton, Francis, Graham, Macnamara, Wood, and "Wrattan, conspired to seize the 
 king's person on the day of his meeting parliament, Jan. 16, 1803, to destroy him and 
 overturn the government. A special commission was issued on Feb. 7, and they suffered 
 death on the top of Horsemonger-lane gaol, Southwark, Feb. 21, 1803. Between thirty and 
 forty persons of inferior order (some soldiers in the foot-guards) were taken into custody on 
 Nov. 16, 1802, for this conspiracy, which caused great consternation at the time. 
 
 DETROIT (N. America), the oldest city in the west, was built by the French about 1670. 
 
 DETTINGEN (Bavaria), Battle of, June 16, 1743, between the British, Hanoverian 
 and Hessian army (52,000), commanded by king George II. of England and the earl of Stair' 
 and the French army (60,000), under marshal Noailles and the due de Grammont. The 
 French passed a defile, which they should have merely guarded. The due de Grammont 
 with his cavalry charged the British foot with great fury, but was received with such intre- 
 pidity, that he was obliged to give way, and to repass the Maine, losing 5000 men. 
 
 DEVONPORT. See Dockyards and Plymoitfh. 
 
 DEVONSHIRE and PITT ADMINISTRATION, formed Nov. 16, 1756, and resi^med 
 AprU 5, 1757. 
 
 Secretaries of state, earl of Holderaesse andWm. Pitt 
 (afterwards earl of Chatham, the virtual premier) 
 
 George GrenviUe, earl of Halifax, dukes of Eutland 
 and Grafton, earl of Rochfort, viscount Barrington 
 &c. The great seal in commission. ' 
 
 First lord of the treasury, WilUam, duke of Devon- 
 shire. 
 Chancellor of the exchequer, hon. Henry Bilson Legge. 
 Lord president, earl Granville. 
 Privy seal, earl Gower. 
 
 DEW, the modern theory respecting its formation was put forth by Dr. Wells in his 
 treatise published in 1814. 
 
 DIADEM, the band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and consecrated 
 to the gods. At first it was made of silk or wool, set with precious stones, and was tied 
 round the temples and forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the neck. 
 Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who wore a diadem, 272. Tillemont. 
 
 DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 B.C. Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at 
 Rome was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius Cursor, when time was divided 
 into hours, 293 b. c. Blair. In the times of the emperors almost every palace and public 
 building had a sun-dial. They were first set up in churches in a,d. 613. Lenglet. Dial of 
 Ahaz, 7sam^ xxxviii. 8, 
 
DIA 
 
 240 
 
 DIG 
 
 DIALYSIS, an important method of chemical analysis, depending ou the different 
 degrees of ditiusibdity of substances in liquids, was made known in 1861, by its discoverer, 
 professor Thomas Graham, the Master of the Mint. 
 
 DIA-MAGNETISM, the property possessed by certain bodies of behaving differently to 
 iron, when i)laced between two magnets. The jihenomena, previously little known, were 
 .reduced to a law by Faraday in 1845. 
 
 DIAMONDS were first brought to Europe from the East, where the mine of Sumbulpoor 
 was the first known, and where the mines of Golconda were discovered in 1534. This 
 district may be termed the realm of diamonds. The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728. 
 From these last a diamond, weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen oxmces, was sent to the court 
 of Portugal, and was valued by Mr. Romeo de I'lsle at the extravagant sum of 224 millions ; 
 by others it was valued at 56 millions ; its value was next stated to be 3^ millions, but its 
 , true value (it not being brilliant) was 400,000?. 
 
 The gi-eat Russian diamond weighs 193 carats, or 
 I oz. 12 dwts. 4gr. troy. The empress Catherine II. 
 offered for it 104,166;. 13?. 411. besides an amiuity 
 for life to the owner of 1041?. 13.?. 41?. which was 
 refused ; but it was afterwards sold to Catherine's 
 favourite, coiuit Orloflf, for the first-mentioned sum, 
 without the annuity, .and was by him presented to 
 the empress on her birthday, 1772 ; it is now in 
 the sceptre of Russia. 
 
 The Pitt di.amond weighed 136 carats, and after 
 cutting 106 carats : it was sold to the king of France 
 for i2S,ooo(. in 1720. 
 
 The PiGOTT diamond was sold for 9500 guinea=i, May 
 10, 1802. 
 
 The diamond called the Mountain of Light, or 
 KoHiNOOR, was found in the mines of Golcouda. in 
 1550, and is said to have belonged in turn to Shah 
 Jehan, Aurungzebe, NadirShah, the Afghan rulers, 
 and afterwards to the Sikh chief llunjeet Singh. 
 Upon the abdication of Dhuleep Singh, the last 
 ruler of the Punjab, and the annexation of his 
 dominions to the British empire, in 1849, the 
 Kohinoor was surrendered to the queen. It was 
 accordingly brought over and presented to her, 
 July 3, 1850. It was shown iu the Great Exhibi- 
 tion, 1851. Its original weight was nearly 800 
 carats, but it was reduced by the unskilfulness of 
 the .artist, Hortensio Borghese, a Venetian, to 279 
 carats. A general idea may be formed of its shape 
 and size by conceiving it as the pointed half (rose 
 cut) of a small hen's egg. The value is scarcely 
 computable, though two millions sterling have 
 been mentioned as a justifiable price, if calculated 
 by the scale employed in the trade. This diamond 
 was re-cut in London in 1852, and now weighs 
 i02i carats. 
 
 The S.4.NCI diamond, which belonged to Charles the 
 Bold, duke of Burgundy, was bought by sir C. 
 Jejeebhoy from the Demidoff family for 2o,oooi. in 
 Feb. 1865. 
 
 A diamond, termed the Star op the South, was 
 brought from Brazil in 1855, weighing 254J carats, 
 half of which was lost by cutting. 
 
 Inflammability of Diamonds. 
 
 Boetius de Boot conjectured that the diamond was 
 inflammable, 1609, Boi/le. 
 
 Discovered tliat when exposed to a high temperature 
 it gave an acrid vapour, in which a part of it was 
 dissipated, 1673. Boyle. 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton concluded from its great refracting 
 power, that it must be combustible, 1675. 
 
 Averani demonstrated, by concentrating the rays of 
 the sun upon it, that the diamond was exhaled in 
 vapour, and entirely disappeared, while other 
 precious stones merely grow softer, 1695. 
 
 It has been ascertained by Guyton, Davy, and others, 
 that although diamonds are the hardest of all 
 known bodies, they yet contain nothing more than 
 pure charcoal, or carbon. Diamonds were charred 
 by the intense heat of the voltaic battery — by M. 
 Dumas, in Paris, and by Professor Faraday, in 
 London, in 1848. 
 
 Diamond Necklace Affair. — In 1785, Boehmer, the 
 court jeweller of France, offered the queen, Marie 
 Antoinette, a diamond necklace, for 64,ooo(. The 
 queen desired the necklace, but feared the ex- 
 pense. The countess de la Motte (of the ancient 
 house of Valois) forged the queen's signature, and 
 by pretending that the queen had an attachment 
 for him, persuaded the cardinal de Rohan, the 
 queen's almoner, to conclude a bargain with the 
 jeweller for the necklace for 56,000;. De la Motte 
 thus obtained the necklace and made away with 
 it. For this she was tried in 17S6, and sentenced 
 to be branded on the shoulders and imprisoned 
 for life. She accused in vain the celebrated Italian 
 adventurer, Cagliostro, of complicity in the affair, 
 he being then intimate with the cardin.al. She 
 made her escape and came to London, where she 
 was killed by falling from a window-.sill, in at- 
 tempting to escape an aiTCst for debt. — De Ro- 
 han was tried and acquitted, April 14, 1786. The 
 public in France at that time suspected the queen 
 of being a party to the fraud. Talleyrand wrote 
 at the time, " I shall not be surprised if this miser- 
 able affair overturn the throne." 
 
 DIANA, Temple of (at Ephesus), long accounted one of the seven wonders of the 
 world, was built at the common charge of all the Asiatic states, 552 B.C. The chief archi- 
 tect was Ctesiphon ; and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing this rich 
 temple. It was 425 feet long, 225 broail, and was supported by 127 columns (60 feet high, 
 each weighing 150 tons of Parian marble), furnished by so many kings. It was set on 
 lire, on the night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus, 
 who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him to destroy so 
 magnificent an edifice was the desire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 B.C. The 
 temple was rebuilt, but again burnt by the Goths, in tlieir naA-al invasion, a.d. 256 or 262. 
 Univ. Mist. 
 
 DICE. The invention of dice is ascribed to Palamedes, of Greece, about 1244 B.C. The 
 game of Tali and Tessera among the Romans was played with dice. Stow mentions two 
 
Die 
 
 241 
 
 DIE 
 
 entertainments given by the city of London, at which dice were played.'' 
 the licences of makers, and the sale of dice, 9 Geo. IV. 1828. 
 
 Act to regulate 
 
 DICHKOOSCOPE, an optical apparatus, described by the inventor, professor Dov^ of 
 Berlin, in i860, who intended it to represent interferences, spectra in different coloured 
 lights, polarisation of light, &c. 
 
 DICTATOES were supreme and absolute magistrates of Eome, appointed to act in 
 critical times. Titus Lartius Plavus, the first dictator, was appointed, 501 B.C. This office 
 became odious by the usurpations of Sylla and Julius Csesar ; and after the death of the 
 latter, the Roman senate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for 
 ever forbad a dictator to exist in Eome, 44 B.C., but Augustus became perpetual dictator, 27 
 B.C., as Imperator. 
 
 DICTION AEY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing about 40,000 
 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations, somewhat like our signs of 
 the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1 100 b. c. Morrison. 
 
 The oldest Greek dictionary is the Onomastikon 
 of Julius Pollux, written about 120 B.C.; a 
 Latin one was compiled by Varro, born B.C. 116 
 
 The first noted polyglot dictionary, perhaps the 
 first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, 
 in Latin ; he wrote one in eight languages. 
 Niceron. about a.d. 1500 
 
 John E. Avenar's DicHonariuni Hebraicum was 
 published at Wittenberg in 1589. Buxtorf's 
 great work, Lexicon Hebraicum, &c., appeared 1621 
 
 The Lexicon Heptaglotton was pubHshed by Ed- 
 mund Castell, in 1659 
 
 The great dictionary of the English language, 
 by Samuel Johnson, the " Leviathan of Lite- 
 rature," appeared in 1755 
 
 Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue 
 was compiled in 1768 
 
 The following academies have published large 
 dictionaries of their respective languages : 
 the French academy, first in 1694 ; the Spa- 
 nish, 1726 ; the Italian academy (deUa Crusca), 
 1729 ; and the Russian .... 1789-94 
 
 Schwan's great German- French dictionary ap- 
 peared in 1782 
 
 Richardson's English dictionary appeared in . 1836 
 
 Lempriere's Classical dictionary, which first 
 appeared in 1788, is now superseded by Dr. 
 W. Smith's classical series .... 1842-57 
 
 The Philological Society of London issued 
 " proposals for a new English dictionary" . 1859 
 
 The great German dictionary, by Jacob and 
 Wilhelm Grimm .... 1854 et seq. 
 
 Ml". Hensleigh Wedgwood's Dictionary of 
 English Etymology .... 1859-62 
 
 Smith's Dictionary of the Bible was published 1860-3 
 
 The earliest known English- Latin dictionary is 
 the Promptorium Parvulorum, compiled by 
 Galfridus Grammaticus, a preaching friar of 
 Norfolk, in 1440 ; and printed by Pynson, as 
 Fromptorius Puetorum, in 1499- A new 
 edition, carefully edited by Mr. Albert Way, 
 from MSS. was published by the Camden So- 
 ciety 1843-65 
 
 See Encyclopcedia. 
 
 DIDYMIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Mosander in 1841. 
 associated witb lanthanum and cerium. 
 
 It appears to be always^ 
 
 DIEPPE (N. France). This town was bombarded by an English fleet, under admiral 
 Eussell, and laid in ashes, July 1694. It was again bombarded in 1794; and again, together 
 with the town of Granville, by the British, Sept. 14, 1803. 
 
 "DIES IRM " ("Day of "Wrath "), a Latin mediaeval hymn on the day of judgment, is 
 ascribed to various authors, amongst others to pope Gregory the Great (died about 604) ; St. 
 Bernard (died 1153) ; but is generally considered to have been composed by Thomas of 
 Celano (died 1255), and to have been used in the Eoman service of the mass before 1385. 
 
 DIET OF THE German Empire (in which the supreme court of authority of the empire 
 may be said to have existed) was composed of three colleges : one of electors, one of princes, 
 and one of imperial towns, and commenced with the edict of Charles IV. 1356. See Golden 
 Bull. Diets otherwise constituted had long previously been held on important occasions. 
 The diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1 180 ; that of "Worms, 
 at which Luther was present, in 1521 ; that of Spires, to condemn the Eeformers, in 1529 ; 
 and the famous diet of Augsburg, in 1530. The league of the German princes, called the 
 Confederation of the Ehine, fixed the diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806. Germany was 
 governed by a diet of 38 members, having votes varying from four to one each, till 1864, 
 when Schleswig and Holstein were included. Diets were held in 1848 and 1850, at Frank- 
 fort {which see). 
 
 '^ In 1357, the kings of Scotland and France, being prisoners, and the king of Cyprus on a visit to 
 Edward III., a great tournament was held in Smithfield, and afterwards Henry Picard, mayor of London, 
 " kept his hall against all comers that were willing to play at dice and hazard. The lady Margaret, his 
 wife, did keepe her chamber to the same intent." The mayor restored to the king of Cyprus 50 marks 
 which he had won from him, saying, " My lord and king, be not aggrieved ; for I covet not your gold ; but 
 your play," (fee. Stow. 
 
 R 
 
DIE 242 DIP 
 
 '^ DIEU-DONNE,'" the name given in his infancy to Louis le Grand, king of France, 
 ■because the French considered him as the gift of Heaven ; the queen, his mother, having 
 teen barren for 23 j'^ears previously, 1638. Voltaire. One of the popes of Rome, who 
 obtained the tiara in 672, was named Adeodahis or God's gift, and had the character of a 
 pious and charitable pontiff. 
 
 DTEU ET MON DROIT ("God and my right"), the royal motto of England, was the 
 parole of the day, given by Richard I. of England to his army at the battle of Gisors, in. 
 France, Sept. 20, 1198, when the French army was signally defeated. " Dieu et mon droit"' 
 appears to have been first assumed as a motto by Henry VI. (1422 — 1461). 
 
 DIFFERENTIAL ENGINE. See Calculating Machine. 
 
 DIFFUSION OF Gases. For our present knowledge of the laws regulating this pheno- 
 menon, which performs so important a part in respiration and other natural processes, we 
 are greatly indebted to the researches of professor T. Graham, published in the Philosophical 
 Transactions of the Royal Society for 1850. 
 
 DIFFUSION OF UsEFiTL Knowledge Society, which published a number of books 
 relating to history, science, and literature, and a useful atlas, ridiculed as the "Sixpenny 
 Sciences," in a cheap form, Avas established in 1827, by Lord Brougham, Mr. William 
 Tooke, Mr. Charles Knight, and others. It patronised the publication of the Penny Magazine 
 and the Penny Cycloptedia. The Royal Institution of Great Britain was established in 
 i8cx), for "the Promotion, Diffusion, and Extension of Science and Useful Knowledge." 
 
 DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared by Alfrenus 
 Varus, the civilian, of Cremona, 66 B.C. Quintil. The Digest, so called by way of emi- 
 nence, was the collection made by order of the emperor Justinian, 529 : it made the first 
 part of the Roman law and the first .volume of the civil law. Quotations from it are marked 
 with a ff. Pardon. A digest of the statute law of England is now strongly recommended 
 (1865). . 
 
 DIGITS. Any whole number under 10 : r, 2, &c., are the nine digits. Arithmetical 
 figures were known to the Arabian Moors about A.D. 900; and were introdiiced by them 
 into Spain in 1050, and thence into England aboiit 1253. In astronomy, the digit is a 
 measure used in the calculation of eclipses, and is the twelfth part of the luminary eclipsed. 
 See Figures. 
 
 DILETTANTI, Society of, was established in 1734 by several noblemen and gentlemen 
 (viscount Harcourt, lord Middlesex, duke of Dorset, &c.), who had travelled and who were 
 desirous of encouraging a taste for the fine arts in Gi'eat Britain. The society published, or 
 aided in publishing, Stuart's Athens (1762 — 1816), Chandler's Travels (1775-6), and several 
 other finely illustrated works, having aided the authors in their investigations. The members 
 dine together from time to time at the Thatched-house tavern, St. James's. 
 
 DIMITY. See Damietta. 
 
 DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, at that period civil 
 governments, is ascribed to Constantine, 323 ; but Straho remarks that the Romans had the 
 departments called dioceses long before. In England the principal dioceses are coeval with 
 the establishment of Christianity ; of 28 dioceses, 20 are suffragan to the diocese of Canter- 
 tury, and six to that of York. See Bishops, and the sees severally. 
 
 DIOCLETIAN ERA (called also the era of Martyrs, on account of the persecution in hip 
 reign) was used by Christian writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the 6th 
 century, and is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on, 
 which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, Aug. 29, 284. 
 
 DIOPTRIC SYSTEM. See Lighthoicses. 
 
 DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long been admired at Paris, was 
 first opened in London by MM. Bouton and Daguerre, Sept. 29, 1823. The diorama diffei-s 
 from the panorama in this respect, that, instead of a circular view of the objects repre- 
 sented, it exhibits the whole picture at once in perspective. It was not successful com- 
 mercially, and was sold in 1848. The building in Regent's Park was purchased by sir S. 
 M. Peto, in 1855, to be used as a Baptist chapel. It is the handsomest dissenters' chapel 
 in London. 
 
 DIPHTHERIA (from the Greek diphthera, a membrane), a disease which has the 
 essential character of developing a false memhrane on any integument, particularly on the 
 
DIP 243 DIS 
 
 mucous membrane of the throat. It was so named by Bretonneau of Toiirs in 1820. From 
 its prevalence in Boulogne, it has been termed the Boiilogne sore-throat ; many persons 
 were affected with it in England at the beginning of 1858. 
 
 DIPLOMACY, the art of managing the relations of foreign states by means of ambas- 
 sadors, envoys, consuls, &c. See Ambassadors. New regulations for the British diplomatic 
 service were issued Sept. 5, 1862. 
 
 DIPLOMATICS, the foreign term for the science of Palaeography or ancient writings. 
 Valuable works on this subject have been compiled by Mabillon (1681), De Vaines (1774), 
 Astle (1781), De Wailly (1838), and other antiquaries. 
 
 "DIRECTORY fob the Pttblio Worship op God " was drawn up at the instance of 
 the parliament by an assembly of divines at Westminster in 1644, after the suppression of 
 the Book of Common Prayer. The general hints given were to be managed with discretion ; 
 for the Directory prescribed no form of prayer or manner of external worship, and enjoined 
 the people to make no responses except Amen. It was adopted by the parliament of Scotland 
 in 1645, and many of its regulations are still observed. 
 
 DIRECTORY, The French, established by the constitution of Aug. 22, 1795, and 
 nominated Nov. i, was composed of five members (MM. Lipeaux, Letourneur, Rewbel, 
 Barras, and Carnot). It ruled in conjunction with two chambers, the Council of Ancients 
 and Council of Five Hundred {which see). It was deposed by Bonaparte, who, with 
 Cambac^res and Sieyes, assumed the government as three consuls, the first as chief, Nov. 10, 
 1799. See Consuls. 
 
 DIRECTORY, the first London, is said to have been printed in 1677. The " Post-office 
 Directory" first appeared in i8cx). 
 
 DISCIPLINE, Ecclesiastical, originally conducted according to the divine commands 
 in Matt, xviii. 15, i Cor. v., 2 Thess. iii. 6, and other scripture texts, was gradually 
 changed to a temporal charactei', as it now appears in the Roman and Greek churches. The 
 " First Book of Discipline" of the presbyterian church of Scotland was drawn up by John 
 Knox and four ministers in Jan. 1560-1. The more important "Second Book" was prepared 
 with great care in 1578 by Andrew Melville and a committee of the leading members of the 
 general assembly. It lays down a thoroughly presbyterian form of government, defines the 
 position of the ecclesiastical and civil powers, &c. 
 
 DISCOUNT. See Bank of England. 
 
 DISPENSARIES, to supply the poor with medical advice and medicines, began in London 
 with the Royal General Dispensary, established in St. Bartholomew's Close, in 1770. It 
 relieved about 20,cxx) persons in 1861. Lo'vSs Charities. 
 
 DISPENSATIONS, Ecclesiastical, were first granted by pope Innocent III. in 1200. 
 These exemptions from the discipline of the church, with indulgences, absolutions, &c., led 
 eventually to the Reformation in Germany in 1517, and in England in 1534, et seq. 
 
 DISPENSING POWER of the Cbown (for setting aside laws), asserted by some of our 
 sovereigns, especially by James II. in 1686, was abolished by the bill of rights, 1689. 
 However it has been on certain occasions exercised, as in the case of embargoes upon ships, 
 the Bank Charter act, &c. See Indemnity. 
 
 DISSECTION. See Anatormj. 
 
 DISSENTERS, the modern name of the Puritans and Nonconformists {which see). In 
 1851, in London alone, the number of chapels, meeting-houses, &c., for all classes of 
 dissenters amounted to more than 554. (The Church of England had 458 ; Roman 
 Catholics, 35.) The great act (9 Geo. IV. c. 17) for the relief of dissenters from civil and 
 religious disabilities was passed May 9, 1828. By this act, called the Corporation and Test 
 Repeal act, so much of the several acts of preceding reigns as imposed the necessity of 
 receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for certain offices, &c., was 
 repealed. By 6 & 7 WiU. IV. c. 85 (1836), dissenters acquired the right of solemnising 
 marriages at their own chapels or at a registry office. See Worship. 
 
 DISTAFF, the staff to which hemp, flax, wool, or other substances to be spun is 
 fastened. The art of spinning with it at the small wheel, first taught to English women by 
 Anthony Bonavisa, an Italian. Stow. The distaff is used as an emblem of the female sex. 
 
 B 2 
 
DIS 244 DOC 
 
 DISTILLATION, and the various chemical processes dependent on the art, are generally- 
 believed to have been introduced into Europe bj' the Moors about 1150 ; their brethren of 
 Africa had them from the Egyptians. See Alcohol, Brandy. The distillation of spirituous 
 liquors was in practice in Great Eiitain in the i6th century. Burns. The processes were 
 improved by Adam of Montpellier in 1801. M. Payen's work (1861) contains the most recent 
 improvements. 118 licencesto distillers were granted in the year ending March 31, 1858, for 
 the United Kingdom. 
 
 DIVINATION. In the Scriptures and ancient authors dififerent kinds of divination are 
 mentioned. See Augury, Delphi, Magi, Witchcraft, <fcc. 
 
 DIVINE EIGHT of Kings, the absolute and unqualified claim of sovereigns to the 
 obedience of their subjects, a doctiine which is totally foreign to the genius of the English 
 constitution, was defended by many persons of otherwise opposite opinions, e.g., by Hobbes 
 the free-thinker (1642), by Salmasius (1640), by sir Robert Filmer, in his Patriarcha in 
 1680, and by the High Church party generally about 1714 ; but opposed by Milton (1651), 
 Algernon Sydney, and others. 
 
 DIVING-BELL (first mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, about 325 B.C.) was 
 used in Europe about A.D. 1509. It is said to have been used on the coast of Mull, in 
 searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before 1662. HaUey (about 1721) 
 greatly improved this machine, and was, it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell, 
 set his foot on the ground at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton made use of the diving-bell in 
 improving Ramsgate harbour, 1779-88. ilr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a 
 diving-bell in Ireland were drowned, June i, 1783. The Royal Georgre man-of-war, which 
 was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diving-bell in May, 181 7. 
 Latterly it has been employed in submarine surveys. The first Avrmg-belle was the wife of 
 captain Morris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago. 
 
 DIVINING ROD (virgula divina, baculatorius), formed of wood or metal, was formerly 
 believed, even by educated persons, to have the property of indicating the position of 
 minerals and springs of water. Instances were alleged in 185 1 by Dr. H. Mays, in his 
 work on "Popiilar Superstitions." 
 
 DIVINITY. See Tlieology. 
 
 DIVORCE FOR Adulteey (of early institution). It was permitted by the law of Moses 
 iDeut. xxiv. 1), 1451 B.C., but was forbidden by Christ except for adultery {Mali. v. 31). 
 It was put in practice by Spurius CarvUius Ruga at Rome, 234 B.C. At this time morals were 
 so debased that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Divorces are of two kinds ; 
 one, d vinculo matrimonii (total divorce) ; the other, d mensd et thoro (from board and bed). 
 Divorces were attempted to be made of more easy obtainment in England in 1539. The bill 
 to prevent women marrying their seducers was brought into parliament in 180 1. In April, 
 1853, the commissioners on the law of divorce issued their first report.* By 20 & 21 Vict. 
 c. 85 (1857), the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts respecting divorce, &c., was abolished, 
 and the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes court was instituted, to consist of three judges, the 
 judge of the Probate court to be one (if possible). On May 10, 1858, a full court sat, viz. 
 lord Campbell, chief baron PoUock, and sir Cresswell Cresswell, judge of the Probate court, 
 when five marriages were dissolved. The above-mentioned act was amended by acts passed in 
 1858-60, in consequence of the increase of the business of the court. See Marriage. An 
 act respecting divorces in Scotland was passed in 1861. Sir Cresswell Cresswell died iu 
 July, 1863, and sir James P. Wilde was appointed his successor in Sept. following. 
 
 DIZIER, St. (N.E. France). Here a siege was sustained for six weeks against the army 
 of the emperor Charles V., 1544. The allies here defeated the French imder Napoleon, Jan. 
 27 and March 26, 1814. 
 
 DOBRUDSCHA, the N.E. corner of Bulgaria; in 1854, the scene of the earlier incidents 
 of the Eusso-Turkish war (which see). 
 
 DOCET^, a sect of the ist century, said to have held that Jesus Christ was god, but 
 that his body was an appearance, not a reality. 
 
 * In 1857, there had been in England, since the Reformation, 317 divorces by act of parliament ; in 
 Scotland, by the law, 174 divorces since 1846. From the establishment of the divorce court, to March, 
 1859, 37 divorces had been granted out of 288 petitions ; from Nov. i860 to July, i86i, 164. They are now 
 very frequent. 
 
DOC 
 
 245 
 
 DOG 
 
 DOCKS OF ENGLAND. They are said to be the moat extensive and finest iu the world. 
 The following are the principal commercial docks : — 
 
 Commercial Docks, Eotherliithe, originated about 
 1660. 
 
 West India Docks were commenced, Feb. 3, 1800; 
 and were opened Aug. 27, 1802, when the " Henry 
 Addington," West ludiaman, first entered them, 
 decorated with the colours of the different nations 
 of Europe. 
 
 London Docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and 
 opened Jan. 20, 1805. 
 
 East India Docks were commenced in 1803 ; and 
 
 opened Aug. 4, 1806. 
 St. Katherine's Docks began May 3, 1827 ; and 2500 
 
 men were daily employed on them until they were 
 
 opened, Oct. 25, 1828. 
 Victoria Docks (in Plaistow marshes) were completed 
 
 in 1855. 
 Magnificent docks at Liverpool and Birkenhead 
 
 erected, 1810-57. 
 
 DOCK-YAEDS, Eoyal. There are seven chief dock-yards in England and Wales, and 
 others in various of our colonies. 
 
 Woolwich was an extensive one in 1509. 
 Deptford dock-yard founded about 1513. 
 Chatham dock-yard was founded by queen Elizabeth. 
 Portsmouth dock-yard established by Henry VIII. 
 Plymouth dock, now Devonport,* about 1689. 
 Sheerness dock-yard was built by Charles II. after 
 the insult of the Dutch, who burnt our men-of-war 
 
 at Chatham in 1667. A fire occurred at Sheer- 
 ness dock-yard, on board the Camperdowii, Oct. 9, 
 1840. 
 
 Milford-Haven dock-yard, 1790 ; removed to Pem- 
 broke in 1 8 14. 
 
 The Dock-yard battalions have been named since 1847. 
 
 DOCTOK. Doctor of the Church was a title given to Athanasius, Basil, Gregory, 
 Nazianzen, and Chrysostom in the Greek church ; and to Jerome, Augustin, Ambrose, and 
 Gregory the Great, in the Komish church, 373, et seq. In later times the title has been 
 conferred on certain persons with distinguishing epithets : viz. Thomas Aquinas (Angelicus), 
 Bonaventura (Seraphicus), Alexander de Hales (Irrefragabilis), Duns Scotus (Subtilis), Roger 
 Bacon (Mirabilis), William Occam (Singularis), Joseph Gerson (Christianissimus), Thomas 
 Bradwardine (Profundus), and so on. Doctor of the law, was a title of honour among the 
 Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, 1207. Spelman. Some give 
 it an earlier date, referring it to the time of the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the 
 former of whom, it is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge about 725. 
 
 DOCTORS' COMMONS, the college for the professors of civil and canon law residing in 
 London ; the name of commons is given to it from the civilians commoning together, as in 
 other colleges. It was founded by Dr. Henry Hervie in 1568 ; but the original college was 
 destroyed in the great fire of 1666; in 1672 it was rebuilt on the old site.f After the 
 great fire, and until 1672, the society held its courts at Exeter house in the Strand. It was- 
 incorporated by charter in June, 1768. Coote. Till 1857 the causes taken cognizance of 
 here were blasphemy, divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of 
 wills, &c. See Ecclesiastical Courts, Civil Law, &e. 
 
 DOCTRINAIRES, a name given since 1814 to a class of politicians in France (Guizot, 
 due de Broglie and others), who upheld the constitutional principles, as opposed to arbitrary 
 monarchical power. The party came into office in 1830 under Louis Philippe, and fell with 
 him in 1848. The term has been applied in this country to the writers in the " Westminster 
 Review" (1824, et seq.), Bentham, Molesworth and others, 
 
 DODONA, Epieus. The temple of Jupiter here, renowned for its oracle, was destroyed 
 by the ^toUans, 219 B.C. 
 
 DODSON'S ACT (brought forward by Mr. John G. Dodson, and passed Aug. i, 1861) 
 provides that votes for electing members of parliament for the universities may be recorded 
 by means of polling papers. 
 
 DOG. Buffon considers the shepherd's dog as "the root of the tree," assigning as his 
 reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is 
 
 * Great fire in the dock-yard at Devonport, by which the Talavera, of 74 guns, the Inogene frigate, of 
 28 guns, and immense stores, were destroyed ; the relics and figure heads of the favourite ships of Bos- 
 cawen, Rodney, Duncan, and other naval heroes, which were preserved in a naval museum, were also 
 burnt, Sept. 27, 1840 ; the loss was estimated at 2oo,oooJ. 
 
 t In February, 1568, Dr. Henry Hervie, dean of the arches and master of Trinity-hall (a seminary 
 founded at Cambridge chiefly for the study of the civil and canon laws) procured from the dean and chapter 
 of the diocese of London a lease of Montjoy-house and other buildings in the parish of St. Bene't, Paul's 
 wharf, for the accommodation of the society. The courts over which he presided, the prerogative court of 
 Canterbury, that of the bishop of London, and also the court of admiralty (except for criminal cases), were 
 thenceforward holden in the buildings thus assigned, and the whole place, for an obvious reason, received 
 the appellation of " Doctors' Commons." Coote'a English Civilians. 
 
DOG 246 DOM 
 
 supposed to be tlie earliest dog known in Europe, if Irisli writers be correct. Dr. Gall 
 mentions tliat a dog was taken from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on 
 board a vessel, landed at Calais, and, after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned to 
 Vienna. Statute against dog stealing, lo Geo. III. 1770. Dog-tax imposed, 1796, and 
 again in 1808 ; now (1865) 12s. a year. The employment of dogs in drawing carts, &c., in 
 London was abolished, 1839 ; in the United Kingdom, 1854. Docj sliows have been held in 
 London in 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, and 1865, latterly at the Agricultural HaU, Islington. 
 
 DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3rd of July and end on the 
 nth of August. The rising and setting of Sirius or the dog-star* with the sun has been 
 erroneously regarded as the cause of excessive heat and of consequent calamities. 
 
 DOGE, the title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by a prince so 
 named, Anafesto Paululio, or Paoluccio, 697. See Venice, The Genoese chose their ilrst 
 doge, Simone Boccanegra, in 1339. Muratori. 
 
 DOGGERBANK (German Ocean). Here a gallant but indecisive battle was fought 
 between the British, under admiral sir Hyde Parker, and the Dutch, Aug. 5, 1781. 
 
 DOGGET'S COAT and BADGE. The annual rowing match upon the Thames, thus 
 called, originated in this way : Mr. Thomas Dogget, an eminent actor of Drury-lane, on the 
 first anniversary of the accession to the throne of George I., Aug. i, 1715, gave a waterman's 
 coat and silver badge to be rowed for by six young watermen in honour of the day, and 
 bequeathed at his death a sum of money, the interest whereof was to be appropriated 
 annually, for ever, to the same purpose. The candidates start, at a signal given, at that 
 time of the tide when the current is strongest against them, and row from the Old Swan, 
 London Bridge, to the Wliite Swan at Chelsea. 
 
 DOIT. A silver Scottish penny, of which twelve were equal to a penny sterling. Some 
 of those struck by Charles I. and II. are in the cabinets of the curious. The circulation of 
 " doydekyns" (small Dutch coins) Avas prohibited by statute in 1415. 
 
 DOLLAR, the German thaler (the Ti not sounded). Stamped Spanish dollars were issued 
 from the Mint in March, 1797, but called in Oct. following. The dollar is the principal 
 silver coin in the United States of North America. 
 
 DOM-BOC or Doom-Book {Liber Judiciales), the code of law compiled by king Alfred 
 from the West-Saxon collection of Ina and other sources. Alfred reigned from 871 to 901. 
 
 DOME'S-DAY BOOK or DOOM'S-DAY {Liber Censualis Anglioc), a book of the 
 general survey of England, commenced in the reign of AVilliam I. 1080 (some say 1085), and 
 completed in 1086. It was intended to be a register whereby to determine the right in the 
 tenure of estates ; and from it the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is some- 
 times still decided. The book is still presei-ved in the Chapter-house, Westminster-abbey, 
 fair and legible, consisting of tAvo volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of 
 England, except Northumberland, Durham, Westmoreland, and Cumberland, are surveyed. 
 " This Dome's-day book was the tax-book of Kiuge William." Camden. It was printed in 
 four vols, folio, with introductions, &c., 1783 — 1816. The taxes were levied according to 
 this survey till 13 Hen. VIII., 1522, when a more accurate survey was taken, called bj'^ the 
 people the New Doom's-Day Book. Photogi-aj)hic copies of various counties have been 
 published since 1861. 
 
 DOMINGO, St., a city in Hayti, the seat of the Dominican republic, independent from 
 1844-61. It has been much troubled by the emperors of Hayti, especially by Faustiu I., 
 dethroned in 1858. Its last president, General Jose Valverde, was elected in 1858. Popu- 
 lation 200,000. See Hayli. In March, i86i, a number of Spanish emigrants landed in St. 
 Domingo ; a cry for its annexation to Spain was raised, and St. Domingo was incorporated 
 with that monarchy. May 20, 1861. An insurrection against the Spaniards broke out on 
 Aug. 18, 1863, and the rebels had gained nearly all the island in Nov. when the Spanish 
 government proclaimed it in a state of blockade. A Spanish force was sent and several 
 conflicts ensued, in which the insurgents were generally worsted. In Dec. 1864 the British 
 government recognised the Haytians as belligerents ; and in 1865 the Spanish government 
 retired from the contest. 
 
 * Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the dog-star, is the nearest to \is of all the fixed stars ; and 
 they comi:)ute its distance from our earth at 2, 200,000 millions of miles. They maintain that a sound would 
 not reaflh oui- earth from Sirius in 50,000 years ; and that a cannon-ball, flying with its usual velocity of 
 480 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage thence to w\x globe. 
 
DOM 247 DOU 
 
 DOMHSTCA (W. Indies), discovei-ed by Columbus in his second voyage, on Sunday, 
 Nov. 3, 1493. It was taken by tlie British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the 
 peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the subsequent peace 
 in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hurricane in 1806. 
 
 DOMINICAL LETTER, noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days of the 
 week, reckoned as beginning on the ist of Jan. are designated by the first seven letters of the 
 alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G- ; and the one of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical 
 letter. If the year begin on Sunday, A is the Dominical letter ; if on Monday, G ; on. 
 Tuesday, F ; and so on. Generally to find the Dominical letter call New Year's day A, the 
 next B, and go on thus until you come to the first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is 
 the Dominical letter ; in leap years count two letters. The letter for 1865 is A, for 1866, G-. 
 
 DOMINICAN EEPUBLIC. See Domingo. 
 
 DOMINICANS, formerly a powerful religious order (called in France, Jacobins, and in 
 England Black friars), founded in order to put down the Albigenses and other heretics by 
 St. Dominic, approved by Innocent III. in 1215, and confirmed by Honorius III. in 1216, 
 under St. Austin's rules and the founder's particular constitution. In 1276 the corporation 
 of London gave the Dominicans two whole streets near the Thames, where they erected a 
 large convent, whence that part is still called Blackfriars. 
 
 DONATISTS, an ancient puritanical sect, formed about 313 — 318, by an African bishop, 
 Donatus, who was jealous of Ceecilian, bishop of Carthage : it became extinct in the 7th 
 century. The Donatists held that the Father was above the Son, and the Son above the 
 Holy Ghost ; and that there was no virtue in the form of the Church. Their discipline was 
 severe, and those who joined their sect were re-baptized. 
 
 DONKEY SHOW. An exhibition of donkeys and mules belonging to the upper and 
 lower classes took place at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, in Aug. 1864. 
 
 DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de Cervantes (born 1547 ; died 1616). The first 
 part of this work appeared in 1605, and the second part in 1608. It is said that upwards 
 of 12,000 copies of the first part were circulated before the second could be made ready for 
 the press. Watts. 
 
 DOOM'S-DAY BOOK, See Dome's-day Booh. 
 
 DORADO. See El Dorado. 
 
 DORCHESTER (now a village near Oxford) was once a bishopric, said to have been 
 founded about 636. The first Bishop, Biriuus, was called the apostle of the West Saxons. 
 In 1070, Remigius, its last prelate, transferred it to Lincoln (lohich see). — Much excitement 
 was caused by six labourers of Dorchester (in Dorsetshire) being sentenced to transportation, 
 March 17, 1834, for administering illegal oaths. 
 
 DORIANS, a people of Greece, claimed their descent from Dorus, son of Hellen. See 
 ■Greece. Their return to the Peloponnesus took place 1104 B.C. They sent out many 
 colonies. To them we owe the Doric architecture, the second of the five orders. It is lighter 
 than the Tuscan. 
 
 DORT, or Dordrecht, an ancient toAvn in Holland, where the independence of the 
 thirteen provinces was declared in 1572, when William prince of Orange was made stadt- 
 holder. Here happened an awful inundation of the Mouse in 1421, through the breaking 
 down the dykes. In the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 persons perished ; and more than 
 100,000 round Dullart, in Friesland, and in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 
 300 villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers were long after seen rising out 
 of the water. A Protestant synod was held at Dort in 16 18 and 16 19; to which deputies 
 were sent from England, and the reformed churches in Europe, to settle the difi'erence between 
 the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon points of justification and 
 grace. This synod condemned the tenets of Arminius. 
 
 DOUAY (N. France), the Roman Duacum, was taken from the Flemings by Philip the 
 Fair in 1297 ; restored by Charles V. in 1368. It reverted to Spain, from whom it was 
 taken by Louis XIV. in 1667. It was captured by the duke of Marlborough in 1710 ; and 
 retaken by the French next year. This town gives its name to the Roman Catholic edition 
 of the Bible in use, by the consent of the popes, as the only authorised English version ; 
 
DOU 
 
 248 
 
 DRA 
 
 its text is explained by the notes of Roman Catholic divines. The Old Testament was first 
 published by the English college at Douay in 1609 ; the New had been published at Rheims 
 in 1582. The English college for Roman Catholics was founded in 1568 by William Allen, 
 afterwards cardinal. Dodd. 
 
 DOURO, a river (separating Spain and Portugal), which, after a desperate struggle 
 between Wellington's advanced guard under Hill, and the French under Soult, was success- 
 fully crossed by the former on May 12, 1809. So sudden was the movement, that Wellington 
 at 4 o'clock sat down to the dinner prepared for the French general. Alison. 
 
 DOVER (Kent), the Roman Dubris. Near here Julius Cassar made his first landing in 
 England, Aug. 26, 55 B.C. Its original castle is said to have been built by him soon after ; but 
 this is disputed. The works were strengthened by Alfred and succeeding kings, and rebuilt 
 by Henry II. The earliest named constable is Leopoldus de Bertie, in the reign of 
 Ethel red II., followed by earl Godwin, Odo the brother of William I., &c. In modern 
 times, this office, and that of warden of the Cinque Ports, has been frequently conferred 
 on the prime minister for the time being,— c.(/., lord North, Mr. Pitt, lord Liverpool, and 
 the duke of Wellington : the earl of Dalhousie, late governor-general for India, was 
 appointed in Jan. 1853, ^and died Dec. 19, i860. Lord Palmerston, appointed constable 
 March, 1861, died Oct. 18, 1865. 
 
 The priory was commenced by archbishop Cor- 
 
 boyl, or Corbois, about 1130 
 
 At I)over, king John resigned his kingdom to 
 
 Pandolf, the pope's legate . . May 13, 1213 
 The pier was projected by Henry VIII. in . 1533 
 Charles II. landed here from his exile, May 25, 1660 
 The foot barracks were burnt down by an acci- 
 dental fire July 30, 1800 
 
 A large part of the cliff fell, Nov. 27, 1810; and 
 
 Jan. 13, 1853 
 Railway to London opened . . May 6, 1854 
 A telegraph wire laid down experimentally 
 between Dover and Calais (see Submarine 
 Telegraph), Aug. 28, 1850; telegraph opened, 
 
 Nov. 13, 1851 
 
 DOWER, the gifts of a husband for a wife before marriage {Genesis xxxiv. 12). The 
 portion of a man's lands or tenements which his wife enjoys for life after her husband's 
 death. By the laAV of king Edmund, a widow was entitled to a moiety of her husband's lands 
 or tenements for her life, 941. The \vidows of traitors, but not those of felons, are debarred 
 their dower by statute 5 Edw. VI. 155 1. The last dower act passed in 1833. 
 
 DOWN (N.E. Ireland), Bishopbic of. An ancient see, whose first bishop was St. 
 Cailan, in 499. At the instance of John de Courcy, the conqueror of Ulster, the cathedral, 
 although previously consecrated to the Trinity, was dedicated to St. Pati'ick about 1183. 
 The sepulchre of St. Patrick (who was buried here in 493, in the abbey of Saul, foimded by 
 himself) brought this place into great repute. The see was united with that of Connor in 
 1441 (see Connor) ; and the see of Dromore was united to both by the provisions of the Irish 
 Church Temporalities act, 3 & 4 AVill. IV. c. 37, Aug. 14, 1833. The cathedral of Down- 
 patrick was destroyed by lord Grey, lord deputy of Ireland ; for this and other crimes he 
 was impeached and beheaded in 1541. Bcatson. 
 
 DRACO'S LAWS (enacted by him when archon of Athens, 621 B.C.), on accoimt of 
 their severity, were said to be written in blood. Idleness was punished with as muc-h 
 severity as murder. This code Avas set aside by Solon's, 594 b.c. 
 
 DRAFTS (or cheques). In 1856, drafts crossed with a banker's name were made 
 payable only to or through the same banker. This act was passed in consequence of a 
 decision to the contrary in the case of Carlon v. Ireland, Dec. 12, 1855. In 1858 the 
 crossing was made a material part of a cheque, but bankers are not held responsible when 
 the crossing does not plainly appear, * and a penny stamp was ordered to be affixed to drafts 
 on bankers, commencing May 25. 
 
 DRAGOONS. The name is supposed to have been derived from dragon, "because 
 mounted on horseback with lighted match he seemeth like a fiery dragon. " Meyrick. The 
 Deaconarii were horse-soldiers, who bore dragons for ensigns. The first regiment of 
 dragoons was raised in England, it is believed, in 168 1. " King Charles II. at the Restora- 
 tion established a regiment of Life Guards, to which he added a regiment of Horse Guards, 
 and two regiments of Foot Guards ; and a third regiment of Foot Guards was raised at 
 Coldstream, on tlie borders of Scotland." Captain Citrling. 
 
 * In the case of Simmonds v. Taylor, May, 1858, it was decided, on appeal to the court of exchequer, 
 that the crossing formed no part of the draft. The crossing had been erased, and the money paid to the 
 bolder of the draft who had stolen it. 
 
DRA 
 
 249 
 
 DRA. 
 
 DRAINAGE of Land, in England, is of eai-ly date — remains of British works being still 
 extant in the Fens district. The truly national works began in 1621, when Cornelius 
 Vermuyden, the Dutch engineer, was invited to England. Amidst much opposition, he 
 and his successors drained the districts termed the Great Levels. See Levels^ In the 
 present century gi'eat progress has been made in drainage. In 1861 was passed "an act 
 to amend the laws relative to the drainage of land for agricultural purposes." See Setvers. 
 
 DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATIOK Sir Prancis Drake sailed from Falmouth Dec. 13, 
 1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many perilous adventures, 
 Nov. 3, 1580. He was vice-admiral under lord Howard, high admiral of England, in the 
 conflict with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588. 
 
 DRAMA, Ancient, Both tragedy and comedy began with the Greeks. 
 
 The first comedy performed at Athens, by Susa- 
 rion and Dolon, on a movable scaffold . B.C. 
 
 The chorus introduced 
 
 Tragedy first represented at Athens by Thespis, 
 on a. wAggon {Arund. Marb.) .... 
 
 Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tragedy, per- 
 formed at Athens "Alcestis," and was re- 
 warded with a goat (Pliny) . . . . 
 
 Jischylus introduced suitable dresses and a 
 
 The drama was first introduced into Soiiie on 
 occasion of a plague which raged during the 
 consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and C. 
 Licinius Stolo : the magistrates, to appease 
 the incensed deities, instituted the games 
 called the ' ' Scenici, " which were amusements 
 entirely new ; actors from Etruria danced, 
 after the Tuscan manner, to the flute . . 
 
 364 
 
 Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who 
 introduced intrigues upon the stage ; he com- 
 posed about 100 plays, of which 10 obtained 
 the prize; he died b.c. 340 
 
 Subsequently came satires, accompanied with 
 music set to the flute ; and afterwards plays 
 were represented byLivius Andronicus, who, 
 abandoning satires, wrote plays with a regular 
 and connected plot. He first gave singing and 
 dancing to different performers ; he danced 
 himself, and gave the singing to a younger 
 exhibitor 240 
 
 The greatest ancient dramatic writers were — 
 Greek, iEschylua, Sophocles, Euripides (tra- 
 gedy), and Aristophanes (comedy), 525 — 427 ; 
 Latin, Plautus and Terence (comedy), 184 — 
 160; Seneca (tragedy) , . 7 b.c. — a.d. 65 
 
 DRAMA, MoDEEN, arose early in the rude attempts of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in 
 France, Italy, and England. Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and 
 were the origin of sacred comedy. Warton, 
 
 Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the 
 Church, is said to have constructed a drama 
 on the Passion of Christ, to counteract the 
 profanities of the heathen stage, about . . 364 
 
 Fitzstephen, in his " Life of Thomas a Becket," 
 asserts that — " London had for its theatrical 
 exhibitions holy plays, and the representa- 
 tion of miracles, wrought by holy confessors ;" 
 he died about 1190 
 
 The Chester Mysteries* were performed about 1270 
 
 Plays were performed at ClerkenweU by the 
 parish clerks, and "miracles" were repre- 
 sented in the fields, in 1397 
 
 Allegorical characters were introduced in the 
 reign of Henry VI. 
 
 Individual characters were introduced in Henry 
 VII. 's reign. 
 
 Skelton and others wrote "Moralities" about 1500 
 
 The first regular drama acted in Europe was the 
 "Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the 
 presence of pope Leo X. (Fbttaire) . . 1515 
 
 The first royal hcence for the drama in England 
 was to master Burbage, and four others, ser- 
 vants to the earl of Leicester, to act plays at 
 the Globe, Bankside 1574 
 
 Shakespeare began to write about . . . 1590 
 
 A licence granted to Shakespeare and his asso- 
 ciates in 1603 
 
 Plays were opposed by the Puritans in 1633, 
 and were afterwards suspended until the 
 Bestoration, in 1660 
 
 Two companies of regular performers were 
 licensed by Charles II., Killigrew's and sir 
 William Uavenant's. The first was at the 
 Bull, Vere-street, Clare-market, which was 
 immediately afterwards removed to Drury- 
 lane ; the other in Dorset-gardens, 1662. Till 
 this time, boys performed women's parts ; but 
 Mrs. Coleman (the first female on the stage) 
 had performed lanthe, in Davenant's " Siege 
 of Rhodes," in 1656 
 
 Sir William Davenant introduced operas, and 
 both companies united, 1684, and continued 
 together tiU 1694, when a schism under Bet- 
 terton led to the opening of a theatre in 
 Lincoln's-inn-fields, the parent of Covent- 
 garden 1695 
 
 Act for the revision of plays and for licensing 
 them previously to being performed . . 1737 
 
 Author's Dramatic Copyright Protection act, 3 
 Will. IV. c. IS June, 1833 
 
 See Theatres, Covent-garden,Drwy-lane, and Coxnjright. 
 
 DRAMATIC COLLEGE, for the benefit of distressed actors and their children, was 
 proposed July 21, 1858, at the Princess's theatre, by Messrs. C. Dickens, Thackeray, C. 
 Kean, B. Webster, and others. Mr. Henry Dodd's ofi"er of land and money, with certain 
 stipulations, was declined. The Queen is the patron. The first stone of the building was 
 laid by the Pi'ince Consort, June i, i860; and on Sept. 29, 1862, seven annuitants were 
 installed. The central hall was opened by the Prince of Wales, June 5, 1865. 
 
 * The Coventry, Chester, Townley, and other mysteries have been printed during the present century. 
 
DllA 250 DPJ 
 
 DRAPIER'S LETTERS, by dean Swift, published in 1724, against Wood's Jlal/pcTice 
 {ivMch see). • 
 
 DREAMS are mentioned in Scripture, e.g., Joseph's and Pharaoh's, 1715 B.C. (Oen. 
 xxxvii. and xli.), and Nebuchadnezzar's, 603 and 570 B.C. {Daniel ii. and iv.). The first 
 attempt to interpret dreams and omens is ascribed to Amphictyon of Athens, 1497 B.C. A 
 remarkable modern instance is attested in the life of Thomas, lord Lyttelton.* 
 
 DRED SCOTT CASE. See United States, 1857. 
 
 DREPANUM (Sicily). Near this place the Carthaginian admiral Adherbal totally 
 defeated the Roman fleet under P. Claudius, 249 B.C. 
 
 DRESDEN, termed the German Florence, became the capital of Saxony in 1548. Peace 
 of Dresden, between Saxony, Prussia, and the queen of Hungary, confirming the treaties of 
 Berlin and Breslau, signed Dec. 25, 1745. Dresden was taken by Frederick of Prussia in 
 1756 ; by the Austriansin 1759 ; and bombarded in vain by Frederick, in July, 1760. Here 
 severe contests took place between the allied army under the prince of Schwarzenberg, and 
 the Fi'ench army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 1813. The allies, 200,000 
 strong, attacked Napoleon in his position at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal 
 to them, but for an error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with 
 dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia ; but Vandamme pursuing them too 
 far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all his staff made prisoners. In this 
 battle, general Moreau received his mortal wound, while in conversation Avith the emperor 
 of Russia. Marshal St. Cyr, and 25,000 French troops, sun'endered Dresden to the allies, 
 Nov. II, 1813. During a political commotion, the king of Saxony resigned the royal 
 authority, and prince Frederick, his nephew, was declared regent, Sept. 9, et seq. 1830. See 
 Saxony. An insuiTection here on May 3, 1849, was repressed on the 6th. + 
 
 DRESS. The attire of the Hebrew women is censured in Isaiahiii., about 760 B.C. Excess 
 in dress among the early Romans was restrained by sumptuary laws ; and also in England by 
 numerous statutes, in 1363, 1465, 1570, &c. (see Cap) ; and in the reign of Elizabeth, 
 1574. J Stoiv. Fairholt's " Costume in England" contains a history of dress with numerous 
 illustrations derived fi'om MSS., the works of Strutt, &c. A "Dress-making Company" 
 was established in London, Feb. 6, 1865, with the view of improving the condition of the 
 workwomen. 
 
 DREUX (N.W. France). Here Montmorenci defeated the Huguenots under Cond^, 
 Dec. 19, 1562. 
 
 DRINKING-FOUNTAINS. Many were erected in Liverpool in 1857. An association 
 for their erection in London was formed in April, 1859, by lord John Russell, the earl of 
 Carlisle, Mr. S. Gurney, and others. The first of the numerous fountains since erected is 
 that near St. Sepulchre's church, Skinner-street, on April 21, 1859. The magnificent foun- 
 tain in Victoria-park, London, was inaugurated by the donor, Miss Burdett Coutts, 
 June 8, 1862. 
 
 DRILLING-MACHINES, in agriculture. One was invented by Jethro TuU, early in the 
 last century. 
 
 * Lord Lyttelton dreamt that a young female, dressed in white, solemnly warned him of his dissolu- 
 tion in thi-ee days from that time. On the third day his lordship had a party to spend the evening with 
 Mm, and about the time predicted, he observed to the company present, that " he believed he should 
 jockey the ghost ;" but in a few minutes afterwards he was seized vrith a sudden faintness, carried to 
 bed, and rose no more. He died in 1779, aged 35. Some assert that he committed suicide. 
 
 t The fine porcelain ware known as Dresden china was invented by M. Boeticher, at the time an 
 apothecary's boy, about 1700. Hard porcelain was made there in 1709. Services of this ware have cost 
 many thousands of pounds each. A costly service, each piece exquisitely painted, with battles, &.C., was 
 presented to the duke of Wellington by the king of Prussia, in 1816, and was the finest in England. 
 
 I Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close-sleeved to the wrist, and over 
 the body a brown doublet finely flowered, and embroidered with pearls, and in the feather of his hat a large 
 i-uby and pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig in place of a button. His breeches, with his stockings and 
 ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and buff shoes, which, on great court days, were so gorgeously 
 covered with precious stones as to have exceeded the value of 6600^. ; and he had a suit of armour of solid 
 silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. King James's favourite, the duke 
 of Buckingham, could afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to shake a few 
 off on the groiuid, he obtained all the fame he desired from the jjickers-up, who were generally les Dames 
 de la Cour. We may here mention a novel dress, the Bloomer Costume, inti-oduced into America in 1849, 
 hy Mrs. Ann Bloomer, and worn there by many of the women. It resembled male attire, being an open- 
 fronted jacket and loose trousers, the latter wide like those of the Turk, but gathered in at the ankles. The 
 Bloomer dress was first adopted by a few females in the western parts of London, in August, 1851 ; but 
 though it was recommended by some American ladies in popular lectures, it was soon afterwards totally 
 discontinued. 
 
DEO 251 BRU 
 
 DROGHEDA (Central Ireland, E.), formerly Tredagli, a place of great importance, 
 having the privilege of coining money. In the reign of Edward VI., an act, yet unrepealed, 
 was passed for the foimdation of a university here. The town was besieged several times in 
 the contests between 1641 and 1691. Cromwell took it by storm, and put the governor, sir 
 A. Aston, and the whole of the garrison, to the sword, Sept. 11, 1649. More than 3cx)o 
 men, most of them English, perished. It surrendered to "William III. in 1690. 
 
 DEOMOEE, Bishopric of (N.E. Ireland), founded by St. Coleman, first bishop, about 
 556. By an extent returned 15 James I., this see was valued in the king's books at 50J. 
 Jeremy Taylor was bishop of Down and Connor in 1660, and of this see in 1661, Dromore 
 has been united to Down through the Irish Church Temporalities act, 1833. 
 
 DEOWITING, as a punishment, is very ancient. The Britons inflicted death by drown- 
 ing in a quagmire, before 450 b. c. Stow. It is said to have been inflicted on eighty intrac- 
 table bishops' near ITicomedia, a.d. 370 ; and to have been adopted as a punishment in France 
 by Louis XL The wholesale drownings of the royalists in the Loire at Nantes, by command 
 of the brutal Carrier, Nov. 1793, were termed Noyades. He was condemned to death in 
 Dec. 1794. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons were first instituted in Holland, 
 in 1 767. The second society is said to have been formed at Milan, in 1 768 ; the third in 
 Hamburg, in 1771 ; the fourth at Paris, in 1772 ; and the fifth in London, in 1774. The 
 motto of the Eoyal Humane Society in England is : Lateat scintilltbla forsan — "A small 
 spark may perhaps lie hid." 
 
 DEUIDS. Priests, among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, so named from their 
 veneration for the oak (Brit. derw). They administered sacred things, were the interpreters 
 of the gods, and supreme judges. They headed the Britons who opposed Ctesar's first landing, 
 55 B.C., and were exterminated by the Eoman governor, Suetonius Paulinus, a.d. 61. 
 
 DEUM : the invention is ascribed to Bacchus, who, according to Poly^nus, "gave his 
 signals of battle with cymbals and drums." It was brought by the Moors into Spain, 713. 
 Le Clerc. The drum, or drum-capstan, for weighing anchors, was invented by sir S, Morland, 
 in 1685. Anderson. 
 
 DEUMMOND LIGHT. See Lime-UgU. 
 
 DEUMCLOG ("W. Scotland). Here the Covenanters defeated Graham of Claverhouse, 
 on June i, 1679. An account of the conflict is given by Walter Scott, in " Old Mortality." 
 
 DEIINKAEDS were to be excommunicated in the early church, 59 (i Cor. vii.) In 
 England, a canon law forbade drunkenness in the clergy, 747. Constantine, king of Scots, 
 punished it with death, 870. By 21 James I., c. 7, 1623, a drunkard was liable to a penalty 
 of five shillings, or six hours in the stocks. 
 
 DEUEY-LANE THEATEE derives its origin from a cock-pit, which was converted into 
 a theatre in the reign of James I. It was rebuilt, and called the Phcenix ; and Charles 11. 
 granted an exclusive patent to Thomas Killigrew, April 25, 1662. The actors were called 
 the king's servants, and ten of them, who were called gentlemen of the great chamber, had 
 an annual allowance of ten yards of scarlet cloth, with a suitable quantity of lace. The 
 theatre, with sixty adjoining houses, was burnt down in 1672 ; and a new edifice was built 
 in its room by sir Christopher Wren, in 1674. The interior was rebuilt by Mr. Adams, and 
 was re-opened Sept. 23, 1775. The Drury-lane Theatrical Fund was originated by David 
 Garrick in 1777. In 1791, the theatre was pulled down ; it was rebuilt and opened March 
 12, 1794. It was totally destroyed by fire, Feb. 24, 1809 ; and was rebuilt and opened 
 Oct. 10, 1812. See Theatres and Drama,. 
 
 DEUSES, a warlike people dwelling among the mountains of Lebanon, derive their 
 origin from a fanatical Mahometan sect which arose in Egypt about 996, and fled to Palestine, 
 to avoid persecution. They now retain hardly any of the religion of their ancestors : they 
 do not practise circumcision, pray, or fast, but eat pork and drink wine. In the middle of 
 i860, in consequence of disputes (in which doubtless both parties were to blame), the Druses 
 attacked their neighbours the Maronites (iuJiich see), whom they massacred, it was said, 
 without regard to age or sex. Peace was made in July ; but in the meantime a religious 
 fury seized the Mahometan population of the neighbouring cities, and a general massacre of 
 Christians ensued. See Damascus and Syria. Fuad Pacha with Turkisli troops ; and 
 general Hautpoul with French auxiliaries, invaded Lebanon in Aug. and Sept. The Druses 
 surrendered, giving up their chiefs, several of whom were tried and condemned to die, in 
 Jan. 1861. 
 
DUB 
 
 252 
 
 DUB 
 
 DUBLIN, capital of Ireland, anciently called Aslicled, said to have been built 140. It 
 obtained its present name from Alpinus, a lord or chief among the Irish, whose daughter, 
 Aidiana, having been drowned at the ford where now Whitworth-bridge is built, he changed 
 the name to Auliana, by Ptolemy called Eblana (afterwards corrupted into Dublaua), that 
 she might be had in remembrance. Alpinus is said to have made this place his residence, 
 about 15s, when he brought ' 'the then rude hill into the form of a town." See Ireland. 
 
 Christianity established here on the arrival of 
 
 St. Patrick, about 432 
 
 [St. Patrick's cathedral founded about this 
 
 time. ] 
 Dubhn environed with waUs by the Danes . 798 
 Named by king Edgar in the preface to his 
 
 charter " Noblissima Civitas" . . . 964 
 
 Battle of Clontarf {which see) . April 23, 1014 
 
 Dublin taken by Raymond le Gros, for Henry 
 
 11. who soon after aiTives 1171 
 
 Charter granted by this king . . . .1173 
 Christ church built, 1038 ; rebuilt . . . 1190 
 
 Slaughter of 500 British by the Irish citizens 
 
 near Dubhn (see Cullen's IVood) . . . 1209 
 Assemblage of Irish princes, who swear alle- 
 giance to king John 1210 
 
 Foundation of Dublin castle laid by Henry de 
 
 Loundres, 1205 ; finished . . . .1213 
 John le Decer first provost; Richard de St. 
 
 Olave and John Stakebold first bailiffs (see 
 
 Mayor) 1308 
 
 Thomas Cusack, first mayor (idem) . . . 1409 
 Besieged by the son of the earl of Kildare, lord 
 
 deputy 1500 
 
 Christ church made a deanery and chapter by 
 
 Henry VIII. (see Christ Church) . . . 1541 
 Name of baihff changed ; John Ryan and Thomas 
 
 Comyn, first sheriffs 1548 
 
 Trinity college founded 1591 
 
 Charter granted by James I. .... 1609 
 
 Convocation which estabUshed the Thirty-nine 
 
 articles of religion 1614 
 
 Besieged by the marquis of Ormond, and battle 
 
 of Rathmines (jc/tic/i see) 1649 
 
 Cromwell arrives in Dublin with 9000 foot and 
 
 400 horse Aug. „ 
 
 Chief magistrate honoured with the title of lord 
 
 while holding office 1665 
 
 Blue coat hospital incorporated . . . . 1670 
 Essex bridge built by sir H. Jervis . . . 1676 
 Boyal hospital, Kilmainham, founded . . . 1683 
 James II. arrives in Dublin .... 1688 
 
 Great gunpowder explosion 1693 
 
 Lamps first erected in the city .... 1698 
 Infirraary, Jervisstreet, founded . . . . 1728 
 
 Parliament-house began 1729 
 
 FoundUng hospital incorporated . . . . 1739 
 St. Patrick's spire erected (see St. Patrick) . 1749 
 Royal DubUn Society originated, 1731 ; incor- 
 porated 4 . „ 
 
 Lock hospital opened 1758 
 
 Hibernian society 1765 
 
 Marine society 1766 
 
 Queen's bridge first erected, 1684 ; destroyed 
 
 by a flood, 1763 ; rebuilt 1768 
 
 Act for a general pavement of the city . .1773 
 Eoyal exchange begun, 1769 ; opened . . . 1779 
 Order of St. Patrick instituted . . . .1783 
 Bank of Ireland instituted (see .Ba?i*) . . . ,, 
 PoUce established by statute .... 1786 
 
 Boyal academy incorporated ,, 
 
 Cu.stom house begun, 1781; opened . . . 1791 
 
 Dubin library instituted „ 
 
 Fu'e at the parhament house , . . .1792 
 
 Carlisle bridge erected i794 
 
 City armed association 1796 
 
 New law courts opened ,, 
 
 The rebellion ; arrest of lord Edward Fitzgerald, 
 
 in Thomas-street .... May 19, 1798 
 Union with England (see Union) . Jan. i, 1801 
 Emmett's insurrection . . . July 23, 1803 
 Hibernian Bible society 1806 
 
 Bank transferred to CoUege-green 
 
 Dublin institution founded . 
 
 Riot at the theatre 
 
 Visit of George IV. 
 
 The " Bottle conspiracy " . 
 
 Hibernian academy 
 
 Dublin lighted with gas 
 
 Dec. 16, 
 Aug. 12, 
 Dec. 14, 
 Aug. 16, 
 Oct. 5, 
 
 Rd. Whately made archbishop (very active in 
 
 education) . . . . . 
 
 Great custom-house fire . . Aug. 9, 
 
 Railroad to Kingstown . . . Aug. 17, 
 British Association meet here . Aug. 6, 
 Dublin new police act . . . July 4, 
 Cemetery/Mount Jerome, consecrated, Sept. 19, 
 Royal arcade burnt . . . April 25, 
 
 Poor-law bill passed .... July 31, 
 Awful storm raged .... Jan. 6, 
 
 O'Connell's arrest (see Triah) . . Oct. 14, 
 He is found guilty . . . Feb. 12, 
 
 His death at Genoa .... May 15, 
 Arrest of Mitchell, of the United Jrishmannews- 
 
 paper May 13, 
 
 State trial of Wm. Smith O'Brien and Meagher 
 
 in Dubhn May 15, 
 
 [These persons were afterwards tried at Clon- 
 
 mel, and found guilti/.] 
 
 Trial of Mitchell ; guilti/ . . . May 26, 
 
 Irish Felon newspaper first published July 1, 
 
 Nation and Irish Felon suppressed . July 29, 
 
 Conviction of O'Doherty . . . Nov. i, 
 
 The queen visits Dubhn . . . Aug. 6, 
 
 Royal exchange opened as a city hall, Sept. 30, 
 
 Dublin industrial exhibition, which owed its 
 
 existence to Mr. Dargan, who advanced 
 
 8o,ooo^ for the purpose, was erected by Mr. 
 
 (afterwards sir) John Benson, in the Dublin 
 
 society's grounds, near Merrion-square. It 
 
 consisted of one large and two smaller halls, 
 
 lighted from above. It was opened by earl 
 
 St. Germains, the lord-heutenant, May 12 ; 
 
 was visited by the queen and prince Albert, 
 
 Aug. 30; and closed on . . Nov. i. 
 
 Acts passed to estabhsh a national gallery, 
 
 museum, &c. . Aug. 10, 1854 ; and July 2, 
 
 Arrival of lord Eglinton — disgraceful contest 
 
 between the Trinity college students and the 
 
 police ; the latter severely blamed, March 12, 
 
 Demonstration at the funeral of the rebel 
 
 M'Manus Nov. 10-12, 
 
 Fine art exhibition proposed, July 20, i860; 
 opened by the lord-lieutenant, the earl of 
 Carhsle, May 24, i86i ; visited by the prince 
 of Wales, July i ; and by the queen and 
 prince consort .... Aug. 22, 
 National association for social science met, 
 
 Aug. 14-22, 
 Lord Rosse installed as chancellor of the uni- 
 versity Feb. 17, 
 
 Abp. Whately dies, Oct. 8 ; succeeded by Rd. 
 Chenevix 'Trench .... Nov. 
 Statue of OUver Goldsmith inaugurated by the 
 lord-heutenant, Jan. 5 ; who opens the 
 national gallery of Ireland . . Jan. 30, 
 New Richmond hospital, to be called the 
 "Carmichael School of Medicine," founded 
 (Mr. Carmichael, the surgeon, bequeathed 
 io,oooi. for the purpose) . . March 29, 
 Industrial exhibition opened by the lord chan- 
 cellor May 25, 
 
 The O'Connell monument founded . Aug. 8, 
 St. Patrick's cathedral restored by Mr. Guin- 
 ness ; re-opened .... Feb. 24, 
 
 1811 
 1814 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1825 
 
 1831 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 1838 
 1839 
 1843 
 1844 
 1847 
 
 1849 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 185s 
 
 1858 
 1861 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 1864 
 186s 
 
DUB 
 
 253 
 
 DUE 
 
 DUBLIN, continued. 
 
 The international exhibition opened by the 
 
 prince of Wales .... May g, 1865 
 
 The newspaper The Irish People seized, and ] 
 
 several Fenians taken in custody. (See 
 Fenians, and Ireland,.) . . . Sept. 15, 1863 
 International exhibition to be closed on Nov. 9, ,, 
 
 DUBLIN", Archbishopric of. It was united to Glendalagh in 1214. It is supposed that 
 the bishopric of Dublin was founded by St. Patrick, in 448. Gregory, bishop in 112 1, 
 became archbishop in 11 52. George Browne, an Augustine friar of London (deprived by 
 queen Mary in 1554), was the first Protestant archprelate of this see. Dublin has two 
 cathedrals, Christ Church, and St. Patrick's. The revenue was valued, in the king's books, 
 30 Hen. VIII, at 534^. 155. 2d. Irish. Kildare, on its last avoidance, was annexed to 
 Dublin, 1846. See bishops. 
 
 DUCAT, a coin so called because struck by dukes. Johnson. First coined by Longinus, 
 governor of Italy. Procopiiis. First struck in the duchy of Apulia, 1140. Du Cange. 
 Coined by Eobert, king of Sicily, in 1240. 
 
 DUELLING took its rise from the judicial combats of the Celtic nations. The first duel 
 in England, William count of Eu and Godfrey Baynard, took place 1096. Duelling in civil 
 matters was forbidden in France, 1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the chal- 
 lenge of Francis I. to the emperor Charles V. 1528. The fight with small swords was intro- 
 duced into England, 29 Eliz. 1587. Proclamation that no person should be pardoned who 
 killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II. 1679.* Duelling was checked in the army, 1792 ; 
 and has been almost abolished in England, by the influence of public opinion aided by the 
 prince consort. A society " for the discouraging of duelling " was established in 1845. See 
 Battel, Wager of, and Combat. 
 
 MEMORABLE DUELS. 
 
 Between the duke of Hamilton and lord 
 
 Mohun, fought .... Nov. 15, 
 [This duel was fought with small swords, in 
 
 Hyde-park. Lord Mohun was killed upon 
 
 the spot, and the duke expired of his wounds 
 
 as he was being carried to his coach. ] 
 Capt. Peppard and Mr. Hayes ; latter killed . 
 Messrs. Hamilton and Morgan ; former killed . 
 Mr. S. Martin and Mr. Wilkes, M.P. 
 Lord Townshend and lord Bellamont ; lord 
 
 BeUamont wounded . . . Feb. i, 
 The count d'Artois and the duke of Bourbon, 
 
 March 21, 
 Mr. Donovan and capt. Hanson ; the latter 
 
 killed Nov. 13, 
 
 Charles James Fox and Mr. Adam ; Mr. Fox 
 
 wounded Nov. 30, 
 
 Colonel FuUerton and lord Shelburne : the 
 
 latter wounded . . . March 22, 
 
 Eev. Mr. Allen and Lloyd Dulany ; the latter 
 
 killed .June 18, 
 
 Colonel Thomas, of the Guards, and colonel 
 
 Gordon ; colonel Thomas killed . Sept. 4, 
 Lord Macartney and major-gen. Stuart ; the 
 
 former wounded .... June 8, 
 
 Mr. Barrington and Mr. M'Kenzie ; the former 
 
 killed on the ground by general Gillespie, the 
 
 Second of the latter 
 
 Mr. M'Keon and George Nugent Reynolds ; the 
 
 latter murdered by the former . Jan. 31, 
 Mr. Purefoy and col. Eoper ; the latter killed, 
 
 Dec. 17, 
 Duke of York and col. Lenox, afterwards duke 
 
 of Richmond (for an insignificant cause), 
 
 May 27, 
 Sir George Ramsay and captain Macrea ; sir 
 
 George killed 
 
 Mr. Curran and major Hobart . . April i, 
 Mr. Macduff and Mr. Prince ; latter killed, 
 
 June 4, 
 
 1728 
 1748 
 1763 
 
 1773 
 
 1778 
 
 1779 
 
 1780 
 1782 
 1783 
 1786 
 
 Mr. Harvey Aston and lieut. Fitzgerald ; the 
 
 former severely wounded . . June 25, 1790 
 Mr. Stevens and Mr. Anderson ; the former 
 
 killed Sept. 20, ,, 
 
 Mr. Graham and Mr. Julius ; the former killed, 
 
 July 19, 1791 
 Mr. John Kemble and Mr. Aiken ; no fatahty, 
 
 March i, 1792 
 Earl of Lonsdale and captain Cuthbert ; no 
 
 fatality June 9, ,, 
 
 M. de Chauvigny and Mr. Lameth ; the latter 
 
 wounded Nov. 8, „ 
 
 Mr. Carpenter and Mr. Pride ; the f oi-mer killed, 
 
 Aug. 20, 1796 
 Lord Norbury and Mr. Napper Tandy ; an affair, 
 
 no meeting ..... Aug. 21, ,, 
 Lord Valentia and Mr. Gawler ; the former 
 
 wounded June 28, 1798 
 
 Wm. Pitt and George Tierney . . May 27, ,, 
 Isaac Corry and Henry Grattan . Jan. 15, 1800 
 Lieut. Willis and major Impey ; the major 
 
 killed Aug. 26, 1801 
 
 Rt. hon. George Ogle and Bernard Coyle, 8 
 
 shots; no fatality 1802 
 
 Sir Richard Musgrave and Mr. Todd Jones ; sir 
 
 Richard wounded .... June 8, „ 
 Colonel Montgomery and captain Mac Namara ; 
 
 the former killed . . . . April 6, 1803 
 General Hamilton and colonel Aaron Burr ; 
 
 the general killed, greatly lamented (in 
 
 America) 1804 
 
 Lord Camelford and captain Best ; lord Camel- 
 ford killed .... March 10, „ 
 Surgeon Fisher and lieut. Torrens ; the latter 
 
 killed March 22, 1806 
 
 Baron Hompesch and Mr. Richardson ; the 
 
 latter severely wounded . . Sept. 21, ,, 
 
 Sir Francis Biu-dett and Mr. PauU ; the former 
 
 wounded May 5, 1807 
 
 Mr. Alcock and Mr. Colclough ; the latter killed ; 
 
 the survivor lost his reason . June 8, „ 
 
 * " As many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand climacteric. " Sir J. 
 Barrington. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded ; 
 in three of these cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sentence of 
 the law. Hamilton. 
 
DUE 
 
 254 
 
 DUM 
 
 DUELLING, continued. 
 
 M. de Granpree and M. Le Pique, in balloons, 
 near Paris, and the latter killed . May 3, 1808 
 
 Major Campbell and captain Boyd ; latter 
 murdered (former hanged, Oct. 2, 1808), 
 
 June 23, ,, 
 
 Lord Paget and captain Cadogaa ; neither 
 wounded May 30, 1809 
 
 Lord Castlereagh and Mr. George Canning ; the 
 latter wounded .... Sept. 22, ,, 
 
 Mr. George Payne and Mr. Clarke ; the former 
 killed Sept. 6, 1810 
 
 Captain Boardman and ensign de Balton ; the 
 former killed .... March 4, 1811 
 
 Lieut. Stewart and lieut. Bagnal ; the latter 
 mortally wounded .... Oct. 7, 1812 
 
 Mr. Edward Maguire and lieut. Blundell ; the 
 latter killed July 9, 1813 
 
 Mr. Hatchell and Mr. Morley . . Feb. 12, 1814 
 
 Captain Stackpole (of " Statira " frigate) and 
 lieut. Cecil ; the captain kiUed (arose on ac- 
 count of words spoken four years previously), 
 
 April, „ 
 
 Mr. D. O'Connell and Mr. D'Esterre ; Mr. DEs- 
 terre killed Feb. i, 1815 
 
 Colonel Quentin and colonel Palmer Feb. 7, ,, 
 
 Mr. O'Connell and Mr. Peel ; an affair, no meet- 
 ing Aug. 31, „ 
 
 Major Greene and Mr. Price, in America ; the 
 latter killed, gieatly lamented . . . 1816 
 
 Captain Fottrell and colonel Boss ; 5 shots each, 
 but no fatality .... Dec. 1817 
 
 Lieut. Hindes and lieut. GUbert Conroy ; the 
 former killed March 6, ,, 
 
 Mr. John Sutton and major Lockyer ; the 
 former killed .... Dec. lo, „ 
 
 Mr. O'CaUaghan and lieut. Bayley ; the latter 
 killed Jan. 12, 1818 
 
 Mr. Grattan and the earl of Clare . June 7, 1820 
 
 Mr. Henshaw and Mr. Hartinger ; both despe- 
 rately wounded .... Sept. 18, ,, 
 
 Mr. Scott and Mr. Christie ; the former killed, 
 
 Feb. 16, 1821 
 
 M. Manuel and Mr. Beaumont . . April 9, ,, 
 
 Sir Alexander BosweU and Mr. James Stuart ; 
 the former killed . . . March 26, 1822 
 
 The duke of Buckingham and the duke of 
 Bedford ; no fatalitj- . . . May 2, „ 
 
 General P6p6 and general Carascosa ; the latter 
 wounded Feb. 28, 1823 
 
 Mr. Westall and captain Gourlay ; the latter 
 kiUed 1824 
 
 Mr. Beamont and Mr. Lambton . July i, 1826 
 
 Mr. Brie, barrister, and Mr. Hayes ; the former 
 killed Dec. 26, „ 
 
 Rev. Mr. Hodson and Mr. Grady; the latter 
 wounded Aug. 1827 
 
 Major Edgeworth and Mr. Henry Grattan ; an 
 affair, and no meeting .... Sept. „ 
 
 Mr. Long Wellesley and Mr. Crespigny ; neither 
 wounded 1828 
 
 Duke of Wellington and the earl of Winchilsea ; 
 no injury ..... March 21, 1829 
 
 Lieut. Crowther and captain Helsham ; the 
 former killed April i, „ 
 
 Mr. William Lambrecht and Mr. Oliver Clayton ; 
 the latter killed .... Jan. 8, 1830 
 
 Captain Smith and Mr. O'Grady ; the latter 
 killed March 18, „ 
 
 Mr. Storey and Mr. Mathias ; the latter wounded 
 
 Jan. 22, 1833 
 
 Mr. Maher and Mr. CoUes . . Jan. 22, „ 
 
 Sir John W. Jeffcott and Dr. Hennis ; the latter 
 mortally wounded, and died on the i8th. 
 
 May 10, „ 
 
 Charles Wellesley Ashe and sir Charles Hamp- 
 ton Sept. II, 1834 
 
 Lord Alvanley and Mr. Morgan O'Connell ; 2 
 shots each May 4, 1835 
 
 Sir Colquhoun Grant and lord Seymour ; no 
 fatality May 29, ,, 
 
 Mr. Roebuck, M.P., and Mr. Black, editor of 
 the Morning Chronicle ; 2 shots each Nov. 19, „ 
 
 Mr. Ruthven and Mr. Scott ; and Mr. Riithven 
 and Mr. Close (Mr. Scott's second) ; the latter 
 wounded May 23, 1836 
 
 The earl of Cardigan and captain Tuckett, nth 
 regt. ; 2 shots each ; the latter wounded (for 
 this the earl was tried in the house of lords 
 and acquitted, Feb. 16, 1841) . Sept. 12, 1840 
 
 Captain Boldero and hon. Craven Berkeley ; no 
 fatality JiUy 15, 1842 
 
 Colonel Fawcett and captain Muuroe ; former 
 killed July i, 1843 
 
 Lieut. Seton and lieut. Hawkey : the former 
 killed May 20, 1845 
 
 Due de Grammont Caderousse kills Mr. Dil- 
 lon at Paris, for a newspaper attack . Oct. 1862 
 
 DUKE, Latin dux, a title first given to generals of armies. In England, during Saxon 
 times, the commanders of armies were called dukes, duces. Camden. In Genesis xxxvi. 
 some of Esau's descendants are termed dukes. Duke-duke was a title given to the house of 
 Sylvia, in Spain, on account of its possessing many duchies. 
 
 Edward the Black Prince made duke of Corn- 
 wall 1337 
 
 Robert de Vere was created marquess of Dub- 
 lin and duke of Ireland, 9 Rich. II. . . . 1385 
 
 Robert III. created David, prince of Scotland, 
 
 duke of Rothesay, a title which afterwards 
 belonged to the king's eldest son, 1398, and 
 is now borne by the piince of 'Wales. 
 Cosmo de Medici created grand-duke of Tus- 
 cany, the first of the rank, by pope Pixis V. . 1569 
 
 DULWICH COLLEGE (Surrey), called God's-gift College, founded by Edward AUeyn, 
 an eminent comedian, was completed and solemnly opened Sept. 13, 16 19. Alleyn was its 
 first master, and died in 1626. A fine gallery to contain the Bourgeois collection of picture.s, 
 bequeathed by sir Francis Bourgeois, was annexed in 1813. In 1857, an act was passed by 
 wliich the college was reconstituted. Two schools were establi.shed ; and the number of 
 the almspeople increased. In i860 the annual income was 11,482?. 
 
 DUMB. See Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 DUMBLANE ok Dunblane (Perth), near which took place a conflict called the battle 
 of Sheriffmuir, between the royalist anny and the Scots rebels, the former commanded by 
 the duke of Ai'gyle, and the latter by the earl of Mar, Nov. 13, 1715. Both sides claimed 
 the victory. 
 
DUN 255 DUE, 
 
 DUNBAR (Haddington). Here the Scottish army and John Baliol were defeated by the 
 earl of "Warrenne, and Scotland was subdued, April 27, 1296. Here also Cromwell obtained 
 a signal victory over the Scots, in arms for Charles II., Sept. 3, 1650. 
 
 DUNCIAD, the celebrated satirical poem by Alexander Pope, was published in 1728. 
 
 DUNDALK (Louth, Ireland). In 13 18, at Foughard near this place, was defeated and 
 slain Edward Bruce, who had invaded Ireland in 1315. The walls and fortifications of 
 Dundalk were destroyed in 1641. It was taken by Cromwell in 1649. The first cambric 
 manufacture in Ireland was established in this town by artisans from France in 1727. 
 
 DUNDEE (E. Scotland), on the Tay. The site was given by William the Lion (reigned 
 I165 — 1214), to his brother David, earl of Huntingdon, who built or strengthened the 
 castle, and erected a large church, the tower of which, 156 feet high, still remains. The 
 town was taken by the English in 1385 ; pillaged by Montrose, 1645 ! stormed by Monk in 
 1651 ; and was visited by queen Victoria in 1844. It has thriven since 1815, through its 
 extensive linen manufactories ; at one of these (Edwards's) a steam explosion took place on 
 April 15, 1859, when twenty persons were killed. Claverhouse, viscount Dundee (killed 
 1689), had a house here. The Baxter park, the gift of sir David Baxter, was opened by 
 earl Russell, Sept. 9, 1863. Population in 1861, 90,425. 
 
 DUNGAN-HILL (Ireland). Here the English army, commanded by colonel Jones, 
 signally defeated the Irish, of whom 6000 are said to have been slain, while the loss on the 
 side of the English was inconsiderable, July 10, 1647. 
 
 DUNKELD (Perthshire) was made a bishopric by David I. in 1127 ; the ancient Culdee 
 church, founded by king Constantine III., becoming the cathedral. The beautiful bridge 
 over the Tay, erected by Thos. Telford, was opened in 1809. 
 
 DUNKIRK (N. France), founded in the 7th century, was taken from the Spaniards by 
 the English and French, and put into the hands of the English, June 1658. It was sold by 
 Charles II. for 500,000^. to Louis XIV., Oct. 17, 1662. Dunkiz'k was one of the best 
 fortified ports in the kingdom ; but aU the works were demolished in conformity with the 
 treaty of Utrecht in 1713. The French resumed the works, but they were ordered to be 
 demolished at the peace of 1763 ; in 1783 they were again resumed. The English attempted 
 to besiege this place ; but the duke of York, who commanded, was defeated by Hoche, and 
 forced to retire with loss, Sept. 7, 1793. It was made a free port in 1816. 
 
 DUNMOW (Essex), famous for the tenure of the manor (made by Robert Fitz-Walter, 
 1244), "that whatever married couple will go to the priory, and kneeling on two sharp- 
 pointed stones, will swear that they have not quarrelled nor repented of their marriage 
 within a year and a day after its celebration, shall receive a flitch of bacon." * 
 
 DUNSINANE (Perthshire). On the hill was fought the battle between Macbeth the 
 thane of Glammis, and Siward, earl of Northumberland, 1054. Edward the Confessor had 
 sent Siward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father Duncan, the thane and usurper had 
 murdered. Macbeth was defeated, and it was said was pursued to Lumphanan, in Aberdeen- 
 shire, and there slain, 1056. 
 
 DUPPEL or Dybbol. See under Denmark, 1864. 
 
 DUPPLIN (Perthshire). Here Edward Baliol and his English allies totally defeated the 
 Scots under the earl of Mar, Aug. 11/ 1332, and obtained the crown for three months. 
 
 DURBAR, an East Indian terra for an audience-chamber or reception. On Oct. 18, 
 1864, a most remarkable durbar was held at Lahore by the viceroy of India, sir John Law- 
 rence, at which 604 of the most illustrious princes and chieftains of the north-west province, 
 were present, magnificently clothed. 
 
 DURHAM, an ancient city, the Bunliolmc of the Saxons, and Burtma of the Normans, 
 The BISHOPRIC was removed to Durham from Chester-le-street in 995 ; whither ithad been 
 transferred from Lindisfarne or Holy Island, on the coast of Northumberland, in 634, in 
 
 * Tte earliest recorded claim for the bacon was in 1445, since -when to 1855 it had only been demanded 
 five times. The last claimants previous to 1855 were John Shakeshanks and his wife, who established their 
 right to it, J\me 20, 1751 ; they made a large sum by selling slices of the flitch to those who were witnesses 
 of the ceremony, there being 5000 persons present. The claim was revived on July 19, 1855, when flitches 
 were awarded to Mr. and Mrs. Barlow, of Chipping- Ongar, and the ChevaUer Chatelaine and his lady._ Ihe 
 lord of the manor opposed the revival, but Mr. W. Harrison Ainsworth, the novelist and some friends, 
 defrayed the expense, and superintended the ceremonials. Endeavours have been made to perpetuate the 
 custom. A flitch was awarded in i860. 
 
DUR 
 
 256 
 
 DYE 
 
 consequence of the invasion of tlie Danes. The bones of St. Cuthbert, the sixth bishop, 
 were brought from Lindisfarne, and interred in Durham cathedral. The palatine privileges, 
 granted to the bishop by the Danish Northumbrian prince Guthrum, were taken by the 
 crown in June 1836. Durham was ravaged by Malcolm of Scotland in 1070, and was occu- 
 pied by the Northumbrian rebels in 1569 ; and by the Scots in 1640. In 1650 Cromwell 
 quartered his Scotch prisoners in the cathedral. Near Durham on Oct. 17, 1346, was 
 fought the decisive battle of Neville's cross {tohich see). This see, deemed the richest m 
 England, was valued in the king's books at 282 iZ. Present income, 8ooo?. The college, 
 founded in 1290, was abolished at the Reformation. In 1657 Cromwell established a coUege, 
 which was suppressed at the Restoration. The present Universitij was established in 183 1, 
 opened in 1833, and chartered in 1837. Certain reformed ordinances, recommended by a 
 commission, were set aside in 1863. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OF DURHAM. 
 
 1791. Hon. Shute Barrington, died in 1826. 
 
 1826. Wm. Van Mildert (the last prince-bishop), died 
 
 Feb. 21, 1836. 
 1836. Edward Maltby, resigned in 1856; died July 3, 
 
 1859, aged 90. 
 
 1856. Charles Thomas Longley, became abp. of York, 
 
 May, i860. 
 i860. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers (trans, from Carlisle), 
 
 died Aug. 10, 1861. 
 1861. Charles Baring (present bishop). 
 
 DURHAM LETTER. See Papal Aggression. 
 
 DUTCH REPUBLIC. See Holland. 
 
 DUUMVIRI, two Roman patricians appointed by Tarquin the Proud 520 B.C. to take 
 care of the books of the Sibyls, which were supposed to contain the fate of the Roman empire. 
 The books were placed in the Capitol, and secured in a chest under the ground. The number 
 of keepers was increased to ten (the Decemviri) 365 B.C., afterwards to fifteen ; the added 
 five called quinque viri. 
 
 DWARFS: Ancient. Philetas of Cos, distinguished about 330 B.C., as a poet and 
 grammarian, was so diminutive that he always carried leaden weights in his pockets, to 
 prevent his being blown away by the wind. He was preceptor to Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
 Julian. Julia, niece of Augustus, had a dwarf named Coropas, two feet and a hand's breadth 
 high ; and Andromeda, a freed-maid of Julia's, was of the same height. Pliny. Aug. 
 Csesar exhibited in his plays a man not two feet in stature. Sueton. Alypius of Alexandria, 
 a logician and philosopher, was but one foot five inches and a half high ; "he seemed to be 
 consumed into a kind of divine nature." Vos. Instit. 
 
 Modern Dwarfs. — John d'Estrix, of Mechlin, was 
 brought to the duke of Parma, in 1592, when he 
 was 35 years of age, having a long beard. He was 
 skilled in languages, and not more than three feet 
 high. 
 
 Jeffrey Hudson, an English dwarf, when a youth of 
 18 inches high, was served up to table in a cold 
 pie, before the king and queen, by the duchess of 
 Buckingham, in 1626. He challenged Mr. Crofts, 
 who had offended him, to fight a duel, but the 
 latter came to the ground armed only with a squirt , 
 This led to another meeting, when the dwarf shot 
 his antagonist dead, 1653. 
 
 Count Borowlaski, a Polish gentleman, of great ac- 
 complishments and elegant manners, well known 
 
 in England, where he resided many years, was 
 born in Nov. 1739. His growth was at one year 
 of age, 14 inches ; at six, 17 inches ; at twenty, 33 
 inches ; and at thirty, 39. He had a sister, named 
 Anastasia, seven years younger than himself, and 
 £0 much shorter that she could stand under his 
 arm. He visited many of the courts of E\u-ope, 
 and died in England, at the great age of 98, in 1837. 
 Charles Stratton (termed geueral Tom Thumb), an 
 American, was exhibited in England, 1846. In 
 Feb. 1863, in New York, when 25 years old and 31 
 inches high, he married Lavinia Warren, aged 21, 
 32 inches high. He, his wife, and child, and com- 
 modore Nutt, another dwarf, came to England in 
 Dec. 1864, and remained ttiere some time. 
 
 DYEING is attributed to the Tyrians, about 1500 B.C. The English sent their goods to 
 be dyed in Holland, till the art was brought to them in 1608. "Two dyers of Exeter were 
 flogged for teaching their art in the north " (of England), 1628. A statute against abuses in 
 dyeing passed in 1783. The art has been greatly improved by chemical research. A dis- 
 covery of Dr. Stenhouse in 1848, led to M. Mamas procuring mauve from lichens ; and Dr. 
 Hofmann's production of aniline from coal-tar, has led to the invention of a number of 
 "beautiful dyes (mauve, magenta red, &c.). Sgq Aniline. 
 
EAG 
 
 257 
 
 EAR 
 
 E. 
 
 EAGLE, an ancient coin of Ireland, made of a base metal, and current in the first years 
 of Edward I. about 1272 ; was so named from the figure impressed upon it. The American 
 gold coinage of eagles, half eagles, and quarter eagles, began Dec. 6, 1792 ; an eagle is of the 
 value of 10 dollars, or about two guineas. — The standard of the eagle was borne by the Per- 
 sians, at Cunaxa, 401 B.C. The Romans carried gold and silver eagles as ensigns, and some- 
 times represented them with a thunderbolt in their talons, on the point of a spear, 102 
 B.C. Charlemagne added the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the 
 empires of Rome and Germany were united in him, a.d. 802. The eagle was the standard 
 of N'apoleon I., and is that of Napoleon III. ; as well as of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. — 
 The White Eagle, an order of knighthood, was instituted in 1325, by Uladislaus, king of 
 Poland ; that of the Black Eagle in 1701, by the elector of Brandenburg, Frederick I., on 
 his being crowned king of Prussia ; and that of the Red Eagle in 1705 and 17 12 by George, 
 prince of Bi*audenburg-Anspach. 
 
 EAEL, or comes, introduced at the conquest, superseded the Saxon earldorman, and con- 
 tinued the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes in 1337 and 1351, and 
 Richard II. created marquesses (1385), both above earls. Alfred used the title of earl as a 
 substitute for king. William Eitz-Osborn was made earl of Hereford by William the 
 Conqueror, 1066. Gilchrist was created earl of Angus, in Scotland, by king Malcolm III. 
 in 1037. Sir John de Courcy created baron of Kiusale and earl of Ulster in Ireland, by 
 Henry II. 1181. 
 
 Earl Maeischal of Scotland was an officer who 
 commanded the cavalry, whereas the constable 
 commanded the whole army ; but they seem to 
 have had a jomt command, as all orders were ad- 
 dressed to "our constable and marlschal." The 
 office was never out of the Keith family. It was 
 reserved at the Union, and when the heritable 
 jurisdictions were bought, it reverted to the 
 crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of George 
 Keith, earl marischal, in 1715. 
 
 Earl Marshal of England, the eighth great officer 
 of state. This office, until it was made hereditary, 
 always passed by grant from the king. Gilbert de 
 Clare was created lord marshal by king Stephen, 
 1135. The last lord marshal was John Fitz-Allan, 
 lord Maltravers, Camden. Richard II. in 1397 
 granted letters patent to the earl of Nottingham 
 by the style of earl marshal. In 1672, Charles II. 
 granted to Henry lord Howard the dignity of 
 hereditary earl marshal. The earl marshal's court 
 was abolished in 1641. (See Howard.) 
 
 EAREINGS were worn by Jacob's children, 1732 B.C. {Gen. xxxv. 4). 
 
 EAETH. See Glohe. EARTHENWARE. See Potterij. 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were produced by subter- 
 raneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the vaults that confined them, 435 
 B.C. Diog. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes, and others, supposed that there were many vast 
 cavities under groiind which have a communication with each other, some of which abound 
 with waters, others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitumen, 
 sidphur, &c. Dr. Stukeley and Dr. Priestley attributed earthquakes to electricity. It 
 appears probable that steam generated by subterraneous heat contributes to occasion them. 
 An elaborate Catalogue of Earthquakes, with commentaries on the phenomena, by R. and J. 
 W. Mallet, was published by the British Association in 1858-9. In i860 the velocity of 
 then- propagation was estimated by Mr. J. Brown at between 470 and 530 feet per second. 
 The following are quoted from the best sources :* 
 
 One which made Eubcea an island . . B.C. 425 
 Ellice and Bula in Peloponnesus swallowed up 372 
 One at Rome, when, in obedience to an oracle, 
 M. Curtius, armed and mounted on a stately 
 horse, leaped into the dreadful chasm it oc- 
 casioned (Zivy) 358 
 
 Duras, in Greece, buried, with all its inhabi- 
 tants ; and 12 cities in Campania also buried 345 
 
 Lysimachia and its inhabitants totally buried B.C. 283 
 Ephesus and other cities overturned . a.d. 17 
 One accompanied by the eruption of Vesuvius ; 
 the cities of Pompeii and Hercvilaneum 
 
 buried 79 
 
 Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, and two in 
 
 Galatia overturned . . ... 107 
 Antioch destroyed 115 
 
 * Mrs. SomerviUe states that about 255 earthquakes have occurred in the British isles ; all slight. To 
 avoid the effects of a .shock predicted by a madman, for the 8th of April, 1750, thousands of persons, 
 particularly those of rank and fortune, passed the night on the 7th in their carriages and in tents in 
 Hyde-park. 
 
 S 
 
EAR 
 
 258 
 
 EAR 
 
 EARTHQUAKES, continued. 
 
 Nicomedia, Cajsarea, and Nicea overturned a.d. 126 
 In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 cities and 
 towns damaged . . . . . . 357 
 
 Nicomedia again demolished, and its inhabi- 
 tants buried in its ruins 358 
 
 One felt by nearly the whole world . . . 543 
 At Constantinople ; its edifices destroyed, and 
 
 thousands perished 557 
 
 In Africa ; many cities overturned . . . 560 
 Awful one in SjTia, Palestine, and Asia ; more 
 than 500 towns were destroyed, and the loss 
 of life surpassed all calculation . . . . 742 
 In France, Gei-many, and Italy .... 801 
 Constantinople overturned ; all Greece shaken 936 
 One felt throughovit England . . . . 1089 
 One at Antioch ; many towns destroyed, among 
 
 them Mariseum and Mamistria . . .1114 
 Catania, in Sicily, overturned, and 15,000 per- 
 sons buried in the laiins 1137 
 
 One severely felt at Lincoln . . . .1142 
 At Calabria ; one of its cities and all its hihabi- 
 
 tants overwhelmed in the Adriatic sea . . 1186 
 One again felt throughout England; Glaston- 
 bury destroyed 1274 
 
 In England ; the greatest known there, 
 
 Nov. 14, 1318 
 At Naples ; 40,000 persons perished . . . 1456 
 At Lisbon ; 1500 houses and 30,000 persons 
 buried in the ruins ; several neighbouring 
 towns engulfed with their inhabitants Feb. 1531 
 One felt in London ; part of St. Paul's and the 
 
 Temple churches fell 1580 
 
 In Japan ; several cities made ruins, and thou- 
 sands perish 1596 
 
 Awful one at Calabria 1638 
 
 One in China, when 300,000 persons were buried 
 in Pekin alone ....... 1662 
 
 One severely felt in Ireland .... 1690 
 
 One at Jamaica, which totally destroyed Port 
 Royal, whose houses were engulfed 40 fathoms 
 deep, and 300 persons peri.shed . . . . 1692 
 
 One in Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and 
 
 towns, and 300 villages. Of Catania and its 
 
 18,000 inhabitants, not a trace remained ; 
 
 more than 100,000 lives were lost . Sept. 1693 
 
 Palermo nearly destroyed ; 6000 lives lost ., 1726 
 
 Again in China ; and loo.ooo people swallowed' 
 
 up at Pekin 1731 
 
 In Hungary ; a mountain turned round . . 1736 
 One at Palermo, which swallowed up a con- 
 vent ; but the monks escaped . . . . 1740 
 Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 persons 
 
 buried in the ruins . . . Oct. 28, 1746 
 In London, a slight shock, Feb. 8 ; but severer 
 
 shock March 8, 1750 
 
 Adrianople nearly overwhelmed . . . 1752 
 
 At Grand Cairo ; half of the houses and 40,000 
 
 persons swallowed up 1754 
 
 Quito destroyed April, 1755 
 
 Great earthquake at Lisbon'. In about eight 
 minutes most of the houses and tipwards of 
 50,000 inhabitants were swallowed up, and 
 whole streets buried. The cities of Coimbra, 
 Oporto, and Braga, suffered dreadfully, and 
 St. Ubes was wholly overturned. In Spain, 
 a large part of Malaga became ruins. One 
 half of Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and 
 more than 12,000 Arabs perished there. 
 Above half of the island of Madeira became 
 waste ; and 2000 houses in the island of Mete- 
 line, in the Archipelago, were overthrown. 
 This awful earthquake extended 5000 miles ; 
 even to Scotland .... Nov. i, „ 
 In Syria, extended over 10,000 square miles ; 
 
 Balbec destroyed 1759 
 
 At Martinico ; i6oo persons lost their lives, 
 
 Aug. 1767 
 At Guatemala, which, with 8000 inhabitants, 
 
 was swallowed up . . . . July 7, 1773 
 A destructive one at Smyrna , , . . 1778 
 
 At Tauris ; 15,000 houses thrown down, and 
 
 multitudes buried . . . . a.d. 1780 
 
 Messina and other towns in Italy and Sicily 
 
 overthrown ; 40,000 persons perished Feb. 5, 1783 
 Archindschan wholly destroyed, and 12,000 per- 
 sons buried in its ruins 1784 
 
 At Borgo di San Sepolcro ; many houses and 
 looo persons swallowed up . . Sept. 30, 1789. 
 
 Another fatal one in Sicily 1791 
 
 In Naples ; Vesuvius overwhelmed the city of 
 
 Torre del Greco .... June, 1794 
 In Turkey, where, in thi'ee towns, 10,000 per- 
 sons lost their hves ,> 
 
 The whole country between Santa Fe and 
 Panama destroyed, including Cusco and 
 Quito ; 40,000 people buried in one second, 
 
 Feb. 4 to 20, 1797 
 At Constantinople, which destroyed the royal 
 palace and an immensity of buildings, and 
 extended into Eomania and Wallachia, 
 
 Sept. 26, 1800 
 A violent one felt in Holland . . . Jan. 1804 
 At Frosolone, Naples ; 6000 Hves lost July 26,. 1805 
 At the Azores ; a village of St. Michael's sunk, 
 and a lake of boiling water appeared in its 
 
 place Aug. 11, 1810 
 
 Awful one at Caracas (w7«'cA see) . March 26, 1812 
 Several throughout India ; district of Kutch 
 
 sunk ; 2000 persons buried . . June, 181^ 
 Genoa, Palei-mo, Rome, and many other towns 
 
 gieatly damaged ; thousands perish . . . ,, 
 One in Calabria and Sicily .... Oct. 1826 
 In Spain ; Mercia and numerous vill.ages devas- 
 tated ; 6000 persons perish . March 21, 1825 
 In tlie duchy of Parma ; no less than 40 shocks 
 were experienced at Borgotaro ; and at 
 Pontremoli many houses were thrown down, 
 and not a chimney was left standing, 
 
 Feb. 14, 1834 
 In Calabria, Cosenza and villages destroyed ; 
 
 1000 persons buried . . . April 29, 1835 
 In Calabria; 1000 buried at Rossano, &c., Oct. 12, 1836 
 In many cities of Southern Syiia, by which 
 hundreds of houses were thrown down, and 
 thousands of hves lost .... Dec. „ 
 At Martinique ; nearly half of Port Royal de- 
 stroyed ; nearly 700 persons killed, and the 
 whole island damaged . . Jan. 11, 1839 
 
 At Ternate ; the island made a waste, and 
 
 thousands of Uves lost . . . Feb. 14, 1840 
 Awful and destructive earthquake at mount 
 Ararat, in one of the districts of Armenia ; 
 3137 houses were overthrown, and several 
 hundred persons perished . . July 2, ,, 
 Great earthquake at Zante, where many per- 
 sons perished .... Oct. 30, „ 
 At Cape Haytien, St. Domuigo, which destroyed 
 nearlj' two-thirds of the town ; between 4000 
 and 5000 lives were lost . . . May 7, 1842 
 At Point a Pitre, Guadaloupe, which was en- 
 tirely destroyed .... Feb. 8, 1843 
 At Rhodes and Macri, when a mountain fell in 
 at the latter place, crushing a village, and 
 destroying 600 persons . . . March, 1851 
 At Valparaiso, where more than 400 houses 
 
 were destroyed .... April 2, „ 
 
 In South Italy ; Melfi almost laid in ruins ; 
 
 14,000 lives lost .... Aug. 14, „ 
 At Philippine isles ; Manilla nearly destroyed, 
 
 Sept. and Oct. 1852 
 In N.W. of England, slight . . Nov. 9, ,, 
 Thebes, in Greece, nearly destroyed . Sept. 1853 
 St. Salvador, S. America, destroyed April 16, 1854 
 Anasaca, in Japan, and Simoda, in Niphon, 
 
 desti-oyed ; Jeddo much injured . Dec. 23, ,, 
 Broussa, in Turkey, nearly destroyed Feb. 28, 1855 
 Several villages in Central Europe destroyed, 
 
 July 25, 26, ,, 
 Jeddo nearly destroyed . . . Nov. 11, ,, 
 At the island of Great Sanger, one of the 
 
EAR 
 
 259 
 
 EAS 
 
 EARTHQUAKES, continued. 
 
 Moluccas, volcanic eruption and earthquake; 
 
 nearly 3000 lives lost . . . March 12, 
 In the Mediterranean : at Candia, 500 Uves lost ; 
 
 Ehodes, 100 ; and other islands, 150 Oct. 12, 
 In Calabria,* Montemurro and many other 
 
 towns destroyed, and about 22,000 lives lost 
 
 in a few seconds .... Dec. 16, 
 Corinth nearly destroyed . . . Feb. 21, 
 At Quito ; about 5000 persons killed, and an 
 
 immense amoimt of property destroyed, 
 
 March 21, 
 At Erzeroum, Asia Minor ; above 1000 persons 
 
 said to have perished . . . June 2, 
 At San Salvador ; many buildings destroyed, 
 
 no lives lost Deo. S, 
 
 In Cornwall, slight, . Oct. 21, 1859 ; Jan. 13, 
 At Perugia, Italy ; several lives lost . May 8, 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 At Mendoza, South America : about two-thirds 
 of the city and 7000 lives lost . March 20, i86r 
 
 In Greece; N. Morea, Corinth, and other places 
 injured Dec. 26, ,, 
 
 Guatemala ; 150 buildings and 14 churches de- 
 stroyed Dec. 19, 1862 
 
 Ehodes ; 13 villages destroyed, about 300 per- 
 sons perished, and much cattle and property 
 lost April 22, 1863 
 
 Manilla, Philippine isles ; immense destruction 
 of property ; about 10,000 persons perish, 
 
 June 3, ,, 
 
 Central, west, and north-west of England, at 
 
 3 7i. 22 ?)t. A.M. Oct. 6, ,, 
 
 At Macchia, Bendinella, &c., Sicily; 200 
 houses destroyed, 64 persons killed July 18, 1865 
 
 EAST ANGLES. This kingdom (the sixth of the Heptarchy) was commenced by UfFa, 
 575, and ended with Ethelbert in 792. See Britain. The ancient see founded by St. Felix, 
 who converted the East Angles in 630, was removed to Norwich {which see). 
 
 EAST INDIES, &c. See India. 
 
 EAST SAXONS. See Britain. 
 
 EASTER, the festival observed by the chi:rch in commemoration of Our Saviour's resur- 
 rection, so called in England from the Saxon goddess Eostre. It was instituted about 68, 
 and the day for its observance in England was fixed by St. Austin, in 597. After much 
 contention between the eastern and western chui'ches it was ordained by the council of Nice, 
 325, to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian world. " Easter-day 
 is the Sunday following that fourteenth day of the calendar moon which happens upon or 
 next after the 21st March : so that, if the said fourteenth day be a Sunday, Easter-day is 
 not that Sunday but the next." Easter-day may be any day of the five weeks A?hich com- 
 mence with March 22 and end with April 25. The dispute between the old British church 
 and the new Anglo-Saxon church respecting Easter was settled about 664. — Easter Sunday, 
 in 1866, April i ; in 1867, April 21 ; in 1868, April 12. 
 
 EASTER ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, was discovered by Davis in 1686 ; it was visited 
 by Roggewein, in 1 722, and from him obtained the name it now bears ; it was visited by 
 captain Cook, in 1774. At the south-east extremity is the crater of an extinguished volcano, 
 about two miles in circuit and 800 feet deep. 
 
 EASTERN (or GREEK) Chtjech. See Greek Church. 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE. After the death of the emperor Jovian, in Feb. 364, the generals 
 at Nice elected Valentinian as his successor : in June, he made his brother Valens emperor 
 of the "West. The eastern empire ended with the capture of Constantinople, and death of 
 Constantine XIIL, May 29, 1453. See Turkey. 
 
 Theodosius X. the Great, succours Valentinian 
 II. , the western emperor, and defeats the ty- 
 rant Maximus, at AquUeia 
 
 Valentinian II. slain by Arbogastes the Frank, 
 who makes Eugenius emperor 
 
 Eugenius defeated and slain by Theodosius, 
 who re-unites the two empires . Sept. 6, 
 
 Death of Theodosius ; the empire finally divided 
 between his sons — Arcadius receives the east, 
 Honorius the west . . . Jan. 17, 
 
 Alaric the Goth begins to ravage the empire . 
 
 Violent religious dissensions ; Theodosius II. 
 establishes schools, and endeavours to revive 
 learning 
 
 The Theodosian code promulgated 
 
 The councils of Ephesus, 431, 449; of Chalcedon, 
 
 Frequent sanguinary conflicts between the 
 Blues and Greens, circus factions, at Constan- 
 tinople 498 
 
 The Justinian code published . . ' . 
 
 War with Persia ; beginning of the victorious 
 
 career of BeUsarius, the imperial general . S29-53r 
 He suppresses the " Nika" (" conquer") insur- 
 rection of the circus factions ; 30,000 Greens 
 slain ......... 532 
 
 His victories in Africa, Italy, and the East . 533-541 
 Recalled through Justinian's jealousy, 542; 
 
 again, 548 ; again, 549 : disgraced . . . 562 
 Beginning of the Turkish power in Asia . . 545 
 The Slavonians ravage lUyria . . . . 551 
 
 Narses defeats Totila and the Goths near Borne 552 
 Death of Belisarius, aged 84 ; of Justinian, aged 
 
 83 
 
 565 
 
 Victories of Maurice and Narses in the East, 
 
 579 et seq. 
 
 Disaffection of Narses 591 
 
 Severe contests with the Avars . . 594-620 
 Narses burnt at Constantinople . . . . 6o5 
 The flight (Hejra) of Mahomet from Mecca to 
 Medina, where he establishes himself as a 
 prophet and prince . . . July 16, 622 
 Victorious career of Heraclius II. . 622 ei seq. 
 
 * In the course of 75 years, from 1783 to 1857, the kingdom of Naples lost, at least, 11 1,000 inhabitants 
 by the effects of earthquakes, or more than 1500 per year, out of an average population of 6,000,000 ! 
 
 s 2 
 
EAS 
 
 260 
 
 EAS 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE, continued. 
 
 He recovers his lost territories . . . 627 
 
 The Saracens invade the empire, 632 ; defeat 
 Heraclius at Aiznadin, 633 ; take Alexandria, 
 640 ; and the Greek provinces in Africa, 648 ; 
 Constans i)urchases peace with them . . 660 
 They besiege Constantinople seven times . 672-677 
 The Bulgarians establish a kingdom in Moesia 
 (now Bulgaria), 678 ; they ravage the country 
 
 up to Constantinople 711 
 
 The Saracens vainly invest Constantinople, 716, 
 
 718 ; defeated • . • • 720 
 
 Leo III. the Isaurian, forbids the worship of 
 
 images : (this leads to the Iconoclast' coiitro- 
 
 versy, and eventually to the separation of the 
 
 eastern and western churches) . ... 726 
 
 A great invading Aiab force (90,000) defeated 
 
 by Acronius 739 
 
 The monasteries dissolved 770 
 
 Destruction of images throughout the empire 
 
 decreed, 754 ; image-worship restored by the 
 
 empress Irene (for which she was canonized) 
 
 The empire loses the exarchate of Italy, 752 ; 
 
 Dalmatia, 825 ; Sicily and Crete 
 Image-worship persecuted, 830 ; restored, 842 ; 
 forbidden at Constantinople by one council, 
 
 86g ; restored by another 
 
 South Italy annexed to the empire . 
 
 Five emperors reigning at one time . . . 
 
 Naples added to the empire .... 
 
 Basil subdues the Bulgai-ians . . . 987, 
 
 Bulgaria annexed to the empire 
 
 The Turks invade Asia Minor . . . . 1068 
 
 The Normans conquer South Italy . . . 1080 
 
 The first crusade ; Alexis I. recovers Asia 
 
 Minor 1097 
 
 The Venetians victorious over the Greeks . 1125 
 
 The Hungarians repelled, 1152; xseace made 
 
 with the Normans in Sicily . . . . 1156 
 Wars with the Turks and the Venetians . . 1172 
 Cyprus lost to the empire . . ... 1190 
 The fotu'th crusade begins ..... 1202 
 Revolt of Alexis against his brother Isaac ; the 
 
 787 
 827 
 
 879 
 
 942 
 
 1014 
 1018 
 
 crusaders take Constantinople, and restore 
 Isaac and his son Alexis IV 1203 
 
 Alexis Ducas murders Alexis IV. and usurps the 
 throne ; the crusaders take Constantinople, 
 kill Alexis, and establish the Latin empire, 
 under Baldwin, count of Flanders . . 1204 
 
 Kingdom of Epirus and Jitolia established . 1208 
 
 The Greek empu-e re established by Michael 
 Palaiologus 1261 
 
 Establishment of the Turkish empire in Asia, 
 under Othman 1 1299 
 
 1303 
 • 1353 
 
 1373 
 1390 
 
 The Genoese trade in the Black sea 
 
 The Turks ravage Mysia, &c., 1340 and 1345; 
 
 and settle in the coast of Thrace 
 The sultan Amurath takes Adrianople, and 
 
 makes it his capital, 1362 ; and, by treaty, 
 
 greatly reduces the emperor's territories 
 All the Greek possessions in Asia lost . . . 
 The sultan Bajazet defeats the Christian army, 
 
 under Sigismund of Hungary, at Nicopolis, 
 
 Sept. 28, 1396 
 The emperor Manuel vainly solicits help from 
 
 the western sovereigns 
 
 A Turkish pacha established at Athena . 
 The Greek empire made tributary to Timour, 
 
 1402 ; who subjugates the Turkish sultan, 
 
 and dismembers his empire, 1403 ; death of 
 
 Timour, on his way to China 
 Dissension amongst the Turks defers the fall 
 
 of Constantinople, 1403-12 ; Mahomet I. aided 
 
 by the emperor Manuel, becomes sultan 
 Amurath II. in vain besieges Constantinople, 
 
 1422 ; peace made . . . . . . 
 
 John Palajologus visits Eome and other places, 
 
 soliciting help in vain .... 1437-40 
 Accession of Constantine XIII. the last em- 
 peror 1448 
 
 Accession of Mahomet II. 1451 ; he begins the 
 
 siege of Constantinoj)le, April 6, and takes it. 
 
 May 29, 1453 
 (He granted to the Christians personal security 
 
 and the free exercise of their rehgion.) See 
 
 Tar/ce>/. 
 
 1400 
 1401 
 
 ■ 1405 
 
 1413 
 1425 
 
 EMPERORS OF- THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 364- 
 379- 
 395- 
 408. 
 450. 
 457- 
 474- 
 
 491. 
 518. 
 527- 
 565- 
 578- 
 582. 
 
 602. 
 
 610. 
 641. 
 
 668. 
 685. 
 
 69s. 
 
 698. 
 705- 
 
 711. 
 
 Valens. 
 
 Theodosius I. the Great. 
 
 Arcadius, the son of Theodosius. 
 
 Theodosius II. succeeded his father. 
 
 Marcian, a Thracian of obscure family. 
 
 Leo I. the Thracian. 
 
 Leo the Yoxmger, died the same year. 
 
 Zeno, called the Isaurian. 
 
 Anastasius I. an lUyrian, of mean birth. 
 
 Justin I. originally a private soldier. 
 
 Justinian, founder of the Digest. 
 
 Justin II. nephew of Justinian. 
 
 Tiberius II. renowned for his virtues. 
 
 Maurice, the Cappadocian : murdered with all 
 
 his children, by his successor, 
 Phocas, the Usurper, a centurion, whose 
 
 crimes and cruelties led to his own assas- 
 
 smation in 610. 
 Heraclius, by whom Phocas was dethroned. 
 Heracleonas-Constantine, reigned a few 
 
 months ; poisoned by his step-mother 
 
 Martina. 
 Constans II. ; assassinated in a bath. 
 Constantine III. Pogonatus. 
 Justinian II. son of the preceding ; abhorred for 
 
 his exactions, debaucheries, and cruelties : 
 
 dethroned and mutilated by his successor, 
 Leontius : dethroned and mutilated by Tiberius 
 
 Aspimar. 
 Tiberius III. Aspimar. 
 Justinian II. restored. Leontius and Tiberius 
 
 degraded in the Hippodi-ome, and put to 
 
 death. Justinian slain in 711. 
 Philippicus-Bardanes : assassinated. 
 
 713. Anastasius II. : fled on the election of Theo- 
 dosius in 716 ; afterwards deUvered up to 
 Leo III. and put to death. 
 
 716. Theodosius III. 
 
 718. Leo III. the Isaurian. 
 
 [In this reign (726) commences the great 
 Iconoclastic controversy ; the alternate pro- 
 hibition and restoration of images involves 
 the peace of several reigns.] 
 
 741. Constantine IV. Copronymus, son of the pre- 
 ceding ; succeeded by his son, 
 
 775. Leo IV. 
 
 780. Constantine V. and his mother Irene. 
 
 790. Constantine, alone, by the desire of the people, 
 Irene having become unpopular. 
 
 792. Irene again, jointly with her son, and after- 
 wards alone, 797 ; deposed for her cioielties 
 and murders, and exiled. 
 
 802. Nicephorus I. sumamed Logothetes ; slain. 
 
 8u. Stam'achius : reigns a few days only. 
 ,, Michael I. : defeated in battle, abdicates the 
 throne, and retiies to a monastery. 
 
 813. Leo V. the Armenian : killed in the temple at 
 Constantinople on Christmas-day, 820, by 
 conspirators in the interest of his successor, 
 
 820. Michael II. the Stammerer. 
 
 829. Theophilns, son of Michael. 
 
 842. Michael III. surnamed Porphyrogenitus, and 
 the Sot, son of the preceding ; murdered by 
 his successor, 
 
 867. Basilius I. the Macedonian. 
 
 886. Leo VI. styled the Philosopher. 
 
 911. Alexander and Constantine VI. Porphyroge- 
 nitus, brother and son of Loo, the latter 
 
EAS 
 
 261 
 
 ECC 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE, continued. 
 
 only six years of age ; the former dying in 
 912, Zoe, mother of Constantine, assumes 
 the regency. 
 
 919. Romanus Lecapenus usurps the imperial 
 
 power, and associates with him his sons : 
 
 920. Christopher, and 
 
 928. Stephen and Constantine VII. 
 
 [Five emperors now reign : of these, Chris- 
 topher dies in 931 ; Romanus is exiled by his 
 . sons, Constantine and Stephen, who are 
 themselves banished the next year.] 
 
 945- Constantine VII. now reigns alone : poisoned 
 by his daughter-in-law, Theophania, 959. 
 
 959. Romanus II. son of the precediug : this nion- 
 ster, who had contrived his father's death, 
 banishes his mother, Helena. 
 
 963. Nicephorus II. Phocas : marries Theophania, 
 his predecessor's consort, who has him as- 
 sassinated. 
 
 969. John I. Zcmisces, celebrated general ; takes 
 Basilius II. and Constantine VIII. sons of 
 Romanus II. as colleagues ; John dies, sup- 
 posed by poison, and 
 
 976. Basilius II. and Constantine VIII. reign alone : 
 
 the former dies in 1025 ; the latter in 1028. 
 102S. Romanus III. Argyropulus ; poisoned by his 
 
 profligate consoi-t Zoe, who raises 
 1034. Michael IV. the Paphlagonian, to the throne : 
 on his death Zoe places 
 
 1041. Michael V. sumamed Calaphates, as his suc- 
 
 cessor : Zoe dethrones him, has his eyes put 
 out, and marries 
 
 1042. Constantine IX. Monomachus ; he and Zoe 
 
 reign jointly : Zoe dies in 1050. 
 1054. Theodora, widow of Constantine. 
 
 1056. Michael VI. Stratiotes, or Strato : deposed. 
 
 1057. Isaac I. Comnenus : abdicates. 
 1059. Constantine X. surnamed Ducas. 
 
 1067. Budocia, consort of tlie preceding, and Ro- 
 manus IV. surnamed Diogenes, whom she 
 marries, reign to the prejudice of Michael, 
 Constantine's son. 
 
 1071. Michael VII. Parapinaces, recovers his throne, 
 and reigns jointly with Constantine XI. 
 
 1078. Nicephorus III. ; dethroned by 
 
 1081. Alexis or Alexius I. Comnenus, succeeded by 
 *iii8. John Comnenus, his son, surnamed Kalos : 
 died of a wound from a poisoned arrow. 
 
 1 143. Manuel I. Comnenus, son of John. 
 
 1 1 80. Alexis II. Comnenus, son of the preceding, 
 under the regency of the empress Mai-ia, his 
 mother. 
 
 1183. Andronicus I. Comnenus, causes Alexis to 
 
 be strangled, and seizes the throne : put to 
 
 death by 
 1185. Isaac II. Angelus-Comnenus, who is deposed, 
 
 imprisoned, and deprived of his eyes by his 
 
 brother, 
 1195. Alexis III. Angelus, called the Tyrant : this 
 
 last deposed in his turn, and his eyes put 
 
 out ; died in a monastery. 
 
 1203. Isaac II. again, associated with his son, Alexis 
 
 IV. : deprived. 
 
 LA.TIK EMPERORS. 
 
 1204. Baldwin I. earl of Flanders, on the capture of 
 
 Constantinople by the Latins, elected em- 
 peror : made a prisoner by the king of 
 Bulgaria, and never heard of afterwards. 
 
 1206. Henry I. his brother : dies in 1217. 
 
 1216. Peter de Courtenay, his brother-in-law. 
 
 1221. Robert de Courtenay, his son. 
 
 1228. Baldwin II. his brother, a minor, and John de 
 Brienne, of Jerusalem, regent and associate 
 emperor. 
 
 1261. [Constantinople recovered, and the empire of 
 the Pranks or Latins terminates.] 
 
 GREEK EMPERORS AT NICE. 
 
 1204. Theodore Lascaris. 
 
 1222. John Ducas, Vataces. 
 
 1255. Theodore Lascaris II., his son, 
 
 1259. John Lascaris, and 
 
 1260. Michael VIII. Palfeologus. 
 
 EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 1261. Michael VIII. now at Constantinople : he puts 
 
 out the eyes of John, and reigns alone. 
 1282. Andronicus II. Palseologus the Elder, son of 
 
 the preceding : deposed by 
 1328. Andronicus the Younger, his grandson. 
 1332. Andronicus III. the Younger. 
 1341. John Paliwologus, under the guardianship of 
 
 John Cantacuzenus : the latter proclaimed 
 
 emperor at Adrianople. 
 1347. John Cantacuzenus abdicates. 
 1355. John Pala3ologus, restored. 
 1391. Manuel Palseologus, his son : succeeded by his 
 
 son and colleague, 
 1425. John Paleeologus II. The throne claimed by 
 
 his three brothers. 
 1448. Constantine Palseologus XII. (XIII. or XIV 
 
 some of the other emperors being called 
 
 Constantine by some writers) killed, when 
 
 Constantinople is taken, May 29, 1453. 
 
 EBIONITES, lieretics, in the 2nd century, who seem to have been a branch of the 
 Nazarenes, were of two kinds : one believed that our Saviour was born of a virgin, observed 
 all the precepts of the Christian religion, but added the ceremonies of the Jews ; the other 
 believed that Christ was born after the manner of all mankind, and denied his divinity. 
 Pardon. Photinus revived the sect in 342. 
 
 EBONITE (vulcanised india-rubber). See Caoukliouc. 
 
 EBRO, a river in Spain — the scene of a signal defeat of the Spaniards by the French, 
 under Lannes, near Tudela, Nov. 23, 1808 ; and also of several important movements of the 
 allied British and Spanish armies during the Peniasular war (1809 and 1813). 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONS. One was appointed by queen Elizabeth, 1584; 
 by James I. in Scotland, 1617 ; by the English parliament in 1641 ; and by James II. to 
 coerce the universities in 1687. The present Ecclesiastical Commissioners (bishops, deans, 
 and laymen) were appointed in 1835, and incorporated in 1836. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and ecclesias- 
 tical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, 1066. See Arclies and Consistory 
 Courts. Till the establishment of the Divorce and Probate courts {which sec) in 18^7, the 
 following were the causes cognisable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, apostasy from 
 
ECC 
 
 262 
 
 EDD 
 
 Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to benefices, matrimony, divorces, 
 bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adulteiy, probate of wills, administrations, &c, 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL STATE, or States of the Church. See Rome, Modern. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES BILL. See Papal Aggression. 
 
 ECHOES. The time which elapses bet\veen the utterance of a sound and its return must 
 be more than one-twelfth of a second, to form an echo. The whispeiing gallery of St. Paul's 
 is a well-known example. 
 
 ECKMiJHL (Bavaria), the site of a battle between the main armies of France (75,000) 
 and Austria (40,000) ; Napoleon and marshal Davoust (hence prince d'Eckmiihl) defeated 
 the archduke Charles, April 22, 1809. 
 
 ECLECTICS (from Greek, eklego, I choose), ancient philosophers (called Analogetici, 
 and also Phikdethes, or the lovers of truth), who, without attaching themselves to any sect, 
 chose what they judged good from each : of them was Potamon of Alexandria, about 
 A.D. I. Dryden. Also a Christian sect, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to 
 the spirit of Christianity. 
 
 ECLIPSE (the race-horse). See Races. 
 
 ECLIPSES. Their revolution was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B.C. 
 The Egyptians said they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of the sun, and 832 of the 
 moon, in the period from Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 B.C. The theory of eclipses 
 is said to have been known to the Chinese before 120 B.C. The first eclipse recorded hap- 
 pened March 19, 721 B.C., at 8/;,. /\.om. p.m., according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was 
 observed with accuracy at Babylon. A list of eclipses to the year A. D. 2000 is given in 
 ^'' VArtde Verifier Us Dates." 
 
 REMARKABLE ECLIPSES ; — 
 
 B.C. 
 
 585 
 424 
 
 1033 
 
 1140 
 
 1 191 
 
 1331 
 
 Remarkable one, central and annular in the a.d. 
 interior of Europe .... Sept. 7, 1802 
 
 Total eclipses of the sun — July 17, 1833 ; 
 July 8, 1842 ; Jiily 28, 1851. 
 
 An annular eclipse ; it was seen and photo- 
 graphed at Oundle ; but not seen well at 
 other places .... March 15, 1858 
 
 Total eclipse of the sun ; well seen by Mr. Q. B. 
 Airy, astronomer royal, and others in Spain ; 
 Mr. Warren de la Bue took photogi'aphs, 
 
 July 18, 1S60 
 [The same eclipses (about 70) recur in a pe- 
 riod of 18 years loj days.] 
 
 OF THE MOON. 
 
 The first, observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon 'b.c. 
 
 {Ptolemy iv.) 721 
 
 A total one ob.served at Sardis {Thw:ydid.ei vii.) 413 
 
 Again, in Asia Minor (Polybius) . ... 219 
 One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gallus 
 
 (Livy xliv.) . . . . . . . i68 
 
 One terrified the Roman troops and quelled a.d. 
 
 their revolt (Tacit its) 14 
 
 OP THE SUN. 
 
 That predicted by Thales. * See Hah/s (Pliny, 
 
 lib. ii. 9), believed to have occurred May 28, 
 One nt Athens {ThucydUles, lib. iv.) . 
 Total one : three days' supplication decreed at 
 
 Rome (Livy) 188 
 
 One general at the death of Jesus Christ a.d. 
 
 {Josexihus) 33 
 
 One observed at Constantinople . . . . 968 
 In France, when it was dark at noon-day (Du 
 
 Fresnoy) June 29, 
 
 In England; a total darkness ( TTni. Mabnsb.) 
 
 March 20, 
 Again ; the stars visible at ten in the morning 
 
 (Camdeyi) June 23, 
 
 The true sun, and the appearance of another, 
 
 so that astronomers alone could distinguish 
 
 the difference by their glasses . . . 
 Again ; total darkness ensued . . . . 
 A total one ; the darkness so great that the 
 
 stars shone, and the birds went to roost 
 
 at noon {Oldraixim't Annals of George I.) 
 
 April 22, 1 71 5 
 
 ECONOMIC MUSEUM (or Museum of Domestic and Sanitary Economy), at Twicken- 
 ham, open free, was established chiefly by the agency of Mr. Thos. Twining, in i860. It 
 originated from the Paris exhibition of 1855. 
 
 ECUADOR. See Equator. 
 
 EDD AS, two books containing the Scandinavian mythology (or history of Odin, Thor, 
 Frea, &c.), written about the nth and 12th centuries. 'Translations have been made into 
 French, English, &c. ]\ISS. of the Eddas exist at Copenhagen and Upsal. 
 
 EDDYSTONE LIGHT-HOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, erected by the Trinity-house 
 to enable ships to avoid the Eddystone rock. It was commenced under Mr. Winstanley, in 
 1696 ; was finished in 1699 ; and was destroyed in the dreadful tempest of Nov. 27, 1703, 
 when Mr. Winstanley and others perished. It was rebuilt by act of parliament, 4 Anne, 
 1706, and all ships were ordered to pay one penny per ton inwards and outwards towards 
 
 * Mr. Airy thinks the date should be 610 ; others say 603 or 584, B.C. 
 Herodotus as interrupting a battle between the Medes and Lydians. 
 
 It is the one recorded by 
 
EDE 
 
 263 
 
 EDI 
 
 supporting it. This light-house was burnt in 1755 ; and one on a better plan, erected by 
 Mr. Snieaton, was finished Oct. 9, 1759. The woodwork of this, burnt in 1770, was replaced 
 by stone. 
 
 EDESSA (now Orfat), a town in Mesopotamia, said by some to have been built by 
 Nimrod ; by Appian, to have been built by Seleucus. It became famous for its schools of 
 theology in the 5th century, and in 1184, when it was taken by the Saracens, it contained 
 fifteen large churches. Its kings or rulers were named Abgarus and Mannus. 
 
 EDGE HILL FIGHT (Oct. 23, 1642), "Warwickshire, between the royalists and the 
 parliament army, was the first engagement of importance in the cixdl war. Charles I. was 
 present. Prince Rupert commanded the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. 
 The earl of Lindsay, who headed the royal foot, was mortally wounded, and taken prisoner. 
 The king lost 5000 dead. Owing to the great loss on both sides the action proved indecisive, 
 though the parliament claimed the victory. 
 
 EDICTS, public ordinances and decrees, usually set forth by sovereigns ; the name origi- 
 nated with the Romans. The Perpetual Edict : Salvius Julianus, of Milan, a civilian at 
 Rome (the author of several treatises on public right), was employed by the emperor Adrian 
 to draw up this body of laws for the Prsetors, promulgated 132. 
 
 EDICT OF Nantes, by which Henry lY. of France granted toleration to his Protestant 
 subjects, April 13, 1598, was confirmed by Louis XIII. in 1610, and by Louis XIV. in 
 1652. It was revoked by Louis XIV. Oct 22, 1685. This unjust and impolitic act cost 
 France 50,000 Protestant families, and gave to England and Germany thousands of indus- 
 trious artisans who carried with them the art of manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, 
 where their descendants yet remain ; others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's and 
 piirsued the art of making crystal glasses and various fine works in which they excelled ; 
 among these, jewellery, then little understood in England. 
 
 EDINBURGH, the metropolis of Scotland, derives its name — in ancient records Dun 
 Edin, "the hill of Edin" — from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northum- 
 bria, who having greatly extended his dominions, erected it for the protection of his neAvly 
 acquired territories from the incursions of the Scots and Picts, 626. But it is said the castle 
 was first built by Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 b.o. It makes a conspicuous appearance, 
 standing at the west end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and, before the use of great 
 guns, Avas a fortification of considerable strength. 
 
 Christianity introduced (reign of Donald I.) . 201 
 Ediuburgh taken by the Anglo-Saxons . . 482 
 
 Betaken by the Picts 695 
 
 City fortified, and castle rebuilt by Malcolm 
 
 Canmore 1074 
 
 Besieged by Donald Bain 1093 
 
 Holyrood abbey founded by David I. . . . 1128 
 Edinburgh constituted a burgh . . . * * 
 
 Castle surrendered to Henry II. of England . 1174 
 A parliament held here under Alexander II. . 1215 
 
 City taken by the English 1296 
 
 <Jrant of the town of Leith to Edinburgh . . 1329 
 
 Surrenders to Edward III 1356 
 
 St. Giles's cathedral built ..... 1359 
 Burnt by Richard II. . . . . . . 1385 
 
 And by Henry IV 1401 
 
 James 11. first king crowned here . . . 1437 
 Execution of the earl of Athol . . . . ,, 
 Annual fair granted by James II. . . . 1447 
 
 City strengthened by a wall 1450 
 
 Charter of James III 1477 
 
 Edinburgh made the metropolis by James III. 1482 
 Eoyal CoUege of Surgeons incorporated . . 1505 
 Charter of James IV. . . . . . . 1508 
 
 [The palace of Holyrood is built in the reign 
 of James IV.] 
 
 High school founded 1518 
 
 A Biitish force, landing from a fleet of 200 
 
 ships, bums both Edinburgh arid Leith, May, 1544 
 Leith is again burnt, but Edinburgh is spared . 1547 
 
 TolboothbuUt 1561 
 
 Man-iage of queen Mary and lord Darnley . 1565 
 
 David Rizzio murdered 1566 
 
 Lord Darnley blown up in a private house by 
 
 gunpowder Feb. 10, 1567 
 
 Mary marries James, earl of Bothwell, May 15, 1567 
 Civil war on account of Mary's forced resigna- 
 tion 1570 
 
 Death of John Knox 1572 
 
 University chartered. See Edinburgh University 
 
 April 24, 1582 
 Bothwell's attempt on Holyrood-house Dec. 27, isgr 
 Riot in the city ; the mob attacks the king . 1596 
 James VI. leaves Edinburgh as king of England, 
 
 April s, 1603 ; he revisits it . May 16, 1617 
 
 George Heriot's Hospital founded by his wiU . 1624 
 Charles I. visits Edinburgh .... 1633 
 
 Parliament house finished 1640 
 
 Charles again visits the city .... 1641 
 The castle is surrendered to Cromwell by 
 
 Dundas 1650 
 
 Cofi'ee-houses first opened 1677 
 
 Merchants' Company incorporated . . . 16S1 
 College of Physicians incorporated , . . ,, 
 Earl of Argyll beheaded . . . June 30, 1GS5 
 African and East India Company incorporated 1695 
 
 Bank of Scotland founded ,, 
 
 Union of the kingdoms 1707 
 
 Royal bank founded 1727 
 
 Board of trustees of trade and manufactures 
 
 appointed ,, 
 
 Royal Infirmary incorporated . , . . 1736 
 Afiair of captain Porteous (see Porteous) Sept. 7, ,, 
 
 Medical Society instituted 1737 
 
 The young Pretender occupies Holyrood . , 1745 
 Modern improvements commenced . . . 1753 
 Magistrates assigned gold chains . . . . 1754 
 Royal Exchange completed .... 1761 
 Foundation of the North Bridge . Oct. 21, 1763 
 
 Theatre Royal erected . . . . , 1769 
 
EDI 
 
 264 
 
 EDU 
 
 EDINBUEGH, continued. 
 
 Great fire in the Lawn-market . . . . 1771 
 Register-office, Princes-street, commenced . 1774 
 Calton-hill observatory founded . July 25, 1776 
 Great commotion against popery . . . 1779 
 
 Society of Antiquaries 1780 
 
 Royal Society of Edinburgh instituted . . 1783 
 
 South Bridge commenced 1785 
 
 Royal College of Surgeons incorporated . . 1788 
 First stone of the presentj university laid, 
 
 Nov. 16, 1789 
 Robertson, the historian, dies here . June 11, 1793 
 Bridewell, Calton-hill, erected . . . . 1796 
 Holyrood, an asylum to Louis XVIIL and his 
 
 brother, afterwards Charles X. . . 1795 to 1799 
 New Bank commenced . . . June 3, i8oi 
 Edinburgh Review (by Francis Jeffrey, Rev. 
 Sidney Smith, Hemy Brougham, and others) 
 
 published Oct 10, 1802 
 
 New ."system of police established . . . . 1805 
 Alarming riots here .... Dec. 31, 1811 
 Nelson's monument completed . . . . 1815 
 Gas company incorporated . . . .1818 
 
 Water company incoi-porated . . . . 1819 
 Professor Playfair dies . . . July 20, ,, 
 
 Society of Arts instituted 1821 
 
 Union Canal completed 1822 
 
 George IV. 's visit; foundation of the national 
 monument .... Aug. 14-29, ,, 
 
 Royal Institution erected 1823 
 
 Destructive fires . . . June and Nov. 1824 
 Scottish Academy founded .... 1826 
 Lord Melville's monument erected . . . 1828 
 Edinburgh and Dalkeith Railway opened, July, 1831 
 Statue of George IV. erected . . . . 1832 
 
 Death of sir Walter Scott . . . Sept. 21, „ 
 Chambers's Edinburgh Journal published . „ 
 
 Association of the Fine Arts 1833 
 
 The British Association meets hei-e . Sept. 8, 1834 
 Edinburgh, Leith, and Granton Railway com- 
 menced 1836 
 
 Art-union of Scotland 1837 
 
 Monument to sir Walter Scott commenced . 1840 
 Society of Arts, founded 1821 ; incoi-porated .'^1842 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway opened, 
 
 Feb. 21, ,, 
 
 Queen Victoria visits Edinburgh, &c. Aug. 31- 
 
 Sept. 15, 
 
 Secession, and formation of the Free Church, 
 
 May 18, 
 
 New College instituted 
 
 North British Railway commenced . . . 
 
 The monument to the political martyrs of 
 1793-4, laid by Mr. Hume . . Aug. 21, 
 
 Walter Scott's monument completed 
 
 British Association meets again . July 31, 
 
 The Queen again visits Edinburgh (one of her 
 man J' visits to Scotland), and holds her court 
 at the ancient HoljTood-house . Aug. 30, 
 
 Prince Albert lays the foxmdation-stone of the 
 Scotch national gallery . . . Aug. 31, 
 
 Meeting for vindication of Scottish rights, &c. 
 
 Nov. 2, 
 
 Old buildings in Lawn-market burnt . Aug. 5, 
 
 Act passed for building new Post-office July, 
 
 National Gallery opened . . March 21, 
 
 Agitation against Ministers' Annuity tax Sept. 
 
 Lord Brougham elected chancellor of the uni- 
 versity, Edinburgh . . . Nov. i. 
 
 Ministers' tax aboUshed, and other arrange- 
 ments made which did not give satisfaction : 
 riots were renewed .... Nov. 
 
 20,000 Volunteers reviewed by the Queen in 
 Queen's Park .... Aug. 7, 
 
 Industrial Museum Act passed . . Aug. 28, 
 
 Edinburgh visited by empress Eugenie Nov. 20, 
 
 The Prince Consort lays the foundation of the 
 new Post Office and the Industrial Museum, 
 
 Oct. 23, 
 
 Fall of a house in High-street, 35 persons killed 
 
 Nov. 24, 
 
 Accident on Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway — 
 17 killed ; above 100 woimded . Oct. 13, 
 
 Lord Palmerston's visit . March 31-April 4, 
 
 Theatre Royal burnt : George Lorimer, dean of 
 guild, and seven other persons, killed by fall 
 of wall, while endeavLiuring to extricate 
 others Jan. 13, 
 
 Statues of Allan Ramsay and John Wilson in- 
 augurated March 25, 
 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 
 1843 
 1850 
 
 1853 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 1864 
 
 1865 
 
 EDINBURGH, Bishopric of, was created by Charles I. wlien that monarch was in 
 Scotland in 1633 ; and William Forbes, one of the ministers of Edinburgh, was made first 
 bi.shop. The king allotted the parishes of the shires of Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Haddington, 
 and a part of Berwick and of Stirlingshire, to compose the see. The sixth and last prelate 
 was Alexander Ross, who was ejected on the abolition of eiiiscopacy, at the period of the 
 revolution, in 1689. Edinburgh became a post-revolution bishopric in 1720. See Bishops. 
 
 EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. A college was commenced by the town council of 
 Edinburgh, in 1581, for which queen Mary had given the site of ancient religious houses, 
 and Robert Reid, bi.shop of Orkney, the funds in 1558. In 1582 the university was chartered 
 by James VI. afterwards James I. of England. The first principal was appointed in 1585. 
 The foundation-stone of the new buildings was laid by Francis, lord Napier, grand-master 
 of the masons of Scotland, Nov. 16, 1789. In 1845, the libraiy contained upwards of 80,000 
 volumes, besides numerous curious and rare MSS. and documents. 
 
 EDOM. See Idumcea. 
 
 EDUCATION, the art of developing the physical, intellectual, and moral faculties of 
 man, has occupied the greatest minds in all ages, such as Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, 
 Bacon, Milton, Locke, Rousseau, &c. In England the earliest schools for the lower classes 
 were those attached to the monasteries ; for the higher classes halls and colleges were 
 gradually founded (see Oxford and Cambridge), 
 
 William of Wykeham planted the School at 
 Winchester, whence arose his colleges at that 
 
 place and Oxford 1373 
 
 Eton College was founded by Henry VI. . . 1440 
 In the thirty years following the reformation 
 
 education was greatly prom oted, and many 
 giammar schools were erected and endowed 
 by Edward VI. and Elizabeth . . . 1535-65 
 Westminster school founded by Elizabeth . 1560 
 Foundation of Rugby school by Lawrence 
 
EDU 
 
 265 
 
 EGY 
 
 EDUOATlOlSr, continued. 
 
 Slieriff, 1567 ; of Harrow soliool, by John 
 Lyon 
 
 Queen Anne was the zealous friend of educa- 
 tion. While princess, she founded the Grey- 
 coat school, Westminster, in 1698, and cor- 
 dially supported the setting up parochial 
 charity schools (one of which had been esta- 
 blished in 1688 at St. Margaret's, West- 
 minster). 
 
 Nearly 2000 of these schools were established 
 in Great Britain and Ireland, principally by 
 the instrumentahty of the Society for the 
 Promotion of Christian Knowledge 
 
 Mr. Robert Raikes originated Sunday Schools 
 
 about 
 
 In 1833 there were 16,828 of these schools, with 
 1,548,890 scholars. 
 
 Sunday School Union was formed in . 
 
 Joseph Lancaster, a young Quaker, began to 
 instruct the children of the poor . . . 
 
 He had 90 pupils before he was 18 years old, 
 and 1000 pupils in 
 
 To provide teachers he invented the monitorial 
 system. In consequence of his exertions the 
 present British and Foreign School Society 
 was founded with the name of the " Royal 
 Lancasterian Institution," &c. 
 
 This being unexclusive, was followed by the in- 
 stitution of the Church of England "National 
 Society for Educating the Poor," on Dr. Bell's 
 system 
 
 Infant Schools began .... about 
 
 The Charity Commission, appointed at the 
 instance of Mr. (now lord) Brougham, pub- 
 lished their reports on Education, in 37 
 volumes foUo 18 
 
 Irish National School System (to accommodate 
 both Roman Catholics and Protestants) or- 
 ganised mainly by archbishop Whately and 
 the Roman Catholic archbishop Murray 
 
 In 1S34, the government began annual grants 
 (the first 2o,oooJ.), which continued till 1839, 
 when the Committee of the Privy Council on 
 Education was constituted for the distribu- 
 tion of the money. The grant for Public 
 Education in Great Britain, in 1852, was 
 150,000}. ; 1856-7, 451,213?. ; i860, 798,951?. ; 
 1861, 803,794?. ; 1864, 705,404?. Eor Ireland, 
 i860, 270,722?.; 1861, 285,377?.; 1863, 316,770?. 
 Prom 1839 to i860, 3,655,067?. were granted 
 
 1741 
 1781 
 
 1802 
 1796 
 
 iKii 
 181S 
 
 ior education. The grant for education, 
 science, and art, in 1861, was 1,358,996?. 
 
 In 1836, the Home and Colonial School Society 
 was instituted, and about 1843 were formed 
 the Voluntary School Society and the Con- 
 gregational Board of Education. In 1851, 
 out of a population of 17,927,609, there were 
 2,466,481 day scholars. Primary schools in 
 Great Britain, 1854, 3825 ; 1863, 7739. 
 
 Ragged School Union established 
 
 A great educational conference took place at 
 Willis's Rooms, the Prince Consort in the 
 chair June 22-24, 
 
 The Industrial Schools act passed in . 
 
 Middle Class Examinations from the University 
 of Oxford began, June, 1858. The examiners 
 granted the degree of A. A. to many persons 
 at Liverpool, Leeds, &c. ; similar examina- 
 tions from Cambridge took place in the 
 autumn, and are to be continued . 
 
 Report of commissioners on popular education 
 (appointed 185S), published March 18, 1861, 
 led to the Minute of the Committee of the 
 Privy Council on Education, establishing a 
 Revised Code of Regulations, adopted July 21, 
 1861, to come into operation, after March 31, 
 1S62. It decreed regular examinations of the 
 pupils, paj'ment by results, evening schools 
 for adults, and other changes, which z-aised 
 a storm of opposition from the clergy and 
 schoolmasters. The subject was much agi- 
 tated in parhament (March 25, 28, 1S62) ; but 
 eventually a compromise was effected May 5, 
 
 Official instructions for the administration of 
 the Revised Code issued . . . Sept. 
 
 College and PubUc School Commission Report, 
 signed Feb. 16, 
 
 Royal Commission appointed, to inquire into 
 the state of Education in Scotland. First 
 meeting at Edinburgh . . . Nov. 14, 
 
 " Conscience-clause," introduced by ComiQittee 
 of Council on Education, freeing children of 
 Dissenters from being taught Church Cate- 
 chism, or being sent to church, early in 
 
 Miss Biu-dett Coutts proposes the establish- 
 ment of small village schools, to be taught 
 by " ambulatory " teachers . . Jan. 
 
 Parliamentary Committee appointed to inquire 
 into the best mode of benefiting schools un- 
 assisted by the state . . . Feb. 28, 
 
 1857 
 
 EGALITE (Equality). See Orleans. 
 
 EGGS. The duty on imported eggs was repealed in i860, whereby the revenue lost about 
 20,oooZ. a year. 
 
 EGLINTOUN TOURNAMENT. See Tournament. 
 
 EGYPT.* The early seat of political civilisation. First epoch ; the dynasty of its 
 Pharaohs, or "great kings," commenced with Mizraim, the son of Ham, second son of Noah, 
 2188 B.C. to the conquest by Cambyses, 525 B.C. 2nd epoch, to the death of Alexander the 
 Great, and establishment of the Ptolemies, 323 B.C. 3rd epoch, to the death of Cleopatra 
 and the subjugation of the Romans, 30 B.C. 
 
 Dynasty of Menes (conjeetviral) B.C. 2717 or 2412 
 Mizraim builds Memphis (Blair) . . . . 2188 
 Eg3rptmade four kingdoms, viz., Upper Egypt, 
 Lower Egypt, This, and Memphis (.]k6?>e 
 
 Lenglet, Blair) 2126 
 
 Athotes invents hieroglyphics , . . . 2122 
 
 Busiris builds Thebes (Ci/ig)') . . . B.C. 2111 
 Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes into 
 Asia, conquers Bactria, and causes his exploits 
 to be represented in sculpture and painting 
 
 {Usher, Lenglet) 2100 
 
 The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt, and hold 
 
 * Three most magnificent works on Egypt have been published : in France (commenced by Napoleon, 
 and the savans who accompanied him to Egypt), Description de VEgypte, 1809-22 ; in Italy, RoseUini's 
 Monumenta dell' Egitto, 1832-44 ; and in Prussia, Lepsius' BenkmcLler aus Mgypten, 1848-56. All these are in 
 the Library of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, London. 
 
EGY 
 
 206 
 
 EGY 
 
 EGl^PT, continued. 
 
 it 260 years ( Usher) ; the dynasty of Slieplierd. 
 kings begins . . . . . . b. c. 2080 
 
 The Lake of Moeris constructed by him . . 1938 
 The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt . . 1920 
 Syphoas introduces the use of the common let- 
 ters ( 6^f7icr) 1 891 
 
 Memnon invents the Egyptian letters {Blair, 
 
 Lenglet) 1822 
 
 Amenophis I. is acknowledged the king of all 
 
 Egypt {Lenglet) 1821 
 
 Joseph is sold into Egypt as a slave . . . 1728 
 He interprets the king's dreams . . .1715 
 His father and brethren settle here . . . 1706 
 Rameses III., or Sesostris, reigns : he extends 
 his dominion by conquest over Arabia, Per- 
 sia, India, and Asia Minor (Zeregrtei) * . . 1618 
 Settlement of the Ethiopians {Blair) . . . 1615 
 Rameses, who imposed on his subjects the 
 building of walls and pyramids, and other 
 
 labours, dies (Lenglet) 1492 
 
 Amenophis II. is overwhelmed in the Red Sea, 
 
 with M. his a,ririy {Lenglet, Blair) . . . ,, 
 Reign of .^igyptus, from whom the country, 
 hitherto called Mizraim, is now called Egypt 
 
 {Blair) 1485 
 
 Reign of Thuoris (the Proteus of the Greeks), 
 who had the faculty of assuming whatever 
 form he pleased, as of a Uon, a dragon, a tree, 
 water, fire 1189 
 
 [These fictions were probably intended to mark 
 the profound policy of this king, who was 
 eminent for his wisdom, by which his do- 
 minion flourished. Blair.] 
 
 Pseusennes (Shishak) enters Palestine, ravages 
 Judea, and carries off the sacred vessels of 
 the temple 971 
 
 The dynasty of kings caUed Tanites begins with 
 Petubastes {Blair) 825 
 
 The dynasty of Saifes (.Btoir) 781 
 
 Sebacon (the Ethiopian) invades Egypt, sub- 
 dues the king, Bocchoris, whom he orders 
 to be roasted ahve {Usher) 737 
 
 The Dodekarchy (12 rulers) expelled byPsam- 
 metiohus the Powerful . ... 650 
 
 He invests Azoth, which holds out for 19 years, 
 the longest siege in the annals of antiquity 
 {Usher) 647 
 
 Necho begins the famous canal between the 
 Arabic gulf and the Mediterranean sea {Blair) 610 
 
 This canal abandoned, after costing the lives of 
 120,000 men (Herodotus) 609 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes Apries . 581 
 
 Apries taken prisoner and strangled in his 
 palace {Diod. Siculus) ..... 571 
 
 The philosopher Pythagoras comes from Samos 
 into Egypt, and is instructed in the mysteries 
 of Egyptian theology (i/jf/ier) .... 535 
 
 The line of the Pharaohs ends in the murder 
 of Psammenitus by Cambyses {Blair) . . 526 
 
 Dreadful excesses of Cambyses ; he puts the 
 children of the grandees, male and female, 
 to death, and makes the country a waste 
 {Herodbtus) 524 
 
 He sends an army of 50,000 men across the 
 desert to destroy the temple of Jupiter 
 Ammon, but they all perished in the bunoing 
 sands {Justin) ,, 
 
 Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again sub- 
 dued by Xerxes {Blair) 487 
 
 A revolt under Inarus {Blair) .... 463 
 
 Successful revolt under Amyrtaeus, who is pro- 
 claimed king {Lenglet) 414 
 
 Egypt again reduced by Ochus, king of Persia, 
 
 and its temples piUaged (i7.«Aer) . . B.C. 350 
 Alexander the Great enters Egypt, wrests it 
 from the Persians, and builds Alexandria 
 
 {Blair) 332 
 
 Ptolemy I. Lagus, or Soter 323 
 
 Philadelphus, Ptolemy II. reigns (under whom 
 Egypt flourishes) : he completes the Pharos 
 
 of Alexandria {Blair) ,, 
 
 The Septuagint version of the Old Testament 
 
 made about this time „ 
 
 The famous library of Alexandria also dates 
 
 about this period {Blair) 283 
 
 Ambassadors first sent to Rome . . . . 269 
 
 Ptolemy III. Euergetes, reigns, 247 ; overruns 
 
 Syria, and returns laden with rich spoils and 
 
 2500 statues and vessels of gold and silver, 
 
 which Cambyses had taken from the Egyptian 
 
 temples (Blair) 246 
 
 Ptolemy IV. Philopator 222 
 
 Ptolemy V. Epiphanes 205 
 
 Ptolemy VI. Philometor 181 
 
 At the death of Philometor, his brother Phys- 
 
 con (Ptolemy VII.) marries his queen, and on 
 
 the day of his nuptials murders the infant 
 
 son of Philometor in its mother's arms . . 146 
 
 He repudiates his wife, and marries her 
 
 daiighter by his brother (Blair) . . . . 130 
 His subjects, wearied by his cruelties and 
 crimes, demolish his statues, set fire to his 
 palace, and he flies from their fury {Blair) . 129 
 He murders his son by his new queen ; also his 
 son by her mother, sending the head and 
 limbs of the latter as a jiresent to the parents 
 
 on a feast-day ,, 
 
 Yet, defeating the Egyptian army, he recovers 
 
 his thi-one ; and dies 128 
 
 Pestilence from the putrefaction of vast swarms 
 of locusts ; 800,000 perish in Egypt . . ,, 
 
 Ptolemy VIII. Soter II 117 
 
 Alexander I. . ...... 107 
 
 Ptolemy VIII. restored . . . . . . 89 
 
 Revolt in Upper Egypt ; Thebes destroyed 
 after a siege of three years (Diod. Siciclus) . 82 
 
 Alexander II. and Cleopatra 1 81 
 
 Ptolemy IX. Auletes 80 
 
 Berenice and Tryphrena 58 
 
 Auletes restored, 55 : leaves his kingdom to 
 
 Ptolemy and Cleopatra (Blair) ... 51 
 During a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleo- 
 patra II., Alexandria is besieged by Cajsar, 
 and the library nearly destroyed by fire 
 (Blair) ......... 47 
 
 Cassar defeats the king, who, in cros.sing the 
 Nile, is drowned ; and the younger Ptolemy 
 
 and Cleopatra reign 46 
 
 Cleopatra poisons her brother, and reigns alone 43 
 She appears before Marc Antony, to answer 
 for this crime. Fascinated by her beauty, 
 
 he follows her into Egypt 40 
 
 Antony defeated by Octavius Caesar at the 
 
 battle of Actium (Blair) 31 
 
 Octavius enters Egyi^t ; Antony and Cleopatra 
 kiU themselves ; and the kingdom becomes 
 
 a Roman province ' 3c 
 
 Egypt wi-ested from the eastern emperor Hera- a. d. 
 clius, by Omar, caliph of the Saracens . . 639 
 Saladin establishes the dominion of the Mame- 
 lukes 1171 
 
 Selim I. emperor of the Turks, takes Egypt . 1517 
 It is governed by beys tiU a great part of the 
 country is conquered by the French, under 
 Bonaparte 1799 
 
 * The epoch of the reign of Sesosti-is is very uncertain : Blair makes it fall 133 years later. As to the 
 achievements of this monarch, they are supposed to have been the labours of severalkings attributed by 
 the Egyptian priests to Sesostris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted. 
 
EGY 
 
 267 
 
 ELE 
 
 EGYPT, co7itinued. 
 
 The invaders dispossessed by the British, and 
 the Turkish government restored . 
 
 Mehemet Ali massacres the Mamelukes, and 
 obtains the supreme power . . March, 
 
 Arrival of Belzoni, 1815 ; he removes young 
 Memnon, i8i6 ; explores the ancient temples, 
 
 &c. 
 
 ibi7 
 
 1820 
 1831 
 
 Formation of the Mahmoud canal, connecting 
 Alexandria with the Nile .... 
 
 Mehemet Pacha revolts and invades Syria . . 
 
 His son Ibrahim takes Acre, May 27 ; over-runs 
 Syria, and defeats the Turks at Konieh, 
 
 Dec. 21, 1832 
 
 He advances on Constantinople, which is en- 
 tered by Russian auxiliaries, April 3 ; the 
 war ends with the convention of Kutayah, 
 
 May 4, 1833 
 
 Mehemet again revolts, claiming hereditery 
 power ; Ibrahim defeats the Turks at Nezib, 
 
 June 24, 1839 
 
 England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia under- 
 take to expel Ibrahim from Syria; Napier 
 bombards Beyrout, Sept. 10 ; Acre taken by 
 the British and Austrian fleets, under sir R. 
 
 Stopford, Nov. 3 ; the Egyptians quit Syria, 
 
 Nov. 21 et seq. 1840 
 Peace restored by treaty ; Mehemet is made 
 hereditary viceroy of Egypt, but is deprived 
 
 of Syi-ia July 15, 1841 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha dies (see Suez) , Nov. 10, 1848 
 
 The Suez canal begun 1858 
 
 Malta and Alexandria telegraph^opened Nov. i, 1861 
 The viceroy Said visits Italy, France, and Eng- 
 land, May to Sept. ; returns to Alexandria, 
 
 Oct. I, 1862 
 Sultan of Turkey visits Egypt . AprU 7-17, 1863 
 Greatly increased cultivation of cotton in Egypt, 
 
 1863-64 
 At the demand of the sultan, the viceroy sends 
 troops to repress the insurgents in Arabia, 
 
 May, 1864 
 HEREDITARY VICEROYS (nearly independent). 
 1806. Mehemet Ali Pacha ; abdicated Sept. 1848 ; dies 
 
 Aug. 2, 1849 
 1848. Ibrahim(adopted son), Sept. ; dies Nov. 10,1848. 
 
 ,, Abbas (his son), Nov. 10 ; dies July 14, 1854. 
 1854. Said (brother), July 14 ; dies Jan. 18, 1863. 
 1863. Ismail (brother), Jan. 18. 
 
 EGYPTIAN EEA. The old Egyptian year was identical with the era of Nahonassar, 
 beginning Feb. 26, 747 B.C., and consisted of 365 days only. It was reformed 30 B.C., at 
 which period the commencement of the year had arrived, by continually receding to the 
 29th of Aug., which was determined to be in future the, first day of the year. To reduce to 
 the Christian era, subtract 746 years 125 days. 
 
 EHEENBEEITSTEIS" (Honour's broadstone), a strong Prussian fortress on the Ehine, 
 formerly belonged to the electors of Treves. It was often besieged. It surrendered to the 
 Erench general Jourdain, Jan. 24, 1 799. The fortifications were destroyed on its evacuation, 
 Eeb. 9, 1801, at the peace of LunevUle. The works have been restored since 1814. 
 
 EIDER, a river, separating Schleswig from Holstein, was passed by the Austrians and 
 Prussians, Feb. 4, 1864. 
 
 EIKON BASILIKE ("the Portraiture of His Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes an 
 Sufferings"), a book of devotion formerly attributed to king Charles I., but now generally 
 believed to have been written partially, if not wholly, by bishop Gauden, and possibly 
 approved by the king : it was published in 1648, and sold with great rapidity. 
 
 EISENACH DECLAEATIOK See Germany, 1859. EISTEDDFODD. See Bards. 
 
 ELBA, Isle of (on the coast of Tuscany), taken by lord Nelson in 1796 ; but abandoned 
 1797. Elba was conferred upon Napoleon (with the title of emperor) on his relinquishing 
 the throne of France, April 5, 1814. He secretly embarked hence with about 1200 men in 
 hired feluccas, on the night of Feb. 25, 1815, and landed in Provence, March i, to recover 
 the Imperial crown. See France, 1815. Elba was resumed by the grand duke of Tuscany, 
 July, 1815. 
 
 ELDEES (in Greek, preshuteroi), in the early church equivalent with episcopoi, or 
 bishops (see i Tim. iii. and Titus i. ), who afterwards became a distinct and superior order. 
 Elders in the Presbyterian churches are laymen. 
 
 EL DOEADO (the " Gilded Man "). When the Spaniards had conquered Mexico and 
 Peru, they began to look for new sources of wealth, and having heard of a golden city ruled 
 by a king or priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust (which report was founded on a 
 merely annual custom of the Indians), they organised various expeditions into the interior 
 of South America, which were accompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1560. Ealeigh's 
 expeditions in search of gold in 1596 and 161 7 led to his fall. 
 
 ELEATIC SECT, founded at Elea in Sicily, by Xenophanes, of Colophon, about 535 B.C. 
 He had been banished to Sicily on account of his wild theory of God and nature. He 
 supposed that the stars were extinguished every morning and rekindled at night ; that 
 eclipses were occasioned by a partial extinction of the sun ; that there were several suns and 
 moons for the convenience of the different climates of the earth, &c. Sirabo, Zeno (about 
 364) was an Eleatic. 
 
 ELECTOE PALATINE. See Palatinate. 
 
ELE 
 
 268 
 
 ELE 
 
 ELECTORS for members of parliament for counties were obliged to have forty shillings 
 a-year in land, 8 Hen. VL 1429. Among the acts relating to electors are the following : 
 Act depriving excise and custom-house officers and contractors with government of their 
 votes, 1782. Act to regulate polling, 1828. Reform in parliament act {s&q Reform Bill), 
 1832. County elections act, 1836. See Bribery. The forty shilling freeholders in Ireland 
 lost their privilege in 1829. By Dodson's act, passed in 1861, university electors are per- 
 mitted to vote by sending balloting papers. 
 
 ELECTORS OF Germany. The empire became electoral about 619. In the 13th 
 century seven princes (the archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, the king of Bohemia, 
 the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony, and the elector Palatine), who possessed the greatest 
 power, assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the emperor. Roherfson. An eighth 
 elector (Bavaria) was made in 1648; and a ninth (Hanover) in 1692. The number was 
 reduced to eight in 1777 ; and Avas increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. On 
 the dissolution of the German empire, the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804- 
 1806. See Germany. 
 
 ELECTRICITY, — from the Greek zkktron, electrum, amber. The electrical properties 
 of rubbed amber are said to have been known to Thales, 600 B.C. See Magnetism. 
 
 FEICTIONAL OB STATIC ELECTRICITY. 
 
 Gilbert records that other bodies besides amber 
 generate electricity when rubbed, and that 
 all substances may be attracted . . . 1600 
 
 Otto von Guericke constructs the first electric 
 machine (a globe of sulphur), about . . 1647 
 
 Boyle publishes his electrical experiments . , 1676 
 
 Stephen Grey, aided by Wheeler, discovered 
 that the human body condiicts electricity, 
 that electi-icity acts at a disfance (motion in 
 light bodies being produced by frictional elec- 
 tricity at a distance of 666 feet), the fact of 
 electric induction, and other remarkable phe- 
 nomena 172036 
 
 Dufay originates his dual theory of two electric 
 fluids: one vitreous, from rubbed glass, &c., 
 the other rcainoM, from rubbed amber, resin, 
 &c. ; and showed that two bodies similarly 
 electrified repel each other, and attract bodies 
 oppositely electrified, about . . • ■ i733 
 
 The Ley den jar (vial or bottle) discovered by 
 Kleist, 1745, and by Cunseus .and Muschen- 
 broek, of Leyden ; Wmckler constructed the 
 Ley den battery 1746 
 
 Desaguliers classifies bodies as electrics and 
 non-electrics 1742 
 
 Important researches of Watson, Canton, Bec- 
 caria, and NoUet 1740-7 
 
 Franklin annovmces his theoiy of a single fluid, 
 terming the vitreous electricity positive, and 
 the resinous negative, 1747 ; and demonstrates 
 the identity of the electric spark and light- 
 ning, drawing down electricity from a cloud 
 by means of a kite* . . . . June, 1752 
 
 Professor Richmann killed at St. Petersburg, 
 while repeating Franklin's experiments Aug. 1753 
 
 Beccaria pubhshes his researches on atmo- 
 spheric electricity, 1758 ; and iEpinus his 
 mathematical theory i759 
 
 Electricity developed by fishes investigated by 
 Ingenhousz, Cavendish, and others, about . 1773 
 
 Lichtenberg produces his electrical figures . 1777 
 
 Mectvo-statics : Coulomb applies the torsion 
 balance to the measurement of electric force 1785 
 
 Blectro-cheinistry—wA.ie>Y decomposed by Caven- 
 dish, Fourcroy, and others . . . 1787-90 
 
 Discoveries of Galvani and Volta (see Voltaic 
 Electricity, below) 1 791-3 
 
 CErsted, of Copenhagen, discovers electro-mag- 
 netic action (see Electro-Magnetism, below) . 1819 
 
 Thermo-Electricity (cuiTents produced by heat) 
 discovered by Seebeck : it was produced by 
 
 heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered 
 together, 1823 ; the thermo-electrometer in- 
 vented by Snow Harris, 1827 ; the thermo- 
 multiplier constructed by Melloni and Xobili, 
 1831. [Marcus constructed a powerful ther- 
 mo-electric battery in 1865.] 
 
 Faraday produces a sjoiirk by the sudden sepa- 
 ration of a coiled keeper from a permanent 
 m.agnet (see Magneto-Electricity, below) . . 
 
 Wheatstone calculates the velocity of electricity, 
 on the double fluid theory, to be 288,000 miles 
 a second ; on the single fluid theory, 576,000 
 miles a second 
 
 Armstrong discovers, and F.araday explains, 
 the electricity of high pressure steam, which 
 produces the hydro-electric machine 
 
 Electric Machines. Otto von Guericke ob- 
 tained sparks by rubbing a globe of sulphur, 
 about 1647 ; Newton, Boj-le, and others u.sed 
 glass, about 1675 ; Hawksbee improved the 
 machine, about 1709 ; Bose introduced a 
 metallic conductor, 1733; Winckler contrived 
 the cushion for the rubber, 1741 ; Gordon 
 employed a glass cylinder, 1742 ; for which a 
 plate was substitxited about 1770 ; Canton 
 introduced amalgam for the rubber, 1751 ; 
 Van Marum constructed an electric machine 
 at Haarlem, said to have been the most 
 powerful ever made. 1785 ; Dr. H. M. Noad 
 set up at the Panopticon, Leicester-square, 
 London, a very powerful electric machine 
 and Leyden battery [in possession of Mr. 
 Edwin Clark, 1862] 
 
 The Hydro-Electric machine, by Armstrong, was 
 constructed 
 
 The Electrophorus, a useful apparatus for 
 obtaining frictional electricity, was invented 
 by Volta in 1775, and improved by him in . 
 
 Electrometer and Electroscope, as the terms 
 signify, are apparatus for ascertaining the 
 presence and quantity of electrical excita- 
 tion. Pith-balls were employed in various 
 ways as electroscopes by Gilbert, Canton, and 
 others. Dr. Milner invented an electrometer 
 similar to Peltier's, 1783. The gold leaf elec- 
 trometer was invented by rev. A. Bonnet, 
 1789, and improved by Singer, about i8io ; 
 Lane's discharging electrometer is dated 
 1767 ; Henley's, 1772; Bohnenberger's electro- 
 scope, 1820; Peltier's induction electrometer, 
 
 about 
 
 183 1 
 1834 
 
 * In 1748 at a pic-nic, he " killed a turkey by the electric spark, and roasted it by an electric jack 
 before a fire kindled by the electric bottle."— Penny Cyclopcedia. 
 
ELE 
 
 269 
 
 ELE 
 
 ELECTRICITY, continued. 
 
 GALVANISM, OE VOLTAIC-ELECTRICITY, AND 
 ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 
 
 Sulzer noticed a peculiar sensation in the 
 tongue vs'lien silver and lead were brought 
 into contact with it and each other . . . 1762 
 
 Madame Galvani observed the convulsion in 
 the muscles of frogs when brought into con- 
 tact with two metals, In 1789 ; and M Gal- 
 vani, after studying the phenomena, laid the 
 foundation of the galvanic battery . . 1791 
 
 Volta announced his discovery of the " Voltaic 
 pile," composed of discs of zinc and silver, 
 and moistened card 1800 
 
 By tlie voltaic pile, Nicholson and Carlisle de- 
 compose water, and Dr. Henry decomposes 
 nitric acid, ammonia, &c. . . . . ,, 
 
 Behrens forms a dry pile of 80 pairs of zinc, 
 copper, and gilt paper 1805 
 
 By means of the large voltaic battery of the 
 Koyal Institution, London, Davy decom- 
 poses the alkali potash, and evolves the metal 
 potassium Oct. 6, 1807 
 
 Zamboni constructs a dry pile of paper discs, 
 coated with tin on one side and peroxide of 
 manganese on the other 1809 
 
 Childi-en's battery fuses platinum, &c. . . ,, 
 
 Davy exhibits the voltaic ai-c .... 1813 
 
 WoUaston's thimble battery ignites platinum 
 wire 181S 
 
 Galvanometers invented by Ampere and by 
 Schweigger, 1820 ; by Gumming, 1821 ; De la 
 Eive, 1824 ; Ritchie (torsion), 1830 ; Joxile 
 (magnetic), 1843. 
 
 Ohm enunciates his formulae relating to the 
 galvanic cuiTent 1827 
 
 Improvement in constructing the voltaic bat- 
 tery made by Wollaston, 1815 ; Becquerel, 
 1829; Sturgeon, 1830; J. F. Daniell, 1836; 
 Grove (nitric acid, (fee), 1839; Jacobi, 1840; 
 Smee, 1840; Buusen (carbon, <fec.), 1842; 
 Grove (gas battery), 1842. 
 
 Faraday demonstrates the nature of electro- 
 chemical decomposition, and the principle 
 that the quantity and intensity of electric 
 action of a galvanic battery depends on the 
 size and number of plates eraployed . . 1834 
 
 Wheatstoiie invents his electro-magTietic chro- 
 noscope ........ 1840 
 
 Electeo-Magnetism begins with CErsted's dis- 
 covery of the action of the electric cui-rent 
 on the magnetic needle, 1819 ; proved by 
 Ampfere, who exhibits the action of the vol- 
 taic pile upon the magnetic needle, and of 
 terrestrial magnetism upon the voltaic cur- 
 rent ; he also arranges the conducting wire 
 in the form of a helix or spiral, invents a gal- 
 vanometer, and imitates the magnet by a 
 spiral galvanic wire 1820 
 
 Arago magnetised a needle by the electric cur- 
 rent, and attracted iron filings by the con- 
 necting wire of a galvanic battery . . . ,, 
 
 Induction of electric currents discovered by 
 Faraday and announced 1831 
 
 Faraday discovers the electro-magnetic rotative 
 force developed in a magnet by voltaic elec- 
 tricity, 1831 ; experiments on the induction 
 of a voltaic current 1834 
 
 Sturgeon makes a bar of soft iron magnetic by 
 surrounding it with coils of wire, and send- 
 ing an electric current through the vrire . 1837 
 
 Becquerel invents an electro-magnetic balance 1837 
 
 Breguet uses electro-magnetic force to manu- 
 facture mathematical insti-uments, about . 1854 
 
 Magneto-Electricity (the converse of Oersted's 
 discovery of electro-magnetism), discovered 
 by Faraday, who produced an electric spark 
 by suddenly separating a coiled keeper from 
 a permanent magnet ; and found that an elec- 
 tric current existed in a copper disc rotated 
 between the poles of a magnet . . . . 1831 
 
 The Magneto-Electric machine arose out of Fara- 
 day's discovery, and was first made at Paris 
 by Pixii, 1832 ; and in London by Saxton . 1833 
 
 EuhmkorfE's magneto-electric induction coil 
 constructed, about 1850 
 
 electric telegraph.* 
 
 The transmission of electricity by an insulated 
 wire was shown in the middle of the last 
 century, by "Watson and others. 
 
 Telegraphic arrangements were devised by Le- 
 sarge, 1744 ; Betancourt, 1787 ; Cavallo, 1795 ; 
 Salva, 1796 ; Soemmering, exhibited, Aug. 29, 
 1809; Ronalds 1816 
 
 Ampfere invents his telegraphic arrangement, 
 employing the magnetic needle and coil, and 
 the galvanic battery 1820 
 
 F. Ronalds pubhshes an account of his electric 
 telegraph ........ 1823 
 
 Professor Wheatstone constructs an electro- 
 magnetic apparatus, by which 30 signals are 
 conveyed through nearly four miles of wire, 
 
 June, 1836 
 
 Telegraphs invented by Schilling, Gauss, and 
 Weber (magneto-electric), 1833 ; by Steinheil ^ 
 and by Masson, 1837 ; by Morse . . . 1837 
 
 The magnetic needle telegraph patented by W. 
 P. Cooke and C. Wheatstone . June 12, ,, 
 
 Mr. Cooke set up the telegraph line on the 
 Great Western Railway, from Paddington to 
 West Drayton, 1838-9 ; on the Blackwall line, 
 1840 ; and in Glasgow 1841 
 
 Professor Wheatstone's alphabetical printing 
 telegraph patented 
 
 The first telegraph line in America set up from 
 Washington to Baltimore 1844 
 
 The murderer TaweU apprehended by means of 
 the telegi-aph 1845 
 
 The electric telegraph company established 
 (having purchased Cooke and Wheatstone's 
 telegraphic inventions) 1846 
 
 Gutta-percha suggested as an insulator by 
 Faraday 1847 
 
 Over-house electric telegraphs (first erected at 
 Paris) set up between their premises in the 
 City and West-end by Messrs. Waterlow, in 
 1857 ; extended throughout London . . 1859-62 
 
 House's printing telegraph, 1846 ; Bain's electro- 
 chemical telegraph, 1846 ; Hughes's system, 
 185s ; the American combination system (of 
 the preceding), which can convey 2000 words 
 an hour, adopted by the American telegraph 
 company Jan. 1859 
 
 Wheatstone's automatic printing telegi-aph 
 patented ........ i860 
 
 Professor Charles Wheatstone, in 1840, drew 
 plans of a projected submarine telegraph be- 
 tween Dover and Calais. In 1847, Mr. John 
 Watkins Brett submitted a similar plan to 
 Louis Philippe without success ; but in 1850, 
 he obtained permission from Louis Napoleon 
 
 * The Electric Telegraph may be said to have run a race with Time, and beaten him. New Orleans is 
 ■westward of New York, and the clocks ai-e thus later in the former city than in the latter, in proportion to 
 the difference of longitude. When the Atlantic made her first return voyage from Liverpool, a brief abstract 
 of her news was telegraphed to New Orleans at a few minutes after noon (New York time) ; it reached its 
 destination at a few minutes before noon (New Oiieans time), and was published in the New Orleans p.apers 
 on the evening of the very day when the ship arrived at New York ; the evening papers of New York and 
 New Orleans gave the same news at the same horn- (April, 1850). 
 
ELE 
 
 270 
 
 ELE 
 
 ELECTRICITY, co7itinucd. 
 
 to make a trial. This took place on Aug. 28, 
 1850. The connecting wires (27 miles long) 
 were placed on the government pier in Dover 
 harbour, and in the Goliath steamer were 
 coiled about 30 miles in length of telegi'aphic 
 wire, enclosed in a covering of gutta-percha, 
 half an inch in diameter. The Golwth started 
 from Dover, unrolling the telegraphic wire as 
 it proceeded, and allowing it to drop to the 
 bed of the sea. In the evening the steamer 
 arrived on the French coast, and the wire was 
 run up the cliff at cape Grisnez to its terminal 
 station, and messages were sent to and fro 
 between England and the French coast. But 
 the wire, in settling into its place in the sea- 
 bottom, crossed a rocky ridge, and snapped 
 in two, and thus the euterjirise for that time 
 
 . failed. New arrangements were soon made, 
 and on a scale of gi-eater magnitude ; and 
 the telegraph was opened, Nov. 13, 1851. On 
 that day the opening and closing prices of the 
 funds in Paris were known on the London 
 stock exchange within business hours, and 
 guns were fired at Dover by communication 
 from Calais. 
 
 Communicationswere complete between Dover 
 and Ostend, and between Portpatrick and 
 Donaghadee, in May, 1853; Holyhead and 
 Howth, June, 1854 ; Paris and Bastia, Nov. 
 1854 ; London and Constantinople, May, 1858 ; 
 Cromer and Emden, 1858; Aden and Suez, 
 May, 1859 '• Malta and Alexandria, Sept. 28, 
 1861 ; England and Bombay, opened March 
 I, 1865 (engineer, sir C. T. Bright) ; Marsala, 
 Sicily, and La Calle, Algeria . . June 21, 1865 
 
 Atlantic Telegkaph. A plan to unite Europe 
 and America by telegraph was entered at the 
 government registration office in June, 1845, 
 by Mr. J. Watkins Brett, who made proposals 
 to the government, which were not accepted. 
 This plan was attempted to be carried out by 
 a company in 1857 and 1858, with the con- 
 currence of the British and American govern- 
 ments. 2500 miles of wire were manufactured, 
 and tested in March, 1857. The laying it 
 down commenced at Valentia, in Ireland, on 
 August 5. The vessels employed were the 
 Niagara and Susquehanna (Araerican vessels), 
 and the Leopard and Agamemnon (British 
 vessels). After sailing a few miles the cable 
 snapped. This was soon repaired ; but on 
 Aug. II, after 300 miles of wire had been 
 paid out, it snapped again, and the vessels 
 returned to Plymouth. In 1S58, a second 
 attempt to lay the cable failed thtough a vio- 
 lent storm, on June 20-21 ; but the third 
 voyage was successful. On Aug. 5, the jimc- 
 tion between the two continents was com- 
 pleted by the laying down of 2050 miles of 
 wire from Valentia, in Ireland, to Newfound- 
 land. The first two messages, on Aug. 5, 
 were from the queen of England to the 
 president of the United States, and his reply. 
 This event caused great rejoicing in both 
 countries ; but, unfortunately, the insulation 
 of the wire gradually became more faulty, 
 and on Sept. 4 the power of transmitting in- 
 telligence utterly ceased. A new company 
 was formed, i860. The G«o? jEu4««r>i steamer, 
 engaged to lay down 2300 miles of wire, with 
 25,000 tons burden, sailed for Valentia, Ireland, 
 from the Thames, July 15, 1865; commanded 
 by capt. Anderson, accompanied by professor 
 Wm. Thomson and Mr. Cromwell F. Varley, 
 to superintend the paying out the cable. 
 After connecting the wire with the land, the 
 Great Eastern sailed from Valentia, July 23. 
 Telegraphic communication with the vessel 
 (interrupted by two faults, due to defective 
 insulation, caused by pieces of metiil pressed 
 
 into the gutta percha coating, which were 
 immediately repaired) finally ceased on 
 Aug. 2. The apparatus for raising the wire 
 proving insufficient, the vessel returned, and 
 arrived at the Medway . . . Aug. 19, 1865 
 
 It was stated that there are in work 15,000 miles 
 of electric telegraph wire in Great Britain ; 
 80,000 on the continent of Europe ; and 
 48,000 in America ; and altogether about 
 150,000 miles laid down in the world . July, 1862 
 
 Bonelh's typo-electric telegraph, made known 
 and company established, i860 ; and adopted 
 between Liverpool and Manchester, 1863 ; 
 promised revival .... June, 1864 
 
 An " electric telegraph " conference, at which 
 16 states (not Great Britain) were represented, 
 met first at Paris .... March, 1865 
 
 Electric Clock, &c. Professor Wheatstone 
 invented an electro-magnetic telegraph clock 
 in 1840. Clocks worked by electricity, in- 
 vented by Mr. Alexander Bain, Mr. Shepherd, 
 and others, appeared in the exhibition of 
 1851. An electric clock, with four dials, illu- 
 minated at night, was set up in front of the 
 ofBce of the electric telegraph company, in 
 the Strand, London, July, 1852. A time ball 
 was set up by Mr. French, in CornhiU, in 1856. 
 In i860. Mr. C. V. Walker so connected the 
 clock of the Greenwich observatory with that 
 of the South-eastern station, London, that 
 they could be controlled by electricity. 
 
 Electric Light. Apparatus for regulating the 
 electric light were devised in 1846, and shown 
 by Staite and Petrie in 1848 ; by Foucault 
 soon after. Jules Duboscq's Electric Lamp 
 (the most perfect of the kind) appeared at 
 the Paris exhibition in 1S55; and was fir.st 
 employed by professor Tyndall, at the Royal 
 Institution, London, for illustrating lectures 
 on light and colours, in 1856.- The works of 
 new Westminster bridge were illuminated 
 by Watson's electric light, in 1858. M. Serrin, 
 of Paris, exhibited his improved electric 
 lamp, in 1862. The Magneto- Electric light 
 (the most brilliant artificial light yet pro- 
 duced), by means of apparatus devised by 
 professor Holmes, was successfully tried in 
 1858 and 1859, at the South Foreland Ught- 
 house, Dover. In April, 1861, the French 
 government ordered eight lighthouses on 
 their coast to be illuminated by electric light. 
 MM. Dumas and Benoit constructed an elec- 
 tric safety lamp in ..... . 1862 
 
 Electric Loom. M. Bonelli, of Turin, in 1854, 
 devised a plan of employing magnets and 
 electro-magnets in weaving, thereby super- 
 seding the tedious and costly Jacquard 
 system of cards. His loom was set up in 
 London in 1859, and lectured upon at the 
 Royal Institution by professor Faraday, on 
 
 June 8, i860 
 
 Electro-Physiology was not much cultivated 
 after the discoveries of Galvani in 1790, till 
 about 1830, when the researches of Matteucci 
 commenced ; all the phenomena of electro- 
 physiology or animal electricity being con- 
 sidered by Volta as due to an ordinary electric 
 cun-ent. Fowler experimented on animals 
 with galvanism. 1793 ; and Aldini, 1796, who 
 produced muscular contractions in a criminal 
 recently executed, 1803 ; Urc did the same, 
 1818 ; Du Bois Reymond lectured on animal 
 electricity at the Royal Institution, and 
 showed the existence of an electric cur- 
 rent, developed by action of the human 
 mu.scles . ..... in 1855 
 
 Electro-Tint. Mr. Palmer, of Newgate- street, 
 London, patented inventions by which en- 
 gravings may not only be copied from other 
 engraved plates, but the engraving itself 
 
ELE 
 
 271 
 
 ELP 
 
 ELECTEICITY, continued. 
 
 actually produced, by electrical agency, and 
 one process he termed glyphography . 1841-2 
 Electro- Type or Deposit. Mr. Spencer, in 
 England, and professor Jacobi, in Kussia, 
 made the first successful experiments in this 
 art in 1837 and 1838. Since then, Mr. A. Smee 
 and others have perfected the processes. In 
 1840, Mr. Eob. Murray applied black-lead to 
 non-metallic bodies as a conducting surface. 
 In 1840, Mr. Kuolz and Mr. Elkington applied 
 it to gilding and silver plating. Since 1850, 
 printing- types and vyoodcuts, and casts from 
 them, have been electrotyped with copper, 
 
 and the process is now largely adopted in 
 the arts. 
 Messrs. C. Wheatstone and P. A. Abel experi- 
 ment on the application of electricity to mili- 
 tary purposes in 1861 
 
 The Electro-block company established, i860 ; 
 by their processes the enlargement and reduc- 
 tion of engravings, obtained by india-rubber, 
 can be immediately transferred to a litho- 
 graphic stone, and multiplied at pleasure. 
 Leech's engravings, so enlarged, were coloured 
 by himself, and exhibited in . . . . 1862 
 
 ELEGY. Elegiac verse was the first variation from the hexameter or epic measure, as 
 used for various subjects by Tyrtseus and other early poets. The elegies of Ovid and 
 Catullus are celebrated. Gray's " Elegy, written in a country churchyard, " was publislied 
 in 1749. 
 
 ELEMENTS were formerly reckoned as four : earth, air, fire, and water. The chemical 
 elements now are about 51 (1865). 
 
 ELEPHANT, in the earliest times trained to war. The history of the Maccabees informs 
 us, that "to every elephant they appointed 1000 men armed with coats of mail, and 50a 
 horse : and upon the elephants were strong towers of wood, &c." The elephants in the army 
 of Antiochus were provoked to fight hy showing them the "blood of grapes and mulberries." 
 The first elephant said to have been seen in England was one of enonnous size, presented by 
 the king of France to our Hen. III. , in 1238. Baker's Chron. But Polysenus states that Ctesar 
 brought one to Britain 54 B.C., which terrified the inhabitants greatly. 
 
 ELEUSINIAN MYSTEEJES. The institution of these celebrated religious ceremonies 
 at Athens, are generally attributed to Eumolpus, 1356 B.C. If any one revealed them, it 
 was supposed that he had called divine vengeance upon him, and he was put to death. 
 They were introduced from Eleusis into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last 
 abolished by Theodosius the Great, a.d. 389. The laws were — i. To honour parents; 2. 
 To honour the gods with the fruits of the earth ; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. 
 Cicero makes the civilisation of mankind one of the beneficial efi'ects of the Eleusinian 
 mysteries. 
 
 ELGIN MARBLES were derived chiefly from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva, on 
 the Acropolis at Athens, of which they formed part of the frieze and pediment, the work of 
 Phidias under the government of Pericles, about 500 B.C. Thomas lord Elgin began the 
 collection of these marbles during his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; they were 
 purchased of him by the British government for 35,000?. and placed in the British Museum, 
 in 1816.* 
 
 ELIS, a Greek state termed the "Holy Land," in the Peloponnesus, founded by the 
 Heraclidse, 1 103 B. c. Here Iphitus revived the Olympic games, 884, which were regularly 
 celebrated after Corcebus gained the prize in 776. The city of Elis was surrendered to the 
 Spartans in a war, 399. Elis joined the Acheean league, 274 ; and with the rest of Geeece 
 was subjugated by the Romans in 146 B.C. 
 
 ELL (so named from ulna, the arm) was fixed at 45 inches, by king Henry I. in iioi. 
 The old French ell, or aime, was 46790 inches. 
 
 ELLISON GALLERY. In April, i860, Mrs. Elizabeth Ellison presented to the South 
 Kensington Museum a series of 50 original water-colour drawings, by the first masters. 
 
 ELOPEMENT. A wife who departs from her husband, loses her dower by the statute 
 of 'Westm. 1285 — unless her husband, without coercion of the church, be reconciled to her. 
 Earlier laws punished elopement with death when adultery followed. 
 
 ELPHIN (Ireland). St. Patrick founded a cathedral near Elphin, "by a river issuing from 
 two fountains," in the 5th century, and placed over it St. Asicus, whom he created bishop, and 
 who soon after filled it with monks. After many centuries, Roscommon, Ardcarn, Drumclive, 
 and others of less note, were also annexed to Elphin, which became one of the richest sees in 
 
 _ * The ship convejang them was wrecked near Cerigo. Mr. W. R. Hamilton, who was on board, re- 
 mained several months at Cerigo, and succeeded in recovering them from the sea. 
 
ELY 272 EME 
 
 Ireland. It is valued in the king's book, by an extent returned 28 Eliz., at 103Z. i8s. 
 sterling. The see was united to Kilmore in 1841, under the provisions of the Church 
 Temporalities act, passed Aug. 1833. 
 
 ELY, an island in Caniln-idgeshire, on which a church was built about 673, by Etheldreda, 
 queen of Egfrid, king of Northumberland ; she also founded a religious house, filled it with 
 virgins, and became herself first abbess. The Danes ruined the convent about 870 ; but a 
 monastery was built in 879, and filled with monk.s, on whom king Edgar and succeeding 
 monarchs bestowed great privileges and gi-ants of land ; whereby the abbey of Ely became 
 the richest in England. Richard, the eleventh abbot, wishing to free himself from the bishop 
 of Lincoln, made great interest with Henry I. to get Ely erected into a bishopric, 1 108. His 
 successor Hervseus was the first prelate, 1109. It is valued in the king's books at 
 2134Z. 1 8s. 5^., present stated income, 5500?. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OF ELY. 
 
 1781. James York, died Augr. 26, 1808. 
 1808. Thomas Dampier, died May 13, 1812. 
 1812. Bowyer Edw. Sparke, died AprU 4, iS 
 
 1S36. Joseph Allen, died M.ircli 20, 1845. 
 1845. Thomas Turton, died Jan. 7. 1864. 
 1864. Edward Harold Browne (present bishop). 
 
 ELZEVIRS, a celebrated family of printers, in Holland, whose reputation is based on 
 fine pocket editions of the classics. Their first book is dated 1683. 
 
 EMANCIPATION. See JRoman Catholics and Slavery. 
 
 EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believing that their souls, after many thousand 
 years, would reinhabit their bodies, if these were preserved entire, embalmed the dead. 
 Some of the bodies, called mummies, buried 3000 years ago, are perfect to this day. 
 "The physicians embalmed Israel," 1689 B.C. Gen. 1. 2. See Mummies* 
 
 EMBANKMENTS of earth were erected by the ancients, for preservation from their 
 enemies and the inundations of the tide. Those of the Egyptians are described by Hero- 
 dotus and Strabo. To the Romans are attributed the first dykes of Holland, and the 
 embankments of Romney Marsh, considei'ed to be the oldest in Britain. In 1250 
 Henry III. issued a writ enforcing the support of these valuable works ; and his succes- 
 sors followed his example. Janies I. greatly encouraged the embankment of the Thames. 
 Sir W. Dugdale's "History of Embanking" first appeared in 1662. See Drainage and 
 Levels. Since 1830, many millions of pounds have been expended in embankments for 
 railways. 
 
 EMBARGO, from the Spanish emhargar, to detain, applied to the restraining ships from 
 sailing. This power is vested in the crown, but is rarely exercised except in extreme cases, 
 and sometimes as a prelude to war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those 
 for the prevention of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the detention, of all 
 Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the 
 armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. 
 
 EMBER WEEKS, ordained in the Christian church in the 3rd centuiy, to implore the 
 blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and fasting, in which penitents used 
 to sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. In the English church the 
 Ember days are the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday, after — the first Sunday in Lent, 
 Whit-sunday, Sept. 14 (Holy Cross), and Dec. 13 (St Lucia). 
 
 EMBROIDERY is usually ascribed to the Phrygians ; but we learn from Homer, and 
 other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particularly excelled in this species of needlework. 
 Mention is made of this art in 1491 B.C. £xodiis xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23. See Bayenx 
 Tapestry. Embroidery is now done by machinery. The first embroideiy machine is said 
 to have been invented by John Duncan of Glasgow in 1804. Heilman's machine was 
 exhibited in Paris in 1834. 
 
 EMERALD, a precious stone, of a green colour, found in the East and in Peru. It has 
 been erroneou^y alleged that there were no true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of 
 Peru ; but there is one in the Paris Museum,' taken from the mitre of pope Julius II. who 
 died in 15 13, and Peru was not conquered till 1545. 
 
 * The most perfect specimens of modern emhahninfj are preserved in the museum of the royal college of 
 surgeons, one being the body of the wife of Van ButcheU, preserved by John Himter by injecting campho- 
 rated spirits of wine, (tc, into the arteries and veins ; and the other, the body of a young woman, who died 
 about 1780 of consumption, in the Lock hospital. The method of embalming royal personages in modern 
 times is fully described in " Hunter's Posthumous Works." He died in 1793.— During the American war 
 (1861-5) many soldiers' bodies were embalmed and sent home. 
 
EMI 
 
 273 
 
 ENA 
 
 EMIGRANTS. The French aristocracy and clergy began to leave their country in July, 
 1789, at the breaking oiit of the revolution : their estates were confiscated in Dec. A large 
 number returned in 1802, after the peace of Amiens. Many were indemnified after the 
 restoration in 1815. 
 
 EMIGEATION. Phoenician and Greek emigrants colonised the coasts of the Mediter- 
 ranean and the Black Sea (see Magna Grcecia, Marseilles, d:c.). The discovery of America 
 opened a vast field Tor emigration, which was restrained by Charles I. in 1637. It has been 
 greatly encouraged since 18 19. Regulations for emigration were made in 1831, and in Jan. 
 1840, the Colonial Land and Emigration Board was established. 
 
 Emigration from tlie United Kingdom, in 1815, 2081 ; 
 
 in 1820, 25,729; in 1830, 56,907; in 1840, 90,743; 
 
 in 1850, 280,843. 
 Emigrations to North American colonies. West 
 
 In 1846, Prom England . 87,611 From Ireland . 
 
 In 1847, Ditto . . . 153,898 Ditto . 
 
 In 1848, Ditto . , . 176,883 Ditto 
 
 In 1849, Ditto . . . 212,124 Ditto . 
 
 In 1850, Ditto . . . 214,612 Ditto 
 
 In 1851, Ditto . . . 254,970 Ditto . 
 
 Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, 
 Swan Rii^r, Van Diemen's Land, (See, in 1820-30, 
 according to of&oial returns, 154,291; in 1830-40, 
 277.695- 
 
 38,813 
 95.756 
 59.701 
 70,247 
 
 51.083 
 62,350 
 
 Prom Scotland 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 3.427 
 8,616 
 11.505 
 17,127 
 15,154 
 18,646 
 
 Total, 129,851 
 
 Total, 258,270 
 
 Total, 248,089 
 
 Total, 299,498 
 
 Total, 280,849 
 
 Total, 335,966 
 
 From' the United Kinr/dom. 
 
 In 1852 
 In 1854 
 
 . 368,764 I In 1855 
 . 323.429 I In 1857 , 
 
 . 176,807 
 . 212,875 
 
 In 1859 
 In 1861 
 
 . 120,432 
 • 9i>770 
 
 In 18 
 In 18 
 
 121,214 I In 1864 
 223,758 I 
 
 . 208,900 
 
 To Australia and New Zealand, in 1842, 8534 ; in 
 184s, 830; in 1850, 16,037; in 1852 (gold dineovery), 
 87,881; in 1853, 61,401 ; 1111854,83,237; in 1855, 
 52,309; in 1856, 44,584; in 1857, 61,248; in 1861, 
 23,738; in 1863, 53,054; in 1864, 40,942. 
 
 To North American Colonies, in 1842, 54,123 ; in 1847, 
 
 109,680 ; in 1856, 16,378 ; in 1857, 21,001 ; in 1861, 
 
 12,707; in 1863, 18,083; ill 1864, 12,721. 
 To United States, in 1842, 63,852 ; in 1847, 142,154 ; in 
 
 1857, 126,905; in 1861, 49,764; in 1862, 58,706; in 
 
 1863, 146,813; in 1864, 147,042. 
 
 EMILY ST. PIERRE. See United Slates, 1862. 
 
 EMINENCE, a title conferred upon cardinals by pope Urban YIII. Jan. 10, 1631, as 
 more honourable than "Excellency." Previously cardinals had the title of Illustrissimi. 
 Ashe. The grand-master of Malta also obtained this title. Pardon. 
 
 EMIR, a title of the caliphs among the Turks and Persians, first awarded to the descend- 
 ants of Mahomet's daughter Fatima, about 650. Ricaut. To such only was originally given 
 the privilege of wearing the green turban. 
 
 EMLY, an Irish see, said to have been founded by St. Patrick. Emly was called Imelaca- 
 Ibair ; St. Ailbe was the first bishop in 448. It is now an inconsiderable village. In 1568, 
 the see was united to Casliel. See Cashel. 
 
 EMPALEMENT. This mode of executing criminals, mentioned by Juvenal, and often 
 inflicted in Rome, is still used in TJurkey and Arabia. In England the dead bodies of mur- 
 derers were sometimes staked in this manner, previously to being buried. 
 
 EMPEROR, from Imperator (ruler), a title conferred on victorious Roman generals, and 
 taken by Julius Csesar as perpetual dictator, b. c. 46. 
 
 Augustus CiBsar the first Roman emperor B.C. 27 
 Valentinian I. first emperor of the west, and a.d. 
 
 Valens first emperor of the east . . . . 364 
 Charlemagne first emperor of Germany, crowned 
 
 by Leo III 800 
 
 Othman I. founder of the Turkish empire, the 
 
 first emperor of Turkey 1296 
 
 The Czar the first emperor of Russia . . 1722 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte first emperor of the French 1804 
 Don Pedro IV. of Portugal the first emperor of 
 
 Brazil 1825 
 
 Faustin I. the first emperor of Hayti, in 1849 ; 
 
 deposed 1859 
 
 MaximiUan I. first emperor of Mexico, April 10, 1864 
 
 EMPIRICS, a sect of physicians, formed in the 3rd century before Christ, who contended 
 that all reasoning respecting the animal economy was useless, and that experience and 
 observation alone were the foundation of medicine. The sect adopted the principles of 
 Acron of Agrigentum, who flourished about 430 B. c. 
 
 ENAMELLING was practised by the Egyptians, Chinese, and other nations, and was 
 known in England in the" time of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel, which 
 belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was made by his order, in his 
 reign, about 887. Limoges enamelled ware was popular in the i6tli century. On June 19, 
 1862, Madame Rachel sued captain Carnegie for 928?. for enamelling Ms luifes face : and 
 was non-suited. See Mosaic. 
 
ENC 
 
 274 
 
 ENG 
 
 EjSTCVENIA, Greek festivals kept on days on wliich cities were built and tem|iles con- 
 secrated ; and in later times, as at Oxford, at the celebrations of founders and benefactors. 
 Oldisivorth. They were the origin of church-wakes in England, about 600. They were also 
 feasts celebrated by the Jews on the 25th of the ninth month, in commemoration of the 
 Maccabees cleansing the temple which had been polluted by Autiochus Epiphanes, 131 B.C. 
 
 ^ ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, the art of enamelling or painting by fire. Bailey. Painting 
 ■with burnt wax is said to have been known to Praxiteles about 360 B.C. This art, after 
 having been lost, was revived by M. Bachelier, 1749, by count Caylus, 1765, and by Miss 
 Greenland, 1785 and 1792. 
 
 ENCRATITES, followers of Tatian, about 170, denounced marriage, and abstained from 
 flesh, and from wine even at the Lord's supper. 
 
 ENCUMBERED ESTATES ACT, passed in July 1849, to enable owners of land, or of 
 a lease of land, subject to encumbrance, to apply to commissioners appointed under it to 
 direct a sale of such property. These commissioners held their first court in Dublin, 
 Oct. 24, "1849, and their last July 28, 1858. A new court was established under the 
 Landed Estates act (1858). Tlie number of estates sold up to 1858 was 2380, producing 
 twenty-two millions of pounds. In 1854 a similar act was passed for the "West Indies. 
 
 ENCYCLOPAEDIA, or Cyclopedia, a general dictionaiy of art, science, and literature. 
 This name has been given to a work by Abulpharagius in the 13th century. Alsted's 
 Encycloptedia appeared in 1620, Hofmaniis Lexicon Universale in 1677, and Bayle's 
 Dictionnaire in 1696. The earliest English encyclopedia is the Lexicon Technicum of John 
 Harris, 1704; supplements, 17 10, 1741. 
 
 IjOiiis Moreri's Dictionnaire Historique , . 1673 
 Comcille's Dictionnaire des Arts . . . 1694 
 Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopajdia . . . . 1728 
 Zedler'8 Universal Lexicon . . . 1732-50 
 
 Encyclopedic (by Diderot and D'Alpmbert) 1751-80 
 [The contribdtorswere termed En CYCi.OPEDiSTES, 
 and their bold wi'itings are believed to have 
 hastened the outbreak of the French revolu- 
 tion in 1789.] 
 Encyclopfsdiu Britannica, ist edition (by Wm. 
 
 Siiiellie) 1778 
 
 [The 8th completed, 1861.] 
 
 Encyclopedie Methodique (by Pancouck) 1782-1832 
 Chambers' Cyclopaedia (edited by Rees) . . 1786 
 
 Rees' Cycloppedia 1802-19 
 
 Brockhaus's Conversations-Lexicon, ist edition 1818 
 
 . [New editions frequent.] 
 Encyclopaedia Metropolitana . . . 1829-45 
 Cabinet Cyclopasdia (a collection of treatises) 1829-46 
 
 Penny Cyclopajdia 1833-46 
 
 Kniglit's Enghsh Cyclopcedia (4 divisions) . 1853-61 
 Chambers' Cyclopsedia (now publishing) began 1859 
 Ersch and Giaiber's Allgemoine Encyclopadie, 
 began 1818 ; 125 vols, published . . . 1861 
 
 ENDEKBY LAND. See Southern Continent. 
 
 ENDOSMOSIS. M. Dutrochet, about 1826, found that if two fluids, gases or vapours, 
 of unequal density, are separated by an animal or vegetable membrane, the denser will 
 attract the less dense through the medium. This property he called endosmose, when the 
 attraction is from the outside to the inside, and exosmose, when it operates from the inside 
 to the outside. By this discovery many natural iihenomena are more clearly understood. 
 JSrande. 
 
 ENFIELD MUSKET. See Fire arvis. ' 
 
 ENGEN, Baden. Here Moreau defeated the Austrians, May 3, 1800. 
 
 ENGHIEN, or Steenkirk (S.W. Belgium). Here the British under "William III. were 
 defeated by the French under marshal Luxemburg, July 24, 1692. — A A'ictory obtained here 
 by the great Conde first gave the ducal title to a prince of the house of Bolirbon Conde. 
 Their descendant, the due d'Enghien, was seized in Baden by order of Bonaparte, conveyed 
 to Vincennes, and, after a hasty trial, shot by torch-light, immediately after condemnation, 
 March 20, 1804. The body was exhumed, March 20, 181 6. 
 
 ENGINEERS. This name is of modem date, as engineers were formerly called Trench- 
 masters. Sir "William Pelham officiated as Trench-master in 1622. The chief engineer was 
 called camp-master general in 1634. Captain Thomas Rudd had the rank of chief engineer 
 to the king about 1650. The corps of engineers was formerly a civil corp.s, but was made a 
 military force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It has a colonel-in- 
 chief, 16 colonels-commandant, and 16 colonels. Civil Engineering began to be eminent in 
 the middle of the last century, when Smeaton began the Eddystone lighthouse, and Brindlcy 
 the Bridgewater canal. Since then the Pennies, Telford, the Stephensons and Brunels, 
 Locke, and others have constructed the breakwaters^ docks, bridges, railways, tunnels, &c., 
 which are the marvel of our age. 
 
ENG 
 
 275 
 
 ENG 
 
 lias its head-quarters in Birmingham, estab- 
 lished 1847 
 
 Isambard Kingdon Brunei, projector of the 
 Great EaaUrn, aged 53, died Sept. 15 ; Robert 
 Stephenson, railway engineer, aged 59, died 
 
 Oct. 12, 1859 
 
 ENGINEERS, continued. 
 
 The first society of Civil Engineers formed by 
 
 Smeaton and others, afterwards termed the 
 " (S*ftea<o)iiara Socicf?/ of Civil Engineers . . 1793 
 Institution of Civil Engineers established in 
 
 1818 ; obtained a charter in .... 1S28 
 Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which 
 
 ENGLAND, so named by order of Egbert, jfirst king of England, in a general council 
 held at "Wincliester, 829. This appellative had been used as far back as 688, but had never 
 been, until then, ratified by any assembly of the nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of 
 Saxons, and Unci, the Saxon for countiy. See Anglo-Saxons. England and Wales were 
 united 1283 : Scotland was united under the same sovereign in 1603, and the same legis- 
 lation in 1707, when the three were styled Great Britain, Ireland was incorporated with 
 tliem, by the act of legislative union, Jan. i, 1801, and the whole was called the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. For previous history see Britain, and for further 
 details, population, revenue, fee, see separate articles. Histories of England, by Rapin (in 
 English), 1725-31 ; Thomas Carte, 1747-55 ; David Hume, 1755-62 ; Tobias Smollett, 
 1757-65 ; John Lingard, 1819-30 ; Charles Knight, 1856-62. 
 
 835 
 
 937 
 
 Egbert, "king of the English," 827; defeats the 
 Welsh, Danes, <fec. , at Hengestdown . . 
 Alfred, king, 871 ; after many vicissitudes, van- 
 quishes the Danes 871 
 
 He frames a code of laws, 890 ; forms a militia 
 and navy, surveys and subdivides the coun- 
 try, and promotes education .... 
 Athelstan's great victory over the Danes, Scots, 
 
 &c 
 
 Predominance of Dunstan ; he promotes mona- 
 
 chism and the celibacy of the clergy, about . 952 
 Ethelred compounds with the Danes for peace 991 
 A nd treacherously causes their general massacre 
 
 Nov. 13, 1002 
 Which is avenged by Swejm, king of Denmark ; 
 
 Ethelred flees to Normandy .... 1003 
 Sweyn dies, and Ethelred returns, 1014; dies . 1016 
 Canute the Dane sole nioaaroh . . . . 1017 
 Edward the Confessor king; Saxon dynasty 
 
 restored 1042 
 
 Harold II. crowned, Jan. 6 ; defeats the Noi'- 
 wegians, Sept. 25 ; defeated and slain at Has- 
 tings by William of Normandy . Oct. 14, 1066 
 William I. crowned . . . Dec. 25, ,, 
 The northern counties rebel ; ravaged from the 
 
 Humber to the Tyne .... 1069-70 
 Introduction of the feudal system, about . 1070 
 
 Justices of peace appointed 1076 
 
 Domesday book compiled .... 1085-6 
 William II. crowned . . . Sept. 26, 1087 
 
 The crusades begin 1096 
 
 Henry I. crowned ; grants a charter restoring 
 
 Saxon laws, <Sic Aug. 5, iioo 
 
 Defeats his brother Robert, and gains Nor- 
 mandy 1106 
 
 Stephen crowned .... Dec. 26, 1135 
 Civil war between the empress Maud, Henry's 
 daughter, and Stephen ; her friends the 
 Scots defeated at the battle of the Standard, 
 Aug. 22, 113S; she lands in England, and is 
 successful, 1 1 39; crowned at Winchester, 
 March 3, 1141 ; is defeated ; retires to France, 
 1 147 ; concludes a peace with Stephen . .1153 
 Henry II. crowned . . . Dec. ig, 1154 
 
 Constitutions of Clarendon enacted . Jan. 1164 
 Arrogance of Becket ; murdered . Dec. 29, 11 70 
 
 Conquest of Ireland 11 72 
 
 England divided into six circuits for the ad- 
 ministration of justice 1176 
 
 English laws digested by GlanviUe, about . 1181 
 Richard I. crowned .... Sept. 3, 11 89 
 He joins the crusades, 1191 ; defeats Saladin, 
 1 192; made prisoner by Henry VI. of Ger- 
 many, Dec. 1 192; is ransomed by his sub- 
 jects for 400,000'/ 1194 
 
 John crowned May 27, 1199 
 
 Nonnandy lost to England 1204 
 
 England put under an interdict . . . 1208 
 
 Magna Charta signed 
 Henry III. crowned . 
 Gold first coined in England . 
 The Bai-ons' war (which sue) 
 The first regular parliament . 
 Edward I. crowned 
 
 June 15, 1215 
 
 Oct. 28, 1216 
 
 • ■ I2S7 
 
 1262-8 
 
 . . 1265 
 
 Nov. 20, 1272 
 
 • • 1347 
 
 ■ 1350 
 
 Sept. 19, 1356 
 
 . 1362 
 
 June 22, 1377 
 
 Wales united to England 1283 
 
 Death of Roger Bacon ..... 1292 
 
 Scotland subdued, 1296 ; revolts . . . . 1297 
 Edward II. crowned .... July 8, 1307 
 Defeated by Robert Bruce at Bannockburn, 
 
 June 24, 1314 
 Insurrection of the barons against his favourites 
 
 1308, 131S, 1325 
 Edward III. crowned . . . Jan. 25, 1327 
 
 Defeats the Scots at Hallidown-hill . . . 1333 
 Invades Prance ; victorious at Crecy Aug. 26, 1346 
 
 Takes Calais 
 
 Order of the Garter instituted 
 
 Victory at Poictiers 
 
 Law pleadings in English . 
 
 Richard II. crowned 
 
 Insurrection of Wat Tyler suppressed 
 
 Death of VVickliffe i|8s 
 
 Henry IV. crowned . . . Sept. 30, 1399 
 
 Order of the Bath instituted by Henry IV. . ,, 
 Insurrection of the Percies and the Welsh . 1403-5 
 Henry V. crowned . . . March 21, 1413 
 
 Prance invaded by Henry V. who gains the 
 
 battle of Agincourt . . . Oct. 25, 1415 
 
 Treaty of Troyes ; the French crown gained by 
 
 Henry 1420 
 
 Henry VI. crowned at Paris . . . Dec. 1430 
 Appearance of the maid of Orleans ; the French 
 
 conquests lost, except Calais . . . 1429-31 
 Edward IV. deposes Henry VI. . March 4, 1461 
 War of the Roses. (See Roses and Battles) . 1455-71 
 Printing introduced by Caxton .... 1471 
 Edward V. accession . . . April 9, 1483 
 Richard III, deposes Edward V. . June 25, ,, 
 Henry VII. accession ; Richard defeated and 
 
 slain at Bosworth field . . Aug. 22, 1485 
 Henry marries Ehzabeth, daughter of Edw. IV. 14S6 
 Insurrection of Lambert Simnel quelled . 1486-7 
 Court of Star Chamber instituted . . . 1487 
 Yeomen of the guard, the first appearance of a 
 
 standing army in England, instituted . . 148S 
 Heni'y sells the sovereignty of I'rance . . 1492 
 Insurrection of Perkin Warbeck qvielled . 1492-8 
 Gardening introduced into England, principally 
 
 from the Netherlands . . . about 1502 
 Death of prince Arthur . . April 2, ,, 
 
 Henry VIII. accession , . . April 22, 1509 
 
 Rise of Wolsey 1514 
 
 Henry VIII. 's interview with Francis I at 
 
 Ardres. (See " Field of the Cloth of Gold.'') 
 
 June 4-25, 1520 
 First map of England drawn by G. Lilly, about 15^0 
 
 T 2 
 
ENG 
 
 276 
 
 ENG 
 
 ENGLAND, continued. 
 
 Henry VIII. becomes " Defender of the Faitli " 1521 
 Fall of Wolsey : lie dies . . . Nov. 29, 1530 
 Henry VIII. marries Anne Boleyn ; divorces 
 
 Catherine May 23, 1533 
 
 Henry VIII. is .style "Head of the Church" . 1534 
 The pope's authority in England is abolished . , , 
 Sir Tbomas More beheaded . . July 6, 1535 
 
 Queen ATme Boleyn beheaded . May 19, 1536 
 Queen Jane Seymour dies . . . Oct. 24, 1537 
 
 Monasteries suppressed 1538 
 
 Statute of Six Articles passed .... 1539 
 Abbots of Glastonbury, Reading, (fee, executed „ 
 The first authorised edition of the Bible (Cran- 
 
 mer's) priuted 1 
 
 Cromwell, lord Essex, beheaded . . . 1540 
 Anne of Cleves divorced . . . July 9, ,, 
 Queen Catherine Howard beheaded . . . 1542 
 The title of " king of Ii-eland " confirmed to the 
 
 English sovereigns 1543 
 
 Henry marries Catherine Parr . . July 12, ,, 
 Edward VI. accession, Jan. 28 ; promotes the 
 
 Reformation (Somerset, protector) . . . 1547 
 Somerset deprived of power, 1549; beheaded . 1552 
 Book of Common Prayer established . . ,, 
 Mary, accession July 6 ; restores popery . . 1553 
 Execution of lady Jane Grey and her friends . 1554 
 Mary marries Philip of Spain ; persecutes the 
 
 Protestants ,, 
 
 Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer burnt 1555 <& 1556 
 Calai.s retaken by the French .... 1558 
 Elizabeth, accession Nov. 17 ; the church of 
 
 England re-established ,, 
 
 Mary, queen of Scots, lands in England, 1568 ; 
 
 executed Feb. 8, 1587 
 
 The Spanish armada 1588 
 
 Devereux, earl of Essex, beheaded . . . i6oi 
 James I. accession ; union of the two crowns, 
 
 March 24, 1603 
 Assumes the style of "king of Great Britain," 
 
 Oct. 24, 1604 
 
 The Gunpowder plot 1605 
 
 The present translation of the Bible completed . i6n 
 Baronets first created . . . May, ,, 
 
 The Overbury murder . . . Sept. 15, 1613 
 Shakspeare dies .... April 23, 1616 
 
 Raleigh beheaded 1618 
 
 Book of Sports published . . . May 24, ,, 
 Charles I. accession . . . March 27, 1625 
 Death of lord Bacon .... April q, 1626 
 Duke of Buckingham assassinated Aug. 23, 1628 
 Hampden's trial respecting "ship money " . 1637 
 Contest between the king and pai-liament ; im- 
 peachment and execution of lord Strafford . 1641 
 " Arrest of the five members," Jan. 4; the civil 
 war begins : battle of Edgehill (see Battles), 
 
 Oct. 23, 1642 
 Archbishop Laud beheaded . . Jan. 10, 1645 
 Charles defeated at Naseby . . June 14, ,, 
 He flees to the Scotch, May 5 ; who give him up 
 
 Sept. 21, 1646 
 Execution of Charles I. . . . Jan. 30, 1649 
 Cromwell s victory at Worcester . Sept. 3, 1651 
 Oliver Cromwell made protector of the Com- 
 monwealth 1653 
 
 Richard Cromwell, protector . Sept. 3, 1658 
 
 Rich ird resigns May 25, 1659 
 
 Charles II. : monarchy reestabHshed, May 29, 1660 
 Act of uniformity passed ; church of England 
 
 restored 1662 
 
 The great plague 1665 
 
 The great fire of London . . Sept. 2, 3, 1666 
 
 Disgr I ce of lord Clarendon .... 1667 
 
 Death of Milton .... Nov. 8, 1674 
 
 Oates's "Popish plot" creates a panic, Aug. 13, 1678 
 Sir Edmondbury Godfrey found murdered, 
 
 Oct. 17, „ 
 JIany Roman Catholics executed . . 1078-9 
 The habeas corpus act, for protecting English 
 subjects af^ainst false arrest and imprison- 
 ment, passed 1679 
 
 "Rye-house plot;" lord Russell (July 21) and 
 
 Algernon Sydney (Nov. 21) executed . . 1683 
 
 James II. accession .... Feb. 6, 1685 
 Duke of Monmoutb's rebellion defeated ar Sedg- 
 
 moor, July 6 ; he is beheaded . July 15, ,, 
 Acquittal of the seven bishops . . June 30, 1688 
 Abdication of James II. . . . Dec. 11, ,, 
 William III. and Mary proclaimed by the con- 
 vention parhament . . . Feb. 13, i68g 
 
 National debt begins 1692 
 
 Bank of England incorporated . April 25, 1694 
 Death of the queen regnant, Mary . Dec. 28, ,, 
 
 Peace of Ryswick 1697 
 
 Death of James II. in exile . . Sept. 16, 1701 
 Anne, accession .... March 8, 1702 
 
 Victory nf Marlborough at Blenheim . . . 1704 
 Union of the two kingdoms under the title of 
 Great Britain .... May i, 1707 
 
 Sacheverell riots . . . . . . .1710 
 
 Treaty of Utrecht, advantageous to Great 
 
 Britain April ii, 1713 
 
 George I. ; accession of the house of Hanover, 
 
 Aug. I, 1714 
 The Scots' rebellion quelled .... 1715 
 
 South sea bubble 1720 
 
 Death of the duke of Marlborough . . . 1722 
 Order of the Bath revived {which 3ce) . . . 1725 
 George II. accession . . . June 11, 1727 
 
 Death of Newton .... March 20, ,, 
 George II. present at the victory of Dettingen, 
 
 June 16, 1743 
 Second Scots' rebellion : prince Charles-Edward 
 gains Edinburgh, Sept. 17 ; victor at freston- 
 pans, Sept. 21, 1745 ; at Falkirk, Jan. 18 ; de- 
 feated totally at Culloden . . April 16, 1746 
 Death of prince Frederick Louis, son of George 
 
 II. and father of George III 1751 
 
 New style introduced into England, 
 
 Sept. 3 (made 14) 1752 
 
 Seven years' war begins 1756 
 
 Conquest of India begins, under colonel (after- 
 wards lord; Clive. (See India) . . . . 1757 
 Death of general Wolfe (See Quebec) . . 1759 
 George III. accession . . . Oct. 25, 1760 
 His nuptials with Charlotte Sophia, of Meck- 
 lenburg Strelitz, Sept. 8 ; crowned, Sept. 22, 1761 
 
 Peace of Paris 1763 
 
 Isle of Man annexed to Great Britain . . 1765 
 Death of the Old Pretender, the " chevalier de 
 
 St. George" Dec. 30, „ 
 
 Royal marriage act passed . . . . . 1772 
 Commencement of American war . . . 1773 
 Death of earl of Chatham . . May 11, 1778 
 " No Popery " riots . . . . June 2-7, 1780 
 Separation of America from England Nov. 30, 1782 
 Margaret Nicholson's attempt on the life of 
 
 George III Aug. 2, 1786 
 
 Trial of Warren Hastings begins . Feb. 13, 1788 
 Death of the Young Pretender, at Rome, 
 
 March 3, ,, 
 The king's illness made known . . Oct. 12, „ 
 He recover.^, and goes to St. Paul's to m.ako 
 
 tlianksgiving .... April 23, 1789 
 First coalition against France . . June 26, 1792 
 Habeas Coi-pus act suspended . May 23, 1794 
 
 Howe's victory June i, ,, 
 
 Marriage of the prince of Wales with the pi in- 
 
 cess Caroline of Brunswick . . April 8, 179; 
 Warren Hastings' trial ends ; acquitted, 
 
 April 17, ,, 
 Princess Charlotte bom . . . Jan. 7, 1796 
 
 Cash payments suspended . . Feb. 25, 1797 
 
 Death of Edmund Burke . . July 8, „ 
 
 Battle of the Nile .... Aug. i, 1798 
 Habeas Corpus act again suspended . Aug. ,, 
 Hatfield's attempt on the king's life May 11, 1800 
 Union of Great Britain with Ireland . Jan. i, 1801 
 Nelson's victory at C'lpenlagen . April 2, „ 
 Habeas Corpus act again suspended April 19, ,, 
 Peace of Amiens .... Oct. i, „ 
 
ENG 
 
 277 
 
 ENG 
 
 ENGLAND, continued. 
 
 War against Bonaparte . . . May i8, 1803 
 Nelson's victory and death at Trafalgar Oct. 21' 1805 
 Death of Mr. Pitt .... Jan. 23, 1806 
 
 " Delicate investigation " . . . May 22 
 Lord Melville impeached, April 29 : acquitted,' 
 ^ , June 12, ,, 
 
 Death of Charles James Pox . . Sept. 13, 
 Orders in council against the Berlin decree, ' " 
 
 Jan. 7, 1807 
 Abolition of the slave trade . March 25, 
 
 Death of sir J, Moore. (See Corunna) Jan. 16^ 1809 
 Duke of York impeached by col. Wardle Jan. „ 
 Jubilee celebrating king's accession . Oct. 25, „ 
 Unfortunate Walcheren expedition Aug. -Nov. 
 Sir Francis Burdett's arrest, and riots April 6, 1810 
 Death of princess Amelia ; king's malady returns 
 
 Nov. 2. „ 
 Great commercial embarrassment . Dec. ,, 
 Regency. —The prince of Wales prince regent, 
 
 Luddite nots Nov. 
 
 Assassination of Mr. Perceval, premier. May 11, 1812 
 Earl of Liverpool premier . . . June 9, 
 War with America commenced . June 18^ ,' 
 Peace with France, &c. . . . April 14, 1814 
 Visit of the em23eror of Russia and king of 
 Prussia to England . . . June 7, 
 Centenary of the house of Hanover . Aug. i' 
 
 War with Americi Aug. 
 
 Peace with America (treaty of Ghent) Dec. 24, " 
 Battle of Waterloo (close of French war),Jime 18, 1815 
 Princess Charlotte marries prince Leopold, of 
 
 . July 9, „ 
 Dec. 2, ,, 
 . Feb. 2, 
 Feb. 2T, 
 Sept. 23, 
 . Nov. 6, 
 Nov. 17, 
 May 24, 
 Aug. 16, 
 Jan. 23, 
 Jan. 29, 
 Feb. 23, 
 
 Saxe-Coburg 
 
 Death of R. B. Sheridan 
 
 Spa-fields meeting (which see) . 
 
 Green-bag inquiry (which see) 
 
 Habeas Corpus act suspended 
 
 Cash payments resumed . 
 
 Princess Charlotte dies in childbirth 
 
 Queen Charlotte dies at Kew . 
 
 Queen Victoria born 
 
 Manchester reform meeting 
 
 Duke of Kent dies 
 
 George IV. accession 
 
 Cato-street conspirators arrested 
 
 Trial of queen Caroline . Aug. 19 to Nov. 10, 
 
 Coronation of George IV. . . July ig, 
 
 Queen Caroline dies at Hammersmith Aug. 7' 
 
 Lord Byron dies .... April ig. 
 
 Commercial panic i 
 
 Duke of York dies .... Jan. 22, 
 
 Mr. Canning, first minister, April 30 ; dies, 
 
 Aug. 8, 
 
 Battle of Navarino ... 
 
 Roman Catholic Relief bill passed 
 
 Political panic in London ; riots 
 
 William IV! accession . . . „ „.^^ ^„, 
 
 Mr. Huskisson killed at the opening of the 
 Liverpool and Manchester railway Sept. 15, 
 
 Grey administration formed . . . Nov. 
 
 King opens new London bridge . . Aug. 
 
 The cholera morbus in England • . Oct. 26, 
 Reform bill rejected by the lords, Oct. 7 ; fatal 
 
 Bristol riots Oct. 29, 
 
 Reform act passed .... June 7, 
 Sir Walter Scott dies . . . Sept. 21, 
 Assault on William IV. by a discharged pen- 
 sioner at Ascot .... June 19, 
 S. T. Coleridge dies .... July 25^ 
 Slavery ceases in the colonies . . Aug. i, 
 Corporation reform act passed . . Sept. 9, 
 Queen Victoria, accession ; Hanover separated 
 from Great Britain . . . June 20, 
 Coronation of Victoria . . . June 28, 
 
 Beginning of war with China . . March, 
 Penny postage begins . . . Jan. lo. 
 
 Marriage of the queen with prince xVlbert of 
 Saxe-Coburg (see p. 281) . . Feb. 10, 
 Oxford's assault on the queen . . June 10, 
 Prince of Wales born . . . Nov. 9' 
 
 1817 
 
 1818 
 1819 
 
 1820 
 
 1824 
 825-6 
 1827 
 
 Oct. 20, 
 April 13, 
 
 Nov. 9, 
 June 26, 
 
 1829 
 1830 
 
 1834 
 183s 
 1837 
 
 1841 
 
 King of Prussia visits England . Jan. 24, 1842 
 John Francis fires at the queen . . May 30, ,, 
 Bean presents a pistol at her . . July 3, „ 
 
 Income tax act passed . . . Aug. ,, 
 
 Queen embarks for Scotland (ist visit) Aug. 29, ,, 
 Peace of Nankin (with Cliina) . . Dec. ,, 
 Death of duke of Sussex . . . April 21, 1843 
 Queen's visit to the Orleans family at chateau 
 
 d'Eu Sept. 2, ,, 
 
 Emperor of Russia visits England . June i, 1844 
 King Louis Philippe's visit . . Oct. 7, ,, 
 Tractarian or Puseyite controversy . . 1844-5 
 Anti-corn-law agitation .... . 1845 
 
 Queen's visit to Germany . . . Aug. 9, „ 
 Peel's new tariff, 1845 ; railway mania, Nov. 
 
 184s ; panic March, 1846 
 
 Corn laws repealed .... June 26, ,, 
 Chartist demonstration in London . April 10, 1S48 
 Cholera re-appears in England in . 1848 and 1849 
 Queen embarks on her visit to Ireland, Aug. i, „ 
 Adelaide, queen dowager, dies . Dec. 2, ,, 
 
 " Exhibition of 185 1 " announced . Jan. 3, 1850 
 Death of Wordsworth (aged 80) . April 23, „ 
 Pate's assault on the queen . . June 27, ,, 
 
 Death of su- Robert Peel (aged 62) . July 2, „ 
 
 Duke of Cambridge dies . . . July 8, „ 
 Queen's visit to Belgium . . Aug. 21, ,, 
 Great excitement occasioned by the pope's 
 establishment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy 
 
 in England Nov. ,, 
 
 Census of United Kingdom. (See Papulation) 
 
 March 30, 1851 
 The first "Great Exhibition " opened May i, ,, 
 Australian gold arrives . . . Dec. ,, 
 
 Death of the poet Thomas Moore . Feb. 26, 1852 
 Slight earthquake at Liverpool, <fec. Nov. 9, „ 
 Death of WeUington (aged 83), Sept. 14 ; funeral, 
 
 Nov. 18, ,, 
 Camp at Chobham . . -June 14 — Aug. 19, 1853 
 Death of sir Charles Napier, conqueror of 
 
 Scinde Aug. 29, ,, 
 
 English and French fleets enter Bosphorus, 
 
 Oct. 22, ,, 
 Protocol signed between England, France, 
 Austria, and Prussia, for re-establishment of 
 peace between Russia and Turkey Dec. 5, ,, 
 Many meetings on eastern question, favourable 
 
 to Turkey .... Sept. to Dec. „ 
 Great strike at Preston ; 14,972 hands unem- 
 ployed at one time . Oct. 15, 1853, to May i, 1854 
 Queen reviews Baltic fleet . ." March 11, „ 
 Treaty of alliance between England, France, 
 
 and Turkey signed . . . March 12, ,, 
 War declared against Russia. (See Jiusso- 
 
 Turkish War) .... March 28, ,, 
 Fast day on account of the war . April 26, „ 
 Marquis of Anglesey dies . . May 28, ,, 
 
 King of Portugal visits England . June, ,, 
 Crystal Palace opened by the queen June 10, ,, 
 Cholera prevails in the south and west of 
 
 London .... Aug. and Sept. , , 
 Thanksgiving for abundant harvest . Oct. i, „ 
 Great explosion and fire at Gateshead and 
 
 Newcastle .... 
 Meeting of ParUament ... 
 Resignation of Aberdeen ministry . Jan. 29I 1855 
 Formation of Palmerston ministry 
 Death of Joseph Hume (aged 78) . ^^^ 
 Sebastopol Inquiry Committee nominated, 
 
 Feb. 23, 
 Visit of emperor and empress of French, 
 
 April 16 to 21, 
 Loan of 16 millions agreed to . . April, 
 Distribution of Crimean medals . May 18, 
 Metropolitan cattle market opened June 13, 
 Agitation and rioting concemin 
 trading bill, which is withdrawn 
 The queen and prince visit Paris . --"s. *«, 
 Peace with Russia proclaimed, April 19; thanks- 
 giving day. May 4 ; illuminations, &c. May 29, 1856 
 
 Oct. 6, 
 
 Dec. 12, 
 
 Jan. 29, 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Feb. 20, 
 
 Sunday 
 
 July 2, 
 
 Aug. 18, 
 
ENG 
 
 278 
 
 ENG 
 
 ENGLAND, continued. 
 
 War with China {which see) . . . Oct. 1856 
 
 War with Persia (wAic/j sfe) . . . Nov. „ 
 
 Dissohxtion of parliament, March 21 ; now 
 parUament moots . . . April 30, 1857 
 
 Death of duchess of Gloucester (aged 81), the 
 last of George lll.'s children . April 30, ,, 
 
 Mutiny of Indian army begins. (See Imlia) 
 
 March, ,, 
 
 Educational conference in London, prmce 
 Albert in the chair . . . June 22, ,, 
 
 Victoria crosses (which see) distributed by the 
 queen in Hyde-park . . . June 26, „ 
 
 Meetings for relief of sufferers by the nmtiny 
 in India [by Nov. 15, 260,000?. raised] Aug. 25, „ 
 
 Great commercial panic ; relieved by suspension 
 of Bank Charter Act of 1844 . Nov. 12, ,, 
 
 Parliament meets .... Dec. 3, ,, 
 
 Marriage of princess royal to prince Frederick- 
 William of Prussia . . . Jan. 25, 1858 
 
 Excitement respecting attempted assassination 
 of Louis Napoleon, Jan. 14 ; indiscreet ad- 
 dresses of French colonels, published, Jan. 27, ,, 
 
 "Conspiracy to Murder" bill (introduced by 
 lord Palmerston, Feb. 8) rejected, Feb. 19; 
 Palmerston ministry resigns . Feb. 22, ,, 
 
 Derby-Disraeli administration formed, Feb. 26, „ 
 
 Dr. Simon Bernard acquitted of conspiracy 
 against the liCe of Louis Napoleon April 17, ,, 
 
 The Jewish Disabilities bill passed . July 12, ,, 
 
 The India bill passed . . . July 23, „ 
 
 The queen visits Birmingham, June 15 ; Cher- 
 bourg, Aug. 4, 5 ; the princess royal (at Pots- 
 d.am), Aug. 12, Ac. ; and Leeds ' . Sept. i, ,, 
 
 Excitement about the confessional ; public 
 meetings held against it, July 12 & Sept. 18, ,, 
 
 The Association for the Promotion of Social 
 Science meet at Liverpool . . Oct. 12, ,, 
 
 Excitement respecting the Italian war ; pro- 
 clamation for manning-the navy . April 30, 1S59 
 
 Declaration of neutrality of England May 12, ,, 
 
 Proclamation for the organisation of volunteer 
 rifle corps : many formed . May — Oct. ,, 
 
 The Derby ministry defeated on the Eeform 
 
 bill ; dissolve parliament, April 23 ; again 
 
 defeated, they resign, June 11 ; and the 
 
 Palmerston-Russell admmistration is formed 
 
 Juno 18, 
 
 The Handel commemoration . June 20, 22, 24, 
 
 The income-tax increased to provide for the 
 defences of the country ... . July, 
 
 Lord Macaulay dies (aged 59) . . Doc. 28, 
 
 Commercial treaty with France, signed Jan. 23; 
 approved by parliament . . . March, 18C0 
 
 Sir Charles Barry dies (aged 65) . May 12, 
 
 The queen reviews 18,000 volunteers in Hydo- 
 Park June 23, 
 
 Great failures in the leather trade . July, &c. 
 
 National rifle shooting match at Wimbledon, 
 
 July 2-7, 
 The earl of Derby reviews about 11,000 Lanca- 
 shire volunteers at Knowsley . Sept. 1, 
 The queen and prince visit their daughter in 
 Prussia ...... Sept. 
 
 Peace with China signed . . . Oct. 24, 
 Thos. Cochrane, earl of Dundonald, dies (aged 82) 
 
 Oct. 31, 
 
 Prince of Wales visits Canada and United 
 
 States, July 24 — Oct. 20 ; returns to England 
 
 Nov. 15, 
 
 Severe cold. (See Cold) . Dec. 1S60, and Jan. 1S61 
 
 Charter granted for E.xhibition of 1862, Fob. 14, 1861 
 Death of duchess of Kent (aged 75), March i6,. ,, 
 Excitement about " Essays and Reviews " . ,, 
 Seventh census taken . . . April 8, ,, 
 Great excitement through capt. Wilkes (of U. S. 
 navy) forcibly taking Messrs. Slidell and 
 Mason from the Royal British mail steamer 
 Trent. (See United States) . . Nov. 8, • „ 
 King of Sweden and his son vi.sit London Aug. „ 
 Death of the prince consort of " typboid fever, 
 duration 21 days," Dec. 14 ; buried (see Albert 
 Mchiorial) . . , . . Dec. 23, ,, 
 The United States' government release Messrs. 
 
 Slidell and Mason . . . Dec. 28, „ 
 
 International E.xhibition opened by the duke 
 
 of Cambridge May i, 1862 
 
 Prince Alfred declai-od king of Greece at Athens 
 
 (declined) Oct. 23, ,, 
 
 Final closing of international exhibition.No v. 15, „ 
 Remains of the prince consort transferred to 
 
 the rQausoleum at Frogmore . Dec. 18, „ 
 Great distress m the cotton manufacture dis- 
 tricts begins, April : contributions received, 
 central relief fund, 407,830!. ; Mansion-house 
 
 fund, 236,926/ Dec. 20, „ 
 
 Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London, 
 March 7 ; married to the prince of Wales, 
 
 March 10, 1863 
 The British, French, and Austrian governments 
 remonstrate witli Russia on cruelt ies in Poland 
 
 April 7, ,, 
 Inauguration of the Great Exfiibition memorial 
 to the ijrince consort in the Horticultural 
 gardens, London . . . June 11, ,, 
 
 Arrival of captains Grant and Spoke from ex- 
 ploring the source of the Nile . June, ,, 
 Great decrease of distress in cotton districts, Oct. „ 
 I^arthquake in central & N. W. England Oct. 6, „ 
 Tlic government declines tbe French emperor's 
 
 proposal for a congress of sovereigns Nov. ,, 
 Death of Williani Thackeray (aged 52) Dec. 24, ,, 
 Birth of prince Albort-^'ictor of Wales Jan. 8, 1864 
 Fiual judgment of the judicial committee of 
 the pris'^' council that the government had 
 no authority to seize the A lexaiulra (Confede- 
 rate) s-teamer Feb. 8, ,, 
 
 Garibaldi's visit to England causes gi-eat enthu- 
 siasm April 3-27, ,, 
 
 The Ionian isles made over to Greece June i, „ ■ 
 European conference at London on the Schles- 
 
 wig-Holstein question . April 24 — June 25, „ 
 Gi-eat excitement through the murder of Mr. 
 Briggs in a first-class carriage on the North- 
 London railway . . . . July g, , , 
 Great explosion of gunpowder at the Belvedere 
 
 magazine, near Woolwich . . Oct. i, ., 
 Dsath of John Leech (aged 47) . Oct. 29, ,, 
 
 Death of Richard Cobden (aged 61) . Apiil 2, 1865 
 Prince George of Wales born . June 3, ,, 
 
 General election ; majority for Palmerston ad- 
 
 ministr.ation .... July jo, ifec. ., 
 Visit of x\bd-el-Kadcr ; departs . Aug. 6, ,, 
 Prevalence of a cattle plague, June — Oct. 
 
 Royal commission appointed, mot Oct. 10, „ 
 English fleet visits Cherbourg, Aug. 15 ; French 
 
 fleet visits Portsmouth . . Aug 30, „ 
 
 Fine Art and Industrial exhibitions opened in 
 
 London and the provinces . Jul^-— Sept. „ 
 Death of Lord Palmerston . . Oct. 18, ,, 
 
 His public funeral . , . . Oct. 27, ,, 
 
 KIXCS .4.XD QUEEX.S OF ENGLAND. 
 
 BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 
 
 ■ S27. Egbert, stjded " king of England " iu S:;S. 
 837. Ethelwolf ; bis son. 
 857. Ethelbald ; his son. 
 S60. Ethelbert; brother. 
 
 901. 
 923. 
 
 Etheh-ed ; brother. 
 
 Alfred the Great; brother; died 21st or 28th 
 
 Oct. 901. 
 Edward the Elder ; son ; died 923. 
 Athelstan ; eldest son ; died Oct." 17, 940. 
 
ENG 
 
 279 
 
 ENG 
 
 ENGLAND, continued. 
 
 940. Edmund I., fifth son of Edward the Elder; 
 
 bled to death from a wound received in an 
 
 affray, May 26, 946. 
 946. Edred ; brother ; died 955. 
 955. Edwy, eldest son of Edmund ; died of grief in 
 
 958. In this reign Dunstau, a turbulent 
 
 and ambitious priest, ruled the king, who 
 
 afterwards banished him. 
 958. Edgar the Peaceable; brother; died July i, 
 
 97S- 
 975. Edward the Martyr, his son, stabbed at Corfe 
 
 Castle, at the instance of his mother-in-law 
 
 Elfrida, March 18, 979. 
 979. Ethelred II. ; half-brother ; retired. 
 
 1013. Sweyn, proclaimed king ; died Feb. 3, 1014. 
 
 1014. Canute the Great ; his son. 
 
 1015. Ethelred restored in Canute's absence ; died 
 
 April 24, 1016. 
 
 1016. Edmund Ironside, his son, divided the kingdom 
 
 with Canute ; murdered at Oxford, Nov. 30, 
 1016 ; reigned seven months. 
 
 1017. Canute sole king ; married Emma, widow of 
 
 Etheh-ed; died, Nov. 12, 1035. 
 1035. Harold I. ; natural son ; died April 14, 1039. 
 1039. Hardicanute, son of Canute and Emma ; died 
 
 of repletion at a marriage feast, June 8, 1042. 
 1042. Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred and 
 
 Emma ; died Jan. 5, 1066, naming William 
 
 of Normandy his successor. 
 ;to65. Harold II., son of earl Godwin ; reigned nine 
 
 months ; killed near Hastings, Oct. 14, 1066. 
 
 THE NORMANS.* 
 
 1066., William the Conqueror; crowned Dec. 25; 
 died at Rovien, Sept. g, 1087. 
 Queen, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of 
 Flanders ; married in 1054 ; died in 1083. 
 
 10S7. William II. Rufus ; reign loegan, Sept. 26 ; 
 killed by an arrow, Aug. 2, iioo. 
 
 1 100. Henry I. Beauclerc, his brother ; reign began 
 Aug. 5 ; died of a surfeit, Dec. i, 1135. 
 Qiieens, Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king 
 of Scotland; married Nov. ir, iioo; died 
 May I, 1119. 2. Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, 
 earl of Louvaine ; married Jan. 29, 1129 ; 
 survived the king. 
 
 1 1 33. Stephen earl of Blois, nephew of Henry ; 
 reign began Dec. 26; died Oct. 25, 1154. 
 Queen, Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of 
 Boulogne ; married in 1128 ; died May 3, 1151. 
 [Maude, daughter of Henry I. and right- 
 ful heir to the throne; born iioi; be- 
 trothed, in 1 109, at eight years of age, to 
 Henry V. emperor of Germany, who died 
 1125. She married, secondly, Geoffrey Plan- 
 tagenet, earl of Anjou, 11 30. Was set aside 
 from the English succession by Stephen, 
 113s ; landed in England and claimed the 
 crown, 1139. Crowned, but soon after de- 
 
 feated at Winchester, 1141 ; concluded a 
 peace with Stephen, which secured the 
 succesionto her sonHenry,'ii53; died 1165.] 
 
 THE PLANTAQEXETS. 
 
 , Henry II. Plantcifienet, grandson of Henry I. 
 and son of Maud ; reign began Dec. 19 ; 
 died July 6, iiSg. 
 
 Queen, Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis 
 VII. king of France, and heiress of Guienne 
 and Poitou ; married to Henry 1151 ; died 
 1204. See Rosamond. 
 
 Richard I. Cceur de Lion, his son ; reign began 
 Sept. 3 ; died of a wound, Ajji-il 6, 11 99. 
 
 Queen, Berengaria, daughter of the king of 
 Navarre ; married May 12, 1191 ; survived 
 the king. 
 
 John, the brother of Richard; reign began 
 May 27 ; died Oct. 19, 1216. 
 
 Queens, Avisa, daughter of the earl of Glouces- 
 ter ; married in 1189; divorced. 2. Isabella, 
 daughter of the count of Angouleme : she 
 was the young and virgin wife of the count 
 de la Marche ; married to John in 1200. 
 Survived the king, on whose death she was 
 re-mari-ied to the count de la Marche. 
 
 Henry III. son of John ; reign began Oct. 28 ; 
 died Nov. 16, 1272. 
 
 Queen, Eleanor, daughter of the count de 
 Provence ; married Jan. 14, 1236 ; survived 
 the king ; and died in 1291, in a monastery. 
 
 Edward I. sen of Henry, sumamed Longshauks : 
 reign began Nov. 20 ; died July 7, 1307. 
 
 Queens, Eleanor of Castile ; married in 1253 ; 
 died of a fever, on her journey to Scotland, 
 at Grantham, in Lincolnshire, 1290. 2. Mar- 
 garet, sister of the king of France ; married 
 Sept. 12, 1299; siu-vived the king, dying in 
 
 1317- 
 
 Edward II. son of Edward I. ; reign began 
 July 8 ; dethroned Jan. 20, 1327 ; murdered^ 
 at Berkeley castle. Sept, 21 following. 
 
 Queen, Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; 
 married in 1308. On the death, by the 
 gibbet, of her favourite Mortimer, she was 
 confined for the rest of her life in her own 
 hoiise at Risings, near London, and died in 
 
 1357- 
 
 Edward III. his son ; reign began Jan. 25 ; 
 died June 21, 1377. 
 
 Queen, Philippa, daughter of the count of 
 Hainault ; mari'ied in 1326 ; died Aug. 15, 
 1369. 
 
 Richard II. son of Edward the Black Prince, 
 and grandson of Edward III. ; reign began 
 June 22 ; dethroned Sept. 29, 1399 ; mur- 
 dered at Pomfret castle, Feb. 10, following. 
 
 Queens, Anne of Bohemia, sister of the emperor 
 Wenceslaus of Gei-many; married in Jan. 
 
 * The REGNAL-DATES are those given by sir H. Nicolas. The early Norman and Plantagenet kings reckoned 
 their reigns from the day of their coronation ; the later Plantagenets from the day after the death of their 
 predecessor. With Edward VI. began the present custom of beginning the reign on the death of the 
 preceding sovereign. 
 
 EOTAL ARMS OF ENGLAND. 
 
 WiUiam I. William II. and .Henry I. — two Uons or 
 leopards passant : Stephen — Sagittarius, the archer 
 of the signs of the Zodiac (Treiditional). 
 
 Henry II. to Edward II. Three hons passant. 
 
 Edward III. and his successors quartered the pre- 
 ceding with fieurs de lys, the arnis of France. 
 
 Henry V. used only 3 fleurs de lys. 
 
 Mary I. quartered the preceding with the arms of 
 her husband Philip II. of Spain. 
 
 TJNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 James I. and his successors combined the arms of 
 
 England and France (ist and 4th quarter); 2ud, 
 
 the lion rampant of Scotland ; 4th, the hai-p of 
 
 Ireland. 
 George I. George II. and George III. introduced the 
 
 arms of Brunswick. 
 In 1801 the arms of France were omitted. In 1816 
 
 the arms were modified through Hanover being 
 
 made a kingdom. 
 Victoria. In 1837 the anns of Hanover were omitted 
 
 and the arms are now : ist and 4th quarters, 3 
 
 lions passant for England ; 2nd, lion rampant for 
 
 Scotland ; 3rd, harp for Ireland. 
 
ENG 
 
 280 
 
 ENG 
 
 ENGLAND, continued. 
 
 1382; died Avig. 3, 1394. 2. Isabella, daughter 
 of diaries V. of France ; married when only 
 seven years old, Nov. i, 1396. On the 
 murder of her husband she returned to her 
 father. 
 
 HOUSE OF LAKCASTEB. 
 
 1399. Henry IV. cousin of Richard II. ; reign began 
 Sept. 30 ; died March 20, 1413. 
 Queens, Mary, daughter of the earl of Hereford 
 she died, before Henry obtained the crown, 
 in 1394. 2. Joan of NavaiTe, widow of the 
 duke of Bretagne ; married 1403 ; survived 
 the king ; died 1437. 
 
 1413. Henry V. his son ; reign began March 21 ; 
 died Aug. 31, 1422. 
 Queen, Catherine, daughter of the. king of 
 France ; married May 30, 1420. She outlived 
 Henry, and was married to Owen Tudor, 
 gi-andfather of Henry VII., in 1423 ; died 
 
 1437- 
 1422. Henry VI. his son ; reign began Sept. i ; 
 deposed March 4, 1461 ; murdered by Richard, 
 duke of Gloucester, in the Tower, June 20, 
 1471. 
 Queen, Margaret, daughter of the duke of 
 Anjou ; married April 22, 1445 ; survived 
 the king ; died Aug. 25, 1481. 
 
 HOUSE OP YORK. 
 
 1461. Edward IV. ; died April 9, 1483. 
 
 Queen, Lady EUzabeth Grey, daughter of sir 
 Richard Woodville, and widow of sir John 
 Grey, of Groby ; married March i, 1463, or 
 1464. Suspected of favouring the insurrec- 
 tion of Lambert Simnel ; and closed her Ufe 
 in confinement June 8, 1492. 
 1483. Edward V. his son; deposed June 25, 1483, 
 and murdered in the Tower by Gloucester ; 
 reigned two months and thirteen days. 
 ,, Richard III. brother of Edward IV. ; began to 
 reign June 26; slaia at Bosworth, Aug. 22, 
 1485. 
 
 Queen, Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, 
 and widow of Edward, prince of Wales, 
 ■whom Richard had murdered, 1471. She is 
 supposed to have been poisoned by Richard 
 (having died suddenly, March i6, 1485), to 
 make way for his intended marriage with 
 princess Elizabeth of York. 
 
 HOUSE OF TUDOR. 
 
 1485. Henry VII.; began to reign Aug. 22; died 
 April 21, 1509. 
 Queen, Elizabeth of York, princess of England, 
 daughter of Edward IV. ; married Jan. 18, 
 i486; died Feb. 11, 1503. 
 
 1309. Henry VIII. his son ; began to reign, April 22 ; 
 died Jan. 28, 1547. 
 Quenis, Catherine of Aragon, widow of Henry's 
 elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales ; mar- 
 ried June 3, 1509; was the mother of queen 
 Mary ; was repudiated, and afterwards for- 
 mally divorced. May 23, 1533; died Jan. 7, 
 1536. 2. Anne]Boleyn,daughter of sir Thomas 
 Boleyn, and maid of honoxir to Catherine ; 
 was privately married, before Catherine was 
 divorced, Nov. 14, 1532 ; was the mother of 
 queen EUzabeth ; was beheaded at the Tower, 
 May 19, 1536. 3. Jane Seymour, daughter of 
 sir John Seymour, and maid of honour to 
 Anne Boleyn ; was man-ied May 20, 1536, 
 the day after Anne"s execution ; was the 
 mother of Edward VI. of whom she died in 
 childbirth, Oct. 24, 1537. 4. Anne of Cleve.s, 
 sister of William, duke of Cleves ; married 
 Jan. 6, 1540; divorced July 10, 1540; died 
 1557. 5. Catherine Howard, niece of the duke 
 of Norfolk; married July 28, 1540; be- 
 headed on Tower-hill, Feb. 12, 1542. 6. Cathe- 
 
 rine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas Parr, and 
 widow of NeviU, lord Latimer ; married Jxily 
 12, 1543 ; survived the king, after whose 
 death she married sir Thomas Seymour, 
 created lord Sudley ; died Sept. 5, 1548. 
 
 1547. Edward VI son of Henry VIII. (by Jane Sey- 
 mour; ; died July 6, 1553. 
 
 1553. Jane, daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and 
 wife of lord Guildford Dudley ; proclaimed 
 queen on the death of Edward ; ten days 
 afterwards returned to private life ; was 
 tried Nov. 13, 1553 ; beheaded Feb. 12, 1554, 
 when but 17 years of age. 
 ,, Mary, daughter of Henry (by Catherine of 
 Aragon) ; married Philip of Spain, July 25, 
 1554; died Nov. 17, 1558. 
 
 1558. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry (by Anne 
 Boleyn), died March 24, 1603. 
 
 HOUSE or .STUART. 
 
 1603. James I. of England and VI. of Scotland, son 
 
 of Maiy, qxieen of Scots ; died March 27, 1625. 
 Queen, Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of 
 
 Frederick II. ; married Aug. 20, 1590 ; died 
 
 March, 1619. 
 1623. Charles I. his son ; beheaded at Whitehall, 
 
 Jan. 30, 1649. 
 Queen, Henrietta-Maria, daughter of Henry IV. 
 
 king of France ; married June 13, 1625 ; 
 
 survived the king ; died in France, Aug. 10, 
 
 1669. 
 
 1649. Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell made pro- 
 tector, Dec. 12, 1653 ; died Sept. 3, 1658. 
 
 1658. Richard Cromwell, his son, made protector, 
 Sept. 4 ; resigned April 22, 1659. 
 
 1660. Charles II. son of Charles I. ; died Feb. 6, 1685. 
 Queen, Catherine of Braganza, infanta of Por- 
 tugal, daughter of John IV. and sister of 
 Alfonso VI. ; married May 21, 1662 ; sur- 
 vived the king ; returned to Portugal ; died 
 Dec. 21, 1705. 
 
 16S5. James II. his brother ; abdicated by flight, 
 Dec. II, 1688; died in exile, Aug. 6, 1701. 
 Queen. [Ann Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, 
 earl of Clarendon ; mamed Sept. 1660 ; died 
 before James ascended the throne, 1671 
 mother of queens Mary and'Anne] Mary 
 Beatrice, princess of Modena, daughter of 
 Alphonzo d'Este, duke ; married Nov. 21, 
 1673 ; at the revolution in 1688, she retired 
 with James to France ; died at St. Germains, 
 1718. 
 
 1689. William III. prince of Orange, Hnff, and Mary, 
 queen, daughter of James ; married Nov. 4, 
 1677 ; began their reign, Feb. 13, 1689 ; Mary 
 died Dec. 28, 1694 ; WiUiam died of a fail 
 from his horse, March 8, 1702. 
 
 1702. Anne, daughter of James II. ; married George, 
 lirince of Denmark, July 28, 16S3 ; .succeeded 
 to the throne, March 8. 1702 ; had thirteen 
 children, all of whom died yotmg ; lost her 
 husband, Oct. 28, 1708 ; died Aug. i, 1714. 
 
 HOUSE OF HANOVER. (See Srunswicl' and Site.) 
 
 1714. George I. elector of Hanover and duke of 
 
 Brunswiok-Luneburg ; son of Sophia, who 
 
 was daughter of Elizalseth, the daughter of 
 
 James I ; died June 11, 1727. 
 
 Queen, Sophia-Dorothea, daughter of the duke 
 
 of Zell ; she died in prison, Nov. 2, 1726. 
 George II. his son ; died Oct. 25, 1760. 
 Queen, Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Bran- 
 denburg- Anspach ; married 1705; died Nov. 
 20, 1737. 
 1760. George III. grandson of George II ; died Jan. 
 29, 1820. 
 Queen, Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke 
 
 1727. 
 
ENG 
 
 281 
 
 ENG 
 
 ENGLAND, continued. 
 
 of Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; married Sept. 8, 
 1761 ; died Nov. 17, 1818. 
 1820. George IV. his son ; died June 26, 1830. 
 
 Queen, Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of 
 the duke of Brunswick; married, April 8, 
 1795, died, Aug. 7, 1821. (See article Qii,een 
 Caroline.) 
 
 1830. William IV. brother of George IV. ; died June 
 20, 1837. 
 (2M«ew,AdelaideAnielia Louisa Theresa Caroline, 
 sister of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen ; mar- 
 ried July II, 1818 ; died Dec. 2, 1849. 
 
 1837. Victoria, the reigning queen, whom god pre- 
 
 SERVK. 
 
 THE PRESENT KOYAL FAMILY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 The QuEE>r,* Alexandrina Victoria, only daughter of Edward, duke of Kent ;t born May 24, 1819 ; suc- 
 ceeded to the throne on the decease of her uncle, William IV. June 20, 1837 ; crowned at VVestminster, 
 June 28, 1S38 ; married (Feb. 10, 1840) to her cousin, 
 
 Francis-ALBERT-AugustusCharles-Emmanuel, duke of Saxe, prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ; bom Aug. 
 26, 1819 (ordered June 20, 1857, to be styled Pnnce Consort) ; elected chancellor of the university of 
 Cambridge, Feb. 28, 1847 ; died Dec. 14, iS5i. 
 
 ISSUE. 
 
 1. Victoria-Adelaide-Mary-Louisa, princess royal, 
 
 born Nov. 21, 1840; married to prince Prederick- 
 WilUam of Prussia, Jan. 25, 1858 (dowry 40,000?. 
 and annuity of 8ooo?.). Issue : Frederick-William, 
 born Jan. 27, 1859 ; Charlotte, July 24, i860 ; 
 Henry, Aug. 14, 1862; Sigismond, Sept. 15, 1864. 
 
 2. Albert-Edward, prince of Wales, duke of Saxony, 
 
 duke of Cornwall and Rothsay, eai-1 of Chester 
 and Carrick, baron of Renfrew, and lord of the 
 Isles, born Nov. 9, 1841 ; married princess Alex- 
 andra of Denmark, March 10, 1863. Issue: Al- 
 bert Victor, born Jan. 8, 1864 ; George Frederick, 
 June 3, 1865. (See Wales.) 
 
 3. Alice-Maud- Marj', born April 25, 1843 ; married 
 
 prince Louis of Hesse-Darmstadt, July i, 1862 
 (dowry 30,000^, annuity 6oooJ.). Issue: Victoria, 
 April 5, 1863 ; a princess, Nov. i, 1864. 
 
 4. Alfred-Ernest, born Aug. 6, 1844; entered the 
 
 EurTjalus as midshipman, Aug. 31, 1S58. 
 
 5. Helena-Augusta- Victoria, born May 25, 1846. 
 
 6. Louisa-Carolina-Alberta, born March 18, 1848. 
 
 7. Arthur- Patrick-Albert, born May i, 1850. 
 
 8. Leopold-George-Duncau-AIbert, born April 7, 
 
 1853- 
 
 9. Beatrice-Mary-Victoria-Feodore, bom April 14, 
 
 1857. 
 
 The Queen's Aunt and Cousins, Augusta, duchess (widow of the late duke) of Cambridge, bom July 25, 
 1797. Her son, George, duke of Cambridge, commander-in-cliief, born March 26, 1819 ; and her 
 daughters, Augusta, grand duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, born July 19, 1822 ; and the princess Mary 
 of Cambridge, bom Nov. 27, 1833. 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE is traced from tlie Frisian variety of the Teutonic or Germanic 
 branch of the great Indo-Em'opean family. 
 
 Celtic prevailed in England . . . a.d. i 
 
 Latin introduced 1-450 
 
 Saxon prevails (Beowulf, Caedmon, Alfred) 450-1066 
 Latin re-introduced by missionaries . . . sgS 
 Norman French combining with English J (Orm, 
 
 Robert of Gloucester, Layamon, Havelok) 1066-1350 
 English in course of formation . . . 1209-1500 
 
 English formed 1550 
 
 Law pleadings were made in EngUsh by order 
 of Edward III. instead of the French lan- 
 guage ........ 1362 
 
 The EngUah tongue and English apparel were 
 
 ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Hen. VIII. . 15 36 
 The English was ordere i to be used in all law- 
 suits, and the Latin disused . . May, 17 31 
 Per-centage of Anglo-Saxon words in the 
 English Bible, 97 ; Swift, 89 ; Shakspeare 
 and Thomson, 85 ; Addison, 83 ; Spenser and 
 Milton, 81 ; Locke, 80 ; Young, 79 ; Pope, 76 ; 
 Johnson, 75 ; Robertson, 68 ; Hume, 65 ; 
 Gibbon, 58. Marsh. 
 Of 100,000 English words, 60,000 are of Teutonic 
 origin ; 30,000 Greek and Latin ; and 10,000 
 from other sources. 
 
 PRINCIPAL BRITISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS. 
 
 
 Born. 
 
 Died. 
 
 
 Born. 
 
 Died. 
 
 
 Bom. 
 
 Died. 
 
 John Gower . aboul 
 
 1320 
 
 1402 
 
 Walter Raleigh . 
 
 1552 
 
 1618 
 
 John Locke 
 
 1632 
 
 1704 
 
 Geoffrey Chaucer 
 
 1328 
 
 1400 
 
 Francis Bacon . 
 
 1561 
 
 1026 
 
 Joseph Addison 
 
 1672 
 
 1719 
 
 Fasten Letters . . 
 
 1460 
 
 1482 
 
 George Herbert . 
 
 1593 
 
 1635 
 
 Matthew Prior 
 
 1664 
 
 1721 
 
 Wm. Caxton 
 
 142 1 
 
 1491 
 
 Ben Jonson 
 
 1574 
 
 1637 
 
 Richard Steele . 
 
 167 1 
 
 1729 
 
 Sir Thomas More 
 
 1482 
 
 1535 
 
 PhiUp Massinger 
 
 1584 
 
 1640 
 
 Daniel De Foe 
 
 1663 
 
 1731 
 
 Sir Philip Sidney . 
 
 ISS4 
 
 1586 
 
 Jeremy Taylor . 
 
 1613 
 
 1667 
 
 John Gay . 
 
 1688 
 
 1732 
 
 Holinshed's Chronicles, i s86 
 
 
 John Milton 
 
 1608 
 
 1674 
 
 Alexunder Pope 
 
 1688 
 
 1744 
 
 John Fox . . . 
 
 1517 
 
 1587 
 
 Isaac Barrow . 
 
 1630 
 
 1677 
 
 Jonathan Swift . 
 
 1667 
 
 1745 
 
 Edmund Spenser 
 
 I5S3 
 
 1598 
 
 Samuel Butler . 
 
 1612 
 
 1680 
 
 James Thomson 
 
 1700 
 
 1748 
 
 Richard Hooker . . 
 
 1553 
 
 1600 
 
 John Bunyan . 
 
 1628 
 
 1688 
 
 Henry Fielding . 
 
 1707 
 
 1754 
 
 Wm. Shakspeare 
 
 ^564 
 
 1616 
 
 John Dryden 
 
 1631 
 
 1700 
 
 Samuel Richardson 
 
 1689 
 
 1761 
 
 * On Nov. I, 1858, the q'leen was proclaimed throughout India as " Victoria, by the grace of God, of 
 the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the colonie.s and dependencies thereof, in Europe, 
 Asia, Africa, America, and Australasia, Queen, defender of the faith," &c. 
 
 t He was born Nov. 2, 1767 ; and died Jan. 23, 1820 ; he married Victoria-Maria -Louisa (widow of the 
 prince of Leiningen, sister of Leopold, king of the Belgians, and aunt to the prince consort). May 29, 1818. 
 She was born Aug. 17, 1786 ; and died March 16, 1861. 
 
 I William I. and his successors used English in their laws, (fee. ; it was superseded by Latin in the 
 rcigu of Heu' y II. Ntjrm.in French was not used in law-deeds till the reign of Henry III. 
 
ENG 
 
 282 
 
 ENT 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE, continued. 
 
 Edward Younjf . 
 Laurence Sterne . 
 Mark Akenside 
 Thomas Gray 
 Tobias Smollett 
 Oliver Goldsraith . 
 David Hume 
 Samuel Johnson . 
 Benjamin Franklin 
 William Robertson 
 Edward Gibbon . 
 Robert Bums . 
 William Cowper . 
 Percy B. Shelley 
 
 Born. 
 
 Died. 
 
 . 1681 
 • 1713 
 
 176:; 
 1768 
 
 . 1721 
 
 1770 
 
 . 1716 
 
 1771 
 
 . 1720 
 
 1771 
 
 . 1728 
 . 1711 
 
 • 1709 
 . 1706 
 
 1774 
 1776 
 1784 
 1790 
 
 . 1721 
 
 1793 
 
 • 1737 
 
 • 1759 
 
 • 1731 
 
 1794 
 1796 
 1800 
 
 • 1792 
 
 1822 
 
 Born. Died. 
 
 George lord Byi-on . 1788 1824 
 
 Walter Scott . . 1771 1832 
 
 Samuel T. Coleridge . 1772 1834 
 
 Charles Lamb ' . . 1775 1834 
 
 William Cobbett . . 1762 1835 
 
 Robert Southey . 1774 1843 
 
 Thomas Campbell . 1777 1844 
 
 Sidney Smith . . 1771 1845 
 
 William Wordsworth 1770 1850 
 
 J. Fenimore Cooper . 1798. 1851 
 
 Joanna Baillie . . 1763 1851 
 
 William Prescott . . 1796 1859 
 
 Thomas Moore . . 1780 1852 
 
 John Wilson. . . 1785 1854 
 
 Samuel Rogers 
 Henry Hall am . 
 Thomas De Quincey. 
 Washington Irving . 
 T. B. Macaulay. 
 Abp. Richd. Whately 
 Wm. M. Thackeray . 
 Thomas Carlyle 
 George Bancroft . . 
 Edwd. Bulwer Ly tton 
 Benjamin Disraeli . 
 Alfred Tennyson . . 
 Charles Dickens 
 John Ruskin . . 
 
 Born. 
 
 Died. 
 
 1763 
 
 1855 
 
 1778 
 
 1859 
 
 1786 
 
 1859 
 
 1783 
 
 1859 
 
 1800 
 
 1859 
 
 1787 
 
 1863 
 
 1811 
 
 1863 
 
 179s 
 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 180S 
 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1812 
 
 
 1819 
 
 
 ENGRAVING on signets is mentioned jE'xof?. xxviii. 11., B.C. 149 1. Engraving on plates 
 and wood bef,'an about the middle of the 15th century. Engraving on glass was perfected by 
 Bourdier, of Paris, 1799. The copyright to engravings has been protected by several statutes; 
 among the principal are the acts 16 & 18 Geo. III. 1775 and 1777 ; and the acts 7 & 8 Vict. 
 Aug. 6, 1844, and 15 Vict. May 28, 1852. A process of enlarging and reducing engravings 
 by means of sheets of vulcanised india-rubber, was shown by the electro-printing block 
 company in i860. See Lithography and Photo-Galvmiography.* 
 
 Engraving on Copper. Prints from engraved 
 copper-plates made their ap|jearance about 1430, 
 and were first prodviced in Germany. Masso, sin-- 
 named Finiguerra, is considered to have been the 
 first Italian engraver, about 1440. The earliest date 
 known of a copper-plate engraving is 1461. Roll- 
 ing-presses for working the plates were invented 
 in 1545. Of the art of etching on copper hy means 
 of aqv.a-fortif, Francis Mazzuoli, or Parmegiano, is 
 the reputed inventor, about 1532. De Piles. Etching 
 was practised by Albert Durer. The etching 
 club was established in 1838. 
 
 Engraving on Wood, long known in China, began 
 in Europe with the brief malders, or manufacturers 
 of playing cards, about 1400. (See Printing.) The 
 art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by 
 others to Reuss, a German ; it was greatly im- 
 proved by Durer (1471-1528) and Lucas Van Leyden 
 (1497). It was much improved in England by 
 Bewick and his brother, and pupils, Nesbett, An- 
 derson, &c., 1789, et seq. The earliest wood engrav- 
 
 ing which has reached our times is one represent- 
 ing St. Christopher carrying the infant Jesus over 
 the sea ; it bears date 1423. 
 
 En.jraving on Soft Steel, to be hardened after- 
 wards, was introduced into England by Messrs. 
 Perkins and Heath, of Philadelphia, 1819. 
 
 Mezzotinto is said to have been discovered by col. 
 de Siegen, who engraved a portrait of princess 
 Amelia of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643 : it was im- 
 proved by prince Rujiert in 1648 ; sir Christopher 
 Wren further improved it in 1662. 
 
 Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is 
 produced, was invented by the celebrated French 
 arti.st, St. Non, about 1662 ; he communicated his 
 invention to Le Prince. Barabbe of Paris was dis- 
 tinguished for his improvements in this kind of 
 engraving, 1763. Cldar' -oicv.ro engraving origi- 
 nated with the Germans, and was first practised 
 by Mair, one of whose prints bears date 1491. (See 
 Zvic, &c.) 
 
 ENLISTMENT. No persons enlisting as soldiers or sailors are to be sworn in before a 
 magistrate in less than twenty-four hours after, and then they are are at liberty to withdraw 
 upon their returning the enlistment or bounty money, and 2i.s. costs. Enlistment is now 
 entirely voluntarj'-. In 1847 the term of enlistment was limited to ten years for the infantry, 
 and twelve years for the cavalry, artiUery, and royal marines. 
 
 ENNISKILLEN (N.W. Ireland). This town made an obstinate defence against the anny 
 of Elizabeth, 1595, and against James II., 1689. 1500 Enniskilleners met general M'Carthy 
 with 6000 men (of whom 3000 were slain, and nearly all the rest made prisoners), they 
 losing but twenty men, July 30, 1689. The dragoon regiment, the " InniskUlingers, " is 
 recruited here, 
 
 ENOCH, Book of, an apocryphal work, quoted by the fathers, disappeared about the 
 8th centur)^ A MS. Ethiopic version was found in Abyssinia by Bruce, and brought to 
 England in 1773. Of this archbishop Lawrence published an English translation in 1821, 
 and the Ethiopic text in 1838. 
 
 ENTAIL of estates began with the statute of Westminster, 1285. Subsequent legislation 
 broke the entail in cases of treason (1534), when the estate is to revert to the crown, and of 
 bankruptcy (1833 and 1849), when it is to be sold. 
 
 ENTOMOLOGY, the science of insects, mainly based upon the arrangement of Linnteus, 
 1739. Eay's "Method of Insects" was published in 1705. The Entomological Society of 
 London was instituted in 1833. 
 
 * In "Lyra Germanica," published in 1861, are illustrations engi'avcd upon blocks photographed from 
 negatives taken by John Leighton, F.S.A. 
 
ENV 
 
 283 
 
 EPI 
 
 ENVELOPES for lettei-s came into general use shortly after tlio establishment of the 
 penny postal system in 1 840. Machinery for their manufacture M'as patented by Mr. George 
 Wilson in 1844 ; and by Messrs. E. Hill and Warren de la Eue in 1845. 
 
 ENVOYS AT Courts, in dignity below ambassadors, enjoy the protection, but not the 
 ceremonies of ambassadors. Envoys Extraordinarj'- are of modern date. Wicqucfort. The 
 court of France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the royal 
 carriages, 1639. 
 
 EPACT (Greek, added) is the excess of the solar month above the lunar synodical month, 
 I day, II hours, 15 minutes, 57 seconds, the lunar month being only 29 days, 12 hours, 
 44 minutes, 3 seconds ; and the excess of the solar year above the lunar synodical year 
 (nearly 11 days), the lunar year being 354 days. The number of the Gregorian epact for 
 1865, is 3 ; for 1866, 14 ; for 1867,^5. 
 
 EPHESUS (in Asia Minor), a city founded by the lonians about 1043 B.C. It was 
 subdued by Cyrus in 544 B.C. ; it revolted from the Persians 501 B.C. and was destroyed by 
 an earthquake in A.D. 17. Paul preached here A.D. 55, 56 {Ads xviii. xix.). His epistle to 
 the Ephesians is dated a.d. 64. See Diana, Tem]ile of, and Seven Churches, The third 
 general council was held here in 431. 
 
 EPHOEI, powerful magistrates of Sparta, five in number, said to have been first created 
 by Theopompus to control the royal power, about 757 B.C. 
 
 EPIC POEMS (from Greek epos, a song), narrati\'es in verse. Eminent examples ; 
 
 Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey" (Greek), be- 
 tween 8th and loth centm'y B.C. (See Homer) 
 \irgiVs " JEneid" (Latin), Sihovt . . B.C. 19 
 Ovid's " Metamorphoses " (Latin), about . a.d. i 
 Dante (died 1321), " Divina Commedia " (Italian) 
 
 published 1472 
 
 Ariosto, " Orlando Furioso " (/taHa?i) . . . 1516 
 
 Camoens' " J^usiad" (PoHuguese) 
 
 Tasso, " Jerusalem Delivered " (Italian) 
 
 Spenser's " Faery Queen " . 
 
 Milton's " Paradise Lost " ... 
 
 Voltaire, " Henriade " (French) . . . . 
 
 Walter Scott, " Lay of the Last Minstrel," fee. 
 
 • 1569 
 . 1581 
 1590 6 
 . 1667 
 
 EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, about 300 e.g., 
 taught that the greatest good consists in peace of mind springing from virtue, as tending to 
 prevent disquiet ; but the name epicurean is given to those who derive happiness from sensual 
 pleasure. 
 
 EPIGRAMS derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the ancients On their 
 tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin epigrammatist, who flourished aboxit 
 A.D. 83, is allowed to have excelled all others ancient or modern. The following Latin 
 epigram on the miracle of Our Savour, in turning water into wine atCaua {John iii.) is given 
 as an example : — 
 
 " Vidit et erubuit lympha pudica Deum. " " The modest water saw its God, andblushed." Crasliaw, d. 1650. 
 
 EPIPHANY (appearance), a feast (Jan. 6), vulgarly called Twelfth Day, celebrates the 
 manifestation of the Saviour, by the appearance of the star which conducted the Magi to 
 the place where he was to be found ; instituted 813. Wheatly. 
 
 EPIRUS (Northern Greece). Its early history is very obscure. 
 
 The first Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus) settled in 
 Epirus, after the Trojan war, 11 70 B.C., and 
 was killed in the temple of Delphi, about B.C. 1165 
 
 Pyrrhus the Great reigns, 295 ; he takes Mace- 
 don from Demetrius, 290 ; compelled to yield 
 it to Lysimachus 287 
 
 He invades Italy : defeats the Romans, 280 ; 
 again, 279 ; subdues Sicily .... 278 
 
 He invades Italy again, and is totally defeated 
 by Curius Dentatus 274 
 
 He takes Macedon from Antigonus . . b.c. 273 
 He unsuccessfully invades Sparta ; enters 
 Argos, and is killed by a tile, thrown by a 
 
 woman 272 
 
 Philip unites Epirus to Macedon . . . 220 
 
 Its conquest by the Romans . . 167 
 
 Epirus annexed to the Ottoman empii-e a d. 1466 
 An insurrection put down 1854 
 
 EPISCOPACY. See Bishops. 
 
 EPITAPHS were inscribed on tombs by the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Mr. T. J. 
 Pettigrew published a collection entitled " Chronicles of the Tombs," in 1857. 
 
 EPITHALAMIUM, a nuptial song at marriage, Tisias, the l3a'ic poet, is said to have 
 been the iirst writer of one. He received the name of Stesichorus, from the alterations 
 made by him in music and dancing. 536 B.C. BossueL 
 
EPO 2S4 ESC 
 
 EPOCHA, a point of time made remarkable by some event, from which subsequent years 
 are reckoned by historians and chronologers. See Eras. 
 
 Creation B.C. 4004 I Building of Rome bc. 753 
 
 Deluge 2348 The birth of Christ .... a.d. 1 
 
 1st Olympiad 776 | The Hegira (or flight of Alahomet) . . . 622 
 
 EPSOM (Surrejr). The mineral springs were discovered in 1618.' The races began about 
 171 1, and have been held annually since 1730. 
 
 EQUATOR (or Ecuador), a South American republic, founded in 183 1, when the Colum- 
 bian republic was divided into three ; the other two being Venezuela and New Granada. 
 The popidation of Equator i.s about 1,040,400, of which 76,000 are in Quito, the capital. 
 Oeneral Franco, president, Aug. 21, 1859; defeated in battle by general Flores, Aug. i860. 
 President (elected in 1861) G. G. Moreno. 
 
 EQUINOX. When the sun in his progress passes through the equator in one of the 
 equinoctial jjoints, the day and night arc equal all over the globe. This occurs twice in the 
 year; about March 21, the vernal equinox, and Sept. 22, the autumnal equinox. The 
 equinoctial points move backwards about 50 seconds yearly, requiring 25,000 years to 
 accomplish a complete ]-evolution. This is called the precession of the equinoxes, which is 
 said to have been observed by the ancient astronomers. 
 
 EQUITY, Courts of, are those of the lord chancellor, the vice-chancellors, and the 
 master of the rolls, their office being to coiTect the operations of the literal text of the law, 
 and supply its defects by reasonable construction not admissible in a court of law. The 
 supreme court of session in Scotland combines the functions of law and equity. In 1865 
 equity poivers were conferred on the county courts for cases respecting sums- under 500Z. 
 
 ERAS. Notices of the jirincipal eras will be found in their alphabetical order ; a few 
 only need be mentioned here. 
 
 EraofiVaftonassfir, after which the astronomical The Romans reckoned from the building of 
 
 observations made at Babylon were reckoned, I their city, 753 B.C.; and afterwards from 
 
 began Feb. 26, B.C. 747 the i6th year of the emperor Augustus (see 
 
 Era of the Seleucidte (used by the Maccabees), ( Ccesars), which reckoning was long used by 
 
 commenced 312 ^ the Spaniards. 
 
 The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date The Mahometans began their era from the 
 
 from the year 776 b.c. ; they subsequently 
 reckoned by indictions, the "first beginning 
 A.D. 313 ; these, among chronologers, are still 
 used. (See Indictions!) 
 
 Hegira, or flight of their prophet from Mecca, 
 
 A.D. 622 
 See Calendar, Creation, Anno Domini. 
 
 ERASTIANISM, the opinions of Thomas Lieber (latinised Erastus), a German physician 
 (1523-84), who taught that the church had no right to exclude any person from church 
 ordinances, or to inflict excommunication, &c. Persons who acknowledge the jurisdiction of 
 the civil power in spiritual matters and the law of patronage, are now termed Erastians. 
 
 ERASURES. By order of sir John Romilly, master of the rolls, in 1855, no document 
 corrected by erasure with the knife is to be henceforth received in the court of chancery. 
 The errors must be corrected with the pen. 
 
 ERFURT (Central Germany), was foimded in 476 ; and its university established about 
 1390. Erfurt was ceded to Prus.sia in 1802. It capitulated to Murat, when 14,000 Prussian 
 troops surrendered, Oct. 16, 1806. In this city Napoleon and Alexander met, and olfered 
 peace to England, Sept. 27, 1808. The French retreated to Erfurt from Leipsic, Oct. 18, 
 1813. A German parliament met here in March and April, 1850. 
 
 ERICSSON'S CALORIC ENGINE. See Heat, note. 
 
 ESCHEATS. Laud or other property that falls to a lord within his manor by forfeiture 
 or death. The escheator observes the rights of the king in the county whereof he is esclieator. 
 Coivel. In London a court of escheats was held before the lord mayor to recover the property 
 of a bastard who died intestate, for the king ;. such a court had not been held in the city for 
 150 years before — July 16, 1771. Phillips. 
 
 ESCURIAL (or Escorial, 25 miles N.W. of Madrid), the magnificent palace of the 
 sovereigns of Spain, was commenced by Philip II. in 1563 and completed in 1586, at a cost 
 of 6,000,000 of ducats. It is built in the form of a gridiron in honour of St. Lawrence, on 
 whose day (Aug. 10, 1557) the Spaniards gained the victory of St. Quentin. According to 
 Francisco de los Santos, the total length of all its rooms and apartments, is above 120 English 
 miles. Alvarez de Colmeuar asserts that there are 14,000 doors, and 11,000 windows. 
 
ESP 
 
 285 
 
 ETH 
 
 ESPARTO, a Spanish grass, a sj^ecies of stiiM, now largely employed in paper-making, 
 was first imported into this country, as we are informed, in 1857. 
 
 ESPIERRES (or Point-a-Chiu, Flanders). The French, under Pichegru, here attacked the 
 allied English and Austrian army {100,000 men) commanded by the duke of York, and were 
 repulsed after a long and desperate engagement, losing many killed and wounded, and 
 prisoners, and several pieces of cannon. May 22, 1794. 
 
 ESPRIT, Saint (or Holy Ghost), the title of an order of knighthood, founded hy 
 Henry III. of France in 1578 ; and abolished in 1791. 
 
 ESQUIRES, among the Greeks and Romans, were armour-bearers to, or attendants on, a 
 knight. Blount. In England, the king created esquires by putting about their necks the 
 collar of SS, and bestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. The distinction of esquire 
 was first given to persons of fortune, not attendant upon knights, 1345. Stoiu. 
 
 "ESSAYS AND REVIEWS," by six clergymen and one layman of the church of England 
 (the Revs. Drs. Fred. Temple and Rowland Williams, professor Baden Powell, H. B. Wilson, 
 Mark Pattison, and professor B. Jowett, and Mr. C. W. Goodwin) were published in an 8vo 
 vol. in March, i860.* 
 
 ESSENES, an ascetic Jewish sect at the time of Christ. 
 
 ESSEX, Kingdom of. See Britain. ESSLIITG, Battle of. See Asjjcrne. 
 
 ESTE, House of. Boniface, count of Lucca and duke of Tuscany, about 811, is said to 
 have descended from Odoacer, king of Italy. From Boniface sprang Albert Azzo 11. , 
 marquess of Italy and lord of Este, born about 996, who married first Cunegonda of the house 
 of Guelf, by whom he had Guelf, duke of Bavaria, the ancestor of the house of Brunswick 
 (see Bavaria and Britnswick) ; and secondly Gersonda, by whom he had Fulk, the ancestor 
 of the Estes, dukes of Ferrara and Modena. 
 
 ETCHING. See Engraving. 
 
 ETHER was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first discovered by Kunkel, 
 in 1681 ; and muriatic ether, from the chloride of tin, hj Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic 
 ether was discovered by count Lauraguais, same year ; and hydriotic ether was first prepared 
 by Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric ether M^as obtained by M. Boullay. The discovery that by 
 inhaling ether the patient is rendered unconscious of pain, is dire to Dr. Charles T. Jackson, 
 of Boston, U. S. Mr. Thomas Morton, of the same place, first introduced it into surgical 
 practice, under Dr. Jackson's directions (1846). See Chloroform and Amylene. The term 
 "ether "was applied to the transparent celestial space by the German astronomer Encke, 
 about 1829, when studying the elements of Pons' comet, discovered in 181 8. 
 
 ETHICS (Greek term for Morals). The works of Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius contain 
 ancient systems. The New Testament is the code of Christian ethics. Paley's Moral Philo- 
 soj)hy appeared in 1785, and Whewell's Elements of Morality in 1845. 
 
 ETHIOPIA. The name was applied ancientlyrather vaguely to countries the inhabitants 
 of which had susi-hurnt complexions, in Asia and Africa ; but it is now considered to apply 
 properly to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and northern Alayssinia. Many pyramids exist at 
 Napata, the capital of Meroe, the civilised part of ancient Ethiopia. 
 
 The Ethiopians settle near Egypt . B.C. 1615 
 Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by Asa . . 941 
 A dynasty of Ethiopian kings reigned over 
 
 Egypt from 765 to 715 
 
 Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, marches against 
 
 Sennacherib 710 
 
 Ethiopia unsuccessfully invaded by Cambyses, 
 
 B.C. 525-522 
 
 Ptolemy Euergetes extended his conquests in 
 Ethiopia 225 
 
 Candace, queen of Meroe, advancing against 
 the Roman settlements at Elephantine, de- 
 feated and subdued by Petronius . a.d. 22-23 
 
 ETHNOLOGY, a branch of anthropology, is defined as the science "which determines 
 the distinctive characters of the persistent modifications of mankind, their distribution, and 
 the causes of the modifications and distribution." The study of the relations of the difi'erent 
 divisions of mankind to each other is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic Atlas was 
 
 * The book did not excite much attention at first, but having been severely censured for heterodox 
 views by nearly all the bishops and many of the clergy, it created much excitement in 1861, and was con- 
 demned by convocation June 24, 1864. The ecclesiastical court sentenced the Revs. R. Williams and H. B. 
 Wilson to suspension for one year, and costs, Dec. 15, 1862; but on ajjpeal the sentence was reversed by 
 the judicial coDimittee of the privy council, Feb. 8, 1864. The naost remarkable amongst the works put 
 forth iu opposition (in 1862) are the " Aids to Faith," edited by the bishop of Gloucester ( W. Thomson, now 
 abp. of York), and " Replies to Essays and Reviews," edited by the bishop of Oxford (S. Wilberforce). 
 
\ 
 
 ETH 
 
 286 
 
 EUP 
 
 published in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's gi'eat work, Researches on the Physical History of 
 Mankind, 1841-7. The Ethnological Society, established in 1843, publishes its transactions. 
 Dr. E. G. Latham's works, on the Ethnology of the British Empire, appeared in 185 1-2. 
 
 ETHYL, a colourless gas, with a slightly ethereal odour, a compound of carbon and 
 hydrogen, first obtained in the free state by professor Edw. Frankland in 1849. It is one 
 of the compound radicles. Many of its compounds take fire on exposui'e to the air. 
 
 ' ETNA, Mount (Sicily). Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops : and it is called by 
 Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus as happening 
 1693 B.C., and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring 734, 477, and 425 B.C. 
 There were eruptions, 125, 121, and 43 B.C. Livy. 
 
 Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in 
 May, 1830, when several villages were de- 
 stroyed, and showers of lava reached near to 
 1169 Rome. 
 
 The town of Bronte was destroyed . Nov. 18, 1832 
 Violent eruption occui-red in . Aug. & Sept. 1852 
 The last eruption began on Feb. i, and ceased in 
 
 July, 1865 
 
 Eruptions, a.d. 40, 254, and 420. Cart-era. 
 
 One in 1012. Geoffrey tie Viterbo. 
 
 One overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabit- 
 ants perished in the burning ruins 
 
 Eruptions, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, ^S^it 
 and in 1669, when tens of thousands of per- 
 sons perished in the streams of lava which 
 rolled over the whole country for forty days. 
 
 ETON COLLEGE (Buckinghamshire), founded by Henry VL in 1440, and designed as 
 a nursery to Kings College, Cambridge. John Stanbcrry, confessor to Henry VL (bishop of 
 Bangor, in 1448), was the first provost. Besides about three hundred noblemen's and 
 gentlemen's sons, there were seventy king's scholars on the foundation, who, when properly 
 qualified, are elected, on the first Tuesday in August, to King's college, Cambridge, and are 
 removed there when there are vacancies, according to seniority. In Dec. i860 there were in 
 all 820 scholars. See Cambridge. The establishment of the Montemis nearly coeval with the 
 college. It consisted in the procession of the scholars, arrayed in fancy dresses, to Salt-hill 
 once in three years ; the donations collected on the road (sometimes as much as 800?.) were 
 given to the senior or best scholar, their captain, for his support while studying at Cambridge. 
 The montem Avas discontinued in 1847. The regatta has taken its place. 
 
 ETRUKIA (or TusciA, hence the modern name Tuscany), an ancient province of Italy, 
 whence the Eomans, in a great measure, derived their laws, customs, and superstitions. 
 Herodotus asserts that the country was conquered by a colony of Lydians. The subjugation 
 of this country forms an important part of early Roman history. It was most powerful 
 under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted to reinstate the Tarquins, 506 B.C. Veii was 
 taken by Camillus, 396 E. c. A truce between the Romans and Etrurians for forty years was 
 concluded 351 B.C. The latter and their allies were defeated at the Vadimonian lake 283,8.0., 
 and totally lost their independence about 265 B.C. The vases and other works of the 
 Etruscans still remaining, show the degree of civilisation to which they had attained. See 
 Tuscany. — Etruria, the site of Mr. Wedgwood's porcelain works, &c., was founded in 1771. 
 
 EUBCEA, the largest island in the jEgean sea. Two of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, 
 were very important, till the former was subdued by Athens, 506 B.C. and the latter by the 
 Persians, 490. After the Persian war, EubcEa became wholly subject to Athens, being its 
 most valuable foreign possession. It revolted in 445, but was soon subdued by Pericles. 
 After the battle of Chseronea, 338, it became subject to Macedon. It was made independent 
 by the Romans in 194 ; but was afterwards incorporated in the province of Acliaia. It now 
 forms part of the kingdom of Greece. 
 
 EUCLID, Elements of. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished there about 
 300 B.C. The Elements are not whollj^ his ; for many of the invaluable truths and demon- 
 sti'ations they contain were derived from Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others. Euclid 
 was the first to reduce them to regular order, and probably interwove many theorems of his 
 own. The Elements were first printed at Basil by Simon Giynseus, in 1533. 
 
 EUDIOMETER, an apparatus to ascertain the purity of atmospheric air, or the quantity 
 of oxygen gas or vital air contained in it, was invented by Dr. Priestley, in 1772. 
 
 EUNUCHS are first mentioned among the Egyptian and Assyrian nations. The first 
 princess who employed them was Semiramis, queen of Assyria, about 2007 B. C. Eunuchs 
 fequently attained to political power in the late Eastern Empire. 
 
 EUPATORIA (Kosleff), a sea-port on the west coast of the Crimea. After the allied 
 French, English, and Turkish armies landed in the Crimea, Sept. 14, 1854, a detachment 
 luider captain Brock occupied this place, which was afterwards reinforced by the Turks. It 
 
EUP 287 EXC 
 
 was attacked Feb. 17, 1855, by 40,000 Kiissians under Liprandi. The latter were repulsed 
 with the loss of 500 men by the Tui'ks, whose loss was only 50, among which, however, was 
 Selini Pasha, the commander of the Egyptian contingent. 
 
 EUPHUISM, an affected style of language, prevalent in the time of Elizabeth, arose from 
 "Euphues ; the Anatomy of Wit," by John Lyly, published in 1581, 
 
 EUROPE, the smallest of the three divisions of the old continent ; area, nearly 3,800,000 
 square miles ; population, 270,600,000 (1861). For the history, see Greece, Rovie, and the 
 modern kingdoms. 
 
 EURYMEDOIS]', a river in Pamphylia, near which Cimon, son of Miltiades, destroyed 
 the fleet of the Persians at Cyprus, aud defeated their land forces, 466 b. c. 
 
 EUSTACE, ST. (Lower Canada). The rebels were defeated here, Dec. 19, 1837, and 
 compelled to surrender their arms. Their chiefs fled. , 
 
 EUSTATIA, ST., a West India island, settled by the Dutch, 1632 ; taken by the 
 French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; again by the British forces under Rodney and 
 Vaughan, Feb. 3, 1781. It was recovered by the French under the marquis de Bouille, 
 "Nov. 26, same year ; captured by the British, 1801, 1810; restored to the Dutch, 1814. 
 
 EUTYCHIAISTS, so called from Eutyches, an abbot of Constantinople, who asserted in 
 446 that there was but one nature in Christ, the human having been absorbed in the divine. 
 This doctrine was condemned by councils — at Constantinople in 448, and at Chalcedon in 451. 
 It has been also called Monophysite (of one nature), and Jacobite, from Jacobus Baradajus, 
 its zealous defender in the 6th century. It is the form of Christianity now existing among 
 the Copts and Armenians. 
 
 EUXmE. See Black Sea. 
 
 EVANGELICAL, a term applied to a portion of the clergy of the Church of England (also 
 called the low church), who profess to preach the gosjsel more pureh' than their brethren, 
 termed the high church party. See Church of England. 
 
 _ EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, founded by sir Culling Eardley Smith and others at 
 Liverpool in 1845, with the view of promoting unity among all denominations of protestant 
 Christians against Romanism and infidelity. It holds annual meetings. It met in Sept. 
 1857, at Berlin, where it was well received by the king. The 19th meeting was held at Hull, 
 Oct. 3, 1865. 
 
 EVANGELISTS, preachers of the "gospel," or good news. See Gospels. 
 
 EVENING SCHOOLS for adults of the lower classes were strongly recommended by 
 bishop Hinds in 1839, and by the committee of the Privj'- Council on Education in 1861. 
 One was set up at Bala in Wales by the Rev. T. Charles in 1811. 
 
 EVESHAM (Worcestershire), where prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., defeated the 
 barons headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, Aug. 4, 1265, when the earl, his son 
 Henry, and most of his adherents were slain. Henry III. at one period of the battle was on 
 the point of being cut down by a soldier who did not know his rank, but was saved by his 
 timely exclamation, "Do not kill me, soldier; I am Henry of Winchester, thy king !" 
 This victory broke up the combination of the barons. 
 
 EVIL MAY-DAY (May i, 15 17), thus called on account of the violence of the apprentices 
 and populace, directed against foreigners, particularly the French. " The rioters were headed 
 by one Lincoln, who, with 15 others, was hanged ; and 400 more in their shirts, and bound 
 with ropes, and halters about their necks, were carried to Westminster, but they crying 
 ' mercy, mercy ! ' were all pardoned by the king (Henry VIII.), which clemency gained him 
 much love." Belaune. 
 
 EXAMINATIONS of persons preliminary to their employment in the civil service has 
 been enforced since 1855. Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said that the present might be termed the 
 "age of examinations." 
 
 EXARCHS, appointed by the Byzantine emperors of the East, to govern central Italy 
 after its conquest by Belisarius and Narses, 548. — They ruled from 568 to 752, when 
 Eutychus, the last, was overcome by Astolphus the Lombard. 
 
 EXCHANGE. One called Collegium Mcrcaioritm, existed at Rome, 493 B.C. The 
 Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of tlie kind in the world. Many 
 edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are magnificent. See Royal Exchange and 
 Bills of Exchange. 
 
EXC 
 
 288 
 
 EXC 
 
 EXCHEQUER, an institution of great 
 are financial and judicial : the chancellor 
 sat in the court of exchequer above the bar 
 conbridge, bishop of London, in the reign 
 was the last chancellor of the exchequer 
 stopped payment from Jan. to May 24th, 
 exchequers were consolidated in 1816. 
 Office. 
 
 ExcHKQUEE Bills. The govcnimont securities, so 
 called, said to have been invented by Montague, 
 afterwards earl of Halifax, were first issuc'l in 
 1697, and first circulated lay the bank in 1796. 
 These bills, of which more than twenty millions 
 sterling are often in circulation, are in effect ac- 
 commodation notes of government, that ave issued 
 in anticipation of taxes, at daily interest ; and, 
 being received for taxes, and paid by the bank in 
 lieu of taxes, in its dealings with the exchequer, 
 they visually bear a premium.* The highest 
 amount in circulation was 56,974,780^ in 1817 ; the 
 lowest, i6,oo8,7ooi. in 1854. 
 
 Exchequer Boxds, a species of public securities, 
 introduced by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, in 1853, have 
 not been well received. 
 
 Tellers of the Exchequer. Besides chamberlains 
 of the exchequer, clerks of the pells, and auditor 
 of the exchequer (offices which have all been dis- 
 continued since their last avoidance in Oct. 1826, 
 or by surrender or abolition, in Oct. 1834), there 
 
 antiquity, consisting of officers whose functions 
 of the exchequer, the financial oificer, formerly 
 ons. The first claancellor was Eustace de Fau- 
 
 of Henry III. about 1221. Sir Robert Walpole 
 who acted judicially (in 1735). The exchequer 
 Charles II. 1673. Stow. The English and Irish 
 
 See Chancellors of the Exchequers, and Tally 
 
 were the four lucrative offices of tellers of the ex- 
 chequer, also abolished, Oct. 10, 1834. t 
 
 Comptkoller-Genekal of the Exohequee. This 
 office was created on the abolition of the offices of 
 the auditor and the four tellers of the exchequer, 
 and the clerk of the pells, mentioned in the pre- 
 ceding paragraph. The first comptroller-general 
 was sir Jolm Newport, appointed Oct. 11, 1834. — 
 34,438'. per annum have been saved to the state 
 by the retrenchments iu this department of the 
 government. 
 
 Court (f Exchequer Chamber. Erected by Ed- 
 ward III. in 1357 It was remodelled by Eliza- 
 beth, in 15S4, and then made to comprise the 
 judges of all the courts. This court is for error 
 fr.im the judgments of the courts of queen's bench, 
 comMiou pleas, ai id exchequer of pleas in actions 
 commenced therein. Re-modelled by act 11 Geo. 
 IV. & I WiU. IV. c. 70 rJuly 23, 1830). 
 
 The Exchequer office, Westminster, was instituted 
 by Henry IV. in 1399. 
 
 CHANCELLORS OF THE EXCHEQUER SINCE 180O. 
 
 Viscoxmt Althorpe (aft. earl Spencer), 
 Sir Robert Peel (premier) 
 Thos. Spring Rice (aft. Id. Monteagle), 
 Francis T. Bering (o/ilc}-!(;a)'d.s baronet), 
 Henry Goulbuiu .... 
 Charles Wood (afterwards baronet) 
 Benjamin Disraeli .... 
 Willi .m E. Gladstone . 
 Sir George Cornewall Lewis 
 Benjamin Disraeli 
 William E. Gladstone 
 
 Nov. 22, 
 Dec. 10, 
 April 18, 
 Aug. 26, 
 Sept. 3, 
 . July 6, 
 Feb. 21, 
 Dec. 28, 
 March, 
 Feb. 27, 
 June 13, 
 
 1830 
 1834 
 1835 
 1839 
 1841 
 1846 
 1852 
 
 1855 
 1858 
 i8s9 
 
 Henry Addington (ff/Y. Id. Sidmouth), March 21, 1801 
 Wm. Pitt (joroiiicr) .... May i5, 1804 
 Lord Henry Petty (aftenoards marquess of 
 
 Lansdowne) Feb. 10, i8o5 
 
 Spencer Perceval .... March 31, 1807 
 
 Andprej/iier Dec. 6, 1809 (assassinated May 11, 1812) 
 Nicholas Vansittart (cjtds. Id. Bexley), June 9, ,, 
 Fred. J. Robinson (afterwards lord Goderich 
 
 and earl of Ripon) ., . . Jan. 31, 1823 
 George Canning (premier) . . . April 24, 1827 
 John C. Herries .... Aug. 17, ,, 
 Henry Goulburn .... Jan. 26, 1828 
 
 EXCHEQUER, Court of. Instituted by William I. on the model of the Transmarine 
 Exchequer of Normandy, in 1079 ; according to some authorities, by Henry I. It includetl 
 the common pleas until they were separated, 16 Jolm, 1215. Coke'' s Reports. The exchequer 
 is so named from a chequered cloth which anciently covered the table where the judges and 
 chief officers sat. J Here are tried all causes relating to tliu king's revenue ; such as are con- 
 cerning accoimts, disbursements, customs, and fines imposed, as well as all matters at common 
 law between subject and subject. The judges are styled barons. Beatson. There are a 
 chief and four puisne barons : the fifth judge having been added July 23, 1830. The office 
 of Cursitor Baron was abolished in 1856, by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 86. 
 
 CHIEF BARONS OF THE EXCHEQUER. 
 
 1689. Sir Robert Atkins. April 10. 
 
 1695. Sir Edward Ward. June 10. 
 
 1714. Sir Samuel Dodd. Nov. 22. 
 
 1716. Sir Thomas Bury. June 11. 
 
 1722. Sir James Montagu. May 9. 
 
 1723. Sir Robert Eyre. Dec. 5. 
 
 1725. Sir Geoffrey Gilbert. June i. 
 
 1726. Sir Thomas Pengelly. Oct. 29. 
 
 * Robert Aslett, a cashier of the bank of England, was tried in i?o3 at the Old Bailey for enibezzHug 
 exchequer bills, and found ?!o< (/Mi/<y, on account of the invalid't3' of tlie bills, though the actual loss to 
 the bank amounted to 342, 697?. Mr. Beaumont Smith was tried for forging exchequer bills to the amount 
 of 350,000?. ; pleaded guilty, and was sentenced to transportation, Dec. 4, 1841. 
 
 t John Jeffreys Pratt, earl and marquess Camden, was appointed a teller of the exchequer, when a 
 commoner, in 1780, and held the .appointment until Ids death, in 1840. During nearly half of this long 
 term he relinquished the income arising from the office, amounting iii the whole to upwards of a quarter 
 of a million sterling, and placed it at the service of the state, as it annually accrui d. 
 
 X In process of time the court of exchequer became gradually enlarged in its jurisdiction, until at 
 length it was not merely a revenue court and one at comm n l.iw between subject and subject, but one 
 in which suits in equity were also instituted. In fact, until the act 5 Vict. c. 5 (1841), the court of ex- 
 chequer possessed a triple jurisdiction ; but by this statute its equity business was transferred to the 
 court of chancery. 
 
EXC 
 
 289 
 
 EXE 
 
 EXCHEQUER, Coxjkt of, continued. 
 
 1730. Sir James Reynolds. April 30. 
 
 1738. Sir John Comyn. July 7. 
 
 1740. Sir Edmund Probjm. Nov. 24. 
 
 1742. Sir Thomas Parker. Nov. 29. 
 
 1772. Sir Sydney Stafford Smythe. Oct. 29. 
 
 1777. Sir John Skynner. Dec. 17. 
 
 1787. Sir James Byre. Jan. 26. 
 
 1793. Sir Archibald Macdonald. Feb. 12. 
 
 1813. Sir Vicary Gibbs. Nov. 8. 
 
 1814. Sir Alexander Thompson. Feb. 24. 
 
 1817. Sir Bichard Richards. April 22. 
 
 1824. Sir William Alexander. Jan. 9. 
 
 1831. John, lord Lyndhurst. Jan. 18. Previously 
 
 lord chancellor; again lord chancellor, 1834. 
 1834. Sir James Scarlett. Dec. 24. Created lord 
 
 Abinger, Jan. 1835. 
 1844. Sir Frederick PoUock, April 15. 
 
 CHIEF BAEONS OF THE EXCHEQUER IN IRELAND. 
 
 1690. 
 1695. 
 1703- 
 1706. 
 1707. 
 1714. 
 1715- 
 1722. 
 1725- 
 1730- 
 1 741. 
 1757- 
 
 John Hely. Dec. 3. 
 Robert Doyne. May 10. 
 Nehemiah Donnellan. Dec. 27. 
 Richard Freeman. June 25. 
 Robert Rochfort. June 12. 
 Joseph Deane. Oct. 14. 
 Jeffrey Gilbert. June 16. 
 Bernard Hale. June 9. 
 Thomas Dalton. Sept. 2. 
 Thomas Marlay. Sept. 29. 
 John Bowes. Dec. 21. 
 Edward WiUis. March 11. 
 
 1766. Anthony Foster. Sept. 5. 
 
 1777. James Dennis (affds. baron Tracton). July 3. 
 
 1782. Walter Hussey Burgh. July 2. 
 
 1783. Barry Telverton {afterwards viscount Avon- 
 
 more). Nov. 29. 
 1805. Standish O'Grady {afterwards viscount Guilla- 
 
 more). Oct. 5. 
 1831. Henry Joy. Jan. 6. 
 1838. Stephen Woulfe. July 20. 
 1840. Maziere Brady. Feb. 11. 
 1846. David Richard Pigott. Sept. i. 
 
 EXCISE. The system was establislied in England by the Long Parliament in 1643, 
 duties being levied on wines, beer, &c., and tobacco, to support the parliamentary forces 
 against Charles I. It was continued under Charles II. The present system was settled 
 about 1733. The duty was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions. The old excise 
 oflBce was built on the site of Gresham college in 1774 ; the present is at Somerset-house. 
 The officers of excise and customs were deprived of their votes for returning members to 
 parliament in 1782. In 1849 the board of excise was incorporated with that of stamps and 
 taxes, under the name of " the Inland Revenue office." Notwithstanding the abolition of the 
 excise duty upon numerous articles, and the reduction of duty upon various others, of late 
 years, the total excise revenue, so far from having decreased, has progressively advanced 
 (1847 and 1861 excepted) in its aggregate annual amount. Additional excise duties were 
 charged by 17 & 18 Vic. c. 27, July 3, 1854. The excise duties were further modified in 
 i860. See Revenue. 
 
 AMOUNT OF THE EXCISE EEVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 1744 
 1786 
 
 1830 {United Kingdom) £18,644,385 
 1834 .... 16,877,292 
 1837 . . . . 14,518,142 
 
 1840 .... 12,607,766 
 1845 .... I3,585>S83 
 
 1848 {United Kingdom) £13,919,652 
 1850 .... 15,278,208 
 1858 (to March 31) . . 17,825,000 
 i860 .... 20,361,000 
 1865 . . . . 19,558,000 
 
 {Cfreat Britain) 
 
 £3. 734,072 
 
 5,540,114 
 
 19,867,914 
 
 26, 364, 702 
 
 1827 {United Kingdom) 20,995,324 
 
 EXCLUSIOIT BILL (to exclude the duke of York, afterwards James II., from the 
 throne), was passed by the commons, but rejected by the lords in 1679. The revival of the 
 question led to the dissolution of parliament in 1681, 
 
 ~ EXCGMMTJNICATIOlSr, or separation from Christian communion, founded on Matt, xviii. 
 17 ; I Cor. v., &c., was originally instituted to preserve the purity of the church. The 
 Roman church excommunicated by Bell, Book, and Candle {which see). See Interdict. 
 
 Henry "VIII. of England by Clement VII. in 
 1527, and by Paul III. in 1535 ; and Elizabeth 
 
 by Paul IV 1558 
 
 The emperor of France, the king of Sardinia, 
 and others, were virtually excommunicated 
 (but not by name) on account of the an- 
 nexation of the Romagna by Sardinia, 
 
 March 29, i860 
 
 Gregory VII. excommunicated the emperor 
 
 Henry IV., and absolved his subjects from 
 
 their, allegiance 1077 
 
 Innocent III. excommunicated John of England, 
 
 placing the country under an interdict 1208-14 
 Gregory IX. excommunicated the emperor 
 
 Frederic II. four times between . . 1228-45 
 Loiiis XII. of France was excommunicated by 
 
 Julius II. 1510 ; Francis I. by Leo X. 1521 ; 
 
 EXECUTIONS. See Crime. In the reign of Henry VIII. (38 years) it is shown that 
 no less a number than 72,000 criminals were executed. Stow. In the ten years between 
 1820 and 1830, there were executed in England alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became 
 less severe, the number of executions decreased. In the three years ending 1820, the execu- 
 tions in England and Wales amounted to 312 ; in the three years ending 1830, they were 
 178 ; in the three years ending 1840, they were 62. The place of execution in London 
 
 V 
 
EXE 
 
 290 
 
 EXE 
 
 (formerly generally at Tyburn) has been in front of Kewgate since 1783. 
 the bodies of executed persons was abolished in 1832. 
 
 The dissection of 
 
 1825 
 1830 
 1835 
 1836 
 
 EXECUTIONS IN LONDON. 
 
 3820 43 1 1837 
 
 1839 
 1840 
 1842 
 
 1845 5 
 
 1846 2 
 
 1847 o 
 
 IN ENGLAND, MIDDLESEX, AND SUEKEY. 
 
 1847 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 
 England. Middlesex. Surrey. 
 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 1864 
 
 England. Middlesex. Surrey. 
 15 . 
 
 • 13 
 II 
 
 • 9 
 
 8(6foreigm-s)o 
 
 EXECUTIONS OF REMARKABLE CRIMINALS. 
 
 Jack Sheppard, highwayman ; Tyburn, Nov 16, 1724 
 
 liord Balmerino and others, rebellion ; Tower- 
 hill Aug. 18, 1746 
 
 Lord Lo vat, rebellion ; Tower-hill . March 30, 1747 
 
 Eugene Aram, murder ; York . . Aug. 6, 1759 
 
 Theodore Gardelle, murder; Haymarket, 
 
 April 4, 1760 
 
 Earl Ferrers, murder of his steward ; Tyburn, 
 
 May 5, ,, 
 
 John Perrott, fraudulent bankrupt ; Smithfield, 
 
 Nov. II, 1761 
 
 John M'Naughten, esq., murder of Miss Knox ; 
 Strabane Dec. 13, ,, 
 
 Elizabeth Brownrigg, murder of her apprentice ; 
 Tyburn Sept. 14, 1766 
 
 Daniel and Robert Perreau, wine merchants, 
 forgery ; Tyburn .... Jan. 17, 1776 
 
 Eev. Dr. Dodd, found guilty of forgiug a bond, 
 in the name of Lord Chestei-field, for 4200?. : 
 the highest influence was exerted to save 
 him, but when the case came before the 
 council, the minister of the day said to 
 George III., "If your majesty pardon Dr. 
 Dodd, you will have mm-dered the Perreaus ;" 
 Tyburn June 27, 1777 
 
 Rev. Henry Hackman, murder of Miss Reay, 
 mistress of earl of Sandwich ; Tyburn, April 19, 1779 
 
 Capt. John Donellan, murder of sir Theodosius 
 Boughton ; Warwick . . . April 2, 1781 
 
 Mrs. :^epoe, celebrated mm-deress ; Old Bailey, 
 
 Dec. II, 1797 
 
 Sir Edward Crosbie, high treason; Ireland, 
 
 June 4, 1798 
 
 Messrs. Sheares, high treason ; DubUn, July 12, 1799 
 
 Galloping Dick, highway robbery ; Aylesbury, 
 
 April 4, 1800 
 
 Governor Wall, murder of Serjeant Armstrong ; 
 Old Bailey Jan. 28, 1802 
 
 Mr. Crawley, murder of two females ; Dublin, 
 
 March 16, ,, 
 
 George Foster, mm-der of his wife and child ; 
 Old Bailey Jan. 18, 1803 
 
 Colonel Despard, high ti-eason ; Horsemonger- 
 lane Feb. 21, „ 
 
 John Hatfield (a rank impostor, who married, 
 by means of the most odious deceit, the cele- 
 brated "Beauty of Buttermere "), forgery; 
 Carlisle Sept. 3- » 
 
 Robert Emmett, high treason ; Dublin, Sept. 20, „ 
 
 Richard Patch, murder of Mr. Bligh ; Horse- 
 monger Ixne April 8, 1806 
 
 John HoUowav, Owen Haggerty ; murder of Mr. 
 Steele ; Old Bailey (thirty of the spectatoi-s of 
 
 this execution were troden to death, and 
 numbers were pressed, maimed and wounded) 
 
 Feb. 22, 
 
 T. Simmons, the man of blood, murder ; Hert- 
 ford March 7, 
 
 Major Campbell, murder of capt. Boyd in a 
 duel ; Armagh Oct. 2, 
 
 Capt. Sutherland, murder; Execution dock, 
 
 June 29, 
 
 Richard Armitage, forgery ; Old Bailey, Jxnie 24, 
 
 John Bellingham, murder of Mr. Perceval ; Old 
 Bailey May 18, 
 
 Philip Nicholson, murder of Mr. and Mrs. 
 Bonar ; Pennenden-heath . . . Aug. 23, 
 
 Francis Tuite, murder of Mi-. Govdding ; DiibUn, 
 
 Oct. 9, 
 
 Charles Callaghan, murder of Mr. Merry ; Horse- 
 monger-lane ' April 2, 
 
 William Sawyer, murder of Jack Hacket; Old 
 Bailey May 13, 
 
 Eliza Penning, administering poison ; Old 
 Bailey July 26, 
 
 [Immediately after her execution, great sensa- 
 tion was caused by its being universally 
 beUeved that this young creatiu-e suffered 
 innocently. She denied her guilt on the 
 scaffold, and thou.sands behoving her, accom- 
 panied her funeral. In the " Annual Regis- 
 ter" for 1857, p. 143, it is stated on the autho- 
 rity of Mr. Gui-ney, that .she confessed the 
 crime to Mr. James Upton, a baptist minister, 
 shortly before her execution.] 
 
 Captaia Gi-ant, Irish robber ; Maryborough, 
 
 Aug. 16, 
 John Cashman, Spa-iields riots ; Skinner-street, 
 
 March, 12, 
 Murderers of the Lynch family, Wild-goose 
 
 lodge affair ; Ireland . . . July 19, 
 The three Ashcrofts, father and sons, murder ; 
 
 Lancaster Sept. 8, 
 
 Brandreth and others, high treason ; Derby, 
 
 Nov. 7, 
 Charles Hussey, murder of Mr. Bird and his 
 
 housekeeper ; Pennenden-heath Aug. 3, 
 
 John Scanlan, esq.; murder of Ellen Hanley; 
 
 Limerick March 16, 
 
 Arthur Thistlewood, John Bnmt, James Ings, 
 
 John D.avidson, Richard Tidd (see Ca<o-«<r«eO ; 
 
 Old Bailey May i, 
 
 John Channell, Thomas Calcraft, murder of Mr. 
 
 Channell, ?enr. ; Godahuing . Aug. 17, 
 Miuderers of Miss Thonij^son ; DubUn May 3, 
 
 1807 
 1808 
 
 1809 
 1811 
 
 1812 
 
 1813 
 
 1814 
 
 1815 
 
 1816 
 1817 
 
 I8I5 
 1820 
 
EXE 
 
 291 
 
 EXE 
 
 EXECUTIONS, continued. 
 
 David Haggart, famous robber ; Edinburgh, 
 
 June II, 1 82 1 
 Josiab Cadman, f orgeiy ; Old Bailey Nov. 21, ,, 
 Samuel Greenwood, highway robbery ; Old 
 
 Bailey Dec. 27, 1822 
 
 John ThurteU, murder of Mr. Weare ; Hertford, 
 
 Jan. 9, 1824 
 John Wayte, forgery ; Old Bailey . Feb. 24, „ 
 Hen. Fauntleroy, esq., banker, forgery; Old 
 
 Bailey Nov. 30 „ 
 
 Probert (an accomplice of Thurtell's in the 
 
 murder of Mr. Weare ; he became approver), 
 
 horse-stealing ; Old Bailey . . June 20, 1825 
 Spitalfiftds gang, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 
 
 Nov. 29, 1826 
 Chas. Thos. 'White, arson ; Old Bailey Jan. 2, 1827 
 *Edward Lowe, coining ; Old Bailey Nov. 22, ,, 
 Catherine Walsh, murder of her child ; Old 
 
 Bailey April 14, 1828 
 
 tWilUam Bea, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 
 
 July 4, „ 
 William Corder, murder of Maria Marten ; Bury 
 
 St. Edmund's .... Aug. 8, ,, 
 Joseph Hunton, quaker, forgery ; Old Bailey, 
 
 Dec. 8, „ 
 Burke, the murderer (see BurTdng) ; Edinburgh, 
 
 Feb. 16, 1829 
 Anne Chapman, murder of her child ; Old 
 
 Bailey June 30, ,, 
 
 Stewart and wife, noted murderers ; Glasgow, 
 
 July 24, ,, 
 Thomas Maynard, the last executed for forgery ; 
 
 Old Bailey . . . . . Dec. 31, ,, 
 Mr. Comyn, burning his own house ; Ennis, 
 
 March 18, 1830 
 John Bishop, Thomas WiUiams, murder of a 
 
 poor Italian boy (see Burking) ; Old Bailey, 
 
 Dec. s, 1831 
 Elizabeth Cooke, burking of Cath. Walsh ; Old 
 
 Bailey Jan. 9, 1832 
 
 John Smith, James Pratt, unnatural crime ; 
 
 Old Bailey April 8, 1835 
 
 Maryanne Burdock, remarkable case of poison- 
 ing ; Bristol April 15, ,, 
 
 John Pegsworth, murder ; Old Bailey, March 7, 1837 
 James Greenacre, murder of Hannah Brown ; 
 
 Old Bailey May 2, ,, 
 
 William Lees, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 
 
 Dec. 16, 1839 
 Francois Benj. Courvoisier, murder of lord W. 
 
 Russell ; Old Bailey . . . July 6, 1840 
 Josiah Misters, wounding Mr. Mackreth ; 
 
 Shrewsb^lry April 2, 1841 
 
 Robert Blakesley, murder of Mr. Burden ; Old 
 
 Bailey Nov. 15, ,, 
 
 John Delahunt, murder of Thomas Maguire; 
 
 Dublin Feb. 5, 1842 
 
 Daniel Good, murder of Jane Jones ; Old Bailey, 
 
 May 23, „ 
 WiUiam Crouch, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 
 
 May 27, 1844 
 James Tapping, murder of Emma Whiter ; Old 
 
 Bailey March 24, 1845 
 
 John Tawell, murder of Sarah Hart ; Aylesbury, 
 
 March 28, ,, 
 Thomas Henry Hocker, murder of Mr. Delarue ; 
 
 OldBaUey Apiil 28, „ 
 
 Joseph Connor, murder of Mary Brothers ; Old 
 
 Bailey June 2, ,, 
 
 John Platts, murder of CoUis ; Derby, April i, 1847 
 Catherine Foster, miu-der of her husband ; 
 
 Bury St. Edmund's . . . April 17, „ 
 
 James Bloomfield Rush, murder of Messrs. 
 
 Jermy, sen. and jun. ; Norwich April 21, 
 Fred. George Manning, and his wife, Maria 
 
 Manning, murder of O'Connor; Horsemonger- 
 
 lane Nov. 13, 
 
 James Barbour, murder of Robinson ; York, 
 
 Jan. IS, 
 Henry Horler, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 
 
 Jan. 15, 
 Grant, Quin, and Coomey, murder of Thomas 
 
 Bateson ; Monaghan . . . April 10, 
 Emanuel Barthelemy, murder of Mr. Moore 
 
 and C. Collard ; Old Bailey . Jan. 22, 
 William Bousfield, murder of his wife and three 
 
 children ; Old Bailey . . March 30, 
 WiUiam Palmer (of Rugeley), mui'der of J. P. 
 
 Cook by poison ; Stafford . . June 14, 
 William Dove, murder of his wife by poison ; 
 
 York Aug. 
 
 Joseph Jenkins, alias Robert Marley, murder 
 
 of Cope, a shopman, in Westminster; Old 
 
 Bailey Deo. 15, 
 
 WiUiam Jackson, murder of two children ; 
 
 Chester . . . . • . Dec. 20, 
 Lagava, Bartelano, and Pettrick, murder of two 
 
 oflScers and piracy ; Winchester . Dec. 23, 
 Dedea Redaines, murder of two girls at Dover ; 
 
 Maidstone Jan. i, 
 
 Thomas ManseU (after seven months' respite), 
 
 murder of a soldier ; Maidstone . July 6, 
 Capt. H. Rogers, murder of A. Rose, a black, 
 
 with great cruelty; Liverpool . Sept. iz, 
 
 Thomas Davis, murder of wife ; Old Bailey, 
 
 Nov. 16, 
 John Wm. Beale, murder of Charlotte Pugsley, 
 
 his sweetheart ; Taunton . . Jan. 12, 
 James Thomson, alias Peter Walker, murder of 
 
 Agnes Montgomery by poison — discovered by 
 
 a child ; Paisley .... Jan. 14, 
 Christian Sattler, a German, murder of inspec- 
 tor Thain ; Old Bailey . . Feb. 10, 
 Giovanni Lani, murder of H^oise Thaubin ; Old 
 
 Bailey .._.... April 26, 
 John B. Bicknell, murder of his grandfather 
 
 and grandmother ; Taunton . . Aug. 24, 
 Hen. Reid, murder of wife ; Kirkdale, Jan. i, 
 Wm. Burgess, murder of his daughter ; 'Taunton, 
 
 Jan. 4, 
 Joseph Castle, murder of his wife ; Bedford, 
 
 March 31, 
 Willara Youngman, murder of his sweetheart, 
 
 Mary Streeter, and of his mother and two 
 
 brothers, on Aug. 16 ; Horsemonger-lane, 
 
 Sept. 4, 
 James MulUns, murder of Mrs. Emsley, at 
 
 Stepney ; Old BaUey . . . Nov. 19, 
 James Johnson, murder of two non-coramis- 
 
 sioned officers ; Winchester . . Jan. i, 
 Matthew and Charles Wedmore, murder of 
 
 their aunt ; Taunton . . . April 5, 
 Wm. Cogan, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 
 
 Oct. 14, 
 Thomas Jackson, a soldier, mm-der of sergeant 
 
 John Dickson ; Winchester . Dec. 27, 
 
 Wm. Charlton, engine-diiver, murdered Jane 
 
 Emmerson, to obtain the money she had 
 
 saved for her funeral ; Carlisle March 15, 
 G. J. Gilbert, brutal murder of Miss M. S. Hall, 
 
 on her way to chuixh ; Winchester Aug. 4, 
 WiUiam Taylor, murder of Mr. Meller from 
 
 revenge ; he previously killed his own child- 
 ren ; Kirkdale .... Sept. 13, 
 
 18S3 
 
 1854 
 1855 
 1855 
 
 1857 
 
 859 
 
 * He was the last coiner drawn on a sledge to the scaffold. 
 
 t Captain Charles Montgomery was ordered for execution this day for fw'gery ; but he took a dose (an 
 o\mce and a half) of prussic acid, to save himself from the ignominy of the gallows, and was found dead in 
 his ceU. 
 
 U 2 
 
EXE 
 
 292 
 
 EXE 
 
 EXECUTIONS, contimied. 
 
 Catherine Wilson, murder of Mrs. Soames by 
 poison [and of several other persons] ; Old 
 Bailey Oct. 20, 
 
 William Ockold (aged 70), murder of his wife, 
 after 50 years' marriage ; Worcester, Jan. 2, 
 
 Noah Austen, muider of Mr. Allen ; Oxford, 
 
 March 24, 
 
 Robert A. Burton, murder of a boy ; Maidstone, 
 
 April II, 
 
 Edward Cooper, murder of his deformed son ; 
 Shiewsbury .... April n, 
 
 Dennis Delane, hired Beckham and Walsh to 
 murder his landlord, P. Fitzgerald, April 13, 
 
 J. Ducker, murder of Tye, a policeman ; Ips- 
 wich April 14, 
 
 Wm. Hope, violation and murder of Mary 
 Corbett ; Hereford . . . April 15, 
 
 D. MacPhail and G. Woods, murder of Mrs. 
 Walne ; Kirkdale .... April 25, 
 
 J. Brookes, murder of Davey, apohceman ; Old 
 Bailey April 27, 
 
 I Joseph Kelly, murder of Fitzhenry, a school- 
 master; Wexford . . . Aug. 11, 
 
 1862 1 Thomas, Alvarez, Hiiphes, and O'Brien, fero- 
 I cious murderers ; Kirkdale . . Sept. 12, 
 
 1863 Alice Holt, murder of her mother ; Chester, 
 
 Dec. 23, 
 ,, I Samuel Wright, miirder of his paramour, 
 
 Jan. 12, 
 John Lyon and four others (foreigners); 
 murder and piracy ; Old Bailey . Feb. 22, 
 Charles BrickneU, murder of his sweetheart, 
 
 Aug. 1, 
 Franz Mtiller, murder of Mr. Briggs in a rail- 
 way can-iage (see Trials) ; Old Bairey, 
 
 Nov. 14, 
 Ferdinand Kohl, murder of M. Fuhrkop; 
 
 Chelmsford Jan. 26, 
 
 Edw. WiUiam Pritchard, M.D., murder of wife 
 and her mother ; Glasgow . . July 28, 
 John Currie ; miu-der of major De Vere ; Maid- 
 stone Oct. 12, 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 EXETER (Devonshire), said to have been early honoured -with the name of Augustatvom. 
 having been occupied by the second Augustan legion commanded by Vespasian : its present 
 name is derived from Excestre, "the castellated city of the Exe." It was for a considerable 
 time the capital of the West Saxon kingdom. The BiSHOrRic anciently constituted two 
 sees, Devonshire (founded about 909) and Cornwall. The church of the former was at 
 Crediton, of the latter at Bodmin. In 1046 the sees were united. St. Petroc was the first 
 bishop of Cornwall, before 900 ; CEdulphus, the first bishop of Devonshire, 905 ; and Leofric, 
 the first bishop of Exeter, in 1049. The cathedral originally belonged to a monastery 
 founded by Athelstan : Edward the Confessor removed the monks to his new abbey of 
 "VVestminstei-, and gave their church for a cathedral to the united see 1049 ; valued in the 
 king's books at 500^. per annum. Present stated income 2700Z. 
 
 Alfred invested the city, held by the Danes, and 
 compelled them to capitulate . . 877 & 894 
 
 Exeter sacked by Sweyn 1003 
 
 Besieged by William the Conqueror . . . 1067 
 The castle surrendered to king Stephen . .1136 
 The city first governed by a maj-or . . . 1200 
 The celebrated nunnei-y founded . . . 1236 
 
 The ancient bridge built 1250 
 
 Edward I. holds a parliament here . . . 1286 
 The Black Prince visits Exeter . . . . 1371 
 The duchess of Clarence takes refuge in the city 1469 
 Besieged by sir Wilham Courtenay . . . ,, 
 City assaulted by Perkin Warbeck ... 1497 
 Exeter constituted a county of itself . . 1536 
 
 Welsh, the vicar of St. Thomas's, hanged on the 
 tower of his church, as a leader in the Cornish 
 
 rebelhon July 2, 1549 
 
 Annual festival established . . Aug. 6, ,, 
 
 The guildhall built 1593 
 
 Prince Maurice takes Exeter for king Charles I. 
 
 Sept. 4, 1643 
 
 It stirrenders to the parliamentarians, April, 
 
 The canal to Topsham cut 
 
 A mint established by James II 
 
 Water-works erected 
 
 The sessions house buOt 
 
 The new bridge built 
 
 The theatre erected 
 
 Lunatic asylum founded 
 
 County gaol built 
 
 Subscription libraiy founded .... 
 Devon and Exeter institution for the promotion 
 
 of science established 
 
 New city prison built 
 
 The last of the ancient gates removed . . . 
 The subscription rooms opened .... 
 
 The pubhc baths erected 
 
 Mechanics' institution opened .... 
 
 New cemetery commenced 
 
 Railway to Bristol opened . . . May i, 
 Great fire, 20 houses burnt . . . Aug. 2, 
 Another great fire .... April 26, 
 
 1646 
 167s 
 1688 
 1694 
 1773 
 1778 
 1783 
 1795 
 1796 
 1807 
 
 1813 
 
 1820 
 1821 
 1825 
 1837 
 
 1847 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OF EXETEK. 
 
 1803. John Fisher, translated to Salisbury in 1807. 
 1S07. Hon. George Pelham, translated to Lincoln, 
 Sept. 1820. 
 
 1820. William Carey, translated to St. Asaph, 
 
 March, 1830. 
 1830. Christopher Bethell, translated to Bangor, 1830 
 1830. Henry Philpotts (present bishop). 
 
 EXETER CHANGE (London), was built by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter and 
 lord treasurer in 13 19, beheaded by order of the queen-regent, Isabella, in 1326. It was 
 entirely demolished at the period of the Strand improvements, in 1829. The new Exeter 
 Change, built by the marquis of Exeter near its site, and running from Wellington-street to 
 Catherine-street, with a passage, on each side of which are shops for fancy articles, was 
 opened in 1845. It was puUed down in 1863, and the ground now forms part of the site of 
 the Strand Music-hall. 
 
 EXETER COLLEGE (Oxford) was founded by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter, in 
 1314. The college buildings consist of a handsome quadrangle in the later Gothic style. 
 
EXE 
 
 293 
 
 EXH 
 
 EXETER HALL (Strand, London), erected iu 1830-r for the meetings of religious, 
 scientific, and otlier institutions, concerts, oratorios, and musical societies, a large and^ mao-- 
 uificent apartment with a splendid orchestra and organ, and having rooms attached for 
 committees, &c. See under Music. Eeligious services were held here in 1856 by the 
 Kev. C. Spurgeon, and in 1857 by ministers of the Church of England, on Sundays. 
 
 EXHIBITION OF 1 85 1. The original idea of a National Exhibition* is attributed to 
 Mr. F. "Whishaw, secretary of the Society of Arts in 1844. It was not taken up till 1849, 
 when prince Albert, president of the society, said, " Now is the time to prepare for a Great 
 Exhibition, an exhibition worthy of the greatness of this country ; not merely national in 
 its scope and benefits, but comprehensive of the whole world ; and I ofi'er myself to the 
 public as their leader, if they are willing to assist in the undertaking. " See Crystal Palace. 
 
 sion at tlie respective prices of one pound, 
 half-a-crown, and one shilling, amounted to 
 505, 107^. including season tickets, leaving a 
 surplus, after payment of expenses, of about 
 1 50, 000 i. 
 
 The greatest number of visitors in one day was 
 109,760 (Oct. 8); and at one time (2 o'clock, 
 Oct. 7) were 93,000 ; these persons were assem- 
 bled at one time, not in an open area, like a 
 Eoman amphitheatre, but (it should be recol- 
 lected) within a windowed and floored and 
 roofed building. There is no like vast assem- 
 blage recorded in either ancient or modern 
 annals, as having been gathered together, it 
 may be said in one room. 
 
 The Exhibition was closed to the public, 
 
 Oct. II, 1831 
 
 A memorial statue of the prince consort, by 
 Joseph Durham, placed in the gardens of the 
 Eoyal Horticultural Society, uncovered in 
 the presence of the prince and princess of 
 Wales June 10, 1863 
 
 Eoyal commission appointed . . Jan. 3, 
 A subscription list opened, headed by the queen 
 
 for loooL 
 Civic banquets in support of the plan, at Lon- 
 don, March 21, 22 ; and at York . Oct. 2s, 
 The buildingt commenced . . Sept. 26, 
 
 Many persons admitted to it in Jan. ; it is 
 virtually transferred to the royal commis- 
 sioners by the contractors, Messrs. Fox and 
 
 Henderson Feb. 
 
 Eeception of goods began Feb. 12, and the sale 
 of season tickets .... Feb. 25, 
 The Exhibition opened by her majesty, May i, 
 The number of exhibitors exceeded 17,000, of 
 whom 2918 received prize medals and 170 
 council medals. The articles exhibited in 
 arts, manufactures, and the various produce 
 of countries, defy calculation. 
 The palace continued open above 23 weeks, 
 altogether 144 days (May i to Oct. 15), within 
 which time it was visited by 6,170,000 per- 
 sons, averaging 43,536 a day, whose admis- 
 
 EXHIBITION OF 1862. A proposal in 1858 for another Great Exhibition, to be held 
 in 1861, was withdi'awn in consequence of the war in Italy in 1859, &c. The scheme was 
 revived in April i860, when the prince-consort engaged to guarantee io,cxdoZ. if 24o,cx)oZ. 
 should be subscribed for by other persons. 
 
 A charter granted to the following commis- 
 sioners : Earl Granville, the marquis of 
 Chandos, C. W. Dilke, jun., and Thomas 
 Fairbaim Feb. 22, 
 
 The guarantee fund amounted to 349,000^. in 
 Nov. i860, and to 452,300^. on . . Aug. 22, 
 
 The building,! erected at South Kensington, 
 by Messrs. Kelk and Lucas, according to a 
 design by capt. Fowke, made over to the 
 commissioners on . . . . Feb. 12, 
 
 The Exhibition was opened by the duke of 
 Cambridge and a distinguished company on 
 
 May I, 
 
 The fine arts department included a noble col- 
 lection of paintings and sculptures. 
 
 The Jurors' awards of medals were annoimced 
 in the building on . . . July n, 
 
 The Exhibition was closed on Nov. i, when the 
 total number of visitors (exclusive of attend- 
 ants) had been 6,117,450. 
 
 The Exhibition re-opened on Nov. 3 for the 
 sale of goods exhibited ; was finally closed on 
 
 Nov. 15, 
 
 The success of the Exhibition was much im- 
 paired by the decease of the prince consort, 
 Deo. 14, 1861, and the breaking out of the 
 civil war in the United States of America. 
 The foreign exhibitors in 1851 were 6566 ; in 
 1862, 16,456. 
 
 * Industrial exhibitions began with the French ; Expositions having been organised and opened at Paris 
 in 1798, 1801, 1802, 1806, 1819, 1S23, 1827, 1834, 1839, 1844, and 1849, the last, being the eleventh, exceeding 
 aU the preceding in extent and brilliancy. The first exhiljition of the kind in this country was the National 
 Eepositoiy, opened under royal patronage in 1828, near Charing-cross. It was not successful. Other ex- 
 hibitions were opened at Manchester in 1837, at Leeds in 1839, and at Birmingham in 1849. E.-ihibitions 
 have since been held at Cork, Dublin, Manchester, New York, Paris, Montreal, Florence, Constantinople, 
 Bayonne, ifec. {which, see). 
 
 t The palace, with the exception of the flooring and joists, was entirely of glass and iron. It was de- 
 signed by Mr. (since sir Joseph) Paxton (who died June 8, 1865), and the contractors were Messrs. Fox and 
 Henderson, to whom it was agreed to pay 79,800?., or 150,000?. if the building were permanently retained. 
 It cost 176,030?. 13s. Sd. Its length was 1851 feet, corresponding with the year ; the width 40S feet, with an 
 additional projection on the north side, 936 feet long, by 48 wide. The central portion was 120 feet wide 
 and 64 feet high, and the great avenues ran east and west through the building ; the transept near the 
 centre was 72 feet wide and 108 feet high. The entire area was 772,784 square feet, or about 19 acres. Four 
 galleries ran lengthways, and others round the transept. The ground-floor and gaUeries contained i ,000,000 
 square feet of flooring. There were altogether 4000 tons of iron in the structure, and 17 acres of glass in 
 the roof, besides about 1500 vertical glazed sashes. 
 
 X The main building occupied about 16 acres of ground, and the annexes 7 acres. The south front was 
 1150 feet long and 55 feet high, and over the east and west fronts rose the two domes, 260 feet high. The 
 
EXO 
 
 294 
 
 FAB 
 
 EXODUS (Greek, way out), a term applied to the departure of the Israelites from Egypt 
 1491 B.C.; and described in the hook oi E^.oclus. Chronologers vary in the date of this 
 event: the LXX. give 1614 ; Hales, 1648; Wilkinson, 1495 ; Bunsen, 132001 1314. 
 
 EX OFFICIO mFORMATIONS are those filed by the attorney-general, hy virtue of 
 his office, Avithout applying to the coui't where they are filed for leave, or giving the defendant 
 an opportunity of showing cause why they should not be filed. Cabinet Lawyer. They 
 were used by the Liverpool administration about 181 7 — 19. William Hone was tried on 
 criminal information, Dec. 18-20, 181 7, and acquitted. The British bank directors were 
 thus tried, 1857. 
 
 EXPEDITIONS, British, Many are described under their respective heads : e.g. : — 
 
 France, near Port I'Orient 
 
 Cherbourg 
 
 St. Malo ; 4000 men lost . 
 Quiberon Bay (French emigrants) 
 Ostend (all made prisoners) 
 Haider Point and Zuyder Zee 
 
 EXPENDITURE. See under Revemw,. 
 
 EXPORTS. Edward III. by his encouragement of trade turned the scale so much in 
 favour of English merchandise, that by a balance taken in his time, the exported commo- 
 dities amounted to 294,000?. and the imported to only38,oooZ. See Revenue. The declared 
 value is of much less amount than the official. 
 
 Oct. I, 
 
 1746 
 
 Ferrol, in Spain 
 
 . Aug. 
 
 1800 
 
 Aug. 7, 
 
 I7S8 
 
 Egypt (AbercromUe) . 
 
 March, 
 
 1 801 
 
 . Sept. 
 
 ly^s 
 
 Copenhagen .... 
 
 . Sept. 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1796 
 
 Walcheren (unfortunate) . 
 
 July, 
 
 1809 
 
 . May, 
 
 i7P« 
 
 Bergen-op-Zoom 
 
 March 8, 
 
 1814 
 
 Sept. 
 
 1799 
 
 Crimea .... 
 
 . Sent. 
 
 ia54 
 
 OFFICIAL VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, VIZ. : — 
 1810 
 
 1700 
 1750 
 1775 
 
 £6,097,120 
 , 10,130,991 
 16,326,363 
 
 1830 
 
 1800 38,120,120 1835 
 
 . £45,869,839 
 
 • 5i.733>ii3 
 
 • 66,735,445 
 ■ 78>376,732 
 
 1845 
 1850 
 1851 
 
 £97,402,726 
 
 131.564.503 
 
 I 175,126,706 
 
 190,397,810 
 
 TSst 
 1853 
 1855 
 
 TOTAL DECLARED VALUE OF BRITISH AND IRISH PRODUCE EXPORTED. 
 
 1863 . 
 
 • £74,448,722 
 
 • 98,933,781 
 . 95,688,085 
 
 i8f.6 
 1857 
 1859 
 
 £115,826,948 
 122,155,237 
 130,440,427 
 
 i860 
 1 861 
 1862 
 
 £135,891,227 
 125,102,814 
 123,992,264 
 
 £146,602,342 
 160,436,302 
 
 EXTREME UNCTION. See Anointing. 
 
 EYLAU (Prussia), where on Feb. 7, 8, 1807, the French defeated the Russians, in one 
 of the most bloody contests of the war. Napoleon commanded in person. Both armies by 
 this and other battles were so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the 
 Russians on the Pregel. The victor lost 15,000 men ; the Russian loss in slain alone was 
 20,000. 
 
 EYRE (old French for ire, to go). The itinerant couit of justices, the justices in eyre, 
 was instituted by Henry II. 1176 ; and when the forest laws were in force, its chief justice 
 had great dignity. These justices were to go their circuit every third year, and punish all 
 abuses committed in the kmg's forests. The last instance of a court being held in any of 
 the forests is believed to have been in 167 1. Beatson. 
 
 F. 
 
 FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from faha, a 
 Ijean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse ; they were said to be descended 
 from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and were once so numerous that they took upon 
 themselves to wage war against the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the 
 Cremera, in which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain in a sudden attack, 
 477 B.C. There only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from 
 him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages. Fabius Cunctator (the delayer) kept 
 Hannibal in check for some time without coming to an engagement, 217, 216 B.C. 
 
 interior was decorated by Mr. John G. Grace. The building was given up to Messrs. Kelk and Lucas on 
 Dec. 31, 1862, the house of commons having refused to purchase it for 80,000/. July 2, 1863 ; and the pull- 
 ing down commenced on July 6. The domes and other parts of the structure were purchased for erection 
 in Alexandra-park, Muswell-hill, near London (north). 
 
FAB 295 FAL 
 
 FABLES. " Jotliam's fable of the trees {Judges ix., about 1209 b.c.) is the oldest extant, 
 and as beantifnl as any made since. " A ddison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii. , 
 about 1034 B.C.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collection of fables extant is of eastern 
 origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, called Pilpay, are the 
 most beautiful, if not the most ancient in the world. Sir William Jones. The well-known 
 jEsop's fables {which see), supposed to have been written about 565 or 620 e.g., were versified 
 by Babrius, a Greek poet, about 130 B.C. {Coray), and turned into prose by Maximus 
 Planudes, a Greek monk, about 1320, who added other fables and appended a worthless life 
 of jEsop. The fables of Lafontaiue (1700) and Gay (1727) are justly celebrated. 
 
 FACTIOlSrS, among the Eomans, were parties that fought on chariots in the circus, and 
 who were distinguished by their colours, as green, blue, red, and white ; to which Domitian 
 added two others, gold and scarlet, about 90. At Constantinople, the higher ranks took 
 part in the games, and the emperors and people generally favoured one colour.* 
 
 FACTOKIES, supplied with machinery for producing manufactures, have immensely 
 increased in this comitry since 1815. The Factory act, regulating the hours of labour, &c., 
 was passed in 1833. No child is to be employed under nine years of age, except in silk 
 factories. Similar acts have been passed since, 
 
 FAIELOP OAK, with a trunk 48 feet in circumference, the growth of five centuries, in 
 the forest of Hainault, Essex, was blown down in Feb., 1820. Beneath its branches a fair 
 was annually held on the first Friday in July, which originated with the eccentric Mr. Day, 
 a pump and block maker of "Wapping, who, having a small estate in the vicinity, annually 
 repaired here with a party of friends, to dine on beans and bacon. 
 
 FAIEOAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, the site of two sanguinary indecisive 
 battles between- the Confederates, under general Joseph Johnson, and the Federal army of 
 the Potomac, under general M'Clellan, May 31, and June i, 1862. 
 
 FAIRS AND Wakes, of Saxon origin, were instituted in England by Alfred, 886. 
 Spelman. Wakes were established by order of Gregory VII. in 1078, and termed Ferioi, at 
 which the monks celebrated the festival of their patron saint : the vast resort of people 
 occasioned a great demand for goods, wares, &c. Fairs were established in France about 800 
 by Charlemagne, and encouraged in England about 1071 by William the Conqueror. 
 
 FALCONRY in England cannot be traced with certainty until the reign of king Ethel- 
 bert, the Saxon monarch, 850. Pennant. The grand seignior at one time kept six thousand 
 falconers in his service. Eecents attempts have been made to revive falconry. 
 
 FALCZI, Peace of, concluded between Russia and Turkey, July 2, 1711, the Russians 
 giving up Azoph and all their possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. The Russians 
 were saved from imminent destruction by the address of Catherine the empress. In I7i2the 
 war was renewed, and terminated by the peace of Constantinople, April 16, 17 12. 
 
 FALERNIAN WINE, celebrated by Virgil and Horace, was the produce of Falernus, or, 
 as called by Martial, Mons Massicus, in Campania. Horace in his Odes boasts of having 
 drunk Falernian wine that had been, as it were, born with him, or which reckoned its ao-e 
 from the same consuls, 14 b. c. The Opimian wine is said to have been kept for 200 years. 
 
 FALKIRK (Stirlingshire, Scotland), the site of a victory by the English under Edward I, 
 over the Scots, commanded by Wallace, part of whose forces deserted him. It is said from 
 20,000 to 40,000 of the latter were slain, July 22, 1298. A battle was fought here between 
 the royal forces and prince Charles Stuart, in which the former were defeated, Jan. 17, 1746. 
 
 FALKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the South Atlantic, belonging^ to Great Britain. 
 Seen by Atnericus Vespucius ; and visited by Davis, 1592. Taken posses'sion of by France, 
 1764. The French were expelled by the Spaniards ; and in 1771, Spain gave up the sove- 
 reignty to England. Not having been colonised by us, the republic of Buenos Ayres assumed 
 a right to these islands, and a colony from that countiy settled at Port Louis ; but owing to 
 a dispute with America, the settlement was destroyed by the latter in 1831. In 1833 the 
 British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, and a British oflScer has since resided there. 
 M'Culloch. 
 
 * In Jan. 532, a conflict took place, when about 30,000 lives were lo.st, and Justinian was mainly in- 
 debted for Ms life and throne to the heroism of his empress Theodora, formerly a courtesan. The blues 
 and greens united for a day or two against the emperor, taking Nika ! (overcome) for a watchword, from 
 which the sedition has been named. The blues soon repented, and massacred nearly all the greens. The 
 games were suppressed for a time. 
 
FAM 
 
 296 
 
 FAS 
 
 FAMILY COMPACT. See Bourbon. 
 
 FAMILY OF LOVE, a society, called also Pliiladelpluans, from the love they professed 
 to bear to all men, even the most wicked. They assembled at Brew-house yard, Nottingham. 
 Their founder was named David George, an Anabaptist, of HoUand, who propagated his doc- 
 trine in Switzerland, where he died in 1556. After this event the tenets of the society were 
 declared to be impious, and George's body and books were ordered to be burned by the hang- 
 man. See also Agapemonians. 
 
 FAMINES. The famine of the seven years in Egypt began 1708 B.C. Usher ; Blair. 
 
 Famine at Rome, when thousands of people 
 
 threw then^selves into the Tiber . . B. c. 436 
 Awful famine in Egypt . . . a.d. 42 
 
 At Rome, attended by Plague . . . . 262 
 In Britain, so grievous that people ate the bark 
 
 of trees 272 
 
 In Scotland, and thousands die . . . . 306 
 In England, where 40,000 perish . . . 310 
 
 Awful one in Phrygia 370 
 
 In Italy, when parents ate their children (2)«- 
 
 fresnoy) 450 
 
 In England, Wales, and Scotland . . . 739 
 
 Again, when thousands starve .... 823 
 Again, which lasts four years . . . . 954 
 Awful one throughout Europe .... 1016 
 
 In England, 21 William 1 1087 
 
 In England and France : this famine leads to a 
 
 pestilential fever, which lasts from 1193 to 1195 
 Another famine in England .... 1251 
 Again, so dreadful that the people devoured the 
 
 flesh of horses, dogs, cats, and vermin . . 1315 
 One occasioned by long rains . ... 1335 
 
 One in England and France {Rapin) . . 1353 
 
 Again, one so great, that bread was made from 
 
 fern-roots (Stow) 1438 
 
 One throughout these islands .... 1565 
 Awful one in France (To (<«»■«) . . . . 1693 
 One general in these realms .... 1748 
 One which devastates Bengal . . . . 1771 
 At Cape de Verde ; 16,000 persons perish . 1775 
 
 One grievously felt in France . . . . 1789 
 One severely felt in England .... 1795 
 Again, throughout the kingdom . . . . 1801 
 At Drontheim, owing to Sweden intercepting 
 
 the supiDlies 1813 
 
 Scarcity of food severely felt by the Irish poor, 
 1814, 1816, 1822, 1831, 1846, in consequence of 
 the failure of the potato crop. Grants by par- 
 liament, to relieve the suffering of the people, 
 were niade in the session of 1847, the whole 
 amounting to ten millions sterling. 
 In N. W. provinces of India, thousands starving. 
 (See India.) .... Jan. — March, i86i 
 
 FAN. The use of the fan was known to the ancients ; Ca^Je hoc flahcllum, et ventulum 
 huic sic faeito. " Take this fan, and give her thus a little air." Terence, Bimuchus, B.C. 
 166. — Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false hair, were first devised by the harlots in 
 Italy, and were brought to England from France. Stu2v. The fan was used by females to 
 hide their faces at church. Pardon. In the British Museum are f<in-handles and other 
 articles of Egj'ptian manufacture, used anciently by women. 
 
 FARCE, a short comic drama, usually of one or two acts. One by Otway is dated 1677. 
 The best English farces (by Foote, Garrick, Bickerstaff, &c.) appeared from about 1740 to 
 1780. These species of dramatic entertainment originated in the di^pU shows which were 
 exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. See Drama. 
 
 FAENESE FAMILY became important through the elevation of Alexander Farnese 
 to the papacy as Paul III. He gave his natural son Peter the duchy of Parma, and his 
 descendants ruled there till the death of Antony without issue in 1731. Alexander prince of 
 Parma was governor of the Netherlands in 1579. 
 
 FARRINGDON-MARKET, erected by the corporation of London, near the old Fleet- 
 market, was opened Nov. 20, 1829. 
 
 FARTHING, an early English coin. Farthings in silver were coined by king John ; the 
 Irish farthing of his reign is of the date of 12 10, and is valuable and rare. Farthings were 
 coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. First coined in copper by Charles II. 1665; 
 and again in 1672, when there was a large coinage of copper money. Half-farthings were 
 first coined in the reign of Victoria, 1843. See Queen Anne's Farthings. 
 
 FASTS, observed by most nations from the remotest antiquity ; by the Jews (2 Chron. 
 XX. 3) ; by the Niuevites (Jonah iii. ). A fast was observed by the Jews on the gi-eat day of 
 atonement, Lev. xxiii. 1490 B.C. The fh'st Christian ministers were ordained with fasting 
 (45), Acts xiii. 2. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other stated times, and on par- 
 ticular occasions to appease the anger of God, began in the Christian church, in the second 
 century, 138. The Mahometan fast is termed Ramadan (which see). Fast days are 
 appointed by the Refomied churches in times of war and pestilence (as March 21, 1855), 
 for the Russian war, and Oct, 7, 1857, for the Indian mutiny). See Ahstinencc. 
 
FAT 
 
 297 
 
 FEK 
 
 FATHERS OF the CHURCH. The following are the principal : 
 
 SECOND CENTURY. Gveeh. 
 
 Justin Martyr, d. abt. i66 
 Irenfeus . . d. abt. 200 
 Athenagoras. 
 
 THIRD CENTURY. Grech. 
 Clements . . d. abt. 217 
 Origen . . d. abt. 253 
 
 Latin. 
 Tertullian . d. abt. 220 
 MinutiusFeliXjJ?. abt. 250 
 Cyprian . . d. abt. 258 
 
 FOURTH AND FIFTH CEN- 
 TURIES. Greek. 
 
 Eusebius . d. abt. 340 
 
 Athanasius, d. . . 373 
 Ei^hrem Syrus, ci.abt. 378 
 Basil . . d 37g 
 Cyril of Jerusalem, c?. 386 
 Gregory Nazianzen,d. 389 
 GregoryNyssen,(i.abt. 394 
 Epipbanius . d. 402 
 Chrysostom . . d. 407 
 
 Cyril of Alexandria, d. 444 
 
 Latin. 
 
 
 
 Arnobius . 
 
 a. 
 
 303 
 
 Lactantius . d. 
 
 abt. 
 
 330 
 
 Ambrose 
 
 d. 
 
 ^Q7 
 
 Jerome . 
 
 d. 
 
 420 
 
 Augustine , 
 
 d. 
 
 430 
 
 FATIMITES. See Ali and Mahometanism. 
 
 FATS are oils solid at ordinary temperatures. The researches of Chevreul since 181 1 on 
 their chemical nature are very important. See Candles. 
 
 FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renowned in cheap-books, flourished about the end of 
 ■ the 15th century. Goethe's poem, " Faust," appeared in 1790. 
 
 FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. The "Feasts of the Lord," viz., those of the Passover, 
 Pentecost, Trumpets, and Tabernacles were instituted 1490 B.C. {Leviticus, ch. xxiii.). 
 The Feast of the Tabernacles was celebrated with the greatest magnificence for fourteen 
 days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solomon, 1004 B.C. Hezekiah (726 B.C.) and 
 Josiah (623) kept the feast of Passover in a most solemn manner. In the Christian Church 
 the feasts of Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and the Pentecost or Whitsuntide, are said to 
 have been ordered to be observed by all Christians, in the ist century. Rogation days were 
 appointed in 469. Jubilees in the Romish Church were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 
 1300. See Juhilees. For fixed festivals observed in the Church of England, as settled at 
 the Reformation, ct seq., see Book of Common Prayer. For Feasts of Charity, see AgapcB. 
 
 FEBURARY (from Februus, an Italian divinity), the second month of the year, in which 
 were celebrated Februa, feasts on behalf of the naanes of deceased persons. This month, 
 with January, was added to the year by ISTuma, 713 B.C. 
 
 FECIALES, or Fetiales, heralds of Rome, twenty in number, to denounce war or pro- 
 claim peace, appointed by IsTuma, about 712 B.C. 
 
 FEDERAL STATES are those united by treaty as one state, without giving up self- 
 government — as in Switzerland. The term Federal was given to the Northern of the United 
 States of America during the great conflict in 186 1-5. 
 
 FEEJEE ISLANDS, or Fiji, in the Pacific Ocean, about 1500 miles from Sydney. 
 There are 80 islands, the largest about 360 miles in circumference, with 20,000 inhabitants. 
 The islands were offered by the chiefs to the British government, July, 1859 ; but not 
 accepted. In i860 the house of commons granted 1680Z. for expenditure in them. 
 
 FELONY, in English law (says Blackstone, in 1 765) comprises every species of crime 
 which occasions the forfeiture of land and goods. 
 
 FENCIBLE LIGHT DRAGOONS, a body of cavalry raised voluntarily in various 
 counties of England and Scotland in 1 794, to serve during the war in any part of Great 
 Britain. This force (between 14,000 and 15,000), which did its duty with much judgment 
 during a period of intense popular excitement, was disbanded in 1800. 
 
 FENCING was introduced into England from France. Fencing-schools having led to 
 duelling in England, were prohibited in London by statute 13 Edw. L 1285. In 1859 there 
 were eight teachers of fencing in London. 
 
 FENIANS, a secret society in the United States of America, which became kno^va early 
 in 1863, formed with the professed object of invading Ireland and establishing a republic. 
 Attempts to enlist supporters in Dublin in Jan. 1864, were discountenanced by the Roman 
 Catholic clergy, but secret drilling went on till Sept. 1865. John O'Mahony, termed the 
 "head-centre," resides at New York, The principal agent in Ireland is Stephens, who was 
 concerned in the movement in 1848. See Ireland. 
 
 Biot between the Fenians and their opponents 
 at the Rotondo, Dublin . . Feb. 22, 
 
 23 persons arrested in Dublin, and the news- 
 paper the Irish People (established Sept. 1863) 
 seized Sept. 15, 
 
 Other persons, principally of the lower classes 
 of society, arrested . . . Sept. 17-30 
 
 The Fenians in America published an address, 
 stating that officers were going to Ireland to 
 organise an army of 200,000 men . Sept. 
 
 Fenians arrested at Manchester . Sept. 21, 
 
 A ship laden with gunpowder seized at Liver- 
 pool Sept. 1865 
 
 Allocution of the pope, condemning secret 
 societies Sept. 30 ,, 
 
 Evidence adduced that 5000?. and 2000 pike- 
 heads had been received from America in 
 Sept. 
 
 O'Donovan and 5 others committed for high 
 treason Oct. 2, ,, 
 
 33 Fenians committed for trial, up to Oct. 14, ,, 
 
 Many arriving from America are arrested Oct. „ 
 
FER 298 FET 
 
 FfiRE-CHAMPENOISE (France). Here the French army under Marmont, Mortier, 
 and Arrighi, were surprised and defeated by the Austrians under the prince of Schwartzen- 
 berg, March 25, 1814, after a heroic resistance. Paris surrendered to the allies six days 
 after. 
 
 FERIjE LATINiE were solemn festivals at Rome, instituted by Tarquin the Proud, 
 about 534 B.C. The principal magistrates of forty-seven towns of Latiura assembled on a 
 mount near Rome, where they and the Roman authorities offered a bull to Jupiter Latialis. 
 
 FERMENTATION, by Gay-Lussac, termed one of the most mysterious processes in 
 nature : he showed that in the process, 45 lbs. of sugar are resolved into 23 of alcohol and 22 
 of carbonic acid. His memoir appeared in 1810. In 1861 Pasteur brought forward 
 evidence to show that fermentation depends on the presence of minute organisms in the 
 fermenting fluid, and that the source of all such organisms is the atmosphere. 
 
 FERNS (Ireland), an ancient bishopric, once archiepiscopal. St. Edan was seated here 
 in 598. Leighlin and Ferns were imited in 1600 ; and by the Church Temporalities' act, 
 passed Aug. 1833, both were united to the bishopric of Ossory. See Ossory. — Ferns, an 
 order of cryptogamous plants, now much cultivated in^Wardiau cases, which see, and also 
 Nature- Printing. 
 
 FEROZESHAH (India). The British, commanded by sir Hugh Gough, attacked the 
 entrenchments of the Sikhs, and carried by storm their first line of works, Dec. 21, 1845 ; 
 but night coming on, the operations were suspended till daybreak next day, when their 
 second line was stonned by general Gilbert, and 74 guns captured. The Sikhs advanced 
 to retake their guns, but were repulsed with great loss, and retreated towards the Sutlej, 
 Dec. 22 ; and recrossed that river unmolested, Dec. 27. The British loss was reckoned 
 at 2415. 
 
 FERRARA, a city in the Papal States, formerly part of the Exarchate of Ravenna, under 
 the emperors of the East. It was subdued by the Lombards in the 8th centuiy, and taken 
 from them about 752 by Pepin, who gave it to pope Stephen II. About 1208 it fell into the 
 hands of the house of Este {which see), and became the principal seat of the literature and 
 fine arts in Italy. Pope Clement VIII. obtained the long-claimed sovereignty in 1598, on 
 the death of the duke Alphonso II., the last legitimate male of the Este family. His 
 illegitimate nephew, Csesar, became duke of Modena. The French under Massena took 
 Ferrara in 1796 ; but it was restored to the pope in 1814. An Austrian garrison held it from 
 1849 ; it retired in June, 1859, and the peo]ile rose and declared for annexation to Sardinia, 
 which was accomplished in March, i860. 
 
 FERRARS' ARREST. In March, 1542, Mr. George Ferrars, a member of parliament, 
 being in attendance on the house, was taken in execution by a sheriffs officer for debt, and 
 committed to the Compter prison. The house despatched their serjeant to require his 
 release, which was resisted, and an aff"ray taking place, his mace was broken. The house in 
 a body repaired to the lords to complain, when the contempt was adjudged to be very 
 great, and the punishment of the offenders was referred to the lower house. On another 
 messenger being sent to the sheriffs by the commons, they delivered up the senator, and the 
 civil magistrates and the creditor were committed to the Tower, the inferior oflBcers to 
 Newgate, and an act was passed releasing Mr. Ferrars from liability for the debt. The king, 
 Henry VIII. , highly approved of all these proceedings, and the transaction became the basis 
 of that rule of parliament which exempts members from arrest. MoUnshed. 
 
 FERRO, the most western of the Canary isles, from whose west point some geogi-aphers 
 have taken their first meridian, was known to the ancients, and was re-discovered in 1402. 
 
 FERROL (N.W. Spain). Upwards of 10,000 British landed near Ferrol under the 
 command of sir James Pulteney, in Aug. 1800. They gained possession of the heights ; 
 notwithstanding which the Bi-itish general, desjiairing of success, on account of the strength 
 of the works, re-embarked his troops. His conduct, which was in opposition to the opinion 
 of his officers, was very much condemned in England. The French took seven sail of the 
 line here, Jan. 27, 1809. 
 
 FESCENNINE VERSES were rude extemporary dialogues, freqiiently licentious, in 
 favour among the ancient Etruscans, and still popular in Italy. 
 
 FESTIVALS. See Feasts. 
 
 FETE DE DIEU, a feast of the Roman church in honour of the real presence in the 
 Lord's Supper, kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. See Corpus Christi. Berengarius, 
 
FET 299 FIIST 
 
 arclibisliop of Angers, was opposed to the doctrine of transubstantiation wlien it was 
 propagated, and to atone for his crime a yearly procession was made at Angers, which was 
 called laf&te de Dieu, 1019. 
 
 FETE DE VERTU, an annual assemblage, chiefly of young persons, to whom were 
 adjudged rewards for industry and virtue. These fetes, held at Nuneham, in Oxfordshire, 
 begun by lady Harcourt in 1 789, continued till her death. 
 
 FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of laud by suit and service to the lord or owner was 
 introduced into England by the Saxons, about 600. This slavery was increased in 1068. 
 The kingdom was divided into baronies, which were given on condition of the holders 
 furnishing the king with men and money. The vassalage, restored, but limited by Henry VII. , 
 1495, Avas abolished by statute 1660. The feudal system was introduced into Scotland by 
 Malcolm IL in 1008, and the hereditary jurisdictions were finally abolished in that kingdom, 
 1746-7. The feudal laws, established in France by Clovis L about 486, were discountenanced 
 by Louis XI. in 1470. 
 
 FETJILLANTS, a religious order founded by Jean de la Barriere in 1577 at the abbey of 
 Feuillant, near Toulouse, and settled in Paris in 1587. The Feuillant club, formed in Paris 
 by La Fayette and others in 1789, to counteract the intrigues of the Jacobins, was so 
 named fi-om the convent, where they met. A body of Jacobins burst into their haU and 
 obliged them to separate, Dec. 25, 1791 ; and the club was broken up in 1792. 
 
 FEZ (in the ancient Mauritania, Africa), founded by Edris, a descendant of Mahomet, 
 about 787, was long capital of the kingdom of Fez. After long-continued struggles, it was 
 annexed to Morocco about 1550. Leo Africanus describes it as containing more than seven 
 hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the 12th century. 
 
 FIGTIOlSrS. See Romances. — Fictions in Law were invented by the lawyers in the 
 reign of Edward I. as a means of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the 
 courts became checks to each other. Hume. Lord Mansfield, in the court of King's 
 Bench, emphatically declared, that "no fiction of law shall evee so far tret ail 
 
 AGAINST THE HEAL TRUTH, AS TO PREVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 3 1, 1784. 
 
 FIEF, See Feudal Laios. 
 
 FIELD OF March and May. See Cliamp. Field of the Cloth of Gold, a plain 
 near Ardres, near Calais, in France, on which Henry YIIL met Francis I. of France, June, 
 7-25, 1520. The nobility of both kingdoms displayed their magnificence, and many 
 involved themselves in debt. Paintings of the embarkation and interview are at "Windsor 
 castle, 
 
 FIERY CHAMBER. See Chambre Ardente. 
 
 FIESCHPS ATTEMPT on Louis-Philippe, See France, 1835. 
 
 FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN about 1645 supposed the period of the Millennium to be 
 just at hand, when Jesus should descend from heaven, and erect the fifth universal monarchy. 
 They proceeded so far as to elect Jesus Christ king at London. Cromwell dispersed them, 
 1653. Kearsley, Another rising with loss of life was suppressed in Jan, 1661. 
 
 FIG-TREE {Ficus Carica). Brought from the south of Europe, before 1548. The 
 Botany-Bay Fig, Ficus Australis, brought from N.S, Wales in 1789, 
 
 FIGURES, See Arithmetic, and Digits. 
 
 FILES are mentioned (i Sam. xiii, 21) B.C. 1093. The manufacture of them has 
 attained to great perfection, by means of file-cutting machinery. That set up by Mr. T. 
 Greenwood of Leeds, in 1859, was invented by M. Bernot of Paris, It is said that the price 
 of files made by it are reduced from 32fZ. to ^d. per dozen. 
 
 FILIBUSTERS, a name given to the freebooters who plundered the coasts of America 
 in the 1 7th century. See Bitccaneers and Nicaragua. 
 
 FILTERERS. A plan for purifying corrupted water was patented by Wm. WoUcott in 
 1675. Other modes followed, James Peacock's method of filtration was patented in iTJi. 
 
 FINE ARTS, See Arts, Paintings, Sculpture, Engraving, &c, 
 
 FINES AND RECOYERIES, conferring the power of breaking ancient entails and 
 alienating estates, began in the reign of Edward lY,, but was not, properly speaking, law, 
 till Henry YIL, by correcting some abuses that attended the practice, gave indirectly a 
 sanction to it, 1487, Fines and recoveries were abolished in 1833, 
 
¥m 300 FIR 
 
 FINLAND, a Eussian grand-duchy, in the middle of the 12th century was conquered 
 hy the Swedes, who introduced Christianity. It was several times conquered by the Russians 
 {1714, 1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743) ; but in 1809 they retained it by treaty. 
 See Abo. Its political constitution was confirmed by the czar in 1809, 1825, and 1855. 
 Population in 1862, 1,746,229. 
 
 FINNIAN. See Fenians. 
 
 FIRE is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. The poets supposed 
 that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometlieus. Heraclitus about 596 B. c. maintained that 
 the world was created from fire, and deemed to be a god onmipotent. 
 
 FIRE-ANNIHILATOR, an apparatus invented by Mr. T. Phillips, and made known by 
 him in 1849. When put in action, steam and carbonic acid are fonned, which extinguish 
 flame. It was not successful in practice. 
 
 FIRE-ARMS. (See Artillery and Cannon.) The first small fire-arms were a species of 
 cannon, borne by two men. See Revolver. 
 
 Fire-arms made at Perugia, in Italy . . . 1364 
 Employed by the Burgundians in the defence 
 
 of Arras 1414 
 
 Edward IV., when he landed at Ravenspur, is 
 said to have been accompanied by 300 
 Flemings, armed with hand-guns . . . 1471 
 At the battle of Morat, the Swiss are said to 
 
 have had 10,000 men armed with fire-arms . 1476 
 Fire-arms were used at the siege of Berwick . 152 1 
 The petronel (from poiti-ine, the chest) or ar- 
 quebus came into use, 1480 ; and the musket 
 employed in the armies of the emperor 
 Charles V. about „ 
 
 All these were of very rude construction, being 
 first discharged by a lighted match, after- 
 wards, about 15 17, by a wheel-lock, then by 
 the flint. 
 
 The match-lock and wheel-lock superseded by 
 the flint-lock, about 1692 
 
 The rev. Mr. Forsythe patented the percussion 
 princiiile of igniting gunpowder in muskets 
 by means of detonating powder . . . . 1807 
 
 Percussion caps came into use between 1820 <fe 1830 
 
 The old musket (Broioii Bess) was superseded by 
 the Enfield rifle, which is likely to give way 
 to Lancaster's smooth-bored rifle . . . 1858 
 
 SMALL ARMS OF THE BRITISH SERVICE, 1854. 
 
 Percussion musket ; pattern, 1842. 
 Victoria carbine (for cavalry). 
 Regulation rifle musket'; pattern, 1851. 
 
 Enfield rifle musket, adopted for the service in 1853, 
 after experiments at the royal manufactory, En- 
 field Lock. 
 
 Artillery carbine ; pattern, 1842. 
 
 FIRE-BRIGADE was established in London in 1832 by Mr. R. Bell Ford, director of the 
 Run fire-office. It then had 80 men and 19 stations. In 1863 it had 130 men and 20 
 stations. In May, 1862, a commission recommended the establishment of a Police fire- 
 brigade, which was effected by an act of parliament in 1865. It was to be supported by a 
 \d. rate and by contributions from government and from the insurance offices. 
 
 FIRE-DAMP INDICATOR, is a small apparatus, about the size of a chronometer, 
 invented by Mr. G. F. Ansell, and patented by him in 1865, by which the presence of very 
 small quantities of fire-damp or light carburetted hydrogen gas may be detected in mines. 
 It is an application of the law of the diff'usion of gases. 
 
 FIRE-ENGINES are said to have been invented by Ctesibius 250 B.C. They are 
 mentioned by Pliny, a.d. 70. A "Water-bow" was patented by Thos. Grent in 1632, one 
 was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about 1663. Bramah's engine was patented in 
 1793, and many others since. Mr. John Braithwaite constructed a steam fii-e-engine in 
 1830. A trial of steam fire-engines took place at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, on July, 
 I, 2, 3, 1863 ; when prizes were awarded to a large one by Merryweather and a small one by 
 Shaud and Mason. 
 
 FIRE-ESCAPES have been patented by David Marie (1766), Joacliim Smith (1773), and 
 by many other persons. The Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire was first 
 established in 1836 ; it object was not fully attained till 1843, when it was re-organised, 
 beginning with six escape stations in London ; in March, 1859, it possessed 67. In 1861 it 
 was stated that 84 lives had been saved, by the conductors. In 1858, 504 fires had been 
 attended, and 57 persons rescued. Vcrsmann's composition for rendering washing dresses 
 fire-proof wSiS published about i860. 
 
 FIRE INSURANCE. See hisurance. 
 
 FIRE-SHIPS were first used in the 13th century. Among the most formidable con- 
 ti'lvances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at 
 the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in the British navy was by Charles, 
 lord Howard of Effingham, in the engagement of the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. Hajntu 
 
FIR 
 
 301 
 
 FIR 
 
 FIRE-WATCH, or Fire-Guard of London, was instituted Nov. 1791. 
 
 FIRE-WORKS* are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages. They were 
 invented in Europe at Florence about 1360 ; and were exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. 
 
 Macaulay states that the fire-works let off in Eng- 
 land at the peace of Kyswick, in 1697, cost 12,000^. 
 
 Verygrand fire- works were let off from a magnificent 
 buUding erected in the Green-park, London, at the 
 peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, signed April 30, 1748. 
 
 At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris, May 31, 1770, 
 in honour of the marriage of the dauphin, after- 
 wards Louis XVI., nearly 1000 persons perished 
 by pressure and drowning, through a panic. 
 
 The display of fireworks, under the direction of sir 
 Wm. Congreve, on the celebration of the general 
 peace, and to commemorate the centenary acces- 
 sion of the family of Brunswick to the British 
 throne, surpassed all previous exhibitions, Aug. i, 
 1814. 
 
 A grand display of this kind (at a cost of io,oooJ.) to 
 celebrate the peace with Russia, May 29, 1856. 
 
 FIRES IN London. The conflagration of a city, with all its tumult of concomitant 
 disti'ess, is one of the most dreadful spectacles which this world can offer to human eyes. 
 Br. Johnson, See Santiago, Liverpool, &c. (1862). 
 
 EEMAKKABLE FIRES IN OE NEAK LONDON. 
 
 A great part of the city destroyed, including St. 
 
 Paul's cathedral .... 962 & 1087 
 One at London-bridge, began on the Southwark 
 side, and was comnaunicated to the other side, 
 and hemmed in anumerous crowd. Of those 
 who threw themselves into boats and barges, 
 about 3000 were drowned. A great part of 
 the city, north and south, was burned, 14 
 
 John 1212 
 
 The Great Fire, whose ruins covered 436 acres, 
 extended ■ from the Tower to the Temple- 
 church, and from the north-east gate to 
 Holbom-bridge. It began at a baker's house 
 in Pudding-lane, behind Monument-yard, and 
 destroyed, in the space of four days, 89 
 churches (including St. Paul's), the city gates, 
 the Royjil Exchange, the Custom-house, 
 Guildhall, Sion college, and many other 
 public buildings, besides 13,200 houses, lay- 
 ing waste 400 streets. Aboxxt 200, 000 persons 
 encamped in Islington and Highgate fields. 
 (See Monument.) . . . Sept. 2-6, 1666 
 
 In Southwark, 60 houses burnt . . . 1676 
 
 In Wapping, 150 houses burnt, 50 lives lost . 1715 
 
 Customs-house burnt 1718 
 
 At ShadweU, 50 houses biunt . Sept. 10, 1736 
 In ComhiU ward, 200 houses burnt ; this fire 
 began in Change-alley, and was the most 
 terrible since the great fire of 1666, March 25, 1748 
 At Covent-garden, 50 houses . . . . 1759 
 
 In Smithfield, 28 houses burnt .... 1761 
 At ShadweU,- 30 houses burnt . . . . ,, 
 In Throgmorton-street, 20 houses . . . 1774 
 
 At Wapping, 20 houses 1775 
 
 At Hermitage-stairs, 31 houses . . . .1779 
 At Horselydown, 30 houses, besides many 
 ^warehouses and ships . . April 30, 1780 
 Newgate, &c., by the Gordon mob . June, ,, 
 
 In the Strand, 40 houses 1781 
 
 InAldersgate-street, 40 houses; the loss exceed- 
 ing ioo,oooZ. Nov. s, 1783 
 
 The Opera-house .... June 17, 1789 
 At Eotherhithe, 20 houses . . . Oct. 12, 1790 
 Again, when many ships and 60 houses were 
 
 consumed Sept. 14, 1791 
 
 Pantheon, Oxford-street . . June 14, 1792 
 At Wapping, 630 houses, and an East India 
 warehouse, in which 35,000 bags of saltpetre 
 were stored : the loss i,ooo,oooZ. July 21, 1794 
 
 Astley's amphitheatre . . . Sept. 17, ,, 
 St. Paul's church, Covent-garden Sept. 11, 1793 
 
 At ShadweU, 20 houses burnt . Nov. i. 
 
 In the Minories, 30 houses . . March 23, 
 In the King's Bench, 50 residences July 14, 
 Near the Customs, three West India ware- 
 houses ; loss 3oo,oooZ. . . . Feb. 11, 
 At Wapping, 30 houses . . . Oct. 6, 
 
 In Store-street, Tottenham-court-road, immense 
 property destroyed .... Sept. 27, 
 The great tower over the choir of Westminster 
 
 abbey burnt July 9, 
 
 Astley's again, and 40 houses . . Sept. i. 
 
 Frith-street, Soho, lasted several days, many 
 
 houses destroyed .... Dec. 2, 
 
 Surrey theatre Aug. 12, 
 
 Covent-garden theatre . . Sept. 20, 
 
 Drury-lane theatre .... Feb. 24, 
 In Conduit-street ; Mr. Windham, in aiding to 
 save Mr. North's library, received an injui'y 
 which caused his death . . . July 9, 
 In Bury-street, St. Mary-axe, half the street 
 
 made ruins June 12, 
 
 Custom house, warehouses, and public records 
 
 destroyed Feb. liS, 
 
 At Eotherhithe, 60 houses and several ships 
 
 1796 
 1797 
 1799 
 
 destroyed ; loss 8o,oool. . . March 16, 
 At Mile-end ; loss 200,000^. . . Jan. 22, 
 In Smithfield ; loss ioo,oooZ. . . Aug. 14, 
 Royalty theatre destroyed . . April 11, 
 In Red Lion-street, 15 houses . . June 6, 
 Argyle rooms destroyed . . . Feb. 5, 
 English opera-house, &c. , burnt . Feb. 16, 
 
 Houses of parliament consumed . Oct. 16, 
 Fenning's-wharf, London-bridge, &c. ; loss 
 
 250,000? Aug. 30, 
 
 The Royal Exchange destroyed . Jan. 10, 
 At Wapping, 12 houses . . . June 16, 
 CamberweU church .... Feb. 7, 
 Astley's theatre again .... June 8, 
 At the Tower ; the armoury and 280,000 stand 
 
 of arms, (fee. destroyed . . . Oct. 30, 
 Raggett'shotel, Dover-street, Piccadilly; several 
 
 eminent persons perished . . May 27, 
 
 Several houses in New-square, Lincoln's iim, 
 
 Jan. 14, 
 Olympic theatre .... March 29, 
 One in St. Martin's-lane (at a publican's named 
 
 Ben Caunt), three lives lost . . Jan. 15, 
 Fire at Duke- street, London-bridge ; property 
 
 lost estimated at 6o,oooJ. . . Feb. 19, 
 At the Rose and Crown, Love-lane, City, four 
 
 lives lost May 18, 
 
 1821 
 1822 
 1826 
 1828 
 1830 
 
 1834 
 
 1841 
 184s 
 
 1851 
 
 * In consequence of explosions frequently occurring at fire- work makers (particularly one on July 12, 
 1858, at Mr. Bennett's, in the Westminster-road, Lambeth, when five lives were lost, and about 300 persons 
 seriously injured, and much property destroyed), it was determined to enforce 9 & 10 WiU. III. c. 7 (1697), 
 an act to prevent the throwing and forming of squibs, serpents, and other fire-works. An act regulating 
 the making of fire-works was passed in i860. 
 
FIR 
 
 302 
 
 FIS 
 
 FIRES, continued. 
 
 Foot of London-bridge, four large hop ware- 
 houses burnt ; loss 150,000^. . . June 23, 1851 
 Collard and Co., pianoforte makers, Camden- 
 town ; loss 6o,oooi. . . . Dec. 19, ,, 
 
 The warehouses of Messrs. Pawson, St. Paul's - 
 
 chiu-chyard, burnt . . . Feb. 24, 1853 
 Works of Gutta Percha Company, near City- 
 road ; loss ioo,oooi. . . . Junes, >> 
 
 Kii'knian's pianoforte manufactory . Aug. 10, ,, 
 Messrs. Scott Russell and Co. 's works, Mill wall ; 
 loss ioo,oooi. .... Sept. 10, ,, 
 
 Premises of Messrs. Savill and Edwards, 
 
 printers, Chandos- street, destroyed, Sept. 30, „ 
 Premises of Townend and Co., Bread-street, 
 
 destroyed ; loss about 100,000^ . Dec. 31, ,, 
 Messrs. Cubitt's premises, PimUco Aug. 17, 1854 
 Whittington club-house . . . Dec. 3, ,, 
 
 Premises of Messrs. Routledge, Messrs. Rennie, 
 (fee, Blackfriars-road ; loss, one life and 
 150,000?. ...... Feb. 16, 1855 
 
 Of Etna steam battery at Messrs. Scott Russell's 
 
 works ; loss about 1 2o,oooJ. . . May 3, ,, 
 
 Pavilion theatre .... Feb. 13, 1856 
 
 Covent-garden theatre . . . March 5, ,, 
 Messrs. Scott Russell's (third fire), much valu- 
 able machinery desti'oyed . March 12, ,, 
 Messrs. Dobbs' premises. Fleet-street, April i, ,, 
 Shad Thames flour mill; loss about 100,000?. 
 
 July 17. » 
 Messrs. Broadwood's, pianoforte makers, West- 
 
 mmster Aug. 12, ,, 
 
 Premises of Messrs. Almond's, army accoutre- 
 ment makers, and others, in St. Martin's- 
 lane ; estimated loss :o,ooo?. . Nov. 9, ,, 
 
 Messrs. Pickford's premises, at Chalk Farm 
 
 station Jime 9, 1857 
 
 Gilbert- street, Bloomsbury; 15 lives lost, 
 
 March 28, 1858 
 Limehouse ; Messrs. Fore.st, Dixon's. &c. , pre- 
 mises destroyed, and Blackwall railway 
 arches; insured . . . July 19-20, ,, 
 Fresh wharf; 25,000?. worth of silk June 21, ,, 
 London docks ; great explosion ; man killed by 
 
 fright ; loss about 150,000?. . June 29, ,, 
 
 Creat James-sti'cet, Marylobone ; six lives lost, 
 
 Feb. 26, 1859 
 Messrs. Hubbuck and Co., Lime-street; one 
 
 life and a large amount of property. May 20, „ 
 West Kent wharf and New Hibemia wharf; 
 destroyed property valued at 200,000?. ; fire 
 lasted nearly a month ; commenced Aug. 17, i860 
 St. ]Martin's-hall, built for Mr. HuUah, and 
 
 other premises, desti-oyed . . Aug. 26, „ 
 Thames iron-works, Blackwall . Aug. 31, ,, 
 Kilbum church, Maida-hill, destroyed, Nov. 29, ,, 
 Surrey music-hall destroyed . . June 11, 1861 
 Cotton's wharf and dep6t and other wharves 
 near Tooley-street, containing oil and other 
 
 combustible substances, took fire about half- 
 past 4 p.M , June 22, and continued burning 
 for a month. Several persons were killed, 
 including James Braidwood, the able super- 
 intendant of the London fire-brigade ; the 
 loss of property was estimated at 2,000,000?. i86x 
 
 Davis's wharf, Horselydown, burnt ; loss about 
 15,000?. ...... Aug. I, ,, 
 
 Near Paternoster-row ; Messrs. Longman's, 
 booksellers, Messrs. Knight's, taUow-melters, 
 and others; loss above 50,000?. . Sept. 4, ,, 
 
 Mr. Price's, Fountain-court, Strand^ three 
 lives lost Jan. 3, 1862 
 
 At Cami>den-house, Kensington, pictures and 
 other valuable property of Mr. Woolley de- 
 stroyed March 23, ,, 
 
 Mr. Dean's, Berkeley-street, ClerkenweU, three 
 lives lost May 5, ,, 
 
 Mr. Joel's, Fore-street, City, four lives lost. 
 
 May 21, „ 
 
 Mr. Boor's, druggist, Bishopsgate-street ; ex- 
 plosion ; two lives lost . . .June/, ,, 
 
 Great Cumberland-street, Hyde-park ; Mr. 8. 
 Barrett and two daughters burnt Aug. 15, „ 
 
 Messrs. Price's oil-mills, Blackfriars, burnt 
 down ; great loss of property, but no lives 
 lost Nov. 20. „ 
 
 The ancient Austin-friars church, City, partially 
 destroyed Nov. 22, „ 
 
 Mr. Chard's, Portland-street, Soho, six lives 
 lost Dec. 26, ,, 
 
 Messrs. Capel's, Seething-lane, City ; grreat de- 
 struction of property . . . April 18, 1863 
 
 Warehouses of 3Ies.srs. Grant and others be- 
 tween Wood-street and Milk-street ; property 
 worth aboiit 100,000?. destroyed . Dec. 19, „ 
 
 Meriton's wharf, Dockhead ; immense loss of 
 property June 7, 1864 
 
 Royal Savoy chapel. Strand, destroyed July 7, „ 
 
 Haberdashers' hall and Messrs. Tapling and 
 others' warehouses . . . Sept. 19, „ 
 
 Messrs. Barry, Sufi'erance wharves, Docldieaa ; 
 great loss .... Nov. 25, 26, ,, 
 
 Surrey theatre destroyed . . Jan. 30, 31, 1865 
 
 Saville house (where George III. was bom), 
 Leicester-square .... Feb. 28, ,, 
 
 Poulterers' ai-ms, Leadenhall market ; two 
 lives lost June 13, ,, 
 
 Messrs. Meeking's and Co., Holbom ; damage 
 30,000?. ...... June 24, ,, 
 
 Messrs. Sothcby and Co. auctioneers ; valuable 
 library destroyed .... June 29, ,, 
 
 There were 953 fires in 1854 ; 1113 in 1857 ; 1114 
 in 1858 (38 hves lost); 1183 in 1861. 1303 fires 
 in 1862 ; 1404 in 1863 ; and 1715 in 1864. In 
 but few cases were the premises totally 
 destroyed. Several fires were occasioned 
 by careless use of coal oils in 1861-2. 
 
 FIRE-WORSHIPPERS. See Parsees. 
 
 FIRST-FRUITS were offerings which made a large part of the reA-eniies of the Hebrew 
 priesthood. First-fruits (called Antstates, from annus, a year), in the Roman church, 
 originally the profits of one year of every vacant bishopric, afterwards of everj' benefice, 
 were first claimed by pope Clement V. in 1306, and were collected in England in 1316 : 
 but chronologers ditter on this point. The exaction was submitted to till the 26th of 
 Hen. VIII. 1534, when the first-fruits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and 
 his successors. Mary gave \ip the Annates once more to the popes (1555) ; but Elizabeth 
 resumed them (1559). They were gi-anted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes 
 of the poor clergj', by queen Anne, in 1703. The ofllices of First-fruits, Tenths, and queen 
 Anne's Bounty were consolidated by i Vict. c. 20, 1838. See Aucjmcntation of Poor 
 Livings. Annates were long resisted in France, but not totally supin-essed till 1789. 
 
 FISHERIES. Laws for their protection were enacted by Edward I. in 1284, and by 
 his successors. The rights of the English and French fishei'men were defined by treaty 
 in 1839. See Herring, Whale, and Neivfoundland Fisheries. 
 
PIS 
 
 303 
 
 FLA 
 
 . FISHERIES, continued. 
 
 Fistimongers' company of London incorporated 1384 
 Fishing towns regulated by an act passed in . 1542 
 Fishing on our coast forbidden by statute to 
 
 strangers 1609 
 
 The Dutch paid 30,000^. for permission to fish 
 
 on the coasts of Britain . . . . . 1636 
 Corporation of Free British Fisheries instituted 1750 
 Fish-machines, for conveying fish by land to 
 London, set up in 1761 ; and supported by 
 
 parliament 1764 
 
 The British Society of Fisheries established in 
 
 London in 1786 
 
 The Irish Fishery Company formed in . Dec. 1818 
 In 1849, two peasants, Remy and Gehin, ob- 
 tained medals for their exertions in culti- 
 vating fish in France, and the government 
 
 set up an establishment for this purpose at 
 Huningue, under M. Coumes. 
 
 In i860 great progress had been made by M, 
 Coste and others. 
 
 Commissions to examine into British fisheries 
 were appointed in i860, and acts to amend 
 the law relating to fisheries in Great Britain 
 and Ireland were passed in . . . 1861-2-3 
 
 The subject has excited since much attention 
 in Britain. 
 
 In April, 1863, Mr. Ponders placed in the 
 Thames 76,000 young fish (salmon, trout, 
 char, and grayling) ; and on April 17, Mr. 
 Frank Buckland demonstrated the import- 
 ance of fish culture before the members of 
 the Royal Institution, London. 
 
 EISHGUAED (Pembroke). On Feb. 22, 1797, 1400 Frenchmen landed near this place. 
 On Feb. 24, they surrendered to lord Cawdor, and some countrymen, armed with scythes 
 and pitchforks. 
 
 FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM (Cambridge), founded by Richard viscount Fitzwilliam, who 
 died in 1816, and bequeathed his collection of books, pictures, &c., to the university, with 
 ioo,oooZ. to erect a building to contain them. This was begun by G. Basevi in 1837, and 
 finished by Cockerell some years after. 
 
 FIVE HUNDRED, Council op, established by the new French constitution, Aug. 22, 
 1795, was unceremoniously dissolved by Napoleon Bonaparte, Nov. 10, 1799. 
 
 FIVE-MILE ACT, an oijpressive statute passed in the 17th year of Chas. II., Oct. 
 1665. It obliged non-conformist teachers, who refused to take the non-resistance oath, not 
 to come within five miles of any corporation where they had preached since the act of 
 oblivion (unless they were travelling), under the penalty of 50Z. They were relieved by 
 Wm. III. in 1689. 
 
 FLAG. The flag acquired its present form in the 6th century, in Spain ; it was pre- 
 viously small and square. Ashe. It is said to have been introduced there by the Saracens, 
 before whose time the ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of wood. Pardon. The 
 flag at sea denotes to what country a ship belongs, and the rank of its commander. The 
 Tionour-of-tlie-flag salute at sea was exacted by England from very early times ; but it 
 was formerly yielded by the Dutch in 1673, at which period they had been defeated in many 
 actions. Louis XIV. obliged the Spaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680. 
 Eenault. After an engagement of three hours between Tourville and the Spanish admiral 
 Papachin, the latter yielded by firing a saliite of nine guns to the French flag, June 2, 1688. 
 Idem. See Salute at Sea and Union Jack. 
 
 FLAGELLANTS. A fatal plague gave raise to this fanatic sect. Henault. They 
 established themselves at Perouse, about 1268. They maintained that there was no remission 
 of sins without flagellation, and publicly lashed themselves. Clement VI. declared them 
 heretics in 1349 ; and 90 of them and their leader, Conrad Schmidt, were burnt, 1414. In 
 1574, Henry III. of France became a flagellant for a short time. 
 
 FLAGEOLET. See Flute. 
 
 FLAMBEAUX, Feast of. See Argos. 
 
 FLAMMOCK'S BEBELLION. See Rebellions, 1497. 
 
 FLANDERS, the principal part of the ancient Belgium, which was conquered by Julius 
 Caesar, 51 B.C. It became part of the kingdom of France in 843, and was governed by 
 counts subject to the king, from 862 till 1369, the first being Baldwin, Bras de Fer, who is 
 said to have introduced the cloth manufacture. In 1204, Baldwin IV. became emperor at 
 Constantinople. In 1369, Philip duke of Burgundy married Margaret, the heiress of count 
 Louis II. After this, Flanders was subjected alternately to Burgimdy (1384), Austria (1477), 
 and Spain (1555). In 1580 it declared its independence, but afterwards returned to its 
 allegiance to the house of Austria. In 1713 it was included in the empire of Germany. 
 France obtained a part of Flanders by treaty in 1659 and 1679. See Burgundy, Netherlands, 
 and Belgium. 
 
 FLAT-BUSH, Battle of. See Long Island. 
 
FLA 304 FLO 
 
 FLATTERY CAPE (W. coast of North America), so named by captain Cook, because at 
 a distance it had the deceptive appearance of a harbour, 1778. 
 
 FLAVIAN C^SARS were the Roman emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, who 
 reigned 69 — 96. 
 
 FLAX was brought from Egypt to Gaul about i b. c. ; and was ordered to be grown in 
 England, by statute 24 Hen. VIII., 1533. For many ages the core was separated from the 
 flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand. A mallet was next used ; but the old methods 
 of breaking and scutching the flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland 
 about 1 750. See Hemp. In 1 85 1, chevalier Claussen patented a method of ' ' cottoning" flax. 
 
 FLEECE. See Golden Fleece. 
 
 FLEET-PRISON MARKET, &c. (London), were built oyer the small river Fleta, now 
 used as a comn\on sewer. In the reign of Henry VII. this river was na-vngable to Holborn- 
 bridge ; and the obelisk in Fleet-street denotes the extent of it in 1775. The prismi was 
 founded in the first year of Richard I., and was allotted for debtors, 1640, and persons were 
 committed here who had incurred the displeasure of the Star Chamber, and for contempt of 
 the court of Chancery. It was burnt by the prisoners, June 7, 1780.* It was pulled 
 down in 1845 (and the debtors removed to the Queen's Bench prison). The site was 
 sold to the Loudon, Dover, and Chatham railway company for 6o,oooZ. on June 2, 1864. 
 Flcet-nuirkct, originally formed in 1737, was removed, and the site named Farringdon-street 
 in 1829. A new (Farringdon) market was opened Nov. 20, 1829. Tiie granite obelisk in 
 Fleet-street, to the memory of alderman Waithman, was erected June 25, 1833. 
 
 FLEUR-DE-LIS, the emblem of France, said to have been brought from heaven by an 
 angel to Clovis, he having made a vow that if he proved victorious in a pending battle with 
 the Alemanni near Cologne, he would embrace Christianitj', 496. It was the national emblem 
 till the revolution in 1789, when the tricolor (white, red, and blue) was adopted. 
 
 FLEURUS (Belgium), the site of several battles : (i.) On Aug. 30, 1622, between the 
 Catholic league under Gonzales de Cordova, and the Protestant union (indecisive). (2.) 
 When the prince of "Waldeck was defeated by Luxembourg, July i, 1690. (3.) Between the 
 allies under the prince of Coburg, and the French revolutionary army commanded by 
 Jourdan. The allies, with an army of 100,000 men, had for their object the relief of 
 Charleroi, when they were met on the plains of Fleurus, and signally defeated. Between 
 8000 and 10,000 were killed, wounded, and taken prisoners ; and Jourdan was enabled to 
 fonn a junction with the French armies of the Moselle, the Ardennes, and the north. In 
 this memorable battle the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the enemy's army, an 
 experiment which it is said contributed to the success of the day, June 26, 1794. (4.) 
 The battle of Ligny {which see) is also called the battle of Fleurus. 
 
 FLIES. There was an extraordinary fiiU of these insects in London, covering the clothes 
 of passengers in the streets, 1707. Cliamherlain. In the United States of America the 
 Hessian fly, from the notion of its having been brought there by the Hessian troops in the 
 service of England in the war of independence ; ravaged the wheat in 1777. Before and 
 dui'ing the severe attack of cholera at Newcastle in Sept. 1853, the air was infested with 
 small flies. 
 
 FLINTS, in form like arrow-heads, and considered by him to have been shaped by human 
 hands, were found in 1847, t^^^^ Amiens, by M. Boucher de Perthes. His theory, which 
 gives a much higher antiquity to man than is usually received, was much opposed ; but 
 latterly has been received by some eminent geologists. JMany have been since discovered in 
 other countries ; in Java, in 1865. 
 
 FLOATING BATTERIES. See Batteries, and Gibraltar, Siege of, 1781. 
 
 FLODDEN FIELD (Northumberland). The site of a battle on Sept. 9, 15 13, between 
 the English and Scots ; in consequence of James IV. of Scotland having taken part with 
 Louis XII. of France against Henry VIII. of England. James, many of his nobles, and 
 
 * Fleet Marriages. Illicit marriage.s were celebrated here to an amazing extent. Between the 19th 
 of October, 1704, and Feb. 12, 1705, there were celebrated 2954 marriages in the Fleet, without licence or 
 certificate of banns. 20 or 30 couple were sometimes joined in one day, and their names concealed by pri- 
 vate marks, if they chose to pay an extra fee. Pennant, at a later period, describes the daring manner in 
 ■which this nefarious traffic was carried on. He says, that in walking by the prison in his youth, he has 
 been often accosted with, ' ' Sir, will you please to walk in and be married ? " And he states that painted 
 sigrns, of a male and female hand conjoined, with the inscription, "Marriages performed within," were 
 common along the building. This glaring abuse was put an end to by the marriage act in 1753. 
 
FLO 305 FLO 
 
 upAvarcls of 10,000 of his army were slain; while the English, who were commanded by the 
 earl of Surrey, lost only persons of small note. 
 
 FLOGGING. Wm. Cobbett in 1810, and John Drakard in 181 1, were punished for 
 publishing censures on flogging in the army. By orders issued Nov. 9, 1859, this mode of 
 punishment was very much diminished in the army (see Army) ; and on Dec. following it 
 was ordered that first-class seamen should not be flogged, except after a trial. lu 1863, 
 flogging was made a piinishment for attempts at garrotting. 
 
 FLOODS. See Inundations. 
 
 FLORAL HALL, adjoining Co vent-garden theatre, is a large conservator}^, 220 feet long, 
 75 feet wide, and 55 feet high, erected from designs by ilr. E. M. Barry, and was opened 
 with the volunteers' ball, March 7, i860. It was ope-ned as a flower-market. May 22, 1861. 
 
 FLOEALIA, annual games at Eome in honour of Flora, instituted about 752, but not 
 celebrated with regularity till about 1 74 b. c. 
 
 FLOEENCE {Florcntia), capital of Tuscany (ivMch see). It is said to have been founded 
 by the soldiers of Sylla (80 B.C.), and enlarged by the Eoman Triumviri. This city is truly 
 the seat of the arts. In its palaces, universities, academies, churches, and libraries, are to 
 be found the rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine academy 
 and Accademia della Criisca (established 1582) were instituted to enrich literature and 
 ijiij^rove the language of Tuscany ; the latter was so named, because it rejects like Iran all 
 words not purely Tuscan : both are now united under the former name. 
 
 Destroyed by Totila, abotit .... 541 
 
 Rebuilt by Charlemagne 781 
 
 Becomes an independent republic, about . 1198 
 
 Dante born here .... May 14, 1265 
 
 Savonarola burnt 1498 
 
 The power of the Medici begins, about 1420 ; 
 the liberty of Florence was lost by the ap- 
 poixitment of Alexander de' Mtdici as per- 
 petual governor . 1530 
 
 Cosmo de' Medici created grand-duke of Tus- 
 cany 1569 
 
 Revolution at Florence . . . April 27, 1859 
 
 Annexation to Sardinia voted by the people, 
 
 March 11, 12 ; the king enters Florence, 
 
 April 7, i860 
 The king opens the exhibition of the industrial 
 
 products of Italy .... Sept. 15, 1861 
 Florence decreed to be the capital of Italy, 
 
 Dec. II, 1864 
 The king and court remove there . May 13, 1863 
 The Dante festival (the 600th anniversary of 
 
 his birth) opened by the king . May 14, ,, 
 Inauguration of a national rifle meeting ; the 
 
 king fires the first shot . . . June 18, ,, 
 
 FLOEES, or Isle of Flowers (one of the Azores, wMcli see), discovered by Vanderberg 
 in 1439 ; and settled by the Portuguese in 1448. 
 
 FLORIDA, a peninsula, one of the southern states of North America, first discovered by 
 Sebastian Cabot in 1497. It was visited by Ponce de Leon, the Spanish navigator, April 2, 
 1512, in a voyage he had absurdly imdertaken to discover a fountain whose waters had the 
 property of restoring youth to the aged who tasted them ! Florida was conquered by the 
 Spaniards imder Ferdinand de Soto in 1539 ; but the settlement was not fully established 
 until 1565. It was plundered by sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; and by Davis, a buccaneer, in 
 1665. It was invaded by the British in 1702; and again by general Oglethorpe in 1740; 
 ceded to the British crown in 1763 ; taken by the Spaniards in 1781 ; and guaranteed to them 
 in 1783. Eevolution in 1810, when the American government took means for occupying the 
 country ; and after a tedious negotiation it was finally ceded* by Spain to the United States 
 in 1820-21 ; and admitted into the Union in 1845, from wliich it seceded in Dec. i860. 
 Reunited in 1865. See United States. 
 
 FLORIN, a coin first made by the Florentines. A florin was issued by Edward III. 
 which was current in England at the value of 6s. in 1337. Camden. This English coin 
 was called floren after the Floi'entine coin, because the latter was of the best gold. Ashe. 
 The florin of Germany is in value 25. 4^^. ; that of Spain, 4s. i^^d. ; that of Palermo and 
 Sicily, 2s. 6d. ; that of Holland, 2s. Ayliffe. A silver coinage of florins (value 2S.) was 
 issued by proclamation of queen Victoria, August, 1849. 
 
 FLOWERS. Our present common flowers were for the most part introduced into England 
 from the reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth (1485 — 1603). The art of preserving 
 flowers in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the efiects of frost 
 in Avinter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented in America, by Geo. Morris, 
 
 * In 180J, the American government purchased Luuisiana from the French, of which they contended 
 West Florida formed a part. On the revolution, and in cunsequence of this purchase, Spain, unable to 
 defend the country, ceded the whole of Florida to the United States, to which it was finally aunixed after 
 the negotiation above mentioned. 
 
 X 
 
FLU 
 
 306 
 
 FLY 
 
 in 1792. A very great mmiber have been introduced from America, Australia, the Cape, 
 &c., during the present century. 
 
 Acacia, N. America, before . 
 
 Allspice shrub, Carolina 
 
 Aniseed ti-ee, Florida, about . 
 
 Arbor Vit«, Canada, befi re . 
 
 Arctojius, Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Auricula, Switzerland . 
 
 Azarole, S. Eurojie, before . 
 
 Baj', royal, JIadeira . . . 
 
 Bay, sweet, Italy, before 
 
 Camellia, China . . . 
 
 Canary bell-fiower. Canaries . 
 
 Canai-y Convolvulus, Cauaries 
 
 Carnation, Flandors 
 
 Ceanothus, blue, New Spain . 
 
 Chaste tree, Sicily, before 
 
 Christ's thorn, Africa, before 
 
 Convolvulus, many-flowered. 
 
 Coral tree, Cape . . . 
 
 Coral tree, bell -flowered. Cape 
 
 Coral tree, tremulous, Cape . 
 
 Creeper, Vii-ginian,N. America 
 
 Dahlia, China. 
 
 Dryandria, New Holland . . 
 
 Evergreen, thorn, Italy . 
 
 Everlasting, gi-eat-flowered, 
 Cape 
 
 Everlasting, giant, C'ai:)e 
 
 Fernbush, sweet, N. America 
 
 Fox-glove, Canaries 
 
 Fuchsia fulgens,Mexico,about 
 
 Geranium, Flanders 
 
 Gillyflower, Flanders . . 
 
 Gold-plant, Japan . 
 
 Golden-bell-flower, Madeira . 
 
 Hawthorn, American, before 
 
 Heaths, Cape . . 1774- 
 
 Honeyflower, great. Cape 
 
 Honeysuckle, Chinese, China 
 
 Honeysuckle, fly. Cape . 
 
 Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. 
 America .... 
 
 Hyssop, south of Europe, be- 
 fore 
 
 Jasmine, Circassia, before . 
 
 1640 
 1726 
 1766 
 1596 
 
 1774 
 1567 
 1640 
 1665 
 1548 
 1811 
 1696 
 1690 
 1567 
 181S 
 
 1570 
 1596 
 1779 
 i8i6 
 1 791 
 1789 
 1603 
 1803 
 1S03 
 1629 
 
 1793 
 1714 
 
 1534 
 1567 
 
 1777 
 16S3 
 
 1806 
 1752 
 
 1656 
 
 1548 
 
 Jasmine, Catalonia, E. Indies 1629 ' 
 Judas tree, south of Europe, I 
 
 before 1596 
 
 Laburnum, Hungary . . 1576 
 Laurel, Alexandrian, Portu- 
 gal, before . . . • 1713 
 Laurustine, south of Europe, 
 
 before ..... 1596 
 Lavender, south (f Europe, 
 
 before ..... 1568 
 Lilj", Italy, before . . . 1460 
 Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales 1800 
 Lily, red-coloured, S. America 1623 
 Loblolly bay, N. America, be- 
 fore ..... 1739 
 Liipine tree. Cape, about . . 1793 
 Magnolia (see Magnolia), N. 
 
 America . . ... 1688 
 JIagnolia, dwarf, China . 1786 
 Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. 
 
 America 1734 
 
 Maiden-hair, .Lapan . . 1714 
 Mignonette, Italy . . . 1528 
 Milk-wort, great-flowered, 
 
 Cape 1713 
 
 Milk-wort, showy. Cape . 1814 
 Mock orange, south of Eu- 
 rope, before. . . . 1596 
 Mountain tea, N. America, 
 
 before . . ... 1758 
 Myrtle, candlcbcn-y. North 
 
 America .... 1699 
 Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China 1776 
 Nettle tree, south of Europe, 
 
 before ... . . 1596 
 Oleandtr, red, south of Eu- 
 rope 1596 
 
 Olive, Cape, Cape . . . . 1730 
 Olive, sweet-scented, China . 1771 
 Paraguay tea,Carolina,before 1724 
 Passion-flower, Brazil . . 1692 
 Passion-flower, orange, Caro- | 
 
 Una 1792 
 
 Pigeon-beiTy, N. America . 1736 
 Pink, from Italy . . . 1567 
 Ranunculus, Alps . . . 1528 
 Roses, Netherlands . . . 1522 
 Rose, the China, (.'hina . . 1789 
 Rose, the damask, south of 
 
 Europe, about . . . 1543 
 Ro-se, the Japan, China. . 1793 
 Rose, the moss, before . . 1724 
 Rose, the nnisk, Italy . . 1522 
 Rose, the Provence, Flatuiers 1567 
 Rose, sweet-scented guelder, 
 
 from China .... 1821 
 Rose, tube, from Java and 
 
 Ceylon .... 1629 
 
 Rose without thorns. North 
 
 America, before . . . 1726 
 Rosemai-y, south of Europe . 1548 
 Sage, African, Cape . . . 1731 
 Sage, Mexican, Mexico . . 1724 
 St. Peter's wort, N. America 1730 
 Sassafras tree, N. America, 
 
 before 1663 
 
 Savin, S. of Europe, before . 1584 
 Snowdrop, Carolina . . 1756 
 Son-el-tree, N. America.before 1752 
 Sweet-bay, south of Europe, 
 
 before 1548 
 
 Tamarisk plant, Germany . 1560 
 Tea tree, China, about . . 1768 
 Tooth-ache tree, from Caro- 
 lina, before. . . . 1739 
 Trumpet-flower, N. America 1640 
 Trumpet-flower, Cape . . 1823 
 Tulij), Vienna. . . . 1578 
 Virginia creeper, N. America, 
 
 before 1629 
 
 Virgin's bower, Japan . . 1776 
 Wax tree, China . . . 1794 
 Weeping willow, Levant, be- 
 fore 1692 
 
 Winter-berry, Virginia . . 1736 
 Youlan, China . . . . 1789 
 
 FLUOEESCENCE. When the invisible chemical rays of the blue end of the solar 
 spectrum are sent through uranium glass, or solutions of quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or 
 stramonium datura, tliey become luminous. This phenomenon was teimed "fluorescence" 
 by its discoverer, professor Stokes, in 1852. See Calorescence. 
 
 FLUORINE, a gaseous element, obtained from fluor sp>ar ; first collected over mercury 
 by Priestley. Its property of corroding all vessels is so great that it is separated with great 
 difficulty. It was named by Ampere in 18 10. Its chemical hi.story was further elucidated 
 by Davy ''(1809); Berzelius (1824), and succeeding chemists. The corroding property of 
 fluoric acid was employed in the arts in 1760, by Schwankhard of Nuremberg. Omelin. 
 
 FLUSHING, SiKGE OF. See Walchcren Expedition. 
 
 FLUTE, a most ancient instrument, known to the Greeks. It has been improved by 
 Bbhm in Germany, and in Loudon by Richard Potter, 1785 ; Eudall and Rose 1832, and 
 others. The English flute or flageolet was patented by Wm. Bainbridge in 1803, with 
 improvements in 1810 and 1819. 
 
 FLUXIONS, a branch of the higher mathematics, invented by Newton, 1665, similar to 
 the differential calculus described by Leibnitz, 1684. The finest applications of the calculus 
 are by Newton, Euler, La Grange, and La Place. The first elementary work on fluxions in 
 England is a tract of twenty-two pages in A Ncio Short Treatise of Algebra, together loith a 
 Specimen of the Nature and Algorithm of Fhcxions, by John Harris, M.A. London, 1702. 
 
 FLYING, Artificial, has been attempted in all ages.* Friar Bacon maintained the 
 
 * In Greek mythology, it is said that Bajdalus attached wings of wax to the body of his son Icarus, 
 who, neglecting the advice of his father, flew so high that the sun melted his wing.s, and he fell into the sea 
 
FOG 307 VOli 
 
 possibility of the art of flying, and predicted it would be a general practice, 1273. Bishop 
 Wilkins says (1651), it will yet be as usual to hear a man call for his iviiigs when he is going 
 on a, journey, as it is noAV to hear him call for his boots! Borelli (about 1670) showed the 
 futility of these speculations. About 1800, sir George Cayley experimented on the subject, 
 and in 1843 Mr. Heuson invented a flying machine ; but nothing has been devised capable of 
 serving a practical purpose. 
 
 FOG SIGNALS. In 1862, much attention was paid to the subject by the Royal Com- 
 mission on Light-houses, &c. The use of bells, steam-trumpets, a battery of whistles blown 
 by steam, the transmission of sound through water, the sirene, &c., were considered. 
 
 FONTAINEBLEAU, near the Seine, France. The royal palace, founded by Eobert 
 le Pieux about 999, enlarged and adorned by successive kings, was completed by Louis 
 Philippe, 1837-40. Fontainebleait was entered by the Austrians Feb. 17, 18 14. Here 
 Napoleon resigned his dignity, April 4, and bade farewell to his army, April 5, 1814. 
 
 Peace between Prance, Denmark, <fec. . . 1679 I Treaty between Napoleon and Spain . Oct. 27, 1807 
 Treaty between Germany and Holland, Nov. 8, 1785 Concordat between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. 
 
 I Jan. 25, 1813 
 
 FONTENOY, near Tournay, in Belgimu, the site of a battle on April 30 (May 11, N.S.), 
 1745, between the French, commanded by marshal Saxe, and the English, Hanoverians, 
 Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the duke of Cumberland.* The battle was fought 
 with great obstinacy, and the carnage on both sides was considerable, the allies losing 12,000 
 men, and the French nearly an equal number of lives ; but the allies were compelled to 
 retire. Marshal Saxe (ill of the disorder of which he afterwards died) was carried about to 
 all the posts in a litter, assuring his troops that the day would be their own. 
 
 FONTHILL ABBEY, Wiltshire, founded in 1796, the mansion of Wm. Beckford, 
 author of "Vathek," and son of alderman Beckford. He died in 1844. "Within this edifice 
 (which alone cost 273,000?.) were collected most costly articles of vertu, the rarest works of 
 the old masters, and the finest specimens of the arts. The sale of the abbey and its 
 contents to Mr. Farquhar took place in 1819 ; 7200 catalogues at a guinea each were sold in 
 a few days. On Dec. 21, 1825, the lofty tower fell, and in consequence the remaining 
 buildings were sold. 
 
 FONTS. Formerly the baptistery was a small place partitioned off in a church, within 
 which a large font was placed, where the persons to be baptized (frequently adults) were 
 submerged. Previously, lakes and rivers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts are said to 
 have been set up about 167. 
 
 FOOLS, Festivals of, were held at Paris on the ist of January, where we are told 
 all sorts of absurdities and indecencies were committed, from 1198 to 1438. Fools or licensed 
 jesters were kept at court in England (and at other courts in Europe), and were tolerated up 
 to the time of Charles I. 1625. 
 
 FOEBES MACKENZIE'S ACT (16 & 17 Vict. c. 67) "for the better regulation of 
 public-houses in Scotland," was passed in 1853, and is said to be much evaded. It permits 
 grocers to sell spirits, &c. , as usual, but forbids drinking on the premises, which is to be 
 confined to places duly licensed. Much dram-drinking previously took place in grocers' 
 shops. 
 
 FORCE. See Conservation and Correlation. 
 
 FOREIGNERS. See Alien. 
 
 FOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT, 59 Geo. III. c. 69 (1819), forbids British subjects to 
 enter the service of a foreign state, without licence from the king or privy council, and also 
 the fitting out or equipping ships for any foreign power to be employed against any power 
 with which our government is at peace. {^q& Trials, 1862, 1863.) In 1606, Englishmen 
 were forbidden to enter foreign service, without taking an oath not to be reconciled to 
 the pope. The act was suspended in 1835 on behalf of the British Legion {which see). 
 
 which has received his name. (Ovid, Met. viii. 195.) Archytas is said to have made an artificial flying 
 dove, about 400 B.C. 
 
 * The king Louis XV. and the dauphin were present at this great battle. The success of the British 
 at the commencement of it is still quoted by military men as the best illustration of the extraordinary 
 power of a cohimn. The advance of the Aiistrians during several hours at the battle of Marengo (fought 
 June 14, 1800') was compared to it by Bonaparte. 
 
 X 2 
 
FOR 308 FOR 
 
 FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigueis have frequently been employed as auxiliaries in the 
 pay of the British government, (See Hessians.) An act (i8 & 19 Vict. c. 2) for the fomiation 
 of a Foreign Legion as a contingent in the Russian war (1855), was passed Dec. 23, 1854.* 
 The queen and prince Albert reviewed 3500 .soldiers, principally Swiss and Germans, at 
 Shornclitre, Aug. 9, 1855. On the peace in 1856, many were sent to the Cape of Good Hope ; 
 but not prospering, retiuned. 
 
 FOREIGN OFFICE was established at the re-arrangement of the duties of secretaries of 
 state in 1782. It has the exclusive charge of Britisli interests and subjects in foreign 
 countries. 1 he secretary for foreign affairs negotiates treaties, selects ambassadors, consuls, 
 &c., for foreign countries, and grants passports. The new foreign cffice, building in the 
 Italian style (designed by Gilbert Scott), was begun in 1864. 
 
 FOREIGN ORDERS. No British subject is j^ermitted to accept a foreign older from 
 the s^overeign of any foreign country, or wear the insignia theieof, without her Majesty's 
 consent, — Regulations published in London Gazette, May 10, 1855. 
 
 FORESTALLING was forbidden by statutes (in 1350, 1552, &c.), all repealed in 1844. 
 
 FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last centiuj'-, as many as 68 forests, 18 
 chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hampshire was made by William I., 
 who for that purpose destroyed 36 parishes, pulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the 
 country for 30 miles round, 1079-85. &tow.f 
 
 FORESTS, Charter of the, Charta de Fcrcsta, granted by Heniy III. in 1217, was 
 founded on Magna Charta, granted by king John, June 15, 1215. 
 
 FORFARSHIRE STEAMER, on its passage from Hull to Dundee, on Sept. 6, 1838, was 
 wrecked in a violent gale, and thirty-eight persons out of fifty-three perished. The Outer- 
 Fern Lighthouse keeper, James Darling, and his heroic daughter Grace, ventured out in a 
 tremendous sea in a coble, and rescued several of the passengers. 
 
 FORGERY. The forging deeds, or giving forged deeds in evidence, was made punishable 
 by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut oft', the nostrils slit up and seared, 
 the forfeiture of land, and perpetual imprisonment, 5 Eliz. 1562, Since the establishment of 
 paper credit, a multitude of statutes have been enacted.^: 
 
 Foigei-y first punii-bcd by death . . . 1634 ' Statutes reducing info cne act all such forgeries 
 ForgiDg letters of attorney made capital . . 1722: as shall henceforth be punished with death . 1830 
 Mr. Waid, M.P., a man of wealth, expelled the j The punishment of forgery with death ceases, 
 
 house of commons for forgery, May 16, 1726 ; except in cases of forging or altering wills or 
 
 _ and consigned to the pilloiy . March 17, 1727 powers of attorney to transfer stock . . . 1832 
 Value of forged notes presented to the bank These cases also reduced to transportable 
 
 i£oi-io nominally 101,661/. offences 1837 
 
 The bank prosecuted 142 persons for forgery or | A barrister, Jem Saward, and others, tried for 
 
 the uttering of forged notes .... 1817 1 forging numerous drafts on bankers, March s, 1857 
 Thos. JIajnard was the last person executed j The law respecting forgery amended in . . 1861 
 
 for forgery Dec. 31, 1829 1 [See Executimu (for forgery), iyj6, 1777 et seg.] 
 
 FORKS were in use on the continent in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 
 Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed. In Fynes Moryson's Itinerary, reign of Elizabeth, 
 he says, "At Venice each person was served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold 
 the meat while he cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one should touch it with 
 his hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much solemnity, the manner of using forks in 
 
 * The endeavour to enlist for this legion, in 1854, in the United States, gave great offence to the Ameri- 
 can government. Mr. Crampton, our envoy, was dismissed May 28, 1856, in spite of all the judicious pacific 
 efforts of lord Clarendon. Lord Napier was sent out as our rejiresentative in 1857. 
 
 t The commissioners appointed to inquire into the state of the woods and 'forests, between 1787 and 
 1793, reported the following as belonging to the crown, viz. : — In Berkshire, Windsor Forest and Windsor 
 Great and Little Park. In Doiset, C'ranburn Chase. In Essex, Waltham or Epping and Hainault Forest 
 In Gloucestershire, Dean Fore.«t. In Hampshire, the New Forest, Alicp Holt, Woolmer Forest and Bere 
 Forest. In Kent, Greenwich Park. In Middlesex, St. James's, Hyde, Busby, and Hampton court Parks 
 In Northamptonshire, the forests of Whittlebury, Salcey, and Rockingham. In Nottingham, Sherwood 
 Forest. In Oxford, AVhichwood Forest. In SuiTey, Richmond Park. Several of these have been'disforested 
 since 1851, viz., Hainault, Whichwood, and Whittlebury. 
 
 J It appears, from oflRcial returns, that the first forger on the bank of England was Richard William 
 Vaughan, a linen-dj-aper of Stafford, m 1758, before which time, fre^m the establishment of the bank a 
 period of sixty-six years, no attempt at this species of forgery had been made. Vaughan employed a 
 n\imber of artists on cUfferent parts of the notes fabricated, which had all the appearance of being geiiuine 
 'I'he criminal had filled up twenty of the notes, and had deposited them in the hands of a young lady of 
 high respectability, whom he was on the pomt of marrying, as a proof of his being a man of substance 
 Bank-notes having been in circulation so lofg previously, and n' ne having been before counterfeited no 
 suspicion of these notes was entertained. One of the artists was the informer and accuser. ' 
 
Fo: 
 
 309 
 
 FOU 
 
 Italy, and adds, "I myself have thought it good to imitate the Italian fashion since I came 
 home to England," 1608. Two-pronged forks at Sheffield were made soon after. Three- 
 pronged forks are mnch more recent. Silver forks came into use in England about 1814. 
 
 FORMA PAUPERIS. A person having a just cause of suit, certified as such, yet so 
 poor that he cannot- meet the cost of maintaining it, has an attorney and coirnsel assigned 
 him on his swearing that he is not worth 5 Z., by stat. 11 Henry VII. 1495- — This act has 
 been remodelled, and now persons ma}^ plead in fonnd pauper-is in the courts of law. 
 
 FOEMIC ACID. Its artificial production by Pelouze in 1831 is considered an event in 
 the progress of organic chemistry. 
 
 FORT ERIE (Upper Canada). Thisfortress was taken by the American general Browne, 
 June 3, 1814. After several conflicts it was evacuated by the Americans, Nov. 5, 1814. 
 
 FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL was commenced July 10, 1768, under the direction of 
 Mr. Smeaton, and opened July 28, 1790. A communication is formed between the eastern 
 and western seas on the coast of Scotland. 
 
 FORTIFICATION The Phcenicians were the first people to fortify cities. Apollodorus 
 says that Perseus fortified Mycenre, where statues were afterwards erected to him. The 
 modern system was introduced about 1500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science of 
 fortification in 1527 ; and great improvements were made by Vatiban (1707) and others. 
 The fortifications of Paris, the most recent work claiming notice, were completed in 1846. 
 See Paris. In Aug. i860, the British parliament passed an act for the expenditure of 
 2,000,000?. in one year upon the fortifications of Portsmouth, Plymouth, Pembroke, and 
 Portland, the Thames, Medway, and Sheerness, Chatham, Dover, and Cork, and on the 
 purchase of a central arsenal establishment ; the estimated expense being 9,500,000'. 
 
 FORTUNE-TELLING is traced to the early astrologers, by whom the planets Jupiter 
 aud Venus were supposed to betoken happiness. The Sibyllse were women who flourished 
 in different parts of the world, and who were said to have been inspired by Heaven. See 
 Sibyls and Gipsies. In England the laws against fortune-telling were at one time very 
 .severe. A declaration was pitblished in France, Jan. 11, 1680, of exceeding severity against 
 fortune-tellers and poisoners, under which several persons sufi"ered death. Henaidt. Fortune- 
 tellers, although liable by the act of 1824 to be imprisoned as rogues and vagabonds, still 
 flourish in England. 
 
 FORTY-SHILLING FREEHOLDERS. See Freeholders. 
 
 FOTHERINGAY CASTLE (Northamptonshire), built about 1400. Here Richard III. 
 of England was born in 1450 ; and here Mary queen of Scots was tried, Oct 11-14, 1586, 
 and beheaded, Feb. 8, 1587. It was demolished by her son, James I. of England, in 1604. 
 
 FOUGHARD, near Armagh, N. Ireland. Here Edward, brother of Robert Bruce, after 
 invading Ireland in 1315, was defeated by sir John Bermingham in 1318. Bruce was killed 
 by Roger de Maupis, a burgess of Dundalk. 
 
 FOUNDLING HOSPITALS. A species of foundling hcspital was set up at Milan in 
 787, and in the middle ages most of the principal cities of the continent possessed one. 
 The French government in 1790 declared foundlings to be the "children of the state." 
 
 roundling hospital at Moscow, founded by 
 Catherine II. in 1763 ; about 12,000 children 
 are received annually. 
 
 Foundling hospitals are recent in England ; 
 none existed when Addison wrote ill . . 1713 
 
 London foundling hospital, projected by 
 Thomas Coram, a sea-captain, incorpo- 
 rated by charter in Oct. 1739; opened, 
 
 June 2, 1756 
 
 It succours about 500 infant children ; Corana's 
 statue was put up in 1856 
 
 Foundling hospital in Dublin instituted in 1704. 
 
 In this charity there had been received, ac- 
 cording to parliamentary returns, in the 
 thirty years preceding Jan. 1825, as many as 
 52,150 infants : of these, 14,613 had died in- 
 fants — 25,859 were returned as dead from the 
 country, where they were out nursing — 730 
 died in the infirmary after returning — 322 
 died grown children— total deaths, 41,524; 
 so that 10,626 only escaped this fate. Owing 
 to this mortality, and from certain moral 
 considerations, the internal department was 
 closed by order of government . March 31, 1835 
 
 FOUNTAINS are apparatus, natural or artificial, by which water is made to spring 
 upwards. The fountain of Hero of Alexandria was invented about 150 B.C. Among the 
 remarkable fountains at Rome are the Fontana di Trevi, constructed for pope Clement XII. 
 in 1735 ; the Fontana Paolina, erected for pope Paul V. in 1612 ; and Fontana dell' Acqua 
 Felice, called also the Fountain of Moses. The fountains in the palace gardens at Versailles, 
 made for Louis XIV., and the Grand Jet d'Eau, at St. Cloud, are exceedingly beautiful. 
 
FOU 
 
 310 
 
 riiA 
 
 There are above loo public fountains in Paris, the most striking being the Chateau d'Eau on 
 the Boulevard St. Martin (by Girard, 1811), and that at the Palais Koyal. London is not 
 remarkable for fountains ; the largest are those in Trafalgar-square, which were constructed 
 in 1845, after designs by sir Charles Barry. There are beautiful fountains at Chatsworth, 
 in Derby,shire, the seat of the duke of Devonshire. The magnificent fountains at the Crystal 
 Palace, Sydenham, were first jjublicly exhibited on June 18, 1856, in the presence of the 
 queen and 20,000 spectators. 
 
 FOURIEEISM, a social system devised by M. Charles Fourier (who died in 1837). The 
 Phalanstery (or association of 400 persons living in one edifice) was to be so arranged as to 
 give the highest amount of happiness at the lowest cost. All attempts to realise the system 
 have failed ; caused, it is said, by the smallness of the scale on which they were tried. 
 
 FOX AND GEENVILLE ADMINlSTRATIOlSr. See GrenvilU Administration. 
 
 FOX-GLOVE. The canary fox-glove {Digitalis Canaricnsis), from the Canary islands, 
 1698. The Madeira fox-glove came here in 1777. The fox-grape shrub {Vitia Vulpina), 
 from Virginia, before 1656. 
 
 FRANCE Avas known to the Romans by the name of Gaul (which see). In the decline of 
 their power it was conquered by the Franks, a people of Germany, then inhabiting Franconia, 
 where they became known about 240. These invaders gave the name to the kingdom 
 (Franken-ric, Franks' kingdom) ; but the Gauls, being by far the most numerous, are the 
 real ancestors of the modern French. The present constitution is chiefly based upon the 
 plebiscitums of Dec. 21, 22, 1851 ; and Nov. 21, 22, 1852. For the d3^lastic changes, see list 
 of sovereigns, p. 316. Previous to the revolution, France was divided into 40 governments. 
 In 1790 it was divided into 83, and subsequently into 130 departments, including Corsica, 
 Geneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly conquests. In 181 5 the departments were reduced 
 to 86 ; in i860 they were raised to 89 by tlie acquisition of Savoy and Nice.* For details 
 of important events, see sejjarate articles. 
 
 The Franks settle in that part of Gaul, till late 
 
 called Flanders, about 418 
 
 Clevis, 481 ; defeats Syagrius and the Gauls at 
 
 Soissons, 486 ; and the Alenianni at Tolbiac, 
 
 near Cologne ; and embraces Christianity . 496 
 He kills Alaric the Goth, in battle near Poic- 
 
 tiers, unites his conquests from the Loire to 
 
 the PjTenees,, and makes Paris his capital . 507 
 He proclaims the Salique law ; and dies, leaving 
 
 four sons (see p. 316) 511 
 
 The mayors of the palace now assume almost 
 
 sovereign aiithority 584 
 
 Charles Martel becomes mayor of the palace, 
 
 and rules with despotic sway . . . . 714 
 Invasion of the Saracens, 720 ; defeated by 
 
 Charles Martel, near Tours . . Oct. 10, 732 
 
 Keign of Pepin the Short 752 
 
 Charlemagne king, 768 ; conquers Saxony and 
 
 Lombardy, 773 ; crowned emperor of the 
 
 West Dec. 25, 800 
 
 The Xormans invade Neustria, 876 ; part of 
 
 which is granted Rollo, as Normandy, by 
 
 Charles the Simple gii 
 
 Reign of Hugh Capet . .... 987 
 
 Paris made capital of all Fr.ance . . . 996 
 Letters of franchise granted to cities and towns 
 
 by Louis VI. 1135 
 
 Louis VII. joins in the cnisades . . . 1146 
 Philip Augustus defeats the Germans at Bou- 
 
 vines ......... 1214 
 
 Louis VIII., Catir dc Xio7i, frees his serfs . . 1224 
 Louis IX., called St Louis, defeats John of 
 
 England ; conducts an army into Palestine ; 
 
 takes Damietta ; and dies before Tvinis . 1250-70 
 Charles of Anjou conquers Naples and Sicily . 1266 
 His tyranny leads to the massacre called the 
 
 Sicilian Vespers (which see) . . . 1282 
 
 Philip the Fair's quaiTels with the pope . 1301-2 
 Knights Templars suppressed . . . 1307-8 
 
 Union of France and NavaiTe .... 1314 
 English invasion — Phihp VI. defeated atCressy, 
 
 Aug. 26, 1346 
 Calais taken by Edward III. . * Ang. 3, 1347 
 
 Dauphiny annexed to France .... 1349 
 Battle of Poictiers (which see) ; king John taken 
 
 and brought prisoner to England . . . 1356 
 France laid under an interdict by the pope . 1407 
 Battle of Agincourt (whicli see) . . Oct. 25, 1415 
 Henry V. of England acknowledged heir to the 
 
 kingdom 1420 
 
 Henry VI. crowned at Paris ; the duke of 
 
 Bedford's regency 1422 
 
 Siege of Orleans, May 8 ; battle of Patay ; the 
 
 English defeated by Jo«)i o/.(4rc . June 18, 1429 
 Joan of Arc burnt at Rouen . . May 30, 1431 
 England lost all her possessions (but Calais) in 
 
 France, between .... 1434 and 1450 
 League of the public good formed against Louis 
 
 XI. by the nobles .... Dec. 1464 
 
 Edward IV. of England invades France . . 1475 
 Charles VIII. conquers Naples, 1494; loses it . 1496 
 League of Cambray against Venice . . . 1508 
 Pope JuUus II. forms the Holy League against 
 
 France 15J1 
 
 English invasion— battle of Spurs . Aug. 16, 1513 
 Interview of the Cloth of Gold between Francis 
 
 I. and Henrj' VIII. of England . . . 1520 
 Francis I. defeated and taken prisoner at Pa via, 
 
 Feb. 24, 1525 
 Peace of Cambray .... Aug. 5, 1529 
 Persecution of protestants begins . ... 1530 
 Royal printing press established 1331 ; Robert 
 
 Stephens prints his Latin Bible . . . 1532 
 
 * Population of France in 1700, 19,669,320; in 1762, 21,769,163 ; in iSoi, 27,349,003 ; in 1820, 30.451,187 ; 
 in 1836, 33,540,910; in 1846, '35,401,761 ; in 1856, 36,039,364; in 1861, including the new departments, 
 37,382,225. Population of the colonies (in Asia, Pondicherry, <fec. ; Africa, Algeria, &c. ; America, Mar- 
 tinique, Guadaloupe, &c. ; Oceania, the Marquesas, <fcc.), in 1858, 3,641,226. In May, 1862, the Moniteicr 
 asserted the effective army to be 447,000, with a reserve of 170,000. 
 
TEA 
 
 511 
 
 FEA 
 
 FRANCE, contimiecl. 
 
 LeagTie of England with the emperor Charles 
 
 v. ; Henry VIII. invades France . . 1544 
 Successful defence of Metzbythe duke of Guise 1552 
 He takes Calais (lohich see) .... 1558 
 
 Religious wars ; massacre of protestanta at 
 
 Vassy March 1, 1562 
 
 Guise defeats the Huguenots at Dreux Dec. ig, „ 
 Guise killed at siege of Orleans, Feb. iS; tem- 
 porary peace .... March 19, 1563 
 Huguenots defeated at St.'Denis, Nov. 10, 1567; 
 
 and at Jarnac, March 13 ; at Moncontour, 
 
 Oct. 3, 1569 
 Massacre of St. Bartholomew . . Aug. 24, 1572 
 The "Holy Catholic League " estabUshed . . 1576 
 Duke of Guise assassinated by command of the 
 
 king, Dec. 23 ; and his brother, the cardinal, 
 
 Dec. 24, 1588 
 Henry III. murdered by Jacques Clement, a 
 
 friar Aug. i, 1589 
 
 Heny IV. becomes a Roman CathoUc July 25, 1593 
 The league leaders siibmit to him . Jan. 1596 
 He promulgates the edict of Nantes April 13, 1598 
 Silk and other manufactures introduced by him 
 
 and Sully 1606-1610 
 
 <3uebec in North America settled . . . 1608 
 Murder of Henry IV. by RavaiUac May 14, 1610 
 
 Regency of Mary de' Medici . . . 1610-14 
 
 The states genei-al meet and complain of the 
 
 management of the finances . Oct. 27, 1614 
 Rise of the Couehiis, i6to ; and their fall . . 1617 
 
 Navarre annexed to France 1620 
 
 Vigorous and successful administration of 
 
 Richelieu, begins with finance . . . . 1624 
 Rochelle taken after a long siege . . . 1628 
 Richelieu organises the AcacUmie de France . 1634 
 His death (aged 58) .... Dec. 4, 1642 
 Accession of Louis XIV. , aged four years (Anne 
 
 of Austria regent) .... May 14, 1643 
 Administration of Mazarine ; victories of 
 
 Turenne . • 1643-6 
 
 Civil wars of the Fronde . . . 1648, &c. 
 
 Colbert becomes financial minister . . . 1661 
 
 War with Holland, &c 1671 
 
 Canal of Languedoc constructed . . 1664-81 
 
 Edict of Nantes revoked . . . Oct 22, 1685 
 Louis marries Madame de Maintenon . . . 1686 
 War with Wilham HI. of England . . 1689, <Sic. 
 Peace of Ryswick .... Sept. 20, 1697 
 War of the Spanish succession .... 1701 
 French defeated at Blenheim . Aug. 13, 1704 
 
 At Ramillies May 23, 1706 
 
 Peace of Utrecht {which see) 1713 
 
 Accession of Loiiis XV. ; stormy regency of the 
 
 duke of Orleans . . . Sept. i, 1715, &c. 
 Law's bubble in France. (See Law) . . . 1716 
 French defeated at Dettingen . . June 16, 1743 
 Successful campaign of marshal Saxe . . 1746 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . Oct. 1748 
 
 Seven years' war begun 1756 
 
 Damiens' attempt on the life of Louis XV. 
 
 Jan. s, I7S7 
 Canada lost — ^battle of Quebec . . Sept. 13, 1759 
 The Jesuits bani.shed from France, and their 
 
 effects confiscated 1762 
 
 Peace of Paris ; Canada ceded to England . 1763 
 Louis XV. enslaved by Madame du BaiTy . . 1769 
 
 Death of Louis XV May 10, 1774 
 
 Louis XVI. assists America to throw off its 
 
 dependence on England, at first secretly _. . 1778 
 Torture abolished in French judicature . . 1780 
 Peace with England. . . . Sept. 3, 1783 
 The diamond-necklace affair .... 1785 
 
 Meeting of the assembly of notables, Feb. 22, 
 X787 ; again Nov. g, 1788 
 
 Opening of the states general (308 ecclesiastics, 
 285 nobles, and 621 deputies, tiers 6tat) 
 
 May 5, 1789 
 
 The tiers ^.tat constitute themselves the National 
 Assembly June 17, ,, „/ 
 
 The French revolution commences with the de- ^ 
 struction of the Bastille (which see) July 14, ,, 
 
 The National Assembly decrees that the title of 
 the "king of France" shall be changed to 
 that of the " king of the French " Oct. 16, ,, 
 
 The plate and other property of the clei-gy is 
 confiscated Nov. 6, ,, 
 
 Confederation of the Chaiivp de Mctrs ; France is 
 declared a limited monarchy; Louis XVI. 
 takes the oath to maintain the constitution, 
 
 July 14, 1790 
 
 The silver plate used in the churches trans- 
 fen-ed to the mint and coined . March 3, 1791 
 
 Death of Mirabeau .... April 2, „ 
 
 The king, queen, and royal family arrested 
 at Varennes, in their flight from Paris, 
 
 June 21, ,, 
 
 Louis (now a prisoner) sanctions the National 
 Constitution .... Sept. 15, ,, 
 
 The Jacobin club declare their sittings perma- 
 nent June 18, 1792 
 
 The multitude, bearing the red bonnet of 
 liberty, march to the Tuileries to make 
 demands on the king . . . June 20, ,, 
 
 First coalition against France : commencement 
 of the great French war . . . June, ,, 
 [See Battles, 1792 to 1815.] 
 
 The royal Swiss guards cut to pieces ; massacre 
 of 5000 persons . . . . Aug. 10, ,, 
 
 Decree of the National Assembly against the 
 priests ; 40,000 exiled . . . Aug. 26, ,, 
 
 Dreadful massacre in Paris ; the prisons broken 
 open, and 1200 persons (100 priests) slain, ,, 
 Sept. 2-5, ,, 
 
 Murder of the princess de Lamballe* Sept. 3, „ 
 
 The National Convention opened . Sept. 17, ,, 
 
 The Convention abolishes royalty and esta- 
 blishes a republic . . . Sept. 20-22, „ 
 
 The French people declare their fraternity with 
 all nations who desire to be free, and offer 
 help Nov. 19, ,, 
 
 Decree for the perpetual banishment of the 
 Bourbon family, those confined in the Temple 
 excepted Dec. 20, ,, 
 
 Louis imprisoned in the Temple disthict from 
 the queen, and brought to trial, Jan. 19 ; con- 
 demned to death, Jan. 20 ; beheaded in the 
 Place de Louis Quinze . . . Jan. 21, 1793 
 
 War with England declared . . . Feb. i, ,, 
 
 Insurrection in La Vendee . . March, ,, 
 
 Reign of terror — proscriptioji of the Girondists, 
 May 31 ; establishment of the convention, 
 
 June 23, ,. 
 
 Marat stabbed by Charlotte Corday . July 13, ,, 
 
 The queen beheaded . . . Oct. 16, ,, 
 
 Philip Egalite, the duke of Orleans, who had 
 voted for the king's death, is himself guUlo- 
 tined at Paris (see Orleans), Nov. 6 ; and 
 madame Roland .... Nov. 8, „ 
 
 Execution of Danton and others, April 5 ; of 
 madame Ehzabeth . . . March 10, 1794 
 
 Robespierre and 71 othei-s guillotined July 28, ,, 
 
 Louis XVII. dies in prison . . . June 8, 1795 
 
 French directory chosen . . . Nov. i, ,, L 
 
 Bonaparte's successful campaigns in Italy, 1796, &c. 
 
 * The multitude hun-ied to the Temple bearing the mutilated body of Madame de LambaUe, in order 
 to exhibit the " impious head " of their relative to the royal family : the queen and the princess Elizabeth 
 manifested the deepest emotion and sensibility ; but the king said with assumed apathy (while shrinking 
 at the sight) to the person by whom it was shown to him, " Vous avez raison, Monsieur." " Tou are right, 
 Sir ! " These assassins were termed the Septemhrisers {which see). 
 
FRA 
 
 312 
 
 FRA 
 
 FRANCE, continued. 
 
 Bahenf s conspiracy suppressed . . May 12, 
 Pichegru's conspiracy fails . . . Afay, 
 Council of Five Hundred deposed bj' Bonaparte, 
 
 who is declared First Consul . . Nov. 10, 
 He defeats the Austrians at JIarengo June 14, 
 His life attempted by the infernal machine, 
 
 Dec. 24, 
 Peace of Amiens (with England, Spain, and 
 
 Holland) signed .... March 27, 
 Amnesty to the emigrants . . . April, 
 Legion of Honoiir instituted . . May 19, 
 Bonaparte made consul for life . . Aug. 2, 
 The bank of France established . April 14, 
 Declaration of war against England May 22, 
 Conspiracy of Moreau and Pichegru against 
 
 Bonaparte, Feb. 15 ; the latter was found 
 
 strangled in prison. (See Georges) April 6, 
 Duke d'Knghien shot . . . March 20, 
 France formed into an empire ; Napoleon pro- 
 claimed emperor .... May 18, 
 He is crowned king of Italy . . May 26, 
 
 He defeats the allies at Aur>terlitz . . Dec. 2, 
 And the Prussians at Jena . . . Oct. 14, 
 New nobility of France created . March i, 
 Divorce of the emperor and empress Josei^hine 
 
 decreed by the senate . . . Dec. 16, 
 Holland united to France . . . July 9, 
 War with Russia declared . . . June 22, 
 Victory at Borodino .... Sept. 7, 
 
 Disastrous retreat Oct. 
 
 Triple alliance of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 
 
 against France Sept. 9, 
 
 The British pass the Bidassoa, and enter France, 
 
 Oct. 7, 
 Surrender of Paris (see Battles) to the allied 
 
 armies March 31, 
 
 Tlie constitutional charter established June 4-10, 
 Abdication of Napoleon . . . April 5, 
 Boiu-bon dynasty restored, and Louis XVIU. 
 
 arrives in Paris May 3, 
 
 Napoleon arrives at Elba . . . May 3, 
 Quits Elba, and lands at Cannes . March i, 
 Arrives at Fountainebleau . . March 20, 
 Joined by all the anny . . March 22, 
 
 The allies sign a treaty for his subjugation, 
 
 March 25, 
 He abolishes the slave-trade . . March 29, 
 Leaves Paris fur the army . . . June 12, 
 Is defeated at Waterloo . . . June 18, 
 Eaturns to Paris, June 20; and abdicates In 
 
 favour of his infant son . . . June 22, 
 Intending to embark for America, he arrives at 
 
 Rochefort ..... July 3, 
 Louis XVIII. enters Paris . . . July 3, 
 Napoleon surrenders to capt. Maitland, of the 
 
 Bellerophon .Tuly 15, 
 
 Transferred at Torbay to the Northumber'and, 
 
 and with admiral sir George Cockbum sails 
 
 for St. Helena Aug. 8, 
 
 Arrives at St. Helena to remain for life, Oct. 15, 
 Execution of mai-shal Ney . . . Dec. 7, 
 The family of Bonaparte excluded for ever from 
 
 France by the law of amnesty . Jan. 12, 
 Duke of Berry murdered . . . Feb. 13, 
 Death of Napoleon I. (See Wdln) . . May 5, 
 Louis XVIII. dies; Charles X. succeeds, 
 
 Sept. 16, 
 National Guard disbanded . . April 30, 
 War with Algiers ; the dey's fleet defeated, 
 
 Nov. 4, 
 Election riots at Paris ; barricades ; several 
 
 persons killed .... Nov. 19, 20, 
 
 1796 
 1797 
 
 1799 
 1800 
 
 1803 
 
 1805 
 
 1806 
 1808 
 
 1809 
 
 1814 
 
 1816 
 1820 
 1821 
 
 1824 
 1827 
 
 Seventy-six new peers created . Nov. 5, 1827 
 The Villele ministry replaced by the Martignac, 
 
 Jan. 4, 1828 
 Bdranger coudemed and imprisoned for his 
 songs ....... Dec. 10, „ 
 
 Polignac admini-stration formed . . Aug. 8, 1829 
 Chamber of Deputies dissolved . May 16, 1830 
 
 Algiers taken Julys, >> 
 
 The constitutional charter of July p\ibUshed 
 
 Aug 14, .. 
 The obnoxious ordinances regarding the press, 
 and reconstruction of the chamber of 
 
 deputies July 26, ,, 
 
 Revolution commencing with barricades, July 27, „ 
 Conflicts in Paris between the populace (ulti- 
 mately aided by the National Guard) and the 
 
 army July 28-30, ,, 
 
 Charles X. retires to Rambouillet ; flight of the 
 ministry, July 31 ; Charles X. abdicated 
 
 Aug. 2, ,, 
 The duke of Orleans accepts the crown as 
 
 Louis-Philijjpe I Aug. 7, ,, 
 
 Charles X. retires to England . Aug. 17, ,, 
 Polignac and other ministers tried and sentenced 
 
 to periDctual impi-isonment . . Dec. 21, ,, 
 The abolition of the hereditary peerage decreed 
 by both chambers ; the peers (36 new peers 
 being created) concurring by a majority of 
 103 to 70 . . . . . Dec. 27, 1831 
 The A. B. C. (a6aissA) insurrection in Paris sup- 
 pressed June 5, 6, 1832 
 
 Charles X. leaves Holyrood-house for the Con- 
 tinent Sept. 18, ,, 
 
 Ministry of marshal Soult, duke of Dalmatia, 
 
 Oct. II, ,, 
 Bergeron and Benoit tried for an attempt on 
 
 the life of Louis-Philippe ; acquitted March 18, 1833 
 The duchess of Berry, who has been delivered 
 of a female child, and asserts her secret 
 marriage with an Italian nobleman, is sent 
 
 off to Palermo June 9, ,, 
 
 Death of La Fayette .... May 20, 1834 
 ilarshal Gerard takes oflSce . . . July 15, ,, 
 M. Dupuytren dies .... Feb. 8, 1835 
 Due de Broglie, minister . . . Feb. ,, 
 Fieschi attempts the king's* life . July 28, „ 
 
 He is executed Feb. 6, 1836 
 
 Louis Alibaud fires at thejking on his way from 
 
 the Tuileries, June 25 ; guillotined July 11, „ 
 Ministry of count Mol^, in room of M. Thiers, 
 
 Sept. 6, „ 
 
 Death of Charles X Nov. 6, ,, 
 
 Attempted insurrection at Strasburg by Louis 
 Najjoleon (now emperor), Oct. 30 : he is sent 
 to America ..... Nov. 13, ,, 
 Prince Polignac and others set at liberty from 
 
 Ham, and sent out of France . Nov. 23, „ 
 Meunier fires at the king on his way to open 
 the French Chambers . . . Dec. 27, 
 Amne.^ty for political offences . . May 8, 
 " Id(5es Napol^ennes," by the present emperor, 
 
 were published . " 1838 
 
 Talleyrand dies May 17, ,, 
 
 Marshal Soult at the coronation of the queen 
 
 of England June 28, ,, 
 
 Birth of the count of Paris . . Atig. 24, ,, 
 Death of the duchess of Wurtemberg (daughter 
 
 of Louis-Philippe), a good sculptor . Jan. 2, 1839 
 M. Thiers, minister of foreign affairs March i, 1840 
 The chambers decree the removal of Napoleon's 
 
 remains from St. Helena to Francef May 12, „ 
 Descent of prince Louis Napoleon, general 
 
 1837 
 
 * He fired an infernal machine as the king rode along the lines of the National Guard, on the Boulevard 
 du Temple, accompanied by his three sons and suite. The machine consisted of twenty-five barrels, charged 
 with various species of missiles, and lighted simultaneously by a train of gimpowder. The king and his 
 sons escaped : but marshal Mortier, duke of Treviso, was shot dead, many officers were dangerously 
 •wounded, and upwards of forty persons kiUed or injured. 
 
 t By the permission of the British government, these were taken from the tomb at St. Helena, and 
 
FEA 
 
 313 
 
 FEA 
 
 FRANCE, conUnued. 
 
 Montholon, and 50 followers, at Vimeroux, 
 near Boulogne, Aug. 6 ; the prince sentenced 
 to iroiJiisonment for life . . Oct. 6, 
 
 Diirtnes fires at the king . . . Oct. 15, 
 
 M. Guizot, niinister of foreign affairs Oct. 29, 
 
 Project of law for an extraordinary credit of 
 140,000,000 of francs, for erecting tbe fortifi- 
 cations of Paris .... Dec. 15, 
 
 The duration of cop3rright to 30 years after the 
 author's death, fixed . . . March 30, 
 
 Bi-onze statue of Napoleon placed on the column 
 of the grande arm^e, Boulogne . Aug. 15, 
 
 Attempt to assassinate the duke of Aumale 
 
 (son of the king) on his return from Africa, 
 
 Sept. 13, 
 
 The duke of Orleans, heir to the throne, killed 
 by a fall from his carriage . . July 13, 
 
 The queen of England visits the royal family at 
 Chateau d'Eu .... Sept. 2 to 7, 
 
 Attempt of Lecompte to assassinate the king 
 at Foutainebleau .... April 16, 
 
 Louis Napoleon escapes from Ham . May 25, 
 
 The seventh attempt on the life of the king : 
 by Joseph Henri .... July 29, 
 
 Jlarriage of the due de Montpensier with the 
 infanta of Spain .... Oct. 10, 
 
 Disastrous inundations in the south Oct. 18, 
 
 The Pi-asUn murder (see Praslin) . Aug. 18, 
 
 Death of marshal Oudinot (duke of Reggio) at 
 Paris, in his 91st year, Sept. 13 ; Soult made 
 general of France, in his room . Sept. 26, 
 
 Jerome Bonaparte returns to France after an 
 exile of 32 years .... Oct. 10, 
 
 Death of the ex-empress, Maria Louisa, Dec 17 ; 
 and of madame Adelaide . . . Dec. 30, 
 
 The proposed grand reform banquet at Paris, 
 suppressed Feb. 21, 
 
 Violent revolutionary tumult in consequence ; 
 impeachment and resignation of Guizot, 
 Feb. 22 ; barricades thrown up, the Tuileries 
 ransacked, the prisons opened, and fright- 
 ful disorders committed by the populace, 
 Feb. 23, 24, 
 
 Louis-PhiUppe abdicates in favour of his infant 
 ^grandson, the comte de Paris, who is not 
 accepted ; the royal family and ministers 
 escape Feb. 24, 
 
 A republic proclaimed from the steps of the 
 H6tel de ViUe .... Feb. 26, 
 
 The ex-king and queen arrive at Newhaven in 
 England March 3, 
 
 Grand funeral procession in honour of the 
 victims of the revolution . . March 4, 
 
 The provisional government, which had ' been 
 formed in the great public commotion, 
 resigns to an executive coramission, elected 
 by the National Assembly of the French 
 Republic May 7, 
 
 [The members of this new government were : 
 MM. Dupont de I'Eure, Arago, Gamier- 
 Pagfes, Marie, Lamartine, Ledru-RolUn, and 
 Cremieux. The secretaries : Louis Blanc, 
 Albert Flocon, and Marrast.] 
 
 Perpetual banishment of Louis-Philippe and 
 his family decreed .... May 26, 
 
 Election of Louis Napoleon for the department 
 of the Seine and three other departments to 
 tbe National Assembly . . . June 13, 
 
 Rise of the red republicans ; war against the 
 troops and national guard ; more than 300 
 
 1 841 
 
 1847 
 
 ban-icades thrown up, and firing continues 
 in all parts of Paris during the night Jmie 23, 
 
 The troops under generals Cavaignac and La- 
 moricifere succeed, with immense loss, in 
 driving the insurgents from the left bank of 
 the Seine . . . . . . June 24, 
 
 Paris declared in a state of siege . June 25, 
 
 The Faubourg du Temple carried with cannon, 
 and the insurgents surrender . . June 26, 
 
 [The national losses caused by this dreadful 
 outbreak were estimated at 30,000,000 francs ; 
 16,000 persons killed and wounded, and 8000 
 prisoners were taken. The archbishop of 
 Paris was killed.] 
 
 Gen. Cavaignac made president of the council, 
 
 June 28, 
 
 Louis Napoleon takes his seat in the National 
 Assembly Sept 26, 
 
 Paris reheved from a state of siege, which had 
 continued four months . . . Oct. 20, 
 
 Solemn promulgation of the constitvition of 
 Nov. 4, in front of the Tuileries . Nov. 12, 
 
 Louis Napoleon elected president of the French 
 republic, Dec. 11 ; proclaimed Dec. 20, 
 
 [He had 6,048,872 votes; Cavaignac, 1,479,121; 
 Ledru-Roliin, Raspail, and Lamartine hid 
 but few.] 
 
 Military demonstration to stifle an anticipated 
 insm-rection Jan. 29, 
 
 Death of king Louis-Philippe, at Claremont, in 
 England Aug. 26, 
 
 Liberty of the press resti-icted . Sept. 26, 
 
 Gen. Changarnier deprived of the command of 
 the national guard . . . Jan. 10, 
 
 Death of the duchess of Angoulem.e, daughter 
 of Louis XVI., at Frohsdorf . . Oct. 19, 
 
 Death of marshal Soult . . . Oct. 26, 
 
 Electric telegraph between England and France 
 opened Nov. 13, 
 
 Coup d'etat ; the legislative assembly dissolved ; 
 luiiversal suffrage established, and Paris 
 declared in a state of siege : the election of a 
 president for ten years proposed, and a second 
 chamber or senate .... Dec. 2, 
 
 MM. Thiers, Changarnier, Cavaignac, Bedeau, 
 Lamoricifere, and Charres arrested, and sent 
 to the castle of Vincennes . . Dec, 2, 
 
 About 180 members of the assembly, with M. 
 Berryer at their head, attempting to meet 
 are arrested, and Paris is occupied by troops, 
 
 Dec. 2, 
 
 Sanguinary conflicts in Paris ; the troops 
 victorious Dec. 3, 4, 
 
 Consultative commission founded . Dec. 12, 
 
 Voting throughout Prance for the election of 
 a president of the republic for ten years ; 
 affirmative votes 7,481,231, negative votes 
 640,737 Dec. 21, 22, 
 
 Installation of the prince-president in the 
 cathedral of Notre-Dame : the day observed 
 as a national holiday at Paris, and Louis 
 Napoleon takes up his residence at the 
 Tuileries Jan. i. 
 
 Gens. Chaneamier, Lamoriciere, and others, 
 conducted to the Belgian frontier . Jan. 9, 
 
 83 members of the legislative assembly 
 banished ; 575 persons arrested for resistance 
 to the coup d'etat of Deo. 2, and conveyed to 
 Havre for transportation to Cayenne, Jan. 10, 
 
 [The inscription " LibeHy, Equality, Fraternity," 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 embarked on the i6th of October, 1840, on board the Belle Poide French frigate, under the command of the 
 prince de Joinville ; the vessel reached Cherbourg on November 30th ; and on December 15th the body 
 was deposited in the H6tel des Invalides. The ceremony was witnessed by 1,000,000 of persons : 150,000 
 soldiers assisted in the obsequies : and the royal family and all the high personages of the realm were 
 present ; but it was remarkable that all the relatives of the emperor were absent, being proscribed, and in 
 exile or in prison. The body was finally placed in its crypt on March 31, 1861. 
 
FRA 
 
 31i 
 
 FEA 
 
 FRANCE, continued. 
 
 ordered to be fortliwitli erased throughout 
 France, and the old names of streets, public 
 buildings, and places of resort to be restored. 
 The trees of liberty are everywhere, hewn 
 do^vn and burnt.] 
 
 The national guard disbanded, and reorg.anised 
 anew, and placed under the control of the 
 executive, the president appointing the 
 officei'S Jan. lo, 1852 
 
 A new constitution published . . Jan 14, „ 
 
 Decree obhging the Orleans family to sell all 
 their real and jjersonal property in France 
 within a year Jan. 22, ,, 
 
 Second decree, annulling the settlement made 
 by Louis-Philippe upon his family previous 
 to his accession in 1830, and annexing the 
 property to the domain of the state, Jan. 22, ,, 
 
 The birthday of Napoleon I. (Aug. 15) to be the 
 only national holiday . . . Feb. 17, ,, 
 
 The departments of France released from a 
 state of siege .... March 27, ,, 
 
 Installation of the legislative chambers, 
 
 March 29, ,, 
 
 A permanent crystal palace authorised to be 
 erected in the Champs Elysfes at Paris, 
 
 March 30, ,, 
 
 Plot to assassinate the prince-president dis- 
 covered at Paris .... July i, „ 
 
 President's visit to Strasburg . July 19, ,, 
 
 M. Thiers and other exiles permitted to return 
 to France Aug. 8, ,, 
 
 The French senate prays "there-establishment 
 of the hereditary sovereign jjower in the 
 Bonaparte family " . . . Sept. 13, ,, 
 
 Enthusiastic reception of the prince-president 
 .at L3'ons Sept. ig, ,, 
 
 Infernal machine, intended to destroy the 
 prince-president, seized at Marseilles, 
 
 Sept. 23, ,, 
 
 Prince-president visits Toulon, Sept. 27 ; and 
 Bordeaux, where he says ' ' the empire is 
 'pea.ce" (L'Empire c'est la 2Mix) . Oct. 7, ,, 
 
 He releases Abd-el-Kader (see Algiers), Oct. 16, ,, 
 
 He convokes the senate for November to deli- 
 berate on a change of government, wjien a 
 senatus consultum will be proposed for the 
 ratification of the French people . Oct. 19, ,, 
 
 Protest of comte de Chambord . Oct. 25, „ 
 
 In his message to the senate, the prince-presi- 
 dent announces the contemplated restoration 
 of the empire, and orders the people to be 
 consulted upon this change . . Nov. 4, ,, 
 
 Votes for the empire, 7,839,552 ; noes, 254,501 ; 
 null, 63,699 Nov. 21, ,, 
 
 The prince-president declared emperor; as- 
 siimes the title of Napoleon III. . Dec. 2, ,, 
 
 Marriage of the emperorwith Eugenie, countess 
 of Teba, at Notre-Dame . . Jan. 29, 1853 
 
 4312 political offenders pardoned . Feb. 2, ,, 
 
 Bread riots Sept. ,, 
 
 Mihtary camp at Satory, near Paris . Sept. ,, 
 
 Emperor and empress visit the provmces 
 (many political prisoners discharged) . Oct. ,, 
 
 Francis Arago, astronomer, &c. , died Oct. 2, ,, 
 
 Attempted assassination of the emperor ; ten 
 persons condemned to transportation for life, 
 
 Nov. ,, 
 
 Reconciliation of the two branches of the Bour- 
 bons at Forhsdorf . . . Nov. 20, 
 
 Marshal Ney's statue inaugurated exactly 38 
 years after his death on the sjaot where it oc- 
 curred Dec. 7, 
 
 War declared against Russia (see Russo- Turkish 
 War) . . . . . March 27, 
 
 Visit of prince Albert at Boulogne . Sept. t;, 
 
 Death of marshal St. Arnaud . Sept. 29, 
 
 The emperor and empress visit London, 
 
 April 16-21, 
 
 Industi-ial exhibition at Paris opened May 15, 
 
 Attempted assassination of the emperor by 
 Pianori, April 28 ; by Bellemarre . Sept. 8, 
 
 Queen Victoria and prince Albert visit France, 
 Aug. 18-27, 
 
 Death of count Mole .... Nov. 24, 
 
 Birth of the imperial prince ; amnesty granted 
 to 1000 pohtical prisoners . . March 16, 
 
 Peace with Russia signed . . March 30, 
 
 Awful inundation in the south* . . June, 
 
 Distress in money market . . . Oct. 6, 
 
 Sibour, archbishop of Paris, assassinated by 
 Verger, a priest Jan. 3, 
 
 Elections (3,000,000 voters to elect 257 deputies) ; 
 gen. Cavaignac elected deputy, but declines 
 to take the oath . . . June 21, 22, 
 
 Conspiracy to assassinate the emperor in Paris 
 detected July u, 
 
 Death of B^ranger .... July 16, 
 
 Longwood, the residence of Napoleon I. at St. 
 Helena, bought for 180,000 francs . 
 
 The conspirators Grilli, Bartolotti, and Tibaldi, 
 tried, convicted, and sentenced to transporta- 
 tion, &c Aug. 6, 7, 
 
 The emperor and empress visit EngLoud, 
 
 Aug. 6-10, 
 
 The emperor meets the emperor of Russia at 
 Stutgardt Sept. 25, 
 
 Death of Eugfene Cavaignac (aged 55) Oct. 28, 
 
 Death of Mdlle. Rachel (aged 38) . Jan. 4, 
 
 Attempted assassination of the emperor by 
 Orsini,t Pieri, Rudio, Gomez, &c. , by the ex- 
 plosion of three shells (two persons killed, 
 many wounded) .... Jan. 14, 
 
 Public safety bill passed — bold protest against 
 it by Ollivier .... Feb. 18, 
 
 France divided into five military departments ; 
 general Espinasse becomes minister of the 
 interior Feb. 
 
 " Napoleon HI. et VAnoleterre " published, 
 
 March 11, 
 
 Intemperate speeches in France against Eng- 
 land — misconceptions between the two coun- 
 tries removed in ... . March, 
 
 A repubUcan outbreak at Chalons suppressed, 
 
 March 9, 
 
 Orsini and Pieri executed . . March 13, 
 
 Simon Bernard tried in London as their accom- 
 plice, and acquitted . . April 12-17 
 
 Marshal Pelissier sent as ambassador tOiLondonl 
 
 April IS, 
 
 EsiMiiasse retires from ministry of the interior 
 [he was killed at the battle of Magenta, Jime 
 4. 1859] June, 
 
 Queen of England meets the emperor ; visits 
 Cherbourg Aug. 4, 5 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 18 ;6 
 
 1857 
 
 * The subscriptions in London to relieve the sufferers amounted to 43,000?. Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, 
 of Bombay, gave 500/. for the same purpose. 
 
 t Felix Orsini, a man of talent and energy, intensely devoted to eudeavoiu-ing to obtain Italian inde- 
 pendence, was born Dec. 1819 ; studied at Bologna in 1837 ; joined a secret society in 1843 ; was arrested 
 and condemned to the galleys for life in 1844 ; was released in 1846 ; took i^art in the Roman revolution in 
 1848, when he was elected a member of the assembly ; and on the fall of the repubUc, fled to Genoa in 1849, 
 and came to England in 1853. Entering into fre-sh conspiracies, he was arrested in Hungary, Jan. 1855, 
 and sent to Mantua; he escaped thence and came to England in 1856, where he associated with Kossuth, 
 Mazzini, &c. ; delivered lectiires, and where he devised the plot for which he suffered. In his will he 
 acknowledged the justice of his sentence. 
 
FRA 
 
 315 
 
 TEA 
 
 FRANCE, continuexl. 
 
 Conference at Paris respecting the Danulsian 
 principalities closes . . . Aug. 19, 
 
 Dispute with Portugal respecting the Charles et 
 Georges {which see) settled . . Oct. 23, 
 
 Trial of comte de Montaleinbert* . Nov. 25, 
 
 Emperor's address to the Austrian ambassador 
 (see Austria) ..... Jan. i, 
 
 Marriage of prince Napoleon to princess Clo- 
 tUde of Savoy .... Jan. 30, 
 
 Publication of " Napoleon III. et V Italic," ¥eh. 
 
 On the Austrians invading Sardinia, France 
 declares war, and the French enter Sardinia ; 
 the empress apjiointed regent ; the empei'or 
 arrives at Genoa .... May 12, 
 
 Loan of 20,000,000 francs raised . May 21, 
 
 Victories of the allies (French and Sardinians) 
 at Montebello, May 20 ; Palestro, May 30, 31 ; 
 Magenta, June 4 ; Melegnano (Marignano), 
 Jime 8 ; Napoleon enters Milan, June 8 ; vic- 
 tory of aUies at Solferino . . June 24, 
 
 Armistice agi-eed on . . . July 6, 
 
 Meeting of emperors of France and Austria at 
 Villa Franca July 11, 
 
 Peace agreed on July 12, 
 
 Louis Napoleon returns to Paris . July 17, 
 
 The emperor addresses the senate, July 19 ; 
 and the diplomatic body . . . July 21, 
 
 Eeduction of the army and navy ordered, Aixg. 
 
 Conference of Austrian and French envoys at 
 Zm-ich (see Zurich) . . Aug. 8 — Nov. 
 
 Amnesty to political offenders . A>ig. 17, 18, 
 
 Violent attacks of the French press on Eng- 
 land repressed Nov. 
 
 " Ze Pape et le Congrea" published; 50,000 sold 
 in a few days Dec. 
 
 Count Walewski, the foreign ministei-, resigns ; 
 M. Thouvenel succeeds him . . . Jan. 
 
 The emperor announces a free-trade policy ; 
 Mr. Cobden at Paris .... Jan. 5, 
 
 Commercial treaty with England signed, Jan. 23, 
 
 L' Univers suppressed for j)ubUshing the pope's 
 letter to the emperor . . . Jan. 29, 
 
 Treaty for the annexation of Savoy and Nice 
 signed March 24, 
 
 The press censured for attacking England 
 
 April 7, 
 
 The emperor nieets the German sovereigns at 
 Baden Juue 15-17, 
 
 Jerome Bonaparte, the emperor's uncle, dies 
 (aged 76) June 24, 
 
 The emperor, in a letter to count Persigny, dis- 
 claims hostility to England . . July 23, 
 
 The emperor and empress visit Savoy, Corsica, 
 and Algiers Sept. 1-17, 
 
 New tariff comes into operation . Oct. i. 
 
 Public levying of Peter's pence forbidden, and 
 free issue of pastoral letters checked . Nov. 
 
 The empress visits London, Edinburgh, Glas- 
 gow, (fee Nov. — Dec. 
 
 Important ministerial changes ; gi-eator liberty 
 of speech granted to the chambei's ; two sets 
 of ministers appointed — speakers and admi- 
 nistrators ; Pelissier made governor of Algeria; 
 Persigny, minister of the interior ; Flahault, 
 EngUsh ambassador . . Nov. and Dec. 
 
 Passports for Englishmen to cease after Jan. i, 
 1861 Dec. 16, 
 
 Six bishoprics vacant .... Dec. i860 
 
 Persigny relaxes the bondage of the press, Dec. 
 11; [but for a short time] . . Dec. 20, ,, 
 
 The emperor advises the poj^e to surrender his 
 revolted provinces . . . Deo. 31, ,, 
 
 " iJoHie ef Zes JS'iJcgitcs " published . Jan. 6, 1861 
 
 Jerome (son of Jerome Bonaparte and EUza- 
 beth Paterson, an American lady f) claims his 
 legitimate rights ; non-suited after a trial 
 
 Jan. 25 — Feb. 15, ,, 
 
 Purchase of the principality .of Monaco for 
 4,000,000 francs, Feb. 2 : announced, Feb. 5, ,, 
 
 Meeting of French chambers, Feb. 4 ; stormy 
 debates in the chambei-s . Feb. and March, ,, 
 
 " La France, Rome, el r/ia^ic" piiblished, Feb. 15, ,, 
 
 Angry reply to it by the bishop of Poitiers, who 
 compares the emperor to Pilate . Feb. 27, „ 
 
 Failure of Mii'fes, a railway banker and loan 
 contractor, &c. ; he is arrested . Feb. 17, ,, 
 
 Many influential persons svispeoted of partici- 
 pating in his frauds ; the government promise 
 a searching inquiry and strict justice 
 
 Feb. and March, „ 
 
 Eugfene Scribe, dramatist, dies (aged So) Feb. 20, , , 
 
 Eloquent speech of prince Napoleon in favoiu: 
 of Italian unity, the EngUsh alliance, and 
 against the temporal government of the pope, 
 
 March i, „ 
 
 Strong advocacy of the temporal government 
 of the poiDe in the chambers ; the French 
 army stated to consist of 687,000 men, March, ,, 
 
 Circular forbidding the priests to meddle with 
 poUtics April 11, ,, 
 
 Liberal commercial treaty with Belgium signed 
 
 May I, „ 
 
 Pubhcation in Paris of the due d'Aumale's 
 sevei-e letter to prince Napoleon, April 13 ; 
 printer and publisher fined and imprisoned, 
 
 May, „ 
 
 Declaration of neutrality in the American con- 
 flict ...... June II, „ 
 
 Official recognition of the kingdom of Italy 
 
 June 24, „ 
 
 Visit of king of Sweden . . . Aug. 6, „ 
 
 Conflict between French and Swiss soldiers at 
 Ville-la-Grande .... Aug. 18, ,, 
 
 Mirfes, the speculator, sentenced to five years' 
 imprisonment .... Aug. 29, ,, 
 
 Pamphlet " Xa France, Rome, et T Italic " appears 
 
 Sept. ,, 
 
 Commercial treaty between France, Great 
 Britain, and Belgium comes into operation 
 
 Oct. I, „ 
 
 Meeting of the emperor and king of Prussia at 
 Compi^gne, Oct. 6 ; and king of Holland, 
 
 Oct. 12, ,, 
 
 French troops enter the valley of Dappes (Swit- 
 zerland) to prevent an arrest . Oct. 27, ,, 
 
 Convention between France, Great Britain, and 
 Spain, respecting intervention in Mexico, 
 signed (see Jfexico) Oct. 31, „ 
 
 Embarrassment in the government finances ; 
 Achille Fould becoraes finance minister, Nov. 
 14; with enlarged powers . . Dec. 12, „ 
 
 The emperor reminds the clergy of their duty 
 " towards Caisar " .... Jan. i, 1862 
 
 French army lands at Vera Cruz . Jan. 7, „ 
 
 * In Oct. 1858, the comte published a pamphlet entitled " Tin D^bat sur VIncle," in which he eulogised 
 English institutions and depreciated those of France. He was condemned and sentenced to six months' 
 imprisonment and a fine of 3000 francs, but was pardoned by the emperor, Deo. 2. The oomte appealed 
 against the sentence of the court, and was again condemned ; but acquitted of a part of the charge. The 
 sentence was once more remitted by the enaperor (Dec. 21). In Oct. 1859, the comte published a pamphlet 
 entitled " Pie IX. et la France en 1849 et 1S59," in which England is severely censured for opposition to 
 popery. 
 
 t The marriage took place in America, on Dee. 24, 1803 ; but was annulled, and Jerome married tlie 
 princess Catherine of "Wurtemberg, Aug. 12, 1807 ; their children are the prince Napoleon and the princess 
 Mathilde (see p. 318). 
 
FRA 
 
 SI 6 
 
 FIIA 
 
 FRANCE, continued. 
 
 The Frencli masters of the province of Bien- 
 
 hoa, in Annam Jan. 20, 1 
 
 Fruitless meeting of French and Swiss com- 
 missionsrs respecting the Ville-la-Grande 
 
 conflict Feb. 3, 
 
 Fould announces his finance scheme, inchides 
 reduction of 44 per cent, stock to 3 per cent., 
 and additional taxes and stamp duties, 
 
 Feb. 24, 
 Fierce debate in the legislative chamber, in 
 which prince Napoleon takes part Feb. 27, 
 French victories in Cochin-China (6 provinces 
 ceded to France) . . . March 28, 
 The Spanish and British plenipotentiaries de- 
 cide to quit Mexico ; the French declare war 
 against the Mexican government (for the 
 events, see Mex!cn) . . . April 16, 
 Sentence against Mirfes examined and reversed 
 at Douai ; he is released . . April 21, 
 Treaty of peace between France and Annam 
 
 signed June 3, 
 
 Duke Pasquier dies (aged 96) . . July 5, 
 
 Xew commercial treaty with Prussia signed 
 
 Aug. 2, 
 
 Kewspaper La France, opposed to Italian unity, 
 
 set up by Lagueronnifere . . . Aug. 
 
 Ship Prince Jerome, containing reinforcements 
 
 for Mexico, burnt near Gibraltar ; crew saved 
 
 Aug. 
 Camp at Chalons formed on account of Gari- 
 baldi's movements in Sicily ; broken, when 
 he is taken prisoner . . . Aug. 29, 
 Great sympathy for him in France . Sept. 
 Treatyof commerce with Madagascar Sept. 12, 
 Drouyn de Lhuys made foreign minister in 
 room of Thouvenel . . . Oct. 13, 
 Baron Gros becomes ambassador at London in 
 the room of the comte de Flahault, resigned 
 
 Nov. 18, 
 Serjeant Glover brings an action in the court of 
 queen's bench against the comte de Persigny 
 and M. Billault, claiming 14,000?. for subsi- 
 dising the Mominrj Chronicle and other news- 
 papers Nov. 22, 
 
 The emperor inaugurates Boulevard Prince 
 
 Eugbne, Paris .... Dec. 7, 
 
 Great distress in the manufacturing districts 
 
 through the cotton famine and the civil war 
 
 in America Dec. 
 
 Treaty of commerce with Italy signed, Jan. 17, 
 Revolt in Annam suppressed . , Feb. 26, 
 Convention regulating the French and Spani.sh 
 frontiers concluded .... Feb. 27, 
 Resignation of M. JIagne, the '■ speaking minis- 
 ter " in the assembly . . . April i , 
 Dissolution of the Chambers . . May 8, 
 Persigny issues arbitrary injunctions to electors 
 
 May, 
 Thiers, OUivier, Favi-e, and other opposition 
 candidates elected in Paris, May 31 — June 15, 
 Changes in the ministry — re=^ignation of Per- 
 signy, Walewski, and Koulind . June 23, 
 The empress visits queen of Spain at Madrid, Of t. 
 Baron Gros resigns, and the prince Tour 
 d'Auvergne becomes ambassador at London 
 
 Oct. 14, 
 
 Death of M. Billault (boi-n 1805), the "speaking 
 minister" in the legislative assembly, Oct. 
 13 ; succeeded by M. Rouhcr . Oct. 18, 1S63 
 The emiJoror proposes the convocation of a 
 Europs.m congress, and invites the sovereigns 
 or their deputies by letter . . Nov. 4, ,, 
 Thiers and his friends form the centre of a new 
 
 opposition Nov. 9, ,, 
 
 The Invitation to the congress declined by Eng- 
 land Nov. 25, ,, 
 
 Thiers speaks in the chamber . . Dec. 24, „ 
 Arrest of Grego and other conspirators against 
 the emperor's life, Jan. 3 ; tried and sen- 
 tenced to tran.sportation and imprisonment 
 
 Feb. 27, 1864 
 Convention betwesn France, Brazil, Italy, Por- 
 tugal, and Hayti for establishing a tele- 
 graphic line between Euroi^e and America 
 
 May 16, ,, 
 Death of marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakhoff, 
 
 governor of Algeria (born 1794) . May 22, ,, 
 Convention between France and Japan signed 
 
 by Japanese ambassadors at Paris June 20, ,, 
 Convention of commerce, &c., betvreen France 
 
 and Switzerland signed . . June 30, ,, 
 Prince Napoleon Victor, son of prince Napoleon 
 Jerome and princess Clotilde, bom July 16, 
 Gamier- PagSs and 12 others who had met at 
 his house for election purposes, convicted as 
 members of a society "of more than 20 mem- 
 bers" Dec. 7, ,, 
 
 De.ath of the emperor's private secretary and 
 
 old friend, Mocquard . . . Dec. 11, ,, 
 Death of Proudhon (bom i8og), who said 
 
 " Propri(Jtg c'est vol " . . . Jan. 19, 1SG5 
 The clergy prohibited from reading the pope's 
 encyclical letter of Dec. 8 in churches ; creates 
 much excitement, and the archbishop of 
 Besancon and other prelates disobey . Jan. ,, 
 The prince Napoleon Jerome appointed vice- 
 president of the privy council . . Jan. „ 
 Decree for an international exhibition of the 
 products of agriculture and industry, and of 
 the fine arts, at Paris, on May, i, 1867, Feb. i, ,, 
 Treaty with Sweden signed . . Feb. 15, ,, 
 
 The minister Duruy's plan of compulsory edu- 
 cation rejected by the assembly . March 8, ,, 
 Death of the due de Momy, siiid to be half- 
 brother of the emperor . . March lo, ,, 
 Loi des suspects (or of public safety) suffered 
 
 to expire March 31, ,, 
 
 A secretary at the Russi m embassy assassinated 
 
 April 24, ,, 
 The emperor visits Algeria . . May 3-27, ,, 
 Inauguration of the statue of Napoleon I. at 
 Ajaccio, with an imprudent speech by prince 
 Napoleon Jerome, May 15 ; censured by 
 the emperor; the prince resigns his offices 
 
 June 9, ,, 
 The English fleet entertained at Cherbourg and 
 
 Brest Aug. 15 etseq. ,, 
 
 The French fleet entertained at Portsmouth 
 
 Aug. 29 — Sept. I, ,, 
 Death of general Lamoricifere . Sept. 11, „ 
 The queen of Spain visits the emperor at 
 Biarritz Sept. 11, ,, 
 
 KINGS OF FRANCE. 
 
 MEROVrtfGIAN RACE. 
 
 Pharamond (his existence doubtful). 
 428. Clodion the Hairy ; his supposed son : king 
 
 of the Sahc Franks. 
 447. Merovaeus, or M^rov^e ; son-in-law of Clodion. 
 458. Childeric ; son of M^rov^e. 
 481. Clovis the Great, his son, and the real founder 
 of the monarchy. He left four sons, who 
 divided the empire : 
 511. Childebert; Paris. 
 
 511. Clodomir ; Orleans. 
 ,, Thierry; Metz ; and 
 ,, Clotaire ; Soissons. 
 534. Theodebert ; Metz. 
 548. Theodebald, succeeded in Metz. 
 558. Clotaire ; now sole ruler of France. Upon his 
 death the kingdom was again divided be- 
 tween his four sons : viz., 
 561. Charibert, ruled at Paris. 
 ,, Gontram, in Orleans and Burgundy. 
 
FRA 
 
 317 
 
 FKA 
 
 FRANCE, continued. 
 
 561. Sigebert, at Metz, and ) t, i.-u ■ x j 
 
 „ Chilperii, at Soissons. ^°^^ assassinated. 
 
 575. Childebert II. 
 
 584. Clotaire II. ; Soissons. 
 
 596. 7 hierry II. , son of Childebert ; in Orleans. 
 „ Theodebert II. ; Metz. 
 
 613. Clotaire Il.i; became sole king. 
 
 628. Dagobert the Great, son of Clotaire II. ; he 
 divided the kingdom, of which he had be- 
 come sole monarch, between his two sons : 
 
 638. Clovis II. has Burgundy and Neustria, 
 ,, Sigebert II. has Austrasia. 
 
 656. Clotaire III., son of Clovis II. 
 
 670. Childeric II. ; he became king of the whole 
 realm of France ; assassinated, with his 
 queen and his son Dagobert, in the forest of 
 Livri. Henault ] 
 [At this time Thierry III. rules in Burgimdy 
 and Neustria, and Dagobert II., son of Sige- 
 bert, in Austrasia. Dagobert is assassinated, 
 and Thierry reigns alone. Henault. 
 
 691. Clovis III. Pepin, mayor of the palace, rules 
 the kingdom in the name of this sovereign, 
 who is succeeded by his brother, 
 
 695. Childebert III., surnamed the Just; in this 
 reign Pepin also exercises the royal power. 
 
 711. Dagobert III., son of Childebert. 
 
 716. Chilperic II. (Daniel) ; he is governed, and at 
 length deposed, by Charles Martel, mayor 
 of the palace, whose sway is now unbounded. 
 
 719. Clotaire IV. , of obscure origin, raised by Charles 
 
 Martel to the throne ; dies soon after, and 
 Chilperic is recalled from Aquitaine, whither 
 he had fled for refuge. Henault. 
 
 720. Chilperic II. restored ; he shortly afterwards 
 
 dies at Noyon, and is succeded by 
 ,, Thierry IV., son of Dagobert III., surnamed 
 
 de Chelles; died in 737. Charles Martel now 
 
 reigns under the new title of " duke of the 
 
 French." H&aault. 
 737. Interregnum, till the death of Charles Martel, 
 
 in 741 ; and \mtil 
 742. Childeric III., son of Chilperic II., surnamed 
 
 the Stupid. Carloman and Pepin, the sons 
 
 of Charles Martel, share the government of 
 
 the kingdom in this reign. 
 
 THE CAELOVINGIANS. 
 
 752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel ; he is 
 succeeded by his tvpo sons, 
 
 768. *Charleraagne and Carloman ; the former, sur- 
 named the Great, crowned Emperor of the 
 West, by Leo. III. in 800. Carloman reigned 
 but three years. 
 
 814. Louis I. le Debonnaire, Emperor ; dethroned, 
 but restored to his dominions. 
 
 840. Charles, surnamed the Bald, King ; Emperor 
 in 87s ; poisoned by Zedechias, a Jewish 
 physician. 
 
 877. Louis II., the Stammerer, son of Charles the 
 Bald, King. 
 
 879. Louis III. and Carloman II. ; the former died 
 in 882, and Carloman reigned alone. 
 
 884. Charles III. le Gros; a usurper, in prejudice to 
 Charles the Simple. 
 
 887. Eudes, or Hugji, count of Paris. 
 
 898. Charles IIL (or IV.), the Simple; deposed, 
 and died in prison in 929 ; he had married 
 Edgiva, daughter of Edward the Elder, of 
 
 England, by whom he had a son, who was 
 af teiTvards king. 
 
 922. Eobert, brother of Eudes ; crowned at Rheims ; 
 
 but Charles marched an army against him, 
 and killed him in battle. HiSnault. 
 
 923. Rudolf, duke of Burgundy ; elected king, but 
 
 he was never acknowledged by the southern 
 provinces. Hinault. 
 
 936. Louis IV. d'Ov.tremer, or Transmarine (from 
 having been conveyed by his mother into 
 England), son of Charles III. (or IV.) and 
 Edgiva ; died by a fall from his horse. 
 
 954. Lothaire, his son ; he had reigned jointly with 
 his father from 952, and succeeds him, at 15 
 years of age, under the protection of Hugh 
 the Great ; poisoned. 
 
 986. Louis v., the Indolent, son of Lothaire ; also 
 
 poisoned, it is supposed by his queen, 
 Blanche. In this prince ended the race of 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 THE CAPETS. 
 
 987. Hugh Capet, the Great, count of Paris, &c., 
 
 eldest son of Hugh the Abbot, July 3 ; he 
 seizes the crown, in prejudice to Charles of 
 Lorraine, uncle of Louis Transmarine. From 
 him this race of kings is called Capevingians 
 and Capetiaus. He dies Oct. 24, 
 996. Robert II., surnamed the Sage ; son ; died 
 lamented July 20, 
 
 103 1. Henry I., son ; dies Aug. 29, 
 
 1060. Philip I. the Fair, and I'Amoureux ; succeeded 
 at 8 years of age, and ruled at 14 ; son ; dies 
 Aug. 3, 
 
 1108. Louis VI., surnamed the Lusty, or le Gros ; 
 son ; dies Aug. i, 
 
 1137. Louis VII. ; son ; surnamed the Young, to dis- 
 tinguish him from his father, with whom he 
 was for some years associated on the throne ; 
 dies Sept. 18, 
 
 1180. Philip II. (Augustus) ; son ; succeeds at 15 ; 
 crowned at Rheims in his father's hf etime ; 
 dies July 14, 
 
 1223. Louis VIII. , Cceur de Lion ; son ; dies Nov. S, 
 
 1226. Louis IX. ; son ; called St. Louis ; ascended 
 the throne at 15, under the guardianship of 
 his. mother, who was also regent ; died in 
 his camp before Timis, Aug. 25, 
 
 1270. Philip III., the Hardy ; son ; died at Perpig- 
 nan, Oct. 6, 
 
 12S5. Philip IV. , the Fair ; son ; ascended the throne 
 in his 17th year ; dies Nov. 29, 
 
 1314. Louis X. ; son ; surnamed fliii in, an old French 
 word, signifying headstrong, or mutinous ; 
 died June 5, 
 
 13 16. John, a posthumous son of Louis X. ; bom 
 Nov. 15 ; died Nov. ig, 
 
 1 3 16. Philip V. the Long (on account of his stature) ; 
 
 brother of Louis ; died Jan. q, 
 1322. Charles IV., the Handsome; brother; died 
 Jan. 31, 1328. 
 
 HOUSE OF VALOIS. 
 
 1328. Philip VI., de Valois, grandson of Philip the 
 Hardy (called the Fortunate) ; died Aug. 
 23, 
 
 1350. John II., the Good; son; died suddenly in 
 the Savoy in London, April 8, 
 
 * This great prince wore only a plain doublet in winter, made of an otter's skin, a woollen tunic, fringed 
 icHh silk-, and a blue coat or cassock ; his hose consisted of transverse lands or fillets of different colours. He 
 would march with the gi-eatest rapidity from the PjTenean mountains into Germany, and from Germany 
 into Italy. The whole world echoed his name. He was the tallest and the strongest man of his time. In 
 this respect he resembled the heroes of fabulous story; but he differed from them, as he thought that 
 force was of use alone to conquer, and that laws were necessary to govern. According! j', he enacted several 
 laws after the form observed in those days, that is, in mixed assembUes, composed of a number of bishops 
 and the principal lords of the nation. Eginhart. 
 
FRA 
 
 318 
 
 FilA 
 
 FRANCE, continued. 
 
 1364, Charles V., sumamed the Wise; son; died 
 
 Sept. 16, 
 1380. Charles VI., the Beloved; son ; died Oct. 21, 
 1422. Charles VII., the Victorious; son; died Jxily 
 
 22, 
 1461. Louis XI. ; son ; able but ci-uel ; died Aug. 30, 
 1483. Charles VIII., the Affable ; son; died April 7, 
 1498. Louis XII., Duke of Orleans; the Father of his 
 People ; great-grandson of Charles V. ; died 
 Jan. I, 
 1515. Francis I. of Angoulcme ; called the Father of 
 Letters; gi-eat-great-grandson of Charles 
 V. ; died March 31, 
 1547. Henry II. ; son ; died of a wound received at 
 a tournament, when celebrating the nuptials 
 of his sister with the duke of Savoy, acci- 
 dentally inflicted by the comte de Montmo- 
 rency, July 10, 
 
 1559. Francis II.; son; married Mary Stuart, 
 
 afterwards queen of Scots ; died Dec. 5, 
 
 1560. Charles IX. ; brother ; Catherine of Medicis, 
 
 his mother, obtained the regency ; died 
 May 30, 
 1574. Henry III. ; brother ; elected king of Poland ; 
 last of tlie house of Valois, murdered by 
 Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar, Aug. 
 I, 15^9- 
 
 nOU.SE OF BODEBON. 
 
 15S9. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, king of 
 Navarre ; son-in-law of Henry II. ; murdered 
 by Francis Ravaillac, May 14, 
 
 1610. Louis XIII., the Just ; son ; died May 14, 
 
 1643. Louis XIV., the Great, styled Dieudonn^ ; 
 son ; died Sept. i, 
 
 1715. Louis XV., the WeU-beloved ; great-grandson : 
 died May 20, 
 
 1774. Louis XVI. , his grandson ; ascended the throne 
 in his 20th year ; married the archduchess 
 Marie-Antoinette, of Austria, in May, 1770 ; 
 
 dethroned, July 14, 1789 ; guillotined, Jan. 
 21, 1793,* and his queen, Oct. 16 following. 
 1793. Louis XVII., son of Louis XVI. Though num- 
 bered with the kings, this prince never 
 reigned; he died in prison, supposed by 
 poison, June 8, 1795, aged 10 yeai's 2 months. 
 
 THE REPUBLIC. 
 
 1792. The Xation.\l Co.tvention (750 members), 
 first sitting, Sept. 21. 
 
 1795. The^DiRECTORY (LareveiUSre Ldpaux, Letour- 
 neur, Rewbell, Barras, and Camot) nomi- 
 nated Nov. I ; abolished, and Bonaparte, 
 Duces, and Sieyfes appointed an executive 
 commission, Nov. 1799. 
 
 1799. The Consulate. Napoleon Bonaparte, Cam- 
 bacerfes, and Lebrun appointed consuls, Dec. 
 24. Napoleon appointed consul for 10 years. 
 May 6, 1802 ; for life, Aug. 2, 1802. 
 
 FnENCH EMPIRE, t 
 
 [Established by the senate Jlay 18, 1804.] 
 1804. Napoleon (Bonaparte) I. ; bom Aug. 15, 1769. 
 He married, first, Josephine, widow of 
 Alexis, vicomte de Beauhamais, March 8, 
 1796 (who was divorced Dec. 16, 1809, and 
 died May 29, 1814) ; 2nd, Maria-Louisa of 
 Austria, April 2, 1810 (she died Dee. 17, 
 1847). He renounced the thrones of France 
 and Italy, and accepted the isle of Elba for 
 his retreat, April 5, 1814 ; again appeared 
 in France, March i, 1815; was defeated at 
 Waterloo ; finally abdicated in favour of his 
 infant son, June 22, 1815 ; banished to St. 
 Helena, where he diies. May 5, 1821. (See 
 note, p. 312). 
 
 BOURBONS RESTORED. 
 
 1814. Louis XVIII. {comte de Provence), brother of 
 Louis XVI.; bom Nov. 17, 1755; married 
 
 * On Monday, the 21st of January, 1793, at eight o'clock in the morning, this unfortunate monarch 
 was summoned to his fate. He ascended the scaffold with a firm air and step ; and raising his voice, he 
 said, " Frenchmen, I die innocent of the offences imiiuted to me. I pardon all my enemies, and I implore 
 
 of Heaven that my beloved France ;" At this instant the inhuman Santerre ordered the diums to 
 
 beat, and the executioners to perform their office. When the guillotine descended, the priest exclaimed, 
 "Son of St Louis ! ascend to heaven." The bleeding head was then held up, and a few of the populace 
 shouted " Vive la Riljjublique ! " The body was interred in a g^-ave that was immediately afterwards filled 
 up with quick lime, and a strong guard was placed around until it should be consumed. Hist. French 
 Revolution. 
 
 t THE BONAPARTE FAMILY. 
 
 [The name appears at Florence and Genoa in the 13th 
 century : in the 1 5th a branch settles in Corsica. ] 
 
 Charles Bonaparte, born March 29, 1746, died Feb. 
 24, 1785. He married in 1767, Letitia Ramolina 
 (bom Aug. 24, 1750, died Feb. 1836); issue, 
 
 Joseph, born Jan, 7, 1768, made kingof Two Sicilies, 
 1805; of Naples alone, 1806; of Spain, 1808 ; re- 
 sides in United States, 1815 ; comes to England, 
 1832 ; settles in Italy, 1841 ; dies at Florence, July 
 28, 1844. 
 
 Napoleon I., emperor, bom Aug. 15, 1769 (see 
 above). 
 
 LnciEN, prince of Canino, bom 1775 : at first aided 
 his brother Napoleon, but opposed his progress 
 towards universal monarchy. He was taken by 
 the English on his way to America, and resided in 
 England till 1814. He died at Viterbo, June 30, 
 1840. His son Charles (born 1803, died 1857) was 
 an eminent naturalist. 
 
 Louis, born Sept. 2, 1778; made king of Holland, 
 1806; died July 15, 1846. By his maniage with 
 Hortonse Beauhamais (daugliter of the empress 
 Josephine), in 1802, he had three sons : Napoleon 
 Louis (bom 1803, died 1807); Louis Napoleon (bom 
 1804, died 1831); and 
 
 Charles-Locis-Napoleon, bom April 20, 1808; 
 
 educated under the care of his mother at 
 
 Aremberg, Switzerland, and at Thun, under 
 
 general Dufour ; took part in the Carbonari 
 
 insurrection in the Papal States in March, 
 
 1831 ; attempted a revolt at Strasburg, Oct. 30, 
 
 1836; sent to America, Nov. 13, 1836; repairs 
 
 to London, Oct. 14, 1838 ; lands at Boulogne 
 
 with fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840; condemned 
 
 to imprisonment for hfe, Oct. 6, 1840 ; escapes 
 
 from Ham, May 25, 1846; arrives at Boulogne, 
 
 March 2, 1848; elected deputy, June 8 ; and 
 
 takes his seat, Aug. 27 ; his coup d'Hat, Dec. 
 
 2, 1851 ; elected president of the republic, 
 
 Dec. 10 ; for 10 years, Dec. 21, 22, 1851 ; 
 
 elected emperor, Nov. 21, 1852 ; declared 
 
 emperor, as Napoleon III., Dec. 2, 1852. 
 
 Jerome, born Nov. 15, 1784; king of Westphalia, 
 
 Deo. I, 1807 — 1814; made governor of the In- 
 
 valides, 1848: and marshal, 1850; died June 24, 
 
 i860 : his children are 
 
 Napoleon, born Sept. 9, 1822; married princess 
 
 Clotilde of Savoy, Jan. 30, 1859 : issue, 
 
 Napoleon-Victor-Jerome, bom July 18, 1862; 
 
 Napoleon-Louis-Joseph, bom July 16, 1864. 
 
 Mathilde, bom May 27, 1820 ; married to prince 
 
 A. Demidoff in 1841. 
 
FRA 
 
 319 
 
 TEA 
 
 FEANC.E, continued. 
 
 Marie-Josephine-Louise of Savoy ; entered 
 Paris, and took possession of the throne, 
 May 3, 1814 ; obliged to flee, March 20, 1815 ; 
 returned July 8, some year; died without 
 issue, Sept. 16. 
 1824. Charles X. (comte d'Artois), his brother ; born 
 Oct. 9, 1757 ; married Marie-ThfSi-Sse of 
 Savoy ; deposed July 30, 1830. He resided 
 in Britain till 1832, and died at Gratz, in 
 Hungary, Nov. 6, 1836. 
 [Heir : Henry, duo de Bordeaux, called comte 
 de Chambord, son of the due de Berry ; born 
 Sept. 29, 1820.] 
 
 HOUSE OF ORLEANS. (See Orleans.) 
 1830. Louis-PhiUppe, son of Louis-Philippe, duke of 
 Orleans, called Egalite, descended from 
 Philippe, duke of Orleans, son of Louis 
 XIII. ; born Oct. 6, 1773 ; married Nov. 25, 
 1809, Maria- Amelia, daughter of Fei-dinand 
 I. (IV.) king of the Two Sicilies. Raised to 
 the throne as king of the French, Aug. 9, 
 1830: abdicated Feb. 24, 1848. Died in 
 exile, in England, Aug. 26, 1850. 
 
 NEW KEPUBLIC, 1848. 
 
 The revolution commenced in a popular insurrection 
 at Paris, Feb. 22, 184S. The royal family escaped 
 
 by flight to England, a provisional government 
 was established, monarchy abohshed, and France 
 declared a republic. 
 Charles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, declared by the 
 National Assembly (Dec. 19) president of the 
 republic of France; and proclaincd next day, 
 Dec. 20 ; elected for ten years, Jan. 15, 1852. 
 
 FRENCH EMPIRE REVIVED. 
 
 [1821. Napoleon II.* (Napoleon-Joseph), son of Najjo- 
 leon I. and Maria Louisa, archduchess of 
 Austria; bom March 20, iSii ; created king 
 of Kome. On the abdication of his father 
 he was made duke of Reichstadt, in Austria ; 
 and died at the palace of Schoenbrunn, 
 July 22, 1832, aged 21.] 
 
 1S52. Napoleon (Charles-Louis) III., Dec. 2 (formerly 
 president), the present (1865) emperor of 
 the French. (See nole, p. 318.) 
 Empress : Eugenie-Marie (a Spaniard, formerly 
 countess of Teba), born May 5, 1826 ; married 
 Jan. 29, 1853. 
 Heir : Nnpoleon -Eugfene - Louis - Jean-Joseph, 
 
 born March 16, 1856. 
 [On Dec. 18, 1852, the succesision, in default 
 of issue from the emperor, was determined 
 in favour of prince Jerome-Napoleon and 
 his heirs male.] 
 
 FRANCE, Isle of. See Mauritius. 
 
 FRAlSrCHE COMTE, successively part of the kingdom and duchy of Burgundy and the 
 kingdom of France, was given to Philip II. of Spain as the dowry of Isabella of France, 
 Avhom he married in 1559. It was conquered and retained by Louis XIV. in 1674. 
 
 FRANCHISE. A privilege or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction ; and anciently an 
 asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure. In Spain, churches and monasteries were, 
 until lately, franchises for criminals, as they Avere formerly in England. See Sanctuaries. 
 In 1429 the Elective franchise for counties was restricted to persons having at least 405, 
 a year in land, and resident. See Reform. 
 
 FRANCIS' Assault on the Queen. John Francis, a youth, fired a pistol at queen 
 Victoria, as she was riding down Constitution-hill, in an open barouche, accompanied by 
 prince Albert, May 30, 1842. The queen was uninjured. Previous intimation having 
 reached the palace of the intention of the criminal, her majesty had commanded that none 
 of the ladies of her court should attend her. Francis was condemned to death, June 17 
 following, but was afterwards transported for life. 
 
 FRANCISCANS, Roman Catholic friars, called also Grey friars, founded by Francis de 
 Assisi, about 1209, or 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and very austere 
 regimen. In 1226 they appeared in England, where, at the time of the dissolation of 
 monasteries by Henry VIII., they had fifty-five abbeys or other houses, 1536-38. 
 
 FRANKFORT-on-the-Main (Central Germany), many ages a free city ; was taken and 
 retaken several times during the French wars, and held by Bonaparte from 1803 to 1813 
 when its independence was guaranteed by the allied sovereigns. 
 
 The diet of the princes of Germany established 
 here by the Rhenish confederation . . . 
 
 Appointed capital of the Germanic confede- 
 ration 
 
 The Frankfort diet publish a federative consti- 
 tution March 30, 
 
 The plenipotentiaries of Austi-ia, Bavaria, 
 Saxony, Hanover, Wurtemberg, Mecklen- 
 
 burg, &c., here constitute themselves the 
 council of the Germanic diet . Sept. i, li 
 
 The German sovereigns (excepting the king of 
 Prussia) met at Frankport(at the invitation 
 of the emperor of Austria), to consider a plan 
 of federal reform, Aug. 17 ; the plan was not 
 accepted by Prussia . . . Sept. 22, ij 
 
 Population in 1859, 67,975. See Germany. 
 
 FRANKFORT-on-tue-Oder (N. Germany) ; a member of the Hanseatic league, suffered 
 much from marauders in the middle ages, and in the thirty years' war. The university 
 was founded in 1506, and incorporated with the Breslau in 181 1. Near Frankfort, on 
 Aug. 12, 1759, Frederick of Prussia was defeated by the Russians and Austrians. 'See 
 C'unncrsdorf. 
 
 * Decreed to be so termed by the present emperor on his accession. 
 
FRA 
 
 320 
 
 TEA 
 
 FEANKING LETTERS, passing letters free of postage, was claimed by parliament 
 about 1660. The privilege was restricted in 1837, and abolished on the introduction of 
 the uniform penny postage, Jan. 10, 1840. The queen was among the first to relinquish 
 her privilege. 
 
 FRANKLIN, the English freeholder in the middle ages. See "the Franklin's Tale," 
 in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (written about 1364). 
 
 FRANKLIN'S ARCTIC EXPEDITION. Sir John Franklin, with captains Crozier and 
 Fitzjames, in H.M. ships Erebus and Terror (carrying in all 138 persons), sailed on an arctic 
 expedition of discovery and survey, from Greeuhithe, on May 24, 1845. Their last despatches 
 were from the AVhalefish islands, dated July 12, 1845. Their protracted absence caused 
 intense anxiety throughout Europe, and numerous expeditions were sent from England and 
 elsewhere in search of them to various parts of the polar regions. Quantities of coals, pro- 
 .vlsions, clothing, and other necessaries, were deposited in such places in the Arctic seas as the 
 crews of the Erehus and Terror discoveiy ships might visit, so as to afford them immediate 
 relief, by our own and by the American government, by lady Franklin, and numerous private 
 persons. The Truelore, c.iptain Parker, which arrived at Hull, Oct. 4, 1849, from Davis's 
 Straits, brought intelligence (not afterwards confirmed) that the natives had seen sir John 
 Franklin's ships as late as the previous March, beset or frozen up by the ice in Prince 
 Regent's inlet. Other accounts were equally illusoiy. Her Majesty's government, on 
 March 7, 1850, oflfered a reward of 20,oooZ. to any party of any country, that .should render 
 efficient assistance to the crews of the missing ships. Sir John's fir.st winter quarters were 
 found at Beechy island by captains Ommanney and Penny. 
 
 1. H.M.S. Ploi-er, capt. Moore (afterwards under 
 capt. Maguire), sailed from Sheemess to 
 Behring's Straits, in search . . Jan. i, 
 
 2. Land expedition under sir John Richardson 
 and Dr. Rae, of the Hudson's Bay Company, 
 left England .... March 25, 
 
 [Sir John Richardson returned to England 
 in 1849, and Dr Rae continued his search 
 till 1851.] 
 
 3. Sir James Ross, ^ith the Enterprise and 7m- 
 vestigalor (June 12, 1848), having also sailed 
 in search to Barrow's Straits, retuined to 
 England (Scarborough) . . . Nov. 3, 
 
 4. The Enteri/rise, cajjt. Collinson, and Invtati- 
 (jator, commander M'Clure, sailed from Ply- 
 mouth for Behring's Straits . . Jan. 20, 
 
 [Both of these ships pi'oceeded through to 
 the eastward.] 
 
 5. Capt. Austin's expedition, viz. : Resolute, 
 caijt. Austin, C.B. ; Assii^tance, capt. Omman- 
 ney ; Jntreijid, lieut. Bertie Cator; and Pioneer, 
 lievit. Sherard Osborn, sailed from England 
 for Barrow's Straits . . . Api-il 25, 
 
 [Returned Sept. 1851.] 
 
 6. The Ladi/ Franklin, capt. Penny ; and Sox>hia, 
 capt. Stewart, sailed from Aberdeen for Bar- 
 row's Straits .... April 13, 
 
 [Returned home Sejit. 1851.] 
 
 7. The American expedition in the Aihance 
 and Rescue, imder lieut. De Haven and Dr. 
 Kaue (son of the judge), towards which Mr. 
 Grinnell subscribed 30,000 dollars, sailed for 
 Lancaster Sound and Bariow's Straits ; after 
 drifting in the pack down Baffin's Bay, the 
 ships were released in 1851 uninjm-ed. May 25, 
 
 S The Fdir, sir John Ross, fitted out chiefly by 
 the Hudson Bay Company, sailed to tlie same 
 locaUty ... . . May 22, 
 
 [Returned in 1851.] 
 
 <;. H.M.S. Iforth Star, commander Saxmders, 
 which had sailed from England in 1849, win- 
 tered in Wolstenholme Sound, and returned 
 to Spithead Sept. 28, 
 
 10. B.MS. Herald, capt. KoUett, C.B., which 
 had sailed in 1848, made three voyages to 
 Behring's Straits, and returned in . 
 
 Lieut. Pim went to St. Petersburg with the 
 intention of training through Siberia to the 
 mouth of the river Kolyma ; but was dis- 
 
 1851 
 
 suaded from proceeding by the Russian 
 
 government Kov. 18, 1851 
 
 [The Enterjirise and Investigator (see No. 4 
 
 above) not having been heai'd of for two 
 
 years,] 
 
 11. Sir Edward Belcher's expedition, consisting 
 of — Assistance, sir Edward Belcher, C. B.; 
 Resolute, capt. Kellett, C.B. ; North Star, capt. 
 Pullen ; Intrepid, capt. M'Clintock ; and 
 Pioneer, capt. Sherard Oslom, sailed from 
 AVoolwich April 15, 1852 
 
 [This expedition had arrived at Beechy 
 Island Aug. 14, 1852. The Assistance and 
 Pioneer proceeded through 'Wellington 
 Channel, and the Risoliite and Inlrejud to 
 Melville Island ; the North 67or remaining 
 at Beechy Island.] 
 
 LADY franklin's EQUIPMENTS. 
 
 Lady Franklin, from her own resources, aided 
 by a few friends (and by the "Tasmanian 
 Tribute" of 1500?.), equipped four teparate 
 private expeditions : 
 
 12. 'The Prince Albert, capt. Forsyth, sailed from 
 Aberdeen to Barrow's Straits . June 5, 1850 
 
 [Returned Oct. i, 1850.] 
 
 13. The Prince Albert, Mr. Kennedy, accompa- 
 nied by lieut. Bellot, of the French navy, and 
 John Hepburn, sailed from Stromness to 
 Prince Regent's Inlet . . . June 4, 1851 
 
 [Returned Oct. 1852 ] 
 
 14. The Isabel, commander Inglefield, sailed for 
 the head of Baffin's Bay, Jones's Sound, and 
 the Wellington Channel, July 6 ; and returned 
 
 Kov. 1852 
 
 15. Mr. Kennedy sailed again in the Isabel, on 
 
 a renewed search to Behring's Straits . . 1853 
 
 16. H.M.S. Rattlemak-e, commander TroUope, 
 despatched to assist the Plover, capt. Maguire 
 (wiio succeeded capt. Moore), at Point Barrow 
 
 in April ; met with it . . . Aug. „ 
 
 17. The second American expedition, the Ad- 
 vance, under Dr. Kane, earlj' in . . June, „ 
 
 18. The PItcenix (with the Brcadalbane trans- 
 port), commander Inglefield, accompanied 
 by lieut. Bellot, sailed in May : he returned, 
 bringing de.spatches from sir E. Belcher, &c. 
 
 Oct. „ 
 
FEA 
 
 321 
 
 FEA 
 
 FEANKLIN'S EXPEDITION, continued. 
 
 The Investigator and sir B. Belcher's squadron 
 were safe ; but no traces of Franklin's party 
 had been met with. Lieut. Bellot* was unfor- 
 tunately drowned in August while voluntarily 
 conveying despatches to sir E. Belcher. Capt. 
 M'Clure had left the Herald (lo) at Cape 
 Lisbume, July 31, 1850. On Oct. 8, the ship 
 was frozen in, and so continued for nine 
 months. On Oct. 26, 1850, while on an ex- 
 cursion party, the captain discovered an ' 
 entrance into Barrow's Straits, and thus 
 estabhshed the existence of a N.E — N.W. 
 passage. In Sept. 1851, the ship was again 
 fixed in ice, and so remained till lieut. Pirn 
 and a party from capt. Kellett's ship, the 
 Meaolute (11), fell in with them in April, 1853. 
 The position of the Enterprise (4) was still un- 
 known. 
 
 Dr. Rae, in the spring of 1853, again proceeded 
 towards the magnetic pole ; and in July, 1854, 
 he reported to the Admiralty that he had 
 purchased from a party of Esc'uimaux a num- 
 ber of articles which had belonged to sir J. 
 Frankhn and his party — namely, sir John's 
 star or order, part of a watch, silver spoons, 
 and forks with crests, &c. He also reported 
 the statement of the natives, that they had 
 met with a party of white men about four 
 winters previous, and had sold them a seal ; 
 and that four months later, in the same 
 season, they had found the bodies of thirty 
 men (some buried), who had evidently 
 perisbed by starvation ; the place appears, 
 from the description, to have been in the 
 neighbovjrhood of the Great Fish river of 
 Back. Dr. Rae arrived in England on Oct. 
 22, 1854, with the melancholy relics, which 
 have since been deposited in Greenwich hos- 
 pital. He and his companions were awarded 
 io,oooL for their discovery. 
 
 19. The Pkamix, North Star, and Talbot, under 
 the command of capt. Inglefield, sailed in 
 May, and returned in . . . Oct. 1834 
 
 Sir B. Belcher (No. 11), after matm-e delibera- 
 tion, in April, 1854, determined to abandon 
 his ships, and gave orders to that effect to all 
 the captains under his command ; and capt. 
 Kellett gave similar orders to capt. M'Clure, 
 of the Investigator. The vessels had been 
 abandoned in ' Junef when the crews of the 
 Phcenix and Talbot (under cajjt. Inglefield) 
 arrived (ig). On their return to England the 
 captains were all tried by court-martial and 
 honourably acquitted . . Oct. 17-19, ,, 
 
 Capt. Collinson's fate was long uncertain, and 
 another expedition was in contemplation, 
 when intelligence came, in Feb 185s, that 
 he had met the Rattlesnake (16) at Fort 
 
 Clarence in Aug. 21, 1854, and had sailed 
 immediately, in hopes of getting up with 
 capt. Maguire in the Plover (i), which had 
 sailed two days previously. Capt. Collinson 
 having failed in getting through the ice in 1 850 
 with capt. M'Clure, returned to Hong-Kong to 
 winter. In 1851 he passed through Prince of 
 Wales's Straits, and remained in the Arctic 
 regions vyithout obtaining any intelligence of 
 Franklin tiU July, 1854, when, being once 
 more released from the ice, he sailed for Fort 
 Clarence, where he airived as above men- 
 tioned. Captains CoUinson and Maguire 
 arrived in England in . . . . May. ; 
 
 20. The third American expedition in search of 
 Dr. Kane, in the Advance, consisted of the 
 Release and the steamer Arctic, the barque 
 Eringo, and another vessel under the com- 
 mand of lieut. H. J. Hartstene, accompanied 
 by a brother of Dr. Kane as surgeon. May 31, 
 
 [On May 17, 1855, Dr. Kane and his party 
 quitted the Advance, and journeyed over the 
 ice, 1300 miles, to the Danish settlement ; on 
 their way home in a Danish vessel, they fell 
 in with lieut. Hartstene, Sept. 18 ; and 
 arrived with him at New York, Oct. 11, 1855. 
 Dr. Kane visited England in 1856 ; he died in 
 
 1857-] 
 The Hudson's Bay Company, under advice of 
 Dr. Rae and sir G. Back, sent out an overland 
 expedition, June, 1855, which returned Sept. 
 following. Some more remains of Franklin's 
 pai-ty were discovered. 
 
 21. The 1 8th British expedition (equipped by 
 lady Frankhn and her friends, the govern- 
 ment having declined to fit out another) — 
 the Fox, screw steamer, under capt. (since 
 sir) F. L. M'Clintock, R.N. {see No. 11)— 
 sailed from Aberdeen July i, 1857 ; returned 
 
 Sept. 22, 
 On May 6, 1859, lieut. Hobson found at Point 
 Victory, near Cape Victoria, besides a cairn, 
 a tin case, containing a paper, signed April 
 25, 1848, by captain Fitzjames, which certi- 
 fied that the ships Erebus and Terror, on Sept. 
 12, 1846, were beset in lat. 7o°o5'N., and 
 long. 98° 23' W. ; that sir John Franklin died 
 June II, 1847; and that the ships were de- 
 serted April 22, 1848. Captain M'Chntock 
 continued the search, and discovered skele- 
 tons and other relics. His journal was pub- 
 lished in Dec. 1859 ; and on May 28, i860, 
 gold medals were given to him and to lady 
 Franklin by the Royal Geographical Society. 
 Mr. Hall, the arctic explorer, reported, in Aug. 
 1865, circumstances that led him to hope 
 that capt. Crozier and others were survivipg. 
 
 FEANKS (or freemen), a name given to a combination of tlie North-western German 
 tribes about 240, which invaded Gaul and other parts of the empire soon after with various 
 success. See Gaul and France. 
 
 FEATRICELLI (Little Brethren), a sect of the middle ages, originally Franciscan monks 
 of the stricter sort. Their numbers increased, and they were condemned by a papal bull in 
 1317 ; and suffered persecution ; but were not extinct till the 1 6th century. They resembled 
 the " Brethren of the Free Spirit." 
 
 * A monument to his memory was erected at Greenwich. His " Journal " was published in 1854. 
 
 i Capt. Kellett's ship, the Resolute, was found adrift 1000 miles distant from where she was left by a 
 Mr. George Henry, commanding an American whaler, who brought her to New York. The British 
 government having abandoned their claim on the vessel, it was bought by order of the American congress, 
 thoroughly repaired and equipped, and entrusted to capt. H. J. Hartstene, to be presented to queen 
 Victoria It arrived at Southampton Dec. 12, 1856 ; was visited by her Majesty on the i6th ; and formally 
 surrendered on the 30th. 
 
FRA 322 FRE 
 
 FRAUDULENT TRUSTEES ACT, 20 & 21 Yict. c. 54, was passed in 1857, in conse- 
 quence of the delinquencies of sir John I). Paul, the British I3ank frauds, &c. It was brought 
 in by sir R. Bethell, then attorney-general, and is very stringent. 
 
 FRAUNHOFER'S LINES. See Spectrum. 
 
 FREDERICKSBURG (Virginia, N. America). On Dec. 10, 1862, general Buruside 
 and the federal army of the Potomac crossed the small deep river Rappahannock. On Dec. 
 II, Fredericksburg was bombarded by the federals and destroyed. On the I3tli com- 
 menced a series of most desperate yet unsuccessful attacks on the confederate works, 
 defended by generals Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and others. General Hooker crossed the 
 river with the reserves, and joined in the conflict, in vain. On Dec. 15 and 16 the federal 
 army recrossed the Rappahannock. The battle was one of the most severe in the Avar. 
 
 FREDERICKSHALD (Norway), memorable by Charles XII. of Sweden being killed by 
 a cannon-shot before its walls, while examining the works. He was found with his hand 
 upon his sword, and a prayer-book in his pocket, Dec. 11, 17 18. 
 
 FREE CHURCH (of Scotland*) was formed by an act of secession of nearly half the 
 body from the national church of Scotland, May 18, 1843. The diiference arose on the 
 question of the right of patrons to nominate to livings. The Free Church claims for the 
 parishioners the right of a veto. Much distress was endured the first year by the ministers 
 of the new church, although 366,719?. 145. ^d. had been subscribed. In 1853 there wefe 
 850 congregations. A large college was founded in 1846. In 1856 the sustentation fund 
 amounted to 108,638?., from which was paid the sum of 138/. each to 700 ministers. 
 
 FREEHOLDERS. Those wilder forty shillings per annum were not qualified to vote for 
 members of parliament by 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, 1429. Various acts have been passed for the 
 regulation of the franchise at diff"erent periods. The more recent were, the act to regulate 
 polling, 9 Geo. IV. 1828 ; act for the disqualification of freeholders in Ireland, which deprived 
 those of forty shillings of this privilege passed April 13, 1829 ; Reform Bill, 2 & 3 Will. IV. 
 1832. County elections act, 7 Will. IV. 1836. See Chamlos Clause. 
 
 FREE TRADE principles, advocated by Adam Smith in his "Wealth of Nations " (1776), 
 triumphed in England when the corn laws were abolished in 1846, and the commercial 
 treaty with France was adopted in i860. Mr. Richard Cobden, who was very instrumental 
 in passing these measures, has been termed " The Apostle of Free Trade." Since 1830 the 
 exports have been tripled. 
 
 FREEMASONRY. Writers on masonry, themselves masons, affirm that it has had a 
 being " ever since symmetry began, and harmony displayed her charms." It is traced by 
 some to the building of Solomon's temple ; and it is said the architects from the African 
 coast, Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the 6th century. Its introduction into 
 Britain has been fixed at 674 ; many of our Gothic cathedrals are attributed to freemasons. 
 The grand lodge at York was founded 926. Freemasonry was interdicted in England, 
 1424. In 1717, the grand lodge of England was established ; that of Ireland in 1730 ; and 
 that of Scotland in 1736. Freemasons were excommunicated by the pope in 1738; again 
 condemned, Sept. 30, 1865. The Freemasons' hall, Loudon, was built 1775 ; the charity 
 was instituted 1788. 
 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE is mainly based on the rude Latin which prevailed in the nations 
 subjugated by the Romans. German was introduced by the Franks in the 8th century. 
 In the 9th the Gallo-Romanic dialect became divided into the Languc d'oc of the south and 
 the Langue d'oil of the nortli. The French language as written by Froissart assimilates 
 more to the modern French, and its development was almost completed when the Academic 
 Frangaise, established, by Richelieu in 1634, published a dictionary of the language in 1674. 
 The French language, laws, and customs were introduced into England by William I. 1066. 
 Law pleadings were changed from French to English in the reign of Edward III. 1362. 
 Stow. 
 
 PRINCIPAL FIIEXCH AUTHORS. 
 
 £orn JHed 
 Joinville, thirteenth century. 
 Froissart . . . 1337 — 1400? 
 Monstrelet . . . 1453 
 
 Comines . . . 1509 
 
 Born Died 
 
 Marot . ... 1465 1544 
 
 Rabelais . . . 1483 1553 
 
 Montaigne . ■ • 1553 1592 
 
 Malherbe . . . 1556 1628 
 
 
 Born 
 
 Died 
 
 Des Cartes . 
 
 ■ 1596 
 
 1650 
 
 Pascal 
 
 • 1623 
 
 1662 
 
 Molifere . 
 
 . 1622 
 
 1673 
 
 Bochefoucanlt . 
 
 . 1613 
 
 1680 
 
 * The rev. H. Hampton, one of the curates of Islington, having been dismissed, a part of his congre- 
 gation erected a temporary church. The bi.shop of London, after inquiry, refused to license it. On this 
 the congregation declared itself to be the Free Church of England. Eventually, he left the neighbour- 
 hood, and re-entered the establishment. 
 

 FEE 
 
 323 
 
 
 
 FRI 
 
 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE, continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Born 
 
 Died 
 
 
 Born 
 
 Died 
 
 
 Bo)ii Vied 
 
 Corneille 
 
 . . 1606 
 
 1684 
 
 J. J. Eousscau 
 
 1712 
 
 1778 
 
 A. G. De Barante 
 
 . 1782 
 
 La Fontaine 
 
 . 1621 
 
 1695 
 
 D'Alembert 
 
 1717 
 
 1783 
 
 P. Gviizot . 
 
 • 1787 
 
 La Bniyfere . 
 
 . . 1644 
 
 i6g6 
 
 Buffon . 
 
 1707 
 
 1788 
 
 A. P. Villemain 
 
 • 1790 
 
 Eacine 
 
 • 1639 
 
 1699 
 
 Marmontel 
 
 1723 
 
 1799 
 
 A. De la Martine 
 
 ■ 1790 
 
 Bossnet 
 
 . . 1627 
 
 1704 
 
 De Stael 
 
 1766 
 
 1817 
 
 Victor Cousin . 
 
 • 1792 
 
 Bayle 
 
 • 1647 
 
 1706 
 
 De Genlis . 
 
 1746 
 
 1830 
 
 Am^dfie Thierry 
 
 ■ 1797 
 
 Boileau 
 
 . . 1636 
 
 1711 
 
 Sismondi 
 
 1773 
 
 1842 
 
 L. A. Thiers 
 
 • 1797 
 
 F&aon . 
 
 ■ 1651 
 
 171S 
 
 Chateaubriand . 
 
 1769 
 
 1848 
 
 Jules Michelet 
 
 • 1798 
 
 Eollin . 
 
 . . 1661 
 
 1 741 
 
 Aiigustin Thierry 
 
 1795 
 
 1856 
 
 Victor Hugo 
 
 . 1802 
 
 Le Sage . 
 
 . 1668 
 
 1747 
 
 Beranger 
 
 1780 
 
 1857 
 
 P. M&im^e 
 
 . 1803 
 
 Montesquieu 
 
 . . 1689 
 
 I7SS 
 
 Eugene Sue, aged 53 
 
 
 i8S7 
 
 Louis Blanc 
 
 . 1813 
 
 Voltaire . 
 
 . 1694 
 
 1778 
 
 Eugene Scribe, aged 80 
 
 1 861 
 
 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR. In 1792, the Freiicli nation adopted a 
 new calendar professedly founded on philosophical principles. The first year of the era of 
 the republic hegan at midnight, between Sept. 21 and 22, 1792^; but its establishment was 
 not decreed until the 4th Frimaire of the year II., Nov. 24, '1793. The calendar existed 
 untU the loth Nivose year of the republic XIY., Dec. 31, 1805, when the Gregorian mode 
 of calculation was restored by Napoleon. 
 
 ATJTtnVIK. 
 
 Vendemiaire . Vintage month, Sept. 22 to Oct. 21. 
 Brumaire . . Fog raonth . . Oct. 22 to Nov. 20. 
 Primaire . . Sleet month , Nov. 21 to Dec. 20. 
 
 Nivose . 
 Pluviose . 
 Ventose 
 
 Les Vertus 
 Le G&ie . 
 Le Travail 
 
 "WINTER. 
 
 Snow month . Dec. 21 to Jan. 19. 
 
 Eain month . Jan. 20 to Feb. 18. 
 
 Wind month . Feb. 19 to Mar. 20. 
 
 Germinal 
 
 Flor&l 
 
 Prairial 
 
 Messidor ; 
 Pervldor, or 
 Thermidor 
 Fructidor 
 
 SPRING. 
 
 . Sprouts' month, Mar. 21 to April 19. 
 . Flowers' month, April 20 to May 19. 
 . Pasture month, May 20 to June 18. 
 
 SUMMER. 
 
 . Harvest mouth, June 19 to July 18. 
 
 Hot month . 
 Fruit month 
 
 . July 19 to Aug. 17. 
 . Aug. 18 to Sept. 16. 
 
 SANSCTJLOTIDES, OE, FEASTS DEDICATED TO 
 
 The Virtues 
 Genius 
 Labour . 
 
 Sept. 17. 
 Sept. 18. 
 Sept. 19. 
 
 L'Opinion . 
 
 Les E&ompenses . 
 
 Opinion 
 
 Ee wards. 
 
 Sept. 20. 
 Sept. 21. 
 
 FRENCH TREATY, the term given to the treaty of commerce between Great Britaia 
 and France, signed Jan. 23, i860, at Paris by lord Cowley and Mr. Richard Cobden and by 
 the ministers MM. Baroche and Rouher. The beneficial results of this treaty compensated for 
 the depression of trade occasioned by the civil war in North America (1861-5). 
 
 FRENCHTOWN (Canada), was taken from the British by the American general 
 Winchester, Jan. 22, 1813, during the second war with the United States of America. It 
 was retaken by the British forces under general Proctor, Jan. 24, and the American com- 
 mander and troops were made prisoners. 
 
 FRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on plaster while fresh. Yery ancient ones exist in 
 Egypt and Italy, and modern ones in the British houses of parliament, at Berlin, and other 
 places. The fresco paintings by Giotto and others at the Campo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa, 
 executed ia the 13th century are jxistly celebrated. See Stereochromy. 
 
 FRIDAY, the sixth day of the week ; so called from Friga, the Scandinavian Yenus. 
 She was the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, and riches ; and with Thor and 
 Odin composed the supreme council of the Gods. See Good Friday. 
 
 FRIEDLAND (Prussia). Here the allied Russians and Prussians were beaten by the 
 French, commanded by Napoleon, on June 14, 1807. The allies lost eighty pieces of 
 cannon and about 18,000 men ; the French about 10,000 men. The peace of Tilsit followed, 
 by which Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly half her dominions. 
 
 FRIENDLY ISLES, in the Southern Pacific, consist of a group of more than 150 
 islands, forming an archipelago of very considerable extent. These islands were discovered 
 by Tasman, in 1642 ; and visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767 ; and by 
 captaru Cook, who gave them their present name on account of the friendly disposition of 
 the natives, 1773. Subsequent voyagers describe them as very ferocious. 
 
 FRIENDLY SOCIETIES originated in the clubs of the industrious classes, about 1793, 
 and have been regulated by various legislative enactments. In 1850, preceding acts were 
 consolidated, and other acts have since passed. 
 
 FRIENDS. See Quakers. 
 
 Y 2 
 
FRI 
 
 324 
 
 FRO 
 
 FRIENDS OF THE People associated to obtain parliamentary reform, 1792. 
 
 FRIESLAND : East (N. Gennany), formerly governed by its own counts. On the death 
 of its prince Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia ; Hanover 
 disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Holland by Bonaparte, in 
 1806, and afterwards to the French empire ; but was awarded to Hanover in 1814. The 
 English language is said to be mainly derived from the old Frisian dialect. — Friesland, 
 "West, in Holland, was part of Charlemagne's empire in 800. It passed under the counts of 
 Holland about 936, and was one of the seven provinces which renounced the Spanish yoke in 
 1580. The term Chevaux de Frise (sometimes, though rarel}^ written Chcval de Prise, a 
 Friesland Horse) is derived from Friesland, where it was invented. 
 
 FROBISHER'S STRAITS, discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, who tried to find a north- 
 west passage to China, and after exploring the coast of New Greenland, entered this strait, 
 Aug. II, 1576. He returned to England, bringing with him a quantity of black ore, 
 supposed to contain gold, which induced C[ueen Elizabeth to patronise a second voyage. 
 The delusion led to a third fruitless expedition. He was killed at the taking of Brest 
 in 1594. 
 
 FRONDE, Civil "Waes of the, in France, in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-53), 
 during the government of the queen Anne of Austria and cardinal Mazarine, between the 
 followers of the court and the nobilitj', and the parliament and the citizens. The latter were 
 called Frondcurs {slingers), it is said, from an incident in a street quarrel. In a riot on 
 Aug. 27, 1648, barricades were erected in Paris. 
 
 FROSTS. The following are some of the most remarkable : — 
 
 401 
 
 764 
 
 103s 
 1063 
 
 The Euxine Sea frozen over for 20 days . . 
 A frost at Constantinople, when the two seas 
 
 there were frozen a hundred miles from the 
 
 shore Oct. 763— Feb. 
 
 A frost in England on Midsummer-day is said 
 
 to have destroyed the fruits of the earth 
 Thames frozen for 1 4 weeks 
 Dreadful frosts in England from Nov. to April, 1076 
 
 The Categat entuely frozen 1294 
 
 Baltic passable to travellers for six weeks . 1323 
 The Baltic frozen from Pomerania to Denmark, 1402 
 In England, when all the small birds perished, 1407 
 The ice bore riding upon it from Lubeck to 
 
 Prussia 1426 
 
 Severe frost, when the large fowl of the air 
 
 sought shelter in the tovms of Germany 
 The river frozen below London-bridge to 
 
 Gravesend, from Nov. 24 to Feb. 10 . . . 
 The Baltic frozen, and horse passengers crossed 
 
 from Denmark to Sweden .... 
 The winter so severe in Flanders that the wine 
 
 distributed was cut by hatchets. . . . 
 
 Carriages passed over from Lambeth to West- 
 minster ........ 
 
 Wine in Flanders frozen into solid lumps . . 
 Sledges drawn by oxen travelled on the sea 
 
 from Rostock to Denmark .... 
 Diversions on the Thames . . Dec. 21, &c. 
 The Scheldt frozen so hard as to sustain loaded 
 
 waggons 
 
 The Rhine, Scheldt, and Venice frozen 
 
 Fires and diversions on the Thames . . . 
 
 The rivers of Europe and the Zuyder Zee frozen ; 
 
 ice covers the Hellespont .... 
 Charles X. of Sweden crossed the Little-Belt 
 
 over the ice from Holstein to Denmark, with 
 
 1433 
 ■ 1434 
 
 1460 
 
 1515 
 
 1544 
 
 154S 
 1564 
 
 1565 
 1594 
 1607 
 
 1622 
 
 his whole army, horse and foot, with large 
 trains of artillery and baggage . . . . 1658 
 
 The forest trees, and even the oaks in England, 
 split by the frost ; most of the hollies were 
 killed ; the Thames was covered with ice 
 eleven inches thick ; and nearly all the birds 
 perished* 1684 
 
 The wolves, driven by the cold, entered Vienna, 
 and attacked the cattle, and even men . . 1691 
 
 Three months' frost, with heavy snow, from 
 Deo to March, 8 Anne 1709 
 
 A fair held on the Thames, and oxen roasted ; 
 this frost continued Irom Nov. 24 to Feb. 9 . 1716 
 
 One which lasted 9 weeks, when coaches plied 
 upon the Thames, and festivities and diver- 
 sions of all kinds were enjoyed upon the ice. 
 
 1740 
 1766 
 
 1789 
 
 179s 
 
 This season was called the ' ' hai'd winter " 
 From Dec. 25 to Jan. 16, and from Jan. 18 to 
 
 22 ; most terrible in its effect . 
 One general throughout Europe. The Thames 
 
 was passable opposite the Custom House, irom 
 
 Nov. to Jan. 
 One from Dec. 24, 1794, to Feb. 14, 1795, with 
 
 the intermission of one day's thaw Jan. 23, 
 
 Intense frosts all Dec. 1796 
 
 Severe frost in Russiaf 1812 
 
 Booths erected on the Thames ; the winter very 
 
 severe in Ireland Jan. 1 814 
 
 The frost so intense in parts of Norway, that 
 
 quicksilver" freezes, and persons exposed to 
 
 the atmosphere lose their breath . Jan. 2, 1849 
 Very .severe frost in London, Jan. 14 to Feb. 24; 
 
 and very cold weather ujj to June 26} . . 1855 
 Very severe frost from Dec. 20, i860, to Jan. 5, 
 
 i86i.t See Cold. 
 
 * " The frost this year was terrible. It began in the beginning of Dec. 1683. The people kept trades 
 on the Thames as in a fair, till Feb. 4, 1684. About forty coaches daily plied on the Thames as on drye 
 land. Bought this book at a shop upon the ice in the middle of the Thames. "—Jfntry in the memoranda of 
 a Citizen. 
 
 t The frost in Russia in 1812 sui-passed in intenseness that of any winter in that country for many 
 preceding years, and was very destructive to the French army in its retreat from Moscow, at the close of 
 that memorable year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th Nov. when the frost covered the 
 ground, and the men perished in battahons, and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. What with the 
 loss in battle, and the effects of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in the campaign of thds year 
 more than 400,000 men. 
 
 X On Feb. 22, fires were made on the Sei-pentine, Hyde Park. A trafiBc on the ice of 35 miles long, 
 was established in Lincolnf hire— During the frost of 1860-1, bonfires were lit on the Serpentine, dancing 
 took place, fireworks were let off, &c. 
 
FRO 
 
 325 
 
 FUN 
 
 FEOST'S INSURRECTION. See NetvporL 
 
 FRUITS. Several varieties of fruit are said to have been introduced into Italy, 70 b.c. 
 et seq. Exotic fruits and flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were 
 brought thither between the years 1500 and 1578, See Gardening and Flowers. 
 
 Almond-tree, Barbary, about 1548 
 Apples, Syria. . . . 1522 
 Apple, custard, N. America . 1736 
 Apple, osage, ditto . . 1818 
 Apricots, Epirus . . . 1540 
 Cherry-trees, Pontus . . 100 
 Cherries, Flanders . .. . 1540 
 CorneUan cherry, Austria . 1596 
 Currant, the hawthn., Canada 1705 
 Fig-tree, S. Europe, before . 1548 
 Gooseberries, Flanders, be- 
 fore 1540 
 
 Grapes, Portugal . . . 1528 
 Lemons, Spain . . . . 1554 
 
 Limes, Portugal . . , 1554 
 Lime, American, before . . 1752 
 Melons, before . . . 1540 
 Mulberry, Italy. . . . 1520 
 Mulberry, white, China, abt. 1596 
 Mulberry, the red, N. Ame- 
 rica, before .... 1629 
 Mulberry, the paper, Japan, 
 
 before 1754 
 
 Nectarine, Persia . . . 1562 
 Olive, Cape .... 1730 
 Olive, the sweet scntd. China 1771 
 
 Oranges 1595 
 
 Peaches, Persia . . . . 1562 
 
 Pears, uncertain . 
 Pine-apple, Brazils 
 Pippins, Netherlands 
 Plums, Italy ... 
 Pomegranate, Spain, before 
 Quince, Austria . 
 Quince, Japan 
 Raspberry, the Virginian, be 
 
 fore .... 
 Strawberry, Flanders 
 Strawberry, the Oriental, Le 
 
 vant .... 
 Walnut, the black, N. Ame 
 
 rica, before . 
 
 1563 
 1525 
 1522 
 1548 
 1573 
 1796 
 
 1696 
 1530 
 
 17241 
 1629,. 
 
 FUCHSIA, an American plant named after the German botanist Leonard Fuchs, about 
 1542. The fuchsia fulgens, the most beautiful variety, was introduced from Mexico, about 1830. 
 
 FUENTES D'ONORE (Central Spain). On May 2, 181 1, Massena crossed the Agueda, 
 with 40, 000 infantry, 5000 horse, and about 30 pieces of artillery, to relieve Almeida. He 
 expected every day to be superseded in his command, and wished to make a last effort for 
 his own military character. "Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, of which 
 only 1200 were cavalry. He however determined to fight rather than give up the blockade 
 of Almeida. After much fightmg, night came on and put an end to the battle. Next day, 
 Massena was joined by Bessieres with a body of the Imperial guard ; and on May 5, the 
 enemy made his grand attack. In all the war there was not a more dangerous hour for 
 England. The fight lasted until evening, when the lower part of the town was abandoned 
 by both parties — the British maintaining the chapel and crags, and the French retiring a 
 cannon-shot from the stream. Napier. 
 
 FUGGER, a illustrious German family (the present head being prince Leopold Fugger 
 Babenhauser), derives its origin from John Fugger, a master weaver in Augsburg in 1370 ; 
 and its wealth by trade, and by money-lending to monarchs, especially the emperors. 
 
 FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL, passed by the American legislature in 1850. It imposed a 
 fine of 1000 dollars and six months' imprisonment on any person harbouring fugitive slaves 
 or aiding in their escape. This law was declared to be unconstitutional by the judges of the 
 superior court on Feb. 3, 1855. It was carried into effect with great difficulty, and was not 
 received by Massachusetts. It was repealed June 13, 1864. See Slavery in America. 
 
 FULDA (W. Germany), the seat of an abbey, founded by St. Boniface, the apostle of 
 Germany, in 744. It was made a bishopric in 1752, and a principality in 1803. Napoleon 
 incorporated it with Frankfort in 1810 ; but in 1815 it was ceded to Hesse-Cassel. 
 
 FUMIGATION. Acron, a physician of Agrigentum, is said to have first caused great 
 fires to be lighted and aromatics to be thrown into them to purify the air ; and thus to have 
 stopped the plague at Athens and other places in Greece, about 473 B. c. 
 
 FUNDS. See Stocks and Sinking Fund. 
 
 FUNERALS. A tax was laid on funerals in England, 1793. The Romans pronounced 
 harangues over their dead, when eminent for rank, great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus 
 obtained a prize for the best Funeral Oration in praise of Mausolus, 353 B.C. Popilia was 
 the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral, which was done by her 
 son, Crassus ; and it is observed by Cicero that Julius Csesar did the like for his aunt Julia 
 and his wife Cornelia. In Greece, Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, 
 according to Herodotus, 580 B.C. David lamented over Saul and Jonathan, 1056 B.C., and 
 over Abner, 1048 B.C. 2 Sam. i. and iii. — Funeral Games, among the Greeks, were chiefly 
 horse-races ; and among the Romans, processions, and mortal combats of gladiators around 
 the funeral pile. These games were abolished by the emperor Claudius, a.d. 47. 
 
 Public Fdtsterals voted by parliament : — 
 Duke of Rutland, in Ireland . . Nov. 17, 1787 
 Lord Nelson (see Nelson) . . . Jan. 9, 1806 
 
 ■Wm. Pitt Feb. 22, „ 
 
 Chas. Jas. Fox . . . . . Oct. 10, „ 
 
 Richard Brinsley Sheridan . . . July 13, i8i5 
 
 Geoi'ge Canning .... Aug. 16, 1827 
 
 Duke of Wellington .... Nov. 18, 1852 
 Viscount Pahnerston (at Her majesty's re- 
 
 questj Oct. 27, 1865 
 
FUR 326 GAL 
 
 FUKRUGKABAD (N. ludia), a province acriuired by the East India Company, in June, 
 1802. Near the capital of the same name, on Nov. 17, 1804, lord Lake totally defeated 
 the Mahratta chief Holkar, and about 60,000 cavalry, himself losing 2 killed and about 20 
 wounded. 
 
 FURS were worn by Henry L, about 1125. Edward III. enacted that all persons who 
 could not spend lool. a year, should be prohibited this species of finery. March 28, 1336-7. 
 
 G. 
 
 GA BELLE (from Gabe, a gift), a term applied to various taxes, but afterwards restricted 
 to the old duty upon salt, first imposed by Philip the Fair on the French in 1286. Duruy. 
 Our Edward III., termed Philip of Valois, who first levied the tax, the author of the Salic 
 law (from sal, salt). The assessments were unequal, being very heavy in some provinces and 
 light in others ; owing to privileges and exemptions purchased from the sovereigns in early 
 periods. The tax produced 38 millions of francs in the reign of Louis XVI. It was a 
 grievous burden, and tended to hasten the revolution ; during which it was abolished (1790). 
 
 GAELIC is the northern branch of the Celtic languages, Irish, Erse, or Highland Scottish, 
 ■and Manx. The "Dean of Lismore's book" (written 1511-51) contains Gaelic poetry; speci- 
 .mens were published with translations in 1862, by rev. T. M'Lachlan. 
 
 GAETA (the ancient Cajeta), a strongly fortified Neapolitan seaport, has undergone 
 several remarkable sieges. It was taken by the French in 1799 and 1806, and by the 
 Austriansin 181 5 and 1821. Here the pope, Pius IX., took refuge in 1848, and resided more 
 than a year. Here also Francis II. of Naples, with his queen and court, fled, when Garibaldi 
 entered Naples, Sept. 7, i860 ; and here he remained till the city was taken by the Sardinian 
 general Cialdini, Feb. 13, 1861, after a severe siege, uselessly prolonged by a French fleet 
 remaining in the harbour. Cialdini was created duke of Gaeta. 
 
 GAGGING BILL, properly so called, meant to protect the king and government from 
 the harangues of seditious meetings, was enacted in 1795, when the popular mind was much 
 excited. In Dec. 1819, soon after the Manchester aftraj'-, a bill for restraining public 
 meetings and cheap periodical publications was popularly called "a gagging bill." Statutes 
 coercing popular assemblies, particularly in Ireland, have been also so designated. 
 
 GALAPAGOS, islands ceded to the United States by Ecuador, Nov. 3, 1854, the British, 
 French, and other powers protesting against it. 
 
 GALATIA, an ancient province of Asia Minor. In the 3rd century B.C. the Gauls under 
 Brennus invaded Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered the Troas 278; were checked 
 by Attains in a battle about 239 ; and then settled in what was called afterwards Gallograecia 
 and Galatia. The country was annexed to the Roman empire B.C. 25, on the death of the 
 king Amyntas. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians was probably written A.D. 58. 
 
 GALICIA, a province, N.W. Spain, was conquered by D. Junius Brutus, 136 B.C., and 
 by the Vandals, a.d. 419 ; and was frequently subdued by successive invaders. In 1065, on 
 the death of Ferdinand I. king of Castile and Leon, when his dominions were divided, his 
 son Garcia became king of Galicia. Ruling tyrannically, he was expelled by his brother 
 Sancho ; returned at his death in 1072 ; was again expelled by his brother Alfonso, 1073 ; 
 and died in prison in 1091. Alfonso, son of Urraca, queen of Castile, was made king of 
 Galicia by her in 1 109. He defended his mother, a dissolute woman, against her husband, 
 Alfonso VII., and at her death in 1126, acquired Castile, and once more re-united the 
 kingdoms. — Galicia in Poland. East Galicia was acquired by the emperor of Germany at 
 the partition in 1772 ; and West Galicia at that of 1795. The latter was ceded to the grand- 
 duchy of Warsaw in 1809 ; but recovered by Austria in 181 5. See Poland, note. 
 
 GALLERIES. See National, Louvre,, and Versailles. 
 
 GALL, ST. (in Switzerland). The abbey was founded in the 7th century, and was sur- 
 rounded by a town in the loth. St. Gall became a canton of the Swiss confederation 
 in 1815. 
 
 GALLEYS with three rows of rowers, iri-remcs, were invented by the Corinthians, 786 
 B.C. Blair. The terms "galley slave," and "condemned to the galleys," arose from these 
 sea vessels having from 25 to 30 benches on each side, manned by four or five slaves to each 
 bench. In France they had a general of galleys, of whom the baron de la Garde was the 
 first, 1544. Henault. 
 
GAL 
 
 327 
 
 GAO 
 
 GALLIPOLI, a sea-port in Turkey in Europe, 128 miles west of Constantinople. It was 
 taken by the Turks in 1357, and fortified by Bajazet I. The first division of the French 
 and English armies proceeding against the Russians landed here in March and April, 1854. 
 
 GALOCHES, French for overshoes, formerly of leather ; but since 1843 made of vulcanised 
 India rubber. The importation of Galoclies was prohibited by 3 Edw. IV. c. 4 (1463). 
 
 GALVANISM AND GALVAlSrO-PLASTICS. See under Electricity. 
 
 GAL WAY (W. Ireland). The ancient settlers here were divided into thirteen tribes, a 
 distinction not yet forgotten. It was taken by Richard de Burgo in 1232. In 1690 Galway 
 declared for king James,, but it was invested and taken by general Ginckel immediately after 
 the decisive battle of Aughrim, July 12, 1691. Here is one of the new colleges, endowed by 
 govei-nment for the advancement of learning in Ireland, pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66 
 (1845), inaugurated Oct. 30, 1849. See Colleges* 
 
 GAMBOGE, a medicine and pigment, brought from India by the Dutch, about 1600. 
 Hermann in 1677 announced that it was derived from two trees of Ceylon, since ascertained 
 to belong to the order Guttiferte. 
 
 GAME LAWS are a remnant of the forest laws imposed by William the Conqueror, who, 
 to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of property to disable a wild beast ; and loss of eyes, 
 for a stag, buck, or boar. The clergj'^ protested against ameliorations of these laws, under 
 Henry III. The first Game act passed in 1496. Game certificates were first granted with a 
 duty in 1784. Several statutes to prevent the destruction of game have been passed. The 
 Game act (i & 2 Will. IV. c. 32) greatly modifying all previous laws, was passed in 1831. 
 By it the sale of game is legalised at certain seasons. By the Game Poaching Preventive 
 act, passed in 1862, greatly increased powers were given to the county police. 
 
 GAMES. The candidates for athletic gsgnes in Greece were dieted on new cheese, dried 
 figs, and boiled gi'ain, with warm water, and no meat. The games were leaping, foot-races, 
 darting, quoits, wrestling, and boxing. See Capitoline, Isthmian, Olympic, Pythian, Secular 
 games, &c. 
 
 Three ladies of quality convicted in penalties of 
 5oJ. each for playing at Faro . March n, 
 
 Gaming-houses were licensed in Paris until 
 
 Any person losing, by betting or playing, more 
 than Tiool. at any one time, is not compellable 
 to pay the same, 16 Chas. II 
 
 Bonds or other securities given for money won 
 at play not recoverable ; and any person 
 losing more than lol. may sue the winner to 
 recover it back, 9 Anne 
 
 Amended laws respecting games and wagers, 
 8 & 9 Vict. c. 109 (1845) ; by 3 Geo. IV. c. 114, 
 a gaming-house keeper is to be imprisoned 
 with hard labour ; and by 2 <fe 3 Vict, gaming- 
 houses may be entered by the police, and all 
 persons present taken into custody. 
 
 Betting-houses suppressed .... 
 
 PubUc gaming-tables suppressed at Wiesbaden 
 and other places in Germany 
 
 1797 
 1836 
 
 1663 
 
 1853 
 :86i-2 
 
 Gaming was introduced into England by the 
 
 Saxons ; the loser was often made a slave to 
 
 the winner, and sold in traffic Uke other mer- 
 chandise. Camden. 
 Act prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and 
 
 interdicting tennis, cards, dice, bowls, ifec, to 
 
 inferior people, except at Christmas time), 
 
 33 Hen. VIII 1541 
 
 Gaming-houses licensed in London . . . 1620 
 Act to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, 
 
 when all private lotterils and the games of 
 
 Faro, Basset, and Hazard were suppressed, 
 
 13 Geo. II. 1739 
 
 The profits of a well-known gaming-house in 
 
 London for one season have been estimated 
 
 at 150,000?. In one night a million of money 
 
 is said to have changed hands at this place. 
 
 Leigh. The lord chancellor refused a bank- 
 rupt his certificate because he had lost $1. at 
 
 one time in gaming . . . July 17, 1788 
 
 GAMUT. The invention of the scale of musical intervals (commonly termed do or ut, 
 re, mi, fa, sol, la, to which si was added afterwards), for which the first seven letters of the 
 alphabet are now employed, is mentioned by Guido Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about 1025. 
 
 GANGES CANAL, for irrigating the country between the Ganges and the Jumna. The 
 main line (525 miles long) was opened April 8, 1854. When completed, it wiU be 900 mUes 
 in length, and will irrigate not less than 1,470,000 acres. It is the greatest work of the 
 kind in the world. Its estimated cost is 1,555,548^. The immense difiiculties in its execution 
 were overcome by the skill and perseverance of its engineer, sir Proby Cautley. In Oct. 1864, 
 sir Arthur Cotton asserted that the work was badly done, and the investment only paid 
 3 per cent. 
 
 GAOL DISTEMPER. See Old Bailey. 
 
 * In 1858 the sailing of mail steam packets from Galway to America begun ; but the subsidy ceased in 
 May 1861, through the company's breach of contract, which occasioned much discussion in parUament. In 
 July, 1863, the contract for the conveyance of mails from Galway to America was renewed, 75,000^. having 
 been voted for the purpose. The scheme was not successful. On Nov. 9 the steamer Angiia struck on 
 the Black rock, and the mails were taken to Dublin. The last packet sailed in Feb. 1864. 
 
GAR 
 
 328 
 
 GAS 
 
 GARDENING. The first garden, Eden, was planted by God. See Gen. ii. Gardening 
 was one of the first arts that succeeded the art of building houses. Walpolc. Gardens 
 were highly valued by the ancients. The Scriptures abound with allusions to them, particu- 
 larly the Song of Solomon and the Prophets ; and Christ's agony took place in a garden. 
 Xenophon describes the gardens at Sardis ; and Epicurus and Plato taught in gardens. 
 Theophrastus's History of Plants was written about 322 B.C. Horace, Virgil, and Ovid 
 derive many images from the garden (50 B.C. to a.d. 50); and Pliny's Tusculan villa is circum- 
 stantially described (about a.d. 100). The Romans doubtless introduced gardening into 
 Britain (about a.d. 100), and it was kept up afterwards by the various religious orders. Its 
 cultivation as an art in England is dated from the commencement of the i6th century, when 
 many Flemings came to England in consequence of the persecutions of Philip II. MiUer's 
 valuable dictionary was published in 1724 ; the Horticultural Society {which see) was estab- 
 lished in 1804 : Loudon's valuable Encyclopedia of Gardening was first published in 1822, 
 and his Encyclopedia of Plants in 1829. See Botany, Flowers, Fruits. An act for the 
 protection of gardens, and ornamental grounds in cities was passed in 1863. 
 
 GAROTTE, a machine for strangling criminals, used in Spain. Tlie term "garotters" 
 was applied to the attempts to strangle made by thieves, very prevalent in the winter of 
 1862-63. An act was passed in 1863 to punish these acts by flogging. 
 
 GARTER, Order of the, owes its origin to Edward III., who, with a view of recovering 
 France, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupon, 
 projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed a solemn tilting, to invite 
 foreigners and others of quality and courage to the exercise. The king, upon New Year's 
 day, 1344, published royal letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such 
 foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at the joust and tournaments 
 about to be held. A table was erected in Windsor castle of 200 feet diameter, and the 
 knights were entertained at the king's expense. In 1346 Edward gave his garter for the 
 signal of a battle that had been crowned with success (supposed to be Cressy), and being 
 victorious on sea and land, and having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner, he, in memory of 
 these exploits, is said to have instituted this order, April 23, 1349. The following were the 
 
 ORIGINAL KNIOHTS, I350. 
 
 Edward, prince of Wales 
 (called the Black Prince). 
 Henry, duke of Lancaster. 
 Thomas, earl of Warwick. 
 Piers, captal de Bach. 
 Ralph, earl of Stafford. 
 William, earl of Salisbury. 
 Roger, earl of Mortimer. 
 
 Sir John Lisle. 
 Barth, lord Burghersh. 
 John, lord Beauchamp. 
 John, lord Mohun, of Dimstar. 
 Hugh, lord Courtenay. 
 Thomas, lord Holland. 
 Lord Grey, of Codnore. 
 Sir Richard Fitz-Simon. 
 Sir Miles Stapleton. 
 
 Sir Thomas Wale. 
 Sir Hugh Wrottesley. 
 Sir Nele Lorin. 
 John, Lord Chandos. 
 Sir James Audley. 
 Sir Otho HoUand. 
 Sir Henry Earn. 
 Sir San Daubrichcourt. 
 Sir Walter Paveley. 
 
 Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the en.signs of the ord# ; it is of blue velvet 
 bordered with gold, with the inscription in old French — ■'•'■ Honi soit qui inal y pcnse,'" — Evil 
 be to him who evil thinks. The knights are installed at Windsor ; and were styled Equites 
 aurece Periscelidis, knights of the golden garter. Beatson. The honour was conferred on the 
 sultan of Tui-key in 1856. The office of Garter King at Arms was instituted by Henry V. 
 in 1420, and is one of considerable honour ; he carries the rod and sceyjtre at every feast of 
 St George.* Spelman. The order of the garter in Ireland was instituted in imitation of that 
 of England, by Edward IV. in 1466 ; but was abolished by an act of parliament, 10 Hen. VII. 
 1494. AshinoWs Instit. The number of knights was increased in 1786. Many knights 
 were admitted in 18 14. 
 
 GASCONY (S.W. France) a duchy, part of Aquitaine {xchich see). 
 
 GAS-LIGHTS : the inflammable aeriform fluid, carburetted hydrogen, evolved by the 
 combustion of coal, was described by Dr. Clayton in 1739. Phil. Trmis. 
 
 Application of coal gas to the purposes of illumi- 
 nation tried by Mr. Murdoch, in Cornwall . 1792 
 
 Gaslight introduced at Boulton and Watt's 
 foundry in Birmingham in ... . 1798 
 
 Permanently used at the cotton-mUls of Phillips 
 and Lee, Manchester (1000 burners lighted) 1805 
 
 Introduced in London, at Golden-lane, Aug. 16, 
 
 1807; Pall Mall, 1809; generally through 
 London 1814 
 
 Mr. David PoUock, father of the chief baron, 
 was governor of the first "chartered" gas 
 company 1812 
 
 Lyceum Theatre lit with gas as an experiment 
 by Mr. Winsor, 1803 ; the Haymarket not till 1853 
 
 * The patron saint of England. The order, until king Edward VI. 's time, was caUed the order of St. 
 George. His figure on horseback, presented as holding a spear, and killing the dragon, was first worn by 
 
 the knights of the institution. It is suspended by a blue ribbon across the body from the shoulder. St. 
 
 George was a tribune in the reign of Diocletian ; and being a man of great courage, was a favourite ; but 
 complaining to the emperor of his severities towards the Christians, and arguing in their defence, he was 
 put in prison, and beheaded, April 23, 290.— On that day, in 1192, Richard I. defeated Saladin. 
 
GAS 
 
 329 
 
 GAU 
 
 Processes to obtain illuminating gas from water 
 have been patented by Cruicksbanks (1839), 
 White (1S49), and others. 
 
 Gas-meters patented by John Malam (1820), sir 
 W. Congreve (1S24), Samuel Clegg (1830), Na- 
 than Defries (1838), and others. 
 
 Explosion of a large gasometer at the London 
 Gas-light Company's works at Nide-elms : 10 
 pei'sons killed, and many injured (occasioned 
 by derangement of machinery) . Oct. 31, 1865 
 
 GAS-LIGHTS, continued. 
 
 Gas first used in Dublin, 181S ; the streets gene- 
 rally lighted Oct. 1825 
 
 Gas-lighting introduced in Paris, 1819 ; ten gas 
 companies in Paris .... July 1865 
 
 Sydney, in Australia, was lit with gas May 25, 1841 
 
 The gas-pipes in and round London extend up- 
 wards of 2000 miles, and are daily increasing. 
 It was said in i860, that of the gas supply of 
 London a leakage of 9 per cent, took place 
 through the faulty joints of the pipes. — The 
 sale of gas is regulated by acts passed in . i860 
 
 GASES, in chemistry, permanently elastic aeriform fluids. See Oxygen, Hydrogen, and 
 Nitrogen. Prof. Thos. Graham's paper on the law of the diffusion of gases appeared in 1834. 
 Furnaces in which gases are used as fuel were devised by Mr. C. W. Siemens, and employed 
 in glass works, &c., in 1861. Lenoir's gas-engine, in which the motive power is obtained by 
 the ignition of combined gases by electricity, was patented by him in 1861. In Dec. 1864, 
 143 of these engines were working in Paris. They were introduced into England in 1864. 
 
 GASTEIN (Salzburg, Austria). The long discussion between Austria and Prussia 
 respecting the disposal of the duchies conquered from Denmark, was closed by a provisional 
 convention signed here by their ministers (Blum for Austria and Bismarck for Prussia), 
 Aug. 14, 1865.* This convention was severely censured by the other powers. 
 
 GATESHEAD, a borough in Durham, on the Tyne, opposite Newcastle. At Gateshead- 
 fell, William L defeated Edgar Atheling in 1068. It was made a parliamentary borough by 
 the reform biU in 1832. Between twelve and one o'clock, Oct. 6, 1854, a fire broke out in 
 a worsted manufactoiy here, which shortly after set fire to a bond warehouse containing a 
 great quantity of nitre, sulphur, &c. , causing a terrific explosion, felt at nearly twenty miles' 
 distance, and totally destroying many buildings, and burying many persons in the ruins. 
 At the moment of the explosion, large masses of blazing materials flew over the Tyne and 
 set fire to many warehouses in Newcastle. About fifty lives were lost, and very many persons 
 ■were seriously wounded. The damage was estimated at about a million pounds. 
 
 GAUGES (in railways). Much discussion (termed "the battle of the gauges") began 
 among engineers about 1833. Mr. I. M. Brunei approved of the broad, adopted on the 
 Great Western railway ; and Mr. R. Stephenson, Joseph Locke, and others, of the narrow, 
 that now almost universally adopted, even by the Great "Western. 
 
 GAUGING, measuring the contents of any vessel of capacity, with respect to wine and 
 other liquids, was established by a law 27 Edw. III. 1352. 
 
 GAUL, Gallia, the ancient name of France and Belgium. The natives, termed by the 
 Greeks Galatas, by the Romans Galli or Celtse, came originally from Asia, and invading 
 Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled in Spain (in (jallicia). North Italy (Gallia 
 Cisalpina), France and Belgium (Gallia Transalpiua), and the British isles (the lands of the 
 Cymry or Gaels). 
 
 The Phocseans found MassUia, now Marseilles 
 
 B.C. 600 
 The Gauls under Brennus defeat the Romans 
 at the river AlUa, and sack Rome ; are de- 
 feated and expelled by Camillus, July 13, B.C. 390 
 The Gauls overrun Northern Greece, 280 B.C. ; 
 are beaten at Delphi, 279 ; and by Sosthenes, 
 
 king of Macedon 277 
 
 They assist Hannibal 218, &c. 
 
 The Romans conquer Gallia Cisalpina, 220 ; in- 
 vade Gallia Transalpina, with various success, 
 
 121-58 
 They colonise Aix (123 B.C.); and Narbonne , 118 
 Julius Ciesar subdues Gaul in 8 campaigns . . 58-50 
 
 Lyons founded 41 
 
 Druids' religion proscribed by Claudius a.t>. 43 
 Adrian visits and favours Gaul, hence called 
 
 Restorer of the Gauls 120 
 
 Introduction of Christianity .... 160 
 Christians persecuted . . 177, 202, 257, 286, 288 
 The Franks and others defeated by Aurelian . 241 
 
 And by Probus a.d. 275, 
 
 Who introduces the culture of the vine 
 
 Maximian defeats the Franks . . . . 
 
 Constantine proclaimed emperor in Gaul . 
 
 Julian arrives to reheve Gaul, desolated by bar- 
 barians ; defeats the Alemanni at Strasburg . 
 
 Julian proclaimed emperor at Paris, 360 ; dies 
 
 Gaul harassed by the Alemanni . . . 365- 
 
 Invasion and settlement of the Burgundians, 
 Franks, Visigoths, &c 378- 
 
 Clodion, chief of the Salian Franks, invades 
 Gaul ; is defeated by Aetius . . . . 
 
 The Huns under Attila defeated by Aetius near 
 Chalons 
 
 jEgidius, the Roman commander, murdered . 
 
 Childeric the Frank takes Paris . . . . 
 
 All Gaul, west of the Rhone, ceded to the 
 Visigoths 
 
 End of the Roman empire of the West, and 
 establishment of the kingdom of the Franks 
 (See France.) 
 
 277 
 280 
 281 
 306 
 
 357 
 363 
 377 
 
 450 
 
 447 
 
 451 
 
 47S 
 476 
 
 * Austria was to have the temporary government of Holstein, and Prussia that of Sleswig ; the 
 establishment of a German fleet was proposed, with Kiel as a federal harbour, held by Prussia ; Lauen- 
 burg was absolutely ceded to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a compensation 2,500,000 
 Danish dollars. 
 
GAU 330 GEN 
 
 GAUNTLET, an iron glove, first introduced iu tlie 13th century, perhaps about 1225. 
 It was a part of the full suit of armour, being the armour for the hand. It was commonly 
 thi'own down as a challenge to an adversary. 
 
 GAUZE, a fabric inuch prized amorg the Eoman people. " Brocades and damasks 
 and tabbies and gauzes, have been lately brought over " (to Ireland). Dean Swift, in 1698. 
 The manufacture of gauze and articles of a like fabric at Paisley, in Scotland, was commenced 
 about 1759. 
 
 GAVEL- KIND. The custom of dividing paternal estates in land equally among male 
 children, without any distinction, is derived from the Saxons about 550. This usage is 
 almost universal in Kent, where it was first practised. By the Irish law of gavel-kind, even 
 bastards inherited. Davies. Not only the lands of the father were equally divided among 
 all his sons, but the lands of the brother also among all his brethren, if he had no issue of 
 his own. Law Diet. 
 
 GAZETTES. See Newspapers. 
 
 GAZA, a city of the Philistines, of which Samson 'carried off the gates about 11 20 B.C. 
 {Judges xvi.) It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, 332 ; and near to it Ptolemy 
 defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, 312 B.C. It was taken by Saladin A.D. 11 70; and by 
 Bonaparte, March 1799. 
 
 GEMS. The ancient Greeks excelled in cutting precious stones, of which many speci- 
 mens are extant. The art was successfully revived in Italy in the 15th century. In Feb. 
 i860, Herz's collection of gems was sold for io,oool. The rev. C. King published his 
 "Antique Gems "in i860, and the "Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems "in 
 1865. Artificial gems have been recently produced by chemists (Ebelmen, Deville, Wohler, 
 and others), 185S-65. 
 
 GENEALOGY (from the Greek genea, birth, descent), the art of tracing pedigrees, &c. 
 The earliest pedigi'ees are those contained in the 5th, loth, and iith chapters of Genesis. 
 The first book of Chronicles contains many genealogies. The pedigree of Christ is given 
 in Matt. i. and Zuke iii. Many books on the subject have been published in all European 
 countries ; one at Magdeburg, Theatrum Genealogicum, by Henninges, in 1598. Anderson, 
 Royal Genealogies, London, 1732. — Sims' Manual for the Genealogist, &c., 1856, will be 
 found a useful guide. The works of Collins (1756 et seq.), Edmondson (1764-84), and Nicolas 
 (1825 and 1857), on the British peerage, are highly esteemed. The Genealogical society, 
 London, was established iu 1853. 
 
 GENERAL ASSEMBLY. See Church of Scotland. 
 
 GENERAL COUNCILS. See Cmiticils. 
 
 GENERAL WARRANTS. See Warrants. 
 
 GENERALS. Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honoured with the title of 
 general of the French armies, 1203. HenauU. It is observed by M. Balzac that cardinal 
 Richelieu first coined the word Generalissimo, upon his taking the supreme command of the 
 French annies in Italy, in 1629. See Comvianders-in- Chief. 
 
 GENEVA, a town of the AUobvoges, a Gallic tribe, 58 B.C. ; became part of the empire 
 of Charlemagne, about A. D. 800 ; and capital of the kingdom of Burgundy 426. 
 
 The Republic founded in 1512 
 
 Emancipated from Savoy 1 526 
 
 Allied to the Swiss Cantons in . . . . 1584 
 Calvin settling here, and obtaining much in- 
 fluence, Geneva was termed the " Bome of 
 
 Calvinism" about 1533 
 
 Through him Servetus burnt for heresy . . 1553 
 InsuiTection, Feb. 1781 : about 1000 Genevese, 
 in consequence, applied, in 1782, to earl 
 Temple, lord-heutenant of Ireland, for per- 
 mission to settle in that country : the Irish 
 parliament voted 50,000!. to defray the ex- 
 pense of their journey, and to purchase them 
 lands near Waterford. Many of the fugitives 
 
 came to Ireland in July, 1783, but they soon 
 after abandoned it ; many Genevese settled 
 
 iu England 1784 
 
 Another revolution .... July, 1794 
 Geneva incorporated with France . April 26, 1798 
 Admitted into the Swiss Confederation, Dec. 30, 1813 
 Revolution, through an endeavour of the Catho- 
 lic cantons to introduce Jesuits as teachers; 
 a provisional government set up . Oct. 7, 1848 
 [The scheme was withdrawn.] 
 Election riots, with loss of life, through the 
 
 indiscretion of M. Fazy . . Aug. 22, 1864 
 49th annual meeting of "the Helvetic Society of 
 Natural Sciences held . . Aug. 21-23, ^865 
 
 ts were the Ligures, who submitted to the / 
 
 GENOA (N. Italy). Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the 
 Romans 115 B.C. It underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire tiU a.d. 950. 
 
GEN- 
 
 SSI 
 
 GEO 
 
 pendenoe of his country 1628 
 
 Genoa bombarded by the French, 1684 ; by the 
 British, 1745; taken by the imperialists, who 
 are soon after expelled, Nov. 9, 1746 ; another 
 
 siege raised June 10, 1747 
 
 The celebrated bank failed 1750 
 
 Genoa made the Ligurian republic . . . 1796 
 The city, blockaded by a British fleet and Aus- 
 trian army, until literally starved, was evacu- 
 ated by capitulation, May and June ; but it 
 was surrendered to the French soon after 
 their victory at Marengo . . June 14, 1800 
 Genoa annexed to the French empire, June, 
 1 80s ; sm-renders to the English and Sicilians 
 
 April 18, 1814 
 
 United to the kingdom of Sardinia . . Dec. „ 
 
 The city seized by insurgents, who, after a 
 
 murderous stiniggle, drove out the garrison 
 
 and proclaimed the Ligurian republic, April 
 
 3, but surrendered to general La Marmora, 
 
 April II, 1849 
 
 GENOA, continued. 
 
 Genoa beconaes a free commercial state, about . 1000 
 
 Wars with Pisa 1119-1284 
 
 Frederic II. captuies 22 galleys, and vainly 
 
 besieges Genoa 1241 
 
 The families of Doria and Spinola obtain as- 
 cendency . about 1270 
 
 The Genoese destroy the naval power of Pisa at 
 
 Melora Aug. 13, 1284 
 
 War with Venice 1293-99 
 
 Rafaele Doria and Galeotto Spinola, appointed 
 
 captains 1335 
 
 Simon Boccanegra made the first doge, 1339 ; 
 
 set aside by the nobles, 1344 ; re-appointed . 1356 
 Great discord ; many doges appointed . . . 1394 
 Genoa successively under the protection of 
 
 France, 1396 ; of Naples, 1410 ; of Milan, 1419 ; 
 
 it loses and regains its freedom frequently, 
 
 1421-1512 
 Taken and sacked by the Spaniards and Italians 
 
 under Prosper Colonna 1522 
 
 Andrew Doria, with the fleet, restores the inde- 
 
 GENS-D'ARMES were anciently the king's horse-guards only, but afterwards the king's 
 gardes-du-corps ; the musqueteers and light-horse were reckoned among them. There was 
 also a company of gentlemen (whose number was about 250) bearing this name. Scots 
 guards were about the person of the kings of France from the time of St. Louis, who 
 reigned in 1226. They were organised as a royal corps by Charles VII. about 1441. The 
 younger sons of Scottish nobles were usually the captains of this guard. The name gens- 
 d'armes was afterwards given to the police ; but becoming obnoxious was changed to . 
 "municipal guard " in 1830. 
 
 GENTLEMAN" (from gentiles, of a gens, a race or clan). The Gauls observing that during 
 the empire of the Romans the Scutarii and Gentiles had the best appointments of all the 
 soldiers, applied to them the terms ecuyers and gcntilshommes. This distinction of gentlemen 
 was much in use in England, and was given to the well descended about 1430. Sidney. 
 Gentlemen by blood were tliose who could show four descents from a gentleman who had been, 
 created by the king by letters patent. 
 
 GENTLEMEN- AT- AEMS (formerly styled the Band of Gentlemen Pensioners) is the 
 oldest corps in England, with the exception of the Yeoman of the Guard. The band was 
 instituted by Henry VIII. in 1509, and was originally composed entirely of gentlemen of noble 
 blood, whom he named his pensioners or spears. William IV. commanded that it should be 
 called his Majesty's Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms, March 7, 1834. Curling. 
 
 GEOGEAPHY. The first records we have of geographical knowledge are in the Penta- 
 teuch, and in the book of Joshua. Homer desci'ibes the shield of Achilles as representing 
 the earth surrounded by the sea, and also the countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, 
 and site of Troy. Iliad. The priests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the 
 centre of the world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical maps, about 
 568 B.C. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to a mathematical basis, about 135 B.C. 
 It was first brought to Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, about A.D. 1201. Lenglet. 
 The invention of the mariner's compass is the important connecting link between ancient 
 and modern geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England by 
 Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, 
 A. D. 1489. Geography is now divided into mathematical, physical, and political. The study 
 has been greatly promoted during the present century by expeditions at the expense of various 
 governments and societies. The Eoyal Geographical Society of London was established in 
 1830 ; that of Paris in 1821. 
 
 GEOLOGY, the science of the earth, has been the subject of philosoj^hical speculations 
 from the time of Homer ; and it is said to have been cultivated in China many years before 
 the Christian era. It occupied the attention of Pliny, Avicenna, and the Arabian writers. 
 
 In 1574 Mercati wrote concerning the fossils in the 
 pope's museum : Cesalpino, Majoli, and others 
 (1597), Steno (1669), Scilla (1670), Quirinl (1676), 
 Plot and Lister (1678), Leibnitz (1680) recorded 
 observations, and put forth theories on the various 
 changes in the crust of the earth. 
 
 Hooke (1668), in his work on Earthquakes, said that 
 fossils, "as monuments of nature, were more 
 
 certain tokens of antiquity than coins or medals, 
 
 and, though difiicult, it would not be impossible 
 
 to raise o, chronoloijy out of them." 
 Burnet's "Theory of the Earth," appeared in 1690, 
 
 Whiston's in 1696. 
 Buffon's geological views (1749) were censured by 
 
 the Sorbonnein 1751, and recanted in consequence. 
 
 The principle he renounced was that the present 
 
GEO 
 
 332 
 
 GEO 
 
 GEOLOGY, continued. 
 
 condition of the earth is due to secondary causes, 
 
 and that these same causes will produce further 
 
 changes. His moi-e eminent fellow-labourers and 
 
 successors were Gesuer (1758), Michell (1760), 
 
 Raspe (1762-73), PaUas and Saussure (1793-1800). 
 Werner (1775) ascribed all rocks to an (iqaemis origin, 
 
 and even denied the existence of volcanoes in 
 
 primitive geological times, and had many followers, 
 
 Kirwau, De Luc, <&c. — Hutton (1788) supported 
 
 by Playfair (1801), warmly opposed Werner's views, 
 
 and asserted that the principal changes in the 
 
 earth's crust are due to the energy of fire. The 
 
 rival parties were hence termed Neptunists and 
 
 Vulcanists. 
 William Smith, the father of British geology (who 
 
 had walked over a large part of England) drew up 
 
 a Tabular View of British Strata, in 1799, and pub- 
 lished it and his Geological Map of England and 
 
 Wales, 1812-15. 
 In 1803 the Royal Institution possessed the best 
 
 geological collection in London, collected by H. 
 
 Davy, C. Hatchett, and others ; the proposal of 
 
 sir John St. Aubyn, sir Abraham Hume, and the 
 
 right hon. C. F. Greville, to aid the government in 
 
 The strata composing the earth's crust may be divided into two great classes : ist, those generally 
 attributed to the agency of water; 2nd, to the action of fire, which may be subdivided as follows : 
 
 establishing a school of mines there in 1804-7, wa s 
 declined. 
 
 In 1807 the Geological Society of London wa? estab- 
 lished, which by collecting a great miss of new 
 data greatly tended to check the disposition to 
 theorise, and led to the introduction of views 
 midway between those of Werner and Hutton. 
 
 In 1835 Mr. (aftervvards sir Henry) D3 la Beche 
 suggested the establishment of the present Museum 
 of Geology, which began at Craig's Court, and 
 which was removed to its present position in 
 Jermyn-street. To him is also due the valuable 
 geological m ips formed on the ordnance survey. 
 The biiilding was erected by Mr. Pennethorne, and 
 opened in 1851. Attache 1 to the museum are the 
 Mining Records office, a lecture theatre, labora- 
 tories, &c. Sir H. De la Beche, the first director, 
 died AprU 13, 1855, and was succeeded by sir R. 
 I. Murchison. A similar institution was estab- 
 lished at Calcutta, in 1840, by the E. I. Company. 
 
 The EngUsh standard works on Geology at the 
 present time are ^those of Lyell, Phillips, De la 
 Beche, Murchison, Mantell, and Ansted (1865). 
 
 Aqueoxis formation, stratified, rarely crystalline 
 Igneous formations, unstratifled, crystalline 
 
 Fossiliferous, or Sedimentary, rocks are divided into three great series : — 
 
 The Palseozoio (most ancient forms of life), or I The Neozoic or Cainozoic (more recent forms of life), 
 
 J Sedementary or Fossiliferous rocks. 
 ( Metamorphic or Unfossiliferous. 
 f Volcanic, as Basalt, <Sec. 
 ( Plutonic, as Granite, <fcc. 
 
 Primary. 
 The Mesozoic (middle life period), or Secondary. 
 
 or Tertiary. 
 
 NEOZOIC ; 
 I. Post Tertiary: 
 
 A. Post-Pliocene : 
 
 1. Recent: Marine strata; with human 
 
 remains; Danish peat ; k itchen-mid- 
 dens ; bronze and stone implements ; 
 Swiss lake-dwellings ; temple of Serapis 
 at Puzzuoli. 
 
 2. Post-Pliocene : Brixham cave, with flint 
 
 knives, and bones of living and extinct 
 quadrupeds ; ancient valley gravels ; 
 glacial drift ; ancient Nile mud ; post 
 glacial N. American deposits ; remains 
 oi masto d o n ; Australian breccias. 
 
 II. Tertiary or Cainozoic Series: 
 
 B. Pliocene : 
 
 3. Newer Pliocene{or Pleistocene) Mammalian 
 
 beds, Norwich Crag. {Marine shells.] 
 
 4. outer Pliocene: Red and Coralline Crag 
 
 (Suffolk, Antwerp). 
 
 C. 5,6, Miocene: Upper and l^ower ; Bordeaux; 
 
 Virginia sands and Zouraine beds ; 
 Pikerm(5 deposits near Athens ; vol- 
 canic tuff and limestone of the Azores, 
 &c. ; brown coal of Germany, &c. 
 [Mastodon, Gigantic Elk, Salaman- 
 der, (fee] i 
 
 D. 7, 8, 9. Eocene : Upper, Middle, and Lower ; j 
 
 Freshwater and Marine beds ; Barton 1 
 Clays ; Bracklesham Sands ; Paris 1 
 Gypsum ; London Plastic, and Thanet ' 
 Clays. IPalms, Birds, &ic.] i 
 
 III. Secondary or Mesozoic Series: 
 
 E. 10. Cntaceous : Upper ; Briti.sh Chalk ; 
 
 Maestricht beds. — Chalk with and with- 
 out Flints, Chalk Marl, Upper Green ! 
 Sand, Gault, Lower Green Sand. [Meso- \ 
 saurus : Fish, Mollushs, &c.] 
 II. JjO-wer (or Neocotnian or Weatden); Kentish 
 
 TABULAE VIEW OF F0.SSILIFEI10US STRATA. 
 
 Weald 
 
 rag ; Weald Clay ; Hastings Sand. 
 [Iguanodon, Hylceosaurus, &c.] 
 
 F. 12. Oolite : Upper ; Piirbeck beds, Portland 
 
 Stone and Sand, Kimmeridge Clay ; 
 Lithographic Stone of Solenhofen with 
 Archoioptert/x. [Fish.\ 
 
 13. Middle : Calcareous Grit, Coral Rag, 
 
 Oxford Clay, Kelloway Rock. \Belem- 
 nites and Aminonites.'i 
 
 14. Lower: Cornbrash, Forest Marble, Brad- 
 
 ford Clay, Great Oolite, Stonesfield Slate, 
 Fuller's Earth, Inferior Oolite. [Ichthyo- 
 saurus, Plesiosaurus, Pterodactyl.] 
 
 G. 15. Lias: Lias Clay and Marl Stone. [Ammo- 
 
 nites, Equisetum, Amphibia, Laby- 
 rinthodon.l 
 H. 16. Trias : Upper ; White Lias, Red Clay, 
 
 with Salt in Cheshire, Coal Fields in 
 Virginia,N. A [Fish, Sromatherium.'] 
 
 17. Middle or Muschelkalk (wanting in 
 
 England). [Encrinus; Placodus 
 gigas,] 
 
 18. Lower : New Red Sandstone ofjLanca- 
 
 shire and Cheshire. [Labyrinthodon ; 
 Footprints of Birds and Reptiles.] 
 
 IV. Primary or Pal.eozoic Series : 
 
 I. 19. Permian : Magnesian Limestone, Marl 
 
 Slates, Red Sandstone and Shale, Dolo- 
 mite ; kupferschiefer. [Firs, Fishes, 
 Amphibia.] 
 
 K. 20, 21. Carboniferous, Upper and Lower : 
 
 Coal Measures, Millstone Grit, Mountain 
 Limestone. [Ferns, Calamites, Coal.] 
 
 L. 22, 23, 24. Devonian, Upper, Middle, and 
 
 Lower : Tilestones, Cornstones, and 
 Marls, Quartzose Conglomerates. 
 [Shells, Fish, Trilobites.] 
 
 M. 25, 26, 27. Silurian, Upper, Middle and 
 
 Lower : ' Ludlow Shales, Aymestry 
 Limestone, Wenlock Limestone, Wen- 
 
GEO 
 
 333 
 
 GEE 
 
 GEOLOGY, contimied. 
 
 lock Shale, Caradoc Sandstone, Llan- 
 deilo Flags ; Niagara Limestone. 
 [Sponges, Corals, Trilobites, 
 Sliells.'\ 
 28, 29. Cambrian, Upper and Lower ; Bala 
 Limestone, Festiniog Slates, Bangor 
 Slates and Grits, Wicklow Kock, 
 Hasleets Grits, Huronian Series of 
 Canada. [Zocphytes, Lingula, Ferns, 
 Sigillaria, Stigmaria, Calamites, 
 
 and Crijptogamia.'] 
 30. Lourentium, Upper Gneiss of the Heb- 
 rides (?) : Labradorite Series, N. of the 
 St. Lawrence; Adirondack Mountains, 
 New York. 
 31. Lower : Gneiss and Quartzites, with 
 Interstratified Limestones, in one of 
 which, 1000 feet thick, occurs a fora- 
 minifer, EozoBn, Canadense, the 
 oldest known fossil. 
 
 GEOMETRY, so termed from its original application to measuring the earth. Its origin 
 is ascribed to the Egyptians ; the annual inundations of the Nile having given rise to it 
 by carrying away the landmarks and the boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry 
 into Greece, about 600 B.C. Euclid's Elements were compiled about 300 b.c. The doctrine 
 of curves originally attracted the attention of geometricians from the conic sections, which 
 were introduced by Plato about 390 b.c. The conchoid curve was invented by Mcomedes, 
 220 B.C. The science of geometry was taught in Ei;rope in the 13th century. Books on 
 geometry and astronomy were destroyed in England as infected with magic, 7 Edw, VI. 
 1552. Stow. Simson's celebrated edition of Euclid first appeared in 1756. 
 
 GEORGE. A gold coin current at 6s. Sd. in the reign of Henry VIII. Leake. 
 
 GEORGE, ST. The tutelary saint of England, and adopted as patron of the order of 
 the garter by Edward III. His day is April 23. See Knighthood. 
 
 GEORGES' CONSPIRACY, in France. General Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges 
 Cadoudal, who was commonly known by the name of Georges, and others, were arrested at 
 Paris, charged with a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of 
 Louis XVIII. , Feb. 1804. Pichegru was found strangled in prison, April 6. The conspirators 
 were tried, June 9, when seventeen were sentenced to death, and manj' to imprisonment. 
 Moreau was suffered to leave France, and was escorted from the Temple to embark for 
 America, June 22. In 1813 he was killed before Dresden [ivhich see). 
 
 GEORGIA, the ancient Iberia, now a province of S. Russia, near the Caucasus, submitted 
 to Alexander, 323 B.C., but threw off the yoke of his successors. It was subjugated to Rome 
 by Pompey, 65 B. 0. , but retained its own sovereigns. Christianity was introduced into it in 
 the 3rd century. In the 8th century, after a severe struggle, Georgia was subdued by the 
 Arab caliphs ; by the Turkish sultan Alp-Arslan, 1068 ; and by the Tartar hordes, 1235. 
 From the I4tli to the i8tb centuries, Georgia was successively held by the Persian and 
 Turkish monarchs. In 1740 Nadir Shah established part of Georgia as a principality, of 
 which the last ruler, Heraclius, surrendered his territories to the czar in 1799 ; and in 1802 
 Georgia was declared to be a Russian province. — Georgia, in Nobth Ameiuca, was settled 
 by gen. Oglethorpe, in 1732. Separating from the congress of America, it surrendered to 
 the British, Dec, 1778 ; and its possession was of vast importance to the royalists in the then 
 war. Count d'Estaing joined the American general Lincoln, and made a desperate attack on 
 Georgia, which failed, and the French fleet returned home ; the colony was given up to the 
 Union by the British in 1783. It seceded from the Union, by ordinance, Jan. 18, 1861, and 
 was overrun by Sherman in 1864-5. See United States. — Georgia, in the Pacific, was visited 
 by captain Cook in 1775, 
 
 GEORGIUM SIDUS, the first name of the planet Uranus (which see). 
 
 GERMAINS, ST. near Paris, where James II. of England resided in state after his abdi- 
 cation, in 1689, and where he died, Sept. 16, 1701. 
 
 GERMANIC CONFEDERATION, constituted by the Allies, 1815, in place of the 
 Confederation of the Rhine {which see), now consists of — 
 
 The empire of Austria ; the kingdoms of Prussia, 
 Hanover, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg ; 7 
 grand-duchies (Baden, Hesse, <fec.); 8 duchies 
 (Brunswick, (fee.) ; 12 principalities and i lordship ; 
 4 free cities (Frankfort, Hamburg, Bremen, and 
 
 Liibeck) ; the late Danish duchies (Schleswig and 
 Holstein) ; the duchies of Luxemburg and Lem- 
 burg belonging to Holland. Population of the 
 whole, in 1853, about 43i millions. — Baron Kubeck, 
 President since May 29, 1859. 
 
 GERMANY (Germania Alemania), anciently, as now, divided into several independent 
 states. The Germans long withstood the attempts of the Romans to subdue them ; and 
 although that people conquered some parts of the country, they were expelled before the close 
 of the 3rd century. In the 5th century the arms of the Huns and other tribes prevailed 
 over the greater portion of Germany. These were subjugated by Charlemagne in the latter 
 
GER 
 
 334 
 
 GER 
 
 part of the 8th century. He took the title of emperor, entailing the dignity upon his famil)' ; 
 but after his race became extinct in 911, the rank was made elective. A member of the 
 house of Austria Avas elected (almost uninterruptedly) from 1437 until 1804. Germany was 
 divided into circles in 1512 ; formed into the Confederation of the Rhine, in 1804, and into 
 the Germanic Confederation in 1815. See ioth articles, Attstria, &c. 
 
 The Teutones united with, the Cymry, defeat 
 
 the Romans in Illyria . . . . B.C. 113 
 After varying success are defeated Isy Marius . 102 
 Hermann or Arminius, the German hero, 
 
 destroys the Roman legion under Vai-us a.d. 9 
 Great irruption of Germanic tribes into Gaul 450, &c. 
 Charlemagne after a long contest subdues the 
 
 Saxons, who beconie Christians . . 772-785 
 
 He is crowned emperor of the West at Rome . 800 
 H« adds a second head to the eagle to denote 
 
 that the empires of Rome and Germany are 
 
 united in him 802 
 
 Louis {le D&mnnaire) separates Germany from 
 
 France 839-840 
 
 The German princes assert their independence, 
 
 and Conrad I. of Francouia reigns . . . 911 
 [The electoral character assumed about this 
 
 time. See Electors. ] 
 Reign of Henry I. [king], sumamed the Fow- 
 ler ; he vanquishes the Huns, Danes, Vandals, 
 
 and Bohemians 918-934 
 
 Otho I. extends his dominions, and is crowned 
 
 emperor by the pope 962 
 
 Henry III. conquers Bohemia .... 1042 
 Contest between Hem-y IV. and Gregory VII. . 1075 
 Henry's humiliation at Canossa (tcliich see) . . 1077 
 He takes Rome, 1804; and Gregory dies in 
 
 exile at Salerno 1085 
 
 Disputes relating to ecclesiastical investitures 
 
 with the pope 1073-1123 
 
 The Guelph and the Ghibeline feuds begin . 1140 
 Conrad III. leads an army to the holy wars ; 
 
 it was destroyed by Greek treachery . .1147 
 
 Frederick Barbarossa's wars with the Italian 
 
 republics 1154-77 
 
 He destroys Milan 1162 
 
 He ruins Henry the Lion (see .Bfuaria) . . 1180 
 He is drowned during the crusade in Syria . . iigo 
 Teutonic order of Knighthood . . . . ,, 
 
 Hanseatic league established 1245 
 
 Reign of Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, chosen 
 
 by the electors 1273 
 
 The famous edict, called the Golden Bull, by 
 
 Charles IV 1356 
 
 Sigismund, king of Bohemia, elected emperor. 
 
 He betrays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, 
 
 who are ijumed alive (sec Bohemia) . 1414-16 
 Sigismund being driven from the throne, Albert 
 
 II., duke of Austria, succeeds . . . . 1437 
 Era of the Reformation, (see Xj(i/t«r) . . . 1517 
 German bible and liturgy pubhshed by Luther 1522-46 
 Luther excommunicated by the diet at Worms, 
 
 April 17, 1 52 1 
 War with the pope — the Germans storm Rome 1527 
 
 Diet at Spires 1529 
 
 Confession of Augsburg published . Jan. 25, 1530 
 Protestant League of Sraalcalde .... 1531 
 The anabaptists seize Munster, 1534 ; but are 
 
 siippressed, and John of Leyden slain . 1536 
 
 Death of Luther 1546 
 
 War with protestants 1546-52 
 
 Who are helped by Henry II. of France — Peace 
 
 of Religion at Passau . . . July 31, 1552 
 Abdication of Charles V. . . Aug. 27, 1556 
 
 The thirty years' war begins between the 
 
 Evangelic union under elector palatine, and 
 
 the Cathohc league under the duke of Bavaria 1618 
 Battle of Prague, which ruined the elector 
 
 palatine ... ... Nov. 8, 1620 
 
 Gustavus-Adolphus of Sweden invades Germany 
 
 June, 1630 
 Death of Gustavus-Adolphus, victor at Lutzen 
 
 Nov. 16, 1632 
 End of the thirty years' war : treaty of Westpba- 
 
 ha, establishing religious toleration Oct. 24. 1648 
 
 John Sobieski, king of Poland, after defeating 
 the Turks obliges them to raise the siege of 
 Vienna Sept. 12, i6Si 
 
 The peace of Carlowitz (with the Turks) Jan. 26, 1699 
 
 War with France, &c. ; Marlborough's victory 
 at Blenheim Aug. 13, 1704 
 
 Peace of Utrecht .... April 11, 1713 
 
 The Pragmatic Sanction (w/ncA «ee) . . . 1722 
 
 Francis I., duke of Lon-aine, marries the 
 heiress of Austria, Maria-Theresa, queen of 
 Hungary (1736;. She succeeds her father, 
 and becomes queen of Hungary . . Oct. 20, 1740 
 
 The elector of Bavaria elected emperor as 
 Charles VII. Jan. 22, 1742 ; he dies, J.an. 20; 
 Francis I. duke of Lorraine, elected emperor 
 
 Sept. 15. 1745 
 
 The seven years war between Austria and 
 Prussia and their respective allies begins, Aug. 
 1756 ; ends with the peace of Hubei-t.sburg 
 
 Feb. 15, 1763 
 
 Joseph II. extends his dominions by the dis- 
 memberment of Poland, 1772 ; many civil 
 refoiTQS and liberal changes .... 1782 
 
 Francis I. joins in the second partition of Poland 1795 
 
 [In the ruinous wars between Germany and 
 France, the emperor loses the Netherlands, 
 all his territories west of the Rhine, and hia 
 states in Italy, 1793, et seq.'i 
 
 Francis II. assumes the title of emperor of 
 Austria Aug. 11, 1804 
 
 Napoleon establishes the kingdoms of Bavaria 
 and Wurtemberg, 1S05 ; and of Westphaha, 
 1807 ; dissolution of the German empire ; 
 formation of the confederation of the Rhine 
 
 July 12, 1806 
 
 Commencement of the war of independence 
 
 March, 1813 
 
 Congress of Vienna . . Nov. i, 1814 — May 25, 1815 
 
 The Germanic confederation (which see) formed 
 
 June 8, 1815 
 
 The ZoUverein (uhich see) formed . . .1818 
 
 Insurrection at Vienna and throughout Ger- 
 many (see Austria, Hungary, &.c.) . . . 1848 
 
 The king of Prussia takes the lead as an agitator, 
 to promote the reconsolidation of the German 
 empire, by a proclamation . March 27, „ 
 
 German national assembly meet at Frankfort, 
 
 May 18, „ 
 
 Revolt in Schleswig and Holstein (see Denmark) 
 
 March, ,, 
 
 German national assembly elects the king of 
 Prussia emperor of Geruiany . March 28, 1849 
 
 He declines the honour . . . April 3, ,, 
 
 He recalls the Prussian members of the assem- 
 bly May 14, ,, 
 
 The Frankfort assembly transfers its sittings 
 to Stutgardt . . . , . May 30, ,, 
 
 Treaty of Vienna between Austria and Prussia 
 for the formation of a new central power for 
 a limited time ; appeal to be made to the 
 governments of Germany . . Sept. 30, „ 
 
 Protest of Austria against the alliance of Prus- 
 sia with some of the smaller German states 
 
 Nov. 12, ,, 
 
 Treaty of Munich between Bavaria, Saxony, 
 and Wurtemberg, for a revision of the Ger- 
 man union Feb. 27, 1850 
 
 Parliament meets at Erfurt . . . March, ,, 
 
 The king of Wurtemberg denounces the insi- 
 dious ambition of Prussia . March 15, ,, 
 
 German diet meets at Frankfort . May 10, „ 
 
 Hesse-Cassel refuses to send a representative to 
 Erfurt June 7 „ 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian 
 league ...... June 20, „ 
 
GEE, 
 
 335 
 
 GER 
 
 GERMANY, continued. 
 
 Austria calls an assembly of the German con- 
 federation at Frankfort . . . July ig, 
 
 Which meets at Frankfort . . Sept. 2, 
 
 Austrian, Bavarian, and Prussian foi-ces enter 
 Hesse-Cassel. See Hesse-Cassel . Nov. 12, 
 
 Conferences on German affairs at Dresden 
 
 Dec. 23, 1850, to May 15, 
 
 Conference of the diet of Nuremberg relative to 
 a general code of commerce, for Germany 
 
 Jan. IS, 
 
 Great excitement in Germany at the French 
 successes in Lombardy ; warlike preiDarations 
 in Bavaria, (fee. . . . May and June, 
 
 Meeting of new liberal ijarty in Eisenach, in 
 Saxe- Weimar. Seven resolutions put forth 
 recommending that the imperfect federal 
 constitution be changed ; tbat the German 
 diet be replaced by a strong central govern- 
 ment ; that a national assembly be sum- 
 moned ; and that Prussia be invited to take 
 the initiative Aug. 14, 
 
 This proposal not accepted by Prussia, and 
 warmly opposed by Hanover . . Sept. 
 
 The Austrian minister, Rechberg, severely cen- 
 suring the duke of Saxe Gotha, for a liberal 
 speech, Sept. 4 ; and accusing the Prussian 
 government of favouring the liberals, meets 
 with cutting retorts .... Sept. 
 
 The Federal diet maintain the Hesse-Cassel con- 
 stitution of 1852 against Prussia . March 24, 
 
 Meeting of the French emperor and the Ger- 
 man sovereigns at Baden, June 16, 17 ; and 
 of the czar and the emperor of Austria and 
 the regent of Prussia at TopUtz July 26, &c. 
 
 Meeting at Coburg in favour of German unity 
 against French aggression . . Sept. s, 
 
 Dispute with Denroark respecting the rights of 
 Holstein and Schleswig , . . Nov. 
 
 First meeting of a German national shooting 
 match at Gotha . . . . July 8-1 1, 
 
 Meeting of the German National Association at 
 Heidelberg; it decides to form a German 
 fleet ... ... Aug. 23, 
 
 Subscriptions received for the fleet 
 
 Sept. and Oct. 
 
 1850 
 
 1857 
 1859 
 
 The National Association meet at Berlin ; they 
 recommend the formation of a united Federal 
 government, with a central executive, under 
 the leadership of Prussia . . March 13, 
 
 Meetings of plenipotentiaries from German 
 states respecting Federal reform 
 
 July 8 — Aug. 10, 
 
 Deputies from the German states meet at 
 Weimar, and declare that the greatest want 
 of Germany is its formation into one Federal 
 state , Sept. 28, sg, 
 
 Congress of deputies from German states on 
 national reform .... Aug. 22, 
 
 The emperor of Austria invites the German 
 sovereigns to a congress at Frankfort, July 
 31 ; king of Prussia declines, Aug. 4 ; nearly 
 all the sovereigns meet, Aug. 16, 17 ; they 
 definitively approve the Austrian plan of 
 Federal reform, Sept. i ; which is rejected by 
 Prussia Sept. 22, 
 
 The diet determine to have recourse to federal 
 execution in Holstein if Denmark does not 
 fulfil her obligations . . . Oct. i, 
 
 50th anniversary of the battle of Leipzig cele- 
 brated Oct. 18, 
 
 Death of Frederick VII. king of Denmark 
 
 Nov. 15, 
 
 German troops enter Holstein as " Federal exe- 
 cution." (See Denmark for following events.) 
 
 Dec. 23, 
 
 Death of Maximilian II. king of Bavaria 
 
 March 10, 
 
 Prussia retains the duchies ; discussion be- 
 tween Austria and Prussia ; the diet adopt 
 the resolution of Bavaria and Saxony request- 
 ing Austria and Prussia to give up Holstein 
 to the duke of Augustenburg ; rejected, 
 
 April 6, 
 
 The Gastein convention (vjhicJi see) signed, 
 
 Aug. 14, 
 
 Severely censured by the diet at Frankfoi-t, 
 
 Sept. 
 
 See Austria, Denmark, Prussia, &c. 
 
 1864 
 
 1865 
 
 KINGS AND EMPEKOES OF GERMANY. 
 
 CARLOVINGIAN RACE. 
 
 800. Charlemagne. 
 
 814. Louis le Debonnaire, king of France. 
 
 840. Lothaire, or Lother, son of Louis ; died in a 
 
 monastery at Treves. 
 855. Louis II. , son of Lothaire. 
 875. Charles II., called the Bald, king of France; 
 
 poisoned by his physician, Zedeohias, a 
 
 Jew. Henauli. 
 877. [Interregnum.] 
 880. Charles III. le Gros, crowned king of Italy ; 
 
 deposed ; succeeded by 
 887. Arnulf , or Arnoul ; crowned emperor at Eome 
 
 in 8g6. 
 89g. Loviis III. called IV. ; the last of the Carlo- 
 
 vingian race in Germany. 
 
 SAXON DYNASTY. 
 
 911. Otho, duke of Saxony ; refuses the dignity on 
 
 account of his age. 
 „ Conrad I. duke of Franconia, 
 gi8. Henry I., sumamed the Fowler, son of Otho, 
 
 duke of Saxony ; king. 
 936. Otho I., styled the Great, son of Henry. Many 
 
 writers withhold the imperial title from 
 
 him until crowned by pope John XII. in g62. 
 973. Otho II., the Bloody, so stigmatised for his 
 
 cruelties ; massacred his chief nobility at an 
 
 entertainment to which he had invited them; 
 
 wounded by a poisoned arrow. 
 983. Otho III. , surnamed the Eed, his son, yet in 
 
 his minority ; poisoned. 
 
 1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria, sumamed the 
 Holy and the Lame. 
 
 1024. Conrad II., surnamed the Salique. 
 
 1039. Henry III., the Black, son of Conrad II. 
 
 1056. Henry IV. , son of the preceding ; a minor 
 under the regency of his mother Agnes ; de- 
 posed by his son and successor. (Several 
 emperors nominated by the pope.) 
 
 1106. Henry V. ; married Maud or Matilda, daughter 
 of Henry I. of England. 
 
 1125. Lothaire II., surnamed the Saxon. 
 
 1 138. [Interregnum.] 
 
 HOUSE or HOHENSTAUFEK, OB OP SUABIA. 
 
 ,, Conrad III., duke of Franconia. 
 
 1 152. Frederick I. Barbarossa ; one of the most splen- 
 did reigns in the German annals ; drowned 
 by his horse throwing him into the river 
 Saleph. 
 
 1 190. Henry VI., his son, surnamed Asper, or the 
 Sharp ; it was this emperor that detained 
 Richard I. of England a prisoner in his 
 dominions ; died 1197. Interregnum and 
 contest for the throne between Philip of 
 Suabia and Otho of Brunswick. 
 
 iigS. Philip, brother to Henry; assassinated at 
 Bamberg by Otto of Wittelsbach. 
 
 1208. Otho IV., surnamed the Superb, recognised as 
 king of Germany, and crowned as emperor 
 the next year ; excommunicated and de- 
 posed. 
 
 1215. Frederick II., king of Sicily, the son of Henry 
 
GER 
 
 o36 
 
 GET 
 
 GERMANY, continued. 
 
 VI. ; deposed by his siibjccts, who elected 
 Henry, landgrave of Thuringia. Frederick 
 died in 1250, naming his son Conrad his 
 successor, but the pope gave the imperial 
 title to William, earl of Holland. 
 1250. Conrad IV.* son of Frederick. 
 
 1256. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1257. Richard, earl of Cornwall, and Alphonso, of 
 
 Castile, nominated emperors. 
 
 HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, LUXEMBURG, AND BAVAKIA. 
 
 1273. Rodolph, coimt of Hapsburg. 
 
 1291. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1292. Adolphus, count of Nassau, to the exclusion 
 
 of Albert, son of Rodolph ; deposed ; slain 
 
 at the battle of Spires. 
 1298. Albert, duke of Austria, Rodolph'sson ; killed 
 
 by bis nephew at Rheinfels, May i, 1308. 
 1308. Henry VII. of Luxemburg. 
 
 1313. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1314. Louis IV. (III.) of Bavaria, and Frederick III. 
 
 of Austria, son of Albert, rival emperors ; 
 
 Frederick died in 1330. 
 1330. Louis reigns alone. 
 1347. Charles IV. of Luxemburg. In this reign was 
 
 given at Nuremberg, in 1356, the famous 
 
 Golden Bull, which became the fundamental 
 
 law of the German empire. 
 1378. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, son of Charles ; 
 
 twice imprisoned, and at length forced to 
 
 resign ; but continued to reign in Bohemia. 
 1400. Frederick HI. duke of Brunswick ; assa.ssi- 
 
 nated immediatelj' after his election, and 
 
 seldom placed in the list of emperors. 
 ,, Rupert, count palatine of the Rhine ; crovraed 
 
 at Cologne ; died in 1410. 
 1410. Jossus, marquess of Moravia ; chosen by a 
 
 party of the electors ; died the next year. 
 ,, Sigismund, king of Hungary ; elected by 
 
 another party. On the death of Jossus he is 
 
 recognised by all parties ; king of Bohemia 
 
 in 1419. 
 
 HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 1438. Albert II., surnamed the Great, duke of 
 Austria, and king of Hungary and Bohemia ; 
 died Oct. 27, 1439. 
 
 1439. rinterregnum.] 
 
 1440. Frederick IV. (or III.) surnamed the Pacific ; 
 
 elected emperor Feb. 2, but not crowned 
 
 until June, 1442. 
 1493. Maximilian I, son of Frederick ; died in 1519. 
 
 In 1477 he married Mary of Burgundy. — 
 
 Francis I. of France and Charles I. of Spain 
 
 became competitors for the empire. 
 1519. Charles V. (I. of Spain) son of Joan of Castile 
 
 and Philip of Austria, elected ; resigned both 
 
 crovms, 1556 ; and retired to a monastery, 
 
 where he died soon after. 
 1556. Ferdinand I. brother to Charles ; succeeded 
 
 by his son, 
 1564. Maximilian II. king of Hungary and Bohemia ; 
 
 succeeded by his son, 
 1576. Rodolph II. 
 
 1612. Matthias, brother of Rodolph. 
 1619. Ferdinand II. his cousin, son of the archduke 
 
 Charles ; king of Hungary. 
 1637. Ferdinand III. son of the preceding emperor ; 
 
 succeeded by his .son, 
 1658. Leopold I. 
 
 1705. Joseph I. son of the emperor Leopold. 
 1711. Charles VI. brother to Joseph ; s\icceeded by 
 
 his daughter, 
 1740. Maria-Theresa, queen of Himgary and Bohe- 
 mia, whose right to the empire was sustained 
 
 by EngLand. 
 1742. Charles VII. elector of Bavaria, whose claim 
 
 was supported by France ; rival emperor, 
 
 and contested succession. 
 
 [This competition for the throne of Germany 
 gave rise to an almost general war. Charles 
 died in Jan. 1745.] 
 
 1745. Francis I. of Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscan j-, 
 consort of Maria-Theresa. 
 
 1765. Joseph II. son of the emperor Francis and of 
 Maria-Theresa. 
 
 1790. Leopold II. brother to Joseph ; succeeded by 
 his son, 
 
 1792. Francis II. In 1804 this prince became empe- 
 ror of Austria only, as Francis I. 
 
 See Austria. 
 
 PRINCIPAL GERMAN AUTHORS. 
 
 Born 
 
 Died 
 
 Sorn 
 
 Died 
 
 
 Sorn 
 
 Died 
 
 
 
 J. G. von Herder . 1744 
 
 1803 
 
 B. G. Niebuhr . . 
 
 1776 
 
 1831 
 
 
 
 Fred. T.Klopstock . 1724 
 
 1803 
 
 J. W. von Goethe . 
 
 1749 
 
 1832 
 
 
 
 Im. K.ant . . . 1724 
 
 1804 
 
 Wm. von Humboldt 
 
 1767 
 
 1835 
 
 1483 
 
 1546 
 
 J. C.Fred, von Schiller 1759 
 
 1805 
 
 A. Wm. Schlegel . . 
 
 1767 
 
 1845 
 
 1494 
 
 1578 
 
 Ch. M. Wieland . . 1733 
 
 1813 
 
 L. Tieck . 
 
 1773 
 
 1853 
 
 1646 
 
 1716 
 
 C. T. Komer . . 1791 
 
 1813 
 
 H. Heine . . . 
 
 1797 
 
 1856 
 
 1715 
 
 1769 
 
 Jean Paul Richter . 1763 
 
 1825 
 
 Alex, von Humboldt 
 
 1769 
 
 1859 
 
 1729 
 
 1781 
 
 J. H. Voss . . . 1751 
 
 1826 
 
 Chr. Carl J. Bunsen 
 
 1 791 
 
 i860 
 
 1748 
 
 1794 
 
 F. Schlegel . . . 1772 
 
 2829 
 
 F. C. Schlosser . 
 
 1776 
 
 1 861 
 
 Ulfilas (Gothic bible) 
 about A.D. 360. 
 
 Martin Luther(Gemi. 
 bible, iSrc. 1522-34). 
 
 Hans Sachs 
 
 Godf. Leibnitz . . 
 
 G. F. GeUert . 
 
 G. E. Lessing . . 
 
 G. A. Biirger . 
 
 GERONA (N.E. Spain"), an ancient cit}', frequently besieged and taken. In June, 1808, 
 it successfully resisted the French, but after suffering much by famine, surrendered 
 Dec. 12, 1809. 
 
 GETTYSBURG (Philadelphia). Here three days' severe fighting took place on July i — 3, 
 1863, between the invading confederate army under generals Lee, Longstreet, and EweU, 
 and the federals under general G. Meade. The confederates were long successful, but 
 eventually were compelled to retire from Pennsylvania and Maiyland. The killed and 
 wounded on each side were estimated at about 15,000. 
 
 * His son Conradin was proclaimed king of Sicily, which was, however, surrendered to his uncle 
 Manfred, 1254 ; on whose death it was given by the pope to Charles of Anjou in 1263. Conradin, on the 
 invitation of the Ghibeline p.arty, entered Italy with a large army, and was defeated at TagUacozzo, Aug. 
 23, 1268, and beheaded at Naples Oct. 29, thus ending the Hohenstaufen family. 
 
GHE 
 
 33J 
 
 GIB 
 
 GHENT, an ancient city in Belgium, built about tlie 7th century. During the middle 
 ages it became very rich. John, third son of Edward III. of England, was born here in 1340 
 (hence named John of Gaunt), during the revolt under Yan Artevelde, a brewer, against the 
 earl Louis, 1379-83. Ghent rebelled against the emperor, Charles V., 1539, for which it was 
 severely punished in 1540. The " Pacification ot Ghent" (when the north and south 
 provinces of the Netherlands united against Spain) was proclaimed, Nov. 8, 1576, and broken 
 up in 1579. Ghent was taken by Louis XIV. of France, March 9, 1678, and by the duke of 
 Marlborough in 1 706, and afterwards several times taken and retaken, The Peace op Ghe:^;t, 
 between Great Britain and America, was signed Dec. 24, 1814, 
 
 GHIBELINES. See Gx^l^lis. 
 
 GHIZNEE, or GHUZNEE (East Persia), the seat of the Gaznevides, who founded the 
 city, 969. They were expelled by the Seljuk Tartars in 1038. The British under sir J. 
 Keane, attacked the citadel of Ghizuee, at two o'clock in the morning, July 23, 1839 ; it was 
 one of tlie strongest fortresses in Asia, and was commanded by a son of the ex-king of Cabul. 
 At three o'clock the gates were blown in by the artillery, and under cover of a hea^^y fire, 
 the infantry forced their way into the place and succeeded at five o'clock in fixing the British 
 colours on its towers. — It capitulated to the Afghans,. March i, 1842, who were defeated 
 Sept. 6, 1842, and general Nott re-entered Ghiznee next day. 
 
 GHOSTS are now produced by optical science. Mr. Dircks described his method at the 
 British Association meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor exhibited scientific ghosts in March, 
 1863. Mr. Pepper exhibited the ghost illusion at the Royal Polytechnic institution, 
 July, 1863. See Cock-lane Ghost. 
 
 GIANTS. Giants' bones, 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet high were once reported to have been 
 foTind ; but geologists now prove them to be the remains of colossal animals. — The battle of 
 Marignano (1515) has been termed the "battle of the Giants.''' 
 
 Og, king of Bashan, of the remnant of the giants : 
 
 •his bedstead was 9 cubits long (about 16^^ feet). 
 
 B.C. 1451. (Deut. iii. 11.) 
 Gohath of Gath's "height was 6 cubits and a span." 
 
 about 1063 B.C. (i Sam. xvii. 4.) 
 The emperor Maximin (a.d. 235) was 8i feet in 
 
 height, and of great bulk. Some say between 7 
 
 and 8 feet ; others above 8. 
 "The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was 
 
 one named Gabara, who, in the days of Claudius, 
 
 the late emperor, was brought out of Arabia. He 
 
 was 9 feet 9 inches high. " Pliny. 
 John Middleton, of Hale, in Lancashire, born in 
 
 1578, was 9 feet 3 inches high.* 
 Patrick Cotter, the celebrated Irish giant, bom in 
 
 1761, was 8 feet 7 inches in height ; his hand, from 
 
 the commencement of the palm to the extremity of 
 
 the middle finger, measured 12 inches, and his 
 shoe was 17 inches long ; he died in Sept. 1806, in 
 his 46th year. 
 
 Big Sam, the porter of the prince of Wales, at Carl- 
 ton-paiace, was near 8 feet high, and performed as 
 
 • a giant in the romance of " Cymon," at the Opera- 
 house, while the Drury-lane company had the u:?e 
 of that theatre until their own was rebuilt in 1809. 
 
 M. Brice, a native of the Vosges, in London in Sept. 
 1862, 7 feet 6 inches high. 
 
 Eobert Hales, the Norfolk giant, died at Great Yar- 
 moiith Nov. 22, 1863 (aged 43). He was 7 feet 6 
 inches high, and weighed 452 lb. 
 
 Chang-Woo-Gow, a Chinese, aged 19, 7 feet 8 inches 
 high, exhibited himself in London in Sept. &c. 1865. 
 
 A giant styled "Anak" was exhibited in London, 
 Nov. 1865. 
 
 GIAOUR, Turkish for infidel, a term applied to all who do not believe inMahomedanisni. 
 — Byron's poem, " The Giaour," was published in 1813. 
 
 GIBRALTAR. The ancient Calpe (which, with Abyla, on the opposite shore of Africa, 
 obtained the name of the Pillars of Hercules), a town on a rock in South Spain, on which is 
 placed a British fortress, considered impregnable. The height of the rock, according to 
 Cuvier, is 1437 English feet. It was taken by the Saracens under Tarik, whence its present 
 name (derived from Gibcl-el-Tarik, Mountain of Tarik), in 711. 
 
 It was taken from the Moors in 1309 ; retaken by 
 them, 1333 ; and finally taken from them by 
 Henry IV. of Castile, in 1462 
 
 Gibraltar attacked by the British under sir 
 George Rooke, the prince of Hesse-Darm- 
 stadt, sir John Leake, and admu-al Byng, 
 July 2ist, and taken on the 24th . . . 1704 
 
 Besieged by the Spanish and French ; they lose 
 10,000 men, and the victorious English but 400 
 
 Oct. II, 1704 
 Ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht 
 
 April II, 1713 
 The Spaniards again- attack Gibraltar, and are 
 repulsed with great loss 1720 
 
 * It is reported that one of the Irelands took him to London, and introduced him, dressed up in a 
 very fantastic style, to king James the First. On his return from London, a portrait was taken of him. 
 which is preserved in the library of Brazenose college, at Oxford ; and Dr. Plot gives the following 
 account of him : — " John Middleton, commonly called the child of Hale, whose hand, from the carpus to 
 the end of his middle finger, was 17 inches long ; his palm 8J inches broad ; and his whole height 9 feet 
 3 inches, wanting but 6 inches of the size of Goliath." — Nat. Hist, of Staff ordshire, p. 295. 
 
 Z 
 
GIB 
 
 338 
 
 GLA 
 
 GIBRALTAR, continued. 
 
 They again attack it with a force of 20,000 men, 
 and lose 5000, while the loss of the English is 
 only 300 ..... Feb. 22, 1727 
 
 Memorable siege by the Spaniards and French, 
 whose prodigious armaments* (the greatest 
 ever brought against a fortres.s) were wholly 
 overthrown . July 16, 1779, to Feb. 5, 1783 
 
 Koyal battery destroyed by fire . . Nov. 1800 
 
 Engagement between the French and English 
 fleets in the bay ; H.M.S. Hannibal, 74 guns, 
 lost July 6, 1801 
 
 The Royal Carlos and St. Herinenigildo Spanish 
 
 ships, each of 112 gtins, blew up, with their 
 crews, at night-time, in the straits here, and 
 all on board peri.shod . . . July 12, 1801 
 A malignant disease caused a great mortality 
 
 here in 1804 
 
 A dreadful plague raged 1805 
 
 A malignant fever raged . . . Aug. 1814 
 Again, when a proclamation issued for closing 
 the courts of justice and places of public 
 
 worship Sept. 5, 1828 
 
 The fatal epidemic ceased . . Jan. 12, 1829 
 
 GILDING was practised at Rome, about 145 B.C. The capitol was the first building on 
 which this enrichment was bestowed. Pliny. Of gold leaf for gilding the Romans made but 
 750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole ounce. Pliny. It consequently was more 
 like our plating. Trusler. A single grain of gold may now be stretched out under the 
 hammer into a leaf that will cover a house. Dr. Halley. Gilding with leaf gold on bole 
 ammoniae was first introduced by Margaritone in 1273. Gilding on wood formed part of the 
 decorations of the Jewish tabernacle {Exod. xxv. 11.); and was improved in 1680. See 
 Electrotype. 
 
 GIN, ardent spirit, flavoured with the essential oil of the juniper berry. The " gin act," 
 laying an excise of 5s. per gallon upon it, passed July 14, 1736, when it had been found, in 
 the preceding year, that in London alone 7044 houses sold gin by retail ; and it was so cheap 
 that the poor could intoxicate themselves for one penny. Salmon. About 1700 gin-shops 
 were suppressed in London in 1750. Clarke. 
 
 GIPSIES. See Gypsies. 
 
 GIRAFFE, or Camelopard, a native of the interior of Africa, was well known to 'the 
 ancients. In 1827 one was brought to England for the first time as a present to George IV. 
 It died in 1829. On May 25, 1835, four giraff'es, obtained by M. Thibaut, were introduced 
 into the Zoological gardens. Regent's park, where a young one was born in 1839. 
 
 GIRONDISTS, an important party during the French revolution, principally composed of 
 deputies from the Gironde. At first they were ardent republicans, but after the cruelties of 
 Aug. and Sept. 1792, they laboured to restrain the cruelties of the Mountain party, to which 
 they succumbed. Their leaders, Brissot, Vergniaud, and many others, were guillotined 
 Oct. 31, 1793, at the instigation of Robespierre. Lamartiue's "Histoii'e des Gu'ondins," 
 published in 1847, tended to hasten the revolution in 1848. 
 
 GISORS, Battle of (France), on Sept. 20, 28, or Oct. 10, 1198, between the armies of 
 France and England. The former was signally defeated by Richard I., wlio commanded 
 the English, and his parole for the day, " Dieic et inon droit'" — "God and my right," after- 
 •wards became the motto to the arms of England. 
 
 GLADIATORS were originally malefactors, who fought for their lives, or captives who 
 fought for freedom. They were exhibited at the funeral ceremonies of the Romans, 263 B.C., 
 probably following the Greek custom of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors, the 
 prisoners taken in battle. Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 B.C. 
 "When Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebration of his 
 triumph, for 123 days, a.d. 103. These combats Avere suppressed in the East bj^ Constantine 
 the Great, a.d. 325, and in the West by Theodoric in 500. Lcnglct. 
 
 GLANDELAGH, Bishopric of (Ireland), has been united to the arch-prelacy of Dublin 
 since the year 12 14. St. Keiven seems to have been the foimder of this see ; he resio-ned in 
 612. Glendalagh is now commonly known by the name of the Seven Churches, from the 
 remains of so many buildings contiguous to the cathedral. 
 
 * In one night their floating batteries were destroyed with red-hot ball.?, and their whole line of works 
 annihilated by a sortie from the garrison, commanded by general Elliot, Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy's loss 
 in munitions of war, on this night alone, was estimated at upwards of 2,ooo,ooo^ sterling. The army 
 amounted to 40,000 men. But their grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British occurred Sept. 13, 
 1782. The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troops of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were 
 brought to bear against the fortress, besides which there were 47 sail of the line, aU three-deckers ; 10 great 
 floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrjing 212 guns ; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb-ketches 
 cutters, and gun and mortar boats ; while small craft for disembarking the forces covered the bay. For 
 weeks together 6000 shells were daily thrown into the town ; and on a single occasion 8000 bai-rels of 
 gunpowder were expended by the enemy. 
 
GLA 
 
 339 
 
 GLA 
 
 GLASGOW (Lanarkshire), the largest city in Scotland. Its prosperity was immensely 
 increased after the union in 1707, in consequence of its obtaining some of the American 
 trade. Population in 1707 about 12,000 ; in 1861, 394,857. 
 
 The cathedral or high church, dedicated to St. 
 
 Kentigern or Mungo, was built in the nth 
 
 century. 
 
 Erected iuto a burgh 1180 
 
 Charter was obtained from James II. . . . 1451 
 University founded by bishop TurnbuU about 1454 
 Made a royal burgh by James VI. . . . 1611 
 
 Town wasted by a great fire 1652 
 
 Charter of William and Mary .... 1690 
 
 Glasgow Courant published 1715 
 
 First vessel sailed to America for its still gi-eat 
 
 import, tobacco 1718 
 
 Great Shawfi eld riot 1725 
 
 Calico printing begun 1742 
 
 Plundered by rebels 1745 
 
 Theatre opened 1764 
 
 Power-loom introduced 1773 
 
 Theatre burnt 178 
 
 Chamber of commerce formed 
 
 Trades' hall built 
 
 Spinning machinery by steam introduced 
 Anderson's university founded . . . . 
 New college buildings erected .... 
 Great popular commotion . . . April, 
 Trials for treason followed. . . July, 
 
 Theatre agaui burnt .... Jan. 
 The royal exchange, a most sumptuous edifice, 
 opened Sept. 3, 
 
 1783 
 1791 
 1795 
 1796 
 1811 
 
 Great fire, loss 150,000?. . . Jan. 14, 1833 
 
 The Glasgow lotteries, the last drawn in Britain, 
 were g:ranted by licence of parUament to the 
 commissioners for the improvement of Glas- 
 gow. The third and final Glasgow lottery 
 was drawn in London, at Coopers' HaU, Aug. 
 28, 1834. Their repetition was forbidden by 
 
 4 Will. IV. c. 37 1834 
 
 British Association meet here . . . . 1840 
 Wellington's statue erected . . Oct. 8, 1844 
 False alarm of fire at the theatre, when 70 
 
 persons are crushed to death . Feb. 17, 1849 
 
 Failure of Western Bank of Scotland, and City 
 
 of Glasgow banks, and other films . Nov. 1857 
 In which great frauds were discovered Oct. 1858 
 New water-works at Loch Katrine opened by 
 
 the queen Oct, 14, 1859 
 
 [To supply 50,000,000 gallons daily : engineer, 
 J. F. Bateman ; cost about i,ooo,oooi. inde- 
 pendent of the price paid for old works.] 
 First self-supporting cooking estabhshments 
 for working classes begun by Mr. Thos. Cor- 
 
 bett Sept. 21, i860 
 
 Glasgow visited by the empress of the French 
 
 Nov. 27, ,, 
 Theatre burnt again .... Jan. 31, 1863 
 Visited by lord Palmerston . . March, ,, 
 
 GLASGOW, BiSHOPKic of. Kennet, in his Antiquities, says it was founded by St, 
 Kentigern, alias Mungo, in 560 ; while others affirm that Mungo was a holy man who had a 
 cell here, whose sanctity was held in such veneration that the church was dedicated to hinn. 
 Dr. Heylin, speaking of the see of St. Asaph, in Wales, says that that see was founded by 
 St. Kentigern, a Scot, then bishop of Glasgow in 583. This prelacy became archiepiscopal 
 in 149 1, and ceased at the Revolution. Glasgow is now a post-revolution bishopric. The 
 cathedral was commenced in 1121, and has been beautified and improved at various periods 
 since. It has a noble crypt. See Bishops. 
 
 GTvASITES (in Scotland) and Sandemanians (in England), names given to a small body 
 of Christians, whose tenets (professedly derived from the Holy Scriptures alone) are set forth 
 in the "Testimony of the King of Martyrs" published by John Glas, a minister of the 
 Church of Scotland in 1727, and in his son-in-law, Eobert Sandeman's " Letters on Theron 
 and Aspasio " (1755). Churches were first formed by them on what were considered the 
 primitive models, in Scotland, about 1728, and in England about 1755, some of which still 
 exist. They hold that true faith is the gift of God, and not to be taught or acquired by man ; 
 and that it produces love to God and good works. They partake weekly of the Lord's 
 supper and love-feasts (see Agapce), avoid eating blood, and maintain the primitive disci- 
 pline. They erected a new meeting-house at Barnsbury, London, IST., in 1862. 
 
 GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass by Hermes, 
 The discovery of glass took place in Syria. Pliny. Glass-houses were erected in Tyre, 
 where glass was a staple maniifacture for many ages. This article is mentioned among the 
 Romans in the time of Tiberius ; and we know from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows 
 were formed of glass before 79. Italy had the first glass windows ; next France, whence 
 they came to England. 
 
 Glass is said to have been brought to England 
 by Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, in 
 
 The manufacture established in England at 
 Crutched-friars, and in Savoy in (Stovj) . . 
 
 Great improvements have been made in the 
 manufacture, through the immense increase 
 of chemical knowledge in the present cen- 
 tury. Professor Faraday pubUshed his re- 
 searches on the manufacture of glass for 
 ©istical purposes in 
 
 The duties on glass, first imposed 1695, were 
 finally remitted 
 
 676 
 
 Painting on Glass, a very early art, was prac- 
 tised at Marseilles in a beautiful style, about 1500 
 
 It reached to a state of great perfection about 1530 
 
 Glass-Plate, for coach-windows, mirrors, &c., 
 made at Lambeth by Venetian artists, under 
 the patronage of ViUiers duke of Buckingham 1673 
 
 The manufacture was improved by the French, 
 who made very large plates ; and further 
 improvements in it were made in Lancashire 
 in 1773, when the British Plate Glass Com- 
 pany was established. 
 
 Manufacture of British sheet glass introduced 
 by Messrs. Chance, of Birmingham, about . 1832 
 
 Z 2 
 
GLA 340 GLO 
 
 GLASTONBURY, said to have been the residence of Joseph of Ariniathea, and the site 
 of the first Ciiristian church in Britain, about)«6o. A churoli was built here by Ina about'718. 
 The town and abbey were burnt, 1184. An earthquake did great damage in 1276. Richard 
 Whiting, the last abbot, who had 100 monks and 400 domestics, was hanged on Tor-hill in 
 his pontificals, with the abbots of Reading and Colchester, for refusing to take the oath of 
 supremacy to Henry VIII., Nov. 1539. 
 
 GLENCOE MASSACRE of the unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for 
 not surrendering before tlie time stated in King William's proclamation, Dec. 31, 1691. 
 Sir John Dalryraple the master, afterwards earl of Stair, their inveterate enemy, obtained a 
 decree "to extirpate that set of thieves," which the king is said to have signed without 
 perusing. Eveiy man under 70 was to be slain. This mandate was executed with the 
 blackest treachery. The 120 soldiers were hospitably received by the Highlanders. On 
 Feb. 13, 1692, the massacre began. About 60 men were brutally slain ; and many women 
 and children, their wives and offspring, were turned out naked in a dark and freezing night, 
 and perished by cold and hunger. This black deed was perpetrated by a part of the earl of 
 Argyle's regiment. It excited great indignation in England ; and an inquiry was set on 
 foot in 1695, but no capital punishment followed. 
 
 GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principal circles of 
 the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true causes of lunar eclipses, were taught, aud 
 an eclipse predicted, b}' Thales of Miletus, about 640 B. c. Pythagoras demonstrated, from 
 the varying altitudes of the stars by change of place, that the earth must be round ; that 
 there might be antipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; that Yenus was the morning and 
 evening star ; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres — the sphere of the earth, the 
 sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the sphere of fire, the spheres of the moon, the 
 sun ; Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the s])here of the stars; about 506 B.C. — 
 Aristarchus, of Samos, maintained that the earth turned on its own axis, aud revolved about 
 the sun ; which doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the philosopher 
 nearly lost his life by his theory, 280 B.C. To determine the figure of the earth, a 
 degree of latitude has been measured in different parts of the world b}' eminent philosoi)hers ; 
 for this purpose Bouguer and La Condamine were sent to Peru, and Maupertuis and others 
 to Lapland, in 1735. France and Spain were measured by Mechain, Delarabre, Biot, and 
 Arago, between 1792 and 1821. Measurements were made in India by col. (now sir George) 
 Everest, and published in 1830. Experiments have been made by pendulums to demonstrate 
 the rotation of the earth by Foucault in 185 1 ; and to determine its density by Maskelyne, 
 Bailly, and others ; and in 1826, 1828, and 1854, by Mr. G. B. Airy, the astronomer Royal. 
 See Circumnavigators. 
 
 Artificial Globes. It i.s said that a celestial 
 globe was brought to Greece from Egypt, 368 B.C., 
 and that Archimedes constructed a planetarium 
 about 212 B.C. 
 
 The globe of Gottorp is a concave sphere, eleven feet 
 in diameter, containing a table and seats for 
 twelve persons, and the inside representing the 
 visible surface of the heavens, the stars and con- 
 stellations all distinguished according to their res- 
 pective magnitudes, and being turned by means of 
 curious mechanism, their true position, rising, 
 and setting, are I'hown. The outside is a terrestrial 
 globe. This machine is called the globe of Gottorp, 
 from the original one of that name, which, at the 
 expense of Frederick II. duke of Holstein, was 
 erected at Gottoi-p, under the direction of Adam 
 
 Olearius, and was planned after a design found 
 among the papers of the celebrated Tycho Brahe. 
 Frederick IV. of Denmark presented it to Peter 
 the Great in 1713. It was nearly destroyed by fire 
 in 1757 ; but it was afterwards reconstructed. 
 Coxe. 
 
 The globe at Pembroke-hall was erected by Dr. 
 Long ; it far surpasses the other, being eighteen 
 feet in diameter, and thirty persons can sit con- 
 veniently within it while it is in motion. 
 
 In 1851 Mr. Abrahams erected in Leicester-square, 
 for Mr. Wyld, a globe 60 feet 4 inches in diameter, 
 lit from the centre by day, and by gas at night. It 
 was closed in July, 1861 ; the models were sold, 
 and the building eventually taken down. 
 
 GLOBE THEATRE, Bankside (London). See Shakespeare's Theatre. 
 
 GLOIRE, French steam frigate. See Navy, French. 
 
 GLORY, the nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, angels, and holy men, 
 and the circle of rays on images, adopted from the Csesars and their flatterers, were used 
 in the 1st centurj\ The doxology of the praj'er Gloria Patri was ordahied in the church 
 of Rome, and was called doxology because it began with doxa, glory, 382. 
 
 GLOUCESTER, a Roman colony (Glevum), built by Arviragus, 47, in honour of Claudius 
 Caesar, whose daughter he had married. In 1278-9 the statutes of Gloucester were passed at 
 a parliament held by Edward I. This city was incorporated by Henry III. ; it was fortified 
 by a strong wall, which was demolished after the Restoration, in 1660, by order of 
 Charles II., as a punishment for the obstinate resistance of the city to Charles I., in 1643,,, 
 
CtLO 341 GOD 
 
 under col. Massey. The Gloucester and Berkeley canal was completed in April, 1827. 
 Gross bribery took place here at the election for the parliament in 1859. — It was one of 
 the six bishoprics erected by Henry VIII. in 1541, and was formerly part of Worcester. It 
 was united to that of Bristol in 1836. The church, which belonged to the abbey, and its 
 revenues, were appropriated to the maintenance of the see. The abbey, which was founded 
 by king Wulphere about 700, was burnt in 1102, and again in 1122. In it are the tombs 
 of Robert, duke of Normand}'-, and Edward II. In the king's books, this bishopric is valued 
 at 315Z. 17s. 2d. per annum. Present income, 5000Z. 
 
 EECENT BISHOPS OF GLOUCESTER. 
 
 1802. George Isaac Huntingford, translated to Here- | 1856. Charles Baring, translated to Durham, Sept. 
 
 ford, June, 1815. 1861. 
 
 1815. Hon. Hen. Ryder, translated to Lichfield, 1824. 1861. Wm. Thomson, translated to York, 1862. 
 
 1824. ChristopherBethell,translated to Exeter, 1830. 1863. Charles J. EUicott (present bishop, 1865). 
 1830. James Heni-y Monk, died. I 
 
 GLOVES. In the middle ages, the giving a glove was a ceremony of investiture in 
 bestowing lands and dignities ; and two bishops were put in possession of their sees by each 
 receiving a glove, 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves 
 was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of London was incorporated in 
 1556. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in 1580, and are still presented to 
 judges at maiden assizes. 
 
 GLUCINUM (from glukus, sweet). In 1798 Vauquelin discovered the earth ghidna (so 
 termed from the sweet taste of its salts). It is found in the beryl and other crystals. From 
 glucina Wohler and Bussy obtained the rare metal glucinum in 1828. Gmelin. 
 
 GLUCOSE. See Sugar. 
 
 GLUTElSr, an important ingredient of grain, particularly wheat, containing nitrogen, 
 and termed the vegeto-animal principle. Its discovery is attributed to Beccaria in the 
 1 8th century. 
 
 GLYCERIlSrE, discovered by Sclieele, about 1779, and termed by him the " sweet principle 
 of fats," and further studied by Chevreul, termed the "father of the fatty acids." It_ is 
 obtained pure by saponifying olive oil or animal fat with oxide of lead, or litharge. Glycerine 
 is now much employed in medicine and the arts. 
 
 GNOSTICS (from the Greek gnosis, knowledge), a sect who soon after the preaching of 
 Christianity, endeavoured to combine its principles with the Greek philosophies. Among 
 their teachers were Saturnius, iii ; Basilides, 134; and Valentine, 140. PrisciUian, a 
 Spaniard, was burnt at Thebes as a heretic, in 384, for endeavouring to revive Gnosticism. 
 
 GOA (S.W. Hindostan), was taken by the Portuguese under Albuquerr[ue in 15 10, and 
 made their Indian capital. 
 
 GOBELHST-TAPESTRY, so called from a house at Paris, formerly possessed by wool- 
 dyers, whereof the chief (Giles Gobelin) in the reign of Prancis I., is said to have found the 
 secret of dyeing scarlet. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufactory of 
 works for adorning palaces, under the direction of Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for 
 which were drawn by Le Brun, about 1666. 
 
 "GOD BLESS YOU !" We are told that in the time of pope Pelagius 11. a plague 
 raged at Rome of so fatal a nature, that persons seized with it died sneezing and gaping ; 
 whence came the custom of saying " God Mess yoiU" when a person sneezes, and of Roman 
 Catholics making the sign of the cross upon the mouth when any one gapes ; 582. 
 Nouv. Diet. 
 
 " GOD SAVE THE KING." This melody is said to have been composed by John Bull, 
 Mus. D., in 1606, for a dinner given to James I. at Merchant Taylors' Hall ; others ascribe it 
 to Henry Carey, about 1743. It has been claimed by the Prench. The controversy on the 
 subject is summed up in ChappeU's " Popular Music of the Olden Times " (1859). 
 
 GODERICH ADMINISTRATIOK Viscount Goderich* (afterwards earl of Ripon) 
 became first minister on the death of Mr. Canning, Aug. 8, 1827 ; resigned Jan. 8, 1828. 
 
 * Born 1782 ; held various inferior appointments from 1809 to 1818, when he became president of the 
 board of trade; wa'^ chancellor of the exchequer from 1818 to April, 1827, when he became colonial 
 secretary, which oflBoe he heli in the Grey cabinet, Nov. 1830 ; created earl of Ripon, 1833 ; died 1659. 
 
GOD 
 
 342 
 
 GOL 
 
 GODERICH ADMINISTRATION", continued. 
 
 Viscount Goderich, /rs< lord of the treasury. 
 
 Duke of Portland, president of the council. 
 
 Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 
 
 Earl of Carlisle, lord privy seal. 
 
 Viscount Dudley, Mr. Huskisson, and the marquess 
 of Lansdowne, foreign, colonial, and home secre- 
 taries. 
 
 Lord Palmerston, secrefary-at-war. 
 
 Mr. Wynn, president of the India board. 
 
 Mr. Cbarles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), hoard 
 
 of trade. 
 Mr. Herrie.s, chancellor of the erchequer. 
 Mr. Tiemey, master of the mint, (fee. 
 
 GODFATHERS and Godmothers. The Jews are said to have had godfathers in the 
 circumcision of their sons ; but there is no mention of them in scripture. The custom 
 was first ordained, according to some by pope Alexander ; according to others by Sixtus ; 
 others refer it to Telesphorus, about 130, and others to Hyginus about 140. In Roman 
 Catholic countries bells have godfathers and godmothers at their baptism. 
 
 GODOLPHIN ADMINISTRATIONS, 1684 and 1690. The earl of Godolphin became 
 prime minister to queen Anne, May 8, 1702 ; received the treasurer's staff two days after- 
 wards ; resigned Aug. 8, 1710 ; and died 1712. See Administrations. 
 
 Sidney, lord (afterwards earl) Godolphin, treasury. 
 Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, lord 
 
 president. 
 John Sheffield, marquess of Normanby (afterwards 
 
 duke of Normanby and Buckingham), privy seal. 
 
 Hon. Henry Boyle, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Sir Cbarles Hedges and the earl of Nottingham (the 
 latter succeeded by the right hon. Robert Harley, 
 created earl of Oxford in 1704), seci-etaries of state, 
 ■fee. 
 
 GODWIN'S OATH. " Take care you are not swearing Godwin's oath." This caution, 
 to a person taking a voluntary aud intemperate oath, or making violent protestations, had 
 its rise in the following circumstance related by the monks : Godwin, earl of Kent, was tried 
 for the mui'der of prince Alfred, brother of Edward the Confessor, and pardoned, but died at 
 the king's table while protesting with oaths his innocence of the murder ; supposed by the 
 historians of those times to have been choked with a piece of liread, as a judgment from 
 Heaven, having prayed it might stick in his throat if he were guilty of the murder ; 1053. 
 
 GODWIN SANDS, sand-banks off the east coast of Kent, occupy land which belonged 
 to Godwin, earl of Kent, the father of king Harold II. This grotmd was afterwards given to 
 the monastery of St. Augustin at Canterbury ; but the abbot neglecting to keep in repair 
 the wall that defended it from the sea, the tract was submerged in 1 100, leaving these sands, 
 upon which many ships have been wrecked. Salmon. 
 
 GOLD.* The purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it has, from 
 the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most valuable. It is too soft 
 to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver : our coin consists of 
 twenty-two carats of pure gold, and two of copper. In the early ages no metals were used 
 but those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), gold 
 wares are allowed to be manufactured at a lower standard than formerly ; wedding rings 
 excepted, by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 60 (1855). The present stated price is 3Z. 17s. lo^d. peroz. 
 See Coin of England and Guineas. 
 
 GOLD COIN. 
 
 First certain record of gold coined in England, 1257 
 
 First regular gold pieces stnick .... 1344 
 
 The florin struck, and the method of assaying 
 gold established, 1354; the standard altered, 1527 
 
 All the gold money called in, and re-coined, and 
 the first window-tax imposed to defray the 
 expense and deficiency in the re-coinage, 
 7 Will. Ill 1695 
 
 Guineas first coined in 1673 ; reduced in cur- 
 rency value from 22«. to zis. in . . . 1717 
 
 Broad-pieces called in, and re-coined into 
 guineas 1732 
 
 The gold coin brought into the Mint by pro- 
 clamation in 1773-6, amounted to about 
 15,563,593/. ; the expense of collecting, melt- 
 ing, and re-coining it, was 754,019?. 
 
 Act for weighing gold coin passed . . June 13, 1774 
 Proclamation for issuing gold 7.?. pieces Nov. 20, 1797 
 
 "The quantity of gold that passed through the 
 Mint, since the accession of queen Elizabeth to the 
 throne, in 1558, to the beginning of 1840, is 3,353,561 
 pounds weight, troy. Of this, nearly one-half was 
 coined in the reign of George I II., namely, 1,593,078 
 pounds weight, troy. The value of the gold coined 
 in the reign of that sovereign was 74,501, 586^" 
 Professor Faraday. 
 
 The weight of gold coined in Victoria's reign, from 
 June, 1837 to Jan. 1848, was 746,452 lb. ; the value 
 of tliis amount coined was 29,886,^57/. Gold 
 coined in 1853 (when Australian gold came in), 
 12,664,125/. ; in 1854, 4,354,201/.; in 1855, 
 9,245,264/. ; in 1856, 6,476,060/. 
 
 » The amalgamation of gold is described by Pliny (about 77) and Vitruvius (about b.c. 27). The 
 alchemist Basil Valentine (in the 15th century) was acquainted with the solution of the chloride of gold and 
 fulminating gold. Andreas Cassius in 1685, described the preparation of gold purple, which was then 
 adapted by Kunkel to make red glass, and to other purposes. Gmelin. Gold has been subjected to the 
 researches of eminent chemists, .such as Berzelius and Faraday, up to the present day. 
 
GOL 343 GOO 
 
 GOLD, continued. 
 
 Gold Mines. Gold was found most abundantly in i Gold discovored in New Zealand, and in Novo 
 
 Africa, Japan, and South America, in which last Scotia in i85i. 
 
 gold was discovered by the Spaniards in 1492, from 
 which time to 1731 they imported into Europe 
 6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold 
 and silver, exclusively of what were unregistered. 
 
 A piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal 
 to si.xty pounds troy (the mark being eight 
 ounces;, was found near La Paz, a town of Peru, 
 1730. 
 
 Gold was discovered in Malacca in,i73i ; in New 
 Andalusia in 1785 ; in Oeylon, 1800 ; 2887 oz. of 
 gold, value 9991 i., obtained from mines in Britain 
 and Ireland in 1864 ; has been found in Cornwall, 
 and in the county of Wicklow in Ireland. 
 
 Tlie Ural or Oural mountains of Russia long pro- 
 duced gold in large quantity. 
 
 Gold discovered in California, 1847 ; and in Aus- 
 tralia, 1851. On April 28, 1858, a ni.gget, said to 
 
 Gold Wire was first made in Italy about 1350. An 
 ounce of gold is sufficient to gild a silver wire 
 above 1300 miles in length ; and such is its tenacity 
 that a wire the one-eighteenth part of an inch 
 will bear the weight of 500 lb. without breaking. 
 Fourcroy. 
 
 A single grain of gold may be extended into a 
 leaf of fifty-six square inches, and gold leaf can 
 be reduced to the 300,000 part of an inch, and 
 gilding to the ten-milhonth part. Kelly's Cambist. 
 
 Gold Robbeey. Three boxes, hooped and sealed, 
 containing gold in bars and coin to the value of 
 between i8,ooo(. and 2o,oooL were sent from Lon- 
 don, May IS, 1855. On their arrival in Paris, it 
 was found that ingots to the value of i2,oooJ. had 
 been abstracted, and shot substituted, although 
 the boxes bore no marks of violence. Many per- 
 
 weigh 146 pounds, was shown to the queea. It is sons were apprehended on suspicion ; but the 
 
 estimated that between 1851 and 1859 gold to , pohce obtained no trace till Nov. 1856. Three men 
 
 the value of 88,889,435?. was exported from named Pierce, Burgess, and Tester, were tried and 
 
 Victoria alone. See California and Australia convicted Jan. 13-15, 1857, on the evidence of 
 
 severally. I Edward Agar, an accomplice. They had been pre- 
 
 Gold discovered in what is now termed New paring for the robbery for eighteen months pre- 
 
 Columbia in 1856; much emigration there ia 1858. i vious to its perpetration. 
 
 GOLD FISH. Brought to England from China in 1691 ; but not common till 1723. 
 
 GOLDEN BULL. See Bulls. 
 
 GOLDEN FLEECE (see Argonauts). Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429, 
 instituted the military order of " Toison d'or" or "golden fleece." The number of knights 
 was thirty-one. The king of Spain afterwards became grand master of the order, as duke of 
 Burgundy. It was said to have been instituted on account of the immense profit the duke 
 made hj wool. The first solemnities were performed at Burgos, at this duke's marriage 
 with Isabel of Portugal. The knights wore a scarlet cloak lined with ermine, with a collar 
 opened, and the duke's cipher, in the form of a B, to signify Burgundy, together with flints 
 striking fire, with the motto "Anteferit, quam flamma micat." At the end of the collar 
 hung a golden-fleece, with this device, '^Pretmm non vile lahorum.'" The order afterwards 
 became common to all the princes of the house of Austria, as being descended from Mary, 
 daughter of Chaiies the Bold, last duke of Burgundy. The order now belongs to both 
 Austria and Spain, in conformity with a treaty made in 1 725. 
 
 GOLDEN HORDE, a name given to the Mongolian Tartars who established an empire 
 in Kaptchak (or Kibzak), now S.E. Russia, about 1224, their ruler being Baton, grandson 
 of Geugis Khau. They invaded Russia, and made Alexander Newski grand-duke, 1252. 
 At the battle of Bielawisch, in 1481, they were crushed by Ivan III. and his allies the Nogai 
 Tartars. 
 
 GOLDEN NUMBER, the cycle of nineteen years, or the number which shows the years 
 of the moon's cycle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens, about 432 B.C. Pliny. 
 To find the golden number or year of the lunar cycle, add one to the date and divide by 
 nineteen, then the quotient is the number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the 
 golden number. The golden number for 1865, is 4 ; for 1866, 5 ; for 1867, 6 ; for 1868, 7. 
 
 GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY (London) began about 1327, and incorporated 16 Rich. IL 
 1392. The mark or date of the Goldsmiths' company wherewith to stamp standard silver 
 and gold wares is made by letters from A to U, changed every year, commenced in 1 796. 
 The old hall was taken down in 1829, and the present magnificent edifice was opened in 
 1835. See Assay, and Standard. The first bankers were goldsmiths. 
 
 GOOD FRIDAY (probably God's Friday). From early time this has been held as a 
 solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour on Friday, April 3, 33, or 
 April 15, 29. Its appellation oi good appears to be peculiar to the church of England ; our 
 Saxon forefathers denominated it Long Friday, oa account of the great length of the ofiices 
 observed and fastings enjoined on this day. Good Friday, 1866, March 30 ; 1867, April 19 ; 
 1868, April 10. 
 
 GOODWIN. See Godwin. 
 
GOO 344 GOT 
 
 GOOJERAT (N. ludia). Near this place, on Feb. 21, 1849, lord Gough totally defeated 
 the Sikhs after a very severe conflict. Some of the enemy's guns, and the whole of their 
 ammunition and camp equipage, fell into the hands of the British. Shere-Singh escaped 
 with only 8ocx) men. Goojerat was taken. 
 
 GOOSE. See Micliaelmas. 
 
 GORDIAN KNOT. The knot is said to have been made of the thongs that served as 
 harness to the waggon of Gordius, a husbandman, afterwards king of Phrygia. Whosoever 
 loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the oracle declared should be ruler 
 of Persia. Alexander the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of 
 it, and thus, in a military sense at least, interpreted the oracle, 330 b. c. 
 
 GORDON'S "NO POPERY" RIOTS, occasioned by the zeal of lord George Gordon, 
 June 2 — 5, 1780.* 
 
 GOREE, a station near Cape Verd, W. coast of Africa, planted by the Dutch, 1617. It 
 was taken b}' the English admiral Holmes in 1663 ; and was ceded to France by the treaty 
 of Nimeguen in 1678. Goree was again taken by the British in 1758', 1779, 1800, and 
 1804. Governor Wall, formerly governor of this island, was hanged in London, Jan. 28, 
 1802, for the murder of sergeant Armstrong, committed while at Goree in 1782. 
 
 GOREY (S. E. Ireland). Near here the king's troops under colonel Walpole were 
 defeated, and their leader slain, by the Iri.sh rebels, June 4, 1798. 
 
 GORGET, the ancient breast-plate, was very large, varjang in size and weight. The 
 present diminutive breast-plate came into use about 1660. See Armour. 
 
 GORILLA, a powerful ape of West Africa, from about five feet six, seven, or eight 
 inches high. It is a match for the lion, and attacks the elephant with a club. It is con- 
 sidered to be identical with the hairy people called Gorullai by tlie navigator Hanno, in his 
 Periplus, about 400 or 500 b. c. In 1847 a sketch of a gorilla's cranium was sent to Professor 
 Owen by Dr. Savage, then at the Gaboon river. Preserved specimens have been recently 
 bi'ought to Europe, and a living one died on its voyage to France. In 1859 Professor Owen 
 gave an able sunimarj'^ of our knowledge of this creature at the Royal Institution, London ; 
 and in 1861 several .skins and skulls were there exhibited b}- M. Du Chailhi, who stated that 
 he killed 21 of them in his travels in Central Africa. The gorilla was not known to Cuvier. 
 
 GOSPELLERS, the name given to the followers of Wickliffe, who first attacked the 
 errors of popery, about 1377. Wickliffe opposed the authority of the pope, the temporal 
 jurisdiction of bishops, &c., and is called the father of the Reformation. 
 
 GOSPELS (Saxon god-spell, good story). Matthew's and Mark's are conjectured to have 
 been written between a.d. 38 and 65 ; Luke's, 55 and 65 ; John's, about 97. Dr. Robert 
 Bray was one of the authors of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign 
 Countries, incorporated in 1701. A body termed "Bray's Associates" still exists; its 
 object being to assist in forming and supporting clerical parochial libraries. Irenseus in the 
 2nd centur}' refers to each of the gospels by name. 
 
 GOSPORT (Hampshire), contains the Royal Clarence victnalling j'ard, the bakery in 
 which can turn out ten tons of biscuit in an hour. The great Haslar hospital, near Gosjiort, 
 was built in 1 762. 
 
 GOTHA, capital of the duchy of Saxe Coburg-Gotha. Here is published the celebrated 
 Ahnanach de Gotha, which first appeared in 1764, in German. 
 
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE began aboiit the 9th century after Christ, and spread over 
 Europe. Its great feature is the pointed arch ; hence it has been suggested to call it the 
 pointed style. "Gothic" was originally a term of reproach given to this style by the 
 
 * On Jan. 4, 1780, he tendei-ed the petition of the Protestant Association to lord North, and on June 
 2, headed the mob of 40,000 ijei-.sous who assembled in tit. George's Fields, luiJer the name of the Pro- 
 testant Association, to carry up a petition to parliament for the rejjeiil of the act which granted certain 
 indulgences to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised could not be dispersed, but proceeded to the 
 most daring outrage, pillaging, burning, and pulling down the chaiiels and houses of the Roman Catholics 
 first, but afterwards of several other persons ; bre:iking open prisons and setting the per.sous free ; even 
 attempting the Bank of England ; and in a word totally overcoming the civil power for nearly six days. 
 On June 3rd, the Roman Catholic chapels and numerous niausicns were destro\ed, the Bank attcmjited^ 
 the gaois opened, — among these were the King's Bench, Newgate, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons ; on the 
 5th, thirty -six fires were seen blazing at one time. At length by the aid of armed association's of the 
 citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the mihtia of several counties, then embodied and marched to 
 London, the riot was quelled. In the end, 210 of the rioters were killed, and 24S wounded, of whom 75 
 died afterwards in the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George was tried for 
 high treason, Feb. 5, 1781, but was acquitted. He died a piisoner for libel, Nov. i, 1793. 
 
GOT 345 GRA 
 
 renaissance architects of the i6th century. Its invention has been claimed for several 
 nations, particulaiiy for the Saracens. The following list is from Godwin's Chronological 
 Table of EiiKlish Architecture : — 
 
 Florid Pointed— a.d. 1377 to 1509— Westminster 
 Hall ; King's College, Cambridge ; St. George's 
 chapel, Windsor; Henry VII. 's chapel, Westmin- 
 ster. 
 
 Elizabethan — a.d. 1509 to 1625 — Northumberland 
 House, Strand ; Windsor Castle, Hatfield House, 
 schools at Oxford. 
 
 Revival of Grecian architecture about 1625, Ban- 
 queting House, Whitehall, (fee. 
 
 The revival of Gothic architecture commenced about 
 1825, mainly through the exertions of A. W. 
 Pugin. The controversy as to its expediency v^as 
 rife in 1860-1. 
 
 ANaLo-RoMAN — B.C. 55 to about a.d. 250 — St. Mar- 
 tin's church, Canterbury. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon — a.d. 800 to io56 -Earl's Barton 
 church ; St. Peter's, Lincolnshire. 
 
 Gothic Anglo-Roman— a.d. io65 to 1135 — Roches- 
 ter cathedral nave ; St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield ; 
 St. Cross, Hants, &c. 
 
 E.^RLY English, or Pointed — a.d. 1135 to 1272 — 
 Temple church, London ; partsi of Winchester, 
 Wells, Salisbury, and Durham cathedrals, aud 
 Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Pointed, called Pure Gothic — a.d. 1272 to 1377 — 
 Exeter cathedral, Waltham Cross, <fec., St. Ste- 
 phen's, Westminster. 
 
 GOTHLAND, an isle in the Baltic Sea, was conquered by the Teutonic knights, 1397-8 : 
 given up to the Danes, 1524 ; to Sweden, 1645 ; conquered by the Danes, 1677, and restored 
 to Sweden, 1679. 
 
 GOTHS, a warlike nation that inhabited the country between the Caspian, Pontus, 
 Euxine, and Baltic seas. They entered Moesia, took Philippopolis, massacring thousands of 
 its inhabitants ; defeated and killed the emperor Decius, 25 1 ; but were defeated by 
 Claudius, 320,000 being slain, 269. Aurelian ceded Dacia to them in 272 ; but they long 
 troubled the empire. After the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the 
 Ostrogoths, under Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained 
 their dominion till 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses, Justinian's general. 
 The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a kingdom, which continued until the country 
 was subdued by the Saracens. 
 
 GOVERNESSES' BENEVOLENT INSTITUTION, was established in 1843, and incor- 
 poi'ated in 1848. It affords to aged governesses annuities and an asylum ; and to governesses 
 in distress a temporary home and assistance. 
 
 GOVERNMENT Annuities Act. See Annuities. The building of the new Govern- 
 ment Offices began in 1861. 
 
 GOWRIE CONSPIRACY. A young Scotch nobleman, John, earl of Gowrie, in 1600, 
 reckoning on the support of the burghs and the kirk, conspired to dethrone James VI. and 
 seize the government. Eor this purpose he decoyed the king into Gowrie house, in Perth, 
 on Aug. 6, 1600. The plot was frustrated, and the earl and his brother, Alexander Ruthven, 
 were slain on the spot. At the time, many persons believed that the young men were rather 
 the victims than the authors of a plot. Their father, William, was treacherously executed 
 in 1584 for his share in the Raid of Ruthven, in 1582 ; and he and his father, Patrick, were 
 among the assassins of Rizzio in 1566. 
 
 GRACE AT Meat. The ancient Greeks would not partake of any meat until thej'^ had 
 first offered part of it, as the first fruits, to their gods. The short prayer said before, and by 
 some persons after meat, in all Christian countries, from the earliest times, is in conformity 
 with Christ's example, Jolm vi. 11, &c. 
 
 GRACE, a title assumed by Henry IV. of England, on his accession, in 1399. Excellent 
 Grace was assumed by Henry VI. about 1425. Till the time of James I. 1603, the king was 
 addressed by that title, but afterwards by the title of Majesty only. " Your Grace " is the 
 manner of addressing an archbishop and a duke in this realm. — The term ' ' Grace of God " is 
 said to have been taken by bishops at Ephesus, 431 (probably from i Cor. xv. 10), by the 
 Carlovingiiin princes in the 9th century, by popes in the 13th century ; and about 1440 it 
 was assumed by kings as signifying their divine right. It was taken by the king of Piussia 
 in Oct. 1861, and created much adverse comment. 
 
 GRjECIA, magna, colonies planted by the Greeks, 974 — 748 b.c. See Italy. 
 
 GRAFTON'S, Duke of, Administration, succeeded that of lord Chatham, Dec. 1767. 
 Terminated by lord North becoming prime minister in 1770. See North's Administration. 
 
 Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton, first lord of the | Sir Edward Hawke,. /irs< lord of the admiralty, 
 treasury [born, 1735 ; died, iSii]. Marquess of Granby, master- gtner at of the ordnance. 
 
 Frederick, lord North, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Earl Gower, lord 'president. 
 Earl of Chatham, lord privy seal. 
 
 Earl of Shelburne and viscount Weymouth, secreta- shend, &c 
 ries of state. 1 Lord Camden, lord chancellor. 
 
 Lords Sandwich and Le Despencer joint postmasters- 
 general. 
 Lords Hertford, duke of Anoaster, Thomas Town- 
 
GRA 346 GRA 
 
 GRAFFITI, a tenu given to the scribblings found on the walls of Pompeii and other 
 Roman ruins : selections were published by Wordsworth in 1837, and by Garrucci in 1856. 
 
 GRAHAII'S DIKE (Scotland). A wall built in 209 by Severus Septimus, the Roman 
 emperor, or, as others say, by Antoninus Pius. It readied from the Frith of Forth to tlie 
 Clyde. The eminent historian Buchanan relates that there were considerable remains of this 
 wall in his time ; and some vestiges of it are to be seen even to this day. 
 
 GRAIN. Henry III. is said to have ordered a grain of wheat gathered from the middle 
 of the ear to be the original standard of weiglit : 12 grains to be a pennj^weight ; 12 penny- 
 weights one ounce, and 12 ounces a pound Troy. Laivson. 
 
 GRAMMARIANS. Anciently, the most eminent men in literature were denominated 
 grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed at Rome so early as 276 B.C. Blair. 
 ApoUodorus of Athens, Varro, Cicero, Messala, Julius Ctesar, Nicias, iElius Donatus, Rem- 
 mius, Palemon, Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenffius, and other distinguished men, were of this 
 class. A Greek grammar was printed at Milan in 1476 ; Lily's Latin grammar (Brevis 
 Institutio), 1513 ; Lindley Murray's English grammar, 1795; Cobbett's English gi-ammar, 
 1818. — Harris's Hermes was published in 1750, Home Tooke's Epea Pteroenta, or the 
 "Diversions of Purley," in 1786, both excellent treatises on the plilosophy of language and 
 gi-ammar. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to have been the only purely grammatical orator 
 of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's, said, " We threw our whole 
 grammatical mind upon it, and could not discover one error." 
 
 GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. See Education. 
 
 GRAMME. See Metrical Sxjstcm. 
 
 GRAMPIAN HILLS (central Scotland). At Ardoch, near the Mons Grampius of 
 Tacitus, the Scots and Picts under Galgacus wei'e defeated by the Romans under Agii- 
 cola, 84. 
 
 GRAMPOUND (Cornwall). For bribery and corrupt pi'actices in this borough, in 1819, 
 several persons were convicted, among them sir Manasseh Lopez, who was sentenced by the 
 court of king's bench to a fine of io,oooZ. and two years' imprisonment. Grampound was 
 disfranchised in 1821. 
 
 GRANADA, a city, S. Spain, was founded by the Moors in the 8th century, and formed 
 at first part of the kingdom of Cordova. In 1236, Mohamnied-al-Hamar made it the capital 
 of his new kingdom of Granada, which was highly prosperous till its subjugation by the 
 "great captain," Gonsalvo de Cordova, in 1492. In 1609 and 1610, the industrious Moors 
 were expelled from Spain, by the bigoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his country. 
 Granada was taken by marshal Soiilt in 1810, and held till 1812. See New Granada. 
 
 GRANARIES were formed by Joseph in Egypt, 1715 B.C. {Genesis xli. 48.) There were 
 three hundred and twenty-seven granaries in Rome. Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries 
 were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 ipiarters of corn, and two storehouses for seacoal to hold 
 4000 loads, thereby to prevent the sudden dearuess of these articles by great increase of 
 inhabitants, 7 James I. 1610. Stow. 
 
 GRAND ALLIANCE between England, the emperor, and the States-General (principally 
 to prevent the union of the French and Spanish monarchies in one peison), signed at Vienna, 
 May 12, 1689, to which Spain and the duke of Savoy afterwards acceded. 
 
 GRANDEES. See Spanish Grandees. 
 
 GRAND-DUKE. See Duke. 
 
 GRAND JUNCTION CANAL (central England), joins several others, atfd forms a 
 water communication between London, Liverpool, Bristol, and Hull. The canal commences 
 at Braunston, on tlie west borders of Northamptonshire, and enters the Thames near London. 
 Executed 1 793-1 801. 
 
 GRAND PENSIONARY, a chief state functionary in Holland, in the i6th century. 
 In the constitution given by France to the Batavian i-epublic, previously to the erection of the 
 kingdom of Holland, the title was revived and given to the head of the govenuneut, April 
 29, 1805, Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck being made the Grand Pensionary. See Holland. 
 
 GRAND REMONSTRANCE, ^ea Remonstrance. 
 
 GRANICUS (a river, N.W. Asia Minor), near which on May 22, 334 B.C., Alexander the 
 Great signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse), 
 
GRA 317 GRE 
 
 crossed the Grani.cns in the face of the Persian army (600,000 foot and 20,000 horse). Jvstm. 
 The victors lost fifty-five foot soldiers and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletiis and 
 Halicarnassns were taken by stoma, and other great towns suhmitted to the conqueror. 
 
 GEANSON, near the lake of JSTeufchatel, Switzerland, where Charles the Bold, duke of 
 BnrgTindy, was defeated by the Swiss, April 5, 1476. 
 
 GRAPES. Previously to the reign of Edward VI. grapes were brought to England in 
 large quantities from Flanders, where they were first cultivated about 1276. The vine was 
 introduced into England in 1552 ; being first planted at Bloxhall, in Suffolk. In the gardens 
 of Hampton-court palace is a vine, stated to surpass any in Eirrope ; it is 72 feet by 20, and 
 has in one season produced 2272 bunches of grapes, weighing 18 cwt. ; the stem is 13 inches 
 in girth ; it was planted in 1 769. Leigh. 
 
 GRAPHITE (from the Greek grapliein, to write), a peculiar form of mineral carbon, with 
 a trace of iron, improperly termed black lead and plumbago. In 1809 sir Humphry Davy 
 investigated into the relations of three forms of carbon, the diamond, graphite, and charcoal. 
 A rude kind of black lead pencil is mentioned by Gesner in 1565. Interesting results of sir 
 B. C. Brodie's researches on graphite appeared in the International Exhibition of 1862. 
 
 GRATES. There were arched hearths among the Anglo-Saxons, and chafing-dishes were 
 most in use until the general introduction of chimneys about 1200. See Chimneys and 
 Stoves. 
 
 GRAVELINES (N. France). Here the Spaniards, aided by an English fleet, defeated the 
 French on July 13, 1558. 
 
 GRAVITATION", as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the Greeks, and also by 
 Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters, about 38. Kepler investigated the 
 subject about 1615 ; and Hooke devised a system of gravitation about 1674. The principles 
 of gravity were demonstrated by Galileo at Florence, about 1633 ; but the great law on this 
 subject was laid down by Newton in his " Prmcipia," in 16S7. 
 
 GREAT BETHEL. "See Big Bethel. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN, the name given in 1604 to England, Wales, and Scotland {which see). — 
 The stupendous iron steam vessel. Great Britain, commanded by captain Hosken, formerly 
 a naval officer, sailed from the Mersey, Liverpool, July 26, 1845, and arrived at New York, 
 Aug. 10. She sailed to the same place in the forenoon of Sept. 22, 1846, with a large cargo 
 of goods and 185 passengers, the greatest nimiber that had ever sailed to America by steam. 
 The same evening the passengers were suddenly alarmed by a concussion, as if the vessel had 
 struck upon a rock, and soon discovered that she was aground in Dundrum bay, in Ireland. 
 They were landed in safet}'-, but all attempts to get the vessel ofi" were ineffectual, and she 
 lay stranded until Aug. 27, 1847, when Messrs. I. Brunei, jun., and Brenmer, the engineers, 
 succeeded in getting her off, she having sustained little damage from the shock, or from the 
 waves rolling over her for neai'ly a year. 
 
 GREAT EASTERN, &c. See under Steam. The Eastern Counties Railway assumed the 
 name of Great Eastern in 1862. The Great Northern Railway Company was incorpo- 
 rated in 1846. Their station at King's-cross, London, was opened in Oct. 1852. The Great 
 Western Railavay, between London and Bristol, was opened June 30, 1841. 
 
 GREAT SEAL of ENGLAND. The first seal used by Edward the Confessor was called 
 the broad seal, and afiixed to grants of the crown, 1048. Baker's Chron. The most ancient 
 seal with arms on it is that of Richard I. James II., when fleeing from London in 1688, 
 dropped the great seal in the Thames. The great seal of England was stolen from the 
 house of lord chancellor Thurlow, in Great Ormond-street, into which some thieves broke, 
 and carried it away, with other property, March 24, 1784, a day before the dissolution of 
 parliament ; it was never recovered. It was replaced on the next daj'. A new seal was brought 
 into use on the rmion with Ireland, Jan. i, 1801. Anew seal for Ireland was brought into 
 use and the old one defaced, Jan. 21, 1832. 
 
 GREECE, anciently termed Hellas. The Greeks are said to have been the progeny of 
 Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece was so called from a very ancient king named Grtecus ; 
 and from another king, Hellen, the son of Deucalion, the people were called Hellenes. From 
 Hellen's sons, Dorus and ^olus, came the Dorians and J5olians ; another son Xuthus was 
 father of Achreus and Ion, the progenitors of the Achseans and lonians. Homer calls the 
 inhabitants indifferently Myrmidons, Hellenes, and Achaians. They were termed Danai, 
 from Dauaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. Greece anciently consisted of the peninsula of the 
 Peloponnesus, Greece outside of the Peloponnesus, Thessaly, and the islands. The principal 
 
GllE 
 
 348 
 
 GKE 
 
 slates of Greece were Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Arcadia, and afterwards Macedon 
 \all which see). The limits of modern Greece are much more confined. Greece became 
 subject to the Turkish empire in the 15th century. The population of the kingdom, 
 established in 1829, 96,810 ; in 1861, with the Ionian isles (added in 1864), 1,326,000. 
 
 Sicyon founded (-Fi'seftiMs) . . . .B.C. 2089 
 Uz-anus arrives iu Greece (Lenr/let) . . . 2042 
 Eevolt of the Titans; War of the Giants . .* * 
 Inachus king of the Argives .... 1910 
 Kingdom of Argos begun (Ev.xebius) . . . 1856 
 Reign of Ogyges in Boeotia (Eusibiux) . . 1796 
 Sacrifices to the gods fii-.st introduced in Greece 
 
 by Phoroneus i773 
 
 The Pelasgi hold the Peloponnesus 1700-1550; 
 
 succeeded by the Hellenes . . . 1550-1300 
 According to some authors, Sicyou was now 
 
 begun (Lenglet) I773 
 
 Deluge of Ogyges (tchich see) .... 1764 
 A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under 
 Qluotrus : the country first called (Eiiotria, 
 afterwards Magna Gnecia (EufeOius) . . . 1710 
 Chronology of the Arundelian • marbles com- 
 mences (Easebius) 1382 
 
 Cecrops arrives from Egyj^t . . . about 1550 
 Deluge of Deucalion (EaseOiiis) .... 1503 
 Panathenajan games instituted . . . . 1495 
 Cadmus with the Phoenician lettei-s settles in 
 
 Boeo'.ia, and founds Thebes . . about 1493 
 Lelex, fii-st king of Laconia, afterwards called 
 
 Sparta 1490 
 
 Daiiaus said to have brought the first ship into 
 Greece, and to have introduced pumps (see 
 
 Argos) 1485 
 
 Reign of Hellen (Eusebiv.s) 1459 
 
 First Olympic gauies celebrated at Elis, by the 
 Idcei Diictyli, 1453 : who are said to have dis-^ 
 
 covered iron 1406 
 
 Corinth re-built and so named .... 1384 
 Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumolpus 
 
 (1356) and Isthmian games . . . . 1326 
 Kingdom of Mj'cenas created out of Argos . . 1313 
 Pel ops, from Lydia, settles iu south Greece, 
 
 about 1283 
 Argonautic expedition (M?itc/i «ee) . . . . 1263 
 The Pythian games begun by Adrastus . . „ 
 War of the seven Greek captains against Thebes 1225 
 The Amazonian war . . . . . . 1213 
 
 Rape of Helen by Theseus „ 
 
 Rajae of Helen by Paris 1198 
 
 Commencement of the Trojan war . . . 1193 
 Troy taken and destroyed on the night of the 
 7th of the month ThargeUon (27th of May, or 
 
 nth June) 1184 
 
 .Sine IS said to arrive in Italy . . about 11 82 
 Migi-ation of jEolians who build Smyrna, <fec. . 1123 
 Return of the HeraclidiB . . . about 1103 
 Settlement of the lonians in Asia Minor . . 1044 
 The Rhodians begin navigation laws . . 916 
 
 Lycurgus flourishes 924-840 
 
 Olympic games revived at Ellis, 884 ; the first 
 
 Olympiad 776 
 
 The Messenian wars 743-669 
 
 Sea-fight, the first on record, between the Corin- 
 thians and the inhabitants of Corcyra . . 664 
 
 Byzantine built 657 
 
 Seven sages of Greece (Solon, Periander, Pit- 
 tacus, Chilo, Thales, Cleobulus, and Bias) 
 flourish ........ 593 
 
 Persian conquests in Ionia 544 
 
 Sybaris in Magna Graicia destroyed : 100,000 
 
 Crotonians un der Milo defeat 300,000 Sybarites 508 
 Sardis burnt by the Greeks, which occasions 
 the Persian invasion, 504 ; Thrace ;ind Mace- 
 donia conquered 496 
 
 Athens and Spaita resist the demands of the 
 king of Persia ....... 491 
 
 The Persians defeated at Marathon {u-Mch see), 
 
 Sept. 28, 490 
 Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked at 
 Thermopylae by Leonidas . . . Au^;. 480 
 
 Battle of Salamis (which see) . Oct. 20, B.C. 480 
 Mardonius defeated and sLiin at Plabta ; Per- 
 sian fleet destroyed at Mycale . . Sept. 22, 479 
 Battle of Eurymedon (end of Persian war; . . 466 
 Athens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . 459 
 The first sacred war begun . . ... 448 
 War between Corinth and its colony Corcyra . 435 
 Leads to the Peloponnesian war . . 431-404 
 Disastrous Athenian expedition to Syracuse 415-413 
 Retreat of the 10,000 under Xeuophon . . 400 
 
 Death of Socrates 399 
 
 The sea-fight at Cnidus 394 
 
 The peace of Antalcidas 387 
 
 Rise and fall of the Theban power in Greece 370-360 
 Battle of Mantinea ; death of Epaminondas . 362 
 Ambitious designs of Philip of Macedon . . 353 
 Sacred war ended by PhiUp, who takes all the 
 
 cities of the Phoceans 348 
 
 Battle o{ ChxTonea. (which see) .... 338 
 Philip assassinated by Pausauias . . . . 335 
 Alexander, the son of Philip, enters Greece ; 
 subdues the Athenians, and destroys the city 
 
 of Thebes „ 
 
 Alexander conquers the Persi.in empire . 334-331 
 Greece harassed by his successors ; the ..Etolian 
 
 and Achaian leagues revived . . . 284-280 
 Greece invaded by the Gauls, 280 ; they are 
 
 defeated at Delphi, 279 ; and expelled . 277 
 
 Dissensions lead to the intervention of the 
 
 Romans 200 
 
 Greece conquered by Mummius and made a 
 Roman province 147-146 
 
 Greece visited and favoured by Augustus, 
 B.C. 21 : and Hadrian .... a.d. 122-133 
 
 Invaded by Alarie 396 
 
 Plundered by the Normans of Sicily . . .1146 
 Conquered by the Latins, and subdivided into 
 
 small governments 1204 
 
 The Turks under Mahomet II. conquer Athena 
 
 and part of Greece 1456 
 
 The Venetians hold Athens and the Morea . 1466 
 All Greece subject to the Turks . . . . 1540 
 Great struggle for indejicudence with Russian 
 help ; fruitless insuirectiqn of the Suliotes . 
 
 I 770- 1803 
 Secret Society, the Hetairia, established . . 1815 
 Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, in 
 
 which the Greeks join, suppressed . . . 1821 
 Proclamation of prince Alexander to shake ofif 
 the Turkish yoke, March, 1821 ; he raised the 
 standard of the cross against the crescent 
 and the war of independence began April 6, ,, 
 The Greek patriarch put to death at Constanti- 
 nople April 23, ,, 
 
 Independence of Greece proclaimed . Jan. 27, 1822 
 Siege of Corinth by the Tin-ks . . . Jan. „ 
 Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; most 
 hon-ible massacre recorded iu modem history 
 
 (see Chios) April, „ 
 
 The Greeks victors at Thermopyto, &c. July, „ 
 
 Massacre at Cyprus July, ,, 
 
 N.ational congress at Argos . . . April 10, 1823 
 Victories of Marco Botzaris . . . June, „ 
 Lord Byron lands in Greece to devote himself 
 
 to its cause Aug. ,, 
 
 First Greek loan Feb. 1824 
 
 Death of lord Byron at Missolonghi . April 19, „ 
 Defeat of the Capitan Pacha, at Samos, Aug. 16, „ 
 Provisional government of Greece set >ip, Oct. 12, „ 
 Ibrahim Pacha lands, Feb. 25 ; takes Navaiin 
 
 and ravages Greece .... May, 1825 
 The Greek fleet defeats the Capitan Pacha, 
 
 June, ,, 
 
GRE 
 
 349 
 
 GEE 
 
 GREECE, continued. 
 The provisional government invite the protec- 
 tion of England July, 1825 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha takes Missolonghi by assault, 
 
 after a long heroic defence . . April 23, 1326 
 70,000^. raised in Europe for the Greeks . . „ 
 Reschid Pacha takes Athens . . June 2, 1827 
 Treaty of London, between Great Bi'itain,Russia, 
 
 andFi-auce, on behalf of Grejce, signed July6, ,, 
 Turkish fleet destroyed at Navarino {which see), 
 
 Oct. 20, ,, 
 Count Capo d'Istria president of Greece, Jan. 18, 1828 
 The Panhellenion or Grand Council of State 
 
 established Feb. 2, ,, 
 
 National bank founded . . . Feb. 14, ,, 
 Convention of the viceroy of Egypt with sir 
 Edward Codrington, for the evacuation of 
 the Morea, and delivery of captives . Aug. 6, „ 
 Patras, Navarino, and Modon surrender to the 
 
 French Oct. 6, ,, 
 
 The Turks evacuate the Morea . . Oct. „ 
 Jlissolpnghi surrenders . . . May 16, 1829 
 Greek National Assembly commences its sit- 
 
 tini^s at Ai-gos .... July 23, ,, 
 The- Porte acknowledges the independence of 
 
 Greece in the treaty of Adrianople Sept. 14, „ 
 Prince Leopold declines the sovereignty May 21, 1830 
 Count Capo de'Istri.a, president of Greece, assas- 
 sinated by the brother and son of Mavromi- 
 chaelis, a Mainote chief whom he had im- 
 prisoned* Oct. 9, 1831 
 
 Otho of Bavai-ia elected king of Greece May 7, 1832 
 Colocotroni's conspiracy . . . Sept. ,, 
 Otho I. assumes the government. . . . 1833 
 
 University at Athens established, 1837 ; build- 
 ing commenced ...... 1839 
 
 A bloodless revolution at Athens is consum- 
 mated, establishing a new constitution, en- 
 forcing ministerial responsibility and na- 
 tional representation . . . Sept. 14, 1843 
 The king accepts the new constitution March, 1844 
 Admiral Parker, in command of *the British 
 Mediterranean fleet, blockades the harbour 
 of the Piraeus, the Greek government having 
 refused the payment of monies due to British 
 subjects, and to surrender the islands of 
 Sapienza and Caprera . . . Jan. 18, 1850 
 France interposes her good offices, and the 
 
 blockade is discontinued . . March i, ,, 
 Negotiations terminate, and the blockade of 
 
 Athens is renewed . . . April 25, ,, 
 
 Dispute with Fi-ance accommodated June 21, ,, 
 Insurrections against Turkey in Thessaly and 
 Epinis, favoured by the Greek court Jan. 
 and Feb. ; lead to a ruptui-e between Greece 
 
 and Turkey March 28, 1854 
 
 After many remonstrances, the English and 
 French governments send troops which 
 arrive at the Piraeus ; change of ministry 
 ensues, and the king promises to observe a 
 strict neutrality . . . May 25, 26, ,, 
 A newspaper in the modern Greek language 
 
 printed in London, beginning . . July g, i860 
 Great Britain, France, and Russia remonstrate 
 with the Greek government respecting its 
 
 debts Oct. 18, „ 
 
 Agitation in the Ionian isles for annexation to 
 
 Greece ; the parliament prorogued . March, 1861 
 The king retires to Bavaria . . . July, „ 
 Attempted assassination of the queen by Darios, , , 
 an insane student .... Sept. 18, „ 
 Great earthquake in the Peloponnesus, Dec 26, ,, 
 Leopold of Bavaria proposed as heir to the 
 
 throne Jan. 1862 
 
 MUituy revolt begins at Nauplia . Feb. 13, ,, 
 
 Blockade of the coast decreed . March 9, 
 
 The insurgents demand reforms and a new 
 succession to the throne . . . April, 
 
 The royal troops enter the citadel of N.auplia ; 
 insurgents transported to other stations, 
 
 April 25 
 
 Change of ministry : Colocotroni becomes 
 premier June 7, 
 
 Insurrection begins at Patras and Missolonghi, 
 Oct. 17 ; aprovisionalgovemment, established 
 at Athens, deposes the king, Oct 22 ; he and 
 the queen fly ; arrive at Corfu, Oct. 27 ; the 
 great European powers neutral ; general sub- 
 mission to the provisional government, 
 
 Oct. 31, 
 
 Great demonsti'ations in favour of prince 
 Alfred, who is proclaimed king at Lamia in 
 Pbthiotis, Nov. 22 ; great excitement in his 
 favour at Athens .... Nov. 23. 
 
 The provisional government establish universal 
 suffrage Dec. 4, 
 
 The national assembly meets at Athens Dec. 22, 
 
 The national assembly elects M. Balbis presi- 
 dent, Jan. 29 ; and declares prince Alfred of 
 England elected king of Greece by 230,016 
 out of 241,202 votes .... Feb. 3, 
 
 Military revolt of lieut. Canaris against Bul- 
 garis and others, who resign, Feb. 20 ; the as- 
 sembly appoint a new ministry under Balbis, 
 
 Feb. 23, 
 
 The assembly decides to offer the crown to 
 
 prince William of Schleswig-Holstein, March 
 
 18, and proclaim him as king George I. 
 
 March 30, 
 
 Protocol between the three protecting povsfers, 
 France, England, and Russia, signed at 
 London, consenting to the offer of the crown 
 on condition of the annexation of the Ionian 
 isles to Greece .... June 5, 
 
 The king of Denmark accepts from the aged 
 admiral Canaris the Greek crown for prince 
 WUliam, and advises him to adhere to the 
 constitution and endeavour to gain and pre- 
 serve the love of his people . . June 6, 
 
 Military revolt at Athens, suppressed June 30, 
 
 July 9, 
 
 The king arrives at Athens, Oct. 30 ; takes the 
 oath to the constitution . . . Oct. 31, 
 
 The Balbis ministry formed . . April, 
 
 Protocol annexing the Ionian isles to Greece^ 
 signed by M. Zaimis and sir H. Storks, May 
 28 ; the Greek troops occupy Corfu, June 2 : 
 the king arrives there . . . June 6 
 
 New ministry under Canaris formed . Aug. 7, 
 
 The assembly recognises the debt of 1S24, 5 Sept! 
 
 After much delay, and a remonstrance from the 
 king, Oct. 19, a new constitution (with no 
 upper house) is passed by the assemlDly, Nov. 
 I ; and accepted by the king . . Nov. 28, 
 
 New ministry formed under Coumoimdouros 
 
 March 29, 
 
 The anniversary of the beginning of the war of 
 independence (April6, 1821) kept with enthu- 
 siasm April 6, 
 
 The king visits the eastern provinces ; general 
 tranquillity April 20, 
 
 The king opens the chamber of deputies 
 
 June 9, 
 
 Death of Alexander Mavrocordato, one of the 
 early patriots Aug. 18, 
 
 The king gives up one-third of his civil list to 
 relieve the treasury . . . Sept. 25, 
 
 An economical financial policy proposed ; a 
 new ministiy formed Nov. 
 
 1865 
 
 * The wretched assassins (Oct. 29, 1831) were immured within close brick walls, buUt around them up 
 to their chins, and supplied with food in this lingering torture until they died. 
 
GKE 
 
 350 
 
 GEE 
 
 GREECE, continued. 
 
 KINGS OF GREECE. 
 
 1832. Otho I., prince of B.avaria, bom June i, 1815 ; 
 elected king, May 7, 1832 ; under a regency 
 till June I, i8:j5 ; married Nov. 22, 1836, 
 to Maria Frederica, daughter of the grand- 
 
 duke of Oldenburg : deposed, Oct. 23, 1862. 
 1863. George I., king of the Hellenes, born Dec. 24, 
 1845 ; accepted the crown June 6, 1863 ; 
 declared of age, June 27. 
 
 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. ^eQ ArchUecturc. 
 
 GREEK CHURCH, or Eastern cliurch, claims priority, as using the language in which 
 the Gospel was first promulgated. Some of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of 
 the Roman church ; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope, and is strongly opposed to 
 many of tlie doctrines and practices of its rival. It is the established religion of Russia. 
 The Greek orthodox confession of faith appeared in 1643. See Fathers of the Church. 
 
 690 
 726 
 
 Catechetical school at Alexandria (Origen, 
 
 Clemens, ifcc.) 180-234 
 
 Rise of Monachism about 300 
 
 Foundation of the churches of Annenia, about 
 
 300 ; of Georgia or Iberia .... 3"i8 
 
 First council of Nice (Sec Coxmcils) . . . 325 
 Ulphilas preaches to the Goths . . about 376 
 Nestorius condemned at the council of Ephesus 431 
 Monophysite controversy ; churches of Egypt, 
 Syria, and Armenia, separate from the church 
 
 of Constantinople 461 
 
 Close of the school of Athens ; extinction of 
 
 the Platonic theology 529 
 
 The Jacobite sect established in Syria by 
 
 Jacobus Baradasus 541 
 
 The struggle with the Mahometans begins . 634 
 The Maronite sect begins to prevail . about 676 
 
 The Paulicians severely persecuted . 
 
 Iconoclastic controversy begins . . about 
 
 Pope Gregory II. excommunicates the emperor 
 Leo, which leads to the separation of the 
 Eastern (Greek) and Western (Roman) 
 churches ........ 
 
 Foundation of the church in Russia : conver- 
 sion of princess Olga, 955 ; of Vladimir . . g88 
 
 The Marouites join the Roman church . . . 1182 
 
 Reunion of the chui-ches at the council of 
 Lyons, 1274 ; again separated 
 
 The patriarchate of Moscow established, 1582 ; 
 suppressed in 1762 
 
 The archimandrite Nilos, representing Constan- 
 tinople and 4 patriarchates, visits London on 
 behalf of the Greek clergy in the Danubian 
 principalities, in . . . . ' . . 1863 
 
 729 
 
 1277 
 
 GREEK FIRE, a combustible composition (now iniknown, but thought to have been 
 principally naphtha), thrown from engines, said to have been invented by Callinicus, an 
 ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the 7th century, in order to destroy the 
 Saracens' ships, which was eft'ected by the general of the fleet of Constantine Pogonatus, and 
 30,000 men were killed. A so-called " Greek Fire," probably a solution of phosphorus in 
 bi- sulphide of carbon, was employed at the siege of Charleston, U.S., in Sept., 1863. 
 
 GREEK LANGUAGE. It was first studied in Europe about 1450 ; in France, 1473 ; 
 "William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned English professor of this language, travelled to 
 acquire its tiiie pronunciation, and introduced it at Oxford, about 149 1, where he had the 
 honour to teach Erasmus, who himself taught it at Cambridge in 15 10. Wood s Athcn. Oxon. 
 England has produced many eminent Greek scholars, of whom may be mentioned Richard 
 Bentley, died 1742 ; professor Person, who died in i8p8 ; Dr. Parr, who died in 1825 ; and 
 Dr. C. Burne}'^, who died in 181 7. 
 
 30 
 96 
 118 
 147 
 
 EMINENT GREEK AUTHORS. (See also Fathers and Philosophy.) 
 
 Strabo . . . . a.d. 
 Dionysius Hahcamassus, abt. 
 Plutarch . . . about 
 Epictetus . . about 
 Appian . . . about 
 Arrian . . alx)ut a.d. 
 Athenaius . . about 194 
 
 Lxician . . about 120-200 
 
 Herodian . . about 204 
 
 Longinus . . dies 273 
 
 Julian, emperor . . 331-363 
 (See Put hers of the Church.) 
 
 GEEENBACKS, a name given, from the colour of some, to the paper currency first 
 issued by the United States government, in 1862. They represented sums as low as i^d., 
 a^fZ., and $d., &c. — the precious metals being exceedingl}' scarce. 
 
 GREEN-BAG INQUIRY took its name from a Gree7i Bag, full of documents of alleged 
 seditions, laid before parliament by lord Sidmouth, Feb. 181 7. Secret committees presented 
 their reports, Feb. 19 ; and bills were brought in on the 21st to suspend the Habeas Corpus 
 act, and prohibit seditious meetings then frequent. 
 
 Homer flourished abt. b.c. 962-927 
 
 Plato . 
 
 B.C. 429-347 
 
 Hesiod 
 
 about 850 
 
 I Socrates . 
 
 • 436-338 
 
 jEsop 
 
 • ■ 572 
 
 Aristotle 
 
 • • 384-322 
 
 Anacreon . 
 
 about 559 
 
 Demosthenes 
 
 . 382-322 
 
 .^schylus 
 
 • • 525-456 
 
 Menander 
 
 . about 321 
 
 Herodotus . 
 
 about 443 
 
 iEschines . 
 
 . 389-314 
 
 Pindar . 
 
 . . 522-439 
 
 Theocritus 
 
 . about 272 
 
 Aristophanes 
 
 427 
 
 Epicurus . 
 
 • 342-270 
 
 Euripides 
 
 . . . 480-406 
 
 Theophrastus 
 
 . . . 287 
 
 Sophocles . 
 
 • 495-405 
 
 Archimedes 
 
 . 287-212 
 
 Thucydides . 
 
 . . 470-404 
 
 Polybius 
 
 . . 207-122 
 
 Xenophon . 
 
 • 443-359 
 
 Diodorus . 
 
 . B.C. 50-A.D. 13 
 
GEE 351 GEE 
 
 GEEEIST-CLOTH, Board of, in the department of the lord-st ;vvard of the household, 
 included an ancient court (abolished in 1849), which hid jiinsiliution of all offences com- 
 mitted in the verge of the court. 
 
 GEEENLAND (an extensive Danish colony in North America) was discovered by some 
 Icelanders, under Eric Eaude, abou; 980, and so named from its verdure, superior to that 
 of Iceland. It was visited by Erobisher in 1576. The first ship from England to Greenland 
 was sent for the whale-isiicry by the Muscovy company, 2 James I. 1604. In a voyage 
 performed in 1630, eight men were left behind by accident, who suffered incredible hardships 
 till the foUowi.ig year, when the company's ships brought them home. Tindal. The Green- 
 land Fishing company was incorporated in 1693. — Hans Egede, a Danish missionary, 
 founded a new colony, called Godhaah, or Good Hope, in 1720-3 ; and other missionary 
 stations have been since established. Scoresbj'' surveyed Greenland in 1821 ; and capt. Graah, 
 by order of the king of Denmark, in 1829-30. 
 
 GEEENOCK (W. Scotland). Charters were granted in 1635 and 1670 to John Shaw, of 
 the barony of Greenock. Prior to 1697, it was an inconsiderable fishing station ; but during 
 that year the Scottish Indian and African company resolved to erect salt-works in the Firth, 
 and thus drew the attention of sir John Shaw, its superior, to the maritime advantages of 
 its situation. It was made a burgh of barony in 1757, and a parliamentary burgh in 1832. 
 The erection of the new quay was entrusted, about 1773, to James Watt, who was born here 
 in 1736. The East India harbour was built 1805-19, and Victoria harbour 1840-50. 
 
 GEEEN" PAEK (near Buckingham palace, London), forms a part of the ground enclosed 
 by Henry VIII. in 1530, and is united to St. James's and Hyde parks by the road named 
 Constitution-hill. Over the arch at the entrance, the Wellington statue was placed in 
 1846. On the north side was a reservoir of the Chelsea water-works, which was filled up in 
 1856. 
 
 GEEENWICH HOSPITAL stands on the site of a royal residence in the time of 
 Edward I. (1300) nrach enlarged by his successors. Here were born Henry VIII. and his 
 daughters Mary and Elizabeth, and here his son Edward VI. died. The palace was the 
 favourite summer residence of queen Elizabeth, and Charles II. intended to build a new 
 palace here on a very grand scale, and accordingly erected one wing of this grand edifice, 
 but died before any other part of the design was finished. In this state it remained till 
 Mary and William III. formed the plan of making the palace useful to the kingdom, as an 
 hospital, which was instituted in 1694. 100 disabled seamen were admitted in 1705. The 
 forfeited estate of the attainted earl of Derwent water (beheaded in 1716) was bestowed upon 
 it. Sixpence per month was to be contributed by every seaman, and the payment was 
 advanced to one shilling, from June, 1797. The payment was abolished in 1829, and that of 
 "the Merchant seamen's" sixpence also in 1834. This hospital lodged 2710 in 1853, and 
 possessed a reveniie of about 150,000?. per annum.* A charter was granted to it in 
 Dec. 1775. The chapel, the great dining-hall, and a large portion of the buildings appro- 
 priated to the pensioners, were destroyed by fire, Jan. 2, 1779. The chapel was rebuilt in 
 1789. — Greenwich fair was discontinued, April 1857. 
 
 GEEENWICH OBSEEVATOEY was built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore and 
 sir Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamsteed-hill, so called from the 
 great astronomer of that name, the first astronomer-royal here. The English began to 
 compute the longitude from the meridian of this place, 1675 ; some make the date 1679. 
 This observatory contains among other instruments a transept circle by Troughton ; a transit 
 instrument of eight feet by Bird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith 
 sector. The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet reflector. In 
 1852, an electric telegraph signal ball in the Strand was completed, and put in connection 
 with Greenwich observatory. 
 
 ASTKONOMERS-BOYAL. 
 
 Jolin Mamsteed 1675 
 
 Dr. Halley 1719 
 
 Dr. Bradley 1742 
 
 Dr. N. Bliss 1762 
 
 Dr. Nevil Maskelyne 1764 
 
 John Pond 1811 
 
 George Biddell Airy 1835 
 
 (The PRESENT Astronomer Eoyal, under 
 whose able superintendence the apparatus have 
 been greatly increased and improved.) 
 
 * Important changes were raade in October, 1S65, in consequence of an act of parliament passed in 
 that year, based upon the report of a commission. About 900 of the in-door pensioners received additions 
 to their pay, and were permitted to reside wherever they pleased outside the hospital, which, in future, 
 will be rather an infirmary than a residence. 
 
GEE 
 
 352 
 
 GKE 
 
 GREGORIAN CALENDAR (see Calendar, and New Style.) 
 
 GREGORIAN CHANT received its name from pope Gregory I., who improved the 
 Ambrosian chant, about 590. 
 
 GRENADA. See Granada and Nexo Graimda. 
 
 GRENADES, a powerful missile of war, so named from Granada, Spanish, invented in 
 1594. It is a small hollow globe, or ball, of iron, about two inches in diameter, which being 
 filled with fine powder and set on fire by a fusee at a touchhole, the case flies into shatters, 
 to the damage of all who stand near. 
 
 GRENADIERS. The Grenadier corps was a company armed with a pouch of hand- 
 grenades, established in France in 1667 ; and in England in 1685. Brown. 
 
 GRENVILLE ADJIINISTRATIONS. The first succeeded the Bute administration, in 
 April, 1763 ; and resigned in July, 1765. 
 
 George Grenville fbom 1712, died lyyo), first lord of 
 the ireasurv and chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Earl Granville (succeeded by the duke of Bedford), 
 lord pregident. 
 
 Duke of Marlborough, privy seal. 
 
 Earls of Halifax and Sandwich, secretaries of state. 
 
 Eaii Gower, lord chamberlain. 
 
 Lord Egmont, o.dtniralty. 
 
 Marquess of Granby, ordnance. 
 
 Lord Holland (late Mr. Yotl'i, paymaster. 
 
 Welbore Ellis, secretary-at-war. 
 
 Viscount Barrington, treasurer of the nftvy. 
 
 Lord Hillsborough, first lord of trade. 
 
 Lord Henley (afterwards earl of Northington), lord 
 
 chancellor. 
 Duke of Rutland, lords North, Trevor, Hyde, <tc. 
 
 The Second Grenville administration was formed after the death of Mr. Pitt, on Jan. 23, 
 1806. From the ability of many of its members, their friends said it contained "All tJw 
 Taleiits," a term which was afterwards applied to it derisively by its opponents. The death 
 of Mr. Fox, Sept. 13, 1806, led to changes, and eventually the cabinet resigned, March 25, 
 1806. 
 
 Lord Grenville, ,^?'s< lord of the treasury. 
 
 Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquess of Lans- I 
 
 down), chancfllor of the exchequer. 
 Earl Fitzwilliani, lord president. 
 Viscount Sidmouth (late Mr. Addington), privy seal 
 Charles James Fox, foreign secretary. 
 Earl Spencer, home secretary. 
 William Windham, colonial secr^ary. 
 Lord Erskine, lord chancellor. 
 
 Sir Charles Grey (afterwards viscount Howick and 
 
 earl Grey), admiralty. 
 Lord Minto, board of control. 
 Lord Auckland, board of trade. 
 Lord Moira, master-general of the ordnance. 
 B. B. Sheridan, treasurer of the navy. 
 Richard Fitzpatrick, &c. 
 Lord EUenborough {lord chief justice), had a seat in 
 
 the cabinet. 
 
 GRESHAM COLLEGE (London), founded by sir Thomas Gresham, in 1575. He was 
 the foiinder of the Royal Exchange, and left a portion of his propeity in trust to the City 
 and the Mercers' Company to endow this college for, among other uses, lectures in divinify^ 
 astronomy, music, and geometry, and readers in civil law, yihysic, and rhetoric, and to 
 promote general instruction ; he died 1579. The lectures, commenced in Gresham's house, 
 near Broad-street, June 1597 (where the Royal Society first met in 1645), and continued, 
 with int€nu])t on, till 17 10. The buildings were pulled down in 1768, and the Excise-oflBce 
 erected on its site. The lectures Were then read in a room over the Royal Exchange for 
 many years : on the rebuilding of the present exchange, the Gresham committee erected tlie 
 present building in Basinghall-street, which was designed by G. Smith, and opened for 
 lectures, Nov. 2, 1843. It cost above 7000Z. 
 
 GRETNA-GREEN MARRIAGES. Gretna is the nearest and most accessible point in 
 Scotland from the sister kingdom ; and in its neighbourhood fugitive marriages were long 
 contracted. The practice was begun by a tobacconist named John Paisley, who lived to a 
 great age, and died in 1814. His first residence was at Megg's Hill,'on the common or green 
 betwixt Gretna and Springfield, to the last of which villages he removed in 1782. A man 
 named Elliot was lately the principal officiating person. The General Assembly, in 1826, 
 vainly attempted to suppress this system, but an act, passed in 1856, made these marriages 
 illegal after that year, unless one of the persons married hud lived in Scotland 21 days. 
 
 GREY ADMINISTRATION succeeded the Wellington administration, in Nov. 1830. 
 It carried the Reform bill {tvhich see), and terminated July, 1 834. 
 
GEE 
 
 353 
 
 GUE 
 
 GKEY ADMINISTRATION, continued. 
 
 Earl 6rey,*.)trst lord of the treasury. | Sir James Graham, admiralty. 
 
 Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. Lord Auckland and Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards, 
 
 Viscount Althorpe, chancellor of the exchequer. 1830, lord Glenelg), hoard of trade and control. 
 
 Marquess of Lansdowne, president of the council. | Lord Holland, duchy of Lancaster. 
 
 Earl of Durham, p-.-ivy seal. Lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces. 
 Viscounts Melbourne, Pabnerston, and Goderich, Duke of Bichmond, earl of Carlisle, Mr. Wynne, <Sjc, 
 
 Jiome, foreign, and colonial secretaries, \ 
 
 GEEYTOWN. See Mosquito Coast. 
 
 GROAT, from the Dutch groat, vahie of fourpence, was the largest silver coin in England 
 until after 135 1. Fourpenny pieces were coined in 1836 to the value of 70,884?. ; in 1837, 
 16,038?. None have been coined since 1861. 
 
 GROCERS anciently meant " ingrossers or monopolisers," as appears by a statute 
 37 Edw. III. 1363: "Les Marchauntz nomez engrossent totes maners de merchandises 
 vendables." The Grocers' company, one of the twelve chief companies of London, was 
 established in 1345, and incorporated in 1429. 
 
 GROCHOW, Battle or, near Praga, a suburb of Warsaw, between the Poles and 
 Russians, Feb, 25, 1831. After an obstinate contest, continuing the whole of one day and 
 great part of the next, the Poles remained masters of the field of battle. The Russians 
 shortly after retreated, having been foiled in their attempt to take "Warsaw. They are said 
 to have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000. See Poland, 1861. 
 
 GROG, sea-term for rum and water, derived its name from admiral Edward Vernon, who 
 wore grogram breeches, and was hence called "Old Grog." About 1745, he ordered his 
 sailors to dilute their rum with water, f 
 
 GUADALOUPE, a "West India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493. The French 
 took possession of it in 1635, and colonised it in 1664. Taken by the English in 1759, and 
 restored in 1763. Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810. The allies, in 
 order to allure the Swedes into the late coalition against France, gave them this island. It 
 was, however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France at the peace in 1814. 
 
 GUAD-EL-RAS (N.W. Africa). Here the Spaniards signally defeated the Moors, 
 March 23, i860, after a severe conflict ; general Prim manifested great bravery, for which he 
 was ennoljled. The preliminaries of peace were signed on the 25th. 
 
 GUANO, or Htjano (the Peruvian term for manure), the excrement of sea-birds that 
 swarm along the coasts of Peru and Bolivia, and also of Africa and Australia. Humboldt 
 was one of the first by whom it was brought to Europe, in order to ascertain its value in 
 agriculture. The importation of guano into the United Kingdom appears to have com- 
 menced in 1839. 283,000 tons were imported in 1845 (of which 207,679 tons came from the 
 western coast of Africa) ; 243,016 tons in 1851 (of which 6522 tons came from Western 
 Australia), and 131,358 tons in 1864. 
 
 GUARDS. The custom of having guards is said to have been introduced by Saul, 
 1093 B. c. 
 
 Body guards were appointed to attend the kings of 
 England, 2 Hen. VII. 1485. 
 
 Horse Guards were raised 4 Edw. VI. 1550. 
 
 The three regiments, ist, 2nd, and 3rd Foot Guards 
 were raised in 1660, and the command of them 
 given to colonel Russell, general Monk, and lord 
 LinUthgow. The 2nd regiment, or Coldstream, 
 was the first raised. See Coldstream. These 
 
 guards were the beginning of our standing army. 
 
 The Horse Grenadier guards first troop, raised in 
 1693, was commanded by general Cholmondely ; 
 the second troop was raised in 1702, and was com- 
 manded by lord Forbes ; this corJDS was reduced in 
 1783, the officers retiring on full pay. 
 
 See Horse Guards, Yeoman, National, and Imperial 
 Guards. 
 
 GUATEMALA. A republic in Central America, declared independent March 21, 1847. 
 President (1862), general Raphael Carrera, elected 1851 ; appointed for life (1854). A war 
 between Guatemala and San Salvador broke out in Jan. 1863 ; and on June 16 the troops of 
 the latter were totally defeated. Population, about 850,000. 
 
 GUEBRES. See Parsees. 
 
 * Bom March 13, 1764; M.P., as Charles Grey, in 1786; first lord of the admiralty and afterwards 
 foreign secretary in 1806 ; resigned in 1806 on account of his favouring Roman Catholic emancipation; 
 died July 17, 1845. 
 
 t He did great service in the West Indies, by taking Porto Bello, Chagre, &c. ; but by his disagreernent 
 with the commander of the land forces, the expedition against Carthagena in 1741, is said to have failed. 
 He was dismissed the service for writing two pamphlets attacking the admiralty ; he died Oct. 30, 1757. 
 
 A A 
 
GUE 354 GUI 
 
 GUELPHIC ORDER of kniglitlioorl was instituted for Hanover by the prince regent, 
 afterwards George IV., Aug. 12, 1815. The king of Hanover is grand master. 
 
 GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES, names given to the papal and imperial factions whose 
 conflicts destroyed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end of the isth century (the 
 invasion of Charles VIII. of France in 1495). The origin of the names is uncertain ; but it 
 is ascribed to the contest for the imperial crown between Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of 
 Swabia, loi'd of Wibliugcn (hence Ghibelin), and Henrj' nephew of Welf, or Guelf, duke of 
 Bavaria, in 1138. The former was successful ; but th^popes and many of the Italian cities 
 took the side of his rival. Hie Guelf and Ilie GihcJin are said to have been used as war-cries 
 in 1 139. The Ghibelines were almost totally expelled from Italy in 1267, when Conradin, 
 the last of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by Charles of Anjou. Guelph is the name of 
 the present royal family of England. See Brunswick. 
 
 GUERNSEY. See Jersey. 
 
 GUEUX (beggars), a name given by the comte de Barlaimont to the 300 Protestant 
 deputies from the Low Countries, headed by Henri of Brederode and Louis of Nassau, who 
 petitioned Margaret, governess of the Low Countries, to abolish the inquisition, April 5, 1566. 
 The deputies at once assumed the name as honourable, and immediately organised an armed 
 resistance to the government. See Holland. 
 
 GUIANA (N.E. coast of South America), was visited by the Spaniards in the i6th 
 century; explored by sir Walter Raleigh in 1596 and 161 7. The French settlements here 
 were foiTned in 1626-43 ! ^''^^ ^^^ Dutch, 1627-67. Demerara and Essequibo wei"e ceded to 
 Great Britain in 18 14. See Demerara. 
 
 GUIENNE, a French province, was part of the dominions of Henry II. after his wife 
 Eleanor, 1152. Philip of France seized it in 1293, which led to war. It was alternately 
 held by England and France till 1453, when Jolin Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in vain 
 attempted to retake it from the latter. 
 
 GUILDHALL (London), was built in 141 1. When it was rebuilt (in 1669), after the 
 great fire of 1666, no part of the ancient building remained, except the interior of the porch 
 and the walls of the hall. The front was not erected until 1789 : a new roof was built in 
 1864-5. Beneath the west window are the colossal figures of Gog and Magog, said to 
 represent a Saxon and an ancient Briton. The hall can contain 7000 persons, and is used 
 for city feasts. Here were entertained the allied sovereigns in 1814, and Napoleon III., 
 April 19, 1855. 
 
 GUILDS (of Saxon origin), associations of inhabitants of towns for mutual benefit, 
 resembling our friendly societies, cliartered by the sovereign since the time of Henry II. 
 The "Guild of Literature and Art" (including sir E. B. Lytton, C. Dickens, and others) 
 founded an institution (on ground given by sir E. B. Lytton, at Stevenage), consisting of 
 thirteen dwellings, retreats for an artist, scholar, and man of letters, which were completed 
 in July, 1865. 
 
 GUILLOTINE invented (about 1785) by Joseph Ignatius Guillotin (an eminent physician 
 and senator, esteemed for his humanity), designed to render cajntal punishment less painful 
 by decapitation. During the revolution he ran some hazard of being subjected to its deadly 
 operation ; but (contrary to a prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived to become one of the 
 founders of the Academy of Medicine at Paris, and died in 1814, greatly respected.— A 
 somewhat similar instrument may be seen in an engraving accompanying the Symbolicce 
 Qmstioncs (called the Maimaia). It is said to have been used in Italy, at Halifax in England 
 (see Halifax), and in Scotland, there called the Maiden and the Widow. 
 
 GUINEA (W. coast of Africa) was discovered by the Portuguese about 1460. From their 
 trade with the Moors originated the slave trade. Sir John Hawkins was the first Englishman 
 who made a mercliandise of the human species. £cll. He was assisted in his enterprise by 
 a number of English gentlemen, who subscribed monev for the purpose. He sailed from 
 England m Oct. 1562, with three ships, proceeded to 'the coast of Guinea, purchased or 
 forcibly seized 300 negroes, sold them profitably at Hispaniola, and returned home richly 
 laden with hides, sugar, ginger, and other merchandise, in Sept. 1563. This voyage led to 
 similar enterprises. Hakluyt. See Slave Trade. 
 
 GUINEAS, English gold coin, so named from having been first coined of gold brought 
 by the African company from the coast of Guinea in 1663, valued then at 20s. ; but worth 
 30s. in 1695. Reduced at various times ; in 1717 to 21s. In 1810 guineas were sold for 
 225. 6d.] in 1816, for 27s. In 181 1 an act was passed forbidding their exportation, and their 
 
GUI 355 GUT 
 
 sale at a price above the current value, 2 is. The first guineas bore the impression of an 
 elephant ; having been coined of this African gold. Since the issue of sovereigns in July i, 
 1817, guineas have not been coined. . 
 
 GUINEGATE, Battle op. See Spiors. 
 
 GUISE, a French ducal family:— 
 
 Claude of Lorraine, first duke, a brave warrior, 
 favoured by Francis I. ; died . . ^pril, 1550 
 
 Francis, the great general, born, 1519 ; assas- 
 sinated Feb. 24, 1563 
 
 Henry, head of the Catholic league ; bom 1550; 
 
 revenged his father's death ; assassinated by 
 Henry III Bee. 23, 1588 
 
 Charles, first opposed, and then (Submitted to, 
 Henry IV. ; died 1640 
 
 Henry, died without issue 1664 
 
 GUlSr-CQTTO]^, a highly explosive substance, invented by professor Schonbein, of Basel, 
 and made known in 1846. It is j)urified cotton, steeped in a mixture of equal parts of nitric 
 acid and sulphuric acid, and afterwards dried, retaining the appearance of cotton wool. Dr. 
 BcBttger and others also claim the discovery.* See Collodion. 
 
 GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Bertholdus or 
 Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Go.slar, south of Brunswick, in Germany, about 
 1320. But many writers maintain that it was known much earlier in various parts of the 
 world, t Some say that the Chinese possessed it a nirmber of centuries before. Its com- 
 position, moreover, is expressly mentioned by Roger Bacon, in his treatise De Nullitate 
 Magice. He died in 1292 or 1294. 
 
 GUNPOWDER PLOT. The memorable conspiracy known by this name, for springing 
 a mine under the houses of parliament, and destroying the three estates of the realm — king, 
 lords, and commons — there assembled, was discovered on Nov. 4, 1605. It was projected by 
 Robert Catesby, and several Roman Catholic persons of rank were leagued in the enterprise. 
 Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the house of lords preparing the train for being 
 fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of the family of Northumberland) were killed ; 
 Guy Faux, sir Everard Digby, Rockwood, Winter, and others, died by the hands of the 
 executioner, Jan. 30, 31, 1606. Henry Garnet, a Jesuit, was executed as an accomplice, 
 May 3, following. An anonymous letter sent to lord Monteagle led to the discovery. It 
 contained the following words, " Though there be no appearance of any stir, yet I say they 
 shall receive a tenible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see who hurts them. " 
 The vault called Guy Faux cellai*, in which the conspii-ators lodged the barrels of 
 gunpowder, remained in the late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted 
 into ofiices. 
 
 GUNS. See Artillery. 
 
 GUNTER'S CHAIN, used in measuring land, invented by Edmund Gunter, in 1606. 
 
 GUTTA PERCHA. This highly useful substance is procured from the sap of the 
 Isonandra Gutta, a large forest tree, growing in the Malayan peninsula and on the islands 
 near it. It was made known in England by Drs. D. Almeida and Montgomery, at the 
 
 * The diet of Frankfort voted, Oct. 3, 1846, a recompense of 100,000 florins to professor Schonbein and 
 Dr. Bcettger, as the inventors of the cotton powder, provided the authorities of Mayence, after seeing it 
 tried, pronounced it superior to gunpowder as an explosive ; but its use, as a substitute for gunpowder, in 
 gunnery, is still a matter of uncertainty, as the ignition of the cotton is not under the same control. Of its 
 utility, however, in blasting and mining operations, not the slightest doubt can exist. Improvements were 
 made in the manufacture of gun-cotton by an Austrian oflBcer, Baron Von Lenk, about 1852, and it was 
 tried by a part of the Austrian army in 1855, but did not obtain favour. In 1862 details of the manufacture 
 were comm\micated by. the Austrian government to our own government, and Mr. Abel, our war-office 
 chemist, was directed to experiment on the constitution and desirability of gun-cotton. The British 
 Association also appointed a scientific committee to consider its merits. A complete decision has not been 
 arrived at. The first trial of English-made gun-cotton was made in the spring of 1S64, at the manufactory 
 at Stowmarket, Suffolk, by Messrs. Prentice. 
 
 t A scientific inquirer, "W. Hunter, after a careful examination of the question, in 1847, thus states the 
 result :—" July and August, 1346, may therefore be safely assumed to be the time when the explosive 
 force of gunpowder was first brought to bear on the miUtary operations of the English nation." On Jan. 
 16, 1864, above n tons of gvmpowder on board the Lottie Sleigh, in the Mersey, exploded ; much damage 
 was done in Liverpool and Birkenhead, but no Uves were lost. On Oct. i, 1S64, about 104,000 lbs. of 
 gimpowder exploded at the Belvedere powder magazines of Messrs. HaU & Co., at Plumstead, near 
 Woolwich ; 13 persons perished, and the shock was felt at 50 miles' distance. Searching inquiries were 
 made into the circumstances, and new regulations for the keeping and transmission of powder issued m 
 November. See Dartford. Mr. Gale, a bhnd gentleman of Plymouth, on June 22, 1865, patented his 
 method of rendering gunpowder uninflammable by combining with it finely powdered glass which can be 
 readily separated by a sieve when the powder is required for use. Sucoessfvil public experiments were 
 made, and Gale's Protected Gunpowder Company was formed (Oct. 1865). Mr. Gale exhibited his process 
 before the Queen at "Windsor, Nov. 10, 1865. The attainment of perfect security is stiU doubted. 
 
 A A 2 
 
GUZ 356 HAB 
 
 Society of Arts, iu 1843. As a non-conductor of electricity it has become an invaluable aid 
 in constructing the submarine telegi-aph. 
 
 GUZERAT, a state in India, founded by Mahmoud'the Gaznevide, about 1020, was con- 
 quered by Akbar in 1572 ; and became subject to the Mahrattas 1732 or 1752. 
 
 GUY'S HOSPITAL, London. Thomas Guy, a -wealthy bookseller, after bestowing 
 large sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder of another hospital. At the 
 age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the erection of the present building, and lived to 
 see it nearly completed, it costing him 18,793?. In addition, he endowed it with 219,499/. 
 In 1829, 196, 1 15?. were bequeathed to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide accommodation 
 for 100 additional patients. 
 
 GWALIOR, a state in Central India ; since 1803, under British protection. The maha- 
 rajah remained faithful during the revolt of 1857. 
 
 GYMNASIUM, a place where the Greeks performed public exercises, and where also 
 philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrestling and boxing 
 the athletes were often naked (gymnos), whence the name. A London gymnastic society, 
 formed 1826, did not flourish. In 1862, M. Ravenstein set up another gymnastic association. 
 The German Gymnastic Institution, in St. Pancras-road, London, was opened on Jan. 29, 1865, 
 and a large and perfect gymnasium at Liverpool was inaugurated by lord Stanley, 
 Nov. 6, 1865. 
 
 GYMN0S0PHISTJ5, a sect of philosophers in India, who lived naked, as their name 
 implies. Alexander (about 324 B.C.) was astonished at the sight of men who seemed to 
 despise bodily pain, and who inured themselves to the greatest tortures without uttering a 
 groan or expressing any fear. Pliny. 
 
 GYPSIES, or Egyptians (French, Bohemes ; Italian, Zingari; Spanish, Gitanos; German, 
 Zigeuner) ; vagrants, supposed to be descendants of Hindoos expelled by Timour, about 
 1399. They appeared in Germany and Italy early in the 15th century. In England an act 
 was made against their itinerancy, in 1530 ; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons 
 were executed at one assizes for having associated with gypsies for about a month, contraiy 
 to the statute. The gypsy settlement at Norwood was broken up, and they were treated as 
 vagrants, May, 1797. There were in Spain alone, previously to 1800, more than i20,ocx) 
 gypsies, and many communities of them yet exist in England. Notwithstanding their inter- 
 course with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners, customs, visage, 
 and appearance, almost wholly unchanged, and their pretended knowledge of futurity still 
 gives them power over the superstitious. Esther Faa was crowned queen of the gypsies at 
 Blyth, on Nov. 18, i860. The Bible has been translated into gypsy dialects. 
 
 GYROSCOPE (from gyrere, to revolve), the name of a rotatory apparatus popular in 
 1859, invented by Fessel of Cologne (1852), and improved by professor Wheatstone and 
 M. Foucault of Paris. It is similar in principle to the rotatory apparatus of Bohnenberger 
 of Tubingen (born 1765, died 1831). — The gyro.scope exhibits the combined effects of the 
 centrifugal and centripetal forces, and the remarkable results of the cessation of either, and 
 thus illustrates the great law of gravitation. 
 
 H. 
 
 HAARLEM, an ancient town, once the residence of the counts of Holland, was taken by 
 the duke of Alva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven months. He violated the capitulation 
 by butchering half the inhabitants. The lake was drained in 1849-51. 
 
 HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' Writ of Right, passed " for the better securing the 
 liberty of the subject," 31 Charles II. c. 2, May 27, 1679.* This act (founded on the old 
 common law) is next in importance to Magna Charta, for so long as the statute remains in 
 force no subject of England can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention 
 
 * By this act, if any person be imprisoned by the order of any court, or of the queen herself, he may 
 have a writ of habeas corpus, to bring him before the court of queen's bench or common pleas, which shall 
 determine whether his committal be just. The constitution of the United States provides that "the 
 privilege of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public 
 safety may require it ;" but does not specify the dejiiartment of the government having the power of 
 suspension. A series of contests on this subject between the legal and military authorities began in Mary- " 
 land, May, 1861. In consequence of the affair of John Anderson (see Slavery/ in England, note), an act was 
 passed in 1862, enacting that no writ of Habeas Corpvs should issue out of England into any colony, &c., 
 having a court with authority to grant such writ. 
 
HAG 
 
 357 
 
 HAL 
 
 is shown to te justified by the law. The Habeas Corpus act can alone be suspended by the 
 authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and when the emergency is extreme. 
 In such a case the nation parts with a portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent 
 welfare, and suspected persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being 
 assigned. Blackstoiie. 
 
 Act suspended for a short time in 1689, 1696, 1708 
 Suspended for Scots' rebellion . . . 1715-6 
 Suspended for twelve months .... 1722 
 Suspended for Scots' rebelUon in . . . 1744-5 
 Suspended for American war . . . 1777-9 
 Again by Mr. Pitt, owing to French revolution 1794 
 Suspended in Ireland, on account of the great 
 rebellion 1798 
 
 Suspended in England, Aug. 28, 1799 ; and 
 
 April 14, 1 801 
 Again, on account of Irish insurrection . . 1803 
 Again, owing to alleged secret meetings (see 
 
 Green Bag) Feb. 21, 1817 
 
 Bill to restore the Habeas Corpus brought into 
 
 parliament ..... Jan. 28, 181 8 
 Suspended in Ireland (insurrection) July 24, 1848 
 Restored there March i, 1849 
 
 HACKISTEY COACHES (probably from the French coche-a-haquenee, a vehicle with a 
 hired horse, Jiaquenee. Their supposed origin in Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error. 
 See Cabriolets and Omnibuses. 
 
 Four were set up in London by a capt. Bailey 
 in 1625 : their number soon increased. 
 
 They were hmited by the star-chamber in 1635 ; 
 restricted to 200 in 1637 and in . . . 1652 
 
 The number was raised to 400, in 1662 ; to 700, 
 in 1694 ; to 800, in 1715 ; to 1000, in 1771 ; to 
 iioo, in 1814; and finally, to 1300, in . . 1815 
 
 One-horse hackney carriages (afterwards cab- 
 riolets) permitted to be licensed . . . ,, 
 
 All restriction as to number ceased, by 2 Will. 
 IV., 1831. (The original fare was is. a mile). 1833 
 
 HADEIANOPLE. See AdrianopU. 
 
 HAGUE, capital of the kingdom of Holland, once called the finest village in Europe ; 
 the place of meeting of the States- General, and residence of the former earls of Holland 
 since 1250, when WUliam II. built the palace here. 
 
 Two hundred Hackney Chairs were licensed . . 1711 
 Office removed to Somerset-house . . . 1782 
 Cuach-makers made subject to a license . . 1785 
 Lost and Found Office for the recovery of pro- 
 perty left in hackney coaches, established, by 
 
 act 55 Geo. Ill 1815 
 
 All pubUc vehicles to be regulated by the act 
 16 & 17 Vict. cc. 33, 127, by which they are 
 placed under the control of the commissioners 
 of pohce .... June and Aug. 1853 
 
 Here the states abrogated the authority of 
 Phihp II. of Spain, 1580, and held a confer- 
 ence upon the five articles of the remon- 
 strants, which occasioned the synod of Dort . 
 
 Treaty of the Hague (to preserve the equihbrium 
 of the North;, signed by England, France and 
 Holland May 21, 
 
 Witt torn in pieces here 
 
 The French took possession of the Hague, Jan. 
 1795 ; favoured by a hard frost, they marched 
 into Holland, where the inhabitants and 
 troops declared in their favour, a general 
 revolution ensued, and the stadtholder and 
 his family were compelled to leave the 
 1659 I country and escape to England . . . . 1795 
 . Aug. 20, 1762 \ The Hague evacuated in . . . . Nov. 1813 
 i The stadtholder returned here . . Dec. ,, 
 
 HAHSTAULT, a province in Belgium, anciently governed by counts hereditary, after 
 Eegnier I., who died in 916. The count John d'Aresnes became count of Holland in 1299. 
 Hainault henceforth partook of the fortunes of Flanders. 
 
 HAINAFLT FOREST (Essex), a celebrated forest, in which stood the ancient Fairlop 
 oak {which see) ; was disafforested in 185 1. 
 
 HAIR. In Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and hence the appellation Gallia comata j and 
 cutting off" the hair was inflicted as a punishment among the Gauls. The royal family of 
 France held it as a particular mark and privilege of the kings and princes of the blood to wear 
 longhair artfully dressed and curled. "The clerical tonsure is of apostolic institution !_" 
 Isidorus Hispalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, 155. Long hair 
 Avas out of fashion during the protectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Round-heads ; 
 in 1795 ; and also 1801. Hair-powder came into use in 1590; andin 1795 a tax was laid upon 
 persons using it, which yielded at one time 20,oooZ. per annum. The tax is now \l. 3s. dd. 
 for each person annually. See Beard. 
 
 HAITI. See Eayti. 
 
 HALEYBURY COLLEGE (Herts), wherein students were prepared for service in India ; 
 it was founded by the East India Company in 1806, and was closed in 1858. 
 
 HALICARNASSUS, Caria (Asia Minor) ; reputed birth-place of Herodotus, 484 B.C. ; 
 the site of the tomb of Mausolus, erected 352 ; taken by Alexander, 334. See Mausoleum. 
 
HAL 
 
 358 
 
 HAN 
 
 HALIDON HILL, near Berwick, where, on July 19-20, 1333, the English defeated the 
 Scots, the latter losing upwards of 14,000 slain, among whom were the regent Douglas and 
 a large number of tlie nobility, while a comparatively small number of the English suffered. 
 Edward III. placed Edward Jialliol on the throne of Scotland. 
 
 HALIFAX (Yorkshire). The woollen manufactory Avas established here in the iSth 
 century, prodigious quantities of cloth, &c., being on the tenters. The town, at its incor- 
 poration, Avas empowered to punish capitally (by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the 
 offender in a moment) any criminal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen 
 pence halfpenuj'. King James I. in 1620 took this power away. Sue GtiilloHiie. In 1857, 
 Mr. J. Crossley announced his intention of founding a college here, and Mr. F. Crossley pre- 
 sented the town with a beautiful park. 
 
 HALIFAX ADMINISTRATION. The earl of Halifax became minister, Oct. 1714, and 
 died in 1715. This ministry was succeeded by Robert "VValpole's. 
 
 Charles, earl of Halifax, first lord of the treasury 
 (succeeded on liis death by the earl of Carlisle). 
 
 ■William, lord Cowper, afterwards earl Cowper, lord 
 chancellor. 
 
 Daniel, earl of Nottingham, lord president. 
 
 Thomas, marquess of Wharton, privy seal. 
 
 Edward, earl of Oxford, admiralty. 
 
 James Stanhope, afterwards earl Stanhope, and 
 
 Charles, Viscount Townshend, secretaries 0/ state. 
 Sir Richard Onslow, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Dukes of Montrose and Marlborough, lord Berkeley, 
 
 Robt. Walpole, Mr. Pulteney, (fee. 
 
 Westminster and Eltham halls are 
 
 HALL, principal apartment in mediaeval mansions. 
 fine examples. See Westminster Hall. 
 
 HALL MARK. See Goldsmiths, and Standard. 
 
 HALLELUJAH and AMEN (Praise the Lord, and So be it), expressions used in the 
 Hebrew hymns ; said to have been introduced by Haggai, the prophet, about 520 B.C. Their 
 introduction into the Christian church is ascribed to St. Jerome, about A.D. 390. 
 
 HALTS, a river (Asia Minor), near which a battle was fought between the Lydians and 
 Medes. It was interrupted by an almost total eclipse of the sun, w'hich occasioned a 
 concliision of the war between the two kingdoms, May 28, 585 B.C. (the fourth year of the 
 48th Olympiad). Pliny, Nat. Hist. ii. Others give the date 584, 603, and 610 e.g. 
 This eclipse is said to have been predicted many years before by Thales of Miletus. 
 Herodotus i. 75. 
 
 HAMBURG, a free city, N. "W. Germany, founded by Charlemagne, about 809. It 
 joined the Hanseatic League in the 13th century, and became a flourishing commercial city. 
 Population in i860, 229,941, 
 
 It obtained the title of a free imperial city by 
 permission of the dukes of Holstein, 1296"; 
 was subject to them tiU 1618 ; purchased its 
 total exemption ft-om their claims . 
 France declared war upon Hamburg for its 
 treachery in giving up Nappor Tandy (see 
 
 Tandy) Oct. 
 
 British property sequestrated . . March, 
 Hamburg taken by the French after the battle 
 
 of Jena, in 
 
 Incorporated with France 1810 
 
 Evacuated by the French on the advance of the 
 
 Russians into Germany 1813 
 
 Restored to independence by the allied sove- 
 reigns . . ■ . . . . May, 1814 
 Awful fire here, which destroyed numerous 
 churches and public buildinas, and 2000 
 houses ; it continued for three days . May 4, 1842 
 Half the city inundated by the Elbe . Jan. i, 1855 
 A new constitution demanded by the citizens, 
 and granted by the senate . . . July, i860 
 1806 The new assembly (of 191 members) first met, 
 
 Dec. 6, ,, 
 The constitution began . . . Jan. i, i&Si 
 
 1768 
 
 1799 
 
 HAMPTON-COURT PALACE (Middlesex), built by cardinal Wolsey oh the site of the 
 manor-house of the knights-hcspitallers, and in 1525 presented to Henry VIII. ; perhaps the 
 most splendid off'ering ever made by a subject to a sovereign. Here Edward VI. was born, 
 Oct. 12, 1537; here his mother, Jane Seymour, died, Oct. 24, following; and here Mary, 
 Elizabeth, Charles, and others of our sovereigns, resided. Much was pulled down, and the 
 grand inner court built by William III. in 1694, when the gardens, occupying 40 acres, were 
 laid out. Here was held, Jan. 14-16, 1604, the conference betAveen the Pmitans and the 
 clergy of the Established chiu-ch, Avhich led to a new translation of the Bible. See 
 Conference. 
 
 HANAPER OFFICE (of the court of Chancery), Avhere writs relating to the business 
 of the svrbject, and their returns, were anciently kept in hanajycrio (in a'wicker hamper) ; 
 and those relating to the crown, in parva laga (a little bag). Hence the names Hanaper 
 and Petty Bag Office, The office was abolished in 1842, 
 
HAN 
 
 359 
 
 IIAN 
 
 HANAU (Hesse-Cassel), where a division of tlie combiaed armies of Austria and Bavaria, 
 of 30,000 men, under general Wrede, encountered the French, 70,000 sti'ong, under 
 JSTapoleon I., on their retreat from Leipsic, Oct. 30, 1813. The French suffered very severely, 
 though the allies were compelled to retire. 
 
 HANDEL'S COMMEMORATIONS. Theirs;; was held in "Westminster abbey, May 26, 
 1784 ; king George III. and queen Charlotte, and above 3000 persons being present. The 
 band contained 268 vocal, and 245 instrumental performers, and the receipts of three 
 successive da\'s were 12,746?. These concerts were repeated in 1785, 1786, 1790, and 1791. 
 
 Second gi-eat commemoration, in the presence of 
 king William IV. and queen Adelaide, when 
 there were 644 performers, June 24, 26, and 28, 
 1834. This commemoration led to the formation 
 of the Sacred Harmonic Society at Exeter Hall. 
 
 This society, in conjunction with the Crystal Palace 
 Company, projected the Festival of 1859. 
 
 Grand Rehearsal at the Crystal Palace, June 15, 17, 
 19, 1857, ^iid on July 2, 1858. 
 
 Great Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) 
 on the centenary of his death. Performances : 
 Messiah, June 20 ; Selections, 22 ; Israel in Egypt, 
 24, 1859, when the prince consm-t, the king of the 
 Belgians, and 26,827 persons were present. There 
 
 were 2765 vocal and 393 insti'umental perfoimers 
 and the performance was highly successful. The 
 receipts amounted to about 33,000^., from which 
 there were deducted i8,oool. for expenses ; of the 
 residue (15,0000, two parts accrued to the Crystal 
 Palace Company, and one part to the Sacred Har- 
 monic Society. Handel's harpsichord, original 
 scores of his oratorios, and other interesting 
 relics, were exhibited. 
 
 Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) : 4000 per- 
 formers ; highly successful ; June 23, 25, 27, 
 1862. 
 
 Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) : very suc- 
 cessful : June 26, 28, 30, 1865. 
 
 HANDKERCHIEFS, wrought and edged with gold, used to be worn in England by 
 gentlemen in their hats, as favours from young ladies, the value of them being from five to 
 twelve pence for each in the reign of Elizabeth, 1558. Stow's Chron. Paisley handkerchiefs 
 were first made in 1743. 
 
 HANDS, imposition of, was performed by Moses in setting apart his successor Joshua 
 (Niovi. xxvii. 23), and in Chiistian ordination by the apostles (i Tim. iv. 14), 
 
 HANGING, Drawing, and Quartering, said to have been first inflicted upon William 
 Marise, a pirate, a nobleman's son, 25 Hen. III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the 
 duke of Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of execution 
 « were hanged, cut down alive instantly, stripped naked, and their bodies marked for quar- 
 tering, and then pardoned, 25 Hen. VI. 1447. Stoic: The last execution in this manner in 
 England was that of the Cato-street conspirators {which see), May i, 1820. Hanging in 
 chains was abolished in 1834. See Death. 
 
 HANGO 13AY (Finland). On June 5, 1855, a boat commanded by lieut. Geneste left 
 the British steamer Cossack, with a flag of truce to land some Russian prisoners. They were 
 fired on by a body of riflemen, and iive were killed, several wounded, and the rest made 
 prisoners. The Russian account, asserting the irregularity to have been on the side of the 
 English, has not been substantiated. 
 
 HANOVER, a kingdom, formerly an electorate, N. "W. Germany. Hanover is composed 
 of territories which formerly belonged to the dukes of Brunswick {which see). Population in 
 1859, 1,850,000; in 1861, 1,888,070. 
 
 Hanover became the ninth electorate . a.d. 1692 
 
 Suffered much during the seven years' war, 1756-63 
 
 Seized by Prussia .... April 3, 1801 
 
 Occupied by the French . . June 5, 1803 
 
 Delivered to Prussia in 1805 
 
 Part of it annexed to "Westphalia . . . . 1810 
 
 Regained for England by Bernadotte, Nov. 6, 1813 
 
 Erected into a kingdom . . . Oct. 12, 1814 
 
 The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant- 
 governor, and a representative government 
 established Nov. i8i6 
 
 Visited by George IV. . . . Oct. 1821 
 
 Ernest, duke of Cumberland, king . June 20, 1837 
 He granted a constitution with electoral rights, 
 1848 ; which was annulled in obedience to 
 the decree of the Federal diet . April 12, 1853 
 The king claims from England crown jewels, 
 which belonged to George III. (value about 
 i2o,oooJ.) ........ 1857 
 
 Arbitration: the jewels given up . . Jan 1858 
 The Stade dues given up for compensation, 
 
 June 12, 1861 
 
 ELECTORS AND KINGS OF HANOVER. 
 
 1692. Ernest-Augustus, youngest son of George, 
 that son of William, duke of Brunswick- 
 Luneburg, who obtained by lot the right to 
 marry (see Brunswick). He became bishop of 
 Osnaburg in 1662, and in 1679 inherited the 
 possessions of his uncle Juhn, duke of Calen- 
 berg ; created Elector of Hanover in 1692. 
 [He married, in 1659, the princess Sojihia, 
 daughter of Frederick, elector palatine, and 
 of Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. of 
 England. In 1701, Sophia was declared next 
 
 heir to the British crown, after William III., 
 
 Anne and their descendants,] 
 1698. George-Lewis, son of the preceding ; married 
 
 bis cousin Sophia, the heiress of the duke 
 
 of Brunswick-Zell. Became king of Great 
 
 Britain, Aug. i, 1714, as Geoege I. 
 1727. George-Augustus, his son (George II. of 
 
 England), June 11. 
 1760. George - William - Frederick, his grandson 
 
 (George III. of England), Oct. 25. 
 
HAN 360 HAR 
 
 HANOVER, continued. 
 
 KINGS OF HANOVER. See Acccssion. 
 
 1814. George-William-Frederick (the preceding so- 
 vereign), first king of Hanover, Oct. 12. 
 
 1820. George-Augvistus-Prederick, his son (George 
 IV. of England), Jan. 29. 
 
 1830. William-Henry, his brother (William IV. of 
 England), June 26. 
 [Hanover separated from the crown of Great 
 Britain.] 
 
 1837. Ernest- Augustus, duke of Cumberland, brother 
 to William IV. of England, on whose demise 
 he succeeded (as a distinct inheritance) to 
 the throne of Hanover, June 20. 
 
 1851. George V. (bom May 27, 1819), son of Ernest ; 
 ascended the throne on the death of his 
 father, Nov. 18. The present (1865) king of 
 Hanover. 
 Heir: Prince Ernest- Augustiis, bom Sept. 21, 
 1845. 
 
 HANSE TOWNS. The Hanseatic League (from hansa, association), formed by a number 
 of port towns in Germany, against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : began about 
 1 140 ; the league was signed 1241. At first it consisted only of towns situate on the coasts 
 of the Baltic sea, but in 1370 it was composed of sixty-six cities and forty-four confederates. 
 They proclaimed war against Waldeniar, king of Denmark, about the year 1348, and against 
 Eric in 1428, with forty ships and 12,000 regular troops, besides seamen. This gave umbrage 
 to several princes, who ordered the merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their 
 effects. The Thirty years' war in Germany (1618-48) broke up the strength of the association. 
 In 1630 the only towns of note of this once powerful league, retaining the name, were Liibeck, 
 Hamburg, and Bremen. The league suffered also by the rise of the commerce of the Low 
 Countries in the 15th century. The many privileges they enjoyed by treatj'in England were 
 abolished by Elizabeth in 1578. 
 
 HAPSBURG (or Habsburg), House of, the family from which the imperial house of 
 Austria sprang in the 7th century. Hapsburg was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a 
 lofty eminence near Schintznach. Eodolph, count of Hapsburg, became archduke of Austria, 
 and emperor of Germany, 1273. See Austria and Germany. 
 
 HARBOURS. England has many fine natural harbours ; the Thames (harbour, dock, 
 and dep8t), Portsmouth, Plymouth, &c. Acts for the improvement of harbours, &c., were 
 passed in 1847, 1861, and 1862. 
 
 HARFLEUR (seaport, N. W. France, was besieged by Henry V., and taken Sept. 
 22, 1415. 
 
 HARLAW (Aberdeenshire), the site of a desperate indecisive battle between the earl of 
 Mar, with the royal army, and Donald, the lord of the Isles, July 24, 141 1. This conflict 
 was very disastrous to the nobility, some houses losing all their males. 
 
 HARLEIAN LIBRARY, containing 7000 manuscripts, bought by secretary Harley, after- 
 wards earl of Oxford and Mortimer, is now in the British Museum. A large portion of his 
 life and wealth was spent on the collection. He died May 21, 1724. The Harleian 
 Miscellanj', a selection from the MSS. and Tracts of his library, was published in 1744 
 and 1808. 
 
 HARMONIC STRINGS, said to have been invented by Pythagoras through hearing four 
 blacksmiths working with hammers, in harmony, whose weights he found to be six, eight, 
 nine, and twelve ; or rather by squares, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred 
 and forty-four. — The Harmonica, or musical glasses, were first "arranged" by an Irish 
 gentleman named Puckeridge, and improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760. 
 
 HARMONISTS, a sect, founded in Wiirtemburg by Rapp, about 1780. Not much is 
 known of their tenets, but they held their property in common, and considered marriage a 
 civil contract. Not finding toleration, they emigrated to America, and built New Harmony 
 in Indiana in 1815. Robert Owen purchased this town about 1823 ; but failed in his scheme 
 of a "social " community, and returned to England. See Socialists. The Harmonists removed 
 to Pittsburg in Pennsylvania in 1822. 
 
 HARMONIUM, a keyed wind instrument, resembling the accordion in the tones being 
 generated by the action of wind upon metallic reeds. The Chinese were well acquainted 
 with the effects produced by vibrating tongues of metal. M. Biot stated, in 1810, that they 
 were used musically by M. Greni^ ; and in 1827-29, free reed stops were employed in organs 
 at Beauvais and Paris. The harmoniums best known in England are those of Alexandre and 
 Debain, the latter claiming to be the original maker of the French instrument. In 1841, 
 however, Mr. W. E. Evans, of Cheltenham, produced his English harmonium, then termed 
 the Organ-Harmonica. By a succession of improvements he has produced a fine instrument, 
 ■with diapason quality, and great rapidity of speech, without loss of power. English 
 Cyclopccdia. 
 
HAR 361 HAS 
 
 HARNESS, the leathern dressings used for horses to draw chariots, and also chnriots, 
 are said to have been the invention of Erichthonins of Athens, who was made a constellation 
 after his death, under the name of Bootes, about 1487 B.C. 
 
 HARO, Cky of {Clameur cleFIaro), derived from Raoul, or Rollo, ancestor of our Norman 
 princes of England. Rollo had administered justice with such exactness, that those who had 
 injury done them used to call out A Raoul ! This obliged the person who met an adverse party 
 in the streets to go before the judge, who decided their differences, at least provisionally. 
 Henault. 
 
 HARP. Invented by Jubal, 3875 B.C. {Gen. iv. 21). David played the harp before Saul, 
 1063 B. c. I Sam. xvi. 23. The Cimbri, or English Saxons, had this instrument. The cele- 
 brated Welsh harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more ancient harps, 
 with wire.* Erard's improved harps were first patented in 1795. 
 
 HARPER'S FERRY (Virginia). See United States, 1859-62. 
 
 HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. John Harrison, of Foulby, near Pontefract, was the 
 inventor. In 17 14, the government offered rewards for methods of determining the 
 longitude at sea ; Harrison came to London, and produced his first time-piece in 1735 ; his 
 second in 1739 ; his third in 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured him the reward of 20,000^. 
 offered by the Board of Longitude, a few years after. He obtained 10,000?. of his reward in 
 1764, and other sums, more than 24,000?. in all, for further improvements in following years. 
 
 HARROGATE (Yorkshire). The first or old spa in Knaresborough forest was discovered 
 by capt. Slingsby in 1571 : a dome was erected over the well at the expense of lord Rosslyn 
 in 1786. There are two other chalybeate springs, called the Alum well and the Towit spa. 
 The noted sulphureous well was discovered in 1783. The theatre was erected in 1788. The 
 Bath hospital was erected by subscription in 1825. 
 
 HARROW-ON-THE-HILL SCHOOL (Middlesext), founded and endowed by John Lyon 
 in 1571. To encourage archery, the founder instituted a prize of a silver arrow to be shot 
 for annually on the 4th of August ; but the custom has been abolished. Lord Palmerston, 
 sir R. Peel, the statesman, and lord Byron, the poet, were educated here. 
 
 HARTLEY COAL MINE (Northumberland). On Jan. 16, 1862, one of the beams at 
 the mouth of the ventilating shaft broke, and a mass of iron weighing about 12 tons fell 
 down the shaft, destroyed the brattice, divided the shaft, and caiTied down sufficient timber 
 to kiU two men who were ascending the shaft, and buried alive 202 persons, men and 
 boys. Several days elapsed before the bodies could be removed. Much sympathy was shoMoi 
 by the public, from the queen to the humblest classes ; and about 50,000?. were collected on 
 behalf of the bereaved families. The coroner's verdict expressed the necessity of there being 
 two shafts to coal mines, and recommended that the beams of colliery engines should be of 
 malleable instead of cast-iron. 
 
 HARTWELL (Buckinghamshire), the retreat of Louis XVIII. , king of France, 1807-14. 
 He landed in England at Yarmouth, Oct. 6, 1807, took up his residence at Gosfield hall, 
 in Essex, and afterwards came to Hartwell, as the count de Lille. His consort died here in 
 1810. On his restoration, he embarked at Dover for France, April 24, 1814. See France. 
 
 HARUSPICES, priests or soothsayers, of Etruscan origin, who foretold events from 
 observing entrails of animals. They were introduced to Rome by Romulus (about 750 B.C.), 
 and abolished by Constantine, A.D. 337, at which time they were seventy in number. 
 
 HARVARD COLLEGE (Massachusetts, North America) was founded by the general 
 court at Boston, on Oct. 28, 1636. It derived its name from John Harvard, who bequeathed 
 to it a library and a sum of money in 1638. 
 
 HASTINGS (Sussex). At Battle, near this place, more than 30,000 were slain in the 
 conflict between Harold II. of England and William duke of Normandy, the former losing 
 his life and kingdom, Oct. 14, 1066. The day of this battle was also the anniversary of 
 Harold's birth. He and his two brothers were interred at Waltham abbey, Essex. 
 
 * One of the most ancient harps existing is that of Bryan Boiroimhe, monarch of Ireland : it was 
 given by his son Donagh to Pope John XVIII. , together with the crown and other regalia of his father, in 
 order to obtain absolution for the murder of his brother Teig. Adrian IV. alleged this as being one of his 
 principal titles to the kingdom of Ireland in his bull transferring it to Henry II. This harp was given 
 by Leo X. to Henry VIII., who presented it to the first earl of Clanricarde : it then came into possession 
 of the family of De Burgh ; next into that of MacMahon of Clenagh, coimty of Clare ; afterwards into that 
 of MacNamara of Limerick ; and was at length deposited by the right hon. WiUiam Conyngham in the 
 College Museum, Dublin, in 1782. 
 
 ■t Charles II. cut short some theological discussion relative to the claims for the title of the visible 
 church, by declaring that it *' was the parish church of Harrow, which could be seen everywhere." 
 
HAS 
 
 362 
 
 HAY 
 
 HASTINGS' TRIAL. Warren Hastings,* governor-general of India, was tried bj'- tlie 
 peers of Great Britain for. high crimes and misdemeanors. Among other charges was his 
 acceptance of a present of ioo,oooZ. from the nabob of Oude (see Chuncir, Treaty of). The 
 trial lasted seven years and three months ; commencing Feb. 13, 1788, terminating in his 
 acquittal, April 25, 1795. Mr. Sheridan's speech on the impeachment excited great 
 admiration. 
 
 HATFIELD'S ATTEMPT on the Life of George III. On May 11, 1800, during a 
 review in Hyde-park, a shot from an undiscovered hand was fired, which wounded a young 
 gentleman who stood near the king. In the evening, when his majesty was at Drury-lane 
 theatre, Hatfield fired a pistol at him ; upon his trial he was sentenced to be contined as a 
 lunatic during his life. He died Jan. 23, 1841, aged 69 years. 
 
 HATS. See Ca;;s. First made by a Swiss at Paris, 1404. "When Charles VII. made 
 his triumphal entry into Rouen, in 1449, he wore a hat lined with red velvet, and surmounted 
 with a rich plume of feathers. Henceforward, hats and caps, at least in France, began to 
 take place of chaperons and hoods. HenauU. Hats were fii'st manufactured in England by 
 Sjianiards in 15 10. Stow. Very high-crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's 
 courtiers; and high crowns were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty laid upon hats 
 in 1784, and in 1796, was repealed in 181 1. Silk hats began to supersede beaver 
 about 1820. 
 
 HATTERAS EXPEDITION. See United States, 1861. 
 
 HAU-HAU FANATICS. See New Zealand, 1865. 
 
 HAVANNAH (capital of Cuba, "West Indies). Founded by Velasquez, 151 1 ; was taken 
 by lord Albemarle, Aug. 14, 1762 ; restored, 1763 ; the remains of Columbus were brought 
 from St. Domingo and deposited in the cathedral here, 1795. 
 
 HAVRE-DE-GRACE (N."W. France) was defended for the Huguenots by the English in 
 1562 ; who, however, were expelled in 1563. It was bombarded by Rodney, July 6 to 9, 
 1759 ; I'Y sir Richard Strachan, May 25, 1798 ; and blockaded, Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts 
 of the British to burn the shipping here failed, Aug. 7, 1804. 
 
 HAWAII. See Owhyhee. 
 
 HAWKERS and Pedlars were first licensed in 1697. Licensing commissioners were 
 appointed in 1810. The expense of licensing was reduced in 1862. 
 
 HAYMARKET (Westminster), opened in 1664, was removed to Cumberland-market, 
 Jan. I, 1831. The Haymarket theatre was opened in 1702. See Theatres. 
 
 HAYTI, OR Haitf, Indian name of St. Domingo, a West Indian island, discovered by 
 Columbus in Dec. 1492, and named Hispaniola. Before the Spaniards fully conquered it, 
 they are said to have destroyed, in battle or cold blood, 3,000,000 of its inhabitants, including 
 women and children. General Fabre Geffrard became president of the republic of Hayti, 
 Jan. 15, 1859. Population in 1859, about 572,000. 
 
 Hayti seized by tlie filibusters and French 
 
 buccaneers . 1630 
 
 The French government took possession of the 
 
 whole colony ....... 1677 
 
 The negroes revolt against France . Aug. 23, 1791 
 And massacre nearly all the whites . . . 1793 
 The French directory recognise Toussaint I'Ou- 
 
 verture as general in-chief . . . . . 1794 
 The eastern part of the island ceded to France 
 
 by Spain 1795 
 
 Toussaint establi.'^hes an independent republic 
 
 in St. Domingo .... May 9, 1801 
 He surrenders to the French . . May 7, 1802 
 And is conducted to France, where he dies . 1803 
 A new insurrection, under the command of 
 
 Dessalines ; the French quit the island, Nov. 1803 
 Dessalines proclaims the massacre of all the 
 
 whites, March 29 ; crowned emperor as 
 
 Jacques I. Oct. 8, 1804 
 
 He is assassinated, and the isle is divided, 
 
 Oct. 17, 1806 
 
 Henry Christophe, a man of colour, president 
 in Feb. 1807 ; crowned emperor by the title 
 of Henry I. , while Pethion rules as president 
 at Port-au-Prince .... March, iSii 
 
 Numerous black nobility and prelates created . „ 
 
 Pethion dies, and Boyer is elected president, 
 
 May, i8i8 
 
 Christophe commits suicide, Oct. 1820 ; the 
 two states united under Boyer as regent for 
 life, Nov. 1820 ; who is recognised by France 
 in 1825 
 
 Revolution : Boyer deposed 1843 
 
 St. Domingo declares itself an independent 
 republic, Feb. 1844; recognised by France . 1848 
 
 Hayti proclaimed an empire under its late 
 president Solouque, who takes the title of 
 Faustin I., Aug. 26, 1849; crowned, April 18, 1852 
 
 * He was bom in 1732 ; went to India as a writer in 1750; became governor-general of Bengal in 
 1772 ; of India, 1773 ; governed ably, but, it is said, unscrupulously and tyrannically, till he resigned in 
 1785. The expenses of his trial (70,000^.) were paid by the East India Company. He died a privy-coun- 
 cillor in 1 818. 
 
HAY 363 IIEG 
 
 HA.YTI, continued. 
 
 Faustin attacking the republic of St. Domingo I Sixteen persons executed for a conspiracy 
 
 repulsed ; Feb. i, 1856 ' against Gefifrard Oct. 1859 
 
 Revolution in Hayti : general Geffrard pro 
 claimed president of the republic of Hayti, 
 
 Dec. 22, 
 Faustin abdicates Jan. 
 
 Great fire at Port-au-Prince ; 600 houses de- 
 stroyed Feb. 23, 1865 
 
 President Geffrard compelled to resign, Sept. 2, ,, 
 See Domingo. 
 
 HEAD ACT. See 7i,ote to article Ireland, 1465. 
 
 HEALTH, General Board of, was appointed by the act for the promotion of the 
 public health, passed in 1848. See Sanitary Legislation. This board was reconstructed in 
 Aug. 1854, and sir B. Hall was placed at its head, with a salary of 2000?. ; succeeded by 
 W. F. Cowper, Aug. 1855, and by Ch. B. Adderley in 1858. The expenses for the year 
 1856-7 were i2,325X In 1858 this board was incorporated into the privy council establish- 
 ment ; Dr. Simon being retained as medical officer. 
 
 HEARTH, OR CHIMNEY, TAX, on every fire-place or hearth in England was imposed 
 by Charles 11. in 1662, when it produced about 200,000?. a year. It was abolished by William 
 and Mary at the Revolution in 1689 ; but was imposed again, and again abolished. 
 
 HEAT (called by French chemists Calorie). Little progress had been made in the study 
 of the phenomena of heat till about 1757, when Joseph Black put forth his theory of latent 
 heat (which heat he said was absorbed by melting ice), and of specific heat. Cavendish, 
 Lavoisier, and others, continued Black's researches. Sir John Leslie put forth his views on 
 ladiant heat in 1804. Count Rumford espoused the theory that heat consists in motion 
 among the particles of matter, which view he supported by experiments on friction (recorded 
 in 1802). This theory (now called the dynamical or mechanical theory of heat, and used 
 to explaifi all the phenomena of physics and chemistry) has been further substantiated by 
 the independent researches of Dr. J. Ma)'er of Heilbronn and of Mr. Joule of Manchester 
 (about 1840), who assert that heat is the equivalent of work done. In 1854, professor "Wm. 
 Thomson, of Glasgow, published his researches on the dynamical power of the sun's rays. 
 
 1 The minds of philosophers are still engaged on this subject.* See Calorescence. Thermo- 
 electricity, produced by heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered together, Avas dis- 
 covered by Seebeck in 1823. A powerful thermo-electric battery was constructed by Marcus 
 
 j of Vienna, in 1865. 
 
 I HEBREWS. See Jeius. 
 
 i HEBRIDES (the Etudes of Ptolemy and the Hebudes of Pliny), Western isles of Scotland, 
 ' long subject to Norway ; ceded to Scotland iu 1264 ; and annexed to the Scotti,?h crown in 
 1540 by James V. 
 
 HEBROlSr (in Palestine). Here Abraham resided, i860 B.C. ; and here David was made 
 I king of Judah, 1048 e.g. On April 7, 1862, the prince of Wales visited the reputed cave of 
 Maclipelah, near Hebron, said to contain the remains of Abraham and his descendants. 
 
 HECATOMB, an ancient sacrifice of a hundred oxen, particularly observed by the Lace- 
 J! demonians when they possessed a hundred cities. The sacrifice was subsecLuently reduced 
 to twenty-three oxen, and goats and lambs were substituted. 
 
 ij HECLA, MOUNT. Its fii'st eruption is recorded as having occurred 1004. About 
 
 l' twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson. The most 
 dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic mountain occurred in 1766, since 
 
 \ when a visit to the top in summer is not attended with great difficulty. For particulars of 
 an eruption in 1784-5, see Iceland. The mount was in a state of violent eruption from 
 
 j Sept. 2, 1845, to AprU, 1846. Three new craters were formed, from which pillars of fire rose 
 :to the height of 14,000 English feet. The lava formed several hills, and pieces of pumice 
 stone and scoriae of 2 cwt. were thrown to a distance of a league and a half ; the ice and 
 snow which had covered the mountain for centuries melted into prodigious floods. 
 
 Ill HEGIRA, Era of the, dates from the flight (Arabic hejra) of Mahomet from Mecca to 
 'Medina, on the night of Thursday, the 15th July, 622, The era commences on the i6th. 
 Some compute this era from the 15th, but Cantemir proves that the i6th was the first day, 
 33 of its lunar years were equal to 32 of those of the vulgar era. 
 
 ■ * Captain Erioson constructed a ship, in which caloric, or heat, was the motive-power. On Jan. 4, 
 ]i853, it sailed down the bay of New York, at the rate of 14 mUes an hour, it is said at a cost of 80 per cent. 
 less than steam. Although caloric engines were not successful, captain Ericson continued his experi- 
 i ments, and patented an improved engine in 1856. 
 
HEI 364 HEL 
 
 HEIDELBERG (Germany) was capital of the Palatinate, 1362-1719. The protestant 
 electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a war ensued, in which the castle was ruined, and 
 the elector removed his residence of Manheim. It was annexed to Baden in 1802. Here 
 was the celebrated tun, constructed in 1343, when it contained twenty-one pipes of wine. 
 Another was made in 1664 which held 600 hogsheads. It was destroyed by the French in 
 1688 ; but a larger one, fabricated in 1690, which held 800 hogsheads, and was foimerly kept 
 full of the best Rhenish wine, is now mouldering in a damp vault, quite empty. 
 
 HELDER POINT (Holland). The fort and the Dutch fleet lying in the Texel surrendered 
 to the British under the duke of York and sir Ralph Abercrombie, for the prince of Orange ; 
 540 British were killed, Aug. 30, 1 799. The place was left in Oct. See Bergen. 
 
 HELEN, a Grecian princess, according to mythology, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, and 
 sister of Castor and Pollux. She was demanded in marriage by seveial Greek princes. She 
 chose Menelaus, king of Sparta ; but eloped from him with Paris, son of Priam, king of 
 Troy. This led to the Trojan war, which lasted 1193 to 1183 B.C. 
 
 HELENA, St. (an island in the South Atlantic Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese 
 under Juan de Nova Castilla, on the festival of St. Helena, May 21, 1502. The Dutch 
 afterwards held it until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East 
 India Company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English 
 and Dutch until 1673, when Charles II., on Dec. 12, assigned it to the company once more. 
 St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 16, 1815 ; and of his death. 
 May 5, 1821. His remains were removed in 1840, and interred at the Hotel des Invalides, 
 Paris. See France, 1840. The house and tomb have been purchased by the French 
 government. 
 
 HELIGOLAND, an island in 'the North Sea, taken from the Danes by the British, 
 Sept. 5, 1807 ; made a depot for British merchandise ; confirmed to England by the treaty 
 of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814. Though a mere rock, it is an important possession. 
 
 HELIOGRAPHY (from helios, the sun). See Photography. 
 
 HELIOMETER, &c., an instrument for measuring the diameters of the sun, moon, 
 planets, and stars, invented by Savary, in 1743 ; applied by M. Bouguer, in 1747. 
 
 HELIOSCOPE (a peculiar sort of telescope, prepared for observing the sun so as not to 
 affect the eye), was invented by Christopher Scheiner in 1625. 
 
 HELIOSTAT, an instrument invented to make a sunbeam stationaiy, or apparently 
 stationarj-, invented by Gravesande about 17 19, and greatly improved by Mains and others. 
 One constructed by MM. Foucault and Duboscq, was exhibited at Paris in October, 1862. 
 
 HELLAS, in Thessaly, the home of the Hellenes and the Greek race, which supplanted the 
 Pelasgians from the 15th to the nth century B.C., derived their name from Helen, king of 
 Phthiotis, about 1600 B.C. They separated into the Dorians, iEolians, lonians, and Achaians. 
 The present king of Greece is called ' ' king of the Hellenes. " See Greece. 
 
 HELLESPONT, a narrow arm of the sea betwixt Europe on the west, Asia on the east, 
 the Propontis, or Sea of Marmora, northward, and the Jigean Sea, now the Archipelago, 
 southward. The present name is the Strait of the Dardanelles. The Hellespont took its 
 original nanie from Helle, daughter of Athamas, king of Thebes, who was drowned here. It 
 is celebrated for tlie loves of Hero of Sestus, and Leander of Abydos : Leander was 
 drowned in a tempestuous night as he attenqited to swim across the Hellespont, and Hero, 
 in despair, threw herself into the sea, 627 B.C. See Xerxes. 
 
 HELL-FIRE CLUBS. Three of these associations which existed for some time, were 
 suppressed by an order in council, 1721. They met at Somerset-house, and at houses in 
 Westminster, and in Conduit-street. 
 
 HELMETS, among the Romans, were provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above 
 the eyes, and beaver to lower for eating ; the helmet of the Greeks was round, that of the 
 Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a plain round helmet ; but most of the English 
 kings had crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had aflat helmet, 
 with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert 1. was surmounted by a crown, 1306. 
 Gwillim. 
 
 HELOTS, captives, derived by some from the Greek hclein, to take ; by others from 
 Helos, a city which the Spartans hated for refusing to pay tribute, 883 B.C. The Spartans, 
 it is said, ruined the city, and reduced the Helots to slavery ; and called aU their slaves and 
 
HEL 
 
 365 
 
 HER 
 
 the prisoners of war, Helotce. The number of the Helots was much enlarged by the conquest 
 of Messenia, 668 B.C., and is considered to have been four-lifths of the inhabitants of Sparta. 
 In the Peloponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were rewarded 
 with their liberty, 43 1 B. c. ; but the sudden disappearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was 
 attributed to the Lacedemonian treachery. Herodotus. 
 
 HELVETIAN REPUBLIC. Switzerland having been conquered by the French in 1797, 
 a republic was established in 1798 with this title. See Switzerland. 
 
 HELVETII, a Celto-Germanic people, who inhabited what is now called Switzerland. 
 Invading (iaul, 61 B.C., they were opposed and beaten by Julius Csesar, 58 B.C., near Geneva. 
 
 HEMP AND ELAX . Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed to be sown 
 for fishing-nets, 1533. "Bounties were paid to encourage its cultivation in 1783 ; and every 
 exertion should be made by the government and legislature to accomplish such a national 
 good. In 1785 there were imported from Russia, in British ships, 17,695 tons of hemp and 
 flax." Sir John Sinclair. The annual importation of these articles now amounts to about 
 100,000 tons. The cultivation of flax was revived at the dearth of cotton dming the 
 American civil war, 186 1-4. More than 180, 000 lbs. of rough hemp were used in the cordage 
 of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails. 
 
 HEPTARCHY * (or government of seven kings) in England was gradually formed from 
 455, when Hengist became the king of Kent. It terminated in 828, when Egbert became 
 sole monarch of England. See Britain and Octarchy. 
 
 HERACLID.^, descendants of Hercules, who were expelled from the Peloponnesus about 
 1200 B.C., but reconquered it in 1 103-4 or 1109 B.C., a noted epoch in chronology, all the 
 histoiy preceding being accounted fabulous. 
 
 HERALDRY. Marks of honour were used in the first ages. Nisbet. The Phrygians 
 had a sow ; the Thracians, Mars ; the Romans, an eagle ; the Goths, a bear ; the Flemings, a 
 bull; the Saxons, a horse ; and the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis 
 (which see). Heraldry, as an art, is ascribed first to Charlemagne, about 800 ; and next to 
 Frederick Barbarossa, about 1152 ; it began and grew with the feudal law. Mackenzie. The 
 great English works on heraldry are those of Barcham or Barkham, published by GwUlim 
 ^i6io), and Edmondson (1780). 
 
 HEEALDS' COLLEGE. 
 
 Edward III. appointed two heraldic kings-at- 
 arms for the south and north (Surroy, Norroy) 1340 
 
 Richard III. incorporated and endowed the 
 college ..."••.. 1484 
 
 Philip and Mary enlarged its privileges, and 
 confirmed them by letters patent . July 15, 1554 
 
 Formerly, in many ceremonies, the herald re- 
 presented the king's person, and therefore 
 wore a crown, and was always a knight. 
 
 This college has an earl marshal, 3 kings of 
 arms (Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy), 
 6 heralds (Richmond, Lancaster, Chester, 
 Windsor, Somerset, and York), 4pursuivants, 
 and 2 extra heralds. See Earl Marshal, and 
 King s-at- Arms. 
 
 The building in Doctors' Commons, London, 
 was erected by sir Christopher Wren, after 
 the great fire in i665 
 
 1683 
 
 HERAT, on the confines of Khorasan, a strong city called the key of Afghanistan, 
 capital of a state formed by Shah Mahmoud, in 181 8. Population in 1830, 100,000. The 
 Persians were baffled in an attempt to take it in 1838 ; but took it Oct. 25, 1856, in violation 
 of a treaty made in 1853. In consequence, war ensued between Great Britain and Persia. 
 Peace was made in April, 1857 (see Persia). Herat was restored July 27 following. See 
 Afghanistan. 
 
 HERCULANETJM, an ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, 
 by an eruption of lava from Vesuvius, Aug. 23 or 24, 79. Successive eruptions laid them 
 still deeper under the surface, and all traces of them were lost until excavations began in 
 1711; in 1713 many antiquities were found. In 1738 excavations Avere resumed, and 
 works of art and monuments and memorials of civilised life, were discovered. 150 volumes 
 of MSS. were found in a chest, in 1754; and many antiquities were purchased by sir 
 William Hamilton, and sold to the British Museum, where they are deposited ; but the 
 principal relics are preserved in the museum of Portici. The " Antichita di Ercolano, ' 
 8 vols, folio, were published by the Neapolitan government, 1757-92. 
 
 * There were at first nine or ten Saxon kingdoms, but Middlesex soon ceased to exist, and Bemicia 
 and Deira were generally governed by one ruler, as Xurthtimberland. 
 
HER 366 HER 
 
 HEREFORD was made the seat of a bishopric about 676, Putta being first bishop. 
 The cathedral was founded by a nobleman named Milfride, in honour of Ethelbert, king of 
 the East Saxons, who was t;-eacherously slain by his intended mother-in-law, the queen of 
 Mercia. The tower fell in 1786, and was rebuilt by Mr. AVyatt. The cathedral was 
 reopened after verj' extensive re2)airs, on June 30, 1862. The see is valued in the king's 
 books at 768Z. ^)er annum. Present income, 4200I. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OF HEREFORD. 
 
 1803. Folliott H. W. Cornwall, translated to Wor- 
 cester, 1808. 
 1808. John Luxmoore, translated to St. Asaph, 1815. 
 1815. George Isaac Huutingford, died April 29, 1832. 
 
 1832. Hon. Edward Grey, died Jvine 24, 1837. 
 
 1837. Thomas Musgrave, translated to York, Dec. 
 
 1847 
 1847. Renn D. Hampden (the present bishop, 1865). 
 
 HERERA (Arragon). Hei-e don Carlos, of Spain, in his struggle for his hereditary right 
 to the throne of that kingdom, at the head of 12,000 men, encountered and defeated general 
 Buerens, who had not much above half that number of the queen of Spain's troops. Buerens 
 lost about 1000 in killed and wounded, Aug. 24, 1837. 
 
 HERETICS (from the Greek hairesis, choice). Paul says, "After the way they call 
 heresy, so worship I the God of my fathers," 60 {Acts xxiv. 14). Heresy was unknown to 
 the Greek and Roman religions. Simon Magus is said to have broached the Gnostic heresy 
 about 41. This was followed by the Manichees, Nestoriaus, Arians, &c. Formerly the tenn 
 heresj' denoted a particular sect ; now, heretics are those who propagate theu" private opinions 
 in opposition to the Roman Catholic Church. Burnet. See Jnquisitimi. 
 
 Thirty heretics came from Germany to England I Certain laws against heretics were repealed, 
 
 to propagate their opinions, and were branded 
 in the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked 
 into the streets in the depth of winter, where, 
 none daring to relieve them, they died of 
 hunger and cold (iS/:)«(;rf) 1160 
 
 25 Hen. VIII 1534-5 
 
 The last person executed for heresy in Britain 
 
 was Thomas Aikenhead, at Edinburgh . . 1696 
 [The orthodox Mahommedans are Sonnites ; the 
 
 heretics are Shiites, Druses, iSsc] 
 
 HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS (t.c, feudal rights) in Scotland, valued at 164,232^., were 
 bought up in 1747 (20 Geo. II. c. 43) and restored to the crown. — Heritable and Movable 
 Rights, in the Scottish law, denote what in England is meant by real and personal property; 
 real property in England answering nearly to the heritable rights in Scotland, and personal 
 property to the movable rights. 
 
 HERMANDAD (Spanish for brotherhood), associations of the chief cities of Castile and 
 Arragon for the defence of their liberties in times of trouble ; began about the middle of the 
 13th century. The brotherhood was disorganised in 1498, public order having been firmly 
 established. 
 
 HERMAS, author of "the Shepherd," a Christian apocryphal book, supposed to have 
 been written about 131. Some believe Hermas to be mentioned in Romans xvi. 14. 
 
 HERMITS. See Mo^mchism. HERO, British Man-of-War. See Wrecks, 181 j. 
 
 HERRING-FISHERY was largely encouraged by the English and Scotch so early as the 
 8th century. The hen-ing statute was passed in 1357. The mode of preserving henings by 
 pickling was discovered about 1397. Anderson. The British Herring-Fishery company 
 was instituted Sept. 2, 1 750. A scientific commission in relation to the fishery was appointed 
 in 1862 
 
 HERRINGS, Battle of the, fought Feb. 12, 1429, when the English were besieging 
 Orleans, obtained its name from the due de Bourbon attempting to intercept a convoy of salt 
 fish, on the road to the English camp before Orleans ; he was beaten. 
 
 HERSCHEL TELESCOPE. Sir Wm. Herschel's seven, ten, and twenty-feet reflectors 
 were made about 1799. He discovered the planet Uranus {which see), March 21, 1781, and 
 a volcanic mountain in the moon, in 1783 ; and about this time laid the plan of his great 
 forty-feet telescope, which he completed in 1789, when he discovered two other volcanic 
 mountains. In 1802, by means of his telescopes, he was enabled to lay before the Royal 
 Society a catalogue of 5000 nebulse and clusters of stars. The great telescope was taken 
 down in 1822, and one of 20 feet focal length erected by sir John Herschel, who afterwards 
 took it to the Cape of Good Hope and with it made his observations. 
 
 HERULI, a German tribe, which ravaged Greece and Asia Minor in the 3rd century after 
 Christ. Odoacer, their leader, overwhelmed the western empire and became king of Italy, 
 476. He was defeated and put to death by Theodoric the Ostrogoth, 491-3. 
 
HER 
 
 367 
 
 HIB 
 
 HERZEGOVINA, a province of European Turkey, N. of Montenegro. In Dec. 1861, 
 an. insurrection against the Turks broke out, fostered by the prince of Montenegro. It was 
 subdued ; and on Sept. 23, 1862, Vucalovitch, chief of the insurgents, surrendered on behalf 
 of his countrymen to Kurschid Pasha, and an amnesty was granted. 
 
 HESSE ("W. Germany), the seat of the Gatti, formed part of the empire of Charlemagne ; 
 from the rulers of it in his time, the present are descended. It was joined to Thuringia till 
 about 1263, when Henry 1. (son of a duke of Brabant and Sophia, daughter of the landgrave 
 of Thuringia) beca.ne landgrave of Hesse. The most remarkable of his successors was 
 Philip the Magnanimous (1509), an eminent warrior and energetic sitpporter of the Refor- 
 mation, who signed the Augsburg Confession in 1530 and the League of Smalcald in 1531. 
 At his death, in 1567, Hesse was divided into Hesse-Carsel and Hesse-Dakmstadt, under 
 his sons William and Geoi-ge. Their descendants played an eminent part in the convulsions 
 of Germany during the 17th and 18th century.* In 1803, Hesse-Cassel became an electorate, 
 and in 1806 Hesse-Darmstadt a grand duchy ; which titles were retained in 1814. In 1806 
 Hesse- Cassel was incorporated with the kingdom of Westphalia, but in 18 14 the electorate 
 was re-established. 
 
 Hessb-Cassel. (Population, Dec. 1861, 738,476.) Hesse-Darmstadt. (Population, Dec. 1861, 856,907). 
 
 1847. The elector Frederic- William l.,t Nov. 20 1848. The grand-duke Louis III., June 16 (born 
 (born Aug. 20, 1 802). June 9, 1806). 
 
 Heir : his sou, Augustus, bom Sept. 21, 1859. Heir : his brother Charles (bom April 23, 1809), 
 
 whose son Louis ruari-ied the princess Alice, 
 of England, July i, 1862. 
 Issue : Victoria- Alberta, bom April 5, 1863 ; 
 and another princess, Nov. i, 1864. 
 
 HESSE-HOMBURG, a landgraviate, established in the person of Frederic, son of George 
 of Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1596. His descendant, Augustus Frederic, married May 7, 1818, 
 Elizabeth, daughter of George III. of England, who had no issue. The landgraviate was 
 absorbed into the grand duchy of Hesse in 1806, but re-established in 1815 with additional 
 territories. The landgrave Ferdinand (born April 26, 1 783) succeeded his brother, Sept. 8, 
 
 1848. Population (Dec. 1861), 26,817. 
 
 HETEROGENY. See Spontaneous Qeneration. 
 HEWLEY'S CHARITY. See Unitarians. 
 
 HEXAMETER, six measures or feet, each containing two long syllables (a spondee), or a 
 long one and two short (a dactyl), the form of verse in which Homer wrote his Iliad and 
 Odyssey. 
 
 HEXHAM (Northumberland). The see of Hexham was founded in the infancy of the 
 Saxon church ; it had ten bishops successively, but by reason of the spoil and rapine of the 
 Danes, it was discontinued ; the last prelate, appointed 810. The Battle of Hexham, in 
 which the Yorkist army of Edward IV. obtained a complete victory over the Lancastrian 
 army of Henry VI. was fought May 15, 1464. 
 
 HIBERNIA, Ibernia, Ivernia, and lerne, a name given to Ireland by classical writers 
 (Aristotle, Ptolemy, &c.). See Ireland. The ship Hibernia, captain Brenn, bound from 
 
 * Six thousand Hessian troops~arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion being expected in 
 1756. The sum of 47i,oooi. three per cent, stock was transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian 
 auxiliaries lost in the American war, at 30?. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again brought 
 to this realm at the close of the last century, and served in Ireland during the rebellion in 1798. 
 
 t The elector of Hesse had, in 1850, remodelled the constitution given to his people in 1831 (by which 
 the chamber had the exclusive right of voting the taxes), and did not convene the chamber until the 
 usual time for closing the session had arrived, when his demand for money for the ensuing year, 1851, was 
 laid before it. The chamber called, unanimously, for a regular budget, that it might examine into, and 
 discuss, its items. The elector dissolved the chamber, and declared the whole of his dominions in a state 
 of siege and subject to martial law, Sept. 7, 1850. In the end he was obliged to flee to Hanover, and subse- 
 quently to Frankfort; and on Oct. 14, he formally applied to the Frankfort diet for assistauce to re-establish 
 his authority in Hesse. On Nov. 6 following, an Austro- Bavarian force of 10,000 men, with 20 pieces of 
 artillery, entered Hesse-Cassel, under the command of prince Thurn-und-Taxis, viho fixed his head- 
 quarters in Hanau ; and on the next day a Prussian force entered Cassel. The elector returned to his 
 capital, Dec. 27, 1850, the taxes having been previously collected under threats of imprisonment. The 
 Austro- Bavarian and Prussian troops afterwards evacuated the electorate. In 1852, the constitution of 183 1 
 was abolished, and a new one established. — The elector and his chamber are still in a state of disagree- 
 ment. Although the German federal diet aflBrmed the constitution of 1852, on March 14, i860, the elector 
 granted a new one on May 30. This, however, did not give satisfaction. Further contests ensued. In 
 May, 1862, there was danger of an armed Prussian intervention, the king having been insulted by tlie 
 Hesse ministry. In June a new ministry was formed, and the legislative chambers assembled on Oct 27.. 
 
• HIE 368 HIP 
 
 Liverpool to New South "Wales, with 232 persons on board, of whom 208 were passengers 
 going out as settlers, was destroyed at sea by fire, kindled through the negligence of the 
 second mate, — in W. long. 22° and S. lat. 4°. 150 lives were lost through the insufficiency 
 of the boats to contain more than a third of the people on board : Feb. 15, 1833. 
 
 HIEROGLYPHICS (sacred engravings), picture-writing, the expression of ideas by 
 representation of visible objects, used chiefly by the Egyptians ; said to have been invented 
 by Athotes, 2112B.0. Usher. Young, Cliampollion, Kosellini, and others (in the present \ 
 century), have done much to elucidate Egyptian hieroglyphics. See Rosetta Stone. 
 
 HIGH AND LOW CHURCH. These sections in the Church of England began in the 
 reign of Anne, and still continue. Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's, Southwark, 
 was prosecuted for two seditious sermons (preached Aug. 14, and Nov. 9, 1709), to rouse 
 the apprehensions of the people for the safety of the church, and to excite hostility against 
 the dissenters. His friends were called High Church and his opponents Low Church, or ' 
 moderate men, 1720. Tlie queen, who favonred Sacheverel, presented him with the valuable 
 rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. He died in 1724. 
 
 HIGH COMMISSION, Court of, an ecclesiastical court, erected by i Eliz. c. i., IS59> 
 by which all spiritual jurisdiction was vested in the crown. It originally had no power to fine | 
 or imprison ; but under Charles I. and archbishop Laud it assumed illegal powers, was 
 complained of by the parliament, and was abolished in 1641. 
 
 HIGHLANDS (of Scotland), long held by semi-barbarous clans, were greatly improved 
 by the construction of military roads by general Wade, about 1725-6 ; and by the abolition 
 of heritable jurisdiction of feudal rights in 1748, and by the establishment of the Highland 
 and Agricultural Society in 1784. See Regiments. 
 
 HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VII.; and this, and sometimes 
 Your Grace was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but about the close of the reign of 
 the latter-mentioned king, the title of " Highness " and " Your Grace " were absorbed in 
 that of "Majesty." Louis XIII. of France gave the title of Highness to the prince of 
 Orange, in 1644 ; this prince had previouslj' only the distinction of Excellency. Henavlt. 
 Louis XIV. gave the princes of Orange the title of High and Mighty Lords, 1644. Idem. 
 
 HIGH PRIEST. See Priest. 
 
 HIGH TREASON. In regulating the trials for this was enacted the statute, so favourable 
 to liberty, the 25th of Edward III., 1352, by which two living witnesses are required : it 
 arose in the refusal of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of 
 Somerset. By the 40th Geo. III., 1800, it was enacted that where there was a trial for high 
 treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life of the sovereign, such trial 
 should be conducted in the same manner as in the case of an indictment for murder.* 
 
 HIGHWAYS. See Roads. 
 
 HIMERA (Sicily). Here (in 480 B.C.) Theron and Gelon of Agrigentum defeated the 
 Carthaginians ; and here the latter defeated Agathocles of Syracuse, 310 B.C. 
 
 HINDOO ERA (see Cali-yuga) began 3101 B.C., or 756 before the Deluge, in 2348. 
 The Hindoos count their months by the progress of the sun through the zodiac. The Samoat 
 era begins 56 B.C. ; the Saca era A.D. 79. 
 
 HIPPOPOTAMUS (Greek, river-horse), a native of Africa, known to, but incorrectly 
 described by ancient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited at Rome by Antoninus Com- 
 modus and others, about 138, 180, and 218. The first brought to England amved May 25, 
 1850, and is now in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's-park, London ; another, a female, four 
 months old, was placed there in 1854. Two young ones born at Paris in May, 1858, and 
 June, 1859, were killed by their mother. One born at Amsterdam, July 29, 1865, was living 
 iu September. 
 
 * The last two cases of persons executed for high ti-eason were, ist, William Cundell, alias Connell, 
 and John Smith. They were tried on a special commission, Feb. 6, 1812, being two of fourteen British 
 subjects taken in the enemy's service in the Isles of France and Bourbon. Mr. Abbot, afterwards lord 
 Tenterden and chief justice, and sir Vicary Gibbs, attorney-general, conducted the prosecution, and Mr. 
 Brougham, now lord Brougham, defended the prisoners. The defence was, that they (the prisoners) had 
 assumed the French uniform for the purpose of aiding their escape to England. The two above-men- 
 tioned were hanged and beheaded on the lodge of Horsemonger-lane gaol on March 16, 1812. All the 
 other convicts were pardoned upon condition of serving in colonies beyond the seas. 2nd, the Cato Street 
 Conspirators {which see), May i, 1820. 
 
HIP 
 
 369 
 
 HOL 
 
 HIPPODEOME, a circus for horse-riding. One opened by Mr. John Whyte, near 
 Notting-liill, London, on May 29, 1837, was closed in 1841 by the Kensington vestry, 
 
 HISPAI^IA, Latin name of Spain. HISPAISTIOLA. See Hayti. 
 
 HISTOLOGY (from histos, a web), the science which treats of the tissues which enter 
 into the formation of animals and vegetables ; mainly prosecuted by the aid of the micro- 
 scope. Schwann, Valentin, KoUiker, and Kobin are celebrated for their researches. Professor 
 Quekett's Lectures on Histology were published in 1852 and 1854. 
 
 HISTORY. The Bible, the Parian Chronicle, the^ histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, 
 and the poems of Homer, are the foundations of early a7icie7it histoiy. Later ancient history 
 is considered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italj', 476 ; and 
 modern histor}'^ dates from the age of Charlemagne, about 800. There was not a professor- 
 ship of modern history in either of our universities until the years 1724 and 1736, when 
 Regius professorships were established by George I. and George II. 
 
 HOBART TOWISr, ok Hobakton, a sea-port and capital of Van Diemen's Land, was 
 founded in 1804 by col. Collins, the first lieritenant-governor, who died here in 18 10. 
 
 Hf)CHKlRCHE]Sr (Saxony), where, on Oct. 14, 1758, the Prussian army, commanded by 
 Frederick II., was surprised and defeated by the Austrians commanded by count Daun. 
 Marshal Keith, a Scotsman, in the Prussian service, was kiUed. The Austrian generals shed 
 tears, and ordered his interment with military honours. 
 
 HOCHSTADT, a city on the Danube, in Bavaria, near which several important battles 
 have been fought : (i.) Sept. 20, 1703, when the Imperialists were defeated by the French 
 and Bavarians, under marshal Villars and the elector of Bavaria. (2.) Aug. 13, 1704, called 
 the battle of Blenheim {which see). (3.) June 19, 1800, when Moreau totally defeated the 
 Austrians, and avenged the defeat of the French at Blenheim. 
 
 HOGUE. See Za Ilogue. 
 
 HOHENLIISTDEN (Bavaria), Battle of, Dec. 3, 1800, between the Austrians com- 
 manded by archduke John, and the French commanded by general Moreau. The 
 Imperialists were defeated with great loss in this hard- fought battle, their killed and wounded 
 amounting to 10,000 men, and their loss in prisoners to 10,000 more. The forces opposed 
 were nearly equal in numbers. The peace of Luneville followed, 
 
 HOHENSTAUFEF. See Germany and Guelfs. HOHENZOLLERF. See Prussia. 
 
 HOLLAND {Hollmo land, or, some say, Wooded land), a kingdom, N.W. Europe, the 
 chief part of the northern Netherlands, is composed of land rescued from the sea, and 
 defended by immense dykes. It was inhabited by the Batavi in the time of Csesar, who 
 made a league with them. It became part of Gallia Belgica, and afterwards of the kingdom 
 of Austrasia. From the loth to the 15th century it was governed by counts under the 
 German emperors. In 186 1, the population of the kingdom in Europe was 3,521,416; of 
 the colonies, 18,175,910; of both in 1863, 21,805,607. 
 
 Thierry (or Dieterioh) I. , first count . . . 936 
 
 The parties termed Hooks, (followers of Margaret 
 countess of Holland,) and Cod-fish, (supporters 
 of her son William, who endeavoured to 
 supplant her,) create a civil war, which lasts 
 many years 1347 
 
 Holland united to Hainault, 1299 ; and Brabant, 
 1416 ; annexed to Burgundy by duke Philip, 
 who wrests it from his niece Jaqueline, of 
 Holland, daughter of the last count, 1436 ; 
 annexed to Austria through the marriage of 
 Mary of Burgundy with the archduke Maxi- 
 milian 1477 
 
 Government of Philip of Austria, 1495 ; of 
 Margaret of Austria and Charles V., 1506 ; 
 of PhiUp II 1555 
 
 Philip II. establishes the Inquisition ; the Hol- 
 landers having zealously embraced the re- 
 formed doctrines : the Confederacy of Gueux 
 (Beggars) formed by the nobles against it . 1566 
 
 Commencement of the revolt under William, 
 prince of Orange 1572 
 
 The pacification of Ghent — union of the north 
 and south provinces . . . . . .1576 
 
 The seven northern provinces contract the 
 
 league of Utrecht . . .... 1579 
 
 And declare their independence . Sept. 29, 1580 
 Assassination of William of Orange . July 10 
 
 (June 30), 1584 
 The ten southern provinces conquered by the 
 
 pi'ince of Parma 1585 
 
 The provinces solicit help from England and 
 
 France ; expedition of the earl of Leicester ; 
 
 English and Dutch disagree . . . 1585-7 
 
 Battle of Zutphen — sir Philip Sidney killed, 
 
 Sept. 22, 1586 
 Prince Maurice appointed stadtholder . . . 1587 
 Death of Philip II. His son Philip III. cedes 
 
 the Netherlands to Albert of Austria, and 
 
 the infanta Isabella 1598 
 
 Campaigns of Maurice and Spinola . 1 599-1604 
 Maurice defeats the archduke at Nieuport July 2, 1600 
 The independence of the United Provinces 
 
 recognised ; truce for twelve years April 9 
 
 (March 30), i6og 
 
 Batavia in Java built • 1610 
 
 Fierce religious dissensions between the Armi- 
 
 nians and Gomarists i6io-ig 
 
 B B 
 
HOL 
 
 370 
 
 HOL 
 
 HOLLAND, continued. 
 
 Maurice favours the latter and intrigues for 
 royal power ....... 1616 
 
 SjTiodof Dort ; persecution of the Arminians, 1618-19 
 Execution of the illustrious Barneveldt, May 13, 1619 
 Benewal of the war ; Maurice saves Bergen- op- 
 Zoom 1622 
 
 His tyrannical government ; plot against him ; 
 
 sixteen persons executed .... 1623 
 His death ; his brother Frederick succeeds him 
 
 and annuls the persecutioti . . . . 1625 
 Manhattan, now New York. North America, 
 founded ; massacre of English at Amboyna, 
 
 East Indies 1624 
 
 Victories of Van Tronip, who takes two Spanish 
 
 fleets off the Downs . Sept. 16 and Oct. 21, 1639 
 Peace of WestphaUa, the republic recognised 
 
 by Europe 1648 
 
 War with England — naval actions — Blake de- 
 feats De Ruyter, Oct. 22 ; but is sui-prised by 
 Van Tronip, who takes some English ships 
 . and sails through the channel with a bi-oom 
 at his mast-head .... Nov. 29, 1652 
 Indecisive sea-figlits, June 12-14 >' death of Van 
 
 Tromp, July 21 ; peace follows . . . . 1653 
 Victorious war with Sweden .... 1659 
 
 Another war with England 1665 
 
 Indecisive sea-fights, June 1-4; victory of Monk 
 
 over De Ruyter .... July 25, i666 
 Triple alliance of England, Holland, and 
 
 Sweden against France 1668 
 
 Charles II. basely deserts Holland, and unites 
 
 with France 1670 
 
 The French overrun Holland 1671 
 
 Desperate condition of the States — the popu- 
 lace massacre the De Witts — William HI. 
 
 made stadtholder 1672 
 
 The French repelled by the sluices being opened , , 
 
 Indecisive campaigns 1673-7 
 
 William marries princess Mary of England . 1677 
 Peace with France (Nimeguen) .... 1678 
 William becomes king of England . . . . 1689 
 Sanguinary war with France . . . 1689-96 
 Peace of Ryswick signed . . Sept. 11, 1697 
 
 Death of William March 8, 1702 
 
 No stadtholder appointed — administration of 
 
 Heinsius 1702 
 
 War against France and Spain ; campaigns of 
 
 Marlborough 1702-13 
 
 Peace of Utrecht .... March 30, 1714 
 Holland supports the empress Maria-Theresa 1743-8 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle .... Oct. 1748 
 War with England for naval supremacy — Hol- 
 land loses colonies ..... 1781-4 
 Civil wars in the Low Countries. . . 1787-9 
 The French republican army march into Hol- 
 land ; the people declare in their favour . . 1793 
 
 Unsuccessful campaign of the duke of Tork. . 1794 
 The hatavian republic established in alliance 
 
 with France 1795 
 
 Battle of Camperdown, Duncan signally defeats 
 
 the Dutch Oct. 11, 1797 
 
 The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the line, 
 
 with thirteen India men, surrenders to the 
 
 British admiral, Duncan, without firing a gun, 
 
 Aug. 28, 179^ 
 A new constitution is given to the Batavian 
 
 republic ; the chief officer (R. J. Schimmel- 
 
 penninck) takes the title of Grsnd Pen- 
 sionary April 26, 1805 
 
 Holland erected into a kingdom, and Louis 
 
 Bonaparte declared king . . . June 5, 1806- 
 The ill-fated Walclieren expedition . . . 1809 
 Louis abdicates .... July i, 1810 
 Holland united to France . . . July 9, ,, 
 Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium 
 
 annexed to its dominions . . Nov. 17, 1815 
 The prince of Orange proclaimed sovereign 
 
 prince of the imited Netherlands . Dec. 6, „ 
 Religious discord between Holland and the 
 
 southern provinces ..... 1817, &c. 
 The revolution in Belgium . . Aug. 25, 1830 
 Belgium separated from Holland . July 12, 1831 
 Holland makes war against Belgium Aug. 3, „ 
 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed 
 
 in London April 19, 183^ 
 
 Abdication of William I. . . . Oct. 7-10, 184 > 
 Death of the ex-king Willi.am I. . Dec. 12, 1844 
 Louis Bonaparte, count de Sr. Leu, ex-king of 
 
 Holland, dies of apoplexy at Leghorn, July 25, 1846' 
 The king agrees to political reform, March ; a 
 
 new constitution granted , . April 17, 1848 
 Death of William II. . . . March 17, 1S49 
 Re-establishment of a Rom.an Catholic hier- 
 
 archj'^ announced .... March 12, 1853 
 Great inundations : 40,000 acres submerged 
 
 and nearly 30,000 villagers made destitute, 
 
 Jan. and Feb. 1861 
 Great fire at Endschede, the Manchester of 
 
 Holland, loss about a million pounds. May 7, 1862 
 The states-general pass a law for the abolition 
 
 of slavery in the Dutch West Indies, Aug. 6, „ 
 
 [To commence July i, 1863.] 
 Treaty for capitalising the Scheldt dues signed, 
 
 May 12, i86j 
 Slavery ceases in the Dutch West Indies July i, „ 
 50th anniversary of the deliverance from the 
 
 French kept Nov. 17, ,, 
 
 Commencement of canal to connect Amsterdam 
 
 with the North .sea . . . March 8, 1865 
 
 The government undertake a canal to connect 
 
 Rotterdam with the sea . . . March ,, 
 
 PRINCES OF ORANGE {scQ Orange) stadtholders. 
 
 1502- 
 1530- 
 1544. 
 
 1584. 
 
 I6I8. 
 
 1625. 
 J647. 
 
 Philibert de Chalons. 
 
 R^n(5 de Nassau, his nephew. 
 
 William of Nassau, styled the Great, cousin to 
 RwiiS, recovers the princijiality of Orange in 
 1559. Nominated stadtholder in 1579 • 
 killed by an assassin hired by Philip II. of 
 Spain, July 10, 1584. 
 
 Philip- William, his son ; stolen away from the 
 university of Louvain ; the Dutch would 
 never suffer him to reside in their provinces : 
 died in 1618. 
 
 Maurice, the renowned general : became 
 STADTHOLDER in 1587 ; he was a j-ounger son 
 of William by a second marriage. 
 
 Frederick-Henry (brother) stadtholder. 
 
 William II., stadtholder : man-ied JL-iry, 
 daughter of Charles I. of England, by whom 
 he had a son, who succeeded in 1672. 
 
 [1650-72. The States govern without a stadtholder.] 
 
 i56o. William-Henry : stadtholder in 1672 ; mar- 
 ried Mary, eldest daughter of James II. of 
 England, 1677. 
 
 1 702-47. No stadtholder. 
 
 1702. John-William, nephew of Willi.am HI., loses 
 the principality of Or.ange, which is annexed 
 to France. 
 
 1747. William-Henry becomes hereditary stadt- 
 holder. He married princess Anne of 
 England : succeeded by his son. 
 
 1751. William IV. ; retired on the invasion of the 
 French in 1795 ; died in 1806. 
 
 1795. [Holland and Belgium united to the French 
 republic] 
 
 1806. Willi.am-Fredcrick succeeded his father. 
 
HOL 371 HOL 
 
 HOLLAND, coiitimted. 
 
 KINGS OF HOLLAND AND THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 1 806. Louis Bonaparte, made king of Holland by his 
 brother Napoleon, June 5, 1806; abdicated, 
 July I, 1810. 
 iSio. [Holland again united to France.] 
 1S13. House of Orani^e restored. William-Frederick, 
 prince of Orangp, born 1772 ; proclaimed 
 Dec. 6, 1813 ; took the oath of fidelity as 
 sovereign prince, March 30, 1S14 ; assumed 
 
 the style of king of the Netherlands, 
 March 16, 1815 ; formally abdicated in favour 
 of his son, Oct. 7, 1S40 ; died Dec. 12, 1843. 
 
 1840. WiUiam II. ; born Dec. 6, 1792 ; succeeded on 
 his father's abdication ; died March 17, 1849. 
 
 1849. WiUiam III., son of the preceding; bom 
 Feb. 19, 1817. The present (1865) king. 
 ffeir: Prince Wilham, bom Sept. 4, 1840, 
 
 HOLLAND, New. See Australia and Australasia. 
 
 HOLMFIRTH FLOOD. On Feb. 5, 1852, the BilTDiuy reservoir aToove Holmfirth, near 
 Huddersfield, in Yorkshire, bnrst its banivs, and levelled fonr mills and many ranges of other 
 buildings, destroying the lives of more than 90 persons, and devastating"property estimated 
 at from half a million to 800,000?. 
 
 HOLSTEIN AND SCHLESWIG (N.W. Germany), duchies once belonging to Denmark. 
 The country, inhabited by Saxons, was subdued by Charlemagne in the beginning of the 9th 
 centiiry, and afterwards formed part of the duchy of Saxony. In 1106 or mo, Adolphus 
 of Schauenberg became count of Holstein : his descendants ruled till 1459, when Adol- 
 phus VI L died without issue, and the states of Holstein and Schleswig elected Christian 
 king of Denmark, his nephew, as their duke, through fear of his arms. In I544) bis 
 grandson, Christian II., divided his states amongst his brothers, with the condition that the 
 duchies should remain subject to Denmark. The eldest branch of the family reigned in 
 Denmark till the decease of Frederick YIL, Nov. 15, 1863. From a younger branch (the 
 dukes of Holstein-Gottorp) descended, through marriage, the kings of Sweden from 1751 — 
 18 18, and the reigning family in Eussia since 1762, when the duke, as the husband of 
 Anne, became czar. In 1773, Catherine II. of Eussia ceded Holstein-Gottorp to Denmark 
 in exchange for Oldenburg, &c. The duchies were occupied by the Swedes in 1813, but 
 restored to Denmark in 1814, and on May 28, 1831, constituent assemblies were granted 
 to them. Since 1844 disputes have been rife between the duchies and Denmark, and in 
 1848 the states-general of the duchies voted their annexation to the German confederacy, in 
 which they were supported by Pmssia : war ensued, which lasted till 1850. See Denmark. 
 The agitation in the duchies, encouraged by Prussia, revived in 1857. The Gernians in 
 Schleswig desired it to be made a member of the German confederation, like Holstein ; and 
 both ducliies demanded a local government more independent of Denmark, which changes 
 were resisted by that power. For the events of the war of 1864, see Denmark. By the 
 convention signed at Gastein, Aug. 14, 1865, the government of Holstein was left with 
 Austria, and that of Schleswig with Prussia. See Gastein. Population in i860, 1,004,473. 
 
 HOLY ALLIANCE, was ratified at Paris, Sept. 26, 1815, between the emperors of 
 Eussia (its originator) and Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bpnnd 
 themselves, among other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all their political 
 transactions, with a viaw to perpetuating the peace they had achieved. The compact was 
 severely censured in this country as opposed to rational liberty. 
 
 HOLY GHOST. See Esprit. HOLY ISLAND. See Linclisfarne. 
 
 HOLY LEAGUE. See Leagues. 
 
 HOLY MAID OF Kent,— Elizabeth Barton was incited by the Eoman Catholic party 
 to hinder the Eeformation, by pretending to inspirations from heaven. She foretold that 
 Heniy VIII. would die a speedy and violent death if he divorced Catherine of Spain and 
 married Anne Boleyn, and direful calamities to the nation. She and her confederates were 
 hanged at Tyburn, April 20, 1534. Rapin. 
 
 HOLY PLACES in Palestine. The possession of these places has been a source of 
 contention between the Greek and Latin churches for several centuries. In the reign ot 
 Francis I. they were pla.ced in the hands of the Latin monks, under the protection of the 
 French government, by a treaty with the then sultan ; but the Greeks from time to time 
 obtained iirmans from the Porte invalidating the rights of the Latins, who were at last (m 
 1757) expelled from some of the sacred buildings, which were committed to the care ot tlie 
 Greeks by a hatti-scheriff, or imperial ordinance. 
 
 B B 2 
 
HOL 372 HOM 
 
 HOLY PLACES, continued. 
 
 The holy sepulchre partially destroyed by fire, 1 church at Bethlehem, &c., as in foi-mer 
 
 and rebuilt by the Greeks, who claim addi- | times March g, 1852 
 
 tional privileges, and cause fresh dissensions 1808 , The French government acquiesced, with much. 
 
 The Russian and French governments inter- 
 fered, and sent envoys (M. Dashkoff and M. 
 Marcellus) to adjust the dispute ; but an 
 arrangement was prevented by the Greek 
 revolution in 1821 
 
 The subject again agitated, and the Porte pro- 
 pose that a mixed commission should ad- 
 judicate on the rival claims. M. Titoff, the 
 Russian envoy, acting on behalf of the Greeks, 
 and M. Lavalette, the French envoy, on that 
 of the Latins, took up the question very 
 warmly ' . . . 1850 
 
 A firman issued by the Porte, confirming and 
 consolidating the rights previously granted 
 to the Greek Christians, and declaring that 
 the Latins had no right to claim exclusive 
 possession of certain holy places specified, but 
 perm.itting them to possess a key of the 
 
 dissatisfaction ; but the Russian envoy still 
 desired the key to be withheld from the Latin 
 monks. M. D'Ozeroff made a formal declara- 
 tion of the right of Russia to protect the 
 orthodox in virtue of the treaty of Kainardji 
 in 1774, and demanded that the firman of 
 March g, 1852, should be read at Jerusalem, 
 although it militated against his pretensions, 
 which was accordingly done. The dispute 
 still continued, the Porte being exposed to 
 the attacks of both the Russian and French 
 
 governments March, 1853 
 
 Prince Menschikoff an-ives at Constantinople as 
 envoy extraordinary, and in addition to the 
 claims respecting the holy places, makes 
 those demands respecting the protection of 
 the Greek Christians in Turkey which led to 
 the war of 1854-6. (See Rusao-Tarkish Wa.r) 
 
 Feb. 28, „ 
 
 HOLY EOOD OR Ceoss. A festival was instituted on account of the recovery of a 
 large piece of the cross by the emperor Heraclius, after it had been taken away, on the plun- 
 dering of Jerusalem, about 615. The feast of the finding (or invention) of the Cross is on 
 Ma)' 3 ; that of the exaltation of the Cross, Sept. 14. At Boxley abbey, in Essex, was a 
 crucifix, called the Rood of Grace ; at the dissolution it was broken in pieces as an imposture 
 by Hilsey, bishop of Rochester, at St. Paul's cross, London. 
 
 HOLYROOD PALACE (Edinburgh), formerly an abbey, was for several centuries the 
 residence of the monarchs of Scotland. The abbey, of wliich some vestiges remain, was 
 founded by David I. in 1128, and in the burial-place within its walls are interred several of 
 his successors. The palace is a large quadrangular edifice of hewn stone, with a court within 
 surrounded by piazzas. In the north-west tower is the bed-cliamber which was occupied by 
 queen Mary ; and from an adjoining cabinet to it David Rizzio, her favourite, was dragged 
 forth and murdered, March 9, 1566. The north-west towers were built by James V., and 
 •the remaining part of the palace was added during the reign of Charles XL Great improve- 
 ments were made in 1857. The Queen held her court here, Aug. 30, 1850. 
 
 HOLY SEPL^LCHRE, a Byzantine church in modern Jerusalem. Fergusson, Robinson, 
 and other.?, consider the true site of the holy sepulchre to be the mosque of Omar, termed 
 the " dome of the Rock." The question is still undecided, and investigations are going on 
 at the expense of the Russian government. See Knights. 
 
 HOLY WARS. See Crusades. 
 
 HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as 120, Aslie.. 
 
 HOLY AVEEK, or, the "Week of Indulgences," is the week before Easter. 
 
 HOMELDEN (Northumberland), where the Scots, headed by the earl of Douglas, were 
 defeated by the Percies (among them Hotspur), Sept. 14, 1402. Douglas and the earls of 
 Angus, Murray, Orkney, and the earl of Fife, son of the duke of Albany, and nephew of 
 the Scottish king, with many of the nobility and gentry, were taken prisoners. 
 
 HOMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY, the two most perfect epic poems in the world, 
 written by the greatest poet that has ever lived. The first begins with the wrath of AchiUes, 
 and ends with the funeral of Hector ; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of 
 Ulysses, after the destraction of Troy. Various dates are assigned to these works, from 
 962 to 915 B.C.* Among the thousands of volumes burnt at Constantinople, A.D. 477, are 
 said to liave been the works of Homer written in golden letters on the great gut of a 
 dragon, 120 feet long. 
 
 HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 B.C. He that 
 killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another that lay hid to do a 
 person mischief of a grievous nature, was not deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken 
 
 * The first English version of the Iliad, by Arthur H.all, appeared in 1581. The most celebrated versions 
 of Homer's works are Chapman's, 1616 ; Hobbes', 1675 ; Pope's, 1715-25 ; Cowper's, i7gi. The translation 
 of the Iliad by the earl of Derby (1864) is much commended. 
 
HOM 373 HOR 
 
 with another's wife, sister, daughter, or concubine, or he that killed a man who, without 
 just grounds, assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Amouo' the Jews 
 wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley the offender was to fly to one of the cities 
 of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high-joriest, 145 1 B.C. {Num. xxxv.). 
 9 Geo. IV. c. 31 (1828), distinguishes between justifiable homicide and homicide in its 
 various degrees of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See Murder. 
 
 HOMILIES (Greek) in early Christian times were discourses delivered by the bishop or 
 presbyter, in a homely manner, for the common people. — The Book of Homilies drawn up 
 by abp. Cranmer, and published 1547; and another prepared by an order of convocation, 
 1563, were ordered to be read in those churches that had not a minister able to compose 
 projjer discourses. — Stow. 
 
 HOMCEOPATHY, a hypothesis promulgated at the commencement of the present 
 century by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, of Leipsic (died 1843), according to which every 
 medicine has a specific power of inducing a certain diseased state of the system {siviilia, 
 similibus curantur, likes are cured by likes) ; and if such medicine be given to a person suffer- 
 ing under the disease which it has a tendency to induce, such disease disappears, because two 
 similar diseased actions cannot simultaneouslj^ subsist in the same organ. Braiule. Infini- 
 tesimal doses of medicine, such as the millionth of a grain of aloes, have been employed, it is 
 said, with efficacy. The real merits of the system consist in its inducing the patient to 
 regidate his diet and habits according to the dictates of common sense. — The Hahnemann 
 hospital was opened in Bloomsbury-square, Sept. 16, 1850. 
 
 _ HOMOUSIOISr AND HOMOIOTJSIOlSr {Greek, same essence, and similar essence or 
 being), terms employed with respect to the nature of the Father and the Son in the Trinity. 
 The orthodox party adopted the former term as a party cry at the council of Nice, 325 ; the 
 Arians adopted the latter at Seleucia, 359. 
 
 HONDURAS, one of the republics of Central America {which see). Great Britain ceded 
 the Bay Islands to Honduras, Nov. 28, 1859. Its present president, general J. M. Medina, 
 was elected for four years, Feb. i, 1864. Population, about 350,000 (i860). British 
 Honduras, Central America, was settled by English from Jamaica soon after a treaty with 
 Spain in 1667. Tliey were often disturbed by the Spaniards and sometimes expelled, till 
 1783. Balize or Belize, the capital, is a great seat of the mahogany trade. In 1861, the 
 poi)ulation was 25,635, and the revenue, 35,757^. 
 
 HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients a beverage prepared with honey, such as that 
 known as mead, and as metheglin, in England. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey 
 for thirty days, or a moon's age, after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term, honey-moon, 
 of Teutonic origin. Attila the Hun drank, it is said, so freely of hydromel on his marriage- 
 day, that he died of suffocation, 453. 
 
 HONG-KONG, an island off the coast of China, was taken by capt. Elliott, Aug. 23, 1839, 
 and ceded to Great Britain, Jan. 20, 1841. Its chief town is Victoria, built in 1842, and 
 erected into a bishopric in 1849. Sir John Bowring, governor from 1854 to 1859, was suc- 
 ceeded by sir Hercules Robinson, 
 
 HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE, " Evil be to him who evil thinks." It is said that 
 the countess of Salisbury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, 
 Edwai'd III., took it up, and presented it to her with these words, which afterwards became 
 the motto of the order of the garter ; but this statement is unsupported by sufficient 
 authority. — The order is said to have been instituted, Apiil 23, 1349. 
 
 HONOUR. Temples were erected to Honour by Scipio Africanus, about 197 b.c. ; and 
 by C. Marius, about 102 b.c. — The Legion of Honour was created by Bonaparte in 1802. 
 
 HOOKS AND CODFISH. See Holland, 1347. HOOPS. See Crinoline. 
 
 HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands, into England, about 1524, and used in 
 brewing ; but the physicians having represented that they were unwholesome, their use was 
 prohibited in 1528. Anderson. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1853, there were 46, 157! acres 
 under hops in England and Wales, chiefly in Herefordshire, Kent, and Worcestershire, which 
 paid 447,144?. duty; the quantity yielded was 51, 102,494 lbs., whereof 955,855 lbs. were 
 exported. The duty on hops was repealed in 1862, after manj'' applications. 
 
 HORATII AND CURIATII. The Romans and the Albans, contesting for superioritv, 
 chose three champions on each side to determine it. ' The three Horatii (Roman knights) 
 overcame the Curiatii (Albans), and thereby iinited Alba to Rome, about 669 B.C. 
 
HOK 374 IIOS 
 
 HORN ; HORNPIPE. The horn is thought to be, next to the reed, the earliest wind 
 instrument, and has been found among most savage nations. It was first made of horn, 
 hence the name ; afterwards of brass, with keys, for the semi-tones, in tlie last century. — 
 The dance called the Hornpipe is supposed to be so named from its having been performed 
 to the Welsh ^ji6-co;';i, that is, hornpipe, about 1300. SjJCJicer. 
 
 HORNE TOOKE, &c. The trial of Messrs. Hardy, Toolce, Joyce, Thelwall, and others, 
 on a charge of high treason, caused a great sensation in England. They were taken into 
 custody on May 20, 1794. Mr. Hardy was the first who was put to the bar, Oct. 29, same 
 year ; and, after a trial which lasted eight days, lie was honourably ac(iuitted. John Home 
 Tooke was next tried, and was acquitted Nov. 20 ; and Mr. Thelwall also was acquitted, 
 Dec. 5 ; all the other accused persons were discharged. Acts were passed to prohibit Mr. 
 Thelwall's political lectures in 1795. See Gagging Bills and Thelwall. 
 
 HOROLOGY. See ClocTcs. 
 
 HORSE.* The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably were the 
 first, among the Greeks at least, wlio rode upon horses, and broke them in for service in 
 war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was originally inhabited by centaurs. " Solomon 
 had 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 horsemen," 1014 B.C. i Kings iv. 26. 
 The power of the horse is equal to that of five or six men. Smeaton. The Greeks and 
 Romans had some covering to secure their horses' hoofs from injur}'. In the 9th century 
 liorses Avere only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced into 
 England by "William I., 1066. In England there are 2,000,000 draught and pleasure 
 horses, and 100,000 agricultural horses, which consume the yirodnce of 7,000,000 acres. 
 The horse-tax was imposed in 1784, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses in 
 England. Its operation was extended, and its amount increased, in 1796; and again in 
 1808. The existing duty upon "horses for riding" only, in England, amounts to about 
 350,000?. jier year (1 862;. t See Hace- Horses. 
 
 HORSE GUARDS. They were instituted in the reign of Edward VI. 1550, and revived 
 by Charles II. 1661. The first troop of the Horse Grenadier Guards Avas raised in 1693, and 
 was commanded by general Cholraondeley ; and the second troop, commanded by lord Forbes, 
 was raised in 1702. There was a reduction of the Horse and Grenadier Guards, and Life 
 Guards, as now established, were raised in their room. May 26, 1788. Phillips. The present 
 edifice called the Horse Guards was erected by Ware about 1730. In the front are two small 
 arches, where horse-soldiers, in full uniform, daily mount guard. In a part of the building 
 is the ofiice of the commander-in-chief. 
 
 HORSE-RACING. See Eacing. 
 
 HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES. Horticulture, the art of cultivating gardens, is a 
 late word in our dictionaries (from hortus and cultura), and was first used by Evelyn. The 
 (now Royal) Horticidtural society of London was founded by sir Joseph Banks and others 
 in 1804, and was incorporated April 17, 1809 ; the Edinburgh society in 1809 ; and that of 
 Dublin in Jan. 181 7. The transactions of the London society (1812, &c.) have attracted 
 great attention. In 1822 the planting of the society's garden at Chiswick was begun. The 
 annual exhibitions there date from 1831. The society not having been prosperou.s, in 1859 
 the library was sold. In July a proposal for laying out a garden for the society, on the 
 Brompton estate belonging to the Crystal Palace commissioners, received the support of the 
 queen, nobility, &c., and Mr. Nesfield's design was adopted in May, i860. On June 5, 1861, 
 the new gardens were opened by the prince consort, who ]ilanted a WeUingtonia gigantca 
 (which see J. The queen also planted one on July 24 following. On June 10, 1863, the 
 Albert memorial was uncovered in the presence of the prince and princess of Wales. 
 
 HOSIERY. See StocJciiigs and Cotton. HOSPITALLERS. See Malta. 
 
 HOSPITALS, originally Hospitia for the reception of travellers. That at Jerusalem, 
 "built by the knights of St. John H12, was capable of receiving 2000 guests, and included 
 
 * In March., 1858, Jlr. J. S. Rarey, an American, made a groat sen.sation in London by taming vicious 
 and wild horses, and even a zebra from the Zoological Gardens. His system is founded on a profound 
 study of the disposition of the animal, and on kindness. He initiated many illustrious persons in his 
 , method (on March 20, 1858, lord Palmerston and twenty others), binding them to secrecy ; from which 
 they were released in June, 1S58, when his book was reprinted iu England without his consent. In July, 
 1859, he was engaged to instruct cavalry officers and riding-masters of the army. On Jan. 12, i860, he gave 
 a lecture to the London cabmen, which was well received ; and in May same year he received a present of 
 20 guineas from the Society for the Prevention of Cruelt3' to Animals. 
 
 t Great horse-shows were held at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, in July 1864, and July 1865. 
 
HOS 
 
 HUE 
 
 an infirmaiy for the sick. The richly eudowed " five royal hospitals " under "the pious 
 care of the lord-mayor of Loudon," &c., are St. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's, Bridewell, 
 Bethlehem, and Christ's. See Infirmaries. The Eoyal Dispensary in Aldersgate-street was 
 the first established, 1770. 
 
 BetHehem (oldest lunatic 
 asylvim in Europe except 
 one at Granada) founded . 
 
 Cancer, Bromptou . . . 
 
 Charing-cross founded 1S18 ; 
 new hospital built . . . 
 
 City of London Lying-in 
 
 Consumption, Brompton . . 
 
 Dreadnought ship . 
 
 Fever 
 
 Free, Gray's Inn-lane . 
 
 German, l)alstoi;i . . . 
 
 Great Northern 
 
 Guy's (see Guy's) . . . 
 
 Hahnemann .... 
 
 1845 
 
 1721 
 1850 
 
 Hospital of Surgery . . 1827 
 
 Idiots' 1847 
 
 Incurables .... 1850 
 Jews' .....'. 1747 
 King's College . . . 1839 
 
 Lock 1746 
 
 London 1740 
 
 Lying inn, British . . . 1749 
 
 ,, City-road . . 1750 
 
 „ General, Lambeth 1765 
 
 „ Queen Charlotte's 1752 
 
 ,, Queen Adelaide's 1824 
 
 Middlesex .... 1745 
 
 Lond. Ophthalmic, Finsbury 1804 
 
 ,, ,, Gray's Inn-rd. 1843 
 
 Orthopcedio .... 1838 
 Samaritan Free, for women 
 
 and children . , . 1847 
 
 Small Pox 1746 
 
 St. Bartholomew's (see £w- 
 
 tholomew, St.) . . . 1546 
 St. George's . . . . 1733 
 St. Luke's (lunatics) . . 1751 
 St. Mary's, Paddington . . 1S43 
 St. Thomas's (removed 1862). 1553 
 University College . , . 1833 
 Westminster . . , . 1719 
 Women's, Soho-square . . 1843 
 
 HOST, Elevatiok of the, introduced into Eoman Catholic worship, and prostration 
 enjoined, in 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiff who decreed a bell to be rung as 
 a signal for the people to betake themselves to the adoration of the host, 1228, which is 
 done to this day. Rees. The supposed miracle of the consecrated host being visibly changed 
 into the body of our Lord, is referred by Henault to 1290. 
 
 HOT BLAST. See Blowing Machine. 
 
 HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 B.C., when L. Papi- 
 rius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. Previously to the invention 
 of water-clocks (m;/wc/i sec), 158 B.C., the time was called at Rome by public criers. The 
 Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty- 
 four hours round, instead of two divisions of twelve hours. In England, the measurement 
 of time was, in early days, uncertain ; one expedient was by wax caudles, three inches burning 
 an hour, and six wax candles burning twenty-four hours ; said to have been invented by 
 Alfred, a.d. 886. ¥ov Hours of Prayer, see Breviary, 
 
 HOUSE DUTY was imposed in 1695. Its rate was frequently changed till its repeal in 
 1840 (3 & 4 Will. 4, c. 39). It was rc'imposed as a substitute for the window tax, in 185 1. 
 
 HOUSELESS POOR ACT (Metropolitan) was passed in 1864, and made perpetual in 1865. 
 
 See Poor. 
 
 HOUSE OF Commons, Loeds, &c. See Parliament, Lords, and Commons. 
 
 HOWARD FAMILY. John Howard, son of Margaret, the heiress of the Mowbrays, 
 was created earl marshal and the 7th duke of Norfolk in 1483. He was slain with his master, 
 Richard III., at Bosworth, Aug. 22, 1485. His son was restored to the earldom of Surrey in 
 1489, in reward for having gained the victory of Flodden, Sept. 9, 15 13 ; he was created the 
 8th duke of Norfolk in 15 14. Thomas, the loth duke, was beheaded for conspiracy against 
 queen Elizabeth on behalf of Mary, queen of Scots, in 1572. Henry Fitzalan Howard, now 
 the 2 1 St duke of Norfolk, and the 1 8th of the Howard family, premier duke and earl of 
 England and hereditary earl marshal, was born in 1847. 
 
 HOWITZER, a German piece of ordnance, ranking between a cannon and a mortar, 
 came into use early in the i8th century. 
 
 HUDSON'S BAY, discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a north- 
 west passage to the Pacific Ocean, 1610 ; had been discovered by Frobisher in the reign of 
 Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further north. The latter, passing the winter in this 
 bay on his fourth voyage, was, with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left 
 to perish. The Hudson's-Bay Company obtained a charter in 1670. Their licence expired 
 in 1859. The forts were destroyed by the French in 1686 and 1782. In July, 1863, the 
 formation of a new comj)any was proposed. 
 
 HUE AND CRY. The old common-law process of pursuing "with horn and with, 
 voice," from hundred to hundred, and county to county, all robbers and felons. Forme'rly, 
 the hundred was bound to make good all loss occasioned by the robberies therein committed,. 
 unless the felon were taken ; but by subsequent laws it is made answerable only for damage 
 committed by riotous assemblies. The pursuit of a felon was aided by a description of 
 liim in the Mue and Cry, a gazette established for advertising felons in 1710. Aslie. 
 
HUG 
 
 376 
 
 HUN 
 
 HUGUENOTS, a term (derived by some from the German Eidgenossen, confederates ; by 
 others from Hugues, a Genevese Calvinist) applied to the Reformed party in France, followers 
 of Calvin. They took np arms against their persecutors in 1561. After a delusive edict of 
 toleration, a great number were massacred at Vassy in 1562 (March i), when the civil wars 
 began, whichlasted with some intermission till the edict of Nantes in 1598, revoked in 1685. 
 The massacre of St. Bartholomew's day, Aug. 24, 1572, occurred during a truce. See 
 Calvinists, Bartholomeio, and Edict. 
 
 HULL (E. Yorkshire), a rising commercial place in 1200, was named Kingaton-upon- 
 Hull in 1296 by Edward I., who purchased the town, formed the port, and granted a 
 charter. Great fire ; damage about loopool., Aug. 15, 1864. 
 
 HULSEAN LECTURES (on Theology), were instituted at Cambridge by the will of the 
 rev. John Hulse, who died in 1790. They began in 1820, when twenty lectures were given 
 by the rev. Christopher Benson. In 1830 the number was reduced to eight. 
 
 HUMANE SOCIETY, ROYAL (London), for the recovery of persons apparently drowned, 
 was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, Heberden, Towers, Lettsom, llawes, and Cogan, 
 but principally by the last three. The society has 221 receiving-houses, supplied with appa- 
 ratus. The principal one was erected in 1794, on a spot of ground given by George III. on 
 the north side of the Serpentine river, Hyde-park. The motto of this society is appropriate 
 — "Latcat scintillula forsan"" — "a small spark may perhaps lie concealed." See Drowning. 
 
 HUMILIATI, a congregation of religious of the church of Rome, formed by some 
 Milanese who had been imprisoned by Frederick I. 1162. The order had more than ninety 
 monasteries; but \vas abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses 
 were given to the Dominicans, Cordeliers, and other communities, in 1570. 
 
 HUMMING-BIRDS. Mr. Gould's beautiful collection of the skins of these birds was 
 exhibited at the Zoological Gardens, London, in'1851. His elaborate work on them in five 
 folio volume.s, with richly coloured plates, was completed in 1862. 
 
 HUNDREDS, a Danish institution ; a hundred being a part or division of a shire, so 
 called, as is supposed, from its having been composed of a hundred families, at the time the 
 counties were originally divided by king Alfred, about 897. The hundred-court is a court- 
 baron held for all the inhabitants of a hundred instead of a manor. Law Dictionary. 
 
 HUNGARY, part of the ancient Pannonia and Dacia, was subjected to the Romans 
 about 106, and retained by them till the 3rd centurj% when it M'as seized by tlic Goths, who 
 were expelled about 376 by the Huns, under Attila. See Huns and Attila. On his death, 
 in 453, the Ostrogoths, Gepidfe, and Lombards at times held the country, which was how- 
 ever acquired by the Avars about 568, and retained by them till their destruction by Charle- 
 magne in 799. About 894 the country was settled bj'' a Scythian tribe, named Vingonrs or 
 Ungri (whence the German name Vngarn), and the Magyars of Finnish origin. The chief of 
 the latter, Arpad, was the ancestor of a line of kings (sec beluw). The progress of the Magyars 
 westward was checked by their defeat by the emperor Henry the Fowler, 934. The line of 
 Arpad became extinct in 1309, when Charles Robert of Anjou ascended the throne. In 1526 
 it accrued to the house of Austria, in which it was made hereditary in 1687. War with 
 Turkey was frequent from the 15th to the i8th century. The Magyars have of late much 
 intermingled with the German and Sclavonic races. Population (without the army) in 1857, 
 9,900,785. ^QQ Austria. 
 
 Stephen, founder of the monarchy of Huiigaiy, 
 embraces and establishes Christianity and 
 subdues the slaves, <fcc., receives the title of 
 Apostolic king from the pope .... 997 
 
 The Poles overrun Hungary 1061 
 
 Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under the sons 
 of Genghis Khan, throughout Hungary, 
 Bohemia, and Russia, 1241 tl seq. 
 
 Belalll. introduces the Greek civiUsation 1174, &c. 
 
 Golden Bull of Andrew II. granthig personal 
 rights 1222 
 
 Victories of Louis the Great in Bulgaria, Scrvia, 
 and Dalmatia ...... 1344-82 
 
 He marches into Italy and avenges the murder 
 of his brother, Andrew kuig of Naples . . 1348 
 
 Sangiunary anarch J- : Elizabeth, queen of Louis, 
 is drowned ; and King* Mary, the daughter, 
 marries Sigismond, of Brandenburg . . . 1382 
 
 They govern with great severity . . 1382-92 
 
 Sigismond's atrocious cruelties compel his sub- 
 jects to invite the assistance of the Turks . 1393 
 
 Battle of Nioopolis : Bajazet vanquishes Sigis- 
 mond and a large army . . Sept. 28, 1396 
 
 Sigismond obtains the crown of Bohemia, and 
 is elected emperor ot Germany 
 
 Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne of 
 Hungary 
 
 Victories of the great John Hunniades (illegiti- • 
 mate son of Sigismond) over the Turks . 1442-4 
 
 Who obtained a truce for 10 years . . . 1444 
 
 1410 
 1437 
 
 * The Hungarian people have or had an irreconcileable aversion to the name of gveen : and conse- 
 quently whenever a female succeeded to the throne of Hun.gary, she reigned with the title of king. Thus 
 in 1382, when Mary came to the crown, she was styled King Mary. Prai/, Hut. liegutii Hungariw. 
 
HUN" 
 
 377 
 
 HUN 
 
 HUNGARY, continued. 
 
 Which is broken by Ladislas king of Hvingavy 1 
 
 (at the instigatioQ of the pope). He is de- 
 feated and slam with a great part of his army, 
 and the papal legate at Vania . . Nov. lo, 1444 
 John Hunuiades escapes and becomes regent 
 (for Ladi.sla.s son of Albert) . . . 1444-53 
 
 He raises the siege of Belgrade, July 14, and 
 
 dies Sept. 10, 1456 
 
 The Hungarians insult the Turkish ambas- 
 sadors, and war ensues : Solyman II. takes 
 
 Buda 1526 
 
 Disastrous battle of Mohatz {which see) Aug. 29, ,, 
 
 Hungary becomes subject to the house of 
 Austria (see (?er»la)^2/) ,, 
 
 Peace of Vienna, granting toleration to pro- 
 testants i6o5 
 
 John Sobieski defeats the Turks in several 
 battles, and raises the siege of Vienna Oct. 16S3 
 
 Prince Louis of Baden defeats the Turks at 
 Salenckemen Aug. 19, 1691 
 
 Prince Eugene defeats them at Zenta Sept. 11, 1697 
 
 The duke of Lorraine retakes Buda {which see) . 16S6 
 
 Peace of Carlowitz 1699 
 
 Pragmatic sanction, authorising female succes- 
 sion to the throne 1722-3 
 
 Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey at the 
 peace of Belgrade 1739 
 
 The Hungarians enthusiastically support Maria- 
 Theresa against France and Bavaria . ,. 1740 
 
 The protestants permitted to have churches in 
 Hungary 1784 
 
 Independence of Hungary guaranteed . . 1790 
 
 Hungarian academy established . . . . 1825 
 
 The people, some time discontented with their 
 Austrian rulers, at length break out into a 
 formidable rebellion 1S48 
 
 Murder at Pesth of the recently appointed mili- 
 tary governor, count Lamberg, by a mob ; 
 the Hungarian diet appoint a provisioiial 
 government under Kossuth and Batthyany, 
 Sept. 28 ; the Hungarians defeat the Ban of 
 Croatia Sept. 29, ,, 
 
 The diet denounces as traitors all who acknow- 
 ledge the emperor of Austria as king of 
 Hungary Dec. -8, „ 
 
 The insurgents defeated by the Austrians at 
 Szaikszo Dec. 21, ,, 
 
 They are defeated at Mohr by the ban Jellachich, 
 
 Dec. 29, ,, 
 
 Buda-Pesth taken by Windischgratz . Jan. 5, 1849 
 
 Bern defeats the Austrians at Hermannstadt, 
 
 Jan. 21 ,, 
 
 Hungary declares itself a free state ; Kossuth 
 supreme governor . . . April, 14, ,, 
 
 The Hungarians defeat the Imperialists before 
 Gran April 18, ,, 
 
 March of the Russian army through GaUicia to 
 assist the Austrians .... May i, ,, 
 
 The Austro-Russian troops defeat the Hunga- 
 rians, who retreat across the Waag . June 21, ,, 
 
 Battle of Acs between the Hungarians and 
 Austrians July 10, „ 
 
 Himgarians defeat Jellachich . . July 14, ,, 
 
 The Hungarians defeated by the Russians ; Gor- 
 gey retreats after three days" battle July 15, ,, 
 
 Battle before Komorn, between the insurgents 
 and the Austro-Russian army . July 16, „ 
 
 The insurgents under Bern enter Moldavia, 
 
 July 23, ,, 
 
 Again defeated by the Russians . July 31, ,, 
 
 Utter defeat of the Hungarian army before 
 Temeswar by gen. Haynau . . Aug. 10, ,, 
 
 Gorgey and his army surrender to the Russians, 
 
 Aug. 1 8 49 
 Kossuth, B^ni, &c., escape to the Turkish fron- 
 tiers, and are placed under the protection of 
 Turkey iit New Orsova (see Turkey) Aug. 21, ,, 
 Komorn surrenders to the Austrians ; close of 
 
 the war ■ Sept. 27, ,, 
 
 Batthyany tried at Pesth, and shot ; many other 
 
 insurgent chiefs put to death . . Oct. 6, ,, 
 Amnesty gi-anted to the Hungarian insurgents, 
 
 who return home . . . Oct. 16, ,, 
 
 Bem dies at Aleppo .... Dec. 10, 1850 
 The country remains m an unsettled state ; 
 
 many executions 1853-5 
 
 Crown of St. Stephen and royal insignia dis- 
 covered and sent to Vienna . . Sept. 8, 1853 
 Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-9 July 12, 1856 
 During the Italian war in 1859, an insurrection 
 in Hungary was in contemplation, and coni- 
 n^unications took place between Louis Napo- 
 leon and Kossuth; which circumstances it 
 is said led the emperor of Austria to accede 
 to the peace of ViUafranca so suddenly, and 
 shortly afterwards to promise many reforms 
 and to grant more hberty to the protestants 
 in Hungary .... Aug.-Oct. 1859 
 Recall of archduke Albert, general Benedek 
 
 appointed governor .... April, i860 
 Demand for restoration of the old constitu- 
 tion ; re-union of the Banat and Voivodina 
 
 with Hungary, &c Oct. ,, 
 
 Charter restoring the old constitution promised, 
 
 Oct. 20, ,, 
 Schmerling appointed minister . . Dec. 13 ,, 
 National conference at Gran . . . Dec. ,, 
 Demand for the constitution of 1848 . . Jan. 1861 
 The emperor promulgates a new liberal consti- 
 tution for the empire . . . Feb. 26, ,, 
 Which does not satisfy the Hungarians, March, „ 
 Hungarian diet opened . . . April 6, „ 
 Meeting of the Reichsrath at Vienna : no depu- 
 ties present from Hvmgary or Croatia April 29, , , 
 Count Teleki (see Austria, i860) found dead in 
 
 his bed at Pesth : intense excitement May 8, „ 
 The diet votes an address to the emperor, desir- 
 ing restoration of the old constitution July 5, ,, 
 The military begin to levy the taxes . July, ,, 
 Imperial rescript refusing the entire independ- 
 ence of Hungary, July 21 ; the diet protests, 
 Aug. 20 ; and is dissolved . . Aug. 21, „ 
 The archbishop of Gran, the primate, indig- 
 nantly protests against the act of the imperial 
 
 government Sept. -Oct. „ 
 
 He is summoned to Vienna, but stands firm, 
 
 Oct. 25, „ 
 The magistrates in the comitat at Pesth resign ; 
 military government established ; passive 
 resistance of the nobility . . . Dec. ,, 
 Amnesty declared for political offences, and ces- 
 sation of prosecutions . . . Nov. 19, 1862 
 Newspapers confiscated for publishing seditious 
 
 speeches March 29, 1863 
 
 The emperor visits Buda-Pesth ; well received ; 
 inauguration of a new pohcy ; the rights of 
 Hungary to be restored . . . June 6-9, 1865 
 Imperial rescript, abolishing the representa- 
 tive constitution of the empire, with the 
 view of restoring independence of Hungary, 
 
 &c Sepc. 21, ,, 
 
 The Deak party demand restoration of the 
 monarchy, with a responsible government, 
 
 Nov. ij, ,, 
 
 SOVEREIGXS OF HUNGARY. 
 
 St. Stephen, duke of Hungary (son of Geisa) ; 
 he establishes the Roman Catholic religion 
 (1000), and receives from the pope the title 
 of Apostolic King, still borne by the emperor 
 of Austria, as kmg of Hungary. 
 
 1038. Peter, the German : deposed. 
 
 1041. Aba or Owen. 
 
 1044. Peter, again : again deposed, and his eyes put 
 
 out. 
 1047. Andrew I. : deposed. 
 
HUN 
 
 378 
 
 HITS 
 
 HUNGARY, continued. 
 
 1061. 
 1064. 
 1075- 
 1077. 
 1095. 
 1114. 
 1131. 
 1141. 
 ii5i. 
 
 1173- 
 1196. 
 1204. 
 1205. 
 1235- 
 1270. 
 1272. 
 1290. 
 
 1387. 
 
 1392. 
 1437- 
 
 1439. 
 1440. 
 
 1444. 
 1445- 
 1458. 
 
 Bela I. : killed by the fall of a ruinous tower. 
 
 Salamon, son of Andrew. 
 
 Geisa I. son of Bela. 
 
 Ladislas I. surnamed the Pious. 
 
 Colonian, son of Geisa. 
 
 Stephen II. surnauied Thunder. 
 
 Bela 11. : had his eyes put out. * 
 
 Geisa II. : succeeded by his son, 
 
 Stephen III. : and Stephen IV. (anarchy/. 
 
 Bela III. : succeeded by his son, 
 
 Emeric : succesded by his son, 
 
 Ladislas II. ; reigned six months only. 
 
 Andrew II. son of Bela III. 
 
 Bela IV. 
 
 Stephen IV. (or V.> his son. 
 
 Ladislas III. : killed. 
 
 Andrew III. surnauied the Venetian, son-in- 
 law of Rodolph of Hapsburg, emperor of 
 Germany. 
 
 Charobert, or Charles-Robert (of Anjou) ; (com- 
 petitors — Wenccslas of Bohemia, aud Otho 
 of Bavaria, who give way to him, 1309). 
 
 Louis I. the Great ; elected king of Poland in 
 1370. 
 
 Mary, called King'iilaxy, daughter of Louis the 
 Great. 
 
 Mary and her consort Sigismond : the latter 
 became king of Bohemia, and was elected 
 emperor in 1410. 
 
 Sigismond alone (on the death of Mary). 
 
 Albert, duke of Austria ; married Elizabeth, 
 daughter of Sigismond, and obtains the 
 thrones of Hungary,Bohcmia,and Gei-many ; 
 dies suddenly. 
 
 Elizabeth alone : she man'ies 
 
 Ladislas IV. king of Poland, of which kingdom 
 he was Ladislas VI. : slain at Varna. 
 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 John Hunniades, regent. 
 
 Ladislas V. posthumous son of Albert : 
 poisoned. 
 
 Matthias-Corvinus, son of Ilmuiiades, an able 
 sovereign. 
 
 1490. Ladislas VI. king of Bohemia: the emperor 
 
 Maximilian laid claim to both kingdoms. 
 1516. Louis H. of Hungary (I. of Bohemia): loses 
 
 his life at the battle of Mohatz. 
 
 ''John Zajjolski, waivode of Transylvania, 
 
 elected by the Hungarians, and supported 
 
 by the sultan Solyman ; by treaty with 
 
 1526. -! Ferdinand, he founds the principality of 
 
 Transylvania, 1536. 
 
 Ferdinand I. king of Bohemia, brother to the 
 l^ emperor Charles V. ; rival kings. 
 1536. Ferdinand alone ; elected emperor of Germany 
 
 in 1558. 
 1561. Maximihan.son of Ferdinand ; emperorin 1564. 
 1573. Rodolph, son of Maximihan ; emperor in 1576. 
 1609. Matthias II. his brother ; emperor in 1612. 
 1619. Ferdinand II. his cousin, emperor. 
 1625. Ferdinand III. son of the preceding ; emperor 
 
 in 1637. 
 1647. Ferdinand IV. ; died in 1654, three years before 
 
 his father. 
 1655. Leopold I. son of Ferdinand III. ; emperor in 
 
 1658. 
 1687. Joseph I. his son : emperor in 1705. 
 1711. Charles VI. (of Germany;, brother of Joseph, 
 
 and nominal king of Sjsain, succeeded by his 
 
 daughter, 
 1740. Maria-Theresa, empress ; survived her consort, 
 
 Francis I., emperor, from 1765 until 1780. 
 
 See Germajij/. 
 1780. Joseph II. her son, emperor in 1765 : succeeded 
 
 to Hungary on the death of his mother. 
 1790. Leopold II. brother of Joseph II., emperor: 
 
 succeeded by his son, 
 1792. Francis I. (Francis II. as emperor of Ger- 
 many) : in 1804 he became emperor of 
 
 Audria only. 
 1835. Ferdinand V. son of Francis : Ferdinand I. as 
 
 emperor of Austria. 
 1S48. Francis-Joseph, nephew of the preceding. 
 
 succeeded on the abdication of his uncle, 
 
 Dec. 2, 1848. The present king of Hungiry 
 
 and emperor of Aus^a. 
 
 HUNGERFOIID BRIDGE,* over the Thames from Hungerford-stairs to the Belvedere- 
 road, Lambeth, opened May i, 1845, was taken down in July, 1862, to make way for the 
 Charing Cross railway-bridge, and transferred to Clifton {which see). The market (opened 
 in July, 1833) wag removed at the same time. 
 
 HUNS, a race of warlike Asiatics, said to have conquered China, about 210 B.C., and to 
 have been expelled therefrom about A.D. 90. They invaded Hungary about 376, and drove 
 out the Goths. Marching westward, under Attila, they were thoroughly beaten at Chalons 
 by the consul Aetius, 451. %ce Attila. 
 
 HUNTING: an ancient pastime. The "Bokj's of Hawking and Huntyng," by Dame 
 Julyana Barnes, was printed at St. Albans, i486. ' 
 
 HUSSARS, light cavalry in Poland and Hungaiy, about 1600 : and as they were more 
 fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are supposed to have taken tlieir name 
 from the huzzas or shout they made at their first onset. They were generally opposed to tlie 
 Turkish horse, "and were oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts 
 lianging on their backs against bad Aveather, and wore fur cap.s, with a cock's feather." 
 Pardon. Hussars became the name of a British force in the last century (1759), very 
 differently attired. 
 
 HUSSITES, After the death of Huss,t many of his followers took up arms, in 1419, 
 
 * It was 14 feet wide, and 1342 feet long ; the length of the central sp.an, between the two piers, 676 
 feet ; the height of the two towers 55 feet above the footway, and 84 above high water ; the piers were in 
 the Italian style, with the chains passing through the attic of each. The cost of the masonry was 60, coo?. ; 
 of the ironwork, exceeding 700 tons in weight, 17,000^ ; of the approaches, 13,000^. ; total 102,245?. Archi- 
 tect, I. K. Brunei. 
 
 t The clergy having instigated the pope to issue a bull ag.iinst heretics, John Huss (born in Bohemia 
 in 1373)1 a zealous preacher of the Reformation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance, 
 
HITS 
 
 379 
 
 HYD 
 
 and formed a political party under John Ziska, and burnt the city of Tabor. They defeated 
 the emperor Sigismuud several times, 1420-22 : but after being worsted in 1434, at Bbmisch- 
 brod, they entered into negotiations, which ended in the Compact of Prague. They were 
 again defeated by Albert of Austria in 1438. The pacific portion of the Hussites existed in 
 the time of Luther, and were called " Bohemian Brethren." 
 
 HUSTINGS (said to be derived from House Court, an assembly among the Anglo-Saxons), 
 an ancient court of London, being its supreme coiu't of judicature, as the court of common 
 council is of legislature. The court of Ilustyngs was granted to the city of London, to be 
 holdeu and kept weeklj', by Edward the Confessor, 1052. "Winchester, Lincoln, York, &c., 
 were also granted Hustings courts. 
 
 HUTCHINSOISTIANS included many eminent clergy, who did not form any sect, but 
 held the opinions of John Hutchinson, of Yorkshire ; they rejected the Newtonian sj'-stem, 
 and contended that the scriptures contain a complete system of natural philosophy. His 
 work, ^^ Moses' Principia,'" was published in 1724. He derived all things from the air, 
 whence he said proceeded fire, light, and spirit, — types of the Trinity. In 17 12 he invented 
 a time-piece for finding the longitude, and died in 1737. 
 
 HYDE PAEK, W. (London), the ancient manor of Hyde, belonging to the abbey of 
 Westminster, became crown property at the dissolution, 1539. It was sold by parliament 
 in 1652 ; but was resumed by the king at the restoration in 1661. It comprises about 394 
 acres, with a large winding sheet of water, called the Serpentine. There are eight entrances. 
 
 Colossal statue of Achilles, cast from cannon 
 taken in the battles of Salamanca, Vittoria, 
 Toulouse, and Waterloo, and inscribed to 
 "Arthur, Duke of Wellington, and his brave 
 companions in arms, by their countrywomen," 
 
 erected on June 18, 1822 
 
 Hyde Park Corner Entrance erected . . . 1828 
 Harble Arch from Buckingham Palace set up at 
 
 Cumberland Gate . . . . March 29, 1851 
 Crystal Palace erected for the exhibition of 1851 
 Dirturbances in consequence of a Sunday bill 
 having been brought before parliament by 
 
 lord Robert Grosvenor, which was eventually 
 withdrawn Sundiys, June 25, and July i & 8, 1855 
 
 Riotous meetings held here, on account of the 
 high price of bread Sundays, Oct. 14, 21, 28, ,, 
 
 Democratic meetings on the Reform question, 
 
 March, 1859 
 
 The queen reviewed 18,450 volunteers June 23, -i860 
 
 Greatmeeting of admirers of Garibaldi, Sept. 28 ; 
 who are violently attacked by the Irish ; 
 many persons wounded . . . Oct. 5, 1862 
 
 PubUc meetings in the park henceforth pro- 
 hibited Oct. 9, ,, 
 
 HYDEAULIC PRESS. See under Hydrostatics. 
 
 HYDROGEN (from hydor, water) under the name of combustible air was obtained by 
 Paracelsus in the i6th century. In 1766 Cavendish described its properties ; and, in 1781, 
 he and Watt first showed that in the combination of this gas with oxygen, which takes place 
 when it is burnt, water is produced ; subsequently Lavoisier decomposed water into its 
 elements. One volume of oxygen combines with two volumes of hydrogen, and forms water. 
 Hydrogen is never found in the free state. Gmelin. 
 
 HYDROGRAPHY is the description of the surface waters of the earth. The first sea- 
 chart is attributed to Henry the Navigator, in the i6th century. There is a liydrographic 
 department in the British Admiralty, by which a series of charts has been issued. 
 
 HYDROMETER, the instrument by which is measured the gravity, density, and other 
 properties of liquids. The oldest mention of the hydrometer occurs in the 5th century, and 
 may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it is not improbable that Archimedes 
 M'as the inventor of it, though no proofs of it are to be found. Bcchmann. Archimedes 
 was killed in 212 B.C., and Hypatia was torn to pieces, a.d. 415. 
 
 HYDROPATHY, a term applied to the treatment of diseases by cold water, practised by 
 Hippocrates in the 4th centuiy B.C., by the Arabs in the loth century A.D., and revived by 
 Dr. Currie in 1797. The present system was suggested in 1825 by Viucenz Priessuitz, of 
 Grafenberg, in Austrian Silesia ; and though he is considered as its founder, the rational 
 part of the doctrine was understood and maintained by the eminent Dr. Sydenham, before 
 1689. Priessnitz died Nov. 26, 1851. Brandt. 
 
 the emperor Sigismund sending him a safe-conduct. He presented himself accordingly, but was thrown 
 into prison, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be burned alive, which he endured with 
 resignation, July 6, 141 5. Jerome of Prague, his intimate friend, who came to this council to support ana 
 second him, also suffered death by fire, May 30, 1416, although he also had a safe-conduct. 
 
HYD 
 
 380 
 
 ICH 
 
 HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school about 300 B.C. 
 
 The correct theory of fluids and oscillation of 
 waves, explained by Newton . . . . 1714 
 
 A scientific form was given to hydro-dynamics, 
 by Beruouilli 1738 
 
 Joseph Bramab's hydrostatic or hydraulic press 
 
 patented first in 1785 
 
 Pressure of fluids discovered by Archimedes, 
 
 about B.C. 250 
 The forcing pump and air fountain invented by 
 
 Hero about 120 
 
 Water-mills were known . . about a. d. i 
 Thj science revived by Galileo . . about i5oo 
 The theory of rivers scientifically understood in 1697 
 
 HYGROMETER, an instrument for measuring the moisture in the atmosphere. That 
 by Saussure (who died in 1799) is most employed. It consists of a human hair boiled in 
 caustic lye, and acts on the principle of absorption. Brande. Daniell's hygrometer {1820) 
 is much esteemed. 
 
 HYMN'S. The song of Moses is the most ancient, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xv.). The Psalms 
 date from about 1060 B.C. to about 444 B.C. (from David to Ezra). The hymns of the Jews 
 were frequently accompanied by instrumental music. Paul (a.d. 64) speaks of Christians 
 admonishing one another "in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs " (Col. iii. 16). Hilary, 
 the bishop of Aries, in France, is said to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung 
 in Christian churches, about 431. The hymns of Dr. "Watts (died 1748), and of John Wesley 
 (died 1 791), and his brother Charles, are much used by English dissenters. 
 
 H\''PNOTISM (Greek hypnos, sleep) or nervous sleep, terms given by Mr. Braid (in 1843) 
 to a sleep-like condition, produced in a person by steadily fixing his mind on one particular 
 object. Slinor surgical operations have, it is said, been performed without pain on persons 
 in this state. 
 
 I. 
 
 IAMBIC VERSE. lambe, an attendant of Metanira, wife of Celeus, king of Sparta, 
 when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over Attica in quest of her 
 daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes, stories, and poetical effusions ; and from 
 her, free and satirical verses have been called Iambics. Apollodonis. Iambic verses were 
 first written about 700 B.C., by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of 
 Lycambes ; but after a promise of marriage the father preferred another suitor, richer than 
 the poet ; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on the old man's avarice, that he 
 hanged himself. Herodotus. 
 
 IBERIA. See Georgia. 
 
 ICE. Galileo was the first to observe ice to be lighter than the water which composed 
 it, and therefore to float : about 1597.* See Congelation, where is noticed the ice-making 
 machines of Harrison and of Siebe. In 1841 there were sixteen companies in Boston, U.S., 
 engaged in exporting ice, brought from Wenham, Fresh, and Spy Ponds, about 18 miles 
 from that city. The trade was begun by Mr. Tudor in 1806. 156,540 tons were sent from 
 Boston alone in 1854. In New York, in 1855, 305,000 tons were stored up, of which 20,000 
 were for exportation. 
 
 ICELAND (North Sea), discovered by Norwegian chiefs, about 861 ; according to some 
 accounts, it had been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the 
 Norwegians in 874, and has belonged to Denmark since 1397. Christianity was introduced 
 about 996 ; and protestantism about I55i.t 
 
 "ICH DIEN," I serve, the motto under the plume of ostrich feathers found in the 
 helmet of the king of Bohemia after he was slain at the battle of Cressy, at which he served 
 as a volunteer in the French army, Aug. 26, 1346. Edward the Black Prince, in veneration 
 of his father, Edward III., who commanded that da}', though the prince won the battle, 
 adopted this motto, which has ever since been borne with the feathers, by the heirs to the 
 crown of England ; but not as prince of Wales, which many have erroneou.sly maintained. 
 
 * Revelation and other properties, exhibited by professor Faraday, in 1850, are still the subject of inves- 
 tigation by eminent physicists of the present day, especially Tyndall, J. D. Forbes, and Wm. Thomson. 
 
 t In 1784-5. there occurred here the most tremendous volcanic eruption on record ; it was accompanied 
 by violent wind and rain, and a darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would fall to 
 pieces. Three fire-spouts broke out on Mount Skapta, which, after rising to a considerable height in the 
 air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in 
 a broken breadth of nearly 12 miles ; 12 rivers were dried up ; 21 villages totally overwhelmed by fire or 
 water ; and 34 others were materially injured. See Heda. 
 
ICH 381 ILL 
 
 ICHNOLOGY, the science of footprints, treats of the impressions made in mud or sand 
 by the animals of former ages. Dr. Duncan first discovered the footprints of a tortoise in 
 the sandstone of Annandale, in 1828 ; since then numerous discoveries have heen made by- 
 Owen, Lyell, Huxley, and others. 
 
 ICHTHYOLOGY, the science of fish. Eminent writers are Willoughby, Eay, Yalen- 
 ciennes, Cuvier, Owen, Agassiz, &c. Yarrell's "British Fishes" (1836-59) is a classical 
 work. See Fish. 
 
 ICONIUM (Syria). Here Paul and Barnabas preached, 38. Soliman the Seljuk founded 
 a kingdom here in 1074, which lasted till 1307, when it was conquered by the Turks. It had 
 been subdued by the Crusaders in 1097 and 1 190. See Konieh. 
 
 ICONOCLASTS (image-breakers). The controversy respecting images (which had been 
 introduced into churches for popular instruction about 300) was begun about 726, and occa- 
 sioned many insurrections in the Eastern Empire. Leo Isauricus published two edicts for 
 demolishing images in churches in that year, and enforced them with great rigour in 736. 
 The defenders of images were again persecuted in 752 and 761, when Constantino forbade 
 his subjects becoming monks. The worship of images was restored by Irene in 780. This 
 schism was the occasion of the second coirncil of Nice, 787. Theophilus banished all the 
 painters and statuaries from the Eastern Empire, 832. The Iconoclasts were finally excom- 
 municated in 869. This controversy led to the separation of the Greek and Latin churches. 
 In the contests between the Iconoclasts and their opponents thousands perished. ^ — Many 
 images in churches were destroyed in England and Scotland during the Reformation and the 
 Civil war, 164 1-8. 
 
 IDAHO, a northern "territory" of the United States of North America, was organised 
 as such on March 3, 1863. 
 
 IDES, in the Roman calendar, the thirteenth day of each month, except in March, May, 
 July, and October, in which it was the fifteenth day ; in these four it Avas six da}rs before 
 the nones, and in the other months foirr days. The Ides of March was the day on which 
 Julius Csesar was assassinated in the senate house by Brutus, Cassius, Casca, and other 
 conspii'ators, 44 b.o. 
 
 IDIOTS. About 1855 there were in England, exclusively of lunatics, pauper idiots, or 
 idiots protected in national institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 3893 ; total, 7265. For 
 laws relating to idiots, see Lunacy. The Idiot Asylum at Earlswood, near Reigate, Surrey, 
 began in 1847. 
 
 IDOLS. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ninus, king of Assyria, 2059 b. c. 
 Vossius. Images are mentioned in Gen. xxxi. 19, 30, 1739 e.g. The Jews frequently deserted 
 the worship of God for idols till their captivity, 588 B.C. Constantine, emperor of Rome, 
 ordered all the heathen temples to be destroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, a.d. 330. 
 Dufresnoy. The Saxons re-established idolatry in 473. It gave way in Britain, after the 
 coming of Augustin, 599. See Iconoclasts, Week. 
 
 IDSTEDT (N. Germany). Here the insurgent army of Holstein and Schleswig was 
 defeated by the Danes, July 25, 1850. 
 
 IDUMj^EA, the country of the Edomites, the descendants of Esau, the brother of Jacob : 
 see Gen. xxxvi., Josh. xxiv. 4. 
 
 The Edomites prevent the Israelites from passing I They join the Chaldaeans against Judah, and 
 
 through their country . . . .B.C. 1453 are anathematized in Psaint cxxxvii. about 570 
 They are siibjugated by David . . . . 1040 John Hyrcanus, the Macoabee, subjugates and 
 They revolt against Ahaziah, 892; and are se- endeavours to incorporate them with the Jews 125 
 
 verely defeated by Amaziah .... 827 Herod the Great, son of Antipater an Indumsean, 
 
 1 king of Judaea 40 
 
 ILIUM (Asia Minor). A city was built here by Dardauus, and called Dardania, 1480 B.C. 
 Troy {which see^, another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 B.C. ; and Ilus, his successor, 
 called the country Ilium. 
 
 ILLINOIS, a western state of North America, was settled in 1749, and admitted into the 
 Union Dec. 3, 1818. Capital, Springfield. 
 
 ILLUMINATED BOOKS. The practice of adopting ornaments, drawings, and emble- 
 matical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of great antiquity. Yarro wrote the 
 
ILL 
 
 3S-; 
 
 IMP 
 
 lives of 700 illustrious Romans, which he embellished -with their likenesses, about 70 B.C. 
 PUn. Nat. Hist. Some beautiful missals and other works were printed in the 15th and i6th 
 centuiies, et seq. ; and fine imitations have lately appeared. 
 
 ILLUMl^STATI, heretics Mho spran^; up in Spain, where they were called Alumbrados, 
 about 1575. After their suppression in Spain, they appeared in France. One of their 
 leaders was friar Anthony Buchet. Their chief doctrine was that they obtained grace and 
 perfection by their .sublime manner of prayei'. A secret society bearing this name, opposed 
 to tyranny and priestcraft, was founded at Ingoldstadt, Bavaria, by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, 
 in May, 1776, and was suppressed in 1784-5. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS, the earliest publication of the kind, established by 
 Mr. Herbert Ingram, M.P., first appeared on May 14, 1S42. Mr. Ingram was dro^vned in 
 Lake Michigan Sept. 8, i860. 
 
 ILLYRIA (now Dalmatia, Croatia, and Bosnia), after several wars (from 230 B.C.) was 
 made a Roman province, 167 B.C. In 1809 Napoleon I. gave the name of lUyrian provinces 
 to Carniola, Dalmatia, and other provinces, then part of the French empire, now Carinthia, 
 Carniola, &c. 
 
 IMAGE WORSHIP. Sec Iconodasis. 
 
 IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. See Concqytion. 
 
 IMMORTALS (Greek, athanatoi), the flower of the Persian army, limited to 10,000 in 
 number, and recruited from the nobility alone, about 500 B.C. The name was also given to 
 the bod3'-guard of the emperors at Constantinople in the 4th and 5th centuries. 
 
 IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parliament, and 
 the first of a lord chancellor, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, was in 1386. By statute 
 12 & 13 Will. & Mary it was enacted that no pardon under the great seal shall be pleaded to 
 an impeachment by the commons in parliament, 1700. 
 
 Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of 
 pains and penalties, before the house of lords, 
 commenced Aug. 16 ; Mr. Brougham entered on 
 her majesty's defence, Oct. 3 ; and the Last debate 
 on the bill took place Nov. 10, 1820. See Queen 
 Caroline. 
 
 Impeachment of WaiTen Hastings, Feb. 13, 1788, to 
 
 April 25, 1795 : an acqviitfal. 
 Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29 ; acquittal, 
 
 June 12, 1S06. 
 Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle 
 
 against the duke of York, Jan. 27 to March 20, 
 
 1809 : acquittal. 
 
 IMPERIAL GUARD of France, was created by Napoleon from the Guard of the Con- 
 vention, the Directorjr, and the Consulate, when he became emperor in 1804. It consisted 
 at first of 9775 men, but was afterwards enlarged. It was subdivided in 1809 into the old 
 and young guard. In Jan. 1814, it numbered 102,706. It was dissolved by Louis XVIII. 
 la 1815, but revived by Napoleon III. in 1854. It took part in the Crimean war in 1855. 
 
 IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. See Commons, Lords, Parliament, and Reform. 
 
 IMPORTS OF MEnciTAKDiSE. The vast progi-essive increase of our commercial inter- 
 course with other countries : — 
 
 VALUE OF IMPOET.S INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 In 1820 . 
 1830 
 1840 . 
 1845 
 1850 . 
 1851 
 
 IMPOSTORS. Tlie names and pretensions of religious, political, and other impostors 
 would fill a volume ; they have been of every country, of every age. The following are 
 among the most extraordinary : — 
 
 I7I0 . 
 
 • £4.753,77.7 
 
 1750 . 
 
 . . 7,289,582 
 
 1775 • 
 
 . 14,815,855 
 
 1800 
 
 . . 30.570.605 
 
 x8io . 
 
 • 41,136,135 
 
 • £36,514.564 
 
 In 
 
 1856 . 
 
 . .£172,544,154 
 
 • 46,245,241 
 
 
 1857 
 
 . 187,844,441 
 
 . 62,004,000 
 
 
 1859 . 
 
 . . 179,182.355 
 
 . 85,281,958 
 
 
 1S61 
 
 . 217,485,024 
 
 . 95,252,084 
 
 
 1864 . 
 
 . . 274,863,924 
 
 103,579,582 
 
 
 
 
 Aldebert, a Gaul, who, in 743, pretended he had a 
 letter from the Redeemer, which fell from heaven 
 at Jerusalem ; he seduced multitudes to follow 
 him into woods and foi-ests, and to live in imita- 
 tion of John the Baptist. He was condemned by 
 a council at Bome in 745. 
 
 Mahomet promulgated his creed, 604. See MoHome- 
 tanism. 
 
 Gonzalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be the 
 angel Michael in 1359 ; he was burnt by the in- 
 quisition in Spain in 1360. 
 
 George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, styled 
 himself the son of God, sent into the world to 
 adopt children worthy of heaven : he denied the 
 resurrection, preached against marriage, in favour 
 of a community of women, and taught that the 
 body only could be defiled by sm ; he had many 
 followers ; died at Basle, 1556, promising to rise 
 again in three years. 
 
 Otreficf, a monk, pretended to be Demetrius the son 
 of Ivan, czar of Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris 
 had put to death ; he maintained that another 
 
IMP 
 
 383 
 
 INC 
 
 IMPOSTORS, continued. 
 
 child had been substituted in his place : lie was 
 supported by the arms of Poland ; his success 
 astonished the Russians, who invited him to the 
 throne, and delivered into his hands, Fcodor, the 
 
 ' reigning- czar, and all his family : his imposition 
 being discovered, he was assassinated in his palace, 
 1606. 
 
 Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Turks 
 and Jews a long time at Constantinople and other 
 places, by personating our Saviour, 1666. 
 
 IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH HISTORY. 
 
 A man pretending to be the Messiah, and a woman 
 assuming to be the Virgin Mary, were burnt, 1222. 
 
 In 1487, Lambert Simnel, tutored by Eichard Simon, 
 a pi-iest, supported by the duke of Burgundy, 
 personated the eaii of Warwick. Simnel's army 
 was defeated by Henry VII., and he was made a 
 scullion in the king's kitchen. 
 
 For Perkin Warbeck's imposture in 1492, see War- 
 beck. 
 
 Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy Maid of Kent, 
 spirited up to hinder the Reformation, by pretend- 
 itjg to inspirations from heaven, foretelling that 
 the king would have an efirly and violent death if 
 he divorced Catheiine of Spain, and married Anne 
 Boleyn. She and her,confederates were banged at 
 Tyburn, 1534. 
 
 In I5S3 (first year of Mary's reign, after her maniage 
 with Philip of Spain), Elizabeth Croft, a girl 18 
 years of age, was secreted in a wall, and with a 
 whistle, made for the purpose, uttered many 
 
 seditious speeches against the queen and the 
 prince, and also against the mass and confession, 
 for which she did penance. 
 
 William Hacket, a fanatic, personated our Sa^iotir, 
 and was executed for blasphemy, 1591. 
 
 Valentine Greatrix, an Irish impostor, who pretended 
 to cure all diseases by stroking the patient : his 
 imposture deceived the credulous, and occasioned 
 vei-y wai-m disputes in Ireland and England about 
 1666. Boyle and Flanasteed believed in him. 
 
 Dr. Titus Gates. See Oates. 
 
 Robert Young, a prisoner in Newgate, forged the 
 hands of the earls of Marlborough, Salisbury, and 
 other nobility, to a pretended association for re- 
 storing king James : the lords were imprisoned, 
 but the impostin-e being detected, Yoimg was fined 
 1000/. , and put in the pillory, 1692. He was after- 
 wards hanged for coining. 
 
 Three French refugees pretend to be prophets, and 
 raise tumults ; convicted as impostors, Nov. 1707. 
 
 Mary Tofts of Godalming, by pretending she bred 
 rabbits within her, so imposed upon many persons 
 (among others, Mr. St. Andre, surgeon to the 
 king), that they espoused her cause, 1726. 
 
 The Cook-lane ghost imposture by William Parsons, 
 his wife, and daughter, 1762. See Cock-lane Ghost. 
 
 Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed her conception 
 of the Jlessiah, and had a multitude of followers ; 
 .she died, Dec. 27, 1S14. 
 
 W. Thorn. See Thomites. 
 
 Joseph Smith. See Mormonites. 
 
 IMPRESSMENT of Seamen, affirmed by sir M. Foster to be of ancient ]-»ractice. The 
 statute 2 Rich. II. speaks of impressment as a matter well known, 1378. The hrst com- 
 mission for it was issued 29 Edw. III. 1355. Pressing, either for the sea or land service,- 
 declared to be illegal by the British parliament, Dec. 1641, Impressment was not resorted 
 to in the Russian war, 1854-5. 
 
 IMPRISONMENT for DEBT. See Arrests, DcUors, and Ferrars' Arrest. 
 
 IMPROPRIATION (appljdng ecclesiastical property to lay purposes). On the suppression 
 of abbeys in 1539, their incomes from the gi-eat tithes were distributed among his courtiers 
 by Henry VIII. ; and their successors constitute 7597 lay impropriators. 
 
 INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and Gothic 
 coustitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to death. This crime was 
 made high treason by statute 8 Hen. YI. 1429 ; and it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 
 Hen. VIII. 1528. Great incendiary fires commenced in and about Kent, in August, 1830 ; 
 and in Suffolk and other counties since. The punishment of death was remitted, excej^t in 
 special cases, in 1827. The acts relating to arson were amended in 1837 and 1844. 
 
 INCH. See Standard. The length was defined in 1824 by the declaration by act of 
 parliament, that 39 '13929 inches is the length of a seconds jiendulum in the latitude of 
 Loudon, vibrating in vacuo at the sea level, at the temperature of 62° Eahreuheit. 
 
 INCOME TAX. In 15 12, parliament granted a subsidy of two-fifteenths from the 
 commons, and two-tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with France. 
 Jtapin. In 1798, Mr. Pitt proposed and carried, amid great opposition, increased taxes 
 "as an aid for the prosecution of the war" with France. On Jan. 9, 1799, this act was 
 repealed, and graduated duties on income imposed, beginning with 60I. per annum. On 
 Aug. II, 1803, was passed the "property tax," which levied a rate of 5 per cent, on 
 all incomes above 150Z. and lower rates on smaller incomes. In 1805, it was increased to 6| 
 per cent. ; and in 1806, was raised to 10 per cent., embracing the dividends at the bank. It 
 produced — 
 
 In t8oo 
 In 1804 
 
 £5,716,572 
 4,650,000 j 
 
 £5, 93 7i 500 I In 1808 
 11,500,00c I In 1815 
 
 . £16,548,985 
 • I4>978,SS7 
 
 The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c., I 3,831,088?. ; and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456?. 
 8,657,937;. ; froni funded and stock properties, Repealed March, i8i6. 
 2,885,505/. ; the profits and gains of trade, | Sir Robert Peel's bill imposing the present tax at a 
 
INC 
 
 3S4 
 
 IND 
 
 INCOME TAX, contimted. 
 
 rate of ^d. in the pound (2?. i8«. ^d. per cent.) per 
 
 anil, to subsist for tliree years, passed June 22, 
 
 1842. 
 It produced about 5,350,000?. a-year ; and enabled sir 
 
 Robert Peel to repeal about 12,000, ooo^ of indirect 
 
 taxes. 
 Renewed for three years in March, 1845: and March, 
 
 1848.* 
 Continued for one year in 1851 and 1852. 
 The tax of -jd. limited to seven years (till i£6o) ; to 
 
 be gradually reduced in amount ; but all incomes 
 
 from ico^. to i5oi. made liable to ^d. in the pound 
 
 for all that period : the tax also extended to 
 
 Ireland, June, 1853. 
 In consequence of the Crimean war, the rate was 
 
 doubled, 1854, 14^ 
 2d. more added to the tax on incomes above 150?., 
 
 and ijrf. on those between lool. and 150?. ; the 
 
 former being is. ^d., the latter ii^rf. in the pound, 
 
 1855- 
 The former assessment reduced to jd. , the latter to 
 
 Sd., 1857. 
 Both become 5^., 1858. 
 The former raised to gd., the latter to 6^d. ; and the 
 
 tax on incomes, derived from lands, tenements, 
 
 &c., raised from 3^(/. to sid. for England, and 
 
 from ■z^d. to ^d. for Scotland and Ireland, July, 
 
 1859. 
 The assessment on incomes raised — to those above 
 
 loof. to yd. ; to those above 150^ to lod. 
 [The object of the increase was to provide for a 
 
 deficiency occasioned by extra expenditure for de- 
 fending the countiy, April, i860.] 
 A committee to inquire into the working of the 
 
 income tax appointed, Feb. 14, 1861. 
 ReducticM of the last assessment from -jd. to 6d., 
 
 and from rod. ta gd. for three-quarters of the 
 
 financial year 1861-2. 
 The rates of 6d. and gd. to continue, April 1862. 
 The rate of -jd. on all chargeable incomes ; -^^d. on 
 
 farms, &c., in England ; and 2^d. in Scotland and 
 
 Ireland. Incomes under, tool, a-year exempted ; 
 
 those above 100?. and under 2ooi. allowed an 
 
 abatement on 6o(., June 8, 1863. 
 The rate of 6d. on chargeable incomes, with some 
 
 exemptions and abatement, May 13, 1864. 
 The rate of ^d. on chargeable incomes, with same 
 
 exemptions and abatement, May, 1865. 
 
 PRODUCE OF THE INCOME TAX, 
 
 1842 
 
 £571,055 
 
 1 856 (March 31) . 
 
 . £15,070,958 
 
 1861 (March 31) . 
 
 . £10,923,186 
 
 5,191,597 
 
 1857 ,. . • 
 
 . 16,089,933 
 
 1862 „ 
 
 10,365,000 
 
 5,395,391 
 
 1858 
 
 11,586,115 
 
 1863 
 
 10,567,000 
 
 5,509,637 
 
 1859 „ . . 
 
 . 6,683,587 
 
 1864 
 
 9,084,000 
 
 10,642,621 
 
 i860 „ 
 
 9,596,106 
 
 1865 
 
 7,958,000 
 
 1855 (March 31) . 
 
 INCUMBEEED ESTATES. See Encumhcrcd Estates. 
 
 INCURABLES. The Eoyal Hospital for incitrables, founded by Dr. Andrew Eeed, at 
 Carshalton in Surrey, in 1850, has since been removed to Putney. 
 
 INDEMNITY BILL, by which the minister of the crown or the government generally, 
 is relieved fi'om the responsibility of measures adopted in extreme and urgent cases, without 
 the previous sanction of parliament. One was passed April 19, 1801 ; another to indemnify 
 ministers against their acts during the suspension of the Habeas Corjjus act, was carried in 
 the commons (principal divisions, 190 to 64) ; and in the lords (93 to 27) ; March 10, 1818. 
 In 1848 and 1857, bills of indemnity were passed for the suspension of the Bank Charter 
 act by the ministry. See Oblivion. An indemnity bill is passed at the end of every session 
 of parliament for jjcrsons who transgress through ignorance of the law. The practice began 
 in 1715. 
 
 INDEPENDENTS, or Congregationalists, hold that each church or congi-egation is 
 independent of all others, and may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no 
 absolute occasion for synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and 
 prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they affirm that one church 
 may advise or reprove anotlier, but has no authority to excommunicate or censure. Eobert 
 Brown preached these views in 1585, but, after 32 imprisonments, he eventuiilly conformed 
 to the Established Church. A church was formed in London in 1593, when there were 
 20,000 Independents. They were driven by persecution to Holland, where they formed 
 several churches ; that at Leyden was under Mr. Eobinson, often regarded as the author 
 of Independency. In 1616 Henry Jacobs returned to England and founded a meetuig-house. 
 Cromwell, who was himself of their views, obtained them toleration, in opposition to the 
 Presbyterians. The Independents published an epitome of their faith, drawn up at a con- 
 ference at the Savoy, in 1658 ; and the Congregational Union of England and Wales, formed 
 in 1831, published their "Declaration of Faith, Order, and Discipline," in 1833. In 1851, 
 they had 3244 chapels for 1,067,760 persons in England and Wales. See Worship. The 
 first Independents in Scotland were the Glasites, which see. The first Independent church 
 in America Avas foimded by John Eobinson, at Plymouth, New England, in 1620. 
 
 INDEX EXPUEGATOEIUS, a catalogue of the books prohibited by the church of 
 Eome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent, 1559. The Index 
 
 * Large meetings assembled in Tra'algar-square, London, March 6, 7, 1848 (for the ostensible purpose 
 of opposing the Income Tax) ; rioting ensued, which was soon quelled. 
 
IND 
 
 385 
 
 IND 
 
 of heretical books, by which the reading of the Scriptures was foi'bidden (with certain 
 exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull of pope Clement VHI. in 1595. Most of 
 the celebrated works of France, Spain, Germany, and England, are prohibited. On 
 June 25, 1864, Hugo's "Les Miserables " and many other books were added to the number. 
 
 INDIA or HINDOSTAN. The Hindoo histories ascribe their origin to a period ages 
 before the ordinai-y chronologies. A race of kings is mentioned as reigning 2300 B.C., and 
 Buddhism is said to have been introduced 956 B.C. Many ancient nations, particularly the 
 Tyrians and Egyptians, carried on mucli commerce with India. It was conquered by Darius 
 Hystaspes, who formed an Indian satrapj'', in 512 B.C., and by Alexander, 327 B.C., and sub- 
 sequently the intercourse between India and the Eomau empire was much increased. The 
 authentic history of Hindostan is reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmiid 
 Ghazni, a.d. 1004. Rennell. See Bengal, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, and Oude, for further 
 details. * For the new route to India, see Waghorn. 
 
 IiTuption of the Mahometans, under Mahmud 
 
 Ghazni aboxit 1004 
 
 Extinction of the house of Ghazni, 1186 ; rule 
 of the slave-kingB of Delhi, 1206-1288 ; of the 
 Khilgis and house of Toghlak, 1288-1412 ; of 
 the Syiids, 1412-50 ; of the house of Lodi, 1450-1526 
 Patna, or Afghan empire, founded . . . 1205 
 Invasion of Genghis Khan, one of the most 
 bloody conquerors of the world; 14,000,000 
 of the human race perish by his sword under 
 the pretence of establishing the worship of 
 
 one god, 1222 : he died 1237 
 
 The Mogid Tartars, under the conduct of the 
 celebrated Timour, or Tamei-lane, invade 
 Hindostan, and take Delhi ; defeat the Indian 
 army, 1397 ; conquer Hindostan, and butcher 
 
 '' 100,000 of its people 1398-9 
 
 The pasage to India discovered by Vasco de 
 
 Gama 1497 
 
 The first European settlement (Portuguese) 
 
 established by him at Cochin (S. coast) . . 1502 
 Conquest of the country completed by the 
 
 sultan Baber, founder of the Mogul empire . 1525 
 Reign of his son Humayun .... 1530-56 
 Reign of the illustrious Akbar, the greatest 
 
 prince of Hindostan .... 1 556-1605 
 .A-rrival of the English in India .... 1589 
 
 Reign of Jehanghir 1605-27 
 
 Reign of Shah Jehan 1627-58 
 
 Sevajee establishes the Mahratta power . 1660-80 
 Aui-ungzebe dethrones his father : his dominions 
 extend from. 10 to 35 degrees in latiti.ide, and 
 nearly as much in longitude, and his revenue 
 amounts to 32,000,000^. sterling . . 1658-1707 
 Shah Alum succeeds Aurungzebe, 1707 ; kiUed, 1712 
 Jehaunder Shah dethroned and killed . . ,, 
 
 Feruk Share assassinated 1717 
 
 Invasion of the Persian Nadir Shah or KouU 
 Khan : at Delhi he orders a general massacre, 
 and 150,000 persons perish ; carries away 
 treasure amounting to 125,000,000^. sterling, 1739 
 
 Mahomed Shah dies 1747 
 
 Defeat of the last imperial army by theRohillas, 1749 
 [The Mogul empire no w became merely nominal, 
 distinct and independent sovereignties being 
 formed by nunaerous petty princes. The em- 
 perors were of no political consequence from 
 this period. In 1761, Shah Alum II. attacking 
 the English was defeated at Patna. In 1764, 
 after the battle of Buxar, he was thrown upon 
 the protection of the English, who established 
 him at Allahabad. After the victory at Delhi 
 in 1803, gen. Lake restored the aged monarch 
 to a nominal sovereignty, which descended at 
 his death to his son, Akbar Shah. Akbar 
 
 died in 1837, and was succeeded by the last 
 king of Delhi (his son), who received a pen- 
 sion of about i25,oooJ. per annum. He joined 
 the .mutiny in 1857 ; was tried in 1858, and 
 transported to Rangoon ; died there, Nov. 1 1, 
 1862.] 
 
 BRITISH POWER IN INDIA. 
 
 Attempt made to reach India by the north-east 
 
 and north-west passages 1528 
 
 Sir Francis Drake's e.xpedition . . . . 1579 
 
 Levant company make a land expedition to • 
 India ......'... 1589 
 
 First adventure from England . . . . 1591 
 
 First charter to the London company of mer- 
 chants. (See India Company.) . . . i5oo 
 Factories established at Surat . . . . 1612 
 
 Sir Thomas Roe, first English ambassador, 
 
 arrives 1615 
 
 Madras made a presidency 1652 
 
 Bombay becomes an English possession . . 1662 
 
 French company estabhshed 1664 
 
 They settle at Pondicherry .... 1668 
 
 Calcutta purchased 169S 
 
 War between the EngUshand French in India 1746-9 
 Enghsh besiege Pondicherry, the seat of the 
 French Government, without success . . 1748 
 
 Clive takes Arcot 1751 
 
 Peace made 1754 
 
 Se verndroog and other strongholds of the pirate 
 
 Angria taken .... Feb. 11, 1756 
 Capture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowla. (See 
 
 Calcutta and Blackhole) . . . June, ,, 
 Calcutta retaken by Chve ; he defeats the 
 
 Soubah at Plassey . . . June 20, 1757 
 [Colonel Olive's force was but 3000 men, and 
 the Soubah's 50,000. By this victory he ac- j 
 quired all Bengal, and numerous conquests 
 followed.] 
 Fort William, the strongest fort in India, built, ,, 
 
 French successful under Lally . . . 1758 
 But lose nearly all their power . . . . 1759 
 The French under Lally defeated by sir Byre 
 
 Coote near Wandewash . . . July 2, 1760 
 Hyder Ali acquii-es the sovereignty of Mysore . 1761 
 Conquest of Patna .... Nov. 6, 1763 
 Battle of Buxar (wWcA se«) . . . Oct. 23, 1764 
 The nabob becomes subject to the English . 1765 
 Lord Clive obtains the Dewanny by an imperial 
 grant, which constitutes the company the 
 receivers of the revenue of Bengal, Bahar, 
 and Ori.ssa, and gives the British the virtual 
 sovereignty of these countries . Aug. 12, ,, 
 Treaty with Nizam Ali : the English obtain the 
 
 Northern Circars . . . Nov. 12, 1766 
 
 Hyder Ali ravages the Camatic . • Jan. 1769 
 
 * British India extends from 8° to 34° N. lat. and from 70° to 90' E. long, (exclusive of the Burmese 
 additions). The population is about 50 milUons ; that of the whole peninsula about 176 millions. Cotton 
 was planted in 1839, and the tea-plant in 1834. Railways and the electric telegraph are being rapidly 
 constructed, and canals for irrigation. See Ganges Canal. The Indian revenue in the year 1854-5 '^'■^^ 
 20,371,450!. The expenditure, 22,915,160!. In 1858-9, the revenue was 36,060,788!. ; expenditure, 49,642,359!. 
 
 C C 
 
IND 
 
 386 
 
 IND 
 
 INDIA, continued. 
 
 Frightful famine in Bengal 1770 
 
 Warren Hastings governor of Bengal, April 13, 1772 
 
 Treaty with Bhootiiu 1774 
 
 India Bill : supreme court established. (See 
 
 India Bills) 1773 
 
 Accusations commence against Warren Has- 
 tings ; he is accused of taking a bribe from a 
 concubine of Meer Jaffier. (See Hastings ) 
 
 May '30. 1775 
 Nuncomer, a Brahmin, accuses Warren Has- 
 tings of receiving bribes . . March II, 1776 
 Is hanged for forgery . . . Aug. 5, ,, 
 Pondicherry taken .... Oct. it, 1778 
 The strong fortress of Gwalior taken by Major 
 
 Popham Aug. 4, ,, 
 
 Hyder All overrun the Camatic, and defeats 
 
 the British Sept. 10, 1780 
 
 He takes Arcot . , . . . Oct. 31, ,, 
 Hyder Ali defeated by sir Eyre Coote, July i, 1781 
 Warren Hastings accused of taking more bribes. 
 
 (See Chunar) .... Sept. 19, ,, 
 
 Bussy lands with a French detachment, March, 1 782 
 War with Hyder Ali aided by the French . . „ 
 Hyder Ali overthrown by Coote . , June 2, ,, 
 Death of Hyder, and accession of his son, 
 
 Tippoo Saib Dec. 11, ,, 
 
 Tippoo, who had taken Cuddalore, now takes 
 
 ■ Bednore April 30, 1783 
 
 Pondicherry restored to the French, and Trin- 
 
 comalee to the Dutch ,, 
 
 Peace with Tippoo . . . March 11, 1784 
 
 War with Tippoo renewed . . . . . 1 790 
 Comwallis defeats him at Arikera . May 15, 1791 
 Bangalore taken. (See Bangalore) March 21, „ 
 Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sons 
 
 hostages March 19, 1792 
 
 Civil and criminal courts erected . . . 1793 
 
 Pondicherrj' again taken „ 
 
 Tippoo's sons restored . . March 29, 1794 
 
 First dispute with the Burmese ; adjusted by 
 
 general Erskine 1795 
 
 Government of lord Mornington, afterwards 
 
 marquess Wellesley . . . May 17, 1798 
 Seringapatam stormed by general Baird ; 
 
 Tippoo Saib killed .... May 4, 1799 
 
 Mysore divided June 22, „ 
 
 Victories of the British ; the Camatic con- 
 quered 1800 
 
 The nabob of Furruckabad cedes his territories 
 
 to the English for a pension . June 4, 1802 
 
 Mahrattauar. Victories of sir Arthur Wellesley 
 
 and general Lake 1803 
 
 Wellesley's first great victory, at Assaye, 
 
 Sept. 23, ,, 
 Pondicherry (restored 1801) retaken . Dec. ,, 
 
 War with Holkar 1804-5 
 
 Capture of Bhurtpore, and complete defeat of 
 
 Holkar April 2, 1805 
 
 The marquess dies .... Oct. 5, ,, 
 The Mahratta chief, Scindiah, defeated by the 
 
 British; treaty of peace . . Nov. 23, ,, 
 Treaty with Holkar .... Dec. 24, ,, 
 Sepoy mutiny at Vellore ; 800 executed, July, 1806 
 Cumoona sunenders . . Nov. 21, 1807 
 
 Mutiny at Seringapatam quelled . Aug 23, 1S09 
 
 Act ox)ening the trade to India . .July, 1813 
 
 War with Nepaul 1814-15 
 
 Holkar defeated by sir T. Hislop . Dec. 21, 1817 
 Pindaree war. English successful . , 181 7- 18 
 Peace with Holkar .... Jan. 6, i8i8 
 Murmese war. The British take Rangoon, May 5, 1824 
 
 Lord Combermere commands in India 
 
 ^Malacca ceded, and Sincapore purchased . . „ 
 
 Mutiny at Bairackpore, many sepoys killed, 
 
 Nov. 1824 
 General Campbell defeats the Burmese near j 
 
 Proome Dec. 25, 1825 I 
 
 Bhurtpore stormed by Combermere, Jan. 18, 1826- 
 Peace with the Burmese . . . Feb. 24, „ 
 [They pay i,ooo,ooo(. sterling, and cede a great 
 
 extent of territory.] 
 Abolition of suttees, or the burning of widows. 
 
 (See Suttees) Dec. 7, 1829 
 
 Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade, 
 
 &c., to China, forming a new era in British 
 
 commerce Aug. 28, 1835 
 
 Rajah of Coorg deposed ; Coorg annexed, 
 
 April 10, 1834 
 The natives first admitted to the magistracy, | 
 
 May I, „ 
 The Nawab Shunsoodden put to death for the 
 
 murder of Mr. Frazer, British resident, Oct. 8, 1835 
 
 AFGHAN WAR. 
 
 Proclamation against Dost Mahomed . Oct. i, 1838 
 The British occupy Candahar . April 21, 1839 ( 
 Battle of Ghiznee ; victory of sir John (now 
 
 lord)Keane. (8ee Ghiznee) . . July 23, ,, 
 Wade forces the Khyber pass . . July 26, 1839 
 Sh.ih Soujah restored to his sovereignty, and I 
 
 he and the British army enter Cabul, Aug. 7, 
 
 English defeat Dost Mahomed . Oct. 18, 1840 
 
 Kurrock Singh, king of Lahore, dies ; at his 
 
 funeral his successor is killed by accident, 
 
 and Dost Mahomed, next heir, surrenders to 
 
 England Nov. 5, „ 
 
 General rising against the British at Cabul ; 
 sir Alexander Bumes and other officers mur- 
 dered Nov. 2, 1841 
 
 Sir William Macnaghten treacherously assassi'^ 
 nated ...... Dec. 25, „ 
 
 The British tmder a convention evacuate Cabul, 
 placing lady Sale, &c., as hostages in the 
 hands of Akbar Khan ; a dreadful massacre 
 ensues of about 26,000 men, women, and 
 
 children Jan. 6-13, 1842 
 
 The British evacuate Ghiznee . . March 6, ,, 
 Sortie from Jellalabad ; general Pollock forces 
 
 the Khyber pass .... April 5, „ 
 Ghiznee retaken by general Nott . Sept. 6, ,, 
 General Pollock re-enters Cabul . Sept. 16, ,, 
 Lady Sale, &c., are rescued by sir R. Shak- 
 speare, and arrive at general Pollock's camp, 
 
 Sept. 21, „ ' 
 Cabul evacuated after destroying the fortifica- 
 tions Oct. 12, „ ' 
 
 SCINDE WAR. 
 
 Ameers defeated by sir Charles Napier at 
 Meanee Feb. 17, 1845 
 
 Scinde annexed to the British empire ; sir 
 Charles Napier governor . . . Juno, ,, 
 
 aWALIOR WAP. 
 
 Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar : the 
 strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gibraltar of the 
 Ea.st," taken Dec. 29, ,, 
 
 Danish possessions in India purchased . . 1845 
 
 SIKH WAR.* 
 
 The Sikhs cross the Sutlej river, and attack the 
 British at Ferozepore . . . Dec. 14, ,, 
 
 Sir H. Hardinge, after a long rapid march, 
 reaches Moodkee ; the Sikhs (20,000) make 
 an attack ; after a hard contest they retire, 
 abandoning their guns (see Moodku), Dec. 18, ,, 
 
 * Runjeet Singh, long the ruler of the Sikhs and the Punjab, lived in amity with the British. After 
 his death, June 27, 1839, several of his successors (children and grandchildren) were in turn assassinated. 
 During the minority of his grandson Dhuleep Singh, the favourite of the Maba Ranee, Lall Singh, ruled; 
 and finding the aimy ungovernable, sanctioned the unprovoked attack on the British, as given above. 
 
IND 
 
 387 
 
 IND 
 
 INDIA, continued. 
 
 Battle of Ferozesbah (^ohich scf) . Dec. 21, 22, 1845 
 
 Battle of Aliwal ; the Sikhs defeated (see 
 AUwal and Siitlej) .... Jan. 28, 1846 
 
 Great battle of Sobraon ; the enemy defeated 
 with immense loss (see Sobraon) . Feb. 10, „ 
 
 Citadel of Lahore occupied by sir Hugh Gough, 
 and the war terminates . . . Feb. 20, ■ „ 
 
 Sir R. Sale dies of his -vcounds received at 
 Moodkee (Dec. 18, 1845) . . . Feb. 23, „ 
 
 The governor-general and sir Hugh Goiigh are 
 raised to the peerage, as viscount Hardinge 
 and baron Gough, and receive the thanks of 
 parliament and of the East India company, 
 
 March 2, 6, „ 
 
 Treaty of Lahore signed . . March 9, ,, 
 
 Vizier Lall Singh deposed . . . Jan. 13, 1847 
 
 Mr. Vans Agnew and lieut. Anderson killed 
 by the troops of the dewan Moolraj, April 21, 1848 
 
 Lieut. Edwardes joins general Courtland, and 
 most gallantly engages the army of Moolraj, 
 which he defeats after a sanguinary battle of 
 nine hours, at Kennyree . . . June 18, „ 
 
 General Whish raises the siege of Mooltan 
 through the desertion of Shere Singh, Sept. 22, „ 
 
 Shere Singh, entrenched on the right bank of 
 the Chenab, with 40,000 men and 28 piece.s of 
 artillery, major-general Thackwoll crosses the 
 river with 13 infantry regiments, with cavalry 
 and cannon, and operates on his left flank, 
 
 Nov. 20, „ 
 
 Lord Gougb, meantime, attacks the enemy's 
 advanced position ; the British suffered great 
 slaughter, but finally defeated Shere Singh, 
 who is driven out of Kamnugger . Nov. 22, ,, 
 
 Victory of Chillianwallah (which see) . Jan. 13, 1849 
 
 Unconditional surrender of the citadel of Mool- 
 tan by Mooh-aj (see iVfooZtan) . . Jan. 22, ,, 
 
 Victory of Goojerat (w7iicA «e«) . Feb. 21, ,, 
 
 Sir Charles JNapier appointed commander-in- 
 chief . . . . . . . March 7, ,, 
 
 The Sikh army surrenders unconditionally, 
 
 March 14, „ 
 
 Formal annexation of the Punjab to the 
 British dominions ; Dhuleep Singh obtains a 
 pension of 4o,ooof March 29. ,, 
 
 Moolraj sentenced to death for the murder of 
 Mr. Agnew and lieut. Anderson, Aug. ; com- 
 muted to transportation for life . Sept. ,, 
 
 Sir Charles Napier disbands the 66th Bengal 
 native infantry, for mutiny . . Feb. 27, 1850 
 
 Dr. Healy, of the Bengal ai-my, and his at- 
 tendants, murdered by the Affredis, March 20, , , 
 
 Embassy from the king of Nepaul to the queen 
 of Great Britain arrives in England (see 
 Nepaul) May 25, ,, 
 
 Resignation of his command in India by sir 
 Charles Napier July 2, ,, 
 
 His farewell address to the Indian army, Dec. 15, „ 
 
 BURMESE WAR. 
 
 Death of Bajee Rao, ex-peishvra of the Mah- 
 rattas. [His nephew. Nana Sahib's claim 
 for continuance of the pension (8o,oooL) 
 refused.] Jan. 28, 1851 
 
 A British naval force arrives before Rangoon, 
 in the Burman empire, and commodore 
 Lambert allows the viceroy thirty-five days 
 to obtain instructions from Ava . . Oct. 29, 1851 
 The viceroy of Rangoon interdicts communica- 
 tion between the shore and the Britisb ships 
 of war ; and erects batteries to prevent their 
 
 departure Jan. 4, 1852 
 
 [Commodore Lambert blockades the Irawaddy ; 
 the Fox, Hermes, i&c. , attacked by the bat- 
 teries, destroy the fortifications, and kill 
 nearly 300 of the enemy.] 
 Martaban (April 5), Rangoon (April 14), and 
 
 Bassein, stormed by the British . May 19, „ 
 Pegu captured, afterwards abandoned, June 4, ,, 
 Prome captured by capt. Xarleton . July 9, ,, 
 Pegu recaptured by general Godwin . Nov. 21, ,, 
 Pegu annexed to our Indian empire by pro- 
 clamation of the governor-general . Dec. 20, ,, 
 Revolution at Ava : the king of Ava deposed 
 
 by his younger brother . . . Jan. 1853 
 Rangoon devastated by fire . . Feb. 14, ,, 
 Capt. Lock and many officers and men killed 
 in an attack on the stronghold of a robber- 
 chief, Feb. 3, which is taken by sir J. Cheape, 
 
 March 19, „ 
 First Indian railway opened (from Bombay to 
 
 Tannah) April 16, ,, 
 
 Termination of the war .... June, „ 
 New India bill passed . . . Aug. 20, ,, 
 
 Death of general Godwin . . Oct. 26, ,, 
 
 Assassination of captain Lat,ter . . Dec. 8, ,, 
 Rajah of Nagpoor dies, and his territories fall to 
 the E. I. Company .... Dec. 11, ,, 
 
 Opening of Ganges Canal 1854 
 
 Opening of the Calcutta railway . Feb. 3, 1855 
 Treaty with Dost Mahomed of Cabul, March 31, ,, 
 Insurrection of the Sonthals (which see), July, ,, 
 Which is only finally suppressed . . May, 1856 
 Oude annexed (see Ottde) . . . Feb. 7, ,, 
 
 MUTINY OF THE NATIVE ARMY. 
 
 Mutinies in the Bengal Army : at Barrackpore, 
 (fee. , several regiments disbanded . March, 1857 
 
 " India is quiet throughout." — Bomhay Gazette. 
 
 May I, ,, 
 
 Mutiny at Meerut* (near Delhi). The mutineers 
 seize Delhi, where they commit dreadful out- 
 rages, and proclaim the king of Delhi emperor 
 
 May 10, (fee, „ 
 
 Three native regiments disbanded at Lahore by 
 the energy of Mr. Montgomery and brigadier 
 Corbett, who save the Punjab . May 12, ,, 
 
 Martial law proclaimed by the British lieut. - 
 governor, J. R. Colvin . . . May, „ 
 
 British troops under general Anson advance on 
 Delhi ; his death .... May 27, „ 
 
 The mutineers defeated in many attacks 
 
 May 30 — June 23, ,, 
 
 Mutiny at Lucknow . . . May 30, ,, 
 
 Neill suppresses the mutiny at Benares, June 3 ; 
 and recovers Allahabad . . June 4, ,, 
 
 Mutiny spreads throughout Bengal : fearful 
 atrocities committedt . . . June, „ 
 
 * On the introduction of the improved (Enfield) musket in the Indian army, greased cartridges had 
 been brought from England. These were objected to by the native soldiers, and the issue of them was 
 immediately discontinued by orders in Jan. 1857. A mutinous spirit however gradually arose in the 
 Bengal native army. In March several regiments were disbanded, followed by others, till in June the 
 army had lost by disbandment and desertion, about 30,000 men. On April 5, a sepoy, and on April 20, a 
 jemadar, or native lieutenant, were executed. At the end of May 34 regiments were lost. In April, 85 of 
 the 3rd Bengal native cavalry at IVleerut refused to use their cartridges. On May g, they were committed 
 to gaol. On Sunday, the loth, a mutiny in the native troops broke out ; they fired on their officers, 
 killing col. Finnis and others. They then released their comrades, massacred many Europeans, and fired 
 the public buildings. The European troops rallied and drove tbem from their cantonments. The muti- 
 neers then fled to Delhi, which see. 
 
 t At the end of June the native troops at the following places were in open mutiny ; Meerut, JJeUu, 
 Ferozepore, AUyghur, Roorkee, Murdaun, Lucknow, Caimpore, Nusseerabad, Neemuch, Hansh Hissar, Jhann, 
 Mehidpore, Jullundur, Azimghur, Futtehghur, Jaunpore, BareiUy, Shahjehanpore, AllaJiabad. At the 
 
 C C 2 
 
IND 
 
 388 
 
 IJs'D 
 
 INDIA, continued. 
 
 Native troops disbanded at Mooltan, which is 
 saved June ii, 1857 
 
 Ex-kiug of Oude arrested ._ . June 14, ,, 
 
 Siege of the residency at ijuckuow by the 
 rebels, commences . . . July i, ,, 
 
 Sir H. Lawrence dies of his wounds at Lucknow, 
 
 July 4, ,, 
 
 The liberty of the press restricted . July 4, ,, 
 
 Sir H. Barnard commanding before Delhi dies 
 of cholera, succeeded by general Reed, July 5, „ 
 
 General Nicholson destroys a large body of 
 rebels at Sealcote .... July 12, „ 
 
 Cawnpore surrenders to Nana Sahib, who kills 
 the gaiTison, Ac, June 28 ; he is defeated by 
 general Havelock, July 16 ; who re-captures 
 Cawnpore (See Cawnpfre) . . July 17, ,, 
 
 Mutinies suppressed at Hyderabad, July i8; 
 and at Lahore .... July 20, ,, 
 
 General Reed retires and Sir Archdale Wilson 
 takes the command before Delhi July 22, ,, 
 
 Revolt at Dinapore : the British repulsed with 
 severe loss at A rrah . . . July 25, ,, 
 
 Heroic exertions and numerous victories of 
 general Havelock and his army, although 
 suffering from disease . July 29, to Aug. 16, ,, 
 
 Lord Canning's so-called "clemency" procla- 
 mation July 31. .. 
 
 Victors- of Neill at Pandoo Nuddee . Aug. 15, „ 
 
 General Nicholson's victory at Nujuffghur [he 
 dies Sept. 23] . - • . Aug. 25, „ 
 
 Assault of Delhi took place Sept. 14 ; the city 
 taken, Sept. 20 ; the king captured, Sept. 21 ; 
 his son and grandson slain by Colonel Hodson 
 
 Sept. 22, ,, 
 
 Sir James Outram joins Havelock and serves 
 under him Sept. 16, ,, 
 
 Havelock marches to Lucknow and reheves the 
 besieged residency : retires and leaves Outram 
 in command ; Neill killed . Sept. 25, 26, ,, 
 
 Colonel Greathed defeats the rebels at Bolund- 
 shohiir, Sept. 27 ; destroys a fort at Molaghur, 
 Sept. 29 ; takes Allyghur, Oct. 5 ; and defeats 
 rebels at Agra .... Oct. 10, ,, 
 
 Sir Colin Campbell (since lord Clyde) appointed 
 commander-in-chief, July 11 ; arrives .at 
 Cawnpore Nov 3, ,, 
 
 Marches to Alumbagh, near Lucknow, Nov. g ; 
 and takes Secunderabagh . . Nov. 16, , , 
 
 Joined by Havelock, he attacks the rebels and 
 rescues the besieged in the residency 
 
 Nov. 18-25, >. 
 
 Havelock* dies of dysentery at Alumbagh, 
 
 Nov. 25, ,, 
 
 General Windham (at Cavimpore) repulsed with 
 loss in an attack on the rebellious Gwalior 
 contingent, who take part of Cawnpore . . 
 
 Nov. 27, ,, 
 
 Sir C. Campbell arrives at Cawnpore, which he 
 retakes, Nov. 28 ; and defeats the Gwalior 
 rebels Dec. 6, „ 
 
 The rebels defeated by Seaton, Dec. 14, 17, and 
 27 ; at Goruckpore by Kowcroft, Dec. 27 ; and 
 at Futtehghur by Sir C. Campbell . Jan. 2, 1858 
 
 Lucknow strongly fortified by the rebels, Jan. ,, 
 
 Generals Rose, Roberts, Inghs, and Grant, vic- 
 torious in many encounters Jan. and Feb. ,, 
 
 Trial of king of Delhi ; sentenced to transpor- j 
 
 tation .... Jan. 27 to March 9, „ 
 
 Sir C. Campbell marches to Lucknow, Feb. 11 ; | 
 
 the siege commences, March 8 ; taken by 
 
 successive assaults ; the enemy retreat : 
 
 Hodson killed . . . . March 14-19, 
 
 Severe proclamation of governor-general in 
 
 Oude t March 14, 
 
 General Roberts takes Kotah . March 30, 
 Sir Hugh Rose beats the enemy severely, and 
 
 takes Jhansi April 4, 
 
 General Whitelock takes Budaon . April 19, 
 Death of captain sir W. Peel, of small-pox, at 
 
 Cawnpore April 27, 
 
 General Penny killed in Rohilcund . May 4, 
 
 Bareilly recaptured .... May 7, 
 
 Sir Hugh Rose defeats the rebels several times 
 
 — at Kooneh, May 11, and near Calpee, which 
 
 he retakes ..... May 23, 
 
 Victory of Sir E. Lugard at Jugdespore, May 29, 
 
 The rebels .seize Gwalior, the capital of Scindiah, 
 
 who escapes to Agra . . . June 1 3, 
 
 The rebels defeated by Sir H. Rose (the heroic 
 
 Ranee of Jhansi killed), June 17 ; Gwalior 
 
 retaken and Scindiah reinstated . June 19, 
 
 Tantia Topee heads a division of the rebels 
 
 Rajahs of Jeypore, (Sic, surrender; Rohilcund 
 
 and other provinces tranquilUsed . July, 
 
 General Roberts destroys the remains of the 
 
 Gwalior rebels Aug. 14, 
 
 Many Oude chiefs surrender . . . Aug. 
 
 An attempt of di.sbanded regiments to re-take 
 
 their arms at Mooltan, suppressed by major 
 
 Hamilton (300 killed on the spot, and 800 
 
 slain or captured afterwards) . . Aug. 31, 
 
 The government of the East India Comxjany ceases, 
 
 Sept. I, 
 
 General Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee, near 
 Rajghiir Sept. 15, 
 
 The queen is proclaimed throughout India — 
 lord Canning to be the first viceroy Nov. i, 
 
 Campaign in Oude begins ; several chiefs sub- 
 mit, others subdued . . Nov. 1-31, 
 
 At Dhooden Khera lord Clyde (formerly sir C. 
 Campbell) defeats Beni Mahdo . . Nov. 24, 
 
 Flight of Tuntia Topee — he is beaten in Guzerat 
 by major Sutherland . . . . Nov. 25, 
 
 The ex-king of Delhi sails for the Cape of Good 
 Hope, Dec. 4-1 1 ; the colonists refuse to re- 
 ceive him ; he is sent to Rangoon . . . 
 
 Brigadier John Jacob dies at Jacobabad (greatly 
 lamented) Dec. 6, 
 
 Indecisive skii-mishes with Ferozeshah Dec. 
 
 Who joins Tantia Topee ; they are defeated in 
 several small engagements . . . . Jan. i 
 
 Enforcement of the Disarming Act in the 
 north-west provinces .... Jan. 
 
 The Punjab made a distinct presidency, Jan. i, 
 
 Rebels completely expelled from Oude ; they 
 enter Nepaul Jan. 
 
 Guerilla warfaie continues in Rohilcund, Feb. 
 
 Tantia Topee hemmed in ; deserted by his 
 troops, about Feb. 25, 
 
 Defeat of the Begum of Oude and Nana Sahib 
 by general Horsford . . . Feb. 10, 
 
 The new Indian tariff creates much dissatisfac- 
 tion March, 
 
 Maun Singh surrenders . . . April 2, 
 
 Tantia Topee taken, April 7 ; hanged, April 18, 
 
 Thanksgiving in England for pacification of 
 India May i. 
 
 1858 
 
 859 
 
 stations printed in italics, European women and children were massacred. — The Relief Fund for the sufferers 
 in India was commenced Aug. 25, 1857. The queen, Louis Napoleon, and the sultan, gave each 1000?. In 
 Nov. 1857, 280,749?. ^^^ ^^®" collected ; in Nov. 1858, 433,620!. In Dec. 1861, 140,000!. had been distributed 
 to sufferers in India ; and 100,000?. to those at home ; 246,069!. remained for the benefit of widows and 
 orphans. A Fast was observed on Oct 7. 
 
 * Bom April s, 1795 ; educated ,at the Charterhouse, London, where he was called "old Phlos:" went 
 to India, 1823 ; served in the Burmese war, 1824 ; and in the Sikh war, 1845. He was a Baptist. 
 
 t Lord Ellenborough, the minister for India, sent, unknown to his colleagues, a despatch severely 
 censuring this proclamation. This despatch became public and led to his resignation and very nearly to 
 the defeat of the ministiy, a vote of censure being moved for in both houses of parliament, but not carried. 
 
IND 
 
 389 
 
 IND 
 
 INDIA, continued. 
 
 Mutinous conduct of British troops lately in 
 the company's service at IVIeerut and otlier 
 places ; dissatisfied on account of their trans- 
 fer to the Queen's service without bounty, 
 
 May 5, 
 
 Sir Hope Grant defeats Nana Sahib in the 
 Jorwah pass Maj' 23, 
 
 A court of inquiry appointed . . J une, 
 
 Sir Charles Wood becomes secretary for India, 
 
 June 22, 
 
 Dissatisfaction among the troops at their ti-ans- 
 fer from the service ot the company to that 
 of the crown, without a bounty, settled by 
 discharge being offered to them — which about 
 10,000 accept July, 
 
 Thanksgiving day observed in India July 28, 
 
 An income tax bill (called " The Trades' and 
 Professions' Ijicensing Bill ") passes the legis- 
 lative council ; great meetings at Calcutta 
 and Uladras protesting against it . Sept. 
 
 Rajah Jey-loU Singh hanged . . Oct. i, 
 
 Nana Sahib, in force, in Nepaul on the fron- 
 tiers of Oude ..... Oct. 
 
 Insurgents in Nepaul dispersed . Dec. 24, 
 
 Important financial changes made by Mr. 
 James Wilson, new finance secretary . Feb. 
 
 Company formed to obtain cotton, flax, &c., 
 from India March, 
 
 Paper cui-rency deternrined on . March, 
 
 Bahadoor Khan, ex-king of Bareilly, hanged 
 for murders caused by him . . March 2, 
 
 Sir Charles Trevelyan recalled from Madras, for 
 publishing a government minute against Mr. 
 Wilson's com.mercial scheme . . May, 
 
 Sir Hugh Eose takes command of the Indian 
 army, which is amalgamated with the British 
 army July, 
 
 Lord Clyde quits India, and arrives in London, 
 
 July x8, 
 
 Lord Canning's recommendation that the 
 adopted successors of Indian princes should 
 be recognised is adopted by the home govern- 
 ment July 21, 
 
 Death of sir H. Ward, the new governor at 
 
 Madras, Aug. 3 ; and of Mr. James Wilson, 
 
 Aug. II, 
 
 Nana Sahib, supposed to have died of jungle 
 fever in Aug. 1858 ; is said to be living in 
 Tibet Dec. 
 
 Mutiny of 5th European regiment at Dinapore, 
 suppressed ; breaks out again, Oct. 5 ; is again 
 suppressed, one man is shot, and the regiment 
 disbanded Nov. 13, 
 
 British troops repulsed at Sikkim . Nov. 
 
 Agitation against the income tax suppressed at 
 Bombay and other places . . . Dec. 
 
 Great excitement against sir Charles Wood's 
 grant of 520,000^. to the descendants of Tippoo 
 Saib about Dec. 22, 
 
 Mr. Samuel Laing, successor to Mr. James 
 Wilson, arrives .... Jan. 10, 
 
 Awful famine in N. W. provinces through 
 failure of the crops : immense exertions of 
 the government and others to relieve the 
 sufferers Jan. — June, 
 
 Expedition marches against Sikkim : natives 
 retire Feb. 
 
 Disturbances in the indigo districts continue, 
 
 March, 
 
 Kootoob-ood-deen, grandson of Tippoo Saib, 
 murdered by his servants . March 31, 
 
 British subscriptions for relief of the famine 
 commence at the Mansion-house, London, 
 with 4000J., March 28; 52,000!. subscribed 
 April 20; closes with 114,807/. . . Nov. 
 
 Order»of the "Star of India" {which see) con- 
 stituted June 25, 
 
 Excitement thi'ough the printing and circula- 
 tion of "Nil Darpan," a Hindu drama libelling 
 the indigo planters .... June 
 
 1859 
 
 The rev. James Long, the translator, sentenced 
 to fine and imprisonment . . . Aug. 
 
 New Indian council and new high court of judi- 
 cature established .... Aug. 
 
 Mr. J. P. Giant, lieut. -governor of Bengal (who 
 had authorised the translation of "Nil Dar- 
 pan ") and Mr. Seton Kerr, his secretary (who 
 had, withoutauthority, distributed copies) are 
 censured and resign .... Sept. 
 
 Law of property in India altered ; sale of waste 
 lands authorised Oct. 
 
 Lords Harris and Clyde, sir J. Lavprence, 
 Dhuleep Singh, and others invested with the 
 insignia of the Star of India by the queen, 
 
 Nov. I, 
 
 Reported prosperity of Indian finances : licence 
 ta!c not to be reimposed . . . Dec. 31, 
 
 First meeting of the new legislative council 
 of India, includes several Indian princes, 
 
 Jan. 18, 
 
 Lord Elgin, the new governor-general, arrives 
 at Calcutta March 12, 
 
 Lord Canning arrives at Southampton, April 26 ; 
 dies June 17, 
 
 Mr. S. Laing returns to England through ill 
 health ; censured by sir C. Wood ; he justifies 
 himself and resigns .... July, 
 
 High court of judicature at Bengal inaugurated 
 
 July 12, 
 
 Reported suspension of the sale of waste lands, 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Rao Sahib hanged for murders during the revolt 
 
 Sept. 8, 
 
 Great increase la the cultivation of cotton in 
 India, reported Oct. 
 
 Sir Charles Trevelyan, new finance minister, 
 arrives Jan. 8, 
 
 First agricultural exhibition at Calcutta, 
 Jan. 19-30, 
 
 Rise of Ram Singh, a fanatic, inN. W. provinces, 
 
 Oct. 
 
 War with warlike hill-tribes on the N. W. fron- 
 tiers, Oct. ; severe conflict. Gen. Chamber- 
 lain wounded, Nov. 20 ; war ended, Dec. 29, 
 
 The Hindu religion deprived of government 
 support Dec. 
 
 Death of Lord Elgin, Nov. 20 ; sir John Law- 
 rence appointed his successor . . Dec. 
 
 He assumes office .... Jan. 12, 
 
 Excitement amongst the Hindoos on account 
 of government suppressing funeral rites on 
 sanitary grounds .... March, 
 
 Prosperous financial statement of sir Charles 
 Trevelyan April, 
 
 Mr. Ashley Eden, envoy at Bhootan, seized and 
 
 compelled to sign a treaty giving up Assam, 
 
 about April, 
 
 Gold currency (sovereign=io rupees) ordered 
 to be introduced at Christmas . . July, 
 
 Terrific Cyclone — immense loss of life, property, 
 and ships at Calcutta and elsewhere, Oct. s. 
 
 Grand durbar, held by sir John Lawrence, at 
 Lahoi'e; attendance of 604 native princes, 
 
 Oct. 18, 
 
 War with the Bhootanese — ^fortress of Dhahm- 
 cote taken ..... Dec. 12, 
 
 Much commercial speculation at Bombay, Dec. 
 
 The Bhootanese attack on Dewangiri repulsed 
 with severe loss .... Jan. 29, 
 
 Opening of the Indo-European telegraph — a 
 telegram from Kurrachee received, March i, 
 
 W. Massey succeeds sir C. Trevelyan as finance 
 minister; he arrives at Calcutta, March 31, 
 
 Sir Charles Trevelyan declares a large deficit in 
 the revenue April i, 
 
 Dewangiri (which had been abandoned) recap- 
 tured by gen. Tombs . . . April 2, 
 
 Sir Hugh Rose retires from command of the 
 army ; which is assumed by sir Wm. Mans- 
 field April 23, 
 
 [862 
 
 1863 
 
IND 
 
 390 
 
 ]ND 
 
 INDIA, continued. 
 
 Sir Charles Trevelyan's plans reversed by sir C. 
 
 Wood May, 1865 
 
 Death of the able and beneficent hon. Juggonath 
 
 Sunkersett, the recognised representative of 
 
 the Hindoo community . . . July 31, ,, 
 Negotiation v^ith the Bhootanese . . July, ,, 
 Shipwreck of the Eagle Speed near Calcutta ; 
 
 265 coolies perish through cruel neglect, 
 
 Aug. 24, ,, 
 Peace with the Bhootanese signed {teUgram) 
 
 Nov. 13, „ 
 
 GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA, fiC* 
 
 "Wan-en Hastings assumes the government in 
 
 India April 13, 1772 
 
 Sir John Macpherson . . . Feb. i, 1785 
 
 Lord Cornwallis .... Sept. 12, 1786 
 Sir John Shore (afterwards lord Teignmouth) 
 
 Oct. 28, 1793 
 Lord (afterwards marquess) Cornwallis again : 
 
 he relinquished the appointment. 
 Sir Alured Clarke .... April 6, 1798 
 Lord Mornington (afterwards marquess 
 
 Wellesley) May 17, „ 
 
 Marquess Cornwallis again . . July 30, 1805 
 Sir George Hilaro Barlow . . . Oct. 10, ,, 
 Lord Minto' July 31, 1807 
 
 Earl of Moira, afterwards marquess of Hastings, 
 
 Oct. 4, 
 Hon. John Adam .... Jan. 13, 
 Rt. hon. George Canning, relinquished the 
 
 appointment 
 William, lord (afterwards earl) Amherst, Aug. i, 
 Hon. W. Butterworth Bay ley . March 13, 
 Lord Wm. Cavendish Bentinck . July 4, 
 
 [This nobleman became the first governor- 
 general of India, under the act 3 <fc 4 Will. 
 IV. c. 85 : Aug, 28, 1833.] 
 Sir Charles Theophilus Metcalfe (afterwards lord 
 
 Metcalfe) March :.o, 
 
 William, lord Hoytesbury. Did not proceed. 
 George, lord Auckland (afterwards earl of 
 
 Auckland) March 4, 
 
 Edward, lord Ellonborough . . Feb. 28, 
 William Wilberforce Bird . . . Jime 15, 
 Sir Henry (afterwards viscount) Hardinge, 
 
 July 23, 
 James-Andrew, earl (afterwards marquess) of 
 
 Dalhousie Jan. 12, 
 
 Charles John, viscount Caiming, appointed 
 
 July, 1855. (Proclaimed Ihe first viceroy 
 
 throughout India, Nov. i, 1808.) 
 James, earl of Elgin, appointed, Aug. i86i ; died 
 
 Nov. 20, 
 Sir John Lavrrence appointed . . Dec. 
 
 1813 
 1823 
 
 1836 
 1842 
 1844 
 
 1848 
 
 1863 
 
 INDIA COMPANY. The first commercial intercourse of the English with the East 
 Indies, was a private adventure of tliree ships fitted out in 1591. Only one of them reached 
 India ; and, after a voyage of three years, the commander, captain Lancaster, was brought 
 home in another ship, the sailors having seized on his own ; but his information gave rise to 
 a mercantile voyage and the companj^'s first charter, in Dec. 1600, which was renewed in 
 1609, 1657, 1661, 1693, ^"d 1744. Its stock in 1600 consisted of 72,000/., when it fitted 
 out four ships ; meeting with success, it continued to trade. India stock sold at 500Z. for a 
 share of 100^. in 1683. 
 
 '744 
 
 1772 
 
 A new company (the " English ") was chartered 
 in 1698, and the old (the " London ") suspended 
 from trading for three years ; the two were 
 united in 1702 
 
 Privileges of the company continued till 1783 . 
 
 Affair.s of the company were brought before 
 parliament, and a committee exposed a series 
 of intrigues and crimes . . . Aug. 
 
 As remedial measures, two acts passed (one 
 authorised a loan of i.ooo.oooi. to the com- 
 pany ; the other (celebrated as the India bill) 
 effected most important changes in the con- 
 stitution of the company and its relations to 
 India. A governor-general was appointed to 
 reside in Bengal, to which the other presi- 
 dencies were now made subordinate ; a su- 
 preme court of judicature was instituted at 
 Calcutta: the salary of the governor was 
 fixed at 25,000?. per year ; that of the council 
 at lo.oooi. each ; and of the chief judge at 
 8000'. : the affairs of the company were°con- 
 trolled ; all the departments were re-organ- 
 ised, and all the territorial correspondence 
 was henceforth to be laid before the British 
 ministry) June, 1773 
 
 Mr. Pitt's bill appointing the Board of Control 
 (wk^ch nee), pas.sed . . . May 18, 1784 
 
 The compmy's charter was renewed for 20 years 
 in 1 793 ; and in (the trade with India thrown 
 open; 1813 
 
 The trade to China opened and the Charter re- 
 newed till 1854 1833 
 
 The government of India was continued in the 
 hands of the company till parliament should 
 otherwi-^e provide 1853 
 
 In consequence of the mutiny of 1857, and the 
 disappearance of the company's army, the 
 government of India was transferred to the 
 crown, the Board of Control was abolished, 
 and a Council of State for India instituted by 
 the act 21 &, 22 Vict. c. 106, which received 
 the roj-*il assent .... Aug. 2,t 1858 
 
 The company's political power ceased on Sept. 
 I : and the queen was proclaimed as Queen 
 of Great Britain and the Colonies, &c., in the 
 principal places in India, amid much enthu- 
 siasm Nov. I, 1858 
 
 The East India-Hod.se built 1726 ; enlarged 
 and n, new front erected, 1799 ; sold with the 
 furniture, 1861 ; pulled down in Sejit. and 
 Oct 1862 
 
 INDIA, Council of, established in 1858 in the place of the board of control (ivhicJi see). 
 It consists of 15 members (salary i20dZ. a-year), eiglit of whom are appointed by the queen, 
 
 * Several of these appointments are those of governors-general provisionally, having been first in rank 
 in the council, and holding office on the resignation of the g ^v j,-iiors-general. or pending their arrival and 
 assumption of the government : as, for instance, sir Alured Cla.ke, sir George Hilaro Barlow, hon. William 
 Butterworth Bayley, William Wilberforce Bird, &c. The aupo'n'.uents of governors-general were, of course, 
 of earlier date than their assumption of oflice. 
 
 t Lord Palmerston brought in a bill for the purpose on Fe . 12, which was accepted by the honee on 
 Feb. 18. He resigned on the following day, and the bill droppj I. A similar bill was introduced by Mr. 
 Disraeli on March 12 ; bnt many of its details being objected to, it was withdrawn. On lord John Russell's 
 proposition, the house proceeded to consider the matter by wciy of resolutions : on Juno 17, lord Stanley 
 brought in the above mentioned bill, being the third on the su'-ject introduced during the session. 
 
IND 391 INF 
 
 and seven elected by the directors of the East India company. The members may not sit 
 in parliament. The council met first on Sept. 3, 1858, when lord Stanley, secretary of state 
 for India, presided. In June, 1859, he resigned, and was succeeded by sir Charles Wood, 
 The members of the fii'st council are here recorded : — 
 
 ELECTED. 
 
 Charles Mills. 
 John Shepherd. 
 Sir J. Weir Hogg. 
 Elliot Macnaghten. 
 EossD. Mangles. 
 
 William J. Eastwick. 
 Henry T. Prinsep. 
 
 APPOIJfTED. 
 
 Sir Frederick Currie. 
 Sir Henry RawUnson. 
 
 Sir R. Hussey Vivian. 
 J. Pollard Willoughby. 
 Sir John Lawrence. 
 Sir Henry Montgomery. 
 Sir Proby Cautley, and 
 Wm. Arbuthnot. 
 
 INDIAN MUSEUM, The, was proposed by sir C. "Wilkins and approved by the East 
 India company in 1798. Tlie valuable collections were removed from Leadenhall-street to 
 Eife House, behind the chapel royal, Whitehall, and opened July 24, 1861. 
 
 INDIANA, a western state of North America, was settled in 1730, and admitted into 
 the Union Dec. 11, 1816. 
 
 INDIANS occupying the south-western parts of the United States, in direct connexion 
 with the government in 1861, were numbered at 239,506. The larger tribes are the 
 Cherokees (22,000), the Chocktaws (18,000), the Creeks (13,550), and the Chickasaws (5000), 
 A large proportion are in comfortable circumstances, and have schools and churches ; other 
 tribes are the Dela wares. Sacs, Foxes, Shawnees, Sioux, and loways. With regard to the 
 North American civil war in 1861, the Choctaws joined the Confederates, who permitted two 
 Choctaw delegates to sit in congress ; the first being Sampson Folsom and Eastman Loman ; 
 but the principal chief of the Cherokees, on May 4, i86i, issued a proclamation of neutrality, 
 which was maintained with great difiiculty. 
 
 INDIA RUBBER. See Caoutchouc. 
 
 INDICTION, a cycle of tributes orderly disposed for fifteen years, not known before 
 the time of Constantine. The first examples in the Theodosian code are of the reign of 
 Constantius, who died 361. — In memory of the great victory obtained by Constantine over 
 Mezentius, 8 Cal. Oct. 312, the council of Nice ordained that the accounts of years should 
 ■foe no longer kept bjj'the Olympiads, but by the Indiction, which has its epocha 313, Jan. I. 
 It was first used by the Latin church in 342. 
 
 INDIGO. Its real nature was so little known in Europe, that it was classed among 
 minerals, as appears by letters -patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the 
 principality of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23, 1705 ; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny called 
 indicum is supposed to have been our indigo. . Beckmann. The first mention of indigo 
 occurs in English, statutes in 1581. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina in 1747. The 
 quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840 was 5,831,269 lbs. ; in 1845, io,i27,488Ibs. ; 
 in 1850, 70,482 cwt. ; in 1859, 63,237 cwt. ; in 1861, 83,109 cwt. ; in 1864, 76,214 cwt. 
 The use of coal-tar dyes will no doubt lessen the consumption of indigo. See Aniline. 
 
 INDIUM, a metal discovered in the arsenical pyrites of Freiberg by F. Reich and 
 T. Richter in 1863. Its name is due to its giving an indigo blue ray in its spectrum. 
 
 INDUCTION of Electric ciirrents, discovered by Faraday, and announced in his 
 *' Experimental Researches," published in 1831-2. Ruhmkorfi"'s magneto-electric induction 
 coil was constructed in 1850. 
 
 INDULGENCES for the pardon of sin, commenced by Leo III. about 800, were granted 
 in the nth century by Gregory VII., and by Urban 11, , and others, in the 12th century as 
 rewards to the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope who made public sale of indul- 
 gences, 1313. In 1517, Leo X. published general indulgences throughout Europe, and the 
 resistance to them led to the Reformation. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS ACT, 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48 (1857) was enacted to make better 
 provision for the care and education of vagrant, destitute, and disorderly children. Another 
 act was passed, 1861. Forty-seven of these schools had been certified under these acts, up 
 to Sept. 29, 1864. 
 
 INFANTICIDE, Female, was very prevalent in barbarous countries. Lord Macartney 
 stated that 20,000 infants were killed annually ; it is now gradually decreasing in India. 
 On Nov. 12, 185 1, Mr. Raikes induced the Chohan chiefs to agree to resolutions against it, 
 and a great meeting in the Punjab was held for the same purpose, Nov. 14, 1853. 
 
 INFANTRY, the modern term for foot soldiers, much 'improved during the wars of 
 
INF 392 INO 
 
 Charles V. and Francis I. in the i6th century. The British army comprised. 99 regiments 
 of regular infantry in 1858, when the Canadians raised a regiment which is termed the 
 looth. The number, now 109, includes the Indian army. 
 
 INFANT SCHOOLS begi.n in Loudon in 1818. 
 
 INFERNAL MACHINE. See France., 1800— 1835 ; and Baltic, note. 
 
 INFIEMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Diseased 
 persons were carried to the temple of ^sculapius for cure, as Christians were taken to 
 churches. Institutions for the accommodation of travellers, the. indigent, and sick, and the 
 first infirmaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monasteries. Tlie emperor 
 Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to be visited, 855. In Jerusalem the 
 knights and brothers attended on the sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Con- 
 stantinople, in the i ith century. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established 
 in infirmaries occiu's in 1437. Bcckmann. See Hospitals. 
 
 INFUSORIA. See Animalcules. 
 
 INGOUR, a river rising in the Caucasus and falling into the Black Sea. Omer Pasha, 
 marching to the relief of Kars, crossed this river on Nov. 6, 1855, with 10,000 men, and 
 attacked the Russians 12,000 strong, who, after a struggle, retreated with the loss of 400 
 men. The Turks had 68 killed and 242 wounded. Kars, however, Avas not saved. 
 
 INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory black, and Vitravius and 
 Pliny mention lamp-black ; but they had ink of various colours, as red, gold, silver, and 
 purple. Red ink was made of vermilion and gum. Indian ink was brought from China, 
 and must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages, most of the 
 artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity. It is usually brought to Europe 
 in small quadrangular cakes, and is composed of a fine black and animal glue. Beckmann. 
 Invisible OR Sympathetic inks, fluids which, when written with, will remain invisible until 
 after a certain operation, were known at early periods. Ovid (a. P. 2) teaches j'oung women 
 to deceive their guardians by writing to their lovers with new milk, and afterwards making 
 the writing legible with ashes or soot. Receipts for preparing invisible ink were given by 
 Peter Borel, in 1653, and by Le Mort, in 1669. Beckmann. 
 
 INKERMANN (Crimea). The Russian arm}' (about 40,000) having received reinforce- 
 ments, and being encouraged by the presence^ of the gi-anddukes Michael and Nicholas, 
 attacked the British (8000) near the old fort of Inkermann, before daybreak, Nov. 5, 1854. 
 The latter kept their ojipouents at bay for six hours till the arrival of 6000 French. The 
 Russians were then driven back, leaving behind 9000 killed and wounded. The loss of 
 the allies was 462 killed, 1952 wounded, and 191 missing. Sir George Cathcart, and 
 generals Strangways, Goldie and Torrens, were among the slain. On Nov. 15, 1855, au 
 explosion of about 100,000 lbs. of gunpowder occurred near Inkermann, and caused great 
 loss of life. 
 
 INLAND REVENUE OFFICE was constituted in Feb. 1849. It comprises the excise, 
 stamps, and taxes. 
 
 INNS OF COURT, London, were established at different periods, in some degree as 
 colleges for teaching the law. The Temple was founded, and the church built by the Knights 
 Templars, 32 Hen. II. 11 85. The Inner and Middle Temple were made inns of law in the 
 reign of Edw. III. about 1340; the Outer not until the reign of Elizabeth, about 1560. 
 Stow's Survey. The following inns were founded, viz. ; — 
 
 Barnard's Inn, an inn of Chancery . . . 1445 1 Lyon's Inn 1420 
 
 Clement's Inn, 18 Edw. IV 1478 New Inn, i Hen VII 1485 
 
 Clifford's Inn, 20 Edw. III. .... 1345 Serjeants' Inn, Fleet street .... 1429 
 
 Fumival's Inn, 5 Eliz 1563 Serje.ants' Inn, Chancery -lane . . . . 1666 
 
 Gray's Inn, 32 Edw. III. ..... 1357 ' Staples Inn, 4 Hen. V. ..... 1415 
 
 Lincoln's Inn, 4 Edw. II. ... 1310 or 1312 I Thavies' Inn, 10 Hen. VIII 1519 
 
 INOCULATION. See Small Pox. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inocu- 
 lation from small pox to England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at 
 Adrianople, with perfect success ; and she was allowed to have it tried, for the first time in 
 England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 Geo. I. 1721. In 1722 two of the royal family 
 were inoculated. The practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other 
 clergy, from that period until 1760. Dr. Mead practised inoculation veiy successfully up to 
 1754, and Dr. Dimsdale, of London, inoculated Catherine II., empress of Russia, in 1768. 
 Of 5964 who were inoculated in 1797-99, ''"^y three died. Inoculation was forbidden by 
 
INQ 
 
 393 
 
 INS 
 
 law in 1840. Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr. Jenner, Jan. 21, 1799 ; he had 
 discovered its virtue in 1796, and had been making experiments during the intermediate 
 three years. An hospital for inoculation was erected in 1746. See Sheep. 
 
 INQUISITION, OR Holy Office. Previous to Constantiue (306), heresy and spiritual 
 offences were punished by excommunication only ; Imt shortly after his deatli capital 
 liunishments were added, and inquisitors were appointed by Theodosius, 382. Priscillian 
 was put to death about 385. Justinian decreed the doctrine of the four holy synods as to 
 the holy scriptures and their canons to be observed as laws, 529 ; hence the penal code 
 against heretics. About 800 the power of the western bishops was enlarged, and com'ts 
 were established for trying and punishing spiritual offenders, even with death. In the 12th 
 centuiy many heresies arose, and during the crusades against the Albigenses, Gregory IX. in 
 1233 established by rales tlie inquisitorial missions sent out by Innocent III. some years 
 previously, and committed them into the hands of the Dominicans. Pietro da Verona, the 
 first inquisitor who burnt heretics, was assassinated by an accused gonfalonier, April 6, 1252, 
 and was afterwards canonized. 
 
 The Holy Ofl5ce was reinstituted in Spain by 
 Ferdinand and Isabella 1480 
 
 Nearly 3000 persons burnt in Andalusia, and 
 17,000 suffer other penalties . . . . 1481 
 
 " Instructions " of the new tribunal promulgated 
 
 Nov. 29, 1484 
 
 New articles were added . . . 148S & 1498 
 
 The establishment of the Inquisition was re- 
 sisted in Naples, and only introduced into 
 other parts of Italy with jealous limitations 
 by the temporal power . . . . 1546-7 
 
 New ordinances in 81 articles compiled by the 
 inquisitor-general, Valdez 
 
 Carnesecchi executed at Rome, 1567, and GaUleo 
 compelled to abjure his opinions . . . 
 
 The tribunal abolished in Tuscany and Lom- 
 bardy 
 
 61 
 
 1634 
 
 1787 
 
 INQUESTS. See Coroner. 
 
 Never firmly established in France ; totally 
 abolished by Henry IV. by the edict of Nantes, 
 :[598. Louis XIV. revoked the edict, but re- 
 fused to introduce the Inquisition, 1685. Sup- 
 pressed in Spain by Napoleon, Dec. 4, 1808, 
 and by the Cortes . . . Feb. 12, 1813 
 
 Restored by Ferdinand VII. . . July 21, 1814 
 Finally abohshed by the Cortes . . . . 1820 
 
 [Llorente states that in 236 years the total 
 amount in Spain of persons put to death by 
 the Inquisition was about 32,000 ; 291,000 
 were subjected to other punishments. The 
 last person burnt was at Seville, Nov. 7, 1781, 
 being a woman accused of making a contract 
 with the devil.] 
 
 INSANITY, See Lunatics. 
 
 INSOLVENCY. The first insolvent act was passed in 1649, but it was of limited 
 operation ; a number of acts of more extensive operation were passed at various periods, and 
 particularly in the reign of George 111. The benefit of the act known as the Great . 
 Insolvent Act, was taken in England by 50, 733 insolvents from the time of its passing in 
 1814, to March, 1827, a period of thirteen years. Since then the acts relating to insolvency 
 have been several times amended. Persons not traders, or being traders whose debts are 
 less than 300?., might petition the court of bankruptcy, and propose compositions^, and have 
 pro tcm. pjrotection from all process against their persons and property, by 6 Vict. c. 116 
 (1842). In 1861, by the New Bankruptcy Act, the business of the Insolvent Debtors' 
 court was transferred to the court of baiikruptcy ; and a number of imprisoned debtors 
 were released in Nov. 1^61. 
 
 INSTITUTE OF France. On Oct. 25, 1795, all the Royal Academies, viz., the French 
 academy, the academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, that of the Mathematical and 
 Physical Sciences, of the Fine Arts, and of the Moral and Political Sciences, were combined 
 in one body, under the title of " Institut National," afterwards Royal, and now Imperial. 
 
 INSTITUTES. See Code. 
 
 INSTITUTION. See Royal, London, and Civil Engineers. 
 
 INSURANCE ON Ships anb Merchandise. Suetonius conjectutes that Claudius was 
 the first contriver of the insurance of shij)s, 43. 
 
 Insurance was in general use in Italy, 1194, 
 
 and in England 1560 
 
 Insurance policies first vised in Florence . . 1523 
 The first law relating to insurance was enacted 1601 
 Insurance of houses and goods against Fibe, in 
 London, began the year following tho Great 
 
 Fire of London 1667 
 
 An office was set up for insuring houses and 
 buildings, principally contrivedby Dr. Barton, 
 one of the first and most considerable builders 
 of the city of London ,. 
 
 The first regrdar office set up in London was the 
 Hcnd-in-Hand . . . ■ \ ; , • ^^^ 
 
 First Life Insurance office (the Amicable), estab- 
 lished ^^°^ 
 
 Sun fire-office estabhshed . •,,■■„• ; ^7i° 
 
 The first Marine insurance was the Royal 
 Exchange Insurance, and the London In- 
 
 . 1720 
 surance • j 
 
 Duty first laid on insurances of is. bd. per 100!. 
 insured, 1782 ; duty increased • • • • ^^797 
 
 In 1857, 1,451, 1 loJ. were paid as duty for fare 
 
INS 
 
 391 
 
 INU 
 
 mSURANCE, continued. 
 
 insurances on property, amounting to 
 
 72,i36,585i. 
 There were 33 London fire insurance offices; 
 
 25 country offices ; 7 Scotcli, and 2 Irish . . 1859 
 
 165 such offices in London 
 
 A new Commercial Union fire insurance, 
 
 founded in consequence of the increased 
 charges of the companies . . . Sept. 1861 
 Rate of tax on insiirance, reduced from 3s. to 
 IS. 6d. per cent, on stock in trade, from May 
 13, 1864; on household goods . . . . 1865 
 
 1782 
 i8o2 
 
 , £130,000,000 I 1822 
 220,000,000 1 1842 
 
 AMOUNT INSURED. 
 
 . . £399,000,000 I 1862 
 . 652,000,000 I 
 
 £1,007,000,000 
 
 INSURRECTIONS. See Co^isjyiracies, Massacres, Rebelliov^, Riots, &c. 
 
 INTENDMENT of Crime.s. In cases of treason, wounding, burglary, &c., where 
 intention proved, was made as punishable as crime completed, by 7 Geo. II., 1734. The 
 ri<^our of this act was modified by sir Robert Peel's revision of the statutes 4 — 10 Geo. IV. 
 1823—29. 
 
 INTERDICT, OR Ecclesiastical Cex.suke, seldom decreed in Europe till the time 
 of Gregory VII., 1073, but often afterwards. When a prince was excommunicated, all his 
 subjects retaining their allegiance were excommunicated also, and the clergy were forbidden 
 to perform any part of divine service, or any clerical duties, save the baptism of infants, 
 and taking the confessions of dying penitents. In 1170, pope Alexander put all England 
 under an interdict ; and when king John was excommunicated in 1208, the kingdom lay 
 under a papal interdict for six years. England was put under an interdict, on Henry VIII. 
 shaking off the pope's supremacy, 1535 ; and pope Sixtus V. published a crusade against 
 queen Elizabeth of England in 1588. See Ex-communication. 
 
 INTEREST. The word was first used in an act of parliament of the 21st James I. 1623, 
 wherein it was made to signify a lawful increase by way of compensation for the use of money 
 lent. The rate fixed by the act was 8Z. for the use of lOoZ. for a year ; in place of usury at 
 lol. before taken. Tlie Commonwealth lowered the rate to 61., in 1650 ; and by an act of 
 tlie 13th of queen Anne, 17 13, it was reduced to $1. The restraint being found prejudicial 
 to commerce, it was totally removed by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 90 (1854). . 
 
 INTERIM OF Augsburg, a decree issued by the emperor Charles V. in 1548, with the 
 view of attempting to reconcile the Catholics and Protestants, in which it entirely failed. 
 • It was revoked in 1552. The term Interim has been applied to other decrees and treaties. 
 
 INTERNATIONAL. See Copyright and Exhibition. 
 
 INUNDATIONS. The following are among the most remarkable : — 
 
 An inundation of the sea in Lincolnshire'laid under 
 water many thousand acres, a. d. 245. Camden. 
 
 Another in Cheshire, by which 5000 persons and an 
 innumerable quantity of cattle perished, 353. 
 
 An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned more 
 than 400 families, 758. Fordun. 
 
 The Tweed overflowed its banks, and laid waste the 
 country for 30 miles round, 836. 
 
 An inundation on the English coasts, demolished a 
 number of sea-port towns, 1014. 
 
 Earl Godwin's lands, exceeding 4000 acres, overflowed 
 by the sea, and an immense sand-bank formed on 
 the coast of Kent, now known by the name of the 
 Godwin sands, iioo. Camden. 
 
 Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town and 
 harbour of Ostend totally immersed, 1108. 
 
 More than 300 houses overwhelmed at Winchelsea 
 by an inundation of the sea, 1280. 
 
 At the Texel, which first raised the commerce of 
 Amsterdam, 1400. 
 
 The sea broke in at Bort, and drowned 72 villages, 
 and 100,000 people (see Do7-t), April 17, 1446. 
 
 The Severn overflowed during ten days, and can-ied 
 away men, women, and children, in their beds, 
 and covered the tops of many mountains ; the 
 waters settled upon the lands, and were called the 
 Great Waters for 100 years after, i Richard III. 
 1483. HoUinshed. Again 4 James I. 1607, the 
 waters rose above the tops of the houses, and 
 above 100 persons perished in Somersetshire and 
 Gloucestershire. Burns. 
 
 A general inundation by the failure of the dikes in 
 
 Holland, 1530 ; the number of drowned said to 
 
 have been 400,000. 
 At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perished, 1617. 
 An inundation in Yorkshire, when a rock opened, 
 
 and poured out water to the height of a church 
 
 steeple, 1686. Vide Phil. Tram. 
 Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants were 
 
 drowned, and incredible damage was done at 
 
 Hamburg, 1717. 
 At Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility and other 
 
 persons of distinction perished, 1723. Du Fresnoy. 
 In Yorkshire, a dreadful inundation, called Ripon 
 
 Flood, 1771. 
 In Navarre, where 2000 per-sons lost their lives by 
 
 the torrents from the mountains, Sept. 1787. 
 Inundation of the Liffey, which did immense 
 
 damage in Dublin, Nov. 12, 1787. Again, Dec. 2 
 
 and 3, 1802. 
 Lorca, a city of Jfercia, in Spain, destroyed by the 
 
 bursting of a reservoir, which inundated more 
 
 than 20 leagues, and killed 1000 persons, besides 
 
 cattle, Ax)ril 14, 1802. 
 At Pesth, near Presburg, the overflow of the 
 
 Danube, by which 24 villages and their inhabitants 
 
 were swept away, April, 18 n. 
 In the vicinity of Salop, by the bursting of a cloud 
 
 during a storm, many persons and much stock 
 
 perished, M.iy, i8ii. 
 Dreadful inundation in Hungary, Austria, and 
 
 Poland, in the summer of 1813. 
 
INU 
 
 395 
 
 INV 
 
 INUjSTDATIONS, continued. 
 
 Overflow of the Danube ; a Turkish corps of 2000 
 men, on a small island near Widdin, surprised, 
 and met instant death, Sept. 14, 1813. 
 
 In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the ruin 
 of the French army under Macdonald was accele- 
 rated by the floods ; tilso in Poland 4000 lives were 
 supposed to have been lost, same year. 
 
 At Strabane, Ireland, by the melting of the snow 
 on the siirrounding mountains, most destructive 
 floods were occasioned, Jan. 2, 1816. 
 
 In Germany, the Vistula overflowed ; many villages 
 were laid under water, and great loss of life and 
 property was sustained, March 21, 1816. 
 
 In England 5000 acres were deluged in the Fen 
 countries, in June, 1819. 
 
 Inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by the Vistula 
 breaking througii some of its dikes, by which 
 10,000 head of cattle and 400a houses were de- 
 stroyed, and numerous lives lost, April 9, 1829. 
 
 The "Moray Floods," Aug. 9, 1829, when the Spey 
 and Findhorn rose in some places 50 feet above 
 their ordinary level, and caused great destruction 
 of property. Many lives were lost, and whole 
 families who took refuge on elevated places were 
 with diflSculty rescued. Sir T. D. Zander. 
 
 At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its inhabitants 
 laid under water, Feb. 1830. 
 
 10,000 houses swept away, and about 1000 persons 
 perished, at Canton, in China, in consequence of 
 an inundation, occasioned by incessant rains. 
 Equal or greater calamity was produced by the 
 same cause in other ports of China, Oct. 1833. 
 
 Awful inundation in France : the Saone poured its 
 waters into the Rhone, broke through its banks. 
 
 and covered 60,000 acres ; Lyons was inundated : 
 in Avignon 100 houses were swept away ; 218 
 houses were carried away at La Guillotiferc ; and 
 upwards of > 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Nismes ; 
 the Saone had not attained such a height for 238 
 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4, 1840. 
 
 Lamentable inundation at Brentford and the sur- 
 rounding country ; several lives lost, and immense 
 property destroyed, Jan. 16, 1841. 
 
 Disastrous, inundation in the centre, west, and 
 south-west of Prance ; numerous bridges, with 
 the Orleans and Vierzon viaduct, swept away ; the 
 latter had cost 6,000,000 of francs. The damage 
 done exceeded 4,000,000^. sterling. The Loire rose 
 twenty feet in one night, Oct. 22, 1846. 
 
 Lamentable catastrophe at Holmfirth. See Hohnfirth 
 Flood, Feb. 4, 1852. 
 
 Inundation of the valleys of the Severn and Teme 
 after a violent thunderstorm, Sept. s, 1852. 
 
 Inundations of the basins of the Bhine and the 
 Bhone, overflowing the country to a great extent, 
 Sept. 19, 1852. 
 
 Hamburg half-flooded by the Elbe, Jan. i, 1855. 
 
 Inundations in south of France, with immense 
 damage (see France), May and June, 1856. 
 
 In Holland, nearly 40,000 acres submerged, Jan. 
 1861. 
 
 Great inundation through the bursting of the out- 
 fall sluice at St. Germain's, near King's Lynn (see 
 Levels), May 4-15, 1S62. 
 
 Another marshland sluice bursts ; many acres inun- 
 dated, Oct. 4, 1862. 
 
 Bursting of the Bradfield reservoir (see Sheffield) ; 
 about 250 persons drowned, March 11, 1864. 
 
 INVALIDES. The Hotel des Invalid.es was founded in 1671 by Louis XIV. Its chapel 
 contains the body of Napoleon I., deposited there Dec. 15, 1840. 
 
 INVASIONS OF THE British Islands. See Britain and Danes. From the death of 
 Edward the Confessor, only the following invasions (marked s) have been successful : — 
 
 Duke of Lancaster (s.) . 
 
 • 1399 
 
 Ireland, Spaniards . 
 
 1601 
 
 The French 
 
 . . 1416 
 
 Duke of Monmouth 
 
 1685 
 
 Queen of Henry VI. 
 
 . 1462 
 
 WiUiam of Orange (s.) 
 
 . 1688 
 
 Earl of Warwick (s.) . 
 
 . . 1470 
 
 James II., Ireland . 
 
 1689 
 
 Edward IV. (s.) . 
 
 • 1471 
 
 Old Pretender . 
 
 1708 
 
 Queen of Henry VI. . 
 
 • • 1471 
 
 Pretender again . 
 
 1713 
 
 Earl of Richmond (s.) . 
 
 • 1485 
 
 Young Pretender 
 
 174s 
 
 Lambert Simnel 
 
 . . 1487 
 
 Ireland (see Thurot) 
 
 1760 
 
 Perkin Warbeck . 
 
 • 149s 
 
 Wales, the French . 
 
 1797 
 
 Spaniards and Italians, 
 
 Ire- 
 
 Ireland ; the French land a 
 
 : .-^ 
 
 land 
 
 . . 1580 
 
 Killala {which see) 
 
 1798 
 
 Spanish Armada . 
 
 . 1588 
 
 
 
 WiUiara of Normandy (s.) 
 
 Sept. 29, 1066 
 The Irish .... 1069 
 The Scots, 1091 ; king Mal- 
 colm killed . . . . 1093 
 Bobert of Normandy . . iioi 
 
 The Soots 1 136 
 
 The empress Maud . . 1139 
 Ireland, by Fitz-Stephen (s.) 1169 
 Ireland, by Edward Bruce . 1315 
 Isabel, queen of Ed ward 1 1, (s.) 1326 
 
 INVERNESS (N."W. Scotland), a city of the Picts up to 843. It was taken by Edward I. ; 
 retaken by Bruce, 13 13 ; burnt by the lord of the Isles, 1411 ; taken by Cromwell, 1649 ; 
 and by prince Charles Edward in 1746. He was defeated at Culloden, about live miles from 
 Inverness, April, 16, 1746. 
 
 INVESTITURE, of Ecclesiastics, waS a cause of discord between the pope and temporal 
 sovereigns in the middle ages ; and led to actual war between Gregory VII. and the emperor 
 Henry IV. 1075 — 1085. The pope endeavom'ed to deprive the sovereign of the right of 
 nominating bishops and abbots, and of investing them with the cross and ring. Henry V. 
 gave up the right, 11 11. 
 
 INVINCIBLE ARMADA, oe Spanish Akmada. See Armada. 
 
 INVOCATION OF THE Virgin and Saints. The practice of the Romish church of 
 invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the prayers to the Virgin, has been 
 traced to the time of Gregory the Great, 593. Asha. The Eastern church began (in the 5th 
 century) by calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the divine 
 offices ; and the "Western chui'ch frequently canonised persons the wickedness of whose 
 lives gave them no title to any such honour. 
 
lOD 396 IRE 
 
 IODINE (from the Greek iudis, violet-like), was discovered Ly M. De Courtois, a manu- 
 facturer of saltpetre at Paris iu 1812, and investigated by M. Clement, 1813. On the appli- 
 cation of heat it rises in the form of a dense violet-coloured vapour, easily evaporates, and 
 melts at 220 degrees : it changes vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part 
 converts water to a deep yellow colour, and starch into a purple. 
 
 lONA. One of the Hebrides. In 563 St. €olumba and his discijjles founded a monastery 
 here, which flourished till the 8th century, when it was ravaged by the Norsemen. Other 
 religious bodies afterwards were formed, and the isle was long esteemed exceedingly 
 sacred. 
 
 IONIA (in Asia Jliuor). About 1040 B.C. the lones, a Pelasgic race, emigrated from 
 Greece, and settled here and on the adjoining islands. They built Ephesus, Smyrna, and other 
 noble cities. They were conquered by the great Cyrus about 548 B.C. ; revolted in 504, but 
 were again subdued. After tlie victories of Cimon, Ionia became independent and remained 
 so till 387, when it was once more subjected to Persia. It formed part of the dominions of 
 Alexander and his successors ; was annexed to the Roman empire, and conquered by the 
 Turks. — Ionia was renowned for poets, historians, and philosophers. 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece). Corfu, the capital, Cephalonia, Zaute, 
 Ithaca, Santa Maura, Cerigo, and Paxo. They were colonised by the lones, and partook of 
 the fortunes of the Greek people ; were subject to Naples in the 13th century, and in the 
 14th to Venice. Population iu 1862, 234, 123. 
 
 The islands ceded to France by the tre.aty of 
 Campo Formio Oct. 17, 1797 
 
 Formed into the republic of the seven islands 
 under the protection of Russia and Turkey, 
 
 March 21, 1800 
 
 Eestorcd to the French by the treaty of Tilsit, 
 
 July 7, 1807 
 
 Taken by the English . . . Oct. 3-12, 1809 
 
 Formed into an independent state under the 
 protection of Great Britain (sir Thos. Mait-' 
 land, lord high commissioner) . Nov. 5, 1815 
 
 A university established at Corfu . . . . 1823 
 The constitution liberalised during the govern- 
 ment of lord Seaton 1848-9 
 
 In consequence of the discontent and complaints 
 
 of the islanders, Mr. \V. E. Gladstone went 
 
 out on a commission of inquiry, &c., but 
 
 nothing important ensued . . . Nov. 1858 
 
 Sir H. Storks, lord high commissioner, Feb. 2, 1859 
 
 The parliament declare for annexation to Greece, 
 
 March, 1861, and April, 1862 
 The islands annexed to Greece, May 28 ; king 
 
 A constitution ratified . . . July 11, 1817! George I. arrives at Corfu (see ffj'eece). June 6, 1864 
 
 IONIC ORDER OF Architecture, an improvement on the Doric, was invented by 
 the lonians about 1350 B.C. Vitruvius. Its distinguishing characters are the slenderness 
 and flutings of its columns, and the volutes of rams' horns that adorn the capital. 
 
 IONIC Sect of Philosopher.s, founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 B.C., distinguished 
 for its abstruse speculations under his successors and pupils, Anaximander, Anaximenes, 
 Anaxagoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. Thej'' held that water was the origin of 
 all things. 
 
 IOWA, a western state of North America, was organised as a territory, June 12, 1838 ; 
 and admitted into the Union, Dec. 28, 1846. Capital, Des Moines. 
 
 IPSUS (Phrygia\ Battle of, 301 B.C., by which Seleucus was confirmed in his kingdom 
 by the defeat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. The latter led into tlie field an army 
 of about 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The former had 64,000 infautiy, 
 besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Plictarch. 
 
 IPSWICH (Suffolk), the Saxon Gippcswic, was ravaged by the Danes, 991. Wolsey was 
 born here, 147 1 ; founded a school in 1525. The port was greatly improved by the erection 
 of wet docks, 1837-42. The railway to London was opened June 25, 1846. 
 
 IRELAND is said to have been first colonised by Phoenicians. Some assert that the 
 Partholani landed in Ireland about 2048 b. c. ; that the descent of the Damnonii was made 
 about 1463 B.C. ; and that this was followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian 
 princes, from Galicia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171 
 kings. Ireland was not attacked by the Romans or Saxons. The population, by the census 
 of 1861, was 5,764,543. 
 
 Arrival of St. Patrick, about . . . a.d. 432 | [In the twelfth century Ireland is divided into 
 
 Christianity established, about . . . . 448 
 The Danes and Normans, known by the name 
 
 of Easterlings, or Ostmen, invade Ireland . 795 
 
 They build Dublin and other cities, about . 800 
 Brian Boroimhe totally defeats the Dunes at 
 
 Clontarf; and is killed . . . April 23, 1014 
 
 five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, Leinster, Meath, 
 Connaught, and Munster, besides a number 
 of petty principalities, whose sovereigns con- 
 tinually warred with each other.] 
 Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to invade 
 Ireland, on condition that he compelled every 
 
IRE 
 
 397 
 
 IRE 
 
 IRELAND, continued. 
 Irish family to pay a carolus to tlie holy see, 
 and held it as a fief of the Church . . . 1156 
 
 Dermot Mac Murrough, king of Leinster, is 
 driven from his throne for his oppression, 
 and takes refuge in England, where he takes 
 an oath of fidelity to Henry II. who promises 
 to restore him 1168 
 
 Invasion of the English under Pitz-Stephen . 1169 
 
 Landing of Strongbow at "Waterford . . '. 1170 
 
 Henry II. lands near Waterford, and receives 
 the submission of the princes of the country, 
 settles the government, and makes his son 
 John lord of Ireland 1171 
 
 Ireland wholly subdued and English laws and 
 customs introduced by king John . . . 1210 
 
 Invasion of Edward Bruce, 131 5, who is crowned 
 king, 1316, defeated and slain at Foughart, 
 near Dundalk 1318 
 
 Lionel, duke of Clarence, third son of Edward 
 III., marries Elizabeth de Burgh, heiress of 
 Ulster, which had not hitherto submitted to 
 the English authority 1361 
 
 Eichard II. lands at Waterford with a train of 
 nobles, 4000 men at arms, and 30,000 archers, 
 and gains the affection of the people by his 
 munificence, and confers the honour of knight- 
 hood 01a their chiefs 1394 
 
 Eichard again lands in Ireland . . . . 1399 
 
 The sanguinary Head Act passed at Trim,* by 
 the earl of Desmond, depvity .... 1465 
 
 Apparel and surname act (the Irish to di-ess like 
 the English, and to adojDt surnames). . . ,, 
 
 Poynings' law, subjecting the Irish parhament 
 to the English council 1494 
 
 Great rebellion of the Fitzgeralds subdued . . 1534 
 
 Henry VIII. assumes the title of king, instead 
 of lord of Ireland 1542 
 
 The reformed religion embraced by the English 
 settlers in the reign of Edward VI. . . . 1547 
 
 Ireland finally divided into shires . . . 1569 
 
 Printing in Irish characters inti-oduced by N. 
 Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's . . . 1571 
 
 700 Italians, headed by Fitzmaurice, land in 
 Kerry ; they are treacherously butchered by 
 the earl of Ormond 1580 
 
 O'Neal defeats the English at Blackwater 
 
 Aug. 14, 1598 
 
 The insurrection of Tyrone, who invites over 
 the Spaniards, and settles them in Kinsale ; 
 but they are defeated by the lord deputy 
 Mountjoy 1601-2 
 
 In consequence of repeated rebellions and for- 
 feitures, 511,465 acres of land in the province 
 of Ulster became vested in the crown, and 
 James I. after removing the Irish frona their 
 hills and fastnesses, divides the land among 
 such of his English and Scotti.sh protestant 
 subjects as choose to settle there . . 1609-12 
 
 More and Maguire's rebellion ; the catholics 
 enter into a conspiracy to expel the English, 
 and cruelly massacre the protestant settlers 
 in Ulster, to the number of 40,000 persons, 
 commenced on St. Ignatius' day [some doubt 
 the massacre] .... Oct. 23, 1641 
 
 O'Neill defeats the English under Monroe at 
 Benburb June 5, 1646 
 
 Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole island 
 to obedience between . . . 1649 and 1656 
 
 Massacre and capture of Drogheda Sept. 11, 1649 
 
 Landing of James II March 12', 1689 
 
 3000 protestants attainted 
 
 William III. lands at Carrickfergus . June 14, 1690 
 Battle of the Boyne ; James defeated . July i, „ 
 Treaty of Limerick. See Limerick . Oct. 3, 1691 
 Linen manufacture encouraged . . . . 1696 
 Thurot's invasion. See Thurot . . . . 1760 
 Indulgences granted to the catholics . . . 1778 
 Ireland admitted to a free trade . . . 1779 
 Eeleased from submission to an English council 1782 
 The Genevese refugees are received in Ireland, 
 and have an asylum given them in the county ' 
 
 of Waterford 1783 
 
 Order of St. Patrick established . . . . ,, 
 
 Orange clubs, &c., formed 1795 
 
 Memorable Irish rebellion commenced. May 4, 
 1798, and not finally suppressed until the 
 
 next year 1799 
 
 Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 
 ♦ Jan. I, 1801 
 
 Emmet's insurrection . . . July 23, 1803 
 English and Irish exchequers consoUdated, 
 
 Jan. 5, 1817 
 Visit to Ireland of George IV. . . Aug. 1821 
 The currency assimilated . . . Jan. i, 1826 
 Roman cathohc emancipation . . April 13, 1829 
 Customs consolidated .... Jan. 6, 1830 
 Dr. Whately, supporter of the Irish National 
 School system, becomes archbishop of 
 
 Dublin 1831 
 
 Poor laws introduced 1838 
 
 Great Repeal movement ; meeting at Trim. 
 
 (See Repeal) .... March ig, 1843 
 O'Connell's trial. (See Trials) . Jan. 15, 1844 
 Trial of O'Connell and others for political con- 
 spiracy ; found guilty. (See Trials) Feb. 12, ,, 
 Appointment of new commissioners of charit- 
 able bequests (rank of the R. C. bishops 
 
 recognised) Dec. 18, ,, 
 
 Irish National Education Society incorporated, 
 
 Sept. 23, 1845 
 Failure of the potato crop throughout Ireland, ,, 
 Committal of William Smith O'Brien to the 
 custody of the sergeant-at-arms, for contempt 
 in not obeying an order of the house of com- 
 mons to attend a committee . . April 30, 1846 
 William Smith O'Brien and the " Young Ire- 
 land " or physical force party, secede from 
 the Repeal Association . . July 29 „ 
 
 O'Connell's last speech in the commons,' 
 
 Feb. 8. 1847 
 Grants from parliament, amounting to 
 io,ooo,oooi. made to relieve the people suf- 
 fering fi-om famine and disease . . . ,, 
 Death of O'Connell at Genoa, on his way to 
 Rome, in his 73rd year ; he had bequeathed 
 his heart to Rome . . . May 15, ,, 
 Deputation from the Irish people (?) — Smith 
 O'Brien, Meagher, O'Gorman, <fec. — to Lamar- 
 tine and others, members of tlie provisional 
 government at Paris . . . April 3, 1848 
 Great meeting of " Young Irelanders " at 
 Dublin . . . . . . April 4, „ 
 
 Arrest of Mitchell, editor of the United Irishin an. 
 
 May 13, ,, 
 State trials in the Irish queen's bench. 
 
 May 15-27, „ 
 
 * This act ordained, "That it shall be lawful to all manner of men that find any theeves robbing by 
 day or night, or going or coming to rob or steal, or any persons g;oing or coming, having no faithful man of 
 good name and fame in their company in English apparell, that it shall be lawful to take and kill those, 
 and to cut off their heads, without any impeachment of our sovereign lord the king. And of any head so 
 cut off in the county of Meath, that the cutter and his ayders there to him cause the said head so cut off 
 to be brought to the jiortreffe to put it upon a stake or spear, upon the castle of Trim ; and that the said 
 portreffe .shall testify the bringing of the same to him. And that it shall be lawful for the said bringer of 
 the said head to distrain and levy by his own hand (as his reward) of evei-y man having one ploughland in 
 the barony, two-pence ; and of every man having half a ploughland, one peny ; and of every man having 
 one house and goods, value forty shillings, one peny ; and of every other cottier having house and smoak, 
 one half-peny," <Sic. Much slaughter is said to have ensued. 
 
IRE 
 
 398 
 
 IRE 
 
 IRELAND, continued. 
 
 Mitchell found guilty and sentenced to trans- 
 portation for 14 years . . . May 26, 
 Arrest of Gavan Duffy, Martin, Meagher, 
 Doheny, &c., for felonious writings, speeches, 
 
 &c July 8, 
 
 Confederate clubs prohibited . . July 26, 
 The Habeas Corpus act suspended . July 26, 
 Arrest of Smith O'Brien at Tlmrles ; he is con- 
 veyed to Kilmainham gaol, DiibUn Aug. 5, 
 Arrest of Meagher, O'Donoghue, &c. Aug. 12, 
 Martin sentenced to transportation . Aug. 14, 
 Encumbered estates act passed . . Sept. 
 Smith O'Brien, Sleagher, and the other con- 
 federates tried and .sentenced to death, Oct 9, 
 The Irish court of queen's bench gives judg- 
 ment on writs of error sued out by the pri- 
 sonei-s convicted of high treason, and con- 
 firms the judgment of the court below Jan. 16, 
 O'Brien,* Meagher, McManus, and O'Donoghue 
 
 transported July 9, 
 
 Orange and catholic affray at Dolly's Brae ; 
 
 several lives lost .... July 12, 
 
 Her majesty visits Ireland, and holds her court 
 
 at DubUn castle .... Aug. 5, 
 
 First court under the Encumbered estates act 
 
 (which see), held in Dublin . . Oct 24, 
 
 Queen's University in Ireland esablished, 
 
 Aug. 15, 
 Roman catholic university originated, and 
 large .sums subscribed . . . May 5, 
 Deatli of R. Lalor Shell, at Florence . May 25, 
 McManus escapes from transportation, and 
 arrives at San Francisco, in California, June 5, 
 The Irish Tenant League hold a meeting on the 
 site of the battle of the Boyne . June 14, 
 First meeting of the " Catholic Defence Asso- 
 ciation" Oct. 17, 
 
 Meagher escapes from Van Diemen's Land and 
 arrives at New York . . . May 24, 
 Cork National Exhibition . . . Jime 10, 
 Irish Industrial Exhibition set on foot ; Mr. 
 Dargan, a railway contractor, contributes to- 
 wards it 26,6001. .... June 24, 
 " Tenant Right" demonstration at Warrington 
 dispersed by the magistrates . July 3, 
 Fierce religious riots at Belfast . . July 14, 
 Fatal election riot at Six-mile Bridge, July 22, 
 Irish members of parliament found a 
 " Religious Equality Association " . Sept. 10, 
 Cork Industrial Exhibition closed . Sept. 2, 
 Income tax extended to Ireland . May, 
 Dubhn Exhibition opens . . May 12, 
 
 Queen visits Ireland .... Aug 29, 
 Tenant Right League conference. . Oct. 4, 
 Dreadful Railway accident near Dublin Oct. s, 
 Exhibition closed .... Nov. 1, 
 Train wilfully upset after an Orange demon- 
 stration at Londonderry, one person kiUed 
 and many hurt .... Sept. 15, 
 Religious riots at Belfast .... Sept. 
 Progress of cardinal Wiseman in Ireland Sept. 
 A packet from Galway reaches N. America in 
 six days Sept. 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 1857 
 
 Proclamation against secret societies, Nov., 1858 
 Arrests of members of Phoenix Society . Dec. ,, 
 Proposed demonstration of landlords (headed 
 
 by marquess of Downshire) given up, Jan. 27, 1859 
 National Gallery founded . . . Feb. ,, 
 Agitation against the Irish National School 
 
 system Sept. ,, 
 
 Religioiis revival movement in the north, par- 
 ticularly at Belfast Oct. ,, 
 
 Great emigration to America in the spring . i860 
 Many Irishmen enlist in the service of the pope, 
 
 May, June ; many return dissatisfied July, ,, 
 The remainder taken prisoners by the Sar- 
 dinians, are released, and return to Dublin, 
 where they receive an ovation . . Nov. „ 
 Attempted revival of Repeal agitation, Dec. ,, 
 Agrarian outrages ; alderman Sheehy murdered 
 
 Oct. 23, ,, 
 Census taken — population 5,764,543 April 8, 1861 
 Suspension of packet service between Galway 
 and America through the company's breach 
 
 of contract May 23, „ 
 
 Visit of the prince of Wales, June 29 ; and the 
 
 queen and prince consort . . Aug. 24-31, ,, 
 Irish Law Courtcommission appointed, Dec. 13, „ 
 Numerous agrarian miirders ; Gustav Thie- 
 bault, April 28 : Francis Fitzgerald, May 16 ; 
 (and others) ; Michael Hayes shoots Mr. John 
 
 BraddeU July 30, 1862 
 
 The primate, J. G. Beresford, abp. of Armagh, 
 
 dies, aged 89 July 19, ,, 
 
 An Orange demonstration at Belfast leads to 
 
 destructive riots .... Sept. 17, ,, 
 Building for the Catholic University founded, 
 
 July 20, ,, 
 Great agricultural distress ; many murders and 
 
 outrages, end of 1862, beginning of . . . 1863 
 Galway packet service restored by subsidy of 
 
 70,000^. (See Galway) . . . Aug. ,, 
 Insignificant " Nationalist " meeting Aug. 15, ,, 
 Death of archbishop Whately . . Oct. 8, „ 
 
 Great emigration of able-bodied labourers in . „ 
 Appearance of the Fenians (ichich see) . Jan. 1864 
 Death of Smith O'Brien, descendant of king 
 
 Brian Boroimhe .... June 18, ,, 
 Address of the " National Association " to 
 liberate tenant capital ; recover the property 
 of the Catholic church, i'c. . . Jan. 12, 1865 
 Opening of the International Exhibition at 
 
 Dublin by the prince of Wales . May 9, ,, 
 General election favourable to the government 
 
 and liberal party July ,, 
 
 Importation of cattle from England prohibited 
 
 on account of the plague . . . Aug. 25, „ 
 Seizure of the newspaper " Irish People " and ! 
 
 30 Fenians. (See Fenian.i) . Sept. 15-17, „ 
 More arrests ; 33 committed for trial up to 
 
 Oct. 14, „ 
 International Exhibition closed . . Nov. 9, ,, 
 James Stephens, the "head centre" of the 
 Fenians in Ireland, and others, captured, 
 
 Nov. II, „ 
 See Dub tin. \ 
 
 KINOS. 
 
 979 or 980. Maol Ceachlin II. (Malachi) deposed, 
 looi or 1002. Brian Baromy or Boroimhe ; slain 
 
 after totally defeating the Danes at Clontarf, 
 
 April 23, 1014. 
 
 KINGS AND GOVERNOES OF IRELAND. J 
 
 1014. Maol Ceachlin II. restored ; dies 1022 or 1023. 
 
 [Disputed succession.] 
 1058. Donough, or Denis, O'Brian, son. 
 
 1072. Tirloch, or Turlough, nephew ; dies 1086. 
 
 * An amnesty was granted to O'Brien, May 3, 1856, and he shortly after returned to Ireland, 
 t Paupers in Irish workhouses in 1849, 620,000; in 1857, 65,000. 
 
 Notes in circulation „ .-£3,850,450 „ £7,150,000. 
 
 Bullion in Irish banks ,, 1,625,000 ,, 2,492,000, 
 
 t The list of Iri.sh sovereigns, printed in previous editions, has been omitted to make room for 
 authentic matter. The Irish writers cari-y their succession of kings very high, as high as even before the 
 
lEE. 
 
 399 
 
 IRE 
 
 IRELAND, continued. 
 
 •1086 — 1132. The kingdom divided ; fierce contests 
 
 for it. 
 1132. Tordel Vacli ; killed in battle. 
 1 166. Roderic, or Roger, O'Connor. 
 1172. Henry II. king of England ; conquered tlie 
 country, and became lord of Ireland. 
 [The English monarchs were styled " Lords of 
 Ireland" until the reign of Henry VIII., 
 who first styled himsef X;i?!g'.] 
 
 GOVERNORS OF IBKLAND (with varlous titles).* 
 
 1172. Hugues de Lasci. 1173, Richard FitzGislebert, 
 earl of Pembroke. 11 76, Raymond le Gros. 
 1177, prince John (afterwards king), made 
 lord of Ireland. 
 
 1184 et seq. Justiciars. The changes were so frequent 
 that the more important officers only are 
 given. 
 
 1189, 1203, 1205. Hugues de Lasci. 
 
 1 199, 1204. Meiller Fitz-Henri (son of Henry II). 
 
 1215, 1226. Geoffrey de Marreis. 
 
 1229-32-33. Maurice Fitzgerald. 
 
 1308. Piers Gaveston, earl of Cornwall. 1312, 
 Edmund le Botiller. 1316, Roger de Mortimer. 
 1320, Thomas Fitzgerald. 1321, John de 
 Bermingham. 1327, earl of Kildare. 1328 
 and 1340, Prior Roger Uttagh. 1332, sir 
 John D'Arcy. 1337, sir John de Cherlton. 
 1344, sir Rasul d'tJfford. 1346, sir Roger 
 d'Ai'cy ; sir John Moriz. 1348, Walter de 
 Bermingham. 1355, Maurice, earl of Des- 
 mond. 1356, Thomas de Rokeby. 1357, 
 Almeric de St. Amand. 1359, James, earl of 
 Ormond. 1361, Lionel, duke of Clarence. 
 1367, Gerald, earl of Desmond. 1369 and 
 1374, William de Windsor. 1376, Maurice, 
 earl of Kildare, and James, earl of Ormond. 
 1380, Edmund Mortimer, earl of March. 
 1385, Robert de Veie, earl of Oxford. 1389 
 and 98, sir John Stanley. 1391, James, earl 
 of Ormond. 1393, Thomas, dxike of Glou- 
 cester. 139s, Roger de Mortimer, earl of 
 March. 1398, Reginald Grey and Thomas 
 de Holland. 
 
 1401 and 1408, Thomas, earl of Lancaster. 1413, sir 
 John Stanley and sir John Talbot. 1420, 
 James, earl of Ormond. 1423, Edmund de 
 Mortimer, earl of March. x4i2S. sir John 
 Talbot. 1427, sir John de Grey. 1428, sir 
 John Sutton, lord Dudley. 1431 and 1435, 
 sir Thomas Stanley. 1438, Leon, lord de 
 Welles. 1446, John, earl of Shi-ewsbury. 
 1449, Richard, duke of York. 1461, George, 
 duke of Clarence. 1470, earl of Worcester. 
 1478, John de la Pole, earl of Suffolk. 1481, 
 Richard, earl of Kildare. 1483, Gerald, earl of 
 Kildare. 1484, John de la Pole, earl of 
 Lincoln. 1485, Jasper, duke of Bedford, 
 1494, Henry,duke of York, afterwards Henry 
 VIII. (his deputy, sir E. Poynings). 1496, 
 Gerald, earl of Kildare, and in 1504. 1521, 
 Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey. 1529, 
 Henry, duke of Richmond. 1560, Thomas, 
 earl of Sussex. 1599, Robert, earl of Essex. 
 
 1603. Sir Charles Blount, lord Mountjoy, made earl 
 of Devonshire. 1640, Thos. , viscount Went- 
 worth, earl of Strafford. 1643 and 1648, 
 James, marquess of Ormond. 1647, Philip 
 
 1767. 
 1772. 
 1777. 
 1780. 
 
 1783- 
 1784. 
 
 1787. 
 
 1790. 
 1795. 
 
 1798. 
 1801. 
 1806. 
 1807. 
 1813. 
 1817. 
 1821. 
 1828. 
 1829. 
 1830. 
 1833. 
 1834. 
 1835. 
 1839. 
 1841. 
 
 1847. 
 
 1852. 
 1853- 
 1855- 
 
 de Lisle. 1649, Oliver Cromwell. j6^j, 
 Henry Cromwell. 1662, James Butler, duke 
 of Ormond. 1669, John Roberts, lord 
 Roberts. 1670, John, lord Berkeley. 1672, 
 Arthur Capel, earl of Essex. 1677, James 
 Butler, duke of Ormond. 1685, Henry 
 Hyde, earl of Clarendon. 1687, Richard 
 Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel. 1690, Henry 
 Sydney, lord Sydney. 1695, Henry Capel, 
 lord Capel. 
 
 Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester. 1703, 
 James Butler,- duke of Ormond. 1707, 
 I'homas, earl of Pembroke. 1709, Thomas, 
 earl of Wharton. 1710, James, duke of Or- 
 mond, again. 1713, Charles, duke of Shrews- 
 bury. 1717, Chailes, duke of Bolton. 1721, 
 Charles, duke of Grafton. 1724, John, lord 
 Carteret. 1731, Lionel, duke of Dorset. 
 1737, William, duke of Devonshire. 1745, 
 Philip, earl of Chesterfield. 1747, William, 
 earl of Harrington. 1751, Lionel, dnke of 
 Dorset, again. 1755, William, duke of 
 Devonshire. 1757, John, duke of Bedford. 
 1761, George, earl of Halifax. 1763, Hugh, 
 earl of Northumberland. 1765, Francis, earl 
 of Hertford. 
 
 Oeorge, viscount Tovsmshend, Oct. 14. 
 
 Simon, earl of Harcourt, Nov. 30. 
 
 John, earl of Buckinghamshire, Jan. 25. 
 
 Fred., earl of Carhsle, Dec. 23. 
 
 Wm. Henry, duke of Portland, April 14. 
 
 George, earl Temple, Sept. 15. 
 
 Robert, earl of Northington, June 3. 
 
 Charles, duke of Rutland, Feb. 24 ; died Oct. 
 24, 1787. 
 
 George, 'marquess of Buckingham (late earl 
 Temple), again, Deo. 16. 
 
 John, earl of Westmorland, Jan. 5. 
 
 William, earl Fitzwilliam, Jan. 4. 
 
 John, earl Camden, March 31. 
 
 Charles, marquess Cornwallis, June 20. 
 
 Philip, earl of Hardwicke, May 25. 
 
 John, duke of Bedford, March 18. 
 
 Charles, duke of Richmond, April ig. 
 
 Charles, earl Whitworth, Aug. 26. 
 
 Charles, earl Talbot, Oct. 9. 
 
 Richard, marquess Wellesley, Dec. 29. 
 
 Henry, marquess of Anglesey, March i. 
 
 Hixgh, duke of Northumberland, March 6. 
 
 Henry, marquess of Anglesey, again, Deo. 23. 
 
 Marquess WeUesley, again, Sept. 26. 
 
 Thomas, earl of Haddington, Dec. 29. 
 
 Henry, marquess of Normanby, April 23. 
 
 Hugh, earl Fortescue, April 3. 
 
 Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, Sept. 15. 
 
 William, lord Heytesbury, July 12. 
 
 John William, earl of Besborough, July g ; 
 died May 16, 1847. 
 
 George William Frederick, earl of Clarendon, 
 May 26. 
 
 Archibald William, earl of Eglinton, Feb. 28. 
 
 Edward Granville, earl of St. Gormains, Jan. 
 
 George, earl of Carlisle, March. 
 
 Archibald, earl of Eglinton, again, Feb., 
 resigned. 
 
 George, earl of Carlisle, again, June ; died 
 Dec. s, 1864. 
 
 John, lord Wodehouse, Nov. i. 
 
 Flood. The learned antiquary, Thomas Innes, of the Scots' College of Paris, expressed bis wonder that 
 " the learned men of the Irish nation have not, like those of other nations, yet published the valuable 
 remains of their ancient history whole and entire, with just translations, in order to separate what is 
 fabulous and only gro\inded on the traditions of their poets and bards, from what is certain history." 
 " O'Flaherty, Keating, Toland, Kennedy, and other modem Irish historians, have rendered all uncertain.^ 
 by deducing their history from the Deluge with as much assurance as they deliver the transactions of 
 Ireland from St. Patrick's tirae."— Anderson. The "Annals of the Four Masters," edited by Dr. Donovan, 
 were published in Irish and English in 1848. 
 
 * Lord justices, and deputies, and latterly Lords Lieutenant. It has been several times proposed 
 to abolish the viceroyalty of Ireland, but without s ucccfs. The last time, March 25, 1858. 
 
IRE 
 
 400 
 
 IRU 
 
 IRELAND FORGERIES. In 1796 "W. H. Ireland made public the Shakspeare mami- 
 scripts which he had forged, and deceived many critics. The play, Vortigern, was performe«l 
 at Drury-lane theatre on April 2, 1796. He shortly after acknowledged the forgery, and 
 published his " Confessions" in 1805. He died in 1835. 
 
 IRIDIUM AND OSMl UM. In 1804 Tennant discovered these two rare metals in the ore 
 of platinum, in which, in 1845, Claus discovered a third. Ruthenium. 
 
 IRON was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forest having been burnt by 
 lightning, 1432 B.C. Arundclian Marbles. [1407, Hales; 1283, Clinton.] The Greeks 
 ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves, and referred glass to the Phoenicians. Moses 
 relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Caiu. Iron furnaces among the Romans were 
 unprovided with bellows, but were placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of 
 the prevailing winds. Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Dannemora is the greatest mine 
 of Sweden. 
 
 Belgium was an early seat of the iron-manufac- 
 ture ; coal said to have been employed at Marche- 
 les-dames, 1340. 
 
 British iron cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in 
 Sussex, 1543. Rymer's Foedera. 
 
 Iron-mills used for slitting iron into bars for smiths, 
 by Godfrey Bochs, 1590. 
 
 Tinning of iron introduced from Bohemia, 1681. 
 Till about 1730 iron ores were smelted entirely 
 with wood charcoal, which did not wholly give 
 way to coal and coke till 1788. 
 
 The operation termed puddling, and other very great 
 improvements in the manufacture, invented by 
 Mr. Henry Cort, between 1781 and 1826, who did 
 not reap the due reward of his ingenuity. 
 
 Mr. Henry Bessemer made known his method of 
 manufacturing iron and steel, which is considered 
 to possess many advantages, 1856. 
 
 Strike of the puddlers and lock-out of the masters in 
 Staffordshire, Northumberland, &c., lasted during 
 March, April, and May, 1865. 
 
 1740 . 
 
 . 59 furnaces . 
 
 17,350 tons. 
 
 1788 
 
 • • 77 .. 
 
 61,900 ,, 
 
 1796 . 
 
 . 121 ,, 
 
 . 124,789 ,, 
 
 1802 
 
 . . 168 
 
 . 227,000 ,, 
 
 t8o6 . 
 
 ■ 227 ,, 
 
 . 250,000 ,, 
 
 IRON ntODUCED IN GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 1825 
 
 260 furnaces . 
 
 374 >. 
 402 „ . 
 623 ,, 
 65s ., • 
 
 400,000 tons 
 . . 581,367 ., 
 
 . 1,396,400 ,, 
 . . 1,998,558 „ 
 
 . 2,701,000 „ 
 
 7 tons , 
 
 in 
 
 1864, 
 
 4,767,951 tons. 
 
 1852 . 
 
 In 1855, 3,217,154 tons of pig iron were produced ; in 1857, 3,659,447 tons ; in i 
 
 IRON CROWN (of Italy) is of gold, having inside a ring of iron, said to have been 
 forged from the nails of Christ's cross, and was made by order of 'i'heudelinde for her 
 husband, Agilulf, king of the Longobards, 591. She presented it (to be kept) to the church 
 at Monza. Charlemagne was crowned with this crown, and after him all the emperors Avho 
 were kings of Lombardy ; Napoleon I. at Milan, on May 26, 1805, put it on his head, saying 
 " Dieu me Ta dmmee; gave a qui y touchera." (God has given it to me ; woe to him who 
 .shall touch it. ) He founded the order of the Iron Crown, which still continues. The crown 
 was removed from Monza to Mantua by the Austrians, on April 23, 1859. 
 
 IRON-MASK, THE Man with the.* A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask 
 and closely confined, under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol, Sainte Marguerite, and afterwards 
 at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and was treated with profound respect ; but his 
 keepers had orders to despatch him if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself always placed 
 the dishes on his table, and stood in his presence. He died Nov. 19, 1703. 
 
 IRON-PLATED SHIPS. See under Navy of England and United States, 1862. 
 
 IRUN (a frontier village of Spain). On the i6tli May, 1837, the British auxiliary legion 
 under general Evans, marched from St. Sebastian to attack Irun (held by the Carlists), 
 which after a desperate resistance, was carried by assault, May 17. 
 
 * Some conjecture this peison to have been an Ai-menian patriarch forcibly carried from Constanti- 
 nople (who died ten years before the mask) ; others that he was the count de Vermandois, son of Louis XIV., 
 although he was reported to have perished in the camp before Dixmude. More believe him to have been 
 the celebrated duke of Beaufort, whose head is recorded to have been taken off before Candia ; while still 
 more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duke of Monmouth, who — in the imagination of the 
 Londoners at least — was executed on Tower-hill. There are two better conjectures ; he was said to have 
 been either ason of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIII., his father being the cardinal Mazarine (to whom 
 that dowager-queen was privately married), or the duke of Buckingham : or to have been the twin 
 brother of Louis XI\'., whose birth was concealed to prevent the civil dissensions in France, which it 
 might one day have caused. The last conjecture was received by Voltaire and many others. It has been 
 more recently conjectured that Fouquet, an eminent statesman in the time of Louis XIV., was the Masque 
 de Fer ; and a count Mattliioli, secretary of state to Charles III:, duke of Mantua, is supposed by M. Delort, 
 in a later publication, to have been the victim. The right hon. Agar Ellis (afterwards lord Dover), in an 
 interesting narrative, endeavoui-s to prove Matthioli to have been the person. The mask, it seems, w.-xs 
 not made of iron ; but of black velvet, strengthened with whalebone, and fastened behind the head with 
 a padlock. 
 
IKV 401 ITA 
 
 IRVINGITES, or the followers of the rev. Edward Irving,* who now call themselves the 
 "Holy Catholic Apostolic Church." They use a liturgy (framed in 1842, and enlarged 
 1853), and have church officers named apostles, angels, prophets, &c. In 1852 lighted 
 candles were placed on the magnificent altar, and burning of incense during prayers was 
 prescribed. The Gothic church in Gordon-square was solemnly opened Jan. i, 1854. It is 
 said that all who join the church offer it a tenth of their income. They had 30 chapels in 
 England in 185 1. 
 
 ISAURIA (a province in Asia Minor), was retaken from the Saracens by the emperor 
 Leo III., Avho founded the Isaurian dynasty, which ended with Constantine VI. in 797. 
 
 ISEENIA, S. Italy. Here the Sardinian general, Cialdini, defeated the Neapolitans, 
 Oct. 17, i860. 
 
 ISLAM, or EsLAM, submission to God, the name given to Mahometanism [vjliicli see). 
 
 ISLE OF France. See Maurithis, Man, &c. 
 
 ISLES, Bishopric of. Tliis see contained not only the Hebudes, Hebrides, or Western 
 Isles, but the Isle of Man, which for nearly 400 years had been a separate bishopric. The 
 first bishop of the Isles was Amphibalus, 360. T'he Isle of Ily was in former ages a place 
 famous for sanctity and learning, and early the seat of a bishop ; it was denominated 
 Icolumkill from St. Columba, the companion of St. Patrick, founding a monastery here in 
 the 6th century, which was the parent of above 100 other monastei'ies in England and Ireland. 
 Since the revolution (when this bishopric was discontinued) the Isles have been joined to 
 Moi-a}"- and Ross, or to Ross alone. In 1847, however, Argyll and the Isles were made a 
 seventh iiost-revolution and distinct bishopric. See Bishops. 
 
 ISMAIL (Bessarabia). After a long siege by the Russians, who lo.st 20,000 men before 
 the place, the town w-as taken by storm, Dec. 22, 1790 ; when Suwarrow, the most mei'ciless 
 warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish gariison (30,000 men) to the sword, and 
 delivered up Ismail to pillage, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women. By the treaty of 
 Paris in 1856 Ismail was restored to Turkey. It was ceded to Moldavia in 1856. 
 
 ISPAHAN was made the capital of Persia by Abbas the Great, in 1590. It ceased to be 
 so in 1796, when Teheran became the capital. 
 
 ISRAEL, Kingdom of. See Jews. 
 
 ISSUS (Asia Minor), the site of Alexander's second great battle with Darius, whose queen 
 and family were captured, Oct. 333 B.C. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted 
 of 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse ; 61,000 of the former and 10,000 of the latter were left 
 dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. 
 
 ISTHMIAN GAMES received their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were 
 observed : instituted by Sisyphus, about 1406 B.C., in honour of Melicertes, a sea-god. 
 Lenglet. They were re-instituted in honour of Neptune by Theseus about 1239 B.C. ; and 
 their celebration was held so sacred, that even a public calamity did not prevent it. The 
 games were revived by Julian, a.d. 362. 
 
 ISTRIA was finally subdued by the Romans, 177 b.c. After various changes it came 
 under the rule of Venice in 1378. 
 
 ITALY (either from Italus, an early king, or italus, a bull calf) is called the garden of 
 Europe. The invading Pelasgians from Greece, and the Aborigines (Umbrians, Osoans, and 
 Etruscans), combined, form the renowned Latin race, still possessing the southern part of 
 Europe. The history of Italy is soon absorbed into that of Rome, founded 753 B.C. Previous 
 to the 15th century it was desolated by intestine wars and the interference of the German 
 emperors ; since then, Spain, France, and Germany have struggled for the possession of the 
 country, which has been divided among them several times. Spain predominated in Italy 
 during the i6th and 17th centuries : but was compelled to yield to the house of Austria at 
 the beginning of the i8th. The victories of Bonaparte in 1797-8 changed the government 
 of Italy ; but the Austrian rule was re-established at the peace in 1814. In 1848 the Milanese 
 
 * Edward Irving was bom Aug. 15, 1792, and was engaged as assistant to Dr. Chalmers, at Glasgow, 
 in i8ig. In 1822 he attracted Immense crowds of most distinguished persons to his sermons at the Scotch 
 church, Hatton-garden. A new church was built for him in Eegent-square in 1827. Soon after he pro- 
 pounded new doctrines on the human nature of Christ : and the "Utterances of Unknown Tongues " which 
 beg-an in his congregation with a Miss Hall and Mr. Taplin, Oct. 16, 1831, were countenanced by him, as of 
 divine inspiration. He was expelled from the Scotch church, March is, 1833. His church, "recon- 
 stituted with the threefold cord of a sevenfold ministry," was removed to Newman-street. He died 
 Dec. 8, 1834. 
 
 U D 
 
ITA 
 
 402 
 
 ITA 
 
 and Venetians revolted and joined Piedmont, but were subdued by Eadetzky. The hostile 
 feeling between Austria and Piedmont gi-adually increased till war broke out in April, 1859. 
 The Austrians Avere defeated, and the kingdom of Italy, comprising Piedmont, Sardinia, 
 Lombardy, Tuscany, Modena, Parma, the Romagna, Naples, and Sicily was re-established, 
 March 17, 1861, by the Italian parliament (consisting of 443 deputies from 59 provinces). 
 On Oct. 29, i86r, the internal government was re-organized ; the 59 provinces were placed 
 nnder prefects, subject to four directors-general. In 1861, the population was 21,728,529. — 
 Estimated revenue, 25,000,000?. ; expenditure, 30,000,000?. For details see Rome and 
 the various Italian cities throughout the volume. 
 
 Italy (Satumia) fabled to have been ruled by 
 
 Saturn during the golden age. 
 AiTivalof CEnotrus from Arcadia, 17 10 B.C. ; and 
 
 of Evander ..... about B.C. 1240 
 JBneas the Trojan lands in Italy, defeats and 
 kills Tumu.s, marries Lavinia, daughter of 
 king Latinus, and founds Lavinium, in South 
 
 Italy 1182 &c. 
 
 Greek colonies (see Magna Gracia) founded 974 — 443 
 
 Komulus builds Rome 753 
 
 [For subsequent history, see Rome.l 
 Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, estabUshes the 
 
 kingdom of Italy a.d. 476 
 
 The Ostrogoths invade Italy, and retain it tiU . 491 
 They are expelled by the Imperial generals 
 Narscs and Belisarius ..... 552 
 [See Kings of Italy, p. 404, and Iron Croun.'[ 
 Narses, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards 
 
 from Germany, 568 ; who overrun Italy . 596 
 Tenice first governed by a doge . . . . 697 
 Pepin gives Ravenna to the pope . . . 754 
 Charlemagne invades Italy, 774 : crowned em- 
 peror of the west at Rome by pope Leo III. . 800 
 The Saracens invade Italy and settle at Bari . 842 
 Genoa becomes important ..... 1000 
 The Saracens expelled by the Nomians . 1016-17 
 Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hildebrand, pre- 
 tends to universal sovereigntj', in which he 
 is assisted by Matilda, countess of Tuscany, 
 mistress of the greater part of Italy . 1073-85 
 
 Disputes between the popes and emperors, 
 relative to ecclesiastical investitures, begin 
 about 1073, and long agitate Italy and Ger- 
 many. 
 Rise of the Lombard cities . . . about 1120 
 
 Who war with each other 1144 
 
 The Venetians obtain many victories over the 
 
 Eastern emperors 1125 
 
 Wars of the Gut If s and Ghibelines (icliich see) 
 
 begin about 1161 
 
 Frederic I. (Bai-barossa) interferes : his wars 1154-75 
 
 Lombard league formed 1167 
 
 His defeat at Legnano 11 76 
 
 Peace of Constance 1183 
 
 CivU wars again 1199 &c. 
 
 Wars of Frederick II 1236-50 
 
 His natural son, Manfred, king of Sicily, de- 
 feated and killed at the battle of Benevento. 
 by Charles of .^njou . . Feb. 26, 1266 
 
 Who also defeats Conradin, at Tagliacozzo, 
 
 Aug. 23, 1268 
 
 The Visconti rule at Milan 1277 
 
 The SiciUan vespers, March 30 ; the French ex- 
 pelled from Sicilj- 1282 
 
 Clement V. (Pope, 1305), fixes his residence at 
 
 Avignon in France 1308 
 
 Loiiis Gonzaga makes himself master of Man- 
 tua, with the title of imperial vicar . . . 1328 
 First doge of Genoa appointed . . . -1339 
 Charles VIII. of France invades Ifaily, and con- 
 quers Naples 1495 
 
 But loses it in 1496 
 
 Louis XII. joins Venice and conquers ^(ilau 
 (soon lost) ........ 1499 
 
 League of Cambray (1508) against Venice, 
 
 which is despoiled of its Italian possessions . 1509 
 Leo. X. poijo, patron of literature and art . 1513-22 
 Wars of Charles V. and Francis I. . . . 1515-21 
 
 The latter defeated and made prisoner at Pavia 1525 
 Parma and Placentia made a duchy for his 
 family by iiojie Paul III. (Alexander Famese) 1545 
 
 Peace of Cateau-Cambresis 1559 
 
 War of the Mantuan succession . . . 1627-31 
 Catinat and the French defeat the duke of 
 
 Savoy at Marsaglia .... Oct. 4, 1693 
 War of Spanish succession commences in Italy 1701 
 
 Battle of Turin Sept. 7, 1706 
 
 Division of Italy at the peace of Utrecht . . 1713 
 The Duke of Savoy becomes king of Sardinia . 1718 
 Successful French campaign in Italy . . . 1745 
 Milan, etc., obtained by the house of Austria, 
 
 1706 ; confirmed by treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 1748 
 Division of the Venetian states by France and 
 Austria by the treaty of Campo Formio ; Cis- 
 alpine republic founded 1797 
 
 Italy overrun, 1796, and Pius VI. deposed bj' 
 
 Bonap.arte 179S 
 
 The Russians, under Suwarrow, defeat the 
 
 French at Trebia, <fcc 1799 
 
 The ItaUan republic (Bonaparte president) . 1802 
 Napoleon crowned king of Italy . . May 26, 1805 
 Eugfene Beauhamois made viceroy of Italy . ,, 
 Austria loses her Itahan possessions by the 
 
 treaty of Presburg ; ratified . . Jan. i, 1806 
 The kingdom ceases on the overthrow of Napo- 
 leon, 1814; the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom 
 established for Austria . . . April 7, 1815 
 Insurrection in Lombardy and Venice, ilarch ; 
 supported by the king of Sardinia, April; 
 
 and the pope, June 1848 
 
 The king defeated at Novara, M.arch 23 ; and 
 Lombardy reverts to Austria, May . . . 1849 
 [See Sardinia and Austria.] 
 "Napolfon III. et I'ltalie" pubhshed . Feb. 1859 
 The Austrian ultimatum rejected by Sardinia, j 
 
 April 26, ,, 
 The Austrians cross the Ticino, April 27 ; and 
 
 the French enter Genoa . . . May 3, ,, 
 Peaceful revolutions at Florence, April 27; 
 
 Parma, May 3; Modena . . June 15, ,, 
 The Austrians defeated at Montebello, May 20 ; 
 Palestro, May 30-31 ; Magenta, June 4 ; 
 Marignano, June 8 ; Solferino . June 24, „ 
 
 Provisional governments established at Flo- 
 rence, April 27 ; Parma, May; and Modena, 
 [The sovereigns retire. ] . . . June 15, ,, 
 Insurrection in the Papal States ; Bologna, 
 
 Ferrara, &c. .... June 13-15, ,, 
 
 Massacre of the insurgents at Perugia by tlie 
 
 Swiss troops June 20, ,, 
 
 The Allies cross the Miucio . . . July i, ,, 
 Armistice between Austria and France, July 8, „ 
 Preliminaries of peace signed at Villafranca ; 
 
 Lombardy surrendered to Sardinia, July 11, ,, 
 Italy dismayed at the peace ; agitation at Milan, 
 Florence, Modena, Parma, &c., resignation 
 of count Cavour as minister . . July, ,, 
 The pope appeals to Europe against the king of 
 
 Sardinia July 12, ,, 
 
 Garibaldi exhorts the Italians to arm . July 19, ,, 
 Grand duke of Tuscany abdicates . July 21, ,, 
 Constitutional assemblies meet at Florence, 
 
 Aug. II, and at Modena . . . Aug. 16 ,, 
 Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna 
 enter into a defensive alliance, Aug. 20 ; de- 
 clare for annexation to Piedmont, Aug 20 — 
 
ITA 
 
 403 
 
 ITA 
 
 ITALY, continued. 
 
 Sept. lo ; fiscal restrictions between them 
 and Piedmont abolished . . . Oct. lo, 1859 
 
 Assassination of col. Anviti at Parma . Oct. 5, „ 
 
 Garibaldi appeals to the Neapolitans ; subscrip- 
 tions in Italy and elsewhere to supply arms 
 for the Italians . . . . . Oct. ,, 
 
 Tuscany, (fee. , choose the prince Eugene of Carig- 
 nan-Savoy, as regent of central Italy, Nov. 5 ; 
 the king of Sardinia refusing bis consent, 
 the prince declines the office, but recom- 
 mends the chevalier Buoncampagni, Nov. 14, ,, 
 
 Garibaldi rctu'es from the Sardinian service, 
 
 Nov. 18, „ 
 
 New Sardinian constitution proclaimed, 
 
 Dec. 7, ;, 
 
 The pope condemns the pamphlet " Xe Pape et le 
 Congres" Dec. 31, „ 
 
 The emperor Napoleon recommends the pope 
 to give up the legations . . Dec. 31, „ 
 
 The pope refuses, and denounces the emperor, 
 
 Jan. 8, i860 
 
 Count Cavoiir charged with the formation of a 
 ministry Jan. 16, ,, 
 
 Annexation to Sardinia voted for (by universal 
 suffrage) in Parma, Modena and the Ko- 
 magna, March 13 ; Tuscany, March i6 ; ac- 
 cepted by the king . . . March 18-22, ,, 
 
 Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France signed, 
 March 24 ; approved by the Sardinian par- 
 liament May 29, „ 
 
 The French troops retire from Italy . May, ,, 
 
 Vain insurrections in Sicily, April 4 ; May 2, ,, 
 
 Garibaldi lands at Marsala in Sicily, May 11 ; 
 and assumes the office of dictator, May 14 ; 
 he defeats the Neapolitans at Calatifimi, 
 May 15 ; and at Melazzo, July 20 ; by a con- 
 vention the Neapohtans agree to evacuate 
 Sicily (see Sicily) .... July 30, ,, 
 
 Garibaldi lands at Eeggio in Calabria, Aug. 18 ; 
 enters Naples ; the king, Francis II. , retires, 
 
 Sept. 7, „ 
 
 Insurrection in the Papal States, Sept. 8 ; the 
 Sardinians enter them, Sept. 11; defeat the 
 papal troops at Castel-fidardo, Sept. 18 ; be- 
 siege and take Ancona, Sept. 17-29 ; Victor- 
 Emmanuel takes the command of his army, 
 
 Oct. 4, „ 
 
 The Sardinians enter the kingdom of Naples, 
 Oct. 15 ; defeat the Neapolitans at Isernia, 
 
 Oct. 17, „ 
 
 Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans at the Vol- 
 tumo, Oct. I, i860; meets Victor-Emmanuel, 
 and says, " King of Italy ! " the latter repUes, 
 "I thank you!" .... Oct. 26, ,, 
 
 By universal suffrage, Sicily and Naples vote for 
 annexation to Sardinia . . . Oct. 21, ,, 
 
 Capua bombarded ; the Neapolitans retire, Nov. 
 2 ; and are defeated at the Garigliano, Nov. 3, ,, 
 
 Victor- Emmanuel enters Naples as king, Nov. 
 7 ; Garibaldi resigns the dictatorship and re- 
 tires to Caprera Nov. 9, „ 
 
 Victor-Emmanuel receives homage from the 
 Neapolitan clergy, <fec. ; gives raoney to en- 
 courage education ; appoints a ministry, 
 including Poerio, ifec. . . . Nov. ,, 
 Siege of Gaeta commences ; attack by sea pre- 
 vented by the presence of the French fleet, 
 
 Nov. 3, &c. „ 
 Treaty of Zurich signed (see Zurich) Nov. 10, „ 
 Decree in honour of Garibaldi's army, Nov. 16, ,, 
 Reactionary movements suppressed, Nov. — Dec. „ 
 Prince of Carignan-Savoy aispointed lieutenant 
 
 of Naples Jan. 1861 
 
 The French fleet retires from Gaeta, Jan. 19 ; 
 
 after severe bombardment it surrenders ; 
 
 Francis II. retires to Rome . . Feb. 13, „ 
 
 Monastic establishments in Naples aboUshed, 
 
 with compensation to the inmates; schools 
 
 established Feb. „ 
 
 Assembly of the first Italian parliament, Feb. 
 
 1 8, which decrees Victor-Emmanuel king of 
 
 Italy Feb. 26, 1S61 
 
 Naples unsettled through reactionary intrigues 
 
 of the papal party . . March and April, ,, 
 The new kingdom recognised by Great Britain, 
 
 March 31, ,, 
 Order for the levy of 70,000 soldiers . April. ,, 
 Cavour forms a new ministry, including mem- 
 bers from all parts of Italy . . April, ,, 
 The pope protests against the kingdom, 
 
 April 15, „ 
 Altercation in Parliament between Cavour and 
 
 Garibaldi, April 18 ; reconciled . April 25, ,, 
 Bourbonist bands defeated . May 7, &c., ,, 
 Prince of Carignan resigns ; San Martino ap- 
 pointed lieutenant .... May 13, ,, 
 Death of count Cavour, aged 52 ; intense grief 
 
 of the king and nation . . . June 6, ,, 
 Ricasoli forms a ministry to continue Cavour' s 
 
 policy June 11, „ 
 
 The kingdom recognised by France . June 24, ,» 
 San Martino resigns the government of Naples ; 
 active measures taken against the insurgents 
 and brigands by Cialdini, his successor, ap- 
 pointed July 16, „ 
 
 The king opens the exhibition of Italian in- 
 dustry at Florence . . . Sept. 14, ,, 
 The kingdom recognised by Portugal and Bel- 
 gium, Oct. I ; divided into fifty-nine pre- 
 fectures, (fee Oct. 13, ,, 
 
 Severe skirmishes in the south with brigands 
 and foreign emissaries in the cause of Francis 
 
 II Oct. „ 
 
 Cialdini retires, and La Marmora becomes lieu- 
 tenant-general of Naples . . . Nov. 2, ',, 
 Brig^dage still prevailing in the south, aided 
 by the king of Naples ; insurgents defeats d ; 
 and many killed .... Nov. ig, ,, 
 Josd Borges, a Spaniard, lands in Calabria, Sept. 
 IS ; calls on the people to rise for Francis II., 
 Sept. ; taken and shot . . . Dec. 8, „ 
 The reactionist warfare continues, the cruelties 
 of the brigands lead to severe reprisals, Dec. ,, 
 Jan. and Feb. 1S62 
 The minister Ricasoli compelled to resign by 
 court influence, March i ; Rattazzi forms an 
 administration .... March 3, „ 
 The kingdom recognised by Prussia March i, ,, 
 Surrender of Civatella del Tronto, the last 
 
 Bourbon fortress in Sicily . . March 14, ,, 
 Triumphant progress of Garibaldi through Italy, 
 
 establishing rifle clubs . March and April, „ 
 Mr. J. P. Bishop, an active English Bourbonist 
 
 propagandist, captured . . . April 2, ,, 
 Conspiracy among the Neapolitan soldiers at 
 
 Milan suppressed . . . April 19, ,, 
 The king received at Naples with great en- 
 thusiasm April 28, ,, 
 
 The French general Guyon aids in the suppres- 
 sion of the Bourbonist brigands . . April ,, 
 The kingdom recognised by Russia . July 3, ,, 
 Garibaldi proceeds to Sicily; at Marsala he 
 calls for volunteers, giving as his watchword 
 " Rome or death ! " . . . July 19, „ 
 Calls on the Hungarians to rise . . July 26, ,, 
 The king issues a proclamation against his pro- 
 ceedings, as tending to rebelUon . Aug. 3, ,, 
 Garibaldi enters Catania, and organises a pro- 
 visional government . . . Aug. 19, „ 
 Sicily proclaimed to be in a state of siege, Aug. 
 
 21 ; and put under general Cialdini, Aug. 22, „ 
 Garibaldi issues his last proclamation ; embarks 
 at Catania ; lands at Mehto, in Calabria, and 
 marches towards Reggio, Aug. 25; La 
 Marmora proclaims a state of siege, Aug. 
 26 ; Garibaldi and his foUowers fall in with 
 the ro5'alists, under PaUavicini, at Aspro- 
 monte, where, after a short skirmish, he is 
 wounded and taken prisoner, Aug. 29 ; removed 
 to Varignano, near Spezzia . . Sept. i, ,, 
 D D 2 
 
ITA 
 
 404 
 
 ITA 
 
 ITALY, continued. 
 
 Mr. J. F. Bishop sentenced to ten years' im- 
 prisonment Sept. 6, 
 
 General Durando issues a diplomatic circulsr 
 condemning Garibaldi's proceedings, yet as- 
 serting the necessity of the Italian govern- 
 ment possessing Rome . . Sept. lo, 
 
 A subscription in England enables professor 
 Partridge, of King's College, London, to go to 
 Garibaldi Sept. 19, 
 
 Princess Maria Pia married by proxy to the 
 king of Portugal .... Sept. 27, 
 
 Garibaldi issues a rhetorical appeal to the 
 English nation, urging its intervention for 
 the cause of liberty . . . Sept. 28, 
 
 Inflammatory manifesto addressed to the 
 people of Italy by Joseph Mazzini . Sept. 
 
 Amnesty granted to Garibaldi and his fol- 
 lowers Oct. 5, 
 
 Sharp reply of M. Drouyn de Lhuys to Du- 
 rando's note Oct. 8, 
 
 State of siege in Xaples and Sicily abolished, 
 
 Oct. 17, 
 
 Disorderly encounter between Italian and 
 Austrian troops on the banks of the Po, 
 
 Nov. I, 
 
 Father Passaglia and 10,000 (out of 80,000) 
 Italian priests sign a declaration against the 
 temporal authority of the pope . . Nov. 
 
 Garibaldi removed to Pisa, Nov. 9 ; the ball 
 
 extracted from his foot by Dr. Zanetti, 
 
 Nov. 23, 
 
 Meeting of parliament : determined opposition 
 to Rattazzi's ministry, Nov. 18 ; he resigns, 
 
 Nov. 30, 
 
 New ministry formed, with Farina as president 
 of the council Dec. 9, 
 
 It declines further negotiations with France on 
 the Roman question . . . Dec. 18, 
 
 Commercial treaty with France signed, Jan. 17, 
 
 Farina resigns ; Minghetti succeeds, March 24, 
 
 Grand Cavour canal for irrigation of Piedmont 
 opened ...".. June i. 
 
 Income tax bill passed .... July, 
 
 Tristany and other bandits cajitured . July, 
 
 Commercial treaty with Great Britain signed, 
 
 Aug. 6, 
 
 Death of Farina .... Sept. 5, 
 
 Several bandits captured on board the French 
 ship Aunis ; given up to France, July ; re- 
 stored to Italy Sept. 12, 
 
 The army of Piedmont (50,000) consolidated by 
 La Marmora and expanded into the " army of 
 Italy " (250,000) ..... Oct. 
 
 The king visits Naples ; reviews National Guard, 
 &c. Nov. 11-17, 
 
 General election; triumph of the moderate 
 party Jan. 
 
 Garibaldi's visit to England amidst much en- 
 thusiasm April, 
 
 Franco-Italian convention signed (French troops 
 
 to quit Rome in two years [from Feb. 6, 
 
 1865], Florence to be the capital of Italy, &c.), 
 
 Sept. 15, 
 
 Riots at Turin in conseqiience ; many persons 
 killed by the military . . Sept. 21, 22, 
 
 Minghetti and his colleagvies much blamed ; 
 
 resigns ; a ministry formed by La Marmora, 
 
 Sept 24, 
 
 The convention denounced by Garibaldi, 
 
 Oct. 10, 
 
 Desperate state of the finances announced by 
 Sella, the minister; he proposes stringent 
 
 remedies Nov. 
 
 Railway direct from Turin to Florence ox)ened, 
 
 . Nov. 4, 
 
 1863 
 
 The convention approved by the chamber of 
 
 deputies, Nov. ic) ; by the senate (after an 
 
 able speech by Cialdini, Dec. 6) . Dec. 9, 
 Decree for transfer of the capital published 
 
 Dec. u. 
 Prince Humbert resides at Naples . . Dec. 
 Demonstration against the king at Turin ; he 
 
 goes to Florence .... Feb. 3, 
 Amnesty for political offences published; 
 
 brigandage in the Neapolitan and Roman 
 
 states increasing * . . . . March, 
 Frviitlos negotiations with the pope respecting 
 
 the position of bishops in Italj', April to July 
 The king and court proceed to Florence, May 
 
 13 ; he opens the Dante festival, the 6ooth 
 
 anniversary of the poet's birth . May 14, 
 Mr. Moens, a British subject, seized and re 
 
 tained by brigands .... May 15, 
 45 monks and others arrested at Salerno on 
 
 charge of a Bourbonist conspiracy, June 12, 
 Inauguration of a National Rifle Meeting at 
 
 Florence ; the king fires the first shot June 18, 
 Numerous atrocities committed by brigands ; 
 
 GiarduUo and 8 brigands captured June 19, 
 The kingdom recognised by Spain . . July 
 Mr. Moens released after a ransom of 5000?. had 
 
 been paid Aug. 26, 
 
 Bank of Italy established . . Nov. 7, 
 
 French troops leaving Italy ; general election, 
 
 the moderate party predominate . Nov. 
 
 The new parliament meets at Florence, Nov. 18, 
 
 1864 
 
 KINGS OF ITALY. 
 
 476. 
 
 Odoacer, king of the Heruli, invadesltaly, and 
 rules it : he was conquered and slain by 
 493. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths ; an able 
 prince. He put to death the philosophers 
 Boethius and Symmachus, falsely accused, 
 about 525. 
 526. Athalaric, his grandson dies of the plague. 
 534. Theodatus elected ; assassinated. 
 
 Vitiges elected. 
 
 Theodebald elected ; assassinated. 
 
 TotUa, or Badiula, a great prince ; killed in 
 battle against the imperial army under 
 Narses. 
 
 Theras falls in battle. Italy subject for a short 
 time to the eastern empire. 
 
 Alboin, king of the Lombards, with a huce 
 mixed army, conquers Italy ; poisoned by 
 his wife Rosamond, for compelling her to 
 drink wine out of a cup formed of her father's 
 skull. 
 
 Cleoph; assassinated. 
 
 Autharis ; poisoned. 
 
 Agilulph. 
 615. Adaloald ; poisoned. 
 625. Arioald. 
 
 Rotharis ; married the widow of Arioald ; 
 published a code of laws. 
 
 Rodoald (son); assassinated. 
 
 Aribert I. (uncle). 
 
 661. Bertharit and Godebert (sons) ; dethroned by 
 
 662. Grimoald, duke of Benevento. 
 671. Bertharit re-established. 
 
 686. Cunibert (son). 
 
 700. Luitbert ; dethroned by 
 
 701. Ragimbert. 
 
 701. Aribert II. (son). 
 
 712. Ansprand elected. 
 
 712. Luitprand (son), a great prince, and a favourite 
 
 of the church. 
 744. Hildebrand (nephew) ; deposed. 
 744. Rachis, duke of Friuli, elected ; became a monk. 
 
 536. 
 540. 
 541. 
 
 552. 
 568. 
 
 S73- 
 575- 
 491. 
 
 636. 
 
 652. 
 653. 
 
 * In Dec. 1864, it was stated that 346 brigands had been killed in action ; 453 taken in action, and 132 
 surrendered. About 300 remained to be tracked. Many pretend to be subjects of the ex-king Francis II. 
 I'f Xaj>les. 
 
ITI 
 
 405 
 
 JAF 
 
 ITALY, continued. 
 
 749. Astolph (brother). 
 
 756. Desiderius ; quarrelled with, the pope Adrian 
 who havited Charlemagne into Italy ; by 
 whom Desiderius was deposed, and an end 
 put to the Lombard kingdom. 
 
 777. Pepin (son of Charlemagne). 
 
 812. Bernard. 
 
 820. Lothaire (son of Louis le Debonnaire). 
 
 EMPERORS. 
 
 875. Charles the Bald. 
 877. Carloman. 
 879. Charles the Fat. 
 Berenger I. 
 
 „ and Guy. 
 
 894. Barcnger I. and Lambert. 
 921. ,, and Rudolph of Burgundy . 
 
 926. Hugh of Provence. 
 
 94s. Lothaire II. 
 
 950. Berenger II. ; deposed in 
 
 g6i. By the emperor Otho the Great, who added 
 Italy to the German empire. 
 
 MODERN KINGS OF ITALY. 
 
 1805. Napoleon proclaimed king of Italy, March i8 ; 
 
 crowned at Milan, May 26 ; abdicated, 1814. 
 1861. Victor-Emmanuel II. (of Sardinia), • born 
 
 March 14, 1820. Heir : Humbert, prince of 
 
 Savoy, bom March 14, 1844. 
 
 rRINCIPAL ITALIAN AUTHORS.' 
 
 Dante 
 Petrarca 
 Boccaccio . 
 Ariosto . 
 Machiavelli 
 Guicciardini . 
 
 Born 
 ■ 1265 
 
 • 1304 
 
 • 1313 
 
 • 1474 
 . 1469 
 
 Died 
 1321 
 1374 
 1375 
 1533 
 1527 
 1540 
 
 Tasso 
 Galileo . 
 Metastasio 
 Goldoni 
 Parini 
 Alfieri . 
 
 Sorn 
 
 ■ 1544 
 
 • 1564 
 . 1698 
 
 • 1707 
 
 • 1729 
 
 • 1749 
 
 Died 
 
 IS9S 
 1642 
 1782 
 1795 
 1799 
 
 Volta . 
 
 Leopardi 
 
 Monti 
 
 Gioberti 
 
 NicoHni 
 
 Manzoni 
 
 Born 
 
 Died 
 
 ■ 1745 
 
 1826 
 
 ■ 1798 
 
 i«S7 
 
 ■ 1754 
 
 1828 
 
 . 1 801 
 
 1852 
 
 . 1782 
 
 1861 
 
 • 1784 
 
 
 ITINERARIES. The Roman Itinerarium was a table of the stages betweeu two important 
 places. The "Itineraria Antonini," embracmg the whole Roman empire, usually ascribed 
 to the emperor Aurelius Antoninus, and his successors, A.D. 138-80, was probably based 
 upon the survey matle by order of Julius Cffisar, 44 B.C. The " Itinerarium Hierosolynii- 
 tanum" was drawn up for the use of the pilgrims about 333. ' 
 
 IVRY (near Evreux, IST. "W. France). Here Henry IV. totally defeated the League army, 
 March 14, 1590. 
 
 IVORY was brought to Solomon from Tarshish, about 992 b c. (i Kings x. 22). The 
 colossal statues of Jupiter, Minerva, &c. , by Phidias, were formed of ivory and gold, b. c. 444. 
 
 J. 
 
 J was distinguished from I by the Dutch scholars of the i6th century, and introduc(i!iU— 
 into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1550. Dufresno]). 
 
 JACOBINS, the original name of the Dominicans {which see); The Jacobin club (first 
 called "club Breton ") consisted of aboiit forty gentlemen and men of letters, who met in 
 the hall of the Jacobin friars, at Paris, in Oct. 1789, to discuss politicah and other questions. 
 Fraternal societies were instituted- in all the principal towns of the kingdom. Burke. The 
 club was closed Nov. 11, 1794. 
 
 JACOBITES, a Christian sect, so called from Jacob Baradasus, a Syrian, about 541. See 
 Eutychians. The partisans of James II. (Latin, Jacobus II. ) were so named after his expulsion 
 from England in 1688. 
 
 JACOBUS. A gold coin, so called from king James I. of England, in whose reign it was 
 struck, 1603-25. 
 
 JACQUARD LOOM. See Loom. 
 
 JACQUERIE, a term applied to bands of revolted peasants : first given to a body of them 
 (headed by one Caillot, called Jacques Bonhomme) which ravaged France dimng the captivity 
 of king John in 1358. 
 
 JAFFA, a Seaport of Syria, celebrated in scripture as Joppa, whence Jonah embarked 
 (about 862 B.C.), and where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead (a.d. 38) ; in mythology the 
 place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by the caliph Omar, a.d. 636 ; 
 
 * The following terms are often used with reference to certain periods in the history of Italian litera- 
 ture and art. i. rrecento (tha-ee hundred), from the birth of Dante (1265) to the death of Boccaccio (j37S). 
 which two, with Petrarca, are styled " the triumvirate of the Trecento." 2. Quattrocento (four hundred^ 
 from 1375 to the revival of ItaUan literature by Lorenzo de' Medici in the 15th century. During this period 
 Latin was revived, to the prejudice of Italian. 3. Cinquecento (five hundred*, from about 1480 to 1590. A 
 sensuous style of art, founded on the heathen mythology, began to prevail. 4. Seicenio (six hundred), 
 from 1590 to 1700. The bad taste which prevailed during this period is ascribed to the mttueiice ot tue 
 Spaniards and the Jesuits throughout Italy. Seicentisti is a term of reproach. The Trecento and Cmqueceuto 
 were the most flourishing periods. 
 
JAG 
 
 406 
 
 JAN 
 
 by the Crusndci-s, 1090 ; and by Bonaparte, March 7-10, 1799 ; the French were driven out 
 by the British in June, the same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 
 3800 prisoners by Bonaparte ; but this is doubted. Jaffa suffered by an earthquake in Jan. 
 1837, when it is said that 13,000 persons were killed. 
 
 JAGELLON'S, a dynasty which at times reigned over Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and 
 Bohemia, beginning with Jagellon, duke of Bohemia, 1381. It ended with John II. of 
 Poland, in 1668. 
 
 JAMAICA, a W. India island, discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1494. It was conquered 
 from the Spaniards by admiral Penn, with land forces commanded by Venables, May 3, 1655. 
 Population in 1861, 13,816 whites ; 81,074 coloured ; 346,374 blacks. 
 
 An awful earthquake here . . . .Tune 2, 1692 
 The Maroons (runaway slaves) permitted to 
 
 settle m the north of the island . . . . 1738 
 Desolating hurricanes in 1722, 1734, and . . 1751 
 In June, 1795, the Maroons rose against the 
 
 English, and were not quelled till . March, 1796 
 Many transported to Sierra Leone . . . 1800 
 Slave trade abolished .... May i, 1807 
 Tremendous hurricane, by which the whole 
 island was deluged, hundreds of houses 
 washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thou- 
 sand persons drowned .... Oct. 1815 
 Insurrectioii of the negro slaves ; numerous 
 plantations burnt ; the governor, lord Bel- 
 more, declared martial law . . Doc. 22, 1831 
 Emancipation of the slaves . . . Aug. i, 1834 
 About 50,000 die of cholera in . . . . 1850! 
 
 In May, 1853, the dissension between the colo- 
 nial legislature and sir Charles Grey, the 
 govei-nor, occasioned his recall ; his successor, 
 sir H. Barkly, arrived .... Oct. 1853 
 Charles Henry Darling, appointed governor . 1857 
 Edward John Eyre appointed governor . . 1864 
 Negro insurrection begins at Morant-bay, by 
 resisting the capture of a negi-o criminal, 
 Oct. 7 ; the court house fired on ; baron 
 Ketelholdt, rev. V. Herschell, and many others 
 ciaielly murdered and mutilated, Oct. 11, 12, 1863 
 Eebellion spreads, and many atrocities are 
 committed ; it is suppressed by the energy 
 of the governor, the military and naval 
 officers, volunteers, the maroons, and the 
 loyal negroes * . . . . Oct. 13 — 24, „ 
 
 JAMES'S HALL, ST., near Piccadilly, erected for public meetings, &c., was opened 
 on March, 25, 1858, with a concert for the benefit of the Middlesex hospital. Mr. Owen 
 Jones was the architect. 
 
 JAMES'S PALACE, ST., London, was built by Henry VIII. on the site of an hospital 
 of the same name, 1530. It has been the official town-residence of the English court since 
 the fire at Whitehall in 1695. The Paek was a marsh till Henry VIII. enclosed and laid it 
 out in walks, 1530. 
 
 Much improved by Charles II. , who employed 
 Le Notre to plant lime-tree", and to lay out 
 "the mall " for the purpose of playing a game 
 with a ball called a mall .... 1668 
 
 "William 111. granted a passage into it from 
 Sprin? gardens 1699 
 
 A grand display of fireworks took place here at 
 the peace, when the pagoda bridge erected 
 here by sir W. Congreve was burnt . Aug. i, 1814 
 
 The park improved by George IV. 1827, et seq. 
 
 The enclosure first opened to the public in Jan. 
 1829 ; the opening by Carlton-steps in . . 1831 
 
 The marble arch that fronted Buckingham 
 palace removed to Cumberland-gate, Hyde- 
 park March 29, 1851 
 
 An iron bridge over the ornamental water con- 
 structed ........ 1857 
 
 JANISSARIES (Turkish iaii tcheri, new soldiers), an order of infantrj' in the Turkish 
 army : originally, young prisoners trained to arms ; were first organised by Orcan, about 1330, 
 and remodelled by his son Amnrath I. about 1360 ; their numbers were increased by later 
 sovereigns. In later days they degenerated from their strict discipline, and several times 
 deposed the sultan. Owing to an insurrection of these troops on June 14, 1826, when nearly 
 3000 of them were killed, the Ottoman annj' was re-organised, and a firman was issued on 
 June 17, abolishing the Janissaries. 
 
 J-A.NSENISTS, persons who embraced the doctrines of Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres, 
 who died in 1638. He was a prelate of pietj'^ and morals, but his "Augustinus" a book in 
 which he maintained the Augustinian doctrine of free grace, kindled a fierce controversy on 
 its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Urban VIII. in I642. Through 
 the Jesuits, its vehement opponents, Jansenism, was condemned by Innocent X. in 1653, and 
 by the bull Unigenitus, issued by Clement XL in 1713. This bull the French church 
 rejected. Jansenism still exists at Utrecht and Haarlem. See Port Royalists. 
 
 JANUARY derives its name from Janus, an early Roman divinity. January was added 
 to the Roman calendar by Numa, 713 B.C. He placed it about the winter solstice, and made 
 
 * The chief instigators, Geo. Wm. Gordon, a coloured member of the legi.slative assembly, and Paul 
 Bogle, with many others, were tried and executed in a summary manner. Above 200 rebels were shot ; 
 and on Oct. 24, .above 200 men and 65 women remained to be tried. These proceedings e.xcited severe com- 
 ment in England. 
 
JAN 
 
 407 
 
 JEA 
 
 it the first inontli, because Janus was supposed to preside over tlie beginning of all business. 
 In 1 75 1 tlie legal year in England was ordered to begin on Jan. i, instead of Marcli 25. 
 
 JANUS, Temple of, at Eome, was erected by Eomulus, and kept open in time of war, 
 and closed in time of peace. During above 700 years it was shut — under Numa 714 B.C. ; 
 at the close of the first Punic war, 235 B.C. ; and under Augustus, 29, and 25 b.c. ; during 
 that long period of time, the Romans were continually employed in war. 
 
 JAPAN, an Asiatic empire, composed of five large and many small islands {Niplion the 
 principal). It was visited by Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller, in the I3tli century ; and 
 by Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese, about 1535 or 1542 ; whose countrymen shortly after obtained 
 permission to found a settlement. The Jesuit missionaries Avho followed made a great number 
 of converts, who sent a deputation to pope Gregory XIII. in 1582 ; but a iierce persecution of 
 the Christians began in 1590, aggravated it is said by the indiscreet zeal and arrogance of 
 the Jesuits : thousands of the converts suffered death ; and in 1639, the Portuguese were 
 utterly expelled fi'om the empii-e. The Dutch trade with Japan commenced about 1600 
 under severe restrictions, and has since been frequently suspended. The learned Engelbert 
 Koen:pfer visited Japan in 1690, and published an account of it with jilates. 
 
 An American expedition, imder commodore 
 Parry, reaches Jeddo, and is favourably re- 
 ceived ; but remains only a few days, July 8, 
 
 A treaty of commercial alliance concluded be- 
 tween the two counti-ies . . . March, 
 
 A similar treaty with the British . . Oct. 
 
 Nagasaki and Hakodadi opened to European 
 
 commerce 
 
 Commercial treaty with Russia . Aug. 19, 
 Lord Elgin visits Japan, with a present of a 
 
 steamer for the emperor, and is honourably 
 
 received, July ; obtains the treaty of Jeddo, 
 
 opening Japan to British commerce, Aug. 26, 
 The secular emperor dies (aged 36) . Sept. 16, 
 An attempt made to assassinate the regent, 
 
 March, 
 A Japanese embassy visits Washington, New 
 
 York, &c., in the tlnited States, 
 
 May 14 — June 30, 
 Received by Napoleon III. at Paris, April 13 ; 
 
 in London, June ; in Holland, Prussia, &c. 
 
 July — Sept. 
 Attack on the British embassy at Jeddo ; some 
 
 persons wounded .... July 5, 
 
 Japan quiet Dec. 
 
 Another attack on the English charge d'affaires 
 
 frustrated .... June 26, 27, 
 Foreign ministers transfer the residence from 
 
 Jeddo to Yokohama . . . June 27, 
 
 Mr. Richardson murdered and his companions 
 
 1854 
 1S56 
 
 1S62 
 1 861 
 
 cruelly assailed by a Japanese noble and his 
 suite Sept. 14, 
 
 The batteries and vessels of the prince of 
 Nagato fire on an English and a French vessel 
 at the entrance of the straits of Simonosaki, 
 Nov. IS, 19, 
 
 Some English, French, and American vessels 
 bombard his forts and his vessels, July 15-19, 
 
 Reparation demanded ; ioo,oooi. paid by the 
 government ; the prince of Satsuma resists 
 payment of 25,000^., his portion; admiral 
 Kuper enters the bay of Kagosima, and is 
 fired upon ; whereupon he bombards the 
 town and bums the prince's steamers, 
 
 Aug. IS, 
 
 He pays the 25,000!. . . . Dec. 14, 
 
 The Japanese minister announces that the 
 ports opened by virtue of the treaties wiU be 
 closed June 24, 
 
 The Japanese government refuse to abide by 
 the treaties ; a combined fleet enters the 
 straits of Simonosaki, Sept. 4 ; and attacks 
 and destroys the Japanese batteries, 
 
 Sept. 5, 6, 
 
 Major Baldwin and lieut. Bird murdered, Nov. 
 20 ; for which two assassins wei-e executed in 
 
 Dec. 
 
 The Japanese government are stated to be en- 
 deavouring to reduce the power of the nobles 
 
 Aug. 
 
 JARNAC (W. France). On March 13, 1569, the duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. 
 of France, here defeated the Huguenots under Louis, prince of Conde, who was killed in 
 cold blood by Montesquieu. The victor (seventeen years of age), on account of his success 
 here and at Moncontour, was chosen king of Poland. 
 
 JASMINE, OE. Jessamine, Jasminum officinale, a native of Persia, &c., was brought 
 hither from Circassia, before 1548. The Catalonian jasmine came from the East Indies, in 
 1629, and the yellow Indian jasmine in 1656. 
 
 JASSY, the capital of Moldavia, frequently occupied by the Russians ; taken by them in 
 1739 and 1769. A treaty between them and the Turks was signed here Jan. 9, 1792. 
 
 JAVA, a large island in the Eastern Archipelago, is said to have been reached by the 
 Portuguese in 1511, and by the Dutch in 1595. The latter, who now possess it, built 
 Batavia, the capital, about 16 19. See Batavia. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the 
 unarmed natives by the Dutch, sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, 
 took place in 1740. The island capitulated to the British, Sep. 18, 181 1. The sultan was 
 dethroned by the English, and the hereditary prince raised to the throne, in June, 18 13. 
 Java was restored to Holland in 1814. In Aug. i860, the Swiss soldiers aided by the 
 natives here mutinied, but were soon reduced, and many sutfered death. 
 
 JEAN DE LUZ, ST. (S. France, near the Pyrenees). Soult's strong position here was 
 taken by general Hill and marshal Beresford, Nov. 10, 1813. 
 
JED 408 J Ell 
 
 JEDDA, tlie port of Mecca, Arabia. On June 15, 1858, the fanatic Mahommedans rose 
 and massacred twenty-six of the Christian inhabitants, among them the English and French 
 consuls and part of their families ; but many tied to the shipping. On the delay of justice, 
 commodore PuUen bombarded the town, July 25 and 26. On Aug. 6, eleven of the assassins 
 ■were executed ; the ringleaders also were afterwards executed. 
 
 JEDDO, on Yeddo, the capital of Japan, on the island of Niphon, contains about 
 2,000,000 inhabitants. The emperor's palace is said to have a hall of audience supported by 
 pillars of massive gold, and three towers, each nine stories high, covered with gold plates. 
 On Dec. 23, 1854, and Nov. 11, 1855, severe earthquakes occurred : during the latter, 
 57 temples, 100,000 houses, and about 30,000 persons were destroyed. See Japan. 
 
 JE MAINTIENDRAI, "I will maintain." The motto of the house of Nassau. "V\Ticn 
 William III. came to the thi'one of England, he continued this, but added " the liberties of 
 England and the Protestant religion," at the same time ordering that the old motto of the 
 royal amis, "Dieu et moii droit,'''' should be retained on the great seal, 1689. 
 
 JEMAPPES (N.W. Belgium), the site of the tirst pitched battle gained by the French 
 republicans (under Dumouriez), in wdiich 40,000 French troops forced 19,000 Austrians, who 
 ■were entrenched in woods and mountains, defended by redoubts and many cannon, Nov. 6, 
 1792. The number killed on each side was reckoned at 5000. 
 
 JENA AND AuEESTADT (Central Germany), -where two battles were fought, Oct. 14, 1806, 
 between the French and Prussians. The French were commanded at Jena hy Napoleon, and 
 at Auerstadt by Davoust : the Prussians by prince Hohenlohe at the former place, and the 
 king of Prussia at the latter. The Prussians were defeated, losing nearly 20,000 killed and 
 wounded, and nearly as many prisoners, and 200 field-pieces ; the French lost 14,000 men. 
 Napoleon advanced to Berlin, and issued the Berlin decree {ichich see). 
 
 JENNEEIAN INSTITUTION, founded 1803. See Vaccination. 
 
 JERSEY. The chief island of the channel archipelago (which includes Guernsey, Sark, 
 Alderney, &c.), formerly held bj'^ the Romans in the 3rd and 4th centuries after Christ — 
 Jersey being termed Cwsarea. The isles were captured by Rollo, and thus became an 
 appanage of tlie duchy of Nomiandy, and were united to the crown of England by his 
 descendant, William the Conqueror. The inhabitants of the Channel Islands preferred to 
 remain subjects of king John, at the period of the conquest of Normandy by Philip 
 Augustus, and while retaining the laws, customs, and (until lately) the language of their 
 continental ancestors, have always remained firm in their allegiance to England. Almost every 
 war with France has been characterised by an attack on Jersey, the most successful of which, 
 under the baron de Rullecour, was defeated by the English garrison and Jersey militia, 
 commanded by major Pierson, Jan. 6, 1781. Mr. J. Bertrand Payne, in his "Armorial 
 of Jersey" and his "Gossiping Guide" has exhaustively treated the general and family 
 history of the island. The population of the isles in 1861, was 91,147. 
 
 JERUSALEM, called also Salem, 1913B.C. (Gen.xiv. 18). Its king was slain by Joshua, 
 145 1 B.C. It -tt'as taken by David, 1048 B.C., who dwelt in the fort, calling it the city of 
 David. See Jeics. 
 
 'J'he first temple founded by Solomon, 1012 B.C. ; | Jerusalem taken from the Christians by Saladin 1187 
 
 and solemnly dedicated on Friday . Oct. 30, 1004 By the Turks, who drive away the Saracens, 
 
 Jerusalem taken and razed to the ground by 1217 & 1239 
 
 Titus : more than 1,100,000 of the Jews I Surrendered to the emperor Frederic II. by 
 
 perished . . . . a.d. Sept. 8, 70 treaty 1228 
 
 A city (called iEIia) built on the ruins by Julius Taken by the Turks 1517 
 
 Soverus, in the time of Adrian . . . 130 Held by the French under Bonaparte Feb. 1799 
 
 The walls rebuilt by the empress Eudoxia . 437 i The protestant bishopric of Jerusalem erected, 
 
 Jerusalem taken by tlie Persians, 614 ; by the I under the protection of Great Britain and 
 
 Saracens, 637 ; and by the Crusaders, when I Prussia ; S. M. S. Alexander con.secrated 
 
 70,000 infidels wei'e put to the sword ; a new | bishop ...... Nov. 7, 1841 
 
 kingdom founded . . . July 15, logg ■ Jerusalem and the neighbourhood was sur- 
 
 Tl;e " assize of Jerusalem," a code of laws, es- I veyed bj' a party of royal engineers between 
 
 t.ibhshed by Godfrey of Bouillon . . . iioo ' Sept. 1864 & June, 1865 
 
 CIiniSTIAN KINGS OF JERUSALEM. 
 
 Codfrey of Bouillon 1099 Sibyl, then his son Baldwin V T185 
 
 Baldwin 1 1100 Guy de Lusignaii 1186 
 
 lialdwin II 11 18 ] Henry of Champagne 1192 
 
 Kulk of Anjou ....... 1131 AniMuri de Lusignan . . . . . . 1197 
 
 Baldwin III 1144 I Jeanne de Brienne 1210 
 
 Amauri (or AlmericJ 1162 Emperor Frederic II 1229-39 
 
 Baldwin IV 1173 i 
 
 "JERUSALEM DELIVERED," the great Italian epic, by Tasso, was published in 1580. 
 
JES 
 
 409 
 
 JEW 
 
 JESTER is described as "a witty and jocose person, kept by princes to inform them of 
 tlieir faults, and those of other men, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of our 
 kings, particularly the Tudors, kept jesters. Eayhere, the founder of St. Bartholomew's 
 ]iriory. West Smithfield, Loudon, 1133, is said to have been a court jester and minstrel. 
 There was a jester at court in the reigns of James I. and Charles L, but we hear of no 
 licensed jester afterwards. 
 
 JESUITS, the society or company of Jesus, was fou'nded by Ignatius Loyola, a page to 
 Ferdinand V. of Spain, subse([uently an officer iia his army,, and afterwards canonised. 
 Having been wounded in both legs at the siege of Pampeluna, in 1521, he devoted himself 
 to theology, arid renounced the military for the ecclesiastical profession. He dedicated his 
 life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and on his 
 return laid the foundation- of his society at Paris, Aug. 16, 1534. He presented its insti- 
 tutes, in 1539, to pope Paul III., who made many objections ; but Ignatius adding to the 
 vows of chastity, poverty, -and- obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the holy see, 
 the institution was confirmed. by a bull, Sept. 27, 1540 ; the number of members was not to 
 exceed sixty. That restriction was taken off by another bull, March 14, 1543 ; and popes 
 Julius III., Pius v., and Gregory XIII. granted great privileges. Francis Xaviei', and other 
 missionaries, the first brothers, carried the order to the extremities of the habitable globe, 
 but it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly in Paris. See Paraguay and 
 Jaiiscnists. 
 
 Abolished by Clenaent XIV. (at the meeting of 
 the Bourbon sovereigns) . . July 21, 1773 
 
 Restored by Pius VI. .... Aug. 7, 1814 
 
 Expelled from — Belgiiim, 1818; Russia, 1820; 
 Siaain, 1820, 1835 ; France, 1831, 1845 ; Por- 
 tugal, 1834 ; Sardinia, Austria, aiad other 
 states, 1848 ; Italy and Sicily . . . i860 
 
 The chief of the order appeals to the king of 
 Sardinia for redress of grievances . Oct. 24, „ 
 
 The society condemned by the Sorbonne, Paris, 
 1554 ; expelled from France, 1594 ; re-ad- 
 mitted, 1604 ; but after several decrees is 
 totally suppressed in France and its pro- 
 perty confiscated 1764 
 
 Ordered by parliament to be expelled from 
 England, 1579, 1581, 1586, 1602 ; and finally 
 by the Relief Act in 1829 
 
 Expelled from — Venice, 1607; Holland, 1708; 
 Portugal, 1759; Spain 1767 
 
 JESUIT'S BARK, called by tlie Spaniards fever- wood ; discovered, it is said, by a Jesuit, 
 about 1535 (and used by the order). It is taken from the cinchona or chinchona tree. Its 
 virtues were not generally known till 1633, when it cured of fever, the lady of the viceroy 
 at Peru. It was sold at one period for its weight in silver, and was introduced into France 
 in 1649 ; and it is said to have cured Louis XIV. of fever when he was dauphin. It came 
 into general use in 1680, and sir Hans Sloane introduced it here about 1700. The cinchona 
 ]">lant was largely planted in the Neilgherry hills, India, in 1861, and is thriving greatly. 
 See Quinine. 
 
 JESUS CHRIST, the Saviour of the Woeld, stated to have been born on Monday, 
 Dec. 25, A.M., 4004, in the year of Rome, 752 ; but this event should be dated four years 
 before the commencement of the common era. See Nativity. The following dates are given 
 by ecclesiastical writers. Christ's baptism by John, and. his first ministry, A.D. 30. He 
 celebrated the last passover, and instituted the sacrament- on Thursday, April 2, 33 ; was 
 crucified on Friday, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon' ; arose April 5 ; ascended to 
 heaven from Mount Olivet on Thursday, May 14; and the Hoh' Spirit descended on his 
 disciples on' Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24. The divinity of Christ, denied by the 
 Arians, was affirmed by the council of Nice, 325. 
 
 JEWELLERY, worn by most of the early nations. Pliny the elder, says he saw LoUia 
 Paulina (the most beautiful woman of her time, and wife of Caius Csesar, and afterwards of 
 Caligula) wearing ornaments which were valued at 322,916^. sterling. Jewels were worn in 
 France by Agnes Sorel in 1434, and extensively encouraged in England about 1685. The 
 standard of gold for jewellery was lowered by parliament in 1854. 
 
 JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucidse until the 15th 
 century, when a new mode of computing was adopted. They date from the creation, which 
 they consider to have been 3760 years and 3 months before the commencement of our era. 
 To reduce Jewish time to ours, subtract 3761 years. 
 
 JEWS, a people who derive tlieir origin from Abraham, with whom God made a. covenant, 
 1898, B.C. -Gen. xvii. 
 
 The male children of the Israelites thro-svn into 
 the Nile; Moses born . . . .B.C. 1571 
 
 The Passover instituted. The Israehtes go out 
 of Egypt, and cross the Red Sea . . . 1491 
 
 The law promulgated from Moimt. Sinai . . „ 
 
 CallofAbram. B.C. 7921 
 
 Isaac bom to Abraham .... 1896 
 
 Birth of Esau and Jacob 1837 
 
 Death of Abraham 1822 
 
 oseph sold into Egypt 1729 
 
JEW 
 
 410 
 
 JEW 
 
 JEWS, continued. 
 
 The tabernacle set up . . . . B.C. 1490 
 Joshvia leads the Israelite.s into Canaan . . 1451 
 The first bondage (Othniel, 1405) . . . . 1413 
 The second bondage (Ehud, 132J) . . . 1343 
 The third bondnge (Deborah and Barak, 1285) . 1305 
 The fourth bondage (Gideon, 1245) . . . 1252 
 The fifth bondage (Jephthah, 1187J . . . 1206 
 
 The sixth bondage 11 57 
 
 Samson slays the Philistines . . . .1136 
 Samuel governs as judge, about . . . . 1120 
 Samson pulls down the temple of Dagon . . 11 17 
 
 Saul made king 1095 
 
 David slays Goliath, about 1063 
 
 Death of Saul ; David made king . . . . 1055 
 David besieges and takes Jerusalem, and makes 
 
 it his capital 1048 
 
 Solomon lays the foundation of the temple . . 1012 
 
 AVhich is dedicated 1004 
 
 Death of Solomon ; the kingdom divided . . 975 
 
 KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. 
 
 Jeroboam establishes idolatry .... 975 
 Bethel taken from Jeroboam ; 500,000 Israel- 
 ites slain 937 
 
 Israel aff icted with the famine predicted by 
 
 Elijah 906 
 
 The Syrians besiege Samaria . . . . 901 j 
 
 Elijah" translated to heaven .... 896 j 
 
 Miracles of Elisha the prophet . . . . 895 
 
 The Assyrian invasion under Phul . . . 771 
 
 Pekah besieges Jerusalem 741 
 
 Samaria taken by the king of Assyria : the ten 
 tribes are carried into captivity, and an end 
 
 is put to the kingdom of Israel . . . 721 
 
 KINGDOM OF JPDAH. 
 
 Shishak, king of Egypt, takes Jerusalem, and 
 pillages the temple 971 
 
 Abijah defeats the king of Israel ; 50,000 men 
 are slain in battle . . . . . -957 
 
 Hazael desolates Judah 857 
 
 Pekah, king of Israel, lays siege to Jerusalem ; 
 120,000 of the men of Judah are slain in one 
 day 741 
 
 Sennacherib invades Judea, but the destroying 
 angel enters the camp of the Assyrians, and 
 in one night destroys 185,000 of them . . 710 
 
 Holofernes is kiUed at the siege of Bethulia by 
 Judith 656 
 
 In repairing the temple, Hilki:ih discovers the 
 book of the law, and Josiah keeps a solemn 
 Passover 624 
 
 2v ebuchadnezTiar invades Judea .... 605 
 
 He besieges Jerusalem 599 
 
 He again invades Judea, and takes Jerusalem 
 after a long siege 588 
 
 Jei-usalera fired, the temple burnt, the walls 
 razed to the ground, and the city reduced to 
 ashes 587 
 
 KINGS. 
 
 Saul began to reign 
 David ,, 
 
 Solomon ,, 
 
 B.C. Kings of Judah. 
 975. Rehoboam . 
 958. Abijah . 
 955. Asa . 
 
 953- .1 
 
 930. „ 
 
 929. „ 
 
 925- » 
 
 918. „ 
 
 914. Jehoshaphat 
 
 897. . . . 
 
 889. Jehoram 
 885. Ahaziah. 
 
 PROPHETS. 
 
 B.C. 1095 Samuel. 
 . . 1055 Nathan. 
 . 1015 
 
 Kinns ofhrael. 
 Jeroboam I. 
 
 Nadab (954) 
 Baasha ,, . 
 Elah 
 Zimri . 
 Omri , 
 Ahab . 
 
 Ahijah. 
 
 Azariah. 
 Hanani. 
 Jehu. 
 
 EUjah. 
 Elisha. 
 
 Ahaziah 
 T'^'j-JSSi. '^^Ijahaziel. 
 
 Kingx of Judah. 
 Athaliah . 
 j Joash or Je- ) 
 I hoahaz. j 
 
 840. Amaziah 
 
 ( Uzziah or 
 
 \ 
 
 Azariah 
 784 
 
 773- .. 
 
 772- ., 
 
 761. ,, 
 
 759- „ 
 
 758. Jotham 
 742. Ahaz. 
 730. ,, 
 726. Hezekiah 
 
 698. Manasseh. 
 643. Anion 
 641. Josiah . 
 
 ( Jehoahaz ) 
 610.' i (Shalhim), \ 
 
 ( Jehoiakim. j 
 
 ( Jehoakin 
 
 1 
 
 Kings of Israel. 
 Jehu. 
 
 Jehoahaz. 
 Jehoash (839) 
 Jeroboam II. 
 
 Anarchy. 
 Zechariah. . 
 
 ( Shallum. 
 
 \ Menahem. 
 Pekahiah. 
 Pekah. 
 
 Hoshea. 
 f • [Captivity, 
 \ 721] 
 
 Prophets. 
 
 Jonah. 
 
 IHosea. 
 Amos. 
 
 , JoeL 
 
 S Isaiah and 
 Micah. 
 
 • Xahum. 
 
 599- 
 
 (Conia! 
 Zedekiah 
 
 aKITFl. / 
 
 in ) 
 ah), [ 
 iiah ) 
 
 . Jeremiah. 
 . Zephaniah. 
 
 . Habakkuk. 
 
 Daniel. 
 Ezekiel. 
 
 BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY. 
 
 Daniel prophesies at Babylon . . . B.C. 603 
 Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego, refusing 
 to worship the golden image, are cast into a 
 fiery furnace, but are delivered by the angel 587 
 
 Obadiah prophesies ,, 
 
 Daniel declares the meaning of the handwriting 
 
 against Belshazzar 538 
 
 He is cast into the lions' den ; he prophesies 
 the return from captivity, and the coming of 
 the Messiah „ 
 
 RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY. 
 
 CjTUS, sovereign of all xVsia, pubUshes an edict 
 for the return of the Jews and rebuilding 
 
 of the temple 536 
 
 Haggai and Zechariah prophets . . . . 520 
 The second temple finished . March 10, 515 
 
 The Jews deUvered from Haman by Esther . 510 
 Ezra, the priest, arrives in Jerusalem to refonn 
 
 abuses 458 
 
 Here begin the 70 weeks of years predicted by 
 Daniel, being 490 years before the crucifixion 
 
 of the Redeemer 457 
 
 The walls of Jerusalem built 445 
 
 Malachi the prophet 415 
 
 [The Scripture Mstory of the Jews ends, accord- 
 ing to Eusebius, in 442 B.C. ; and from this 
 time Josephus and the Roman historians give 
 the best account of the Jews.] 
 
 THE GRECIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Alexander the Great passes out of Europe into 
 Asia 
 
 He marches against Jerusalem to besiege it, but 
 it is said, on seeing Jaddus, the high-priest, 
 clad in his robes, he declares he had seen 
 such a figure in a vision in Macedonia, invit- 
 ing him to A.'iia, and promising to deliver the 
 Persian empire into his hands ; he now goes 
 to the temple, and offers sacrifices to the God 
 of the Jews 332 
 
 Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter . . . 320 
 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus said to employ 72 Jews 
 to translate the Scriptures 277 
 
 Antiochus takes Jerusalem, pillages the temple, 
 and slaj's 40,000 of the inhabitants . . 170 
 
 Government of the Maccabees begins . . . 166 
 
 335 
 
JEW 
 
 411 
 
 JEW 
 
 JEWS, continued. 
 Treaty with the Romans ; the first on record 
 
 with the Jews B.C. i6i 
 
 Judas Hyrcanns assumes the title of "king of 
 
 the Jews" 107 
 
 Jerusalem taken by the Roman legions under 
 
 Pompey 63 
 
 ■ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Antipater made intendant of Judsea by Julius 
 
 Caisar 49 
 
 Herod, son of Antipater, man-ies Miriamno, 
 
 daughter of the king 42 
 
 Invasion of the Parthians 40 
 
 Herod employs the aid of the senate ; they 
 
 decree him to be the king . . . . „ 
 Jerusalem taken by Herod, and by the Roman 
 
 general Sosius 37 
 
 Herod rebuilds the temple . . . .18 
 
 Jesus Christ, the long-expected Messiah, is 
 said to be born on Monday, Dec. 25, four years 
 before the common era . . . a.d. 4 
 Pontius Pilate is made procurator of Judea . 26 
 John the Baptist begins to preach . . . ,, 
 
 John the Baptist beheaded 31 
 
 Christ's ministry and miracles .... 31-33 
 The crucifixion and resurrection of the Re- 
 deemer 33 
 
 The Jews persecuted for refusing to worship 
 
 Caligula . .38 
 
 Receive the right of Roman citizenship . . 41 
 Claudius banishes Jews from Rome ... 50 
 Titus takes Jerusalem ; the city and temple are 
 sacked and burnt, aiid 1,100,000 of the Jews 
 perish, multitudes destroying themselves . 70 
 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem (calling it jElia 
 
 Capitolina), and erects a temple to Jupiter . 130 
 Rebellion of Bar-cochba ; final desolation of 
 
 Judea 135-136 
 
 More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain by the 
 
 Romans in 135-136 
 
 [They are now banished from Judea by an edict 
 of the emperor, and are forbidden to return, 
 or even to look back upon their once flourish- 
 ing and beloved city, on pain of death. From 
 this period, the Jews have been scattered 
 among all other nations.] 
 
 GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Jews first arrive in England .... 1078 
 
 The Rabbi Maimonides lives about . . . ,, 
 
 The Jews massacred in London, on the corona- 
 tion day of Richard I., at the instigation of 
 the priests 1189 
 
 500 Jews besieged in York castle by the mob, 
 cut each other's throats to avoid their fury . iigo 
 
 Jews of both sexes imprisoned ; their eyes or 
 teeth plucked out, and numbers inhumanly 
 butchered, by king John 1204 
 
 They circumcise and attempt to crucify a child 
 at Norwich ; the offenders are condemned in 
 a fine of 20,000 marks ..... 1235 
 
 They crucify a child at Lincoln, for which 
 i8arehanged 1255 
 
 700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew having 
 forced a Christian to pay him more than 2s. 
 per week as interest on a loan of 20s. Stow. 1262 
 
 Statute that no Jew should enjoy a freehold, 
 passed 1269 
 
 Every Jew lending money on interest com- 
 pelled to wear a plate on his breast, signi- 
 fying that he was a usurer, or to quit the 
 realm. Stow 1274 
 
 267 Jews hanged and quartered for clipping 
 coin . . _ 1278 
 
 15,660 Jews banished from England. Rapin. . 1290 
 
 Jluch pill.iged and persecuted in France during 
 the 14th and 15th centuries. 
 
 A fatal distemper raging in Europe ; they are 
 suspected of having poisoned the springs, and 
 numbers are massacred: Lenglet. . . a.h. 1348 
 Jews are banished from Spain, Portugal, and 
 France (considered by thena as great a cala- 
 mity as the destruction of Jerusalem) . 1492-94 
 
 Edicts against Jews rescinded by pope Six- 
 tus V 1588 
 
 Jews favoured in Holland 1603 
 
 After having been banished England 370 years, 
 they are permitted to return by Cromwell, 
 who gi-ants a pension to Manasseh Ben Israel 1657 
 
 Statute to compel them to maintain their pro- 
 testant children enacted .... 1702 
 
 Jews acquire right to possess land in England 1723 
 
 Bill to naturalise the professors of the Jewish 
 religion in Ireland (where 200 Jews then re- 
 sided) refused the royal assent . . . . 1746 
 
 Statute to naturalise them passed . . . 1753 
 
 This act repealed on the petition of all the cities 
 in England 1754 
 
 The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avignon are 
 declared to be citizens of France . . . 1790 
 
 Sitting of the great Sanhedrim of Paris con- 
 vened by the emperor Napoleon Sept. 18, 1806 
 
 London society for promoting Christianity 
 anaong the Jews 1808 
 
 Alexander of Russia grants land on the sea of 
 Azofih to converted Jews . . Sept. i, 1820 
 
 Mr. David Salomons elected sheriff of London 
 (the first Jewish one) ; an act passed to enable 
 him to act June 24, 1835 
 
 Bill for Jewish emancipation in England lost 
 on the second reading by a majority in the 
 commons, 228 against 165 . . May 17, 1836 
 
 Moses Montefiore, esq. , elected sheriff' of Lon- 
 don, and knighted by the queen, being the 
 first Jew on whom that honour has been con- 
 ferred Nov 9, 1837 
 
 Ukase of the emperor of Russia, permitting the 
 title of citizen of the first class to be held by 
 any Jew who renders himself worthy of it . 1839 
 
 Owing to the disappeai-ance of a Greek priest, 
 a persecution of the Jews began at Damascus. 
 (See Damascus) ..... Feb. i, 1840 
 
 Act to relieve Jews elected to municipal offices 
 from taking oaths, (fee, 9 Vict. . . . 1846 
 
 Baron Lionel de Rothschild* returned to par- 
 liament for the city of London by a majority 
 of 6619 votes ; his opponent, lord John Man- 
 ners, polling only 3104 . . . July 3, 1849 
 
 Alderman Salomons* elected member for 
 Greenwich June 28, 1851 
 
 The Jews' Oaths of Abjtiration bill passed the 
 house of commons .... July 3, ,, 
 
 Baron Rothschild again returned for the city of 
 London at the general elections, July, 1852 ; 
 March, 1857; July, 1857; and . July, 1865 
 
 Violent outbreak against the Jews in Stock- 
 holm Sept, 3, 1852 
 
 The Jewish Oath bill passed in commons, April 
 15 ; thrown out in the lords . . April 29, 1853 
 
 Alderman Salomons the first Jewish lord mayor 
 of London Nov. g, 1855 
 
 The Jewish Oath bill several times passed in 
 the commons and thrown out in the lords . 1854-7 
 
 Edgar Mortara, a Jewish child, forcibly taken 
 from his parents by order of the archbishop 
 of Bologna, on the plea of having been bap- 
 tized when an infant by a Roman Catholic 
 maid-servant .... June 24, 1858 
 
 An act passed enabling Jews to sit in parha- 
 ment by resolution of the house . July, ,, 
 
 Baron Lionel de Rothschild takes his seat as 
 M. P. for London on . . . July 26, „t 
 
 The French government having in vain urged 
 Mortara's restoration to his parents, sir Moses 
 
 * Neither were permitted to .sit. 
 
 + To commemorate this event the baron endowed a scholarship in the City of London School. 
 
JOA 412 JUA 
 
 JEWS, continued. 
 
 Montefiore proceeds to Rome (Ijut obtains no ; Oppressivelawsagaiustthe Jews in the Austrian 
 
 redi-ess) Dec. 22, 1858 i empire annulled . . . Jan. 6, 10, i860 
 
 Alderman Salomons elected M P. for Greenwich, Act passed permitting Jewish M.P.'s to omit 
 
 and baron Meyer de Rothschild for Hythe, I from the oath the words "on the faith of a 
 
 Feb. 15, 1859I Christian" Aug. 6, „ 
 
 Protest respecting the seizure of the boy Mor- 1 Additional political privileges' granted to the 
 
 ■ ' <■ -^ ^ - Jews in Russia, Jan. 26 ; and in Poland, June, 1862 
 
 Jews persecuted at Rome .... Dec. 1864 
 Alderman Benjamin Samuel Phillips, second 
 Jewish lord mayor .... Nov. 9, 1865 
 
 tara signed at London by the abp. of Cantor- 
 bury, and bishops, noblemen, and gentlemen, 
 sent to the French ambassador, Oct. ; and 
 presented to lord John Russell . Nov. 
 
 JOAN OF ARC, the maid of Orlean.s, was born at Domremy. The English under the 
 duke of Bedford closely besieging Orleans, Joan of Arc pretended that she had a divine 
 commission to expel them, and Charles VII. entrusted lier with the command of the French 
 troops. She raised the siege and entered Orleans with supplies, April 29, 1429 ; and the 
 English, who were before the jdace from Oct. 12 preceding, abandoned the enterprise May 8 
 following. She captured several towns in the posses.sion of the English, whom she defeated 
 in a battle near Patay, June 18, 1429. In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty 
 ever stained her conduct. She was wounded several times herself, but never shed any blood 
 with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, May 25, 1430 ; and, to the 
 great disgrace of the EnglLsh, after a trial, was burnt for a witch at Rouen, May 30, 1431. 
 A statue of Joan of Arc, chiselled by the late princess Marie of France, was inaugurated at 
 Orleans, Sept. 13, 185 1, and the 435th anniversary of its deliverance was celebrated in the 
 same city on May 14, 1865. See Patay, Battle of. 
 
 JOCKEY CLUB, instituted in the reign of Charles II., is mentioned in Heber's 
 "Racing Calendar," 1758. 
 
 JOHN, ST., Knights of. See Malta. 
 
 JOHN'S, ST. See Newfoundland, Cambridge, and Oxford.. 
 
 JOHN'S GATE, ST., St. John's-square, Clerkenwell, London, a fine vestige of monastic 
 bviilding, was the gate of the priory of St. John of Jerusalem (suppressed in 1540), and was 
 the place where the Gentleman s Magazine was first published, Slarch 6, 1731. The house 
 was often visited by Dr. Johnson, Garrick, and their friends. 
 
 JOHN DOE AND Richard Roe, names well known, as standing pledges for the prose- 
 cution of suits. In early times real and substantial persons were required to pledge them- 
 selves to answer to the crown for an amercement or fine set upon the plaintiff, for raising a 
 false accusation, if he brought an action without cause, or failed in it. And in 1285, 
 13 Edw. I. sheriffs and bailiff's were, before they made deliverance of the distress, to receive 
 ] iledges for the pursuing the suit, and for the return of- the beasts, if return were awarded. 
 But this becoming a matter of form, the fictitious names of Doe and Roe were used until the 
 form was declared to be no longer necessary by the Common Law Procedure Act, 1852. 
 
 JOHN O'GROAT'S HOUSE, an ancient house formerly situated on Duncan's Bay 
 Head, the most northerly point in Great Britain, deriving its name from John of Groat, or 
 CJroot, and his brothers, originally from Holland, said to have settled here about 1489.* 
 
 JOHNSON'S CLUB. Sec Literary Club. 
 
 JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES (good and bad) have been very numerous during the 
 present century (especially in 1825 and 1846). Many acts have been passed for their 
 legulation ; the most important in 1857 and 1858. t See Companies and Limited Liability. 
 
 JOURNALS. See Newspapers. 
 
 JOURNALS, THE, of the House of Commons, commenced in 1547, first ordered to be 
 printed in 1752, when 5000?. were allowed to Mr. Hardinge for the execution of the work. 
 The journals of the Hoxtse of Peers (commencing 1509) were ordered to be printed in 1767. 
 
 JUAN FERNANDEZ, an island in the Pacific, named from its discoverer in 1567. 
 Alexander Selkirk, a native of Scotland, was left on shore here by his captain for mutiny in 
 1 705. He lived alone more than four years, till he was discovered by captain Rogers in 1 709. 
 
 * This house was of an octagon shape, being one room, with eight windows and eight doors, to admit 
 eight members of the family, the heads of different branches of it, to prevent their quarrels for precedence 
 at table, which on a previous occasion had nigh proved fatal. Each came in by this contrivance at his own 
 door, and sat at an octagon table, at which, of course, there was no chief place or head. 
 
 \ An important act for the incorporatimi, regulation, and winding-up of trading companies and other 
 associations was passed in 1862. 
 
JUB 
 
 413 
 
 JUL 
 
 From his narrative De Foe is said to have derived his Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, 
 published in 17 19. 
 
 JUBILEES. Tlie Jews were commanded to celebrate a jubilee every fifty years, 
 1491 B.C. {Lev. XXV. 8). Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by 
 pope Boniface VIII. in the year 1300. In the i6th century it was celebrated every fifty 
 yeai's by command of pope Clement VI. ; and was afterwards reduced by Urban VI. to 
 every thirty- third year ; and by Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year. 
 
 Shalspeare's JuhiUe, projected by David Gar- 
 rick, was celebrated at Shakspeare's birth- 
 place, Stratford-on-Avon . Sept. 6, 7, 8, 1769 
 
 Another Shakspeare festival at Stratford, 
 
 April 23, 1836 
 
 National jubilee in England on account of 
 
 George III. entering into the 50th j'ear of 
 
 his reign • . Oct. 25, 1809 
 
 Jubilee in celebration of the general peace, and 
 of the centenary of the accession of the 
 Brunswick family .... Aug. i, 1814 
 
 JUDAH. See Jews. 
 
 JUDGES appointed by God, when the Israelites were in bondage, ruled from 1402 B.C. 
 till the election of Saul as king, 1095. See Jews, Justices, Circuits, Lords Justices, and Vice- 
 Chancellors. 
 
 Judges punished for bribeiy, and Thomas de 
 Weyland banished 1289 
 
 William de Thorp hanged for bribery . -1351 
 
 John de Cavendish beheaded by the Kentish 
 rebels 1382 
 
 Tresylian, chief justice, executed for favouring 
 despotism, and other judges condemned . 1388 
 
 The prince of Wales said to have been com- 
 mitted by judge Gascoigne for assaulting him 
 on the bench 1412 
 
 Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, beheaded, 
 
 July 6, T53S 
 
 Judges threatened with impeachment, and 
 Berkeley taken off the bench and committed 
 by the commons, on a charge of treason, 
 
 Feb. 13, 1641 
 
 Three judges impeached 1680 
 
 Judge Jefferies committed by the lord mayor 
 
 to the tower, where he died .... 1689 
 The judge's office made tenable for life (during 
 
 good behaviour) instead of duringthe pleasiire 
 
 of the crown (by 13 Will. III. c. 2) . . . 1702 
 Their commissions made permanent, not^vith- 
 
 standing the demise of the crown (bv i Geo. 
 
 III. e. 23) ' . . 1761 
 
 Three additional judges appointed, one to each 
 
 law court, 1784; and again in . . . . 1830 
 A new judge took his seat as vice-chancellor, 
 
 May 5, 1813 
 Two new vice-chancellors appointed . . . 1841 
 A third vice chancellor and two new chancery 
 
 judges (styled lords-justices) appointed . 1851 
 
 JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the Privy Council. See Privy Council. 
 
 JUDICIAL SEPARATIOlSr of married persons may now be decreed by the Divorce 
 court, established by act of parliament in 1857. The persons separated may not 
 marry again. 
 
 JUGGERNAUT, or "Lord of the World," one of the incarnations of Krishna, is an idol 
 formed of an irregular pyramidal black stone, with two rich diamonds to represent eyes ; 
 the nose and mouth are painted vermilion. The number of pilgrims that visit the god is 
 stated at 1,200,000 annually ; some are crushed by the wheels of the car (so lately as Aug. 
 1864) ; a great many never return ; and, to the distance of fifty miles, the way is strewed 
 with human bones. The temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. The state 
 allowance to the temple was suspended by the Indian government in June, 1851. 
 
 JUGURTHIjSTE war. Jugurtha murdered his cousin Hiempsal, king of Numidia, 
 and usurped his throne, 11 8 b. c. He gave him a share in the government, but killed him 
 in H2. He then provoked the Romans to war. Csecilius Metellus was first sent against 
 him, and defeated him in two battles ; and Marius brought him in chains to Rome to 
 adorn his triumph, 106 B.C., where he was put to death in 104. This war has been 
 immortalised by the pen of Sallust. 
 
 JULIAN PERIOD (invented by Joseph Scaliger, about 1583), a term of years produced 
 by the multiplication of the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It 
 consists of 7980 years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in 
 computing time to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period 
 antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mundane eras 
 used at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian period, our era is found; 
 if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from 4714. For Julian era, see Calendar 
 and Year. 
 
 JULIERvS, a Prussian province ; was made a duchy in 1356 ; became the subject of 
 contention on the extinction of the ruliug family in 1609 ; was allotted to Neuburg in 
 1659 ; seized by the French in 1794 ; and ceded to Prussia in 1815. 
 
JUL Hi JUS 
 
 i 
 
 JULY, the seventh, originally fifth, Roman month, named bj"^ Marc Antony from Julius, 
 the surname of Caesar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. 
 
 JUXE, the sixth month, owes its name to Junius, which some derive from Juno, and 
 others from Juniorcs, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons. 
 Ovid, in his Fasti, introduces Juno as claiming this month. 
 
 JUNIUS'S LETTERS hegan in the Public Advertiser, Jan. 21, 1769.* 
 
 JUNKER PARTY (Junker; German for young nolle), a term applied to the aristocratic 
 party in Prussia, now in power under Otho von Bismarck-Schonhausen, appointed jnime 
 minister Oct. 9, 1862. Their political organ is the Kreuz-Zcitung. 
 
 JUNO, the planet, discovered by M. Harding, of Lilienthal, near Bremen, Sept. I, 1804. 
 Its distance from the sun is 254 millions of miles, and it accomplishes its revolutions in four 
 years and 128 days, at the rate of nearl}?^ 42,000 miles an hour. Its diameter is estimated 
 by German astronomers at 1424 English miles. 
 
 JUNONI A. Festivals in honour of Juno, celebrated at Rome, and instituted 43 1 b. c. 
 
 JUPITER, known as a planet to the Chaldeans, it is said 3000 B.C. The discovery of 
 the satellites is attributed to Simon Mayr (Marius) in 1609, but more generally to 
 Galileo on Jan. 8, 1610. See Planets. Jupiter Ammon's celebrated temple in Libya 
 was visited by Alexander, 332 B.C. Cambyses' arm}' sent against this temple perished 
 miserably, 525 B.C. 
 
 JURIDICAL SOCIETY was established in Feb. 1855, and opened with an address by 
 sir R. Bethell on May 12 following. 
 
 JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon heptarchy, 
 mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen appointed to try causes 
 between the English and Welsh men of property, and made responsible, with their whole 
 estates real and personal, for false verdicts. Lambard. But by most authorities their 
 institution is ascribed to Alfred about 886. In Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the 
 great bulwark of the people's liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be 
 one half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edw. III. 1353. By the common 
 law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal might challenge peremptorily thirty-five, being 
 under three juries ; but a lord of parliament, and a peer of the realm, who is to be tried bj' 
 his peers, cannot challenge any of his peers. An act for the trial by jury in civil cases in 
 Scotland Avas passed in 1815. An act to consolidate and amend the laws relating to juries 
 in Ireland was passed 4 Will. IV. 1833. The constitution of 1 791 established the trial by 
 jury in France. An imperial decree abolished trial by jury throughout the Austrian 
 empire, Jan. 15, i852.t 
 
 "JUSTE MILIEU," according to Louis- Philippe (in 1830), is the only principle of 
 government which can secure the welfare of France. 
 
 JUSTICES OF THE Peace are local magistrates, invested with extensive powers in 
 minor cases, but subject to supersession and punishment by the King's Bench for an abuse of 
 their aiithority. They were first nominated by William I. in 1076, Stoio. Persons termed 
 conservators of the peace in each county were appointed by i Edw. III. c. 2, 1327 ; and their 
 duties were defined in 1360. The form of a commission of the peace settled by the judges, 
 23 Eliz. 1580. Hawkins. See Eyre. 
 
 JUSTICES, LORDS, were appointed by English sovereigns to govern during their 
 absence. Two lords justices of the court of appeal in chancery were appointed to give more 
 efficiency to the administration of justice in the court of chancery, having rank next after 
 
 * They have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William Gerard Hamilton, commonly called Single-speech 
 Hamilton, John Wilkes, Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Eosenhagen, 
 John Koberts, Charles Lloyd, Samuel Dyer, general Lee, the duke of Portl.and, Hugh Boyd, lord George 
 Sackville, and sir Philip Francis. The last-named is generally considered to have been the author. Junius 
 said, " I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall perish with me." 
 
 t Coercion of Juries. — About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used to feed the jury em- 
 paniieled in their action, and hence arose the common law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing 
 of the evidence. A jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree upon a 
 verdict ; and may be confined without meat, drink, or fire, candlelight excepted, till they are unanimous. 
 — Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of 
 their verdict, though they did not eat it. Leon. Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able to agree, and 
 having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the court where they were locked up, and went 
 home, Oct. 9, 1791. Phillips. In Scotland, Guernsey, Jersey, and France, juries decide by a majority ; in 
 France, since 1831, a majority of two-thirds is required. 
 
JUS 
 
 415 
 
 KAL 
 
 tlie chief baron of the exchequer, from Oct. i, 185 1. The rt. hon. J. L. Knight-Bruce and 
 lord Cranworth (afterwards lord chancellor) were the first lords justices ; the latter was 
 succeeded by sir G. J. Turner in 1853. 
 
 JUSTICIAES. In ancient times the kings of England used to hear and determine causes ; 
 but it is declared by law that if the king cannot determine every controversy, he, to ease 
 himself, may divide the laboiir among persons, men of wisdom and fearing God, and out of 
 such to appoint judges. The Saxon kings of England appointed a judge after this manner, 
 who was, in fact, tlie king's deputy. After the N"orman conquest, the person invested with 
 that power had the style of Capitcdis Jitsticicc, or Justiciarius Anglice. These judges con- 
 tinued until the erection of the courts of king's bench and the 'common pleas. The first 
 justiciars of England were Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and William Fitz-Osborn, in 1067 ; and 
 the last was Pliilij) Basset, in 1261. 
 
 JUSTIlSriAlSr code (compiled under the direction of the emperor Justinian L), 
 wherein was written what may be termed the statute law, scattered through 2000 volumes, 
 reduced to fifty ; it was promulgated in 528. To this code of laws Justinian added the 
 Pandects, the Institutes, and Novels. These compilations have since been called, collec- 
 tively, the body of civil law {Coiyus Juris Civilis). A digest was made in 533. Blair. 
 
 JUTE, the fibres of two plants, the chonch and isbund {Corchorus olitorius and corchorus 
 ccqjsularis), since 1830 extensively cultivated in Bengal for making gunnycloth, &c. Jute 
 has been much manufactured at Dundee as a substitute for flax, tow, &c., and in July 
 1862, assertions were made that it could be employed as a substitute for cotton. In 1853, 
 275,578 cwts., and in 1861, 904,092 cwts. of undressed jute were imported into the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 JUTLAITD (Denmark). The Jutes settled in our southern counties. South Jutland 
 was taken by the allies in 1813, and restored in 1814. 
 
 JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In 1838, an act was passed for instituting a prison for 
 instructing and correcting juvenile offenders, and the military hospital at Parkhurst in the 
 Isle of Wight was appropriated for this purpose, A similar act was passed in 1854. 
 
 K. 
 
 KABYLES. ^QQ Algiers. 
 
 KADSEAH, See Parsees. 
 
 KAFFRAEIA, an extensive country in S. Africa, extending from the north of Cape 
 Colony to the south of Guinea. Our war with the natives began in 1798. In 1819, headed 
 by Mokanna, a prophet, they attacked Grahamstown and. were repulsed with much 
 slaughter. 
 
 and several oflBcers and men of the 74th regi- 
 ment were killed .... Nov. 6, 1851 
 
 Wreck of the Birkenhead with reinforcements 
 from England (see Birkenhead) . Feb. 26, 1852 
 
 The hostilities of the Kaffirs having assumed 
 all the features of regular warfare, the go- 
 vernor-general, Cathcart, attacked and de- 
 feated them Dec. 20, „ 
 
 The conditions offered by Cathcart were ac- 
 cepted, and peace was restored . March g, 1S53 
 
 A savage invasion of the Kaffirs or Caflfres, in 
 
 the vicinity of Grahamstown, Cape of Good 
 
 Hope, was eventually suppressed by the 
 
 colonial authorities .... Oct. 1S31 
 Slighter annoyances to the colonists occurring, 
 
 sir Harry Smith, the then governor, pi-o- 
 
 claimed martial law, and ordered the inhabit- 
 ants to rise en masse for the defence of the 
 
 frontier Dec. 31, 1850 
 
 Disastrous operations against the Kaffirs in the 
 
 Waterkloeff followed, and colonel Fordyce 
 
 KAGOSIMA. SeeJa2Mn, 1863, 
 
 KAINARDJI, Bulgaria. Here a treaty was signed, 1774, between the Turks and 
 Russians, which opened the Black Sea, and gave the Crimea to the latter. 
 
 KALAFAT, on the Danube, opposite the fortress of Widdin. This place was fortified 
 by the Turks under Omer Pacha when they crossed the river, Oct, 28, 1853. In December, 
 pi-ince Gortschakoff, with the Russian army, determined to storm their entrenchments. The 
 conflict lasted from Dec. 31, to Jan. 9, 1854, when the Russians were compelled to retire. 
 Among these conflicts one occurred at Citate, Jan. 6. See Citatc. Kalafat was invested 
 Jan. 28, and general Schilders attacked it vigorously on April 19, without success, and the 
 blockade was raised April 21, 
 
KAL 416 KEN 
 
 KALEIDOSCOPE, an optical instrument, which, by an arrangement of miiTors, produces 
 a symmetiical reflection of beautiful images, was'invented by Dr. (now sir David) Brewster, 
 of Edinburgh ; it was suggested in 1814, and perfected in 1817. See Dcbuscope. 
 
 KALITSCH (Poland). Here the Russians defeated the Swedes, Nov. 19, 1706, and here 
 the Saxons, under the French general Ecynier, were beaten by the Russians under Wijizin- 
 gerode, Feb. 13, 18 13. 
 
 KALMAR. See Calmar. KALMUCK. See Tarlar. 
 
 KALUNGA FORT (E. Lulies\ attacked unsuccessfully by the company's forces, and 
 general Gillespie killed, Oct. 31, 1814; and again unsuccessfully, Nov. 25. It was evacuated 
 by the Nepaulese, Nov. 30, same year. 
 
 KAMTSCHATKA, a peninsula, E. coast of Asia, was discovered by Morosco, a Cossack 
 chief, 1690; taken possession of by Russia, in 1697; and proved to be a peninsula by 
 Behring, in 1728. Four months, commencing at our mid.summer, may be considered as the 
 spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year being dreary winter. The amiable 
 captain Clarke, a companion of captain Cook, died in sight of Kamtschatka, Aug. 22, 1779, 
 and was buried in the town of St. Peter and Paul, in the peninsula. 
 
 KAMPTULICON, a substance used for flooring, patented by Elijah Galloway in 1843, 
 and manufactured since 1851, by Messi's. Tayler, Harvey, and Co. It is composed of India- 
 rubber and cork, combined bj' masticating machines. 
 
 KANGAROOS, animals indigenous to Australia (first seen by captain Cook, June 22, 
 1770), were bred at San Donato, the estate of prince Demidolf, in 1853, and since. 
 
 KANSAS, a western state in N. America, was organised as a territory. May 30, 1854 ; 
 admitted into the union, Jan. 29, 1861 ; and Avas left open to slavery, in opposition to the 
 Missouri Compromise (see Slavery in America). During the greater part of 1855 this state 
 was a scene of anarchy and bloodshed through the eflbrts of the slavery party to make it a 
 slave state. 
 
 K ARRACK. Sec Carrack. 
 
 KARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, renowned for its defence by general (now sir William) 
 Fenwick Williams, with 15,000 men, and with three months' provisions and three days' 
 ammunition, against the Russian general Mouravieft", with an army of 40,000 infantry and 
 10,000 cavalry. The siege lasted from June 18 to Nov. 28, 1855. The .sufl'erings of the 
 garrison were very great from cholera and want of food. The Russians made a grand assault 
 on Sept. 29, but were repulsed with the loss of above 6000 men, and the garrison were over- 
 come by famine alone.* Sandwith. Kara Avas restored to Turkey, Aug. 1856. 
 
 KEEPER OF THE King's (^Jon.science. The early chancellors were priests, and out of 
 their moral control of the king's mind probably grew up the idea of an equit)'' court in 
 contradistinction to the law courts. A bill in chancery is a petition through the lord chan- 
 cellor to the king's conscience for remedy in matters for which the king's common law courts 
 afford no redress. The keeper of the king's conscience therefore, at the present day, is the 
 officer who presides in the court of chancery. See Chancellor and Lord Keeper. 
 
 KEEPER (LORD) of tur Great Seal of England diff'ered only from the lord 
 chancellor in that the latter had letters patent, Avhereas the lord keeper had none. 
 Richard, a chaplain, was the first keeper under Ranulph, in 11 16. The two offices were 
 made one by 5 Eliz. 1562. Cowcll. See Chancellor. The office of lord keeper of the great 
 seal of Scotland was established in 1708, after the union. 
 
 KENILWORTH CASTLE (AVarwickshire), was built about 1120, by Geoff'reyde Clinton, 
 whose grandson sold it to Henry III. It was enlarged and fortified by Simon de Montfort, 
 to whom Henry gave it as a marriage portion with his sister Eleanor, f Queen Elizabetli 
 
 * On accepting general Williams' proposal for surrendering, general Mouraviefif said:— "General 
 Williams, you have made yourself a name in history ; and posterity wUl stand amazed at the endurance, 
 the courage, and the discipline which this siege has called forth in the remains of an army. Let u.s 
 arrange a capitulation that will satisfy the demands of war, without outraging humanity." In 1856 the 
 general was made a baronet, with the title of sir William Fenwick Williams of Kars, and granted a 
 pension. 
 
 f After the battle of Evesham and defeat and death of Simon de Montfort, by prince Edward (after- 
 wards Edward I.) 1265, Montfort's younger son, Simon, shut himself up in Kenilworth castle, which sus- 
 tained a siege for six months ag.ainst the royal forces of Henry III., to whom it at length surrendered. 
 Upon this occasion was issued the "Dictum de KenilKorfli," or " ban of Kenilworth," tuacting that all 
 who took up arms against the king should pay him the value of their lands for five years. 
 
KEN 417 KHE 
 
 conferred it on Iier favourite, Dudley, earl of Leicester. His entertainment of the queen 
 commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily 1000?. 
 
 KENNINGTON COMMON (Surrey). The Chartist demonstration, April 10, 1848, took 
 place on the common ; M'hich was directed to be laid out as a public pleasure ground in 1852. 
 
 KENSINGTON PALACE was purchased by William III., from lord chancellor Finch, 
 who made the road through its park. The gardens were improved by queens Mary, Anne, 
 and Caroline, who died here. Here died George, prince of Denmark, and George II. ; and 
 here queen Victoria was born, May 24, 1819.* 
 
 KENT. See Britain and Holy Maid. Odo, bishop of Bayeux, brother of William the 
 Conqueror, was made earl of Kent, 1067 ; and Henrj' Grey was made duke of Kent in 1710 ; 
 he died without male heirs in 1740. Edward, son of George III., was created duke of Kent 
 in 1799. He was father of queen Victoria, and died in 1820. See England. 
 
 KENT, an East Indiamau, of 1850 tons burthen, left the downs Feb. 19, 1825, bound 
 for Bombay. In the Bay of Biscay she encountered a dreadful storm, by which she was very 
 much shattered, Feb. 28. On the next day she accidentally took fire, and aU. were in 
 expectation of i)erishing, either by the tempest or the hames. The Cambria, captain Cook, 
 bound to Vera Cruz, providentially hove in sight, and nearly all on board were saved. The 
 .fi^e?^^blew up, March 2. 
 
 KENTISH FIRE, a term given to the continued cheering common at the Protestant 
 meetings held in Kent about 1828 and 1829, with the view of preventing the passing of the 
 Catholic Relief bill. 
 
 KENTUCKY, a western state of N. America, admitted 1792. It declared for strict 
 neutrality in the conflict between the North and South in April, i86i, but was invaded by 
 the southern troops in August. On their refusal to retire, after much correspondence, the 
 legislature of Kentucky gave in its adhesion to the Union, Nov. 27, 1861. In the campaign 
 that ensued sharp skirmishes took place, and on Jan. 19, 1862, the confederates . under 
 ZoUicoffer were defeated and himself killed at Mill Spring, and in March no confederate 
 soldiers remained in Kentucky. See United States. 
 
 KEROSELENE, a new ansesthetic, derived from the distillation of coal-tar by Mr. W. B. 
 MerrUl, of Boston, U.S., was tried and made known early in 1861. 
 
 KERTCH, capital of the ancient kingdom of Bosporus, late a flourishing town on the 
 straits of Yenikale, sea of Azof. It was entered by the allies (English and French) May 24, 
 1855 ; the Russians retired after destroying stores, &c. The place was totally dismantled by 
 the allies, and the inhabitants removed. 
 
 ■KET'S REBELLION: a revolt in July, 1549, instigated by William Ket, a tanner, of 
 Norfolk. He demanded the abolition of inclosures and the dismissal of evil counsellors. 
 The insurgents amounted to 20,000 men, but were quickly defeated by the earl of Warwick. 
 More than 2000 fell ; Ket was tried, and hanged, Aug. 27, 1549. 
 
 KEW (Surrey). The "palace was successively occupied by the Capel family and Mr. 
 Molyneux ; by Frederick, prince of Wales, 1730, and George III. Queen Charlotte died 
 here, Nov. 4, 1818. A new palace erected by George TIL, under the direction of Mr. Wyatt, 
 was pulled down in 1827. The gai-dens contain a very fine collection of plants, and are decorated 
 with ornamental buildings, most of them erected by sir William Chambers, about l76o.t 
 The meteorological observatory was presented to the British Association in 1842. 
 
 KEYS. The invention is ascribed to Theodore of Samos, by Pliny, about 730 B.C. 
 
 KHERSON, an ancient Dorian colony (deriving its name from Chersonesus, a peninsula), 
 came under the sway of the gi-eat Mithridates about 120 B.C., and afterwards of that of Rome, 
 A.D. 30. It continued important, and its possession was long disputed by the Russians and 
 
 * In Aug. 1855, by permission of the government, a military band played in Kensingbon gardens on 
 Sundays, in presence of about 60,000 persons. The practice was discontinued in 1856, being objected to by 
 many persons ; but bands were ordered to play in other parks during the week. 
 
 t The botanic gardens contain many magnificent conservatories, <&c. Mr. Alton retired from his 
 ofSce of director of the botanic gardens in 1841 after fifty years' service. He was succeeded by sir William 
 Hooker, at whose recommendation the gardens were opened to the public daily. In 1847 the royal 
 kitchen and forcing gardens were incorporated with the botanic gardens. The collections in the Museum 
 of Economic Botany began with the private collection of sir WiUiam Hooker given by him in 1847. Under 
 his charge the gardens were greatly improved. He died Aug. 12, 1865, and was succeeded by his. son, Dr 
 Joseph D. Hooker. 
 
 E K 
 
KHI 418 KIL 
 
 Greeks. It was taken by Vladimir, grand-duke of Russia, in 988, when he and liis army 
 received Christian baptism, and he married the emperor's sister Anne, who obtained Kherson 
 as her dowry. The city was destroyed by the Litliuanians ; and tlie Turks found it deserted 
 when they took. possession of the Crimea in 1475. "What ancient remains the Turks and 
 Tartars had spared, tlie Paissians conveyed away for the construction of Sebastopol. Since 
 the foundation of Odessa in 1792, Kherson has declined. Potemkin, the favourite of 
 Catherine, who died at Jassy in 1791, is buried here, and John Howard, the English philan- 
 thropist, who died here Jan. 20, 1790, is buried about three miles from the town, where an 
 obelisk has been erected to his memory. 
 
 KHIVA, in Turkistan, Asia, governed by a khan. An expedition sent again.st it by the 
 emperor Nicholas of Paissia in 1S39 perished through the rigour of the climate in 1840. 
 
 KHYBER PASS, Affghanistan. See India, 1839, 1842. 
 
 KIDDERMINSTER (Worcestershire), renowned for its carpet manufactures, established 
 about 1735. 
 
 KIEL, chief town of Holstein, a seaport, and a member of tl\e Hanseatic league in 1300. 
 The university was founded in 1665. By a treaty between Great Britain, Sweden, and 
 Denmark, signed here Jan. 14, 1814, Norway was ceded £0 Sweden. Previously, the Norwe- 
 gians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent a deputation to England, to 
 interest that country in their favour. On the contrarj^, the English blockaded the ports of 
 Norway, and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwegians fought some brave actions, but 
 they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Nonvay, and the diet elected the king 
 of Sweden to be their king. An extraordinary assembly of the revolted provinces, Sclileswig 
 and Holstein, met here Sept. 9, 1850. By a convention between Austria and Prussia, the 
 former is to govern Holstein, but Kiel is to be held by Prussia as a Geraran federal port 
 (Aug. 1865). 
 
 KILCULLEN (Kildare). Here a large body of the insurgent Irish defeated the British 
 forces commanded by general Dundas, May 23, 1798. The general in a subsequent engage- 
 ment overthrew the rebels near Kilcullen- bridge, when 300 were slain. 
 
 KILDARE (E. Ireland). The Curragh or race-coui'se here was once a forest of oaks. 
 Here was the nunnery of St. Bridget, foimded b}^ her in the 5th century, and here was a 
 building called the fire-house, where, it is supposed, the mms kept the inextinguishable fire 
 which existed till the reformation. The see was one of the eai-liest episcopal foundations in 
 Ireland ; St. Conlceth, who died 519, the first prelate. The first Protestant bishop ^a^ 
 Thomas Lancaster, in 1550. The see is valued, b}"- an extent returned, 30 Hen. VIII. , at 
 69Z. 115. 4^. Irish per year. Kildare was united to Dublin in 1846. See Vublin. The 
 insurrection in Kildare, which swelled into the rebellion, commenced in Kildare, May 23, 
 1798. On that night, lieut. Gitibrd of Dublin, and a number of other gentlemen, were 
 murdered by insurgents. This rebellion was quelled in 1799. 
 
 KILFENORA (Clare), a bishopric, said to have been founded by St. Fachnan. Cardinal 
 Paparo, in 11 52, rendered it a sulfragan see to Cashel ; but in 1660 it was annexed to Tuam, 
 and afterwards united to Killaloe. 
 
 KILKENNY (S.E. Ireland), an English settlement about 107 1. The Statutes of Kil- 
 kenny enacted, among other things, " that the alliance of the English by marriage with any 
 Irish, the nurture of infantes, and gossipred with the Irish, be deemed high treason." And 
 again, "if anie man of English race use an Irish name, Irish -apparell, or anie other guize 
 or fashion of the Irish, his lands shall be seized, and his body imprisoned, till he shall 
 conform to English modes and customs." 
 
 KILLALA (Mayo) was invaded by a French force landing from three frigates, under 
 general Humbert, Aug. 22, 1798. The invaders were joined by the Irish insurgents, and 
 the battles of Castlebar and Colooney followed ; and the French were defeated at Bally- 
 namuck, Sept. 8, same year. 
 
 KILLALA (Sligo), an early see. The author of the tripartite life of St. Patrick, says, 
 " that in 434 he came to a jileasant place where the river Muadas (Moy) empties itself into 
 the ocean ; and on the south banks of the said river he built a noble chixrch, called Kil- 
 Aladh, of which he made one of his disciples, Muredach, the first bishop." The see of 
 Achonry was united to Killala in the 17th century; and both became united to Tuam in 
 1839. See Tuam and Bisho2}s. 
 
 KILLALOE (Clare), a see supposed to have been founded by St. Molua, whose disciple, 
 
KIL 
 
 419 
 
 KIN 
 
 St. Flannan, son to king Tlieocloric, consecrated at Eome by pope John IV. in 639, was also 
 bishop. -At the close of the 12th century the see of Eoscrea was annexed to Killaloe, and 
 that of Kilfenora has been held with it. Cloufert and Kilmacduach were united to them 
 in 1836. 
 
 KILLIECRANKIE (a defile in Perthshire). Here the forces of "William III. commanded 
 by general Mackay were defeated by the adherents of James II. under Graham of Claver- 
 house, viscount Dundee, who feU in the moment of victory, July 27, 1689. 
 
 KILMACDUACH (Galway). This see was held with Cloufert, from 1602. St. Coleman 
 Avas its first bishop, in the 7th century. It was valued, 29 Eliz. 1586, at 13Z. 6s. Sd. per 
 annum. It is now united to Killaloe. 
 
 KILMAINHAM HOSPITAL (Dublin), the noble asylum of aged and disabled soldiers 
 in Ireland, built by "Wren, was founded by Arthur, earl of Granard, marshal-general of the 
 army in Ireland, 1675 ; and the duke of Ormond perfected the plan, in 1679. 
 
 KILMALLOCK (Limerick). An abbey was foimded here by St. Mochoallog or Molacli 
 about 645, and an abbey of Dominicans was built in the 13th century. Ware. A charter 
 was granted to Kilmallock by Edward VI., and another by Elizabeth in 1584. The town 
 was invested by the Irish forces in 1598, but the siege was raised by the duke of Ormond. 
 There Avas much fighting here in 1641 and 1642. 
 
 KILMORE (Armagh), an ancient town, whose bishops were sometimes called Brefinienses, 
 from Brefney, and sometimes Triburnenses, from Triburna, a village ; but in 1454, the 
 bishop of Triburna, bj'- assent of pope ISTicholas V., erected the parish church of St. 
 Fedlemid into a cathedral. Florence O'Connacty, the first bishop, died in 1231. Valued, 
 15 Jas. I. with Ardagh, at lool. per anmcm. The joint see of Elphiu and Ardagh was 
 imited to it in 1841. 
 
 KILSYTH (Central Scotland), 
 and threatened Glasgow. 
 
 Here Montrose defeated the Covenanters, Aug. 15, 1645, 
 
 KINBURK", a fort, at the confluence of the rivers Bug and Dnieper, taken by the English 
 and French, Oct. 17, 1855. Three floating French batteries, said to be the invention of the 
 emperor, on the principle of horizontal shell-firing, were very eflTective. On the i8th the 
 Russians blew up Oczakoff, a fort opposite. 
 
 KINDRED, Table of, in the Book of Common Prayer, was set forth in 1563. 
 
 * KINDER- GARTEN" (children's garden), a system of education devised by Froebel, but 
 practically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, in Germany in 1849, and "in England in 
 185 1. The system, founded mainly on self- tuition, and enlivened by toys, games, and 
 singing, is set forth in Ronge's " Kinder- Garten, " published in 1858. 
 
 KING: German A'o)i?g', Latin .Sea;, Scythian Heis, Spanish iZci/, Italianize, and French 
 So7j, all come from the Hebrew Rosch, chief or head. Nimrod was the first founder 
 of a kingdom, 2245 E. 0. Bufresnoy. Misraim built cities in Egypt, and was the first who 
 assumed the title of king in that division of the earth, 2 1 88 b. c. The ' ' manner of the king " 
 is set forth in I /SamzieZ viii. , 1112B.C. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 b.c. Most 
 of the Grecian states were governed by kings ; and kings were the first rulers in Rome. 
 
 King of England. — The style was first used by 
 Egbert, 828 ; but the title Rex gentis An- 
 glorum, king of the English nation, existed 
 during the Heptarchy. See Britain. 
 
 The plural phraseology, ice, us, our, was first 
 adopted among our English kings by king 
 John iigg 
 
 The title of " king of France " assumed, and the 
 French arms quartered, by Edward III., in 
 right of his mother 1340 
 
 Pope Leo X. conferred the title of " defender 
 of the Faith " on Henry VIII. . Oct. 11, 1521 
 
 Henry VIII. changed lord of Ireland into king, 1542 
 
 The style "Great Britain" was adopted at the 
 union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne . 1707 
 
 That of the " United Kingdom of Great Britain 
 anc. Ireland " at the union, when the royal 
 style and title was appointed to run thus : — 
 
 ■ " Georgiu's Tertius, Dei Gratia, Britanniarum 
 Rex Fidei Defensor," "George the Third, by 
 the grace of God, of the United kingdom of 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland, king. Defender of 
 the Faith" (France being omitted) Jan, i, 
 
 Hanover was omitted in the queen's style, 
 
 June 21, 
 
 The queen was proclaimed in all the important 
 places in India, as "Victoria, by the Grace of 
 God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, and the colonies and dependen- 
 cies thereof in Europe, Asia, Africa, Araerica, 
 and AustraUa, queen," (fee. . . l\ov. i, 
 
 1858 
 
 The National Assembly decreed that the title 
 oi "king of France," should be changed in 
 the person of Louis XVI. to that of " king of 
 the French" Oct. 16, 17S9 
 
 The royal title abolished 1792 
 
 Louis XVIII. styled " by the grace of God king 
 of France and Navarre " . . . . _ . 1814 
 
 Louis-Philippe I., the late sovereign, was in- 
 vited to the monarchy under the style of the 
 " king of the French " (see France) Aug. 9, 183 
 E E 2 
 
KTN" 
 
 420 
 
 KIN 
 
 KING, continv£d. 
 
 The emperors of Germany, in order that their 
 eldest sons might be'chosen their successors, 
 in their own life-time politically obtained 
 them the title of " k-ing of the Komans." The 
 first emperor so elected was Henry IV. . . 1055 
 
 Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, 
 was induced to go to Germany, where he 
 
 clisbursed vast sums under the promise of 
 being elected next emperor ; he was elected 
 "king of the Romans" (but failed in suc- 
 ceeding to the imperial crown) . . . . 1256 
 The style "king of Rome" was revived by 
 Napoleon I. who conferred it on his son, uix)n 
 his birth March 20, i8ii 
 
 KING-OF-AEMS : three for England, — Garter, Clarencienx, and Norroy; Lyon king-at- 
 arms for Scotland, and Ulster for Ireland. These offices are very ancient : Clarencienx is so 
 named from Lionel, third son of Edward III., the sovereign who founded the order of the 
 Garter. See Garter. Lionel having by his wife the honour of Clare, was made duke of 
 Clarence; whith dukedom afterwards escheating to Edward IV., he revived the office of 
 Clarence king-at-arms. Ulster was substituted, it is said, in lieu of Ireland king-at-arms, 
 by Edward VI., 1552 ; but the monarch himself named it as a new institution. 
 
 KING'S BENCH, or Queen's Bench, Court of, obtained its name from the king 
 sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the judicature belongs in 
 his absence, on a low bench at his feet. This court in ancient times was called Curia 
 L'omini Regis. 
 
 CHIEF justices OF THE KING's OR QUEEN'S BENCH IN ENGLAND. 
 
 1526. 
 
 1539- 
 1546. 
 1552. 
 1553- 
 1554- 
 1556. 
 '559- 
 1573- 
 1 591 
 1607. 
 1613. 
 1616. 
 1620. 
 1624. 
 1626. 
 1631. 
 1635. 
 1643. 
 1648. 
 1655. 
 1659. 
 
 John Fitz James. 
 Sir Edward Slontagu. 
 Sir Richard Lyster. 
 Sir Roger Chulinely. 
 Sir Thomas Bromley. 
 Sir William Tortman. 
 Sir Edward Saunders. 
 Sir Robert Catlyn. 
 Sir Christopher Wray. 
 Sir John Popham. 
 Sir Thomas Fleming. 
 Sir Edw.ard Coke. 
 Sir Henrj- Montagu. 
 Sir James Ley. 
 Sir Ranulph Crewe. 
 Sir Nicholas Hyde. 
 Sir Thomas Richardson. 
 Sir John Branipston. 
 Sir Robert Heath. 
 Henry RoUe. 
 John Glyn. 
 Sir Richard Newdigate. 
 
 1659. 
 i56o. 
 1663. 
 1665. 
 1671. 
 1676. 
 1678. 
 1681. 
 1683. 
 
 1685. 
 1687. 
 
 1718. 
 
 1725- 
 
 Robert Nicholas. | 1733. 
 
 Sir Robert Foster. | 
 
 Sir Robert Hyde. I 
 
 Sir John Kelyng. i 1737. 
 
 Sir Matthew Hale. i7S4- 
 
 Sir Richard Raynsford. '756. 
 
 Sir William Scruggs. } 
 
 Sir Francis Pemberton. [ 
 
 Sir Edmund Saunders. 
 
 Sir George Jefferies, after- 1802. 
 wards lord Jefferies and 
 lord chancellor. 
 
 Sir Edward Herbert. 
 
 Sir Robert Wright. 1832. 
 
 Sir John Holt. 
 
 Sir Thomas Parker, after- 
 wards lord Pat ker and earl 1850. 
 of Macclesfield and lord 
 chancellor. 
 
 Sir John Pratt. 1859. 
 
 Sir Robert Raymond, after- 
 wards lord Raymond. 
 
 Sir PhUip Yorke, afterwards 
 lord Hardwicke and lord 
 chancellor. 
 
 Sir WilUam Lee. 
 
 Sir Dudley Ryder. 
 
 William Murray, lord Mans- 
 field, afterwards earl of 
 Mansfield. 
 
 Lloyd, lord Kenyon, June 9. 
 
 Sir Edward Law, April 12 ; 
 created lord Ellenborough. 
 
 Sir Charles Abbott, Nov. 4 ; 
 afterwards lord Tenterden. 
 
 Sir Thomas Denman, Nov. 7 ; 
 created lord Denman : re- 
 signed. 
 
 John, lord Campbell, March 
 5 ; afterwards lord chan- 
 cellor. 
 
 Sir Alexander Cockbum, 
 June. 
 
 CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE KINGS OR QUEEN S BENCH IN IRELAND, 
 
 1690. Sir Richard Reynell, Dec. 6. 
 
 1695. Sir Richard Pyne, June 7. 
 
 1709. Allan Brodrick, Dec. 24. 
 
 1711. Sir Richard Cox, July 5. 
 
 1714. Wilham Whitshed, Oct. 14. 
 
 1727. John Rogerson, April 3. 
 
 1741. Thomas Marlay, Dec. 29. 
 
 1751. St. George Caulfield, Aug. 27. 
 
 1760. Warden Flood, July 31. 
 
 1764. John Gore, Aug. 24 ; after- 
 wards earl Annaly. 
 
 1784. John Scott, April 29; after- 
 wards earl of Clonmel. 
 
 1798. Arthur Wolfe, June 13 ; af- 
 terwards lord Kilwarden 
 (killed in Emmett's insur- 
 rection, July 23, 1803). 
 
 1803. William Downes, Sept. 12 ; 
 afterwards lord Downes. 
 
 1822. Charles Kendal Bushe, Feb- 
 i-uary 14. 
 
 1841. Edward Pennefather, No- 
 vember 10. 
 
 1846. Fnancis Blackbume, Jan. 23. 
 
 1852. Thomas Lefroy, March. 
 
 KING'S BENCH PRISON, Southwark, near the site of one of the oldest prisons of 
 London, long used for the confinement of debtors. Here, it is said, prince Henry (afterwards 
 Henry V.) was committed by justice Gascoigne. The prison was burnt down by the London 
 rioters, June 3, 1780. See Gordo7is No-popery Mob. It was built in 1781, and contained 
 about 230 rooms. Formerly, the debtors were allowed to purchase the liberties, to enable 
 them to have houses or lodgings without the walls, or to purchase day-rule.*, to go out of the 
 prison under certain regulations. The rales included St. George's Fields, &c. A consequence 
 of the Bankruptcy Act, 1861, was the release of many insolvent debtors; and an act was 
 passed in 1862 "for discontinuing the Queen's prison and removal of the prisoners to \''hite- 
 cross-street prison." 
 
 KING'S COLLEGES. See Abcrdce7i and Cambridge. King's College, London, incor- 
 porated Aug. 14, 1829, and opened Oct. 8, 1831. It was incorporated with the university of 
 London in 1837. The ho.spital was foimded in 1839. 
 
KIN 421 KNI 
 
 KING'S COUNSEL, tlie first under the degree of serjeant was sir Francis Bacon, made 
 so, honoris causd, without patent or fee, in 1604, by James I. The first modern kind's 
 counsel was sir'Francis North, afterwards lord keeper, in 1663. 
 
 KING'S COUNTY, Ireland, so named from Philip, king of Spain, the husband of queen 
 Mary of England, in 1556. 
 
 KING'S EVIL, formerly supposed to be cured by the king's touch ; the first being 
 Edward the Confessor, in 1058. In the reign of Charles II. 92, 107 persons were touched ; 
 and, according to "Wiseman, the king's physician, they were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne 
 officially announced in the London Gazette, March 12, 17 12, her intention to touch publicly. 
 The custom was dropped by George I., 17 14. 
 
 KING'S SPEECH. The first from the throne is said to hare been by Henry I., 1 107. 
 
 KINGSTON TRIAL. The duchess of Kingston was arraigned before the lords in 
 Westminster-hall, on a charge of bigamy, having married first captain Hervey, afterwards 
 earl of Bristol, and next during his lifetime, Evelyn Pierrepoint, duke of Kingston, April 
 15-22, 1776. She was found guilty, but, on her pleading the privilege of peerage, the 
 punishment of burning in the hand was remitted, and she was discharged on paying the fees 
 of office. 
 
 KINGSTON. See JTull 
 
 KINGSTON, Jamaica, was founded in 1693, after the great earthquake in 1692 which 
 destroyed Port Eoyal, and constituted a city, 1802. An awful fire here ravaged a vast 
 portion of the town, and consumed 500, oool. of property, Feb. 8, 1 782 ; another fire in 
 1843. See Jamaica. 
 
 KINGSTOWN, Dublin. The harbour here was commenced in June, 1817. The name 
 was changed from Danleary in compliment to George IV., who here embarked for England 
 at the close of his visit to Ireland, Sept. 3, 1821. The Kingstovvn railway from Dublin was 
 opened Dec. 17, 1834. 
 
 KISSING the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing was a mode of 
 salutation among the Jews, i Samuel x. i, &c. The "kiss of charity," or "holy kiss," 
 commanded in the Scriptures (Romans xvi. 16, &c.), was observed by the early Christians, 
 and is still recognised by the Greek church and some others. Kissing the pope's foot began 
 with Adrian I, or Leo III. at the close of the 8th century. 
 
 KIT-CAT CLUB, of about thirty noblemen and gentlemen, instituted in 1703, to 
 promote the Protestant succession. Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth were members. It 
 took its name from Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook in King's-street, Westminster. 
 
 KITTS. See Christopher's, St. 
 
 KNEELING. The knee was ordered to be bent at the time of Jesus (see Philipinans ii. 2) 
 about the year 1275, by the order of the pope. The ceremony of a vassal kneeling to his 
 lord is said to have begun in the 8th century. 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD. The word knight is derived from the Saxon Cnilit, a servant {i.e., 
 servant to the king, &c.). The institution of the Eoman knights {Equites or horsemen, from 
 equus, a horse), is ascribed to Romulus, about 750 B.C. Knighthood was conferred in 
 England by the priest at the altar, after confession and consecration of the sword, during the 
 Saxon Heptarchy. The first kniglit made by the sovereign with the sword of state was 
 Athelstane, by Alfred, a.d. 900. Spehian. The custom of ecclesiastics conferring the 
 honour of knighthood was suppressed in a synod held at Westminster in 1 100. Ashmole's 
 Institutes. All persons having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be knighted, or pay 
 a fine, 38 Hen. HI. 1254. Salmon. On the decline of the empire of Charlemagne, all 
 Europe being reduced to a state of anarchy, the proprietor of every manor became a petty 
 sovereign ; his mansion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, and called a 
 castle. Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the women and 
 treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich fiefs associated to 
 repress these marauders, to make property secure, and to protect the ladies ; binding them- 
 selves to these dnties by a solemn vow, and the sanction of a religious ceremony. Cervantes' 
 "Don Quixote," a satire on knight-errantry, was published in 1605. See Chivalry, Tour- 
 naments. 
 
KNI 
 
 4-22 
 
 KXI 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD, continued. 
 
 VRINCIl'AL MILITARY, EELIGIOUS, AXD HOXOUARY ORDERS OF KXIGHTHOOD/ 
 
 Alcantara, instituted about . 1156 . 
 Amaranta, Sweden (female) . 1645 
 Angelic Knights, Greece . 1191 
 Annonoiada, Savoy, about . 1360 I 
 Annunciada, Mantua . . i5i8 
 Avis, Portugal, about . . 1147 
 Bannerets, England, 1360. 
 
 Renewed. Sec Bannerets . 1485 
 Bath, England, 1399. Re- 
 newed. See Ba'li . . . 1725 
 Boar, Switzerland . . . 1213 
 Bee, Fiance . . . . 1703 
 Belgic Lion .... 1815 
 Black Eagle, Prussia, insti- 
 tuted by Frederick I. . . 1701 
 Blood of Christ, Mantua . 1608 
 Broomflowers, France . . 1234 
 Brotherly (or Neighbourly) 
 
 Love, Austria . . . 1708 
 Calatrava, Castile, instituted 
 
 by Sancho III. . . . 115S 
 Charles III. (or the Immacu- 
 late Conception), Spain . 1771 
 Charles Xni., Sweden . . 1811 
 Chase, Wtirtemberg . . 1702 
 Christ, Livonia . . . . 1203 
 Christ, Portugal . . . 1317 
 Christian Charity, France . 1558 
 Cincinnati, America . , . 17S3 
 Conception of the Virgin . 1618 
 Concord, Prussia . . . 1660 
 Crescent, Naples, 1268. Re- 
 vived 1464 
 
 Crescent, Turkey , ..1801 
 Cross of Christ . . . 1217 
 Cross of the South, Brazil . 1S22 
 Crown Royal, France (Fries- 
 land) 
 
 Crown, Wiirtemberg 
 Danebrog, Denmark, institu- 
 ted by Waldemar II., 1219; 
 revived by Christian V. 
 Death's Head (female), by the 
 widow Louisa Elizabeth of 
 Saxe Masburg . . . 
 Dog and Cock, Prance , 
 Dove of Castile . . . . 
 Dragon, Hungary . 
 Dragon Overthrown, German 1418 
 Eagle (see Blaclc, Mexican, 
 
 Red, White). 
 Ear of Corn and Ermine, 
 
 Brittany, about . . . 1442 
 Elephant, Denmark, about 
 
 1190; by Christian I. . . 1458 
 Elizabeth Theresa, Austria 
 
 (female) . . . .1750 
 Fidelity, Baden . . .1715 
 
 Fidelity, Denmark . . 1732 
 Fools, Cleves . . . . 1380 
 Frederick, Wiirtemberg . 1830 
 Friesland (or Crown Royal), 
 
 France 802 
 
 ■Garter (which see). England . 1349 
 Generosity, Brandenburg . 1685 
 Genet, France . . . 726 
 Golden Angel (afterwards St. 
 
 George), abo>it . . . 312 
 Golden Fleece, instituted at 
 Bruges by Philip,;surnamod 
 the Good . . . . 1429 
 Golden Lion, nesse Cassel . 1770 
 
 802 
 
 1671 
 
 1709 
 500 
 1379 
 1439 
 
 Golden Shield and Thistle, 
 
 France . . . •1370 
 
 Golden Spur, by Pius IV. . . 1559 
 Golden Stole, Venice, before 737 
 Guelphic, Hanover . . 1815 
 
 Henrj' the Lion, Brunswick . 1834 
 Holy Ghost, France . . . 1579 
 Holy Vial (St. Remi), France 499 
 Hospitallers (ichich see), 1099 ; 
 
 of Rhodes, 1308 ; of Malta, 1521 
 Iron Crown, Lombardy . . 1816 
 Iron Heljnet, Hesse Cassel . 1814 
 Jerusalem (see Malta) . . 1048 
 Jesus Christ, Rome, insti- 
 tuted by John XXII., 1320. 
 Reformed, as Jesus and 
 JIary, by Paul V.' . . . 161 5 
 Knot, Naples .... 1352 
 La Calza, Venice, about . . 737 
 Lamb of God, Sweden . . 1564 
 Legion of Honour, France, 
 instituted by Napoleon Bo- 
 naparte .... 1802 
 Leopold, Austria . . . 1806 
 Leopold, Belgium . . . 1832 
 Lily of Arragon . . . . 1410 
 Lily of Navarre . . . 1043 
 Lion and Sun, Persia . . 1808 
 Lion of Zahringen, Baden . 1812 
 Lioness, Naples, about . . 1399 
 Loretto, L.ady of . . . 1587 
 Louis, Bavaria . . . . 1827 
 Louis, Hesse Darmstadt . 1807 
 JIalta (see Hospitallers). 
 Maria Louisa (femaJe), Spain. 1792 
 .Maria Theresa, Avistria . . 1757 
 JIaximilian Joseph, Bavaria . 1806 
 Martyrs, Palestine . , . 1014 
 Merit, Hesse Cassel . . . 1769 
 Merit, Prussia . . . 1740 
 Mexican Eagle . . . . 1865 
 Montjoie, Jerusalem, before . 1180 
 Noble Passion, Saxony . . 1704 
 Oak of Navarre, Spain . . 722 
 Our Lady of Montesat . . 1317 
 Our Lady of the Conception 
 
 of Villa Vicosa . . .1818 
 Our Lady of the Lily, Navarre 1043 
 Palatine Lion . . . . 1768 
 Palm and Alligator, Africa, 
 
 granted to Gov. Campbell in 1837 
 Passion of Jesus Christ, 
 
 France 1384 
 
 Peter I., Brazil . . . . 1826 
 Peter, Frederick Lewis, Old- 
 
 enburgh 1838 
 
 Pius, founded by Pius IV. . 1559 
 Polar Star, Sweden. Revived 1748 
 Porcupine, Prance . . 1393 
 
 Reale, Naples, about . . 1399 
 Red Eagle, Prussia, 1734. Re- 
 vived ..... 1792 
 Redeemer (or Savioiu-), Greece 1833 
 Rosary, Spain . . .1212 
 Rose, Brazil . . . . 1829 
 Round Table, England, by 
 
 Alfred (see Garter) . 516 or 528 
 St. Jflexander Nevskoi, Rus- 
 sia 1722 
 
 St. Andrew, Russia . . 1698 
 St. Andrew, Scotland (see 
 Thistle) . . 809, 1540, 1687 
 
 St. Anne, Holstein, now Rus- 
 sia . . . . 1738 or 1735 
 St. Anthony, Hainault . . 1382 
 St. Anthony, Bavaria . . 1382 
 St. Bento d'Avis (see Avis 
 
 above). 
 St. Blaise, Armenia, 12th cen- 
 tury. 
 St. Bridget, Sweden . . 1366 
 St. Catherine, Palestine . . 1063 
 St. Catherine, Russia (/(smaie) 1714 
 St. Charles, AViirtemberg . . 1759 
 St. Constantine, Constanti- 
 nople, about 313 ; Parma, 
 1699 ; since removed to 
 Naples. 
 St. Denis, France . . . 1267 
 St. EUzabeth, Brazil . . . iSoi 
 St. Esprit, France . . . 1579 
 St. Ferdinand, Naples . . 1800 
 St. Ferdinand, Spain . .1811 
 St. George and the Reunion, 
 
 Naples 1819 
 
 St. George, Angelic Knights . 1191 
 St. George, Austria . 1470, 1494 
 St. George, Defender of the 
 Immaculate Conception, 
 Bavaria .... 1729 
 St. George, England (see Gar- 
 ter) 1349 
 
 St. George, Genoa . . . 1472 
 St. George, Rome . . , 1492 
 St. George, Rus.sia. . . 1769 
 St. George, Spain . . . 1317 
 St. George, Venice . . . 1200 
 St. Gerion, Germany . . 1190 
 St. Henry, Saxony . . 1736 
 St. Hermenegild, Spain . . 1814 
 St. Hubert, Germany, by the 
 
 duke of Juliers and Cleves 1444 
 St. Isabella, Spain, 1815 ; Por- 
 tugal (/ma(€). . . . i8oi 
 St. James, Holland . . 1290 
 St. James, Portugal . . . 1310 
 St. James, Spain, about . 11 70 
 St. James of the Sword, Spain 
 
 and Portugal . . . 837 
 St. Januarius, Naples . . 1738 
 St. Joachim, Germany . . 1755 
 St. John of Aeon, after . . 1377 
 St. Jolm of Jerusalem (see 
 
 Hospitallers) . , , 1048 
 St. John, Prus.sia . . . 1812 
 St. Joseph, Tuscany . . 1807 
 St. Julian of Alacantara . .1156 
 St. Lazarus, France, before 
 1 1 54; united with that of 
 St. Maurice, Savoy . , 1572 
 St. Louis, France . . . 1693 
 St. Mark, Venice, about 828. 
 
 Renewed .... 1562 
 St. Mai-y de Merced, Spain . 1218 
 St. Maurice, Savoy . . . 1434 
 St. Michael, France . . 1469 
 St. Michael, Germany . .1618 
 St. Nicholas, Naples . . 1382 
 St. Patrick, Ireland . . . 1783 
 St. Paul, Rome . . . 1540 
 St. Peter, Rome. . . . 1520 
 St. Remi (or Holy Vial), about 499 
 St. Rupert, Germany . . 1701 
 St. Sepulchre, Palestine . 1099 
 
 ' Enlarged and corrected from Edmondson and Carlisle ; the early dates are doubtful Many orders 
 were instituted after the settlement of Europe in 1815. 
 
KNI 
 
 423 
 
 KON 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD, continued. 
 
 St. Stanislas, Poland 
 St. Stephen, Hungary 
 St. Stephen, Tuscany . 
 St. Thomas of Aeon, after 
 Saviour, Aragon 
 Saviour, Greece 
 
 1765 
 1764 
 1 561 
 1377 
 iiiS 
 1833 
 
 Saviour of the World, Sweden 1561 
 Scale, Castile, about . . 
 Scarf, Castile, 1330. Revived 
 Seraphim, Sweden 
 Ship and Crescent, Prance . 
 Slaves of Virtue, Germany 
 {female) .... 
 Star, Frauce . . . . 
 Star, Sicily .... 
 
 1316 
 1700 
 
 1334 
 1269 
 
 1662 
 1351 
 1351 
 
 Star of the Cross {female), 
 Austria .... 166S 
 
 Star of India . . . . 1861 
 
 Swan, Flanders . . . 500 
 
 Sword (or Silence), Cyprus, 
 about 1 192 
 
 Sword, Sweden, 1525. Re- 
 vived . . ... 1748 
 
 Templars (see Templars) 
 
 Teste Morte (Death's Head), 
 Wtirtemberg 
 
 Teutonic, Prussia, about 1 190. 
 Renewed . . . . 
 
 Thistle of Bourbon 
 
 Thistle, Scotland, 809. Re- 
 vived . . . 1540, 
 
 iiig 
 1652 
 
 1522 
 1370 
 
 1687 
 
 Tower and Sword, Portugal, 
 1459. Revived . 
 
 Tusiu, or Hungarian knights, 
 about 
 
 Vasa, Sweden 
 
 Virgin Mary, Italy . . . 
 
 Virgin of Mount Carmol, 
 France 
 
 Whita Cross, Tuscany . . 
 
 White Eagle, Poland, about 
 1325. Revived . 
 
 White Falcon, Saxe Weimar 
 
 Wilhelm, Holland . 
 
 Wing of St. Michael, Portu- 
 gal 
 
 Wladimir, Russia . 
 
 1562 
 1772 
 1233 
 
 1607 
 1S14 
 
 1705 
 1732 
 1S15 
 
 1172 
 1782 
 
 FEMA.LE Knights. It is said that the first were 
 the women who preserved Tortosa from f alhng into 
 the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their stout 
 resistance. Large immunities and favours were 
 granted to the women and their descendants. 
 Several female orders appear In the previous list. 
 
 Knights of Gltn and Kerry in Irel.\nd. The 
 heads of two branches of the family of Fitzgerald, 
 
 who still enjoy the distinctions bestowed on 
 their ancestors by the ancient sovereigns. 
 Knights of the Shire, or of Parliament ; sum- 
 moned by the king's writ and chosen by the 
 freeholders, first summoned by Simon de Mont- 
 fort, in 1254, and in a more formal manner, Jan. 
 20, 1263. There are writs extant as far back as 11 
 Edward I. 1283. The knights are still girded with, 
 a sword when elected, as the writ prescribes. 
 
 KNIVES. In England, Hallamsliire lias been renowned for its cutlery for five centuries ; 
 Chaucer speaks of the " Sheffield thwytel." Stow says that Richard Mathews on the Fleet- 
 bridge was the first Englishman who made fine knives, &c. ; and that he obtained a prohi- 
 bition of foreign ones, 1563. Clasp or sj^riug knives became common about 1650 ; coming 
 originally from Flanders. Knife-cleaning machines were patented by Mr. George Kent in 
 1844 and 1852; others have been invented, by Masters, Price, &c. See Forks. 
 
 KNOW-NOTHINGS, a society which arose in 1853, in the United States of N. America, 
 Their principles were embodied in the following propositions (at New York, 1855) : — Thej'' 
 possessed several newspapers and had much political influence. 
 
 The Americans shall rule America. 
 
 The Union of these States. 
 
 No North, no South, no Bast, no West. 
 
 The United States of America — as they are — one 
 
 and inseparable. 
 No sectarian interferences in our legislation or 
 
 in the administration of American law. 
 Hostility to the assumptions of the pope, through 
 
 the bishops, &c., in a republic sanctified by 
 
 Protestant blood. 
 
 7. Thorough reform in the naturalisation laws. 
 
 8. Free and liberal educational institutions for all 
 
 sects and classes, with the Bible, God's holy 
 
 word, as an universal text-book. 
 
 A society was formed in 1855 in opposition to the 
 
 above, called Know Somethings. Both bodies were 
 
 absorbed into the two parties. Democrats and 
 
 Repubhcans, at the presidential election in Nov. 
 
 KOH-I-NOOR, or " Mountain of Light." The East India Diamond. See Diamonds. 
 
 KOLIN or KoLLiN (Bohemia). Here the Austrian general Daun gained a signal 
 victory over Frederick the Great of Prussia, June 18, 1757. In commemoration, the military 
 order of Maria Theresa was instituted by the empress-queen. 
 
 KOMORN or Comoen (Hungary), an ancient fortress town, often taken and retaken 
 during the wars with Turkey. Near it the Hungarians defeated the Austrians, July 11, 
 1849, but surrendered the town, Oct. i, 1849. 
 
 KONIEH (formerly Iconium). Here the Turkish army was defeated by the pacha of 
 Egypt, after a long sanguinary fight, Dec. 21, 1832. The grand vizier was taken prisoner, 
 
 KONIGSBERG, the capital of East Prussia, was foimded by the Teutonic knights in 
 1255, and became the residence of the grand master in 1457. It joined the Hauseatic league 
 in 1365. It was ceded to the elector of Brandenburg in 1657, and here Frederick III. was 
 crowned the first king of Prussia in 1701. It was held by the Russians 1758-64, and by the 
 French in 1807. Here the present king and queen were crowned, Oct. 18, 1861, 
 
 KONIGSTEIN tun (Nassau, Germany), most capacious, was built by Frederick 
 Augustus, king of Poland, in 1725. It was made to hold 233,667 gallons of wine ; and on 
 the top, which was railed in, was accommodation for twenty persons to regale themselves. 
 The famous tun of St. Bernard's holds 800 tuns. See Heidelierg Tun. 
 
KOR 424 LAB 
 
 KOKAN OR Alcoran (Al-Kura.\), tlie sacred book of the Mahoiuetaiis, was written 
 about 6io, by Mahomet, who asserted that it liad been revealed to him by the angel Gabriel 
 in twenty-three years, and published by Abubeker about 635. Its general aim was to unite 
 the professors of idolatry and the Jews and Chri^^tians in the worship of one God (whose 
 imity was the chief point inculcated), under certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience 
 to Mahomet as the prophet. The leading article of faith preached is compounded of an 
 eternal tnith and a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet 
 is the apostle of God. Gihbrn. The Koran was translated into Latin in 1 143 ; into French 
 1647 ; into English, by Sale, 1734; and into other European languages X763 et seq. It is a 
 rhapsody of 6000 verses, divided into 114 sections. See Mahometanism, Sec. 
 
 KOREISH, an Arab tribe which opposed the preten.sions of Mahomet, and was defeated 
 by him and his adherents, 630. 
 
 KOSZTA AFFAIR. Martin Koszta, a Huugarian refugee, when in the United States in 
 1850, declared his intention of becoming an American citizen, and went through the pre- 
 liminary forms. In 1853 he visited Smyrna, and on June 21 was seized b}'^ a boat's crew 
 from the Austrian brig Huzzar. By direction of the American minister at Constantinople, 
 captain Ingrahara, of the American sloop St. Louis, demanded his release ; but having heai-d 
 that the prisoner was to be clandestinely transferred to Trieste, he demanded his surrender by 
 a certain time, and prepared to attack the Austrian vessel on July 2; Koszta was then given 
 up. On Aiigust I, the Austrian government protested against these proceedings in a circular 
 addressed to the European courts, but eventually a compromise was effected, and Koszta 
 returned to the United States. 
 
 KRASNOI (Central Russia). Here the French army under Marshal Davou.st, prince of 
 Eckmiihl, was totally defeated by the Russian army commanded by prince Kutusoff (who 
 died in 1813). 
 
 KREASOTE. See Crcasote. 
 
 KREMLIX, a palace at Moscow, built by Demetri, grand-duke of Russia, in 1376. It 
 was burnt down in 1812, and re-built in 1816. 
 
 KUNNERSDORF, Battlk of. See Cunncrsdorf. 
 
 KUNOBITZA, in the Balkan. Here John Hunniades, the Huugarian, defeated the 
 Turks, Dec. 24, 1443. 
 
 KURRACHEE, a flourishing port in N. \V. India, was taken by the British, Feb- 
 3, 1839. 
 
 KUSTRIN OR Custrix (Prussia), a fortified town, besieged and burnt by the Russians, 
 Aug. 22, 1758 ; taken by the French in 1806 ; given up, 1814. 
 
 LABORATORY. The Royal Institution laboratory, the first of any importance in 
 London, was established in 1800. In it were made the discoveries of Davy and Faradaj\ 
 See Royal Institution. 
 
 LABRADOR (N. America), discovered by Sebastian Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Corte Real 
 in 1500 ; made a Moravian missionary station in 1771. 
 
 LABUAN, an Asiatic island N. W. Borneo ; occupied by the British in 1846, and given 
 up to su- James Brook in 1848. See Borneo. 
 
 LABURNUM, called also the golden chain and Cytisus Laburnum, was brought to these 
 countries from Hungary, Austria, &c., about 1576. Ashe. 
 
 LABYRINTH. Four are mentioned : the first, said to have been built by Dnedalus, in 
 the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 12 10 B.C. ; the second in Egypt, in the 
 isle of Mceris, by Psammeticus, king of that ])lace, about 683 B.C. ; the other, the third, at 
 Lemnos, remarkable for its sumptuous pillars, which seems to have been a stalactite grotto ; 
 and the fourth at Clusium, in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of Etruria, about 520 B.C. 
 Pliny. The beauty and art of the labyrinths of Mendes were almost beyond belief ; it had 
 12 halls and 3000 chambers, with pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with 
 sculpture. Herodotus. The labyrinth of Woodstock is connected with the story of Fair 
 Rosamond. See Rosamond. The Maze, at Hampton Court, was formed at the end of the 
 1 6th century. 
 
LAC 425 LAM 
 
 LACE was of very delicate texture in France and Flanders in 1320. Its importation 
 into England was prohibited in 1483 ; but it was general in the court costume of Elizabetli's 
 reign. Dresden, Valenciennes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine 
 lace. An ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four pounds in 
 London ; and its value, when manufactured has been increased to forty pounds, ten times 
 the price of standard gold. A dissipated framework knitter of Nottingham, named Hammond, 
 is said to have invented a mode of applying his stocking-frame to the manufacture of lace 
 from studying the lace on his wife's cap, about 1768. MacciMoch. So many improvements 
 have been made in this manufactiu'e, particularly by Heathcote (1809, 18 17, &c.), Morley 
 and Leaver (181 1, &c.), that a piece of lace which about 1809 cost 17Z. may now be had for 
 "js. (1853). Ure. The process of "gassing," by which cotton lace is said to be made equal 
 to fine linen lace, was invented by Samuel Hall of Basford, near Nottingham. He died in 
 Nov. 1862. 
 
 LACED^MON. See Sparta. 
 
 LACONIA (S.E. Peloponnesus), the ancient name of Sparta ; in the 8th century called 
 Tzakonia. 
 
 LACTEAL VESSELS were discovered in a dog by Jasper Asellius of Cremona, 1622, and 
 in birds and other animals, by Mr. Hewsonof London, about 1770. 
 
 LADY. The masters and mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out bread 
 to the poor weekly, and were therefore called Laforcls and Lef-days — signifying bread-givers 
 (from hlaf, a loaf) : hence Lords and Ladies. Tooke considers Lord to signify high-born. 
 Ladies first came into court in France in 1499. — Lady day (March 25), a festival instituted 
 about 350, according to some authorities, and not before the 7tli century according to others. 
 See Annuncicttion. The year was ordered to begin on Jan. ist, in France in 1564 ; and in 
 Scotland, by proclamation, on Dec. 17, 1599 ; but not in England till Se^rt. 3, 1752, when 
 the style was altered. 
 
 LADRONE ISLES (N. Pacific), belonging to Spain, discovered by Magellan, in 1520. 
 He iirst touched at the island of Guam. The natives having stolen some of his goods, he 
 named the islands the Ladrones, or Thieves. In the 17th century they obtained, the name 
 of Marianne's islands from the queen of Spain. 
 
 LAGOS-BAY (Portugal). Here was fought a battle between admiral Boscawen and the 
 French admiral De la Clue, who lost both his legs in the engagement, and died next day, 
 Aug. 17, 18, 1759. The Centaur and Jf oc^esfe were taken, and the Redoubtable and Ocean 
 run on shore and burnt : the scattered remains of the French fleet got into Cadiz. 
 
 LAGOS, in the Bight of Benin (Africa), was assaulted and taken by the boats of a 
 British sciuadron, under commodore Bruce, Dec. 26 and 27, 185 1. This affair arose out 
 of breaches of a treaty for the suppression of the slave-trade. In 1862, the place was ceded 
 to the British government, and created a settlement : Henry Stanhope Freeman to be the 
 iirst governor. 
 
 LA HOGUE (N.W. France), Battle of, May 19, 1692, between the English and Dutch 
 combined fleets, irnder admirals Eussell and Eooke, and the French fleet commanded by 
 admiral Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a splendid 
 victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight more, forcing the rest to fly, 
 "and thus preventing a threatened descent upon England. 
 
 LAHORE (N.W. India), was taken by Baber in 1524, and was long the capital of the 
 Mongol empire. It fell into the power of the Sikhs in 1798. It was occupied by sir Hugh 
 Gough Feb. 22, 1846, who in March concluded a treaty of peace with them. 
 
 LAKE POETS, a term applied to Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey, from their having 
 resided in the neighbourhood of the lakes of Westmoreland. 
 
 LAKE EEGILLUS (Italy), where the Romans defeated the Latin aiixiliaries of the 
 expelled Tarquins, 499 B.C. 
 
 LAKES CHAMPLAIN, ERIE, and ONTARIO. These lakes were the scenes of many 
 actions between the British and Americans in the war of independence (about 1 776 and 
 1777), and in the war of 1813-14. 
 
 LAMAISM, the religion of Mongolia and Thibet, is a corrupt form of Buddhism 
 
 {which see). 
 
LAM 
 
 426 
 
 LAN 
 
 LAMBETH PALACE. A considerable portion was built in the I2tli and 13th centuries, 
 by Hubert "Walter, arclibisliop of Canterbury. The chapel was erected in 1196. The tower 
 of the church was erected aboiit 1375 ; and other parts of the edifice in the 15th century. 
 Simon of Sudbury, archbishop of Canterbury, was barbarously put to death liere by the 
 followers of Wat Tyler, who attacked the palace, burnt all the furniture and books, and 
 destroyed all the registers and public papers, June 14, 1381. The domestic portion of the 
 palace was greatly enlarged for archbishop Howley (who died 1S48), by Mi\ Blore, at an 
 expense of 52,000^. See Canterbury and Articles. 
 
 LAMIAIST WAE, B.C. 323, between Athens and her allies (excited by Demosthenes, the 
 orator), and Antipater, governor of Macedon. Antipater fled to Lamia, in Thessaly, and was 
 there besieged. He escaped thence and defeated his adversaries at Cranon, 322 B.C. 
 
 LAMMAS-DAY, the ist of August, one of our four cross quai'ter-days of the year. 
 Whitsuntide w\as formerly the first of these quarters, Lammas the second, Martinmas the 
 third, and Candlemas the last ; and such ]:iartitiou of the year w^as once equally common 
 with the jsresent divisions of Lady-day, Midsummer, Michaelmas, and Cluistmas. Some 
 rents are yet payable at each of these quarterly days in England, and very generally in 
 Scotland. Lammas comes from the Saxon, MamDiaisse, loaf-mass, because formerly upon 
 that day our ancestors offered bread made of new wheat ; anciently, those tenants that 
 held lands of the cathedral church of York were by tenure to bring a lamb alive into church 
 at high mass. 
 
 LAMPETER COLLEGE (Cardiganshire), was founded by bishop Burgess in 1822, and 
 incorporated 1828. 
 
 LAMPS. The earthen lamp of Epictetus the philosopher sold after his death for 3000 
 drachmas, 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred. London streets were 
 first lighted with oil-lamps in 16S1, and with gas-lamps in 18 14. A lamp " consti'ucted to 
 produce neither smoke nor smell, and to give considerably more light than any lamp hitherto 
 known," was patented by M. Aime Argand in 1784, and was brought into general use in 
 England early in the present century. On his principle are founded the lamp invented by 
 Carcel about 1803, and since i825,;^the Moderateur Lamps of Levavasseur, Hadrot, and 
 ■ ISTeuburger. ' See Safety Lamp. 
 
 LANARK (W. Scotland), was a Roman station, and made a royal burgh 1103. 
 
 LANCASHIRE was created a county palatine by Edward IIL for his son John of Gaunt, 
 who had married the daughter of Henry, first duke of Lancaster, in 1359, and succeeded 
 him in 1361. The court of the Duchy Chamber of Lancaster was instituted in 1376. 
 On the accession of Henry IV. in 1399 the duchy merged into the crown. See under article 
 Cotton. 
 
 LANCASTER, supposed to have been the Ad Alaunam of the Romans. Lancaster was 
 granted by William I. or II. to Roger de Poitou, who erected a castle upon its hill. It was 
 taken by the Jacobites, Nov. i7i5andNov. 1745. 
 
 LANCASTER! AN SCHOOLS, on a system of education by means of mutual instruction, 
 devised by Joseph Lancaster about 1796, but were not much patronised till about 1808. 
 The system led to the formation of the British and Foreign School Society, in 1805, whose 
 schools are unsectarian, and use the Bible as the only means of religious instruction. Lancaster 
 was accidentally killed at New York in 1838. 
 
 LAND was let generally in England for is. per acre, 36 Hen. VIII. 1544. The whole 
 rental of the kingdom was about 6,000,000/. in 1600 ; about 14,000,000?. in 1688; in 1798 
 Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of 10 per cent, on' an estimate of 100 millions, taking the 
 rent of land at 50 millions, that of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 40 millions ; 
 but in his estimate were exempted much land, and the inferior class of houses. The rental 
 of the United Kingdom was estimated at 59,500,000?. in 1851.* An act for rendering more 
 easy the transfer of land was passed in 1862. See Agriculture. 
 
 A species of land-tax was exacted in England in 
 the lotli century, -whicli produced 82,000^. 
 (see Damcjdt) in 1018 
 
 Land Banks were proposed by Yarranton In . 164S 
 
 The land-tax imposed 1699, grew outof a subsidy 
 scheme of 4s. in the pound, which produced 
 500,000?,. in 1692 
 
 A Land Credit Company for Silesia was estab- 
 
 * The allotment of land to cottagers began with lord Braybrooke's successful experiment in Essex, of 
 allotting small portions of land to poor families, to assist them and relieve the parish poor-rates in 1819. Tho 
 little colony was first called Pauper Gardens, but afterwards Xfcw Village, and it is calculated that 200J. jter 
 anmim were saved to the parish. 
 
LAN 
 
 427 
 
 LAN 
 
 LAND, contintiecl. 
 
 lished by Frederick tlie Great (see Credits 
 Foncieres) 1763 
 
 Wr. Pitt made the tax perpetual at 45. in the 
 pound, but introduced his I'llan for its re- 
 demption April 2, 1798 
 
 Landed Estates Court, established to "facili- 
 tate the sale and transfer of land in Ireland " 
 (,aQB Encumbered Estates Act) .... 1S5S 
 
 The Land Registry office was opened in . . 1862 
 
 From the Revolution to the year 1800, the land- 
 tax had yielded 227,000,000^. 
 
 Ministers were left in a minority in the Hoviso 
 of Commons on the land-tax bill in 1767 ; it 
 being the first instance of the kind on a 
 money bill since the Revolution. Its rate 
 varied in different years from is. to 4s. in the 
 pound. 
 
 The tax in 1810 produced 1,418,337?. ; in 1820, 
 1,338,420?. ; in 1830, 1,423,618?. ; in 1840, 
 1,298,622?. ; in 1852, 1,151,613?. 
 
 LANDEN, or Neeewinden, Belgium. Near here the French under marshal Luxembourg 
 defeated the allies, commanded by William III. of England, chiefly through the cowardice 
 of the Dutch, July 19 (N.S. 29), 1693. The duke of Berwick, illegitimate son of James II., 
 fighting on the side of France, was taken prisoner. 
 
 LANDGRAVE (from land and grave, a count,) a German title, which commenced in 
 1 130 with Louis III. of Thuringia, and became the title of the house of Hesse about 1263. 
 
 LANDLORD. See Rent. 
 
 LANDSHUT (Silesia), where the Prussians were defeated by the Austrians under marshal 
 Laudohu, June 23, 1760. 
 
 LANGSIDE (S. Scotland), where the forces of the regent of Scotland, the earl of 
 Murray, defeated "the army of Mary queen of Scots, May 13, 1568. Mary fled to England 
 and crossed the Sol way Firth, landing at Workington, in Cumberland, May 16. Soon after- 
 wards she was imprisoned by Elizabeth. 
 
 LANGUAGE must either have been revealed originally from heaven, or the fruit of 
 human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most 
 of the Greek and Roman writers ; the formier by the Jews and Christians, and many profound 
 modern philosophers. Some suppose Hebrew to have been the ' language spoken by Adam ; 
 others say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic are only dialects of the, original tongue. 
 "And the whole earth was of one language and of one speech," Genesis xi. i. The original 
 European languages Avere thiiteen, viz. : Greek, Latin, German, Sclavonian, spoken in the 
 east ; Welsh ; Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish ; Albanian, in the mountains of Epirus ; 
 Tartarian; the old Illyrian ; the Jazj^gian, remaining yet in Liburnia ; the Chaucin, in the 
 north of Hungary ; and the Finnic, in East Friesland. From the Latin sprang the Italian, 
 French, Spanish, and Portuguese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. From 
 the Teutonic sprang the present German, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, &c. 
 There are 3664 known languages, or rather dialects, in the world. Of these, 937 are Asiatic ; 
 587 European ; 276 African ; and 1624 American languages and dialects. Adelung, 
 George I. in 1724, and George II. in 1736, appointed regius professors of modern languages 
 and of history to each of the universities of England. In 186 1 and 1862 professor Max Mliller 
 lectured on the "Science of Language" at the Royal Institution, London.* He divides 
 languages into three families : — 
 
 I. Aryan (in Sanskrit, noble). 
 Southern Division. India (Prakrit, and Pali ; Sans- 
 krit ; dialects of India ; Gipsy). 
 Iriinic (Parsi ; Armenian, &c.). 
 
 Northern Division. 
 
 Celtic (Cymric : Cornish, Welsh, Manx, Gaelic, Bre- 
 ton, (fee.). 
 
 Italic (Oscan ; Latin ; Umbrian ; — Italian, Spanish, 
 Portuguese, French, &c.). 
 
 lUyric (Albanian). 
 
 Hellenic (Greek, and its dialects). 
 
 "Windic (Lettic : Old Prussian; Salvonic dialects, — 
 Bohemian, Russian, Pohsh, LitCTianian, &c.). 
 
 Teutonic (High German: Modern German; Zow 
 German : Gothic ; Anglo-Saxon ; Dutch ; Frisian ; 
 
 LANGUE D'OC. See Troutadours. 
 
 English. Scandinavian : Old Norse, Danish, Swe- 
 dish, Norwegian, Icelandic). 
 
 II. Semitic: Southern. Arabic (including Bthiopic 
 and Amharic). • Middle. Hebraic (Hebrew, Sama- 
 ritan, Phoenician inscriptions). Northern. Aramaic 
 (Chaldee, Syriac, Cuneiform inscriptions of Baby- 
 lon and Nineveh). 
 
 III. Turanian (from Tara, .swiftness). 
 
 Northern Division. Tungusic (Chinese, &c.); Mon- 
 golic ; Turkic ; Samoyedic, and Finnic. 
 
 Southern Division. Taic (Siamese, &c.) ; (Himalayas) ; 
 Malayic (Polynesia, &c.); Gangetic; Lonitic 
 (Burmese, &c.) ; Munda; TamuUc. 
 
 * Cardinal Giuseppe Mezzofanti (1774-1848) knew 114 languages or dialects; and Niebuhr knew 20 
 languages in 1807, and more afterwards. 
 
LAN 
 
 428 
 
 LAT 
 
 LANSDOWX (Somersetshire). The parliamentary army under sir Wm. Waller was here 
 defeated, July 5, 1643. 
 
 LANTERNS of scraped horn were invented in England, it is said, by Alfred ; and it is 
 supposed that horn was U3ed for window lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's 
 reign, 872-901. Stoiv. Loudon was lighted by suspended lanterns with glass sides, 1415. 
 
 LANTHANUM, a rare metal discovered in the oxide of cerium, by Mosander in 1839. 
 
 IjAOCOON, an exquisite Grecian work of art, executed in marble, was modelled by 
 Agesander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and about 80 eminent statuaries ; it 
 represents the death of the Trojan hero, Laocoon, priest of Neptune, and his two sons, as 
 described by Virgil, yEiieis ii. 200, It was discovered in 1506 in the Sette Salle near Rome, 
 and purchased by pope JuUus II. It is now in the Vatican. 
 
 LAODICEA. See Seven Churches. 
 
 LAON (N. France). Here a succession of actions between the allies (chiefly the 
 Prussians) and the French, was fought under the walls of the town, which ended in the 
 defeat of the latter with great loss, March 9, 10, 1814. 
 
 LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. In 1785 La Perouse sailed from France for the Pacific, 
 with the Boussole and Astrolabe under his command, and was last heard of from Botany Bay, 
 in March, 1 788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search of Perouse ; 
 but no certain information was had until captain Dillon, of the East India' ship Research, 
 ascertained that the French ships had been cast away on the New Hebrides, authenticated 
 by articles which captain Dillon brought to Calcutta, April 9, 1828. 
 
 LAPLAND, or Sameland, N. Europe, nominally subject to Norway in the 13th 
 century, and now to Sweden and Russia. 
 
 LARCENY. (French, larcen; Latin, lalrocinium.) See Tluft. 
 
 LA ROTHIERE (France), Battle of, between the French, commanded by Napoleon, 
 and the Prussian and Russian armies, which were defeated with great loss after a desperate 
 engagement, Feb. i, 1814. This was one of Napoleon's last victories. 
 
 LARYNGOSCOPE, an instramcnt consisting of a concave mirror, by which light is 
 thrown upon a small plane mirror placed in the posterior part of the cavity of the mo nth. 
 By its means the vocal chords of the interior of the larynx, &c. , are exhibited, and have 
 been photographed. One constructed by Dr. Tiirck, in 1857, was modified by Dr. Czermak, 
 who exhibited it in action in London in 1862. A similar apparatus is said to have been 
 constructed by Mr. John Avery, a surgeon in London, in 1846, and used by M. Garcia. 
 
 LATERAN, a church at Rome, dedicated to St. John, was originally a palace of the 
 Laterani, and was given to the bishops of Rome by Constantine, and inhabited by them till 
 their removal to the Vatican in 1377. Eleven councils have been held here. 
 
 LATHAM-HOUSE, Lancashire, was heroically defended for three months ag ainst the 
 parliamentarians, by Charlotte, countess of Derby. She was relieved by princ e Rupert, 
 May, 1644. The house was, however, surrendered Dec. 4, 1645, and dismantled. 
 
 LATHE. The invention is ascribed to Talus, a grandson of Dffidalus, about 1240 B.C. 
 Pliny ascribes it to Theodore of Samos, about 600 B. c. 
 
 LATIN KINGDOM, Empire, &c. See Latium, Eastern Empire 1204, and Jerusalem. 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE (founded on the Oscan, Etruscan, and Greek), one of the original 
 languages of Europe, and from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. See 
 Latium. A large portion of our language is derived from the Latin. It ceased to be spoken 
 in Italy about 581 ; and was first taught in England by Adelmus, brother of Ina, in the 7th 
 century. The use of Latin in law deeds in England gave way to the common tongue about 
 1000 ; was revived in the reign of Henry II. ; and again was replaced by English in the reign 
 of Henry III. It was finally discontinued in religious worship in 1558, and in conveyancing 
 and in courts of law in 1731 (by 4 Geo. II. c. 25). A corrupt Latin is still spoken in 
 Roumelia. 
 
 Died 
 Plautus . . . . B.C. 184 
 
 Eniiius i6g 
 
 Terence . (dourisUeg) 166 
 
 Cato the Elder . ." . . 149 
 
 PRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS. 
 
 Died 
 Lucilius . . . B.C. 103 
 
 Lucretius 52 
 
 Julius Csesar . . . . 44 
 
 Cicero 
 
 Died 
 Catullus . . . B.C. 40 
 
 Sallust 34 
 
 Vitruvius . . (flourishes) 27 
 43 ' Propertius . . . .26 
 
LAT 
 
 429 
 
 LAV 
 
 Died 
 Suetonius {about) a.b. 120 
 
 Juvenal 128 
 
 Aulus Gellius . {ftov.rishea) i6g 
 Apuleius . . ,, 174 
 
 Ammianus Marcellinus . . 390 
 
 Claudian 408 
 
 Macrobius 415 
 
 Boetbius 524 
 
 (See Fathers of the Church.) 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE, continued. 
 
 Died I Died 
 
 Virgil .... B.C. 19 Seneca .... a.d. 65 
 
 Tibullus 18 I Pliny tbe Elder . . • . 79 
 
 Horace 8 | Qulntilian . (Jiourishes) 80 
 
 Celsus . (flourishes) a.d. 17 ! Valerius Placcus . ,, . 81 
 
 Livy . . . ' . . . 18 ; Pliny tbe Younger ,, . 100 
 
 Ovid 18 i Statius . . . (about) 100 
 
 Paterculus 31 j Tacitus . . . ,, 100 
 
 Persius 62 Silius Italicus . . . loi 
 
 Lucan 63 1 Martial . . (flourishes) 104 
 
 LATITAT, an ancient writ by wliich persons were usnall}' called to tlie King's Bencli 
 court, had its name from its being supposed that the defendant was lurking, or lying hid, 
 and could not be found in the county to be taken by bill, and the writ is directed to the 
 sheriff to apprehend him. The writ was abolished by the Uniformity of Process Act, May 
 23, 1832. 
 
 LATITUDE. First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 162 B.C. It is the extent 
 of the earth, or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator to either pole. Maupertuis, in 
 1737, in latitude 66 '20, measured a degree of latitude, and made it 69-493 miles. Swan- 
 berg, in 1803, made it 69 '292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68732 ; 
 and Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 61743. Mudge, in England, made it 69T48. Cassini, 
 in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69'I2 ; and Biot, 68769 ; while a recent measure in 
 Spain makes it but 68-63 — less than at the equator, and contradicts all others, proving the 
 earth to be a prolate spheroid (which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernoulli, Euler, and 
 others), instead of an oblate spheroid. 
 
 LATIUM, now Campania (Italy), the country of Latinus, king of Janiculum, 1240 B.C. 
 Laurentum was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavinium under JEneas, 
 and Alba under Ascanius. See Italy and Home. 
 
 LATTER-DAY SAINTS. See Mormonites. LA TRAPPE. See Traj^pisls. 
 
 LAUDANUM. See Opium. 
 
 LAUENBURG, a duchy, N. Germany ; was conquered from the Wends by Henry the 
 Lion of Saxony, about 1152; ceded to Hanover, 1689 ; incorporated with the French empii-e, 
 1810 ; ceded to Denmark, 1815 ; annexed by Prussia, Aug. 14, 1865 ; possession taken 
 Sept. 15, following. See Gastein. Population in 1855, 50, 147. 
 
 LAUREATE. See Poet Laureate. 
 
 LAUREL was sacred to Apollo, god of poetry ; and from the earliest times the poets aiid 
 generals of armies, Avhen victors, were cro^med with laurel. Petrarch was crowned with 
 laurel, April 8, 1341. — The Prunus laurocerasus was brought to Britain from the Levant, 
 before 1629 ; the Portugal laurel, Prunus lusitanica, before 1648 ; the royal bay, Laurus 
 indica, from Madeira, 1665 ; the Alexandrian laurel, Ruscus racemosus, from Spain, before 
 1713 ; the glaucous laurel, Zaurus aggregata, from China, 1806 or 1821. 
 
 LAURENTALIA were festivals celebrated at Rome in honour of Acca Laurentia, who is 
 said to have been either the nurse of Romulus or Remus, or a rich dissolute woman, who 
 bequeathed her property to the Roman people. They commenced about 621 B.C., and were 
 held on the last day of April and the 23rd of December. 
 
 LAURUSTINE, Viburnum Tinus, an evergreen shrub, was brought to England from the 
 south of Europe, before 1596. 
 
 LA VALETTA. See Malta. 
 
 LAVALETTE'S ESCAPE. Count Lavalette, for aiding the emperor Napoleon on his 
 return in 181 5, was condemned to death, but escaped from prison in the clothes of his wife, 
 during a last interview, Dec. 20, 1815. Sir Robert Wilson, Michael Bruce, esq., and captain 
 J. H. Hutchinson, were convicted of aiding the escape, and sentenced to three months' 
 imprisonment in the French capital, April 24, 1816. Lavalette was permitted to return to 
 France in 1820, and died in retirement in 1830. 
 
 ■ LA VENDUE (W. France). The French Royalists of La Vendee took to arms in March, 
 1793, and were successful in a number of hard-fought battles with the Republican armies, 
 between July 12, 1793, and Jan. i, 1794, when they experienced a severe reverse. Their 
 leader, Henri, comte de Larochejaquelein, was killed, March 4, 1794. The war was termi- 
 nated by general Hoche, in 1796. A treaty of peace was signed at Lugon, Jan. 17, 1800. 
 See Ckouans. 
 
LAV 
 
 430 
 
 LAZ 
 
 LAVENDER, Lavandula spica. Broiiglit from the south of Europe, before 1568. 
 
 LAW'S BUBBLE. John Law, of Edinburgh (1681), became comptroller-general of the 
 finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for establishing a bank, and an East India 
 and a Mississippi company, by the profits of which the national debt of France was to be 
 paid off. He first ofi'ered his plan to Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was 
 not powerful enough to ruin himself. The French ministry accepted it; and in 1 7 16, he 
 opened a bank in his own name, under tlie protection of the duke of Orleans, regent of 
 France ; and the deluded rich of every rank, subscribed for shares both in the bank and the 
 companies. In 1718 Law's was declared a royal bank, and the shares rose to upwards of 
 twenty-fold the original value ; so that, in 1 719, they were worth more than eighty times 
 the amount of all the current specie in France. In 1720 this fabric of false credit fell to the 
 ground, spreading ruin throughout the country. Law died in poverty in 1729 at Venice. 
 — The South Sea Bubble in England occurred in the fatal year 1720. See South Sea. 
 
 LAWS. See Codes, Canom, and Civil Lavj. The Jewish law was given by God, and 
 promulgated by Moses, 149 1 B.C. 
 
 The laws of Pboroneus, in the kingdom of 
 Argos (1807 B.C.) were the first Attic laws; 
 they wei-o reduced to a system by Draco, for 
 the Athenians, 623 b.c. ; whose code was 
 superseded by that of Solon, 594 B.C. 
 
 The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made about 
 844 B.C. ; they remained in full force for 700 
 years, and formed a race totally different 
 from all others hving in civilised society. 
 
 The Roman Laws, the Twelve Tables, were 
 published 449 B.C., and remained in force till 
 Justinian, nearly a thousand years. 
 
 BRITJSH LAW.S. 
 
 The British Laws of earliest date were trans- 
 lated into the Saxon in . . . . A.D. 590 
 Saxon laws of Ina published about . . . 700 
 Alfred's code of laws, the foundation of the 
 common law of England, is said to have been 
 arranged about (see Common Law) . . . 886 
 Edward the Confessor collected the laws in . 1065 
 Stej)hen's chaiter of general liberties . . .1136 
 Henry IL's confirmation of it . . 1154 and ''75 
 The maritime laws of Richard I. (see Oleron) . 11 94 
 Magna Charta, by king John, 1215 ; confirmed 
 by Henry III 1216 et seq. See Magna Charta, 
 and Forest's Charter. 
 Lord Mansfield, lord chief justice of the king's 
 bench, declared, "That no fiction of law 
 shall ever so far prevail against the real 
 truth of the fact, as to prevent the execution 
 of Justice" ..... May 21, 1784 
 
 LAWYERS. 
 
 Pleaders of the bar, or barristers, are said to 
 
 have been first apijointed by Edward I. . 1291 
 Serjeants, the highest members of the bar, 
 
 were alone permitted to plead in the court of 
 Common Pleas. The first king's council 
 under the degree of Serjeant was sir Francis 
 
 Bacon, in 1604 
 
 Law Association charity founded in . . . 1817 
 Incorporated Law Society formed in 1823 ; plan 
 enlarged, 1825 ; a charter obtained, 1831 ; 
 renewed, 1845. The building in Chancery- 
 lane, from the designs of Vullianiy, was com- 
 menced in 1829 
 
 Juridical Society established in . . . . 1855 
 See Barristers, Counsel. 
 
 Law Amendment Society, founded in 1843. It 
 holds meetings during the session of parliament, 
 and publishes a journal and reportsi Its first 
 chairman was lord Brougham, who inti'oduced 
 the subject of Law Refoi-m by a most eloquent 
 speech in the house of commons, on Feb. 7, 1828. 
 Many acts for Law Reform have been passed 
 since, and vigorous measures were pi'oposed by 
 the late lord Chancellor Westbury. 
 
 Law-Courts. — Commissioners appointed in 1859 
 reported in favour of the concentration of the 
 law-courts in London, on a site near Carey-street, 
 Chancery-lane. The estimated expense was about 
 i,5oo,oooi., which it was recommended to take 
 from the accumulated Chancery fund termed 
 "Suitors' fund." An act of parliament to carry 
 out the plan was passed in 1865. 
 
 Law Reporters, a new and more economical plan 
 of preparing and publishing law reports was finally 
 adopted by a committee of barristers on March 11, 
 1865. 
 
 LAYAMON'S BRUT, or Chronicle of Britain, a poetical semi-Saxon paraphrase of the 
 BrutofWace, made between iioo and 1230, was published with a literal translation by 
 .sir Frederick Madden, in 1847. 
 
 LAYBACH (near Trieste, in Illyria). A congress met here in Jan. 1821, and was 
 attended by the sovereigns oi^ Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Naples. It broke up in May, 
 after having issued two circular.?, stating it to be their resolution to occu^iy Naples with 
 Austrian troops, and put down popular insurrections. 
 
 LAYER'S CONSPIRACY. Christopher Layer, a barrister, conspired with other per- 
 sons to seize George I., the prince of Wales, lord Cadogan, and the principal officers of state, 
 to take the Tower by surprise, to plunder the Bank, and finally to bring in the Pretender, 
 He was hanged, May 17, 1723. 
 
 LAZZARO, St. (N. Italy). Here the king of Sardinia and the Imperialists defeated the 
 French and Spaniards after a long and severe conflict, June 4, 1 746. 
 
LAZ 
 
 431 
 
 LEA 
 
 LAZZARONI (from lazzdro, Spaiiisk for a pauper or leper), a term applied by the 
 Spanish viceroys to the numljer of degraded beings in ISTaples, Avho live like cattle, half- 
 clothed and houseless. No man was born a lazzaro ; and he who turned to a trade ceased to 
 be one. The viceroy permitted the lazzaroni to elect a chief with whom he conferred 
 respecting the imposts on the goods brought to the markets. In 1647, Masaniello held the 
 office. See Naples. In 1793, Ferdinand IV. enrolled several thousands of lazzaroni as 
 pikemen (spontoneers), who generally favotu-ed the Court party. On May 15, 1848, they 
 were permitted, on the king's behalf, to commit fearful ravages on the ill-fated city. 
 Colletta. 
 
 LEAD is found in various countries, and is abraidant in various parts of Britain, and in 
 some places richly mixed with silver ore. Pattinson's valuable method for extracting the 
 silver was made known in 1829. The famous Clydesdale mines were discovered in 15 13. 
 The lead -mines of Cumberland and Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per annum. British 
 mines produced 65,529 tons of lead in 1855 ; and 69,266 tons in 1857. Leaden pipes for the 
 conveyance of water were brought into use in 1236. In 1859, 23,690 tons of pig and sheet 
 lead were imported, and 18,414 tons exported. 
 
 LEAGUES. Four kings combined to make war against five, about 19 13 B.C. {Gen. xiv.) 
 The kings of Canaan combined against the invasion of the Israelites, 145 1 B.C. The more 
 eminent Greek leagues were the 3];tolian, powerful about 320 B.C., which lasted till 189 B.C., 
 and" the Achaean, revived 280 b. c. , which was broken up by the conquest of Greece by the 
 Eomans, 146 B.C. The fall of these leagues was hastened by dissension. 
 
 Lombard leagues against emperors (see lom- 
 
 bards) 1176 and 1225 
 
 League of the Public Good was between the 
 dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, 
 and otherprinces against LomsXI., of France, 
 
 1465-72 
 League of Cambray against Venice . . . 1508 
 Holy League (the pope, Venice, <&c.), ag-ainst 
 
 Louis XII 1510 
 
 League of Smalcald 1529 
 
 League of the Beggars (Gueux ; the Protestants 
 so called, though Roman Catholics joined the 
 league) to oppose the institution of the In- 
 quisition in Flanders 1566 
 
 Tlie Holy League, so denominated by way of 
 eminence, to prevent the accession of Henry 
 IV. of France, who was then of the reformed 
 religion, was commenced at Peronne in 1576 
 and lasted till 1593, when Henry embraced 
 Romanism. 
 
 League of "Wurtzburg, by Catholics ; of Halle, 
 by Protestants 1610 
 
 League against the emperor 1626 
 
 Solemn League and Covenant in Scotland, 
 against the episcopal government of the 
 Church, and the regal authority (see Covenant) 1638 
 
 League of Augsburg, against France . . . 16S6 
 
 LEAP-YEAR or Bissextile, originated with the astronomers of Julius Caesar, 45 B.C. 
 They fixed the solar years at 365 days, 6 hours, comprising, as they thought, the period 
 from one vernal equinox to another ; the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four 
 years, forming a day, the fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added 
 was called intercalary, and was placed a daj"" before the 24th of February, the sixth of the 
 - calends, which was reckoned twice, hence called bissextile or twice sixth. This added day 
 with us is Feb. 29th. See Calendar. This arrangement makes the year nearly three minutes 
 longer than the astronomical year : to obviate this, 1700 and 1800 were not, and 1900 will 
 not be leap-year, but 2000 will be one. See Julian Year, Gregorian Calendar, &c. 
 
 LEARNING AND THE Arts flourished among the Greeks, especially under Pisistratus, 
 537 B.C., and Pei'icles, 444 B.C. ; and Avith the Eomans at the commencement of the Christian 
 era, under Augustus. The Greek refugees caused their revival in Italy, particularly after 
 the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, and the invention of printing shortly 
 before the period of the Renaissance. Leo X. and his family (the Medici) greatly promoted 
 learning in Italy, in the i6th century; when literature revived in France, Germany, and 
 England. See Literature, and lists of authors under Greek, Latin, English, and other 
 langxiages. 
 
 LEASE (from the French laisser, to let), a kind of conveyance invented by serjeant 
 Moore, soon after the Statute of Uses, 27 Henry VIII., 153S- Acts relating to leases were 
 passed in 1856, and 1858. 
 
 LEATHER was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs of manufactured 
 hides were used for ropes, harness, &c., by all ancient nations. The Gordian knot was made 
 of leather thongs, 330 B. c. A leather cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired three times, 
 and found to answer, Oct. 23, 1778. Phillips. The duty on leather produced annually in 
 England, 450,000^., and in Ireland about 50,000?. It was abolished, May 29, 1830. Many 
 bankruptcies were declared in the leather trade, in the autumn of 1S60 in England, In the 
 
LEG 432 LEG 
 
 case of Lawrence, Mortimore, and Co., enormous fraudulent dealings in bills were disclosed. 
 A plan for making artificial leather out of cuttings, &c., was made known in i860. Leather- 
 cloth is unbleached cotton coated with a composition of boiled linseed oil and turpentine, 
 coloured with various pigments, invented by Messrs. Crockell, of Newark, U.S., and patented 
 in 1849. 
 
 LECH, a river, S. German}^ near which the cruel general Tilly was defeated by the 
 Swedes, under Gustavus Adolphus, April 30, 1632. Tilly died of his wounds soon after. 
 
 LECTURES. Those on physic were instituted by Dr. Thomas Linacre, of the College of 
 Physicians (founded by Henry VIII.) about 1502. Clinical lectures, at the bed-side of the 
 patient, were begun by sir B. C. Brodie (1813-17) ; Mr. G. Macihvain, about 1824, gave sur- 
 gical clinical lectures in connection with a dispensary. See Grcsham College, Boyle's 
 Lectures, Royal and London Institutions, &c. The political lectures of Thelwall, commenced 
 in January, 1795, were interdicted by an act of parliament. In the autumn of 1857 and 
 since, many distinguished noblemen and gentlemen lectured at mechanics' institutes. An 
 act passed in 1835 prohibited the publication of lectures without the consent of the lecturers. 
 
 LEEDS (Yorkshire), the Saxon Loidis, once a Eoman station, received a charter in 1627. 
 Population in 1861, 207,165. 
 
 Magnificent new town-hall opened by the queen, 
 and tbe mayor, Peter Fairbaim, knighted 
 
 Sept. 7, ] 
 
 Shenfield grammar school founded . . . 1552 
 
 Coloured Cloth hall built 1758 
 
 Literary and Philosophical society established 1820 
 
 Enfranchised by the Reform act . . . . 18321 
 
 LEEK is the Welsh emblem, in consequence of a command from Dewi, or J)avid, 
 afterwards archbishop of St. David's, in 519. On the day that king Arthur won a great 
 victory over the Saxons, Dewi is said to have ordered the soldiers to place a leek in their 
 caps. 
 
 LEESBURG HEIGHTS. See BalVs Bluff. 
 
 LEGACIES. In 1780 receipts for legacies were subjected to a stamp duty, and in 1796 
 the legacy duty was imposed. The impost was increased several times subsequently, par- 
 ticularly in 1805, 1808, and 1845. The revenue derived from it varies conssiderably in 
 amount in consecutive years ; but it may be said to average about one and a half to two 
 millions annually. In 1853, the legacy duty was extended to landed or real property. Set 
 Succession Duty Act. 
 
 LEGATES. Ambassadors from the pope : the legate's court was erected hi 1516 by 
 cardinal Wolsey, to prove wills, and for the trial of offences against the spiritual laws. Laic 
 Diet. It was soon discontinued. 
 
 LEGATIONS were the twenty administrative divisions in the States of the Church, 
 governed by legates. They rebelled in 1859-60, and are nearly all included in the kingdom 
 of Italy. See ^owc. 
 
 LEGHORN, Livorno, in Tuscany, a mere village in the 15th centmy, owes its prosperity 
 to the Medici family. It suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741 ; was entered by the 
 French army, July 27, 1796, but the British property had been removed. It was evacuated 
 by the French in 1799, and retaken, 1800. It was un .successfully attacked by the British 
 and Italian forces in Dec. 1813. The Austrians took this city from the insurgents. May 12 
 and 13, 1849, and quelled a .slight insurrection, July, 1857. In June, 1857, above 60 persons 
 were killed at the theatre, through an alarm of fire. 
 
 LEGION, Legio, a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, first foiTned by Romulus, when 
 it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, about 750 B.C. When Hannibal was in Italy, 
 216 B.C., the legion consisted of 5200 soldiers ; and under Marius, in 88 B.C., it was 6200 
 soldiers, besides 700 horse. There were ten, and sometimes as many as eighteen, legions 
 kept at Rome. Augustus had a standing amiy of 45 legions, together with 25,000 horse and 
 37,000 light armed troops, about 5 B.C.; and the peace establishment of Adrian was thirty 
 of 'these formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was protected by three legions. A 
 legion was divided into ten cohorts, and every cohort into six centuries, with a vexillum, or 
 standard, guarded by ten men. The French army has been divided into legions since 
 Francis I. See TMmdering Legion. 
 
 LEGION OF HONOUR, a French order embracing the army, civil officers, and other 
 individuals distinguished for services to the state j instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte, when 
 
LEG 433 LEN" 
 
 First Consul, May 19, 1802. On the restoration of the Bourbons, Louis XVIII. confirmed 
 this order in April, 18 14. The honour was conferred on many British subjects who distiu' 
 guislied themselves in the Eussian war, 1854-6, and in the Paris exhibition of 1855. 
 
 LEGITIMISTS, a term (since 1814) applied to those who support the claims of the elder 
 branch of the Bourbon family to the throne of France : whose representati\'e is Henry, due 
 de Bordeaux, called eomte de Chambord, born Sept. 29, 1820. They held a congress at 
 Lucerne on June 24-29, 1862 : when about 3850 persons were present, including the duchess 
 of Parma. They agreed to continue a pacific j)olicy. 
 
 LEGNANO (in Lombardy), where the emperor Frederick Barbarossa was defeated by the 
 Milanese and their allies, May 29, 11 76, which victory led to the treaty of Constance in 
 1 183. 
 
 LEICESTER (central England) returned two members to parliament in the reign of 
 Edward I. Here Eichard III. was buried, Aug. 25, 1485 ; and here cardinal Wolseydied, 
 Nov. 29, 1530. During the civil war, it was taken by Charles I., May 31, and by Fairfax, 
 June 17, 1645. The stocking manufacture was introduced in 1680. 
 
 LEIGHLIN (W. Carlow), a see founded by St. Laserian, about 628. Burchard, the 
 Norwegian, the son of Garmond, founded or endowed the priory of St. Stephen of Leighlin. 
 Bishop Doran, a worthy prelate, appointed in 1523, was murdered by his archdeacon, Mau- 
 rice Cavenagh, who was hanged for the crime on the spot where he had committed the 
 murder. Beatson. In 1600 Leighlin Avas united to Ferns ; the combined see united to 
 Ossory, in 1835. See Ferns and Bishojys. 
 
 LEINSTEE, a kingdom in 1167, now one of the four provinces of Ireland, divided into 
 four archbishoprics by pope Eugenius III., at a national synod, held at Kells, March 9, 
 1 15 1-2, and in which his holiness was represented by cardinal Paparo. The abduction of 
 Devorgilla, wife of O'Euave, a lord of Connaught, by Dermot king of Leinster in 1152, is 
 asserted to have led to the landing of the English and the subsequent conquest. The pro- 
 vince of Leinster gave the title of duke to Schomberg's son, in 1690. The title became 
 extinct in 1719, and was conferred on the family of Fitzgerald in 1766. 
 
 LEIPSIC (Saxony). Famous for its university (founded 1409) and its fair. Here Gns- 
 tavus AdolphiTS, king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, under Tilly, Sept. 7, 1631 ; and 
 here the Imperialists were again defeated by the Swedes, under Torstensen, Oct. 13, 1642. 
 Here took place, on Oct. 16, 18, 19, 1813, " i/i« battle of the nations,^' between the French 
 army and its allies, commanded by Napoleon (160,000), and the Austrian, Eussian, and 
 Prussian armies (240,000 strong). The French were beaten, chiefly owing to 17 Saxon 
 battalions, their allies, turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 80,000 men 
 perished on the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of 
 artillery, and many standards. The victory was followed by the capture of Leipsic, of the 
 rear-guard of the French army, and of the king of Saxony and his family. 
 
 LEITH. The port of Edinburgh was burnt by the earl of Hertford, in 1544. It was 
 fortified hj the French partisans of qixeen Mary, in 1560, and si;rrendered to the English. 
 The "Agreement of Leith" between the superintendents and ministerswas made, Jan, 
 1572. The docks were commenced in 1720. 
 
 LELEGES, a Pelasgic tribe which inhabited Laconia about 1490 B.C., and after many 
 contests merged into the Helleues. 
 
 LEMUEES. The ancients supposed that the soul, after death, wandered over the world, 
 and disturbed the peace of the living. The happy spirits were called Lares familiares, and 
 the unhappy Leriiures. The Eoman festival called Leimiralia, kept on May 9, 11, 13, was 
 instituted by Eomulus about 747 B.C., probably to propitiate the spirit of the slaughtered 
 Eemus. 
 
 LENT (from the Saxon, Uncten, spring). The forty days' fast observed in the Eoman 
 catholic church from Ash-Wednesday to Easter-day, said to have been instituted by pope 
 Telesphorus, 130.— The early Christians did not commence their Lent irntil the Sunday 
 •which is now called the first Sunday in Lent ; and the four days beginning with Ash- Wed- 
 nesday were added by pope Felix III., in the year 487, in order that the number of fasting 
 days should amount to forty. — Lent was first observed in England by command of Ercom- 
 bert, king of Kent, in 640 or 641. Baker's Chron. Flesh was prohibited during Lent ; but 
 Henry VIII. permitted the use of w/ufe meats by a proclamation in 1543, which continued 
 in force until, by proclamation of James L,in 1619 and 1625, and by Charles I., in 1627 and 
 1631, flesh was again wholly forbidden. See Quadraycsima. 
 
LEO 434 LEY 
 
 LEON, Kingdom of. See Spain. 
 
 LEONINES. Hexameter and pentameter verses, rhyming at the middle and the end, 
 are said to have been first made by Leoninus, a canon, about the middle of the I2th ceu- 
 tuiy, or by pope Leo IL about 682. 
 
 LEPANTO (near Corinth\ Battle of, Oct. 7, 1571 : when the combined fleets of Spain, 
 Yenice, Genoa, Malta, and Pius V., commanded by don John of Austria, defeated the whole 
 maritime force of the Turks, and checked their progress. 
 
 LEPROSY", a skin disease described in Leviticus xiii. (b.c. 1490), which prevailed in 
 ancient times throughoiit Asia. It has now almost disappeared from Europe, except in the 
 south and in Norway. It chiefly affected the lower classes, yet occasionally has proved fatal 
 to the very highest personages. Piobort Bruce of Scotland died of leprosy in 1329. . A 
 hospital for lepers were founded at Granada, by queen Isabella of Castile, about 1504, and a 
 Large number of leper houses were founded in Britain. Dr. Edmondson met with a case in 
 Edinburgh in 1809. 
 
 LETTERS. See Alphabet, Belles Lettres, Marque, and Privateers. 
 
 LETTRES DE CACHET, sealed letters issued by the king of France, beginning about 
 1670, by virtue of which those persons against whom they wei'e directed were thrown into 
 prison, or .sent into exile. The National Assembly decreed their abolition, Nov. i, 1789. 
 
 LETTUCE, introduced into England from Flanders, about 1520. It is said that when 
 queen Catherine wished for a salad, she had to send for lettuce to Holland or Flanders. 
 
 LEUCTRA, in Bceotia, N. Greece, the site of a battle when the Thebans, under Epami- 
 nondas, defeated the superior force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, July 8, 371 B.C. 4000 
 Spartans, Avith their king, were .slain. The Spartans gradually lost their preponderance in 
 Greece. 
 
 LEUTHEN (S. Prussia). See Lissa. 
 
 LEVANT (the East), a term applied to Greece, Turkey, Asia Minor, &c. Levant 
 companies, in London, were established in 1581, 1593, and 1605. 
 
 LEVELLERS, a fanatical party in Germany, headed by Muncer and Storck in the i6th 
 century, who taught that all distinctions of rank were usurpations on the rights of mankind. 
 At the head of 40,000 men, Muncer commanded the sovereign princes of Germany and the 
 magistrates of cities to resign their authority ; and on his march his followers ravaged the 
 country. The landgrave of Hesse at length defeated him ; 7000 of the enthusiasts fell in 
 battle, and the rest fled; their leader was taken and beheaded at Mulhausen in 1525. 
 The English "Levellers," powerful in parliament in 1647, were put down by Cromwell 
 in 1649, and their leader Lilburn imprisoned. At the period of the French Revolution souk; 
 knots of persons, styled Levellers, appeared in England. A "Loyal Association" was 
 formed against them and republicans, by Mr. John Reeves, Nov. 1792. 
 
 LEVELS. The Great Level of the Fens is a low-lying district of about 2000 square 
 miles, in Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk, said to have been 
 overflown by the sea during an earthquake, 368. It was long afterwards an inland sea in 
 winter, and a noxious swamp in summer, and was gradually drained— by the Romans, the 
 Saxons, and especially by the monks during the reigns of the Plantagenet kings. One of 
 the first works on a large scale was carried out by Morton, bishop of Ely, in the reign of 
 Henry VII. A general drainage act was passed by the advice of lord Binghley, in 1601, 
 but little work was done till the reign of James I., who, in 1621, invited over the great 
 Dutch engineer, Cornelius Vermuyden, to assist in the general drainage of the country. 
 After completing several great works Vermuyden agreed (in 1629) to drain the "Great 
 Level." He was at first prevented from proceeding with his undertaking through a popular 
 outcry against foreigners ; but eventually, aided by Francis, earl of Bedford, in spite of 
 the great opposition of the people, for whose benefit he was labouring, he declared his 
 great work complete in 1652. Much, however, still remained to be done ; and the drain- 
 age of the Great Level employed the talents of Rennie (about 1807), and of Telford 
 (1822), and of other eminent engineers since. In 1844 the Middle Level commission cut 
 through certain barrier banks, and replaced them by other works. These latter were reported 
 ■unsound in March, 1862; and on May 4, the outfall sluice at St. Germain's, near King's 
 Lynn, gave way. High tides ensuing, about 6000 acres of fertile land were inundated, 
 causing a loss of about 25,000?. After unwearied, and, for awhile, unsticcessful efforts, a 
 new coffer dam was constructed under the superintendence of Mr. Hawkshaw, which was 
 reported sound in July. Another inundation, begun through the bursting of a marshland 
 
LEV 435 LIB 
 
 sluice, near Lynn, Oct. 4, was checked. The Levels are distinguished as the Middle, Bed- 
 ford;, South, and North Levels. 
 
 LEVEEI AN MUSEUM, formed by sir Ashton Lever, exhibited to the piiblic at Leicester- 
 house, London ; it was offered to the public, in 1785, by the chance of a guinea lottery, and 
 won by Mr. Parkinson, in 1785, who sold it by auction, in lots, in 1806. 
 
 LEVIATHAN. See Steam Navigation. 
 
 LEWES (Sussex), where Henry IIL, king of England, was defeated by Montfort, earl of 
 Leicester, and the barons. May 14, 1264. Blaauiv. The king, his brother Eichard, king of 
 the Eomans, and his son Edward, afterwards EdAvard I., were taken jDrisoners. One division 
 of Montfort's army, a body of Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, 
 who, pursuing the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. See Evesham. 
 
 LEXICON. See Dictionaries. 
 
 LEXINGTON (Massachusetts), Battle of, between Great Britain and the United States 
 of America, in the war of independence. The British obtained the advantage, and destroyed 
 the stores of the revolted colonists, but lost in the battle 273 men, killed and wounded, 
 April 19, 1775. — The hostilities thus commenced continued to 1783. — Lexington, a town in 
 Missouri, U.S., fortified by the Federals, was attacked by the confederate general Price, on 
 Aug. 29 ; and after a gallant resistance by colonel Mulligan, surrendered on Sept.- 21, 1861. 
 See United States. 
 
 LEYDEN (Holland), Lugclumim Batamrum, important in the 13th century. From Oct. 
 31, 1573, to Oct. 3, 1574, when it was relieved, it endured a siege by the armies of Spain, 
 during which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence. In commemoration the 
 university was founded, 1575. In 1699 two -thirds of the poprrlation perished by a fever, 
 which, it is said, was aggravated by the improper treatment of professor De la Boe. The 
 university was almost destroyed by a vessel laden with 10,000 lbs. weight of gimpowder 
 blowing up, and demolishing a large part of the town, and killing numbers of people, Jan. 
 12, 1807. l:h& Leydan jar was invented about 1745, by Kleist, Muschenbroek, and others. 
 See Electricity. 
 
 LIBEL. By the laws of Eome (those of the Twelve Tables), libels which affected the 
 reputation of another were made capital offences. In the British law, whatever renders a 
 man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion and esteem of the world, is deemed a libel. 
 "The greater the truth, the greater the libel," the well-known law maxim of a high autho- 
 ritj^, is now disputed. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, punishing the offender 
 by banishment for the second offence, 60 Geo. III. 1820.* Lord Campbell's act, 6 & 7 Vict. 
 c. 96 (1843), greatly softened the stringency of the law of libel respecting newspapers. See 
 Trials, 178S, 1790, 1792, 1803, 1808, e< seg--, and 1863. 
 
 LIBERIA, the negro republic on the coast of Upper Guinea, West Africa, was founded 
 by the American Colonial Society, which was estabhshed by Henry Clay in 1816. Liberia 
 was made independent in 1847 ; recognised in 1848 ; and was flourishing in 1863. The 
 president visited the International Exhibition of London in 1862, 
 
 LIBERTINES (signifying freedmen and their sons), was a sect headed by Quintin and 
 Corin, about 1525, who held various monstrous opinions. 
 
 LIBliAEIES. The first 2^ublic library of which we have any certain account in history 
 was founded at Athens by Pisistratus, about 544 B.C. The second of note was founded by 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B. c. It was partially destroyed when Julius Ctesar set fire to 
 Alexandria, 47 B.C. 400,000 valuable books in MS. are said to have been lost by this cata- 
 strophe. Blair. According to Plutarch, the library at Pergamos contained 200,000 books. 
 It came into the possession of the Romans at the death of Attains III. (133 B.C.), who 
 bequeathed his kingdom and wealth to the Romaii people. It was added to that of Alexan- 
 dria by Marc Antony. The first private library was the property of Aristotle, 334 B.C. 
 Strabo. The first library at Rome was instituted 167 B.C. ; it was brought from Macedonia. 
 The library of Appellicon was sent to Rome by Sjdla, fi'om Athens, 86 b. c. This library 
 
 * An action for libel was brought in the court of King's Bench by a bookseller named Stockdale, 
 against Messrs. Hansard, the printers to the house of commons. This action related to an opinion 
 expressed in a parliamentary report of a book published by Stockdale. Lord Denman, iu giving judgment, 
 said he was not aware that the authority of the house of commons could justify the pubUcation of a 
 libel, — an opinion which led to some proceedings on the part of the house, and to other actions by Stock- 
 dale ; and in the session of 1840 (April 14) a law was passed giving summary protection to persons 
 employed by pai-Uament in the publication of its reports and papers. 
 
 F F 2 
 
LIB 
 
 436 
 
 Lie 
 
 was eiiiielied hy the original manuscripts of Ai-istotle's works. A library was founded at 
 Constantinople by Constantine the Great, about A.D. 335 ; and was destroyed 477. A 
 second library was formed from tlic remains of the first, at Alexandria * (which see). Pope 
 Gregorj' I. ordered that the library of the Palatine Ajiollo should be committed to the flames, 
 under the notion of confining the attention of the clerg^'' to the Scriptures. The early 
 Chinese literature is said to have suffered a similar misfortune to that of the west in the 
 destruction of the Alexandrian library ; their emperor Che-whaug-tee, ordered all writings 
 to be destroyed, that everything might begin anew as from his reign ; and books and records 
 were afterwards recovered by succeeding emperois with great difficulty. 
 
 LIBRARIES OF EUROPi:. 
 
 The first public library in Italy was founded at 
 Florence by Nicholas Niccoli, one of tbe great 
 restorers of learning. At his death, he left 
 his library to the public, 1436. Cosmo de' 
 Medici enriched it with the invaluable Greek, 
 Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldaic, and Indian MSS. 
 
 about 1560 
 
 The Vatican Librarj' at Rome, founded by pope 
 Nicholas V. in 1446, and improved by Sixtus 
 v., 1588 ; contains about 150,000 volumes 
 and 40,000 manuscripts. 
 
 Imperial Library of Vienna, founded by 
 Frederick III. in 1440, and by Ma.ximilian I. 1500 
 
 Eoyal (now Imperial J Library of Paris, by John 
 (1350-1363), and by Francis I. about 1520. It 
 was said to contain 815,000 volumes, and 
 84,000 manuscripts in i860. A new reading- 
 room has been built. 
 
 Escuri.al at Madrid, commenced with the 
 foundation of that sumptuous palace, by 
 Philip II 1557 
 
 Library of ths University of Miuiioh is said to 
 contain 400,000 volumes and 10,000 manu- 
 scripts ; and that of GiJttingen, 300,000 
 volumes and 6000 manuscripts. 
 
 Imperial Library at St. Petersburg (consisting 
 princijially of the spoils of Poland) was 
 founded in 1714 
 
 LIBRARIES IN OREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Uichard de Bury, chancellor and high treasurer 
 of England, so enrly as 1341, raised the first 
 private library in Europe. He purchased 
 
 thirty or forty volumes of the abbot of St. 
 Alban's for fifty pounds' weight of silver. 
 Bodleian Library at Oxford, founded 40 Eliz. 
 1598 ; opened in 1602 ; contains nearlj'^ 400,000 
 volumes, and iipwards of 30 000 manu.'cripts. 
 Cottonian Library, founded by sir Robert 
 Cotton, about 1600 ; appropriated to the 
 public, 1701 ; partly destroyed by fire, 1731 ; 
 removed to the British Museum . . . 1753 
 
 Sion College 1623 
 
 Royal Society in 1667 
 
 Radclift'eian, at Oxford, founded by the will of 
 Dr. Kadcliffe, who left 40,000?. to the uni- 
 versity, 1714 ; opened 1749 
 
 University Library, Cambridge, 1720, when 
 George I. gave 5000?. to purchase Dr. Moore's 
 collection. 
 
 Briti.sh Museum (Wij'c^ .<!pf) 1753 
 
 Tlie Libraries of the Royal Institutioii (founded 
 1803), the London Institution (1805), and the 
 Royal College of Surgeons (1786), have classi- 
 fied catalogues. 
 Library of the University of Dublin (1601), and 
 the Advocates' Library in Edinburgh (1680), 
 are extensive and valuable, t 
 
 Free Libraries have been successfully estab- 
 lished since 1850 at Manchester, Liverpool, 
 Salford. &c. Many others have been formed 
 under acts passed in 1845, 1850, and 1856. 
 
 On Nov. 5, 1855, a proposal to establish a Free 
 Library in the city of London was negatived, 
 and 1857 that in Marylebone was closed for 
 want of support. 
 
 See Circulating Library. 
 
 LIBYA (Africa), was conquered by the Persians, 524 B.C., and by Ptolemy Soter, 320. 
 
 LICENCES. This mode of levying monej'^ was introduced by Eichard I. about 1190 ; 
 but was then confined to such of the nobility as desired to enter the lists at tom-uameuts. 
 
 Games and gaming-houses licensed in London, 1620 
 Licence system for exciseable articles enforced 
 
 in various reigns, from the 12th Charles 11. 1660 
 Plays ordered to be licenced in . . . . 1737 
 Lottery ofiice-keepers to take out licences, and 
 pay 5oi. for each, this reduced the number 
 from 400 to 51 Aug. 1778 
 
 General licensing act, 9 Geo. IV. c. 61 
 Licences for public-houses granted in 1551, and 
 for refreshment-houses, with wine licences, 
 in . . . . . . . . . 
 
 The licensing system was applied to India as a 
 kind of income-tax, 1859 ; ceased in . . 
 
 LICHFIELD (Staffordshire). The see of Mercia, afterwards Lichfield, was founded iu 
 656. In 1705 the see was removed to Chester; iu 1102 it was removed to Coventry, and 
 afterwards back to Lichfield, but with much oppo.sition from the monks of Coventry (see 
 Coventry). Dr. Samuel Butler, in 1837, was the first bishop of Lichfield only. This see has 
 given three saints to the Romish church ; and to the British nation one lord chancellor and 
 three lord treasurers. It is valued in the king's books at 559^. i8s. 2d. Lichfield cathedral 
 was first built about 656. The present structure was built by Pioger de Clinton, the 37th 
 
 * This statement has been di.<-puted. Theophilus, abp. of Alexandria, is said to have destroyed many 
 books when he demolished the temple of Serapis, 250 j-ears previously. 
 
 t In 1609 the Stationers' Company agreed to give a copy of every book published to the Bodleian 
 Library, Oxford. By 14 Charles II. c. 33 (1662), three copies were required to be givtn to certain public 
 libr.iries ; by 8 Anne, c. 19 (1709), the number was increased to nine ; l>y 41 Geo. III. c. 107, to eleven : 
 which number was reduced to five by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. no (1835) : viz , tbe British Museum, the Bodleian, 
 Oxford, the Public Library, Cambridge, the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, and Trinity College, Dublin. 
 
Lie 
 
 437 
 
 LIU 
 
 bishop, in 1148. * In Liciilield castle, king Kichard 11. kept his Christmas festival, 1397, 
 when 200 tons of wine and 20oa oxen were consumed. A cliarter was granted to Lichiield, 
 constituting it a city, by Edward VI., 1549. Present income, 4500^. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD AND COVENTRY. 
 
 17S1. James, earl.of Coniwallis, died 1S24. 
 1824. Hon. Henry Rydei-, died March. 31, 1S36. 
 1836. Samuel Butler, died Deo. 4, 1839. 
 
 1S39. J imes Bowstead, died Oct. 11, 1 
 1843. John Lonsdale, present bishop. 
 
 LlCIlSriAlSr LAW, Licinia Lex (375 B.C.), forbade any pei'son to possess more than 500 
 acres of laud, or more than 100 head of large cattle, or 500 of small, in the Roman states ; 
 anotlier law, 56 B.C. of this name, imposed a severe penalty on party clubs, or societies 
 assenabled for election purposes; and another, about 103 B.C., limited the expenses of 
 the table. 
 
 LIECHTENSTEIN, a constitutional principalitJ^ S. Germauj'-. Population, in 1858,' 
 7150. Prince John, born Oct. 5, 1840, succeeded his father Alois- Joseph, Nov. 12, 1858. 
 
 LIEGE (Belgium), a bishopric, under the German empire, from the 8th century till 1795. 
 Liege frequently revolted against its prince-bishops. In 1467, after a severe contest, the 
 citizens were beaten at Brusthem, and their city taken by Charles the Bold, duke of 
 Burgundy, who treated them with great severity. In 1482 Liege fell into the power of De 
 la Marck, the Boar of Ardennes, who killed the bishop, Louis of Bourbon, and was himself 
 beheaded two years after. Liege was taken by the duke of Marlborough, Oct. 23, 1702; 
 and by the French and others, at various times, up to 1796, when it was annexed to France. 
 It was incorporated with the Netherlands in 18 14, and with Belgium in 1830. Iron-works 
 were established at Liege in the i6th centurj^. 
 
 LIEGNITZ. See Pfaffejidorf. 
 
 LIEUTENANTS, Lord, for counties, were instituted in England, 3 Edw. VI., 1549, 
 and in Ireland in 1831. For the lords lieutenants of Ireland, see Ireland. 
 
 LIFE-BOAT, &c.f It was stated, in Sept. 1865, that there were 185 life-boats on the 
 coasts of the United Kingdom. 3619 lives were saved in 1864 by means of rocket apparatus, 
 life-boats, &c. In the ten years, 1855-64, 30,261 lives were saved. See Wrecks. 
 
 A patent was granted to Mr. Lukin for a life- 
 tjoat in 
 
 A rewai'd offered by a comraittee of gentlemen 
 in South Shields for a lifeboat, 1788, obtained 
 by Mr. Heni-y Greathead, of that town . 
 
 It was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790; and Mr. 
 Greathead received 1200?. from parliament 
 for this groat means of saving life in cases of 
 shipwreck. 
 
 31 life-boats were built, and 300 lives saved up 
 to 
 
 The duke of Northumberland offered a reward 
 
 LIFE-GUARDS. See Guards. 
 
 of 105 ;. for a life-boat fulfilling certain con- 
 ditions, 1S50 ; obtained by Mr. James Beech - 
 ing, of Yarmouth ...... 1851 
 
 The tubular life-boat of Mr. H. Richardson, the 
 Challenger, patented in Jan. ; a cruise was 
 made by him from Liverpool to Londoa in it 1852 
 
 The Nalional Life-boat Institution founded in 
 1824; its journal, the "Lifeboat," published 
 1852. In 1856 its funds were enlarged by a 
 bequest of io,oooi. from Hamilton Fitzgerald, 
 esq. 
 
 LIFE INSURANCE. 
 
 See Insurance. 
 The motion and 
 
 LIGHT. The law of refraction discovered by Snellius, about 1624 
 velocity of light discovered by Reaumur, and after him by Cassini, and calculated by Roemer 
 (1676) and Bradley (1720). Its velocity ascertained to be about 190,000,000 of miles in 
 sixteen minutes, or nearly 200,000 miles in a second, which is a million of times swifter than 
 the velocity of a cannon ball, about 1667. The light of the sun is eight minutes and eight 
 seconds in its transmission through the space from that orb to the earth. The iindulatory 
 
 * Walter de Langton (bishop in 1296) built the chapel of St. Mary, now taken into the choir, and 
 under bishop Heyworth (1420) the cathedral was perfected The building was despoiled at the Reforma- 
 tion, and was scandalously injured in the parliamentary war (when its monuments, its fine sculptures, 
 and beautifully painted windows were demolished) ; but it was repaired at the restoration, and again 
 thoroughly in 1788. 
 
 t LrPE-PRESERVER, the apparatus of captainMmby (brought into use in Feb. 180S), effects a communi- 
 cation with the distressed vessel by a rope, thrown by a shot from a mortar, with a line attached to it. For 
 the night, a night-ball is provided with a hollow case of thick pasteboard, and a fuzs and quick match, 
 und chai-ged with fifty balls, and a sufficiency of powder to taflame them. Tha fuze is so graduated that 
 the shell shall explode at the height of 300 yards. The balls spread a brilliant light for neirly a minute, 
 and give a clear view of every surrounding object. In 20 years, 58 vessels aud 410 of tUeir crews and 
 passengers had been saved. Capt. Manby died Nov. 18, 1854, aged 89. 
 
 The Boat-Lowering Appar.vxus, invented by Mr. Charles Clifford, of London, in 1856, ba.s been ra:ioh 
 approved of, and is generally adopted in the royal navy. 
 
LIG 438 LIM 
 
 theory of light, its polarisation, and its chemical action have all been made known in the 
 present century by Drs. Thos. Young, Fresnel, Malus, Arago, Biot, Brewster, Wheatstone, 
 Eitter, Niepce, Daguerre, Talbot, &c. See Ojitics, Photography. 
 
 LIGHTHOUSES, anciently called Pharos (and now 2}^i'(^^'^< French ; fa7-o, Italian), from 
 one erected at Pharos, near Alexandria, Egypt, 550 feet high, said to have been visible 
 forty-two miles, about 285 B.C. There was one at Messina, at Ehodes, &c. The light was 
 obtained by fires. The first true lighthouse erected in England was the Eddystone light- 
 house in 1758-60. 
 
 BRITISH LIGHTHOUSES. I The most brilliant artificial light ever produced— 
 
 By the report of the Commissioners on Lights, &c. 
 (1861), we learn that there were then 171 shoi-e- 
 lights in England, 113 in Scotland, and 73 in Ire- 
 land (fotal 357) ; and 47 floating-lights. 
 
 The French have 224 lighthouses on shore. 
 
 The source of light in our lighthouses is principally 
 oil ; but in harbour-lights gas has been successfully 
 used. Glass reflectors were used in 1780, and 
 copper ones in 1807. A common coal fire-light 
 was discontinued at St. Bees so recently as 1822. 
 Fresnel's Dioptric* system (devised about 1819) was 
 adopted for the first time in England by Messrs. 
 Wilkins, at the direction of the Trinity board, July 
 I, 1836. 
 
 derived from magneto electricity by a machine 
 devised by professor Holmes — was first employed 
 at the South P^oreland lighthouse, near Dover, on 
 Dec. 8, 1858 ; and at Dengeness (or Dungeness) in 
 1862. Mr. Holmes' arrangement and a similar one 
 constructed by jM. Serin, were shown at the Inter- 
 national exhibition, London, in 1862. 
 
 Lime-light (which see) employed at the S. Foreland 
 lighthouse in 1861. 
 
 The cost of erecting the three great British hght- 
 houses — viz., the Skerry-Vore (west coa.st), 158 feet 
 high, was 83,126;. ; the Bishop Rock, Scilly Isles, 
 145 feet high, 36,559!. ; and the BeU Rock, Scotland, 
 117 feet high, 61,331/. 
 
 LIGHTNmG-COXDUCTOPvS were first set up for the protection of buildings by 
 Erauklin shortly after 1752, when he brought down electricity from a thunder-cloud. The 
 first in England was set up at Payne's Hill, by Dr. Watson. In 1766 one was placed on the 
 tower of St. Mark, at Venice, which has since escaped injury, although frequently consumed 
 by liglitning previously. A powder magazine at Glogau, in Silesia, was saved by a con- 
 ductor in 1782 ; and, from the want of one, a quantity of gunpowder was ignited at Brescia 
 in 1767, and above 3000 persons perished. In 1762, Dr. Watson recommended conductors 
 to be tised in the navy ; and they were employed for ,i short time, but soon fell into disuse 
 from want of skill and attention. Mr. (since sir AVilliam) Snow Harris devoted his attention 
 to the subject from 1820 to 1854, and published a work in 1843, detailing his experiments. 
 In 1830, above thirty ships Avere fitted up with his conductors, and in 1842 his plans were 
 adopted, and his conductors are now manufactured in the royal dockyards. In 1854 
 parliament granted him 5000Z. 
 
 LIGNY (Belgium), where a battle was fought, June 16, 1815, just previously to that of 
 Waterloo, between the Prussian army under Blucher, and the French army commanded by 
 jS'apoleon, in which the former was defeated. Blucher, however, arrived on the field of 
 Waterloo in the evening at a most critical moment. 
 
 LIGURIANS, a Celtic tribe, N. Italy, invaded the Eoman territor)^ and were defeated 
 238 B.C. They were not subjugated till 172 B.C. The Ligurtan Eepublic, founded in May, 
 1797, upon the ruins of the republic at Genoa, was incorporated with France in 1805, and 
 then merged into the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 LIGUOEIANS, OR Eedemptorlsts, a Roman catholic order, established in 1732 by 
 Alfonso de Liguori, and approved by pope Benedict XIV. in 1759. 
 
 LILAC TREE. Syringa. The Persian lilac from Persia was cultivated in England 
 about 1638 ; the common lilac by Mr. John Gerard about 1597. 
 
 LILLE. See Lisle. 
 
 LILY, a native of Persia, Syria, and Italj-, was brought to England before 1460; 
 the Martagon from Germany, 1596. 
 
 LILYBxEUM, a strong maritime fortress of Sicily, was besieged by Pyrrhus, king of 
 Epiru!5, 276 B.C., and was relieved by the .Carthaginians, 275 B.C. It was taken by the 
 Romans, 241 B.C., after a siege of nine years, which led to the end of the second Punic war. 
 
 LIMA (Peru). In 1534, Pizarro, marching through Pern, was struck with the beauty of 
 the valley of Rimac, and there he founded this city, and gave it the name of Ciudad de los 
 Rmjcs, or city of the kings, 1535. Here he was assassinated, June 26, 1541. Awful 
 earthquakes occurred here, 1586, 1630, 1687, and Oct. 28, 1746. In 1854-5 thousands 
 
 * From the Greek^rffa, through, and optomai, I see ; the light being condensed by and transinittcd 
 through lenses. The system is an adaptation of the discoveries of Bufifon, Condorcet, Brewster, and others. 
 
LIM 
 
 439 
 
 LiN 
 
 perished by yellow fever. Mr. Suiiivdii, the Britiik consul, was assassinated at Lima, 
 Aug. II, 1857. 
 
 LIME or LiNDEiN^ Tree, probably introduced in tke i6tli centur}'. The lime trees in 
 St. James's park are said to have been planted at the suggestion of Evelyn, who recom- 
 mended multiplying odoi-iferous trees, in his work, " Fumifugium " (1661). One of these 
 trees planted in Switzerland in 1410, existed in 1720, the trunk being thirty-six feet in 
 circumference. 
 
 LIME-LIGHT, produced by the combustion of oxygen and hydrogen or carburetted 
 hydrogen on a surface of lime. This light evolves little heat and does not vitiate the air. 
 It is also called Druramond Light, after lieut. Drummond, Avho successfully produced it as a 
 first class light about 1826, and employed it on the ordnance survey. It is said to have been 
 seen at a distance of 112 miles. It was tried at the South. Foreland lighthouse in 1861. 
 
 LIMERICK, anciently Lumneacli (S. W. Ireland). About 550, St. Munchin is said to 
 have founded a bishopric and built a church here, which latter Avas destroyed by the Danes 
 in 853. Donald O'Brien, king of Limerick, founded the cathedral about 1200. Limerick 
 obtained its charter in 1195, when John Stafford was made first provost ; and its first mayor 
 was Adam Servant, in 1198. It was taken by Ireton after six months' siege in 1655. In 
 Aug. 1691, it was invested by the English and Dutch, and surrendered on most honourable 
 terms, Oct. 3, same year.* An awful explosion of 218 barrels of gunpowder greatly shattered 
 the town, killing 100 persons, Feb. i, 1694. Another explosion of gunpowder here killed 
 many persons, Jan. 2, 1837. Awful and destructive tempest, Jan. 6-7, 1839. 
 
 LIMITED LIABILITY. An act for limiting the liability of joint stock companies, 
 18 & 19 Vict. c. 133 (passed 1855), was amended 1856-7-8. On May 31, i864,v"3830 joint- 
 stock companies had been formed and registered on the limited liability principle, and 938 
 had ceased to exist." 
 
 LINCELLES (K France), where the allied English and Dutch armies defeated the 
 French, Aug. 18, 1793. General Lake commanded three battalions of brave foot guards. 
 
 LUSTCOLlSr, the Roman Linclum Colonia, and at the period of the [conquest rich and 
 populous. It was taken several times by Saxons and Danes. The castle was built by 
 Wdliam I. in 10S6. Without Newport-gate was fought upon Lincoln plain the battle 
 between the partisans of the empress Maud, commanded by the earl of Gloucester, and the 
 army of Stephen, in which the king was defeated and taken prisoner, Feb. 2, 1141. Louis, 
 dauphin of France, having been inVited over by the discontented barons in the last year of 
 king John's reigu was acknowledged by them as king of England here ; but the nobility, 
 summoned by the earl of Pembroke to Gloucester to crown Henry III., marched against 
 Louis and the" barons, and defeated them in a most sanguinary fight (called the Fair of Lincoln), 
 May 20, 121 7; and Louis withdrew. 
 
 LINOOLiSr, Bishopric of. Sidnacester or Lindesse and Doi'chester, two distinct sees 
 in Mercia, were imited about 1078, and the see was removed to Lincoln by bishop Remigius 
 de Feschamp, who built a cathedral (1086), afterwards destroyed by fire, but rebuilt by 
 bishop Alexander (1127) and bishop Hugh of Burgundy. The diocese is the largest in the 
 kingdom, notwithstanding that the dioceses of Ely, Oxford, and Peterborough, formerly 
 parts of it, and now distinct sees, were further enlarged from Lincoln in 1837. The see 
 was valued at the dissolution of monasteries at 2065/. 2^er annum ; and after many of its 
 manors had been seized npon, it was I'ated in the king's books at 894Z. los. id. Present 
 income, 5003/. It has given three saints to the church of Rome, and to the civil state of 
 England six lord chancellors. The great bell of the cathedral, called Great Tom of Lincoln, 
 weighs four tons eight pounds. 
 
 EECENT BISHOPS OF LINCOLN. 
 
 1827. John Kaye, died Feb. 19, 1852. 
 
 1852. John Jackson, present (1865) bishop. 
 
 1787. George Pretyman (afterwards Tomiine), trans- 
 lated to Winchester, 1820. 
 1820. Hon. George Pelham, died Feb. i, 1827. 
 
 LINCOLN'S-INN (London^ derives its name from Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, who^ 
 erected a mansion on this spot in the reigu of Edward I., which had been the bishop of 
 
 * By the treity it was agreed that all arms, property, and estates should be restored ; all attainders 
 annulled, and all outlawries reversed ; and that no oath but that of allegiance should ba reqmre i of high 
 or low ; the freedom of the Catholic religion was secured ; relief from pecuniary clairns incurred by hos- 
 tilities was j^iaranteed ; permission to leave the kingdom was extended to all who desu-ed it ; and a general 
 pardon proclaimed to all then in arms. Burns. 
 
LIN 440 LIS 
 
 ChicliPstn's palaoc. It became an inn of court, 13 lo. The gardens of Lincoln's-hm-fields 
 were laid out bj' Tnigo Jones, about 1620, and erroneously said to occup}' the same space as 
 the largest pyramid of Egypt, wln'cli is 764 feet square ; Lincoln's-inn square being 821 feet 
 l)y 625 feet 6 inches. Lord W. Ivussell was beheaded in Lincoln's-inn Fields, July 21, 1683. 
 The square (formed in 1618) was inclosed with iron railings about 1737. The new buildings 
 were opened, Oct. 30, 1845, and the square planted. The theatre in Lincoln' s-inn-fields 
 was built in 1695 ; rebuilt in 1714 ; made a barrack in 1756, and pulled down in 1848. 
 
 LINDISFARXE, or Holy Island, on the coast of jSTorthumberland, became a bishop's 
 see, 635. It was ravaged by the Danes under Regnar Lodbrok in 793, and the monastery 
 Avas destroyed by theni in 875 ; the see was removed to Chester-le-street in 900, and finally 
 to Durham in 995 (or 990). 
 
 LINEN". Pharaoh arrayed Josejih in vestures of fine Ihien, 17 16 B c. {Gen. xli. 42.) 
 
 First inaniifacturerl in England by Flemish Hemp, flax, linen, thread, and yam, from Ire- 
 weavers, imder the protection of Henry III. 1253 land, permitted to be exported duty free . 1696 
 
 A company of linen-weavers established in Irish linen board estabhshedini 711 ; the Linen- 
 London 1368 hall, Dublin, was opened 1728 ; the board 
 
 The art of staining linen became known . . 1579 abolished in 1828 
 
 A colony of Scots in the reign of James I., and A board of trustees to superintend the Scotch 
 
 other Fresbj'terians who fled from persccu- linen manufacture established in . . . 1727 
 
 tion in succeeding reigns, planted themselves Dimfermline, in Fifeshire, Dundee, in Angus- 
 
 in the north-east part of Ireland, and there shiie, and Barnsley, in Yorkshire, are chief 
 
 established the linen manufacture, which seats of our linen manufacture, 
 
 ■was liberally encouraged by the lord deputy Duty on hnen was taken off in . . . . i86o 
 Wcutworth in 1634 ; by William III. in . 1698 
 
 LINLITHGOW-BRIDGE (near Edinburgh), near which the forces of the earl of Angus, 
 who held James Y. in their power, defeated the forces of the earl of Lennox, who, after 
 receiving promise of quarter, was killed by sir Jamos Hamilton, 1526. Mary, queen of 
 Scots, was born in the palace of Linlithgow, James V. , her father, dying of a broken heart, 
 the same year, 1542. 
 
 LINNJ^IAN SYSTEM of botanj', arranged by Linn^ or Linna?us, a Swede, 1725-30. 
 He classed the plants according to the number and situation of the sexual parts, and made 
 the flower and fruit the test (5f his various genera. Linna?us li%'ed from 1707 to 1778. 
 His library and herbarium were purchased by sir Jaine.s E. (then Dr.) Smith, and 
 given to t\\e Linnccan Society in London, which was instituted in 1788, and incorporated 
 March 26, 1802. 
 
 LION AND UNICORN, the former English, the latter Scottish, became the supporters 
 of the royal arms on the accession of James I. iu 1603. 
 
 LIPPE, a constitutional principality (N. W. Germany). Popiilation, Dec. 1861, 108,513. 
 Reigning prince, Leopold, born Sept. i, 1821 ; succeeded his father, Leopold, Jan. i, 185 1. 
 
 LIPPSTADT. See Liiizen. 
 
 LISBON (Olisippo, and Felieitas Jidia, of the ancients) M-as taken by the Arabs in 716, 
 and became important under tlie Moorish kings, fronr whom it was captured by Alfonso I. of 
 Portugal in 1147. It was made the capital of Portugal by Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon has 
 suffered much by earthquake.?, and was almost destroyed by one, Nov. i, 1755. See Earth- 
 quakes. The court fled to the Brazils, Nov. 10, 1807, and on Nov. 30 the French, under 
 Junot, entered Lisbon, and held it until the battle of Vimeira, in which tliey were defeated 
 by the British, under sir Arthur Wellesley, Aug. 21, 1808. A military insurrection at 
 Lisbon, Aug. 21, 1 831, was soon suppressed, and many soldiers were executed. Massacre 
 at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Portugal. 
 
 LISLE (now Lille, N. France) has a strong citadel by Yaubnn. It was besieged bj^ the 
 duke of Marlliorongh and the allies ; and, though deemed impregnable, was taken after a 
 three months' siege in 1708. It was restored by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, in con.side- 
 ration of the demolition of the fortifications of Dunkirk. Lisle sustained a severe bombard- 
 n)ent from the An.strians, who were obliged to raise the siege, Oct. 7, 1792. 
 
 LISMORE (S. Ireland). St. Carthage, first bishop, 636, says: " Lismore is a famous and 
 holy city, of which nearly one half is an asylum where no woman dare enter." The 
 castle (built by king John when earl of Moreton, 1185), burnt in 1645, was rebuilt with 
 great magnificence by the duke of Devonshire. The catliedral, built 636, was repaired bj' 
 Cormac, son of Muretus, king of Mun.ster, about 1130 ; and the bishopiic was united to that 
 of Waterford, about 1363 ; and both to Cashel in 1839. 
 
 LISSA (or Leuthen, Silesia), Battlk of, in which the king of Prussia vanquished 
 
LIT Ul LIT 
 
 prince Charles of Lorraine ; 6000 Austrians were slain, Dec. 5, 1757.- — LissA, in Poland, 
 was laid in ruins by the Russian army in the campaign of 1707. 
 
 LITANIES (Greek litanna, suiaplication), were first used in processions, it is said, about 
 469 ; others say about 400. Litanies to the Virgin Marjr were first introduced by pope 
 Gregorj^ I. about 595. The first English litany was commanded to be used in the Reformed 
 churches hj Henry VIII. in 1543. 
 
 LITERARY CLUB (at first called "The Club" and "Johnson's Club"), began in 
 1763 by Goldsmith, Reynolds, Burke, Gibbon, Jones, Garrick, Bennett, Langton, and 
 Topham Beauelerk, with Dr. Johnson for president. The opinion formed of a new work by 
 the club was speedilj^ known all over London, and had great influence. The club still exists. 
 Hallam, Macaulay, the marquess of Lansdowne, and bishop Blonitield were members ; Dr. 
 Milman, dean of St. Paul's, was in the chair at the centenary dinner on June 7, 1864. 
 
 LITERARY FUE'D, Royal, was founded in 1790, to relieve literary men of all nations, 
 by David "Williams,* the friend of Benjamin Franklin. It had its origin in this way: 
 Floyer Sydenham, an eminent Greek scholar, of "Wadham college, Oxford, and translator of 
 some of the works of Plato, having no patronage, was involved in embarrassment, and 
 arrested and thrown into prison for a trilling' debt due for his frugal meals, and there, in 
 1788, died of a broken heart in want and misery, when nearly eighty years of age. The 
 sympathy excited gave rise to this institution, since bountifully supported. It was incorpo- 
 rated in 1818. Since 1855 various alterations in its nranagement have been annually 
 proposed and negatived. 
 
 LitERARY PROPERTY. See Copyright. 
 
 LITERARY SOCIETIES, &c. See Societies. 
 
 LITERATURE, called also Letter.s and Belles Lettrcs, is held to comin'chend Eloquence, 
 Poetry, History, Language, and their subordinates. See Bible, and also Greek, Latin, 
 E'lgland, France, Italy, Spcdn, and Germany. 
 
 LITHIUM, a metal, the lightest substance in nature except the gases (its specific gravity 
 lieing 0'59), is obtained from an alkaline substance termed lithia ; discovered by M. 
 Arfwedson, a Swede, in 1817. 
 
 LITHOGRAPHY (engraving on stone). The invention of it is ascribed to Alois 
 Sennefelder, whose first essays were executed about 1796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was 
 announced in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It became partially known in 
 l^lngland in 1801, et scq., but its general introduction may be referred to Mr. Ackerraann, of 
 London, about 18 17. Sennefelder died in 1841. Improvements in the art have been made 
 liy Engelmann and many others. See Printing in Colours. 
 
 LITHOTOMY. The surgical operation of cutting for the stone was performed by the 
 ancients. The "small apparatus," so called from the few instruments irsed in the operation, 
 Avas practised bj?- Celsus, about 17. The operation called the "high apparatus" is said to 
 have been invented by De Franco, and it is thought to be the most ancient. The "great 
 apparatus" was invented by John de Romanis, about 1500. 
 
 LITHOTRITY (or bruising the stone). The apparatus produced by M. Leroy d'Etiolles 
 in 1822 has since been iniy)roved. 
 
 LITHUANIA, formerly a grand-dirchy, K E. of Prussia. The natives (belonging to the 
 Slavonic race) long maintained their independence against the Russians and Poles. In 1386, 
 their grand-duke Jagellon became king of Poland and was baptized : Lithuania was not incor- 
 porated witli Poland till 1501, when another duke Casiniir became king of that corrntry. The 
 larger part of Lithuania now belongs to Russia, the remainder to Prussia. 
 
 LITURGIES (from the Greek litai, prayers, and o-gro??,, work). The Greek and Roman 
 liturgies are very ancient, having been cominitted to writing about the 4th and 5th centuries. 
 The Romish church recognises four: the Roman or Georgian, the Ambrosian, the Galilean, 
 and the Spanish or Mosarabic. The Greek church has two principal liturgies: St. Chry- 
 sostom's and St. Basil's, and several smaller ones. Parts of these liturgies are attributed to 
 the Apostles, to St. Ignatius, 250, and to St. Ambrose (died 397), and to St. Jerome (died 
 420). The present English Lituiigy was first composed, and was approved and confirmed 
 
 * He was in early life a dissenting ministsr, and wrote on education. He was consulted by tbe earl y 
 revolutionary party in France ks to the form of a constitution for that country, he, Dr. Priestley, sir Jame s 
 jMaokintosh, and other distin^axished Euilishm ni, having bsen previously djolared French citizens. He 
 died July 29, 1S16. 
 
LIV 
 
 442 
 
 LIV 
 
 by parliament, in 1547-8. Tiie oi'iices for morning and evening prayer wore tlien put into 
 nearly the same form in which we now have them. At the solicitation of Calvin and 
 others, the liturgy was reviewed and altered to very nearly its present state, 1551. It was 
 first read in Ireland, in the English language, in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occasioned 
 a tumult, in 1637, and was withdrawn, 1638. The Liturgy was revised by Wliitehead, 
 formerly chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, Grindall, Cox, and Pilkington, 
 dean May, and secretary Smith. See Common Prayer. 
 
 LIVERIES. The term is derived from the custom of the retainers of the lord mayor and 
 sheriffs of London bearing habiliments of the fm-m and colour displayed by those function- 
 aries. It was usual for the wardens of companies to deliver a purse containing 20s. to the 
 lord mayor on the ist of Dec. to obtain for individuals, so desiring, sufficient cloth to 
 make a suit, and the privilege of wearing the livery. This added to the splendour of the 
 mayor's train when the civic court went forth. Ashe, Liveries were regulated by statute in 
 1392, and frequently since. 
 
 LIVERPOOL (W. Lancashire), is supposed to be noticed in Domesday-book under the 
 \\2LxaB Esmedune, ov Smedune.* Soon after the Conquest, William granted that part of the 
 country situated between the rivers Mersey and Ribble to Roger of Poitiers, who, according 
 to Camden, built a castle here, about the year 10S9. To this circumstance is attributed the 
 origin of the town. It afterwards was held by the earls of Chester and dukes of Lancaster. 
 Population in 1851, 375,995 ; in 1861, 443,874. 
 
 Liverpool made a free burgh by king Henry 
 
 III 
 
 Made an independent iJort 
 
 Liverpool " a paved town " (Leland) . . . 
 " The people of her majesty's decayed town of 
 
 Liverpool " petition Eliz ibeth to be relieved 
 
 from a subsidy . . ' . 
 
 Separated from the duchy of Lancaster . . 
 Town rated for ship-money in only 26I. by 
 
 Charles I 
 
 Besieged by prince Rupert, and surrendered, 
 
 June 26, 
 
 ;Made a separate parish 
 
 Uhe old dock, the first in England, constructed 
 
 and opened 
 
 Blue coat hospital founded 
 
 The town opposes the Young Pretender, and 
 
 raises several regiments 
 
 Town-hall commenced 
 
 Infirmary established 
 
 Seamen's hospital founded 
 
 A most destructive fire 
 
 House of industrj- founded 
 
 Theatre Ucensed, 1 771 ; opened. 
 
 Liverpool equips, at the commencement of the 
 
 war against France, 120 privateers, carrying 
 
 1986 guns, and 8754 seamen . . . . 
 
 ffing's dock constructed 
 
 [The Queen's dock was also constructed about 
 
 the same time.] 
 
 ^Memorable storm raged 
 
 The exchange burnt 
 
 The town-hall (smce restored) destroj'ed by fire 
 The Athenaeum opened .... Jan. i, 
 
 Union news-room erected 
 
 The Lyceum erected 
 
 Awful fire, whose ravages exceeded 1,000,000?. 
 
 sterling Sept. 14, 
 
 Com exchange opened .... Avig. 4, 
 Royal exchange completed .... 
 
 Statue of Geo. III. commenced . Oct. 25, 
 
 Fall of St. Nicholas' tower, which killed 20 
 
 persons Feb. 11, 
 
 July 19, 
 . Feb. 
 
 I Royal Institution founded . . . . . 
 1229 Wellington-rooms built . . . . . 
 1335 i Royal institution opened by a speech from Mr. 
 
 1558 I Roscoe Nov. 2, 
 
 I American seamen's hospital 
 
 Prince's dock opened 
 1571 St. Johu'.^ market-place 
 1628 Royal Institution incori:)orated . . . . 
 
 Marine Humane Society formed 
 1630 New house of industry erected . . . . 
 
 Liver theatre opened 
 
 1644 Old dock closed 
 
 169S Foundation of new custom-hoiise laid, Aug. 12, 
 
 Blackrock lighthouse built, and light first 
 
 1699 shown March i, 
 
 1709 Lunatic asylum founded, 1792 ; new buildings 
 
 erected . . 
 
 1745 Clarence dock completed . . . Sept. 
 1749 Liverpool and Manchester railwaj- openedf 
 ,, Sept. 15, 
 
 1752 I Zoological gardens opened 
 
 1762- 1 Great fire; property valued at 300,000 J. de- 
 
 1770 I stroyed Jan. i, 
 
 1772 Lock hospital and Waterloo dock opened . 
 
 Victoria and Trafalgar docks opened Sept. 8, 
 
 Mechanics' institute opened 
 
 1778 New fish market opened . . . Feb. 8, 
 1785 Apothecaries' company formed . . . . 
 
 Liverpool and Birmingham railway opened, 
 its entire length, as the Grand Junction, 
 
 1789 I July 4. 
 
 1795 I Railway to London (now the North- Western) 
 ,, I was opened its entire length . Sept. 17, 
 
 1799 1 Statistical society founded 
 
 1800 The Liverpool steamer, of 461'horse power, sails 
 1802 for New York Oct. 28, 
 
 Awful storm raged .... Jan. 6, 
 Foundation of the collegiate institution laid by 
 
 lord Stanley 
 
 Foundation of St. George's hall and courts laid 
 Immense fire ; property worth more than half 
 
 a million sterling destroyed . Sept. 25, 
 Mr. Huskisson's statue erected . . Oct. 
 
 1814 
 181S 
 
 1818 
 1820 
 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1828 
 
 1830 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 1836 
 1837 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 1S41 
 
 1842 
 1847 
 
 * In other ancient records its appellations are L'dherpul and Lyrpv.l, signifying probably, in the ancient 
 dialect, the lower pool ; though some have deduced its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquatic 
 fowl, called the " Liver," or from a se.a-weed of that name; and others, from its having belonged to a 
 family of the name of Lever, whose antiquity is not sufliciently established to justify their conclusion. 
 
 tThe first gi-and work of the kind, about 31 miles long. 'The fii-st shaft was commenced in Oct. 1826, 
 and the excavation of the tunnel, one mile and a quarter long, Jan. 1827 ; the tunnel was completed in Sept. 
 1828, and opened July 30, 1829. At the opening of the railroad, the duke of Wellington and other illus- 
 trious persons were present ; and Mr. Huskisson, who alighted during a stoppage of the engines, was 
 knocked down by one of them, which went over his thigh and caused his death, Sept. 15, 1830. 
 
LIV 
 
 443 
 
 LOA 
 
 LIVERPOOL, cojiMnued. 
 
 Procession of Oi-angemen at Liverpool, and fatal 
 riot July 14, 1851 
 
 The queen visits Liverpool . . Oct. g, ,, 
 
 St. George's hall opened . . Sept. 18, 1854 
 
 Bread riuts (150,000 persons out of emiDloy 
 through the frost) . . . . Feb. 10, 1855 
 
 Gigantic landing stage for large steamers com- 
 pleted 1857 
 
 Many commercial failures . Sept. to Nov. ,, 
 
 Association for Social Science meets . Oct. 1858 
 
 Free library, (fee., founded by Mr. (afterwards 
 sir) W. Brovrn, M.P. for S. Lancashire, April 
 5, 1857 ; opened .... Oct. 18, i860 
 
 LIVERPOOL ADMINISTRATION. Shortly after the assassination of Mr. Perceval 
 (May II, 1812), the eaii of Liverpool became first minister of the crown.* His administra- 
 tion terminated when he was attacked by apoplexy, Feb. 11, 1827, and Mr. Canning suc- 
 ceeded as prime minister, April. In fifteen years there had been many changes. 
 
 Sailors' home (cost 30,000?.) burnt April 29, i860 
 The free museum opened . . . Oct. 17, 186 1 
 Brownlow Hill church and workhouse- school 
 
 burnt, and 23 lives lost (20 children) Sept. 8, 1S62 
 The dock space in 1810 was 26 acres for ships, 
 
 to the amount of 704,000 tons; in 1857, 209 
 
 acres, tonnage 4,320,000. 
 Explosion of ii| tons of gunpowder in the LoUie 
 
 Sleigh, in the Mersey, causing much damage, 
 
 Jan. i6, 1S64 
 Death of sir Wm. Brown, a great benefactor to 
 
 Liverpool March 3, ,, 
 
 Lord Eldon, loi-d chancellor. 
 
 Earl of Harrowby, lord iircsident of the council. 
 
 Earl of Westmoreland, lordprivi/ seal. 
 
 Mr. Vansittart, chancellor of the excheq'ier. 
 
 Earl of Mulgrave, master general of the ordnance. 
 
 Lord Melville, first lord, of the admiralty. 
 
 Viscount Sidmouth, viscount Castlereagh, and earl 
 
 Bathurst, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
 Lord Palmerston, marquess of Camden, earl of Olan- 
 
 carty, earl of Buckinghamshire, &c. 
 
 IjIVONIA, a Russian province on the Baltic sea, first visited by some Bremen merchants 
 about 1 158. It has belonged successively to Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and Russia. It 
 was finally ceded to Peter the Great in 1721. 
 
 LLANDAFF (Wales). The first known bishop was St. Dubritius, said to have died 
 in 612. The see is valued in the king's books at 154Z. 14s. id. per annum. Present 
 income, 4200Z. 
 
 KECENT BISHOPS OF LLANDAFF. 
 
 17S2. Richard "Watson ; died July 4, 1816. 
 
 1816. Herbert Marsh ; translated to Peterborough, 
 
 i8ig. 
 1S19. Wm. Van Mildert ; translated to Diu-ham, 1826. 
 
 1826. Charles Richard Sumner; translated to Win- 
 
 chester, 1827. 
 
 1827. Edward Copleston ; died Oct. 14, 1849. 
 1849. Alfred Ollivant, present bishop. 
 
 LLOYD'S (London). The coffee-house, kept bj'^ Lloyd, in Abchurch-lane, in 17 10, after- 
 wards removed ; was established finally at the Roj^al Exchange in 1774, and remained there 
 till the fire in 1838. Here resort eminent merchants, imderwriters, &c. ; and here are 
 effected insurances on ships and merchandise. Lloyd's is supported by subscribers who 
 pay annually 4Z. 4s. The books kept here contain an account of the arrival and sailing of 
 vessels, and are remarkable for their early intelligence of maritime affairs. In 1803, the 
 subscribers instituted the Patriotic Fund, which see. f 
 
 LOADSTONE. See Magnetism. 
 
 LOANS for the public service were raised by "Wolsey in 1522 and 1525. In 1559 
 Elizabeth borrowed 20o,oooZ. of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform her own coin, 
 and sir Thomas Gresliam and the city of London joined in the security. Rajpin, The 
 amount of the English loans, during several memorable periods was, viz. : — 
 
 Seven years' war . . 1755 to 1763 .£52,100,000 
 American war . . . 1776 to 1784 . 75,500,000 
 French revolutionary war 1793 to 1802 . 168,500,000 
 
 War against Bonaparte . 1803 to 1814 £206,300,000 
 War against Russia 1 . 1855 to 1856 . 16,000,000 
 For deficiency in revenue}; . 1856 . 10,000,000 
 
 Besides the property-tax, in 1813 were I'aised two loans of twenty-one millions and twenty- 
 two millions ; and it deserves to be recorded, that a subscription loan to carry on the war 
 against France was filled up in London in 15 hours and 20 minutes, to the amount of eighteen 
 
 * Robert Jenkinson, born Jan. 7, 1770, entered the house of commons under Mr. Pitt ; opposed the 
 abolition of the slave trade in 1792 ; in 1796 ueoanie lord Hawkesbury; b-came foreign minister under 
 Mr. Addington, in 1801 ; succeeded his fathdi- as eaii of Liverpool in 1808 ; died Dec. 4, 1828. 
 
 t The Austrian Llo,'/d's, an associitioii for general, commercial, and industrial purposes was founded at 
 Trieste, by Baron Bruok, in 1833. Tt has estdblishud tegular communication between Trieste and the 
 Levant, by means of a fleet of st amers, carrying the mails, and publishes a joui-nal. 
 
 } Both taken by the Rothschilds alone. 
 
LOG 444 LOG 
 
 millions, Dec. 5, 1796. See Loyalty Loans. In 1858, the East India company raised a loan 
 
 of 8,000,CXDOZ.* 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT passed in 1858 was amended in 1861. 
 
 LOCHLEVEN CASTLE (Kinross), built on an island in the celebrated lake of Loch 
 Leven, it is said by the Picts, was a roj'al residence when Alexander TIL and his queen 
 Avere forciblj- taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged by the English in 1301, and again 
 in 1334. Patrick Graham, first archbishop of St. Andrew's, was imprisoned for attempting 
 to reform the church, and died within its walls, about 1478. The earl of Northumberland 
 was coniiaed in it, 1569. It is, however, chiefly remarkable as the place of the unfortunate 
 queen Mary's imprisonment in 1567, and of her escape, on Sundaj', May 2, 1568. 
 
 LOCKS. Those of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, wfere clumsy contrivances. 
 Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange mentions locks and padlocks as 
 early as 1381. Bramah's locks were patented in 1784. Mr. Hobbs, the American, exhibited 
 his own locks in the Crystal palace, in 1S51, and showed great skill in picking others. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVES. See Railways. The nse of .steam loconiotives on ordinary roads is 
 regulated by acts passed in 1861 and 1865. 
 
 LOCRI, a people of Northern Greece. They resisted Philip of Macedon, were aided by 
 the Athenians and Thebans, and defeated by him at Cha^ronea, Aug. 7, 338 B.C. 
 
 LOCUSTS formed one of the plagues of Egypt, 1491 B.C. (Exod. x.) Owing to the putrefac- 
 tion of vast swarms in Egypt and Libya, upwards of 800,000 persons are said to have perished, 
 128 B.C. Palestine was infested with such swarms, that they darkened the air ; and after 
 devouring the fruits of the earth, they died, and their.intolerable stench caused a pestilential 
 fever, a.d. 406. A similar catastrophe occurred in France in 837. A remarkable swarm of 
 locusts settled upon the ground about London, and consi;med the vegetables ; great numbers 
 fell in the streets, and were preserved by the curious ; they resembled grasshoppers, but were 
 three times the size, and their colours more variegated, Aug. 4, 1748. They infested 
 Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, and AVarsaw in June, 1816. They are said to have been 
 :?een in London in 1857. Russia was infested bj' them in July, i860. 
 
 LODGING-HOUSES. An act placing common lodging-houses under the watch of the 
 police was passed in 185 1. In that 3'ear a model lodging-house, ei'ected by prince Albert, 
 appeared at the Great Exhibition. Since then, blocks of lodghig-houses for the poor have 
 been erected by Miss Burdett Coutts and others. Mr. Peabody's donation of March 12, 1862, 
 has been appropriated for a similar purpose. On Nov. 21, 1863, the city of London voted 
 20,oooZ. and a piece of land in Victoria-street for the purpose. 
 
 LODI (N. Italy). Napoleon Bonaparte, commanding the French army, totally defeated 
 the AiTstrians, commanded by general Beaulieu, after a bloody engagement at the bridge of 
 Lodi, May 10, 1796. All Lombardywas opened to his army, and the republican flag floated in 
 Milan a few days after. 
 
 LOG-LINE, iTsed in navigation, about 1570 ; first mentioned by Bourne in 1577. It is 
 divided into spaces of 50 feet, and the way which the shiiJ makes is measured by a half- 
 minute sand-glass, which bears nearly the same proportion to an hour that 50 feet bear to a 
 mile : the line used in the royal navy is 48 feet. 
 
 LOGARITHMS, the indexes of the ratio of numbers one to another, were invented by 
 baron Napier of Merchiston, who published his work in 1614. The invention was completed 
 by Mr. Henry Briggs, at Oxford, who published tables, 1616-18. The method of computing 
 by means of marked pieces of ivory was discovered about the same time, and hence called 
 Xajiier's bones. 
 
 LOGIC, "the science of reasoning." Eminent works on it are by Aristotle; Bacon, 
 Novum Organon; Locke on the Understanding; and the modern treatises on Logic, by arch- 
 bishop Whately, sir William Hamilton, and Mr. John Stuart Mill. 
 
 * French Loan on July 9, 1855, on account of the war with Russia. The French legislature pas.sed a 
 bill for raising by loan 750 million francs (3o,ooo,ooo(. sterling). On the 30th the tot-il subscribed 
 .amounted to 3,652,591,985 fnuics (abovit 146,103,679?.), nearly five times the amount required. About 600 
 millions came from foreign countries; 2,533,888,450 from Paris; from the departments, 1,118,703,535. 
 The number of subscribers was 316,864. No less than 231,920,155 francs was made up by subscription of 
 50 francs and under. The Engdish subscription of 150,000,000 francs was returned, as double the amount 
 required had been proffered. In May, 1859, the French government raised a loan of 2o,ooo,ooo(. for the 
 Italian war from its own people without difficulty. A Tark-'sh loan of 5,000,000^., on the security of 
 Fingland and France, was taken up by Rothschild in Aug. 1855, and was well received ; the stock rose to a 
 small premium. 
 
LOG 445 LON 
 
 LOGIERIAN" SYSTEM of musical edncatioii, coTninenced bj^ J. B. Logier, in Jan. 1815, 
 and introduced into the chief towns of the United Kingdom, Prussia, &c. 
 
 LOGOGEAPHIC PRINTING, in which tlie commoner words w^ere cast in one mass, was 
 patented by Henrj'^ Johnson and Mr. Walter of the Times in 1783. Anderson's Historji- of 
 Commerce, vol. iv. was printed by these types in 1789. 
 
 LOI DES SUSPECTS, enacted by the French convention, Sept. 17, 1793, during the 
 reign of terror, filled the prisons of Paris. The Public Safety bill, of a somewhat similar 
 character, was passed, Feb. 18, 1858, shortly after Orsini's attemjit on the life of the 
 emperor. 
 
 LOLLAEDS (by some derived from the German lollen, to sing in a low tone), the name 
 given to the first reformers of the Eoman catholic religion in England, and a reproachful 
 appellation of the followers of Wyklitfe. Chaucer. The original sect is said to have been 
 founded in 13 15 by "Walter Lollard, who was burned for heresy at Cologne in 1322. The 
 Lollards are said to have devoted themselves to acts of mercy. The first Lollard martyr 
 in England w^as William Sawtree, parish priest of St. Osith, London, Feb. 12, 1401, when 
 the Lollards were proscribed by parliament, and numbers of them were burnt alive.* 
 
 LOMBARD MERCHANTS, in England, were understood to he composed of natives 
 of some one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, or Venice. Anderson. Lom- 
 bard usurers were sent to England by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, com- 
 munities, and private persons w'ho wei-e not able to pay down the tenths which were collected 
 throughout the kingdom with great rigour that year, 13 Hen. III. 1229. They had offices 
 in the street named after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused their 
 expulsion from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. - 
 
 LOMBAEDY (N. Italy) derived its name from the Langobardi, a German tribe from 
 Brandenburg, said (doubtfully) to have been invited into Italy by Justinian to serve against 
 the Goths. Their chief, Alboin, established a kingdom which lasted from 56S to 774. The last 
 king, Desiderius, was dethroned by Charlemagne. (For a list of the Lombard kings, 
 see Italy.) About the end of the 9th century tbe chief towns of Lombardy fortified 
 themselves, and became republics. The first Lombard league, consisting of Milan, Venice, 
 Pavia, Modena, &c., was formed to restrain the power of the German emperors, in 1167. 
 On May 29, 1176, they defeated the emperor Frederick Barbarossa at Legnano, and even- 
 tually compelled him to sign the peace of Constance in 1183. In 1225 another league W'as 
 formed against Frederick II., which was also successful. After this, petty tyrants rose in 
 most of the cities, and foreign influence quickly followed. The Guelf and Ghibelline factions 
 greatly distracted Lombardy ; and from the 15th century to the present time, it has been 
 contended for by the German and French sovereigns. The house of Austria obtained it 
 in 1748 and held it till 1797, when it was conquered by the French, who incorporated it into 
 the Cisalpine republic, and in 1805 into the kingdom of Italy. On the breaking irp of the 
 French empire in 1815, the Lombaedo- Venetian Kingdom was established by the allied 
 sovereigns and given to Austria, who had lost her Flemish possession's. In March, 1848, 
 Lombardy and Venice revolted, and joined the king of Sardinia : they did not support him 
 well ; and after his defeat at Novara (March 23, 1849), were again subjected to Austria. An 
 amnesty for political offences was granted in 1856. Great jealousy of Sardinia was felt by 
 Austria since 1849. In 1857 diplomatic relations were suspended ; and in April, 1859, war 
 broke out ; the Austrians crossing tlie Ticino and entering Piedmont. The French emperor 
 declared war against Austria, and immediately sent troops into Italy. The Austrians were 
 defeated at Montebello, May 20 ; Palestro, May 30, 31 ; Magenta, June 4 ; and Solferino, 
 June 24. By the peace of Yillafranca (July 11), the largest part of Lombardy was ceded to 
 Louis Napoleon, who transferred it to the king of Sardinia. It now forms part of the new 
 kingdom of Italy. 
 
 LONDON. The greatest and richest city in the world. Some assert, that a city existed 
 on the spot 1 107 years before the birth of Christ, and 354 years before the foundation of 
 Rome,f and that it was the capital of the Trinobantes, 54 B.C., and long previously the 
 
 * Among others, sir John Oldoastle, baron Cobham, was cruelly put to death in St. Giles'-in-the-Pields. 
 His crime was the adoption of the tenets of the great reformer Wykliffe. He was misrepresented to our 
 Henry V. by the bigoted clergy, as a heretic and traitor, who was actually at the head of 30,000 Lollards m 
 these fields. About 100 inoffensive people were found there. Cobham escaped : but was taken some time 
 after in Wales. He suffered death, being hung on a gallows, by a chain fastened round his body, and, 
 thus suspended, burnt alive, in Dec. 1418. Pennant. 
 
 t The fables of Geoffrey of Monmouth, with regard to the origin of London, are unworthy of the atten- 
 
LON 
 
 UG 
 
 LON 
 
 royal seat of their kings. In a.d. 6i it was known to the Romans ns Lundiniura, or Colonia 
 Augusta, and became the chief residence of the merchants at that period. It is said, but 
 not truly, to have derived its name from Lud, an old British king, Avho was buried near 
 where Ludgate formerly stood; but its name is from Lli/n-Din, the "town on the 
 lake."* It became the capital of the Saxon kingdom of Essex, and was called Lunden- 
 ccaster. In i860, London and the suburbs were estimated to cover 121 square miles, 11 miles 
 each way, being three times as large as in 1800. The population of the metropolitan districts 
 in 1851, was 2,362,236 ; in 1861, was 2,803,034. The population of "the city" in 1851, 
 was 127,869 ; in 1861, was 112,247. Revenue of the corporation in 1862, 437,341?. See 
 Mayors, Lord. The "port" of London extends from London Bridge to the North Fore- 
 land. See Docks.f 
 
 Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, reduces London 
 to ashes, and puts 70,000 Romans and stran- 
 gers to the sword 61 
 
 She is defeated by Suetonius, 80,000 Britons 
 
 are massacred, and she takes poison . . 61 
 Bishopric said to have been founded by 
 
 Theanus 179 
 
 London rebuilt and walled in by the Romans . 306 
 800 vessels suid to be emploj-ed in the port of 
 
 London for the export of corn . . . 359 
 Bishopric revived by St. Mellitus : St. Paul's 
 
 and Westminster abbey built . . . . 604 
 A plague ravages London ..... 644 
 Great fire which nearly consumed the city . 798 
 London pillaged by the Danes . . . . 839 
 Alfred repairs and strengthens London . . 884 
 Easterlings settle in London before . . . 978 
 
 Another great fire 982 
 
 Tower built by William 1 107S 
 
 First charter granted to the city by the same 
 
 king. See London Citizens ... . . 1079 
 Another great fire, St. Paul's burnt . . . 1086 
 606 hovises thrown down by a tempest . . . 1090 
 Charter gi-anted by Henry I. . • . . iioo 
 St. Bartholomew's priory founded by Rahere, 
 
 about IIOO 
 London-bridge built, 1014; burnt . .■ . 1136 
 
 Old London-bridge begun 1176 
 
 Henry Pitz-Alwhyn, the first mayor (served 
 
 twenty-four years) 11 89 
 
 Massacre of Jews ,, 
 
 Charter granted by Henry II 11 54 
 
 First stone bridge finished 1209 
 
 Charter of king John ; mayor and common 
 
 council to bo elected annuallyt . . . 1214 
 
 Foreign merchants invited to settle, and do so, 
 
 1199-1220 
 Charter of Henry II 1233 
 
 Aldermen appointed .... about 1242 
 
 Watch in London, 38 Hen. Ill 1253 
 
 Privileges granted to the Hanse merchants 
 
 {whicli see) 1259 
 
 Tax called murage, to keep the walls and 
 
 ditches in repair .... about 1282 
 
 Water brought from Tyburn to West Cheap . 1285 
 Expulsion of the Jews (16, 511) . . . . 1290 
 Livery companies incorporated . . . . 1327 
 
 Charter granted by Edward III 1328 
 
 Terrible pestilence, in which 50,000 (?) citizens 
 
 peri.sh§ 1348 
 
 London iii-st sends members to parliament . 1355 
 William of Walworth lord mayor . . . . 1380 
 Wat Tylei-'s rebellion. See Tyler . . . 1381 
 
 Aldermen elected for life 1394 
 
 Great plague 30,000 (?) died .... 1406 
 City first lighted at night by lanterns . . . 1415 
 Guildhall commenced 141 1, finished . . . 1416 
 Whittington thrice lord mayor, viz. 1397, 
 
 1406, 1419 
 Jack Cade's rebellion. See Cade . . . . 1450 
 First civic procession on the water ; sir John 
 
 Norman lord mayor ..... 145'} 
 
 Falconbridge attempts the city . . . . 1471 
 Printing-press set up by Caxton . . . ,, 
 
 Sweating sickness rages 1485 
 
 Fleet ditch navigable ...... 1502 
 
 St. Paul's school founded by dean Colet . . 1509 
 The fatal sweat. Sudor Angiicus .... 1517 
 
 Evil May-day (which see) „ 
 
 Streets first paved (Fir!C)-'« S(a^.) . . . 1553 
 Russian trading company established . . 1553 
 " Bills of Mortality " ordered to be kept . . 1538 
 Dissolution of religious houses .... 1539 
 St. Bartholomew's monastery changed to an 
 
 hospital ,, 
 
 Forty taverns and public houses allowed in the 
 
 tion of the antiquary. That London was founded by Brute, a descendant of the Trojan iEneas, and called 
 New Troy, or Troy-novant, until the time of Lud, who surrounded it with walls, and gave it the name of 
 Caer Lud, or Lud's town, <fec., may be considered as mere i-omance. Leigh. 
 
 * The oi-iginal waUs of London were the work of the Romans. Theodosius, governor of Britain, is 
 Slid to have raised them, 379; but they are supposed to have been built about 306. There were originally 
 four principal gates ; but the number increased ; and among others were the Prjetorian way, Newgate, 
 Dowgate, Cripplegate, Aldgate, Aldersgate, Ludgate, Bridegate, Moorgate, Bishopgate, the Postern on 
 Tower-hill, and the only one of the city boundaries now remaining, is Temple-bar, rebuilt 1670-2. 
 
 t London Citizens. To them many privileges and immunities have been granted from the time of 
 William the Conqueror, whose first charter, granted in 1079, is still preserved in the city archives. This 
 charter is written in beautiful Saxon characters, on a slip of parchment six inches long, and one broad, 
 and is in Englisli as follows: — "William the king greeteth William the bishop, and Godfrey the portrevo, 
 and all the burgesses within London friendly. And I acquaint you, that I will that ye be all there law- 
 worthy as ye were in king Edward's days. And I will that every child be his father's heir, after his 
 father's days. And I will not suffer that any man do you any wrong. God preserve you." 
 
 J Stow incorrectly states this charter to have been given in 1209, but it bears date ]May J9th in the 
 i6th year of King John's reigu, which began in iigg. This charter was acted on at that period in various 
 instances, as many of the mayors were afterwards continued in their offices for several years together ; and 
 the same right was exerted in the case of Mr. Alderman Wood, who filled the office of lord mayor during 
 two succeeding years, those of 1816 and 1817. Leigh. 
 
 § This terrible pestilence broke out in India, and spreading itself westward through every country on 
 the globe, reached England. Its ravages in London were so great, that the common cemeteries wore not 
 suflicient for the interment of the dead ; and various pieces of ground without the walls were assigned for 
 burial-places. Amongst these was the waste land now forming the precincts of the Charter-house, where 
 upwards of 50,000 bodies were then deposited. This disorder did not subside till 1357. Idem. 
 
LON 
 
 447 
 
 LON 
 
 LOlSTDOlSr, continued. 
 
 city, and three in Westminster, act 7 Edw. 
 
 VI. (there are now 7000) 1553 
 
 Christ's hospital founded by king Edw. VI. . ,, 
 
 Coaches introduced about 1563 
 
 Royal exchange bviilt. See Exchange . . . 1566 
 New buildings in London forbidden '■ where no 
 
 former hath been known to have been," to 
 
 prevent the increasing size* .... 1580 
 
 Levant company established 1581 
 
 Thames water conveyed into the city by leaden 
 
 pipes 1580-94 
 
 Stow publishes his survey . . . . • . 1598 
 Nearly all London yet buUt of wood . . . 1600 
 East India company incoi-porated . . . ,, 
 30, 57S persons said to perish by the plague . 1603 
 Gunpowder plot {v:hich see) .... 1605 
 
 Virginia company established . . . . t6i6 
 Thomas Sutton founds Charterhouse school, &c. 1611 
 New river water brought to London . . . 1613 
 
 Principal streets paved 1616 
 
 Hackney coaches fii'st plied. See Haclaiey 
 
 Coaches . . . . . . . . 1625 
 
 Building of the western parishes, St. Giles's, <&c., 
 
 begun 1640 
 
 The city held for the parliament . . . 1642 
 
 London fortified 1643 
 
 Jews allowed to settle in London by Cromwell, 1650 
 
 The Jews begin to return 1656 
 
 Banking begun by Francis Child, about . 1660 
 Royal Society of London chartered . . . 1662 
 68,596 persons said to have perished by the 
 
 great plague. See Plagues 1665 
 
 ■ ' Oxford " afterwards " London Gazette " pub- 
 lished Nov. 7, ,, 
 
 Great fire of London. See Fires 1666 
 
 Act for a " new model of building " in the city, „ 
 Hudson's-bay company chartered . . . 1670 
 Monument erected. See Monument . . 167 1-7 
 Gates' pretended popish plot .... 167S 
 A London directory published . . . . 1679 
 
 Charter granted by Charles II 1680 
 
 Penny post established 1683 
 
 Settlement of French protestants . . . 1685 
 Charter declared forfeited 1682 ; but restored . 16S9 
 Bank of England estabhshed .... 1694 
 Awful storm .... Nov. 26, Dec. i, 1703 
 Saoheverel's sermon and mob .... 1710 
 Act for the erection of fifty new churches , .1711 
 South Sea bubble commenced 1710, exploded 
 
 1720. See South Sea Company .... 1720 
 Chelsea water- works formed . _ . . . . 1722 
 Bank of England built .... 1732-4 
 Glass lamps in the street . between 1694 & 1736 
 Fleet ditch covered, and Fleet market opened . 1737 
 "Great Frost," Dec. 25, 1739, to Feb. 8 . . 1740 
 London Hospital instituted . . . . ,, 
 New Mansion House founded, 1739; completed, 1753 
 
 British Museum established ,, 
 
 Society of Arts estabhshed , , 
 
 Shop signs removed 1762 
 
 Westminster paving act passed , 
 
 Blackfriars bridge opened . . Nov. 19, 1769 
 The lord mayor (Brass Crosby) committed to 
 
 the Tower by the House of Commons for a 
 
 breach of privilege . . . March 27, 1771 
 Lord George Gordon's No-popery mob. See 
 
 Gordon's Mob June, 1780 
 
 Thanksgiving of George III. at St. Paul's 
 
 cathedral April 23, 1789 
 
 Royal Institution of Great Britain founded . 1799 
 
 Jan. 9, 
 
 London docks opened .... Jan. 20, 
 
 London Institution founded . 
 
 Lord Nelson's funeral . 
 
 Gas first exhibited iia Pall Sfall 
 
 Riots on the committal of sir F. Burdett to the 
 
 Tower April 6, 
 
 The Mint finished 
 
 Regent-street begun 
 
 Civic banquet to the allied sovereigns at Guild 
 
 hall . June 18 
 
 Custom-house burnt . . . Feb. 12 
 Gaslight becomes general . 
 The city generally lighted with gas 
 Waterloo bridge opened . . . June 18 
 New custom-house opened .... 
 Southwark bridge opened . . March 
 
 The great increase in building commences 
 Bank of England completed by sir John Soane. 
 Tumults at queen Carohne's funeral Aug. 14, 
 
 Cabs introduced 
 
 London Mechanics' Institution founded 
 
 Bubble companies' panic 
 
 London University chartered. See London 
 
 Universiti/ Feb. 
 
 27 turnpikes removed by act of parliament . 
 New post-office completed .... 
 Farringdon market opened .... 
 Omnibuses introduced .... 
 New metropolitan poUce began . Sept. 29, 
 Covent-garden market rebuilt . 
 Memorable political panic, Nov. 5 ; and no lord 
 
 mayor's show .... Nov. 
 
 New London bridge opened . . Aug. 
 General fast on account of the cholera in 
 
 England Feb. 6 
 
 Hungerford market opened . . July 3, 
 Houses of parliament burnt . . Oct. 16. 
 
 City of London School founded . 
 Queen dines at Guildhall . . . Nov. _ 
 Royal Exchange burnt . . . Jan 10, 
 Railway opened from London to Birmingham, 
 
 Dec. 
 Jan. 10, 
 Jlay II 
 
 . June 30. 
 
 Aug. 
 . Sept. 21 
 March 25 
 
 Oct. 28 
 
 Sept. 17 ; to Greenwich 
 Penny postage begun . 
 Railway to Southampton opened 
 Wood pavement tried ; fails 
 London library established . 
 Railway to Bristol opened . 
 BlackwaU tunnel opened 
 Railway to Brighton opened 
 Thames Tunnel opened . 
 Royal Exchange opened . 
 Erection of baths and wash-houses begins 
 Fleet prison taken down .... 
 New building act begmi . . . Jan. 
 Penny steamboats begun .... 
 Model lodging houses built 
 
 Railway mania 
 
 Two-penny omnibuses begun 
 
 Great Chartist demonstration in London. See 
 
 Chartists April 10, 
 
 Re-appearance of the cholera . . Sept, 
 
 Coal exchange opened . . . Oct. 30 
 Lord mayor's great banquet (of mayors), see 
 
 Lord Mayors .... March 21 
 Attack upon general Haynau . . Sept. 4. 
 Great Exhibition opened May i, closed Oct. 11 
 Duke of WelUngtoii dies Sept. 14 ; his funeral 
 
 at St. Paul's (if/wc/i see) . . . Nov. 18 
 
 Cab-strike July 27-29 
 
 Visit of king of Portugal . . May 19; 
 
 1799 
 1805 
 1806 
 
 IblO 
 
 i8ii 
 tSi3 
 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 
 1823 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 1827 
 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 1837 
 
 1B40 
 1 84 1 
 
 1845 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 * This proclamation or decree was dated from Nonesuch, 7th July, 1580, and it was forbidden to erect 
 new buildings where none had before existed in the memory of man. The extension of_ the metropolis 
 was deemed calculated to encourage the increase of the plague ; create a trouble in governing such multi- 
 tudes ; a dearth of victuals ; multiplying of beggars and inability to relieve them ; an increase of artisans 
 more than could live together ; impoverishing other cities for lack of inhabitants. The decree stated that 
 lack of air, lack of room to walk and shoot, &o., arose out of too crowded a city. A proclamation to the 
 same effect was also issued by James I. 
 
LON 
 
 44S 
 
 LON 
 
 LONDON, continued. 
 
 Attack of cliolcra . . Aug. and Sept. 1854 
 
 Meeting for Patriotic fund . . Nov. 2, „ 
 
 Visit of emperor and empress of the French to 
 
 the lord mayor April 19, 1855 
 
 Theqneen distributes Crimean medals, May 18, „ 
 Failure of Paul,' Strahan, & Co. See Trials, 
 
 June 5, ,, 
 Metropolitan Local Management Act passed 
 
 Aug. 14, ,, 
 Visit of the king of Sardinia . . Kot. 30, ,, 
 Metropolitan Board of works, first meeting, 
 
 Dec. 22, ,, 
 Peace proclaimed .... April 29, 1856 
 Grand display of illuminations and fireworks 
 
 in the parks May 29, ,, 
 
 The Guards reenter London . . July 6, ,, 
 Boyal British Bank stops payment. See British 
 
 Bank Sept. 4, ,, 
 
 Meetings of unemployed operatives in Smith- 
 field Feb. 1857 
 
 Many commercial failures ; Bank charter act 
 
 suspended ..... Nov. 12, ,, 
 James Morrison (originally a poor boy), who 
 maiulyintroducedthesystem of quick i-eturns 
 and small profits, dies exceedingly rich 
 
 Oct. 30, 1857 
 Metropolisdivided into lopostal districts, Jan. i, 1858 
 Leviathan launched (began Nov. 3) . Jan. 31, ,, 
 Complaints of the state of the Thames ; act for 
 
 its purification pa.ssed . . . Aug. 2, ,, 
 Panic on stock exchange (40 or 50 failures) at 
 repoi'ted French and Russian alliance against 
 
 Au.stria Api'il, 1859 
 
 A strike among the building trades, and a 
 lock out by the mixsters, Aug. 8 ; the latter 
 require tlie men to sign a document, de- 
 cl.aring that they will not belong to nnj'- 
 society which interferes with tlie freedom 
 of the workman, llie strike was dying 
 out in ...... . Nov. , , 
 
 Disgraceful i-iots at the church of St. George's 
 in the East, ihi-ough the indiscretion of the 
 Tractarian clergyman, the rev. Bryan King, 
 Sept. and Oct. The chvu-ch (closed for a time) 
 re-opencd ; fresh disturbances on Nov. 6, 13, 
 and 20 ; the agitation continued till Mr. King 
 retired, when a compromise was effected 
 
 July 29, 1S60 
 Metropolitan railway (undergi-ound) com- 
 menced in spring of „ 
 
 Great distress through the severe winter; 
 thousands relieved at the police offices, 
 
 Dec. i860, & Jan. 1861 
 A nother strike in the building trades commences 
 
 March 22, „ 
 A street railway in the metropolis oisened 
 
 near Bayswater .... March 23, ,, 
 Great fire near Tooley street (see Fires) June 22, 
 Sale of the East India house . . June 23, „ 
 Meeting to establish the " City of London 
 
 College," the bishop of London in the chair 
 
 Oct. 2, 
 
 Mr. George Peabody, the American merchant, 
 gives 150,000^. to ameliorate the condition of 
 the poor and needy of London . -March 12, 
 
 The International E.xhibition opens . May i, 
 
 Thames embankment bill passed, after much 
 discussion Aug. 
 
 The masons' strike not over . . June, 
 
 Fights in Hyde-park between the Garibaldians 
 and Irish . . . Sept. 28 & Oct. 5, 
 
 Public me.etings there pruhibited . Oct. 9, 
 
 The Metropolitan Railway opened . Jan. 10, 
 
 Pneumatic despatch company begins to convey 
 post-oflice bags .... Feb. 21, 
 
 Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London 
 
 March 7, 
 
 Pi'ince and princess of Wales present at the 
 city ball at Guildhall . . . June 8, 
 
 Appeal of the bishop of London on accoimt of 
 the spiritual destitution of the metropolis, 
 
 June, 
 
 The common council vote 20,000?. and a site in 
 Victoria-street, E.C., for a lodging-house for 
 the poor Nov. 19, 
 
 New street between Blackfriars and London- 
 bridge opened ..... Jan. i, 
 
 Charing Cross railway opened . . Jan. 11, 
 
 Garibaldi enters London, April 11 ; leceivesthe 
 freedom of the city . . . April 21, 
 
 Many turnpikes in the N. suburbs abolished, 
 
 July I, 
 
 Great excitement through the murder of Mr. 
 Briggs in a carriage of the North London rail- 
 way July 9, 
 
 The first railway train enters the city of 
 London near Blackfriars-bridge . Oct. 6, 
 
 North London indvistrial exhibition, Islington, 
 opened by earl Russell . . . Oct. 17, 
 
 Excitement through the performance of the 
 Davenport brothers . . Oct. — Dec. 
 
 Great bullion robbery in Lombard- street, 
 
 Dec. 3 or 4, 
 
 South London industrial exhibition opened, 
 
 Feb. I, 
 
 Many burglaries in London ; great robbery at 
 Walker's, the jewellers, Conihill Feb. 4, s, 
 
 The prince of Wales present at the opening of 
 the main drainage works, at the southern 
 outfall, near Eritli . . . April 4, 
 
 Prince of Wales opens the international re- 
 formatory exhibiticjn at Islington . May 19, 
 
 Investigation into the state of the workhouse 
 infiitnaries through several paupers dying 
 through neglect Aug. 
 
 Many turnpikes in the S. suburbs abolished, 
 
 Oct. 31, 
 
 [See England ; and the occurrences not noticed 
 here, imder their respective heads.] 
 
 1865 
 
 LONDON, Bishopric of, is said to have been founded in the reign of Lucius, about 
 179, Theanus the first archbishop. Augustin made Canterbury the metropolitan see of 
 Engknd. London became a bishopric under Mellitus in 604, and has yielded to the church 
 of Rome five saints, and to the realm sixteen lord chancellors and lord treasurers ; it was 
 valued in the king's books at 1119Z. 8s. ^d. per annum. Present income, 10,000?. 
 
 P.ECEXT BISHOPS OF LONDON. 
 
 1787. Beilby Porteus, died May 14, iSog. 
 1S09. John Randolph, died July 28, 1813. 
 1813. W. Howley, translated to Canterbury, Aug. 
 
 1828. Charles James Blomfield; resigned Oct. 1856 
 
 (died Aug. 5, 1857). 
 1856. Archibald Campbell Tait (present bishop). 
 
 LONDON BRIDGE. One is said to have existed, 978. A bridge built of wood, 1014, 
 was partly burned in 1136. The late old bridge was commenced about 1176, by Peter of 
 Colechurch, and completed in 1209, with houses on each side, connected together by large 
 
LON" 449 LON 
 
 arclies of timber, which crossed the street. In July, 12 12, a fire at the South wark end 
 brought crowds on the bridge ; tlie houses at the north end caught fire likewise, and pre- 
 vented their escape. Thus, it is said, upwards of 3000 persons lost their lives, being 
 either killed, burned, or drowned. The bridge was restored in 1300, and again was destroyed 
 by fire in 1471, Feb. 13, 1632, and Sept. 1725. In 1756 all the houses \vere pulled down. 
 The waterworks were begun in 1582 ; they caught fire and were destroyed in 1774. The 
 toll was discontinued, March 27, 1782. After many repairs, in 1822 the corporation adver- 
 tised for designs for a new bridge : that by John Reunie was approved, and the works were 
 executed by his sons John and George. The first pile was driven 200 feet to the west of 
 the old bridge, March 15, 1824 ; and the first stone was laid by the lord mayor, alderman 
 Gsirratt, June 15, 1825. The bridge was opened by "William IV. and his queen, Aug. i, 1831. 
 The cost was 506,000^!. * 
 
 LOiSTDON IlSrSTITUTIOlSr, "for the advancement of literature and the diffusion of useful 
 knowledge," in imitation of the Royal Institution, was founded in 1805 by sir Francis 
 Baring, bart., and others, at 8, Old Jewry, Cheapside. Prof. Person was the first librarian. 
 The present building in Finsbury-circus was completed in 1819, and opened on April 21 ; 
 the first lecture was delivered by Mr. W. T. Brande, on May 5, following. Mr. W. R. Grove, 
 Q. C. (the inventor of the Voltaic battery which bears his name), was the first professor of 
 experimental philosophy, 1840 to 1846. The institution possesses an excellent library, 
 lecture-room, and laboratory. 
 
 LONDON GAZETTE. See Newspapers. 
 
 LONDON" STONE. A stone said to have been placed by the Romans in Cannon-street, 
 then the centre of the city, 15 B.C. Cheapside was at this period in the suburbs. Burns. 
 London Stone is one of the greatest antiquities of the city, having been known before the 
 time of "William I. It was removed from the opposite side of the way in 1742. It was 
 against this stone that Jack Cade struck his sword, exclaiming, ' ' Now is Mortimer lord of 
 this city ! " 1450. 
 
 LONDON UNIVERSITY was founded by the exertions of lord Brougham, Thomas 
 Campbell, and others; the deed of settlement . dated Feb. 11, 1826. The building was 
 commenced April 30, 1827 (when the first stone was laid by the duke of Sussex) ; and was 
 opened by an inaugural lecture from professor Bell, Oct. i, 1828. On Nov. 28, 1836, two 
 charters were granted : by one the London university was changed to " University college," 
 and by the other the University of London was established, with a chancellor and other 
 officers. New charters were granted to the latter on Dec. 5, 1837 and April 21, 1858. It 
 has offices at Burlington-house, and has poAver to grant degrees to students of the imiversities 
 of the united kingdom, and many collegiate establishments. — University Hall, Gordon- 
 square, was founded in 1847. 
 
 LONDONDERRY, or Deeey (N. Ireland), mentioned 546. An abbey here was burned 
 Tjy the Danes in 783. A charter was granted to the London companies in 1615. The town 
 was surprised, and sir George Powlett, the governor, and the entire garrison were put to the 
 sword by rebels, in 1606. It was besieged by O'Neal in 1641. A grant was made of Derry, 
 with 210,000 acres of land, to various companies in London, in 1619, when it took its 
 present name. The memorable siege of Derry by the army of James II. commenced April 20, 
 1689. The garrison and inhabitants were driven to the extremity of famine ; but under the 
 direction of the rev. George Walker, they defended it until the siege was rnised by gen. 
 Kirke, on July 30. James's army, under the French general Rosen, retired with the loss of 
 about 9000 men. 
 
 LONE STAR, a secret society formed in 1848, in Alabama and other southern states of 
 the North American union. Its object was declared to be the "extension of the insti- 
 tutions, the power, the influence, and the commerce of the United States over the whole of 
 the western hemisiihere, and the islands of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans." The first 
 acquisition to be made by the order were Cuba and the Sandwich Islands. The knowledge 
 of the existence of this society reached England in August, 1852. 
 
 LONG ISLAND, 011 Flatbush (N. America), Battle of, Aug. 27, 1776, between the 
 British troops under sir "William Howe, and the revolted Americans, who suffered a severe 
 defeat, after a well-fought action, losing 2000 men killed and wounded, and 1000 prisoners. 
 
 * On March 17, 1859, it was computed that there pa=sed over London-bridge 20,498 vehicles (of which 
 4483 were cabs and 4286 omnibuses), and 167,910 persons (107,074 on f jut, and 60,836 in vehicles). 
 
 G G 
 
LON 
 
 450 
 
 LOO 
 
 LONGEVITY. Methuselah died, aged 969, 2349 B.C. {Gen. v. 27). In these countries 
 the instances of it are remarkable, though rare. Golour M 'Grain, of the Isle of Jura, one of 
 the Hebrides, is said to have kept 180 Christmases in his own house, and died in the reign 
 of Charles I., being the oldest man on anything approaching to authentic records for 
 upwards of 3000 years. Greig. "In 1014 died Johannes de Temporibus who lived 361 
 years (!)" Stow. Thomas Parr, a labouring man of Shropshire, was brought to London bj' 
 the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and considered the wonder of his time, being then in his 
 153rd year, and in perfect health; but the journey and change of air and diet killed him, 
 Nov. 15, the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried 
 in Bolton churchyard, Dec. 6, in that year, aged 169 years. Most cases of alleged longevity 
 are veiy doubtful. 
 
 1656. 
 1691. 
 1749. 
 
 1757- 
 I7SQ- 
 1766. 
 
 1772. 
 1774- 
 
 1775- 
 
 1776. 
 
 1778. 
 -77cf- 
 1780. 
 
 1782. 
 1786. 
 1787. 
 1792. 
 
 1806. 
 
 1813. 
 1814. 
 
 1816. 
 1840. 
 
 OTHER EXTRAORDINARY INSTAKCES. 
 
 James Bowles, Killingwortli . . aged 152 
 Ladj' Eccleston, Ireland . . . . 143 
 A man named Collier, Dublin . . .137 
 An Englishman named Eccleson . . . 144 
 James Sheil, Irish yeoman . . . 136 
 
 Colonel Thomas Winslow, Ireland . . 146 
 John Mount, Scotland . . .136 
 
 Francis Conceist, Burytliorpe . . . 150 
 
 Mrs. Clun, Lichfield 138 
 
 William Beeb\', Dungarvon (an ensign 
 
 who served at the battles of the Buyne 
 
 and Aughrim) . . . • . . . 130 
 Peter Gordon, Auchterless . . . 131 
 
 Mary Paton, Lochwinnoch . . . . 138 
 Mr. Movct, surgeon, Dumfries . . . 139 
 Sarah Brookman, Glastonbury . . . 166 
 Thomas Cocker, Blechingley . . . 132 
 M. Lawrence, Orkney . . ... 140 
 Robert Mac Bride, Herries . . . 130 
 Jlr. William Ellis, Liverpool . . . . 130 
 Loui.'ra Truxo, a negress, was living in this 
 
 year, at Tucuman, South America . . 175 
 Evan Williams, Carmarthen . . . . 145 
 
 Cardinal de Solis 119 
 
 Mary Brook, of Leek 148 
 
 Jlr. Johnson, of Birmingham . . . 120 
 Mrs. Jtidith Scott, Islington , . . . 162 
 Mr. Creeke, of Thurlow .... 125 
 Mr. J. Tucker, Ilching ferry . . . . 131 
 Catherine Lopez, of Jamaica , . .134 
 Sarah Anderson, a free black . . . 140 
 Mrs. Meighan, Donoughmore . . .130 
 Mary Innes, Isle of Skye . ... 137 
 Mrs. Judith Crawford, Spanish-town . 151 
 Jane Lewson, Coldbath-fields, Clerkenwell 116 
 Mrs. Martha Rorke, of Dromore, county of 
 
 Kildare, Aug. 27 133 
 
 1853. Mrs. Mary Power (aunt of the late rt. hon. 
 Rd. Lalor Shiel), Ursuline convent, Cork, 
 March 20 116 
 
 1858. James Nolan, Knockardrane, Carlow . .116 
 
 EXAMPLES FURNISHED BY DR. J. WEBSTER, F.R.S. 
 
 Agcil. 
 • 330 
 
 Died. Buried at 
 
 1566. Numas de Cugna, Bengal . 
 
 1588. Jane Britten Everoreech, Somerset . . 
 
 ,, Thomas Carn, St. Leonard, Shoreditch 
 1621. J. Torathe, Glamorganshire . . . . 
 1652. Dr. W. Meade, Ware, Herts 
 1678. Juan Bnrtamentc, Seville . . . . 
 1688. Elizabeth Torathe, Glanaorganshire . 
 1711. Mrs. Scrimshaw, Rosemary-lane . . . 
 
 1723, W. Robertson, Edinburgh .... 
 
 1724. Peter Tortcn, Teme.swar, Hungary . . 
 1726. Juan de Outejri, Villa de Fofinane.s, in 
 
 Asturias 
 
 1736. John Rousey, Distrey, Scotland . . . 
 1739. Margaret Patten, Christchurch, Westmin- 
 ster 
 
 1 741. J. Rovin, Temeswar, Hungary . . . 
 
 ,, Jane Rovin, ditto 
 
 1757. Alexander M'CuUoch, Aberdeen . . . 
 1759. Donald Cameron, Rannach, Aberdeenshire 130 
 1763. Mrs. Taylor, Piccadilly . . . .131 
 1766. John Mount, Langham, Dumfries . . 136 
 
 ,, John Hill, Leadhills, near Edinburgh . 130 
 1771. Mr. Whalley, Rotherhithe . . . . 121 
 1775- Widow Jones, Campbell .... 125 
 
 1780. Mr. Evans, Spitalflelds 139 
 
 1784. Marj- Cameron, Braem.ar, Aberdeen . . 129 
 1791. Archbd. Cameron, Keith, Aberdeenshire . 122 
 1851. Jean Golembeski, Hotel des luvalidcs, 
 
 Paris 126 
 
 207 
 
 177 
 127 
 137 
 185 
 
 146 
 
 136 
 172 
 164 
 132 
 
 LONGITUDE, determined b}' Hipparchus, at Nice, who fixed the first degree in the 
 Canaries, 162 B.C. Hamson made a time-keeper, in a.d. 1759, which in two voyages was 
 found to correct the longitude within the limits required by the act of parliament, 12th 
 Anne, 1714 ; and obtained the reward. See Harrison's Time-jriecc. Other improvements 
 followed. The chronometers of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Breguet, are highly esteemed. 
 Chronometers are now received on trial at Greenwich Observatory. The act relating to 
 the discovery of the longitude at sea was repealed in 1828. The Bureau des Longitudes 
 at Paris was established in 1795. 
 
 LONG PARLIAMENT met Nov. 3, 1640 ; was forcibly dissolved by Cromwell 
 April 20, 1653. 
 
 LONGWY (N.E. France), a frontier town, was taken by the allied army, Aug. 23, 1792, 
 the beginning of the great war. 
 
 LOOKING-GLASSES. See Mirrors. 
 
 LOOM. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought into u.se in London 
 from Holland, about 1676. There were, in 1825, about 250,000 hand-looms in Great 
 Britain, and 75,000 power-looms, each being equal to three hand-looms, making twenty-two 
 yards eacli per day. The Jacquard loom was invented about 1800. The steam-loom was 
 introduced in 1807. See Cotton, Electric-loom, and Pneumatic-loom. 
 
LOPv 
 
 451 
 
 LOR 
 
 LORD. See Lady. AVlien printed in the English Bible thus Lord stands for Jehovah, 
 the self-existing God, the name first revealed to Moses, 149 1 B.C. Exod. vi. 3 ; when in 
 ordinary type, for Adonai, a lord or master. 
 
 LORD CHAMBERLAIN, CHANCELLOR, &c. See Chamherlain, Chancellor, &c. 
 
 LORD'S DAY ACT, 29 Charles II. c. 7. See Sabbath. 
 
 LORD'S SUPPER, instituted by Jesus Christ {Matt, xxvi, 17), 33. See Sacrament and 
 Transubstantiation. 
 
 LORDS.* The nobility of England date their creation from 1066, when William Pitz- 
 Osborn, the first peer, is said to have been made by "William I. earl of Hereford ; and 
 afterwards Walter d'Evreux, earl of Salisbury ; Copsi, earl of Northumberland ; Henry de 
 Eerrers, earl of Derby ; and Gerodus (a Fleming), earl of Chester. Twenty-two other 
 peei's were made in this sovereign's reign. The first peer created by patent was lord 
 Beaucharap of Holt Castle, by Richard II. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl 
 of Angus by Malcolm III. 1037. In Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of 
 Kinsale, &c., in 1 181 ; the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by Henry II. 
 
 LORDS, House of. The peers of England were summoned, acZ co?zsMfezc?iM;i, to consult, 
 in early reigns, and were summoned by writ, 6 & 7 John, 1205, but the earliest writ extant 
 is 49 Hen. III. 1265. The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation 
 until some ages after the conquest. See Parliament. The house of lords includes the 
 spiritual as well as temporal peers of Great Britain. The bishops are supposed to hold 
 certain ancient baronies under the king, in right whereof they have seats in this house. 
 Some of the temporal lords sit by descent, some by creation, and others by election, since 
 the union with Scotland in 1707, and with Ireland, 1801. — Scotland elects 16 representative 
 peers, and Ireland 4 spiritual lords by rotation of sessions, and 28 temporal peers for life. 
 The house of lords in Nov. 1865 consisted of 3 princes of the blood, 3 archbishops, 20 
 dukes, 21 marquesses, 129 earls, 27 viscounts, 221 barons, and 28 bishops ; in all, 452. The 
 house of lords — 
 
 At the death of Charles II. ... 176 peers. 
 At the death of Wilham III. . . . 192 
 
 At the death of Anne .... 209 
 
 At the death of George 1 216 
 
 At the death of George II. ... 229 
 
 The barons enact the constitutions of Claren- 
 don in 1 164 
 
 Obtain Magna Charta in 1215 
 
 Held the government .... 1264-5 
 House of lords abolished by the commons, 
 Feb. 6, 1649; restored 1660 
 
 At the death of George III. 
 At the death of George IV. 
 At the death of William IV. 
 In the i8th Victoria, 1855 . 
 In the 24th Victoria, i85o 
 
 339 peers. 
 
 396 
 
 456 
 
 448 
 
 462 
 
 Unite with the commons in making William 
 
 and Mary king and queen .... 1689 
 Reject thegreat reform bill, Oct. 7, 1831 ; passit, 
 
 June 4, 1832 
 Oppose successfully the creation of life-peerages, f 
 
 Feb. 7, 1856- 
 
 LORDS JUSTICES. See Jmtices. 
 
 LORETTO, near Ancona, Italy. Here is the Casa Santa, or Holy House, in which it is 
 pretended the Virgin Mary lived at Nazareth, and which was carried by angels into Dalmatia 
 •from Galilee in 1291, and brought here a few years after. The lady of Loretto, gaudily 
 dressed, stands upon an altar holding the infant Jesus in her arms, surrounded with gold 
 lamps. Loretto was taken by the French in 1797, and the holy image, which had been 
 carried to France, was brought back with pomp, Jan. 5, 1803. 
 
 L'ORIENT (W. France). Lord Bridport off this port defeated the French fleet, June 23,. 
 1795. The loss of the French was severe : that of the British inconsiderable.— The French 
 flag-ship, L'OiiiEKT, blew up during the battle of the Nile, Aug. i, 1798. Admiral Brueys 
 and about 900 men perished. 
 
 * Peers of England are free from all arrests for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors ; 
 therefore a peer cannot be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies against his person ; biit 
 execution may be taken upon his lands and goods. For the same reason, they are free from all attendance 
 at courts leet or sheriffs' turns ; or, in case of a riot, from attending the posse ccmitatv.s. He can act as a 
 justice of the peace in any part of the kingdom. See Baron, Earl, &c. 
 
 t Peerage for Ufe only, with the title of lord Wensleydale of Wensleydale, was gi-anted to baron sir 
 James Parke, Jan. 10, 1856 ; the house of lords opposed his sitting and voting as a peer for life, and on July 
 25, 1856, he was created a peer in the usual way, with the title of lord Wensleydale of Walton. 
 
 G G 2 
 
LOR 
 
 452 
 
 LOW 
 
 LORRAINE (formerly Lotliaringia), a Frencli province, became a kingdom under 
 Lothaire (son of the emperor Lothaire L) about 855 ; it was divided on his death, in 869, 
 part of it being made a duchy. The first hereditary duke, Gerard, was nominated by the 
 emperor Henry IIL in 1048. From Gerard descended the illustrious house of Lorraine, 
 represented now by the emperor of Austria, whose ancestor, the empress Maria Theresa, 
 married in 1736 Francis, formerly duke of LoiTaine, then of Tuscany. Lorraine had been 
 given to the dethroned king of Poland, Stanislaus L, for life ; at his death in 1766, it was 
 united to France. 
 
 LOTS. Casting lots was sacred among the Jews, as an appeal to God, Proverbs xvi. 33. 
 It was employed in the division of the land of Canaan, about 1444 R.c, by Joshua (xiv.), 
 and in the election of Matthias the apostle, A.D. 33, Acts i. — Lots for life or death have been 
 frequently east. For an instance, see Wales, 1649, note. 
 
 LOTTERIES are said to have originated in Florence about 1530, and to have been 
 legalised in France in 1539. The first mentioned in English history began drawing at the 
 western door of St. Paul's cathedral, Jan. 11, 1569, and continued day and night until 
 May 6 following. It contained 40,000 " lots^' at los. each lot. The profits were for repairing 
 the harbours on the coast of England, and the prizes were pieces of plate. 
 
 A lottery, granted by the king, in special favour 
 for the colony of Virginia (prizes, iiieces of 
 plate), drawn near St. Paul s, 
 
 June 29 — July 20, 1612 
 First lottery for sums of money took place in . 1630 
 Lotteries estiiblished (for more tban 130 years 
 
 yielded a large annual revenue to the crown) 1693 
 Lottery for the British Museum . . . 1753 
 Cox's museum, containing many rare speci- 
 mens of art and articles of virtu, disposed of 
 by lottery, by an act of parliament . . . 1773 
 An act passed for the sale of the buildings of 
 the Adelphi by lottery . . June 16, „ 
 
 Irish state lottery drawn 1780 
 
 Lottery for the Leverian Miiseum . . 1784-5 
 
 For the Pigott diamond, permitted, Jan. 2, 
 1801 ; it was afterwards sold at Christie's 
 auction for 9500 guineas . . . May 10, 1802 
 For the collection of pictures of alderman Boy- 
 dell, by act 1804-s 
 
 Lotteries abolished by 6 Geo. IV. c. 60 Oct. 1826 
 
 The last drawn Oct. 18, „ 
 
 Act passed declaring that the then pending 
 
 Glasgow lottery sliould be the last . . 1834 
 An act passed imi'osing a penalty of 50?. for 
 advertising lotteries in tlxe British news- 
 papers 1836 
 
 Lotteries suppressed in France . . 1793 and 1836 
 Mr. Uethiers' twelfth -cake lottery, ^Vrgyll- 
 rooms, Hanover-square, suppressed Dec. 27, i860 
 
 LOUDON-HILL, or Drtjjiclog. See Drumclorj. 
 
 LOUIS-D'OR, a French gold coin of 24 francs, first struck by Louis XIII. in 1640 ; its 
 value fluctuated. In iSio it -was superseded by the Napoleon. 
 
 LOUISIANA (N. America), one of the United States ; discovered by Ferdinand de Soto 
 in 1541 ; traversed by M. de Salle in 1682, and settled by Louis XIV. (from wliom it derived 
 its name) in 17 18. It formed the basis of Law's Mississippi scheme. It was ceded to Spain 
 at the peace when all east of the Mississippi was given to England, 1763. Capital, Baton 
 Rouge. 
 
 Restored to France i8oi Seceded from the Union by ordinance Jan. 25, 1861 
 
 Sold to the Americans, 1803 ; and made a state 1812 Adm. Farragut takes New Orleans for the 
 
 Gen. Jackson defeated the British at Kew Federals April 28, 1862 
 
 Orleans Jan. 8, 1815 Louisiana restored to the Union . . . 1865 
 
 LOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris is said to have been originally a royal 
 residence in the reign of Dagobert, 628. It was a prison-tower constructed by Philippe 
 Augustus in 1204. It afterwards became a library, and Charles VI. made it his palace 
 (about 1364). Successive kings enlarged and adorned it, particularly Louis XIV. — 
 Napoleon I. turned it into a museum, and deposited here the finest collection of painting:;, 
 statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief of those brought from Italy 
 have since been restored to the rightful possessors. The magnificent buildings of the new 
 Louvre, begun by Napoleon I. and completed by Napoleon III., were inaugurated by the 
 latter in great state, Aug. 14, 1857. 
 
 LOVE FEASTS. See Agapce. 
 
 LOWER EMPIRE. Some historians make it begin with the reign of Valerian, 253 : 
 others with that of Constantine, 323. 
 
 LOWERING BOAT APPARATUS. See Life-boats. 
 
 IJ)W SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, said to derive its name from the contrast 
 betAveen its solemnities and those of Easter Sundav, 
 
LOY 
 
 453 
 
 LUN 
 
 LOYALTY LOANS were raised during the revolutionary wars. The term "loyalty 
 loan " was applied to one opened in London on the 5th Dec. 1796, and in fifteen hours and 
 twenty minutes the sum of eighteen millions sterling was subscribed. See National 
 Association. 
 
 LUBECK, a city in N. Germany, one of the four republics of the German confederation, 
 was built in the latli century, and was the chief founder of the Hanseatic league about 1240, 
 which lasted till 1630. Liibeck was declared a free imperial city about 1226 ; but was 
 frequently attacked by the Danes. The French took it by assault, Nov. 6, 1806, and 
 Napoleon incorporated it into his empire in 1810. On his fall in 1814 it became once 
 more a free imperial city. Population in 1862, 50,614. 
 
 LUCANIANS, a warlike people of S. Italy, defeated Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 
 332 B.C. ; were subdued bj' the Romans 227 ; revolted after the battle of Cannre, 216 ; were 
 reduced by Scipio, 201 ; again revolted, 90; admitted as Eoman citizens, 88. 
 
 LUCCA (central Italj'-), a Roman colony 177 B.C., a Lombard duchy 1327 A.D., became 
 a free city about 1370, and took an active part in the civil wars of the Italian republics. It 
 was united with Tuscany, and given in 1805 as a principality to Eliza Bonaparte by her brother 
 Napoleon I. Lucca, as a duchy, was given to Maria Louisa, widow of Louis, king of 
 Etruria, in 1814. It was exchanged by her son Charles-Louis for Parma and Placentia in 1847, 
 was annexed to Tuscany, and with it became part of the kingdom of Italy in i860. 
 
 LUCIA, ST. (West Indies), settled by the French in 1650 ; taken by the British several 
 times in the subsequent wars. Insurrection of the French negroes, April 1795. St. Lucia 
 was restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was seized by England, 1803, and confirmed 
 to her in 1814. Population in 1861, 26,705. 
 
 LUCIFER MATCHES came into use about 1834. In March, 1842, Mr. Reuben Par- 
 tridge patented machinery for manufacturing the splints. In 1845, Schrotter of Vienna 
 tliscovered his amorphous phosphorus, by the use of which lucifers are rendered less dangerous, 
 and the manufacture less unhealthy. 
 
 LUCKNOW, the capital of Oude. See India, 1857. 
 
 LUDDITES. Large parties of men under this desigu.ition commenced their depredations 
 at Nottingham, breaking frames and machinery, Nov. 181 1. Skirmish with the military 
 there, Jan. 29, 1812. Several serioiis riots occurred again in 1814 ; and numerous bodies of 
 these people, chiefly unemployed artisans, committed great excesses in 1 8 16 et seq. Several 
 of these Luddites were tried and executed. 
 
 LUGDUNUM. See Lnjden and Lyons. 
 
 LUNATICS. An eminent authority has traced insanity, in a thousand male patients, to 
 the following causes : — 
 
 Drunkenness . . . .110 
 Consequencss of disease . . 100 
 
 Epilepsy 78 
 
 Ambition 73 
 
 Excessive labour . . .73 
 
 Boi-n idiots 71 
 
 Misfortunes . . . .69 
 
 Old age 69 
 
 Chagrin 54 
 
 Love 
 
 Accidents 
 
 Religious enthusiasm . 
 
 Unnatural practices 
 
 Political events . 
 
 Poisonous eflSuvia . 
 Ill-usage .... 
 Crimes, remorse, and despair 
 Malformation of the skull 
 Other and unknown causes 
 
 Pretended insanity . 
 
 " The king shall have the custody of the lands 
 of natural fools," (fee, 17 Edw. II. . . . 
 
 Marriages with lunatics declared void, 15 Geo. 
 II. c. 30 
 
 1742 
 
 Act regarding criminal lunatics passed Aug. 
 
 The numerous laws respecting lunatics were 
 consolidated and amended iDy 16 & 17 Vict. 
 CO. 70, 95, 97 1853 
 
 A new lunacy act for Scotland passed . . 1858 
 
 An act to amend the law relating to commis- 
 sions of lunacy passed (said to be in conse- 
 quence of the Wyndham case, see Triak, 1862) 1862 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE INSANE. 
 
 Till the end of the last century lunatics were 
 treated with cruel severity. See ConoUy ' ' On 
 the Treatment of the Insane," 1856. 
 
 The insane were exhibited at Bethlem as a 
 show, for id. or 2d. till 1770 
 
 Enlightened principles of treatment were in- 
 troduced by Wm. Tuke, at the Society of 
 Friends' ' ' Retreat," at York, and by Pinel, 
 at the Bicetre. Paris, with very great success 1792 
 
 Esquirol succeeds Pinel, and strongly recom- 
 mends instruction in the m.anagement of 
 mental disorders iSio 
 
 Exposure of enormous cruelties in the Bethlem 
 hospital 1815 
 
 This led to gradual improvements, and at last 
 to the total abolition of mechanical restraints 
 at Lincoln, 1837 ; and at Hanwell Asylum 
 (under the superintendence of Dr. John 
 Conolly) and at other places . . . . 1839 
 
 Psychological journal first published by TDr. 
 Forbes Winslow 1848 
 
 Journal of Mental Science, by Dr. J. C. Buck- 
 nill ...---••- 1852 
 
LUN 454 LUX 
 
 LUNATICS, continued. 
 
 LUNATICS IN CHARGE IN ENGLAND AND WALES, JAN. I, 1855. 
 
 Private. Pauper. 
 
 Male. Female. Male. Female. Total. 
 
 County asylums . . . . 132 123 6008 7316 13,579 
 
 Hospitals 895 723 91 94 1,803 
 
 Lieenscd hou.ses . . . . 1448 1350 1034 1279 5,111 
 
 2475 2196 7133 8689 20,493 
 
 On Jan. i, 1858, there were in charge in England and Wales 22,310 lunatics of all classes ; 1859, 22,853 ; 
 i860, 17,837; 1S61, 23,721 ; 1862, 26,169; 1864, 28,285; 1865, 29,425. , 
 
 In 1851, there were in Ireland nearly 15,000 lunatics of all classes ; in Scotland in 1S51, 3362 in charge ; 
 ill 1855, 7403 ; of which only 3328 were under the protection of the law. 
 
 LUND-HILL, near Barnsley, in South Yorkshire. While the miners were dining in the 
 pit, Feb. 19, 1857, the inflammable gas took fire and exploded. Above i8o miners perished. 
 In April and May bodies were still being extricated. There had begn great laxity of discix^line 
 in the pit. 7000?. were subscribed for the bereaved. 
 
 LUNEBUEG. See Brunswick. 
 
 LUNEVILLE (France), Peace of, concluded between the French republic and the 
 emperor of Germany, confirmed the cessions made by the treaty of Campo Forniio, 
 stipulated that tlie Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form the boundary of France, and 
 recognised the Batavian, Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, Feb. 9, 1801. 
 
 LUPERCALIA, a yearly festival* observed at Rome on Feb. 15, in honour of Pan, 
 destroyer of wolves {lupi), instituted by the Romans, according to Plutarch ; but according 
 to Livy, brought by Evander into Italy. These feasts are said to have been abolished in 
 496, by pope Gelasius, on account of their great disorders. 
 
 LUSATIA, a marquisate in N. Germany, given to John of Bohemia, 13 19 ; obtained by 
 Matthias of Hungarj^, 1478 ; and ceded to Saxony in 1635. 
 
 LUSIAD. See Epic. LUSITANIA. See Portugal. 
 
 LUSTRUM, an expiatory sacrifice made for the Roman people, at the end of every five 
 years, after the census had been taken, 472 b. ( '. Every fifth year was called a lustrum ; and 
 ten, fifteen, or twenty years, were commonly expressed by two, three, or four lustra. The 
 number of Roman citizens was— in 293 B.C., 272,308 ; 179 B.C., 273,294 ; 70 B.C., 450,000; 
 28 B.C., 4,164,060 ; A.D. 48, 5,984,072. 
 
 LUTHERANlSM,i" the form of Christianity professed by the majority of the people of 
 the north of Germany, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden. The doctrines are mainly embodied 
 in Luther's catechisms, in the Augsburg Confession, and in the Forinula Concordia: of the 
 Lutherans, published in 1580. Their first university was founded at Marburg, in 1527, by 
 Philip, landgrave of Hesse. 
 
 LUTZEiST, or Lutzengen (N. Germany). Here Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, 
 defeated the Imperialists under Wallenstein, Nov. 6, 1632, but was himself killed ; and here 
 the French army, commanded by Napoleon, defeated the combined armies of Russia and 
 Prussia, commanded by general "Wittgenstein, May 2, 1813. The battles of Bautzen 
 and Wiirtzchen immediately followed (May 19 — 21), both in favour of Napoleon. The allies 
 were compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to, and afterwards prolonged ; 
 but, unfortunately for the French emperor, did not produce peace. 
 
 LUXEMBURG (Holland), capital of the grand duchy of Luxemburg, part of which is 
 subject to Holland and part to Belgium since 1839. Luxemburg, once considered the 
 strongest fortress in the world, was taken and pillaged by the French in 1542-3 ; by the 
 Spaniards in 1544 ; by the French in 16S4 ; restored to Spain in 1697 ; taken by the French in 
 1 701 ; given to the Dutch as a barrier "town, and ceded to the emperor at the peace in 17 13. 
 
 * Naked youths ran through the streets with whip.s, lashing all whom they encountered, even women, 
 ■who received the stripes with inclination, believing that they removed barrenness and eased the pains of 
 childbirth. Augustus forbade all persons above the age of fourteen to appear naked during this festival. 
 Cicero, in his Philippics, reproaches Antony for having disgraced the dignity of the consulship by appearing 
 naked on one of these occasions. Varro. 
 
 t Martin Luther was born at Eisleben, Nov, 10, 1483 ; studied at Erfurt, 1501 ; was professor of philo- 
 sophy at Wittenberg, 150S ; resisted the sale of indulgences, 1517 ; defended himself at Augsburg, 1518 ; at 
 Worms, 1520 ; was excommunicated, June 16, 1520; began his German bible, 1521 ; married Katherine de 
 Bora, 1525; published his German bible complete, 1534; died Feb. 18, 1546. 
 
LUX 
 
 45c 
 
 LYO 
 
 It surrendered to the French after a long and 
 
 It withstood several sieges in the last century, 
 memorable siege, June 7, 1795. 
 
 LUXOR. See Thehcs. 
 
 LUXURY. Lucullus (died 49 B.C.), at Rome, was distinguished for inordinate luxury. 
 
 See Sumptuary Laivs. 
 
 LYCEUM (originally a temple of Apollo Lyceus, or a portico, or gallery, built by Lj'ceus, 
 son of Apollo) was a spot near the Uissus, in Attica, where Aristotle taught philosophy ; 
 and as he generally taught as lie walked, his pupils were called ^jsrij)aiefo'cs, walkcrs-aboiot, 
 and his philosophy that of the Lyceum, 342 B.C. Stanley. See Theatres. 
 
 LYCIA (Asia Minor) belonged successively to Croesus (about 560 B.C.), the Persians 
 (546 B.C.), to Alexander the Great (333 B.C.), and to his successors the Seleucidfe. The 
 Romans gave Lycia to the Rhodians (188 B.C.). It became nominally free under the Romans, 
 and was annexed to the empire by Claudius. The marbles, brought from Lycia by sir Charles 
 Fellows, were deposited in the British Museum, 1840-6. 
 
 LYDIA, or Mseonia, an ancient kingdom in Asia Minor, under a long dynasty of kings, 
 the last being Croesus, "the richest of mankind." The coinage of gold and silver money, 
 and other useful inventions, are ascribed to the Lydians. .^sop, the Phrygian fabulist, 
 Alcman, the first Greek erotic poet, Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anacreon 
 of Teos, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c, , flourished in Lydia. 
 
 Argon, a descetidant of Hercules, reigns in 
 Lydia. Herod. . . . . .B.C. 1223 
 
 The kingdom of Lydia, properly so called, 
 begins under Ardysus I. Blair. . . . 797 
 
 .. Alyattes I. reigns .761 
 
 Meles commences his rule 747 
 
 Reign of Candaules 735 
 
 Gyges, first of the race Mermnadse, kills Can- 
 daules, marries his queen, usurps the throne, 
 and makes great conquests . . . . 718 
 
 Ardysus IL reigns, 678 ; the Cimbri besiege 
 
 Sardis, the capital of Lydia .... 635 
 The Milesian war, commenced under Gyges, is 
 continued by Sadyattes, who reigns . . . 628 
 
 Reign of Alyattes II 617 
 
 Battle upon the river Halys, between the 
 Lydians and Medes, interrupted by an 
 almost total eclipse of the sun. This eclipse 
 
 had been predicted many years before by 
 Thales of Miletus. Blair. . B.C. May 28, 585 
 CrcB3us, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the 
 
 throne, a:id conquers Asia Minor . . 560-50 
 Croesus, dreading the power of Cyrus, whose 
 conquests had reached to the bordsra of 
 Lydia, crosses the Halys to attack the Medes, 
 with 420,000 men and 60,000 horse . . 548 
 
 He is defeated, pursued, and besieged in his 
 capital by Cyrus, who orders him to be 
 burned alive ; the pile is already on fire, 
 when Croesus calls aloud, Solon! and Cyrus 
 hearing him, spares his life. Lydia made a 
 province of the Persian empire . . . . 546 
 Sardis burnt by the lonians .... 499 
 Lydia conquered by Alexander . . . . 332 
 Becomes part of^he kingdom of Pergamus . 283 
 
 Conquered by the Turks 
 
 A.D. 1326 
 
 LYING-IN HOSPITALS. The first, established in Dublin by Dr. Bartholomew Mosse, 
 a physician, amidst strong opposition, was opened March, 1745. See Hospitals, 
 
 LYMPHATIC VESSELS (concerned in digestion), were discovered by Jasper Asellius 
 in 1622, and described in 1627. Discovered in oviparous animals by Dr. Hewson, who 
 disputed the honour of the discovery with Dr. Munro, 1762. 
 
 LYNCH LAW, punishment inflicted by private individuals, independently of the legal 
 authorities, said to derive its name from John Lynch, a farmer, who exercised it upon the 
 fugitive slaves and criminals dwelling in the "dismal swamp," North Carolina, when they 
 committed outrages upon persons and property which the colonial law could not promptly 
 repress. This mode of administering justice began about the end of the 17th century, and 
 stiU exists in the outlying districts of the United States. 
 
 LYONS (S. France), the Roman Lugdunum, founded by M. Plancus, 43 B.C. The 
 city was reduced to ashes in a single night by lightning, A.D. 59, and was rebuilt in the 
 reign of Nero. It was a free city till its union with France in 1307. 
 
 197 
 1274 
 
 1515 
 
 Clodius Albinus defeated and slain by Septimus 
 Severus, near Lyons . . . Feb. 19, 
 
 Two general councils held here . . 1245, 
 
 Silk manufacture commenced .... 
 
 Lyons besieged by the Convention army — sur- 
 rendered — and awful scenes of blood .and 
 i-apine followed, Oct. 7 ; the National Con- 
 vention deoi-eed the demolition of the city, 
 
 Oct. 12, 1793 
 
 Capitulated to the Austrians, March, 1814, July, 1815 
 
 An insurrection among the artisans, which led 
 to great popular excesses ; quelled by an 
 army .... Nov. 21 — Deo. 3, 1831 
 Dreadful riots, put down by military April 15, 1834 
 Railway to Paris opened . . . April 7, 1839 
 A dreadful inundation at Lyons. See Immda- 
 
 tions. Nov. 4, 1S40 
 
 Another insurrection quelled, with much loss 
 of life June 15, 1849 
 
LYll 456 MAC 
 
 LYRE. Its invention is ascvibed to the Grecian Hermes, the Latin Mercury, who, 
 according to Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon it with method, and accom- 
 panied it with poetry. The invention of the primitive lyre, with three strings, is ascribed to 
 the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpander added several strings to the lyre, making the number 
 seven, 673 B.C. Phrynis, a musician of Mitylene, added two more, making nine, 438 B.C. ^ 
 
 M. 
 
 MACADAMISING, a system of road-making devised by Mr. John Macadam, and pub- 
 lished by him in an essay, in 1819, having practised it in Ayrshire. He received a grant of 
 lOjOOoZ. from, parliament; Avas appointed surveyor-general of the metropolitan roads in 
 1827 ; and died in 1836. 
 
 MACAO (N. China) was given to the Portuguese as a commercial station in 1586, iu 
 return for their assistance against pirates. 
 
 MACARONI. This name was given to a poem byTheop. Folengo, 1509, and it continues 
 to designate trifling performances, as buffoonery, puns, anagrams, " wit without wisdom, and 
 humour without sense." His poem was so called from an Italian cake of the same name, 
 pleasant to the taste, but witliout any alimentary virtue. These poems became the reigning 
 taste in Italy and France, where they gave birth to Macaroni academies, and reaching 
 England, to Macaroni clubs (about 1772), till, in the end, everything ridiculous iu dress and 
 manners was called " Macaroni." 
 
 MACCABEES, a family of patriotic Jews;, who commenced their career during the 
 persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, 167 B.C., when Mattathias, a priest, resisted the 
 tyranny of the govei-nor. His son, Judas Maccabteus, defeated the Syi-ians in three battles, 
 166, 165 B.C. ; but fell in an ambush, 161 B.C. His brother Jonathan made a league with 
 the Romans and LacedcCmonians, and after an able administration was treacherously killed 
 at Ptolernais by Tryphon, 143 B.C. His brother and successor, Simon, was also murdered, 
 135 B.C. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, succeeded. His son Judas, called also Aristobuhis, 
 took the title of king, 107 B.C. The history of the Maccabees is contained in five books of 
 that name, two of which are included iu our Apocrypha. Four are accounted canonical by the 
 Roman Catholic church ; none by Protestant communions. 
 
 MACDONALD AFFAIR. See Prussia, 1861. 
 
 MACE, a weapon anciently used by the cavalry of most nations, was originally a spiked 
 club, hung at the saddle-bow, and usually of metal. Maces were also early ensigns of 
 authority borne before officers of state, the top being made in the form of an open crown, 
 and commonly of silver gilt. The lord chancellor and speaker of the house of commons 
 have maces borne before them. Edward III. granted to London the privilege of having 
 gold or silver maces carried before the lord mayor, sheriffs, aldermen and corporation, 1354. 
 It was with the mace usually carried before the lord mayor on state occasions, that Walworth, 
 lord mayor of Loudon, knocked the rebel Wat Tyler off his horse, a courtier afterwards 
 despatching him with his dagger, for rudely approaching Richard II., 1381. Cromwell, 
 entering the house of commons to disperse its members and dissolve the parliament, ordered 
 one of liis soldiers to " take away that fool's bauble, the mace," which was done, and the 
 doors of the house locked, April 20, 1653. 
 
 MACEDON (N. Greece). The first kingdom was founded by Caranus, about 814 B.C. 
 It was an inconsiderable country, sometimes under the protection of Athens, sometimes of 
 Thebes, and sometimes of Sparta, untQ the reign of Philip, the fiither of Alexander the 
 Great, who by his wusdom as a ]5olitician, and exploits as a general, made it a powerful 
 kingdom, and paved the way for his son's greatness. 
 
 Eeigns of Caranus, 814 B.C., or 796, or 746 ; | He is murdered by a favourite, to wliom he 
 
 Perdiccas I., 729; ArgiBus I., 684; Philip I., promised his daughter in marriage . b c. 399 
 
 640 or 609. Pausauias reigns ....... 394 
 
 iEropus conquers the lUyrians . . B.C. 602 
 Reign of Amyntas, 540 ; of iVlexander I. . . 500 
 Macedon conquered by the Persians, 513; de- 
 livered by the victory of Plataea . . . 479 
 
 Beign of Perdiccas II 454 
 
 Potidiea taken by the Athenians . . . 431 
 Archelaus, natui-al son of Perdiccas, murders 
 the legitimate heirs of his father ; seizes the 
 
 throne, and improves the country . . . 413 
 
 Reign of Amyntas II., 393 ; expelled . . 398 
 Recovers his throne, and kills Pausanias . . 397 
 The Illyrians enter Macedonia, expel Amyntas, 
 and make Argseus, brother of Pausanias, 
 
 king 392 
 
 Amyntas again recovers his kingdom . . . 390 
 Macedonians, a semi-Arian sect, followers of 
 Macedonius, about 341 ; cozidemned by the 
 council of Constantinople .... 381 
 
MAC 
 
 457 
 
 MAD 
 
 MACEDON, continued. 
 
 Reign of Alexander II., 369; assassinated b.c. 
 
 Keign of Perdiccas III., 364; killed in battle . 
 
 Reign of Philip II., and institution of tiie 
 
 Macedonian phalanx 
 
 360, 
 
 356- 
 
 He defeats the Athenians and Illyrians 
 He takes Amphipolis. See Archery . 
 He conquers Thrace, Illyria, and Thessaly 
 Birth of Alexander the Great 
 Close of the first Sacred war 
 lllyricum overrun by the army of Philip 
 Thrace made tributary to Macedon . 
 Aristotle aijpointed tutor to Alexander 
 War against the Athenians . 
 Philip besieges Byzantium unsuccessfully 
 Battle of Chseronea ; Philip conquers 
 Philip is assassinated by Pausanias at MgiM 
 during the celebration of games in honour 
 
 of his daughter's nuptials 336 
 
 Alexander III., surnamed the Great, succeeds ,, 
 The Greeks appoint him general of tlieir armies 
 
 against the Persians 335 
 
 The Thebans revolt ; he levels Thebes to the 
 
 ground; the house of Pindar alone left . . ,, 
 He passes into Asia, and gains his first battle 
 
 over Darius at the Granicus . . May 22, 334 
 Sardis surrenders, Halicamassus taken, and 
 
 cities in Asia Minor „ 
 
 iMemnon ravages the Cyclades ; Darius takes 
 the field vsrith 460,000 infantry, and ioo,coo 
 
 cavalry 333 
 
 Darius defeated at Issus (which see) . Nov. ,, 
 Alexander on his way to Egypt, lays siege to 
 
 Tyre, which is destroyed after seven months 332 
 Damascus is taken, and the vast treasures . „ 
 
 Gaza surrenders , , 
 
 Alexander enters Jerusalem ; and Egypt is con- 
 quered , . ,, 
 
 Alexandria founded ,, 
 
 The Per.^ians totally defeated at Arbela Oct. i, 331 
 Alexander master of Asia ; enters Babylon . „ 
 Alexander sits on the thmne of Darius at Susa 330 
 Parthia, Media, <&c., overrun by him . . 329 
 
 Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits him , " ,, 
 He puts his friend Parmenio to death, on a 
 
 charge of conspiracy supposed to be fal.«e . ,, 
 His expedition to India ; Porus, king of India, 
 is defeated and taken ; and the country as 
 far as the Ganges is overrun .... 327 
 Callisthenes is put to the torture for refusing 
 
 to render divine homage to Alexander . . 328 
 Voyage of his admiral Nearchus from the Indus 
 to the Euphrates 328-325 
 
 Returns to Babylon, 324 : dies . . b.c. 323 
 
 Philip Aridaius III. king 
 
 Alexander's conquests are divided among his 
 generals, 323 ; his remains are transported to 
 
 Alexandria, and buried by Ptolemy . . . 322 
 The Greeks defeated by Antipater and the 
 
 Macedonians, near Cranon (lohich see) . . ,, 
 
 Cassander reigns, 316 ; rebuilds Thebes . . 315 
 
 Seleucus recovers Babylon 312 
 
 Cassander kills Roxana and her son (the last of 
 
 Alexander's family), and usurps the throne . 311 
 
 Battle of Ipsus (which see) ; Antigonus killed . 301 
 
 New division of the empire . . . ■ ,, 
 
 Death of Cassander 298 
 
 Reign of Alexander V. and Antipater, his sons ,, 
 Demetrius I. , Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, 
 murders Alexander, and seizes the crown of 
 
 Macedon 294 
 
 Achaean league formed against Macedon . 2S1-243 
 Governments ofPyrrhus, 287 ; Lysimachus, 286 ; 
 
 Ptolemy Ceraunus 281 
 
 Irruption of the Gauls ; Ptolemy killed . . 279 
 
 Sosthenes governs 278 
 
 Reign of Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius 277 
 Pyrrhus invades Macedon, defeats Antigonus, 
 
 and is proclaimed king 274 
 
 Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored . . . 272 
 
 Antigonus takes Athens. . . . . 268 
 
 The Gauls again invade Macedon . . . „ 
 
 Revolt of the Parthians 250 
 
 Reign of Demetrius II 239 
 
 Philip, his son, 232 ; set aside by Antigonus 
 
 Doson . . 229 
 
 Philip v., 220 ; wars unsuccessfully against the 
 
 Rhodians 202 
 
 Philip defeated by the Romans at Cynocephalse 197 
 
 Reign of Perseus, his son 178 
 
 Perseus defeated by the Romans . . • 171 
 The consul iEmilius Paulus enters Macedon, 
 
 and prono\inces it a Roman province . . 168 
 Perseus and his sons made prisoners, walk in 
 chains before the chariot of iEmilius in his 
 triumph for the conquest of Macedon . . 167 
 Macedonia plundered by Theodoric the Ostro- 
 goth AD. 482 
 
 Conquered by the Bulgarians .... 978 
 
 Recovered by the emperor Basil . . . . looi 
 Formed into the Latin kingdom of Thessa- 
 
 lonica, by Boniface, of Montferrat . . . 1204 
 After various changes, it is finally conquered 
 by the Turks under Amurath II., and an- 
 nexed to his empire 1430 
 
 MACHIAVELLIAlSr PRmCIPLES, those laid down by Nicholas Machiavelli of Florence 
 (born 1469, died 1527), in his Practice of Politics and TJie Prince. By some the}^ are stigma- 
 tised as "the most pernicious maxims of government, founded on the vilest policy;" and by 
 others as " sound doctrines, nothwithstanding the prejudice erroneously raised against 
 them." The author said that if he taught princes to be tyrants, he had also taught the people 
 to destroy tyrants. The work appeared at Eome in 1532, and was translated into English 
 in 1761. 
 
 MACIEJOVICE (near "Warsaw, Poland). Here the Poles were totally defeated by the 
 Kussians, and their general, Kosciusko, taken prisoner, Oct. 4, 1794. 
 
 MADAGASCAE (S. E. coast of Africa), a large populous island, said to have been dis- 
 covered by Lorenzo Almeida, 1506. 
 
 The French attempted to settle at Antongel- 
 ■bayin 1774 
 
 Their establishment at Fort Dauphin fell into 
 the hands of the English with Bourbon and 
 Maui'itius in 1810-11 
 
 The settlements ceded to king Radama, on his 
 giving up the slave trade .... 1818 
 
 Radama, who favoured Em-opeans and encou- 
 raged Christianity, died 1828 
 
 A reactionary policy under his energetic queen 
 immediately began ; the English missionaries 
 who came in 1820 obliged to depart . . 1836 
 
 The application of the native laws to the Euro- 
 pean settlers occasioned an unsuccessful 
 attack on the town of Tamatave, by a united 
 expedition from the English at the Mauritius, 
 and the Freuoh from the Isle of Bourbon, 
 
 June, 1845 
 
MAD 
 
 . 458 
 
 MAE 
 
 86i 
 
 The queen dies ; succeeded by her sou Radama 
 II., a Christian Aug. 
 
 A revolution ; the king and his ministers assas- 
 sinated ; the queen proclaimed the sovereign. 
 
 May, 1863 
 
 Embassy from Madagascar arrives at SoutL- 
 anipton Feb. 1864 
 
 Disputes with the French continue . Nov. 1865 
 
 MADAGASCAR, continued. 
 
 All amicable intercourse ceases for ten years, 
 during which the native Christians suffer 
 
 persecution 1846 
 
 The French defeated in an attack on the island, 
 
 Oct. 19, 1S55 
 The rev. W. Ellis published an interesting 
 account of his three visits to the Lsland, on 
 behalf of the London Missionary Society, in 
 
 1854-5-6, 1858 
 
 MADEIRA, an island, jST. W. coast of Africa, discovered, it is said, in 1344, by Mr. 
 Machani, an English gentleman, or mariner, m'Iio fled from France for an illicit amour. He 
 was driven here by a storm, and his mistress, a French lady, dying, he made a canoe, and 
 carried the news of liis discovery to Pedro, king of Arragon, which occasioned the report 
 that the island was di.^jcovered by a Portuguese, 1345. It is asserted that the Portuguese 
 did not visit this island until 1419 or 1420, nor did they colonise it until 1431. It was 
 taken by the British in July, 1801 ; and again by admiral Hood and general Beresford, 
 Dec. 24, 1807, and retained iia tru.st for the royal family of Portugal, which had emigrated 
 to the Brazils. It was restored to the Portuguese in 1814. Since 1852 the renowned 
 vintages here have been totally ruined by the vine disease. 
 
 MADIAI PERSECUTION. See Tuscany. 
 
 MADRAS (S. E. Hindostan), called by the natives Chennapatani, colonised by the 
 English, 1620. 
 
 Fort St. George built, 1641 ; made a presidency 1654 
 Bengal placed under Madras .... 1658 
 Calcutta, hitherto subordinate to Madras, made 
 
 a presidency 1701 
 
 Madras taken by the French . . Sept. 14, 1746 
 
 Restored to the English 1749 
 
 Vainly besieged by the French under Lally, 
 
 Dec. 12, 175S 
 Hyder marches to Madras and obtains a favour- 
 able treaty April, 1769 
 
 Sir John Lindsay airives . . . July, 1770 
 He is succeeded by sir R. Hartland . Sept. 1771 
 
 Lord Pigot, governor, imprisoned by his own 
 council, Aug. 24, 1776 ; dies in confinement, 
 Ajsril 17, 1777 ; his enemies convicted and 
 fined iooo(. each .... Feb. n, 1780 
 Sir Eyre Coote arrives . . . Nov. 5, ,, 
 He defeats Hyder .... July i, 1781 
 Lord Macartney aiTives as governor June 22, „ 
 The Madras government arrests gen. Stuart for 
 disobedience, and sends him to England, 
 
 June, 1783 
 Lord Cornwallis arrives here . . Dec. 12, 1790 
 Sir Charles Oakley succeeds gen. Meadows as 
 
 governor Aug. i, 1792 
 
 Lord Mornington (afterwards the marquess 
 
 Wellesley) visits here . . . Dec. 1798 
 
 General Harris with the Madras army enters 
 Mysore, March 5 ; and airives at Seringa- 
 
 patam, April 5, which is stormed by the 
 British under major-general Baird, and 
 Tippoo Saib killed .... ^fay 4, 
 
 Appointment of sir Thomas Strange, first judge 
 of Madras under the charter . . Dec. 26, 
 
 More than 1000 houses in Madras burnt Feb. 
 
 The Madias army under general Arthur Welles- 
 ley (afterwards duke of Wellington) marches 
 for Poonah (see India) . . . March, 
 
 Mutiny among the British forces at Yellore 
 
 600 sepoys killed ; 200 executed . July 10, 
 
 Mutiny of the sepoy troops at Madras . . . 
 
 Arrival of lord Minto at Madras, who publishes 
 a general amnesty .... Sept. 29 
 
 Awful hurricane, by which the ships at anchor 
 were driven into the town and seventy sail 
 sunk, many with their crews . . May, 
 
 Madras attacked by the Pindarees 
 
 Appointment of the rev. Dr. Corrie, first Bishop 
 of Madras Feb. 14, 
 
 Sir Charles Trevelyan,* governor, Jan. 1859; 
 recalled for publishing a minute in ojiposi- 
 tion to Mr. Jas. Wilson's financial schemes. 
 
 May ID, 
 
 His successor, sir H. Wood, dies at Madras, 
 
 Aug. 2, 
 
 Sir Wm. Denison appointed governor, Nov. 
 i860 ; arrives .... Feb. 18, 
 [For other events, see India.^ 
 
 1800 
 1803 
 
 1806 
 1809 
 
 ISII 
 
 1817 
 1835 
 
 MADRID (New Castile). Mentioned in history as Majerit, a Moorish castle. 
 
 Sacked by the Moors 1109 
 
 Made tlie seat of the Spani.sh court . . . 1516 
 
 Taken by lord Galway 1706 
 
 The Escurial was built .... 1563 et seq. 
 The old palace was burnt down .... 1734 
 Madrid taken by the French . . . March, 1808 
 The citizens rise up in arms to expel the French, 
 and a dreadful conflict takes place May 2, 1808 
 
 Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of 
 Spain, but soon retires . . . July 20, 1808 
 
 Martrid retaken by the French, Dec. 2, 1808; 
 and retained till it is entered by Wellington 
 and his army .... Aug. 12, 1812 
 
 Ferdinand VII. restored . . . May 14, 1814 
 Population, in 1857, 483,793. 
 
 See Sj)ain, 1840 el teq. 
 
 MAESTRICHT (Holland). It revolted from Spain 1570, and was taken by the prince of 
 Parma in 1579, when a dreadful massacre took place. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced 
 it after a memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648 ; Louis XIV. took it 
 in 1673 ; William, prince of Orange, invested it in vain in 1676 ; but in 1678 it was restored 
 to the Dutch. In 1748 it was besieged by the French, wlio were permitted to take possession 
 of the city on condition of its being restored at the peace then negotiating. At the com- 
 
 * Appointed financial secretary and a member of the Indian councO at Calcutta, Oct. 1862. 
 
MAG 
 
 459 
 
 MAG 
 
 niencement of 1793, Maestricht was uii successfully attacked by the French, hut they became 
 masters of it towards the end of the following year. In 1814, it was made part of the 
 kingdom of the Netherlands ; it now belongs to Holland. 
 
 MAGAZINE, at first a miscellaneous periodical publication. There are now magazines 
 devoted to nearly every department of knowledge. The following are the dates of the first 
 publication of the principal magazines. In Jan. 1865, 544 magazines were being published 
 in Great Britain and Ireland. See Reviews and Newspapers. 
 
 Gentleman's Magazine . . 1731 
 
 London 1732 
 
 Soots 1739 
 
 Royal 1759 
 
 Court 1760 
 
 Gospel 1768 
 
 Lady's ..... 1772 
 
 European Magazine . . . 17S2 
 
 Methodist .... 1784 
 
 Evangelical . . . . 1792 
 
 Monthly 1796 
 
 Philosophical . . . . 1798 
 
 Blackwood's .... 1817 
 
 New Monthly . . . . 1814 
 
 Eraser's Magazine . , . 1830 
 
 Metropolitan . , . . 1831 
 
 Penny 1832 
 
 Tait's 1833 
 
 Comhill 1859 
 
 Macmillan's . . . . ,, 
 
 Temple Bar; and St. James's i860 
 
 MAGDALENS and Magdalenettes, communities of nuns and women, the latter 
 class consisting chiefly of penitent courtesans. The order of penitents of St. Magdalen was 
 founded 1272, at Marseilles. The convent of Naples was endowed by queen Sancha, 1324. 
 That at Metz was instituted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. The Magdalen at Kome was endowed 
 by pope Leo X., in 1515, and favoured by Clement VIII., in 1594. The Magdalen Hospital, 
 London, was founded in 1758, principally under the direction of Dr. Dodd. The xisylum in 
 Dublin was opened in June, 1766. 
 
 MAGDEBURG (Prussia). The archbishopric was founded about 967. The city suffered 
 much during the religious wars in Germany. It was blockaded for seven months by the 
 Imperialists, under Wallensteiu, in 1629 ; and was barbarously sacked by Tilly on May 10, 
 1631. It was given to Brandenburg in 1648 ; was taken by the French Nov. 8, 1806, 
 and annexed to the kingdom of "Westphalia ; but was restored to Prussia in 1813.* 
 
 MAGELLAN, Straits of (connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans), Avas passed by 
 Fernando de Magelhaens (Magellan), a Portuguese, on Nov. 27, 1520. He gave the latter 
 ocean its name on account of its calmness. Magellan completed the first voyage round the 
 woiid, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by the emperor Charles V., but was killed in 1521. 
 The Spaniards had a fort here, called Cape Famine, because the garrison perished for want. 
 
 MAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, memorable for the victory of the French and 
 Sardinian army over the Austrians, June 4, 1859. The emperor Louis Napoleon com- 
 manded, and he and the king of Sardinia were in the thickest of the fight. It is said that 
 55,000 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 Austrians were engaged. The former are asserted 
 to have lost 4000 killed and wounded, and the Austrians 10,000, besides 7000 prisoners ; 
 these numbers are still doubtful. The French generals Espinasse and Clerc were killed. The 
 arrival of general M'Mahon during a deadly struggle between the Austrians and the French, 
 greatly contributed to the victory. The contest near the bridge of Buffalora was very severe. 
 The Austrians fought well, but were badly commanded. The emperor and king entered 
 Milan on June 8 following ; M'Mahon and Regnault d'Angely were created marshals of 
 France. — The red dye, rosaniline, obtained by chemists from gas-tar, is term.ed magenta. 
 See Aniline. 
 
 MAGI, OE "WoESHiPPEKS OF FiEE. The Persians adored the invisible and incompre- 
 hensible God as the princi^ple of all good, and paid homage to fire, as the emblem of his power 
 and purity. They built no altars nor temples ; their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and 
 their ofl'eriugs were made upon the earth. The Magi, their priests, are said to have had skill 
 in astronomy, &c. ; hence the term Magi was applied to all learned men, till they were finall}'' 
 confounded with the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria,- was the reformer of the sect of 
 the Magi ; he flourished about 1080 B.C. ; others say 550 B.C. Their religion Avas superseded 
 in Persia by Mahometanism, a.d. 652. The Parsees at Bombay are descendants of the 
 Guebres or fire- worshippers. 
 
 MAGIC. See Alchemy, Witchcraft, &c. The invention of the Magic Lantern is 
 ascribed to Roger Bacon, about 1260, but more correctly to Athanasius Kircher, who 
 died 1680. 
 
 I * The Magdeburg Experiment is shown by means of a hollow sphere, composed of two hemisijheres, 
 
 fitting air-tight. When the air is exhausted by the air-pump, the hemispheres are held together by the 
 pressui-e of the atmosphere, and require great force to separate them. The apparatus was suggested by 
 Otto von Guerickc, the inventor of the air-pump. He died in 16S6. Brande. 
 
SIAG 
 
 460 
 
 MAG 
 
 MAGISTRATES. See Jtisticcs. The present arrangement of metropolitan police magis- 
 trates (the chief sitting at Bow-street) was made by act of parliament in 1792. Henry 
 Fielding, the novelist, was acting magistrate for Westminster and at Bow-street. He was 
 succeeded by his half-bi'other, sir John Fielding, in 176 1. 
 
 By Sir William Addingtou 
 Sir Richard Ford 
 Mr. Read . 
 
 Sir Nathaniel Conant 
 Sir Robert Baker . 
 Sir Richard Birnie 
 
 ■ 1B13 
 . 1820 
 . 1821 
 
 Sir Frederick Roe . 
 Mr. T. J. Hall . 
 Sir Thomas Henry 
 
 1827 
 1839 
 
 Crotona . 
 
 . B.C. 710 
 
 Tarentiim . 
 
 . . 708 
 
 Loori Epizephyrii . 
 
 ■ • 673 
 
 Lipara ' . . , .B.C. 627 
 Agrigentum . . . . 582 
 Thurium . .... 432 
 
 Stipendiary borough n.agistrates were appointed by 5 & 6 WiU. IV. c. 76, 1835. 
 
 MAGNA CHARTA. The fundamental parts of the great charter of English liberty were 
 derived from Saxon Charters, continued by Henry I. and his successors. It was signed by 
 John at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 15, 1215,* &c. It was many times confirmed, 
 and freixuently violated, by Henry III. This last king's grand charter was granted in 1224, 
 and was assured by Edward I. See Forests. 
 
 MAGNA GRiEClA, the independent states founded by Greek colonists in South Italy, 
 Sicilj', &c., beginning in 974 B.C. Pandosia and Metapontum were built in 774 B.C. Cumae, 
 in Campania, is said to have been founded in 1034 e.g. These states were ruined through 
 siding with Hannibal when he invaded Italy, 216 B.C. 
 
 Syracuse founded . .B.C. 734] 
 Leontium and Catana . .730 
 Sybarls 721 | 
 
 MAGNESIA (Asia Minor). Here Antiochus the great, king of Syria, was defeated by 
 the Scipios, 190 B.C. — Magnesia alba, the white alkaline earth used in medicine, of gently 
 purgative properties, was in use in the beginning of the i8th century. Its properties were 
 developed by Dr. Black in 1755. 
 
 MAGNESIUM, a metal first obtained from magnesia b)' sir Humphrey Davy, about 
 1807, and since produced in larger quantities by Bussy, Deville, and especially by Mr. E. 
 Sonstadt, in 1862-4. Its light when burnt is very brilliant, and is so rich in chemical raj's 
 that it may be used in photograph}'. Lamps have been made for burning magnesium wire, 
 which is so employed by the excavators of the tunnel through Mount Cenis. By its light 
 photographs of the interior of the Pyramids were taken in 1865. 
 
 MAGNETISM. Magnes, a shepherd, is said to have been detained on Mount Ida by the 
 nails in liis lioots. The attractive jiower of the loadstone or magnet was early known, and is 
 referred to by Homer, Aristotle, and Pliny ; it was also known to the Chinese and Arabians. 
 The Greeks are said to have obtained the loadstone from Magnesia in Asia, 1000 B.C. Roger 
 Bacon is said to have been acquainted with its property of pointing to the north (1294). 
 The invention of the marinei''s compass is ascribed to Flavio Gioia, a Neapolitan, about 1320 ; 
 but it was known in Norway previous to 1266 ; and is mentioned in a French poem, 1150. 
 See under Electricity. 
 
 Robert Norman, of London, discovered the 
 dip of the needle about 1576 
 
 Gilbert's treatise "De Slagnetc," published . . 1600 
 
 Halley's theory' published 1683 
 
 Marcel observed that a bar of iron becomes 
 temporarily magnetic by position . . . 1722 
 
 Artificial maguets made by Dr. G. Knight . 1746 
 
 The variation of the compass was observed by 
 Bond, about 1668 ; the diurnal variation by 
 Graham, 1722 ; on which latter Canton ni,ade 
 4000 observations previous to . . . . 1 756 
 
 Coulomb constructed a torsion balance for de- 
 termining the laws of attraction and repul- 
 sion, 1786 ; also investigated by Michel, Eulcr, 
 Lambert, Robison, and others . . . 1750-1800 
 
 The deflection of the magnetic needle by the 
 voltaic current was discovered by (Ersted . 1820 
 
 3Ir. Abraham invents a magnetic guard for 
 persons engaged in grinding cutlery . .1821 
 
 The magnetic effects of the violet rays of light 
 exhibited by Morichini, 1814 ; polarity of a 
 sewing needle so magnetized shown by Mrs. 
 SomcrviUe 1825 
 
 Mr. Christie proved that heat diminishes 
 m.agnetic force about 1825 
 
 Sir W. Snow Harris invents various forms of 
 the compass 1831 
 
 Electricity produced from a magnet by pro- 
 fessor Faraday, 1S31 : his researches on the 
 action of the magnet on light, on the mag- 
 netic properties of flame, air, and gases 
 (pubUshed 1845), on dia-magnetism (1845), 
 on magne-crystallic action (1848), on atmo- 
 spheric magnetism (1850,1, on the magnetic 
 force 1851-2 
 
 Magnetic observations established in the British 
 colonies under the superintendence of col. 
 Edward Sabine .... 1840 ct seq. 
 
 Prof. Tyndall proves the existence of dia-mag- 
 netic polarity . 
 
 In the present century our knowledge of the 
 phenomena of magnetism has also been 
 greatly increased by the labours of Arago, 
 Ampere, Hansteen, Gauss, Weber, Poggen- 
 dorti; Sabine, Lamont, Du Monccl, &c.t See 
 AaitiMl Magnetism. 
 
 1856 
 
 * On Nov. 20, 1 2 14, the archbishop of Canterbury and the barons met at St. Edmondsbury. On Jan. 6, 
 1215, they presented their demands to the king, who deferred his answer. On May 19 they were censured 
 by the pope. On May 24 they marched to London, and the king was compelled to yield. 
 
 t In the Royal Institution, London, is a magnet by Logeman, of Haai-lem, constructed on the prin- 
 
MAG 
 
 461 
 
 MAI 
 
 MAGNETO - EIjECTRICITY, tlie discovery of professor Faraday. See Electricity. 
 Magneto-electricity lias been recently applied to telegraphic and to liglitlionse purposes.* 
 
 MAGNOLIA. Magnolia glauca was Lrouglit here from N. America, 1688. The laurel- 
 leaved Magnolia, Magnolia grandiflora, from N. America about 1734. The dwarf Magnolia, 
 Magnolia pximila, from China in 1789 ; and (also from China) the brown stalked, 1789; 
 the purple, 1790; and the slender, 1804. 
 
 MAGYARS. See Hungary. 
 
 MAHAEAJPOOR (India). Here sir Hugh Gough severely defeated the Mahratta army 
 of Gwalior, Dec. 29, 1843. Lord Ellenborough was present. 
 
 MAHOGANY is said to have been brought to England by Raleigh, in 1595 ; and to 
 have come into general use about 1720, 
 
 MAHOMETANISM embodied in the Koran, includes — the unity of God, the immortality 
 of the soul, predestination, a last judgment, and a sensual paradise. Mahomet asserted 
 that the Koran was revealed to him by the angel Gabriel during a period of twentj'-three 
 years. He enjoined on his disciples circumcision, prayer, alms, frequent ablution, and 
 fasting, and permitted polygamy and concubinage. 
 
 Mahomet, or Mohaimned, born at Mecca . . 569 
 Annouuced himself as a prophet aboiit . . 611 
 Fled from his enemies to Medina (his flight is 
 
 called the Hegira) 622 
 
 Overcomes his enemies, the Koi-eish, the Jews, 
 
 623 
 629 
 630 
 
 632 
 
 Defeats the Christians at Muta .... 
 
 Is acknowledged as a sovereign . . . . 
 
 Dies, it is said, of slow poison, administered by 
 a Jew to test his divine character . Jvme 7, 
 
 The Mahometans are divided into several sects, 
 the two chief being the Sonniies, or the Ortho- 
 dox, who recognised as cahph Abubeker, the 
 father-in-law of Mahomet, in preference to 
 Omar and Ah ; and the Shiites (Sectaries), or 
 Fatimites, the followers of Ali, who married 
 Fatima, the prophet's daughter. 
 
 The Ottoman empire is the chief seat of the 
 Sonnites, the sultan being considered the 
 representative of the caliphs ; while Persia 
 has been for centuries the stronghold of the 
 Shiites. 
 
 The Mahometans conquered Arabia, North 
 Africa, and part of Asia, in the 7th century ; 
 in the 8th they invaded Europe, conquering 
 Spain, where they founded the Califat of 
 Cordova, which lasted from 756 to 1031, when 
 it was broken up into smaller governments, 
 the last of which, the kingdom of Grenada, 
 endured till its subjugation by Ferdinand in 
 1492 ; biit the Mahometans were not finally ' 
 expelled from Spain till i 
 
 Their progress in France was stopped by their 
 defeat at Tours by Charles Martel, in . . 
 
 After a long contest, the Turks imder Maho- 
 met II. took Constantinople; he made it his 
 capital and the chief seat of his religion . . i 
 
 Though considered to be declining, Mahome- 
 tanism is calculated as including 100 millions 
 amongst its votaries. 
 
 Coomrooden Tyabjee, a Mahometan, after serv- 
 ing his articles, was duly admitted to pi'actise 
 as an attorney, having taken the oaths upon 
 the Koran. Lord chief-justice Campbell 
 wished him success in his profession Nov. i 
 
 MAHRATTAS, a people of Hindostan, who originally dwelt north-west of the Deccan, 
 which they overran about 1676. They endeavoured to overcome the Mogul, but Avere 
 restrained by the Afghans. They entered into alliance with the East India Company in 
 1767, made war against it in 1774, again made peace in 1782, and were finally subdued in 
 1818. Their last prince, Sindiah, is now a pensioner of the British government. 
 
 MAID. See IToly Maid, Elizabeth Barton, and Joan of Arc, Maid of Orleans. 
 
 MAIDA (Calabria), where the French, commanded by general Regnier, were signally 
 defeated by the British under major-general sir John Stuart, July 4, 1806. 
 
 MAIDEN. See Guillotine. 
 
 MAIDS OF HONOUR. Anne, daughter of Francis II. duke of Brittany, and queen of 
 Charles VIII. and Louis XII. of France, was the first to have young and beautiful ladies 
 about her person, called maids of honoixr. PJiil. de Commines. When Charles died (1498), 
 she put a cordelier (a black knotted lace) round her coat of arms, as a token of mourning, 
 which introduced the custom. The queen of Edward I. of England is said to have had four 
 maids of honour ; queen Victoria has eight. 
 
 MAIL. Coaches for the conveyance of letters were first set up at Bristol by Mr. John 
 
 •ciples of Dr. Elias, which weighs 100 lbs., and can sustain 430 lbs. Hjeoker, of Nuremberg, constnicted a 
 magnet weighing 36 grains, capable of sustaining 146 times its own weight. This was exhibited in 1851, 
 also at the Royal Institution. 
 
 * The South Foreland lighthouse, near Dover, was illuminated bj- the magneto-electric light in the 
 winters of 1858-9 and 185960, and at Dungeness in 1S61-2. The light excels all other artificial lights in 
 brilliancy, continuance, &c. 
 
MAI 462 MAL 
 
 Palmer, of Bath, Aug. 2, 1784. They ■were employed for other routes ia 1785, and soou 
 became general in England. The mails were first sent by rail in 1838. 
 
 MAIMING AND ^VOUNDING. See Coventry Act. 
 
 MAINE, a province, N.W. of France, was seized by William I. of England in 1069. 
 It acknowledged prince Arthur, 1199; and was taken from John of England by Philip of 
 France, 1204; was recovered by Edward III. in 1357 ; but given up, 1360. After various 
 changes it was finally united to France by Louis XI. in 1481. — Maixe (N. America), was 
 discovered by Cabot, 1497 ; and colonised by the English in 1638 ; it became a state of the 
 union in 1820. The boundary line between the British and the United States territories in 
 Maine was settled by the Ashburton treaty, concluded Aug. 9, 1842. The Maine liquor law, 
 prohibiting the manufacture and use of intoxicating di'inks, with certain exceptions, was 
 enacted in 1851, 
 
 MAJESTY". Among the Piomans, the emperor and imperial family were thus addressed, 
 and also the popes and the emperors of Germany. The style was given to Louis XI. of 
 Finance in 1461. Voltaire. Upon Charles V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 15 19, the 
 kings of Spain took the style. Francis I. of France, at the interview with Henry VIII. of 
 England, on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as Your Majesty, 1520. 
 James I. used the style "Sacre'd," and "Most Excellent Majesty." 
 
 MAJORCA. See Balearic Isles and Minorca. Majorca rebelled against Philip V. of 
 Spain in 1714 ; but submitted, July 14, 1715. 
 
 MALABAR (W. coast of Hindostan). The Portuguese established factories here in 
 1505 ; the English did the same in 1601. 
 
 JIALACCA, on the Malay peninsula, E. Indies, was a flourishing Portuguese settlement 
 in 15 II. The Dutch factories were established in 1640. It now forms part of the 
 British "Straits" settlements, the Dutch government having exchanged it for Bencoolen 
 in Sumatra. 
 
 MALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol, on which was situated an old tower, which the 
 Russians strongly fortified during the siege of 1854-55. The allied French and English 
 attacked it on June 17 and 18, 1855, and after a contiict of forty-eight hours were repulsed 
 with severe loss ; that of the Euglish being 175 killed and 1 126 wounded ; that of the French 
 3338 killed and wounded. On Sept. 8, the French again attacked the Malakhoif ; at eight 
 o'clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the French flag floated over the conquered 
 redoubt. See Sebastopol. In the Malakhoif and Redan were found 3000 pieces of cannon of 
 every calibre, and 120,000 lbs. of gunpowder. 
 
 MALDON (Essex), built 28 B.C., is supposed to have been the first Roman colony in 
 Britain. It was burnt by queen Boadicea, and rebuilt by the Romans. It was burnt by 
 the Danes, a.d. 991, and rebuilt by the Saxons. Maldou was incorporated by Philip and 
 Mary. The singular custom of Borough-English is kept up here, by which the youngest 
 son, and not the eldest, succeeds to the burgage tenure on his father's death. — See 
 Borough-English. 
 
 MALEGNANO, or Melegnano, modern names of Marignano, luhich see. 
 
 MALICIOUS DAMAGES. The law respecting them was consolidated and amended by 
 24 & 25 Vict. c. 97. This act protects works of art, electric telegraphs, &c., 1861. 
 
 MALO, ST. (N. AV. France). This port sustained a tremendous bombardment by the 
 English under admiral Benbow in 1693, ^^^ under lord Berkeley in Jul}', 1695. In 1758 
 the British landed in considerable force in Cancalle baj', and went up to the harbour, where 
 they burnt upwards of a hundred ships, and did great damage to the town, making a 
 number of prisoners. It is now defended by a very strong castle, and the harbour is most 
 difficult of access. 
 
 MALPLAQUET (N. France). Here the allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince 
 Eugene defeated the French commanded by marshal Villars, Sept. 11, 1709. Each army 
 consisted of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers. There was great slaughter on both sides, the 
 allies losing 18,000 men, which loss was but ill repaid by the capture of !Mons. 
 
 MALT, barley prepared for brewing and distillation. A duty was laid upon malt in 1667, 
 1697, et scq. Important acts for the regulation of malt duties were passed in 1830 and 1837. 
 In Alarch, 1858, there were 6157 licensed maltsters in the United Kingdom. The duty on 
 malt in 1863 amounted to 6,273,727/. An act was passed in 1865 allowing the excise duty 
 to be charged according to the weight of the grain used. 
 
MAL 463 MAN 
 
 MALT, continued. 
 
 BUSHELS OF MALT MADE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN THE FOLLOAVING YEARS 
 
 1825. England . . . Bushels 29,572,742 
 Scotland .... 3,925,847 
 Ireland 2,706,862 
 
 36,205,451 
 
 England . . Bushels 33,376,720 
 Scotland .... 4,374,328 
 Ireland . . . . 1,915,584 
 
 39,666,632 
 
 Made in the United Kingdom in 1835, 42,892,012 busJiels : in 1847, 35,307,815 ; in 1850, 40,744,752 ; 
 in 1857, 45,967,461 ; in 1861, 47,5)14,614 
 
 MALTA (formerly Melita), an island in tlie Mediterranean, lield successively by tlie 
 Plicenicians, Carthaginians, and Eomans, which last conquered it, 259 B.o. The apostle 
 Paul was wrecked here, A.D. 62 {Acts xxvii. xxviii.). Malta was taken by the Vandals, 534 ; 
 by the Arabs, 870 ; and by the Normans from Sicily, 1090. With Sicily it became succes- 
 sively part of the possessions of the houses of Hohenstaufen, Anjou (1266), and Aragon 
 (1260). In 1530 Charles Y. gave it to the Knights Hospitallers, who defended it most 
 courageously and successfully against the Turks in 1551 and 1565, when the Turks were 
 obliged to abandon the enterprise after the loss of 30,000 men. The island was taken by 
 general Bonaparte in the outset of his exi^edition to Egypt, June 12, 1798. He foimd in it 
 1200 pieces of cannon, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the line, a frigate, four galleys, 
 and 40,000 muskets ; besides an immense treasure collected by superstition ; and 4500 
 Turkish prisoners, whom he set at liberty. Malta Avas surrendered to the British under 
 Pigot, Sejit. 5, 1800. At the peace of Amiens, it was stipulated that it should be restored 
 to the knights. The British, however, retained possession, and the war recommenced 
 between the two nations : but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was guaranteed to 
 Great Britain. LaYaletta, the capital, Avas founded in 1557 by the grand master La Valetta, 
 and completed and occupied by the knights, Aug. 18, 15 71. The Protestant College Avas 
 founded in 1846. 
 
 MALTA, Knights of. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of St. John 
 of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some merchants of Malfi, 
 trading to the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph of Egypt to build a house for those Avho 
 came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and Avhom they received Avith zeal and charity, 1048. 
 They afterAvards founded a hospital for the reception of pilgrims, from whence they Avere called 
 Hospitallers (Latin hospes, a guest). The military order was founded about 1099; confirmed 
 by the pope in 11 13. In 1119 the knights defeated the Turks at Antioch. After the Chris- 
 tians had lost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights retired to 
 Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290. They next followed John, king of Cyprus, 
 who gave them Limisso in his dominions, where they stayed till 13 10, in which year they 
 took Rhodes, under their grand master De Vailaret, and the next year defended it under the 
 duke of Savoy against an army of Saracens ; since when, his successors have used P. E. K. T. 
 for their device, that is, Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit, or, His valour kept Rhodes. From 
 this they Avere called knights of Rhodes ; but Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 1522, they 
 retired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the city of Viterbo 
 for their retreat ; and in 1530 the emperor Charles V. gave them the isle of Malta. The 
 order was suppressed in England in 1540 ; restored in 1557 ; and again suppressed in 1559. 
 St. John's Gate, Clerkenwell, a relic of their possessions, still exists. The emperor Paul of 
 Russia declared himself grand master of the order in June, 1 799. 
 
 MAMELUKES, originally Turkish and Circassian slaA^es, established by the sultan as a 
 body-guard, 1230. They advanced one of their oavu corps to the throne, about 1250, and 
 continued to do so until Egypt became a Turkish province, in 15 17, when the beys 
 took them into pay, and iilled up their ranks with renegades from various countries. 
 On the conquest of Egypt by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia ; but, 
 assisted by the Amauts, they once more Avrested Egypt from the Turkish government. 
 On March i, 1811, they Avere decoyed into the power of the Turkish pacha, Mehemet Ali, 
 and slain at Cairo to the number of 1600. In 1804, Napoleon embodied some of them in 
 his guard. 
 
 MAMMOTH, an extinct species of elephant. An entire mammoth, flesh and bones, Avas 
 discovered in Siberia, in 1799. Remains of this animal have since been found at Harwich in 
 1803, and at places in Europe, Asia, and America. 
 
 MAN, Antiquity of. In 1846, M. Boucher de Perthes foimd some rude flint imple- 
 ments, Avhich he belicA'ed to be of human manufacture, mingled Avith bonesx of extinct 
 animals, in the old alluvium near Abbeville in Picardjr, France, Similar flints have since 
 
MAN 
 
 464 
 
 MAN 
 
 been found in Sicily by Dr. Falconer, at Brixliam by Mr. Pengelly, and lately in various 
 parts of the world. Hence many geologists infer that man existed on the earth many ages 
 earlier than has been hitherto believed. Sir Charles L3'eirs "Antiquity of Man" was pub- 
 lished in 1863, and sir John Liibbock's "Prehistoric Times" in 1865. 
 
 MAN, Isle of, was subdued l)y EdAvin, king of Northumberland, 621 ; by Magnus of 
 Norway, 1092; ceded to the Scots, 1266; and taken from them in 13 14, by Montacute, 
 afterwards earl of Salisbury, to whom Edward III. gave the title of king of Man, in 1343. 
 It was afterwards subjected to the earl of Northumberland, on whose attainder Henry IV. 
 granted it in fee to sir John Stanley, 1406 ; it was taken from this family by Elizabeth, 
 but was restored in 1608, to the earl of Derby, through whom it fell by inheritance to the 
 duke of Atliol, 1735. He received 70,000?. from parliament for the sovereignty in 1765 ; 
 and the nation was charged with the further sum of 132,944?. for the purchase of his interest 
 in the revenues of the island in Jan. 1829. The countess of Derby held the isle against the 
 parliament forces in 1651. Tlie bishopric is said to have been presided over bj"- Amphibalus 
 about 360. Some assert that St. Patrick was the founder of the see, and that Germanus was. 
 the first bishop, about 447. It Avas united to Sodor in 11 13. The bishop has no seat in the 
 house of lords ; but lord Auckland (bishop, 1847-54), sat by right of his barony. Present 
 income, 2000?. 
 
 RECENT EISIIOPS OF SOPOR AND MAN. 
 1784. Claudius Crigan ; died in iS 13. | 1841. Thos. Vowler Short, translated to St. Asaph 
 
 1813. George Miin-ay, translated to Rochester in in 1846. 
 
 1827. 1846. Walter Augustus Shii-ley ; died in 1847. 
 
 1828. William Ward; died in 1S38. 1847. John Eden (lord Auckland), translated to 
 
 1838. James Bowstead, translated to Lichfield in Bath in 1854. 
 
 Dec. 1839. 1854. Hon. Horatio Powys (present bishop). 
 
 1840. Henry Pepys, translated to Worcester in 1841. 1 
 
 MANASSAS JUNCTION, Virginia, United States, an important military position, 
 where tlie Alexandria and Manassas Ga]i railways meet, near a creek named Bull Run. It 
 was held by the confederates in 1861, when they were attacked by the Federal general Irvin 
 McDowell. He began his march from Washington on July 16, and gained some advantage 
 on the 1 8th at Centreville. On the 21st was fought the first battle of Bull Run. The 
 Federals, who began the fight, had the advantage till about three o'clock, p.m. , when the 
 Confederate general Johnston brought iip reinforcements, which at first the Federals took for 
 their own troops. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with sudden panic, and, 
 in spite of the utmost efforts of their officers, fled in disgraceful rout, abandoning a large 
 quantity of arms, ammunition, and baggage. The Confederate generals Johnston and 
 Beauregard did not think it prudent to X'^irsue the fugitives, who did not halt till they 
 arrived at Washington. The Federal army is said to have had 481 killed, loii wounded, 
 1216 missing. The loss of the Confederates vras stated to be about 1500. — In March, 1862, 
 when the army of the Potomac, under general McClellan, marched into Virginia, they found 
 that the Confederates had quietly retreated from the camp at Manassas. On Aug. 30, 1862, 
 this place was the site of another gi-eat battle between the northern and southern armies. 
 In August, general " Stonewall" Jackson, after compelling the Federate general Pope to 
 retreat, defeated him at Cedar mountain on the 9th, turned his flank on the 22nd, and 
 arriving at Manassas repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th general R. E. Lee 
 (who had defeated general McClellan and the invading northern army before Richmond, 
 June 26 to July i), joined Jackson with his army, and Pope received reinforcements from 
 Washington. A desperate conflict ensued, which ended in the Confederates gaining a 
 decisive victory, compelling the Federals to a hasty retreat to Centreville, where they were 
 once more routed, Sept. i. The remains of their army took refuge behind the lines of 
 Washington on Sept. 2. Pope was at once superseded, and M'Clellan resimied the command 
 to march against the Confederates, who had crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland. See 
 United States. 
 
 MANCHESTER (Lancashire), in the time of the Dniids, was one of their principal 
 stations, and had the privilege of sanctuary attached to its altar, in the British language 
 Meyne, a stone. It was one of the scats of the Brigantes, who had a castle, or stronghold, 
 called Mancenion, or the place of tents, near the confluence of the rivers Medlock and 
 Irwell, the site of which, still called the " Castle Field," was, about 79, selected by the 
 Romans as the station of the Cohors Prima Frisiorum, and, called by them Mancunium ; 
 hence its Saxon name Manceastre, from Avhich its modern appellation is derived. Lewis. 
 
 Mancenion taken from the Britons . . . 488 
 Captured by PJdwin of Northumbria . . . 620 
 The inhabitants become Christians about . . 627 
 
 The town taken by the Danes, 877 ; retaken . 923 
 The charter {Magna C'harta of Manchester), 
 
 May 14, 1301 
 
MAN 
 
 465 
 
 MAN 
 
 MANCHESTEE, continued. 
 
 " Manchester cottons " introduced . . . 1352 
 
 The church made collegiate 1421 
 
 Free_ Grammar-school founded .... 1516 
 
 Privilege of sanctuary moved to Chester, about 1541 
 
 An aulnager (measurer) stationed here . . 1565 
 
 Sir Thomas Fairfax takes the town . . . 1643 
 
 The walls and fortifications razed . . . . 1652 
 
 Cheetham College, or Blue-coat hospital, 
 founded 1653 
 
 Tumult raised by " Syddall, the barber," who 
 is afterwards hanged 1715 
 
 Prince Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, 
 makes it his quarters . . . Nov. 28, 1745 
 
 Queen's Theatre first built 1753 
 
 The Infirmary instituted, 1752 ; built . . 1755 
 
 The inhabitants dischai-ged from their obliga- 
 tion to grind their corn at Irk mill . . . 1759 
 
 Cotton goods first exported .... 1760 
 
 Manchester navigation opened . . . . 1761 
 
 Lunatic asylum founded 1765 
 
 Agricultural Society instituted . . . . 1767 
 
 Christian, king of Denmark, visits Manchester, 
 and puts up at the Bull Inn .... 1768 
 
 The Queen's Theatre rebuilt 1775 
 
 Subscription concerts established . . . 1777 
 
 Biots against machinery . . . Oct. 9, 1779 
 
 Manufacture of muslin attempted here about . 1780 
 
 Philosophical Society established . . . . 1781 
 
 New Bailey Bridge completed .... 1785 
 
 Queen's Theatre burnt down . . June 19, 1789 
 
 And re-erected 1790 
 
 New Bailey built ,, 
 
 Assembly rooms, Mosley-street, built . . 1792 
 
 Philological Society instituted . . . . 1803 
 
 Fever hospital erected, 1805 ; Theatre Royal . 1806 
 
 The portico erected „ 
 
 The weavers' riot .... May 24, i8o8 
 
 Exchange and Commercial-buildings erected, 
 
 Jan. 1809 
 
 Manchester & Salford water-works established ,, 
 
 Blanketeers' meeting 1817 
 
 Lock hospital established 1819 
 
 Manchester Reform Meeting* . . Aug. 16, ,, 
 
 New Brunswick-bridge built . . . , 1820 
 
 Chamber of Commerce established . . . ,, 
 
 Law Library founded ,, 
 
 Natural History Society projected . . . 1821 
 
 New Quay Company founded . ... 1822 
 
 Deaf and Dumb School instituted , . , 1823 
 
 Royal Institution formed „ 
 
 Floral and Horticultural Society established . ,, 
 
 Mechanics' Institution founded .... 1824 
 
 Musical festival first held . . ... 1828 
 
 At the launch of a vessel which keeled and up- 
 set, upwards of 200 persons precipitated into 
 the river ; 51 perished . , . Feb. 29, ,, 
 
 MANCHESTEE, Bishopric of. An order in council in Oct. 1838, declared that the 
 sees of St. Asaph and Bangor should be united on the next vacancy in either, and that the 
 bishopric of Manchester should be immediately created within the jurisdiction of the 
 archiepiscopal see of York ; the county of Lancaster for that purpose to be detached from 
 Chester. By act 10 Vict. (1847) the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to exist undisturbed, 
 and that of ]\Ianchester was to be created. The rev. Dr. James Prince Lee (the present 
 bishop) was appointed in 1847, and consecrated in 1848. Income, 4200Z. 
 
 * Called Petei-loo. The assembly consisted of from 60,000 to 100,000 persons, men, women, and 
 children. Mr. Hunt, who took the chair, had spoken a few words, when the meeting was suddenly 
 assailed by a charge of the Manchester cavalry, assisted by a Cheshire regiment of yeomanry, and a 
 regiment of hussars, the outlets being occupied by other military detachments. The unarmed multi- 
 tude were in consequence driven oue upon another, by which many were killed, ridden over by the 
 horses, or cut down by their riders. The deaths were 11 men, women, and children, and the wounded 
 about 600. , . 
 
 t The temporary building consisted of a hall upwards of 700 feet long and 100 feet wide, and, mcludmg 
 a transept, covered an area of 80,000 square feet. It cost above 25,000?. It contained the most extra- 
 ordinary collection of works of art (valued at 6,ooo,oooJ.) ever brought together in this country. J he 
 collection of national portraits was very remarkable. There were 1,300,000 visitors. The expenses of the 
 undertaking amounted to 99,500?. ; the receipts to 98,500?. 
 
 H H 
 
 In a tumult here, a factory burnt, and much 
 
 machinery destroyed . . . May 3, 1829 
 New concert-room established . . . . ,, 
 
 The races established 1830 
 
 Manchester and Liverpool railway opened — Mr. 
 
 Huskisson killed — (see Liverpool) Sept. 15, „ 
 Manchester a parliamentary borough June 7, 1832 
 
 Choral Society established 1833 
 
 Statistical Society formed, the first in England, 
 
 Sept. 2, „ 
 Church-rate refused .... Sept. 3, 1834 
 Manchester incorporated, by Municipal Reform 5 
 
 act 1836 
 
 Manchester and Leeds railway act passed . 1838 
 
 Geological Society instituted . . • .183 
 Charter of incorporation . . . Oct. 23, „ 
 Manchester police act .... Aug. 26, 1839 
 Great disorders in the midland counties among 
 
 artisans : they extend to this town . Aug. 1842 
 British Association meeting here . June 23, „ 
 Great free-trade meetings held here (see Coi-n 
 
 Laws) Nov. 14, 1843 
 
 Important meeting held at the Athenseum (see 
 
 Athenceum) Oct. 3, 1844 
 
 Great Anti-corn Law meeting, at which 64,984?. 
 
 were subscribed in four hours . Dec. 23, 1845 
 The Queen's-park, Peel-park, and Philip's-park, 
 
 opened Aug. 1846 
 
 Manchester made a bishopric . . Aug. 10, 1847 
 Opening of Owens Collegiate Institution, to 
 
 which foundation the late Mr. John Owens 
 
 bequeathed 100,000?. . . . March 10, 1851 
 The queen's visit to Manchester . . Oct. 7, ,, 
 Great meeting in the Free-trade hall to greet 
 
 M. Kossuth Nov. 11, „ 
 
 The Engineers' strike . . Jan. 3— April 26, 1852 
 The Guild of Literature entertained at a ban- 
 quet by the citizens . . . Aug. 31, ,, 
 Opening of the Free Library . . Sept. 2, ,, 
 Great Free-trade banquet . . Nov. 2, ,, 
 
 Manchester declared to be a city, and formally 
 
 so gazetted April 16, 1853 
 
 Great strike of minders and piecers Nov. 7, 1855 
 Exhibition of Aet TBEASUKEsf determined on. 
 
 May 20, 1856; opened by prince Albert, May 
 
 5 ; visited by the queen, June 29, 30 ; closed, 
 
 Oct. 17, 1857 
 Sir John Potter, a benefactor to the town, died, 
 
 Oct. 25, 1858 
 British Association meet here (2nd time), 
 
 Sept. 4, 1 861 
 Great county meeting ; 130,000?. subscribed to 
 
 the Lancashire Relief fund . . Dec. 2, 1862 
 Meeting of the Church Congress Oct. 13-15, 1863 
 
MAN 466 MAX 
 
 MANES, the name apj^liecl by the ancients to the soul when separated from the body. 
 The Manes were reckoned among the infernal deities, and were generally supposed to 
 preside over the burial-places and monuments of the dead. They were solemnly wor- 
 shipped by the Eomans, and invoked by the augurs; Virgil (22 B.C.) introduces his 
 hero as sacrificing to the Manes. The Eomans superscribed their epitaphs with D. M., 
 Diis Manibus. 
 
 MANGANESE. Black oxide of manganese, long used to decolorise glass, and called 
 Magnesia nigra, was formerly included among the ores of iron. Its distinctive character 
 was proved by the researches of Pott (1740), Kaim and Winterl (1770), and Scheele and 
 Bergmann (1774) ; it was first eliminated by Gahn. Manganese combined with potassium 
 is called mineral chameleon, from its rapid change of colour under certain circumstances. 
 Eorchammer employed it as a test for the presence of organic matter in water ; and Dr. 
 Angus Smith successfully ajjplied this test to air in 1858. 
 
 MANICHEANS, a sect founded by Manes, which began to infest the East about 261. 
 It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and particularly into Persia. A rich widow, 
 whose servant Manes had been, left him much wealth, after which he assumed the title 
 of apostle, or envoy of Jesus Christ, and aunounced that he was the paraclete or comforter 
 that Christ had promised to send. He maintained two principles, the one good and the 
 other bad ; the first he called light, which did nothing but good, and the second he 
 called darkness, which did nothing but evil. He rejected the Old Testament, and 
 composed a system of doctrine from Christianity and the dogmas of the ancient fire- 
 worshippers. He obtained many followers. Sapor, king of Persia, believed in him at 
 one time ; but afterwards banished him. He was burnt alive by Bahram or Varanes, king 
 of Persia, 274. His followers spread themselves over the Roman empire, and several sects 
 sprang from them. 
 
 MANILLA (built about 1573), capital of the Philippine Isles, a great mart of Spanish 
 commerce. Manilla was taken by the English in 1757 ; and again in Oct. 1762, by storm. 
 The archbishop engaged to ransom it for about a million sterling ; never wholly paid. 
 Manilla has suffered gi'eatly by earthquakes. It is stated that nearly 3000 persons perished 
 by one in 1645. On Sept. 22, 1852, the city was nearly destroyed, and on June 3, 1863, 
 several thousand lives were lost. 
 
 MANNHEIM (S. Germany), founded in 1606, became the court residence of the 
 Palatine of the Pihine in 17 19; but his becoming elector of Bavaria in 1777 caused the 
 removal of the court to Munich. Mannheim surrendered to the French, under command of 
 general Pichegni, Sept. 20, 1795. On Oct. 31, the Austrians under general Wurmser 
 defeated the French near the city. Several battles were fought with various success in the 
 neighbourhood during the late wars. Kotzebue, the popular dramatist, was assassinated at 
 Mannheim, by a student of Wurtzburg, named Sand, April 2, 1819. 
 
 MANORS are as ancient as the Saxon constitution, and imjily a territorial district 
 •with the jurisdiction, rights, and perquisites belonging to it. They were fonnerly called 
 baronies, and still are lordships. Each lord was empowered to hold a court called the 
 court-baron for redressing misdemeanors, and settling disputes between the tenants. 
 Cabinet Lawyer. 
 
 MANSION-HOUSE, London. The residence of the lord maj'or. It is situate at the 
 east end of the Poultry, on the site of the ancient Stocks-Market. It was built of Portland 
 stone by Dance the elder, 1739-53. See Mayor. 
 
 MANSOURAH (Lower Egypt). Here Louis IX. was defeated by the Saracens and taken 
 prisoner, April 5, 1250. He gave Damietta and 400,000 livres for his ransom. 
 
 MANTINEA (Arcadia, Greece), Battles here — (i) Athenians and Argivcs defeated by 
 Agis II. of Sparta, 418 B.C. (2) Between Epamiuondas and the Thebans, and the combined 
 forces of Lacedremon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia, 362 b. c. The Thebau general was 
 victorious, but was killed in the engagement, and from that Thebes lost its power and 
 consequence amoug the Grecian states. The emperor Adrian built a temple at Mantinea in 
 honour of his favourite Alcinous. The town was also called Antigonia. Other battles were 
 fought in the neighbourhood. 
 
 MANTUA (N. Italy). "Virgil was born at a village near this city, 70 B.C. Hence he is 
 often styled the Mantuan bard. Mantua was ruled by the Gonzagas, lords of Mantua, from 
 1328 to 1708, when it was seized by the emperor Joseph I. It has since been held by the 
 Austriaus. Mantua surrendered to the French, Feb. 2, 1797, after a siege of eight months. 
 
MAN 467 MAR 
 
 It Avas retaken by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799, after a short siege. In 
 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the Frencli again obtained x^ossession of it. It was 
 included in the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it was restored to the Austrians. 
 
 MANUFACTURES. See Silk, Cotton, &c. MAORIS. See Neio Zealand. 
 
 MAPLE-TREE. The Acer riibrum, or scarlet maple, was brought here from IST. America, 
 before 1656. The Ace)' Negundo, or ash-leaved maple, before 1688. From the Acer saccha- 
 rinum (introduced here in 1735) the Americans make very good sugar. 
 
 MAPS. See Charts and Mercator. 
 
 MARATHON (in Attica). Here, on Sept. 28 or 29, 490 B.C., the Greeks, only 10,000 
 strong, defeated the Persian army amounting to 500,000, who had 200,000 killed. The 
 former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistocles. Among the slain w-as 
 Hippias, the instigator of the war. The Persian army was forced to retreat to Asia. 
 
 MARBLE. Dipcenus and Scyllis, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who 
 sculptured marble, and polished their works ; all statues previously being of wood, 568 B.C. 
 Pliny. The edifices or monuments of Rome were constructed of, or ornamented with, fine 
 marble. The ruins of PalmjTa are chiefly of white marble. The marble arch, London, 
 was removed from Buckingham-palace to Hyde-park, March, 1851. 
 
 MARBURG (W. Germany). The cathedral was founded, 123 1; and the first Protestant 
 university in 1527. It suff"ered much during the Seven years' war, 1753-60. 
 
 MARCH, the first month of the year, until Numa added January and February, 713 B.C. 
 Romulus, who divided the year into months, gave to this month the name of his supposed 
 father, Mars ; though Ovid observes, that the people of Italy had the month of March before 
 the time of Romulus, but that they placed it very differently in the calendar. The year 
 formerly commenced on the 25th day of this month. See Year. 
 
 MARCHFELD (Austria). Here Ottocar II. of Bohemia was defeated and slain by his 
 rival, the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, Aug. 26, 1278. See Boliemia. 
 
 MARCHES, Lords of, noblemen who lived on boundaries settled between England and 
 "Wales, and England and Scotland, and, according to Camden, had their laws, and power of 
 life, death, &c., like petty print^es. These powers were aboUshed, 1535, and 1547. 
 
 MARCIONITES, heretics, followers of Marcion, about 150, who preceded the Manichees, 
 and taught similar doctrines. Cave. 
 
 MARCOMANNI, a people of Southern Germany, expelled the Boii from Bohemia, and, 
 united with other tribes, invaded Italy about 167, but were repelled by the emperors Anto- 
 ninus and Verus ; defeated by the Legion called, from a fabled miracle, the Thunderino- 
 Legion, 179 ; and finally driven beyond th.e Danube by Aurelian, 271. 
 
 MARENGO (N. Italy). Here the French army, commanded by Bonaparte, attacked the 
 Austrians, June 14, 1800; his army was retreating, when the arrival of general Dessaix 
 turned the fortunes of the day. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful. By a treaty 
 between the Austrian general Melas and Bonaparte, signed June 15, the latter obtained 
 twelve strong fortresses, and became master of Italy, 
 
 MARESCHALS, or Marshals, in France, were tbe esquires of the king, and originally 
 bad the command of the vanguard to observe th.e enemy and to choose proper places for its 
 encampment. Till the time of Francis I., in 15 15, there were but two marshals, who had 
 500 livres per annum in war, but no stipend in time of peace. The rank afterwards became 
 of the highest military importance, the number was without limit, and the command 
 supreme. Napoleon's marshals were renowned for skill and courage. See Marshal. 
 
 MARIAN PERSECUTION. See Protestants. 
 
 MARIGNANO (now Malegnano), N. Italy, near Milan. Three battles have been fought 
 near here — i. Francis I. of France defeated the duke of Milan and the Swiss, Sept. 13, 14, 
 1515 ; above 20,000 men were slain. This conflict has been called the Battle of the Giants. — 
 2. Near here was fought the battle of Pavia {which see). — 3. After the battle of Magenta, 
 June 4, 1859, the Austrians entrenched themselves at Malegnano. The emperor sent 
 marshal Baraguay d'Hilliers with 16,000 men to dislodge them, which he did with a loss of 
 about 850 killed and wounded, on June 8. The Aiistrians are said to have lost 1400 killed 
 and wounded, and 900 prisoners, out of 18,000 engaged, 
 
 H H 2 
 
MAR 
 
 468 
 
 MAR 
 
 MARINER'S COMPASS. See Compass and Magnetism. 
 
 MARINES were first established with the object of fomiing a nursery to man the fleet. 
 An order in council, dated Oct. i6, 1664, authorised 1200 soldiers to be raised and formed 
 into one regiment. In 1684, the 3rd regiment of the line was called the Marine Regiment: 
 but the system of having soldiers exclusively for sea-service was not carried into effect until 
 1698, when two marine regiments were formed. More regiments were embodied in subse- 
 quent years ; and in 1741 the corps consisted of ten regiments, each 1000 strong. In 1759 
 they numbered 18,000 men. In the latter years of the French war, ending in 1815, they 
 amounted to 3 1, 400, but there were frequently more than 3000 supernumeraries. The jollies, 
 as they are called, frequently distinguished themselves. The "Royal Marine Forces" now 
 comprehend artillery and light infantry. The vote for 1857 was for 16,000 marines, 
 inclusive of 1500 artillery. P. H. Nicolas. 
 
 MARINO, SAN, a republic in Central Italy, has existed since the 6th century. Its 
 independence was confirmed by pope Pius VII. in 1817. Population, in 1858, about 8000. 
 
 MARK, a silver coin of the northern nations, and the name marlc-luhs is still retained in 
 Denmark. In England, the mark means the sum of 13s. ^d., and here the name is also 
 retained in law courts. 
 
 MARKET. See Smithficld and Metro2)olitan Cattle Market. 
 
 MARK'S, ST. (Yenice). The church was erected in 829 ; the piazza in 1592. 
 
 MARLBOROUGH, Statutes of, were enacted in the castle of Marlborough, in Wilt- 
 shire, 1267.— Marlborough-Housk, Pall Mall, London, was built by Wren for the duke of 
 Marlborough, 1709-10 ; was bought for the princess Charlotte and prince Leopold in 1817 ; 
 held by queen Adelaide till 1849, and became the residence of the prince of Wales, 1863. 
 
 MARONITES, Christians in the East, followers of one Mai-on in the 5th centm-y ; they 
 are said to have embraced the errors of the Jacobites, Nestorians, and Monothelites ; in 1 1 80 
 they numbered 40,000 living in the neighbourhood of Mount Libanus, and, being a brave 
 people, they were of great service to the Christian kings of Jerusalem. They were reconciled 
 to the church of Rome about the 12th century. For an account of the massacres of the 
 Maronites iu i860, see Druses. 
 
 MAROONS, a name given in Jamaica to runaway negi-oes. When the island was 
 conquered from the Spaniards, a number of their negroes fled to the hills and became 
 very troublesome to the colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, when the 
 Maroons capitulated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 1730. 
 In 1795 they again took arms, but were speedily put down and many were transported to 
 other colonies. Brande. 
 
 MAR-PRELATE TRACTS, virulently attacking episcopacy, were written, it is believed, 
 by Henry Penry, who was cruelly executed, May 29, 1693, for having written seditious 
 words against the queen (found about his person when seized). The tracts appeared about 
 1586. Some had very singular titles : such as "An Almand for a Parrat," "Hay anj' 
 Worke for Cooper ?" &c. They wei-e collected and reprinted in 1843. 
 
 MARQUE, liETTERS OF. See Privateer. 
 
 MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia) were discovered in 1595 by Mendana, who named 
 theiii after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendoga. They were visited by Cook in 1774, 
 und were taken possession of by the French admiral Dupetit Thouars, May i, 1842. 
 
 MARQUESS, a dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Reve, by the Germans Markgrave, 
 took its original from Mark or March, a limit or bound (see Marches) ; the office being to 
 guard or govern the frontiers of a province. Marquess is the next place of honour to a duke, 
 and was introduced several years after that title had been established in England. The 
 first on whom it was conferred was the favourite of king Richard II., Robert de Vere, earl of 
 Oxford, created marquess of Dublin, and j^laced in parliament between the dukes and earls, 
 1385. James Stewart, second son of James III. of Scotland, was made marquess of Ormond, 
 jn 1476, Avithout territories ; afterwards earl of Ross. 
 
 MARRIAGE was instituted by God {Geyi. ii.), and confirmed by Christ {Mark x.), who 
 performed a miracle at the celebration of one {John ii. ). Matrimonial ceremonies among the 
 Greeks are ascribed to Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 b.c. 
 
 Law favouring marriage passed at Rome . bo. 18 
 Priests forV)idden to mairy after ordination . a.d. 325 
 Marriage was forbidden in Lent , . , 364 
 
 It was forbidden to bishops in 692, and to priests 
 in 1015 ; and these latter wore obliged to take 
 the vow of celibacy in 1073 
 
MAR 
 
 469 
 
 MAR 
 
 MARRIAGE, continued. 
 
 The celebration of marriag:e (as a sacrament) in 
 cliurclies -was ordained by pope Innocent III. 
 
 about I 199 
 
 Marriages were solemnised by justices of the 
 peace under an act of the commons in Oliver 
 Cromwell's administration .... 1653 
 
 A tax was laid on marriages, viz. : on the mar- 
 riage of a duke, 50J. ; of a common person, 
 2S. 6d. . . . . . . . , . i6gs 
 
 Irregular marriages prohibited (see Fleet Mar- 
 riages) 17S3 
 
 Marriages were again taxed in . . . . 1784 
 
 New marriage act, 1822 ; repealed . . . 1823 
 
 Acts prohibiting marriages by Roman Catholic 
 priests in Scotland, or other ministers not 
 belonging to the Church of Scotland, repealed 1834 
 
 Act to render the childreii of certain marriages 
 within forbidden degrees of kindred legiti- 
 mate : and marriage with deceased wife's 
 sister prohibited 1835 
 
 The present Marriage act for England, autho- 
 rising mari-iages with religious ceremony, 
 by registrar's certificate, or in a dissenting 
 chapel, passed 1836 [amended in 1837 and 1856] 
 
 Marriage JRegistration act 1837 
 
 Amendment acts passed in . . 1840 and 1856 
 
 A bill to suppress irregular marriages in Scot- 
 land (see Gretna) passed in . . . . ,, 
 
 A court established for Divorce and Matrimonial 
 Causes, which has the x^ower of giving sen- 
 tence of judicial sepai-ation for adultery, 
 cruelty, or desertion without cause for two 
 years and upwards. (See Dh^occe) . . 1857 
 
 It has frequently been attempted to legalise a 
 maiTiage with a deceased wife's sisler, without 
 success. The Marriage Law Reform associa- 
 tion was instituted for this exclusive object, 
 Jan 15, 1851. A bill for this purpose passed 
 the commons, July 2 ; was rejected lay the 
 lords, July 23, 1858 ; and again rejected in . 1S62 
 
 In the case of Brook v. Brook, it was decided 
 that such a marriage celebrated in a foreign 
 country was not valid . . April 17, 1858 
 
 This decision confirmed on appeal to the house 
 of lords, on March 18, 1861 
 
 A commission appointed to inquire into the 
 working of the marriage laws in Scotland 
 and Ireland, in consequence of the Yelverton 
 case. (See Trials, 1861) 1865 
 
 NUMBER OF EEGISTEEED MARRIAGES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 1750 
 1800 
 1810 
 181S 
 1820 
 182s 
 
 .. 40,300 
 
 1830 
 
 • 73.228 
 
 1840 
 
 • 84,473 
 
 184.; 
 
 . 91.946 
 
 1848 
 
 . 96,883 
 
 1 8 so' 
 
 . 98,378 
 
 1853 
 
 . 102,437 
 
 . 121,083 
 
 • 143.743 
 
 . 138,230 
 
 ■ 152,744 
 
 . 164,520 
 
 Royal Marriage Act was passed in 1772, in conse- 
 quence of the marriage of the duke of Gloucester, 
 the king's brother, with the widow of the earl 
 Waldegrave, and of the duke of Cumberland with 
 the widow of colonel Horton and daughter of lord 
 Imham. [By this act, none of the descendants of 
 George II. , unless of foreign birth, can marry under 
 the age of 25, unless with the consent of the king ; 
 at and after that age, the consent of parliament 
 is necessary to render the marriage valid.] The 
 marriage of the duke of Sussex with the lady 
 Augusta Murray, solemnised in 1793, was pro- 
 nounced illegal, and the claims of their son, sir 
 Augustus d'Bste, declared invalid, by the house of 
 lords, July g, 1844. 
 
 Half Marriage. Semi-Matrimonium. Among the 
 Romans concubinage was a legitimate union, not 
 merely tolerated but authorised. The concubine 
 had the name of semi-conjax. Men might have 
 either a wife or a concubine, provided they had 
 not both together. Constantine the Great checked 
 concubinage, but did not abolish it. This ancient 
 custom of the Romans was preserved, not only 
 among the Lombards, but by the French when 
 they held dominion in that country. Cujas assures 
 us that the Gascons and other peoisle bordering on 
 the Pyrenean mountains had not relinquished this 
 custom in his time, 1590. The women bore the 
 name of "wives of the second order." HenauU. 
 See Morganatic Marriages. 
 
 Double Marriages. There are some instances of a 
 husband and two wives (but they are very rare) in 
 
 i860 . . . 170,156 
 1S61 {cotton famine) 163,706 
 
 1862 . . . 164,030 
 
 1863 . . . 173,510 
 1S64 . . . 180,263 
 
 1854 • • • 159,727 
 1S55 Crimean war 152,113 
 
 1856 . . . 159,337 
 
 1857 . . . 159,097 
 
 1858 . . . 156,070 
 
 1859 . . . 167,723 
 
 countries where polygamy was interdicted by the 
 state. The first Lacedaemonian who had two wives 
 was AnaxandrideSj the son of Leon, about 510 B.C. 
 Dionysius of Syracuse married two wives, viz. : 
 Doris, the daughter of Xenetus, and Aristomache, 
 sister of Dion, 398 e.g. It is said that the count 
 Gleicheu, a German nobleman, was permitted, 
 under pecuUar circumstances, by Gregory IX. , in 
 A.D. 1237, to marry and live with two wives. 'The 
 Mormonites practise and encourage polygamy. 
 
 Forced Marriages. The statute 3 Henry VII. (1487) 
 made the principal and abettors in marriages with 
 heiresses, &o., contrary to their will, equally guilty 
 as felons. By 39 Eliz. (1596) such felons were denied 
 the benefit of clergy. This offence was made 
 punishable by transportation, i Geo. IV. (1820). 
 The remarkable case of Miss Wharton, heiress of 
 the house of Wharton, whom captain Campbell 
 married by force, occurred in William III.'s reign. 
 Sir John Johnston was hanged for seizing the 
 j'oung lady, and the marriage was annulled by 
 parliament, 1690. — Edward Gibbon Wakefield was 
 tried at Lancaster, and found guilty of the felo- 
 nious abduction of Miss Turner, March 24, 1827 ; 
 and his marriage with her was immediately dis- 
 solved by act of parhament. 
 
 Marriages bt Sale. Among the Babylonians, at a 
 certain time every year, the marriageable females 
 were assembled, and disposed of to the best bidder. 
 This custom is said to have originated with 
 Atossa, daughter of Belochus, about 1433 B.C. 
 
 Fleet Marriages. See Fleet. 
 
 MARSEILLAISE HYMN, The words and music are ascribed to Rouget de Lille, a 
 French engineer officer, who composed it at the request of marshal Lucknow, in 1791, to 
 cheer the conscripts at Strasburg. It derived it,s name from a body of troops from Marseilles 
 marching into Paris in 1792 playing the tune, it being then not much known. Brande. 
 
 * Of these marriages, it is stated in the registrars' returns that 47,570 men and 70,601 women could 
 not write, and that they signed the marriage register with their marks. — In France, the marriages were 
 208,893 in 1820 ; 243,674 in 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As respects Paris, the statistics of that city, which 
 are very minute and curious, furnish the following classes as occurring in 7754 marriages : — Bachelors and 
 maids, 6456 ; bachelors and wiiows, 36S ; widowers and maids, 708 ; widowers and widows, 223. 
 
MAR 
 
 470 
 
 MAR 
 
 [It carried off 50,000 of tlie inhabitants. Tho 
 bishop Belsunce devotedly exerted himself 
 to relieve the sutferers.] 
 Revolutionary commotions here . April 30, 1789 
 Marseilles opposes the revohitionary govern- 
 ment, and is reduced .... Aug. 1793 
 
 MARSEILLES, the ancient Massilia (S. France), a maritime city, founded by the 
 Phocreans about 600 B.C. ; was an ally of Rome, 218 B.C. Cicero styled it the Athens of 
 Gaul, on account of its excellent schools. 
 
 Taken by Julius Caesar after a long and terrible 
 
 siege, 45 B.C. ; and by Eurio, the Visigoth, 
 
 A.D 470; sacked by the Saracens . a.d. 839 
 
 Marseilles a republic 1214 
 
 Subjected to the counts of Provence . . . 1251 
 United to the crown of France .... 1482 
 The plague rages .... 1649 and 1 720-1 
 
 MARSHALS. Two were appointed in London to clear the streets of vagrants, and to 
 send the sick, blind, and lame to asylums and hospitals for relief, 1567. Norlhouck. 
 
 MARSHALS, British Field-. This rank was first confen-ed upon John, duke of 
 Argyle, and George, earl of Orkney, by George II. in 1736. See Mareschal. 
 
 MARSHALS of Fbance, &c., appointed by Napoleon L during his war.s, 1804-14. 
 
 Arrighi, duke of Padua. 
 
 Augereau, duke of Castiglione. 
 
 Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo ; afterwards king 
 of Sweden. 
 
 Berthier, prince of Neufchatel and Wagram, com- 
 mitted suicide at Bamberg, 1815. 
 
 Bessiferes, duke of Istiia. 
 
 Davou.st, prince of Eckmiihl and duke of Auerstadt. 
 
 Jourdan, peer of Fi'ance. 
 
 Jimot, duke of Abrantes, suicide 1813. 
 
 Kellerman, duke of Valmy. 
 
 Lanties, duke of Montebello, killed at Aspem, 1S09. 
 
 Lefebvre, duke of Dantzic. 
 
 Macdonald, duke of Tarento. 
 
 Marmont, duke of Ragusa. 
 
 Massena, prince of Essling and duke of Rivoli. 
 
 Moncey, duke of Conegliauo. [1835. 
 
 Mortier, duke of Treviso, killed by Fieschi, July 28, 
 
 Murat, king of Naples, executed Oct. 13, 1815. 
 Ney, prince of Moskwa, executed Dec. 7, 1815. 
 Oudinot, duke of Reggio. 
 Soult, duke of Dalmatia. 
 Suchet, duke of Albuera. 
 Victor, duke of BeUuno. 
 
 OFFICERS OP STATE. 
 
 Cambacerfes, duke of Parma 
 
 Caulaincourt, duke of Vicenza. 
 
 Champagne, duke of Cadore. 
 
 Duroc, duke of Friuli, killed at Bautzen, 181;}. 
 
 P^ouch^, duke of Otranto. 
 
 Le Brun, duke of Piacenza. 
 
 Maret, duke of Bassano. 
 
 Savary, duke of Rovigo : and 
 
 Talleyrand de Perigord, prince of Benevento, died 
 
 MARSHALSEA GOURT of the Queen's house was very ancient, of high dignitj', and 
 •coeval with the common law. Since the decision of the case of the Marshalsea (see Lord 
 Coke's 10 Re}}. 68) no business had been done in this court ; but it was regularly opened and 
 adjourned at the same time with the Palace court, the judges and other officers being the 
 same. These courts were abolished by parliament, and were discontinued, Dec. 31, 1849. 
 
 MARSI, a brave peoi^le of Southern Italy, who, after several contests, yielded to the 
 Romans, about 301 B.C. During the civil 'wars tliey and their allies rebelled, havi7)g 
 demanded and been refused the rights of Roman citizenship, 91 B.C. After many successes 
 and reverses, they sued for and obtained peace and the rights they required, 87 B.C. The 
 Marsi being Socii of the Romans, this was called the Social loar. 
 
 MARSTON MOOR (near York). The Scots and parliamentary army were besieging 
 York, when prince Rupert, joined by the marquess of Newcastle, determined to raise the 
 siege. Both sides drew up on Marston-moor, on July 2, 1644, and the contest was long 
 undecided. Rupert, commanding the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver 
 Cromwell, at the head of a body of troops discijilined by himself. Cromwell was victorious ; 
 he drove his opponents off the field, followed the vanquislied, returned to a second engagement 
 and a second victory. The prince's artillery was taken, and the roj-alists never recovered 
 the blow. 
 
 MARTELLO TOWERS were circular buildings of masonry erected iu the beginning of 
 the present century, on the coast of England, as defences against invasion. 
 
 MARTIAL LAW. See Courts-Martial and Military Laio. 
 
 MARTINESTI. See Rimnik. 
 
 ilARTINlQUE (West Indies), settled by France, 1635. This and the adjacent isles of 
 St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and the Grenadines, were taken by the British from the French in 
 Feb. 1762. They were restored to Fiance at the peace of the following year. They were 
 again taken, March 16, 1794 ; were restored at the peace of Amiens in 1802 ; and were again 
 captured, Feb. 23, 1809. A revolution took place in this island in favour of Napoleon, but 
 it was finally suppresised by the British, June i, 1S15, and JIarlinique reverted to its French 
 masters. Severe earthquakes occurred here in 1767 and 1839. 
 
MAR 
 
 471 
 
 MAS 
 
 MARTINMAS, Nov. ii,tlie feast of St. Martin, bishop of Tours, ia the 4th century. 
 In parts of the north of England and in Scotland it is quarter day. 
 
 MAETIN'S HALL, ST., Long Acre, London, was opened as a concert-room for Mr. 
 John Hullah, on Feb. 11, 1850; burnt down, Aug. 26, i860; and rebuilt, 1861. 
 
 MAETYES. Stephen, the first Christian martjT, was stoned, 37. The festivals of the 
 martyrs, of very ancient date, took their rise about the time of Polycarp, who suffered 
 mai'tyrdom about 166. St. Alban is the English protomartyr, 286. See Persecutions and 
 Protestants. 
 
 MARYLAND, one of the first thirteen United States 'of North America, was granted 
 in 1632 :o lord Baltimore, and settled by a company of English Romanists in 1634. It 
 contains the district of Colombia, in which Washington is situate. It continued in the 
 Union wlen the other slave states seceded in i860 and 1861. The Confederate army, under 
 general Lee, after their victory at Bull Run, Aug. 30, 1862, crossed the Potomac and entered 
 Maryland. They were followed by the Federal army under McClellan. Severe conflicts 
 ensued, especially on Sept. 17, at Antietam Creek, with great loss on both sides, each 
 claiming the victory. The Confederates retired into Virginia in good order, and it is said 
 with much booty. 
 
 MASKS. Popptea, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to guard her 
 complexion from the sun ; but theatrical masks wore in use among the Greeks and Romans. 
 Horace attributes them to jEschylus ; yet Aristotle says the inventor and time of their intro- 
 duction were unknown. — ilodern masks, and muffs, fans, and false hair for the women, were 
 devised in Italy, aud brought to England from France in 1572. Slow. 
 
 MASQUERADES were in fashion in the court of Edward III., 1340 ; and in the reign of 
 Chf.rles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among the citizens. The bishops preached against 
 them, aud made such representations as occasioned their suppression, 9 Geo. I. 1724. [No 
 less than six masquerades were subscribed for in a month at this time.] • They were revived, 
 and carried to shameful excess by connivance of the government, and in direct violation of 
 the laws, and tickets of admission to a masquerade at Rauelagh were on some occasions sub- 
 scribed for at twenty-five guineas each, 1776. Mortimir. At the close of a bal masque, 
 March 5, 1856, Covent-garden theatre was destroyed by fire. 
 
 MASS, in the Roman church, is the office or pra3''ers used at the celebration of the 
 eucharist, in memory of the passion of Christ, aud to this every part of the service alludes. 
 The general division consists in high and low ; the first is that sung by the choristers, aud 
 celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub-deacon ; low masses are those in which 
 the prayers are badly rehearsed without singing. Mass was first celebrated in Latin about 
 394 ; it was introduced into England in the 7th century. Prostration was enjoined at the 
 elevation of the host in 1201.* 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS (New England, N. America), the seat of the first English settlements, 
 1620. It joined the first congress of the States in 1774. See United States. 
 
 MASSACRES. The following are among the most remarkable : — 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 Of all the Carthaginians in Sicilj', 397. 
 
 2000 Tyrians crucified and 8000 put to the sword for 
 
 not surrendering Tyre to Alexander, 331. 
 Of 2000 Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, 
 
 211. 
 A dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and Ambrones, 
 
 near Aix, by Marine, the Roman general, 200,000 
 
 being left dead on the spot, 102. 
 The Uomans throughout Asia, women and children 
 
 not excepted, massacred in one day, by order of 
 
 Mithridates, king of Pontus, 88. 
 A great number of Roman senators massacred by 
 
 Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius, 87. 
 Again, under Sylla and Catiline, his minister of 
 
 vengeance, 82. 
 
 At Perusia, Octavianus Caesar ordered 300 Roman 
 senators and other persons of distinction to be 
 sacrificed to the manes of Julius Cajsar, 40. 
 
 AFTER CHRIST. 
 
 At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 of Jews 
 
 are said to have been put to the sword, 70. 
 The Jews, headed by one Andrae, ynt to death 
 
 100,000 Greeks and Romans, in and near Cyrene, 
 
 115. 
 Cassius, a Roman general, under the emperor M. 
 
 Aurelius, put to death 300,000 of the inhabitants 
 
 of Seleucia, 165. 
 At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens were 
 
 massacred by order of Antoninus, 215. 
 
 * Dr. Daniel Rock, in his work entitled " The Church of our Fathers " (1849), eives a full account of 
 an ancient MS. of " The Service of the Mass, called the Rite of Salisliury," compiled for that cathedral, by 
 St. Osmund and others, from the end of the nth to the end of the 12th century. 
 
MAS 
 
 472 
 
 MAS 
 
 MASSACRES, contimied. 
 
 The emperor Probus is said to have put to death 
 400,000 of the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 277. 
 
 Of the Gothic hostages by Valens, 378. 
 
 Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons invited into the 
 circus were put to the sword, by order of Theo- 
 dosius, 390. 
 
 Of the circus factions at Constantinople, 532. 
 
 Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by order 
 of Andronicus, 1184. 
 
 Of the Albifjenses and Waldenses, commenced at 
 Toulouse, 1208. Thousands perished by the sword 
 and gibbet of the French in Sicily, 1282. See 
 Sicilian Vespers. 
 
 At Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John, 
 duke of Buigundy, 1418. 
 
 Of the Swedisjh nobihty, at a feast, by order of 
 Christian II., 1520. 
 
 Of Protestants at Vassy, March i, 1562. 
 
 Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French protestants, in 
 France (see St. Bartholomew), Aug. 24, 1572. 
 
 Of the Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when 
 65,000 were slain, 1592. 
 
 Of the pretender Demetrius, and his Polish adhe- 
 rents. May 27, 1606. 
 
 Of Protestants at Thorn, put to death under a pre- 
 tended legal sentence of the chancellor of Poland, 
 for being concerned in a tumult occasioned by a 
 Roman Catholic procession, 1724. All the Protes- 
 tant powers in Europe interceded to have this un- 
 just sentence revoked, but unavailingly. 
 
 At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the 
 natives, Oct. 1740, under the pretext of an in- 
 tended insurrection. 
 
 At the taking of Ismail by the Russians, 30,000 old 
 and young were slain, Dee. 1790. See Ismail. 
 
 Of French Royalists (see Septemhrizert), Sept. 2, 1792. 
 
 Of Poles, at Praga, 1794. 
 
 In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made proclama- 
 tion for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 
 1804, and many thousands perisheii. 
 
 Insurrection at Jiadrid, and massacre of the French, 
 May 2, i8o8. 
 
 Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel of Cairo, 
 March i, 1811. 
 
 Massacre of Protestants at Nismes, perpetrated by 
 the Catholics, May, 1815. 
 
 Massacre at Scio, April 22, 1822. See Chins. 
 
 Destruction of the Janissaries at Constantinople, 
 June 14. 1826. 
 
 600 Kabyles sufifocated in a cave in Algeria, June 18, 
 1845. See Dahra. 
 
 Massacre of Christians at Aleppo, Oct. 16, 1850. 
 
 MASSAGET^E, an ancient Scj'tlxian people (probably the ancestors of tlie Goths), who 
 invaded Asia about 635. In a conflict with them Cyrus the Great was killed, 529 B.C. 
 
 MASSANIELLO EEVOLUTION, 1647. See Najjlcs, note. 
 
 MASSILIA. See 3IarseiUcs. 
 
 MASTER OF THE Ceremonies. See Ceremonies. 
 
 MASTERS IN Chancery, chosen from the equity bar, were first appointed it is said to 
 assist the extreme ignorance of sir Christopher Hatton, lord chancellor of England, iu 1588. 
 The office was abolished in 1852. 
 
 MASTER OF THE Gre.vt Wardrobe, an officer of gi-eat antiquity and dignity. The 
 establishment was abolished in 1782, and the duties transferred to the lord chamberlain. 
 
 MASTER OF THE Rolls, an equity judge, derives his title from having the custody of 
 all charters, patents, commis.sions, deeds, and recognizances, made into rolls of parchment ; 
 his decrees are appealable to the court of chancery. The repository of public jxapers, called 
 the Rolls, is in Chancery-lane. They were formerly kept in a chapel founded for the 
 converted Jews ; but after the Jews were expelled the kingdom, it was annexed for ever 
 to the office of the mastership of the rolls. Here were kept all the records since the 
 beginning of the reign of king Richard III., 1483 ; all prior to that period being kept in the 
 
 Of Maronites, by the Druses, in Lebanon, June, 
 1S60 ; and of Christians, by the Mahometans, at 
 Damascus, July 9-1 1, i860. See Druses and Damas^ 
 cus. 
 
 MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. 
 
 Of 300 English nobles, on Salisbury Plain, l>y Hen- 
 gist, about 450. 
 Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by 
 Ethelfrid, king of Bernicia, 607 or 612. 
 
 Of the Danes in the southern counties of England, 
 in the night of Nov. 13, 1002, and the 231x1 Ethel- 
 red II. At London it was most bloody, the 
 churches being no sanctuary. Amongst the rest 
 was Gunilda, sister of Swein, king of Denmark, 
 left iu hostage for the performance of a treaty but 
 newly concluded. JRalctr's Chronicle. 
 
 Of the Jews, in England. Some few pressing into 
 Westminster hall at Richard I.'s coronation, were 
 put to death by the people ; and a fdse alarm 
 being given that the king had ordered a general 
 massacre of them, the people iu manj parts of 
 England slew all they met. In York 500, who had 
 taken shelter in the castle, killed themselves, 
 rather than fall into the hands of the multitude, 
 1189. 
 
 Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen"s Wood, Ireland 
 (see CiUlen's IVood), 1209. 
 
 Of the English factory at Amboyna, in order to dis- 
 possess its members of the Spice Islands, Feb. 1624. 
 
 Massacre of the Protestants in Irel.and, in O'Neills 
 rebellion, Oct. 23, 1641. Upwards of 30,000 British 
 were killed in the commencement of this rebellbn. 
 Sir Williani Petti/. In the first three or four diy.» 
 of it, forty or fifty thousand of the Protestants 
 were destroyed, Lord Clarendon. Before the re- 
 bellion was entirely suppressed, 154,000 Prote.star.ts 
 were massacred. Sir ]V. Temple. 
 
 Of the Macdonalds of Glencoe (see Glencoe), Feb. 13, 
 1692. 
 
 Of 1 84 men, women, and children, chiefly Protes- 
 tants, burnt, shot, or pierced to death by pikes ; 
 perpetrated by the insurgent Irish, at the barn of 
 Scullabogue, Ireland, in 1798. Musgrave. 
 
 Of Europeans at Meerut, Delhi, &c., by mutineer.? 
 of the native Indian army (see India), May and 
 June, 1857. 
 
 Of Europeans at Kalangan, on the south coast of 
 Borneo, May i, 1859. 
 
 Of the Europeans at Morant bay, Jamaica, by the 
 infuriated negroes, Oct. 11, 12, 1865. 
 
MAT ■ 473 MAU 
 
 Tower of London. See Records. The first recorded master of the rolls was either John de 
 Langton, appointed 12S6, or Adam de Osgodeb}', appomted Oct. i, 1295 ; hut it is clear 
 that the office was in existence long before. Hardy. The duties were defined iu 1833, and 
 the salary regulated in 1837. 
 
 MASTERS OF THE ROLLS. 
 
 Sir Wm. Grant appointed . . May 27, iSot 
 Sir Thomas Plumer .... Jan. 6, 1818 
 Robert, lord GifEord . . April 5, 1824 
 
 Sir J. S. Copley {aft. lord Lyniliurst) Sept. 14, 1826 
 
 Sir John Leach May 3, 1827 
 
 Sir C. Pepys (cift. lord Cottenham) Sept. 29, 1834 
 Henry Bickersteth (a/i!. lord Langdale) Jan. 19, 1836 
 Sir John Bomilly (the PEKSENT, 1S65) March 2S, 1851 
 
 ]\IATHEMATICS formerly meant all kinds of learning ; but the term is now applied 
 to the sciences relating to numbers and quantity. See Arithmetic. Among the most eminent 
 mathematicians were Euclid, 300 B.C. ; Archimedes, 287 B.C. ; Descartes, died 1650 ; Barrow, 
 died 1677 ; Leibnitz, died 1716 ; sir Isaac Newton, died 1727 ; Euler, died 1783 ; Lagrange, 
 died 1813 ; Laplace, died 1827 ; and Dr. Peacock, died 1858. Dr. Whewell, Mr. G. B. Airy 
 (astronomer roj'al), professor de ilorgan, L Todhunter, and Mary Somer\'ille, born 1790, 
 author of the ' ' Mechanism of the Heavens, " are eminent living mathematicians. 
 
 MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning of the 
 day in the Eonian Catholic church. The French Matins imply the massacre of St. 
 Bai'tholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. The Matins of Moscoiv were the massacre of prince 
 Demetrius, and the Poles his adherents, at six o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1606. 
 
 MATTERHORlSr, a part of the main ridge of the Alps, about 14,836 feet high, S. Swit- 
 zerland. After various fruitless attempts by professor Tyndall, Mr. "Whymper, and other 
 eminent climbers, in i860, the summit was reached on July 14, 1865, b}^ Mr. Edward 
 "Whymper and others. During their descent, four of the party were killed. Mr. Hadow 
 fell ; the connecting rope broke, and he himself, lord Francis Douglas, the rev. Mr. Hudson, 
 and Michael Croz, a guide, slipped down, and fell from a precipiice nearly 4000 feet high. 
 
 MAUND AY-THURSDAY (derived by Spelman from mande, a hand-basket, in which 
 the king was accustomed to give alms to the poor ; by others from dies inandati, the day 
 on which Christ gave his grand mandate, that we should love one another), the Thursdaj'- 
 before Good Friday. Wheatley. On this day it was the custom of our kings or their 
 almoners to give alms, food, and clothing to as many poor men as they were j^ears old. It 
 was begun by Edward III., when he was fifty years of age, 1363, and is still continued by our 
 sovereign. 
 
 MAUR, ST. See Benedictines. 
 
 MAURITANIA (N.Africa), Avith Numidia, became a Roman province, 45 B.C., with 
 Sallust for pro-consul. Augustus created (30 e.g.) a kingdom formed of Mauritania and 
 part of Getulia, for Juba II., a descendant of the ancient African princes. Suetonius 
 Paulinus suppressed a revolt here, A.D. 42. Tlie country was subjugated by the Vandals 
 and Greeks, and fell into the hands of the Arabs, about 667. See Morocco and Moors. 
 
 MAURITIUS, or Isle of Fkaxce (in the Indian Ocean), was discovered by the 
 Portuguese, 1505 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after prince 
 Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of Good Hope, they deserted 
 it ; and it continued unsettled until the French landed, and gave it the name of one of the 
 finest provinces in France, 1715. This island was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1810, and 
 confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 18 14. Sir Henry Barkly became governor in 
 1863. Population in 1861, 313,462. 
 
 MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia married her own brother, Mausolus, king of Caria, Asia 
 Minor, 377 B.C. At his death she drank in liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, 
 and erected to his niemorj'- at Halicarnassus a monument, one of the seven wonders of the 
 world (350 B.C.), termed Mausoleum. She invited all the literary men of her age, and 
 proposed rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her husband. The 
 prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 B.C. She died 352 b.c. The statue of Mausolus is 
 among the antiquities bi'ought from Halicarnassus by Mr. C. T. Newton in 1857, and placed 
 in the British Museum. A mausoleum for the royal family of England was founded by the 
 queen at Frogmore, March 15, 1862. 
 
 MAUVE (French for malva, mallow), a dye produced by Dr. Stenhouse from lichens in 
 1848 ; now produced from Anilhie {which see). 
 
MAY 
 
 474 
 
 MAY 
 
 MAY, the fifth month of the year, received its name, some say, from Eomulus, who gave 
 it this appellation in respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated 
 majores ; others supiDOsed it was so called from Maia, the mother of Mercury, to whom 
 they offered sacrifices on the first day. The ancient Komans used to go in procession to the 
 grotto of Egeria on May-day. See Evil May-day* 
 
 MAYNOOTH COLLEGE (Ireland), founded by parliament, 1795, and endowed by a 
 yearly grant voted for the education of students designed for the Koman Catholic priesthood 
 in Ireland. An act for its government was passed in 1800. It contains about 500 students. 
 Pennanent endowment of this college (30,000?. for the enlargement of the buildings and 
 26,oooZ. annuall)') '^vas granted by parliament, June 1845. This occasioned much controversy 
 in England, a motion being made for its abolition almost every session. The college was 
 repaired and enlarged in i860. 
 
 MAYORS OF THE Palace were high officers in France, and had great influence during 
 the later Merovingian kings. They were Pepin the Old (or de Landen), 622 ct seq.; Pepin 
 Heristal, 687-714; Charles Martel, 714-741; Pepin le Bref, 741-752, who shut up 
 Childeric III. in a monastery, and himself took the kingdom. In this quality Charles 
 Martel ruled with despotic swaj', 735 et scq. — Mayors of Corporations. At the time of 
 the Norman conquest, 1066, the chief officer of London was called 2}ort-grave, afterwards 
 softened into 'port-reeve, from Saxon words signifying chief governor of a harbour. He 
 was afterwards called provost; but in Henry II. 's reign the Norman title of viaire (soon 
 after mayor) was brought into use. At first the mayor was chosen for life, but afterwards 
 for periods of irregular duration ; now he is chosen annually, but is eligible for re-election. 
 He must be an aldei-man, and must have previously filled the office of sheriff. His duties 
 commence on Nov. 9. The prefix lord is peculiar to the chief civic officer of London, 
 Dublin, Edinburgh, and also York (since 1389, when a new charter was granted). 
 
 The first mayor of London, Henry Fitz-Alwhyn, 
 appointed in 1189 ; held office for 24 years. 
 
 First presented to the barons of the exchequer 1251 
 
 The prefix of /ori? granted by Edward III., with 
 the style of right honourable .... 1354 
 
 Sir Henry Pickard, who had been lord mayor 
 of London in 1357, sumj)tuously entertained 
 iu one day four monarchs : Edward, king of 
 England ; John, king of France ; the king of 
 Cyprus ; and David, king of Scotland ; the 
 Black Prince and many of the nobihty being 
 present. Stow. 1363 
 
 Sir John Norman, the first lord mayor who 
 went by water to be sworn at Westminster, 
 and lord mayor's show instituted . . .1453 
 
 The more co.stly pageants and triumphs of the 
 show laid aside 1685 
 
 The lord mayor entertained the prince regent 
 of England, the emperor of Russia, khig of 
 Prussia, and numerous foreigners of high 
 rank ; June 18, 1814 
 
 The lord mayor, Farncombe, gave a banquet to 
 prince Albert and the mayors of niost of the 
 boroughs of the United Kingdom, in further- 
 ance of the project of the great International 
 Industrial Exhibition to be held in 1851, 
 
 March 21, 1S50 
 
 The lord mayor, sir F. Moon, entertained the 
 emperor and empress of the French April ig, 1855 
 
 The "Lord Mayor's court" is very ancient. 
 
 LORD MAYORS OF LONDON. 
 
 1800-1. Sir 'WiUiam Staines,bart. 
 1801-2. Sir John Earner, bart. 
 1802-3. Charles Price. 
 1803-4. John Perring. 
 1804-5. Peter Perchard. 
 1805-6. Sir James Shaw. 
 1806-7. Sir William Leighton, bt. 
 1807-8. John Ainslcy. 
 1808-g. Sir Charles Flower, bart. 
 1809-10. Thomas Smith. 
 1810-11. Joshua Jonathan Smith. 
 1811-12. SirClaudiusS. Hunter, bt. 
 1812-13. George Scholey. 
 1813-14. Sir WilUam Domville, bt. 
 1814-15. Samuel Birch. 
 1815-16. Matthew Wood. 
 
 1816- 
 1817- 
 1818- 
 i8ig- 
 1820 
 1821- 
 1822- 
 1823- 
 1824- 
 1825- 
 1826 
 1827- 
 1828- 
 
 183C-1. 
 
 Matthew Wood again. 
 Christopher Smith. 
 John Atkins. 
 George Brydges. 
 John T. Thorpe. 
 Christopher Magnay. 
 William Heygate. 
 Robert Waithman. 
 John Garratt. 
 William Venables. 
 Anthony Browne. 
 Matthias Prime Lucas. 
 WiUiam Thompson. 
 John Crowder. 
 Sir John Key, bart. 
 Sir John Key, bt. again. 
 
 832-3. Sir Peter Laurie. 
 
 833-4. Cbarles Farebrothor. 
 
 834-5. Henry Winchester. 
 
 835-6. AVilliam Taylor (^opeland. 
 
 836-7. Thomas Kelly. 
 
 837-8. Sir John Cowan, barfc. 
 
 838-9. Samuel Wilson. 
 
 839-40. Sir Chapman Marshall, bt. 
 
 840-1. Thomas Johnson. 
 
 841-2. tfohn Pirie. 
 
 242-3. J. Humjihery. 
 
 843-4. Sir W. Magnay, bart. 
 
 844-5. Michael Gibbs. 
 
 845-5. John Johnson. 
 
 846-7. Sir George Carroll. 
 
 847 8. John K. Hooper. 
 
 * Mrs. Elizabeth Montague (who died in 1800) gave for many years, on May-day, an entertainment at 
 her house in Portman-square, to the chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled witli roast beef and 
 plum pudding, and a dance succeeded. Ujion their departure, each guest received a shilling from the 
 mistress of the feast. It is said, though the statement is much doubted, that this entertainment was 
 instituted to commemorate the circumstance of Mrs. Montague's havmg once found a boy of her own, or 
 that of a relation, among the sooty tribe. In allusion to this incident, perhaps, a story resembling the 
 adventures of this lost child is pathetically related by Montgomery, in "The Chimney-Sweeper's Boy." 
 
MAY 
 
 475 
 
 MEG 
 
 JIAYOKS, continued. 
 
 1848-9. 
 
 Sir James Duke, bt, M.P. 
 
 1854-5 
 
 1849-50 
 
 Thomas Farncombe. 
 
 1855-6 
 
 1850-1. 
 
 Sir John Musgrove. 
 
 1856-7. 
 
 1851-2. 
 
 William Hunter. 
 
 1857-8. 
 
 1852-3. 
 
 Thomas ChaUis, M.P. 
 
 1858-9. 
 
 1853-4- 
 
 Thomas Sidney. 
 
 i859-6( 
 
 SirFras. G. Moon, bart. 
 David Salomons. 
 Thomas Quested Finnis. 
 Sir Eobt. W. Garden, bt. 
 David W. Wire. 
 
 i86o-r. 
 1861-2. 
 1 162-3. 
 1863-4. 
 1864-5. 
 1865-6. 
 
 William Cubitt, M.P. 
 Williata Cubitt, again. 
 W. A Rose. 
 Wm. Lawrence. 
 Warren S. Hale. 
 Benj. Sam. Phillips. 
 
 LORD MAYOES OF DUBLIN. 
 
 John le Dacer was appointed first provost in 
 1308 ; a si'ded sword was granted to be borne 
 befors the provost by Henry IV. . . . 1407 
 
 Thomas Cusack appointed first mayor . . 1409 
 
 The collar of SS. and a foot company granted 
 by Charles II. to the mayors . . . . 1660 
 
 Sir Daniel BelUngliam, the first mayor honoured 
 
 with the title of lord, by Charles II., who 
 granted 500^. per annum, in lieu of thie com- 
 pany of foot 1663 
 
 A new collar of SS. granted by William III. to 
 the mayor, value loooi., the former havmg 
 been lost in James II. 's time . . . . 1697 
 
 MEAL-TUB PLOT, against the duke of York, afterwards James IL, contrived by one 
 Dani,'erfield, who secreted a bundle of seditious letters in the lodgings of colonel Maunsell, 
 and then gave information to the custom-house officers to search for smuggled goods. Oct. 23, 
 1679. After Dangerfield's apprehension, on suspicion of forging these letters, papers were 
 found concealed in a meal-tub at the house of a woman with whom he cohabited, which 
 contained tlie scheme to be sworn to, accusing the most eminent persons in the Protestant 
 interest, who were against the duke of York's succession, of treason,— particularly the 
 earls of Shaftesbury, Essex, and Halifax. On Dangerfield being Avhipped the last time, as 
 part of his punishment, June i, 1685, one of his eyes was struck out by a barrister named 
 Kobert Francis : this caused his death, for which his assailant was hanged. 
 
 MEASURES. See WeigJits. 
 
 MEATH (Ireland), Bishopric of. Many episcopal sees in Meath (as Clonard, Duleek, 
 Kells, Trim, Ardbraccan, Dunshaughlin, and Slane, and others of less note) were fixed at 
 Clonard, before 115 1-2, Avhen the division of the bishoprics in Ireland was made by John 
 Paparo, tlien legate from pope Eugene III. Meath was valued, 30 Henry VIII., at 373?. 12s. 
 per annum. 
 
 MECCA (in Arabia), the birth-place of Mahomet, 569. The temple is a gorgeous 
 structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one of the neighbouring hills is a cave, where it is 
 asserted Mahomet usually retired to perform his devotions, and where the greatest part of 
 the Koran was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, 604. Two miles from the town is the 
 hill where, they say, Abraham went to offer up Isaac, 1871 B.C. Mecca after being vainly 
 besieged by Hosein for the Caliph Yezid, A.d. 682, was taken by Abdelmelek, 692. In 1803 
 it fell into the hands of the Wahabees, a Mahometan sect. It is said that 160,000 pilgrims 
 visited Mecca in 1858, and only 50,000 in 1859. 
 
 MECHANICS. The simple mechanical powers have been ascribed to heathen deities ; 
 the axe, wedge, wimble, &c. , to Daedalus. See Stemn Engine. 
 
 Aristotle writes on mechanics about . b. c. 320 
 
 The pi-opsrties of the lever, <fec., demonstrated 
 by Archimedes, who died about . . . 287 
 
 [He laid the foundations of neai'ly all those in- 
 ventions, the further prosecution of which is 
 ■ the boast of our age. Wallis (1695).] 
 
 The hand-mill, or quern, was very early in use ; 
 the Romans found one in Yorkshire . . * * 
 
 Cattle mills, moka jumentarice, were also in use 
 by the Roman? "' * 
 
 The water-mill was probably invented in Asia ; 
 the first that was described was near one of 
 the dwellings of Mithridates .... 70 
 
 A water-mill is said to have been erected on 
 the river Tiber, at Rome 50 
 
 Pappus wrote on mechanics, about . . a.d. 350 
 
 Floating-mills on the Tiber 536 
 
 Tide-mills were, many of them, in use in Venice 
 
 about 1078 
 
 Wind -mills were in very general use in the 12th. 
 ccntur? * * 
 
 Saw-mills are said to have been in use at Augs- 
 burg 1332 
 
 Theory of the inclined plane investigated by 
 
 Cardan, about 1540 
 
 Work on Statics, by Stevinus . . . . 1586 
 Theory of falling bodies, Galileo . . . 1638 
 
 Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren, about . . . 1668 
 Theory of oscillation, Huygens .... 1670 
 Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, 
 
 Roemer 1675 
 
 Percussion and animal mechanics, Borelli ; he 
 
 died ._ 1679 
 
 Application of mechanics to astrononay, paral- 
 lelogism of forces, laws of motion, &c., New- 
 ton, Hooke, (fee ,, 
 
 Problem of the catenary with the analysis, Dr. 
 
 Gregory 1697 
 
 Spirit level (and many other inventions), by 
 
 Dr. Rooke, from 1660 to 1702 
 
 D'Alembert's researches on dynamics, about . 1743 
 Borgnis' Dictionnaire de MtScanique appliquee 
 
 aux Arts, 10 vols 1818-23 
 
 [Among the best modern writers on the 
 science of mechanics are Poncelet, Whewell, 
 Barlow, Moseley, Delaunay, and Bartholo- 
 mew Price.] 
 
MEC 
 
 476 
 
 MED 
 
 MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. One was founded by Dr. Birkbeck in London, and 
 another in Glasgow, in 1823 ; and soon after others arose in different parts of the empite. 
 They have revived since 1857, many noblemen and gentlemen giving lectures in them. 
 
 MECKLENBURG (N. Germany), formerly a principality in Lower Saxony, now inde- 
 pendent as the two grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (population in 1863, 551,884), 
 and Mecklenburg-Strelitz (population in i860, 99,060). The house of Mecklenburg is among 
 the most ancient in Europe, as it claims to be descended from Genseric the Vandal, who 
 ravaged the western empire in the 5th centmy, and died 477. During the thirty years' 
 war, Mecklenburg was conquered by Wallenstein, who became its duke, 1628; it was restored 
 to its own duke in 1630. After several changes, the govei'nment was settled in 1701 as it 
 now exists in the two branches of Schwerin and Strelitz. In 1815, the dukes of Mecklenburg 
 were made grand-dukes. — The royal family of England for a centurj' has been intimately 
 allied with the house of Medclcnhurg-Strdilz. King George III. man-icd Charlotte, a 
 daughter of the duke, in 1761 ; their son, the duke of Cumberland (afterwards king of 
 Hanover) married princess Frederica Caroline, a daughter of the duke, in 1815 ; and princess 
 Augusta of Cambridge married June 28, 1843, Frederic, the present grand-duke. 
 
 GEAXD-DUKES OF MECKLENBURG-SCmVERIN. 
 1815. Frederic- Francis I. I Heiv : his son, Frederic Francis, born March 
 
 1842. Frederic-Francis II., Marcli 7 ; born Feb. 28, 19, 1S51. 
 
 1823 (present graud-duke). | 
 
 GRAND-DUKES OF MECKLENBURG-STEELITZ. 
 
 1815. Cliarles. ifetr .-his son, Adolphus-Frederic, bom July 22, 
 
 i8i6. George, born Aug. 12, 1779 ; succeeded Xov. 6. 
 i860. Frederic, Sej^t. 6 ; born Oct. 17, 1S19 (the 
 PRESENT grand-duke). 
 
 MEDALS. See Numismatics. There is hardly any record of medals or decorations as 
 rewards in the army or navy before the time of the commonwealth. The house of commons 
 i-esolved to grant rewards and medals to the fleet whose ofiicers (Blake, Monk, Penn, and 
 Lawsou) and men gained a glorious victory over the Dutch fleet, off the Texel, in 1653. 
 Blake's medal of 1653 was bought by his majesty William IV. for 150 guineas. In 1692 an 
 act was passed for applying the tentli part of the proceeds of yirizes for medals and other 
 rewards for ofiicers, seamen, and marines. Subsequent to lord Howe's victory, June i, 1794. 
 it was thought expedient to institute a naval medal. Medals were presented by. the queen to 
 persons distinguished in the war in the Crimea, May 18, 1855. 
 
 MEDIA, a province of the Assyrian empu-e, revolted 711 B.C. 
 
 War with the Lydians (see Halys) . B.C. 603 
 
 Astyages reigns 594 
 
 Astyages deposed by Cyrus, 550; who estab- 
 
 Ushed the empire of Persia (jfAic/t «ee) . . 560 
 
 Revolt of the Medes .... B.C. 711 
 Deioces, founder of Ecbatana, reigns . . 709 
 
 Phraortes, or Arphaxad, reigns ; (he conquers 
 
 Per.sia, .Vi-menia, and other countries) . . 656 
 Warhke reign of Cyaxares .... 632-594 
 
 MEDICAL BENEVOLENT COLLEGE (Epsom, Surrey), opened in 1855 by the prince 
 consort. It jirovides an asylum for 20 pensioners male and female ; and 40 foundation 
 scholars (sons of medical men) are fed, clothed, and educated. 
 
 MEDICAL COUNCIL. In 1858 an act was passed "to regulate the qualifications of 
 practitioners iu medicine and surgery;" amended in i860. It established "the General 
 Council of Medical Education and Registration of the United Kingdom." The first ineeting 
 of this council took place on Nov. 23, 1858, when sir B. C. Brodie was elected first president 
 (who on Nov. 30 was elected ]n-esident of tlie Royal Society). He was succeeded by Mr. J. 
 H. Green in June, 1S60 ; by Dr. George Burrows, Jan. 1864. The first Medical Register was 
 issued in July, 1859. In 1862 the council was incorpoi-ated by parliament, and authorised 
 to prepare and sell a new Pharmacopceia, which was published as the ' ' British Pharma- 
 co]iceia," in 1864. 
 
 MEDICI FAMILY, illustrious as the restorers of literature and the fine arts in Italj', 
 were chiefs or signori of the rejniblic of Florence from 1434, in which year Cosmo de' Medici, 
 who had been banished from the republic, was recalled and made its chief; he presided over 
 it for thirty years. Lorenzo de' Medici, styled "the ilagnifieent," and the "Father of 
 Letters," ruled Florence from 1469 to 1492. John de' Medici (pope Leo X.) was the son of 
 Lorenzo. Roscoe. From 1569 to 1737 the Medici family were hereditary grand-dukes of 
 Tuscany (which see). Catherine de' Medici became queen of France in 1547, and regent in 
 1550. She plotted with the duke of Alva to destroy the Protestants in 1565. 
 
MED 
 
 477 
 
 MEL 
 
 MEDICINE. See Physic. 
 
 MEDINA (Arabia Deserta), famous for tlie tomb of Mahomet, in a large mosque, lighted 
 by rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here ]\Iahomet was 
 protected when he fled from Mecca, July 15, 622. See Hecjira. Medina was taken by the 
 Wahabees in 1804. 
 
 MEEANEE. The Hyderabad Ameers, amounting to 30,000 infantry, with j 5 guns and 
 5000 cavalry, posted in a formidable position at Meeanee, were attacked on Feb. 17, 1843, 
 by lieut-gen. sir Charles Napier, with 2600 men of all arms. This insignificant force fell so 
 impetuously upon the enemy, that after a severe contest the Ameers gave way, and retreated 
 in tolerable order. Their loss was enormous. 
 
 MEGAKA, a city of ancient Greece, Avas subdued by the Athenians in the 8tli century 
 B.C. Pericles suppressed a revolt, 445 B.C. The Megarians founded Bj'zantium 657 B.C. and 
 sent a second colony 628 b. c. The Megarian (Eristic or dis]5utatious) school of philosophy 
 was founded by Euclid and Stilpo, natives of Megara. 
 
 MEISTEESINGEES. See Minnesingers. 
 
 MELAZZO (W. Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on July 20 and 21, i860, defeated the Neapolitans 
 under general Bosco, who lost about 600 men ; Garibaldi's loss being 167. The latter entered 
 Messina ; and on July 30 a convention was signed, by which it was settled that the Neapolitan 
 troops were to quit Sicily. They held the citadel of Messina till March 13, 1861. 
 
 MELBOURNE (Australia), capital of Victoria {ivhich see). It was laid out as a town by 
 orders of sir R. Bourke, in April, 1837. The first land sale took place in June, and specu- 
 lation commenced and continued till it caused wide-spread insolvency in 1841-2. 
 
 Made a municipal corporation, 1842; a bishopric 1847 
 First legislative assembly of Victoria meets . 1852 
 Gold found in great abundance about So miles 
 from. Melbourne in the autumn of 1851, and 
 immense numbers of emigrants flocked there 
 in consequence, causing an enormous rise in 
 the prices of provisions and clothing . . „ 
 
 Population 23,000 in 1851 ; about 100,000 at the 
 
 end of „ 
 
 The city greatly improved with pubhc buildings, 
 
 handsome shops, &c 1853 
 
 The Victoria bank, Ballarat, broken open, and 
 14,300?. in money and 200 ounces in gold dust 
 
 carried off [one of the robbers was taken in 
 England, sent back to Melbourne, and there 
 tried and hanged] .... Oct. 8, 1854 
 
 Monster meeting held at Ballarat respecting 
 the collection of the gold licenses, followed by 
 riots, during which the Southern Cross flag 
 was raised ; intervention of the mihtary ; 26 
 rioters and three soldiers killed, and many 
 wounded Nov. 30, ,, 
 
 The mayor comes to London to congratulate 
 the queen on the marriage of the jirincess 
 
 royal ■ . 1858 
 
 See Victoria. 
 
 MELBOURNE ADMINISTRATIONS. On the retirement of earl Grey, July 9, 1834, 
 viscount Melboiume became first minister of the crown. On the accession of viscount 
 Althorpe to the earldom of Spencer, on his father's decease, Nov. same year, lord Melbourne 
 waited on the king to receive his majesty's commands as to the appointment of a new 
 chancellor of the Exchequer, when his majesty said he considered the administration at an 
 end. Sir Robert Peel succeeded, but was compelled to resign in 1835, and lord Melbourne 
 returned to office. His administration finally terminated, Aug. 30, 1841, sir Robert Peel 
 again coming into power. See Administrations. 
 
 FIRST ADMINISTRATION, July. 1834. 
 
 Viscount Melbourne,* ^rst lord of the treasury. 
 
 Marquess of Lansdowne, lord president. 
 
 Earl Mulgrave, privy seal. 
 
 Viscount Althorpe, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Viscount Duncannon, viscount Palmerston, and Mr. 
 
 Spring Rice (afterwards lord Monteagle), home, 
 
 foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
 Lord Auckland, admiralty. 
 Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), and 
 
 Mr. C. P. Thomson (afterwards lord Sydenham), 
 
 hoards of control and trade. 
 Lord John Eus-sell, po.ymaster of the forces. 
 Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. 
 Sir John Hobhouse, Mr. ElUce, marquess of Conyng- 
 
 ham, Mr. Littleton, &c. 
 
 SECOND ADMINISTRATION, April, 1835. 
 
 Lord Melbourne, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 Marquess of Lansdowne, lord president. 
 
 Visct. Duncannon, privy seal, and woods and forests. 
 
 Mr. Bice, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Lord John Russell, viscount Palmerston, and lord 
 
 Glenelg, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
 Earl of Minto, admiralty. 
 Sir John Hobhouse, and Mr. Poulett Thomson, 
 
 boards of control and trade. 
 Lord Holland, duchy of Lancaster. 
 Viscount Howick, secretary-at-war. 
 Mr. Labouchere, sir Henry Parnell, lord Morpeth, &c. 
 The chanoellorsbip in commission ; sir C. Pepys 
 
 (afterwards lord Cottenham) became lord chancellor, 
 
 Jan. 1836. 
 
 * Wm. Lamb, bom in 1779 ; became M.P. for Westminster, 1S12 ; secretary for Ireland, 1827 ; succeeded 
 his father as viscount Melbourne, 1828; died Nov. 24, 184S, 
 
MEL 478 MER 
 
 MELEGXAXO. See Marignano. I 
 
 MELODRAMA oiigiuated with or was iutroiluced by Mr. Holcroft in 1793. 
 
 MEMEL, an important commercial port in Prussia, bnilt about 1279. It was taken by 
 the Teutonic knights, about 1328. It has suH'ered much by fire, and was almost totally 
 destroyed October 4, 1854. The loss was estimated at 1,100,000^ 
 
 MEMORY. See Mnemonics. 
 
 MEMPHIS, an ancient city of Egypt (" of which the very ruins are stupendous"), is said 
 to have been built by Menes, 3890 B.C.; or by Mif^raim, 2188 B.C. It was restored by 
 Septimiis Severus, A.D. 202. In the 7th century, under the dominion of the Saracens, it fell 
 into decay. The invasion of Cambyses, 526 B.C., began the ruin of Jlemphis, and the 
 founding of Alexandria, 332, completed it. 
 
 MENAI STRAIT (between the "Welsh coast and the isle of Anglesey). Suetonius 
 Pauliuus, when he invaded Anglesey, transported his troops across this strait in flat-bottomed 
 boats, while the cavalry swam over on horseback, and attacked the Druids in their last 
 retreat. Their horrid practice of sacrificing their captives, and the opposition he met with, 
 so incensed the Roman general, that he gave the Britons no c^uarter, throwing all that 
 escaped from that battle into fires which they had prepared for the destruction of himself 
 and his army, A.D. 61. — In crossing this strait, a ferry-boat was lost, and fifty person.?, chiefly 
 Irish, Dec. 4, 1785. The road from London to Holyhead has long been regarded as the 
 highway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; Mr. Telford was applied to by the govern- 
 ment to perfect this route by the London and Holyhead mail-coach road, which he did by 
 erecting beautiful suspension bridges over the river Conway and the Menai Strait, commenced 
 in July, 1818, and finished in July, 1825. The Britannia tubular bridge over the Menai was 
 constructed by Stephenson and Fairbairn in 1849-50. See Tubular Bridges. 
 
 MENDICANT FRIARS. Several religious orders commenced alms-begging in the 13th 
 century, in the pontificate of Innocent III. They spread over Europe and embraced many 
 communities ; but at length by a general council, held by Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, 
 were confined to four orders — Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The 
 Capuchins and others branched off. See Franciscans, &c. 
 
 MENDICITY SOCIETY (Red Lion-square, London), was established in 1818 for the 
 suppression of public begging, and other impositions. Tickets received from the society are 
 given by subscribers to beggars, who obtain relief at the society's house, if deserving. The 
 society has caused above 23,000 vagrants to be convicted as impostors. In 1857, 54,074 
 meals, in i860, 42,912, and in 1864, 55,265 were distributed. In 1857, 3785, and in 1864, 
 3680 begging letters were investigated. 
 
 MENSURATION. The various properties of conic sections were discovered by Archimedes, 
 to whom the chief advancement in mensuration may be attributed. He also determined the 
 ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c., about 218 b.c. See Arithmetic. 
 
 MENTZ (S.W. Germany), the Roman Moguntiacum. The archbishopric was founded by 
 Boniface, 745. Many diets have been held here ; and here John Faust established a printing- 
 press in 1442. A festival in honour of John Guttenburg was celebrated here in 1837. 
 
 MENU, Institutes of, the very ancient code of India. Sir Wm. Jones, who translated 
 them into English (1794), considers their date should be placed between Homer (about 
 962 B.C.) and the Roman Twelve Tables (about 449 B.C.). 
 
 MERCANTILE MARINE ACT was passed in Aug. 1850, and amended Aug. 1851. 
 
 MERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to have been a 
 Mr. Wri»ht, who made several voyages ; in his absence Gerard Mercator published the 
 charts in his own name, 1556. They are, however, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's 
 own ingenuity. 
 
 MERCHANDISE MARKS ACT was passed in 1862 to punish forgeries of tradesmen's 
 marks, whereby much injury had been done. 
 
 MERCHANT. An attempt was made by queen Anne's ministry to exclude merchants 
 from sittincf in the house of commons in 171 1 ; but it failed. The Merchant Adven- 
 turers' society (see Adventurers) was established by the duke of Brabant in 1296; it 
 extended to England in Edward Ill.'s reign ; and was formed into an English corporation in 
 IC64. The Merchant- Tailors, a rich company of the city of London, of which many 
 
MER 
 
 479 
 
 MES 
 
 Icings haA'e been members, were so called after the admission of Henry VII. into their com- 
 pany, 1 501, but were incorporated in 1466. Their sc]^ool was founded in 1561. Slovx 
 
 MERCIA. See under Britain. MERCURY, Sec Quicksilver and Calomel. 
 
 MERCY, Order of (in France), Avas established with the object of accomplishing the 
 redemption of Christian captives, by John de Matlia in 1198. Henault. Another order was 
 formed by Pierre ISTolasque, Spain, 1223. 
 
 MERIDA (Spain), a town in Estremadura (built by the Romans), was taken by the 
 French, Jan. i8ii. Near this town, at Arroyos Molinos, the Britisharmy under general 
 (afterwards lord) Hill defeated the French under general Girard, after a severe engagement, 
 Oct. 28, 181 1. The British took Merida from the French in January, 1812, general Hill 
 leading the combined forces of English and Spanish troops, 
 
 MEROE, an ancient city and country of inner Africa, near the sources of the Nile, said 
 to have flourished under sacerdotal government in the time of Herodotus, about 450 b. c. 
 
 MEROYINGIANS, the first race of French kings, 418-752. 
 MERRIMAC. See United States, 1862. 
 
 See Mayors and France. 
 
 MERRY- ANDREW. The name is said to have been first given to Andrew Borde, a 
 physician, who lived in the reign of Henry YIIL, and who, on some occasions, on account 
 of his facetious manners, appeared at court, 1547. 
 
 MERTHYR-TYDYIL (Glamorganshire). Riots commenced here June 3, 1831, and 
 continued for several days ; many persons were killed and wounded. 
 
 MERTON (Surrey). At an abbey here, the barons under Henry III., Jan. 23, 1236, 
 held a parliament which enacted the statutes called the Provisions of Merton, the 
 most ancient body of laws next after Magna Cliarta. They were repealed in 1863. See 
 Bastards. 
 
 MESMERISM. Frederick Anthony Mesmer, a German physician, of Mersburg, pub- 
 lished his doctrines in 1766, contending, by a thesis on planetary influence, that the heavenly 
 bodies diff'used through the universe a subtle fluid which acts on the nervous system of 
 animated beings. Quitting Yienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous proselytes to his 
 system in France, where he received a subscription of 340,000 livres. The government 
 appointed a committee of physicians and members of the Academy of Sciences to investigate 
 his pretensions. Among these were Franklin and Bailly, and the results appeared in an 
 admirable paper drawn up by the latter, 1784, exposing the futility of animal magnetism, as 
 the delusion was then termed. Mesmerism excited attention again about 1848, when Miss 
 Harriet Martineau and others announced their belief in it.* 
 
 MESSALIANS, a sect (about 310) professing to adhere to the very letter of the 
 Gospel. They refused to work, quoting this passage, " Labour not for the food that 
 perisheth." 
 
 MESSENIA (now Maura-Matra), a country of the Peloponnesus. The kingdom com- 
 menced by Polycaon, 1499 B.C. It had long sanguinary wars against Sparta (see next article), 
 and once contained a hundred cities, most of Avhose names even are now unknown. It was 
 at first governed by kings ; after its restoration to power in the Peloponnesus, it formed a 
 republic, under the protection first of the Thebans, and afterwards of the Macedonians ; but 
 it never rose to eminence. 
 
 The second war was commenced about 682 B.C., 
 to throw off the galling Spartan yoke, ending 
 in the defeat of the Messenians, who fled to 
 Sicily B.C. 
 
 The third war took place 490 b.c ; and the 
 fourth 465-455 
 
 662 
 
 "She first Messenian war began 743 B.C. ; was occa- 
 sioned by violence offered to some Spartan 
 women in a temple of devotion common to 
 both nations ; the king of Sparta being killed 
 in his efforts to defend the females. Eventu- 
 ally, Ithome was taken, and the Messenians 
 became slaves to the conquerors . b.c. 723 
 
 MESSINA (Sicily), so named by the Samians, who seized this city, then called Zancle, 
 671 B.C. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire, but fell to the Saracens, about 
 A.D. 829. Priestley. In the nth century Roger the Norman took it by surprise, and 
 delivered it from Mahometan oppression. See Sicily. 
 
 * In 1839, the Mesmeric Infirmary issued its tenth annual report, archbishop Whately being president, 
 and the earl of Carlisle and Mr. Monckton Milnes (since lord Houghton) among the vice-presidents. 
 
MES 
 
 480 
 
 MET 
 
 MESSINA, continued. 
 
 Revolt against Chai-les of Anjou, and is suc- 
 coured by Peter of Arragon .... 1282 
 
 Revolt in favour of Louis XV'I. of France, who 
 is proclaimed here, 1676 ; the Spaniards punish 
 it severely 1678 
 
 Almost ruined by an earthq\iake and eruption 
 of Etna 1693 
 
 Nearly depopulated by a plague . . . 1740 
 
 Half destroyed by an earthquake . . . . 1783 
 Head-quarters of the British forces in Sicily, 
 
 prior to 1814 
 
 An insurrection here, subdued . Sept. 7, 1848 
 
 Garibaldi enters Messina after his victory at 
 
 Melazzo July 20-21, i860 
 
 The citadel surrenders to general Cialdini, 
 
 March 13, 1861 
 
 METALS. The metals and metalloids are now above fifty in number. Tubal-Cain is 
 mentioned as an "instructor of every artificer in brass andiron." (Gen. iv.) Moses and 
 Homer speak of the seven metals, and Virgil of the melting of steel. The Phoenicians had 
 great skill in working metals. See Mines, Iron, and the other metals. Bunsen and Kirch- 
 hoff's method of chemical analysis by means of the spectrum has added Caesium, Rubidium, 
 Thallium, and Indium to the known metals. 
 
 METAMORPHISTS in the 15th century affirmed that Christ's natural body, with which 
 he ascended into heaven, was Avholly deified. 
 
 METAPHYSICS, the science of abstract reasoning, or that which contemplates the 
 existence of things without relation to matter. The term, literally denoting "after physics," 
 originated from these words having been put at the head of certain essays of Aristotle, which 
 follow his treatise on Physics. Mackintosh. Modern metaphysics arose in the 15th century — 
 the period when an extraordinary impulse was given to the human mind in Europe, com- 
 monly called the "revival of learning." Hobbes, Cudworth, S. T. Coleridge, Dugald Stewart, 
 and sir "W. Hamilton, Avere eminent British metaphysicians, and Descartes, Pascal, Kant, 
 and Fichte, foreign ones. See PhilosojjJnj. 
 
 METAUEUS, a river in Central Italy, where Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, was 
 defeated and slain, 207 B.C., when marching with abiindant reinforcements. The Romans 
 were led by Livius and Claudiiis Nero, the consuls. The latter commanded the head of 
 Hasdrubal to be thrown into his brother's camp. This victory saved Rome. 
 
 METEMPSYCHOSIS, a doctrine attributed to Pythagoras, 528 B.C., supposes the trans- 
 migration of the soul from one body to another. It is also ascribed to the Egyptians, who 
 would eat no animal food lest they should devour the body into which the soul of a deceased 
 friend had passed. They had also an idea that so long as the body of the deceased was kept 
 entire, the soul would not transmigrate ; and therefore embalmed the dead. 
 
 METEOROLOGY (from the Greek meteoros, aerial), the science which treats of the pheno- 
 mena which have their origin in the air, such as rain, lightning, meteors, fogs, &c. 13acon, 
 Boyle, and Franklin wrote on the subject. 
 
 John Dalton's essay on meteorology appeared in 1793. 
 
 Luke Howard's work on the clouds appeared in 
 
 1802, and his " Barometrographia " in 1848. 
 Sir W. Roid published his work on the "law of 
 
 storms" in 183S. The works of Daniell (1845), 
 
 Ksemtz (1845), and Muller(i847) are esteemed. 
 Mr. James Glaisher, the energetic secretary of the 
 
 British Meteorological Society (established in 1850) 
 
 is the most eminent meteorologist of the day. By 
 
 his exertions the apparatus at Greenwich was 
 
 erected ; and meteorology has appeared in the 
 
 " Greenwich Observations " since 1848. See Mai- 
 loon — Scientific jiscenis. 
 Meteorological observatories have been erected in all 
 
 parts of the globe within the last 20 years. 
 The meteorological department of the board of trade, 
 
 established in 1S55, under admiral FitzRoy, com- 
 menced the publication of reports in 1857.* It 
 
 has issued apparatus and instruction books to 
 
 METHODISTS. See Wcsleyans. 
 
 METHUEN TREATY, a treaty for regulating the commerce between Great Britain and 
 Portugal, made in 1703, concluded by Paul Methuen, our ambassador at Lisbon. It was 
 abrogated in 1834. 
 
 captains of ships, and established observatories in 
 many places in the empire. The Kew meteorolo- 
 gical observatory was given to the British Asso- 
 ciation in April, i860. • 
 
 At the recommendation of M. Le Verrier and ; dmi- 
 ral FitzRoy, meteorological information, obtained 
 by the telegraph from the principal places in the 
 United Kingdom, has been tran.smitted daily to 
 Paris, and thence to other parts of Europe since 
 Sept. I, i860. 
 
 Meteorological observations appear in the Times 
 daily. 
 
 Storm-warnings first sent to the coast by the Board 
 of Trade, Feb. 6 ; and first published, July 31, 1861. 
 
 Daily international bulletin of the imperial observa- 
 tory at Paris, under the direction of M. Le Verrier, 
 first published, Nov. 1862. 
 
 See Barometer, Thermometer, &c.] 
 
 * The admiral published his " Weather-Book " in 1863. His exertions are said to have overworked his 
 brain ; and on April 30, 1865, he died by his own hand. 
 
 i 
 
MET 
 
 481 
 
 MET 
 
 METHYL, a colourless inodorous gas, a compound of hydrogen and carbon, was 
 obtained first in the free state by Frankland and by Kolbe, in 1849. 
 
 METHYLATED SPIRITS. By an act passed in 1855 a mixture of spirits of wine 
 with 10 per cent, of its bulk of wood-naphtha, or methylic alcohol, is allowed to be made 
 duty free for use in the arts and manufactures, not less than 450 gallons being made 
 at one time. In 1861 an act was passed permitting the methylated spirits to be retailed 
 by licence. 
 
 METOJSTIC CYCLE, a period of 19 years, or 6940 days, at the end of which the changes 
 of the moon fall on the same days. See Calippic Period. 
 
 METRIC SYSTEM. Before the Revolution there was no uniformity in French weights 
 and measures. On May 8, 1790, the Constitutional Assembly charged the Academy of 
 Sciences with the organisation of a better system. The committee named for the purpose by 
 the Academy included the illustrious names of BerthoUet, Borda, Delambre, Lagrange, 
 Laplace, M^chain, and Prony. Delambre and Mechain were charged with the measurement 
 of an arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, and from their calculations the 
 metre, which is equal to a ten-millionth part of the distance between the poles and the 
 equator (3 '2808 English feet) was made the unit of length and the base of the system by 
 law on April 7, 1795. The system was completed in 1799, and made by law the only legal 
 one on Nov. 2, 1801. A decree on Feb. 12 accommodated the old measures to the new 
 system ; but on July 4, 1837, it was decreed that after Jan. i, 1840, the metric and decimal 
 system in its primitive simplicity should be used in all business transactions. The example 
 of France has been followed by the greater part of Europe, and will probably in time be 
 adopted in the British empire. 
 
 Unit of Si'BFAOE, centiare=:3, square mfetre=i"ig6o 
 
 English, yard, (a square decamfetre or are =100 
 
 square mitres). 
 Unit of Volume or Solidity, stere=a cubic mfetre. 
 Unit of Capacity, litre— & cubic decimfetre (or loth 
 
 of a nifetre)=-i'76o77 English pint. 
 Unit of Weight, i7ra?»me= weight of a cubic centi- 
 
 metre (the looth part of a mfetre) of distilled water 
 
 =o"s6438 English dram. 
 Unit of Money, fixQ franc, a piece of silver weighing 
 
 S grammes. 
 The multiples of these units are expressed by Greek 
 
 numerals {deca-, 10 ; hekato-, 100 ; kilo-, 1000 ; 
 
 inyria-, 10,000. The divisors are expressed by 
 
 Latin numerals (deci-. 10 ; centi-, 100 : milli-, 1000). 
 
 Sir John Wrottesley brought the subject before 
 parliament Feb. 25, 1824 
 
 A commission of inquiry appointed at the in- 
 stance of the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. 
 Spring Rice (since lord Monteagle) . May, 1838 
 
 Another commission was appointed (both con- 
 sisted of eminent scientific men, and reported 
 strongly in favour of the change) . June 20, 1843 
 
 A committee of the house of commons reported 
 to the same effect .... Aug. i, 1853 
 
 Mr. Gladstone, admitting the advantages of 
 the system, thought its introduction pre- 
 mature. 
 
 The Decimal Association was formed for the 
 
 purpose of obtaining the adoption of the sys- 
 tem June, 1854 
 
 Another commission for inquiry was appointed, 
 consisting of lords Monteagle and Overstone, 
 and Mr. J. G. Hubbard, who published a pre- 
 liminary report (with evidence), but expressed 
 
 no opinion Nov. 1855 
 
 An International Decimal Association formed in , , 
 The decimal currency adopted in Canada, Jan. i, 1858 
 The new weights and measures bill (an ap- 
 proximation to the decimal system) was 
 
 passed 1862 
 
 An act passed "to render permissive the use of 
 the metric system of weights and measures " 
 
 July 29, 1864 
 
 METRONOME, to regulate time in the performance of music, was patented in England 
 by John Malzel, Dec. 5, 1815. 
 
 METROPOLIS ROADS ACT (passed in 1863) transferred the management of certain 
 roads north of the Thames from the commissioners to the parishes, and abolished certain 
 turnpikes and toUbars. 
 
 METROPOLITAN (from the Greek metropolis), a title given at the council of Nice, 325, 
 to certain bishops who had jurisdiction over others, in a province. The dignity is said to 
 have arisen in the 2nd century, through the dissentient bishops in a district referring to one 
 of superior intellect. 
 
 METROPOLITAN BOARD of WORKS, was established by 18& i9yict. c. 120(1855), 
 amended in 1862. It held its first meeting and elected Mr. (now sir) John Thwaites as 
 chairman, Dec. 22, 1855. The office is in Spring-gardens. In 1858, its powers were 
 extended in order to effect the purification of the Thames by constructing a new main 
 drainage for the metropolis. The Board was authorised to raise a loan and levy 3^^. in the 
 pound on the property in the metropolis. The works are now in progress (1865). It is also 
 authorised to construct the Thames Embankment. In 1861 the Board received nearly a 
 million pounds, and expended 900,000?. See Setvage and Thames. 
 
MET 
 
 482 
 
 MEX 
 
 METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET, inaugurated by the lord mayor and corporation 
 on Wednesday, June 13, 1855, in presence of the prince consort. It is situated in Copen- 
 hagen-fields, an elev^ated site north of London, occupying an area of about fifteen acres, 
 larger by nine acres than Sinithfield, and capable of containing 30,000 sheep, 6400 bullocks, 
 1400 calves, and 900 pigs. In the centre is a circular building, let to bankers and others 
 having business connected with graziers and cattle-agents. Within and around the market 
 are erected several large taverns. A place is set apart for slaughtering animals, with 
 approved appliances for purposes of health, by ventilation, sewerage, Sac. ; there is also a 
 place for haystands. Sales commenced on Friday, June 15, 1855. — An act for establishing a 
 meat and poultry market in Smithfield {which see) was passed in i860. 
 
 METROPOLITAN FIRE BRIGADE, and HOUSELESS POOR, 
 and Houseless Poor. 
 
 See Fire Brigade 
 
 METROPOLITAN RAILWAY {Underground), between Paddington and Victoria-street, 
 near Holborn. The act for it passed in 1853 ; the construction began in the spring of i860 ; 
 and it was opened for traffic, Jan. 10, 1863. Many serious difficulties were overcome with 
 great skill and energy by the contractors, Jay, Smith, and Knight. In the first six months 
 of 1865, there were 7,462,823 passengers. 
 
 METTRAY. See Reformatory Schools. 
 
 METZ, See Austrasia. 
 
 MEXICO (N. America), discovered in 15 1 7, conquered by the Spaniards under Fernando 
 Cortez, 1521. The territory was named New Spain. The mint of Mexico was begun in 1535, 
 This country rebelled in war against the viceroy in 1816 ; and under Iturbide gained its 
 independence in 1821. Benito Juarez was appointed president, Feb. 11, 1858; made absolute 
 dictator, June 30, 1861. See helow. Population, in 1862, about 7,500,000. 
 
 Became independent by the treaty of Aqnala, 
 
 Aug. 23, 1821 
 Augustin Iturbide, president of a provisional 
 junto ; Mexico formed into an empire ; the 
 crown declined by Spain ; Iturbide made 
 emperor, Feb. 1822 ; compelled to abdicate, 
 
 March 26, 1823 
 Mexican republic proclaimed . . Oct. 4, ,, 
 Ituibide went to England ; returns and en- 
 deavo\irs to recover his dignity ; shot, 
 
 July 19, 1824 
 Federal constitution established . . Oct. ,, 
 Treaty of commerce with Great Britain, Aijril, 1825 
 Expulsion of the Spaniards decreed . March, 1829 
 Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered 
 
 Sept. 26, „ 
 Mexican revolution : the president Guerrero 
 
 deposed Dec. 23, ,, 
 
 Independence of Mexico recognised by Brazil, 
 
 June, 1830 ; by Spain . . . Dec. 28, 1836 
 Declaration of war against France Nov. 30, 1838 
 
 This war terminated . . . March 9, 1839 
 War with the United States . . June 4, 1845 
 The Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, May 8 ; 
 
 and subsequently at Matamoras . . . 1846 
 Santa Fe captured, Aug. 22 : and Monterey, 
 
 Sept. 24, ,, 
 Battle of Bueno Vista ; the Mexicans defeated 
 by general Taylor, with great loss, after two 
 days' fighting .... Feb. 22, 1847 
 The Americans, under general Scott, defeat the 
 
 Mexicans, making 6000 jsrisoners April 1 8, „ 
 Various actions followed. Treaty between 
 Mexico and the United States ratified, 
 
 May 19, 1848 
 Political convulsions .... Sept. 1852 
 President Arista resigns, Jan. 6 ; and St. Anna 
 
 is invited to return .... Feb. 1853 
 St. Anna becomes dictator . . March 17, ,, 
 He abdicates ; Carera elected president .Jan. 1855 
 "Who also abdicates ; succeeded first by Alvarez, 
 
 and afterwards by general Comonfort Dec. ,, 
 Property of the clergy sequestrated March 31, 1856 
 New constitution .... Feb. 5, 1857 
 Comonfort chosen president . . . July, ,, 
 Coup d'6tat ; Comonfort compelled to retire, 
 Jan. 1 1 ; general Zuloaga takes the govern- 
 ment Jan. 21-26, 1858 
 
 Benito Juarez declared constitutional president 
 at Vera Cruz .... Feb. 11, 
 
 Civil war ; several engagements Aug. to Nov. 
 
 General Miguel Miramon nominated president 
 
 o at Mexico by the Jxmto . . Jan. 6, 
 
 Zuloaga abdicates Feb. 2, 
 
 In consequence of injury to British subjects, 
 ships of war sent to Mexico . . . Feb. 
 
 Miramon forces the lines of the liberal generals, 
 enters the capital, assumes his functions as 
 governor, and governs without respect to the 
 laws of hfe and property . . April 10, 
 
 Juarez confiscates the church property, July 13, 
 
 Miramon and the clerical party defeat the 
 liberals under CoUma . . Dec. 21, 
 
 He besieges Vera Cruz, March 5 : bombards it ; 
 compelled to raise the" siege . . Maixh 21, 
 
 General Zuloaga deposes Miramon, and assumes 
 the presidency May i, 
 
 Miramon aiTests Zuloaga, May g ; the diplo- 
 matic bodies suspend oflicial relation with 
 tbe foi'mer May 10, 
 
 Miramon defeated by DegoUado . . Aug. 10, 
 
 He governs Mexico with much tyranny ; the 
 foreign ministers quit the city . . Oct. 
 
 He is compelled to retire ; J uarez enters Mexico, 
 and re-elected president . . Jan. 19, 
 
 Juarez made dictator by the congress, June 30, 
 
 The Mexican congress decides to suspend pay- 
 ments to foreigners for two years July 17, 
 
 Which leads to the breaking off diplomatic re- 
 lations with England and France . July 27, 
 
 In consequence of many gross outrages on 
 foreigners, the British, French, and Spanish 
 governments, after much vain negotiation, 
 claiming efficient protection of foreigners, and 
 the payment of arrears due to fuudholders, 
 sign a convention engaging to combined hos- 
 tile operations against Mexico . Oct. 31, 
 
 The Mexican congress dissolves, after con- 
 ferring full powers on the president, Deo. 15, 
 
 Spanish troops land at Vera Cruz, Dec. 8 ; it 
 surrenders Dec. 17, 
 
 A British naval and French mUitary expedition 
 arrives Jan. 7, 8, 
 
 The Mexicans detei-mine on resistance, and 
 invest Vera Cruz ; their taxes are raised 25 
 per cent Jan. 
 
 1859 
 
 *i 
 
MEZ 
 
 483 
 
 MIC 
 
 MEXICO, continued. 
 
 Miramon arrives, but is sent back to Spain by 
 the British, admiral .... Feb. 
 
 Project of establishing a Mexican monarchy for 
 archduke Maximilian of Austria, disapproved 
 of by the British and Spanish governments, 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Negotiation ensues between the Spanish and 
 Mexicans ; convention between the commis- 
 saries of the AUies and the Mexican general 
 Doblado, at Soledad . . . Feb. 19, 
 
 The Mexican general Marquez takes up arms 
 against Juarez ; and general Almonte joins 
 the French general Lorencez ; Juarez demands 
 a compiilsory loan, and puts Mexico in a state 
 of siege March, 
 
 Conference between plenipotentiaries of the 
 Allies at Orizaba ; the English and Spanish 
 declare for peace, which is not agreed to by 
 the French, April 9 ; who declare war against 
 Juarez April 16, 
 
 The Spanish and British forces retire ; the 
 French government sends reinforcements to 
 Lorencez May, 
 
 The French, induced by Marquez, advance into 
 the interior; severely repulsed by general 
 Zaragoza, at Fort Guadaloupe, near Puebla, 
 
 Mays, 
 
 The French defeat the Mexicans at Cerro de 
 Borgo, near Orizaba . . . June 13, 14, 
 
 The Mexican liberals said to be desirous of 
 negotiation Aug. 
 
 Gen. Forey and 2500 French soldiers land, 
 
 Aug. 28, 
 
 Letter from the emperor Napoleon to Lorencez 
 disclaiming any intention of imposing a 
 government on Mexico announced . Sept. 
 
 Death of Zaragoza, a great loss to the Mexicans, 
 
 Sept. 8, 
 
 Gen. Forey deprives Almonte of the presidency 
 at Vera Cruz, and appropriates the civil and 
 military power to himself . . Oct. 
 
 Ortega takes command of the Mexican army, 
 
 Oct. 19, 
 
 The Mexican congress assembles, and protests 
 against the French invasion . Oct. 27, 
 
 The French evacuate Tampioo . . Jan. 13, ] 
 
 Forey marches towards Mexico . Feb. 24, 
 
 Siege of Puebla, bravely defended, March 29 ; 
 severe assault, March 31 to April 3 ; it is sur- 
 rendered at discretion by Ortega . May 18, 
 
 The republican government remove to San Luis 
 de Potosi May 31, 
 
 Mexico occupied by the French, under Bazaine, 
 June 5 ; Forey and his army enter June 10, 1S63 
 
 Assembly of notables at Mexico decide on 
 the establishment of a limited hereditary 
 monarchy, with a Roman Catholic prince 
 as emperor ; and offer the crovsm to the arch- 
 duke Maximilian of Austria ; a regency esta- 
 bUshed July 10, 
 
 The French re-occupy Tampico . Aug. n. 
 
 Marshal Forey resigns his command to 
 Bazaine, and returns to Prance . Oct. i, 
 
 The archduke Maximilian accepts the crown, 
 under conditions .... Oct. 3, 
 
 The Mexican general Comonfort surprised and 
 shot by partisans . . . Nov. 12, 
 
 Successful advance of the imperialists ; Juarez 
 retires from San Luis de Potosi, Dec. 18 ; it 
 is entered by the imperialists , Dec. 24, 
 
 The French occupy various places, Jan. & Feb. 18 
 
 The ex-president, general Santa- Anna, lands at 
 Vera Cruz, professing adhesion to the empire, 
 Feb. 27 ; dismissed by Bazaine . March 12, 
 
 Juarez enters Monterey, which becomes the 
 seat of the republican government April 3, 
 
 The archduke Maximilian definitively accepts 
 the crown from the Mexican deputation at 
 Miramar April 10, 
 
 The emperor and empress land at Vera Cruz, 
 May 29 ; enter the city of Mexico . June 12, 
 
 The emperor visits the interior ; grants a free 
 press Aug. 
 
 The republicans defeat the imperialists at 
 San Pedi'o Dec. 27, 
 
 Juarez, at Chihuahua, exhorts the Mexicans to 
 maintain their independence . . Jan. i, 1865. 
 
 The emperor institutes the order of the Mexican 
 eagle Jan. 18, 
 
 Surrender of Oaxaca to marshal Bazaine Feb. 9, 
 
 A temporary constitution promulgated April xo, 
 
 Ortega, at New York, enhsts recruits for the 
 republican army, May ; discountenanced by 
 the U. S. government . . . June, 
 
 The empei'or proclaims the end of the war, and 
 martial law against all armed bands of men, 
 
 Oct. 
 
 EMPEKOE. 
 
 1864. Maximilian I. (brother to the emperor of 
 Austria), born July 6, 1832 ; accepted the 
 crown April 10, 1864: married July 27, 1857, 
 to princess Charlotte, daughter of Leopold I., 
 king of the Belgians ; adopts Augustus 
 Iturbide as his heir, Sept. 1865. 
 
 MEZZOTINTO. See Engraving. 
 
 MHOW COURT-MARTIAL. See Trials, Nov. 1863. 
 
 MICHAELMAS, Sept. 29, the feast of St. Michael, the reputed guardian of the Roman 
 Catholic church, under the title of "St. Michael and All Angels." Instituted according to 
 Butler, 487.* 
 
 MICHIGAN, a north-west state of N. America, settled in 1670 ; admitted into the union, 
 Jan. 26, 1837. Capital, Lansing. 
 
 MICROMETER, an astronomical instrument used to discover and measure any small 
 distance and the minuter objects in the heavens, such as the apparent diameters of the 
 planets, &c. ; its invention is ascribed by some to M. Huygens, 1652 ; but our countryman 
 Gascoyne's insti'ument is prior to that time. 
 
 MICROSCOPES, said to have been invented by Fontana, in Italy, and by Drebbel, in 
 Holland, about 1621. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of 
 refraction was discovered, about 1624. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke, In 
 
 * The custom of eating goose at Michaelmas has been erroneously attributed to queen Ehzabeth's 
 eating of the bii'd at dinner on Sept. 29, 1588, at the house of sir Neville Umfreyville, at the time she heard 
 of the desti-uction of the Spanish Armada. The custom is of much older date, and is observed on the con- 
 tinent. — Clavis Calendaria. 
 
 I I 2 
 
MID 484 MIL 
 
 England great improvements were made in the microscope by Benjamin Martin (who invented 
 and sold pocket microscopes about 1740), by Henry Baker, F.R.S., about 1763, and still 
 gi-eater during the present century by Wollaston, Ross, Jackson, Varley, Powell, and others. 
 Diamond microscopes were made by Andrew Pritchard in 1824; and the properties of "test- 
 objects" to prove the qualities of microscopes, discovered by him and Goring in 1824-40. A 
 binocular microscope (i.e., for two eyes), was constructed by professor Biddel in 1851. Wen- 
 ham's improvements were made known in 1861. Treatises on the microscope by J. Quekett 
 (1848), by Dr. W. B. Carpenter ( 1856), by Dr. Lionel Beale (1858-64), and Griffith and 
 Henfrey's " Micrographic Dictionary " (1856) are valuable. The Microscopical Society of 
 London was established in 1839. In 1865 Mr. H. Sorby exhibited his spectrum-microscope 
 by which the millionth of a grain of blood was detected. 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. See Dark Ages. Henry Hallam's " Middle Ages" appeared in 1818. 
 
 MIDDLE-CLASS EXAMINATION. See Educaiim (iSsS) . 
 
 MIDDLE LEVELS. See Levels. 
 
 MIDIANITES, an eastern people, descendants of Midian, a son of Abraham. — Having 
 enticed the Isi'aelites to idolatry they were severely chastised, 1452 B.C. Thej' invaded 
 Canaan about 1249 b.c, and were thoroughly defeated by Gideon. 
 
 MIDWIFERY. Women were the only practitioners of this art among the Hebrews and 
 Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 460 B.C., is styled by some the 
 father of midwifery, as well as of ph3^sic.* It advanced under Celsus, who flourished 
 A.D. 37, and of Galen, who lived, 131. In England midwifery became a science about the 
 period of the institution of the College of Physicians, 10 Hen. VII., I5i8.t 
 
 MILAN. Mediolanum, capital of the ancient Liguria, now Lombardy, is reputed to 
 have been built by the Gauls, about 408 B.C. 
 
 Conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus B.C. 222' Seized bj' the Frencli . . . June 30, 1796 
 
 Seat of government of the western empu'e a.d. 286 Retaken by the Austrians 1799 
 
 Council of Milan. 346; Regained by the French . . May 31, 1800 
 
 St. Ambrose, bi.shop of Milan . . . . 375 ' Made the capital of the kingdom of Italy, and 
 
 Milan plundered by Attila 452 Napoleon Bonaparte crowned with the iron 
 
 Included in the Ostrogothic kingdom, 489 ; in | crown here May 26, 1805 
 
 the Lombard kingdom 569 The Milan decree of Napoleon against all con- 
 Becomes an independent republic . . . uoi I tinental intercour.se with England Dec. 17, 1807 
 
 The emperor Frederic I. takes Milan, and ap 
 points a pode.sta 1158 
 
 It rebels ; and is taken by Frederic and de- 
 stroyed 1162 
 
 Rebuilt and fortified 1169 
 
 Insurrection against the Austrians ; flight of 
 the viceroy March 18, 1848 
 
 Another revolt promptly suppressed and rigor- 
 ously punished . . . Feb. 6, et. seq. 1853 
 
 Milan visited by the emperor of Austria Nov. 
 
 The Milanese defeated by the emp. Frederic II. 1237 Amnesty for political offences granted . Dec. 1857 
 
 The Visconti become paramount in Milan . 1277 After the defeat of the Austrians at Magenta, 
 
 John Galeazzo Visconti takes the title of duke 1395 June 4, Louis Napoleon and the king of Sar- 
 
 -francesco Sforza, son-in-law of the last of the ' dinia enter Milan .... June 8, 1859 
 
 Visconti, subdues Milan and becomes duke . 1450 Peace of Villafranca ; a large part of Lombardy 
 Milan conquered by Louis XII. of France . . 1499 transferred to Sardinia . . July 12, ,, 
 The French expelled by the Spaniards . . 1525 Victor-Emmanuel enters Milan as king, Aug. 8, i860 
 Milan annexed to the crown of Spain . . . 1540 Reactionary plots of Neapolitan soldiery sup- 
 Ceded to Austria 1714 pressed April 29, 30, 1861 
 
 Conquered by the French and Spaniards . . 1743 
 
 Reverts to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily See Ilali/. 
 
 being ceded to Spain 1748 
 
 MILETUS, a Greek city of Ionia, Asia Minor, founded about 1043 B.C. During the war 
 with Persia it was taken, 494, but restored, 449. Here Paul delivered his celebi'ated charge 
 to the elders of the church of Ephesus, A.D. 60 (Acts xx.). 
 
 MILFORD HAVEN (Wales). Here the earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., 
 landed on his enterprise against Richard III. whom he defeated at Bosworth, 1485. The 
 
 * Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, di.sguised her sex to learn medicine. She was taught by Hierophilus, 
 her father, the art of midwifery, and, when employed, always discovered her sex to her patients. This 
 brought her into so much practice, that the males of her profession, who were now out of employment, 
 accused her, before the Areopagus, of corruption. She confessed her sex to the judges, and a law was made 
 to empower all free-born women to learn midwifery. The whole story is doubtful. 
 
 t The celebrated Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; and, after his example, 
 the calling in of men m all diflScult cases followed. Astruc affii-ms that the epoch of the employment of 
 men-midwives goes no further back than the first lying-in of madame de la Vallifere, mistress of Louis XIV. , 
 1663. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted with great secrecy to the 
 house. The same surgeon was employed in the subsequent labours of this lady, and he being very success- 
 ful, men-midwives afterwards came into repute, the name of accoucheur bcmg given to them. 
 
MIL 
 
 485 
 
 MIN 
 
 packets from this port to Ireland, sailing to "Waterford, were established in 1787. The dock- 
 yard, established, here in 1790, was removed to Pembroke in 18 14. 
 
 MILITAEY OR MAETIAL LAW is built on no settled principle, but is entirely 
 arbitrary, and, in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged rather than allowed, as law. Sir 
 Matthew Hale. It has been several times proclaimed in these kingdoms, and in 1798 was 
 almost general in Ireland, where it was proclaimed in 1803. 
 
 MILITAEY ASYLUM, Eoyal, at Chelsea, "for the children of the soldiers of the 
 regular army." The first stone was laid by the duke of York, June 19, 1801. 
 
 MILITAEY KNIGHTS of WINDSOE. See Poor Knights of Windsor. 
 
 MILITIA, the standing national force of these realms, is traced to king Alfred, who 
 made all his subjects soldiers, 872 to 901. 
 
 First commission of array to raise a militia . 1122 General militia act for England and Scotland, 
 
 Revived by Henry 11 1176 1802; for Ireland 1809 
 
 Again revived 1557 Enactment authorising courts-martial to inflict 
 
 Said to amount to 160,000 men . . . . 1623 imprisonment instead of flogging passed . 1814 
 
 The present militia statutes established, 1661 to 1663 Acts to consolidate the militia laws . i852*-4 
 
 Supplemental militia act passed . . . 1797 Militia embodied on account of the Russian 
 
 Irish militia offered its services in England, war, 1854 ; and on account of the Indian 
 
 March 28, 1804 mutiny 1857 
 
 MILKY WAY (Galaxy) in the heavens. Juno is said by the Greek poets to have spilt 
 her milk in the heavens after suckling Mercury or Hercules. Democritus (about 428 B.C.) 
 taught that the via lactea was a multitude of stars ; proved by Galileo by means of the- 
 telescope. 
 
 MILLENNAEIANS suppose that the world will end at the expiration of the seven 
 thousandth year from the creation ; and that during a thousand years (millennium) Christ and 
 the saints will reign upon the earth. See Rev. xx. The doctrine was very generally incul- 
 cated as early as the 2nd and 3rd centuries, by Papias, Justin Martyr, and others. Burnett. 
 
 MILLENlsTAEY PETITION, presented to king James on his accession, 1603, on behalf 
 of a thousand Puritan ministers against the "human rites and ceremonies" of the church 
 of England. 
 
 MILLS. Moses forbad mill-stones to be taken in pawn, because it would be like taking 
 a man's life to pledge. Bent. xxiv. 6. The hand-mill was in use among the Britons pre- 
 viously to the conquest by the Eomans. The Eomans introduced the water-mill. Cotton 
 mills moved by water were erected by sir Eichard Arkwright, at Cromford, Derbyshire. He 
 died in 1792. 
 
 MINCIO, a river of Lombardy. Here the Austrians were repulsed by the French under 
 Brune, Dec. 25-27, 1800; and by Eugene Beauharnais, Feb. 8, 18 14. 
 
 MIFDEN (Prussia), Battle of, Aiig. i, 1759, between the English, Hessians, and. 
 Hanoverians (commanded by prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), and the French, who were- 
 beaten and driven to the very ramparts of Minden. Lord George Sackville (afterwards lord 
 George Germaine) who commanded the British and Hanoverian horse, for some disobedience 
 of orders was tried by a court-martial on his return to England, found guilty, and dismissed 
 the service, April 22, 1760. He was afterwards restored to court favour", and became 
 secretary of state, 1776. 
 
 MINES. Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of 
 England. The earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced occurs 47 Hen. III. 
 1262. It related to mines containing gold, together -with copper, in Devonshire ; and in 
 Edward I.'s reign, according to Mr. Ending, the mines in Ireland, which produced silver, 
 were supposed to be so rich that the king directed a writ for working them to Eobert de 
 Ufford, lord justice, 1276. The lead mines of Cardiganshire, from which silver has ever 
 since been extracted, were discovered by sir Hugh Middleton in the reign of James I. 
 
 A British Mineralogical Society established in 1800 
 Haiiy's " Traite de Min^ralogie" appeared in . 1801 
 The government School of Mines, &c. , Jermyn- 
 
 street, St. James's, opened in . . Nov. 1851 
 An act for the regulation of mines passed in . i860 
 
 A Miners' Protection Association proposed by 
 Mr. William Gurney and others in . March, 1862 
 
 Value of the mineral produce of the United 
 Kingdom estimated at 25,961,649^. in 1857 ; 
 and at 39,979,837^. in 1864 
 
 * This militia act was consequent upon the then prevailing opinion of the necessity of strengthening 
 our national defences against the possibility of French invasion. The act empowered her majesty to raise 
 a force not exceeding 80,000 men, of which number 50,000 were to be raised in 1852, and 30,000 in 1855 ; the 
 quotas for each county or riding to be fixed by an order in council. 
 
MIN 
 
 486 
 
 MIS 
 
 MINIE RIFLE, invented at Vincennes, about 1833, by M. Minie (bom about 1800). 
 From a common soldier he raised himself to the rank of chef d'escadron. His rifle is 
 considered to surpass all made previous to it, for accuracy of direction and extent of range. 
 It was adopted by the French, and, with various modifications, by the British army in 1852. 
 
 MIIsriSTER OF WAR. See War Minister. 
 
 MINISTERS. See Administrations. 
 
 MINNESINGERS, lyric German poets, of the 12th and 13th centuries, who wrote to 
 entertain knights and barons of the time. The Meister-sivgers in the 14th century devoted 
 themselves to citizens. Some of their songs have been collected and published. 
 
 MINNESOTA, a western state of N. America, was organised as a territory, March 3, 1849, 
 and admitted into the union in 1857. On Aug. 17, 1862, the Sioux Indians commenced a 
 series of outrages at Acton, in Messier count}', desolating the country and massacring above 
 500 persons, of both sexes, and of all ages. General Sibley beat the Indians iu two battles, 
 and rescued many captives. Thirty-eight Indians were executed as assassins. 
 
 MINORCA AND MAJORCA, the Balearic Isles {v)hich see). Minorca was captured by 
 lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake in Aug. 1708, and was ceded to the British 
 by the treaty of Utrecht in 17 13. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in July, 1756. 
 Admiral Byng fell a victim to public indignation for not relieving it. See Byng. It was 
 restored to the British at the peace in 1763 ; besieged by the Spaniards, and taken 
 Feb. 5, 1782. It was again captured by the British under general Stuart, without the loss 
 of a man, Nov. 15, 1798 ; but was given up at the peace of Amiens in 1802. 
 
 MINSTRELS, originally pipers appointed by lords of manors to divert their copyholders 
 while at work, owed their origin to the glee-men or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till 
 about 1560. John of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the 
 reign of Henry VIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at the houses 
 of the nobility ; but in Elizabeth's reign they sank into neglect, and were adjudged rogues 
 and vagabonds {1-597). 
 
 MINT. Athelstan first enacted regulations for the government of the mint about 928. 
 There were several provincial mints under the control of that of London. Henry II. is said 
 to have institiated a mint at Winchester, 1125. Stow says the mint was kept by Italian.?, 
 the English being ignorant of the art of coining, 7 Edw. I. 1278. The operators were 
 formed into a corporation by the charter of king Edward III., in which condition it consisted 
 of the warden, master, comptroller, assay-master, workers, coiners, and subordinates. The 
 first entry of gold brought to the mint for coinage occurs in 18 Edw. III. 1343. Tin was 
 coined by Charles II. 1684 ; and giin-metal and pewter by his successor James. Sir Isaac 
 Newton was warden, 1699-1727, duiing which time the debased coin was called in, and new 
 issued at the loss of the government. Between 1806 and 1810, grants amounting to 262,000/. 
 were made by parliament for the erection of the present mint, which was completed in 18 13 ; 
 it was injured by fire, Oct. 31, 1815. The new constitution of the mint, founded on the 
 report of the hon. Wellesley Pole, took effect in 18 17. 
 
 MASTERS OF THE MINT. 
 
 1834. James Abercrombie. 
 
 1835. Alexander Baring. 
 ,, Henry Labouchere. 
 
 1841. William E. Gladstone. 
 
 1845. Sir George Clerk. 
 
 1846. Richard L. Shiel. 
 
 1850. Sir John F. Herschel, P.R.S. 
 
 1855. Thomas Graham, F.R.S. 
 
 1 817. Wellesley Pole. 
 1823. Thomas Wallace. 
 
 1827. George Tierney. 
 
 1828. J. C. Herries. 
 1830. Lord Auckland. 
 
 MINUS. See Plus. 
 
 MIRRORS. In ancient times mirrors were made of metal ; those of the Jewish women 
 of brass. MiiTors in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328 B.C. Mirrors or looking- 
 glasses were made at Venice, a.d. 1300 ; and in England, at Lambeth, near London, in 
 1673. The improvements iu manufacturing plate-glass, and that of very large size, has 
 cheapened looking-glasses very much. Various methods of coating glass by a solution of 
 silver, thus avoiding the use of mercury, so injurious to the health of the workmen, have 
 been made known ; by M. Petitjean in 1851 ; and by M. Cimeg in 1861. 
 
 MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominic, St. Francis, 
 St. Augustin, &c., had missions to the Levant and to America. Marco Polo is said to have 
 introduced missionaries into China, 1275. The Jesuits had missions to China {which see) 
 and to most other parts of the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this 
 
MIS 487 MOD 
 
 kind was a Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV. in 1706. But the Moravian Brethren 
 maybe said to have led the way to the new Christian missions about 1732. The London 
 Missionary Society held their first meeting, ITov. 4, 1794.* 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, a great river, N. America. The Mississippi trade was begun in England, 
 in Nov. 1 716. The celebrated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was com- 
 menced about the same period, exploded in 1720 ; at which time the nominal capital is said 
 to have amounted to ioo,ooo,oooZ. The ruin of thousands of families, dupes of this iniquitous 
 scheme, soon followed in both countries. See Law's Bubble,. — The North American state, 
 Mississippi, was settled in 1716; admitted as a state of the union, 1817 ; and seceded from 
 it by ordinance, Jan. 8, 1861, Capital, Jackson. 
 
 MISSOLONGHI, a town in Greece, heroically and successfully defended against the 
 Turks by Marco Botzaris in 1822. It was taken in 1826 after a year's siege. — Here lord Byron 
 died in 1824. It was surrendered to the Greeks in 1829. 
 
 MISSOURI, a south-western state in IST. America, was settled in 1763, and admitted into 
 the union, Aug. 10, 1821. It decided on neutrality in the conflict of 1861, but was invaded 
 by both the confederate and federal forces in June of that year, and became one of the seats 
 of war. Capital, Jefferson city. See United States, 1861, et seq. — For the MissouEi 
 Compromise, see Slavery in America. 
 
 MITHKIDATE, a physical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed to be an 
 antidote to poison and the oldest compound known, is said to have been invented by 
 Mithridates, king of Pontus, about 70 B.C. 
 
 MITHRIDATIC WAR, caused by the massacre of 100,000 Romans, by Mithridates, king 
 of Pontus, 88 B.C., and remarkable for its duration, its many battles, the destruction of 
 human life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having taken 
 the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of Asia, crying out as he 
 rode, " I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He ultimately despatched him by ordering 
 melted gold to be poured down his throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.C. Mithridates 
 was defeated by Pompey, 66 B.C. ; and committed suicide, 63 B.C. 
 
 MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre was worn by the Jewish high-priest, 149 1 B.C. -It had 
 on it a golden plate inscribed "Holiness to the Lokd." Exodus xxxix. 28. The most 
 ancient mitre that has the nearest resemblance to the present one is that upon the seal of 
 the bishop of Laon, in the loth century. FoshroTce. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, 
 but at the council of Lyons, in 1245, tliej- were directed to wear hats. 
 
 MNEMONICS, artificial memory, was introduced by Simonides the younger, 477 B.C. 
 A rund. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics have been elaborately treated ; ' ' Mnemonica " 
 was published by John Willis in 1618 ; and the Memoria Technica of Dr. Grey first appeared 
 in 1730. A system of mnemonics was announced in Germany, in 1806-7. 
 
 MOCKERN (Prussia). Here the French army under Eugfene Beauharnois defeated the 
 allied Russian and Prussian army with great loss, April, 1813 ; and here Bliicher defeated 
 the French, Oct. 16, 1813. 
 
 MODELS. The first were figures of living persons, and Dibutades, the Corinthian, is 
 the reputed inventor of those in claj'-. His daughter, known by the appellation of the 
 Corinthian Maid, being about to be separated from her lover, who was going on a distant 
 journey, traced his profile by his shadow on the wall ; her father filled up the outline with 
 clay, which he afterwards baked, and thus produced a figure of the object of her affection, 
 giving rise to an art till then unknown, about 985 B.c.f 
 
 MODENA (formerly Mutina), till lately capital of the duchy in Central Italy; was 
 governed by the house of Este, from 1288 till 1796, when the last male of that house, the 
 reigning duke Hercules III., was expelled by the French. By the treaty of Campo Formio, 
 
 * Our missionaries abroad have not unfrequently suffered grievous hardships and privations. Com- 
 mander Allan Gardner, B.N., who left England in the Ocean Queen in Sept. 1850, on the Patagonian mission, 
 ■with Mr. WilUams, surgeon, Mr. Maidment, oatechist, and four others, died on Picton Island, at the mouth, 
 of the Beagle Channel, to the south of Tierra del Fuego, having been starved to death, aU his companions 
 having previously perished, Sept. 6, 1851. — M. Schoffler, a missionary to Coohin-China, was pubUcly 
 executed at Son-Tay, by order of the grand mandarin, for preaching Christianity, such preaching being 
 IDrohibited by the law of that country. May 4, 1851. 
 
 t A beautiful model of the new town of Edinburgh, before the building began, was formed in wood. 
 A model was made of a bridge over the Neva, of uncommon strength as well as elegance ; and of the 
 mountains of Switzerland, by general Pfiflfer (1766-85). M. Choffin's model of Paris also was remarkable 
 for its precision. 
 
MCE 488 MON 
 
 the Modenese possessious were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The arch- 
 duke Francis of Este, son of the archduke Ferdinand of Austria, and of Mary, the heiress 
 of the last duke, was restored in 1814. Modena, in accordance with the voting by universal 
 suffrage, was annexed to Sardinia on March 18, i860. Population, in 1857, 604,512. 
 
 RECENT GRAXD-DUKES OF MODENA. 
 
 1814. Francis IV. An invasion of his states by to Verona, establishing a regency, June 11 ; 
 
 Murat was defeated, April 11, 1815. He was which was abolished June 13 ; Farini was 
 
 expelled by his subjects in 1831, but was appointed dictator, July 27; a constituent 
 
 restored by the Austrians. I assembly was immediately elected, which 
 
 1846. Francis V. (bom June i, 1819) succeeds Jan. 21. offered the duchy to the king of Sardinia, 
 
 His subjects rose against him soon after the Sept. 15. He incorporated it with his 
 
 Italian war broke out, in April, 1859. He fled I dominions, March 18, i860. 
 
 MOESIA Cnow Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria), was finally subdued by Augustus. It was 
 successfully invaded by the Goths, 253 B.C., who eventually settled here. See Got/is. 
 
 MOGULS. See Tartary. 
 
 MOHAMMERAH, a Persian town near the Euphrates, captured, after two hours' 
 cannonading, by sir James Outram, during the Persian war, March 26, 1857. News of the 
 peace arrived there on the 4th of April. 
 
 MOHATZ (Lower Hungary). Here, Louis, king of Hungary, defeated by the Turks 
 under Solyman II. with the loss of 22,000 men, was suffocated by the fall of his horse in a 
 muddy brook, Aug. 29, 1526. Here also prince Charles of Lorraine defeated the Turks, 
 Aug. 12, 1687. 
 
 MOHILOW (in Russia). Here the Russian army, under prince Bagration, was signally 
 defeated by the French under marshal Davoust, prince of Eckmiihl, July 23, 18 12. 
 
 MOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London at night, wounding and disfiguring the 
 men, and indecently exposing the women. One hundred pounds were offered by royal 
 proclamation, in 1 7 12, for apprehending any one of them. Northouck. 
 
 MOLDAVIA. See Danuhian Principalities. 
 
 MOLINISTS, a Roman Catholic sect, followers of Louis Molina, a Jesuit, born 1535. 
 He maintained the reconcil Lability of the doctrines of predestination and freewill. 
 
 MOLUCCAS, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean (the chief island, Amboyna), discovered 
 by the Portuguese, about 15 11, and held by them secretly till the arrival of the Spaniards, 
 who claimed them till 1629, when Charles V. yielded them to John III. for a large sum of 
 money. The Dutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them ever since, — except from 
 1810 to 1814, when they were subject- to the English. 
 
 MOLWITZ (in Prussian Silesia). Here the Prussians, commanded by Frederick II., 
 obtained a great victory over the Imperialists, April 10 (0. S. March 30), 1741. 
 
 MOLYBDENUM, a whitish, brittle, almost infusible metal. Scheele, in 1778, dis- 
 covered molybdic acid in a mineral hitherto confounded with graphite. Hjelm, in 1782, 
 prepared the metal from molybdic acid; and in 1825 Berzelius described most of its chemical 
 characters. Gmelin. 
 
 MONACHISM (from the Greek monos, alone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet 
 Elijah, and the Nazarenes mentioned in Numhcrs, ch. vi., as early examples. The first 
 Chi'istian ascetics appear to be derived from the Jewish sect of the Essenes, whose life was 
 very austere, practising celibacy, &c. About the time of Constantine (306-22) numbers of 
 these ascetics withdrew into the deserts, and Avere called hermits, monks, and anchorets ;* of 
 whom Paul, Anthony, and Pachomius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder of the 
 Sty litre (or pillar saints), died 451. He is said to have lived on a pillar thirty years. St. 
 Benedict, the great reformer of western monachism, published his rules and e.stablished his 
 monastery at Monte Casino, about 529. The Carthusians, Cistercians, &c., are varieties of 
 Benedictines. In 964, by decree of king Edgar, all married priests were to be replaced by 
 monks. See Abbeys and Benedictines. 
 
 MONACO, a principality, N. Italy, held by the Genoese family Grimaldi since 968. By 
 treaty, on Feb. 2, 1861, the prince ceded the communes of Roquebrune and Mentone, 
 
 * The anchorites of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries must not be confounded wilh the anchorets, or 
 hermits. The former were confined to soUtary cells ; the latter permitted to go where they pleased. 
 
MON 489 MON 
 
 the chief part of his dominious, to France, for 4,000,000 francs. The present prince, 
 Charles III., born Dec. 8, 1818, succeeded June 20, 1856. Population ahout 1200. 
 
 MOIST ARCHY. Histoi-ians reckon four grand monarchies — the Assyrian, Persian, 
 Grecian, and Roman {which see). 
 
 MONASTERIES. See Ahheijs. 
 
 MONDOVI (Piedmont). Here the Sardinian army, commanded by Colli, was defeated 
 by Napoleon Bonaparte, April 22, 1 796. 
 
 MONEY is mentioned as a medium of commerce in Genesis xxiii., 1860B.C., when 
 Abi'aham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah. The coinage of money is ascribed to 
 the Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it having been 
 coined in the temple of Juno-Moneta, 269 B.C. Money was made of different metals, and 
 even of leather and other articles, both in ancient and modern times. It was made of paste- 
 board by the Hollanders so late as 1574. See Coin; Gold; Silver; Copper; Mint; Banks, &c. 
 For Money Orders, see Post Office. 
 
 MONEYERS are mentioned in Alfred's "Domesday-Book." They travelled with our 
 early kings, and coined money as required. 
 
 MONGOLS. See Tartary. MONK. See Monachism. 
 
 MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth (born at Rotterdam, April 
 9, 1649), a natural son of Charles II. by Lucy "Waters, was banished England for his con- 
 nexion with the Rye-house plot, in 1683. He invaded England at Lyme, June 11, 1685; 
 was proclaimed king at Taunton, June 20 ; was defeated at Sedgmoor, near Bridgewater, 
 July 6 ; and beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15. 
 
 MONOLITH, Greek for single stone. See OhelisTc. 
 
 MONOPHYSITES. See Eutychians. 
 
 MONOPOLIES, reached to such a height in England, that parliament petitioned against 
 them, and many were abolished, about 1601-2. They were further suppressed by 21 Jas. I., 
 1624. In 1630, Charles I. established monopolies of soap, salt, leather, and other common 
 things, to supply a revenue without the help of parliament. It was decreed that none should 
 be in future created by royal patent, 16 Chas. I., 1640. 
 
 MONOTHELITES, heretics who affirmed that Jesus Christ had but one will, were 
 favoured by the emperor Heraclius, 630 ; they merged into the Eutychians [vjhich see). 
 
 MONROE DOCTRINE, a term applied to the determination expressed by James Monroe, 
 president of the United States, 1817-24, not to permit any European power to interfere in 
 restraining the progress of liberty in North or South America. This doctrine was referred 
 to in 1859, with the view of weakening the influence of Great Britain and Spain on the 
 American continent, and, in 1865, in relation to the new Mexican empire. 
 
 MONSTER, The. Renwick "Williams, who prowled nightly through the streets of 
 London, secretly armed with a double-edged knife, with which he shockingly wounded many 
 females. He was tried and convicted, July 8, 1 790. See Mohocks. 
 
 MONTALEMBERT'S TRIAL. See France, 1858. 
 
 MONTANISTS, followers of Montamis, of Ardaba, in Mysia, about 171 ; who was reputed 
 to have the gift of prophecy, and proclaimed himself the Comforter x^roraised by Christ. 
 He condemned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of marriage, 
 forbade the avoiding martyrdom, and ordered a severe fast of three lents ; he hanged himself 
 with Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, before the close of the 2nd century. Cave. The 
 eloquent father, TertuUian, joined the sect, 204. 
 
 MONT BLANC, in the Swiss Alps, is the highest mountain in Europe, being 15,781 
 feet above the level of the sea. The summit was first reached by Saussure, aided by a guide 
 named Balma, on Aug. 2, 1787. The summit was attained by Dr. Hamel (when three of his 
 guides perished) in 1820, and by many other pei'sons before and since. Accounts of the 
 ascents of Mr. John Aldjo, Charles Fellows (1827), and of professor Tyndall (1857-8) have 
 been published. See Alps. 
 
 MONTEBELLO, a village in Piedmont, where Lannes defeated the Austrians, June 9, 
 1800, and acquired his title of duke of Montebello ; and where (May 20, 1859), after a 
 contest of six hours, the French and Sardinians defeated the Austrians, who lost about 1000 
 
MON 
 
 490 
 
 HOIS' 
 
 killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners. 
 Beiiret. 
 
 The French lost about 670 men, including general 
 
 MONTE CASINO (Central Italy). Here Benedict formed his first monastery, 529. 
 
 MONTEM. See Eton. 
 
 MONTENEGRO, an independent principality in European Turkey, was conquered by 
 Solyman II. in 1526. It rebelled in the last century, and established an hereditary 
 hierarchical government in the family of Petrovitsch Njegosch, — endured, but not recognised 
 by the Porte. 
 
 The nephew and successor of the Vladika, Peter 
 II., declined to assume the ecclesiastical 
 function, and declared himself a temisoral 
 prince, with the title of Daniel I., 1851 ; and 
 
 began war with Turkey 1852 
 
 Montenegro put in a state of blockade, Dec. 14, „ 
 After several indecisive encounters, tranquillity 
 restored by the influence of the arms and 
 negotiations of Omar Pacha, the general of 
 the Turkish army ; he left the province, 
 
 Feb. 25, 1853 
 Blockade raised .... April 10, „ 
 War again broke out; the Turks defeated at 
 Grahovo June, 1858 
 
 Peace restored Nov. 1858 
 
 The country much disturbed through the 
 tyrannical conduct of prince Daniel, who 
 was assassinated (aged 35) . . Aug. 13, i860 
 
 He is succeeded by his nephew Nicolas (mar- 
 ried) Nov. 8, ,, 
 
 An insurrection in the Herzegovina, favoured 
 by the Montenegrines ; the blockade of Mon- 
 tenegro April 4, i86r 
 
 Omar Pacha invaded the province with an army 
 of 32,000 men in . . . . . Aug. ,, 
 
 Many conflicts with various success ; but lat- 
 terly in favour of the Turks ; peace made . 1862 
 See Herzejovina. 
 
 MONTENOTTE, a village in Piedmont, memorable as being the site of the first victory 
 gained over the Austrians by Napoleon Bonaparte, April 12, 1796. 
 
 MONTEREAU (near Paris). Here the allied armies were defeated by the French, com- 
 manded by Napoleon, with great loss in killed and wounded ; but it was one of his last 
 triumphs, Feb. 18, 1814. — On the bridge of Montereau, at his meeting with the dauphin, 
 John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, was killed by Tanueguy de Chatel in 1419. This 
 event led to our Henry V. subduing France, the young duke Philip joining the English. 
 
 MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general Taylor after a three daj^^s' conflict with the 
 Mexicans, Sept. 21-3, 1846. 
 
 MONTE VIDEO (S. America), was taken by storm by the British forces under sir Samuel 
 Auchmutj', but with the loss of nearly one-third of our brave troops, Feb. 3, 1807. It was 
 evacuated July 7, the same year, in consequence of the severe repulse the British'met with at 
 Buenos- Ayi'es. See Suenos-Ayrcs. Monte Video, a subject of dispute between Brazil and 
 Buenos- Ayres, was given up to Uruguay, 1828. See Brazil, for recent war, 
 
 MONTFERRAT (Lombardy), Hoitse of, celebrated in the history of the Crusades, 
 began with Alderau, wlio was made marquis of Montferrat, by Otho, about 967. Conrad 
 of Montferrat became lord of Tyre, and reigned from 1187 till 1191, when he was assassinated. 
 "William IV. died in a cage at Alexandria, having been thus imprisoned nineteen months, 
 1292. Violaute, daughter of John II., married Andronicus Palseologus, emperor of the East. 
 Their descendants ruled in Italy amid perpetual contests till 1533, when John George 
 Palseologus died without issue. His estates passed after much contention to Frederic II. 
 Gonzaga, marquis of Mantua, in 1536. 
 
 MONTGOMERY, capital of Alabama, United States, founded 181 7. Here the state 
 convention passed the ordinance of secession from the union on Jan. 11, 1861 ; here the 
 confederate congress met on Feb. 4, and elected Jefferson Davis president, and Alexander 
 Stephens vice-president, of the confederate states of North America ; and here they were 
 inaugurated on Feb. 18. On May 21, the congress adjourned to meet on July 20 at Richmond, 
 in Virginia, that state having joined the confederates and become the seat of war. 
 
 MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions for advancing money on pledges, Avere first 
 established at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other Italian cities, 1462, et seq. The Fran- 
 ciscans, in 1493, fii'st began to receive interest, which was permitted by the pope, in 15 15. 
 Mollis dc Piete were not established in Franco till 1777. They were suppressed by the 
 Revolution, but restored, 1804; regulated by law, 185 1-2. See Pawnbroking. 
 
 MONTIEL (Spain), Battle of, March 14 (or 23) 1369, between Peter the Cruel, king 
 of Castile, and his brother Henry of Trastamare, aided by the French wai'rior, Bertram du 
 Guesclin. Peter was totally defeated, and afterwards treacherously slain. 
 
 MONTLHERY (Seine-et-Oise, France), site of an indecisive battle between Louis XL 
 and a party of his nobles, termed "The League of the Public Good," July 16, 1465. 
 
MON 491 MOO 
 
 MONTREAL, the second city in Lower Canada, built by the French. 
 
 A destructive fire .... Aug. 23, 1850 
 Another, destroying 1200 houses ; the loss esti- 
 mated at a million sterling . July 12, 1852 
 At an anti-papal lecture here by Gavazzi, riots 
 
 ensued, and many lives were lost June 10, 1853 
 The cathedral destroyed by fire . Bee. 10, 1856 
 Victoria railway bridge (which see) formally 
 oijened by the prince of Wales . Aug. 25, 1S60 
 
 Surrendered to the English . . Sept. 6, 1760 
 Taken by the Americans, Nov. 12, 177s ; rete,ken 
 
 by the British .... June 15, 1776 
 
 The church, Jesuits' college, prison, and many 
 
 buildings burnt down . . . June 6, 1803 
 Great military affray .... Sept. 29, 1833 
 The self-styled " loyahsts " of Montreal assault 
 
 the governor-general, lord Elgin ; enter the 
 
 parliament-house, drive out the members, 
 
 and set fire to the building . , April 26, 1849 
 
 MONTSEEEAT, a W. India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493, and settled by the 
 British in 1632. It has several times been taken by the French, but was secured to the 
 British in 1783. 
 
 MONUMENT OF LONDON, built by sir Christopher Wren, 1671-7. The pedestal is 
 forty feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that being the distance of its base from 
 the spot where the fire which it commemorates commenced. It is the loftiest isolated column 
 in the world. Its erection cost about 14,500?. The staircase is of black marble, consisting 
 of 345 steps.* Of the four original inscriptions, three Avere Latin, and the following in 
 English, — Cut in 1681, obliterated by James II. ; re-cut in the reign of WUliam III. ; and 
 finally erased by order of the common council, Jan. 26, i83i.f 
 
 THIS PILLAR WAS SET VP IN PERPBTVAL REMEMBRANCE OP THAT MOST DREADFUL BURNING OF THIS 
 PROTESTANT CITY, BEGUN AND CARRYED ON BY Y= TREACHERY AND MALICE OP Y= POPISH FACTION, IN 
 Y= BEGINNING OP SEPTEM. IN Y= YEAR OF OUR LORD 1666, IN ORDER TO Y^ CARRYING ON THEIR 
 HORRID PLOT FOR EXTIRPATING Y^ PROTESTANT RELIGION AND OLD ENGLISH LIBERTY, AND Y^ 
 INTRODUCING POPERY AND SLAVERY. 
 
 MOODKEE (India). Here, on Dec. i8, 1845, the Sikhs attacked the advanced guard 
 of the British, and were repulsed three miles, losing many men and fifteen pieces of cannon. 
 Sir Robert Sale was mortally wounded. Lady Sale signalised herself during the two 
 memorable retreats from AflFghanistan. The battle followed that of Ferozeshah {which see). 
 
 MOOLTAN (India). Here Moolraj Sing, ruler of the Sikhs, murdered Mr. Vans Agnew 
 and lieutenant Anderson, April 21, 1848. This led to a siege. A conflict took place between 
 the British and the Sikhs, in which the latter was driven to the town of Mooltan with great 
 loss, Nov. 7, 1848. It was taken after a protracted bombardment, Jan. 2-22, 1849. 
 
 MOON. Opacity of the moon, and the true causes of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 
 640 B.C. Hipparchus made observations on the moon at Rhodes, 127 B.C. Posidonius 
 accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, 79 B.C. Diog. Laert. Maps of the 
 moon have been constructed by Hevelius (1647), Cassini (1680), and others. Beer and 
 Madler's map was published in 1834. In 1862 professor John Phillips invited the British 
 Association to make arrangements to obtain a ' ' systematic representation of the physical 
 aspect of the moon. " Photographs of the moon were taken and exhibited by Mr. Warren 
 De la Rue in 1857. Hansen's " Tables of the Moon," calculated at the expense of the British 
 and Danish governments, were published at the cost of the latter in 1857. See Eclipse. 
 
 MOORS, formerly the natives of Mauritania {ivhicJi see), but afterwards the name given 
 to the Numidians and others, and now applied to the natives of Morocco and the neighbour- 
 hood. They assisted Genseric and the Vandals in their invasion of Africa, 429, and 
 frequently rebelled against the Roman emperors. They resisted for a time the progi-ess of 
 the Arab Mahometans, but were overcome by them in 707 ; and in 1019 introduced into 
 Spain to support the Arabs, where their arms were long victorious. In 1063 they were 
 defeated in Sicily by Roger Guiscard. The Moorish kingdom of Granada was set up in 1237, 
 and lasted till 1492, when it fell before Ferdinand V. of Castile, mainly owing to internal 
 discord. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain was decreed, but not fully carried into 
 effect till 1609, when the bigotry of Philip III. inflicted this great injury to his country. 
 About 15 18 the Moors established the piratical states of Algiers and Tunis {which see). In 
 the history of Spain, the Arabs and Moors must not be confounded. 
 
 * William Green, a weaver, fell from this monument, June 25, 1750. A man named Thomas Craddock, 
 a baker, precipitated himself from its summit, July 7, 1780. Mr. Lyon Levy, a Jewish diamond merchant, 
 of considerable respectabihty, threw himself from it, Jan. 18, 1810 ; as did more recently three other 
 persons : in consequence of which a fence was placed round the railings of the gallery in 1839. 
 t They produced Pope's indignant lines : — 
 
 " Where London's column, pointing at the skies, 
 Like a tall bully, Mfts the head, and lies." 
 
MOR 492 MOR 
 
 MORAL PHILOSOPHY, defined as the knowledge of our duty, the science of ethics, 
 the art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates (about 430 b.c.) is regarded as the father 
 of ancient, and Grotius (about 1623) of modern moral philosophy. See Philosophy. 
 
 MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold of Burgundy was completely defeated by 
 the Swiss, June 22, 1476. A monument, constructed of the bones of the vanquished, was 
 destroyed by the French in 1798, who erected a stone column in its place. 
 
 MORAVIA, an Austrian province, occupied by the Slavonians about 548, and conquered 
 by the Avars and Bohemians, who submitted to Charlemagne. About 1000 it was subdued 
 by Boleslas of Poland, but recovered by Ulric of Bohemia in 1030. After various changes, 
 Moravia and Bohemia were amalgamated into the Austrian dominions in 1526. 
 
 MORAVIANS, United Brethren, said to have been part of the Hussites, who with- 
 drew into Moravia in the 15th century ; while the Brethren say that their sect was derived 
 from the Greek church in tlie 9th century. In 1722 they formed a settlement (called 
 Herrnhutt, the watch of the Lord), on the estate of count Zinzendorf. Their church con- 
 sisted of 500 persons in 1727. They were introduced into England by count Zinzendorf about 
 1737; he died at Chelsea in June, 1760. In 1851 they had thirty-two chapels in England. 
 They are zealous missionaries, and founded the early settlements in foreign parts. 
 
 MORAY FLOODS. See Immdations, 1829. 
 
 MORDAUNT. See Administrations, 1689. MOREA, the Peloponnesus. See Greece. 
 
 MORETON BAY (New S. Wales). The colony founded here in 1859 has since been 
 named Queciis-land (ivhich sec). 
 
 MORGANATIC MARRIAGES. When the left hand is given instead of the right, 
 between a man of superior and a woman of inferior rank, in which it is stipulated that the 
 latter and her children shall not enjoy the rank or inherit the possessions of the former. The 
 children are legitimate. Such marriages are frequentlj^ contracted in Germany by royalty 
 and the higher nobility. Our George 1. was thus married ; and later, the king of Denmark 
 to the countess of L)anner, Aug. 7, 1850. 
 
 MORGARTEN (Switzerland), Battle of. Here 1300 Swiss engaged 20,0(X) Austrians, 
 commanded by the duke Leopold, whom thej'' completely defeated, Nov. 16, 1315, upon the 
 heights of Morgarten, overlooking the defile through which the enemy was to enter their 
 territory from Zug. 
 
 MORICE DANCE, an ancient dance peculiar to some of the country parts of England, 
 and, it is said, also to Scotland : it was performed before James I. in Herefordshire. 
 
 MORMONITES (calling themselves the Church of Jesus Christ, of Latter-day Saints). 
 This sect derives its origin from Joseph Smith, called the pi'ophet, who announced in 1823, 
 at Palmyra, New York, that he had had a vision of the angel Moroni. In 1827 he said that 
 he found the book of Mormon, written on gold plates in Egyptian characters. This book, 
 there is good reason to believe, was written about 1812, by a clergjauan named Solomon 
 Spaulding, as a religious romance in imitation of the scripture style. It was translated and 
 published in America in 1830, in England in 1841. It fell into the hands of Rigdon and 
 Smith, who determined to jialm it off as a new revelation. The Mormonites command the 
 payment of tithes, permit polygamy, encourage labour, and believe in their leaders working 
 miracles. Missionaries are propagating these doctrines in Eurojie with more success than 
 would be expected (1865). 
 
 The Mormonites organise a church at Kirkland, [ The provisional govewinient abolished and the 
 
 Ohio 1830 
 
 TheyfoimdZion, in Jackson county, Missouri, 1831-2 
 From 1833 to 1839 the sect endured much per- 
 secution, and, driven from place to place, was 
 compelled to travel westwards ; till the city 
 Nauvoo on the Mississippi was laid out and 
 a temple was built ..... 1840-1 
 Joseph and his brother Hyrum, when in prison 
 on a charge of treason, shot by an infuriated 
 mob, and Brigham Young chosen seer . . 1844 
 Much harassed by their neighbours, departure 
 
 from Nauvoo determined on . . . . 1845 
 The Great Salt Lake chosen "for an everlasting 
 
 abode," and tiken possession of July 24, 1847 
 The valley surveyed by order of the United 
 States government 1849 
 
 Utah territory recognised by the United 
 States ; Brigham Young appointed the first 
 governor ; and the University of Deser^t was 
 founded ........ 1849 
 
 The population, 11,354 1851 
 
 The crops at the Utah settlement said to be 
 destroyed by locusts .... Aug. 1835 
 
 The United States judge at Utah resigned from 
 inability to discharge his functions, in conse- 
 quence of the violent and treasonable con- 
 duct of the Moi-mons, and their leader, 
 Brigham Young 1857 
 
 A conference of Mormon elders, &c , was held 
 in London, at which most offensive speeches 
 were made and songs sung advocating poly- 
 gamy, &c Sept. I, ,, 
 
MOR 
 
 493 
 
 MOS 
 
 MORMONITES, contimicd. 
 
 The United States government sent an army to A Mormonite meeting at Southampton, Feb. i8, 1861 
 
 Utah : a compromise was entered into, and A French Mormonite priest preached at Paris in 
 
 peaoe was estobhshed by governor Cummings Oct. 1862 
 
 in June, 1858 " Latter-day Saints' " meetings held in London 1865 
 
 MOROCCO, an empire in North Africa, formerly Mauritania {which see). In 105 1 it 
 was subdued for the Fatimite caliphs by the Ahnoravides, who eventually extended their 
 dominion into Spain. These were succeeded by the Almohades (1121), the Merinites (1270), 
 and in 15 16 by the Scherifs, pretended descendants of Mahomet, the now reigning dynasty. 
 See Tangiers. The Moors have had frequent wars with the Spaniards and Portuguese, due 
 to piracy. 
 
 Invasion of Sebastian of Portugal, who per-ishes 
 with his army at the battle of Alcazar, Aug. 4, 1578 
 
 The Moors attack the French in Algeria at the 
 instigation of Abd-el-Kader ; the prince de 
 Joinville bombards Tangiers, | Aug. 6, and 
 Mogador Aug. 16, 1844 
 
 Marshal Bugeaud signally defeats the Moors at 
 the river Isly, and acquires the title of duke, 
 
 Aug. t4, „ 
 
 Peace signed between France and Morocco, 
 
 Sept. 10, „ 
 
 The Spaniards, who possess several places on 
 the coast of Morocco (Centa, Penon de Valez, 
 &o.), having suffered much annoyance by 
 Moorish pirates, declare war against the 
 sultan in Oct. 1850 
 
 Negotiations had proved fruitless : the Spanish 
 government increasing their demands as the 
 sultan yielded. The English government 
 interfered in vain. For the events of the war, 
 see Spain 1859-60 
 
 A Moorish ambassador (the first since the time 
 of Charles II.) in London. (He gave 2ool. to 
 the lord mayor for the London charities), 
 
 June — Aug. i860 
 
 The British government gave a guarantee for a 
 loan of 426,000?. to the sultan to meet his 
 engagements with Spain . . Oct. 24, 186 1 
 
 SULTANS. 
 
 1822. Muley Abderrahman. 
 1859. Sidi Mohammed, Sept. 
 
 MORPHIA, an alkaloid, discovered in opium, by Sertiirner, in 1803. 
 
 MORRILL TARIFF. See United States, 1861. 
 
 MORTALITY. See Bills of Mortality. 
 
 MORTARA ABDUCTIOK See Jeics, 1858. 
 
 MORTARS, a short gun with a large bore, and close chamber, used for throwing bombs ; 
 said to have been used at Naples in 1435, and first made in England in 1543. The mortar 
 left by Soult in Spain was fixed in St. James's-park in Aug. 1816. On Oct. 19, 1857, a 
 colossal mortar, constructed by Mr. Robert Mallet, was tried at Woolwich ; with a charge 
 of 70 lbs. it threw a shell weighing 2550 lbs. 14 mile horizontally, and about J mile in 
 height. 
 
 MORTIMER'S CROSS (Herefordshire). The earl of Pembroke and the Lancastrians 
 were severely defeated by the young duke of York, afterwards Edward I Y., Feb. 2, 146 1. 
 He assumed the throne as Edward lY. in March following. 
 
 MORTMAllSr ACT (mart main, dead hand). When the siu'vey of all the land in Eng- 
 land was made by William I., 1085-6, the whole was found to amount to 62,215 knights' 
 fees, of which the church then possessed 28,015, to which additions were afterwards made, 
 till the 7th of Edward I., 1279, when the statute of mortmain was passed, from a fear that 
 the estates of the church might grow too bulk}'. By this act it was made unlawful to give 
 any estates to the church without the king's leave ; and this act, by a supplemental pro- 
 vision, was made to reach all lay-fraternities, or corporations, in the 15th of Richard II., 
 139 1. Mortmain is siich a state of possession as makes it inalienable, whence it is said to 
 be in a dead hand. Several statutes have been passed on this subject ; legacies by mort- 
 main were especially restricted by the loth George II., 1736. 
 
 MOSAIC WORK (the Roman opus tessellatum), is of Asiatic origin, and is probably 
 referred to in Esther, ch. v. 6, about 519 B.C. It had attained to great excellence in Greece, 
 in the time of Alexander and his successors, when Sosos of Pergamus, the most renowned 
 Mosaic artist of antiquity, flourished. He acquired great fame by his accurate representa- 
 tion of an "unswept floor after a feast." The Romans also excelled in Mosaic work as 
 evidenced by the innumerable specimens preserved. Byzantine Mosaics date from the 
 4th century after Christ. The art was revived in Italy by Tafi, Gaddi, Cimabue, and 
 Giotto, who designed Mosaics, and introduced a higher style in the 13th centur}'. 
 In the 1 6th century Titian and Yeronese also designed subjects for this art. The prac- 
 tice of copying paintings in Mosaics came into vogue in the 1 7th century ; and there 
 is now a workshop in the Yatican where chemical science is employed in the produc- 
 
MOS 494 aiUG 
 
 tion of colours, and where 20,000 different tints are kept. In 1861, Dr. Salviati of Venice 
 had established his manufacture of "Enamel-mosaics," and in July, 1864, he fixed a large 
 enamel Mosaic picture in one of the spandrils under the dome of St. Paul's cathediul, Lou- 
 don. He has since executed commissions for the queen and other persons. 
 
 MOSCOW, the ancient capital of Russia, was founded it is said by Dolgorouki, about 
 1 147. The occupation of the south of Russia by the Mongols, in 1235, led to Moscow 
 becoming the capital, and beginning with Jaroslav II., 1238, its princes became the reigning 
 dynasty. Moscow has been frequently taken in war : it was plundered by Timour in 1382 ; 
 by the Tartars in 145 1 and 1477; and by Ladislas of Poland in 161 1. The massacre of 
 Demetrius and his Polish adherents on May 27, 1606, is termed the "Matins of Moscow."' 
 This city was entered by Napoleon I. and -the French, Sept. 14, 1812, and the Russian 
 governor, Rostopchiu, ordered that it should be set on fire in 500 places at once. In this 
 memorable conflagration, 11,840 houses were burnt to the ground, besides palaces and 
 churches. The French, thus deprived of quarters, evacuated Moscow, Oct. 19, and it was 
 re-entered by the Russians, Oct. 22, following. Since then, Moscow has been rebuilt with 
 great splendour. Although St. Petersburg (built in 1703) has become the capital, yet Mos- 
 cow is the more beloved by the Russians, Avho regard it as a holy city. The railway to St. 
 Petersburg was opened in 1851. An industrial exhibition held at Moscow closed July 16, 
 1865. 
 
 MOSKWA, OR Borodino, Battle of. See Borodino. 
 
 MOSQUITO COAST (Central America). The Indians inhabiting this coast were long 
 under the protection of the British, who held Belize and a group of islands in the bay of 
 Hondui'as. The jealousy of the United States long existed on this subject. In April, 1850, 
 the two governments covenanted not "to occupy, or fortify, or colonise, or assume, or exei"- 
 cise any dominion over any part of Central America." In 1855 the United States charged 
 the British government with an infraction of the treaty ; on which the latter agreed to cede 
 the disputed territory to the republic of Honduras, with some reservation. * The matter 
 was finally settled in Feb. 1857. 
 
 MOSS-TROOPERS, desperate plunderers, and lawless soldiers, secreting themselves in 
 the mosses on the borders of Scotland. They were finally extirpated in 1609. 
 
 MOTTOES, Royal. Dieu ct man Droit, first used by Richard I., 1198. Ich clien, "I 
 serve," adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy, 1346. Honi soit qui 
 mal y 2^cnse, the motto of tRe Garter, 1349. Je maintiendrai, " I will maintain," adopted 
 by William III., to which he added, in 1688, "the liberties of England and the Protestant 
 religion." Scnqicr eadem, was assumed by queen Elizabeth, 1558, and adopted by queen 
 Anne, 1702. See them severally. 
 
 MOUNTAIN PARTY. See Clubs, French. 
 
 MOUNTS. See Etna, Hecla, Vesuvius, Bernard, Calvary, and Olivet. 
 
 MOURNING FOR THE Dead. The Israelites neither washed nor anointed themselves 
 during the time of mourning, which for a friend lasted seven days ; upon extraordinary 
 occasions a month. The Greeks and Romans fasted. The ordinary colour for mourning in 
 Europe is black ; in China, white ; in Turkey, violet ; in Ethiopia, brown ; it was white in 
 Spain until 1498. Herrera. Anne of Brittany, the queen of two successive kings of 
 France, mounied in black, instead of the then practice of wearing white, on the death of her 
 first husband, Charles VIII., April 7, 1498. Henault. 
 
 MOUSQUETAIRES, or Musketeers, horse-soldiers under the old French regime, raised 
 by Louis XIII., 1622. This corps was considered a military school for the French nobility. 
 It was disbanded in 1646, but was restored in 1657. A second company was created in 1660, 
 and formed cardinal Mazarine's guard. Uenault. 
 
 MUGGLETONIANS, so called from Ludowic Muggleton, a tailor, known about 1641, 
 and i^rominent about 1656. He and John Reeve affirmed that God the Father, leaving the 
 government of heaven to Elias, came down and suffered death in a human form. They 
 asserted that they were the two last witnesses of God which should appear before the end of 
 the M'orld. Hcv. xi. 3. A sect of this name still exists. 
 
 * St. Juan del Norte (Greytown) was held by the British on behalf of the Mosquitoes till the American 
 adventurers, under col. Kinney, took possession of it in Sejjt. 1855. He joined Walker ; and on Feb. 10, 
 1S56, their associate Rivas, the president, claimed and annexed the Mosquito territory to Nicaragua. 
 
MUH 495 MUS 
 
 MUHLBERG, on the Elbe, Prussia. Here tlie German Protestants were defeated by the 
 emperor Charles V., April 24, 1547. 
 
 MUHLDORF (Bavaria). Near this place Frederick, duke of Austria, was defeated and 
 taken prisoner by Louis of Bavaria, Sept 28, 1322. 
 
 MULBERRY TREES. The first planted in England are in the gardens of Sion-house. 
 Shakspeare planted a mulberry-tree with his own hands at Stratford-upoh-Avon ; and 
 Garrick, Macklin, and others were entertained under it in 1742. Shakspeare's house was 
 afterwards sold to a clergyman of the name of Gastrel, who cut down the mulberry-tree for 
 fuel, 1765 ; but a silversmith purchased the whole, and manufactured it into memorials. 
 
 MULE, a spinning machine invented in 1779, by Samuel Crompton, born at Bolton, 
 Lancashire, in 1753; named, from Crompton's residence, Hall-in-the-tuood-wJieel ; muslin- 
 loheel, from its giving birth to the British muslin and cambric manufacture ; and mule, from 
 its combining the advantages of Hargreave's spinning jenny, and Arkwright's adaptation. 
 It is stated that Crompton at the time kncAV nothing of the latter. He did not patent his 
 invention, but gave it up in 1780. It produced yarn treble the fineness and very much 
 softer than any ever before produced in England. Parliament voted him 5000Z. in 1812, 
 now considered a most inadequate compensation. Mr. Roberts invented the self-acting mule 
 in 1825. 
 
 MULHOUSE, or Mtiliiatjsen (IST.E. France), an imperial city, under Rodolph of 
 Hapsburg ; joined the Swiss confederation in 1515 ; and annexed to France in 1798. 
 
 MUMMIES (from the Arabic mum, wax). See Em.halming. The mummies in the 
 British Museum, with other Egyptian antiquities, were placed there about 1803. Mr. Alex. 
 Gordon, in 1737 published an essay on three Egyptian mummies, one of which was brought 
 to England in 1722, by capt. Wm. Lethieullier ; two others came in 1734, one of which was 
 retained by Dr. Mead, the other was given to the College of Physicians. In 1834, Mr. T. J. 
 Pettigrew published a "History of Egyptian Mummies." 
 
 MUNICH, the. beautiful capital of Bavaria, was founded, it is said, 962. It was taken 
 by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1632 ; by the Austrians, in 1704, 1741, and 1743 ; and 
 by the French under Moreau, July 2, 1800. It abounds in schools, institutions, and manu- 
 factories. The university was founded by king Louis in 1826. 
 
 MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS, &c. See Corporations. 
 
 MUNSTER (Westphalia). The bishopric said to have been founded by Charlemagne, 
 780, was secularised in 1802, and ceded to Prussia in 1815. The Anabaptists, under John of 
 Leyden, the king of Muuster, held the city in 1534 and 1536. Here was signed the treaty of 
 "Westphalia {which, see) or Munster, Oct. 24, 1648. — Mxjnsteu, the southern province of 
 Ireland. In 1568 a commission was issued for its government by a president and council, 
 and new colonies were founded in 1588. 
 
 MURCIA, a province, N.E. Spain, was subdued by the Moors, 713; by Ferdinand of 
 Castile, 1240 ; and divided between Castile and Arragon, 1305. 
 
 MURDER, the highest offence against the law of God. {Genesis ix. 6, 2348 B.C.). A 
 court of Ephetse was established by Demophoon of Athens for the trial of murder, 11 79 B.C. 
 The Persians did not punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the Heptarchy, 
 murder was punished by fines only. So late as Henry VIII.'s time the crime was compounded 
 for in "Wales. Murderers were allowed benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated murder, or 
 petit treason (a distinction now abolished), happened in three ways ; by a servant killing his 
 master ; a wife her husband ; and an ecclesiastical person his superior, stat. 25 Edw. III. 
 1350. The enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful commission 
 has been rarely pardoned by our sovereigns. The act whereby the murderer should be 
 executed on the day next but one after his conviction, was repealed, 1836. See Executions 
 and Trials. 
 
 MURFREESBOROUGH (Tennessee). Near here severe conflicts took place between the 
 Federals under Rosencrans and the Confederates under Bragg, Dec. 30, 1862, and Jan. 2, 
 1863. The Federals claimed the victory. 
 
 MURIATIC ACID, ^ee Alkali. 
 
 MUSEUM, origiually a quarter of the palace of Alexandria, like the Prytaneum of 
 Athens, where eminent learned men were maintained by the public. The foundation is 
 attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who here placed his library about 284 B.C. Besides 
 
MUS 
 
 496 
 
 MUS 
 
 the British Museum and Sloaue's Museum (which see), there are very many others iu 
 Loudon. 
 
 MUSIC* " Juhal, the father of all such as handle the harp and the organ," (3875 B.C., 
 Gen. iii. 21). Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds in hollow reeds. 
 Franckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers of Tubal-Cain. Cameleon 
 Pontique and' others to the singing of birds ; and Zarlino to the sound of water dropping, 
 &c. The flute, and harmony, or concord in music, are said to have been invented by 
 Hyagnis, 1506. Arund. Marbles. Vocal choruses of men are first mentioned 556 B.C. 
 Dufres'iioy. 
 
 MUSIC IN England. Before the Reformation, there was but one kind of music in 
 Europe worth notice, namely, the sacred chant, and the descant built upon it. This music, 
 moreover, was applied to one language only, the Latin. Ashe. The original English music 
 from the period of the Saxons to that era in which our countrymen imbibed the art, and 
 copied the manner of the Italians, was of a character which neither pleased the soul nor 
 charmed the ear. But as all the arts appear to have been the companions of successful 
 commerce, our music soon improved, our taste was chastened, and sweet sounds formed an 
 indispensable part of polite education. Prior to 1600, the chief music Avas masses and 
 madrigals, but dramatic music was much cultivated from that time. About the end of 
 James I.'s reign, a music professorship was founded in the University of Oxford by Dr. "VVm. 
 Hychin ; and the year 17 10 was distinguished by the arrival in England of George Frederick 
 Handel. Mozart came to England in 1763 ; Joseph Haydn in 1791 ; and Carl Maria von 
 Weber in 1825. The study of music has been greatly promoted in this country since 1840, 
 by the labours of John HuUah. The Tonic sol-fa system, in which at first tlie letters d, r, 
 m, /, s, I, t, (for do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, or si) are used instead of notes, was invented by 
 Miss Glover of Norwich, and improved by John Curwen, about 1847. It has been successfully 
 employed in schools. 
 
 Musical Notes &c. The first six are said to have 
 been invented by Guy Aretino, a Benedictine 
 monk of Arezzo, about 1025. Blair. The notes at 
 present used were perfected in 133S. Counterpoint 
 was brought to perfection by Palestriua about 1555. 
 Gafforio of Lodi, read lectures on musical compo- 
 sition in the 15th century, and they eflfected great 
 improvement in the science. The Itahan style of 
 composition was introduced into these countries 
 abovit 1616. 
 
 The Musical Pitch was settled in France in i860. 
 The middle C to be 522 vibrations in a second. 
 At a meeting on the subject, held at the Society of 
 Arts, in Nov. 23, 1S60, the concert pitch of C was 
 recommended to be 528 vibrations in a second. 
 Mr. IluUah adopted 512 vibrations. 
 
 Musical Festivals in England. Dr. Bysse, chan- 
 cellor of Hereford, proposed to the members of the 
 choirs, a collection at the cathedral door after 
 morning service, when forty guineas were col- 
 lected and appropriated to charitable pui-jjoses. 
 It was then agreed to hold festivals at Hereford, 
 Gloucester, and Worcester, in rotation annually. 
 Until the year 1753, the festival lasted only two 
 days ; it was then extended at Hereford to three 
 evenings ; and at Gloucester, in 1757, to three 
 mornings, fc>r the purjiose of introducing Handel's 
 " Messiah," which was warmly received, and has 
 
 been performed annually ever since. Musical fes- 
 tivals on a great scale are now annually held at 
 various cathedrals in England, See Handel and 
 Crystal Palace. 
 
 Musical Institutions. The Ancient Academy of 
 Music was instituted in 1710. It originated with 
 numerous eminent performers and gentlemen 
 wishing to promote the study of vocal harmony. 
 
 The Madrigal Society was established in 1741, and 
 other musical societies followed. 
 
 The Royal Society of Music arose from the principal 
 nobility and gentry uniting to promote the per- 
 formance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. 
 
 The Philharmonic concerts began in 1813. 
 
 The Royal Academy of Music, established 1822, 
 (which see). 
 
 The Musical Society of London established 1858. 
 
 The "Popular Monday Concerts" at St. James's 
 Hall commenced with a "Mendelssohn night" on 
 Feb. 14, 1859. 
 
 The London Academy of Music founded in i860. 
 
 The centenary of the "Noblemen's Catch Club '' was 
 kept in July, i86i. 
 
 The Cecilian Society, London, founded about 1785 ; 
 ceased in 1862. 
 
 The " Musical Education Committee" of the Society 
 of Arts, London, with the prince of Wales as 
 chairman, held its first meeting May 22, 1865. 
 
 EMINENT MODEKN MUSICAL COMPOSERS. 
 
 
 Born 
 
 Died 
 
 
 Bom 
 
 Died 
 
 
 Bom 
 
 Died 
 
 TalUs . 
 
 
 1585 
 
 H. Lawes 
 
 . . 1600 
 
 1662 
 
 G. F. Handel 
 
 . . 1684 
 
 1759 
 
 Palestrina 
 
 ■ 1529 
 
 1594 
 
 Lully 
 
 • 1633 
 
 1672 
 
 T. A. Ame 
 
 . 1710 
 
 1778 
 
 T. Morley . 
 
 
 1604 
 
 Purcell 
 
 . . 1658 
 
 169s 
 
 C. Gluck . 
 
 • • 1714 
 
 1787 
 
 Orlando Gibbons 
 
 • 1583 
 
 1624 
 
 J. Seb. Bacht . 
 
 . 1685 
 
 1754 
 
 W. A. Mozart . 
 
 • 1756 
 
 1 791 
 
 * Pythagoras (about 555 B.C.) maintained that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce 
 delightful sounds, inaudible to mortal eais, which he called " the music of the spheres." St. Cecilia, a 
 Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently iu music, that an angel was enticed from the celestial 
 regions by the fascinating charms of her melody ; and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed sufficient 
 authority to make her the patroness of music and musicians. She died in the 3rd century. 
 
 t He had eleven sons ; four of them distinguished musicians. 
 
MUS 
 
 
 497 
 
 
 MYC 
 
 
 MUSIC, continued. 
 
 Born 
 Joseph Haydn . . 1732 
 C. Dibdin . .1748 
 S. Webhe . , . 1740 
 J. W. Callcott . .1766 
 C. Weber . . . 1786 
 L. Beethoven . .1770 
 
 Died 
 1809 
 1814 
 1817 
 1821 
 1826 
 1827 
 
 Born 
 H. Bishop . . . 1787 
 M. Cherubini . . 1760 
 F. Mendelssohn- ) „ 
 
 Bartholdy . r^°9 
 L. Spohr . . . 1783 
 D. T. Auber . . 1784 
 
 Died 
 1855 
 1842 
 
 1848 
 
 1S59 
 
 Bom 
 
 J. Meyerbeer . . 1794 
 J. E Halevy . . 1799 
 J. Eossini . . . 1792 
 M. W. Balfe . .1808 
 W.Stemdale Bennett 1816 
 
 1864 
 1862 
 
 MUSKETS. See Fire-arms. 
 
 MUSLIN", a fine cotton cloth, so called, it is said, as not being bare, but having a downy 
 nap on its surface, resembling moss, which the French call mousse. According to others, it 
 was first brought from Moussol, in India, whence the name. Muslins were first worn iu 
 England iu 1670. Anderson. By means of the Mide {tvldcli see), British have superseded 
 India muslins. 
 
 MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute, when, being arraigned for treason or felony, he 
 either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. Anciently, a mute was subjected 
 to toi'ture. By 12 Geo. III. 1772, judgment was awarded against mutes, as if they were 
 convicted or had confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the 
 Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778, and another on a charge of burglary at Wells, 1792. 
 An act was passed in 1827, by which the court is directed to enter a plea of "not guilty" 
 when the prisoner will not plead.* 
 
 MUTINIES, British. The mutiny throughout the fleet at Portsmouth for an advance 
 of wages, April, 1797. It subsided on a promise from the Admiralty, which not being 
 quickly fulfilled, occasioned a second mutiny on board the London man-of-war ; admiral 
 Colpoys, and his captain, wei-e put into confinement for ordering the marines to fire, whereby 
 some lives were lost. The mutiny subsided May 10, 1797, when an act was passed to raise 
 the wages, and the king pardoned the mutineers. A more considerable one at the Nore, 
 which blocked up the trade of the Thames, broke out on May 27, 1797, and subsided June 13, 
 1797, when the principal mutineers were put in irons, and several executed (including the 
 ringleader, nicknamed rear-admiral Richard Parker), June 30, at Sheerness. Mutiny of the 
 Danae frigate ; the crew carried the ship into Brest harbour, March 27, 1800. Mutiny on 
 board admiral Mitchell's fleet at Bantry Bay, Dec. 1801, and January following (see Bantry 
 Bay). Mutiny at Malta, began April 4, 1807, and ended on the 12th, when the mutineers 
 blew themselves up by setting fire to a large magazine, consisting of between 400 and 500 
 barrels of gunpowder. See Madras, 1806, and India, 1857. 
 
 MUTINY. A statute for the discipline, regulation, and payment of the army, &c., was 
 passed in 1689, and has since been re-enacted annually. 
 
 MUTINY OF THE Bounty, April 28, 1 789. For particulars see Bounty. 
 
 MYGALE (Ionia, Asia Minor), Battle of, fought between the Greeks (under 
 Leotychides, the king of Sparta, and Xanthippus the Athenian) and the Persians, 
 Sept. 22, 479 B. c. ; being the day on which Mardonius was defeated and slain at Platsea by 
 Pausanias. The Persians (about 100,000 men), who had just retui'ned from the unsuccessful 
 expedition of Xerxes in Greece, were completely defeated, thousands of them slaughtered, 
 and their camp burnt. The Greeks sailed back to Samos with an immense booty. 
 
 MYCENiE, a division of the kingdom of the Argives, in the Peloponnesus. It stood 
 about fifty stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Heraclidse, 
 
 Perseus removes from Argos, and founds My- 
 
 cense B.C. 1431, 1313, or 1282 
 
 Keign of Eurystheus . . 1289, 1274, or 1258 
 
 [Towards the close of his reign is placed the 
 
 story of the several dangerous enterprises 
 
 surmounted by Hercules.] 
 .Slgisthus assassinates Atreus .... 1201 
 Agamemnon succeeds to the throne ; becomes 
 
 king of Sicyon, Corinth, and perhaps of Argos ,, 
 He is chosen generalissimo of the Grecian forces 
 
 going to the Trojan war . . . . about 1193 
 
 .aigisthus, in the absence of Agamemnon, lives 
 iu adultery with the queen Clytemnestra. On 
 the return of the king they assassinate him ; 
 and .aigisthus mounts the throne . . B.C. 1183 
 
 Orestes, son of Agamemnon, kills his mother 
 and her paramour 
 
 Orestes dies of the bite of a serpent . 
 
 The Achaians are expelled . . . . . 
 
 Invasioa of the Heraclidse, and the conquerors 
 divide the dominions 
 
 Mycenie destroyed by the Argives 
 
 1176 
 1T06 
 
 1 103 
 
 * Walter Calverly, of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq., having murdered two of his children, and stabbed 
 his wife in a fit of jealousy, being arraigned for his crime at York assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon 
 pressed to death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon his bre ist, Aug. 5, 1605. Stow's 
 Citron. Major Strangeway suffered death in a siroSlar manner at Newgate in 1657, for the murder of his 
 brother-in-law, Mr. Fussell, 
 
 K K 
 
MYL 498 NAN 
 
 MYLiE, a Lay of Sicily, whera the Romans, under their consul Duilius, gained their first 
 naval victory over the Carthaginians, and took fifty of their ships, 260 B.C. Here also 
 Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sextus Porapeius, 36 B.C. 
 
 MYSORE (S. India), was made a flourishing kingdom by Hyder Ali in 1761, and by his 
 son, Tippoo Sahib, who considerably harassed the English. Tippoo was chastised by them 
 in 1792, and on May 4, 1799, his capital, Seringapatam, was taken by assault, and himself 
 slain. The English now hold tlie country. 
 
 MYSTERIES. "Mystery " is said to be derived from the Hebrew mistar, to hide. The 
 Sacred mysteries is a term applied to the doctrines of Christianity, the chief of which is the 
 incarnation of Christ, called the "mystery of godliness," i Tim. iii. 16. The Profane 
 mysteries were the secret ceremonies performed by a select few in honour of some deity. 
 Erom the Egyptian mysteries of Isis and Osiris sprang those of Bacchus and Ceres among 
 the Greeks. The Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 b.c. — 
 Mystery Plays. See Drama. 
 
 MYTHOLOGY (Greek mythos, fable), the traditions respecting the gods of any people. 
 Thoth is supposed to have introduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 B.C. ; and 
 Cadmus, the worship of the Egyptian and Phoenician deities among the Greeks, 1493 B.C. 
 
 N. 
 
 NAAS (E. Ireland), an ancient town. Here a desperate engagement took place between 
 a body of the king's forces and the insurgent Irish, during the rebellion of 1798. The latter 
 were defeated with the loss of 300 killed and many M'ounded, May 24, 1798. 
 
 NABONASSAR, Era of, received its name from the celebrated prince of Babylon, imder 
 whose reign astronomical studies were much advanced in Chaldfea. The years are vague, 
 containing 365 days each, without intercalation. The first day of the era was "Wednesday 
 (said, in mistake, to be Thursday, in L'Art de Verifier Ics Dates), Feb. 26, 747 B.C. — 3967, 
 Julian period. To find the Julian year on which the year of Nabonassar begins, subtract the 
 year, if before Christ, from 748 ; if after Christ, add to it 747. 
 
 NAG'S HEAD STORY. Matthew Parker was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury at 
 Lambeth, Dec. 17, 1559, by bishops Barlow, Coverdale, Scory, and Hodgkins. Many years 
 after, the Romish writers asserted that Parker and others had been consecrated at the Nag's- 
 Head Tavern, Cheapside, by Scory. This tale was refuted by Burnet. 
 
 NAHUM, Festival of. Nahum, the seventh of the twelve minor prophets, about 
 713 B.C. ; the festival is the 24th of December. 
 
 NAJARA or Nayaeete (N. Spain). Here Edward the Black Prince defeated Henry de 
 Trastamere, and re-established Peter the Cruel on the throne of Castile, April 3, 1367. 
 
 NAMES. _ Adam and Eve named their sons. Gen. iv. 25, 26. The popes change their 
 names on their exaltation to the pontificate, "a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whose 
 name till then was swine-snout," 687. Platina. Onuphrius refers it to John XII. 956 ; and 
 gives as a reason that it was done in imitation of SS. Peter and Paul, who were first called 
 Simon and Saul. In France it was usual to change the name given at baptism. The two 
 sons of Henry II. of France were christened Alexander and Heixules ; at their confirmation 
 these names were changed to Henry and Francis. Monks and nuns, at their entrance into 
 monasteries assume new names, to show that they are about to lead a new life. See 
 Surnames. 
 
 NAMUR, in Belgium, was made a county in 932, was ceded to the house of Austria by 
 the peace of Uti-echt, and Avas garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town of the United 
 Provinces in 1715. Namur was taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 
 1781, the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792 it was again taken by the 
 French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year ; but they regained possession 
 of it in 1794. The French, however, deliveretl it up to the allies in 1814. It was a site 
 of a severe conflict in June, 18 15, between the Prussians and the French under Grouchy, 
 when retreating after the battle of "Waterloo. 
 
 NANCY (Lorraine, France), founded in the 12th century. Charles the Bold of Burgundy 
 endeavoured to conquer Lon-aine, and besieged Nancy in 1476 ; but on Jan. 5, 1477, he was 
 defeated and slain by the duke of Lorraine and his Swiss allies. 
 
NAN" 
 
 499 
 
 NAP 
 
 NANKIN, said to have beeii made the central capital of China, 420. On Aucr. 4^ 1842, 
 the British ships arrived at Nankin, and peace was made. The rebel Tae-pings "ook it on 
 March 19, 20, 1853. It Avas recaptured by the Imperialists, July 19, 1864, and found to be 
 in a very desolate condition. 
 
 NANTES. See Edict. 
 
 NAPIER'S BONES. See Logarithms. 
 
 NAPLES, formerly the continental division and seat of government of the kingdom of 
 the Two Sicilies, began with a Greek colony named Parthenope (about 1000 B.C.), which was 
 afterwards divided into Palseopolis (the old) and Neapolis (the iieiu city) , from which latter 
 the present name is derived. The colony was conquered by the Romans in the Samnite war, 
 326 B.C. Naples, after resisting the power of the Lombards, Franks, and Germans, was 
 subjugated by the Normans under Roger Guiscard, king of Sicily, a.d, J131. Few countries 
 have had so many political changes and cruel and despotic rulers, or' suffered so much by 
 convulsions of nature, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, &c. In 1856, the population 
 of the kingdom of Naples was 6,886,030, of Sicily, 2,231,020 ; total, 9,117,050. It now 
 forms part of the revived kingdom of Italy. 
 
 Naples conquered by Theodoric the Goth. . . 493 
 
 Retaken by Belisarius 536 
 
 Taken agam by Totila 543 
 
 Retaken by Narses 552 
 
 Becomes a duchy nominally subject to the 
 
 Eastern empire 568 or 572 
 
 Duchy of Naples greatly extended . . . 593 
 Robert Guiscard, the Norman, made duke of 
 
 Apulia, founds the kingdom of Naples . . 1059 
 Naples conquered, and the kingdom of the two 
 
 Sicilies founded by Roger Guiscard II. . . 1131 
 The imperial house of Hohenstaufen (see Ger- 
 
 inany) obtains the kingdom by marriage ; and 
 
 rules H94-1266 
 
 The pope appoints Charles of Anjou, king, who 
 
 defeats the regent Manfred (son of Frederic II. 
 
 of Germany) at Benevento (Manfred slain) 
 
 Feb. 26, „ 
 Charles also defeats Conradin (the last of the 
 
 Hohenstaufens), who had come to Naples by 
 
 invitation of the Ghibellines, at Taghacozzo, 
 
 Aug. 23 ; Conradin beheaded . . Oct. 29, 126S 
 The massacre called the Sicilian vespers {which 
 
 see) March 30, 1282 
 
 Andrew of Hungary, hiisband of Joanna I., 
 
 murdered Sept. 18, 1345 
 
 He is avenged by his brother Louis king of 
 
 Hungary, who invades Naples . . . . 1349 
 Alphonso V. of Arragon (called the Wise and 
 
 Magnanimous), on the death of Joanna II. 
 
 seizes Naples 1435 
 
 Naples conquered by Charles VIII. of France . 1494 
 And by Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of 
 
 Spain 1501 
 
 Naples and Sicily united to Spain . . . 1504 
 
 InsiuTection of ilasaniello.* 1647 
 
 Another insurrection suppressed by don John 
 
 of Austria Oct. ,, 
 
 Henry II. duke of Guise lands and is proclaimed 
 
 king, but in a few days is taken prisoner by 
 
 the Spaniards April, 1648 
 
 Naples conquered by prince Eugene of Savoy, 
 
 for the emperor 1706 
 
 Discovery of Herculaneum (which see) 1711 or 1713 
 The Spaniards by the victory at Bitonto (May 
 
 26) having made themselves masters of both 
 
 kingdoms, Charles (of Boirbon), son of the 
 
 king of Spain, ascends the throne, with the 
 
 ancient title renewed, of the king of the Two 
 
 Sicilies 1734 
 
 Order of St. Januarius instituted by king 
 
 Charles 173S 
 
 Charles, becoming king of Spain, vacates the 
 throne of the Two Sicilies in favour of his 
 third son Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty . . 1759. 
 Expulsion of the Jesuits . . . Nov. 3, 1767 
 Dreadful earthquake in Calabria . . Feb. 5, 1783 
 Enrolment of the Lazzaroni (which see) as pike- 
 men or spontoneers 1793 
 
 The king flies on the approach of the French 
 republicans, who establish the Parthenopean 
 
 republic Jan. 14, 1799 
 
 Nelson appears : Naples retaken ; the restored 
 
 king rules tyrannically . . . June, „ 
 Prince Caracciolo tried and executed by oi-der 
 
 of Nelson June 29, „ 
 
 The Neapolitans occupy Rome . . Sept. 30, ,, 
 Dreadful earthquake felt throughout the king- 
 dom, and thousands perish . . July 26, 1804 
 Treaty of ^neutrahty between France and Naples 
 
 ratified" Oct. g, 1805 
 
 Ferdinand, through perfidy, is compelled to fly 
 to Sicily, Jan. 23 ; the French enter Naples, 
 and Joseph Bonaparte made king . Feb. 1806 
 
 The French defeated at Maida . . July 4, „ 
 Joseph Bonaparte, after beginning many re- 
 forms, abdicates for the crown of Spain, June, 1808 
 Joachim Murat made king (rules well), July 15, ,, 
 His first quarrel with Napoleon . . . . 1811 
 His alhance with Austria . . . Jan. 1814 
 Death of queen Caroline of Austria . Sept. 7, ,, 
 Joachim declares war against Austria, March 15, 1815 
 Defeated at Tolentino .... May 3, „ 
 He retires to France, May 22, and Corsica ; he 
 madly attempts the recovery of his throne 
 by landing at Pizzo, Sept. 28 ; is seized, tried, 
 
 and shot Oct. 13, „ 
 
 Ferdinand, re-established, soon returns to 
 
 tyrannical measures .... June, ,, 
 A plague rages in Naples, Nov. 1815 to June . i8t6 
 Establishment of the society of the Carbonari . 1819 
 Successful insurrection of the Carbonari under 
 general P^pe : the king compelled to swear 
 solemnly to a new constitution . July 13, 1820 
 The Austrians invade thekingdom, at the king's 
 
 instigation : general Pdp^ defeated March 7, 1821 
 Pall of the constitutional government, March 23, ,, 
 Death of Ferdinand ; (reigned 66 .years), Jan. 4, 1825 
 [In 30 years, 100,000 Neapolitans perished by 
 various kinds of death.] 
 
 * Occasioned by the extortions of the Spanish viceroys. One day an impost was claimed on a basket 
 of figs, and refused by the owner, with -whom the populace took part headed by Masaniello (Thomas 
 Aniello), a fisherman ; they obtained the command of Naples, many of thenobles were slain and their 
 palaces bui-nt, and the viceroy was compelled to abolish the taxes and to restore the privileges granted by 
 Charles V. to the city. Masaniello became intoxicated by his success and was slain by his own followers 
 after a few days' rule, on July 16, 1647. 
 
NAP 
 
 500 
 
 NAP 
 
 NAPLES, continued. 
 
 Insurrection of the Carbonari suppressed . . 1828 
 
 Accession of Ferdinand II. (as faithless and 
 tyrannical as his predecessors) . Nov. 8, 1830 
 
 Dispute with England respecting the sulphur 
 trade ; settled March, 1840 
 
 Attilio and Emilio Bandiera, with eighteen 
 others, attempting an insurrection in Cala- 
 bria, are shot' .... Jan. 17, 1844 
 
 Prospect of an insurrection in Naples ; the king 
 grants a new constitution . . Jan. 29, 1848 
 
 Great fighting in Naples ; the liberals and the 
 national guard almost annihilated by the 
 royal troops, aided by the lazzaroni. May 15, 1848 
 
 A martial anarchy prevails ; the chiefs of the 
 liberal party arrested in . . . Dec. 1849 
 
 Settembrini, Poerio, Carafa, and others, after a 
 mock trial, are condemned, and consigned to 
 horrible dungeons for life . . . June, 1850 
 
 After remonstrances with the king 011 his tyran- 
 nical goveinment (May), the English and 
 French ambassadors are withdrawn Oct. 28, 1856 
 
 Attempted assassination of the king by Jlilano, 
 
 Dec. 8, „ 
 
 The CagUarH seized .... June, 1857 
 
 Italian refugees, under count Pisaccane, land 
 in Calabria, are defeated, and their leader 
 killed .... June 27 — July 2, „ 
 
 A dreadful earthquake in the Apennines (see 
 Earthquakes) Dec. 16, ,, 
 
 Amnesty grauted to political offenders, Dec. 27, 1858 
 
 Poerio and sixty-six companions released and 
 sent to N. America, Jan. ; on their way, they 
 seize the vessel ; sail to Cork, March 7 ; and 
 proceed to London .... March 18, 1859 
 
 Death of Ferdinand II., after dreadful suffer- 
 ings ....... May 22, ,, 
 
 Diplomatic relations resumed with England 
 and France June, „ 
 
 A subscription for Poerio and his companions 
 in England amounted to io,oooL . July, „ 
 
 Insubordination among the Swiss troops at 
 Naples ; many shot, July 7 ; major Latour 
 sent to Naples by the Swiss confederation, 
 
 July 16, ,, 
 
 Army increased ; defences strengthened, Oct. ,, 
 
 Many political imprisonments ; the foreign am- 
 bassadors collectively address a note to the 
 king stating the necessity for reform in his 
 states, March 26 ; the count of Syracuse re- 
 commends reform and alliance with England 
 
 April, i860 
 
 Kevolution in Sicily (ir/(icft see) . May 11, 14, 
 
 Francis II. proclaims an amnesty; promises a 
 
 liberal ministry; adopts a tricolor flag, &c., 
 
 June 26, 
 
 Baron Brenier, French ambassador, wounded 
 in his carriage by the mob . " June 27, 
 
 A liberal ministry formed ; destruction of the 
 commissariat of the police in 12 districts ; 
 state of siege proclaimed at Naples ; the 
 queen-mother flees to Gaeta . . June 28, 
 
 Eevolutionary committee at Naples, June 15, 
 
 Garibaldi lands in Sicily, May 11 ; defeats the 
 Neapolit.an army at Calatifimi, May 15 ; and 
 at Melazzo, July 20 ; enters Messina, July 
 21 ; the Neapohtans agi-ee to evacuate Sicily, 
 
 July 30, 
 
 The king of Sardinia in vain negotiates with 
 Francis II. for alliance . . . July, 
 
 Francis II. proclaims the re-establishment of 
 the constitution of 1848, July 2 ; the army 
 proclaim count de Trani king . July 10, 
 
 Garibaldi lands at Meli to, Aug. 18; takes Reggio, 
 
 A\ig. 21, 
 
 Defection in ai-my and navy ; Francis II. retires 
 to Gaeti, Sept. 6; Garibaldi enters Naples 
 without troops .... Sept. 7, 
 
 Garibaldi assumes the dictatorship, Sept. 8 ; 
 and gives up the Neapolitan fleet to the Sar- 
 dinian admiral Persano, Sept. 11 ; expels the 
 Jesuits ; establishes tx-ial by jury ; releases 
 political prisoners .... Sept. 
 
 He repulses the Neapohtans at Cajazzo, Sept. 
 19, and defeats them thoroughly at the Yol- 
 turno Oct. i. 
 
 The king of Sardinia enters the kingdom of 
 Naples, and takes command of bis army, 
 which combines with Garibaldi's Oct. 11, 
 
 Naples unsettled through intrigues . . Oct. 
 
 Cialdini defeats the Neapohtans at Isemia, Oct. 
 17 ; at Venafro .... Oct. 18, 
 
 The Plebiscite at Naples, &c. ; almost unani- 
 mous vote for annexation to Piedmont 
 (1,303,064 to 10,312) .... Oct. 21, 
 
 Garibaldi meets Victor Emmanuel, and salutes 
 him as king of Italy . . . . Oct. 26, 
 
 The first English protestant church built on 
 
 ground given by Garibaldi ; consecrated, 
 
 March 11, 
 
 [History continued, under Italy. 1 
 
 1865 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF NAPLES AND SICILY. 
 
 1131. Roger I. (of Sicily, 1130) Norman. 
 
 1 154. William I. the Bad ; son. 
 
 1166. WilUam II. the Good ; son. 
 
 1189. Taucred, natural son of Roger. 
 
 1 194. WilUam III. son, succeeded by Constance, 
 
 married to Henry VI. of Germany. 
 
 1 197. Frederic II. of Germany {Hokehstaufen). 
 
 1250. Conrad;. son. 
 
 1254. Conradin, son ; but his uncle, 
 
 1258. Manfred, nat. son of Frederick II., seizes the 
 
 government ; killed at Benevento, in 1266. 
 1266. Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of 
 
 France. 
 1282. Insurrection in Sicily. 
 
 (Separation, of the kingdom) in 1282.) 
 
 * It was asserted, but denied by lord Aberdeen, that his government had given warning of this 
 attempt, of which they had obtained information by opening letters directed to Mazzini. 
 
 t The Cagliuri, a Sardinian mail steamboat plying between Genoa and Tunis, sailed from the former 
 port on Jxme 25, 1857, with thirty-three passengers, who, aftur a few hours' saU, took forcible possession 
 of the vessel, and compelled the two English engineers (Watt and Park) to steer to Ponza. Here they 
 landed, released some prisoners, took them on board, and sailed to Sapri, where they again landed, and 
 restored the vessel to its commander and crew. The latter .steered immediately for Naples ; but on the 
 way the vessel was boarded by a Neapolitan cruisa-, and all the crew were landed and consigned to 
 dungeons, where they remained for nine months waiting for trial, suffering great privations and insults. 
 This caused great excitement in England : and after miich negotiation, the crew were released and the 
 vessel given up to the British government, 3000^. being given as a compensation to the sufferers. 
 
NAP 
 
 501 
 
 NAS 
 
 1295, 
 1337 
 1342 
 
 I35S- 
 
 NAPLES, continued. 
 
 NAPLES. 
 
 1282. Charles I. of An jou. 
 
 1285. Charles II. ; son. 
 
 1309. Robert the Wise ; brother. 
 
 1343. Joanna (reigns with her husband, Andrew of 
 
 Hungary), 1343-45 ; with Louis of Tareuto, 
 
 1349-62 ; Joanna put to death by 
 1381. Charles III. of Durazzo, grandson of Charles 
 
 II.: he becomes king of Hungary, 1586; 
 
 assassinated there. 
 1385. Ladislas of Hungary, son. 
 1414. Joanna II., sister, dies in 1435, and bequeaths 
 
 her dominions to Regnier of Anjou. They 
 
 are acquired by 
 
 1435. Alphonsus I. thus king of Naples and Sicily. 
 {Separation of Naples and Sicily in 1458.) 
 
 Sicily. 
 1458. Ferdinand I. 
 
 1494. Alphonso II. abdicates. 
 
 1495. Ferdinand II. 
 
 1496. Frederic II. expelled by the French, 1501 
 
 Sicily. 
 1282. Peter I. (III. of Arragon.) 
 James I. (II. of Arragon.) 
 Frederic II. 
 Peter II. 
 Louis. 
 
 Frederic III. 
 376. Maria and Martin (her husband). 
 1402. Martin I. 
 
 1409. Martin II. 
 
 1410. Ferdinand I. 
 1416. Alphonsus I. 
 
 1438. John of Arragon. 
 
 1479. Ferdinand the Catholic. 
 
 1 501. Ferdinand III. (king of Spain). 
 
 1516. Charles I. (V. of Germany). 
 
 1556. Philip L (II. of Spain). 
 
 1598. Philip II. (III. of Spain). 
 
 NAPLE.S. 
 
 Charles III. of Austria. 
 
 1735. Charles IV. (III. of Spain.) 
 
 1806. 
 
 Naples. 
 Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 Joachim Murat, shot Oct. 13, 1813, 
 
 THE CROWNS TTNITED. 
 
 1623. Philip III. (IV. of Spain). 
 1665. Charles II. (of Spain). 
 1700. Pbilip IV. (V. of Spain), Bourbons. 
 1707. Charles III. of Austria. 
 (Separation in 1713.) 
 
 Sicily. 
 1713. Victor Amadeus of Savoy ; exchanges Sicily 
 for Sardinia, 1720. 
 
 THE TWO SICILIES. 
 (Part of the empire of Gennany, 1720-34.) 
 
 I 1759. Ferdinand IV., a tyrannical and cruel sove- 
 I reign, flies from Naples in 1806 to Sicily. 
 
 (Separation in 1806.) 
 
 Sicily. 
 1806-13. Ferdinand IV. 
 
 THE TWO SICILIES. 
 
 1825. 
 1830. 
 
 Ferdinand I., formerly Ferdinand IV., of 
 
 Naples and Sicily. 
 Francis I. 
 Ferdinand II., Nov. 8 (termed King Bomba). 
 
 1839. Francis IL, May 22 ; born Jan. 16, 1836, last 
 
 King of Naples. 
 1861. Victor-Emmanuel II. of Sardinia, as King of 
 
 Italy; March. 
 
 NAPOLEON, CODE. See Codes. 
 
 NARBONNE (S.E. France), the Roman colony, Narbo Martins, founded 118 B.C., was 
 made the capital of a Visigotliic kingdom, 462. Gaston de Foix, the last vicomte (killed 
 at the battle of Ravenna, April 11, 1512J, resigned it to the king in exchange for the duchy 
 of Nemours. 
 
 NARCEINE AND NARCOTINE, alkaloids obtained from Opium (ivhich see). Narceine 
 was discovered by Pelletier in 1832 ; and narcotine by Derosne in 1803. 
 
 NARVA (Esthonia, Russia). Here Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated by 
 Charles XIL of Sweden, "the Madman of the North," then in his nineteenth year, Nov. 30, 
 1700. The army of Peter is said to have amounted to 60,000, some Swedish writers affinn 
 100,000 men, while the Swedes did not much exceed 20,000. Charles attacked the enemy 
 in his intrenchments, and slew 30,000; the remainder, exceeding that number, sur- 
 rendered. He had several horses shot under him, and as he was mounting a fresh one he 
 said, "These people seem disposed to give me exercise." The place was taken by Peter 
 in 1704. 
 
 NASEBY (Northamptonshire), Battle of, between Charles I. and the parliament 
 army under Fairfax and Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was commanded by 
 lord Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marmaduke Langdale the left, and the 
 king himself headed the body of reserve. Tiie victory was witli the parliament forces, 
 and was decisive against the king, who fled, losing his cannon, baggage, and 5000 prisoners, 
 June 14, 1645. 
 
NAS 
 
 50-1 
 
 NAT 
 
 NASHVILLE (Tennessee, N. America), was occupied by the Confederates in 1861, and 
 taken by tlie Federals, Feb. 23, 1862. 
 
 NASSAU, a German dually, was made a county by the emperor Frederic I. about 1180. 
 for Wolram, a descendant of Conrad I. of Germany ; irom whom are descended the royal 
 house of Oraufije now reigning in Holland (see Orange and Holland), and the present duke of 
 Nassau. Wiesbaden was made the capital in 1839. On April 25, i860, the Nassau chamber 
 strongly opposed the conclusion of a concordat with the pope, and claimed liberty of faith 
 and conscience. Population of the duchy in 1865, 468,311. 
 
 1839. Adolphus-William-Cliarles, bom July 24, 1817. 
 The PRESENT duke. 
 
 1788. Count Frederic-William joins the Confedera- 
 tion of the Rhine, and is made duke in 1806. 
 1814. WilUam-George, Aug. 20. 
 
 NATAL (Cape of Good Hope), Vasco da Gama landed here on Dec. 25, 1497, and hence 
 named it Terra Natalis. The Dutch attempted to colonize it about 1721. In 1823 lieut. 
 Farewell and a small band of emigrants settled here. It was annexed to the British crown 
 in 1843 ; and made a bishopric in 1853, and an independent colony in 1856. 
 
 NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. Upon the proposition of the Abb^ Si4yfes, the states-general 
 of France constituted themselves as the National Assembly, June 17, 1789. On the 20th, 
 the hall of this new assembly was shut by order of the king ; upon which the deputies of 
 the Tiers Etat repaired to the Jcu de Paume, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until 
 ttiey had digested a constitution for France. On the 22nd tliey met at the cliurch at St. 
 Louis. This assembly abolished the state religion, annulled monastic vows, divided France 
 into departments, sold tlie national domains, established a national bank, issued assignats, 
 and dissolved itself Sept. 21, 1792. See National Convention. In 1848 the legislature was 
 again tei-med the National Assembly. It met May 4, and a new constitution was proclaimed 
 Nov. 12. A new constitution was once more proclaimed by Louis Napoleon in Jan. 1852, 
 after triumphing over the National Assembl3^ 
 
 NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS. One was formed in 1584, headed by the carl of Leicester, 
 to protect qiieen Elizabeth from assassination, in consequence of the discovery of various 
 plots. Another for the defence of William III. against assassins was established in 1696, of 
 which all persons holding office under government were required to be members. See Social 
 Science and Volunteers for two other National associations. 
 
 NATIONAL CONVENTION of France, constituted in the hall of the Tuileries 
 Sept. 17, and formally opened Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gregoire, at the head of the 
 National Assemblj'', repaired thither aud announced that that assembly had ceased its 
 functions. It was then decreed, ' ' That the citizens named by the French people to form the 
 National Convention, being met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, 
 declare that the National Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a 
 new constitution was organised, and the Executive Directory was installed at the little 
 Luxembourg, Nov. I, 1795. See Directory. The Chartists (w/wc7i see) in England formed a 
 National Convention in 1 839. 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT. The first mention of parliamentary security for a debt of the nation 
 occurs in the reign of Henry ^ I. The present national debt commenced in the reign of 
 William III. 1690. It amounted, in 1697, to about five millions sterling, and was then 
 thought to be of alarming magnitude. The sole cause of the increase has been war. 
 
 Debt. 
 1702. Anne . ahout £14,000,000 
 1 7 14. George 1. . . 54,000,000 
 1749. George II. (after 
 
 Spanish war) . 78,000,000 
 17G3. George III. (end 
 
 of the Seven 
 
 Years' War) . 139,000,000 
 1786. After American 
 
 war . . 268,000,000 
 
 179S. Foreign war . . 462,000,000 
 1802. Close of French 
 
 Revolutionary 
 
 war . . 571,000,000 
 
 1814. Close of war with 
 
 Napoleon . 865,000,000 
 
 I Si 7. 
 
 English and Irish 
 Exchequers con- 
 
 Deht. 
 
 solidated 
 1830. Total amount 
 1840. Ditto 
 1850. Ditto . 
 
 1854. Ditto 
 
 1855. Ditto . 
 
 1856. Ditto 
 Funded debt 
 Unfunded 
 Funded debt 
 Unfunded 
 Funded debt 
 Unfunded 
 
 1857- 
 
 £848,282,477 
 840,184,022 
 789,578,720 
 787,029,162 
 775,041,272 
 
 793.375,199 
 807,981,788 
 780,119,722 
 
 27,989,000 
 779,225,495 
 
 25,911,500 
 786,801,154 
 
 18,277,400 
 
 i860. Funded debt 
 Unfunded 
 
 1 861. Funded debt 
 Unfunded 
 
 1862. Funded debt 
 Unfunded 
 
 1863. Fvmded debt 
 Unfunded 
 
 1864. Funded debt 
 Unfunded 
 
 1865. Funded debt 
 Unfunded 
 
 DeU. 
 £785,962,000 
 
 16,228,300 
 . 785,119,609 
 
 16,689,000 
 . 784,252,338 
 . 16,517,900 
 
 • 783.306,739 
 . 16,495,400 
 
 • 777.429.224 
 . 13,136,000 
 
 • 775,768,295 
 10, 742, 500 
 
 [Exclusive of tenninable 
 annuities.] 
 
 The annual interest in 1850 was 23,862,257?. ; and the total interest, including annuities, amounted to 
 27,699,74o<. On Jan. i, 1851, the totaJ unredeemed debt of Great Britain and Ireland was 769,272,562?., the 
 charge on which for interest and management was 27,620,449?. The total charge on the debt iu i86t was 
 26,090,260?. 
 
NAT 503 NAT 
 
 NATIONAL GALLERY, London (containing now about 750 pictures), began with tlio 
 purcliase, by the British government, of tire Angerstein collection of 38 pictures, for 57,000?., 
 in Jan. 1824. The iirst exhibition of them took place in Pall-mall, on May 10, 1824. Sir 
 O. Beaumont (1826), Mi'. Holwell Carr (183 1), and many other gentlemen, as well as the 
 British Institution, contributed many fine pictures ; and the collection has been since greatly 
 augmented by gifts and purchases. The present edifice in Trafalgar-square, designed by Mr. 
 Wilkins, was completed and opened April 9, 1838. In July, 1857, a commission appointed 
 to consider the propriety of removing the pictures reported in favour of their remaining in 
 their present locality ; and in i860, 15,000?. were voted, to be expended in adapting the 
 central part of the building to exhibition purposes. On May 11, 1861, the National Gallery 
 was reopened, after having been closed eight months, during which time great improvements 
 were made in the internal arrangements. On June 19, 1865, the house of commons voted 
 20,000?. to buy land to enlarge the building. 
 
 NATIONAL GUAED of France was instituted by the Committee of Safety at Paris 
 ■on July 13, 1789 (the day before the destruction of the Bastile), to maintain order and 
 defend the public libertj''. Its first colours were blue and red, to which white was addqd, 
 when its formation was approved by the king. Its action was soon paralysed by the revo- 
 lutionary factions, and it ceased altogether under the consulate and empire. It was revived 
 by Napoleon in 1814, and maintained by Louis XVIII., but was broken up by Charles X; 
 after a tumultuous review in 1827. It was revived in 1830, and helped to place Louis 
 Philippe on the throne. In 1848 its reconstitution and its enlargement from 80,000 to 
 100,000 men led to the frightful conflict of June, 1848. Its constitution was entirely 
 changed in Jan. 1852, when it was subjected entirely to the control of the government. 
 Formerly the National Guard had many privileges, such as choosing their own officers, &c. — 
 National Guards have been established in Spain, Naples, and other countries, during the 
 present century. 
 
 NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY was established in Feb. 1857 in pursuance of votes 
 from both houses of parliament. The sum of 2000?. was appropriated for the purchase of 
 portraits of persons eminent in British history, and apartments were assigned for their 
 reception. Donations are received under certain restrictions. A valuable collection of 
 National Portraits appeared at the Manchester Exhibition in 1857.* 
 
 NATIONAL SCHOOLS. See Education. 
 
 NATIONAL TESTIMONIALS (subscribed for) were presented to Rowland Hill (for his 
 exertions in obtaining the penny postage), June 17, 1846 : and to Miss Florence Nightingale 
 (for her beneficent exertions for the sufi'erers during the Crimean war), Nov. 29, 1855. 
 
 NATIVITY. There are two festivals in the Roman and Greek churches, under this 
 name. The Nativity of Christ, also observed by the Protestants on December 25th (see 
 Christmas) ; and the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, not observed by the Protestants at all. 
 Pope Sergius I., about 690, established the latter; but it was not generally received in 
 France and Germany till about 1000 ; nor by the eastern Christians till the 12th century, 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY was studied by Solomon, 1014 B.C. (i Kings iv. 33), and by 
 Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). See Botany, Zoology, &c. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. See Philosophy. 
 
 NATURAL SELECTION. See Species. 
 
 NATURALISATION is defined to be "the making a foreigner or alien a denizen or 
 freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it were, both a subject and a native of 
 a king or country, that by nature he did not belong to. " The first act of naturalisation 
 passed in 1437 ; and various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns from that 
 time : several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the naturalisation of 
 the Jews passed May, 1753, but was repealed in 1754, on the petition of all the cities in 
 England ; for the privileges since granted them, see Jeios. The act for the naturalisation of 
 prince Albert passed 3 Vict. Feb. 7, 1840. 
 
 NATURE-PRINTING. This process consists in impressing objects, such as plants, 
 mosses, feathers, &c., into plates of metal, causing these objects, as it were, to engrave them- 
 selves ; and afterwards taking casts or copies fit for printing from. Kniphof of Erfurt, 
 
 "'■ The formation of a National Portrait E.xihibition was proposed by the earl of Derby, earl Granville, 
 and others, at a meeting in London on July 13, 1865. It is to be held in April, 1866, in the old refreshment 
 room of the exhibition building of 1862. 
 
NAV 
 
 504 
 
 NAV 
 
 between 1728 and 1757, produced his Herbarium vivum by pressing the plants themselves 
 (previously inked) on paper ; the impressions being afterwards coloured by hand. In 1833, 
 Peter Kyhl, of Copenhagen, made use of steel rollers and lead plates. lu 1842, Mr. Taylor 
 printed lace. In 1847, Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, and plants ; and in the same 
 year Dr. Branson suggested the application of electrotyping to the impressions. In 1849, 
 professor Leydolt, of Vienna, by the able assistance of Mr. Andrew Worring, obtained 
 impressions of agates and fossils. The first practical application of this process is in Von 
 Heufler's work on the Mosses of Arpasch, in Transylvania ; the second (the first in this 
 country) in "The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland," edited by Dr. Lindley, the illus- 
 trations to which were prepared under the superintendence of Mr. Henry Bradbury in 
 1855-6, who also in 1859-60 printed "The British Sea-weeds," edited by W. G. Johnstone 
 and Alex. Croall. 
 
 NAVAL ARCHITECTS' INSTITUTE was established in Jan. i860. The members 
 give much attention to the consideration of the strength of iron ships. 
 
 NAVAL ASYLUM, Royal, began at Paddington in 1801, and was transferred to Green- 
 wich in 1807. The interior of the central portion was commenced in 1613 by Anne, queen 
 of James I., and completed in 1635 by queen Henrietta-Maria, whose arms still adorn the 
 ceiling of the room in which her son Charles II. was born in 1630. 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the first upon 
 record, 1263 b.c. Dufresnoy. The first sea fight on record is that between the Corinthians 
 and Corcyreans, 664 B.c. Blair. The following are among the most celebrated naval 
 engagements : for the details of which see separate articles. 
 
 Battle'of Salamis (Greek victory) Oct. 20, B.C. 480 
 
 Battle of Eurymedon (ditto) 466 
 
 Battle of Cyzicus ; tho LacedsBmonian fleet 
 taken by Alcibiades, the Atheuiau . . . 410 
 
 Battle of Arginusse 406 
 
 Battle of jEgospotamos (Spartans victors). . 405 
 The Persian fleet, under Conon, defeats the 
 Spartan, at Cnidos ; Pisander, the Athenian 
 admiral is kiOed ; and the maritime power 
 of the Lacedaimonians destroyed . . . 394 
 Battle of Mylje (Romans defeat Carthaginians) 260 
 The Roman fleet, off Trepanum, destroyed by 
 
 the Carthaginians 249 
 
 The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the consul 
 
 Lutatius 241 
 
 Battle of Actium 31 
 
 The emperor Claudius II. defeats the Goths, 
 
 .ind sinks 2000 of their ships . . . a.d. 269 
 Battle of Lepanto (Turks defeated) . Oct. 7, 1571 
 Bay of Gibraltar ; Dutch and Spaniards (a 
 bloody conflict and decisive victory, giving for 
 atime the superiority to the Dutch,) April 25, 1607 
 
 897 
 
 NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY. 
 
 Alfred with 10 gallej-s, defeated 300 sail of 
 Danish pirates on the Dorset and Hampshire 
 coast. Autr's Life of Alfred .... 
 
 Edward III. defeats the French near Sluys, 
 
 June 24, 1340 
 
 Off Winchelsea ; Edward III. defeated the 
 Spanish fleet of 40 large ships,and captured 26, 
 
 Aug. 29, 1350 
 
 The English and Flemings ; the latter signally 
 defeated 1371 
 
 Earl of Arundel defeats a Flemish fleet of 100 
 sail, and captures 80 . . . March 24, 1387 
 
 Near Milford Haven ; the English take 8, and 
 destroy 15 French ships 1405 
 
 Off Harfleur ; the duke of Bedford takes or 
 destroys nearly 500 French ships . A>ig. 15, 
 
 In the Downs ; a Spanish and Genoese fleet 
 captured by the earl of Warwick 
 
 Bay of Biscay ; Enghsh and French, indecisive, 
 
 Aug. 10, 1512 
 
 8ir Edward Howard attacks the French under 
 Prior John ; repulsed and killed April 25, 1513 
 
 The S a»ii«/i .(irmada destroyed . . July ig, 1588 
 
 Dover straits ; between the Dutch admiral Van 
 Tromp, and admiral Blake. The Dutch sur- 
 prise the English in the Downs, 80 sail en- 
 
 1416 
 
 • 1459 
 
 gaging 40 English, six of which are taken or 
 destroyed ; and the Dutch admiral sails in 
 triumph through the channel, with a broom 
 at his mast-head, to denote that he had swept 
 the English from the seas . . Nov. 29, 1652 
 
 The English gain a victory over the Dutch fleet 
 off Portsmouth, taking and destroying 11 
 men-of-war and 30 merchantmen. Van Tromp 
 was the Dutch, and Blake the Enghsh admiral, 
 
 Feb. 18-20, 1653 
 
 Again, off the North Foreland. The Dutch and 
 Englii-h fleets consisted of near 100 men- 
 of-w,ar each. Van Tromp commanded the 
 Dutch; Blake, Monk, and Deane, the Eng- 
 lish. Six Dutch ships taken; n sunk, aud 
 the rest ran into Calais roads . June 2, ,, 
 
 Again, on the coast of Holland ; the Dutch lose 
 30 men-of-war, and admiral Tromp was killed 
 (the seventh and last battle) . . July, ,, 
 
 At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 2,000,000 
 pieces of eight, were taken by Blake . Sept. 1656 
 
 Spanish fleet vanquished, and burnt in the 
 harbour of Santa Cruz, by Blake . April 20, 1657 
 
 English and French : 130 of the Bordeaux fleet 
 destroyed by the duke of York (afterwards 
 James IF.) Dec. 4, 1664 
 
 The duke of York defeats the Dutch fleet off 
 Harwich ; Opdam, the Dutch admiral, blown 
 up with all his crew ; 18 capital ships taken, 
 14 destroyed June 3, 1665 
 
 The earl of Sandwich took 12 men-of-war and 2 
 India slips Sept. 4, ,, 
 
 A contest between the Dutch and English 
 fleets for four days. The Enghsh lo-e 9, and 
 the Dutch 15 ships .... .June 1-4, 1666 
 
 Decisive engagement at the mouth of the 
 Thames, the English gain a glorious victory. 
 The Dutch lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals 
 killed, and 4,000 seamen . . July 23, 26, ,, 
 
 The Dutch admiial De Ruyter sails up the 
 Thames and destroys .some ships . June 11, 1667 
 
 Twelve .^Igerine ships of war destroyed by sir 
 Edward Spragg . ... . May 10, 1671 
 
 Battle of South wold-bay. See Soleba'i. May 28, 1672 
 
 Coast of Holland ; by prince Rupert, May 28, 
 June 4, and Aug. ii, sir E. Spragg kiUed ; 
 d'Etrees and Ruyter defeated . . . . 1673 
 
 Off Beachy Head ; the English aud Dutch de- 
 feated by the French . . . June 30, 1690 
 Victory ntur Cape La Hogue . . May 19, 1692 
 
NAV 
 
 50.5 
 
 NAV 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES, continued. 
 
 Oflf St. Vincent ; the English and Dutch squad- 
 rons, under admiral Rooke, defeated by the 
 French June i6, 1693 
 
 Off Carthagena, between admiral Benbow* 
 and the French fleet, commanded by admiral 
 Du Casse. Fought .... Aug. 19, 1702 
 
 Sir George Rooke defeats the French fleet off 
 Vigo (which fee) Oct. 12, ,, 
 
 Off Malaga ; bloody engagement between the 
 French, under the count of Thoulouse, and 
 the English, under sir George Rooke, when 
 the former entirely relinquished the dominion 
 of the seas to England . . . Aug. 24, 1704 
 
 At Gibraltar ; French lose 5 men-of-war, Nov. 5, ,, 
 
 In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake took 60 
 French vessels, laden with provisions. May 22, 1708 
 
 Spanish fleet of 29 sail totally defeated by sir 
 George Byng, in the Faro of Messina, July 31, 1718 
 
 Bloody battle off Toulon ; Matthews and Les- 
 tock against the fleets of France and Spain. 
 Here the brave captain Cornwall fell with 42 
 men, including officers ; and the victory was 
 lost by a misunderstanding between the 
 Englisb admirals .... Feb. 9, 1744 
 
 Off Cape Finisterre, the French fleet of 38 sail 
 taken by admiral Anson . . . May 3, 1747 
 
 Off Finisterre, when admii'al Hawke took 7 
 men-of-war of the French . . Oct. 14, ,, 
 
 Off Newfoundland, when admiral Boscawen 
 took 2 menof-war .... June 10, 1755 
 
 OS Cape Franpoise ; 7 ships defeated by 3 Eng- 
 lish . . ....-,. ■ Oct. 21, 1757 
 
 Admiral Pocock defeats the French fleet in the 
 East Indies, in two actions, 1758, and again . 1759 
 
 Admiral Boscaweu defeats the French under 
 De la Clue, off Cape Lagos . . Aug. 18, „ 
 
 Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet, com- 
 manded by Conflans, in Quiberon Bay, and 
 thus prevents a projected invasion of Eng- 
 land. See Quiberon Bay . . . Nov. 20, ,, 
 
 Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a fleet of 
 merchantmen Oct. g, 1762 
 
 On Lake ChHmplain the provincial force totally 
 destroyed by admiral Howe . . Oct. 11, 1776 
 
 Off Ushant ; a drawn battle between Keppel 
 and d'Orvilliers .... July 27, 1778 
 
 In New England ; the American fleet totally 
 desiroyed July 30, 1779 
 
 Near Cape St. Vincent ; admiral Rodney de- 
 feated a Bpani.'-h fleet under admiral Don 
 Langara. See Rodney . . . Jan. 16, 1780 
 
 At St. Jatfo ; Mons. Suflrein defeated by com- 
 modore Johnstone . . . . April 16, 1781 
 
 Dogger bank, between adm. Parker and the 
 Dutch adm. Zoutman : 400 killed on each side, 
 
 Aug. 5, ,, 
 
 Admiral Rodney defeated the French going to 
 attack Jamaica ; took 5 ships of the lino, and 
 sent the French admiral, Conite de Grasse, 
 prisoner to Englan' I . . . April 12, 1782 
 
 The British totally defeated the fleets of France 
 and Spain in the Bay of Gibraltar, Sept. 13, „ 
 
 East Indies : a series of actions between sir 
 Ed*ard Hughes and Suffrein, viz. : Feb. 77, 
 1782, the French bad ii ships to 9; April 12 
 they had 18 ships to 11, yet were completely 
 
 1796 
 1797 
 
 179S 
 
 1799 
 1800 
 
 beaten. Again, July 6, off Trincomaleo, they 
 had IS to 12, and were again beaten with loss 
 of looo killed, Sept. 3, 1782 ; again, June 20, 1783 
 
 Lord Howe defeated the French off Ushant, 
 took 6 .ships of war, and sunk one June i, 1794 
 
 Sir Edward Pellew took 15 sail; burnt 7, out of 
 a fleet of 35 sail of transports . March 8, 1795 
 
 French fleet defeated, and 2 ships of war taken 
 by admiral Hotham. Fought March 14, ,, 
 
 Admiral Cornwallis took 8 transports, convoyed 
 by 3 French men-of-war. Fought June 7, ,, 
 
 Eleven Dutch East Indiamen taken by the 
 Sceptre, man of-war, and some armed British 
 Indiamen in company . . . June 19. ,, 
 
 L'Orient ; the French fleet defeated by lora 
 Bridpoi-t, and 3 ships of the line taken. See 
 L'Orient June 25, „ 
 
 Dutch fleet, under admiral Lucas, in Saldanha 
 Bay surrenders to sir George Keith Elphin- 
 stone. See Saldanha Bay . . Aug. 17, 
 
 Cape St. Vincent {which see) . . . Feb. 14, 
 
 Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; admiral 
 Nelson loses his right arm . . July 24, 
 
 Camperdown (jc/iic/i see) . . . Oct. 11, 
 
 '^i\e (which see) Aug. i. 
 
 Off the coast of Ireland ; a French fleet of 9 sail, 
 full of troops, as succours to the Irish, engaged 
 by sir John Borlase Warren, and s taken, 
 
 Oct. 12, 
 
 The Texel fleet of 12 ships and 13 Indiamen 
 surrenders to admiral Mitchell . Aug. 28, 
 
 Capture of the Cerbere (which see) . . July 29, 
 
 Copenhagen bombarded. See Copenhagen, 
 
 April 2, i8oi 
 
 Gibraltar Bay ; engagement between the French 
 and British fleets ; the Hannibal of 74 guns 
 lost July 6, „ 
 
 Off Cadiz : sir James Sauraarez obtains a vic- 
 tory over the French and Spanish fleets ; r 
 ship captured. Fought . . . July 12, ,, 
 
 Sir Robert Calder, with 15 sail, takes 2 ships 
 (both Spanish) out of 20 sail of the French 
 and Spanish fleets, off Ferrol . July 22, 1805 
 
 Off Trafalgar (iohich see) .... Oct. 21, „ 
 
 Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, captures 
 4 French ships, off Cape Ortegal Nov. 4, „ 
 
 In the West Indies : the French defeated by sir 
 T. Duckworth ; 3 sail of the line taken, 2 
 driven on shore ..... Feb. 6, i8o5 
 
 Sir John Borlase Warren captures 2 French 
 ships March 13, ,, 
 
 Admiral Duckworth effects the passage of the 
 Dardanelles. See article Dardanelles, Feb. 19, 1807 
 
 Copenhagen fleet captured . . Sept. 8, „ 
 
 The Russian fleet of several sail, in the Tagus, 
 surrenders to the British . . . Sept. 3, 1808 
 
 Basque Roads : 4 sail of the Une, (fee, destroyed 
 by lord Gambler .... April 12, 1809 
 
 Two Russian flotillas of numerous vessels taken 
 or destroyed by sir J. Saumarez . . July, „ 
 
 French ships of the line driven on shore by 
 lord Collingwood (2 of them burnt by the 
 French next day) . . . . Oct. 25, „ 
 
 Bay of Rosas, where liout. Tailour by direction 
 of captain Hallowell takes or destroys 1 1 war 
 and other vessels. See Rosas Bay. Nov. i, „ 
 
 * In the engagement, the other ships of admiral Benbow's squadron falling astern, left this brave 
 commander alone to maintain the unequal battle. In this situation a chain-shot shattered his leg, yet he 
 would not, be removed from the quarter deck, but continued fighting till the morning, when the French 
 sheered off. He died in Oct,, following, of his wounds, at Jamaica, where, soon after his arrival, he 
 received a letter from the French admiral, of which the following is a literal translation : — 
 
 " Carthageiia, Aug. 22, 1702. 
 
 "Sir,— I had little hopps, on Monday last, but to have supped in your cabin ; yet it pleased God to 
 order it otherwise. I am thankful for it. As for those cowardly captains who deserted you, hang them 
 up, for by G — d they deserve it. " Du Casse." 
 
 Two (if those unworthy cowards, captains Kirby and Wade, were shot on their arrival at Plymouth, 
 having been previously tried by a court-martial. 
 
NAV 
 
 306 
 
 KAV 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES, continued. 
 
 B.asseterre : La Loire and La Seine, French 
 frigates, destroyed by sir A. Cochrane, 
 
 Dec. 1 8, 
 
 The Spartan frigate gallantly engages a large 
 French force in the bay of Naples May 3, 
 
 Action between the Tribune, captain Reynolds, 
 and 4 Danish brigs. Fonght . May 12, 
 
 Isle of Rh^; 17 vessels taken or destroyed by 
 the Armide and Cttdmiis . . . Jnly 17, 
 
 Captain Barrett, in the merchant vessel, Cum- ' 
 berland, with 26 men, defeats four privateers 
 and take,'; 1 70 prisoners . . Jan. 16, 
 
 Twenty-two vessels from Otranto taken by the 
 Cerberus and Active .... Feb. 22, 
 
 Amazon French frigate desti-oycd off Cape Bar- 
 fieur March 25, 
 
 .Sagone Bay : 2 French store-ships burnt by 
 captain Bame's .ships . . . May i. 
 
 The British sloop, Little Self, and American 
 ship President : their rencontre . May 16, 
 
 Off Madagascar ; 3 British frigates under cap- 
 tain Schomberg, engages French larger-sized, 
 with troops on Ijoard, and capture 2, May 20, 
 
 The 2'hames and Cephalus capture 36 Fi-ench 
 vessels July, 
 
 The Naiad frigate attacked in presence of 
 Bonaparte by 7 armed praams ; they were 
 gallantly repulsed .... Sept. 21, 
 
 French frigates Pauline and Pomone, captured 
 by the I3ritish frigates Akcste, Active, and 
 l/nitd Nov. 29, 
 
 Pivoli, 84 guns, taken by Victorious, 74, Feb. 21, 
 
 L'Orient; 2 French frigates, <&c., destroyed by 
 the Northv.rnberland, Capt. Hotham May 22, 
 
 Guerriire, British frigate, 46 small guns, cap- 
 tured by the American ship Constitution, 54 
 guns (an unequal contest) . . Aug. ig, 
 
 British brig Frolic, captured by the American 
 sloop Wasp Oct. 18, 
 
 British frigate Macedonian taken by the Ame- 
 rican ship United States, large class, Oct. 25, 
 
 British frigate Java, taken by the Amrt-ican 
 ship Constitution, large class . . Dec. 29, 
 
 British frigate Amelia loses 46 men killed and 
 95 wounded, engaging a French frigate, 
 
 Feb. 7, 
 
 British .sloop Peacock captured by the Ameri- 
 
 can ship Hornet : she was so disabled that 
 she sunk with part of her crew Feb. 25, 
 
 American frigate Chesapeake taken by the Shan- 
 non, captain Broke. See Chesapeake. June i, 
 
 American ships Growler and Eagle taken by 
 British gun-boats .... June 3, 
 
 American sloop Arr/us taken by the British 
 slooi? Pelican Aug. 14, 
 
 French frigate La Trave, 44 guns, taken by the 
 Andromache of 38 guns . . Oct. 23, 
 
 Frencli frigate Ceres taken by the British ship 
 Tagus Jan. 6, 
 
 French frigates Alcmene and IpJiigenia taken 
 by the Venerable .... Jan. 16, 
 
 French frigate Terpsichore taken by the Majestic 
 
 Feb. 3, 
 
 French ship Clorinde taken by the Bryad and 
 Achates, after an action with the Eurotas, 
 
 Feb. 25, 
 
 French frigate L'Etoile captured by the Hebnm, 
 
 March 27, 
 
 American frigate Essex captured by the Phnbe 
 and Cherub March 29, 
 
 British sloop Avon sunk by the American sloop 
 Wasp Sept, 8, 
 
 Lake Champlain : the British squadron cap- 
 tured by the American, after a severe conflict, 
 Sept. II, 
 
 American ship President captured by the Endy- 
 mion ...... Jan. 15, 
 
 Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth. See 
 Algiers Aug. 27, 
 
 Navarino (which see) .... Oct. 20, 
 
 Action between the British ships Volagc and 
 Hyacinth and 29 Chinese war-junks, which 
 were defeated Nov. 3, 
 
 Bombardment and f:dl of Acre. The British 
 squadron under admiral Stopford achieved 
 this triumph with trifling loss, while the 
 Egyptians lost 2000 killed and wounded, and 
 3000 prisoners. See Syria . . Nov. 3, 
 
 Lagos attacked and taken by commodore Bruce, 
 with a squadron consisting of the Penelope, 
 Bloodhound, Sampson, and Teazer, war- 
 steamers, and the Philomel brig of war, 
 Dec. 26, 27, 
 
 [For nav.al actions which cannot be called 
 regular battles, see China and Japan.] 
 
 1813 
 
 1814 
 
 1816 
 1827 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 185 1 
 
 SHIPS TAKEN OU DE.STROYED BY THE N.VYAL AND MARINE FORCES OF GRE.A.T BRITAIN I 
 
 In the French War, endmg 1802. 
 
 In the French War, ending 1814. 
 
 Torce. 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 00 
 
 
 H 
 
 .a 
 a 
 
 4 
 1 
 
 i 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Of the line 
 
 Fifties 
 
 Frigates .... 
 Sloops, <S:c 
 
 Total .... 
 
 45 
 2 
 
 133 
 161 
 
 25 
 
 I 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 II 
 
 20 
 
 55 
 
 2 
 
 
 7 
 16 
 
 83 
 
 3 
 
 191 
 
 264 
 
 70 
 
 7 
 ' 77 
 
 188 
 
 27 
 
 36 
 64 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 
 6 
 7 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 124 
 
 148 
 288 
 
 341 
 
 89 
 
 86 
 
 25 
 
 541 
 
 342 1 127 
 
 64 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 569 
 
 NAVAL KEVIEWS, SALUTE, and VOLUNTEERS. See under Navy. 
 
 NAVARINO (S."W. Greece), Battle of, Oct. 20, 1827, between the combined fleets of 
 England, France, and Russia, under command of admiral Codrington, and the Turkish navy, 
 in which the latter was almost whoUy annihilated. More than thirty ships, many of them 
 four-deckers, were blown up or burnt, cliiefiy by the Turks themselves, to jirevent their 
 falling into the hands of their enemies. This destruction of the Turkish naval power was 
 characterised by the duke of Wellington as being an ' ' untoward event " — a memorable 
 phrase applied to it to this day. 
 
 4 
 
NAV 
 
 507 
 
 NAY 
 
 NAVARRE, now a province of Spain, formed a part of the Roman dominions, and was 
 conquered by Charlemagne, 778. His descendants appointed governors, one of whom, 
 Garcias Ximenes, took the title of king ahout 860. In 1076, king Sancho IV. was poisoned, 
 and Sancho Ramorez of Arragon seized Navarre. In 1 134 Navarre, became again independent 
 nuder Garcias Ramorez IV. In 1234, Thibault, count of Champagne, became sovereign of 
 Navarre, as nephew of Sancho VII., and in 1284, by the marriage of the heiress Jane with 
 Philip IV. le Bel, Navarre was united to France. 
 
 SOVEEEIGNS OF NAVARRE. 
 
 1274. 
 
 i3°5- 
 1316. 
 1322. 
 1328. 
 
 1349- 
 1387- 
 I42S' 
 
 Jane I. and (1284) Philip-le-Bel of France. 
 
 Louis X. Hutin of France. 
 
 Philip V. the Long, of France. 
 
 Charles IV., the Fair. 
 
 Jane II. (daughter of Jane L), and her hus- 
 band Philip d'Evreux. 
 
 Charles II., the Bad. 
 
 Charles III., the Noble. 
 
 Blanche, his daughter, and her husband, John 
 of Arragon. 
 
 John II., alone, who became king of Arragon, 
 in 1458. He endeavoured to obtain the crown 
 of Ca.?tile also. 
 
 Eleanor de Foix, his daughter. 
 
 1479. Francis Phoebus de Foix, her son. 
 
 1483. Catherine (his sister) and her husband John 
 d'Albret. Ferdinand of Ari-agon conquers 
 and annexes all Navarre south of the Pyre- 
 nees, 1512. 
 
 Lower Navarre (in France). 
 
 1516. Henry d'Albret. 
 
 1555. Jane d'Albret and her husband, Anthony de 
 Bourbon, who died 1562. 
 
 1572. Henry III. who became in 1589 king of 
 France, to which Lower Navarre was for- 
 mally united in 1609. 
 
 NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phoenicians, about 1500 B.C. The first laws 
 of navigation originated with the Rhodians, 916 B.C. The first account we have of any con- 
 siderable voyage is that of the Phoenicians sailing round Africa, 604 B. c. Blair. See under 
 Steam. 
 
 Plane charts and mariner's compass used about 1420 
 Variation of the compass discovered by Colum- 
 bus ......... 1492 
 
 That the oblique rhomb lines are sphals, disco- 
 vered by Nonius 1537 
 
 First treatise on navigation .... 1545 
 The log first mentioned by Bourne . . . 1577 
 
 IVIercator's chart 1599 
 
 Davis's quadrant, or backstafif, for measuring 
 angles, about 1600 
 
 Logarithmic tables applied to navigation by 
 
 Gunter 1620 
 
 Middle latitude sailing introduced . . . 1623 
 
 Mensuration of a degree, Norwood . . , 1631 
 
 Hadley's quadrant 1731 
 
 Harrison's time-keeper used .... 1764 
 Nautical almanac first published . . . . 1767 
 Barlow's theory of the deviation of the com- 
 pass 1820 
 
 See Compass, Latitude, Longitude, d-c. 
 
 NAVIGATION, INLAND. See Canals. 
 
 NAVIGATION LAWS. A code of maritime laws is attributed to Richard I. of England, 
 said to have been decreed at the isle of Oleron, 1 194 (see Oleron), and further enactments 
 were made by Richard II. in 1381. — In Oct. 165 1, the parliament of Cromwell passed an act 
 entitled "Goods from foi'eign parts, by whom to be imj)orted," the principles of which were 
 afiirmed by 12 Charles II. c. 18, "an act for the Encouraging and Increasing of Shipping 
 and Navigation. " The latter act restricts the importation and exportation of goods from 
 or to Asia, Africa, or America, to English ships, of which the masters and three-fourths of 
 the mariners are to be English. This was followed by many acts of similar tenor ; which 
 were consolidated by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 54 (1833). These acts were in the whole or in part 
 repealed by the act ' ' to amend the laws in force for the encouragement of British shipping 
 and navigation," passed 12 & 13 Vict. c. 29, June 26, 1849, after much opposition. This 
 last act came into operation Jan i, 1850. The Steam Navigation act passed 14 & 15 Vict, 
 c. 79, 185 1, came into operation, Jan. i, 1852. The act regulating the navigation of the 
 river Thames was passed in 1786. — In Feb. 1865 the emperor recommended the modification 
 of the French navigation laws. 
 
 NAVIGATORS (or Navvies). These important helpers in the construction of railways 
 derived their name (about 1830) from their formerly making the inland navigation in Lin- 
 colnshire, &c., and are said to be descendants of the original Dutch canal labourers. 
 
 NAVY OF England, "whereon, under the good providence of God, the wealth, safety, 
 and strength of the kingdom chiefly depends." Act for the government of the Navy. 
 
 j The first fleet of galleys, like those of the 
 
 Danes, built by Alfred 897 
 
 The number of galleys greatly increased under 
 I Edgar, who claimed to be lord of the ocean 
 
 surrounding Britain, about .... 965 
 A formidable fleet equipped by the contribu- 
 
 tion of every town in England, in the reign of 
 Ethelred II. when it rendezvoused at Sand- 
 wich, to be ready to oppose the Danes . . 1007 
 Edward the Confessor collected a fleet to resist 
 the Norwegians, 1042 ; and Harold to resist 
 the Normans ....... 1066 
 
NAY 
 
 508 
 
 NAV 
 
 NAVY, continued. 
 
 Ricliard I. collected a fleet and euacted naval 
 laws about 1191 
 
 [The Cinque ports and maritime towns fre- 
 quently furnish fleets commanded by the 
 king or his officers] 
 
 Edward III.'s fleet defeat the French at the 
 battle of Sluys, June 24, 1340 ; and the Spanish 
 ofiE Winchelsea .... Aug. 29, 1350 
 
 Henry V. made great efforts to increase the 
 navy 1415-1422 
 
 Henry VII. built the Royal Harry ; considered 
 
 I to be the beginning of the Royal Navy . . 1488 
 
 The Trinity House established and the Navy 
 office appointed with commissioners. (See 
 AdmiraUii) 1512 
 
 [The navy then consisted of the "Great Harry," 
 1200 tons, two ships, of 800 tons, and six or 
 seven sm.aller.J 
 
 James I. and Cliailes I. improve the navy. The 
 " Sovereign of the Seas " launched . . . 1637 
 
 Frigates said to have been first built . . . 1649 
 
 James 11. systematises sea- signals and improves 
 the navy 1685-8 
 
 Reign of George III. ; dimensions of ships in- 
 creased ; copper sheathing adopted for ships 
 of every class ; establishments of naval s- tores 
 provided at all dockyards and naval stations ; 
 and various improvements made in shipbuild- 
 ing 1760-1820 
 
 Years. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Navy Estimates, 
 no account. 
 
 1 
 Years. 
 
 Ship.s. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Navy Estimates. 
 
 1546 
 
 S8 
 
 12,455 
 
 8,546 
 
 1702 
 
 272 
 
 159 020 
 
 40,000 
 
 £1,056,915 
 
 1558 
 
 27 
 
 7, no 
 
 3,56s 
 
 no account. 
 
 1760 
 
 412 
 
 321.134 
 
 70,000 
 
 3,227.143 
 
 1578 
 
 24 
 
 10,506 
 
 6,700 
 
 no account. 
 
 1793 
 
 498 
 
 433,226 
 
 45,000 
 
 5,525,331 
 
 1603 
 
 42 
 
 17.055 
 
 8,346 
 
 no account. 
 
 1800 
 
 767 
 
 668.744 
 
 135.000 
 
 12,422,837 
 
 1658 
 
 157 
 
 57,000 
 
 2i,gio 
 
 no account. 
 
 1808 
 
 869 
 
 892,800 
 
 143,800 
 
 17,496,047 
 
 1688 
 
 173 
 
 101,892 
 
 42,000 
 
 no account. 
 
 1814 
 
 901 
 
 966,000 
 
 146,000 
 
 18,786,509 
 
 Great Britain had 901 ships, of which 177 were 
 of the line ; and in 1830, she had 621 ships, 
 some of 140 guns each, and down to survey- 
 ing vessels of two guns only. Of these 148 
 sail were employed on foreign and home 
 
 service 1814 
 
 The screw propeller introduced in the Royal 
 
 Navy 1840 
 
 The total number of ships of all sizes in com- 
 mission, 183 Jan I, 1841 
 
 The Navy consisted of 339 saiUng and i6i steam 
 vessels ..... ... 1850 
 
 Naval Coast Volunteers' act passed . . Aug. 1853 
 Of 315 sailing vessels, 97 screw steamers, and 
 114 paddle steamers .... April 1854 
 
 The queen reviews the Baltic fleet at Spithead, 
 
 March 10, 1854, and A|,ril 23, 1856 
 Of 271 sailing vessels, carrying 9594 guns, and 
 258 steam vessels, carrying 6582 guns ; to- 
 gether 573 vessels, can-ying 16,176 guns ; also 
 155 gvui-boats, and 111 vessels on harbour 
 
 service July ,, 
 
 Proclamation for manning the navy, April 30, 1859 
 Naval Reserve Force authorised . . Aug. „ 
 Flogging not to be inflicted on first-class sea- 
 men except after a trial . . . Dec. ,, 
 Great excitement respecting the French govern- 
 ment building the plated frigate Gloire (see 
 
 next page) 1S60 
 
 The Wan-iui; our fii-st iron-plated steam frigate, 
 the largest vessel in the world except the 
 Great Eadeni (see Steam), lergtli, 380 ft. ; 
 breadth 58 ft. ; iron-plate 4^ inches thick ; 
 6170 tons burthen ; cost about 400,000!. ; 
 launched [censured in 1864] . . Dec. 29, ,, 
 A royal commission recommends the aoolitiou 
 of the board of admiralty, and the appoint- 
 ment of a minister of the navy department, 
 
 March, 1861 
 Lord Clarence Paget, secretary of admiralty, 
 states that England has 67 steam sh ps of the 
 line ; while France has 37, Russia 9, ."Spain 3, 
 
 andltiilyi April II, „ 
 
 New act for the government of the uavy (the 
 
 Naval Discipline Act) passes . . Aug. 6, „ 
 Four iron-plai ed vessels (400 ft. long ; 59J ft. 
 wide ; and cost about 6oo,oooi. each) build- 
 ing Uec. „ 
 
 Capt. Cowper Coles' mode of constructing iron- 
 plated vessels, with a cupola tor filing from, 
 made known in 1855, and recc>mmeuied to 
 
 the admiralty in 1861 : adopted by Ericsson in 
 the Monitor, 1862 ; proposed to be adopted by 
 
 the British government 1862 
 
 Six diff'erent kinds of plated vessels said to be 
 constructmg ; E. J. K -ed a ithorised to build 
 the Enter iiriiie as a specimen of an iron-plated 
 
 sea-going vessel April, ,, 
 
 Rnyal Oak, iron-clad steamer, launched at Chat- 
 ham ....... Sept. 10, „ 
 
 Twin or double-screws for vessels of Ught 
 
 draught introduced 1863 
 
 Mr. E. J. Reed appointed chief constructor in 
 the Royal Navy .... Jan. ,, 
 
 Navy consists of 1014 vessels of all classes ; 85 
 hue of battle shijjs ; 69 frigates ; 30 screw 
 corvettes ...... Jan. „ 
 
 Steam ram Valiant launched . . Oct. 14, ,, 
 Minotaur iron-steamer launched . Dec. 12, „ 
 Ro.val School of Naval Architecture, South 
 
 Kensington, established 1864 
 
 The turret-ship Sovereign, constructed on Coles' 
 principle, put out of commission, and placed 
 among reserve ships ; this blamed by some, 
 
 Oct. „ 
 Naval models from the time of Henry VIII. 
 collected early in the present century by sir 
 Robert Seppiiigs, removed to South Kensing- 
 ton Museum Dec. ,, 
 
 29 iron clad vessels building "to be ready for 
 
 sea this year" March, 1865 
 
 Beller^'j/lion, iron-clad, b}' Mr. E. J. Reed ; and 
 
 tlie I r ' Warden, iron-clad, latmched May, ,, 
 A Briti.«h fleet euterttiined at Chcrboarg. Brest, 
 &c., Aug. 15, (fee. ; and a J'rench fleet at Ports- 
 mouth Aug. 29-3T, ,, 
 
 Annual Expenditure ox the British Navy. — 
 1850, 6,942,397!.; — 1854, 6,640,596!.; — 1855, (to 
 March 31, /{usxiaii uarj, 14,490,105!.; — 1856, 
 19,654,585!. ; — 1859, 9 215,487; — 1861, 13,331,668'. ; 
 — 1862, 12,598,042'.; — 1863 11,370,588!.; — 1864, 
 10,821,596!. ; — stiiuate for year 1865-6, 10,392,224!. 
 Thk NAVrtL Salute to ihk Briiish Flag began in 
 Alfreds rei{<n, and though .sometimes disputed, 
 may be said to hav,: beyn continued ever since. 
 Th- Dutch agreed to strike to the Enghsh colours 
 in th. iliitish seas, in 1673. The honour of the 
 flag salute at sea w is also formerly assented to by 
 France iir 1704, although it had been long pre- 
 viously exacted by England. See Flog and Halutes 
 at a a. 
 Naval Uniforms. The first notice of the establish- 
 
 I 
 
ISTAV 
 
 509 
 
 NEL1 
 
 NAVY, continued. 
 
 ment of a uniform in the British naval service, 
 which vce have met with, occurs in the Jacobite's 
 Journal of March 5, 1748, under the head I'f " Do- 
 mestic News," in these terms : — " An order is 
 said to be issued, requiring all his majesty's sea- 
 officers, from the admiral down to the midship- 
 man, to wear a uniformify of clothintf, for which 
 purpose pattern ccats for dress suits and frocks 
 for each rank of f)fficers are lodged at the Navy- 
 office, and at the several dock-yards for their in- 
 spection." This is corroborated by the Gaze«e of 
 July 13, 1757, when the first alteration in the imi- 
 form took place, and in which a reference is made 
 to the order of 1748, alluded to in the journal 
 above mentioned, and which, in fact, is the year 
 when a naval uniform was first established. 
 James I. had indeed granted, by warrant of 6th 
 April, 1609, to six of his principal masters of the 
 navy, " liverie coats of fine red cloth." The war- 
 rant is stated to have been drawn verbatim from 
 one signed by queen Elizabeth, but which had not 
 been acted upon by reason of her death. This 
 curious document is in the British Museum ; but 
 king James's limited red livery is supposed to 
 have been soon discontinued. Quarterly Review. 
 
 The Navy Pay Office, organised in 1644, was abo- 
 lished in 1836, when the army and navy pay de- 
 partments were consoh dated in the Paymaster 
 General's office. 
 
 The Navy List was first officially compiled by John 
 
 Fmlaison, the celebrated actuary, and published 
 monthly in 18 14. 
 
 Naval Reviews. The queen reviewed the fleet at 
 Portsmoutli in March, 1854, before it sailed to the 
 Baltic, at the commencement of the Russian war ; 
 and again at Portsmouth, on the conclusion of 
 pe:ice, in the presence of the parliament, <fcc., on 
 April 23, 1856. The fleet extended in an unbroken 
 line of 5 miles, and cousisted of upwards of 300 
 men-of-war, with a tonage of 150,000, carrying 
 3800 guns, and manned by 40,000 seamen. There 
 were about 100,000 spectators. 
 
 Naval Volunteers (or Reserve). By 16 and 17 Vict. 
 c. 73 (1853), the admiralty were empowered to raise 
 a body of srafaring men to be called the " Naval 
 Coast Volunteers," not to exceed 10,000, for the 
 defence of tjie coast, and for actual service if re- 
 quii-ed. On Aug. 13, 1859, an act was passed to 
 enable the admiralty to raise a number of men, 
 not exceeding 30,000, as a reserve force of seamen, 
 to be called the "Royal Naval Volunteers." In 
 November following the admiralty issued a state- 
 ment of the "qualifications, advantaares, and obli- 
 gations" of this reserve. The enrolment com- 
 menced on Jan. i, i860 The engagement is for 
 five years, and the volunteers are entitled to a 
 pension when incapacitated after the expiration 
 of the term. At the prospect of war with the 
 United States in Dec. 1861, a great number of sea- 
 men at Hartlepool, Dundee, London, Aberdeen, 
 &c., offered their services. 
 
 NAVY OP France. It is first mentioned in history, 728, wlien, like that of England at 
 an early period, it consisted of galleys ; in this year the French defeated the Frisian fleet. It 
 was considerably improved under Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about 
 1697. The French navy was, perhaps, in its highest splendour about 1781 ; but it became 
 greatly reduced in the wars with England. See Naval Battles. It has been greatly increased 
 by the present emperor, and in 1859 consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 sailing vessels and 
 37 steamers), and 398 other vessels, in all 449 ; including vessels building, converting, or 
 ordered to be built. The new Fi-ench iron-plated frigate Gloire, launched in i860, has been 
 subjected to much criticism, but appears to be generally considered as successful.* The 
 Solferino and Magenta were launched in June, 1861. Other iron vessels are in course of 
 construction. 
 
 NEBEASKA, a N.W. territory of North America, was organized May 30, 1854. Capital, 
 Omaha city. 
 
 NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS, put forth by sir Wm. Herschel, in 181 r, supposes that the 
 imiverse was formed out of shapeless masses of nebulse or clusters of small stars. It has not 
 been generally received. In Oct. i860, Mr. Lassell strictly scrutinised the dumb-bell nebula, 
 and stated that the brightest parts did not appear to be stars. In 1865 Mr. Wm. Huggins 
 reported that he had analysed certain nebulte by their spectra, and believed them to be 
 entirely gaseous. 
 
 NECTAEINE, the Amygdalis Persica, originally came from Persia about 1562. 
 Previously, presents of nectarines were frequently sent to the court of England from the 
 Netherlands ; and Catharine, queen of Henry VIII., distributed them among her friends. 
 
 NEEDLES were first made in England in Cheapside, London, in the time of Mary I. 
 by a negro from Spain, but was lost at his death, and not recovered till 1566, in the reign of 
 •Elizabeth, when Elias Growse, a German, taught the art to the English. Stow. 
 
 ■ NEGRO TRADE. See Slavery. 
 
 NELSON'S VICTORIES, &c. See separate articles. 
 
 Horatio Nelson, bom at Bumham Thoi*pe, Nor- 
 folk Sept. 29, 1758 
 
 Sailed with captain Phipps to the North Pole, 1773 
 
 Distingtiished himself in the West Indies . . 1780 
 Lost an eye at the reduction of Calvi, Corsica, 1794 
 Captured Elba Aug. 9, 1796 
 
 * Mr. Scott Russell says : — " The Gloire has been built by M. Dupuis de Lome, after a most exact 
 calculation of the effect of iron plates upon the weight and speed of a vessel. She is perfectly fit to 
 carry a broadside of guns of as heavy a calibre as any that can be carried and worked in our o^vn wooden 
 ships, and she is driven at as least as high a speed as any vessel of similar dimensions in our own service." 
 
NEM 
 
 610 
 
 NEU 
 
 1797 
 
 NELSON'S YICTOEIES, continued. 
 
 With Jervis, at the victory off St. Vincent, Feb. 
 14 ; made admiral . . . Feb. 
 
 Lost his right arm at the unsuccessful attack 
 on Santa Cruz .... July 25, 26, „ 
 
 Gained the battle of the Nile, Aug. i ; created 
 Baron Nelson of the Nile . . . Oct. 6, 1 798 
 
 Attacks Copenhagen, April 2 ; created viscount, 
 May 22; attacks Boulogne and destroys 
 several ships Aug. 3, iSoi 
 
 Appointed to chief command in the Mediter- 
 ranean May 20, 1803 
 
 Pursues the French and Spanish fleets, March 
 to Aug. ; returns to England, Aug. ; re-ap- 
 pears at Cadiz, and defeats the fleets in 
 Trafalgar Bay, where hef is killed Oct. 21, 1805 
 
 The Victory man-of-war arrived off Portsmouth 
 with his remains .... Dec. 4, „ 
 
 The body Lay in state in the Painted Hall, at 
 Greenwich, Jan. 5 ; on the 8th was removed 
 to the Admiralty ; the funeral took place, 
 
 Jan. 9, i8o5 
 
 The prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), 
 the duke of Clarence (afterwards WiUiam IV.), 
 and other royal dukes ; almost all the peers 
 of England, and the lord mayor and corpora- 
 tion of London, with thousands of military 
 and naval otScers and distinguished men, 
 followed the funeral car to St. Paul's. The 
 military assembled on this occasion amounted 
 to near 10,000 regulars, independent of volun- 
 teers. The regulars consisted chiefly of the 
 regiments that had fought and conquered in 
 Egypt. 
 
 I 
 
 NEMEAN GAMES, celebrated at Nemea, in Achaia, were originally instituted by tlie 
 Argives, in liouour of Archemorus, who died by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some 
 time after renewed tliem, 1226 B.C. The conqueror was rewarded with a crown of olives, 
 afterwards of green parsle}', in memory of the adventure of Archemorus, Avhom his nurse 
 laid down on a sprig of that plant. They were celebrated ever}'- third year, or, according to 
 others, on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 b.c. Herodotus. They were 
 revived by tlie emperor Julian, a.d. 362, but ceased in 396. 
 
 NEPAUL (India). The East India Company's war with the state of Nepaul commenced 
 Nov. I, 1814, and terminated April 27, 1815. A treaty of peace was signed between the 
 parties Dec. 2, 1815. War renewed by an infraction of the treaty by the Nepaule.se, Jan. 
 1816 : and after several contests, unfavourable to the Nepaulese, the former treaty was ratified, 
 March 15, 1816. An extraordinary embassy from the king of Nepaul to the queen of Great 
 Britain arrived in England, landing at Southampton, May 25, and remained till Aug. 1850 ; 
 it consisted of the Nepaulese prince, Jung Bahadoor and his suite, to whom many honours 
 were paid. He supported the English during the English mutiny in 1857. 
 
 NEPHALIA, sacrifices of sobriety among the Greeks, when they offered mead instead of 
 wine to the sun and moon, to the njrmphs, to Aurora, and to Venus ; and burnt any wood 
 but that of the vine, fig-tree, and mulberry-tree, esteemed symbols of drunkenness, 613 B.C. 
 
 NEPTUNE, a primary planet, first observed on Sept. 23, 1846, by Dr. Galle at Berlin, 
 in consequence of a letter from M. Le Verrier, who had conjectured from the anomalous 
 movements of Uranus, that a distant planet might exist nearly in the position where Neptune 
 is situated. Calculations to the same effect had been previously made by Mr. J. Couch 
 Adams. Neptune is said to have been seen by Lalande, and thought to be a fixed star. 
 
 NERWINDEN. See Lamlen. 
 
 NESTOEIANS, the followers of Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople (428-431), who is 
 represented as a heretic for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary was the mother of 
 Jesus Christ as nian, yet slie was not the mother of God, since no human creature could 
 impart to another what she had not herself ; he also held that God was united to Christ 
 under one person but remained as di.stinct in nature and essence as though he had never 
 been united at all. He was opposed by Eutyches, and died 439. See Eutyehians. Nestorian 
 Christians in the Levant administer the sacrament with leavened bread and in both kinds, 
 permit their priests to marry, and use neither confirmation nor auricular confession, DuPin. 
 A Nestorian priest and deacon were in Loudon in July, 1862. 
 
 NETHERLANDS. See Flanders, Holland, and Belcjkcm. 
 
 NEUFCHATEL, a canton in Switzerland, formerly a lordship, afterwards a principality. 
 The first known lord was Ulric de Fenis, about 1032, whose descendants ruled till 1373, 
 after which by marriages it frequently changed governors. On the death of tlie last of the 
 Longuevilles, the duchess de Nemours, in 1707, there were many claimants ; among them 
 our William III. He and the allies however gave it to Frederic 1. of Prussia with the title 
 of prince. In 1806 the principality was ceded to France, and Napoleon bestowed it on his 
 general Bei-thier, who held it till 1814, when it fell to the disposal of the allies. They 
 restored the king of Prussia the title of prince with certain rights and privileges ; but 
 constituted it a pai't of the Swiss confederation.* 
 
 * After an unsuccessful attempt in 1831, the inhabitants in 1848 repudiated their allegiance to Prussia, 
 
NEU 
 
 511 
 
 NEW 
 
 NEUSTEIA or "West France, a kingdom allotted to Clotaire by his father Clovis, at his 
 death in 711. His descendant, Charlemagne, became sole king of France, in 771. 
 
 NEUTRAL POWERS. By the treaty of Paris, signed by the representatives of Great 
 Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Turkey and Sardinia, on April 16, 1S56, it was 
 determined that privateering should be abolished ; that neutrals might carry an enemy's 
 goods not contraband of war ; that neutral goods not contraband were free even under an 
 enemy's flag ; and that blockades to be binding must be effective. The president of the 
 United States acceded to these provisions in 1861. 
 
 NEVADA, a western territorj'- of the United States of N. America, organised March 2, 
 1 86 1. Capital, Carson city. 
 
 NEVILLE'S CROSS, or Durham, Battle of, between the Scots under king David 
 Bruce, and the English under Philippa, consort of Edward IIL and lord Percy, Oct. 17, 1346. 
 More than 15,000 of the Scots were slain, and their king taken prisoner. 
 
 NEVIS, Island op (W. Indies), planted by the English in 1628 ; taken by the French, 
 Feb. 14, 1782 ; restored to the English in 1783. The capital is Charleston. 
 
 NEWARK (Nottinghamshire), Battle of, in which the royal ai'my under prince Rupert 
 repulsed tlie army of the parliament, besieging the town, March 21, 1644. The church was 
 erected by Henry IV. Here, in the midst of troubles, died king John, Oct. 9, 1216; and 
 here, Maj^ 5, 1646, Charles I., after his defeat at Naseby, put himself into the hands of tlie 
 Scotch army, who afterwards gave him iip to his enemies. Newark was first incorporated 
 by Edward VI. and afterwards by Charles II. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK Avas taken from Nova Scotia, and received its name as a separate 
 colony in 1785. In 1865 it opposed the plan for uniting all the British North American 
 colonies in a confederation. 
 
 NEWBURY (Berkshire). Near here were fought two desperate battles — (i.) Sept. 20, 
 1643 : between the army of Charles I. and that of the parliament under Essex ; it termi- 
 nated somewhat favourably for the king. Among the slain was the amiable Lucius Cary, 
 viscoiint Falkland, deeply regretted. (2.) A second battle of dubioiis result was fought 
 between the royalists and the parliamentarians, Oct. 27, 1644. 
 
 NEW CALEDONIA (Pacific Ocean), discovered by Cook on Sept. 4, 1774, was seized by 
 the French and colonised in 1852. The French government in Dec. 1864, redressed the 
 outrages committed upon the British missionaries at a station established here in 1854.' 
 
 NEWCASTLE upon Ttne (Northumberland), the Roman Pons ^Elia. The first coal 
 port in the world,* and the metropolis of the north of England. The coal-mines were 
 discovered here about 1234. The first charter granted to the townsmen for digging coal 
 was by Henry III. in 1239. 
 
 1080 
 
 1359 
 
 The castle built by Robert Courtbose, son of 
 "William I. . . . , . 
 
 The town fortified by William II 
 
 St. Nicholas church built, about 1091 ; bui-nt in 
 1216 ; restored by Edward I., to whom John 
 Bahol did homage here, 1292 ; rebuilt . 
 
 Newcastle surrenders to the Scotch in 
 
 1640 and 1646 
 
 Who here gave up Charles I. to the parliament 1644 
 
 Occupied by general Wade in . . . . 1745 
 
 The Literary and Philosophical Society founded 
 1 793 ; Uberally endowed by Kobert Stephenson 
 in 1858-9 
 
 T. Bewick, the wood engraver, dies . . . 182S 
 
 The magnificent market erected by Richard 
 Grainger, who otherwise greatly improved 
 the town 1833 
 
 High level bridge erected by Robert Stephen- 
 son : and grand central station built . 1849-50 
 
 1538 persons die of cholera, Aug. 31 to Oct. 26, 1853 
 
 Great fire through the explosion at Gateshead 
 {vshich see) Oct. 6, 1854 
 
 Great distress through failure of Northumber- 
 land Joint-Stock Bank . . . .Nov. 1857 
 
 Richard Grainger dies, aged 63 . . July 4, 1861 
 
 Enthusiastic reception of Mr. W. E. Gladstone, 
 
 Oct. 7-9, 1862 
 
 and proclaimed Neiifchatel a free and independent member of the Swiss confederation. The king of 
 Prussia protested against this ; and in 1852 a protocol was signed between England, France, and Austria, 
 recognising his claims. In Sept. 1S56, some of his adherents, headed by the count de Pourtalfes, broke out 
 into insurrection against the republican avithorities, who, however, quickly subdued and imprisoned them. 
 With the intention of bringing them to trial. War was threatened by the king of Prussia, and gi-eat energy 
 and determination manifested by the Swiss. On the intervention of the Enghsh and French governments, 
 after many delays, a treaty was signed on June 11, 1857, by which the king of Prussia virtually renounced 
 his claims, on receiving a pecuniary compensation, which he eventually gave up. He retains the title of 
 prince of Neufchatel without any political rights. The prisoners of Sept. 1856 were released without 
 trial, Jan. 18, 1857. 
 
 * In 1306 the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in London, by royal proclamation, chiefly because it 
 injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which were then growing about the city ; but this 
 interdiction did not long continue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this 
 place for more tha^ 500 years. 
 
NEW 
 
 512 
 
 NEW 
 
 NEWCASTLE ADMINISTKATION, formed April, 1754 
 the duke of Devonshire became first lord of the treasury. 
 
 resigned Nov., 1756; when 
 
 Thomas HolksPeUiam, duke of 'Newcastle, first lord 
 
 of the treasury. 
 Henry Bilson Legge, chancellor of the erchequei: 
 Earl of Holdemf sse and sir Thomas Robinson (after- 
 wards lord Grantham), secretaries of state. The 
 latter succeeded by Henry Fox (afterwards lord 
 HoUand). 
 
 Lord Anson,. ^r«< lord of the admiralty. 
 
 Lord Grenville, lord president. 
 
 Lord Gower (succeeded by the duke of MarlborougbX 
 lord privi/ seal. 
 
 Duke of Grafton, earl of Halifax, George Gren- 
 ville, &c. 
 
 Lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 
 
 NEWCASTLE AND PITT ADMINISTRATION (see Chatham Administration}, formed 
 June, 1757 ; resigned May, 1762 ; lord Bute coming into power. 
 
 Thomas Holies Pclham, duke of Newcastle, first lord 
 
 of the treasuri/. 
 William Pitt (afterwards lord Chatham), secretary 
 
 of slate for the 7iorlhern department, and leader of the 
 
 AoMse of commons. 
 Lord Grenville, lurd presidmt. 
 Earl Temple, priryseo.l. 
 Mr. Lepge, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Duke of Devonshire, lord chamberlain. 
 
 Earl of Holdemesse, secretary of state for the southern 
 
 departmint. 
 Duke of Rutland, lord steicard. 
 Lord Anson, admiralty. 
 Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by lord Ligonier), 
 
 ordnance. 
 Henry Fox, George Grenville, viscount Barrington, 
 
 lord Halifax, James Grenville, &c. 
 Sir Robert Henley, lord keeper of the great seal. 
 
 NEW CHURCH. See Swcdciiborgians. 
 
 NEW COLLEGE (St. John's-wood, London), erected by the Independent dissenters for 
 the education of their ministers, 1850-1, is founded on the union of Horaerton, Highbury, 
 and Coward colleges. See Oxford. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND (N. America), comprising the states of Massachusetts, New Hamp- 
 shire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, was settled by the Puritans who were driven from 
 England. The first attempt to form a settlement was made in 1607, Avhich was named 
 New England by captain Smith, in 1614. Settlement of the Pljmiouth company in 1620. 
 
 NEW FOREST (Hampshire), Avas made ("aftbrested") by William the Conqueror, 
 1079-85. Many popiilous towns and villages, and indeed the whole country, for above 
 thirty miles in compass, were laid waste, and no less than thirty-six churches were destroyed. 
 William Rufus was killed in this forest by an arrow, shot byAValter Tyrrel, that accidentally 
 glanced against a tree, Aug. 2, 1 100, the site of which is now pointed out by a triangular 
 stone. The New Forest Deer Removal act was jiassed 14& 15 Vict. c. 76, Aug. 7, 1851. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND (N. America), discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Prima 
 Vista, June 24, 1497. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert, 1583. In 
 the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the English in the fishery. 
 In 1577 there were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from Portugal, 150 from France, and 
 only 15, but of larger size, from England. Hakluyt. But the English fishery in some years 
 afterwards (1625) had increased so much that the ports of Devonshire alone employed 150 
 ships, which sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italj'. The sovereignty of England was 
 recognised in 1713. Nearly 1000 English families reside here all the year ; and in the fishing 
 season (May to September) more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland (one of our 
 finest nurseries for seamen). It obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation in 1845, and 
 the bishopric was established in 1839. — Appalling fire at St. John's, a great poi'tion of the 
 town destroyed, the loss estimated at i,ooo,oooZ. sterling, June 9, 1846.* 
 
 NEWGATE, London. The prison derives its name from the gate which once formed a 
 part of it, and stood a little beyond the Sessions-house in the Old Bailey. It was used as 
 a prison for persons of rank, as early as 12 18; but was rebuilt about two centuries afterwards 
 by the executors of sir Richard Whittington, whose statue with a cat stood in the niche till 
 the time of its demolition by the great fire of London, in 1666. It was then reconstructed 
 in its late form ; but the old prison being an accumulation of misery and inconvenience, was 
 pulled down and rebuilt between 1778 and 1780. During the riots in the latter year, the 
 interior was destroyed by fire, but shortly afterwards restored. In 1857 the interior was 
 pulled down to be re-erected on a plan ada])ted to the reformatory system. The market, 
 established in 1681, was ordered to be abolished by an act passed in 1861. A meat and 
 poultry market is to be erected in Smithfield. 
 
 * On Jan. 14, 1857, a convention was concluded between the English and French governments, con- 
 firminK certain French privileges of fishery in exchange for others. The English colonists were dissatisfied 
 with this convention. 
 
NEW 
 
 513 
 
 NEW 
 
 NEW GRENADA (S. America), discovered by Ojeda iii 1499, and conquered and settled 
 by the Spaniards in 1536. It formed part of tlie new republic of Bogota, established in 
 181 1 ; and, combined with Caracas, formed the republic of Colombia in Dec. 17, 1819. See 
 Colombia. 
 
 President M. Ospina entered on office, April i, 1857 
 
 After several reunions and dissolutions, the re- 
 public of New Granada merged into the Grena- 
 dine Confederation, which includes Bolivar, 
 Antioquia, Panama, and other small states, 
 
 June 15, 1858 
 
 Strugfgles between the conservatives, partisans 
 of the old government, and the liberals, Jan. i85i 
 
 General Mosquera (liberal) deposes Ospina ; and 
 seizes the government . . . July 18, „ 
 
 A congress of the states determine on union. 
 
 under the name of the United States of 
 
 Colombia Sept. 20, 1861 
 
 Arboleda, chief of the conservatives, assassi- 
 nated (succeeded by Cassal) . Nov. I, 1862 
 New constitution established . . May 8, 1863 
 Mosquera invites Venezuela and Equator to 
 
 join the confederation . . . Aug. „ 
 
 Equator declines — war ensues . . Nov. 20, ,, 
 
 The troops of Equator defeated, Dec. 6 ; peace 
 ensues, and Equator remains independent, 
 
 Dec. 3, „ 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the original united states of N. America, was settled in 
 1623, and separated from Massachusetts in 1679. Capital, Concord. 
 
 NEW HAEMONY. ^ae Harmonists. 
 
 NEW HEBRIDES (S. Pacific Ocean), discovered by Qniros, who believing them to be a 
 continent named them Tierra Australia del Espiritu Santo, in 1606. Bougainville in 1768 
 found them to be islands ; and in 1774 Cook gave them their present name. 
 
 NEW HOLLAND. See Australia, New South Wales, &c. 
 
 NEW JERSEY, one of the original united states of N. America, was settled by the Dutch 
 from New York, 1620 ; and by Swedes in 1627. Capital, Trenton. 
 
 NEW LANARK (W. Scotland). Here Robert Owen endeavoured to establish socialism 
 in 1801. 
 
 NEWMARKET (Cambridgeshire), renowned for its horse-races. It is first mentioned in 
 1227; and probably derived its name from the market then recently established. James I. 
 erected a hunting-seat here, called the king's house, to which Charles I. was taken as a 
 prisoner in 1647, when the parliament army was quartered in the neighbouring village of 
 Kennet. Charles II., who was fond of racing, built a stand-house for the sake of the 
 diversion, about 1667,* and from that period races have been annual to the present time ; 
 and many extraordinary races have been run. See Races. 
 
 NEW MEXICO (N. America), ceded to the United States in 1848, and organised as a 
 territory, Sept. 9, 1850. Capital, Santa Fe. 
 
 NEW ORLEANS, capital of Louisiana, N. America (tvJiich see), founded in 1717, under 
 the regency of the duke of Orleans. In 1788, seven-eighths of the city were destroyed by 
 fire; but it is now rebuilt. The British attacked New Orleans in Dec, 1814, and were 
 repulsed with great loss, by the Americans under general Jackson, Jan. 8, 18 15. New 
 Orleans was surrendered to the Federals on April, 1862. The strong feeling of the inhabi- 
 tants in favour of the Confederates and against the Federals induced general B. Butler to rule 
 them with military rigour, occasionally degenerating into brutal tyranny, especially towards 
 females, May to October, 1862. He was replaced by general Banks, Dec. 16, 1862. 
 
 NEWPORT (Monmouthshire). Chartist riots here were suppressed, Nov. 4, i839.t 
 
 * During the races, on March 22, 1683, Newmarket was nearly destroyed by an accidental fire, which 
 occasioned the hasty departure of the company then assembled, including the king, the queen, tlie duke 
 of York, the royal attendants, and many of the nobility ; and to this disaster historians have ascribed the 
 failure of the Rye-house plot, the object of which was said to be the assassination of the king and his 
 TDrother on the road from Newmarket to London, if the period of their journey had not been thus antici- 
 pated. See Rye-House Plot. , 
 
 t The chartists (whic}i see) collected from the mines and collieries in the neighbourhood, to the number 
 of 10,000, armed with guns, pikes, clubs, &c., arrived at Newport, Nov. 4, 1839. They divided them- 
 selves into two bodies — one, under the command of Mr. John Frost, an ex-magistrate, proceeded down the 
 principal street ; whilst the otber, headed by his son, took the direction of Stow-hill. They met in fron., 
 of the Westgate hotel, where the magistrates were assembled with about 30 soldiers of the 45th regiment, 
 and several special constables. The rioters commenced breaking the windows of the house, and fared on 
 the inmates, by which the mayor, Mr. (now sir Thomas) Phillips, and several other persons were wounded. 
 The soldiers returned the fire, and succeeded in dispersing the mob, which, with its leaders, fled from the 
 town, leaving about 20 rioters dead, and many others dangerously wounded. A detachment of ttie lotu 
 royal Hussars having arrived from Bristol, the town became tranquil. Frost was apprehended on tne 
 following day, together with his printer, and other influential persons among th« chartists, -tie ana 
 several others were tried and convicted in Jan. 1840, and sentenced to death ; afterwards commutea to 
 transportation.. An amnesty was granted them on May 3, 1856 ; and they returned to England m bept. 
 following. 
 
NEW 
 
 514 
 
 NEW 
 
 NEW RIVER. An artificial river for the supply of London with water, commenced in 
 1609, and finished in 1613, when the projector, Hugh Myddelton, was knighted by James I. 
 Strype. This rivei', which rises in Hertfordshire, and which, with its windings, is forty- 
 two miles long, was brought to London, and opened Sept. 29, 1613. So little was the 
 benefit of it understood, that for above thirty years the seventy-two shares, into which it 
 was divided, netted only $1. apiece. Each of these shares was sold originally for lOoZ. 
 Within the last few years they were sold at 9000^. a share, and some lately at io,oooZ. 
 
 NEW ROSS (Wexford), S. E. Ireland. Here general Johnston totally defeated the rebels 
 tmder Beauchamp D. Bagenal Harvey, June 4, 1 798. 
 
 NEWRY (N. Ireland). In the rebellion of 164 1, Newry was reduced to a ruinous con- 
 dition ; it was surprised by sir Con. Magenis, but was retaken by lord Conway. After the 
 Restoration the town was rebuilt. It was burnt by the duke of Berwick when flying from 
 Schomberg and the Euglisli army, and only the castle and a few houses escaped, 1689. 
 
 NEW SOUTH AVALES, the principal colony of Australia {-which see). The eastern coast 
 of New Holland was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook in 1 770. At his 
 recommendation a convict colony was first formed here. Captain A. Phillip, the first 
 governor, an-ived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts, Jan. 20, 1788; but he subsequently 
 l>referred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible 
 situation for the capital. A new constitution was granted in 1855 (18 & 19 Vic. c. 54). See 
 Sydney. Population, in 1856, 269,722 ; in 1859, 342,062 ; in 1862, 367,495. The imports 
 for 1859 amounted to 6,597,053?. ; the exports to 4,768,049?. Governor, sir John Young, 
 appointed i860. 
 
 NEWS-LETTERS. News-writers in the reign of Charles II. collected from the coffee- 
 houses information, which was printed weekly and sent into the country. The London 
 Gazette, then the only authorised newspaper, contained little more than proclamations and 
 advertisements. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS. The Roman Acta Diurna were issued, it is said, 691 B.C. In modern 
 times, a Gazetta, which derived its name from its price, a small coin, was published in Venice 
 (about 1536). The Gazette de France, now existing, first appeared in April, 1631, edited by 
 Renaudot, a physician. It was patronised by the king, Louis XIII., who wrote one article 
 for it, and by Richelieu. The first real newspaper published in England * was established 
 by sir Roger L'Estrange, in 1663 ; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer, and continued 
 nearly three years, when it ceased, on the appearance of the Gazette. In the reign of 
 James I., 1622, appeared the London Weekly Courant ; and in the year 1643 (the period of 
 the civil war) were printed a variety of publications, certainly in no respect entitled to the 
 name of newspapers, of which the following were the titles: — 
 
 The Mercurius Civicus, or London's 
 
 Intelligencer. 
 The Country's Complaint, &c. 
 The Weekly Accounts. 
 Mercurius Britannicus. 
 
 England's Memorable Accidents. 
 The Kingdom's Intelligencer. 
 The Diurnal of Certain Passages in 
 
 Parliament. 
 The Mercurius Aulicus. 
 
 A paper called the London Gazette t was published 
 Aug. 22, 1642. The London Gazette of the existing 
 series was published first at Oxford, the court 
 being there on account of the plague, Nov. 7, 1665, 
 and afterwards at London, Feb. 5, 1666. 
 
 Piinting of newspapers and pamphlets prohibited, 
 31 Chas. I. 1680. Salmon's Chron. 
 
 The regular newspapers commenced on the abolition 
 of the censorship of the press, in 1695. 
 
 Daily Courant first published in 1709. 
 
 Newspapers first stamped in 1713. 
 
 MUMBEB OF STAMPS ISSUED TO BRITISH NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 ' 1753 7.411,757 
 
 1760 9,404,790 
 
 1774 ..... 12,300,000 
 
 The Scotch Intelligencer. 
 The Parliament's Scout. 
 The Parliament's Scout's Dis- 
 covery, or Certain Information. 
 
 1790 14,035.639 
 
 1800 . . . . _ . 16,084,905 
 
 1810 . . .... 20,172,837 
 
 1820 ..... 24,862,186 
 
 1825 . . .... 26,950,693 
 
 1830 30,158,741 
 
 1835 32,874,652 
 
 1840 49,033,384 
 
 1843 56,433.977 
 
 1850 65,741,271 
 
 [In 1850 there were also issued supplement 
 stamps at id., 11,684,423.] 
 
 In the year ending Jan. 5, 1851, there were 159 Lon- 
 don newspapers, in which appeared 891,650 adver- 
 tisements ; 222 English provincial newspapers, 
 having 875,631 advertisements. In Scotland, same 
 
 * Some copies of a publication are in existence called the Englbh Mercvrij, professing to come out 
 under the authority of queen Elizabeth, in 1588, the period of the Spanish Armada. The researches of 
 Mr. T. 'Watts, of the British Museum, have proved these to be forgeries, executed about 1766. The full 
 title of No. 50 is " 7he Englisli Mercurie, published by authoritie, lor the prevention of false reports, 
 imprinted by Christopher Barker, her highness's printer, No. 50." It describes the Spanish Armada, 
 giving " A journall of what passed since the 21st of this month, between her majestie's fleet and that of 
 Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admiral, to the Lordes of council." 
 
 t On May 22, 1787, a London Gazette Extraordinary was forged, with a view of aflfecting the funds. 
 
NEW 
 
 515 
 
 NEW 
 
 NEWSPAPERS, continued. 
 
 year, no newspapers, having 249,141 advertise- 
 ments. In Ireland, 102 newspapers, having 236,128 
 advertiseinents. The number of stamps issued 
 was — in England, 65,741,271 at id., and 11,684,423 
 supplement stamps at -J-d. ; in Scotland, 7,643,045 
 stamps at irf., and 241,264 at Jd ; in Ireland, 
 6,302,728 stamps at id., and 43,358 at ^d. 
 
 Reduction of newspaper duty from 4^. to id. took 
 effect on Sept. 15, 1836. 
 
 The distinctive die came into use Jan. i, 1837. 
 
 Duty on advertisements abolished, 1853. 
 
 IRISH NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 The first was the Dublin Neios-Ldter, by Joseph Ray, 
 1685 ; Pue's Occurrences, 1700. Faulkner' s Journal 
 was established by George Faulkner, ' ' a man 
 celebrated for the goodness of his heart, and the 
 weakness of his head," 1728. The oldest of the 
 existing Dublin newspapers are Saunders' (then 
 Esdaile's) News-Letter, 1745 ; and Freeman's Journal, 
 founded as the Public Register, by the patriot Dr. 
 Lucas, about 1755. The Limerick Clironicle, the 
 oldest of the provincial prints, 1768. 
 
 PROVINCIAL NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 Norwich Postman, 1706. Worcester Postman, 1709. 
 Newcastle-on-Tj/ne Courant, 1711. 
 
 FOREIGN NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 Gazette de Venise, early in 17th century ; Gazette de 
 
 France (now publishing), 1631. 
 The iirst newspaper set up in Germany, 1715. 
 
 The first published in America, the Boston News- 
 Letter, in 1704; the first at Philadelphia in 1719 ; 
 and the first in Holland in 1732. 
 
 "America, whose population is 23 millions and a 
 half, supports 8co newspapers (50 of these publish- 
 ing daily), and their annual circulation is stated 
 at 64,000,000. In Paris there exist 169 journals, 
 literary, scientific, religious, and political." — West- 
 minster Review, 1830. 
 
 REGISTERED NEWSPAPERS. 1 8 50. 1865. 
 
 London newpapers, daily . . . .12 22 
 
 United Kingdom, daily . . . . — 73 
 
 London newspapers, weekly . . .58 166 
 English provincial newspapers . . . 222 750 
 
 Irish newspapers 102 132 
 
 Scotch newspapers no 140 
 
 British isles 14 14 
 
 By the act passed June 15, 1855 (i8 & 19 Vict. c. 27), 
 the stamp on newspapers, as such, was totally 
 abolished, and will be employed henceforth only 
 for postal purposes. Many new papers were then 
 started, which were but of short duration. 
 In 1857, 71 million newspapers passed through the 
 post-office. In Jan. i860, 1060 newspapers, and 
 in Jan. 1862, 1165 newspapers were in course of 
 publication in the United Kingdom. 
 On Oct. I, 1861, when the paper duty came off, the 
 Times, Daily Nercs, and Morning Post reduced 
 their price to 3d. each copy unstamped. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PKINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 Public Ledger (commercial) . 1759 
 Morning Chronicle (liberal), 
 
 extinct .... 1770-1862 
 Morning Post (whig) . . . 1781 
 Morning Herald (conservative) 1781 
 
 St. James's Chronicle (con- 
 servative) .... 1761 
 Observer (whig) . . . . 1792 
 Bell's Messenger(fi6. conserv.) 1796 
 Dispatch (liberal) . . . 1801 
 Examiner (tt6r;-ai) . . . 1808 
 Literary Gazette (extinct) 1817-62 
 John BnU. (conservative). . 1820 
 Bell's Life in London (s/Jortinjr) 1820 
 Sunday Times (lib. conserv.) . 1822 
 Atlas (liberal) .... 1826 
 AtheT:iienra(literari/andscien.) 1828 
 Spectator (liberal) . . . „ 
 Record (liberal conservative) . „ 
 Com't Journal (neutral) . . 1829 
 
 Tiiaea (independent) . . 1788 
 Sun (liberal) . . , . 1792 
 Morning Advertiser (ZifteraZ) . 1794 
 Globe (whig), evening . . 1803 
 Standard (conservative) . . 1827 
 
 PRINCIPAL WEEKLY. 
 
 United Service Gazette . . 1833 
 Wsutchraaji (Wesleyan) . . 1835 
 Musical World . . . . 1836 
 Jurist (legal) .... 1837 
 Magnet (agricultural') . . ,, 
 Railway Times . . . ,, 
 Era (theatrical) . . . . ,, 
 Tnhlet (Roman Catholic) . . 1840 
 Gardeners' Chronicle . . 1841 
 Nonconformist . . . ,, 
 
 Punch 1841 
 
 Illus. London News (liberal) . 1842 
 Lloyd's Weekly Paper (radcJ.) „ 
 
 Builder 1843 
 
 English Churchman (ffigh Ch.) „ 
 News of the World [liberal) . 1843 
 
 Daily News (liberal) . . . 1846 
 
 Daily Telegraph* (liberal) . 1855 
 
 Morning Star (liberal) . . 1856 
 
 International (in J<'r«?ic?i) . 1863 
 
 Pall MaU Gazette (K&eraO- ■ 1865 
 
 lEconomist (liberal) . . 1843 
 
 Jewish Chronicle (KSwa?) . . 1845 
 
 Guardian (ffi^^ C^M?-c/0 • • 1846 
 
 Press (conservative) . . . 1853 
 
 Field (country gentl(me7i's) . „ 
 
 Saturday Review (neutral) . 1855 
 
 Engineer .... 1856 
 
 City Press (neutral) . . . 1857 
 
 News (bankers, &c.) , . 1858 
 
 Chemical News . . . 1859 
 
 London Review (liberal) . i860 
 Reader (literary and scientific) 1863 
 
 Age (neutral) .... 1864 
 
 Owl (satirical) . . . . „ 
 
 Index (Confederate) extinct . 1865 
 
 NEW STYLE. Pope Gregory XIII. , in order to rectify the errors of the current 
 calendar, published a new one, in whicli ten days were omitted — Oct. 5, 1582, becoming 
 Oct. 15. The new style was adopted in France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Flanders, Portugal, 
 in 1582, and in Great Britain in 1751. In 1752 eleven days were left out of the calendar — 
 Sept. 3, 1752, being reckoned as Sept. 14. 
 
 NEW TESTAMENT. See Bible. 
 
 NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, the doctrines respecting gravitation, &c., taught by sir 
 Isaac Newton in his " Princiijia," published in 1687. He was born, Dec. 25, 1642 ; became 
 Master of the Mint, 1699 ; President of the Royal Society, 1703 ; and died March 20, 1727. 
 A statue of him in marble by Roubilliac was set up at Trinity College, Cambridge, July 14, 
 1755, and one in bronze by Theed, at Grantham, Sept. 21, 1858, when lord Brougham 
 delivered an excellent discourse on the life and works of Newton. The latter statue cost 
 1600Z., which sum was obtained by public subscription. 
 
 144,000 copies sold on Dec. 16, 1861. 
 
 The prince consort died on the 14th. 
 
 L L 2 
 
NEW 
 
 516 
 
 NEW 
 
 NEWTOWNBAREY KIOT (S. E. Ireland). On a seizure of stock for tithes, a lament- 
 able conflict ensued here between the yeomanry and the people, when thirty-five persons 
 were killed or wounded, June i8, 183 1. The jury at the coroner's inquest was unable to 
 agree on a verdict. 
 
 NEWTOWN-BUTLER (N. Ireland). On July 30, 1689, the Enniskilleners under Gustavus 
 Hamilton thoroughly defeated the adherents of James II. commanded by general Maccarty, 
 taking him prisoner with his artillery, arms, and baggage. 
 
 NEW YEAR'S DAY, &c. The feast was instituted by Numa, and was dedicated to 
 Janus (who presided over the new year), Jan. i, 713 B.C.* 
 
 NEW YORK, the "empire state " of the United States of N. America, was settled by the 
 Dutch in 1609. The city was named by them Manhattan and New Amsterdam ; but the 
 English under colonel Nichols dispossessed them and the Swedes, Aug. 27, 1664, and 
 changed its name. Population in i860, 805,651. 
 
 New Tork was confirmed to England by the 
 peace 01 Breda .... Aug. 24, 1667 
 
 The citj' was one of the principal points of the 
 struggle for independence among the states 
 of America. It surrendered to the British 
 forces under general Howe . Sept. 15, 1776 
 
 The city was evaciiated by the British ; 
 " Evacuation day " made one of rejoicing 
 ever since Nov. 25, 1783 
 
 Academy of the fine arts, and a botanical 
 garden, established in 1804 
 
 Awful fire here ; 674 buildings destroyed, and 
 property valued at nearly 20,000,000 dollars, 
 
 Dec. 16, 1835 
 
 The Park theatre destroyed by fire . Dec. 16, 1848 
 
 Serious riot (several lives lost) at the theatre, 
 originating in a dispute between Mr. Mac- 
 ready (English) and Mr. Forrest (American) 
 actors May 10, 1849 
 
 The Crystal Palace, containing an exhibition of 
 
 goods from all nations, was opened in the 
 presence of the president of the United 
 States and many other dignitaries, July 14, 1853 
 New York suffered severely by large commer- 
 cial failures, and ' ' hunger demonstrations " 
 took place during the panic . . . Nov. 1857 
 - - - ■ ■ ■ - " ■ 1858 
 
 1850 
 1866 
 
 Oct. 
 
 The Crystal Palace destroyed by fire 
 A magnificent cathedral erected in 
 Great fire ; about 50 lives lost . . Feb 
 During the civil war of 1861 New York strongly 
 supported the government of president Lin- 
 coln (republican, or abolitionist); but during 
 1 862 a re action gradually took place, and the 
 opposition (democrat) candidates for con- 
 gi-e.ss were elected by large majorities, Nov. 1862 
 Fierce riots against conscription ; many per- 
 sons killed and much property destroyed, 
 
 July 13-17, 1863 
 Bamum's museum burnt ; great loss, July 13, 1865 
 See under United Stales. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND (in the Pacific Ocean), discovered by Tasman in 1642. From his time 
 the country, except that part of the coast which was seen by him, remained unknown, and 
 was by many supposed to make part of a southern continent, till 1769-70, when it was cir- 
 cumnavigated by captain Cook. In 1773, he planted several si)0ts of ground on this island 
 with European garden seeds; and in 1777, he found some fine potatoes, greatly improved by 
 change of soil. European population, in i860, 84,294. Value of imports, in 1859, 1,551,030?.; 
 exports, 551,484/. Sir George Grey, governor, reappointed June, 1861. 
 
 The right of Great Britain to New Zealand re- 
 cognised at the peace in 1814 
 
 No constitutional authority was placed over it 
 until a resident subordinate to the govern- 
 ment of New South Wales was sent out with 
 limited powers 1833 
 
 New Zealand company established ; Wellington 
 founded 1839 
 
 Capt. Hobson, the first governor, landed Jan. 
 29 ; treaty of Waitangi signed, by which the 
 chiefs cede a large amount ol land . Feb. 5, 1840 
 
 Becomes an independent colony and made a 
 bishop's see April, 1841 
 
 Capt. (aft. admiral) Fitzroy, governor, Dec. 
 
 1843 to Nov. 1845 
 
 Sir George Grey, governor ' 1846 
 
 A charter, founded upon an act passed in 1846, 
 
 creating powers municipal, legislative, and 
 
 administrative Dec. 29, 1847 
 
 This charter was not acted on ; a legislative 
 
 council opened by the governor . Dec. 20, 1848 
 Foundation of Auckland, 1840 ; Nelson and 
 
 TaranHki (or New Plymouth), 1841 ; Otago, 
 
 1848 ; Canterbury 1850 
 
 New Zealand comi^any relinquish charter . „ 
 Bishopric subdivided to form another called 
 
 Christchurch 1852 
 
 New constitution granted „ 
 
 Col. Wynyard, governor . Jan. 1854 to Sept. 1855 
 
 Governor Browne Oct. ,, 
 
 An earthquake ; not much damage done, Jan. 23, ,, 
 Constitution modified ...... 1857 
 
 Insurrection of the natives (Maoris) under a 
 
 chief named William King (Wirrimu Kingi), 
 
 * On this day the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine : 
 and all the mechanics began something of their art of trade ; the men of letters did the same, as to books, 
 poems, &c. ; and the consuls, though chosen before, took the chair and entered upon their office this day. 
 Njnius MarceUus i-efers the origin of New-year's gifts among the Roman.s to 'Titus Tatius, king of the 
 Sabini-8, who having considered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated to 
 Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of the new year, authorised the custom 
 afterwards, and gave these gifts the name of Strense, 747 b.c. 
 
NEW 
 
 517 
 
 NIC 
 
 NEW ZEALAND, contimced. 
 
 i arising out of disputes respecting ttie sale of 
 land ; the bishop Selwyn and otheis consider 
 the natives to have been unjustly treated, 
 
 March, i860 
 Indecisive actions between the militia and 
 
 volunteers and the Maoris . March 14-28, ,, 
 War breaks out at Taranaki : the British re- 
 pulsed with loss .... June 30, ,, 
 Great excitement in Australia ; troops sent to 
 
 New Zealand, under gen. Pratt, land, Aug. 3, ,, 
 Indecisive actions . Sept. 10, 19, Oct. 9, 12, ,, 
 Gen. Pratt defeats the Maoris at Mahoetahi, 
 
 and destroys their fortified places . Nov. 6, „ 
 The New Zealand colonists in England meet 
 and justify the conduct of the governor, 
 
 Nov. 22, „ 
 The Maoris defeated, Dec. 29, i860; Jan. 23, 
 
 Feb. 24, March 16-18, 1860-1 
 The war ends : surrender of natives, March 19, 1861 
 Sir George Grey re-appointed governor, June, ,, 
 Gold discovered at Otago, and other places, 
 
 June, ,, 
 A native sovereignty proclaimed ; 5000 British 
 
 soldiers in the islands . . . July, ,, 
 Loyalty of the natives increasing . . May, 1862 
 The Maori chiefs sign a poetical address of 
 condolence to the queen on the death of 
 the prince consort ; received . . . Nov. 1862 
 Natives attack a mihtary escort and kill 8 per- 
 sons May 4, 1863 
 
 AVaikato tribe driven from a fort . July 17, ,, 
 
 The war spreading ; natives construct rifle pits, 
 
 Aug. „ 
 Proposed confiscation of Waikato lands . Sept. „ 
 
 NEY'S EXECUTION. Nej^, duke of Elchiugen, prince of the Moskwa, and cue of the 
 most valiant of the marshals of France, was shot as a traitor, Dec. 7, 181 5.* On Dec. 7, 1853, 
 his statue was erected on the spot where he fell. 
 
 NIAGARA (N. America). At the head of this river, on the western shore, is Fort Erie,t 
 which was taken by the English, July 24, 1759. It was abandoned in the war with the 
 United States, May 27, 1813, but was retaken, Dec. 19, following. A suspension bridge of 
 a single span of 800 feet over the Niagara, connecting the railways of Canada and New 
 York, was opened in March, 1855. It is elevated 18 feet on the Canadian, and 28 feet on 
 the American side. 
 
 NIC^A. See Nice. 
 
 NICARAGUA, a state in Central America (which see). Population about 300,000 ; 
 president, T. Martinez ; elected in 1859, and re-elected in 1863. The present constitution 
 was established, Aug. 19, 1858. At the commencement of 1855 it was greatly disturbed by 
 two political parties : that of the president, Chamorro, who held Grenada, the capital, and 
 that of the democratic chief, Castellon, who held Leon. The latter invited Walker, the 
 filibuster, to his assistance, who in a short time became sole dictator of the state.:!: By the 
 
 Gen. Cameron severely defeats the Maoris at 
 Ranijariri Nov. 20, 1863 
 
 Continued success of gen. Canreron ; capitula- 
 tion of the Maori king . . . Dec. 9, ,, 
 
 British attack on Galepa repulsed with less of 
 officers and men .... Apdl 29, 1864 
 
 Loan of i,ooo,oooi. to New Zealand ; guaranteed 
 by ijarliament July, „ 
 
 Several tribes submit . . . . . Aug. ,, 
 
 Maori prisoners escape and form a nucleus of a 
 new insurrection Sept. „ 
 
 Sir George Grey issues proposals of peace, Oct. 
 25 ; the Aborigines Protection Society send 
 religious, moral, and political advice to the 
 Maoris (considered injudicious) . Nov. ,, 
 
 Change of ministry and policy ; seat of govern- 
 ment to be removed from Auckland to Wel- 
 lington on Cook's Strait . . Nov. 24, „ 
 
 Maoris attack on Cameron severely defeatea, 
 Jan. 25 ; again, Feb. 25 ; outbreak of the Pai 
 Maviri or Hau-hau heresy, a compound of 
 Judaism and paganisn, auiongst the Maoris ; 
 the rev. C. S. Volkner murdered and many I 
 outrages committed, March 2 ; prodamation 
 of governor sir George Grey against it ; it is 
 checked by the agency of a friendly native 
 
 chief We-tako April, 1865 
 
 WilUam Thompson, an eminent chief, sur- 
 renders on behalf of the Maori king May 25, ,, 
 New Zealand still unsettled . . . July, ,, 
 The Hau-haus beaten in several conflicts, Aug. ; 
 the governor proclaims peace, Sept. 2; British 
 troops about to leave . . . Sept. 15, ,, 
 
 * After the abdication of Napoleon I., 5th April, 1814, he took the oath of allegiance to the kin?, 
 Lonis XVIIl. On Napoleon's return to France from Elba, he marched against him ; but his troops de- 
 serting, he regarded the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's way to Paris, March, 1815. 
 Ney led the attack of the French at Waterloo, where he fought in the midst of the sla-n, his clothes 
 pierced with bullet^holes, five horses having been shot under him : night and defeat obliged him to flee. 
 Though included in the decree of July 24, 1815, which guaranteed the safety of all Frenchmen, he was 
 sought o\it, and on Aug. 5, taken at the castle of a friend at Urillac, and brought to trial before the 
 Chamber of Peers, Dec. 4. The 12th article of the capitulation of Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was 
 quoted in his favour, yet he was sentenced to de.ith and met his fate with fortitude, Dec. 7, 1815. 
 
 t About eighteen miles below Fort Erie, are the remarkable falls. The river is here 740 yards wide. 
 The half-mile immediately above the ca-^,aracts is a rapid, in which the water falls 58^ feet : it is then 
 thrown, with astonishing grandeur, down a stupendous precipice of 150 feet perpendicular, in three 
 distinct and collateral sheets : an.1, in a rapid that extends to the distance of nine miles below, falls nearly 
 as much more. The river then flows in a deep channel till it enters lake Ontario, at Fort Niagara. The 
 falls were visited by the prince of Wales in Sept. i85o. . , j j. 
 
 t William Walker was bora at Tennessee, in the United States, where he became successively doctor, 
 lawyer, and journalist, and afterwards gold-seeker in California, whence he was invited to Nicaragua by 
 Castellon, with the promise of 52,000 acres of land, on condition of bringing with him a band of adventurers 
 to sustain the revolutionary cause. Walker accepted the terms, and on June 28 landed at Realejo with 68 
 men. He increased his forces at Leon, and soon after attacked the town of Rivas, where he was repulsed 
 
NIC 518 NIC 
 
 Tinited efforts of the confederated states the filibusters were all expelled in May, 1857. 
 On May i, 1858, Nicaragua and Costa Rica appealed to the great European powers for 
 protection. 
 
 NICE or NrciEV, a town in Bithynia, Asia Minor, N. W. Antigonus gave it the name 
 Antigoneia, which Lysimachus changed to Nictea, in memory of his wife. It became the 
 residence of the kings of Bithynia about 208 B.C. At the battle of Nice, A.D. 194, the 
 emperor Severus defeated his rival, Niger, who was again defeated at Issus, and soon after 
 taken prisoner and put to death. In 325, the first general council was held here, which 
 composed the Nicene Creed and condemned the Arians. It was attended by 318 bishops 
 from divers parts, who settled both the doctrine of the Trinity and the time for observing 
 Easter. The creed was altered, 381, and confirmed, 431, when it was decreed unlawful to 
 make further additions. When the Crusaders took Constantinople, and established a Latin 
 empire there in 1204, the Greek emperors removed to Nice and reigned there till 1261, when 
 they returned to Constantinople. See Eastern Emjnre, p. 261. Nice was taken by the 
 Ottoman Turks in 1330. 
 
 NICE (N. Italy), a colony of Massilia, now Marseilles. It was taken by the French, and 
 retaken by Eugene of Savoy, in 1706; and by the Austrians in 1800. After the mind of 
 the people had been ascertained by universal suffrage (the votes being nearly unanimous 
 for annexation to France), the province of Nice was given up to France by the Sardinian 
 government. The French troops occupied Nice on April i, in conformity with a treaty 
 signed March 24, i860. The people are said to have been really unwilling for the change, 
 and Garibaldi vehemently protested against the annexation. Population of the jirovince, in 
 1857, 256,593- 
 
 NICIAS, Peace of, between Athens and Sparta, 421 B.C., so named on account of its 
 being negotiated by that eminent and unfortunate Athenian general, who, with his colleague, 
 Demosthenes, was put to death after the disastrous termination of the expedition against 
 Syracuse, 413 b.c. 
 
 NICKEL, a white, ductile, malleable, magnetic metal, employed in the manufacture of 
 German silver. Cronstedt in 1751 discovered nickel in the mineral copper-nickel. 
 
 NICOLAITANES, a sect mentioned in Bev. ii. 6, 15, said to have sprung from Nicolas, 
 one of the first seven deacons (Acts vi.), and to have maintained the legality of a community 
 of wives, as well as all other heresies, and to have denied the divinity of Christ. 
 
 NICOMEDIA, the metropolis of Bithynia, Asia Minor, N. ^Y., founded by king Nico- 
 medes I., 264 b.c, on the remains of Astacus ; destroyed by an earthquake, A.D. 115 ; and 
 restored by the emperor Adrian, '124. The Roman emperors frequently resided here during 
 their eastern wars. Here Diocletian resigned the purple, 305 ; and Constantine died at his 
 villa in its neighbourhood, 337. It surrendered to the Seljukian Turks, 1078 ; and to 
 Orchan and the Ottoman Turks in 1338. 
 
 NICOPOLIS (now in Bulgaria), Battle of, Sept. 28, 1396, between the allied Christian 
 powers under Sigismund, king of Hungary, afterwards emperor, and the Turks under 
 Bajazet ; said to have been the first battle between the Turks and Christians ; the latter 
 were defeated, losing 20,000 slain, and as many wounded and prisoners. 
 
 with loss. He tben joined col. Kinney, who had occupied and governed Grey Town, Sept. 6. On Oct 13 
 W^alker captured Grenada by surprise when in a defenceless state, shot Mavorga, one of the ministers/and 
 established a rule of terror. By intervention of the American consul he made peace with the general of 
 the state amy, Corral, but shot him on Nov. 7, on finding him corresponding with fuc^itives at Costa Rica 
 Walker at first was only general-in-chief ; but on Rivas, whom he had made president, deserting him he 
 became sole dictator. On May 14, 1856, his envoy Vijil was recognised by the president of the United States, 
 whence also he obtained reinforcements during his retention of power. Costa Rica declared war again.st 
 him, Feb. 8, 1856; the other states of Central America soon followed the example and a samminary 
 struggle ensued, lasUng till May, 1857. On Nov. 25, 1856, Walker totally burnt Grenada, being unable to 
 defend it, and removed the seat of government to Rivas. This place he surrendered to gen Mora on May i 
 1857, on the intervention of capt. Davis, of the St. Mary'n, U.S. Himself, his staff, and 260 men were 
 coQveyed in that vessel to New Orleans, where they were received with great enthusiasm On Nov 25 
 1857, he again invaded Nicaragua, landing at Punta Arenas with 400 men ; but on Dec. 8, was compelled 
 to surrender to capt. Paulding, U.S., and was conveyed to New Xork. He e.scaped punishment by nolle 
 prosequi (3 m\Q 2, 1858); but capt. Paulding was tried for exceeding orders, and blamed— yet excused by 
 president Buchanan. On Aug. 5, i860. Walker landed near Tnixillo, Honduras, and took the fort on the 
 6th On the 7th he proclaimed that he made war on the government, not on the people of Honduras. 
 On being summoned to surrender his booty by capt. Salmon, R.N., of the Icaras, he refused, and fled Ho 
 was pursued, caught, given up to the Honduras government, tTied, and shot (on Sept. 12). His foUowera 
 were dismissed. 
 
NIE 519 NIN 
 
 NTELLO-WORK, said to have been produced by nibbing into engravings on silver, &c., 
 a mixture of silver, lead, copper, sulphur, and borax, was an art known to the ancients and 
 practised in the middle ages, and to have given to Maso Finiguerra the idea of engraving 
 upon copper, about 1460. 
 
 NIEMEISr or Memel, a river flowing into the Baltic, and separating Prussia from Eussia. 
 On a raft on this river the emperor Napoleon met Alexander of Russia, June 22, 1807 ; and 
 made peace with him and Prussia. He crossed the Niemen to invade Russia, June 24, 1812, 
 and re-crossed with the remains of his army, Dec. 28. 
 
 NIGER EXPEDITION, undertaken with a view to plant an English colony in the centre 
 of Africa, and supported by a government grant of 60,000^., started in the summer of 1841, 
 and commenced the ascent of the river, Aug. 20, in that year. The expedition consisted of 
 the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan. Fever broke out among the crews, Sept. 2, when 
 these vessels had arrived at Iddah. The confluence of the Mger and the Chadda (270 miles 
 from the sea) was reached Sept. ir. The Soudan then returned with the sick ; tKe Wilber- 
 force ascended the Chadda, and the Albert the Mger. But the Wilberforce was almost imme- 
 diately compelled to return, and follow the track of the Soudan. Th.Q Albert arrived at Egga, 
 on the Niger (320 miles from the sea), Sept. 28 ; but so great had been the progress of 
 disease, that orders were now given for the third vessel to return, Avhich she did, after the 
 necessary delay for procuring flrcAvood, on Oct. 4. This last vessel cast anchor in Clarence 
 cove, Fernando Po, Oct. 17, all the same year. 
 
 NIGHTINGALE FUND. On Oct. 21, 1854, Miss Florence Nightingale left England 
 with a stafi^ of thirty-seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari, Nov. 5 ; thej'- rendered invaluable 
 services to the army ; she returning to London, Sept. 8, 1856. In memory, a meeting was 
 held at Willis's Rooms on Nov. 29, 1855, to raise funds to establish an institution for the 
 training of nurses and other hospital attendants. Madame Jenny Lind Goldschmidt 
 sang at Exeter Hall on March 11, 1856, and gave the proceeds (1872^.) to the fund. The 
 subscriptions closed, April 24, 1857, amounting to 44,039?. The queen gave Miss Nightin- 
 gale a valuable jewel. 
 
 NIKA CONTESTS. See Circus. NIL DARPAN. See India, June, i86r. 
 
 NILE (Egypt). This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon, in about ten 
 degrees of N. lat. and in a known course of 1250 miles receives no tributary streams. The 
 travels of Bruce were undertaken to discover the source of the Nile ; lie set out from England 
 in June, 1768; on the I4tli of November, 1770, he discovered the source of the Blue Nile, 
 and returned home in 1773. — This river overflows regularly every year, from about the 15th 
 of June to the 17th of September, when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to the 
 land. It must rise 16 cubits to ensure that fertility. In 1829, the inundations of the Nile 
 rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 people were drowned and immense property lost. 
 Mr. Petherick set out early in 1861 to explore the country at the source of the Nile. For 
 recent discoveries, see Africa, 1863 — 5. 
 
 NILE, Battle of the (or Aboukir), Aug. i, 1798, near Rosetta, between the Toulon 
 and British fleets, the latter commanded by lord (then sir Horatio) Nelson. Nine of the 
 French line-of-battle ships were taken, two were burnt, and two escaped. The French ship, 
 L^ Orient, with admiral Brueys and 1000 men on board, blew up, and only 70 or 80 escaped. 
 Nelson's exclamation upon commencing the battle was, "Victory or "Westminster Abbey !" 
 
 NIMEGTJEN (Holland). Here was signed the treaty of peace between France and 
 the United Provinces, 1678. The French were successful against the British under the 
 duke of York, before Nimeguen, Oct. 28, 1794 ; but were defeated by the British, Nov. 8, 
 following. 
 
 NINEVEH, the capital of the Assyrian empire (see Assyria), founded by Ashur, who 
 called it after himself, about 2245 B.C. Ninus reigned in Assyria, and called this city also 
 after himself, Nineveh, 2069 B.C. Abbe Lenglet. Jonah preached against Nineveh (about 
 862 B.C.), which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 606 B.C. The discoveries of Mr. Layard and 
 others in the neighbourhood of Mosul, the supposed site of this ancient capital, since 1839, 
 have in a manner disinterred and re-peopled a city which for centuries has not only ceased 
 to figure on the page of history, but whose very locality had long been blotted out of the map 
 of the earth.* In 1848 Mr. La j^ard published his "Nineveh and its Remains," and in 1853 
 an account of his second visit in 1849-50. 
 
 *• The forms, features, costume, reli^-ion, modes of warfare, and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants 
 stand before us as distinct as those of a living people ; and it is anticipated that, by help of the sculptures and 
 
NIS 520 NON 
 
 NISBET or Nesbit (Northiimberland). Here a battle was Ibuglit between the English 
 and Scotch armies, the latter greatly disproportion ed in strength to the former. Several 
 thousands of the Scots were slain upon the field and in the pursuit, May 7, 1402. 
 
 NISMES (Nimes), S. France, was the flourishing Roman colony, ISTemausus. Its noble 
 amphitheatre was ruined during the English occupation in 141 7. Nismes embraced Protest- 
 antism, and suffered much persecution in consequence, and has frequently been the scene of 
 fierce religious contests. The treaty termed the Pacification of Nismes (July 14, 1629) gave 
 religious toleration for a time to the Huguenots. 
 
 NITRE. See Saltpetre. 
 
 NITRIC ACID, a compound of nitrogen and oxygen, formerly called aqua fortis, fii-st 
 obtained in a separate state by Raymond Lully, an alchemist, about 1287; but we are 
 indebted to Cavendish, Priestley, and Lavoisier for our present knowledge of its properties. 
 Mr. Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid in 1785. Nitrous acid was discovered 
 by Scheele about 1774. Nitrous gas was accidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous 
 oxide gas was discovered by Dr. Priestley, in 1776. 
 
 NITROGEN or Azote (from the Greek a, no, and zoo, I live), an irrespirable elementary 
 gas. Before 1777, Scheele separated the oxygen of the air from the nitrogen, and almost 
 simultaneously with Lavoisier discovered that the atmosphere is a mixture of these two gases. 
 Nitrogen combined with hydrogen forms the volatile alkali ammonia, so freely given off by 
 decomposing animal and vegetable bodies. 
 
 NOBILITY. The Goths, after they had seized a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes 
 with titles of honour, to distinguish them from the common people. The right of peerage 
 seems to have been at first territorial. Patents to persons having no estate were first granted 
 by Philip the Fair of France, 1095. George Neville duke of Bedford (son of John, marquess 
 of Montague), ennobled in 1470, was degraded from the peerage by parliament, on account of 
 his utter want of property, 19 Edw. IV., 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained in 
 June, 1773. See Lords, and the various orders of the nobility. 
 
 NOBILITY OF France preceded that of England. On June 18, 1790, the National 
 Assembly decreed that hereditary nobility could not exist in a free state ; that the titles of 
 dukes, counts, marquesses, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be abolished ; 
 that all citizens take their family names ; liveries and armorial bearings also to be abolished. 
 The records of the nobility, 600 volumes, were burnt at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV., 
 June 25, 1792. A new nobility was created by the emperor Napoleon I., 1808. The heredi- 
 tary peerage was abolished, Dec. 27, 1831. 
 
 NOBLE, an ancient English coin, first struck in the reign of Edward III. about 1337. 
 It was stamped with a rose, and was thence called a rose noble ; value 6s. 8d. 
 
 " NOLUMUS LEGES ANGLI.^ MUTARI." See Bastards and Mertmi. 
 
 NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into conformists and 
 non-conformists, or, churchmen and dissenters. The first place of meeting of the latter, in 
 England, was established at Wandsworth, near London, Nov. 20, 1572. The name of non- 
 conformists was taken by the Puiitans when the Act of Uniformity came into operation on 
 Aug. 24, 1662 (termed "Black Bartholomew's day"), when 2000 ministers of the established 
 religion resigned, not choosing to conform to the statute passed "for the uniformity of public 
 prayers and administration of the sacraments." See Puritans and Dissenters. The laws 
 against them were relaxed in 1690. — The Nonccmformist newspaper (edited by Mr. Edward 
 Miall) began in 1841. 
 
 NONES, in the Roman Calendar, were the fifth day of each month, excepting March, 
 May, July, and October, when the nones fell on the seventh day. 
 
 NON-JURORS. In 1689, they considered James II. to have been unjustly deposed, and 
 refused to swear allegiance to William III. Among them were Sancroft, archbishop of 
 Canterbury ; Ken, bishop of Bath and Wells, and the bishops of Ely, Gloucester, Norwich, 
 
 their cuneiform inscriptions, the researches of the learned may go far in filling up the vast blank in Assyrian 
 annals. Among the sculptures that enrich the British Museum may be mentioned the winged bull and 
 lion, and numerous himting and battle-pieces ; but perhaps the most interesting as confirmatory of the 
 tnith of Holy Scripture, is the bas-relief of the eagle-headed human figure, presumed to be a representation 
 of the Assyrian god Nisroch (from Nisr, an eagle or haak), whom Sennacherib was in the act of worshipping 
 when he was assassinated by his two sons, about 710 b.c. 2 Kings xix. 37. 
 
NON 521 NOR 
 
 and Peterborough, and many of the clergy who were deprived, Feb. i, 1691. ISTon -jurors 
 were subjected to a double taxation, and were obliged to register their estates, May, 
 1723. They formed a separate communion, which existed till the beginning of the present 
 century. 
 
 NON NOBIS, DOMINE ! ("Not unto us, Lord!"&c., Psalm cxv. i), a musical 
 canon, sung as a grace at public feasts, was composed by W. Bird in 1618. 
 
 NON-RESISTANCE OATH, occurring in the Corporation Act, 1661, was repealed 
 in 1 7 19. 
 
 NOOTKA SOUND (Vancouver's Island), discovered by captain Cook in 1778. It was 
 settled by the British in 1786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed a 
 settlement to supply the Chinese market with furs : but the Spaniards in 1789 captured two 
 English vessels and took possession of the settlement. The British ministry demanded 
 reparation, and the affair was amicably terminated by a convention, and a free commerce 
 was confirmed to England in 1 790. 
 
 "NO-POPERY RIOTS." See Gordon. 
 
 NORDLINGEN (Bavaria). Here the Swedes under count Horn were defeated by the 
 Austrians, Aug. 27, 1634 ; and the latter by Tureune in 1645. 
 
 NORE MUTINY. See Mutinies. 
 
 NORFOLK ISLAND, a penal colony of England, discovered in 1774, by captain Cook, 
 wlio found it uninhabited, except by birds. The settlement was made by a detachment from 
 Port Jackson under governor Phillip, in 1788, in Sydney bay, on the south side of the island. 
 This was at one time the severest penal colony of Great Britain. The island was abandoned 
 in 1809 ; but re-occupied as a penal settlement in 1825. The descendants of the mutineers 
 of the Bounty Avere removed to it in June, 1856, from Pitcairn's Island {which see). 
 
 NORMANDY (N. France), part of Neustria, a kingdom founded by Clovis in 511 for his 
 son Clotaire, which, after various changes, was united to France by Charles the Bald in 837. 
 From the beginning of the 9th century it was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, 
 called Northmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles the Simple 
 of France ceded the duchy to their leader RoUo, 905. From its conquerors it received its 
 present name. RoUo, the first duke, held it as a fief of the crown of France, and several 
 of his successors after him, until "William, the seventh duke, acquired England, in 1066. It 
 remained a province of England with some intermissions till the reign of king John, 1204, 
 when it was re-united to France. It was re-conquered by Henry V., 1418, and held by 
 England partially till 1450. The English still possess the islands on the coast, of which 
 Jersey and Guernsey are the principal. 
 
 gi2. RoUo (or Raoul), baptised as Robert, 
 920 or 927. William I. Longsword. 
 943. Richard I. the Fearless. 
 996. Richard II. the Good. 
 
 1027. Richard III. 
 
 1028. Robert I. the Devil. 
 
 1035. WiUiam II. (I. of England). 
 
 1087. Robert II., Courthose (his son), after a contest 
 
 despoiled by his brother. 
 1 106. Henry I (king of England). 
 1135. Stephen (king of England). 
 1144. Matilda and Geoffrey Plaiitagenet. 
 1151. Henry II. (king of England in 1154). 
 1189. Richard IV. (I. of England), 
 iigg — 1203. Arthur and John of England. 
 
 NORTH ADMINISTRATION, formed by lord North, Jan., 1770. After his retirement 
 from office, March 30, 1782, lord North entered into a league with the Whigs : this led to 
 the short-lived Coalition ministry (1783). He succeeded to the earldom of Guildford in 
 1790, and died in 1792. See " Coalition." 
 
 Frederick, lord North, first lord of the treasury, and 
 
 chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Earl Gower, lord president. 
 Earl of Halifax, pHvy seal. 
 Lord Rochford, lord Weymouth (succeeded by lord 
 
 Sandwich), and lord Hillsborough, secretaries of 
 
 state. 
 Sir Edward Hawke, admiralty. 
 Marquess of Granby, ordan'nce. 
 Sir Gilbert Elliot, lord Hertford, duke of iVnoaster, 
 
 lord Carteret, &c. 
 
 NORTHALLERTON (Yorkshire). Near here was fought the "battle of the Standard," 
 where the English totally defeated the Scotch armies, Aug. 22, 1138. The archbishop of 
 York brought forth a consecrated standard on a carriage at the moment when they were 
 hotly pressed by the invaders, headed by king David. 
 
NOR 
 
 KOR 
 
 NORTHAMPTOlSr was burnt by the Danes in loio. Here Henry III. proposed to found 
 a university in 1260, and held a parliament in 1269. On July 10, 1460, a contlict took place 
 between the duke of York and Henr}' VI. of England, in which the unfortunate monarch 
 was defeated, and made prisoner (the second time) after a sanguinary fight which took place 
 in the meadows below the town. Northampton was ravaged by the plague in 1637. It was 
 seized and fortified by the parliamentary forces in 1642. The memorable fire, which almost 
 totally destroyed the town, occurred Sept. 3, 1675. 
 
 NORTH BRITON NEWSPAPER : Number 4.5 * (Wilkes's number), dated Saturday, 
 April 23, 1763, vv^as, by order of both houses of parliament, publicly burnt in London by the 
 hands of the common hangman, Dec. 3, 1763. AVilkes by this newspaper (commenced in 
 1762), increased the antipathy to the Scotch then very prevalent in England ; having been 
 greatly favoured by the minister, the earl of Bute. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. See Carolina. ' 
 
 NORTHMEN or Noksemen. See Scandinavia and Nornmnchj. 
 
 NORTHUMBRIA, a Saxon kingdom, founded by Ida, 547. 
 
 NORTH -WEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discover a north-west passage was made 
 by a Portuguese named Corte Real, about 1500. In 1585, a company was formed in London 
 called the " Fellowship for the Discovery of the North-West Passage." From 1745 to i^'^ 
 parliament offered 20,oooZ. for this discovery. In i&*6 the reward was modified by pro- 
 posing that 5000Z. should be paid when either 110°, 120°, or 130° W. long, should be passed : 
 one of which payments was made to sir E. Parry. For their labours in the voyages enume- 
 rated in the list beloia, Parry, Fraulclin, Ross, Back, and Richardson, were knighted. 
 
 Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to find a 
 north-east p.assage to China, sailed from the 
 
 Thames f May 20, 1553 
 
 Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find a north- 
 west passage to China 1576 
 
 Capt. Davis's expedition to find a north-west 
 
 passage 1585 
 
 Barantz's expedition 1594 
 
 Weymouth and Knighfs 1602 
 
 Hudson's voyages ; the last undertaken. See 
 
 Hudson's Bay 1610 
 
 Sir Thomas Button's 161 2 
 
 Bafiin's. See Baffin's Bay 1616 
 
 Foxe's expedition 1631 
 
 [A number of enterprises, undertaken by 
 
 various coimtries, followed.] 
 Middle ton's expedition . . . . . . 1742 
 
 Moore's and Smith's 1746 
 
 Heame's land expedition 1769 
 
 Capt. Phipps, afterwards lord Mulgrave, liis 
 
 expedition 1773 
 
 Capt. Cooke, in the Resolution &. Discovery, July, 1776 
 
 Mackenzie's expedition 1789 
 
 Capt. Duncan's voyage 1790 
 
 The Discovery, capt. Vancouver, retm-ned from 
 a voyage of survey and discovery on the 
 north-west coast of America . . Sept. 1795 
 Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition . . . Oct. 1815 
 Capt. Buchan's andlieut. Franklin's expedition 
 ia the Dorothea And Trent .... 1819-22 
 
 Capt. Ross and lieut. Parry in the Isabella and 
 Alexander 1818 
 
 Lleuts. Parry and Linddon, in the Hecla and 
 Griper May, 4, 1819 
 
 They' return to Leith .... Nov. 3, 1820 
 
 Capts. Parry and Lyon in the Fury and Hecla, 
 
 May 8, 1821 
 
 Capt. Parry's third expedition with the Hecla, 
 
 May 8, 1824 
 
 Capts. Franklin and Lyon, after having 
 attempted a land expedition, again sail from 
 Liverpool . . . , . Feb. 16, 1825 
 
 Capt. Parry,t again iu the Hecla, sails from 
 Dcptford, and reaches a sjsot 435 miles from 
 the North Pole, June 22 ; returns . Oct, 6, 1827 
 
 Capt. Koss I arrived at Hull, on his return from 
 his Arctic expedition, after an absence of four 
 years, and when all hope of his return had 
 been nearly abandoned § . . . Oct. 18, 1833 
 
 Capt. Back and his companions arrived at 
 Liverpool from their perilous Arctic land 
 exjiedition, after having visited the Great 
 Fish River and examined its course to the 
 Polar Seas Sept. 8, 1833 
 
 Capt. Back sailed from Chatham in command 
 of his majesty's ship Terror, on an exploring 
 adventure to Wager River . . June 21, 1836 
 
 [The Geographical Society awarded the king's 
 annual premium to capt. Back for his polar 
 discoveries and enterprise, Dec., 1835.] 
 
 * Number 45 contained a commentary on the king's speech, couched in such caustic terms, that a pro- 
 secution was commenced against Wilkes. Having been arrested on a general wan-ant, he was brought by 
 a writ of habeas corpus before chief justice Pratt, of the common pleas, who declared the judgment of that 
 court, that general warrants were illegal, and he was consequently discharged. But, not content with 
 this escape, he rejirinted the obnoxious number, which produced a regidar prosecution to conviction. See 
 Warrants, General. 
 
 t The gaUant sir Hugh 'Willoughby took his departureTrom Ratcliffe, on his fatal voyage for discovering 
 the north-east passage to China. He sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where the court then resided. 
 The council and courtiers appeared at the windows, and the people covered the shores. The young king, 
 Edward VI., alone lost the noble and novel sight, for he then lay on his death-bed ; so that the principal 
 object of the parade was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice, and 
 frozen to death on the coast of Lapland. Hak-luyt. 
 
 X Sir John Franklin died June 11, 1847 (see Franklin); sir E. Parry died July 8, 1853, aged 63 ; and sir 
 John Ross died Aug, 30. 1856, aged 80. 
 
 § In 1831 he discovered Boothia FeUx : on June 31, same year, he came to a spot which he considered 
 to be the true magnetic pole, in 70° 5' 17" N. lat., and 96° 46' 45" W. long. 
 
NOR 
 
 523 
 
 NOR 
 
 NORTH-WEST PASSAGE, continued. 
 
 Sir John Franklin, and capts. Crozier and Pitz- 
 james, in the ships Brebus and Terror, leave 
 England May 24, 1845 
 
 Commanders CoUinson and M'Clure, in the 
 Enterprise and Investigator, sailed eastward in 
 search of sir John Franklin . Jan. 20, 1850 
 
 North - west passage discovered by capt. 
 M'Clure * Oct. 26, „ 
 
 [Another expedition to the North Pole, under 
 the command of capt. Sherard Osborne, was 
 proposed to the Royal Geographical Society 
 in the spring of 1865.] 
 
 [For the other expeditions in search of Frank- 
 lin, (fee, see Franklin.] 
 
 NORWAY, until the 7th century, was governed by petty rulers. About 630, Olaf 
 Trsetelia, of the race of Odin, termed Ynglings or youths, expelled fi;oni Sweden, established 
 a colony in Vermeland, the nucleus of a monarchy, founded by his descendant, Halfdan III. 
 the black, a great warrior and legislator, whose memory was long revered. 
 
 Olaf Trsetelia, 630 ; slain by his subjects, 640.'' 
 Halfdan I., 640; Bystein I., 700; Halfdan II., 730; 
 
 Gudrod, 7S4; Olaf Geirstade and Halfdan III., 
 
 824. 
 Halfdan recovers his inheritance from his brother, 
 
 whom he subdues, together with the neighbouring 
 
 chiefs, 840 ; accidentaUy drowned, 863. 
 The chiefs regain their power during the youth of 
 
 his son, Harold Harfager, or fairhaired, who vows 
 
 neither to cut nor comb his hair till he recovers his 
 
 dominion, 865. 
 He defeats his enemies at Hafursfiord, 885 ; dies, 934. 
 Eric I. (the bloody Axe), his son, a tyrant, expelled ; 
 
 and succeeded by Hako the good, 940. 
 Hako endeavours in vain to estabUsh Christianity ; 
 
 dies, 963. 
 Harold II., Graafeld, son of Eric, succeeds ; killed in 
 
 battle with Harold of Denmark, 977. 
 Hako, Jarl, made governor of several provinces ; 
 
 becomes king ; his hcentiousness leads to his ruin; 
 
 deposed by Olaf I., Trygvasson ; and slain by his 
 
 slave, 995. 
 Olaf I. establishes Christianity by force and cruelty, 
 
 998 ; defeated and slain, during an expedition 
 
 against Pomerania, by the kings of Denmark and 
 
 Sweden, who divide Norway between them, 1000. 
 Olaf II., the saint (his son), lands in Norway, 1012 ; 
 
 defeats his enemies and becomes king, 1015 ; 
 
 fiercely zealous in the diffusion of Christianity, 
 
 1018-21. 
 Successful invasion of Canute, who becomes king, 
 
 1028, 1029 ; Olaf expelled ; returns and is killed in 
 
 battle, 1030. 
 Sweyn, at the death of Canute, succeeds as king of 
 
 Norway, but is expelled in favour of Magnus I., 
 
 bastard son of Olaf II., 1035 ; Magnus becomes 
 
 king of Denmark, 1036; dies, 1047. 
 Harold Hardrade, king of Nor^vay, 1047, invades 
 
 England ; defeated and slain by Harold II. at 
 
 Stanford-bridge, Sept. 25, 1066. 
 Olaf III. and Magnus II. (sons), kings, Sept. 25, 1066 ; 
 
 Olaf alone (pacific), 1069-1093 ; Olaf III. founds 
 
 Bergen, 1070. 
 Magnus III. (barefoot), son of Olaf, 1093 ; invades the 
 
 Orkneys and Scotland, 1096; kiUed in Ireland, 
 
 1103. 
 
 Sigurd I., Eystein II., and Olaf IV. (sons), 1103 ; 
 Sigurd visits the Holy Land as a warrior-pilgrim, 
 1107-10 ; becomes sole king, 1122 ; dies, 1130. 
 
 Magnus IV. (his son) and Harold IV., 1130 ; Magnus 
 dethroned, 1134. 
 
 Harold IV. murdered ; succeeded by his sons, Sigurd 
 II., &c. ; civil war rages, 1136. 
 
 Nicolas Breakspear (afterwards pope Adrian IV.), the 
 papal legate, arrives, reconciles the brothers, and 
 founds the archbishopric of Trondheim, 1152. 
 
 Numerous competitors for the crown ; civil war ; 
 Inge I., Eystein III., Hako III., Magnus V., 
 1136-62. 
 
 Magnus V. alone, 1162; rise of Swerro, an able ad- 
 venturer, who becomes king ; Magnus defeated ; 
 drowned, 1186. 
 
 Swerro rules vigorously ; dies, 1202. 
 
 Hako, his son, king, 1202; Guthrum, 1204; Inge II. 
 1205. 
 
 Hako IV., bastard son of Swerro, 1207 ; unsuccess- 
 fully invades Scotland, where he dies, 1263. 
 
 Magnus VI., his son (the legislator), dies, 12S0. 
 
 Eric II., the priest-hater, marries Margaret of Scot- 
 land ; their daughter, the Maid of Norway, be- 
 comes heiress to the ci'own of Scotland, 1286. 
 
 Hako v., his brother, king, 1299-1319. 
 
 Decline of Norwegian prosperity. 
 
 Magiaus VII. (III. of Sweden), king, 1319-43. 
 
 Hako VI., 1343-80. 
 
 Olaf V. of Norway (II. of Denmark), 13S0-87. 
 
 Norway united with Denmark and Sweden under 
 Margaret, 1389. 
 
 At an assembly at Calmar the three states are 
 formally united, 1397. 
 
 Sweden and Norway separated from Denmark, 
 1448 ; re-united, 1450. 
 
 Denmark and Norway separated from Sweden, 1523. 
 
 Christiania, the modern capital, built by Chris- 
 tian IV., 1624. 
 
 Norway given to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel ; 
 Pomerania and Bugen annexed to Denmark, Jan. 
 14, 1814. 
 
 The Norwegians declare their independence. May 17. 
 
 The Swedish troops enter Norway, July 16, 1814. 
 
 Charles Frederic, duke of Holstein, elected king of 
 Norway; abdicates, Oct. 10, 1814. 
 
 * Capt. M'Clure sailed in the Investir/ator in company with com. CoUinson in the jFjii^-pHse in search 
 of sir John Franklin, Jan. 20, 1850. On Sept. 6 he discovered high land, which he named Baring's land ; 
 on the 9th, other land, which he named afteV prince Albert ; on the 30th, the ship was frozen in. Enter- 
 tainuig a strong conviction that the waters in which the Investigator then lay communicated with Barrow's 
 straits, he set out on Oct. 21, with a few men in his sledge, to test his views. OnOct. 26, he reached Point 
 Russell (73° 31' N. lat., 114° 14' "W. long.), where from an elevation of 600 feet he saw Parry or MelviUe 
 Sound beneath them. The strait connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans ho named after the prince of 
 Wales. The Investigator was the first ship which traversed the Polar sea from Behriog straits to Behring 
 Lsland. Intelligence of this discovery was brought to England by com. Inglefield, and the Admiralty chart 
 was published Oct. 14, 1853. Capt. M'Clure returned to England, Sept. 1854. In 1S55, sooof. were paid to 
 capt. (afterwards sir Robert) M'Clure, and 5000?. were disti-ibuted among tlie oflicers and crew. On Jan. 
 30, 1855, the Admiralty notified that the Arctic medal would be given to aU persons engaged in the expe- 
 ditions from 1818 to 1855. 
 
NOR 524 NOV 
 
 NORWAY, continued. 
 
 Charles XIII. of Sweden proclaimed king by the 
 National Diet (Stortbing) assembled at Christiania ; 
 he accepted the constitution which declares Nor- 
 way a free, independent, indivisible, and inalien- 
 able state, united to Sweden, Nov. 4, 1S14. 
 
 Nobility abolished, 1821. 
 
 The national order of St. Olaf, instituted by king 
 Oscar, 1847. 
 
 See Denmark and Sweden. 
 
 NORWICH (Norfolk), mentioned in history in the Saxon Chronicle at the period when 
 Sweyn, king of Denmark, destroyed it by fire, 1004. Artisans from the Low Countries 
 established here the manufacture of baizes, arras, &c., about 1132. A great plague in 1348 
 carried off many thousand persons ; and in 1505 Norwich was nearly consumed b)' fire. The 
 cathedral was first erected in 1088, by bishop Herbert Losinga ; and was completed by bishop 
 Middleton, about 1280. The church of the Black friars, now St. Andrew's- hall, was erected 
 in 1415. The public library was instituted in 1784. The Norwich new canal and harbour 
 were opened June 3, 1831. 
 
 NORWICH, Bishopric of, originally East Anglia : the first bishop was Felix, a Bur- 
 gundian, sent to convert the East Anglians about 630. The see was divided into two distinct 
 bishoprics — Elmham, in Norfolk, and Dunwich, in Suffolk, about 673. Both sees suffered 
 extremely from the Danish invasions, insomuch that after the death of St. Humbert, they 
 lay vacant for a hundred years. At last the see of Elmham was revived, and Dunwich was 
 united to it ; but Arfastus removed the seat to Thetford, where it continued till Herbert 
 Losinga removed it to Norwich, 109 1. This see has given to the church of Rome two saints ; 
 and to the nation five lord chancellors. It was valued in the king's books at 8ggl. i8s. J^d. 
 per annum. Present income, 4500^. See Bishoprics. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OF NORWICH. 
 
 1790. George Home ; died Jan. 17, 1792. 
 
 1792. Charles Manners Sutton; translated to Can- 
 terbury, Feb. I, 1805. 
 
 1805. Henry Baihurst ; died April 5, 1837. He was 
 a strenuous supporter of catholic emancipa- 
 
 tion, and for a long time the only liberal 
 
 bishop in the house of peers. 
 1837. Edward Stanley ; died Sept. 6, 1849. 
 1849. Samuel Hinds ; resigned 1857. 
 1857. Hon. John T. Pelham, May ; present bishop. 
 
 NOTABLES. An assembly of the notables of France was convened by Calonne, the 
 minister of Louis XVI., on Feb. 22, 1787, on account of the deranged state of the king's 
 finances, and again, in 1788, when Calonne opened his plan : but any reform militated too 
 much against private interest to be adopted ; Calonne was dismissed, and soon after retired 
 to England. liOuis having lost his confidential minister, De Vergennes, by death, called 
 De Brieune, an ecclesiastic, to his counsels. The notables were re-assembled on Nov. 6, 
 1788. In the end, the States General were convoked Dec. 5 ; and from this assembly sprang 
 the National Assembly (which sec). The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. 
 — The ^'panish nokcbles assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by 
 him commanding their attendance), at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. 
 
 NOTARIES PUBLIC, said to have been appointed by the primitive fathers of the 
 Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs in the ist century. 
 Du Frcsnoy. This oflice was afterwards changed to a legal employment, to attest deeds and 
 writings, so as to establish their authenticity in any other country. An important statute to 
 regulate notarial ti-ansactions was passed in 1800, and some statutes on the subject have 
 been enacted since. 
 
 "NOTES AND QUERIES," a medium of intercommunication for literary men and 
 general readers, was first published on Nov. 3, 1849. 
 
 NOTRE DAME, the cathedral at Pari.s, was founded in 1163. 
 
 NOTTINGHAM. The castle here was defended by the Danes against king Alfred, and 
 liis brother Ethelred, who retook it, 868. It was rebuilt by William I. in 1068 ; and ulti- 
 mately became a strong fortress. It was burnt by rioters during the Reform excitement, 
 Oct. 10, 183 1. The riots at Nottingham, in which the rioters broke frames, &c., commenced 
 Nov. 14, 181 1, and continued to Jan. 1812. Great similar mischief was done in April, 1814. 
 The Watch and Ward act was enforceil, Dec. 2, 1816. The British Association is to meet 
 here in 1866. 
 
 NOVARA, Battle of, March 23, 1849, when the Austrian marshal Radetzky totally 
 defeated the king Charles Albert and the Sardinian army, 'ihe contest began at 10 a.m. 
 and lasted till late in the evening ; the Austrians lost 396 kiUed, and had about 1850 
 
NOV 525 NUN 
 
 wounded ; the Sardinians lost between 3000 and 4000 men, 27 cannons, and 3000 prisoners. 
 The king soon after abdicated in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA (N. America). Settled in 1622, by the Scotch under sir William 
 Alexander, in the reign of James I. of England, from whom it received the name of Nova 
 Scotia. In 17 10 the French included it in Acadia. Since its first settlement it has more 
 than once changed proprietors, and was not confirmed to England till the peace of Utrecht, 
 in 1 7 13. It was taken in 1745 and 1758 ; but was again confirmed to England in 1760. 
 Nova Scotia was divided into two provinces in 1 784 ; and was erected into a bishopric 
 in August, 1787. King's College, "Windsor, was founded in 1788. See Baronets. Gold was 
 found in Nova Scotia in 1 861. 
 
 NOVATIANS, a sect which denied restoration to the church to those who had relapsed 
 during times of persecution, begun with Novatian, a Roman presbyter, in 250. 
 
 NOVELS (Novelise), a part of Justinian's Code published 535. See Romances. 
 
 NOVEMBER (novem, nine), anciently the ninth month of the year. When Numa added 
 January and February, in 713 B.C., it became the. eleventh as now. The Roman senators 
 wished to name this month in wliich Tiberius was born, by his name, in imitation of Julius 
 Caesar, and Augustus; but the emperor refused, saying, "What will you do, conscript 
 fathers, if you have thirteen CjBsars ? " 
 
 NOVGOROD (central Russia), made the seat of his government by Ruric, a Varangian 
 chief, in 862, is held to be the foundation of the Russian empire. In memory of the event 
 the czar inaugurated a national monument at Novgorod, on Sept. 20, 1862. 
 
 NOVI (N. Italy), Battle of, in which the French army, commanded by Joubert, was 
 defeated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799. Among 
 10,000 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several other distinguished officers. 
 
 NOVUM ORGANON, the great work of lord Bacon containing his system of philosophy, 
 was published 1620. 
 
 NOYADES. See Drowning. 
 
 NUBIA, the ancient Ethiopia supra Jilgjrptum, said to have been the seat of the king- 
 dom of Meroe, received its name from a tribe named Nubes or Nubates. The Christian 
 kingdom, with Dongola, the capital, lasted till the 14th century, when it was broken up into 
 Mahometan principalities. It is now subject to the viceroy of Egypt, having been conquered 
 by Ibrahim Pacha in 1822. 
 
 NUISANCES REMOVAL ACT ; passed in 1848 ; amended 1849. See Sanitary Legis- 
 lation. 
 
 NUMANTINE WAR. The war between the Romans and the Celtiberians (Celts who 
 possessed the country near the Iber, now the Ebro) began, 140 B.C., on account of the latter 
 having given refuge to their allies the Sigidians, who had been defeated by the Romans. 
 Numantia, an unprotected city, withstood a long siege. The armj^ of Scipio Africanus, 
 60,000 men, was bravely opposed by no more than 4000 men able to bear arms. The 
 Numantines fed upon horse-iiesh, and afterwards on their own dead, and at last drew lots to 
 kill one another. At length they set fire to their houses, and destroyed themselves, so that 
 not even one remained to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, 133 B.C. 
 
 NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which began 
 III B.C., and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last king, Juba, joined 
 Cato and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 B.C., when Numidia became a Roman pro- 
 vince. See Mauritania. 
 
 NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and medals, an important adjunct to the study of 
 history. In this country Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and Pinkerton (1789), published 
 works on medals. Rudiug's Annals is the great work on British coinage (new edition, 1840). 
 — The Numismatic Society in Loudon was founded by Dr. John Lee in 1836. It publishes 
 the Numismatic Chronicle. — Mr. Yonge Akerman's Numismatic Manual (1840) is a useful 
 introduction to the science. Foreign works are numerous. 
 
 NUNCIO, an envoy from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. The pope deputed a 
 nuncio to the Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission to 
 an audience by James II., July, 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolution. 
 
 NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of St. 
 Anthony retired at the close of the 3rd century. The first founded in France, near Poictiers, 
 
NUE 
 
 526 
 
 OBE 
 
 by St. Marcellina, sister to St. Martin, 360. Du Frcsnoij. The first in England was at 
 Folkestone, in Kent, by Eadbald, or Edbald, Icing of Kent, 630. Bugdalc's Monastkum 
 Anglicanwn, See Abbeys and Monachisni. The nuns were expelled from their convents in 
 Germany, inJidj^ 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan. 1790. 
 In Feb. 1861, monastic establishments were abolished in Naples, compensation being made 
 to the inmates. For memorable instances of the constancy and fortitude of nuns, see Acre 
 and Coldingham. 
 
 NUREMBERG, a free imperial German city in 1219. In 1522, the diet here demanded 
 ecclesiastical reforms and a general council, and in 1532 secured religious liberty to the 
 
 Protestants. 
 
 I 
 
 0. 
 
 OAK, st}ded the monarch of the woods, and an emblem of strength, virtue, constancy, 
 and long life. That produced in England is considered to be best calculated for ship-building. 
 The constellation Robur Caroli, the oak of Charles, was named by Dr. Halley in 1676, in 
 memory of the oak tree in which Charles II. saved himself from his pursuers, after the battle 
 of Worcester, Sept. 3, 1651. See Boscobel. Heme's oak, Windsor park, mentioned in 
 Shakspeare's Merry Wives of Windsor, was finally destroyed by the wind, Aug. 31, 1863. 
 The evergreen oak, Quercus Ilex, was brought from the south of Europe before 1581. The 
 scarlet oak, Quercus Coccinea, was brought from North America before 1691. The chestnut- 
 leaved oak, Quercus Primus, from North America before 1730. The Turkey oak, Quercus 
 Ben-is, from the south of Europe, 1735. The agaric of the oak, in pharmacy, was known as 
 a styptic in 1750. In June, 403, the " Synod of the oak" was held at Chalcedon. 
 
 GATES' S PLOT. Titus Gates, at one time chaplain of a shi}) of war, was dismissed for 
 immoral conduct, and became a lecturer in London. In conjunction Avith Dr. Tongue, he 
 invented a plot against the Roman Catholics, who he asserted had conspired to assassinate 
 Charles II., and extirimte the Protestant religion. He made it known Aug. 12, 1678, and 
 in consequence about eighteen Roman Catholics were accused, and upon false testimony con- 
 victed and executed ; among them the aged viscount Stafford, Dec. 29, 1680. Gates was 
 afterwards tried for perjury (in the reign of James II.), and being found guilty, was fined, 
 put in the piUory, publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprison- 
 ment for life, May, 1685. On the accession of William and Mary he was pardoned, and a 
 pension of 3Z. a week granted him, 1689. 
 
 OATHS were taken by Abraham, B.C. 1892 {Gen. xxi. 24), and authorised (b.c. 1491) 
 Sxod. xxii. IL The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was iutrqduced by the 
 Saxons into England, 600. Rapin. That administered to a judge was settled 1344. 
 
 Of supremacy, first administered to British 
 subjects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Hen. 
 VIII. (Stow's Chron.) 1535 
 
 Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as 
 528 ; and the words " So help me God and all 
 saints," concluded an oath until . . . 1550 
 
 The ancient oath of allegiance, which contained 
 a promise "to be true and faithful to the 
 king and his heirs, and truth and faith to 
 bear of life and lirnb and terrene honour ; and 
 not to know or hear of any ill or damage in- 
 tended him without defending him there- 
 from," was modified by James I. in 1605, a 
 declaration against the pope's authority being 
 added. It was again altered in . . . 1689 
 
 The affirmation of a Quaker was made equiva- 
 lent to an oath, by statute, in i6g6, et seq. 
 
 Of abjuration, being an obligation to maintain 
 the government of king, lords, and commons, 
 
 the church of England, and toleration of Pro- 
 testant dissenters, and abjuring all Roman 
 Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 Will. III. 1701 
 
 The Test and Corporation oaths modified by 
 stat. 9 Geo. IV. 1828. See Tests. 
 
 Act abolishing oaths in the customs and excise 
 departments, and in certain other cases, and 
 substituting declarations in lieu thereof, i & 
 2 Will. IV 1831 
 
 Affirmation, instead of oath, was permitted to 
 Quakers and other dissenter.s by acts passed 
 in 1833, 1837, 1838, and 1863. See Affirmation. 
 
 In 1858 and i860, Jews elected M.P. were re- 
 lieved from part of the oath of allegiance, 
 bee Jiws. 
 
 A bill for modifying the oath taken by Roman 
 Catholics (passed by the commons) was re- 
 jected by the lords . . . June 26, 1S65 
 
 OBELISK. (Greek obelos, a spit, monolithos, a single stone). The first mentioned 
 history was that of Rameses, king of Egypt, about 1485 B.C. The Arabians called th 
 Pharaoh's needles, and the Egj'ptian priests the finger of the sun ; they differed very much 
 as to their costliness, magnitude, and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome ; one 
 was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martius, on the pavement of which was 
 
 them I I 
 
OBL 
 
 ODE 
 
 an horizontal dial tliat marked the hour, about 14 B.C. Of the obelisks brought to Rome by ' 
 the emperors, sevei-al have been restored and set up by various popes, especially Sixtus V. 
 In Loudon are three obelisks : first in Fleet-street, at the top of Bridge-street, erected to the 
 famous John "Wilkes, lord mayor of London in 1775 ; and immediately opposite to it at the 
 south end of Farringdon-street, stands another of granite to the memory of Eobert 
 AVaithman, lord mayor in 1824, erected June 25, 1833 ; the third at the south end of the 
 Blackfriars-road, marks the distance of one mile and a fraction from Fleet-street. An 
 obelisk from Luxor was set up in the Place de la Concorde, Paris, in Oct. 1836. 
 
 OBLIVION. In 1660 was passed an act of "free general pardon, indemnity, and 
 oblivion for all treasons and state offences committed between Jan. i, 1637, and June 24, 
 1660." The regicides and certain Irish popish priests were excepted. 
 
 OBSERVATOPJES. The first is said to have been erected on the top of the temple of 
 Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandyas, in Egypt, was another, and it contained a 
 golden circle 200 feet in diameter ; that at Benares was at least as ancient as these. The 
 Hrst in authentic history was at Alexandria, about 300 B.C., erected by Ptolemy Soter. 
 
 First modem meridional instrument by Coper- 
 nicus 1540 
 
 First observatory at Cassel 1561 
 
 Tycho Brahe's, at Uranienburg . . . .1576 
 Astronomical tower at Copenhagen . . . 1657 
 
 Royal (French) 1667 
 
 Eoyal observatory at Greenwich (which see) . . 1675 
 Observatory at Nuremburg .... 167S 
 
 At Utrecht 1690 
 
 Berlin, erected under Liebnitz's dix'ection . . 1711 
 
 At Bologna . . 1714 
 
 At St. Petersburg 1725 
 
 At Pekin, about 1750 
 
 Oxford, JDr. UadcVffe 1772 
 
 Calton Hill, Edinburgh 1776 
 
 Dublin, Dr. Andrtws 1783 
 
 Armagh, Primate Robinson 1793 
 
 Cambridge, England 1824 
 
 Cambridge, U.S 1840 
 
 AVashington, U.S. 1842 
 
 OCANA (central Spain), near which the Spaniards Avere defeated by the French com- 
 manded by Mortier and Soult, Nov. 19, 1809. 
 
 OCEAN MONARCH, an American emigrant ship, left Liverpool bound for Boston, 
 Aug. 24, 1848, having 396 passengers on board. She had not advanced far into the Irish 
 Channel, being within six miles of Great Ormshead, Lancashire, when she took fire, and in 
 a few hours was burnt to the water's edge, and 178 persons perished.* 
 
 OCTARCH, the chief of the kings of the heptarchy, was called Rex gentis Angloruin. 
 Hengist was the first octarch, 455, and Egbert the last, 800. See Britain. Some authors 
 insist that the English heptarchy should have been called the octarchy, and that he-ptarchy is 
 not the correct term. 
 
 OCTOBER, the eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, and the tenth 
 in the year of Numa, 713 B.C. October still retained its first name, although the senate 
 ordered it to be called Faiisfintcs, in honour of Faustina,vfiie of Antoninus the emperor ; and 
 Commodus called it Invictus, and Domitianus. October was sacred to Mars. 
 
 OCTROIS (from the low Latin auctorium, authority), a term applied to concessions from 
 sovereigns, and to the taxes levied at the gates of towns in France on articles of food before 
 entering the city. These octrois, of ancient origin, were suppressed in 1791, but re- 
 established in 1797, and were re-organised in 1816, 1842, and 1852. In 1859, the octrois of 
 Paris produced above 54 million francs. The Belgian government became very popular in 
 July, i860, by abolishing the Octrois. 
 
 ODES are nearly as old as the lyre ; amongst the Greeks they were extempore compo- 
 sitions sung in honour of the gods. Anacreon's odes were composed about 532 B.C. ; Pindar's 
 498 to 446 ; and Horace's from 24 to 13, all B.C. Anciently, odes were divided into strophe, 
 antistrophe. and epode. See Poets Laureate and Lyric Poetry. 
 
 ODESSA, a port on the Black Sea, built by the empress Catherine of Russia, in 1 7S4- 
 1792, after the peace of Jassy. In 1817 it was made a free port, since when its prosperity 
 has rapidly increased. It was partially bombarded by the British April 21, 1854, in conse- 
 r[uence of the Russian batteries having fired on a flag of truce, April 6. On May 12, the 
 
 * The BraziUan steam-frigate, Alfonzo, happened to be out on a trial trip at the time, with the prince 
 and princess de JoinviUe and the duke and duchess dAum;vle on board, who witnessed the catastrophe, 
 and aided in rescuing and comforting the sufferers with exceeding humanity. They, with the crews and 
 passengers of the Alfonzo and the yacht Queen of the Ocean, so effectually rendered their heroic and 
 im wearied services as to save 156 persons from their dreadful situation, and 62 others escaped by various 
 means. 
 
ODO 
 
 528 
 
 OLD 
 
 I 
 
 English frigate Tiger stranded here, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The captain, 
 Gitfiird, and many of his crew were killed, and the rest made prisoners. 
 
 ODONTOLOGY (from the Greek odontes, teeth), the science of the teeth, may he said to 
 have really begun with the researches of jirofessor Richard Owen, who in 1839 made the first 
 definite announcement of the organic connection between the vascirlar and vital soft parts of 
 the frame and the hard substance of a tooth. His comprehensive work, " Odontography" 
 (illustrated with beautiful plates), was published 1840-5. 
 
 ODYL, the name given in 1845 by baron von Reich enbach to a so-called new 
 "imponderable or influence," said to be developed by magnets, crystals, the human body, 
 heat, electricity, chemical action, and the whole material universe. The odylic force is said 
 to give rise to luminous phenomena, visible to certain sensitive persons only. The baron's 
 " Researches on Magnetism, &c., in relation to the Vital Force," translated by Dr. Gregory, 
 were published in 1850. Emanuel Swedenborg (died 1772) described similar phenomena. 
 
 (ECUMENICAL BISHOP (from the Greek oikoumcne, the habitable understood globe), 
 "universal bishop ;" a title assumed by John, bishop of Constantinople, 587. 
 
 OFFA'S DYKE, the intrenchment from the AVye to the Dee, made by Ofla, king of 
 Mercia, to defend his country from the incursions of the "Welsh, 779. 
 
 OGYGES, Deluge of (which laid Attica waste for more than two hundred years 
 afterwards, and until the arrival of Cecrops), is stated to have occurred 1 764 B. c. See Deluge. 
 
 OGULNIAN LAAY, carried by the tribunes Q. and Cn. Ogulnii, increased the number of 
 the pontiff's and augurs, and made plebeians eligible to those offices, B.C. 300. 
 
 OHIO, a western state of North America, was ceded to the British with Canada, in 
 1763 ; settled in 1788, and admitted into the Union, Nov. 29, 1802. 
 
 OHM'S LAW, for determining the quantity of the electro-motive force of the Voltaic 
 battery, was published in 1827. It is in conformity with the discovery that the earth may 
 be employed as a conductor, thus saving the return wire iu electric-telegraphy. 
 
 OIL was used for burning in lamps as eai'ly as the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 B.C. 
 It was the custom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons appointed to high offices, as the 
 priests and kings. Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; i Sam. x. I ; xvi. 13. The fact that oil, if passed 
 through red-hot iron pipes, will be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to 
 chemists ; and after the process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor 
 and Martineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale, 1815. Oil Springs. 
 See Petroleum. 
 
 OLBERS, the asteroid, discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802, is now termed Pallas. 
 
 OLD BAILEY SESSIONS-COURT is held for the trial of criminals, and its jurisdiction 
 comprehends the county of Middlesex as well as the city of London. It is held eight times 
 in the year by the royal commission of oyer and terminer. The judges are, the lord mayor, 
 those aldermen who liave passed the chair, the recorder, and the common-serjeant, who are 
 attended by both the sheriff's, and one or more of the national judges. The court-house was 
 built in 1773,* and enlarged in 1808. See Central Criminal Court. 
 
 OLD MAN OF THE Mountain. See Assassins. OLD STYLE. See New Style. 
 
 OLEFIANT GAS, a combination of hydrogen and carbon, which burns with much 
 brilliancy. In 1862, Bcrthelot formed it artificially by means of alcohol. 
 
 OLDENBURG, a grand duchy in North Germany, was annexed to Denmark in 1448 ; 
 in 1773, Christian VII. ceded the country to Russia in exchange for Holslein Gottorp, and 
 soon after the present dignity was established. Population in 1864, 301,812. 
 
 DUKES. 
 
 1773. Pi-ederick Avigustus. 
 
 1785. Peter Frederick. The duchy was seized by- 
 Napoleon, and annexed to his empire in 
 1811 ; but restored iu 1814. 
 
 GRAND-DUKES. 
 
 1829. May 21. Paid Frederick. 
 
 1853. Feb. 27. Nicholas Frederick (bom July 8, 
 
 1827), the PRESENT grandduke. 
 Heir : Prince Frederic Augustus (bom Nov. 16, 1852). 
 
 * During some trials in the old court, the lord mayor, one alderman, two judges, the greater part of 
 the jury, and numbers of spectators, caught the gaol distemper, and died May, 1750. Again, this disease 
 was fatal to several in 1772. Twenty-eight persons were killed at the execution of Mr. Steele's murderers 
 at the Old Bailey, Feb. 22, 1807. 
 
OLE 529 OPE 
 
 OLERON, Laws of, relating to sea affairs, are said to have been enacted by Richard I. 
 of England, when at the island of Oleron in France, 1194 ; which is now doubted. 
 
 OLIVES are named in the earliest accounts of Egypt and Greece ; and at Athens their 
 cultivation was taught by Cecrops, 1556 B.C. They were first planted in Italy about 562 d.c. 
 The olive has been cultivated in England since 1648 a.d. The Cape olive since 1730. 
 
 OLTENITZA, Battle of. A large Turkish force having crossed the Danube, under 
 Omar Pasha, established themselves at Oltenitza, in spite of the vigorous attacks of the 
 Russians, who were repulsed with lo.ss, Nov. 2 and 3, 1853. On the 4th a most desperate 
 attempt to dislodge the Turks by general Danneberg with 9000 men, was defeated with 
 great loss. 
 
 OLYMPIADS, the era of the Greeks, which dates from July i, 776 B.C., being the j'ear 
 in which Corcebus was successful at the Olympic games. This era was reckoned by periods 
 of four years, each period being called an Olympiad, and iu marking a date the year and 
 Olympiad were both mentioned. The computation of Olympiads ceased with the 305th, 
 A.D. 440. 
 
 OLYMPIC GAMES, so famous among the Greeks, are said to have been instituted by 
 the Idsei Dactyli, 1453 B.C., or by Pelops, 1307 B.C. ; revived by Iphitus, 884 B.C., in 
 honour of Jupiter, and were held at the beginning of every fifth year, on the banks of the 
 Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, now the Morea, to exercise the youth in five 
 kinds of combats. The conquerors in these games were highly honoured. The prize 
 contended for was a crown made of a kind of wild olive, appropriated to this use. In 1858, 
 M. Zappas, a wealthy Peloponnesian, gave funds to re-establish these games, under the 
 •auspices of the queen of Greece, to commence in Oct. 1859. Olympic Theatee, See 
 Theatres. 
 
 OLYNTHUS, a city, K Greece, subdued in war by Sparta in 382 — 379 B.C. It resisted 
 Philij) of Macedon, 350 B.C., by whom it was destroyed, 347. 
 
 OMENS. 'See Augury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having drawn prog- 
 nostications from omens, 1497 B.C. Alexander the Great and Mithridates the Great are said 
 to have studied omens. At the birth of the latter, 131 B.C., there were seen for seventy 
 days together, two large comets, whose splendour eclipsed that of the noon-day smi, occupying 
 so vast a space as the fourth part of the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed all 
 the actions of Mithridates throughout his life. Justin. 
 
 OMMIADES, a dynasty of Mahometan caliphs, beginning with Moawiyah, of whom 
 fourteen reigned in Arabia, 661 — 750 ; and eighteen at Cordova, in Spain, 750 — 1031. Their 
 favourite colour was green. 
 
 OMNIBUSES (from omnibus, for all) began to run in Paris in April, 1828. The idea of 
 such conveyances is ascribed to Pascal, about 1662, when similar carriages were started, but 
 soon discontinued. They were revived in Paris, April 11, 1828 ; and introduced into London 
 hy a coach proprietor named Shillibeer. The first omnibus started from Paddington to the 
 Bank of England on Saturday, July 4, 1829. The omnibias is usually licensed to carry from 
 ten to twelve passengers inside, and from ten to fourteen outside, and is attended by a foot- 
 man, called a " conductor*." Regulations were made respecting omnibuses by 16 & 17 Vict. 
 c. 33 (1853). See Cabriolets and Hackney Coaclies. The London Omnibus Company was 
 established in Jan. 1856. The saloon omnibuses ran in 1857-60. In Sept. 1865, it was 
 stated that there were then running about 620 omnibuses belonging to the General Omnibus 
 Company, and 450 belonging to private proprietors. 
 
 ONE POUND NOTES were issued by the bank of England, March 4, 1797 ; for England 
 only, 1823; re-issued for a short time, Dec. 16, 1852. Rosse. 
 
 0. P. RIOT began on the opening of the new Covent Garden theatre, London, with 
 increased prices of admission, Sept. 18,* and lasted tiU Dec. 10, 1809. 
 
 OPERAS. Adam de la Hale, a Trouvere, surnamed " le Bossu d'Arras," born in 1240, 
 is, as far as has yet been ascertained, the composer of the first comic opera, Li Gieus (Le Jeu) 
 de Robin et de Marion. The Italian opera began with the II Satiro of Cavaliere, and the JDafne 
 
 * The play was Macbeth, and not one word from the stage was heard. The concurrence of all parts of 
 the house in the desire for reduction, gave a furious and determined party in the pit courage to proceed, 
 and great injury was done in pit, boxes, and galleries. For many successive nights the audience, too 
 strong to be controlled, continued their demand, and renewed their depredations, while the managers 
 seemed, on their part, resolved not to give way. 
 
 M M 
 
OPE 
 
 530 
 
 OPT 
 
 of Rinuccini, with music by Peri, about 1590. Their Eurydice was represented at Florence, 
 1600, on the marriage of Marie de Medicis with Henry IV. of France. L'Orfeo, Favola in 
 Musica, composed by Monteverde, was performed in 1607, and is supposed to have been the 
 first opera that was' ever published. About 1669, the abbot Perrin obtained a grant from 
 XIV. to set lip an opera at Paris, where, in 1672, was acted Fotnona.—Jiossim's BarhUre and 
 Otello, appeared, 1816 ; Gazza Ladra, 1817 ; Scmiramide, 1823 ; Chiillainne Tell, 1829. 
 y^eher's Bcr Frcischiitz, 1821; Oberon, 1826. Bonizettis Lticrezia Borgia, 1840. Meyerbeer's 
 Eobert Ic Diahle, 1831 ; Huguenots, 1836 ; Prophete, 1849. 
 
 OPERAS IN England. Sir "William Davenant introduced a species of opera in London 
 in 1684. The first regularly performed opera Avas at York buildings in 1692. The first at 
 Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of Handel were performed in 1735, and they became 
 general in several of the theatres a few years after. Gay's Beggars' Opera, first performed in 
 1727 at the Lincoln's Inn theatre. It ran for sixty-three successive nights, but so offended 
 the persons in power, that the lord chamberlain refused a licence for the performance of a 
 second part of it entitled "Polly." This resentment induced Gay's friends to come fonvard 
 on its publication with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 1200?., 
 Avhereas the Beggars' Opera had gained him only 400?. Life of Gay. See Theatres. 
 
 OPERA-HOUSE, The Italian, or Queen's Theatre. The original building is generally 
 supposed to have been constructed by sir John Vanbrugh, though Mr. Pennant attributes it 
 to sir Christopher Wren. It was built, according to this authority, in 1704, and opened 
 April 9, 1705 : and burnt down June 17, 1789. The foundation of the new theatre was laid 
 April 3, 1790 ; and the house was opened Sept. 22, 179I, on an improved plan ; the present 
 exterior was erected in 1818, from designs by Mr. Nash.— The English Opera (or Lyceum) 
 was opened June 15, 1816. It was entirely destroyed by fire, Feb. 16, 1830. The new 
 English Opera-house, or Lyceum, was erected from designs by Mr. S. Beazley, and opened 
 in July, 1834. See Theatres. 
 
 OPHTHALMIC HOSPITALS. See Hospitals. 
 
 OPHTHALMOSCOPE, an apparatus for inspecting the interior of the eye, invented by 
 professor H. Helmholtz, and described by him in 1851. 
 
 OPIUM, the juice of the white poppy, was known to the ancients, its cultivation being 
 mentioned by Homer, and its medicinal use by Hippocrates. It is largely cultivated in 
 British India, and was introduced into China by merchants. It conduced to the war of 1834. 
 The revenue derived from opium by the Indian government in 1862 was about 7,850,000?. 
 Laudanum, a preparation of opium, was employed early in the 17th century. A number of 
 alkaloids have been discovered in opium : uarcotine by Derosne, and morphia by Sertiirner, 
 in 1803. 
 
 OPORTO (W. Portugal), the ancient Calle, by nature one of the most impregnable cities 
 in Europe ; the great mart of Portuguese wine known as "Port." A chartered company 
 for the regulation of the port-wine trade was established in 1756. The French, under 
 marshal Soult, were surprised here by lord "Wellington, and defeated in an action fought 
 May II, 1809. The Migu elites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with 
 considerable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. It has since been the scene of civil war. See Portugal. 
 The Oporto wine company was abolished in 1834, but re-established by a royal decree, 
 April 7, 1838. An international exhibition was opened here by the king, Sept. 18, 1865. 
 
 OPTICS, a science studied by the Greeks ; and later by the Arabians about the 12th 
 century. 
 
 Burning lenses known at Athens . b.c. 424 
 The magnifying power of convex glasses and 
 
 concave mirrors, and the prismatic colours 
 
 produced by angvilar glass, mentioned by 
 
 Seneca, about a.d. 50 
 
 Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy . . . 120 
 
 First treatise on optics by Euclid, about . . 280 
 Two of the leading principles known to the 
 
 Platonists 300 
 
 Greatlv improved by Alhazen . . . . iio8 
 Hints for spectacles and telescopes, given by 
 
 Roger Bacon, about 1280 
 
 Spectacles said to have been invented by Sal- 
 
 vinus iVi-matus, of Pisa, before . . . . 1300 
 Camera obscura said to have been invented by 
 
 Baptista Porta 1560 
 
 Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges, about 1571 
 
 Telescope made by Jansen (said also to have in- 
 vented the microscope) about 1609, and inde- 
 pendently, by Galileo, about . . . . 1630 
 Microscope, according to Huyghens, invented 
 
 by Drebbel, about 1621 
 
 Law of refraction discovered by Snellius, about 1624 
 Reflecting telescope, James Gregory . . . 1663 
 ,, ,, Newton .... 1666 
 
 Motion and velocity of light discovered by Roe- 
 
 mer, and after him by Cassini . . . . 1667 
 [Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 millions of 
 
 miles in sixteen minutes.] 
 Double refraction explained by Bartholinus . 1669 
 Cassegrainian reflector ..... 1672 
 
 Newton's discoveries 1674 
 
 Telescopes with a single lens by Tschirnhausen, 
 
 about 1690 
 
OPT 
 
 531 
 
 OKA 
 
 OPTICS, continued. 
 
 Polarisation of light, Huyghens, about . . 1692 
 Structiire of the eye explained by Petit, about 1700 
 Achromatic telescope constructed by Mr. Hall 
 
 (but not made public) In 1733 
 
 Constructed by DoUond, most likely without 
 
 any knowledge of Hall's 1757 
 
 Hersohel's great reflecting telescope erected at 
 
 Slough 1789 
 
 Dr. T. Young's discoveries (undulatory theory, 
 
 &c.) 1800-3 
 
 Camera Lucida (Dr. WoUaston) . . . . 1807 
 Mains (polarisation of light by reflection) . . 1808 
 
 Fresno! (double refraction, &c.) . . . , 1817 
 Lai-ge telescope constructed by Lord Rosse .' ! 1845 
 Arago (colours of polarised light, &c.) . 1811-53 
 Dr. Tyndall's Lectures on Light, illustrated by 
 Duboscq's electiic lamp, at the Koyal Insti- 
 tution, London 1856 
 
 Sir D. Brewster, optical researches (see Photo- 
 graphy) 1814-57 
 
 The spectroscope constructed and used by 
 
 KirchhofE and Bunsea iggi 
 
 See Telescope, Microscope, Stereoscope, Pseudo- 
 scope, Spectrum, Photography, &c. 
 
 OPTIC NERVES are said to have been discovered by N. Varole, a surgeon and physician 
 of Bologna, about 1538. Nouv. Diet. 
 
 OEACLES. The most ancient was that of Dodona ; but the most famous that of Delphi, 
 1263 B.C. See Delphi and Dodona. , 
 
 OEANGE. The sweet, or China orange, was first brought into Europe from China by 
 the Portuguese, in 1547 ; and it is asserted that the identical tree, whence all the European 
 orange-trees of this sort were produced, is still preserved at Lisbon, in the gardens of one of 
 its nobility. Orange-trees were first brought to England, and planted, with little success in 
 1595 ; they are said to have been planted at Beddiugton park, near Croydon, Surrey. The 
 duty on imported oranges was repealed in i860. 
 
 ORAISTGE, a principality in S.E. France, formerly a lordship in the 9th or loth century. 
 It has been ruled by four houses successively : that of Giraud Adhemar (to 1 1 74) ; of Baux 
 (1182 to 1393) ; of Chalons (to 1530) ; and of ISTassau (1530 to 1713). See Nassau. Philibert 
 the Great, prince of Orange, the last of the house of Chalons, having been wronged by 
 Francis I. of France, entered the service of the emperor Charles V. to whom he rendered 
 great services by his military talents. He was killed at the siege of Florence, Aug. 3, 1530. 
 He was succeeded by his nephew-in-law Rdnee of Nassau. See ^^ratces of Orange under 
 Holland. The eldest son of the king of Holland is styled the prince of Orange, although the 
 principality was ceded to France in 1713. 
 
 OEANGE RIVER, a free state in South Africa. The British government transferred 
 (by sir George Clerk) their powers over this territory to a provisional government, March 29, 
 1854. A Volksraad (legislative council) and governor have been appointed. 
 
 ORANGEMEN. The battle of the Diamond, fought in Armagh in Sept. 1795 ; and the 
 treachery experienced by the Protestants on that occasion, convinced them they would become 
 an easy l)rey to the Roman Catholics, from their small numbers, unless they associated for their 
 defence. The first Orange lodge was formed in Armagh, Sept. 21, 1795 ; but the name of 
 Orangemen already existed. An Orange lodge was formed in Dublin ; the members published 
 a declaration of their principles (the maintenance of church and state) in Jan. 1798. It is 
 stated that in 1836, there were 145,000 Orangemen in England, and 125,000 in Ireland, the 
 duke of Cumberland being grand-master. After a parliamentary inquiry Orange clubs were 
 broken up at the request of the house of commons ; but revived in 1845. In Oct. 1857, the 
 lord chancellor of Ireland ordered that justices of the peace shoidd not belong to Orange clubs. 
 The Orangemen in Canada were greatly excited during the visit of the prince of Wales 
 in Sept. i860. Orange demonstrations in Belfast have led to desperate riots. See Belfast. 
 
 ORATOR HENLEY. An English clergj^man of some talents, and great eccentricity, 
 obtained this name by opening what he called his "Oratory" in London, in 1726. He had 
 a kind of chapel in Newport market, Avhere he gave lectures on theological topics on Sundays, 
 and on other subjects on Wednesdays, every week. Novelty procured him a multitude of 
 hearers ; but he was too imprudent to gain any permanent advantage from his project. 
 After having served as a butt for the satirical wits, poets, and painters of his time, he 
 removed his oratory to Clare-market, and sank into comparative obscurity and contempt 
 previously to his death, in 1756. 
 
 ORATORIANS (from the Latin orare, to pray), a regular order of priests established by 
 St. Philip Neri, about 1564, and so called from the oratory of St. Jerome, at Rome, where 
 they prayed. They had a foundation in France, commenced by father de Berulle, after- 
 wards cardinal, 1612. — The rev. Frederick Faber and others, as '" Fathers of the Oratory," 
 established themselves first in King AViUiam-street, Strand, in 1848, and afterwards at 
 Brompton. 
 
 M M 2 
 
ORA 532 OI!I 
 
 ORATOEIO, a kind of sacred drama, the subject of it being generally taken from the 
 Scriptures, set to music. Mason. The origin of oratorios, so named from having been first 
 performed in an oratory, is ascribed to St. Philip Neri, about 1550. The first oratorio in 
 London was performed in Lincoln's-imi theatre in Port ngal- street, in 1732. Handel's 
 oratorio of " Israel in Egypt" was produced in 1738, and the "Messiah" in 1741 ; Haydn's 
 "Creation" in 1798; Mendelssohn's "St. Paul" in 1837, and "Elijah" in 1846. 
 
 ORCHOMENUS, a small Greek state in Boeotia, was destroyed by the Thebans, 368 B.C. ; 
 restored by Philip II. of Macedon, 354 ; and given up by him to Thebes, 346. 
 
 ORDEAL was known among the Greeks and Jews {Num. v. 2). It was introduced into 
 England by the Saxons. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would piit 
 himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this day, or upon God only. 
 The ordeal was abolished in 1261. 
 
 ORDERS. See Knighthood. 
 
 ORDERS IN Council were issued by the British government Jan. 7, and Nov. 11, 1807, 
 prohibiting trade with the ports occupied by the French. They were reprisals for Napoleon's 
 Berlin decree {which see). These restrictions greatly checked the progress of manufactures in 
 this country, and caused much distress till their removal in 1814. 
 
 ORDINATION of ministers in the Christian church began with Christ and his apostles. 
 See Mark iii. 14, and Acts vi. and xiv. 23. In England in 1549 a new form of ordination 
 of ministers was ordered to be prepared by a committee of six prelates and six divines. 
 
 ORDINANCE. See Self-Denying Ordinances. 
 
 ORDNANCE-OFFICE. Before the invention of guns, this office was supplied by officers 
 •imder the following names : the bowyer ; the cross-bowyer ; the galeater, or juirveyor of 
 helmets ; the armourer ; and the keeper of the tents. Henry VIII. jjlaced it under the 
 management of a master-general, a lieiitenant, surveyor, &c. The master-general was chosen 
 from among the first generals in the service of the sovereign. The appointment was formerly 
 for life ; but since the Restoration, was held durante bene placito, and not unfi-equently by a 
 ■cabinet minister. Bcatson. The letters patent for this office were revoked May 25, 1855, 
 and its duties vested in the minister of war, lord Paumure. The last master-general was 
 lord Fitzroy Somerset, afterwards lord Raglan. 
 
 ORDNANCE SURVEY. The trigonometrical survey of England was commenced by 
 gen. Roy, in 1783, continued by col. Colby, and completed by col. (now sir Henry) James in 
 1856. The publication of the maps commenced in 1819, under the direction of col. Mudge, 
 and was completed in 1862 ; the southern part on the scale of one inch to the mile, the 
 northern six inches to the mile : a large part of these maps have been coloured geologically. 
 The survey of Ireland has been completed and published ; that of Scotland is still going on. 
 
 OREGON TERRITORY. A dispute respecting boundaries arose in 1845 between the 
 British government and that of the United States, which was settled by treaty, June 12, 
 1846. Oregon was admitted as a state by the Union in Feb. 1859. 
 
 ORGANIC SYNTHESIS. See Cheviistry. 
 
 ORGANS. Their invention is attributed to Archimedes, about 220 B.C. ; and to one 
 Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandiia, about 100 B.C. The organ was brought to Eui'ope from 
 the Greek empire, and was first applied to religious devotions in churches, in a.d. 657 
 BcUarmine. Organs were used in the western clnirches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. 
 Ammonius. It is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I. 815, 
 when one was constructed by an Italian priest. The organ at Haarlem is one of the largest 
 in Europe ; it has 60 stops and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with xooo stops and 5300 
 pipes. The organ at Amsterdam has a- set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. 
 Of the organs in England, that at St. George's hall, Liverpool, by Mr. AVillis, is the largest ; 
 next in order, that at York minster, and that in the Music-hall, Birmingham. In London, 
 the largest is, perhaps that of Spitalfields church ; and that in Christ Church is nearly as 
 extensive. The erection of the famous Temple organ was competed for by Schmidt and 
 Harris ; after long disputes, the question was referred to vote, and Mr. Jefferies, afterwards 
 chief justice, gave the casting vote in favour of Schmidt (called Father Smith), about 1682. 
 A monster organ was erected in the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, in June 1857. 
 
 ORIEL COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in 1337, by Adam de Brome, archdeacon of Stow, 
 and almoner to king Edward II. This college derives its name from a tenement called 
 rOriole, on the site of which the building stands. 
 
OIU 
 
 533 
 
 OEP 
 
 ORIFLAMME. Sae Aiiriflamma. 
 
 ORIGENISTS pretended to draw their opinions from the writings of Origen (who lived 
 185-253). They maintained that Christ was the son of God no other way than b}"- adoption 
 and grace ; that souls were created before the bodies ; that the sun, moon, stars and the 
 waters that are under the firmament, had all souls ; that the torments of the damned shall 
 have an end, and that the fallen angels shall, after a time, be restored to theu- first condition. 
 They were condemned by councils, and the reading of Origen's works was forbidden. Burke. 
 These doctrines were condemned by the council of Constantinople in 553. 
 
 ORION Steam-Ship. On June 18, 1850, this splendid vessel, bound from Liverpool to 
 Glasgow, struck on a sunken rock, northward of Portpatrick, within a stone's throw of land, 
 and instantly filled. Of two hundred passengers, more than fifty were drowned. 
 
 ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES (North of Scotland), were conquered by Magnus III. 
 of Norway, 1099, and were ceded to James III. as the dowry of his wife Margaret, in 1469. 
 The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades : united with Shetland, they now form one of the 
 Scotch counties. The bishopric of Orkney, founded by St. Servanus early in the 5th century, 
 some afiirm by St. Colm, ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 1689. 
 See Bishops. 
 
 ORLEANS (a city in central France), iorraevly A urelianum ; gave title to a kingdom, 
 491, and afterwards to a duchy, usually held by one of the royal family. It was besieged by 
 the English under John Talbot, afterwards earl of Shrewsbury, Oct. 12, 1428, and was 
 bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so, as its fall would have ruined the cause of 
 Charles VI. king of France. It was relieved by the heroism of Joan of Arc, afterwards 
 surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 29, 1429, and the siege was raised. See Joan of Arc 
 Siege of Orleans, when the duke of Guise was killed, 1563. 
 
 DUKES OF ORLEANS, 
 
 Louis contended for the regency ■with John the 
 
 Fearless, duke of Burgundy, by whose instigation 
 
 he was assassinated in 1407. 
 Charles taken prisoner at Agincourt, 1415; released, 
 
 1440 ; died, 1465. 
 Louis, became Louis XII. of France in 1498, when 
 
 the duchy merged in the crown. 
 
 BOUB.BON BKANCH. 
 
 Philip, youngest son of Louis XIII., bom 1640; died, 
 
 1 701. 
 Philip II., son, born 1673; becomes eegent, 1715 ; 
 
 dies, 1723. 
 Louis, son, bom 1703; died, 1752. 
 
 Louis Philippe, son, bom 1723 ; died, 1785. 
 
 Louis Philippe Joseph, son, born, 1747 ; opposed the. 
 court in the French revolution ; takes the name 
 EgalM, Sept. ii, 1792 ; voted for the death of Louis 
 XVI. ; was guillotined, Nov. 6, 1793. 
 
 Louis Philippe, son, born, Nov. 6, 1773 ; chosen king, 
 of the French, Aug. g, 1830 ; abdicated, Feb. 24, 
 1848 ; died, Aug. 26, 1850. See Fi-aiice. 
 
 Ferdinand Philippe, son, duke of Orleans, bom 
 Sept. 3. iSio ; died, through a fall, July 13, 1842. 
 
 Louis Philippe, son, count of Paris, born, Aug. 24, 
 1838, married Maria Isabella, daughter of the duke 
 of Montpensier, May 30, 1864. A daughter, Maria 
 AmeUa, bom, Sept. 28, 1865. 
 
 ORLEANS NEW. See Neiv Orleans. 
 
 ORMULUM, a metrical version of the Gospels and Acts, in early English, made by 
 Orm, an ecclesiastic, in the I2tli century, printed at Oxford in 1852, from a MS. in the 
 Bodleian. 
 
 ORNITHOLOGY. See Birds. 
 
 ORNITHORHYNCHUS, the duck-billed platypus, or water-mole, a singular compound 
 of the mammal and the bird, a native of Australia, was first described by Dr. Shaw, in 1819. 
 
 ORPHAN-HOUSES. The emperor Trajan first formed establishments for this purpose. 
 Pliny relates in his Panegyric that Trajan had caused five thousand free-born children to be 
 sought out and educated, about 105. Orphan-houses, properly so-called, are mentioned for 
 the first time in the laws of the emperor Justinian. At the court of Byzantium, the ofiice 
 of inspector of orphans, orphanotrophos, was so honourable, that it was held by the brother 
 of the emperor Michael IV. in the nth century. See Foundling Hospitals.* 
 
 ORPHEONISTES. See Crystal Palace, i860. 
 
 * The Orphan Working Asylum for 20 boys was established at Hoxton, in 1758. It is now situated at 
 Haverstock hill, and contains 350 boys and girls. The asylum for Female Orphans, Lambeth, instituted in 
 1758. Similar institutions are now numerous. The London Oi-phan Asylum (in 1813 ; removed to Clapton 
 in 1823 ; to Slough, Bucks, opened June 25, 1863) ; the Infant Orphan Asylum at Wanstead (1827) ; and the 
 Asylum for Fatherless Children (in 1844 ; settled at Reedham, SuiTey), were established mainly through 
 the exertions of a congregational mmister, the rev. Andrew Eeed, D.D. 
 
ORR 534 OTT 
 
 ORRERY, a planetary machine to illustrate and explain the motions of the heavenly- 
 bodies, appears to have been coeval with the clepsydra. Ptolemy devised the circles and 
 epicycles that distinguish his system about 130. The planetary clock of Finee was begun 
 1553. The planetarium of De Rheita was formed about 1650. The planetarium, now termed 
 the Orrery, it is said, was constructed by Rowley, after a pattern devised by the clock-maker, 
 George Graham, at the expense of Charles Boyle, earl of Orrery, about I7IS- 
 
 ORSINI'S PLOT against the emperor Napoleon III. See France, Jan. 1858. 
 
 ORTHES or Orthez (S. France), Battle of, between the British and Spanish armies 
 on one side, and the French on the other, the foi-mer commanded by "Wellington, and the 
 latter by marshal Soult. In this engagement the British gained a great and decisive victory, 
 Feb. 27, 1814. The victory was soon f'ollowed by the battle of Toulouse {which see). 
 
 OSBORNE HOUSE (Isle of Wight), was purchased by the queen in 1845, and rebuilt 
 by Mr. Cubit t. 
 
 OSMIUM, the heaviest known metal, discovered in platinum ore by Tennant in 1804. 
 
 OSSORY (S.E. Ireland), Bishopric of, was first planted at Saiger, about 402 ; trans- 
 lated to Aghavoe, in Upper Ossory, in 1052 ; and to Kilkenny about the end of the reign of 
 Henry II. It was united to Ferns and Leighlin in 1842. 
 
 "■■ OSTEND (Belgium) is famous for the long siege it sustained against the Spaniards, from 
 July, 1601, to Sept. 1604, when it honourably capitulated. On the death of Charles II. of 
 Spain, the French seized Ostend ; but in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken 
 by the allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In 1756, the 
 French garrisoned this town for the empress-queen Maria Theresa. In 1792, the French 
 once more took Ostend, which they evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794. The 
 English destroj'ed the works of the Bruges canal ; but the wind shifting before they could 
 re-embark, they surrendered to the French, May 19, 1798. See Cuba, note. 
 
 OSTRACISM (from the Greek ostraTcon, a potsherd or shell), a mode of jiroscription at 
 Athens, is said to have been first introduced by the tyrant Hippias ; by others it is ascribed 
 to Cleisthenes, about 510 B.e. The people wrote the names of those whom they most 
 suspected upon small shells ; these they put in an urn or box, and presented it to the senate. 
 Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest written was sentenced by the council to be 
 banished from his altar and hearth. 6000 votes were required. Aristides, noted for 
 his justice, Miltiades, for his victories, &c., were ostracized. It was abolished by ironically 
 proscribing Hyperbolus, a mean person. 
 
 OSTROGOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were distinguished from the Visigoths (Western 
 Goths) about 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, &c., their great leader, Theodoric, 
 established a kingdom in Italy, which lasted from 493 to 553. See Italy. 
 
 OSTROLENKA, Battle or, between the Poles and Russians, May 26, 1831. The 
 slaughter was immense, but the Poles remained masters of the field. 
 
 OSTRICH (the struthios of the ancients), a native of Africa (see Job xxxix. 14). Ostriches 
 were hatched and reared at San Donato, near Florence, 1859-60. 
 
 OTAHEITE, or Tahiti, an island in the S. Pacific Ocean, seen by Byron in 1765, and 
 visited in 1767 by captain Wall is, who called it George the Thinl Lshind. Captain Cook 
 came hither in 1768 to observe the transit of Venus ; sailed round the whole island in a boat, 
 and stayed three months ; it was visited twice afterwards by that celebrated .navigator. See 
 CooJc. Omai, a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and 
 carried back by him in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the district of Matavai 
 to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare was compelled to put herself under the 
 protection of France, Sept. 9, 1843. She retracted, and Otaheite and the neighbouring 
 islands were taken possession of by admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French 
 king, Nov. 1843. The French imprisoned Mr. Prichard, the English consul, March 5, 1844, 
 but the act was censured in France. 
 
 OTTAWA (formerly Bytown), on the river Ottawa, received its name when it was 
 appointed to be the capital of Canada by the queen in August, 1858. The executive council 
 met here, Nov. 22, 1865. Population in 1861, 14,669. 
 
 OTTERBURN (Northumberland). In 1388 the Scots besieged Newcastle and were driven 
 off by Henry Percy (Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland. Percy pursued them to 
 Otterburn, where a battle was fought on Aug. 10, in which the earl of Douglas was killed 
 and Percy taken prisoner. On this battle the ballad of Chevij Chase is founded. 
 
OTT 535 OXF 
 
 OTTOMAN EMPIRE. See Turkey. 
 
 OUDE (IvTorth India), formerly a vice-royalty held by the vizier of the great mogul. 
 About 1760, it was seized by the vizier Sujah-ud-Dowlah, ancestor of the late king. 
 
 Battle of Buxar, where Sujah and his ally, Meer 
 Cossim, are totally defeated, and the British 
 became virtually masters of Oude . Oct. 23, 1764 
 
 Reiga of Asoph-ud-Dowlah, who cedes Benares, 
 &c., to the East India Company, who place 
 troops in Oude (see Chunar) . . . 1775-81 
 
 [The annual subsidy to the company in 1787 
 was 5oo,oooJ. ; in 1794, 760,000^. ; in 1801; 
 1,352,347^.] More territories ceded to the 
 company 1801 
 
 <jhazee-ud-deen becomes king, with the consent 
 of the British 1819 
 
 Dreadful misgovernment of Nusser-ud-deen, 1827-37 
 
 [At his death, the British resident, colonel Lowe, 
 promptly suppresses an insurrection.] 
 
 Mahomed Ah governs well . . . 1837-42 
 
 But his son Umjeed Ali Shah . . . 1842-7 
 
 And grandson, "Wajid Ali Shah, exceed all their 
 predecessors in profligacy . . . . 1847-56 
 
 In consequence (by virtue of the treaty of 1801) 
 Oude is annexed to the British territories, by 
 decree, proclaimed . . . Feb. 7, 1856 
 
 The queen and prince of Oude, &c., arrive in 
 London to appeal .... Aug. 20, ,, 
 
 Oude joins the Indian mutiny : ex-king of Oude 
 imprisoned (on suspicion) . . June 14, 1857 
 
 Tlie queen dies at Paris, Jan. 24 ; and the prince 
 at London Feb. 26, 1858 
 
 [For the war, see India, 1857-8.] 
 
 Triumphal entry of the governor-general into 
 Lucknow. The Talookdars (landholders) re- 
 ceive a free grant of their estates . Oct. 22, 1859 
 
 Oude is said to be prospering under British rule. 
 
 OUDEJJ'AEDE (Belgium), where, on July 11, 1708, the English and allies under the 
 duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene, thoroughly defeated the French besiegers. 
 
 OULART (S.E. Ireland), where a body of 5000 Irish insurgents attacked the king's 
 troops, in small number, May 27, 1798. The ISTorth Cork militia, after great feats of bravery, 
 were cut to pieces, five men only escaping. Musgrave. 
 
 OUNCE, the sixteenth part of the pound avoirdupois, and twelfth of the pound troy. 
 The word is from imcia ; and its precise weight was fixed by Henry III., who d.ecreed that an 
 English ounce should be 640 dry grains of wheat ; that twelve of these ounces should be a 
 poirnd ; and that eight pounds should be a gallon of wine, 1233. 
 
 OURIQUE (Portugal), where Alfonso, count or duke of Portugal, encountered five 
 Saracen kings and a prodigious army of Moors, July 25, 1139, and signally defeated them. 
 He was hailed king upon the spot. Lisbon, the capital, was taken, and he soon after was 
 here crowned as the first king ; tlie Moorish dominion being overthrown. 
 
 OUTLAW, one deprived of the benefit of the law, and out of the king's protection : a 
 punishment for such as being called in law do contemptuously refuse to appear. In the reign 
 of Edward III. all the judges agreed that none but the sheriff only, having lawful warrant 
 therefor, should p)ut to death any man outlawed. Cowel, 
 
 OUZEL GALLEY SOCIETY. In 1700, the case of a ship in the port of Dublin, the 
 
 Ouzel Galley, excited great legal perplexity, and was referred to an arbitration of merchants, 
 whose prompt decision was highly approved. This led to the formation of the present society 
 in 1705. 
 
 OVATION", an inferior triumph which the Romans allowed those generals of their army 
 whose victories were not considerable. Publius Posthumius Tubertus was the first who 
 was decreed an ovation, 503 b. c. A sheep {ovis) was ofi'ered by the general instead of a bull, 
 
 OVERLAND MAIL. See Wagliorn. 
 
 OVERSEERS of the poor for parishes were appointed in 1601. See Poor Laws. 
 
 OWHYHEE or Hawaii, an island in the N. Pacific Ocean, discovered in 1778, by capt. 
 Cook. On Feb. 14, 1779, he here fell a victim to a sudden resentment of the natives. A 
 boat having been stolen by one of the islanders, the captain went on shore to seize the king, 
 and keep him as a hostage till the boat was restored. The people would not submit to this 
 insult, and .their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Cook and some of his com- 
 panions were killed. Great progress has been recently made in civilisation here ; and an 
 order of nobility and a representative assembly were instituted in i860. The population then 
 M'as about 120,000. 
 
 OXALIC ACID, which exists in several plants, especially in sorrel, is now abrmdantly 
 obtained, for use in the arts, from sawdust acted upon by caustic potash or soda, according to 
 Dr. Dale's process, patented in 1862. 
 
 OXFORD, an ancient city, restored by king Alfred, who resided here and established a 
 mint, &c. 
 
OXF 
 
 OXFORD, continued. 
 
 536 
 
 OXF 
 
 I 
 
 Canute held a national council here . . . 1018 
 
 Stormed by William 1 1067 
 
 Charter by Henry II., the city granted to the 
 burgesses by John ...... 1199 
 
 Henry III. holds the "mad" parliament here 1258 
 The BISHOPRIC, established by Henry VIII., 
 formed out of Lincoln, first placed at Osney 
 in 1542 ; removed to Oxford (Cathedral, for- 
 merly St. Frideswide, now Christ church) . 1545 
 
 Bishops Ridley and Latimer burnt here, Oct. 
 
 16, 1555 ; and archbishop Cranmer, March 21, 1556 
 Fatal (or Black) Oxford A>sizes, — when the high 
 
 sheriff and 300 other persons died suddenly, 
 
 of an infection caught from the prisoners . 1557 
 Charles I. took Oxford, 1642, and held a parlia,- 
 
 ment here 1644 
 
 Taken by the parliament 1646 
 
 Charles II. held parhaments here . 1665 & 1681 
 
 iiECEXT BISHOPS OF OXFORD. (Present income, 5000?.) 
 
 1807. Charles Moss ; died, Dec. 16, 1811. 
 1812. WiUiam Jackson ; died, Dec. 2, 1815. 
 1815. Edward Legge ; died, Jan. 27, 1827. 
 
 1827. Charles Lloyd ; died, May 31, 1829. 
 
 1829. Richard Bagot : translated to Bath, Nov. 1846. 
 
 1845. Samuel Wilberforce, present bishop. 
 
 OXFORD ADMINISTRATION, formed May 29, 171 1. 
 
 Robert, earl of Oxford (previously right hon. Robert 
 
 Harley), lord treasurer. 
 Sir Simon (afterwards lord) Harcourt, lord keeper. 
 John, duke of Normanby and Buckingham, lord 
 
 president. 
 John, bishop of Bristol (aft. London), -privy seal. 
 Henry St. John (aftei-wards viscount Bolingbroke), 
 
 and WiUiam, lord Dartmouth, secretaries of state. 
 
 Robert Benson (afterwards lord Bingley), chancellor 
 of the exchequer. 
 
 The duke of Shrewsbury succeeded lord Oxford, re- 
 ceiving the lord treasurer's staff on July 30, 1714, 
 three days before the death of queen Anne. From 
 the reign of George I. the office of lord treasurer 
 has been executed by commissioners. 
 
 OXFORD DECLARATION. See Church of England, 1864. 
 OXFORD MARBLES. See Aru7idelian. 
 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY. An academy here is described as ancient by pope Martin II. 
 in a deed, 802. Alfred founded ' ' the schools " about 879. 
 
 All Souls' College, founded by Henry Chichely, 
 archbishop of Canterbury .... 1437 
 
 Magdalen. William of Waynflete, bishop of 
 Winchester 1456 
 
 Lincoln College. Richard Fleming, 1427 ; 
 finished by Rotherham, bishop of Lincoln . 1479 
 
 Brazenose. William Smyth, bishop of Lincoln, 
 and sir Richard Sutton ..... 1509 
 
 Corpus Christi. Richard Fox, bishop of Win- 
 chester 1516 
 
 Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; and 
 afterwards by Henry VIII 1532 
 
 Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope, on the basis of a 
 previous institution, called Durham College, 1554 
 
 St. John's. Sir Thomas Whyte, lord mayor of 
 London 1555 
 
 Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen Eliza- 
 beth 1571 
 
 Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his 
 wife ......... 1613 
 
 Pembroke. Thomas Teesdale and Richard 
 Wightwick, clerk 1624 
 
 Worcester. Sir Thomas Coke of Bentley, in 
 Worcestershire ; it was originally called Glou- 
 cester College 1 714 
 
 HALLS (not incorporated). 
 
 St. Edmund's 1269 
 
 St. Mary's ........ 1333 
 
 New Inn Hall 1392 
 
 St. Mary Magdalen . . . . " . . 1487 
 
 St. Alban's 1547 
 
 \_Oxford University Calendar.\ 
 
 First Professorships — Divinity (Margaret), 1502, 
 Divinity, Law, Medicine, Hebrew, Greek, 
 1540, (fcc. 
 
 Charter granted by Henry HI 1248 
 
 The university incorporated by Elizabeth . . 1571 
 Receives the elective franchise (to send two 
 
 members to parliament) 1603 
 
 Bodleian Library opened, Nov. 8. 1602 : present 
 
 building completed 161 3 
 
 The botanic garden, &c., estabUshed by the 
 
 earl of Danby 1622 
 
 Badcliffe Library opened, April 13, 1749: the 
 
 Radcliffe observatory completed . . . 1786 
 A commission appointed (Aug. 31, 1850) to in- 
 quire into its "state, studies, discipline, and 
 revenues ;" reported . . . April 27, 1852 
 Act making alterations passed . . 1855, 1 8=6 
 University Museum opened . . July, i860 
 
 Examination statutes passed 1801, 1807, 1850, 1862 
 Extension of the university proposed at a 
 meeting held .... Nov. 16, 1865 
 
 COLLEGES. 
 
 University. Said to have been founded by king 
 
 ■ Alfred, 872 ; founded by WUliam, archdeacon 
 of Durham, about 1232 
 
 Baliol. John Baliol, knt (father to Baliol, king 
 of the Scots), and Deborah, his wife . . 1263 
 
 Merton College. Walter de Merton, bishop of 
 Rochester 1264 
 
 Hertford College (dissolved in 1818, and a Hert- 
 ford scholarship appointed) . . . .1312 
 
 Exeter. Walter Stai^leton, bi.shop of Exeter . 1314 
 
 Oriel College. King Edward II. ; Adam de 
 Brome, archdeacon of Stowe . . . . 1326 
 
 Queen's College. Robert de Eglesfield, clerk, 
 confessor to queen Philippa, consort of Ed- 
 ward III 1340 
 
 New College. William of Wykeham, bishop of 
 Winchester: first called St. Mary of Win- 
 chester 1386 
 
 1809. Lord Grenville. 
 
 1834. The duke of Wellington. 
 
 KECEXT CHA>fCELLOKS. 
 
 I 1852. The Earl of Derby. 
 
OXF 
 
 537 
 
 PAD 
 
 OXFORD'S ASSAULT on the Quken. A youth named Edward Oxford, who had been 
 a servant in a public-house, discharged two pistols at her majesty queen Victoria and prince 
 Albert, as they w^ere proceeding up Constitution-hill in an open phaeton from Buckingham 
 palace, June lo, 1840. He stood within a few yards of the carriage ; but fortunately neither ' 
 her majesty nor the prince was injured. Oxford was subsequently tried at the Old Bailey 
 (July 10), and being adjudged to be insane, was sent to Bethlehem hospital. 
 
 OXYGEJST, a gas (named from the Greek oxia, sharp, as being generally found in acids), 
 is the most abundant of all substances, constituting about one-third of the solid earth, and 
 forming by weight nine-tenths of water and one-fourth of the atmosphere. It was first 
 separated from red oxide of mercury by Priestley, Aug. i, 1774, and by Scheele, who was 
 ignorant of Priestley's discovery, in 1775. It is the chief supporter of animal life by 
 respiration, and of combustion.* See Ozone. 
 
 OYER AND Terminer, a commission directed to the judges of the courts, by virtue 
 whereof they have power to hear and determine treasons, felonies, &c., 1285. 
 
 YES ! A corruption of the French oyez, hear ye ! The ancient term irsed hy a public 
 crier to enjoin silence and attention. 
 
 OYSTER (the Latin Ostrea ediilis), is said to have its capital in Britain, for though 
 found elsewhere on the coasts of Europe, in no part of them does it attain such perfection as 
 in our seas. British oysters are celebrated by the Roman satirist Juvenal (Sat. IV. 140) 
 about 100. The robbery of oyster-beds is prohibited by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29 (1826). About 
 15,000 bushels of oysters are said to be produced from the Essex beds alone. In 1858 
 M. Coste commenced rearing oysters in great numbers on the coast of Brittany, and his plan 
 has been found successful. 
 
 OZOjSTE (from ozem, to yield an odour), a name given in 1840 by M. Schonbein of Basel 
 to the odour in the atmosphere developed during the electric discharge. It is considered to 
 be a modification of the oxygen {which see), and when occurring naturally, to have an effect 
 on health. It is also produced by the action of moist air on phosphorus. In 1858 
 ozonometers had been constructed by Dr. Lankester and others. M. Schonbein has since 
 discovered another modification of oxygen, which he terms antozone (1859), which hitherto 
 has been found only in the compound state (in peroxides of sodium, potassium, &c.). On 
 Dec. 4, 1865, the French Academy of Sciences appointed a committee of eminent philo- 
 sophers to inquire into the nature and relations of ozone. 
 
 P. 
 
 PACIFICATIOlSr, Edicts of. The name usually given to the edicts of toleration 
 granted by the French kings to the Protestants. See Ghent. 
 
 First edict, by Charles IS., permitting the exer- 
 cise of the reformed reb'gion near all the 
 cities and towns in the realm. . . Jan. 1562 
 
 The reformed reUgion permitted in the houses 
 of lords justiciaries, and certain other persons, 
 
 March, 1563 
 
 These edicts revoked, and all Protestant minis- 
 ters ordered to quit France in fifteen days . 1568 
 
 Edict, allowing lords and others to have service 
 in their houses, and granting public service 
 in certain towns 1570 
 
 [In August, 1572, the same monarch authorised 
 the massacre of St. Bartholomew. See Bar- 
 tholomew.] 
 
 Edict of Pacification by Henry III., April ; re- 
 voked, Dec. 1576 ; renewed for six years, Oct. 
 
 [Sevei-al edicts were published against the Pro- 
 testants after the six years expired. ] 
 
 Edict of Henry IV., renewmg that of Oct. 1577, 
 
 Edict of Nantes (which see), by Henry IV., 
 
 April 13, 159S 
 
 Pacification (which see) of Nismes . July 14, 1629 
 
 IS77 
 
 1591 
 
 PACIFIC OCEAIsT. SeeifagreZZa)!.— Steam Vessel. See Steam, iSu ; Wrecks, iS^S. 
 
 PADLOCKS are said to have been invented by Becher at Nuremberg, 1540, but are 
 mentioned much earlier. 
 
 PADUA, the Roman Patavium, in Venetia, N. Italy, said to have been founded by 
 Antenor, soon after the fall of Troy, 11 83 b.o. It flourished under the Romans. Pataviau 
 Latin was considered very corrupt, and is traced in Livj'-, a native of Padua. After being 
 an independent republic, Padua was ruled by the Carrara family from 1318 till 1405, when 
 it was seized by the Venetians. The university was founded about 1228. 
 
 * An oxygen gas company was announced in Dec. 1S64 : its object is the cheap manufacture of oxygen 
 for its appUcation to the production of perfect combustion in lamps, stoves, furnaces, &c. 
 
PAG 
 
 538 
 
 PAI 
 
 PAGANS, the heatlieu, idolators, gentiles, worshippers of idols, not agreeiug in any set ' 
 form or points of belief. Constantine ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout 
 the Roman empire, 331 ; his nephew, Julian, attempted their restoration, 361 ; but Paganism 
 Avas renounced by the Eonian senate, in 388, and finally overthrown in the reign of Theo- 
 dosius the younger, abcut 391. 
 
 PAINS AND PENALTIES. See Queen Caroline. 
 
 PAINTING. Osyraandyas (in Egypt) caused his exploits to be represented in painting, 
 2100 B.C. Usher. Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a method of burning 
 the colours into wood or ivor)', about 360-330 B.C. The ancients considered Sicyon the 
 nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said to have been the inventor of the 
 grotesque, 332 B.C. Pliny. The art was introduced at Eome from Etruria, by Quintus 
 Fabius, styled Pictor, 291 B.C. Livy.* The first excellent pictures were brought from Corinth 
 by Mummius, 146 B.C. After the death of Augustus, not a single painter of eminence 
 appeared for several ages ; Ludius, Avho was very celebrated, is supjjosed to have been the 
 last, about A.D. 14. Painting on canvas seems to have been known at Pome in 66. Bede, 
 the Saxon historian, who died in 735, knew something of the art. It revived about the end 
 of the 13th century, and to Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is awarded the honour of its 
 restoration. It was at once encouraged and generously patronised in Italy. John Van Eyck, 
 of Bruges, and his brother, Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school of 
 painting in oil, 141 5. Dufresnoy. Paulo Uccello was the first who studied perspective. 
 About 1523 Henry YIII. patronised Holbein, and invited Titian to his court.f 
 
 Cimabue 
 
 Giotto .... 
 .J. Van Eyck . 
 Giorgione . . _ . 
 Leonardo da Vinci . 
 Raphael d'Urbino 
 Paolo Perugino 
 Albert Duier . 
 <Juentin Matsys . 
 Oorreggio 
 Parmesiano 
 Ginlio Romano 
 Sebastian del Piombo 
 Hans Holbein . 
 •Michael Angelo Buonarotti 
 
 Titian 
 
 Paul Veronese 
 Tintoretto . 
 Anuibal Caracci . 
 Breughel . 
 P. P. Rubens 
 Domenichino 
 Vandyck 
 Guido . 
 Both 
 
 P. Potter . 
 Le Sueur 
 Sjiagnolctto 
 Snyders . 
 Velasquez . 
 N. Poussin . 
 Guercino . 
 Hobbima 
 A. Cuyp . 
 A. Vander Velde . 
 Salvator Rosa . 
 Rembrandt . 
 Gerard Douw . 
 ' Sir Peter Lely 
 Mieris . 
 Ruysdael 
 Claiide Lorraine . 
 
 School. 
 Florentine, 
 Ditto . . 
 Flemish . 
 Venetian . 
 Florentine. 
 Roman 
 Ditto . . 
 German . 
 Flemish . 
 Lombardn. 
 Ditto . . 
 Roman 
 Venetian . 
 German 
 Florentine, 
 Venetian . 
 Ditto . . 
 Ditto . 
 Lombardn. 
 Flemish . 
 Ditto . . 
 Bolognese . 
 Flemish . 
 Lombardn. 
 Dutch 
 Ditto . . 
 French 
 Spanish 
 Flemish . 
 Spanish 
 French 
 Bolognese . 
 Flemish . 
 Dutch 
 Ditto . . 
 Neapolitan. 
 Dutch 
 Ditto . . 
 German 
 Dutch 
 Ditto . . 
 French 
 
 EM 
 Born. 
 1240 
 1276 
 1366 
 1477 
 1452 
 1483 
 1446 
 1470 
 1430 
 1494 
 1503 
 1492 
 1485 
 1498 
 1474 
 1477 
 1532 
 1512 
 1568 
 1565 
 
 1577 
 1581 
 
 1599 
 1575 
 1600 
 1625 
 1617 
 1589 
 1579 
 1599 
 1594 
 1590 
 i6ir 
 1606 
 1638 
 1615 
 1606 
 1613 
 1617 
 1635 
 1636 
 1600 
 
 I KENT 
 Died. 
 1300 
 1336 
 1441 
 1511 
 
 1519 
 1520 
 
 1524 
 1528 
 1529 
 1534 
 1540 
 1546 
 1547 
 1554 
 1564 
 1576 
 1588 
 1594 
 1609 
 1625 
 1640 
 1 641 
 1641 
 1642 
 1650 
 1654 
 165s 
 1656 
 1657 
 1660 
 1665 
 1666 
 1670 
 1672 
 1672 
 1673 
 1674 
 1680 
 16S0 
 1681 
 
 I'AINTEES. 
 
 Ostade . 
 
 Murillo 
 
 Berghem 
 
 Carlo Dolci . 
 
 Wouvermans . 
 
 Le Brun 
 
 Teniers, jun. . 
 
 W. Vander Velde 
 
 AVatteau 
 
 Sir Godfrey Kneller 
 
 Sir J. ThomhiU . 
 
 Huysum 
 
 Hogarth . . . 
 
 Canaletti . . 
 
 Gainsborough 
 
 Verne t 
 
 Sir J. Reynolds 
 
 Romney 
 
 Moreland 
 
 Barry . 
 
 Opie 
 
 Bourgeois . 
 
 Copley . 
 
 West . 
 
 Fuseli . 
 
 David . 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 Noi-thcote . 
 
 Beechev. 
 
 Wilkie ' . 
 
 Haydon . 
 
 Collins 
 
 Etty . 
 
 Turner 
 
 Martin . 
 
 Aug. E<?g . 
 
 \Vm. Mulready 
 
 Wm. Htint . 
 
 W. F. Witherington 
 
 H. Vernet . 
 
 E. De la Croix 
 
 E. W. Cooke 
 
 Parrhasius of Ephesus and Zousis were contemporary painters. These 
 
 School. Born. 
 
 Dutch . . 1610 
 
 Spanish . 1613 
 
 Dutch . 1624 
 Florentine. 1616 
 
 Dutch . 1620 
 
 French . 1619 
 
 Flemish 
 Dutch 
 French 
 German 
 English 
 Dutch . 
 , EngUsh 
 Venetian 
 English 
 French 
 English 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 French . 
 English 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 Ditto . 
 French 
 Ditto . 
 English . 
 
 1610 
 1633 
 
 . 1676 
 
 . 1682 
 
 ■ 1697 
 
 • 1697 
 
 • 1727 
 
 • 1714 
 
 • 1723 
 
 • 1734 
 
 • 1764 
 
 • 1741 
 . 1761 
 
 • 1756 
 . 1738 
 
 • 1738 
 
 • 1 741 
 
 ■ 1748 
 
 ■ 1769 
 
 • 1746 
 
 • 1753 
 . 1785 
 . 1786 
 . 1788 
 
 • 1787 
 
 • 1775 
 
 • 1790 
 . i8i6 
 . 1786 
 
 Died. 
 168s 
 1685 
 1685 
 1686 
 1688 
 1690 
 1694 
 1707 
 1721 
 
 1723 
 1732 
 
 1749 
 1764 
 1768 
 1788 
 1789 
 1792 
 1802 
 1804 
 1806 
 1807 
 1811 
 181S 
 1820 
 1825 
 1825 
 1830 
 1831 
 1839 
 1841 
 1846 
 1847 
 1849 
 1851 
 1854 
 1863 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 1863 
 1863 
 
 artists once contended for 
 
 pro eminence in their profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces the birds came to peck 
 the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced his piece, and Zeuxis said, "Remove 
 the curtain, that wc may see the painting." The curtain itself was the painting, and Zeuxis acknow- 
 ledged himself to 1)0 conquered, exclaiming, "Zeuxis has deceived the birds ; but Parrhasius has deceived 
 Zeuxis ! " Parrhasius dressed in a purjjle robe, and wore a crowTi of gold, calling himself king of painters, 
 41 S B.C. Plutarch. 
 
 t In Aug. i860, the sale of lord Northwick's pictures occupied eighteen days. It produced 95,725'- ■'*■ 
 
PAL 539 PAL 
 
 PALACE COURT. See Marshalsca and Green Cloth. 
 
 PALACES. See BucJcingham, St. James s, Parliament, Escurial, Tidlerien, St. Cloud, 
 Versailles, &c. 
 
 PALJIOLOGI, a family wMcli reigned as emperors of tlie East from 1260 to 1453. 
 George Palfeologus raised Alexius Comnenns to the throne in 1081, and thereby founded his 
 own family. Andrew, the last Palseologus, son of Thomas, ruler of the Morea, after the 
 overthrow of his father, became a Mahometan at Constantinople about 1533. 
 
 PALAEONTOLOGY (from the Greek "palaios, ancient, and onia, beings), treats of the 
 evidences of organic beings in the earth's strata. It is a branch of geology {ivMch see). 
 Cuvier, Mantell, Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, and Blainville, all of the present century, 
 may be reckoned as fathers of this science. The Palfeontographical society, which publishes 
 elaborate monogi-aphs of British organic remains, was founded in 1847. Professor Owen's 
 "Palaeontology" was published in i860. "Nearly 40,000 species of animals and plants 
 have been added to the Systema NaturiB by palceontological research." Huxley. See Man. 
 
 PALATINATE of the Ehinb, one of the seven ancient electorates of Germany. It 
 was long united to Bavaria ; but was sejjarated in 1294. — Frederic V., the elector palatine in 
 1610, married in 1613 Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. of England, and thus became the 
 ancestor of queen Victoria. See Hanover. In 1619 he was elected king of Bohemia; but 
 lost all by his defeat by the Austrians at Prague in 1620. The Palatinate was horribly ravaged 
 by Tilly in 1622, and by the Frencli in 1688.* The elector palatine, Charles Theodore, inherited 
 Bavaria in 1778 : since when the two electorates have been united. See Bavaria. 
 
 PALATINE. "William the Conqueror made his nephew, Hugli D'Abrincis, count 
 palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, about 1070. Edward III. created the palatine of 
 Lancaster, 1539. See Lancaster, duchy of. The bishoprics of Ely (963) and Durham were 
 also made county fialatines. The latter was vested in the crown in 1836. There is also 
 mention made of the count}'- palatine of Hexham, in 33 Henry VIII. c. 10, which then 
 belonged to the archbishop of York, but by the 14th of Elizabeth it was dissolved, and made 
 part of the county of Northumbeidand. The palatinate jurisdiction of Durham was separated 
 from the diocese, and vested in the crown, 6 Will. IV. c. 19, June 21, 1836. 
 
 PALERMO (N."W. Sicily), the ancient Panormus. It has been heldbythe Carthaginians, 
 415 B.C. ; taken by the Romans, 254 B.C. ; by the Saracens, A.D. 832 ; and by tbe Normans, 
 1072. Here Roger II. was crowned king of Sicily, 1130. Palermo was the scene of the 
 Sicilian Vespers (lohieh see), March 30, 1282. It suffered from earthquake in 1726 and 1740. 
 The king Ferdinand resided at Palermo from 1806 to 1815, while Naples was ruled by Joseph 
 Bonaparte and Joachim Miu'at. It revolted against the tyi'anny of Ferdinand II., Jan. 12, 
 1848. It was attacked by general Filangieri, March 29, 1849, and surrendered on May 14. 
 It was taken by Garibaldi, June 6, i860. 
 
 PALESTINE. See Jeios. After being several times conquered by the Saracens, and 
 retaken from tlie 7tb to the lotli century, and after being the scene of the wars of the 
 Crusades {which see), and other conflicts, Palestine was united to the Ottoman empire bj^ 
 Selim I. in 15 16. See Bille (note),f Holy Places, and Syria. 
 
 PALESTRO (N. Italy), where the Sardinians defeated the Austrians, May 30, 31, 1859. 
 
 PALL, PALLIUM, in the Roman Church an ensign of dignity conferred by the pope 
 upon archbishops. By a decretal of pope Gregory XI. (about 1370), no archbisliop could call 
 a council, bless the chrism, consecrate churches, ordain a clerk, or consecrate a bishop, till 
 he had received his pall from the see of Rome. The pall was first worn by an Irish arch- 
 bishop in 1 152, when Gelasius was recognised as primate of all Ireland. 
 
 PALLADIUM, the statue of Pallas. Some authors say it fell from heaven near the tent 
 of Uus, as he was building Ilium ; and that on its preservation depended the safety of Troy ; 
 which the oracle of Apollo declared .should never be taken so long as the Palladium was 
 
 Carlo Dolci fetched 2010?., and a Murillo 1400^. The Bicknell collection, sold in April, 1863, produced 
 25,600^ 
 
 * About 7000 of poor Protestants, from the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the 
 French, arrived in England, and were encamped at Blackheath and CamberweU : a brief was granted to 
 collect alms for them. Five hundred families went under the protection of the government to Ireland, 
 and settled chiefly about Limerick, where parliament granted them 24,000^. for their support. Three 
 thousand were sent to New York and fludson's Bay ; but not having been received kindly, they went to 
 Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encouraged by the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of 
 German and Swiss Protestants, who soon made this colony floiirishiug, 7 Anne, 1709. Anderson. 
 
 t By means of the Palestine exploration fund (see p.''^o3), capt. Wilson and a party left England for 
 Palestine in Nov. iS6s. 
 
PAL 
 
 540 
 
 PAL 
 
 found within its walls. This being made known, the Greeks stole it away during the Trojan 
 war, 1 184 B.C., though some maintain that it was only a statue of similar size and shape, 
 and that the real Palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by JSneas, 11 83 B.C., and pre- 
 served by the Romans with the greatest secresy in the temple of Vesta, and esteemed the 
 destiny of Eome. — Palladium js a rare metal discovered in platinum ore by Dr. WoUastou 
 in 1803. 
 
 PALLAS,* the planet, was discovered by Olbers, at Bremen, March 28, 1802. 
 
 PALL MALL, a street near St. James's palace, London, is named from a French game 
 at ball {jyaille-maille, being a wooden mallet), having been played there about 1621. Among 
 eminent inhabitants were Nell Gwyn and Dr. Thomas Sydenham. 
 
 PALMERSTON ADMINISTRATION", t The resignation of the Aberdeen adminis- 
 tration was announced Feb. i, 1855, but nearly all its members returned to office soon after 
 under lord Palmerston, — lord Derby and lord John Russell having each in vain endeavoured 
 to form an adnnnistration. On Feb. 22, Mr. Gladstone, sir James Graham, and Mr. Sidney 
 Herbert resigned on account of the Sebastopol inquiry. Lord John Russell resigned 
 July 13. Lord Canning was appointed governor-general of India, July 4, 1855. This 
 cabinet resigned Feb. 20, 1858, in consequence of a vote of censure upon the government 
 for introducing the Foreign Conspiracy bill. It was succeeded by the Derby administration 
 (ivhich see). 
 
 I 
 
 First lord of the treasury/, Henry viscount Palmer- 
 ston. 
 
 Lord chancellor, lord Craiiworth. 
 
 President of the council, earl Granville. 
 
 Lord privy seal, duke of Argyll ; earl of Harrowby ; 
 afterwards the marquess of Clanricarde. 
 
 Secretaries — home, sir George Grey ; foreign, earl of 
 Clarendon; colonial, Sidney Herbert (resigned 
 Feb. 22) ; afterwards lord J. Kussell (resigned 
 July 13) : sir William Molesworth (died Oct. 22, 
 1855) ; next, Henry Labouchere ; v>ur, Lord Pan- 
 mure. 
 
 Chancellor of the exchequer, W. Gladstone (resigned 
 Feb. 22) ; next, sir G. Cornewall Lewis. 
 
 First lord of the admiralty, sir James Graham (re- 
 signed Feb. 22) ; next, sir Charles Wood. 
 
 Board of control, sir Charles Wood ; next, R. Vernon 
 Smith. 
 
 Public worl->, sir W. Molesworth ; next, sir B. Hall 
 (appointed July 22, 1855). 
 
 Postmaster-general, viscount Canning (appointed go- 
 vernor-general of India, July 4); next, duke of 
 Argyll. 
 
 President of the board of trade, lord Stanley of Al- 
 derley. 
 
 Marquess of Lansdowne, without office. 
 
 Chancellor or' the duchy of Lancaster, M. T. Baines 
 (appointed Nov. 24, 1855). 
 
 PALMERSTON-RUSSELL ADMINISTRATION. The Derby administration (ivhich 
 see) resigned June 11, 1859. Earl Granville was requested by the queen to form an adminis- 
 tration, and obtained the support of lord Palmerston, but not of lord John Russell : the two 
 last then united to form a cabinet, which came into office June 18, 1859. On the decease 
 of lord Palmerston, Oct. 18, 1865, earl Russell became premier. See Jiussell. 
 
 First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. 
 
 Lord high chancellor, John lord Campbell (died, June 
 23, 1861) ; succeeded by .sir Richard Bethell, made 
 lord Westbury, who resigned July 4, 1865 ; suc- 
 ceeded by Lord Cranworth. 
 
 Lord president of the council, earl Granville. 
 
 Lord privy seal, duke of Argyll. 
 
 Secrttariea — foreign affairs, lord John (afterwards 
 earl) Russell ; colonies, duke of Newcastle ; suc- 
 ceeded by Edward Cardwell, April 8, 1864; home, 
 sir G. Cornewall Lewis ; succeeded by sir George 
 Grey; wur, Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert; 
 succeeded by sir G. C. Lewis (died April 13, 1863), 
 and by earl De Grey (May i) ; India, sir Charles 
 Weed. 
 
 Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. Ewart Gladstone. 
 
 First lord of the admiralty, duke of Somerset. 
 
 President of the board of trade, Thomas Milner Gibson. 
 [This office was offered to Mr. R. Cobden, and de- 
 clined by him. J 
 
 Secretary of state for Ireland, Edward Cardwell ; suc- 
 ceeded by sir R. Peel (not in the cabinet). 
 
 Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, sir George Grey, 
 bart. ; succeeded Ijy Edward Cardwell ; and by 
 earl Clarendon, April 8, 1864. 
 
 Postmaster-general, earl of Elgin (proceeded to China 
 in April, i860); succeeded by lord Stanley of _ Al- 
 derley, appointed Sept. i860. 
 
 Poor-law board, Charles P. Villiers (July 9, i860). 
 
 PALM-SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jerusalem, multitudes 
 of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, took branches of the palm-tree, 
 
 * It is distant from the sun about 263 millions of miles, and completes its revolution in four years 
 seven months and one-third of a month. Schroeter, a German astronomer, estimated its diameter to be 
 2099 miles, and consequently nearly the size of our moon. It presents a ruddy aspect, and is surrounded 
 with a nebulosity. It is di.stinguished from all the other planets by the very great inclination of its orbit 
 to the plane of the ecliptic, which is no less than 34 degrees 35 minutes. 
 
 t Henry John Temple was born, Oct. 20, 1784 ; was educated at Harrow, Edinburgh, and Cambridge ; 
 succeeded his father, vLscount Palmerston, 1802 ; became M. P., and a junior lord of the admiralty, 1807 ; was 
 secretarj'-at war, 1809-28, and a secretary for foreign affiiirs, Nov. 1830-34, April 1835 to Sept. 1841, and 
 July 1846 to Dec. 1851 ; and home secretary, Dec. 1852 to March 1855, when he became first lord of the 
 treasury. He was created lord warden of the cIRque ports, March 31, i86i ; and master of the corporation 
 of the Trinity house, June 16, 1862. He died, Oct. 18, 1865. He sat for Tiverton, 1835-65. 
 
PAL 541 TAN 
 
 and went forth to meet him, with acclamations and hosannas, 33. It is usual, in some 
 countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter, hence called Paliu-Sunday. 
 
 PALMYEA (Syria). The- ruins, chiefly of white marble, discovered by some English 
 travellers in 1678, prove Palmyra to have been more extensive and splendid than even Rome 
 itself. It was supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilderness built by Solomon, but 
 was manifestly Grecian. The brilliant part of the history of Palmyra was under Odenatus 
 and his queen Zenobia. Odenatus died, and Zenobia assumed the title of queen of the East, 
 in 267. Aurelian defeated her at Adessa and made her captive, 273. From that time 
 Palmyra ceased to make a ligure in history. It is now inhabited by only a few Arab families. 
 The ruins were visited in 1751, by Mr. "Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. 
 Mr. Dawkins also visited Palmyra ; and Mr. Bruce, on ascending a neighbouring mount, was 
 overcome with the magnificent sight. 
 
 PAMPELUNA (N. E. Spain, taken by the French on their invasion of Spain), was 
 invested by the British, between whom and the French obstinate conflicts took place, July 
 27 and 29, 1813. It surrendered to the British, Oct. 31, in that year. 
 
 PAMPHLET. The first appearance of pamphlets amongst ns is generally thought to 
 have been in opposition to the errors and corruptions of the church of Pome. Those who 
 were first convinced of the reasonableness of the "new learning," as it was then called, pro- 
 pagated their opinions in small pieces, which were cheaply printed, and (what was then of 
 great importance) easily concealed. Political pamphlets iDcgan in Edward VI. 's time, and 
 were very numerous in the 17th century. Large collections are in the libraries of the British 
 Museum and the Royal and Ijondon Institutions. 
 
 PANAMA, the isthmus which joins the two Americas. Across this a ship canal has 
 been proposed : and a railway was opened in, 1855. In that year a new state. New Grenada, 
 was divided into eight federal states, one of which is named Panama. A revolution took 
 place in Panama on March 9, 1865 ; the government was deposed, and don Jil Colunje 
 became president. 
 
 PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about 534. It is 
 stated that these Pandects (which condensed all the then known laws) were accidentall}'- 
 discovered in the ruins of Amalfi, 1137; were removed from Pisa in 1415, and now pre- 
 served in the library of the Medici at Florence, as the PandccUz Florentince. 
 
 PANICS, Commercial, generally the result of over -speculation. See Bubbles, South Sea, 
 Zaiv's. The last in this country were, in 1826, through bubble companies ; in 1847, 
 through the railway mania ; in 1857, through American failures ; and in April, 1859, 
 through the fear of a continental war. 
 
 PANNONIA, part of lUyria, now Hungary, was finall}"- subdued by Tiberius, 8. 
 
 PANOPTICON OF SciEKCE and Aet, in Leicester-squai-e, erected in 1852-3 for a char- 
 ■tered company, by Mr. T. H. Lewis, the architect ; was opened in 1854 for lectures, musical 
 performances, &c. It had a very large electrical machine, battery, &c. The speculation did 
 not succeed ; the building was sold in 1857, and in Feb. 1858, was opened for concerts and 
 horsemanship, and called the Alhambra. 
 
 PANORAMAS, the invention of Robert Barker, are bird's-eye views painted in dis- 
 temper roimd the wall of a circular building. In 1788 he exhibited at Edinburgh a view of 
 that city, being the first picture of the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in 
 London, having adopted the name ' Panorama ' to attract notice, and was ultimately 
 enabled to build commodious premises in Leicester-square for that purpose. He died in 
 April, 1806. 
 
 PANORMUS, See Palermo. 
 
 PANTHEON AT Rome. A temple built by Augustus Csesar, some say by Agrippa, his 
 son-in-law, 27 B.C. It was in a round form, having niches in the wall, where the image or 
 representation of a particular god was set up ; the gates were of brass, the beams covered 
 with gilt brass, and the roof covered with silver plate. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to 
 the Virgin Mary, and all the saints, by the name of S. Maria della Rotonda, or "ad 
 Martyres," A.D. 608. — The Pantheon in London was erected by subscription, and opened 
 Jan. 25, 1772. It was fonned into an opera-house; was burnt down Jan. 14, 1792; was 
 rebuilt in 1795 and 1812 ; and made a bazaar in 1834. 
 
 PANTOMIMES were representations by gestiares and attitudes among the ancients, and 
 were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and Bathyllus, 22 B.C. Comic masques 
 
PAP 542 PAP 
 
 were introduced here from Ttalj' aljout 1700. The first regular English pantomime is said to 
 have been "Harlequin executed," in-oduced by Eich at the Lincoln's-inn-fields theatre, 
 Dec. 26, 1717. 
 
 " PAPAL AGGRESSION." In a consistory holden in Rome, Sept. 30, 1850, the pope 
 (Pius IX.) named fourteen new cardinals, of whom four only were Italians. Among the ten 
 foreigners raised to the dignity of cardinal, was Dr. Wiseman, Roman Catholic vicar- 
 apostolic of the London district, who was at tlie same time created lord archbishop of West- 
 minster. On Oct. 27, following, Dr. Ullathorne was enthroned as Roman Catholic bishop 
 of Birmingham in St. Chad's cathedral in that town. The same day a pastoral letter from 
 Dr. Wiseman was read in all the Roman Catholic chapels of his see ; and on its becoming 
 generally known to the British people that all England had been pai'celled out similarly 
 into Romish dioceses, tlie strongest indignation of the assumption of the pope was expressed 
 throughout the empire.* The answer of the bishop of London (Dr. Blomfield) to a memorial 
 from the Protestant clergy of Westminster, against the pope's creation of a Romish hierarchy 
 in this country, was followed by the celebrated "Durham" letter from lord John Russell, then 
 chief minister of the crown (Nov. 4), to the bishop of Durham, in which is severely censured 
 not only the papal aggression, but also the proceedings of the tractarian clergy of the Church 
 of England ; and immediately from every quarter of England addresses poured into her 
 majesty the queen, calling upon her and the government to resist the usurpation. As 
 many as 6700 addresses, it is said, had been voted from nearly as many influential meetings 
 up to Dec. 31, 1850. The great agitation on this subject produced the Ecclesiastical Titles 
 bill, 14 & 15 Vict. c. 60 (passed Aug. 185 1), which prohibited the constitution of bishops 
 of pretended provinces under a penalty of lool. This statute, however, has not yet been 
 acted upon. 
 
 PAPAL STATES. See Rome and Poj^es. ■ 
 
 PAPER. See Paj^yrus. Paper is said to have been invented in China, 170 B.C. It was 
 first made of cotton about a.d. iooo ; and of rags about I300.f White coarse paper was made 
 by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, in England, 33 Eliz. 1590 : and here the first 
 paper mills were erected. Stow. Paper for writing and printing manufactured in England, 
 and an act passed to encourage it, 2 Will. III. 1690; before this time we paid for these 
 articles to France and Holland 100,000?. annuall}'. The French refugees taught our people; 
 they had made coarse brown paper almost exclusively, imtil they came among us. White 
 paper was first made by us in 1690. Anderson. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested 
 by Louis Robert, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer. The 
 latter brought it to England, and here, conjointly with M. Fonrdiinier, he perfected the 
 machinery. M. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for paper-making machinery in 1801 ; and for 
 manufacturing ])aper of an indefinite length in 1807 ; it had previously been made tediouslj' 
 by the hand. The machinery was also improved by Mr. Bryan Donkin. A sheet of paper 
 13,800 feet long, and 4 feet wide, was made at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830; and 
 one 21,000 feet long, and 6 feet 3 inches wide, was made at Colyton in Devon in i860. The 
 pajier duty imposed in 1694 (producing latterly, about 1,400,000?. annually), after having 
 been the subject of agitation for several years, was repealed in 1861. Esparto, a Spanish 
 grass, first imported in 1857, has been largely employed in the paper manufacture since 
 1864. See Parchment Paper. 
 
 PAPER-HANGINGS, &c. Stamped paper for this purpose was first made in Spain and 
 Holland, about 1555. Made of velvet and floss, for hanging apartments, about 1620. The 
 manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved in this country during the present 
 century.- — Paper Bricks have been made in America ; and paper tubing for water and gas, 
 made by ]M. Jaloureau of Paris, was shown in i860. 
 
 PAPER-MONEY. See Banks. 
 
 PAPIER MACHE. This manufacture (of paper-pulp combined with gum and sometimes 
 china clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, a German snuff-box maker, is said to 
 
 * Among other consecrations that followed, and continued the excitement, was that of Dr. Briggs, 
 created Roman Catholic bishop of Beverley, and enthroned in St. George's chapel at York, Feb. 13, 1851 ; 
 Dr. Browne created bishop of CUfton, and Dr. Burgess bishop of Shrewsbury : both consecrated in St. 
 George's cathedral, Southwark, July 27, 1851 ; and other priests were similarly raised to new Koman 
 Catholic prelacies. 
 
 t Mr. Joseph Hunter (in the Archccologla, xxxvii.) states that the earliest paper which he had seen 
 was an MS. account book, dated 1302, probably of Bordeaux manufacture. He gives engi-avings of manu- 
 facturers' marks, French and English, the dates of which range from 1330 to 1431. He also gives an 
 extract from a work by Bartholus, a writer of the middle of the 14th century, in which mention is made 
 of a paper manufactory in the Marches of Ancona. 
 
PAP 543 PAPv, 
 
 have learnt the art from one Lefevre about 1740. In 1745 it Avas taken i;p by Baskerville, 
 the printer at Birmingham, and soon spread over that district. Papier mach^ is now largely 
 emploj'ed in ornamenting the interior of buildings, &c. 
 
 PAPYRUS. Tlie reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt and India, 
 used for writings until the discovery of j)archment, about 190 B.C. Ptolemy prohibited the 
 exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Pergamus should make a library equal to 
 that of Alexandria, 263 B.C. A manuscript of the Antiquities of Josephits on papyrus of 
 inestimable value was among the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the 
 National Library at Paris ; but was restored in 1 815, 
 
 PARACHUTE. See Balloons. 
 
 PARADISE LOST, the great English epic by John Milton, appeared first in ten book.s 
 in 1667; in twelve books in 1674. 
 
 PARAFFHSTE (from parum affinis, having little affinity with anything), also called 
 photogen, a solid substance, somewhat like spermaceti, produced by distillation of coal, and 
 first obtained by Reichenbach in 1830. It was procured from mineral oil by Mr. James 
 Young about 1847, and is also obtained from Irish peat. It makes excellent candles. 
 Much litigation has ensued through interference with Mr. Young's patent-rjght. 
 
 PARAGUAY, a republic in S. America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526; and 
 conquered by Alvarez Nunez in I535» ^'^^ civilised by the Jesuits, who in 1608 commenced 
 their missions there and established an exclusive government, which they held till their 
 expulsion in 1768. Paraguay rose against the S23anish yoke in 181 1. In 1814 Dr. Francia 
 was elected dictator ; he ruled well ; he was succeeded on his death in 1840 by Vival. From 
 1814 to 1844 the country was rigidly closed against foreigners. The president, C. A. Lopez, 
 elected in 1844, was succeeded by his son, C. A. Lopez, in Sept., 1862. Paraguay was 
 recognised as an independent state by the Argentine Confederation in 1852, and by Great 
 Britain in 1853. Hostilities between Paraguay and Brazil began on iSTov. 11, 1864; when 
 a Brazilian steamer was captured as an intruder on the Paraguay. Brazil was invaded in 
 December. On April 14, 1865, Lopez invaded the territories of the Argentine republic, 
 which immediately made alliance with Brazil. The army of Lo]3ez having been defeated 
 in September, retreated. On Oct. 18, the allies captured Uruguyana and an army of 
 Paraguayans. There were prospects of peace in Dec. 1865. 
 
 PARASOLS were used by the ancient Egyptians. In their present form (said to have 
 been devised by the duchess of Rutland) they came into general use about 1820. 
 
 PARCHMENT.* Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attains), of 
 Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on the model of the 
 Alexandi'ian, about 190 B.C. Parchment-books from this time became those most used, and 
 the most valuable as well as oldest in the world are written on the skins of goats. It should 
 be mentioned that the Persians and others are said to have written all their recoi'ds on skins 
 long before Eumenes' time. 
 
 PARDON'S. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations ; first by Edward III. in 
 1327. The king's power of i^ardoning is said to be derived a lege suae, dignitatis; and no 
 other person has power to remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Hen. VIII. 1535. BlacTcstone. 
 A pardon cannot follow an impeachment of the house of commons : stat. Will. III. 1700. 
 
 PARIAN MARBLES were discovered in the island of Pares, A. d. 1610. Their 
 chronology was composed, 264 b. c. They were brought to England, and were presented to 
 the university of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called the 
 Arundelian Marbles, which see. 
 
 PARIS (formerly Lutetia Farisiorum), the capital of France, situated on the river Seine, 
 which cuts it into two unequal parts, the strongest being towards the north, and in which 
 are three isles, la ville {tJie city), the tie St. Louis, and the Ue Louviers. Iir the time of Julius 
 Csesar, Lutetia comprised the city only. It Avas gTeatly improved by the emperor Julian, 
 who made it his residence Avhile he governed Gaul, 355 to 361, and Clovis also resided here 
 in 510. It became successively the capital of the kingdoms of Paris, Soissons, and Neustria, 
 
 * Parchment paper (or vegetable parchment) was invented and patented m 1857, by Mr. W. E. 
 Gaine, C.E., who discovered, that when paper is exposed to a mixture of two pai'ts of concentrated sul- 
 phuric acid and one part of water for no longer time than is required to draw it through the fluid, it is 
 immediately converted into a strong tough skin-like material. It must be instantly washed with water. 
 Its great strength points out many applications of this material, e.g., mapis, school and account books, and 
 drawing paper. In 1859 it appeared that a similar invention had been made in Paris by Figuier and Pou- 
 marfede in 1S46. 
 
PAR 
 
 544 
 
 PAR 
 
 and eventually of all the kingdom. The representative of the house of Orleans, styled 
 count of Paris, now resides in England. Population of Paris in 1856, 1,178,262 ; in i860, 
 1.525,535- SeeFrajice. 
 
 St. Denis founded 613 
 
 Paris ravaged by the Normans (or Danes) ; suf- 
 fered from famine 845-940 
 
 Gallantly defended against them by the count 
 Eudes and the bishop Gosliu . . . . 885 
 
 Rebuilt 1231 
 
 iJniversity founded ...... 1206 
 
 Church of Notre Dame built . . . 1 163-1270 
 
 The paiUament established 1302 
 
 Suffers by the factions of the Armagnacs and 
 
 Burgundians 14U-1418 
 
 Taken by the English 1420 
 
 Retaken by the French 1436 
 
 Pont Notre Dame built 1499 
 
 The Louvre built (see LouiTe) .... 1522 
 
 Hotel de Ville 1533 
 
 The Boulevards commenced .... 1536 
 
 Fountain of the Innocents 1551 
 
 The Tuileries built (see rwito-JM) . . . 1564 
 >[assacre of St Bartholomew's . Aug. 24, 1572 
 
 The Pont Neuf begun 1578 
 
 Hospital of Invalids 1595 
 
 Place Royale begun 1604 
 
 The Hotel- Dieu founded 1606 
 
 The Lu.xembourg, by Mary of Medicis . .1615 
 
 The Palais Royal built 1629 
 
 The Val-de-Grace 1645 
 
 Conflicts of the Fronde 1648-53 
 
 The Academy of Sciences founded . . . 1666 
 
 The ObstTvatory 1667 
 
 Champs Elysfes planted 1670 
 
 Arch of St. Denis erected 1672 
 
 Palais d'Elys^e Bourbon 1718 
 
 Tbe Palace of the Deputies 1722 
 
 The Military School 1751 
 
 LATE GREAT TRE. 
 
 Between England, France, Spain, and Portu- 
 gal ; cession to Great Britain of Canada by 
 France, and Floiida by Sjjain . . Feb. 10, 1763 
 
 Between France and Sardinia ; the latter ced- 
 ing Savoy, &c May 15, 1796 
 
 Between France and Sweden, whereby Swedish 
 Pomerania and the island of Rugen were 
 given up to tlie Swedes, who agreed to adopt 
 the French prohibitory system against Great 
 Britain Jan. 6, 1810 
 
 Capitulation of Paris : Napoleon renounces the 
 sovereignty of France . . AprU 11, 1814 
 
 Convention of Paris, between France and the 
 alUed powers ; the boundaries of France to 
 be the same as on the ist of January, 1792, 
 
 April 23, ,, 
 
 Peace of Paris ratified by France and aU the 
 allies May 14, „ 
 
 Convention of St. Cloud, between marshal l)a- 
 voust, and Wellington, and Blucher, for the 
 surrender of Paris .... July 3, 1815 
 [The allies entered it on the 6th. j 
 
 The Pantheon ; St. Gfeevifeve 1764 
 
 The French revolution breaks out ; the Bastile 
 
 taken July 14, 1789 
 
 Pont de Louis XIV. finished 1790 
 
 Cemetery of Pfere La Chaise consecrated . . 1804 
 
 Pont des Invalides 1806 
 
 Paris surrenders to the aUies . March 30, 1814 
 
 Paris lit with gas 1819 
 
 Revolution (see France) . . . July, 1830 
 Fortifications of Paris (for which 140,000,000 of 
 francs were voted, 1833) commenced Dec. 15, 
 1840 ; completed .... March, 1846 
 
 Revolution (see France) 1848 
 
 Paris much improved by Louis Najwleon (pro- 
 bable costs, i2,8oo,ooo( 1853-62 
 
 Industrial exhibition opened by the emperor 
 and empress. May 15; visited by queen Vic- 
 toria and prince Albert (the first visit of an 
 Enghsh sovereign to Paris since 1422), Aug. 
 24 ; exhibition closes . . . Nov. 15, 1855 
 Conference at Paris respecting the Danubian 
 
 Principalities (which see) ; closes . . Aug. 1858 
 Bois du Boulogne opened as a garden of accli- 
 matisation Oct. 6, i860 
 
 A building was erected for a permanent indus- 
 trial exhibition by a company . . Oct. 1862 
 The scheme failed and the company was wound 
 
 up Feb. 1864 
 
 Boulevard-prince-Eugene opened by the emperor 
 
 Dec. 7, 1862 
 Decree for an International Exhibition of the 
 products of Agriculture, Industry, and the 
 Fine Arts, at Paris, in 1867 ; commissioners 
 
 appointed Feb. 21, 1864 
 
 See France. 
 
 ATIES OF PARIS. 
 
 Treaty of Paris, between Great Britain, Austria, 
 Russia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the 
 prisoner of those powers and confiding his 
 safeguard to England . . . Aug. 2, i8is 
 
 Establishing the boundaries of France, and 
 stipulating for the occupation of certain for- 
 tresses by foreign troops for three years, 
 
 Nov. 20, ,, 
 
 Treaty of Paris, confirming the treaties of Chau- 
 mont and Vienna, same day . . Nov. 20, ,, 
 
 Treaty of Paris, to fulfil the articles of the Con- 
 gi-ess of Vienna .... June 10, 1817 
 
 Treaty of Paris between Russia and Turkey, 
 England, France, and Sardinia March 30, 1856 
 
 Treaty of Paris between England and Persia, 
 
 March 4, 1857 
 
 Treaty of Paris between the Eiu'opean powers, 
 Prussia, and Switzerland, respecting Neuf- 
 chatel Slay 26, ,, 
 
 Important commercial treaty between France 
 and England . . . • . Jan. 23, i860 
 
 PARISHES. Their boundaries in England ■were first fixed by Honorius, archbishop of 
 Canterbury, 636.. They -were enlarged, and the number of parishes was consequently 
 reduced in the 15th century, when there were 10,000. The parishes of England and Wales 
 now amount to 11,077. Parish registers were commenced in 1538. By an act passed in 
 1856 new parishes may be formed out of too extensive ones. See Registers and Benefices. 
 
 PARK'S TRAVELS. ^Mungo Park set sail on his first voyage to 'Africa, under the 
 patronage of the African Societj', to trace the source of the river Niger, May 22, 1 795 ; and 
 returned Dec. 22, 1797, after having encountered great dangers, without his journey thi'ough 
 intertropical regions having enabled him to achieve the great object of his ambition. He 
 again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, appointed to a new 
 «xpedition by government; but never returned. The accounts of his murder at Broussa on 
 the Niger were a long time discredited : but at length were too well authenticated. 
 
PAR 
 
 545 
 
 PAR 
 
 PARKS. The Romans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupiuus, Pompey, and 
 Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first great park of which parti- 
 'cular mention is made, was that of "Woodstock, formed by Hemy I., 1125. The parks of 
 London are in a high degree essential to the health of its immense population. St. James's 
 park was drained by Henry VIll. about 1537. It was improved, planted, and made a 
 thoroughfare for public use, 1668. The Green park forms a part of the ground inclosed by 
 Henry VIII. In Hyde park, the sheet of water called the Serpentine river, although in the 
 form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 and 1733, by order of queen Caroline, 
 consort of George II. This queen once inquired (it is said) of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards 
 earl of Chatham), how much it would cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He 
 replied, "Three crowns, your majesty." She took the hint, and the design was never after- 
 wards entertained. See Ch'een, Hyde, St. James's, Regent's, Victoria, Battersea, Alexandra, 
 and People's Parks. 
 
 PARLIAMENT (from the French, parlermnt, discourse) derives its origin from the Saxon 
 general assemblies, called Wittenagemot. The name was applied to the general assemblies of 
 the state under Louis VII. of France, about the middle of the 12th century, but it is said 
 not to have appeared in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edw. I. 
 1272 : and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same effect, when speaker 
 (1592), that this name was used even in the time of Edward the Confessor, 1041. The 
 first clear account we have of the representatives of the people forming a house of commons, 
 was in the 43rd Hen. III. 1258, when it was settled by the statutes of Oxford, that twelve 
 persons should be chosen to represent the commons in the three parliaments, which, by the 
 sixth statute, were to be held yearly. Burton's Annals. The general representation by 
 knights, citizens, and burgesses, took place 49 Hen. III. 1265. Dugdale's Stmivions to 
 Parliament, edit. 1685. See Commons and Lords. The power and jurisdiction of parlia- 
 ment are so transcendent and absolute, that it cannot be confined, either for causes or 
 persons, within any bounds. It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and 
 repealing laws. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown, as was done in 
 the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the religion of the 
 country, as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. Sir 
 Edward CoTce.* The fourth edition of May's "Practical Treatise on Parliament" was 
 published in 1859. See Triennial and Septennial. 
 
 First summons of barons, by writ directed to 
 
 the bishop of Salisbury, by John . . . 1205 
 Parhament of Merton . . . . . . 1236 
 
 The assembly of knights and burgesses. Burton 1258 
 First assembly of the commons as a confirmed 
 
 representation. Dugdale 1265 
 
 First regular parliament according to many 
 
 historians, 22 Edw. 1 1294 
 
 First a deliberate assembly, they become a 
 legislative power, whose assent is essential to 
 
 constitute a law 1308 
 
 The commons elect their first speaker, Peter De 
 
 la Mere 1377 
 
 Parliament of but one session, of only one day, 
 
 Eichard II. deposed 1399 
 
 Lawyers excluded frona the house of commons 1404 
 Members were obliged to reside at the places 
 
 they represented 141 3 
 
 Forty-shilling freeholders only to elect knights 1429 
 The Journals of the Lords commenced . . . 1509 
 Acts of parliament printed in 1501, and consecu- 
 tively from 1509 
 
 Members protected from arrest. See article 
 Ferrars' Arrest ....... 1542 
 
 Joui-nals of the commons begun . . . 1547 
 Francis Russell, son of the earl of Bedford, was 
 the first peer's eldest son who sat in the house 
 of commons 1549 
 
 The parliament remarkable for the epoch in 
 which were first formed the parties of Court 
 and Coimtry, 1614; disputes with James I. 
 
 June 1620 
 
 Charles I. dissolves parliament, which does not 
 meet for eleven years ..... 1629 
 
 The Long Parliament, which voted the house of 
 lords as useless, first assembled . Nov. 3, 1640 
 
 The Rump Parliament ; it voted the trial of 
 Charles I. Jan. 1649 
 
 A peer elected and sat as a member of the house 
 of commons ,, 
 
 Cromwell roughly dissolves the Long Parlia- 
 ment April 20, 1653 
 
 A convention parliament. See Convention . . 1660 
 
 Eoman Catholics excluded from parliament, 30 
 Charles II 1678 
 
 The commons committed a secretary of state to 
 the Tower Nov. „ 
 
 The speaker of the commons refused by the 
 king 1679 
 
 A convention parliament. See Convention . . 1688 
 
 James II. convenes the Irish parliament at 
 DubUn, which attaints 3000 Protestants . 3689 
 
 Act for triennial parliament ; see Triennial . . 1694 
 
 First parliament of Great Britain met Oct. 23, 1707 
 
 The Triennial Act repealed, and Septennial Act 
 voted. See Se'^tennial Parliament . May 7, 1716 
 
 * When the royal assent is given to a public bill, the clerk says " Le roi le veut. If the bill be a 
 private bill he says " Soit fait comme il est cUsire." If the bill have subsidies for its object, he says, Le roi 
 remercie ses loyaux sujets, accepte lev.r benevolence, et aiissi le veut." If the king do not think proper to assent 
 to the bill, the clerk says, "Ze roi s'avisera ;" which is a mild way of giving a refusal. It is singular 
 that the sovereign of England should stiU make use of the French language to declare her intentions to 
 her parliament. 
 
TAR 
 
 546 
 
 PAR 
 
 PARLIAilENT, cmtimced. 
 
 The Journals ordered to be printed . . . 1 752 
 
 Privilege as to freedom from aiTCst of the ser- 
 vants of members relinquished by the com- 
 mons 1770 
 
 The lord mayor of London (Oliver) and alder- 
 man Crosby committee! to the Tower by the 
 commons in Wilkes' affair .... 1771 
 
 Assembly of the first parliament of the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 Feb. 2, 1 801 
 
 Sir F. Burdett committed to the Tower, 
 
 April 6, 1810 
 
 Murder of Spencer Perceval, by Bellingham, at 
 the house of commons . . May 11, 1812 
 
 Return for Clare county, Ireland, of Mr. O'Con- 
 nell, the first Roman Catholic commoner 
 elected since the Revolution . July >;, 1828 
 
 The duke of Norfolk took his seat in the lords, 
 the first Roman Catholic peer under the Re- 
 lief Bill. See Roman Catholics , April 28, 1829 
 
 The refojmed parliament meet. See Reform, 
 
 Aug. 7, 1832 
 
 E. Pease, the first Quaker admitted on his affir- 
 mation Feb. 15, 1833 
 
 Houses of parliament destroyed by fire, Got. 16, 1834 
 
 New houses of parhament commenced* . . 1840- 
 
 The members of the commons' and lords' houses 
 relinquish the privilege of franking letters. 
 See Frartking Jan. 10, ,, 
 
 Committal of Smith O'Brien by the commons 
 for contempt, ^es Ireland . July 20, 184& 
 
 The peers took possession of their house, that 
 portion of the palace being ready, April 15, 1847 
 
 The commons assemble in their new house, 
 
 Nov. 4, 1852 
 
 The two houses began to communicate by letter 
 in 1855 
 
 Baron L. Rothschild, the first Jew admitted, 
 
 July 26, 185S 
 
 KVMBER AND DURATION OF PARLIAMEJITS, FROM 27 EDW. I. I299, TO 2$ VICT. 1862. 
 
 Edward 1 8 pari, in 8 yrs. reign. 
 
 Edward II 15 „ 20 ,, 
 
 Edward III 37 ,, 50 ,, 
 
 Richard II. ... 26 „ 22 ,, 
 Henry IV 10 ,, 14 ,, 
 
 Henry V. 
 Henry VI. . 
 Edward IV. 
 Richard III. 
 Henry VII. 
 
 . II pari, in 9 yrs. reiga 
 
 • 22 „ 39 „ 
 
 • 5 )) 22 ,, 
 
 Reign. 
 
 Day of Meeting. 
 
 When Dissolved. 
 
 Reign. 
 
 Day of Meeting. 
 
 When Dissolved. 
 
 Henry VIII. . 
 
 Jan. 21 . 
 
 1510 
 
 Feb. 23 . 1510 
 
 Charles I. . . 
 
 June 18 . 1625 
 
 Aug. 12 . 1625 
 
 
 Feb. 4 . 
 
 1511 
 
 March 4 , 1513 
 
 
 Feb. 6 . 1626 
 
 June II . 1626 
 
 
 Feb. 5 . 
 
 1514 
 
 Dec. 22 . 1515 
 
 
 March 17, 1628 
 
 March 10, 1629 
 
 
 April 15 . 
 
 1523 
 
 Aug. 13 . 1523 
 
 
 April 13 . 1640 
 
 May 5 . 1640 
 
 
 Nov. 3 . 
 
 1530 
 
 April 4 .1536 
 
 Long Parliament 
 
 Nov. 3 . „ 
 
 April 20 . 1653 
 
 
 June 8 . 
 
 1536 
 
 July 18 . ,, 
 
 Commonwealth 
 
 Sept. 3 . 1654 
 
 Jan. 22 . 1655 
 
 
 April 28 . 
 
 1539 
 
 July 24 . 1540 
 
 
 Sept. 17 . 1656 
 
 Feb. 4 . 1658 
 
 
 Jan. 16 . 
 
 1541 
 
 March 29, 1544 
 
 
 Jan. 27 . 1659 
 
 April 22 . 1659 
 
 
 April 12 . 
 
 
 
 
 May 6 . „ 
 
 March 16, 1660 
 
 
 Nov. 23 . 
 
 IS45 
 
 Jan. 28 , 1547 
 
 Charles II. 
 
 April 25 . 1660 
 
 Dec. 29 . ,, 
 
 Edward VI. . 
 
 Nov. 4 . 
 
 1547 
 
 April IS . 1552 
 
 Pensionary Pari. 
 
 May 8 . 1661 
 
 Jan. 24 . 1679 
 
 
 March I . 
 
 1553 
 
 March 31, 1553 
 
 
 March 6 . 1679 
 
 July 10 . ,, 
 
 Mary 
 
 Oct. 5 . 
 
 
 Dec. 6 . „ 
 
 
 March 21, 1681 
 
 March 28, 1681 
 
 
 April 5 . 
 
 1554 
 
 May s . 1554 
 
 James II. . . 
 
 May 19 . 1685 
 
 July 22 . 1687 
 
 
 Nov. 12 . 
 
 
 Jan. 16 . 155s 
 
 
 Jan. 22 . 1689 
 
 Feb. 6 . 1690 
 
 
 Oct. 21 . 
 
 1555 
 
 Dec. 9 . „ 
 
 William III. . 
 
 March 20, 1690 
 
 Oct. II . 1695 
 
 
 Jan. 20 . 
 
 1558 
 
 Nov. 17 . 1558 
 
 
 Nov. 22 . 169s 
 
 July 7 . 1698 
 
 Elizabeth . . 
 
 Jan. 25 . 
 
 1559 
 
 May 8 . 1559 
 
 
 Dec. 9 . i6g8 
 
 July 19 . 1700 
 
 
 Jan. 12 
 
 1563 
 
 Jan. 2 .1567 
 
 
 Feb. 10 . 1701 
 
 Nov. 11 . 1 701 
 
 
 April 2 . 
 
 1571 
 
 May 29 . 1571 
 
 Anne .... 
 
 Dec. 30 . „ 
 
 July 2 . 1702 
 
 
 May 8 . 
 
 1572 
 
 Sept. IS . 1586 
 
 
 Oct. 20 . 1702 
 Oct. 25 . 1705 
 
 April s .1705 
 April II . 1708 
 
 
 Oct. 29 . 
 
 1586 
 
 March 23, 1587 
 
 
 Nov. 18 . 1708 
 
 Sept. 28 . 1710 
 
 
 Feb. 4 . 
 
 1589 
 
 March 29, 1589 
 
 
 Nov. 2S . 1710 
 
 Aug. 8 . 1713 
 
 
 Feb. 19 . 
 
 1593 
 
 April 10 . 1593 
 
 
 Nov. II . 1713 
 
 Jan. 15 . 171S 
 
 
 Oct. 24 . 
 
 1597 
 
 Feb. 9 .1598 
 
 George I. . . 
 
 March 21, 1715 
 
 March 10, 1722 
 
 
 Oct. 27 . 
 
 i6oi 
 
 Dec. 19 . 1601 
 
 
 Oct. 9 . 1722 
 
 Aug. 7 . 1727 
 
 James I. . . 
 
 March 19 
 
 1604 
 
 Feb. 19 . 1610 
 
 George II. . . 
 
 Jan. 28 . 1728 
 
 April 18 . 1734 
 
 
 April 5t . 
 
 1614 
 
 June 6 . 1614 
 
 
 Jan. 14 . 1735 
 
 April 28 . 1741 
 
 
 Jan. 30 . 
 
 1621 
 
 Jan. 6 . 1622 
 
 
 Dec. 4 . 1741 
 
 June 18 . 1747 
 
 
 Feb. '29 . 
 
 1624 
 
 March 27, 1625 
 
 
 Nov. 10 . 1747 
 Nov. 14 . 1754 
 
 April 8 .1754 
 March 21, 1761 
 
 * Termed the " Palace of Westminster." The first contract for the embankment of the river was taken 
 in 1837, by Messrs. Lee ; this embankment, faced with granite, is 886 feet in length, and projected into the 
 river in a line with the inner side of the third pier of old Westminster-bridge. Sir Charles Barry (born, 
 1795, died, i860) was the architect of the sumptuous pile of buildings raised since 1840. The whole stands 
 on a bed of concrete twelve feet thick : to the east it has a front of about icco feet, and covers an area of 
 nine statute acres. It contains 1 100 apartments, 100 staircases, and two miles of passages or corridors. 
 The great Victoria tower at the southwest extremity is 346 feet in height, and towers of less magnitude 
 crown other portions of the building. 
 
 t Called The Addle Parhament. It remonstrated with the king en his levying bauvolenccs, and 
 passed no acts. He dismissed it in anger, and imprisoned some of the members. 
 
PAR 
 
 547 
 
 PAR 
 
 PARLIAMENT, continued. 
 
 Eeign. 
 
 Day of Meeting. 
 
 "When Dissolved. 
 
 Eeign. 
 
 Day of Meeting. 
 
 "When Dissolved. 
 
 Geoege III. . 
 
 Nov. 3 . 1761 
 
 March 12, 1768 
 
 George IV. 
 
 April 27 . 1820 
 
 June 2 . 1826 
 
 
 May 10 . 1768 
 
 Sept. 30 . 1774 
 
 
 Nov. 14 . 1826 
 
 July 24 . 1830 
 
 
 Nov. 29 . 1774 
 
 Sept. I . 17S0 
 
 
 Oct. 26 . 1830 
 
 April 23 . 1831 
 
 
 Oct. 31 . 1780 
 
 March 25, 1784 
 
 William IV. . 
 
 June 14 . 1831 
 
 Dec. 3 . 1832 
 
 
 May 18 . 1784 
 
 June 12 . 1790 j 
 
 
 Jan. 29 . 1833 
 
 Dec. 30 . 1834 
 
 
 Nov. 26 . 1790 
 
 Ifay 20 . 1796 
 
 
 Feb. 9 . 1835 
 
 July 17 . 1837 
 
 
 Oct. 6 . 1796 
 
 June 29 . 1802 1 
 
 ViCTOEIA . . 
 
 Nov. 15 . 1837 
 
 June 23 . 1 841 
 
 
 Nov. 16 . 1802 
 
 Oct. 24 . 1806 
 
 
 Aug. 18 . 1841 
 
 July 23 . 1847 
 
 
 Deo. IS . 1806 
 
 April 29 . 1807 j 
 
 
 Nov. 18 . 1847 
 
 July I . 1852 
 
 
 June 24 . 1807 
 
 Sept. 29. 1812 ! 
 
 
 Nov. 4 . 1852 
 
 March 21, 1857 
 
 
 Nov. 24 . 1812 
 
 June 10 . 1818 [ 
 
 
 April 30 . 1857 
 
 April 23 . 1859 
 
 
 Jan. 14 .1819 
 
 Feb. 29 . 1820 ' 
 
 
 May 31 . 1859 
 Feb. I .1866 
 
 July 6 . 1865 
 
 PARLIAMENT of Ireland, began with conferences of the English settlers, it is said, 
 on the hill of Tara, in 1173. Writs for knights of the shire Avere issued in 1295. The Irish 
 parliament last met on Aug. 2, 1800 ; the biU for the Union having passed. 
 
 PARLIAMENT of Scotland consisted of barons, prelates, and abbots, and occasionally 
 of burgesses, A great national council was held at Scone by John Balliol, Feb. 9, 1292; 
 and by Robert Bruce at Cambuskenneth, in 1326. A house of commons was never formed 
 in Scotland. The parliament of Scotland sanctioned the Act of Union on Jan. 16, 1707, and 
 met for the last time on April 22, same year. 
 
 PARLIAMENT of Paris was made the chief court of justice in France by Philip IV. ; 
 at his suggestion it revoked a bull of pope Boniface VIII. , 1302. It was suppressed by 
 Louis XV., 1771 ; restored by Louis XVI., 1774; demanded a meeting of the States-General 
 in 1787; and was suspended by the National Assembly, Nov. 3, 1789. 
 
 PARMA (N. Italy), founded by the ancient Etrurians. It took part with the Lombard 
 legion in the wars with the German emperors. It was made a duchy (with Placentia), 1545. 
 
 The duke Charles II. abdicates in favour of his 
 son Charles III March 14, 
 
 Charles III. stabbed by an assassin, March 26, 
 dies ...... March 27, 
 
 Bobert I., a minor (born July g, 1848); whose 
 mother becomes regent. 
 
 War in Italy ; the Parmesans establish a pro- 
 visional government ; the duchess-regent re- 
 tires to Switzerland, May i, and died, Feb. i. 
 
 1849 
 
 Farina became dictator . , . Aug. 18, 1859 
 Annexation to Sardinia voted . Sept. 12, ,, 
 Col. Anviti, a former obnoxious police minister, 
 having rashly returned, crueUy murdered by 
 
 the mob Oct. 5, ,, 
 
 Pai-ma is now part of the province of MvaXMa, in 
 the kingdom of Italy; to which it was an- 
 nexed by decree after a plebiscite, March 18, i860 
 
 United to Spain by Philip V.'s marriage with 
 
 Elizabeth Farnese 1714 
 
 Battle near Parma ; the confederates, England, 
 
 France, and Spain, against the emperor ; in- 
 decisive; both armies claiming the victory, 
 
 June 29, 1734 
 Battle near the Trebbia, the French, under 
 
 Macdonald, defeated by Suwarrow, with the 
 
 loss of 10,000 men and four generals, June ig, 1799 
 The duke of Parma made king of Etruria, Feb. 1801 
 Parma united to France (with Placentia and 
 
 Guastalla), and conferred on Maria Louisa, 
 
 the ex-empress,by the treaty of Fontaitiebleau, 
 
 April 5, 1814 
 Parma alternately occupied by the Austrians 
 
 and Sardinians in the war of . . . . 1848 
 The Sardinians retire after the battle of Novara, 
 
 March 23, 1849 
 
 PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in Athens or Rome, such a crime not being 
 supposed possible. About 172 B.C., L. Ostius having killed his father, the Romans first 
 scourged the parricide ; then sewed him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, with a live 
 dog, a cock, a viper, and an ape, and thus cast him into the sea. Miss Blandy was executed 
 at Oxford for the murder of her father, April, 1752. 
 
 PARSEES, the followers of Zerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the battle of 
 Kadseah, their army was decimated by the Arabs, and the monarchy annihilated at the battle 
 of Ndh^rand in 641. Many submitted to the conquerors, but others fled to India, and 
 their descendants stiU reside at Bombay, where they numbered 114,698 in 1849. Mr. 
 Dadabhai Naoroji, a Parsee merchant, has been several years professor of Gujerati at 
 University college, Loudon. 
 
 PARTHENON (from dxee^. partJiene, virgin), a temple at Athens dedicated to Minerva, 
 erected 442 b.c. In it Phidias placed his renowned statue of that goddess, 438. 
 
 N N 2 
 
PAR 548 PAS 
 
 PARTHENOPEAN REPUBLIC was established by the French at Naples (anciently 
 called Partheuope), Jan. 1799, and overthrown in June, same year. 
 
 PARTHIA (Asia). The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who, being exiled, 
 as their name implies, from tlieir own country, settled near Uyrcania. Arsaces laid the 
 foundation of an empire Avhich ultimately extended over a large part of Asia, 250 B.C.; 
 the Parthians were never wholly subdued by the Romans. The last king, Artabanus V., 
 was killed A. D. 226: his territories were annexed to the new kingdom of Persia founded 
 by Aitaxerxes, who had revolted against Parthia. 
 
 PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Holland for regulating 
 the Spanish succession (declaring the elector of Bavaria next heir, and ceding provinces to 
 France) was signed Aug. 19, 1698 ; and the second (between France, England, and Hol- 
 land, declaring the archduke Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph 
 Ferdinand having died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty for the iiartition of Poland; the 
 first was a secret convention between Russia and Prussia, Feb. 17, 1772; the second between 
 the same powers and Austria, Aug. 5, same year ; the third was between Russia, Austria, 
 and Prussia, Nov. 25, 1795. 
 
 PARTNERSHIP. The laws respecting it were amended in 1863. See Limited Liability. 
 
 PASQUINADES.* Small satirical poems obtained this name about 1533. 
 
 PASSAROWITZ TREATY concluded 17 18, by which the house of Austria ceded certain 
 commercial rights, and obtained the Banat of Temeswar, Belgrade, and part of Servia and 
 Wallachia. 
 
 PASSAU (Germany), Treaty of, whereby religious freedom was established, was 
 ratified between the emperor Charles V. and the Protestant princes of Germany, July 31, 
 1552. Henault. In 1662 the cathedral and great part of Passau were consumed by fire. 
 
 PASSENGERS— by public vehicles, are protected by i & 2 Will. IV. c. 22 (1831), 
 I & 2 Vict. c. 79 (1838), and 16 & 17 Vict. c. 33 (1853). Mr. Cleghorn, under whom the 
 front seat on the near side of one of the General Omnibus company's carriages had given 
 way, recovered 400Z. damages against the company, in a verdict by consent, in the Queen's 
 Bench, Dec. 10, 1856. The Ships' Passenger act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 119, passed in 1855, was 
 amended in 1863. See CamphcU's Act. 
 
 PASSION-WEEK, the name given since the Reformation to the week preceding Easter, 
 was formerly applied to the fortnight. Archbishop Laud says the two weeks were so called 
 "for a thousand years together," and refers to an epistle by Ignatius, in the 1st century, 
 in which the practice is said to have been " observed by all." 
 
 PASSOVER, the most solemn festival of the Jews, instituted 149 1 B.C. in commemo- 
 ration of their coming out of Egypt ; because, the night before their departure, the destroying 
 angel, who put to death the firstborn of the Egyptians, passed over the houses of the 
 Hebrews without entering them ; the door posts being marked with the blood of the Paschal 
 Lamb killed the evening before. The Passover was celebrated in the new temple, April 18, 
 515 B.C. UsJier. 
 
 PASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit one country or enter another without 
 the consent of the sovereign thereof. In 1858 the system was somewhat changed in this 
 country, and the stamp duty on passports was reduced from 5s. to 6d. Passports were 
 abolished in Norway in 1859; in Sweden in i860; and (with regard to British subjects) 
 in France, Dec. 16, i860; in Italy, June 26, 1862; in Portugal, Jan. 23, 1863 ; and are 
 falling into disuse in other countries. The passport system was established in the United 
 States on Aug. 19, 1861. 
 
 PASTON LETTERS, the correspondence of a respectable family, 1422-83, giving a 
 picture of social life in England, were edited by sir John Fenn, and published in five 
 volumes, quarto, 1787-1823. Their authenticity M'as questioned Sept. 1865, but has been 
 satisfactorily vindicated. 
 
 * This name originated in the 16th. centiiry : At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, a 
 number of idle persons used to assemble to listen to his pleasant sallies, and to relate little anecdotes in 
 their turn, and indulge themselves in raillery at the expense of the passers-by. After the cobbler's death 
 the statue of a gladiator was found near his stall, to which the people gave his name, and on which the 
 wits of the time, secretly at night, affixed their lampoons upon the state, and their neighbours. 
 
 I 
 
PAT 
 
 549 
 
 PAU 
 
 PATAY (France), where Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, was present, when the earl 
 of Richemont signally defeated the English, June i8, 1429. Talbot was taken prisoner, and 
 the valiant Fastolfe was forced to fly. In consequence, Charles Vll. of France entered 
 Rheims in triumph, and was crowned July 17, following year, Joaii of Arc assisting in the 
 ceremony in full armour, and holding the sword of state. See Joan of Arc. 
 
 PATENTS. Licences and authorities granted by the king. Patents granted for titles 
 of nobility were first made 1344, by Edward III. They were first granted for the exclusive 
 privilege of printing books, in 1591. The property and right of inventors in arts and 
 manufactures were secured by letters patent by an act passed in 1623. The later laws regu- 
 lating patents are very numerous ; among them are 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 83 (1835), and 15 & 16 
 Vict. c. 83 (1852).— By the latter. Commissioners of Patents were appointed, viz., the 
 lord chancellor, the master of the rolls, the attorney-general for England and Ireland, the 
 lord advocate, and the solicitor-generals for England, Scotland, and Ireland. Since 1852, a 
 journal has been published under their authority, and indexes of patents, from March, 1617, 
 to the present time. Specifications of patents'may be consulted by the public at the Free 
 Library and Reading-Room, in Southampton-buildings, Ma,rch 5, 1854. A museuin con- 
 taining models, portraits, &c., was established in 1859 at South Kensington, mainly by the 
 exertions of Mr. Bennet "Woodcrolt. * 
 
 PATRIARCHS. The dignity among the Jews is referred to the time of Nerva, 97. 
 The ecclesiastical historian Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of Christian dioceses about 
 440. It was first conferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, 
 Antioch, and Jerusalem. The Latin Church had no patriarchs till the 6th century. The 
 first founders or heads of religious orders are called patriarchs. 
 
 PATRICIAISrS, the senators of Rome ; their authority began with the city itself. 
 See Rome. 
 
 PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL, ST. (Dublin), was erected in 1190, by archbishop Comyn, 
 on the site of an old church. The cathedral was desecrated in 1546, and used as a law court 
 tiU 1564. It has been restored by the munificence of Mr. Guinness. See Dublin. 
 
 PATRICK, ST., Knights of, an order instituted by king George III., Feb. 5, 1783;, 
 the statutes were signed Feb. 28. The number, originally fifteen, was increased in 1821^ 
 1831, and 1833, and is now twenty-two. 
 
 PATRIOTIC FUNDS, established to encourage the army and navy in times of war. 
 
 1. Founded by the subscribers to Lloyd's, "to ani- 
 
 mate the efforts of our defenders by sea and 
 land " by providing a fund for the rehef of 
 themselves when wounded, and of their 
 widows and orphans, and for granting pe- 
 cuniary rewards and badges of distinction 
 for valour and merit, July 20, 1803 : on Aug. 
 24, 1809, 424,832/, had been received, and 
 33i,6ii(. expended. 
 Prom 1803 to 1826 the total sum received was 
 629,823/. 14S. ic/. 
 
 2. A commission (headed by prince Albert) was 
 
 appointed to raise and distribute a fund 
 bearing this name, for the relief of the 
 families of those who might fall in the 
 Russo-Turkish war, Oct. 1B54. 
 
 Large sums were collected from this country and 
 the colonies, amounting to 1,171,270/. in July, 
 1855; to 1,296,282/. on Nov. 16, 185s; to 
 1,460,000/. in June, 1857. 
 
 The overplus, 200,000/., was appropriated to 
 founding an asylum for 300 orphan girls (the 
 Eoyal Victoria Patriotic Asylum), on Wands- 
 worth common, the first stone of which was 
 laid by the queen, July 11, 1857. 
 
 The royal family and many of the aristocracy 
 contributed drawings, some of which were 
 sold for high prices, in May, 1855. 
 A large fund collected for the relief of the 
 sufferers by the Indian mutiny. See India, 
 1857. 
 
 PAUL JONES, a Scotchman, born 1742; died at Paris, 1792. He commanded an 
 American privateer during the American war, and was memoraljle for his daring depredations 
 on British commerce. He landed and pillaged the house of lord Selkirk, near Kirkcud- 
 bright, and at Whitehaven burnt shipping in the harbour, April, 1778. The Dutch per- 
 mitted Paul Jones to enter their ports with two of the king's ships of war whicli he had 
 taken, and which the stadtholder peremptorily refused to deliver up, 1779. 
 
 PAULICIANS, a sect of Christian reformers, arose about 652. Although they were 
 severely persecuted, they spread over Asia Minor, in the 9th century, and finally settled at 
 Montfort, in Italy, where they were attacked by the bishop of Milan in 1028. Severe decrees 
 against them were made in 11 63, and they gradually dispersed ; very probably sowing the 
 seeds of the great reformation of the i6th century. 
 
 * In 1864, the detected defalcations of Mr. Edmunds, a clerk in the patents office and an official of 
 the house of lords, led to his retirement. He obtamed a pension of 8oo/., which was t iken from him by a 
 vote of the house of lords, on May 9^-865. 
 
 / / 
 
 / 
 
TAU 
 
 550 
 
 PAW 
 
 PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, ST. (London), the noblest Protestant church in the world. 
 Sir Christopher Wren's opinion, that tliere had been a church on this spot, built by the 
 Christians in the time of the Romans, was confirmed when he searched for the foundations 
 for his own design. He explodes the notion of there having been a temple of Diana. 
 
 The first church supposed to h.we been de- 
 stroyed during the Diocletian persecution 
 (302), and rebuilt in the reign of Constantiue, 
 
 323-337 
 Demolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored 
 
 by Sebert in 603 
 
 Injured by fire in 962, and destroyed by the 
 great conflagration, after which Mauritius, 
 then bishop of London, commenced the 
 magnificent edifice which preceded the pre- 
 sent cathedral 1087 
 
 A commission granted to Laud, then bishop 
 
 of London, to restore the cathedral April 2, 1631 
 It was totally destroyed by the fire of . . 1666 
 First stone of the present edifice laid, June 21, 1675 
 The choir opened for divine worship Dec. 2, 1697 
 The whole edifice completed (with the excep- 
 tion of some of the decorations, not finished 
 until T723) under the illustrious architect, sir 
 Christopher Wren . . . . . . 1710 
 
 The total cost (including 200 tons weight of 
 iron raiUng) was 1,511,202.] 
 
 B.all and cross restored by ^fr. Cockerell . . 1822 
 Money having been subscribed to adapt St. 
 Paul's for the jjurpose, evening services 
 began on Sunday, Nov. 28, when above 4000 
 
 persons were present 1858 
 
 A national guinea subscription for completing 
 the ornamentation of the interior began in 
 
 Feb. 1864 
 
 DIMENSIONa. 
 
 Length of St. Paul's from the grand portico to fut. 
 
 the east end, is 510 
 
 Breadth, north to south portico .... 282 
 Exterior diameter of the dome . . . . 145 
 Height from groimd to top of cross . . . 404 
 Campaniles, or bell towers, at each comer, 
 
 height ......... 208 
 
 Breadth of western entrance . . . .180 
 
 Circumference of dome ...... 420 
 
 Entire circumference of the building . . 2292 
 Diameter of ball 6 
 
 PAUL'S CROSS, ST. (London), which stood before the cathedral, was a pulpit formed 
 of wood, mounted upon steps of stone, and covered with lead, from which the most eminent 
 divines were appointed to preach every Sunday in the forenoon. To this place, the court, 
 the mayor, the aldermen, and principal citizens used to resort. It was in use as early as 
 1259, and was appropriated not only to instruct mankind by preaching, but to every purpose 
 political or ecclesiastical : — for giving force to oaths, for promulgating laws, &c. Jane Shore, 
 mistress of Edward IV., was brought before this cross in 1483, divested of all her splendour. 
 It was demolished in 1643 by order of the parliament. 
 
 PAUL'S SCHOOL, ST., was endowed in 15 12 by John Colet, dean of St. Paul's, for 153 
 boys " of every nation, coiintr}'^, and class," in memory of the number of fishes taken by 
 Peter. {John xxi. 11.) The first schoolhouse was burnt in 1666 ; the second by AVren was 
 taken down in 1824, and the present building erected by George Smith. William Lilly was 
 the first master, and his grammar is still used by the school. Timbs. 
 
 PAUPERS. See Poor. 
 
 PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved their towns 
 with stones. The Romans, in the time of Augustus, had pavement in many of their sti-eets : 
 but the Appian Way was a paved road, and was constructed 312 B.C. In England there weru 
 few paved streets before Henry VII. 's reign. London was first paved about 1533. It was 
 paved with flagstones between 1815 and 1825. Wood and asphalte paving was tried in 1839, 
 and have been disused since 1847. See Wood Pavement. 
 
 PAVIA (N. Italy), the ancient Ticimim or Papia. Its university, founded by Charle- 
 magne, is the oldest in Europe. Pavia was built by the Gauls, who M-ere driven out by the 
 Romans, and these in their turn were expelled by the Goths. In 568 it was taken by the 
 Lombards, and became the capital of their kingdom. In the 12th century it was erected 
 into a republic, but soon after was subjected to Milan and followed its fortunes. On Feb. 24, 
 1545, a battle was fought near here between the French and the Imperialists, when the former 
 were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after fighting with heroic valour, and killing seven 
 men with his own hand, was at last obliged to surrender himself a prisoner. Francis wrote 
 to his mother, Louisa of Savoj^, regent'of the kingdom during his absence, saying, Tout est 
 2)crdu, Madame, fors TJiomuur (All is lost, madam, except honour). 
 
 PAWNBROKING. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges deposited with 
 lenders is refeiTed to Perugia, in Italj^, about 1462. The in.stitutions were termed monti di 
 2neta {which see). Soon aftenvards, it is said that the bishop of Winchester established a 
 system of lending on pledges, but without interest. The business of pawnbrokers was regu- 
 lated in 1 756, and licences issued in 1 783. The rate of interest on pledges was fixed in 1800. 
 In London there Avere, in 1851, 334 pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively of London, 
 1 127 ; the number is increasing in proportion to the population. In i860 an act was passed 
 
PAX 
 
 551 
 
 PEE 
 
 enabling pawnbrokers to charge a halfpenny for every ticket describing things pledged for a 
 sum iruder 5s. The acts relating to pawnbrokers were amended in 1856. 
 
 PAX, a small tablet, generally silver, termed tabula pads or osculatorium, kissed by the 
 Eoman Catholic priests and laity ; substituted for the primeval kiss of i^eace in the early 
 church. The pax is said to have been introduced about the 12th century. 
 
 PAYMASTER-GENERAL. In 1836 the army and navy pay departments were consoli- 
 dated into the Paymaster-general's office, sometimes held by a Cabinet minister. 
 
 PEABODY FUISTD. On March 12, 1862, Mr. George Peabody, the American merchant, 
 gave 150,000?. to ameliorate the condition of the London poor. A large p)ile of buildings, 
 named Peabody dwellings, were erected in Spitalfields, as homes for the working classes. 
 
 PEACE. A temple was dedicated to peace by Vesjiasian, 75. See Fire-worlcs, Treaties, 
 Justices, &c. — A Peace Society was founded in 1816 for the promotion of universal peace. 
 It held its 45th anniversary in May, 1861. A congress of the friends of peace, from all 
 parts of the world, commenced its sittings at Paris, Aug. 22, 1849. It met in London at 
 Exeter hall, Oct. 30, following ; and at Erankfort, in St. Paul's church, Aug. 22, 1850 ; at 
 Birmingham, Nov. 28, 1850 ; and at Exeter hall, July 22, 185 1. A meeting was held at 
 Manchester, Jan. 27, 1853 ; and at Edinburgh, Oct. 12, 1853. Mr. Bright and Mr. Cobden 
 are among the most conspicuous members of the society. A deputation from the Peace 
 Society, consisting of Messrs. J. Sturge, Pease, and another Quaker friend, stated their Adews 
 to the emperor of Russia at St, Petersburg, at an interview granted them in Feb. 1854. 
 
 PEARLS. The formation of the pearl has embarrassed both ancient and modern 
 naturalists to explain. M. Reaumur, in 171 7, alleged that pearls are formed like other stones 
 in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at 80,000?. sterling. One which was 
 brought in 1574, to Philip II., of the size of a pigeoii's egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats, 
 equal to 13,996?. A pearl named the Incomparable, spoken of by De Boote, weighed thirt}' 
 carats, equal to five pennyweights, and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The pearl 
 mentioned by Tavernier, as being in possession of the emperor of Persia, was purchased of 
 an Arab in 1633, anji is valued at a sum equal to 110,400?. 
 
 PEDESTRIANISM. Euchidas, a citizen^ of Platsea, went from thence to Delphi to 
 bring the sacred fire. This he obtained, and "returned with it the same day before siinset, 
 having travelled 125 English miles. No sooner had he saluted his feUow-citizens, and 
 delivered the fire, than he fell dead at their feet. After the battle of Marathon, a soldier 
 was sent from the field to announce the victory at Athens. Exhausted with fatigue, and 
 bleeding from his wounds, he had only time to cry out, " Rejoice, we are conquerors !" and 
 immediately expired. 
 
 Foster Powel, the English pedestrian, performed 
 many astonishing journeys on foot. His expedi- 
 tion from London to York and back again, in 1788, 
 is said to have been completed in 140 hours. 
 
 ■Captain Barclay, for a wager (on which many 
 thousands of pounds depended), walked 1000 
 miles in 1000 successive hours, each mile in each 
 hour, in forty-two days and nights (less 8 hours). 
 His task was accomplished on July 10, 1809, 
 
 Richard Manks, a native of Warwickshii-e, under- 
 took (in imitation of captain Barclay) to walk 
 1000 miles in 1000 hours : the place chosen was the 
 
 Barrack tavern cricket-ground, in Sheflaeld ; he 
 commenced on Monday, June 17, 1S50, and com- 
 pleted the 1000 miles, July 29, following, winning 
 a considerable sum. 
 
 On Oct. 7, 1861, a 12 miles foot-race was held, when 
 Levett, the champion of England, ran 7 miles in 
 37 minutes 27 seconds _; Deerfoot, a Seneca Indian, 
 ran 12 miles in 65 minutes s seconds ; and Mills 
 ran 10 miles in 54 minutes 10 seconds ; other 
 races followed. 
 
 On May 11, 1863, Deerfoot was beaten by "White, 
 who ran 10 miles in 52 minutes 14 seconds. 
 
 PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS.* The first succeeded the Melbourne administration, 
 which was broken up on the retirement of lord Althorpe, the chancellor of the exchequer, 
 in Nov. 1834. Sir R. Peel, then in Italy was summoned home, the duke of Wellington 
 holding the seals of office in the interim. They resigned in April, 1835. In May, 1841, sir 
 R. Peel carried a vote of want of confidence in the Melbourne cabinet, but did not take 
 office ; and in Sept. of that year, he became again premier. 
 
 * Sir Robert Peel was born Feb. 5, 1788 ; entered parliament in 1809 ; became under-secretary of the 
 colonies in 1811, chief secretary for Ireland in 1812, M.P. for Oxford in 1818 (when he resigned his office), 
 secretary for home department in 1822 ; resigned office and reappointed in 1827 ; resigned again in 1830 : 
 became premier in 1834 and 1841, see above. He was thrown from his horse June 29, and died July 2, 1850. 
 He greatly relaxed theseverity of o\ir criminal code in 1827, et seq. ; established the new pohce, and carried 
 the CathoUo Emancipation BiU in 1829, and the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. Statues have been 
 erected to him — at Salford in 1852 ; at Tamworth, Leeds, Bury, and Manchester, in 1853 ; and in London 
 and Birmingham in 1855. 
 
PEE 
 
 552 
 
 PEL 
 
 SECOND ADMINISTRATION (Sept. 1841). 
 
 Sir Robert Peel, frst minister. 
 
 Duke of Wellington, in the cabinet without office. 
 
 Lord Lyndhurst, Im-d chancellor. 
 
 Lord Wharncliffe, hjrd president. 
 
 Duke of Buckingham, Lord privy seal. 
 
 Sir James Graham, earl of Aberdeen, and lord 
 
 Stanley, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
 Henry Goulbum, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Eurl of Haddington, first lord of the admiralty. 
 Earl of Ripon, board of trade. 
 Lord EUenborough, India board. 
 Sir Henry Hardinge, sir Edward Knatchbull, sir 
 
 George Hurray, &c. 
 
 [Terminated, June 29, 1846, by sir Robert's 
 resignation.] 
 
 PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS, continued. 
 
 FIRST ADMINISTRATION (DeC. 1 834). 
 
 Sir Robert Peel, first lard of the treasury and chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 
 
 Earl of Rosslyn, lord president. 
 
 Lord Wharncliffe, privy seal. 
 
 Henry Goulbnrn, duke of Wellington, and earl of 
 Aberdeen, home, foreign, a.nd. colonial secretaries of 
 state. 
 
 Eivrl De Gr&y, first lord of the admiralty. 
 
 Lord EUenborough, and Alexander Baring, hoard of 
 control and trade. 
 
 Sir Edward Knatchbull, paymaster of tlie forces. 
 
 J. C. Herries, secretary at war. 
 
 Sir George Murray, mafter-general of the ordnance, dx. 
 [herminated, April 1835.] 
 
 PEELITES, a name given to gentlemen, whigs and tories, wlio adliered to sir Eobert 
 Peel, after his defeat by the conservative party, 011 account of his free-trade measures carried 
 in 1846. The principal were Henry Goulbum, W. E. Gladstone, Sidney (aftewards lord) 
 Herbert, sir James Graham, Edward Cardwell, sir George Clerk, lord Lincoln (afterwards 
 duke of Newcastle), lords Canning and Elgin, and others. 
 
 PEEL'S BILLS. Among the most important were the Bank Acts of 1819 and 1844, 
 and the act repealing the Corn Laws in 1846. 
 
 PEEP-0'DAY-BOYS were insurgents in Ireland, who visited the houses of their antago- 
 nists at break of day, in search of arms. They first appeared July 4, 1784, and for a long 
 period were the terror of the country. See Defenders. 
 
 PEERS. See Lords. 
 
 PEGU, a province of the Burmese empire, discovered by the Portuguese in 1520. Pegu, 
 the caj)ital, was taken by major Cotton, with 300 men, in June, 1852, without loss; and 
 afterwards abandoned. It was again occupied by the Burmese and strongly fortified, with a 
 garrison of 4000 men. It was re-captured by general Godwin with 1200 men and two guns, 
 ill two hour.s, with the loss of six killed and thirty-two wounded. The province was annexed 
 to our Indian possessions, by proclamation, Dec. 20, 1S52, and has since prospered. In Feb. 
 1862, it was united with Arracan and Tenasserim as British Burmah. 
 
 PEIHO. See China, 1859, i860. 
 
 PEKIN, the northern capital of China, was rebuilt by Kublai in 1279 ; and by Yong-lo, 
 147 1 ; visited by lord Macartney in 1793 ; surrendered to the allied English and French 
 armies, Oct. 12, i860; and evacuated b}' them Oct. 26 following, after peace had been 
 signed. It was described as being in a very desolate state, with a scattered, indigent 
 population, estimated at 4,000,000. 
 
 PELAGIANS, followers of Pelagius, a Briton, appeared at Rome about 400. Their 
 doctrines were condemned at Carthage, and other councils, 415, 416. They maintained : — 
 
 I. That Adam was by nature mort.al, and whether 
 he had sinned or not would certainly have died. 
 2. That the consequences of Adam's sin were con- 
 fined to his own person. 3. That new-bom infants 
 are in the same condition with Adam before the 
 
 fall. 4. That the law qualified men for the king- 
 dom of heaven, and was founded upon equal pro- 
 mises with the Gospel. 5. That the general resur- 
 rection of the dead does not follow in virtue of 
 Our Saviour's resurrection. 
 
 PELASGI, the primitive inhabitants of Greece and Italy, appear to belong to the Indo- 
 Germanic race. They were in Greece about 1900 u.c, and in Italy about 1600 B.C. They 
 have been termed Tyrrheni, Sicani, or Siculi, Apuli, &c. From the Pelasgi came the 
 Dorians, ^olians, and loniaus ; all three being Hellenes or Greeks. 
 
 PELEW ISLANDS (N. Pacific Ocean), discovered by the Spaniards in the 17th century. 
 The East India Company's packet Antelope, captain Wilson Avas wrecked here in 1783. The 
 king, Abba Thulle, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince Le Boo, his son, to England, 
 where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after of the smallpox. The East India Company 
 erected a monument over his grave in Rotherhithe churchyard. 
 
 PELHAM ADMINISTRATION. ]\Ir. Henry Pelham replaced the earl of Wilmington, 
 as premier, Aug. 1743. See Wilmington. In Nov. 1744, a new ministry was formed (temied 
 "the broad bottom administration," because it comprehended a grand coalition of the 
 parties). It was dissolved by the death of Mr. Pelham, March 6, 1754. 
 
PEL 553 PEN 
 
 PELHAM ADMINISTRATION, continued. 
 
 Henry Pelham, firsi lord of the treasury and chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Duke of Dorset, president of the council. 
 
 Eaii Gower, lord privy seal. 
 
 Duke of Newcastle and the earl of Harrington, 
 secretaries of state. 
 
 Duke of Montagu, master-general of the ordinance. 
 
 Duke of Bedford, 'first lord of the admiralty. 
 
 Duke of Grafton, lord chamberlain. 
 
 Duke of Richmond, master of the horse. 
 
 Duke of Argyll, keeper of the great seal of Scotland. 
 
 Marquess of Tweeddale, secretary of state for Scotland. 
 
 Lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 
 
 All of the cabinet. 
 The duke of Devonshire and duke of Bolton were 
 not of the cabinet. 
 
 PELOPIUM. See Niobium. 
 
 PELOPONNESIAN WAR continued for twenty-seven years between the Athenians and 
 the people of the Peloponnesus, with their respective allies, and is the most famous of the 
 wars of Greece. It began by an attempt of the Boeotians to surprise Platsea, 431 B.C., on 
 May 7, and ended 404 B.C. by the taking of Athens by the Lacedsemonians. 
 
 PELUSIUM (now Tineh), formerly the key of Eg3-pt. Here, in 525 B.C., Psara- 
 meticus III. was defeated by Cambyses, the Persian, who thereby obtained possession of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 PENAL LAWS. See Criminal Laivs and Roman Catliolic^. Penal servitude was 
 substituted for transportation by acts passed in 1853 and 1857, and amended in 1864. 
 
 PENANCE, a sacrament in the Roman church, arose out of the practice of auricular 
 confession {which see). The council of Trent, in its 14th session (1551), decreed that every 
 one is accursed who shall aifirm that this sacrament was not instituted by Christ. 
 
 PENANG, or Phtnce of Wales's Island, was given up to the East India Company 
 in 1 786, by captain F. Light, who received it as a marriage portion with the daughter of the 
 king of Keddah. It now forms one of the Straits Settlements {which see). 
 
 PENDULUMS are affirmed to have been adapted to clocks by Galileo the younger* 
 about 1641. Christian Huyghens contested the priority of this discovery, 1656. JDitfresnoy. 
 See Clocks. Experiments were made to determine the density of the earth by pendulums by 
 Mr. G. B. Airy (now astronomer royal) and others, in a mine in Cornwall, in 1826 and 1828 ; 
 and at Harton colliery in 1854. In 185 1, M. Foucault demonstrated the rotation of the 
 earth by the motion of a pendulum. 
 
 PENINSULAR WAR. See under Spain, 1808-14. 
 
 PENITENTS. See Magdalens. The Penitents of the name of Jesus were a congregation 
 of religioiis in Spain who had led a licentious life, formed about 1550. The penitents of 
 Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about 1662. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA (N. America), the first state in the Union in regard to mineral 
 wealth. Population in i860, 2,906,370. Sir Walter Raleigh was the first adventurer who 
 planted a colony on these shores, in the reign of Elizabeth. Pennsylvania was granted by 
 Charles II. to the duke of York, 1664 ; and it was sold to the Penn family, 1681. Penn- 
 sylvania was afterwards purchased from the Indians by the celebrated Willicun Penn (son of 
 admiral Penn), who went out from England with a number of colonists ; from which period 
 the settlement gradually increased. Mr. Penn granted a charter in May, 1701, but the 
 emigrants from the Low Countries refused it, and separated themselves from the province of 
 Pennsylvania. They afterwards had their own assembly, in which the governor of Pennsyl- 
 vania presided. This state adopted an independent constitution in 1776, and established 
 the present in 1 790. It was strongly Unionist during the civil war, 1861-5. '^qq United States 
 of America, and Petroleum. 
 
 PENNY. The ancient silver penny was the first silver coin struck in England, and the 
 only one current among the Anglo-Saxons. The penny until the reign of Edward I. was 
 struck with a cross, so deeply indented that it might be easily parted into two for halfpence, 
 and into four for farthings, and hence these names. Copper penny and two-penny pieces 
 were coined by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, Birmingham, in 1797, and were accouuted the 
 finest of our copper currency. See Coins, &c. — Penny-Post. See Post-Office. — The Penny 
 Magazine began in 1832 ; the Penny Cyclopaedia in 1833 (supplements in 1846 and 1858). 
 The Penny Receipt stamp was appointed in 1853, and in 1850 a penny stamp was directed 
 to be placed on bankers' cheques.— Penny Banks (in 1861 about 200) were established 
 about 1850. 
 
 PENRUDDOCK'S REBELLION on behalf of Charles II. was suppressed, and sir John 
 himself executed, in 1655. 
 
PEN 
 
 554 
 
 PER 
 
 PENSIONS. The Crown's power of granting them, often much abused, was materially 
 checked by statute i Anne, c. i (1702). 
 
 English pension list fi.ied at 95,000?. . . . 1781 
 Irish pension list said to amount to 489,000!. . 1793 
 Trovision made by parliament to reduce all the 
 pension lists of the United Kingdom from 
 145, .-ADO? to a maximum of 75,ooo(. . . . 1830 
 A committee appointed to define the proper 
 persons to whom pensions should be granted : 
 it reported in favour of servants of the crown 
 
 and piiblic, and also of those who " by their 
 useful discoveries in science and attainments 
 in literature and the arts, have merited the 
 gracious consideration of their sovereign and 
 the gratitude of their countryj" . '= , . 
 The queen empowered to grant annually new 
 pensions to the amount of i2ooi. 
 
 T834 
 1837 
 
 PENTECOST signifies the fiftieth, and is the solemn festival of the Jews, so called because 
 it was celebrated fifty days after the feast of the Passover. Lev. xxiii. 15. It is called the 
 feast of weeks, Exod. xxxiv. 22, because it was kept seven weeks after the Passover. See 
 Whitsuntide. 
 
 PENTLAND HILLS (near Edinburgh). Here, the Scotch presbyterians, since called 
 Cameronians {tvhich see), who had risen against the governmeut, on account of the establish- 
 ment of episcopacy, were defeated by the royal troops, Nov. 28, 1666. 
 
 PEOPLE. The duke of Norfolk and C. J. Eox, at dinner in 1798, gave as a toast "the 
 Majesty of the People," for which their names were struck off the list of privy councillors. 
 A "People's petition" was jiresented to parliament by Mr. T. Duncombe, and rejected, 
 May 2, 1842. 
 
 "PEOPLE'S PARKS," principally through private liberality, have been opened since 
 1846, at Manchester, Halifax, Birmingham, Sheffield, Dundee, Bradford, Hull, Bath, and 
 Bolton {which see). 
 
 PEPSIN, a peculiar organic substance found by Schwanira in the gastric juice, and 
 named by him from ^jc^wi's, digestion. It was experimented on by M. Bloudlot in 1843, and 
 lias since been jjrescribed as a medicine. 
 
 PERCEVAL ADMINISTRATION. It commenced on the dissolution of that of the 
 duke of Portland through his death, Oct. 30, 1809. Mr. Perceval was assassinated in the 
 lobby of the house of commons, by Bellingham, May 11, 1812. The earl of Liverpool suc- 
 ceeded as premier. 
 
 iSpencer Fereevaljirst lord of the treasury, chancellor i Lord Mulgrave, admiralty. 
 
 Mr. Dumas and carl Bathurst, boards of control and 
 
 trade. 
 Earl of Chatham, ordna.nce. 
 Viscount Palmerston, secretary-ai-icar, <tc. 
 Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 
 
 of the exchequer, and chancellor of the duchy of 
 
 Lancaster. 
 Earl Camden, lord president. 
 Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 
 Richard Ryder, marquess of Wellesley, and earl of 
 
 Liverpool, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
 
 PERCUSSION-CAPS. See Fire-arms. 
 
 PERCY FAMILY. William de Percy obtained lands in Yorkshire from AViUiam the 
 Conqueror, and died at Antioch about 1096. 
 
 The heiress of the last baron Percy married 
 Jocfcline de Louvaine, son of Godfrey, duke 
 of Brabant, in the reign of Henry II. . 1154-89 
 
 Henry de Percy, their descendant, created earl 
 of Northumberland in 1377 
 
 Many of his descendants were slain during the 
 civil wars. 
 
 Lady Elizabeth Percy, the heiress of Josceline 
 Percy, who died 1670, married Charles, duke 
 of Somerset. 
 
 Lady Elizabeth Percy, heiress of Algernon 
 
 Seymour, duke of Northumberland, married 
 sir Hugh Smithson, created duke of North- 
 umberland in ...... . 1766 
 
 Their descendant, duke Algernon, died without 
 issue, Feb. 12, 1865, ^Jid was succeeded by 
 his cousin, George Percy, earl of Beverley. 
 
 The Percy Society, for the publication of 
 ancient ballads, &c., was established in 1840, 
 published 94 little volumes, and was dissolved 
 in 1852 
 
 PEREKOP, an isthmus, five miles broad, connecting the Crimea with the mainland. It 
 was called by the Tartars Orkapou, "gate of the isthmus," Avliich the Russians changed to 
 its present name, which signifies a barren ditch. The Tartar fortress was taken and destroyed 
 by the Russian inarshal Miinich in 1736, by assault, although it was defended by 1000 
 Janissaries and 100,000 Tartars. It was again strongly fortified by the khan, but was again 
 taken by the Russians in 1771, who have since retained it. 
 
 PERE LE CHAISE. See Cemeteries. 
 
PER 
 
 555 
 
 PER 
 
 PERFUMERY. In Exodus xxx. (b.c. 1490), directions are given for making the holy 
 incense. Philip Augnstus of France granted a charter to the master perfumers in 1190, 
 Perfumes became fashionable in England in the reigu of Elizabeth. In i860 there were 
 abont forty manufacturing perfumers in London ; in Paris about eighty. No such trade as a 
 perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763. Creech. A stamp-tax was laid on various articles 
 of perfumery in England, and the vendor was obliged to take out a licence in 1786. At the 
 corner of Beaufort-buildings, in the Strand, resided TAUy, the perfumer, mentioned in the 
 Spectator. Leigh. 
 
 PERGAMOS. See Seven Churches, 3. 
 
 PERIODICAL LITERATURE. See Neivspa^Krs, Magazines, and Reviews. 
 
 PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY. See Lyceum. - 
 
 PERJURY. The early Romans threw the offender headlong from the Tarpeian precipice ; 
 but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a supposition that the gods would vindicate 
 their own honour by some remarkable judgment upon the offender. The Greeks set a mark 
 of infamj' upon him. After the empire became Christian, any one who swore falsely upon 
 the Gospels, was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the primitive church enjoined 
 eleven years' penance ; and in some states the false swearer became liable to the punishment 
 lie charged upon the innocent. Perhaps the greatest perjurer in modern times was Titus 
 Oates. See Oates. A woman named Alice Grey was convicted of many perjuries in 1856. 
 In England perjury was punished with the pillory, 1563. By the Abolition of Oaths bill, 
 persons making a false declaration are deemed guilty of a misdemeanor; Act 5 & 6 Will. IV. 
 cc. 60 and 61, 9 Sej)t. 1835. 
 
 PERKINS' METALLIC TRACTORS. See Animcd Magnetism. 
 
 PERMISSIVE BILL {which would give power to two-thirds of the rate-j)ayers of a 
 parish to refuse licences for the sale of intoxicating liquors) Avas rejected by the house of 
 commons, June 8, 1864. 
 
 PERONNE (K France), Treaty of. Louis XI. of France, having j>laced himself in the 
 power of the duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign this treaty, confirming those of Arras and 
 Conflans, with some other humiliating stipulations, 1468. Louis XL had jiromised Champagne 
 and Brie as appanages to his brother Chaiies, duke of Berry, not intending to keep his word, 
 apprehending that those provinces, being so near Burgundy, would prove a fresh source of 
 broils and disj)utes. Henaiblt. 
 
 PERPETUAL EDICTS. See Edicts. 
 
 PEllSECUTIONS. Historians usually reckon ten general persecutions of the Christians. 
 See Jews, Heretics, Inquisition, Huguenots, Protestants, Massacres, Bartholomew, St., &c. 
 
 1st, under Nero, who, having set fire to Rome, 
 threw the odium upon the Christians ; mul- 
 titudes were massacred ; wrapt up in the 
 skins of wild beasts, and torn and devoured 
 by dogs ; crucified, burnt aUve, &.C. . . 64-68 
 
 2nd, under Domitian 95 
 
 3rd, under Trajan ....... 106 
 
 4th, under Marcus AiireUus . . . 166-177 
 5th, under Septimus Severus . . . 199-204 
 
 6th, under Maximinus 235-8 
 
 7th, under Decius, more bloody than any pre- 
 ceding 250-2 
 
 8th, under Valerian 258-60 
 
 gth, under Aurelian 275 
 
 loth, under Diocletian, who prohibited divine 
 worship ; houses filled with Christians were 
 set on fire, and droves of them were bound 
 together with ropes and cast into the sea 303-13 
 
 PERSEPOLIS, the ancient splendid capital of Persia. Alexander has been falsely accused 
 of setting fire to it, Avhile intoxicated, 331 B.C. The fire is said to have been accidental, and 
 not extensive. Ruins of this city still exist. 
 
 PERSIA, in the Bible called Elam, is said to have received its appellation from Perseus, 
 the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and established a petty sovereignty. 
 The name is more probably of Indian origin. Persia was included in the first Assyrian 
 monarchy, 900 B.C. ; when that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, &c., it appertained to 
 Media. Population of the present kingdom, about 10,000,000. 
 
 Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of the 
 Magi — Justin b.c. 2115 
 
 Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, generally 
 confounded with the king of Bactria . . 1082 
 * * * * -x- 
 
 Cyrus, king of Persia, 557; overthrows the 
 Medo-Babylonian monarchy, about 557 ; con- 
 
 quers Asia-Minor about 548 ; becomes master 
 of the east, 536; killed in a war with the 
 Massagetse . . 
 
 Cambyses, his son, conquers Egypt (which see) . 
 
 The false Smerdis killed ; Darius Hystasper 
 king 
 
 Revolt of the Babylonians subdued . 
 
 529 
 
 525 
 
 521 
 
 512 
 
PER 
 
 556 
 
 PER 
 
 PERSIA, continued. 
 
 Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed . . . 498 
 
 Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with an army 
 of 300,000 soldiers to ir vade the Peloponnesus, 
 which is defeated at Marathon (wAicA «ee) . 490 
 
 Xerxes (king, 485) ; recovers Egypt, 484 ; enters 
 Greece in the spring of this year, at the head 
 of an immense force ; the battle of Ther- 
 mopyliB 4S0 
 
 Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 200,000 
 of bis troojjs, and is defeated in a naval en- 
 gagement off Salamis „ 
 
 The Persians defeated at Mycale and Platsea, 
 
 Sept. 22, 479 
 
 Cimon. son of Miltiades, with a fleet of 250 ves- 
 sels, takes several cities from the Persians, 
 and destroys their navy, consisting of 340 
 sail, near Cyprus 470 
 
 Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Ai'tabanus . 465 
 
 Ai'taxerxes Longimanus king . . . . ,, 
 
 Xerxes IV. king, slain by Sogdianus, who is 
 deposed by Ochus Darius II., Nothus . . 425 
 
 Artaxerxes II. Mnemon, king, 405 ; battle of 
 Cunaxa, C'3rus the younger killed . . . 401 
 
 Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks (see Retreat) . . ,, 
 
 Ai'bixerxes III. (Ochus) kOls all his relations at 
 his accession ....... 359 
 
 He is killed by his minister Bagoas, and his 
 son, Arses, made king 338 
 
 Bagoas kills him and sets up Darius III., Todo- 
 manus, )>y whom he himself is killed . . 336 
 
 Alexander the Great enters Asia ; defeats the 
 Persians at the rivfer Granicus, 334 ; near 
 Issus, 333 ; at Arbela 321 
 
 Darius killed by Bessus, who is torn in iiieces . ,, 
 
 Alexander founds the 3rd or Grecian monarchy ,, 
 
 Persia was partly re-conquered from the Greeks; 
 is subjugated by the Parthians . . . . 250 
 
 Artaxerxes I., a common soldier, founder of 
 the'Sassanides dynasty, restores the kingdom 
 of Persia a.d. 226 
 
 Religion of Zoroaster restored and Christianity 
 persecuted 227 
 
 Artaxerxes murdei-ed ; succeeded by Sapor I. ; 
 Armeniabecomes independent under Chosroes 240 
 
 Sapor conquers Mesopotamia .... 258 
 
 Repels the Romans and slays the emperor 
 Valerian 260 
 
 Sapor assassinated ; succeeded by Hormisdas I. ; 
 who favours the Manichees .... 272 
 
 Varanes I. (Baharam) persecutes them and the 
 Christians 273 
 
 Varanes II. defejited by the emperor Probus ; 
 makes peace 277 
 
 Persia invaded by the emperor Carus, who 
 conquers Seleucia and Cfesipou . . . 283 
 
 Varanes III. king, 293 ; Narses .... 294 
 
 The emperor Galerius conquers Mesopotamia, 
 Assyria, &c • . . 298 
 
 Peace with Diocletian ,, 
 
 Hormisdas II. king 301 or 303 
 
 Ormuz built about 303 
 
 Sapor II. kintr, 309 ; proscribes Christianity, 
 326 ; makes vs'ar sviccessfully with Rome for 
 the lost provinces 337-360 
 
 The emperor Julian invades Persia ; slain near 
 the Tigris ; his successor Jovian purchases 
 his retreat by surrendering provinces . . 363 
 
 Sapor annexes Armenia, 365 ; and Iberia, 366 ; 
 
 makes peace with Rome .... 372 
 
 Artaxerxes II. king, 380; Sapor III. . . . 385 
 Armenia and Iberia independent . . . . 386 
 Varanes IV., 390; Yezdejird I., 404; conquers 
 
 Armenia 412 
 
 Varanes V. 420, persecutes Christians ; con- 
 quers Arabia Felix, 421 ; makes peace with 
 the Eastern Empire for 100 j'ears . . . 422 
 Armenia again united to Persia .... 428 
 
 Wars with Huns, Tvirks, &c 430-2 
 
 Yezdejird If. king, 440 ; Hormisdas III. 457 ; 
 
 civil war, 458-86 ; Fcroze king, 458 ; Pallas, 
 
 484 ; Kobad, 486 ; Jamaspes, 497 ; Kobad again 497 
 
 His son, Chosroes I. king; long wars with 
 
 Justinian and his successors, with various 
 
 fortune S3I-79 
 
 Successful campaigns of Belisarius . 541-2 
 
 Hormisdas IV. continues the war; degrades his 
 general, Baharam, who deposes him ; but is 
 eventually defeated . . . . . . 590 
 
 Chosroes II. 591 ; renews the war with success, 
 
 603 ; Egypt and Asia Minor subdued . 614-6 
 
 Chosroes t(jtally defeated by the emperor 
 
 Heraclius, who advances on Persia . . . 627 
 Chosroes put to death by his sou, Siroes, 628 ; 
 Artaxerxes III. king, 629 ; Purandokt, 
 davighter of Chosroes, reigns 630 ; Shenen- 
 deh, her lover, 631 ; Arzemdokt, her sister, 
 631 ; Kesra, 631 ; Ferokhdad, 632 ; Yesdejird 
 
 III 632 
 
 Persia invaded b}' the Arabs ; the king flies, 
 651 ; is betrayed to them and is put to death, 
 and his army exterminated . . . . 652 
 Persia becomes the seat of the Shiite or Fatimite 
 
 Mahometans 661 
 
 The Tahcrite dynasty established, 813 ; the 
 
 Safferido, 872 ; the Samanide . . . . 874 
 Persia subdued by Togrul Beg and the Scljukian 
 Turks, 1038 ; who aie expelled, 1194 ; subdued 
 by Genghis Khan and the Mongols . 1223 
 
 Bagdad made the capital 1345 
 
 Is invaded by Timour, 1380 ; rav;^ged by him, 
 1399; conquered by the Turcomans, 1468; 
 who are expelled by the Shiites, or Fatimite 
 Mahometans, who estabhsh the Sophi dy- 
 nasty under Is Qiail I 1501 
 
 Ispahan made the capital 1590 
 
 The Turks take Bagdad ; great massacre . . 1638 
 
 Georgia revolts to Russia 1783 
 
 Teheran made the capital 1796 
 
 War with Russia 1826-9 
 
 Ruptiu-e witli England in consequence of the 
 Persians taking Herat (which see), Oct. 25 ; 
 
 war declared Nov. i, 1856 
 
 Persians defeated ; Bushire taken . Dec. 8-10, „ 
 Gen. Outram defeats the Persians at Kooshab, 
 
 Feb. 8, 1857 
 And at Moh.ammerah . . . March 26, ,, 
 Peace ratified at Teheran . . . April 14, ,, 
 Commercial treaty with France, &c. . June, ,, 
 Herat given up by the Persians . . July, ,, 
 The shah decrees a re-organisation of the 
 
 government Sept. 9, 1858 
 
 Railways in process of formation . . . . 1865 
 
 SHAHS OF PERSIA. 
 
 1502. Ismail or Ishraael: conquers Georgia, 1519. 
 
 1523. Tamasp or Thamas I. I 
 
 1576. Ismail II. Meerza. 
 
 1577. Mahommed Meerza. 
 
 1582. Abbas I. the Great ; made a treaty with the 
 
 English 1612 ; died in 1628. 
 
 1628. Shah Sophi. 
 
 1641. Abbas II. 
 
 1666. Shah Sophi II. 
 
 1694. Hussein; deposed. 
 
 1722. Mahmoud, chief of the Afghans. 
 
 1725. Ashraff, the Usurper ; slain in battle. 
 
 1730. Tamasp or Thamas 11. ; recovered the throne 
 
 of his ancestors from the preceding. 
 [Thamas-Kouli Khan, his general, obtained 
 
 great successes in this and the subsequent 
 
 reigns.] 
 1732 Abbas III., infant son of Tamasp, under the 
 
 regency of Kouli-Khan, who afterwards 
 
 caused himself to be proclaimed king as 
 
PER 
 
 557 
 
 PES 
 
 PERSIA, continued. 
 
 1736. Nadir Shah (the Victorious King) ; conquers 
 India, 1739 ; assassinated at Korassan by his 
 nephew. 
 
 1747. Shah Rokh. 
 
 1751. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1759. Kureem Khan. 
 
 1779. Man3' competitors for the throne, and assassi- 
 nations till — 
 
 1795' Aga-Mahommed Khan obtains the power, and 
 
 founds the reigning (Turcoman) dynasty ; 
 assassinated, 1797. 
 
 1798. Futteh Ali-Shah. 
 
 1834. Mahommed-Shah, grandson of Futteh ; suc- 
 ceeded by his son, 
 
 1848. Nasr-vil-Deen, or Nausser-ood-deen, Sept. 4; 
 bom 1829; the present shah of Persia; 
 said to be an able prince and friendly to 
 Britain, 1865. 
 
 The statute laws respecting tliese wore consolidated and 
 
 PEESOlSr, Offences against. 
 amended in 1861. 
 
 PERSPECTIVE in drawing was observed by the-Yan Eycks (1426-46), and was treated 
 scientifically by Michel Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Albert Durer, early in the i6th 
 ceutiny. Guido Ubaldo published the first treatise in. 1608 ; Uubreuil's treatise (the "Jesuits' 
 perspective") appeared in 1642, and the mathematical theory was demonstrated by Brook 
 Taylor in 1 73 1 . 
 
 PERTH (Scotland), said to have been founded by Agricola, about A.D. 70. It was 
 besieged by the regent Robert, 1339. On Feb. 20, 1437, James I. was murdered at the 
 Black Friars' monastery here, by Robert Graham and the earl of Athol, for which their bodies 
 were torn with red-hot pincers, burning crowns of iron pressed down upon their heads, and 
 in the end their hearts taken out and thrown into a fire. — Gowrie's conspiracy occurred here, 
 Aug. 6, 1600. The "Articles of Perth," relating to religioits ceremonies, were agreed to by 
 the General Assembly of Scotland, Aug. 25, 1618. Perth was taken by Cromwell in 165 1 ; 
 and by the earl of Mar after the battle of Dumblane, in 1715. The statue of the prince 
 consort was inaugurated in the presence of the queen, Aug. 30, 1864. 
 
 PERU (S. America), visited by the Spaniards in 1513, and soon afterwards easily con- 
 quered. Pizarro, in 1530, and others, with one vessel, 112 men, and four horses, set out to 
 invade South America. ISTot succeeding he again, in 153 1, embarked with three small vessels, 
 140 infantry, and thirty-six horses ; Avith these and two reinforcements of thirty men 
 each, he conquered the empire of Peru, and laid the foundation of that vast fiower Avhicli 
 the Spaniards long enjoyed in the new world. Peru remained in subjection to the Spaniards 
 (who murdered the Incas and all their descendants), without any attempt being made to throw 
 off the oppressive yoke tUl 1782. 
 
 Peru were satisfied . . . April 24, 18 
 American congress at Lima : plenipotentiaries 
 
 from Chili and other states meet to concert 
 
 measures for defence against European 
 
 powers ...... Nov. ig 
 
 Negotiations followed by peace with Spain, 
 
 Jan. 28 ; Chineha islands restored . Feb. 3 18 
 Revolt against president Pezet, Feb. 28; several 
 
 provinces soon lost .... May, , 
 The insurgents take Lima ; Pezet flies, and 
 
 Canseco becomes president . . Nov. 
 
 The independence of the country achieved . 1825 
 The new Peruvian constitution signed by the 
 
 president of the Republic . . March 21, 1S28 
 The president general Ramon Castilla, elected . 1855 
 Population (without Indians) about 25 millions 1859 
 Marshal San Ramon president . Oct. 24, 1862 
 General J. A. Pezet president . . AprU 3, 1863 
 The Spanish admiral Pizon took possession of 
 
 the Chincha isles (valuable for guano) belong- 
 
 ingto Peru, stating thathe would occupy them 
 
 till the claim of his government or that of 
 
 PEEUGIA, a city- of Central Italy, anciently one of the Etruscan Confederation. It 
 allied itself with the Samnites, but was ruined by two defeats by the Romans, 309 and 
 295 B.C. It was taken by Octavius Csesar from the adherents of Antony : many of whom 
 were immolated on altars by their victor. Leo X. took Perugia from the rival families Oddi 
 and Baglioni, in 1520. An insurrection here against the pope was put down by the Swiss 
 with great cruelty, June 20, 1859. It was taken by the Sardinian general Fanti, in Sept. 
 i860, when the cruel papal general Schmidt and 1600 men were made prisoners. 
 
 PERUKE, or "WiG. The ancients used false hair, but the present peruke was first worn 
 in France and Italy about 1620 ; and introduced into England about 1660.* 
 
 PERUVIAN BARK. See Jesuits' Bark. 
 
 PESCHIERA, a strong Austrian fortress, on an island in the Mincio, near the Lake de 
 Garda, N. Italy. It has been frequently taken by siege : — by the French, 1 796 ; by the 
 Austrians and Russians, 1799 ; by the French again, 1801 ; given up by them, 1814; taken 
 by the Sardinians, 1848; retaken by Radetzky, 1849. The Sardinians were preparing to 
 besiege it in July, 1859, when peace was made. See Quadrangle. 
 
 * It is said that bishop Blomfield (of London) obtained permission of William IV. for the bishops to 
 disc ontinue wearing their wigs in parliament in 1830. 
 
PES 
 
 558 
 
 PET 
 
 PESTALOZZIAN SYSTEM of education was devised by Henri Pestalozzi, born at Zuricli 
 in Switzerland, in 1746, died 1827. In 1775 he turned his farm into a school for edncating 
 poor children in industrial piirsuits, reading, and writing ; but did not succeed. In 1798 ho 
 established an orphan school, where he began with the mutual instruction, or monitorial 
 system, since adopted by Lancaster ; but his school was soon turned into an hospital for tln' 
 Austrian army. In 1802, in conjunction with Fellenberg, he established his school a 
 Hofwyl, which at first was successful, but eventually declined throTigh mismanagement. 
 Pestalozzi certainly aided the progress of education. 
 
 PESTH (Hungary), built about 889, was repeatedly taken and besieged in the wars of 
 Hungary, particidarly in the long contests with the Turks. The last time it changed masters, 
 was in 1684, after the raising of the famous siege of Vienna by Sobieski. Buda-Pesth was 
 taken by the Imperialists, Jan. 5, 1849. The Hungarians afterwards defeated the Austiians, 
 who were obliged to evacuate it April 18, same year. See Hungary. 
 
 PESTILENCE. See Plague. 
 
 PETALISM (from the Greek 2}c(aIon, a leaf), a mode of deciding upon the guilt of 
 citizens of Syracuse, similar to the Athenian ostracism, the name being written ou a leaf 
 (generally of an olive) instead of a shell, about 460 B.C. If guilt were established, the 
 sentence was usually banishment. Cotgravc. 
 
 PETAED, an instrument Avhose invention is ascribed to the Huguenots in 1579. Petards 
 were of metal, nearly in the shape of a hat, and were employed to blow up gates or other 
 barriers, and also in countermines to break through into the enemy's galleries. Cahors was 
 taken by Henry IV. by means of petards, in 1580, when it is said they were first used. 
 
 PETER THE Wild Boy. A savage creature found in the forest of Hertswold, electorate 
 of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting. He was found walking on his 
 hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel, and feeding on grass and moss, Nov. 1725. At 
 this time he was supposed to be thirteen years old. The king caused him to taste of all the 
 dishes at the royal table ; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and the bark of trees, which 
 he had lived on from his infancy. No efforts of the many philosophic persons about court 
 could entirely vary his savage habits, or cause him to r;tter one distinct syllable. He died 
 Feb. 1785, at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo represented him to be a proof of the hypothesis 
 that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal." 
 
 PETER'S PENCE, presented by Ina, king of the "West Saxons, to the pope at Rome, 
 for the endowment of an English college there, 725 ; so called because agreed to be paid on 
 the feast of St. Peter. The tax was levied on all families possessed of thirty pence yearly 
 rent in land, out of which they paid one jienny. It M'as confirmed by Oflfa, 777, and was 
 afterwards claimed by the popes as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till 
 suppressed by Henry VIII. Cavidcn. A public collection (on behaKthe pope) was forbidden 
 in France in i860. 
 
 PETERBOROUGH (Northamptonshire), founded 633 ; anciently called Medeshamstede ; 
 obtained its present name from a king of Mercia founding an abbey and dedicating it to 
 St. Peter in 689. The clmrch, destroyed by the Danes, was rebuilt with great beauty. The 
 bishopric erected by Henry VIII. in 1541, out of the lands of the dissolved monastery, in the 
 diocese of Lincoln. The first bishop was John Chambers, the last abbot of Peterborough. 
 The see was valued in the king's books ^t 419^. 19s. iid. Present income 4500Z. 
 
 EECENT BISHOPS OF PETERBOROUGH. 
 
 183(5. George Davys ; died April 8, 1864. 
 
 1864. Francis J evuie, May. (Present bishop.) 
 
 1794. Spencer Madan ; died Oct. 8, 1813 
 1813. John Parsons ; died March 12, 1819. 
 1819. Herbert Marsh ; died May i, 1839. 
 
 PETERLOO. See Manchester Reform Meeting. 
 
 PETERSBURG, ST., the modern capital of Russia, founded by Peter the Great, May 27, 
 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched wooden hovels. In 17 10, the 
 count Golovkin built the first house of brick ; and the next year, the emperor, with his own 
 hands, laid the foundation of a house of the same material. The- seat of empire was trans- 
 ferred from Moscow to this place in 1711. Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses ; and 
 in 1780, another fire consumed 11,000 houses ; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. 
 Again in June, 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and lOO vessels were destroyed. The 
 winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. The railway to Moscow was finished 
 in 1851 ; to Berlin, opened May 5, 1862. The imiversity was closed in Oct. i86r, on 
 
PET 
 
 559 
 
 PEV 
 
 account of the riotous behaviour of the students. Ou June lo, 1862, property to the 
 amoiint of nearly a million sterling was destroyed by iire. — Petersburg, Virginia. See 
 United States, 1864. 
 
 Treaty of Alliance, signed at St. Petersburg, 
 between Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, 
 and the emperor Alexander ; the former 
 agreeing to join in the campaign against 
 France, in return for which Sweden was to 
 receive Norway .... March 24, 1812 
 
 Peace of St. Petersburg, between Eussia and 
 Prussia, the former restoring all her con- 
 quests to the latter, signed . . . Mays, 1762 
 
 Treaty of St. Petersburg for the partition of 
 Poland, see'article (Partiiioii rrm<ie«), Aug. s, 1772 
 
 Treaty of St. Petersburg, led to a coahtion 
 against France Sept. 8, 1805 
 
 PETER'S CHUECH, ST. (Eome), originally erected by Constantine, 306. About 1450, 
 pope Nicholas V. commenced a new clmrcli. The present magnificent pile was designed by 
 Bramante ; the first stone was laid by pope Julius II. in 1506. In 15 14, Leo X. employed 
 Eaphael and two others to superintend the building. Paul III. committed the Avork to 
 Michael Augelo, who devised the dome, in the construction of wliich 30,000 lb. of iron was 
 used. The church was consecrated Nov. 18, 1626. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a 
 height of 180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 
 324 feet : the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming one of the most spacious halls ever 
 constructed. The length of the exterior is 669 feet ; its greatest breadth within is 442 feet j 
 and the entire height from the gi'ound 432 feet. 
 
 PETEESYVALDElSr (Germany), Convention- of, between Great Britain and Eussia, by 
 which a firm and decisive alliance between those powers was made against France, and the 
 coin-se of action against Napoleon Bonaparte was planned, signed July 8, 1813. This alliance 
 led to the overthrow of Bonaparte in the next year. 
 
 PETEEWAEADEIN (in Austria) was taken by the Turks, July, 1526. Here prince 
 Eugene of Savoy gained a great victory over the Turks, Aug. 5, 17 16.' 
 
 PETITIONS. The right of petitioning the crown and parliament for redress of 
 grievances is a fundamental principle of the constitution. Petitions are extant of the date 
 of Edward I. In the reign of Henry IV. petitions began to be addressed to the house of 
 commons in considerable numbers. In 1837, there were presented to parliament 10,831 
 petitions, signed by 2,905,905 persons ; in 1859, 24,386, signed by 2,290,579 persons. See 
 Rights, Petition of. 
 
 PETEAECH AND Laura : celebrated for the refined passion of the former for the latter, 
 begun in 1327, which was the chief subject of his enchanting sonnets. He was born 1304, 
 crowned with laurel, as a poet and writer, on Easter-day, April 8, 1341, ; and died at Arqua^ 
 near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348. 
 
 PETROIiEUM, rock oil or mineral oil, similar to paraflfin, has been found in many parts 
 of the world, especially at Rangoon. In 1860-1, a number of oil-springs were discovered in 
 the bituminous coal regions of N."\V. Pennsylvania, now termed "Petrolia," and others 
 have been since discovered in Ohio and other states, and also in Canada. In consequence 
 numerous artesian wells have been sunk, manufactories erected, and an almost unlimited 
 supply obtained. In consequence of the importation of large supplies of this oil into this 
 country, and many accidents having taken place through its inflammability at low tempe- 
 rature, an act for " the safe keeping of petroleum" was passed in July, 1862. 
 
 PETEOPAULOVSKI, a fortified town on the east coast of Kamtschatka, was attacked bj 
 an English and French squadron, Aug. 30, 1854. They destroyed the batteries, but failed 
 in taking some Eussian frigates, except the Sitka, a store-ship taken by the President, and 
 a schooner taken by the Pique. Admiral Price was killed, it is supposed, by the accidental 
 discharge of his own pistol. A party of 700 sailors and marines landed to assault the place, 
 but fell into an ambuscade ; many were killed, including capt. Parker and M. Bourasset, 
 English and French officers. The objects of the attack were not attained, it is thought from 
 want of stores. After this the Russians greatly strengthened their defences, but on May 30, 
 1855,- the allied squadron in the Pacific arriving here foimd the place deserted. The fortifi- 
 cations were destroyed, but the town was spared. The Eussian ships escaped. 
 
 PEVENSEV (Sussex). The castle is very ancient. From the abundance of Eomau 
 bricks, it is supposed that there was a Eoman fortress on the spot. Here William of 
 Normandy landed, Sept. 28 or 29, 1066. The duke of York, in the reign of Henry IV., was 
 for some time confined within the walls of this castle ; as was also queen Joan of Navarre, 
 the last Avife of Henry IV., who, with her confessor, friar Randal, was accused of a design to 
 destroy the king. 
 
PEW 560 PHI 
 
 PEWS in churches were not in use in England till long after the Reformation : about 
 the middle of the 17th century. The earliest reading-pew with a date is one at Geddington 
 St. Mary, Northamptonshire, dated 1602. Hook. 
 
 PFAFFENDORF, or Liegnitz (Silesia). Here was fought a battle between the Impe- 
 rialists and Prussians, Aug. 15, 1760. The Austrians were signally defeated by the king of 
 Prussia, who thus prevented the junction of the Eussian and Austrian armies. 
 
 PHALANX, the Greek phalanx consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields 
 joined, and spears crossing each other. The battalion fonued by Philip of ^Macedon, 
 called the Macedonian phalanx, was formed by him 360 B.C. 
 
 PHARAOH'S SERPENTS, a chemical toy, composed of sulpho-cyanide of mercury, 
 appeared in Paris in the summer of 1865. 
 
 PHARISEES, a sect among the Jews ; so called from 2^^iarct'Sh, a Hebrew word which 
 signifies separated, because they pretended to a greater degree of holiness than the rest of 
 the Jews. Luke xviii. 9. The Talmud enumerates seven classes of Pharisees. 
 
 PHARMACOPCEIA, a book of directions for the preparation of medicines, published by 
 colleges of phy.siciaus. In 1862 the General Medical Council were empowered to prepare 
 and sell a new Pharmacopceia, to supersede those of the colleges of London, Edinburgh, and 
 Dublin, which was published in June, 1864. 
 
 PHARilACY : the knowledge of the chemical and medical properties of drugs and 
 other things employed medicinally. The Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, founded 
 in 1841, mainly by Mr. Jacob Bell, obtained its charter in 1843. It publishes a monthly 
 journal. — 15 & 16 Vict. c. 56(1852), regulates the qualifications of pharmaceutical chemists. 
 
 PHAROS, of Ptolemy Philadelphus of Alexandria, was esteemed as one of the wonders 
 of the world. It was a tower built of white marble, erected about 280 B.C. On the top, 
 fires were constantly kept, to direct sailors in the bay. The building cost 800 talents, which 
 are equivalent to above 165,100/. English, if Attic ; or, if Alexandrian, double that sum. 
 There was this inscription upon it — " King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit 
 of sailors ; " but Sostratus, the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own 
 name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote the above 
 inscription. When the mortar had decayed, Ptolemy's name disappeared, and the following 
 inscription became visible: " Sostratus, the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the 
 saviours, for the benefit of sailors." 
 
 PHARSALIA, a strong city in Thessaly, N. Greece. Near it Julius Caesar defeated his 
 rival Pompey, Aug. 9, 48 b.c. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, 
 by order of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body thrown naked on the strand, 
 till it was burnt by his faithful freedman, Philip. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA (Asia Minor). See Seven Churches. — Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 
 was planned by William Penn in 1682. The first American Congress assembled here in 
 1774, and promulgated the declaration of independence on July 4, 1776. It was the capital 
 of the Union till 1 800, when Washington was selected in its place. 
 
 PHILIPHAUGH, near Selkirk, S. Scotland, where the marquess of Montrose and the 
 royalists were defeated by David Leslie and the Scotch Covenanters, Sept. 13, 1645. 
 
 PHILIPPI (Macedonia), so named by the great Philip. Here Octavius Caesar and Marc 
 Antony defeated the republican forces of Brutus and Cassius, who both committed suicide, 
 Oct., 42 B.C. Paul Avrote an epistle to the Christians at Philippi, A.D. 64. 
 
 PHILIPPICS, the term applied to the orations of Demosthenes against Philip II. of 
 Macedon, 352-341 B.C., and also to the orations of Cicero against Marc Antony (the second 
 of which, called divine by Juvenal, cost Cicero his life), 43 B.C. 
 
 PHILIPPINE ISLES (in the Malay Archipelago), discovered by Magellan, in March, 
 1521, who here lost his life in a skirmish. They were taken possession of in 1565 by a fleet 
 from Mexico, which first stopped at the island of Zeba, and subdued it. In 1570 a settle- 
 ment was effected at the mouth of the Manilla river, and Manilla became the ca2:)ital of the 
 Spanish possessions in the Philippines. See Manilla. 
 
 PHILISTINES, a people of Palestine, conquered Israel, 1 156 B.C., and raled it forty 
 years. They were defeated by Samuel, 1120; and by Saul and Jonathan, 1087. They 
 again invaded Israel about 1063, wdien David slew^ their champion, Goliath. After David 
 became king he thoroughly subdued them, 1040. In common with Syria their country 
 
PHI 
 
 561 
 
 PHO 
 
 was subjugated by the Romans, under Pompej', about 63. In Germany, about a.d. 1830, 
 Heine and the liberal party applied the term * ' Philistines " to the opponents of progress, 
 the conservative party. 
 
 PHILOBIBLOlSr SOCIETY was instituted in 1853 by Mr. R, Monckton Milnes (now 
 lord Houghton), M. Sylvain Van de Weyer, the Belgian minister, and others. It publishes 
 volumes of " Miscellanies," &c. 
 
 PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. See Alchemij. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY (love of wisdom), the knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition 
 to history, which is only the knowledge of facts ; or to mathematics, which is the knowledge 
 of the quantity of things : — the hypothesis or system upon which natural effects are 
 explained. Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the name of philosopher (such men having 
 been previously called sages) about 528 B.C. Philosophers were expelled from Rome, and 
 their schools suppressed, by Domitian, A.D. 83. Philosophy is now divided into : — I. Moral 
 or Ethical ; 2. Intellectual ; 3. Natural or Physical. 
 
 MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 Ancient Schools. — Pythagorean, about 500 B.C. ; 
 Platonic (the Academy), by Plato, 374 ; Peripatetic 
 (the Lyceum), by Aristotle, 334; Sceptic, by Pyrrho, 
 334 ; Cynic, by Diogenes, 330 ; Mpicm-ean, by Epi- 
 curus, 306 ; Stoic, by Zeno, 290 ; Middle Academy, 
 by Arcesilaus, 278 ; New Academy, by Cameades, 
 160. 
 
 Modern Systems. — Rational, Bacon, about a.d. 1624 ; 
 Cartesian, Descartes, about 1650 ; Reflective or Per- 
 ceptive, Locke, 1690 ; Idealistic, Berkeley, 1710 ; 
 Elective, Leibnitz, 1710; Common Sense, Reid, 
 1750-70; Transcendental, Kant, Hamilton, &c., 
 1770-1860; Scieniifij:, Fichte, 1800-14; Absolute 
 Identity, SchelUng, 1800-20 ; Absolute Idealism, 
 Hegel, 1810-30 ; Utilitarian, Bentham, 1790-1830 ; 
 Positive, Comte, 1830. 
 
 natural philosophy. 
 
 Greek andZatin. — Thales, about 600 B.C. ; Pythagoras, 
 590 ; Aristotle and Plato, 350 ; Euclid, 300 ; Ar- 
 chimedes, 287 ; Hipparchus, 150 ; Lucretius, about 
 100 ; Julius Csesar, 50 ; Ptolemy, a.d. 150. 
 
 Middle Ages. — Arabians : Ben Musa, 800 : Alhazen, 
 
 &c., iioo. Gerbert, Decimals, 959. Roger Bacon, 
 Opus Majus, 1266. 
 Inductive Philosophy : — 
 Oopemicus's system published . . . • iS43 
 
 Tycho Brahe 1546-1601 
 
 Kepler's Laws 1609-18 
 
 Bacon's Novum Organum 1620 
 
 Galileo's Dialogues . . ... . . 1632 
 
 Royal Society begins (which see) . . . 1645 
 Otto Guericke — ^Air-pump and Electric 
 
 machine 1634 
 
 Huyghens on Pendulums .... 1658 
 Newton — Fluxions, 1665 ; Analysis of Light, 
 1669 ; Theory of Gravitation, 1684 ; Prin- 
 cipia pubUshed, 1687 ; death . . . . 1727 
 Bradley discovers aberration . . . . „ 
 Buler on Perturbation of the Planets . . . 1748 
 
 Black on Heat 1762 
 
 Laplace on Tides 177S 
 
 Lagrange, Micanique Analytique .... 1788 
 
 Galvani and Volta's researches . . . . 1791 
 
 Laplace, Mdcanique Cdleste . . . . • 1799 
 
 ISee AstroTiomy, Optics, Chemistry, Electricity, (be.'i 
 
 PHIPPS' EXPEDITION. The hon. captain Phipps (afterwards lord Mulgrave) sailed 
 from England in command of the Sea-Horse and Carcase ships, to make discoveries, as near 
 as possible, to the North Pole, 1773. In August of that year, he was for nine days envi- 
 roned with impenetrable barriers of ice, in the Frozen Ocean, north of Spitzbergen, 80° 
 48' N. lat. All further progress was not only impossible, but retreat also, and in this 
 dreadful situation all on board gave themselves up for lost ; but a brisk wind in two or three 
 days accomplished their deliverance. They returned to England without having made any 
 discoveries, Sept. 20, 1773. Nelson was coxwain to the second in command. 
 
 PHOCIS, a state in Northern Greece. The Phocians seized Delphi 357 B.C. and com- 
 menced the second Sacred War. They were opposed by Thebes and other states, and were 
 utterly subdued by Philip II. of Macedon, in 346. 
 
 PHOENICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The natives were the most eminent navigators 
 and traders of antiquity ; their cities or allied states being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripoli, 
 Byblos, and Ptolemais or Acre. From the 19th to the 13th centuries before Christ, they 
 established colonies on the shores or isles of the Mediterranean — Carthage, Hippo, Utica, 
 Gades, Panormus, and are said to have visited the British Isles. Phoenicia was conquered 
 by Cyrus, 537 B.C.; by Alexander, 334; by the Romans, 47; and after partaking of the 
 fortunes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman empire, a.d. 15 16. 
 
 PHCENIX CLUBS, of a treasonable character, were formed in Ireland in 1858. They 
 met at night to drill. Several persons were arrested and tried in March, 1859, at Tralee; 
 but the jury could not agree on their verdict. Eventually some of the prisoners pleaded 
 guilty, and were discharged on being bound over to keep the peace. 
 
 PHONOGRAPH, a machine which may be attached to pianofortes and other keyed 
 instruments, by which any music that is played may be written down on blank paper, since 
 itriUes and prints the notes simultaneously. It was patented by Mr. Fenby, June 13, 1863. 
 
 
 
PHO 
 
 562 
 
 PHO 
 
 The motive power is electro-magnetism, ilachines with a similar object were projected by 
 Mr. Creed in 1747; Mr. J. F. Unger in 1774; and by Mr. Carreyre in 1827. 
 
 PHONOGEAPHY (from the Greek jjliove, sound). The Phonetic society, whose object 
 is to render our mode of waiting and printing more consonant to sound, was established, 
 March i, 1843 ; sir W. C. Trevelj-an, president, and Mr. Isaac Pitman, secretaiy, the latter 
 being the inventor of the system which was made known in 1837. Among other works 
 published by the promoters of the system, was the " Phonetic News," in 1849. 
 
 PHONOSCOPE, an apparatus for testing the quality of musical strings, invented by 
 M. Kcenig, and exhibited at the International Exhibition in 1862. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS was discovered in 1667, by Brandt, of Hamburg, who procured it from 
 urine. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckel, a Saxon chemist, about 1670, and 
 by the hon. R. Boyle about the same time. Nouv. Diet. Phosphoric acid is first mentioned 
 in 1743, but is said to have been known earlier. Gahn pointed out its existence in bones in 
 1769, and Scheele devised a process for extracting it. Canton's phosphorus is so called from 
 its discoverer, 1 768. Photophosphuretted hydrogen was discovered by sir Humphry Davy 
 in 1812. The consumption of phosphorus has immensely increased since the manufacture of 
 lucifer matches. In 1845, Schrotter, of A'^ienna, discovered what is termed allotropic or 
 amorphous phosphorus, wliich is not so unwholesome to work as ordinary phosphorus. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. The action of light on chloride of silver was known as early as the 
 l6th century. The phenomenon was studied by Scheele (1777), Senebier (1790), Ritter 
 and WoUaston (1801). From the resiilts of these investigations, experiments were made by 
 Thos. AA^edgwood and Humphry Davy, in the Royal Institution, London,, which were pub- 
 lished in its journal, 1802. Wedgwood may be regarded as the first jjhotographer. His 
 paper was entitled "An account of a method of copying paintings upon glass, and of making 
 profiles by the agency of light upon nitrate of silver."* 
 
 Further discoveries were made by Ni^pce in 1814, 
 and sir J. Hcrschel in 1819. 
 
 Daguerre commenced his experinirnts in 1824 ; and 
 
 ^ in 1826 joined Ni^pce, and worked with him till 
 the death of the latter in 1833. The production 
 of Dagverreotype plates was announced in Jan. 
 1839 ; and the French chamber of deputies granted 
 a pension to Daguerre and to Isidore Niepce (the 
 son). 
 
 In 1839 Mr. Henry Fox Talbot first published his 
 mode of multiplying photograj^hic impressions, 
 by producing a negative photograph (i.e. with the 
 light and shades reversed) from which any number 
 of positive copies may be obtained. His patent 
 for producing the Talbotype or Calotype (on paper) 
 is dated Feb. 1841. 
 
 In 1851, Collodion (which see) was applied to photo- 
 graphy by Mr. P. Archer. 
 
 The Photographic Society of London was established 
 in 1853. It publishes a journal. On Dec. 22, 1852, 
 774 specimens of photography were exhibited at 
 the rooms of the Society of Arts, Adelphi. 
 
 Celestial Photography began with professor Bond, the 
 astronomer of Cambridge, U.S., who exhibited a 
 photograph of the moon in 1851. Since then, Mr. 
 Warren De la Rue of London has produced ex- 
 cellent photographs of the moon and other 
 heavenly bodies, and on July 18, i860, photo- 
 graphed the solar eclipse. 
 Cai-tes de Visite portraits (which see) taken by M. 
 Ferrier at Nice, 1857. 
 
 In 1S61 Mr. Thompson of 'Weymouth photographed 
 the bottom of the sea. 
 
 Photogi-aphy was successfully apjilied to the transfer 
 of works of art to wood btocks, by Mr. John 
 Leighton, in his illustrated edition of Lyra Gor- 
 manica, 1861. 
 
 In 1861, professor O. M. Rood suggested the applica- 
 tion of photograph j"^ to the microscope. 
 
 The tannin process introduced by major Russell 
 about 1 861. 
 
 The copyrifjht of Photographs is secured by an act 
 
 passed in 1862. 
 Dr. Henry Wright photographed objects of surgical 
 
 interest in Jan. 1863. 
 The Wothlytype process, in which nitrate of silver 
 
 and albumen arc| discarded and a double salt of 
 
 uranium and collodion substituted, was annovmced 
 
 in the autiunn of 1864. 
 The light of ignited magnesium was employed for 
 
 photograxshs by Mr. Brothers of Manchester in the 
 
 spring of 1864. 
 
 Photooalvaxogr.\phy, the art of producing engrav- 
 ings by the action of light and electricity. The 
 earliest specimens were produced by Nicephore 
 Niepce and presented by him in 1827 to the great 
 botanist Robert Brown. Great advances have 
 since been made in this art by MM. Niepce de St. 
 Victor (who published a treatise on it in 1856), and 
 Vitry, Mr. W. R. Grove, H. Fox Talbot, kc. In 
 1852, Paul Pretsch patented a process which he 
 caUed " Photogalvanography." 
 
 Photoglyphic Engraviso (a process by which the 
 light actually etches a picture on a phte that may 
 be and has been printed from), was patented by 
 3Ir. Fox Talbot, in 1858, and is described and ex- 
 emplified in the Photographic News, Sept. 9 and 
 16, 1859, a specimen being given in the latter 
 number. 
 
 Photozincography (a process by which photographs 
 are transferred to zinc plates which may be printed 
 from), was devised by sir Henry James, chief of 
 the Ordnance Survey, and made kno^vn in i860. 
 By it maps, charts, and engravings may be printed 
 at a small cost. 
 
 Photo-Sculpture; M. Villfeme's employment of 
 photographs in the formation of sculpture was 
 annouuced in 1863. 
 
 * Journal of the Royal Institution, 1802, p. 170. 
 
PHO 563 PIA 
 
 PHOTOMETEE (liglit-measm-er) : one was constructed by Dr. W. Pdtcliie hi 1825. Many 
 improvements have been made recently in connection witli photography. 
 
 PHOTOSPHEEE. See Sun, note. 
 
 PHEENOLOGY. See Crcmiology. 
 
 PHEYGIA (now Kerman), a province in Asia Minor, in which Troy was situated ; 
 became part of the Persian empire in 537 B.C., and partook of its changes. It became a 
 Eoman province in 47 B.C., and a Turkish one, A.D. 1392. 
 
 PHYSIC appears to have been first practised by the Egjrptian priests. Pythagoras 
 endeavoured to explain the philosophy of disease and the action of medicine, about 529 B.C. 
 Hippocrates, the father of medicine, flourished about 422 B.C., and Galen, born A. D. 131, 
 was the oracle of medical science. About 980, Avicenna, an Arab, wrote a system of medi- 
 cine. The discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely 
 new system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628.* 
 
 EMINENT PHYSICIANS AND STJKGEONS, 
 
 
 Born 
 
 Pied 
 
 Bom 
 
 . Died 
 
 
 Born 
 
 Died 
 
 Thos. Linacre . 
 
 , 1460 
 
 1524 
 
 Malpighi . . . 1628 
 
 1694 
 
 John Hunter , 
 
 . 1728 
 
 1793 
 
 Paracelsus . 
 
 • 1493 
 
 1541 
 
 Hermann Boerhaave 1668 
 
 1738 
 
 R. T. Laenneo 
 
 . 1781 
 
 1826 
 
 "William Harvey 
 
 . 1578 
 
 1657 
 
 K Mead . . . 1673 
 
 1754 
 
 John Abernethy 
 
 • 1764 
 
 1831 
 
 Thomas Sydenham 
 
 . 1624 
 
 1689 
 
 ■WiUiam Hvmter . .1718 
 
 1783 
 
 Astley Cooper 
 
 . 1768 
 
 1 841 
 
 PHYSIC GAEDENS. The first cultivated in England was by John Gerard, surgeon of 
 London, in 1567; that at Oxford was endowed by the earl of Danbj'', in 1652 ; that at Cam- 
 bridge was commenced about the middle of the last centurj' ; and that at Chelsea, originated 
 by sir Hans Sloane, was given to the Apothecaries' Company, in 1721 ; this last was verj' 
 much admired by the illustrious Linnseus. 
 
 PHYSICIANS, EoTAL College of, of London (of England since 1858), was projected 
 by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII. ;+ who, through his interest with cardinal Wolsey, 
 obtained letters patent, constituting a corporate body of regular physicians in London, with 
 peculiar privileges, . Sept. 23, 1518. Linacre was elected the first president of the college. 
 Dr. W. Harvey was a great benefactor to this institution, 1653. He built a library and 
 public hall, which he granted for ever to the college, with his books and instruments. The 
 college was afterwards held in a building in Warwick-lane, erected by sir C. "Wren, where it 
 continued till 1825, when the present elegant stone edifice in Trafalgar-square was erected 
 from designs by sir E. Smirke. — The College of Physicians, Dublin, was founded by charter 
 of Charles II. 1667, and was re-incorporated in 1692, The Eoyal College of Physicians, 
 Edinburgh, Nov. 29, 1681. 
 
 PHYSICS. See under PJiilosophy. 
 
 PHYSIOGNOMY, a science which affirms that the dispositions of mankind may be 
 discovered from the features of the face. The origin of the term is referred to Aristotle; 
 Cicero was attached to the science. It became a fashionable study fi'om the beginning of the 
 i6th century; and in the last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern 
 system. Lavater's researches in this pursuit arose from his having been striick with the 
 singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at which he and Zimmerman 
 were standing ; his " Fragment " on this subject aj^peared in 1776. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY is that part of physics which treats of the inner constitution of animals 
 and plants, and the several functions and operations of all their organs and tissues. The 
 works of Miiller, Milne-Edwards, and Carpenter are much celebrated, and Todd's Cyclopaedia 
 of Physiology (1836-59) is a library in itself. 
 
 PIANO-FOETE, invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717; he presented a model 
 of his invention to the court of Saxony; and, some time after, G. Silverman, a musical 
 instrument maker, began to manufacture piano-fortes with considerable success. _ The 
 invention has also been ascribed to an instniment-maker at Plorence. The square piano- 
 
 * On Sept. 28, 1865, Miss Garrett, at Apothecaries' Hall, London, received the licence to practise 
 medicine. 
 
 t Physician to the King. The earliest mandate or warrant for the attendance of a physician at court 
 is dated 1454, the 33 Henry VI., a reign fertile in the patronage which was afforded to practitioners in 
 medicine ; but in that reign no appointment existed which can justly be called physician to the royal 
 person. By this warrant the king, with the consent of his privy council, deputed to three physicians and 
 two surgeons the regulation of his diet, and the administration of such medicines and remedies as might 
 he sufficient for his cure, without any allusion to the previous existence or permanency of the office which 
 they were authorised for a time to fill, or to a remuneration for their services. Life of Linacre. 
 
 2 
 
PIC 5G4 PIL 
 
 forte was first made by Freiderica, an orrfan-builJer of Saxony, about 1758. Piano-fortes 
 •were made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766 ; and liave been since greatly improved 
 by Broadwood, CoUard!^ Kirkmau, Erard, and others. 
 
 PICENTINES, a Sabine tribe, subdued by tbe Romans, and their capital, Asculum, 
 taken, 268 b.c. They began the Social War in 90, and were conquered in 89 B.C. 
 
 PICHEGRU'S CONSPIRACY. See Georges, &c. 
 
 PICQUET, the first known game upon the cards, invented, it is said, by Joquemiu, for 
 the amusement of Charles VI. of France, then in feeble health, 1390. Mezeray. 
 
 PICTS. A Scythian or German colony, who landed in Scotland much about the time 
 that the ;Scots began to seize upon the Hebrides, or Western Isles (Hebudes). They after- 
 wards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands and isles, and the Picts in 
 that part now called the lowlands. Between 838 and 842, the Scots under Kenneth II. 
 totally subdued the Picts, and seized all their kingdom. See Roman Wall. 
 
 PICTURES. See Painting. 
 
 PIEDMONT {Pcdemontium, Latin, foot of the mountains), a region in N. Italy, the 
 seat of government of the kingdom of Sardinia, ivhich see. 
 
 PIE-POUDRE COURT, the Court of Dusty Foot, whose jurisdiction was established for 
 cases arising at fairs and markets, to do justice to the buyer and seller immediately uiion 
 the spot. By stat. 17 Edw. IV. it had cognizance of all disputes in the precincts of the 
 market to which it might belong, 1477. 
 
 PIER AND HARBOUR ACT, to facilitate the formation, management, and maintenance 
 of piers and harbours in Great Britain and Ireland, was passed in 1862. 
 
 PIGEONS were employed as carriers by the ancients.* 
 
 PILGRIMAGE of GRACE. An insurrection, so called, began in Oct. 1536, headed 
 by Aske, and other gentlemen of Yorkshire, joined by priests and 40,000 men of York, 
 Durham, Lancaster, and other counties, against Henry VI II. They took Hull and York, 
 with smaller towns. The duke of Norfolk marched against them and made terras, and they 
 dispersed. In 1537 they again took arms but were promptly sujipressed, and great numbers 
 ■were executed. 
 
 PILGRIMAGES t began with the pilgrimage of the empress Helena to Jerusalem, 326. 
 They became frequent at the close of the loth century. Robert II. of France made several 
 pilgrimages ; among others, one to Rome about the year 1016, perhaps in 1020, when he 
 refused the imijerial dignity and the kingdom of Italy. Henault. 
 
 "PILGRIM'S PROGRESS," written by John Bunyan, in Bedford gaol, where he was 
 imprisoned twelve years, 1660-72. The first part was published in 1678. A Hebrew version 
 appeared in 1851. 
 
 PILLORY, a scaffold for persons to stand on, to render them publicly infamous. This 
 punishment was awarded against persons convicted of forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In 
 some cases the head was put through a hole, tlie hands through two others, the nose slit, the 
 face branded with one or more letters, and one or both ears were cut off. There is a statute 
 of the pillory, 41 Hen. III. 1256. Many persons died in the pillory by being struck with 
 stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and putrid offal. It was abolished as a 
 punishment in all cases except perjury, 1815, and totally abolished in 1837. The last who 
 sufiered at the Old Bailey was Peter Jas. Bossy for perjury, June 24, 1830. 
 
 PILNITZ, near Dresden, Saxony. The famous convention of Pilnitz took place between 
 the emperor Leopold and the king of Prussia, July 20, 1791. On Aug. 27 the treaty of 
 Pilnitz, or, as some style it, the Partition Treaty, was finally agreed upon at Pa\aa by the 
 courts in concert. It was to the effect ' ' that the emiieror should retake all that Louis XIV. 
 
 * When they took a long journey, they carried tame pigeons with them. When they thought proper 
 to write to their friends, they let one of these birds loose, with letters fastened to its neck : the bird once 
 released, would never cease its flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenes announced 
 to his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending to him at iEgina a pigeon stained with purple. 
 Ovid. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded by means of pigeons at the siege of Modeua. In modem times, 
 the most noted were the pigeons of Aleppo, which served as couriers at Alexandretta and Bagdad. Thirty- 
 two pigeons sent to Antwerjj were liberated from London at 7 o'clock in the morning ; and on the same 
 day at noon one of them an-ived at Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second amved ; the 
 remainder on the following day, Nov. 23, 1S19. PhUips. 
 
 t Pilgrim Fathers is the name given in Xorth America to a party of about 100 English Puritans who 
 called in the May Flower to North America in 1620. 
 
PIL 565 PIT 
 
 had conquered in the Austrian Netherlands, and uniting these ijrovinces to the Netherlands, 
 give them to his serene highness the elector palatine, to be added to the palatinate ; Bavaria 
 to be added to the Austrian possessions, " &c. 
 
 PILOT. The act relating to pilots, i6 & 17 Vict. c. 129 (1853), with other acts, is 
 embodied in the Merchant Shipping act, 1854. See Trinity -House. 
 
 PINE-TREES. The Stone pine {Pinus Pinea), brought to these countries before 1548. 
 The Cluster pine (Pimcs Pinaster), brought from the South of Europe before 1596. The 
 "Weymouth pine (Pinus Strobus), from North America, 1705. Frankincense pine {Pinus 
 Tceda), from North America, before 1713. There are other varieties. 
 
 PINKEY (near Edinburgh), where the English under the earl of Hertford, protector, 
 totally defeated the Scots, Sept. 10, 1547. There fell not 200 of the English, but above 
 10,000 of the Scots. Above 1500 were taken prisoners. Hume. 
 
 PINS are mentioned in a statute of 1483. Brass pins were brought from France in 1540, 
 and first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, queen of Henry VIII. Pins 
 were made in England in 1543. Stow. They were first manufactured by machinery in 
 England in 1824, under a patent of Lemuel Wellman "Wright, of the United States. 
 
 PIRACY was severely repressed by the Romans. Pompey destroyed the Cilician pirates, 
 67 B.C. See Buccaneers, An act of parliament to punish piracy was passed in 1837. 
 
 PIR^US, the port of Athens, was united to the city by two long walls, one erected by 
 Themistocles, and the other by Pericles, 456 B.C., which were destroyed by Lysander, 
 404 B.C. It was fortified by Conon, 393 B.C. The Pir^us was able to contain 400 Greek 
 vessels. It was occupied by the French during the Russian war in 1854. 
 
 PISA, an ancient city in Tuscany, was founded about six centuries before Christ, and 
 was favoured by the early Roman emperors. The citizens took an active part in the Italian 
 wars of the middle ages, and eventually became subject to Florence, after a long siege, 1405-6. 
 The university was founded in 1343, and revived by the Medici in 1472, and 1542. The 
 celebrated Campanile or leaning tower was built about 11 54,* and the Campo Santo about 
 the same time. The rival popes, Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII., were deposed at a council 
 held at Pisa in 1409, and Alexander V. elected in their room. 
 
 PISCICULTURE. See Fisheries. 
 
 PISTOLS, the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes at the saddle-bow, sometimes 
 in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket, &c. Pardon. Pistols were first used 
 by the cavalry of England in 1544. Of late years the}' have been made with a revolving 
 cylindrical breech, in which are formed several chambers for receiving cartridges, and bringing 
 them in succession into a line v^ith the barrel ready for firing. The earliest model of this, 
 kind of arm, is to be found in the United Service Museum, and. is supposed to date from the 
 reign of Charles 1. The manufacture of pistols by machinery was first introduced into 
 England from the United States, America, in the year 1853, by colonel Colt, the inventor of 
 the celebrated Colt pistol, at which time nearly the whole of the machinery used was new to 
 this country. The perfection and economy of this system of manufacture induced the British 
 government to establish the Enfield armoury, in the year 1855. 
 
 PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small island in the Pacific Ocean, said to have been dis- 
 covered by Pitcairn in 1768, and seen by Cook in 1773, and since noted for being colonised 
 by ten mutineers from the ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 1789.+ See Bounty. 
 
 * This celebrated tower was erected for the purpose of containing bells, and stands in a square close to 
 the cathedral of Pisa. It is built entirely of white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories,. 
 each adorned with a round of columns, rising one above another. It inclines so far on one side from the 
 perpendicular, that in dropping a plummet from the top, which is 188 feet in height, it faUs sixteen feet 
 from the base. Some think this was done purposely by the architect ; others attribute it to an accidental 
 subsidence of the foundation. From this tower Galileo made his observation on gravitation (about 1635). 
 
 t They remained unknown to England until discovered accidentally in 1814. A ship nearing the island 
 was hailed by a swarthy youth in the English language, when it appeared that the mutineers, soon after 
 settling there, had married some black women from a neighbouring island, and had become a singularly- 
 well-conducted community under the fostering care of Adams, the principal mutineer. As their numbers 
 increased, the island proved incapable of their support. Their priest, the rev. Mr. Nobbs, obtained for 
 them the favour of the English government, which removed them with all their property in the ship 
 Morayshire, on May 3rd, and landed them, after a boisterous passage, on Norfolk island, prepared pre- 
 viously for their reception, June 8, 1856. The govei-nment stocked Norfolk island with 2000 sheep, 450 
 head of cattle, and twenty horses, and gave them stores to last twelve months ; their numbers were 96 
 males and 102 femal'.s. 
 
PIT 
 
 56G 
 
 PLA 
 
 PITT ADMINISTRATIONS.* The first administration was formed on the dismissal of 
 the Coalition ministry {^chich see), Dec. 27, 1783. and terminated by resignation in 1801. 
 The second was fonned May 12, 1804 ; and terminated by Mr. Pitt's death, Jan. 23, 1806. 
 A public funeral was decreed to his honour by parliament, and a grant of 40,000^. to pay 
 his debts. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF 1 783. 
 
 William Pitt, first lord of the treasurii and cliancellor 
 of the exchequer. 
 
 Earl Gower, lord prendent. 
 
 Duke of Rutland, privi; seal. 
 
 Marquess of Carmarthen and earl Temple, immedi- 
 ately succeeded Ijy lord Sydney, secretaries. 
 
 Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 
 
 Viscount Howe, admiralty. 
 
 Duke of Richmond, ordnance. 
 
 William Wyndham Granville, Henry Dundas, &c. 
 
 [Mr. Pitt continued minister until 1801. Many 
 changes in his ministry, of course, occurred in the 
 long period of seventeen years.] 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF 1804. 
 
 William Pitt, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 Lord Eldon, lord, chancellor. 
 
 Duke of Portland, succeeded by lord Sidmouth (late 
 
 Mr. Addington) lord president. 
 Earl of Westmorland, lord privy seal. 
 Lord Hawkesbury, lord Harrowby (succeeded by 
 
 lord Mulgrave), and earl Camden (succeeded by 
 
 viscount Castlereagh), ?iO)««, /oreipw, and colonial 
 
 secretaries. 
 Viscount Melville (succeeded by lord Barham), 
 
 admiralti/. 
 Duke of Montrose, Mr. Dundas, &c. 
 
 PITTSBURG LANDING (near Corinth, Tennessee). On Sunday April 6, 1862, a great 
 battle was fought between the American federals under Grant and Prentiss, and the con- 
 federates under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. The latter began the attack and 
 were victorious, but lost tlieir able general Johnston. The federals were reinforced the'next 
 day and renewed the attack ; the confederates maintained their ground ; but soon after 
 retired in good order to Corinth. 
 
 PIUS IV., Ckeed of. See Confessions. 
 
 PLACENTIA, a city in North Italy, founded by the Romans about 220 B.C. It suffered 
 in all the convulsions attending the fall of the empire, and the wars of the middle ages. In 
 1254 it fell under the rule of the family of the Scotti. In 1302 Alberto Scotto was overcome 
 and Placentia was united to Milan, then ruled by the Visconti. On their extinction in 1447, 
 Placentia revolted, but was taken by Sforza duke of Milan, and treated very cruelly. In 
 1513 it was given to pope Leo X. In 1545, Paul III. gave it with Parma, as a duchy, to his 
 son Peter Louis Farnese. See Parma. 
 
 PLAGUE. The plagues of Egypt''(i49i B.C.) are described in Exodus, chap, ix., &c. 
 The first recorded general plague in all parts of the world occurred 767 B. c. Petavhis, At 
 Carthage a plague was so terrible that people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 
 534 B.C. Baronius. At Rome prevailed a desolating plague, carrying off a hundred thousand 
 persons in and round the city, 461 B.C. The jilague at Athens, which spread into Egypt and 
 Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 430 B.C., is admirably described by Thucydides. 
 Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, destroyed 2000 persons everv 
 day, 188 B.C. Plimj. See Cattle. 
 
 At Rome, a mo.st awful plague ; 10,000 persons 
 
 perished daily, 80. 
 Again ravaged the Roman empire, 167, 169, 189. 
 Another in the Roman empire. For some time 5000 
 
 persons died daily at Rome, and many towns were 
 
 entirely depopulated, 250-265. 
 In Britain, a plague swept away such multitudes 
 
 that the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the 
 
 dead, 430. 
 A dreadful one began in Europe in 558, extended all 
 
 over Asia and Africa, and it is said did not cease 
 
 for many years. 
 At Constantinople, when 200.000 of its inhabitants 
 
 perished, and in Calabria, Sicily, and Greece, 
 
 746-749. 
 In London, 962. 
 At Chichester, in England, an epidemical disease 
 
 carried off 34,000 persons, 772. Will. Malms. 
 In Scotland 40,000 persons ijerished of a pestilence, 
 
 954- 
 In London, a great mortality, 1094 ; and in Ireland, 
 
 1095. 
 
 Again, in London : it extended to cattle, fowls, and 
 
 other domestic animals, mi. Holinshed. 
 In Ireland : after Christmas this year, Henry II. 
 
 was forced to quit the country, 11 72. 
 Again, in Ireland, when a prodigious number 
 
 perished, 1204. 
 The " Black Death " in Italy, 1340. J 
 
 A plague raged throughout Europe, causing exten-' 
 
 sive mortality. Britain and Ireland suffered 
 
 grievously. In London alone 200 persons were 
 
 buried daily in the Charterhouse-yard, 1348. (That 
 
 at Florence described by Boccaccio.) 
 In London and Paris a dreadful mortality prevailed 
 
 in 1362 and 1367, and in Ireland in 1370. 
 A great pestilence in Ireland called the Fourth, 
 
 destroyed a great number of the people, 1383. 
 30,000 persons peri.shed of a dreadful pestilence in 
 
 London, 1407. 
 Again, in Ireland, superinduced by a famine : great, 
 
 numbers died, 1466 ; and Dublin was wasted by W 
 
 plague, 1470. 
 An awful pestUence at O-xford, 1471 ; and throughout 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 * William Pitt, the second son of the great earl of Chatham, was bom March 28, 1750 ; became M.P. 
 Jan. 23, 1782; moved for reform in parliament, May 7, 1782: and became chancellor of^ the exchequer 
 in 17S2 ; died Jan. 23, 1806. 
 
PLA 
 
 567 
 
 PLA 
 
 PLAGUE, continued. 
 
 England, a plague which destroyed more people 
 
 than the continual wars for the fifteen preceding 
 
 years, 147S. Rapin : Salmon. 
 The awful Sudoi- Aaglicus, or sweating sickness, very 
 
 fatal in London, 14S5. Belaune. 
 The plague in London so dreadful that Henry VII. 
 
 and his court removed to Calais, 1499-1500. Stow. 
 The sweating sickness (mortal in three hours), in 
 
 London, 1506; and again in 1517. In most of the 
 
 capital towns in England half the inhabitants 
 
 died, and Oxford was depopulated, 9 Hen. VIII. 
 
 Stow. 
 Limerick was visited by a plague, when many 
 
 thousands perished, 1522. 
 The sweating sickness again in England, 1528 : and 
 
 in North Germany in 1329 ; and for the fifth time 
 
 in England, in 1551. 
 30,578 persons perished of the plague in London 
 
 alone, 1603-1604. It was also fatal in Ireland. 
 200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constantinople, 
 
 in 161 1. 
 In London a great mortality prevailed, and 35,417 
 
 persons perislied, 1625. 
 In France, a general mortality ; at Lyons, 60,000 
 
 persons died, 1632. 
 The plague brought from Sardinia to Naples (being 
 
 introduced by a transport with soldiers on board), 
 
 raged with such violence as to carry off 400,000 of 
 
 the inhabitants in six months, 1656. 
 
 The Great Plague of London, in 1664-5, which, 
 carried off 68,596 persons ; some say 100,000.* 
 Fires were kept up night and day to purify the 
 air for three days : and it is thought the infection 
 was not totally destroyed till the great conflagra- 
 tion of 1666. 
 
 60,000 persons perished of the plague at Marseilles 
 and neighbourhood, brought in a ship from the 
 Levant, 1720 
 
 One of the most awful plagues that ever raged, pre- 
 vailed in Syria, 1760. AbM Mariti. 
 
 In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried off 80,000 
 of the inhabitants of Bassora, 1773. 
 
 In Egypt, above 800,000 persons died of plague, 1792. 
 
 In Barbary, 3000 died daily ; and at Fez 247,000 
 perished, 1799. 
 
 In Spain and at Gibraltar, immense numbers were 
 carried off by a pestilent disease in 1804 and 1805. 
 
 Again at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever much resemb- 
 ling the plague, caused great mortality, 1828. 
 
 The Asiatic Cholera (see Cholera) made its first ap- 
 pearance in England, at Sunderland, Oct. 26, 1831 ; 
 in Scotland, at Haddington, Dec. 23, same year; 
 and in Ireland, at Belfast, March 14, 1832. 
 
 The Cholera again visited England, &c. 1848 and 
 1849. See Cholera. 
 
 The Cholera raged at Smyrna and Constantinople, 
 and appeared in Paris, Marseilles, Naples ; July 
 —Dec. 1865. 
 
 A great cattle plague in England, resembling typhus, 
 near London, begins June — increasing Dec. 1865. 
 
 PLANETS. The planet Jupiter was known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans; 
 to the former, it is said 3000 B.C. ; coiTectly inserted in a chart of the heavens, made 
 about 600 B.C., and in which 1460 stars are accurately described ; this chart is said to be in 
 the imperial lilDrary at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter are generally considered to have been 
 discovered by Galileo, 1610; but Jansen, it is affirmed, claimed some acquaintance with them 
 about twenty years before. "We now know nine primary planets, termed major ; Mcrcitry, 
 Venus, the Earth, Mars, Juj^iter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Vulcan; and eighty-four 
 secondary or minor, situated between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. + 
 
 Uranus, formerly called Georgium Sidus and 
 
 Herschel; discovered by W. Herschel (see 
 
 Georgium Sidus) .... March 13, 1781 
 
 Neptune, discovered by Galle (in consequence of 
 
 the calculations of Le Verrier and Adams, 
 
 see Neptune) Sept. 23, 1846 
 
 Vulcan (between Mercury and the Sun), dis- 
 covered by M. Lescarba\ilt, a physician, 
 
 March 26, 1859 
 Minor planets (according to Mr. G. F. Chambers). 
 I. Ceres, discovered by Piazzi (visible to the 
 
 naked eye) .... Jan. i, 1801 
 
 2. Pallas, discovered at Bremen 
 
 (see Pallas) .... 
 
 3. Juno, discovered by Harding 
 
 4. Vesta, discovered by Olbers . 
 
 5. Astrcea, by K. C. Hencke . 
 
 6. Hebe, by the same 
 
 7. Iris, by J. R. Hind . 
 
 8. Flora, by the same 
 
 9. Metis, by A. Graham 
 
 10. Hygeia, by A. De Gasparis . 
 IT. Parthenope, by the same . 
 12. Victoria, by J. R. Hind 
 
 by Olbers 
 March 28, i8oz 
 Sept. I, 1804 
 March 29, 1807 
 . Dec. 8, 1845 
 i July I, 1847 
 
 ■A-Ug. 13, „ 
 . Oct. 18, ,, 
 April, 25, 1848 
 . April 12, 1849 
 May II, 1850 
 - Sept. 13, „ 
 
 * The following passage is taken from De Foe's History of the Plague (a work of imagination) : — " It 
 commenced in December, 1664. In May, June, and July, it had continued with great severity ; but in 
 August and September it quickened into dreadful activity, sweeping away 8000 persons in a week. Then 
 it was that the whole British nation wept for the sufferings of the metropolis. In some houses carcases 
 lay waiting for burial ; and in others, persons were seen doubled up in their last agonies. In one room 
 were heard dying groans ; and in the next the ravings of delirium, mingled with the wailings of relatives 
 and friends, and the apprehensive shrieks of children. Infants passed at once from the womb to the grave. 
 The yet healthy child hung upon the putrid breast of a dead mother ; and the nuptial bed was changed 
 into a sepulchre. Som3 of the affected ran about staggering like drunken men, and fell and expired in the 
 streets ; while others calmly laid ttiemjelves down, never to rise but at the call of the last trumpet. At 
 length, in the middle of September, m^re than 12,000 perished in one week ; in one night 4000 died ; and 
 in the whole, not 6S,o3o, as has been stated, but 100,000 perished of this plague. The hearses were but 
 dead-carts which coatinuiUy traversed the streets, whUe the appalling cry, ' Bring out your dead,' thrilled 
 thi'ough every soul. Then it was that p irents, husbands, wives, and children saw all those that were dear 
 to them thrown with a pitchfork into a cart, like the offal of a slaughter-house, to be conveyed without the 
 walls, and flung into one promiscuous haap, without the rites of sepulture, without a coffin, and without 
 a shroud ! Some graves were dug so large as to hold a thousand bodies each ; and into those huge holes, 
 the living, wrapt in blankets and rags, threw themselves amDng the dead, in their agonies and delirium. 
 They were often found in this state hugging the flesh of their kindred that had not quite perished. People 
 in the intolerable torment of their swellings, ran wild and mid, laying violent hands up.m themselves ; 
 and even mothsi's, in their lunacy, murdered their own children. When the carts were insufficient for their 
 office, the houses ani streets were reni^riid tenfold mire pestilential by the unburisd dead." D.' Foe. 
 
 \ The numerical order differs in thi Usts of English ani French astroaomjrs. 
 
PLA 
 
 568 
 
 PLA 
 
 PLANETS, continued. 
 
 13. Egeria, by A. De Gasparis . . Nov. 2, 1S50 
 
 14. Irene, by J. R. Hiud . . . May tg, 1851 
 
 15. Jiunoiiiia, by A. De Gasparis . . July 29, „ 
 
 16. Pnyche, by the same . . . March 17, 1852 
 
 17. Tltelis, by R. Luther . . April 17. „ 
 
 18. Melpomene, by J. R. Hind . . June 24, ,, 
 
 19. J^ortM'/ia, by the same . . Aug. 22, ,, 
 
 20. Massilia, by A. De Gasparis . . Sept. 19, ,, 
 
 21. Lutetia, by H. Goldschmidt . Nov. 15, ,, 
 
 22. Calliope, by R. J. Hind . . . Nov. 16, ,, 
 
 23. Thalia, by the same . . . Dec. 15, „ 
 
 24. 'Ihemis, by A. De Gasparis . . April 5, 1853 
 
 25. Phocea, by M. Chacomao . . April 6, ,, 
 
 26. Proserpine, by R. Luther . . May 5, „ 
 
 27. Euterj^e, hy J . R. Hind . . Nov. 8, „ 
 
 28. Bellono, by R. Luther . . . March i, 1854 
 
 29. Amphitrite, by Mr. Marth . . M9,rch i, „ 
 
 30. Urania, by J. R. Hind . . July 22, ,, 
 
 31. Ev.p)iros>jne, by James Ferguson . Sept. i, ,, 
 
 32. Pomona, by H. Goldschmidt . Oct. 26, „ 
 
 33. Polyhymnia, by M. Chacoruac , Oct. 28, „ 
 
 34. Circe, by the same . . . April 6, 1855 
 
 35. Leucothea, by R. Luther . . April 19, ,, 
 
 36. Atalania, by H. Goldschmidt . April 19, ,, 
 
 37. Fides, by R. Luther . . . Oct. 5, „ 
 
 38. Leda, by M. Chacornac . . Jan. 12, 1856 
 
 39. Lcetitia, by the same . . . Feb. 8, „ 
 
 40. Harmoniu., by R. Luther . . March 31, „ 
 
 41. Daphne, by H. Gold.schmidt . . May 22, ,, 
 
 42. Isis^, by Norman Pogson . . May 23, ,, 
 
 43. Ariadne, by the same . . . April 15, 1857 
 
 44. Nyta, by H. Goldschmidt . . May 27, „ 
 
 45. Eugenia, by the same . . . June 28, ,, 
 
 46. Hestia, \>y N. Pogson . . . Aug. 16, ,, 
 
 47. *Mekfe, by H. Goldschmidt . . Sept. 9, ,, 
 
 48. ./li/taia, by R. Luther. . . Sept. 15, ,, 
 
 49. Doris, by H. Goldschmidt . . Sept. 19, ,, 
 
 Pales, by the same . . . Sept. 19, 
 Virginia, by James Ferguson . . Oct. 4, 
 Nemausa, by M. Laurent . . Jan. 22, 
 Europa, by H. Goldschmidt . . Feb. 6, 
 Calypso, by R. Luther . . . April 4, 
 Alexandra, by H. Goldschmidt . Sept. 10, 
 Pandora, by Mr. Searle . . . Sept. 10, 
 Mnemosyne, by R. Luther . . Sept. 22, 
 Concordia, by R. Luther . March 24, 
 Danae, by H. Goldschmidt . Sept. 9, 
 Olympia, by M. Chacornac . . Sept. 12, 
 Erato, by MM. Forsterand Lessing, Sept. 14, 
 Echo(orig. Titan ia), by J.Ferguson, Sept. 14, 
 Ausonia, by A. De Gasparis . Feb. 10, 
 Angelina, by M. Tempel . . March 4, 
 Cyhele (orig. Maximiliana), by M. Tempel, 
 March 8, 
 Maia, by H. P. Tuttle . . " 
 Asia, bj- N. Pogson 
 Zeto, by R. Luther . 
 Hesperia, by M. SchiaparcUi 
 Panopea, by H. Goldschmidt . 
 Feronia, by Mr. Safiford 
 Niobe, by R. Luther . 
 Chjlie, by H. P. Tuttle . 
 Galatea, by M. Tempel 
 Eurydice, by C. H. Peters . 
 Freia, by M. D'Arrest 
 Frigga, by C. H. Peters 
 Diana, by R. Luther 
 Eurynome, by Jas. C. Watson 
 Sappho, by N. Pogson 
 Terpsichore, by M. Tempel , 
 Alcmene, by R. Luther 
 Beatrice, by A. De Gasparis . 
 Clio, by R. Luther . 
 , by C. H. Peters 
 
 1857 
 
 1859 
 
 i86t 
 
 . April 9, 
 
 ,y 
 
 Api-il 17, 
 
 „ 
 
 April 29, 
 
 ,, 
 
 April 29, 
 
 ,, 
 
 • May 5, 
 
 ,, 
 
 May 29, 
 
 ,, 
 
 Aug. 13, 
 
 ,, 
 
 April 7, 
 
 1862 
 
 Aug. 29, 
 
 „ 
 
 Sept. 22, 
 
 ,, 
 
 Oct. 21, 
 
 ,, 
 
 Nov. 12, 
 
 ^, 
 
 March 15, 
 
 i86i 
 
 Sept. 14, 
 
 ,, 
 
 . May, 
 
 1864 
 
 Sept. 30, 
 
 ,, 
 
 Nov. 27, 
 
 ,j 
 
 April 26, 
 
 i86,.5 
 
 Aug. 27, 
 
 „ . 
 
 Sept. ig, 
 
 » ' 
 
 PLANING-MACHINE. One for wood wa.s constructed by Bramali, about 1802 ; and onej 
 for iron by Joseph Clement in 1825. 
 
 PLANTAGENET,t House of, to which belonged fourteen English kings, from Henry ILJ 
 1 154, to Pvichard III. killed at the battle of Bosworth, 1485. See England, p. 279. 
 
 PLANTATIONS. See Trade. 
 
 PLASSEY, in Bengal, India, the site of a battle fought between the British under Clive, 
 and the Hindoos under Surajah Dowlah, June 23, 1757. The nabob, although at the head 
 of about 68,000 men, was vanquished by 1000 British, and about 2000 sepoys. The victory 
 laid the foundation of our empire in India. See India. 
 
 PLASTER OF Paris. Gypsum, sulphate'of lime, used for moulds, statuary, &c., first 
 found at Montmartre, a village near Paris, whence it obtained its name. The method of 
 taking likenesses by its use was first discovered by Andrea Verrochio, about 1466. 
 
 PLATA, LA. See A )'ge7itine Republic. 
 
 PLATiEA (Boeotia, N. Greece), site of the battle between Mardonius, commander 
 of the army of Xerxes of Persia, and Pausanias, commanding the Lacedremonians and 
 Athenians, Sept. 22, 479 B.C. ; the same day as the battle of Mycale. Of 300,000 Persians 
 scarce 3000 escaped with their lives. The Grecian army, about 110,000, lost but few men. 
 The Greeks obtained immense plunder, and were henceforth delivered from the fear of Persian 
 invasions. Platrea was destroj'ed by the Thebans, 374 B.C. 
 
 PLATE. In England, plate, with the exception of sjjoons, was prohibited in public- 
 houses by statute 8 Will. III. (1696). The celebrated Plate Act passed in May 1756. This 
 act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a stamp-duty upon plate passed in 1784. See 
 
 * It was believed at first to be J)oj)^«'', No. 41 ; and hence was called "Pseudo-Daphne," when E. 
 Schubert proved it to be a new planet. It was not re-discovered by M. Goldschmidt tiU Sept. i, 1862, 
 when it received its present name, that of the Muse of Meditation. 
 
 t Fulke Martel, earl of Anjou, having contrived the death of his nephew, the earl of Brittany, in order 
 to succeed to the earldom, his confessor sent him, in atonement for the murder, to Jerusalem, attended 
 by only two servants, one of whom was to lead him by a halter to the Holy Sepulchre, the other to strip 
 and whip him there, Ulce a common malefactor. Broom, in French genet, in Latin genista, being the only 
 tough, pliant shrub in Palestine, the noble criminal was smartly scourged with it, and from this iustru- 
 ment of his chastisement, he was called Planta-genista, or Plantagenet. Sl^inner and Mdu'ray. 
 
PLA 569 PLU 
 
 Goldsmiths' Company. By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), gold wares were allowed to be manu- 
 factured at a lower standard ; but a later act excepted marriage-rings. — The art of covering 
 baser metals with a thin plate of silver, either for use or for ornament (plating), said^to have 
 been invented by a Birmingham spur-maker, who began with making the branches of a pair 
 of spurs hollow, aud filling the hollow with a slender rod of steel. He continued to make 
 the hollow larger and the iron thicker, till at last he merely coated the iron spur with silver. 
 See Electro-type. 
 
 PLATINUM, the heaviest of all the metals, except Osmium. The name originated with 
 tlie Spaniards on account of its silvery colour, from the word Plata, signifying silver. It 
 was found in the auriferous sand of the river Pinto, in South Amei'ica, and was unknown in 
 Europe until 1741, when Don Antonio Ulloa announced its existence in the narrative of his 
 voyage to Peru. Greig. In its ore have been found the metals Palladium, Ehodiuni, 
 Osmium, Iridium, and Euthenium {which see). In 1859, M. H. Ste. Claire Ueville made 
 known a new method of obtainiirg platinum from its ore, in great abundance and purity, and 
 at the international exhibition of 1862 was shown a mass worth 3840?., weighing 266| ft., of 
 a metal hitherto considered infusible, obtained by his process. 
 
 PLATONIC PHILOSOPHY, the most popular of all systems (see Philosophy). Plato's 
 dialogues have been termed ' ' Philosophy backed by example. " He was a disciple of Socrates, 
 409 B. c. and died 347. The leading feature of his mind was comprehensiveness. 
 
 PLATONIC YEAR, the period of time wliich the equinoxes take to finish their revo- 
 lution, at the end of which the stars and constellations have the same place with regard to the 
 equinoxes that they had at first. Tycho Brahe says that this year or period requires 25,816 
 common 3'ears to complete it ; Ricciolus computes it at 25,920 ; and Cassini at 24,800 ; at 
 the end of which time "some imagined that there woidd be a total and natural renovation of 
 the whole creation. 
 
 PLATTSBUEG. A British expedition against this place, a town of New York, on Lake 
 Champlaiu, was designed irnder general sir George Prevost ; but was abandoned after the 
 naval force of England had suflTered a defeat in an engagement with the Americans, Sept. 1 1, 
 1814, when the British squadron in Lake Champlain was captured. See United States. 
 
 PLAY-GEOUNDS. In 1858 a society was established by the earl of Shaftesbury and 
 other benevolent persons to provide play-grounds for the recreation of adults and the children 
 of the humble classes. Ground was liberally offered by the government, aud by the marquess 
 of Westminster and others ; and in 1859 an act of parliament was passed to facilitate grants 
 of lands for this purpose, for which part of Smithfield was to be reserved. The scheme has 
 not been successful hitherto. 
 
 PLAYS. See Drama and Theatres. 
 
 PLEADINGS. Clothaire held a kind of moveable parliament called placita, whence 
 came the word pleas, A.D. 616. Heiumlt. In the early courts of judicature in England, 
 pleadings were made in the Saxon language in 786 ; and in Norman-French from the period 
 of the conquest in 1066 until 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to be taken in 
 English in 1650. In English law the pleadings are the mutual statements of the plaintiff's 
 cause of action, and the defendant's ground of defence. 
 
 PLEBEIANS, Plebes, the citizens of Eome,''distinct from the Patricians. See Rome, 
 494-366 B. c. 
 
 PLOTS. See Conspiracies and Relellions. 
 
 PLOUGH MONDAY, in January, the first Monday after the Epiphany. In 1866, Jan. 8; 
 in 1867, Jan. 14. It received^the appellation fi'om its having been fixed upon by our forefathers 
 as the day upon which they returned to the duties of agriculture after enjoying the festivities 
 of Christmas. Ashe. On Plough Monday, too, the ploughmen of the north country used to 
 draw a plough from door to door and beg plough money to drink. Bailey. " 
 
 PLUM. We have two native plirms : our finer kinds came from Italy and Flanders about 
 1522. The Diospyros Lotus, the date-plum, was brought from Barbary, before 1596. The 
 Pishamin plum, Dios23y7'os Virginiana, from America, before 1629. Formerly damsons, 
 apricots, and peaches went by this name, as raisins do to this day. 
 
 PLURALITIES. Clergymen have been restrained from holding more than one benefice 
 by several statutes ; the first being 21 Henry VIII. 1529. In 1838 an act was passed 
 prohibiting the holding of more than two benefices except they were at a distance less 
 than ten miles; and the law on this subj ect was still further amended in 1850 and 1855, 
 provisions being made for the amalgamation of neighbouring benefices. 
 
PLU 570 POE 
 
 PLURAL NUMBER. See We. 
 
 PLUS (+) and Minus ( — ). Professor De Morgan attributes these signs to either 
 Christopher Rudolf, Avho published a book on algebra about 1522, or Michael Stifelius, 
 about 1544. 
 
 PLYMOUTH, a fortified seaport in Devonshire. It was in 1588 the rendezvous of the 
 English fleet of 120 sail under Howard, Drake, &c., which pursued the Spanish Armada. 
 The line hotel and assembly-rooms were burnt Jan. 6, 1863 ; loss about 50,000?. See Break- 
 water and Dock-yards. 
 
 PLYMOUTH BRETHRElSr. A body of Christians calUng themselves "the Brethren," 
 which fust appeared at Plymouth about 1S30. In 185 1 they had 132 places of worship in 
 England and Wales. They object to national churches as too latitudinarian, and to dissenters 
 as too sectarian. They receive into communion all who confess Christ, and own the Holy 
 Ghost as his vicar. Their doctrines agree with those of most evangelical Protestant churches, 
 but they recognise no order of ministers. 
 
 PNEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY conveys letters and parcels through tubes by 
 means of atmosjiheric pressure and a vacuum. The company's act was passed Aug. 13, 1859, 
 and tubes were laid down in Threadneedle-street on Sept. 12, i860 : and on Aug. 20, 1861, 
 successful experiments were performed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid down from 
 the Eustoli railway station to the N.W. post-office in Camden-town, and on Feb. 21, 1863, 
 the conveyance of the mail-bags began. In Oct. 1865, tubes had been laid down between 
 Euston railway and Holboru ; and on Nov. 7, several persons travelled in them. Engineer, 
 Mr. Rammell. 
 
 PNEUMATIC LOOM, in which compressed air is the motive power, invented by Mr. 
 Harrison, was exhibited in London in Dec, 1864. A company has been formed to bring it 
 into general use. 
 
 PNEUMATICS, the science which treats of the mechanical properties of air and gases. 
 See Air and Atmospheric Railways. 
 
 PODESTA (from x^^i^stas, power), an Italian governor, afterwards a judge ; one with 
 supreme authority was appointed at Milan by the emperor Frederick I., when he took the 
 city in 11 58. 
 
 POET-LAUREAT. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office.* Chaucer, 
 on his return fi'om abroad, assumed the title of poet-laureat ; and in the twelfth year of 
 Richard II. 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of wine. James I. in 1615, 
 granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100 marks ; and in 1630, this stipend was 
 augmented by letters patent of Charles I. to .100?. per annum, with an additional grant of 
 one tierce of Canary Spanish wine to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. 
 
 POETS-LAUKEAT FROM THE REIGN OF QUEEN ELIZABETH, f 
 
 Edmund Spenser, died .... 1598-9 
 
 Samuel Daniel, died 1619 
 
 Ben Jonson, died 1637 
 
 Sir William Davenant, died 1668 
 
 Rev. Laurence Eusden, died . . . . r73o 
 
 Colley Gibber, died 1757 
 
 William Whitehead, died , . . . . 1783 
 Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died . . . . 1790 
 
 John Dryden : deposed at the revolution . . 1688 1 Henry James Pyo, died 1813 
 
 Thomas Shadwell, died 1692 j Dr. Robert Southey, died . . March 21, 1843 
 
 Nahiim Tate, died 1715 William Wordsworth, died . . April 23, 1850 
 
 Nicholas Rowe, died 1718 | Alfred Temiyson (bom 1809) . . installed 1850 
 
 POETRY, the oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest species of 
 refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and the earliest perpetuation of 
 thought. It existed before music in melody, and before painting in description. Hazlitt. 
 
 * Warton, in his Historij of English Poetry, states that in the reign of Henry III. there was a Versificator 
 Regis, to whom an annual stipend was first paid of one hundred shillings. The first mention of a Poet 
 Laureat occurs, we believe, in the reign of Edward IV., when John Kay was laureat ; Andrew Bernard was 
 laureat, temp. Henry VII. ; and John Skelton, temp. Henry VIII. Edmund Spenser, as above, was poet- 
 laureat in the reign of Elizabeth. Whitehead was created on the refusal of Grey, Warton on the refusal of 
 Mason, and Southey on the refusal of Scott. Laurence Eusden commeaced a series of Birth-Day and New 
 Year's Odes which continued till the death of Pye, in 1813. AVe believe that on Southey's appointment 
 the tierce of Canary wine was commuted for 27?. 
 
 t "At the accession of George I. Rowe was made poet-laureat, I am afraid by the ejection of poor 
 Nahum Tate, who died in the Mint, where lie was forced to seek shelter from extreme poverty." Dr. 
 Johnson. On the death of Warton its abolition was recommended by Gibbon, whose elegant compliment 
 on the occasion still more forcibly applied on Wordsworth's death, in 1850. — " This is the best time for not 
 filling up the ofiBce, when the prince is a man of virtue, and the poet just departed was a man of genius." 
 — Decline and Full, d:c., chaix \iLX, 
 
POI 
 
 571 
 
 POL 
 
 The soug of Moses on the deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Eed 
 Sea, 1491 B.C. {Exodus xv.), is the most ancient poetry extant. Orpheus of Thrace is deemed 
 the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world) about 1249 B.C. See Exncs, 
 Odes, Satire, Comedy, Tragedy, Sonnets, Ballads, Hymns, and Verse. 
 
 POICTIEES (W. France), the site of the battle between Edward the Black Prince and 
 John, king of France, in which the English arms triumphed, Sept. 19, 1356. The standard 
 of France was overthrown, many of her nobility slain, and her king was taken prisoner, and 
 brought to London. Carte. 
 
 POISONING. A number of Koman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning their 
 husbands, which they too fatally carried into effect. A female slave denounced 1 70 of them 
 to Fabius Maximus, who ordered them to be publicly executed, 331 B.C. It was said that 
 this was the first public knowledge they had of poisoning at Rome.* Poisoning was made 
 petty treason in England, and was punished by boiling to death (of which there are some 
 remarkable instances) 23 Hen. VIII. 1532. ^q& Boiling to Death. The frequency of cases 
 of poisoning by means of arsenic, in England, caused the British legislature to pass a law 
 rendering the sale of arsenic (which, until then, could be obtained without check by any 
 person from druggists' and apothecaries' shops) a matter of difficulty. This act regulated the 
 sale of arsenic, and was passed 14 Vict. c. 13, June 6, i85i.t Recent remarkable cases 
 of poisoning are those for which W. Palmer was executed in 1856, and Miss M. Smith tried 
 in 1857 (see Trials). Catherine Wilson, a noted poisoner, was executed on Oct. 20, 1862. 
 Edward William Pritchard, M.D., was executed at Glasgow, July 28, 1865, for the slow 
 murder of his wife and her mother, by antimony. A committee of the commons on the 
 subject of the sale of poisons was appointed in 1857, but no legislation has yet ensued. The 
 Poisoned Grain Prohibition Act was passed July 28, 1863. 
 
 POITOTJ, an ancient province W. France, 'part of the dowry of Eleanor, queen of 
 Henrj' II. of England. It partook of the fortunes of Aquitaine {lohich see). 
 
 POLAND (N.E. Europe), part of ancient Sarmatia. It is said to have become a duchy 
 under Lechus or Lesko I. 550 ; and a kingdom under Boleslaus, about 992. The natives 
 belong to the great Sclavonic family. The word Pole is not older than the loth century. 
 Population of the kingdom of Poland in 1857 was 4,789,379. 
 
 Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the ducal 
 dignity abont 
 
 [Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his reign 
 was so prosperous that every succeeding 
 native sovereign was called a Piast.] 
 
 Introdxiction of Christianity . . . about 
 
 Boleslaus II. murders St. Stanislas, the bishop 
 of Cracow, with his own hands, 1079 ; his 
 kingdom laid under an interdict by the pope, 
 and his subjects absolved of their allegiance, 1080 
 
 He flies to Hungary for shelter ; but is refused 
 it by order of Gregory VII., and he at length 
 kills himself or dies in a monastery 
 
 Tartar invasion 
 
 Premislas assassinated 
 
 Louis of Hungary elected king . . . . 
 
 Ladislas VI. defeated and slain by the Turks . 
 
 War against the Teutonic knights 
 
 The Wallachian invaders carry off 100,000 Poles, 
 and sell them to the Turks as slaves . . . 149^ 
 
 Splendid reign of Sigismund II. ... 1548 
 
 992 
 
 1081 
 1241 
 1295 
 1370 
 1444 
 1447 
 
 Stephen forms a militia composed of Cossacks, 
 
 on whom he bestows the Ukraine . . . 1575 
 Abdication of John Casimir .... 1668 
 Victories of John Sobieski over the Turks at 
 
 Vienna 1683 
 
 Many Protestants kUled after an affray at Thorn 1724 
 Stanislaus abolishes torture . ' . . . 1770 
 An awful pestilence destroys 250,000 persons . „ 
 The evils of civil war so weaken the kingdom, 
 that it falls an easy prey to the empress of 
 Eussia, emperor of Austria, and king of 
 
 Prussia 1772 
 
 The first partition treaty . . . Feb. 17, ,, 
 The public partition treaty . . . Aug. 5. ,, 
 A new constitution granted by the king May 3, 1791 
 The Russians, ifec, on various pretexts enter 
 
 Poland 1792 
 
 The Poles, under Poniatowski and Kosciusko 
 (battle of Maciejovice), defeated (Kosciusko 
 is carried prisoner to Russia) . Oct. 4, 1794 
 
 Suwarrow's victories and massacres . . . ,, 
 Battle of Warsaw Oct. 4, ,, 
 
 * A deadly poison freely administered by Italians in the seventeenth century, was called agiiatofana, 
 from the name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in small flat vials. She carried on this traffic 
 for half a century, and eluded the pohce ; but, on being taken, confessed that she had been a party in 
 poisoning 600 people. Numerous persons were implicated by her, and many of them were publicly exe- 
 cuted. AU Italy was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some persons of distinction, on conviction, 
 were strangled in prison. It appeared to have been chiefly used by married women who were tired of 
 their husbands. "Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was not sudden, and therefore not 
 suspected. It was as clear as water, but the chemists have not agreed about its real composition. A pro- 
 clamation of the pope described it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others considered it as a solution 
 of crystallised arsenic. Between 1666 and 1676 the marchioness de BrinvUUers poisoned her father and two 
 brothers and many others. She was executed July 16, 1676. 
 
 t Nov. 1858, 17 persons diedat Bradford through eating sweetmeats in which arsenic had been mixed 
 by mistake. Mr. Hodgson, a chemist, was tried for homicide, but was acquitted— though guilty of 
 culpable negUgenoe. 
 
POL 
 
 572 
 
 POL 
 
 POLAND, continued. 
 
 Courland is annexed to Russia .... 1795 
 Stanislaus resigns his crown at Grodno ; final 
 
 partition of his kingdom . . Nov 25, ,, 
 Kosciu.fko set at liberty . . . Dec. 25, 1796 
 He arrives in London . . . May 30, 1797 
 Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburg . Feb. 12, 1798 
 Treaty of Tilsit {which see) . . . July 7, 1807 
 General Diet at Warsaw . . June, 1812 
 
 The central provinces form the duchy at War- 
 saw, between 1807 and 1813 ; which is made 
 the kingdom of Poland under Alexander of 
 
 Russia April 30, 1815 
 
 New constitution granted and Cracow declared 
 to be a free republic . . . Nov. 27, ,, 
 
 Poli.sh Diet opened ^ept. 1820 
 
 A revolution at Warsaw ; the army declare in 
 
 favom- of the people . . Nov. 29, 1S30 
 
 The Diet declares the throne of Poland vacant, 
 
 Jan. 25, 1831 
 Battle of Grochow, near Praga ; the Russians 
 lose 7000 men ; the Poles, who keep the field, 
 
 2000 Feb. 25, „ 
 
 Battle of Wawz {uhich see) . . March 31, ,, 
 The insurrection spreads to Wilna and Volhynia, 
 
 AprQ 3, „ 
 Battle of Zelicho .... April 6, ,, 
 
 Battle of Seidlece April 10, ,, 
 
 Battle of Ostrolcnka {which see), defeat of the 
 
 Russians May 26, „ 
 
 The Russian general Diebitsch, dies June 10, ,, 
 
 Battle of Wihia June 19, ,, 
 
 Grandduke Constantine dies . . June 27, ,, 
 
 Battle of Minsk July 14, ,, 
 
 Warsaw taken (see irarscur) . . Sept. 8, ,, 
 
 The insurrection suppressed . . Oct. 5, ,, 
 Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, decree- 
 ing that the kingdom of Poland shall hence- 
 forth form an integral pa-t of the Russian 
 empire ...... Feb. 26, 1832 
 
 Attempt at revolution in Poland* . Feb. 22, 1846 
 The courts of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 
 revoke the treaty of 181 5 which constituted 
 Cracow a free repubhc, and it is declared 
 Austrian territory .... Nov. 16, „ 
 
 [This annexation was protested against by 
 
 England, France, Sweden, and Tin-key.] 
 The kingdom of Poland finally made a Russian 
 province . . • . . . . May, 1847 
 
 Great popular demonstration in commemora- 
 tion of the battle of Grochow . Feb. 25, 1861 
 Six members of the Royal Agricultural Society 
 
 killed by the milit;trj' . . . Feb. 27, ,, 
 Great excitement at their funeral ; many citi- 
 zens put on mourning ; an address to the 
 emperor Alexander signed by 60,000 persons ; 
 mild conduct of prince Gortschakoff, the 
 governor ..... March 1-7, ,, 
 
 Mukhanoff, curator of Poland, who had written 
 a circular exciting the peasantry against their 
 lords, quits Warsaw, which is illuminated in 
 consequence .... March 17, ,, 
 
 The government promises reforms and the re- 
 estabhshment of Poland as a separate king- 
 dom ; yet aboUshes the Agricultural Society, 
 
 April 7, ,, 
 
 Great meeting in consequence ; which is dis- 
 persed by the military (now 32,000 strong) ; 
 above 100 are killed and wounded April S, 
 
 Great agitation in the rural districts ; the Rus- 
 sian officials quit LubUn ; general Chruleff 
 marches hither April, 
 
 80,000 soldiers in Poland; reign of terror in 
 Warsaw May, 
 
 Death of Prince Gortschakoff, lieut.-gen. of 
 Poland May 30, 
 
 New administrative council appointed June, 
 
 Death of prince Adam Czai'toryski at Paris, 
 aged 91 July 15, 
 
 Oppressive regulations issued respecting dress . 
 
 Fi'esh disturbances : Warsaw put in a state of 
 siege Oct. 
 
 Military aiTests in ch\irches in Warsaw, they 
 are closed by the priests . . . Oct. 1 7, 
 
 The governor, count Lambert, leaves Warsaw, 
 
 Oct. 23, 
 
 General Gerstenzweig, the miUtary governor, 
 assassinated Oct. 25, 
 
 Bialobzeski, catholic archbishop of Warsaw, 
 arrested, Nov. ig ; tried and condemned to 
 death as a rebel for closing the churches [he 
 died shortly after] . . . Dec. 18, 
 
 The new archbishop Felinski exhorts the Poles 
 to submission Feb. 15, 
 
 Rigour of the government relaxed ; amnesty 
 
 granted to 89 convicted political prisoners, 
 
 April 29, 
 
 The grandduke Constantine appointed gover- 
 nor, May 28 ; begins with lenient poUcy, but 
 his life is attempted by Jai'oszynsky, July 3, 
 who is executed .... Aug. 21, 
 
 Attempted assa.<*sination of Wielojaolski, a liberal 
 Pole, president of the council . . Aug. 26, 
 
 Count Zamoyski, an eminent loyal Pole, exiled 
 for presenting to the government the report 
 of a meeting of nobles at Warsaw, for which he 
 had been asked .... Sept. 
 
 Telkner, the chief of the secret police, found 
 murdered ..... Nov. 9, 
 
 Severe miUtary conscription without notice, 
 
 Jan. 14, 
 
 Insurrection in the night ; at Warsaw Jan. 22, 
 
 Many Russians murdered ; Poland put in a 
 state of siege .... Jan. 24, 
 
 The Polish provisional government issues its 
 first proclamation .... Feb. 2, 
 
 Lonis Mieroslawski announces himself as head 
 of the Poles, Feb. ig; his baud defeated and 
 dispersed Feb. 23, 
 
 Marian Langiewicz declaied dictator of Poland, 
 
 March 10 ; aft«r several defeats he enters the 
 
 Austrian territory, is detected and imprisoned 
 
 March 19, 
 
 The insurrection becomes general and is sup- 
 ported by the landed proprietors, Feb. ; suc- 
 cessful guerilla warfare March and April, 
 
 The secret central committee assumes the 
 supreme command . . . March, 
 
 The czar's offer of an amnesty to aU who 
 
 lay down arms before May 13 ; rejected, 
 
 April 12, 
 
 1863 
 
 * On Feb. 22, 1846, an Au.strian force under general CoUin, which had entered Cracow on the approach 
 of armed bands of peasantry, was attacked and driven out of the town. A Provisional Government was 
 then proclaimed by the insurgents, and two days afterwards they cro.ssed the Vistula, expecting to be 
 joined by the peasantry of Gallicia, who were solicited by the nobles and clergy to sti-ike a blow in the 
 cause of liberty. The Austrian govemmcn'-, in order to prevent this junction", excited in the peasantry 
 a suspicion of the motives of the nobles, and ofl^ered a reward for every noble delivered up, alive or dead : 
 a general massacre of the nobility and clergy in the circle of Tarnow followed : the insurgents from Cracow 
 were defeated at Gdow, whence they retreated to Podgorze, a suburb of Cracow ; here they were attacked 
 by General Colhn, and driven into Cracow on the 27th of February. The forces of the three powers then 
 began to concentrate on Cracow ; the jjeople in the town opened negotiations with the Austrians about a 
 surrender, and while these were going on, a Russian corps entered the town without resistance, and soon 
 afterwards the revolution was at an end. 
 
POL 
 
 573 
 
 POL 
 
 POLAND, continued. 
 
 Eiii'opean intervention on behalf of Poland, 
 April 17, <fec. ; firmly replied to by the czar, 
 
 April 26, (fee, 1863 
 
 The secret committee (as a provisional govern- 
 ment) levies taxes, May 3, and forbids pay- 
 raent of taxes to Russia . . . May 9, ,, 
 
 So.oooJ. ta,ken from the Russian treasury at 
 Warsaw for the provisional govemment, 
 June 12 ; the Teles claim the Poland of 1772, 
 
 June 26, ,, 
 
 Fruitless intervention of European powers ; 
 sanguinary rule of Mouravieflf at Wilna, June, ,, 
 
 General Berg replaces the marquis de Wie- 
 polski, as lieut. -general, and governs with 
 great rigour July 7, ,, 
 
 Unsuccessful invasion of Volhynia by the Poles 
 under Wysocki and Horodycki, July i ; 
 Felinski, the B. C. archbishop of Warsaw, 
 banished, July; frequent conflicts with 
 varying results ; many captured priests and 
 nobles executed Aug. ,, 
 
 Lelewel, a brave Pole, after several victories 
 killed in battle Sept. 6, ,, 
 
 Earl Russell decides against armed interven- 
 tion, Aug. : negotiation ceases . . Sept. „ 
 
 Gen. Berg fired at from the Zamoyski hotel, 
 Warsaw, Sept. 19; the hotel destroyed, Sept. ,, 
 
 Many eminent Poles executed, Oct. ; Wni. 
 Alger, an Englishman, shot at Warsaw for 
 making grenades ; the hotel de ville fired, 
 
 Oct. g, ,, 
 
 Mourning forbidden to be worn for the Poles 
 
 at Warsaw, Oct. 27; 41 ladies arrested at 
 night Nov. 3, : 
 
 The Times correspondent expelled from Warsaw, 
 
 Nov. 27, 
 
 The abbtj Machiewicz, a warlike priest, venerated 
 as a martyr, hanged . . . Deo. 28, 
 
 Mouravieff rules Lithuania with great rigour, 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Numerous skirmishes, and many executions of 
 prisoners captured by the Russians ; the insur- 
 rection gradually dying out Jan. to April, : 
 
 The pope promulgates an arrogant encyclical 
 letter to the Polish church . . July 30, 
 
 Romuald Traugott, formerly a Russian colonel, 
 the head of the Polish provisional govern- 
 ment since Oct. 1863, and five others, hanged, 
 
 Aug. s. 
 
 Decree for reorganising education at Warsaw, 
 founding a university, &c. . . Sept. 11, 
 
 The secret provisional government, after stating 
 that 50,000 men had been slain, and 100,000 
 exiled to Siberia, still calls on the Poles to 
 begin a "national man" . . Sept. 21, 
 
 Many R. C. convents cl»sed for participating in 
 the insurrection .... Nov. 
 
 Further measures for denationalising Poland 
 adopted Dec. 
 
 The ex-dictator Langiewicz released by the 
 Austrians and sent to Switzei'land . Feb. 
 
 The abbd Stanislas Bizoski and his lieutenant, 
 captured and executed . . . May 23, 
 See Cracow, Warsaw, and Russia. 
 
 DUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. 
 
 842. 
 
 921. 
 962. 
 992. 
 
 1025. 
 1034. 
 
 1037. 
 1041. 
 
 1082. 
 1 102. 
 1138. 
 II45- 
 II73- 
 1178. 
 1 194. 
 1200. 
 1202. 
 1206. 
 
 1227. 
 1279. 
 1289. 
 1290. 
 
 1296. 
 1300. 
 1304- 
 1333- 
 
 1399- 
 1434- 
 
 Piastus, dul-e. 
 Ziemovitus, his son. 
 Lesko or Lescus IV. 
 Ziemomislas, son of Lesko. 
 Miecislas I. becomes Christian. 
 Boleslas I. surnamed the Lion-hearted ; ob- 
 tained the title of king from the emperor 
 
 Otho III. 
 Miecislas II. 
 Richense or Richsa, his consort, regent ; driven 
 
 from the government. 
 [Anarchy.] 
 Casimir I. her son, surnamed the Pacific; he 
 
 had retired to a monastery, but was invited 
 
 to the throne. 
 Boleslas II. styled the intrepid. 
 Ladislas, called the Careless. 
 Boleslas III. surnamed Wry-mouth. 
 Ladislas II. son of the preceding. 
 Boleslas IV. the Curled. 
 Miecislas III. the Old : deposed. 
 Casimir II. surnamed the Just. 
 Lesko V. the White : abdicated. 
 Miecislas III. : restored. 
 Ladislas III. : retired. 
 Lesko V. restored ; assassinated ; succeeded 
 
 by his son, an infant. 
 Boleslas V. surnamed the Chaste. 
 Lesko VI. surnamed the Black. 
 [HoiTid Anarchy.] 
 Premislas, styled king of Poland, governs 
 
 wisely : assassinated. 
 Ladislas I. (IV.) the Short : deposed. 
 Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, abandons Poland. 
 Ladislas IV. the Short. 
 Casimir III. the Great, one of the best princes 
 
 of Poland ; encourages the arts and amends 
 
 the law ; killed by a fall from his horse. 
 Louis, king of Hungary. 
 Maria, and 1384 Hedvrige (daughters of Louis), 
 
 and her consort, JageUo, duke of Lithuania, 
 
 by the style of Ladislas V. 
 Ladislas II. (V.) alone : he united Lithuania to 
 
 Poland. 
 Ladislas III. (VI.) his son ; succeeded as king 
 
 of Hungary, 1440. 
 
 1492. 
 
 1501. 
 
 1506. 
 
 1586. 
 1587. 
 
 1632. 
 
 1674 
 
 1709. 
 . 1733- 
 
 1763- 
 1764. 
 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 Casimir IV. 
 
 John (Albert) I. his son. 
 
 Alexander, prince of Livonia, brother of the 
 
 preceding. 
 Sigismund I. brother of Alexander; obtained 
 
 the surname of the Great. 
 Sigismund II. Augustus, son of the last king ; 
 
 a splendid reign ; added Livonia to his 
 
 kingdom ; died 1570. Interregnum. 
 
 ELECTED MONARCHS. 
 
 Henry de Valois, duke of Anjou, brother to 
 
 the king of France ; he afterwards succeeded 
 
 to the French throne. 
 Stephen Bathori, prince of Transylvania : 
 
 established the Cossacks as a militia. 
 [Interregnum.] 
 Sigismuud III. son of the king of Sweden, to 
 
 the exclusion of Maximilian of Austria, 
 
 elected by the nobles. 
 Ladislas IV. (VII.) Vasa, son of Sigismund 
 
 III. ; succeeded by his brother. 
 John II. or Casimir V. : abdicated, and retired 
 
 to France, where he died in 1672. 
 [Interregnum.] 
 Michael-Koributh-Wiesnowiski : in this reign 
 
 the Cossacks join the Turks, and ravage 
 
 Poland. 
 John III. Sobieski ; the last independent 
 
 king ; illustrious for victories over the 
 
 Cossacks, Turks, and Tartars. 
 [Interegnum.] 
 Frederick-Augustus I. son of John-George, 
 
 elector of Saxony : and elector in 1694, 
 
 deprived of his crovsm. 
 Stanislas I. (Lezinski) ; forced to retire from 
 
 his kingdom in 1709. 
 Frederick-Augustus again. 
 Frederick- Augustus II., son of the preceding 
 
 sovereign. 
 [Interregnum. ] 
 Stanislaus II. Augustus Poniatowski, resigned 
 
 his sovereignty, Nov. 25, 179s; died at St. 
 
 Petersburg, a state piisouer, Feb. 12, 1798. 
 
POL 574 POL 
 
 POLAR CLOCK. An optical apparatus invented by professor "VVheatstone (about 1849), 
 whereby the hour of the day is found by means of the polarisation of light. 
 
 POLARISATIOlSr OF LIGHT. See Optics. 
 
 POLAR REGIONS. See North-West Passage and South Pole. 
 
 POLE STAR, or Polar Star. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of 
 the constellation called the Little Bear ; its nearness to the North Pole causes it never to set 
 to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the seaman's guide. Two 
 stars in the constellation Ursa Major, or Great Bear, are called pointers to the Polar star. 
 The discovery of the Pole star is ascribed by the Chinese to their emperor, Hong Ti, the 
 grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned and flourished 1970 B.C. Univ. Hist. 
 
 POLICE. The London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. Its 
 jurisdiction was extended 27 Eliz. 1585, and 16 Chas. I. 1640 ; and the system improved by 
 various acts in subsecLuent reigns. The magistracy at Bow street has been long established. 
 See Maijistrates. 
 
 Police offices. The jurisdiction of twenty-one 1 intendents, 140 inspectors, 630 sergeants, and 
 
 magistrates, tbree to preside in each of the | 5296 constables. 
 
 seven divisional offices, commenced Aug. i, 1792 The total efficient police force in England and j 
 The Thames police was established in . . . 1798 i Wales, exclusive of the Metropolis, in Sept. 
 The London police was remodelled by Mr. I 1859 was 11,309, and in Sept. 1863, 14,661. See 
 
 (afterwards sir Eobert) Peel, by statute 10 | Constabulary. 
 
 Geo. IV. June 19, 1829, and commenced duty Division X. was established to attend the Inter- 
 Sept. 29, 1829 I national Exhibition in it62 
 
 The London police Improvement acts passed 3 
 Vict. 1839, 4 Vict. 1840, which were amended 
 by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 2 1856 
 
 In 1857 the total expenditure was 445,212?. for 
 the Metropolitan poUce, consisting of i7super- 
 
 The whole police and constabulary in England 
 and Wales amounted to 23,032 men ; Metro- 
 politan police, 6590 ; city of London police, 
 743; dockyard police, &c., 743, on Sept. 29, 1863 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY, the science which has for its object the improvement of the 
 condition of mankind, and the promotion of civilisation, wealth, and happiness. Its history 
 in this country may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations," 
 1776. The works of Mill and M'Culloch are justly celebrated. A professorship of Political 
 Economy was established at Oxford by Mr. Henry Drummond, M. P., 1825; and at 
 Cambridge, first by Mr. G. Pryme, in 1828 ; but regularly established by the university in 
 1863, Henry Fawcett (blind) being the fii'st professor. 
 
 POLITICAL UNIONS were formed in England in 183 1 to carry the Reform BiU ; the 
 most important was that of Birmingham. 
 
 POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man well versed in policy, or the well 
 regulating and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and cunning man. A man of artifice ; 
 one of deep contrivance. South. The term was first u.sed in France about 1569. Henault. 
 A new faction appeared, known bj'' the name of Politicians, headed by the due d'Alen§on 
 and the Montmorencies, and strengthened by the accession of the Huguenots iu 1574. The 
 duke was arrested and the Montmorencies sent to the Bastile. Iclerii. 
 
 POLLENTIA (Piedmont, N. Italy), the site of a great victory of Stilicho, the Imperial 
 general, over Alaric the Goth, March 29, 403. 
 
 POLL- ACT. An iniquitous act passed in Ireland by the Junto of the Pale, putting a 
 price upon the heads of certain of the ancient Irish ; the earl of Desmond being then deputy, 
 5 Edward IV. 1465. This act endured for a number of years. For particulars, see note to 
 article Ireland, p. 397. Numbers of the Irish suffered under this act. Scully. 
 
 POLL-TAX, or Capitation Tax, existed among the ancient Romans. It was first levied 
 in England in 1379 ; and occasioned the rebellion of Wat Tyler (see Tyler), 1381. It was 
 again levied in 1513. By the i8th Charles II. every subject was assessed by the head, viz., 
 a duke lool., a marquis 80Z., a baronet 30Z., a knight 20I., an esquire loZ., and every single 
 private person I2f^., 1667. This gi'ievous impost was abolished by WiUiam III. at the period 
 of the Revolution, 
 
 POLOTSK (Russia). The French under marshal Oudinot were here defeated by the 
 Russians under general Wittgenstein, July 30 and 31, 1812. The same armies contending 
 the next day, the Russians were defeated. After several actions of less note, in which the 
 advantage was sometimes on one, sometimes on the otlier side, Polotsk was stormed by the 
 Russians, and retaken Oct. 1812. 
 
POL 
 
 575 
 
 POM 
 
 POLTOWA. ^aePultoica. 
 
 POLYGAMY, &c. Most of the early nations of the world permitted polygamy. In Media, 
 it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony 
 is mentioned as the iirst who took two wives ; and the practice became frequent, until 
 forbidden by Arcadins, 393. The emperor Charles V. punished this offence with death. 
 In England, by statiite i James I. 1603, it was made felony, but with benefit of clergy. This 
 offence was punished with transportation, but now by imprisonment or penal servitude. It 
 is permitted by the Mahometans and Mormonites. See Marriages. Polyandey (where one 
 woman has several husbands) is permitted in some eastern countries, the children having 
 equal rights. 
 
 POLYGLOT, a term derived from two Greek words denoting " many languages, " is chiefly 
 applied to editions of the Bible in several languages. 
 
 , Tlie Complutensian Polyglot, in six vols, folio, 
 was printed at Alcala (Complutensis) in Spain, 
 1502-14 ; the first edition- published in 1522, at the 
 expense of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes, cost- 
 ing 250,000 ducats. Six hundred copies of it were 
 printed ; three on vellum. Count Mac Carthy, of 
 Toulouse, paid 483^. for one of these copies at the 
 Pinelli sale. 
 
 :. The Polyglot, printed at Antwerp, by Montanus, 
 
 8 vols, folio, in 1559-69, at the expense of Philip II. 
 of Spain. 
 
 3. Printed at Paris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio, 
 1628-45. 
 
 4. Edited by Bryan Walton, was published in 6 vols, 
 folio, 1654-7. 
 
 Copies of all four are in the library of the British 
 and Foreign Bible Society. 
 
 5. Edited by Dr. Samuel Lee, published by S. 
 Bagster, i vol. foUo, 1831. 
 
 POLYNESIA, a name recently given to the isles in the great Pacific Ocean. 
 
 ' POLYPES {many-footed) animals, also named Hydrse, on account of their property of 
 rej)roducing themselves when cut in pieces, every part soon becoming a perfect animal ; first 
 discovered by Leeuwenhoek, and described by him in the Philosophical Trans. 1703. The 
 polj^es are of the order Zoophytes ; they partake of the animal and vegetable nature, and 
 therefore are justly placed as the link which joins the animal to the vegetable world. 
 
 POLYTECHNIC mSTITUTION, Eotal, Eegent-street, London, was _ erected by 
 Thompson in 1838, and enlarged in 1848. It contains a hall of manufactures with machines 
 worked by steam-power, lecture theatres, &c., diving-bell, electric machine, &c. Timhs. 
 The institution did not prosper commercially, and its decline was hastened by the fall of a 
 staircase on Jan. 3, 1859, when one person was killed and many injured. The institution 
 was closed in May, 1859, but was re- opened by a new company on Nov. 12, i860. 
 
 POMEGEANATE TEEE {Punica Oranatum) was brought to England from Spain before 
 1584. It originally came from Spanish America. 
 
 POMERANIA, a Prussian province, N. Germany, was held by the Poles, 980, and by 
 Denmark, 1210 ; made an independent duchy, 1479 ; and divided between Sweden and 
 Brandenburg, 1648. The Swedish part was ceded to Prussia in 1815. 
 
 POMFEET or Poktefeact (S. York). At the castle (built 1069), Eichard II. was 
 confined and murdered, Feb. 10. Henry lY., by whom he was deposed, wishing for his 
 death, an assassin, attended by eight followers, rushed into the king's apartment. He 
 wrested a pole-axe from one of the murderers, and soon laid four of their number dead at 
 his feet, but was at length overpowered and slain. Some writers assert that Eichard escaped 
 and died in Scotland. In this castle also, the earl Elvers, lord Gray, sir Thomas Yaughan, 
 and sir Eichard Haut or Hause, were executed, or rather murdered, by order of the duke of 
 Gloucester, then protector of England (afterwards Eichard III.), June 13 — 26, 1483. 
 
 POMPEII (S. Italy), an ancient city of Campania, was partly demolished by an earth- 
 quake in a.d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, but was swallowed up by an awful eruption 
 of Yesuvius, accompanied by an earthquake, on the night of the 24th of August, 79. 
 Many of the principal citizens happened at the time to be assembled at a theatre where public 
 spectacles were exhibited. The ashes buried the whole city and covered the surrounding 
 country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries, a countryman, as he was turning up the groimd, 
 accidentally found a bronze figure ; and this discovery attracting the attention of the learned, 
 further search brought numerous other objects to light, and at length the city was once more 
 shone on by the sun. The part first cleared was supposed to be the main street, 1750. The 
 kings of Naples have greatly aided in uncovering Pompeii, and the present Italian govern- 
 ment resumed the work in 1863. 
 
POM 
 
 57(3 
 
 POO 
 
 POMPEY'S PILLAR stands about three-quarters of a mile from Alexandria, between 
 the city and the lake Mai'eotis. The shaft is fluted, and the capital ornaraented with palm- 
 leaves ; the whole, which is highly polished, composed of three pieces, and of the Corinthian 
 order. The colimin measures, according to some, 94 feet ; and others 141, and even 160 feet ; 
 but of its origin, name, use, and age, nothing is certain.* 
 
 PONDICHEERY (S.E. India), the capital of French India, and first settled by the 
 French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and was besieged by the 
 English in 1748. It was taken by the English in Jan. 1761, and was restored in 1763; 
 again taken Oct. 1778, and restored in 1783. Pondicherry was captured by the British, 
 Aug. 23, 1793, and in 1803 ; but was restored to the French in 1815. 
 
 PONTIFFS (Latin Pontifices), the highest Koman sacerdotal order, established byNuma. 
 The college first consisted of 4 patricians ; to these 4 plebeians were afterwards added. Sylla 
 increased the niimber to 15 {S inajores, 7 minores). The chief was called the Pontifex 
 Maximus. T. Coruncanius, a plebeian, obtained tliis office, 254 b.c, 
 
 PONTUS, a kingdom in Asia Minor, seems to have been a portion of Cappadocia, and 
 received its name from its vicinity to the Pontus Hicxinus. • Artabazus was made king of 
 Pontus by Darius Hystasjies. His successors were little more than satraps of the kings of 
 Persia. 
 
 Artabazus made king of Pontus by Darius 
 
 Hystaspes B.C. 487 
 
 Reign of Mithridates 1 383 
 
 Ariobarzanes invades Pontus .... 363 
 
 Mithridates II. recovers it 336 
 
 Mithridates III. reigns 301 
 
 Ariobarzanes II. reigns 266 
 
 Mithridates IV. is besieged in his caiaital by the 
 
 Gauls, &c 252 
 
 Mithridates makes an unsuccessful attack upon 
 
 the free city of Sinope, and is obliged to raise 
 
 the siege b3' the Rhodians 219 
 
 Reign of Pharnaces, 190 ; he takes Sinope, and 
 
 makes it the capital of his kingdom . .183 
 
 Reign of Mithridates V 157 
 
 He is murdered in the midst of his court . . 123 
 Mithridates VI. surnamed the Great, or Eupator, 
 
 receives the diadem at 12 years of age . . ,, 
 
 Marries Laodice, his own sister .... 115 
 She attempts to poison him ; he puts her and 
 
 accomplices to death 112 
 
 Mithridates conquers Scythia, Bosphoms, 
 
 Colchis, and other countries . . . .111 
 
 He enters Cappadocia 97 
 
 His war with Rome 89 
 
 Tigranes ravages Cappadocia 86 
 
 Mithridates enters Bithynia, and makes him- 
 self master of many Roman provinces, and 
 piits 80,000 Romans to death . . . B.C. 86 
 Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chseronea ; 
 
 100,000 Cappadocians slain „ 
 
 Victories and conquests of Mithridates up to 
 
 this time 74 
 
 The fleet of Mithridates defeats that under 
 
 Lucullus, in two battles 73 
 
 Mithridates defeated by Lucullus . . .69 
 
 Mithridates defeats Fabius 68 
 
 But is defeated by Pompey 66 
 
 Mithridates stabs himself, and dies . . . 63 
 
 Reign of Pharnaces ,, 
 
 Battle of Zela (see Zela) ; Pharnaces defeated by 
 
 Cwsar 47 
 
 Darius reigns 39 
 
 Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns 36 
 
 Polemon II. succeeds his father . . . a.d. 33 
 
 Mithridates VII. reigns 40 
 
 Pontus afterwards became a Roman province, 
 
 under the emperors. 
 Alexis Comnenus founded a new empire of the 
 Greeks at Trebisond, in this country, 1204, 
 which continued till the Turks destroyed it in 
 1459. 
 
 POOR KNIGHTS of "Windsor, instituted by Henry VIII. in his testament, 1546-7. 
 Their original number, thirteen, was subsequently increased to twenty-eight. King 
 William IV. changed the name to the "Military Knights of Windsor," in consequence of 
 their all having held commissions in the army, Sept. 1833. The "Naval Knights of 
 Windsor" are maintained on a distinct foundation, under the bequest of Samuel Travers. 
 
 POOR LAWS. The poor of England, till the time of Henry VIII., subsisted as the poor 
 of Ireland until 1838, entirely upon private beuevolence. By statute 23 Edw. III. 1349, it 
 was enacted that none should give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common law, the 
 l^oor were to be sustained by " parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that none 
 should die for default of sustenance ; " and by 15 Rich. II. impropriators were obliged ta 
 distribute a yearly sum to the poor; buf no compulsory law was enacted till the 27th 
 Hen. VIII. 1535. The origin of the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43rd of 
 Elizabeth, 1601, by which overseers were appointed for parishes. 
 
 * It is generally believed that the column has no reference to Pompey, to whom a mark of honour was, 
 nevertheless, set up somewhere about this part. One supposes the edifice was dedicated to Vespasian, 
 another to Sevenis ; and Mr. Clarke, from a half-effaced inscription on the base, considered that Adrian 
 is the person honoured ; while many assert, from the same inscription, that it is dedicated " to Diocletian 
 Augustus, most adorable emperor, tutelar deity of Alexandria." 
 
POO 
 
 577 
 
 POP 
 
 POOR LAWS, continued. 
 
 Poor Law Amendment bill passed 1834 ; amended 
 in 1836, 1838, 1846, and 1847. 
 
 Poor Law (Ireland; act passed 1838 ; amended 1839. 
 
 Poor Law (Ireland) Rate in Aid act passed in 1849. 
 
 lu Scotland, in the j-ear ending May 1851, the num- 
 ber x-elieved was 141,870, at an average cost of 
 2I. 2S. 5rf. and the expenditure was 535,943?. 
 
 In Ireland, the poor's rate for the year ending Sept. 
 1851, was 1,101,878?. 
 
 A Poor Law system established in Scotland, 1845. 
 
 An agitation for the equalisation of poor's rates 
 throughout the kingdom began in 1857. 
 
 The Times draws attention to the condition of the 
 housdess poor in London, which led to measures 
 for their relief, Dec. 1858. 
 
 Laws respecting removal of the poor amended in 1861. 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 Expended. Poor Rates. 
 
 In 15S0 . . . - . £188,811 
 
 i58o . . . . 665,562 
 
 1698 . . ... 8ig,ooo 
 
 1760 . . . . 1,556,804 
 
 T785 .... 2,184,950 
 
 1802 . . . . 4,952,421 
 
 Expended. 
 
 
 Poor Rates. 
 
 In 1815 . 
 
 
 . £5,418,845 
 
 1820 
 
 
 7.329.S94 
 
 1S30 . 
 
 
 8,111,422 
 
 1835 
 
 
 • 6,356,345 
 
 1840 
 
 
 5,468,699 
 
 1845 
 
 
 • 5.543,650 
 
 1850, year 
 
 to Mar. 
 
 25 3,816,909 
 
 Union Relief act passed to enable certain unions to 
 obtain temporary aid (on account of the distress 
 ia Lancashire through suspension of cotton manu- 
 factures) 1862. 
 
 Metropolitan houseless poor act (authorising guar- 
 dians to receive destitute persons into work- 
 hoiises, and the metropolitan board to reimburse 
 them) passed, July 29, 1864. 
 
 Annual report of Poor Law board for 1864, shows 
 great decrease of pauperism — issued Sept. 1865. 
 
 40 refuges for houseless poor established in London 
 1864-5. 
 
 " Casual wards " in London workhouses receive 1000 
 per night, Jan. 1865. 
 
 Union charga.abUity act passed, 1865. 
 
 Expended. Poor Rates. 
 
 In 1853 . ... £6,522,412 
 March 1857, to March 
 
 1858, about. . . 3,082,600 
 
 1859-60, about . . . 3,795,500 
 
 6 months to Mar. 25,1861 2,073,394 
 
 ,, ,, ,, 1862 2,181,124 
 
 ,, „ ,, 1864 2,250,971 
 
 PAUPEKS KECEIVING EELIEF (NOT VAGEANTS). 
 1849. 1853. 1858. 
 
 England and Wales, Jan. t . 934,419 . . 798,822 . . 968,186 . 
 
 Scotland . . . May 14 . 82,357 • • 75,437 • • 69,217 [1857] . 
 
 Ireland . . . Jan. 1 . 620,747 • • 141,822 . . 50,582 . 
 
 1862. 
 932,400 
 78,433 [1861] 
 59,541 
 
 Ti.tal 
 
 • 1,637,523 
 
 . 1,016,081 
 
 1,007,1 
 
 POPE (from the Greek Pappas and Papa, a father or grandfather), considered hy 
 Eomanists to be the visible chief of the church, the vicar of Jesus Christ, and the successor 
 of St. Peter. This title was formerly given to all bishops. It was first adopted by Hyginus, 
 139 ; and pope Boniface III. induced Phocas, emperor of the East, to confine it to the 
 prelates of Eome, 606. By the connivance of Phocas also, the pope's supremacy over the 
 Christian Church was established. See Italy, Reformation, and Rome, Modern. 
 
 Custom of kissing the pope's toe introduced . 70S 
 Adrian I. caused money to be coined with his 
 name ......... 780 
 
 Sergius II. the first pope who changed his 
 name on his election ; some contend that it 
 was Sergius I. and others John XII. or XIII. 844 
 John XVm. a layman, made pope . . . 1024 
 The first pope who kept an army, Leo IX. . . 1054 
 Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) obliges Henry IV. 
 emperor of Germany, to stand three days, in 
 the depth of winter, barefooted at the gate of 
 the castle of Canossa, to imi^lore his pardon . 1077 
 The pope's authority fixed in England . . . 1079 
 Appeals from English tribunals to the pope 
 
 introduced (Kt"f?-), 19 Stephen . . . 1154 
 Henry II. of England holds the stirrup for pope 
 
 Alexander III. to mount his horse* . . . 1161 
 Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI. 's 
 crown off his head while kneeUng, to show 
 
 his prerogative of making and unmaking 
 
 kings + 1191 
 
 The pope collected the tenths of the whole 
 
 kingdom of England 1226 
 
 The papal seat was removed for seventy years 
 
 to Avignon in France 1308 
 
 The pope's demands on England refused by 
 
 parliament 1363 
 
 Appeals to Rome from England abolished 
 
 (Fine)-) 1533 
 
 The words ' ' Lord Pope " struck out of all 
 
 English books 1541 
 
 Kissing the pope's toe and other ceremonies 
 
 abolished by Clement XIV 1773 
 
 The pope's political influence destroyed by the 
 
 French revolution .... 1789-1S14 
 His diplomatic relations with Great Britain 
 
 authorised by parliament .... 1848 
 He offends the British nation by creating 
 
 bishops. See Papal Aggression. . Sept. 30, 1850 
 
 •X- i< wjien Louis, king of France, and Henry II. of England, met pope Alexander III. at the castle of 
 Torci, on the Loire, they both dismounted to receive him, and holding each of them one of the reigns of his 
 bridle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive manner into the castle." Hume. 
 
 f In the nth century the power of the pontiff of Rome seems to have reached its utmost height. 
 Gregory VII. assumed the exclusive title of Pope, which till then had been common to other bishops ; and 
 his successors carried their pretensions so far as to hold themselves out as lords of the universe, arbiters 
 of the fate of empii-es, and supreme rulers of the kings and princes of the earth. In this character they 
 proceeded to dispose of kingdoms, and to loose subjects from their allegiance, as is remarkably instanced 
 in the history of John, king of England. At length they afBrmed the whole earth to be their property, as 
 well where Christianity had been propagated, as whore it had not; and therefore, on the discovery of the 
 East and West Indies and America, Alexander VI., in 1493, granted to the Portuguese a right to all the 
 countries lying to the eastward, and to the Spaniards all those westward of Cape Non, in Africa, which 
 they might respectively be able to conquer. They finally pretended tu be lords of the future world also ; 
 and by licenceSj pardons, disiaensations, and indulgences, which they sold to the best bidders, to have a 
 power of restraining, and in some instances of subverting, even the Divine justice itself. Aspin: Lices of- 
 the Popes. 
 
POP 
 
 578 
 
 POP 
 
 POPE, continued. 
 
 BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME. 
 
 66. 
 
 78. 
 
 91. 
 100. 
 109. 
 119 
 127. 
 
 139- 
 142. 
 
 157- 
 168. 
 177. 
 
 193- 
 202. 
 219. 
 222. 
 223. 
 
 230. 
 
 235- 
 236. 
 250. 
 251. 
 252. 
 
 253- 
 257. 
 
 258. 
 
 =59- 
 269. 
 
 275- 
 283. 
 296. 
 
 304- 
 308. 
 
 310. 
 311- 
 314- 
 336. 
 337- 
 
 359- 
 366. 
 
 367- 
 384- 
 
 St. Peter : (said by very doubtful tvadition to 
 
 have been the first bishop of Rome, aud to 
 
 have been crucified, head downwards, in 66.) 
 St. Clement (Clemens Romanus) ; according to 
 
 Tertullian. 
 St. Linus : * martyred. 
 St. Anacletas : martyred. 
 St. Clement : abdicated. 
 St. Evaristus : martyred. 
 St. Alexander : martyred. 
 St. Sixtus: martyred. 
 St. Telesphorus : martyred. 
 St. Hyginus : the first who called himself pope. 
 St. Pius : martyred. 
 St. Anioetus. 
 
 St. Soterus : martyred under JIarcus Antoninus, 
 St. Eleuthemis : opposed the Valentinians. 
 St. Victor ; martyred under Severus. 
 St. Zephirinus. 
 St. Calixtus : martyred. 
 [The chair vacant.] 
 St. Urban : beheaded in the persecution of 
 
 Alexander Severus. 
 St. Pontianus : banished by the emperor 
 
 Maximin. 
 St. Anterus : martyred. 
 St. Fabian : martyred under Decius. 
 [I'he chair vacant. ] 
 St. Cornelius : died the next year. 
 St. Lucius : martyred the year following. 
 
 Novatianus : f autipope. 
 St. Stephen : martyred in the persecution of 
 
 Valerian. 
 Sixtus II. (his coadjutor) : martyred three days 
 
 before his faithfiil disciple St. Laurence, in 
 
 the persecution of Valerian, 238. 
 [The chair vacant.] 
 
 Dionysius : opposed the heresy of Sabellixis. 
 Felix : martyred ; canonised. 
 Eutychianus : martyred. 
 Caius : a relative of the emperor Diocletian. 
 Slarcellinvis : distinguished by his courage 
 
 under a severe persecution ; canonised. 
 [The chair vacant.] 
 Marcellus : banished from Rome by the emperor 
 
 Maxentius ; canonised. 
 St. Eusebius : died the same year. 
 St. Melchiades : coadjutor to Eusebius. 
 Silvester. 
 
 Jl.arcus or Mark : died the next year. 
 Julius : of great piety and learning main- 
 tained the cause of St. Athanasius. 
 Liberius : banished ; and in 
 Felix II., antipoi^e : placed in the chair by 
 
 Constans, during the exile of Liberius, on 
 
 whose return he was di-iven fi-om it with 
 
 ignominy. 
 [The emperor would have the two popes reign 
 
 together ; but the ijeople cried out, " One 
 
 God, one CIcrist, and one bishop ! "] 
 Liberi\is again : abdicated. 
 Felix became legal pope ; but he was made 
 
 away with by Liberius. 
 Liberius again. 
 Dumasus : opposed the Ai-ians : St. Jerome 
 
 was his secretary. 
 Ursintis. 
 Siricius : succeeded to the exclusion of 
 
 Ursicinus. 
 
 398. Anastasius : caused the works of Origen to be 
 
 proscribed. 
 402. Innocent I. 
 
 417. Zosimus : canonised. 
 
 418. Boniface I. : maintained in the pontifical chair 
 
 by the emperor Honorius, against his rival 
 
 EulaUus : canonised. 
 422. Celestine I. : canonised. 
 432. Sixtus III. : suppressed the heresies of Nes- 
 
 torius andPelagius in the West. 
 440. Leo I. the Great : most zealous in his endeavours 
 
 to extend the papal see : canonised. 
 461. St. Hilary. 
 468. St. Simplicius. 
 483. Felix III. : had a violent dii-pute with the 
 
 emperor Zeno respecting the Westem 
 
 Church : canonised. 
 492. Gelasius : canonised, 
 496. Anastasius II. : endeavoured to bring about a 
 
 unity between the Eastern and Western 
 
 Churches : canonised. 
 498. Symmachus : canonised. 
 
 ,, I.aurentius : antipope. 
 514. Hormisdas : canonised. 
 523. John I. : thrown into prison, where he died in 
 
 526. 
 526. Felix IV. : introduced extreme unction as a 
 
 sacrament : canonised. 
 530. Boniface II. — Dioscorus. 
 533. John II. : opposed the Eutychians and Nes- 
 
 torians. 
 
 535. Agapetus : died the same year. 
 
 536. Silverius : son of pope Hormisdas, who had 
 
 married before entering into the ecclesias- 
 tit;al state. The empress Theodosia violently 
 persecuted him, and procured his banish- 
 ment into Lycia, making Vigihus his suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 537- Vigilius : banished, but restored. 
 
 555. Pelagius I. : endeavoured to reform the man- 
 ners of the clei-gy. 
 
 560. John III. : the great omamenter of churches. 
 
 573. [The sec vacant.] 
 
 574. Benedict I., surnamed Bonosus. 
 
 578. Pelagius II.: died of the plague then desolating 
 
 Rome. 
 590. Gregory the Great, an illustrious patrician : 
 
 converted the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. 
 604. Sabinianus. 
 
 606 or 607. Boniface III. : died in a few months. 
 
 607 or 608, Boniface IV. 
 614 or 615, Deusdedit. 
 617 or 618. Boniface V. 
 625. Honorius I. 
 
 639. [The see vacant.] 
 
 640. Severinus : died shortly after. 
 ,, John IV. 
 
 642. Thcodorus I. 
 
 649. Martin I. : some say, starved to death ; others, 
 
 died of his sufferings. 
 654. Eugenius I. : canonised. 
 657. Vitalianus : this pojDe sent missionaries into 
 
 England. 
 672. Adeodatus, the " Gift of God." 
 676. Domnus I. 
 678. Ag.athon. 
 
 652. Leo II. : instituted holy water. 
 
 653. [The see vacant.] 
 684. Benedict II. 
 
 * St. Linus is set down in nearly all accounts of popes as the immediate successor of St. Peter ; but 
 Tertullian, who was undoubtedly well informed, maintains that St. Clement succeeded the Apostle. In 
 the first century of the Christian Church, neither the dates of succession, nor the succession of bishops, are 
 reconciled by even the best authorities. Some assert that there were two or three bishops of Rome at 
 the same time. 
 
 t The names iu italics wei-c antipopes. 
 
POP 
 
 579 
 
 POP 
 
 POPE, continued. 
 
 685. John V. : ruled with wisdom. 999. 
 
 6S6. Conon. — Theodore and Peter.* lOo' 
 687. Sergius : " governed wisely." 
 
 701. JoLn VI. 1009. 
 
 705. John VII. 1012. 
 
 708. Sisinniiis : died 20 days after election. 1024, 
 
 , , Coustantine. 1033. 
 715. Gregory II. : canonised. 
 731. Gregory III. : the first pope who sent nuncios 1044. 
 
 to foreign powers. 
 
 741. Zachai'ias. 1046. 
 752. Stephen II. : with this pope commenced the 
 
 temporal power of the Church of Rome. io47- 
 
 757. Paul I. : moderate and pious. 1048. 
 
 767. Coustantine Theox^liylactus. 
 
 768. Stephen III. 1054. 
 772. Adrian I. : sanctioned images, in which he 1055. 
 
 was opposed by the kings of England and 1057. 
 France. 
 795. Leo III. 
 
 816. Stephen IV. : died the next year. 
 
 817. Pascal I. 
 
 824. Eugenius II. — Zozimus. 1073. 
 
 827. Valentinus. 1080. 
 
 „ Gregory IV. : pious and learned. 1085. 
 
 844. Sergius II. 
 
 847. Leo IV. : defeated the Saracens. 
 855. Pope Joan {which see) said to have been elected. 
 
 ,. Benedict III. — Anaatasius. 
 858. Nicholas I., styled the Great. 
 867. Adi-ian II. 
 872. JoliuVIII. 
 882. Marinus or Martin II. 
 
 884. Adrian III. : died the next year. 
 
 885. Stephen V. 
 891. Formosus : died detested ; his corpse was 
 
 thrown into the river Tiber. —Sergius. 
 
 896. Boniface VI. : deposed. 
 
 897. Romanus. — Sergius. 
 „ Stephen VI. : strangled in prison. 
 
 898. Xheodorus II. : governed 22 days. 
 „ John IX. 
 
 Benedict IV. 
 
 Leo V. : driven from his seat a few months 
 after his election, and died in prison. 
 
 Christopher. 
 
 Sergius III. : disgraced his dignity by his vices. 
 
 Anastasius III. 
 
 Landonius, orLando. 
 
 John X. : resigned, and was stifled by Guy, 
 duke of Tuscany. 
 
 Leo VI. : considered an intruder by many 
 Roman Catholic historians. 
 
 Stephen VII. 
 
 John XI. : imprisoned in the castle of St. An- 
 gelo, where he died. 
 
 Leo VII. : great in zeal and piety. 
 
 Stephen VIII. : " of ferocious character." 
 
 Slarinus II., or Mai-tin III. 
 
 Agapetus II. : of holy hfe. 
 
 John XII., the Infamous : deposed for adultery 
 and cruelty, and murdered. 
 
 Leo VIII. : an honour to the chair, though an 
 intruder. — Baronius. 
 
 Benedict V. : chosen on the death of John XII., 
 but opposed by Leo VIII., who was sup- 
 ported by the emperor Otho : the Roman 
 people were obliged to abandon his cause. 
 
 John XIII., elected by the authority of the 
 emperor against the popular will. 
 
 Benedict VI. : murdered in prison. 
 
 Domnus II. — Benedict VII. 
 
 John XIV. 
 
 John XV. : died before consecration. 
 
 John XVI. 
 
 Gregory V. — John XVII. was expelled by the 
 emx^eror, and barbarously used by his rival. 
 
 * The names in italics were antipopes. 
 
 900. 
 903. 
 
 904. 
 911. 
 913- 
 914. 
 
 928. 
 
 929. 
 931- 
 
 936- 
 939- 
 942. 
 946. 
 956. 
 
 964, 
 
 9<55, 
 
 972, 
 974' 
 
 985 
 
 1119. 
 1124. 
 1 1 30. 
 1138. 
 1143- 
 1 144. 
 
 1145. 
 II53' 
 1 1 54' 
 
 1 2 16. 
 1227. 
 
 1241. 
 
 1243, 
 1254, 
 1261 
 1265, 
 
 1268, 
 1271. 
 
 1276, 
 
 Silvester II. 
 
 John XVII. : legitimate pope, died same year. 
 
 JohnXVin. : abdicated. 
 
 Sergius IV. 
 
 Benedict VIII. — Gregory. 
 
 John XIX. 
 
 Benedict IX. : became pope, by purchase, at 
 
 12 years of age ; expelled. 
 Sylvester III. : 3 months. 
 Gregory VI. : deposed. — Sylvester. 
 Clement II. (the Romanists call Clemens Ro- 
 manus th.e first Clement) : died next year. 
 Benedict again : again deposed. 
 Damasus II. : died soon after. 
 Leo IX. : canonised. 
 [The throne vacant one year.] 
 Victor II. 
 Stephen IX. 
 Benedict X. : expelled. 
 Nicholas II. 
 Alexander If. : he raised the papal power. — 
 
 Ilonorius II. 
 Gregory VII. the celebrated Hildebrand.f 
 Clement III. 
 
 [The throne vacant one year.] 
 Victor III. 
 
 Urban II. : crusades commenced. 
 Pascal II. 
 Gelasius II. : retired to a To.ona,stmy.— 'Gregory 
 
 VIII. 
 Calixtus II. 
 
 Honorius II. — Celestine II. 
 Innocent II. — Ajiacletus II. 
 Victor III. 
 
 Celestine If. : ruled s months. 
 Lucius II. : killed by accident in a popular 
 
 commotion. 
 Eugenius III. : canonised. 
 Anastasius IV. : ruled a short time only. 
 Adrian IV., or Nicholas Brakespeare, the only 
 Englishman elected pope : born at Abbot's 
 Langley, near St. Alban's. He obliged 
 Frederick I. to prostrate himself before him, 
 kiss his foot, hold his stirrup, and lead the 
 white palfrey on which he rode. 
 Alexander III., avenger of the murder of 
 Thomas a Becket. — 1159, Victor IV. : 1164, 
 Pascal III. : 1168, Calistus III. : 1178, Inno- 
 cent III. 
 Lucius III. 
 Urban III. 
 
 Gregory VIII. : ruled only two months. 
 Clement II r. 
 Celestine III. 
 
 Innocent III. (Lothario Conti) : excommuni- 
 cated king John of England. 
 Honorius III. ; learned and pious. 
 Gregory IX. : caused a new crusade to be 
 
 undertaken. 
 Celestine IV. : died 18 days after his election. 
 [The throne vacant i year and 7 months.J 
 Innocent IV. : gave the red hat to car'dinals. 
 Alexander IV. 
 Urban IV. 
 
 Clement IV., an enlightened Frenchman, pre- 
 viously cardinal and legate to England : dia- 
 couraged the crusades. 
 , [The throne vacant 2 years and 9 months.] 
 Gregory X. : elected while he was with Ed- 
 ward I. of England in the Holy Land. 
 Innocent V. : died shortly after. 
 Adrian V. : legate to England in 1254 : died 
 
 36 days after election. 
 Vicedomiaius : died the next day. 
 John XX. or XXI. : died in 8 months. 
 Nicholas III. : died in 12S0. 
 Martin IV. 
 
 t See p. 577. 
 
 p p 2 
 
POP 
 
 680 
 
 POP 
 
 POPE, continued. 
 
 1285. Honorius IV. : promoted the cinisades. 
 
 1283. Nicholas IV. : endeavoured to stir up the 
 princes of Christendom to a new crusade, 
 but without success. 
 
 1292. [The throne vacant 2 years and 3 months.] 
 
 1294. Celestine V. : resigned fiom fear. 
 ,, Boniface VIII. : proclaimed that " God had 
 set hina over kings and kingdoms : " im- 
 prisoned his predecessor, and laid France 
 and Denmark under interdict. 
 
 1303. Benedict XI. : a pious and liberal pontiff : 
 
 poisoned by some ambitious cardinals a 
 short time after his election. 
 
 1304. [The throne vacant 11 naonths.] 
 
 1305. Clement V. Bertrand the Goth : removed the 
 
 papal seat from Rome to Avignon. 
 1314. [The throne vacant 2 years and 4 months.] 
 1316. John XXII. 
 
 1334. Benedict XII. [Kieholas T.* at Rome.] 
 1342. Clement VI. : a learned prelate, a generous 
 
 prince, and an amiable man. 
 1352. Innocent VI. 
 
 1362. Urban V. : illustrious as a patron of learning. 
 1370. Gregory XI. : also an eminent protector of 
 
 learning ; he restored the papal chair to 
 
 Rome. 
 
 1373. 
 
 1389. 
 
 1394- 
 1404. 
 1406. 
 1409. 
 1410. 
 1417. 
 1424. 
 1431. 
 
 1447. 
 I45S- 
 1458. 
 1464. 
 1471. 
 1484. 
 1492. 
 
 1503- 
 1513- 
 
 1522. 
 1523- 
 
 Schism — 1378-1447. 
 
 Urban VI. : so severe and cruel that the car- 
 dinals chose Robert of Geneva, under the 
 name of Clement VII., which led to great 
 violence. 
 
 Boniface IX. 
 
 Benedict (called XIII.), at Avignon. 
 
 Innocent VII. : died in 1406. 
 
 Gregory XII. Angelo Corario. 
 
 Alexander V. : died, supposed by poison. 
 
 John XXIII. : deposed. 
 
 Martin V. Otho Colonna. 
 
 Clement VIII. 
 
 Eugenius IV. Gabriel Condolmera : deposed 
 by the council of Basil ; and Amadous of 
 Savoy chosen as Felix V., in 1439, who re- 
 signed 1449. 
 
 Nicholas V. 
 
 Calixtus III. 
 
 Pius II. .^neas Silvius Piccolomini.) 
 
 Paul II. : a noble Venetian. 
 
 Sixtus IV. 
 
 Innocent VIII. : a noble Genoese. 
 
 Alexander VI., the infamous Roderic Borgia; 
 poisoned at a feast by drinking of a bowl he 
 had prepared for another. 
 
 Pius III. Fr.ancis Todeschini : 21 days pope. 
 
 Julius II. Julian de la Ruvere. 
 
 Leo X. (John de' Medici) : this pope's grant of 
 indulgences for crime led to the Reformation. 
 
 Adrian VI. 
 
 Clement VII. Giulio de' Medici refused to 
 divorce Catherine of Aragon, and denounced 
 the marriage of Henry VIII. with Anne 
 Boleyn. | 
 
 IS34- 
 1550. 
 I555. 
 
 1559. 
 1566. 
 1572- 
 
 1585- 
 1590. 
 
 1591- 
 I.S92' 
 1605. 
 
 1621. 
 1623. 
 
 1644. 
 1655. 
 1667. 
 1670. 
 1676. 
 1689. 
 1691. 
 1700. 
 1721. 
 
 1724. 
 
 1730- 
 1740. 
 1758. 
 1769. 
 
 1775- 
 
 1S23. 
 1829. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Paul III. Alexander Famese. 
 
 Julius III. 
 
 Marcellus II. : died soon after bis election. 
 
 Paul IV. John Peter Caraffa. When queen 
 Elizabeth sent him an ambassador to an- 
 nounce her accession, he haughtily answered 
 " that to the holy see, and not to her, 
 belonged the throne, to which she had no 
 right as being a bastard. " 
 
 Pius IV., cardinal de' Medici. 
 
 Pius V. 
 
 Gregory XIII., the greatest civilian and canon- 
 ist of his time : under him the calendar was 
 reformed. 
 
 Si.xtus V. : an able governor. 
 
 Urban VII. : died 12 days after election. 
 
 Gregory XIV. Nicholas Sfondrate. 
 
 Innocent IX. : died in two months. 
 
 Clement VIII. : learned and just. 
 
 Leo XI. : died same month. 
 
 Paul V. Camille Borghese. 
 
 Gregory XV. Alexander Ludovisio. 
 
 Urban VIII. : gave the title of Eminence to 
 cardinals. 
 
 Innocent X. John Baptist Pamphilus. 
 
 Alexander VII. Pabio Chigi. 
 
 Clement IX. 
 
 Clement X. John Baptiste Emile Alticri. 
 
 Innocent XI. 
 
 Alexander VIII. 
 
 Innocent XII. Antonio Pignatelli. 
 
 Clement XII. John Francis Albani. 
 
 Innocent XIII. Michael Angelo Conti ; the 
 eighth pontiflF of his family. 
 
 Benedict XIII., properly so called. 
 
 Clement XII. 
 
 Benedict XIV., the amiable Lambortini. 
 
 Clement XIII. Charles Razzonico. 
 
 Clement XIV. (the illustrious Ganganelli) ; 
 suppressed the Jesuits. 
 
 Pius VI. Angelo Brasohi, Feb. 15 ; dethroned 
 by Bonaparte : he was expelled from Rome, 
 and deposed in Feb. 1798 ; and died at 
 Valence, Aug. 29, 1799. 
 , Pius VII. Chiaramonte : elected March 13 ; 
 agrees to a concordat with France, July 15, 
 iSoi ; crowns Napoleon, Dec. 2, 1804 ; ex- 
 communicates him, June 10, 1809 ; im- 
 prisoned, July 6, 1809; restored in 1814: 
 died, Aug. 20, 1823. (He restored the 
 Jesuits.) 
 
 Leo XII. Annibal della Ganga, Sept. 28. 
 
 Pius VIII. Francis Xavier Castiglioni, March 
 
 31- 
 Gregory XVI. Mauro Capellari, Feb. 2, 1831 : 
 
 died .June i, 1846. 
 Pius IX. Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti : 
 the 252nd pope (according to " I'Art de 
 Verifier les Dates ") elected .Tune 16 (born 
 May 13, 1793). The present (1865) pope. 
 
 See Some. 
 
 POPE JOAN. It is asserted that in the 9th century, a female named Joan conceived 
 a violent passion for Felda, a young monk, and in order to be admitted into his monastery, 
 assumed the male habit. On the death of her lover she entered upon the duties of professor, 
 and, being very learned, was elected pope, when Leo IV. died, in 855. Other scandalous 
 particulars follow ; "yet, until the Reformation, the tale was repeated and believed without 
 offence." Gibbon. 
 
 POPISH PLOTS. See GtmjJowdcr Plot and Oalcs's Plot. 
 
 POPLAR TREES. The Tacamahac poplar {Pojndus Balsamifera) was brought hither 
 from North America before 1692. The Lombardy poplar from Italy about 1758. 
 
 * The names in italics were antipopes. 
 
POP 
 
 581 
 
 POP 
 
 POPULATION. The population of the world was estimated in 1863 at 1,288,000,000. 
 For the Population of Countries, see the table (after the Preface) facing page 1. 
 
 Eutope . 
 
 Asia. 
 
 275,806,741 I Africa . 
 755,000,000 I America . 
 
 . 200,000,000 I Australia 
 . 67,896,041 I Polynisxa 
 
 1,445,000 
 1,500,000 
 
 Estimated in 1377 
 
 POPULATIOX OF ENGLAND A>'D WALE.S. 
 . 2,092,978 I In 1483 . 
 
 1700 
 1710 
 1720 
 1730 
 
 Population. 
 ■ 5,475,000 
 . 5,24o,ooc^ 
 . 5,565,000 
 • 5,796,000 
 
 1740 
 1750 
 1760 
 
 Population. 
 
 , 6,064,000 
 
 6,467,000 
 
 . 6,736,000 
 
 . . 4,6 
 
 39,000 1 In i6g6 
 
 • • 
 
 . . 5,250,000 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 
 Population' 
 
 1770 . 
 
 . . 7,428,000 
 
 1 801 
 
 . 8,872,980 
 
 1780 
 
 • 7,953,000 
 
 1851 . 
 
 . . 17,987,609 
 
 1790 . 
 
 . . 8,675,000 
 
 1861 
 
 . 20,061,172 
 
 rOPTJLATION OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND BY CENSU.S. 
 
 Division. 
 
 1801. 
 
 ISll. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1831. 
 
 18il. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1861. 
 
 England . 
 Wales . . . 
 Scotland t . 
 Army, Navj', &c. 
 
 Total 
 Ireland} . . 
 Islands in Bri- 1 
 
 tish seas j 
 
 8,331.434 
 541. 546 
 
 1,599,068 
 470.598 
 
 9,551,888 1 11,261,437 
 611,788 717,438 
 
 1,805,688 j 2,093,456 
 640,500 319,300 
 
 13,089,338 
 
 805,236 
 
 2,365,807 
 
 277,017 
 
 14,995,138 
 
 916,619 
 
 2,620,184 
 
 312,493 
 
 16,854,142 
 
 1,060,626 
 
 2,870,784 
 
 142,916 
 
 18,949,130 
 
 1,111,795 
 
 3,061,251 
 
 162,021 
 
 10,942,646 
 
 12,609,864 
 
 5,937,856 
 
 14,391,631 
 8,175,124 
 
 16,537,398 
 7.784,934 
 
 18,844,434 
 8,175,124 
 
 20,936,468 
 
 6,515,794 
 
 143,126 
 
 23,284,197 
 
 5,764-543 
 
 143,779 
 
 27.595,388 
 
 29,192,419 
 
 * Estimated by Registrar-General in June 1865, 29,772,294. 
 t Estimated popiilation of Scotland in 1751, 1,255,663. 
 } Estimated population of Ireland : — 
 
 In 1652 
 
 850.000 I 1712 
 
 2,099,094 I 1754 
 
 2,372,634 1 1805 
 
 5,395,456 
 
 1861. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Inhabited Houses. 
 
 England and Wales .... 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 9,758,852 10,302,873 
 1,446,982 1,614,269 
 2,804,961 2,959,582 
 
 3,745,463 
 393,289 
 
 103,357 
 
 POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL TOWNS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 1801. 
 
 1311. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1831. 
 
 18U. 
 
 1851. 
 
 ISCl.t 
 
 London and suburbs * . 
 
 864,845 
 
 1,009,546 
 
 1,225,694 
 
 1,474,069 
 
 1,873,676 
 
 2,362,236 
 
 2,803,034 
 
 Manchester, &c. . . 
 
 94,876 
 
 115.874 
 
 161,635 
 
 237,832 
 
 242,583 
 
 404,465 
 
 357.604 
 
 Glasgow, &c. . 
 
 77,385 
 
 100,749 
 
 147,043 
 
 202,426 
 
 274,533 
 
 340,653 
 
 394,857 
 
 Liverpool . . . . 
 
 79,722 
 
 100, 240 
 
 131,801 
 
 189,244 
 
 286,487 
 
 375,955 
 
 443.874 
 
 Edinburgh, (fee. 
 
 82,560 
 
 102,987 
 
 138,235 
 
 162,403 
 
 168,182 
 
 193,929 
 
 168,098 
 
 Birmingham , . . 
 
 73,670 
 
 85.753 
 
 106,721 
 
 142,251 
 
 182,022 
 
 232,841 
 
 295.95s 
 
 Leeds, &;c. . . . 
 
 
 
 83,796 
 
 123,393 
 
 152,054 
 
 172,270 
 
 207,153 
 
 Bristol, &c 
 
 63,645 
 
 76,433 
 
 87,779 
 
 103,886 
 
 122,296 
 
 137,328 
 
 154.093 
 
 Sheffield .... 
 
 
 
 69,479 
 
 91,692 
 
 111,091 
 
 135,310 
 
 185.157 
 
 Plymouth . ... 
 
 43.194 
 
 56,060 
 
 61,212 
 
 75,534 
 
 80,059 
 
 102,380 
 
 62,823 
 
 * In 1S51, 1,106,558 males, and 1,255,678 females. 
 
 t 1861 : parliamentary limits of the boroughs only. 
 
POP 
 
 582 
 
 POR 
 
 POPULATION, continued. 
 
 ToT^-ns. 
 
 1801. 
 
 1811. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1811. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1861." 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 43,461 
 
 52.769 
 
 56,620 
 
 63,026 
 
 63,032 
 
 72,096 
 
 94,546 
 
 Norwich . . . . 
 
 36,832 
 
 37.256 
 
 50,288 
 
 61,116 
 
 72.344 
 
 68,195 
 
 74,414 
 
 Aberdeen. 
 
 27,608 
 
 35.370 
 
 44,796 
 
 58,019 
 
 63,288 
 
 71,945 
 
 73,794 . 
 
 Newcastle . . . . 
 
 36,963 
 
 36.369 
 
 46,948 
 
 57.937 
 
 70,860 
 
 87,784 
 
 109,291 
 
 Paisley .... 
 
 31.179 
 
 36,722 
 
 47,003 
 
 57.466 
 
 60,487 
 
 69,951 
 
 47,419 
 
 Nottingham . . . 
 
 28,861 
 
 34.253 
 
 40,415 
 
 50,680 
 
 71,844 
 
 57,407 
 
 74,531 
 
 Hull 
 
 34,964 
 
 32.467 
 
 41,874 
 
 49,461 
 
 71,629 
 
 84,690 
 
 98,994 
 
 Dundee . . • . 
 
 26,084 
 
 29,616 
 
 30,57s 
 
 45.355 
 
 62,794 
 
 77,829 
 
 90,425 
 
 Brighton .... 
 
 7.339 
 
 12,012 
 
 24,429 
 
 40,634 
 
 46,661 
 
 65,573 
 
 87,311 
 
 Bath 
 
 30,113 
 
 32,214 
 
 36,811 
 
 38,063 
 
 38,304 
 
 54,240 
 
 52,528 
 
 York .... 
 
 23,692 
 
 26,422 
 
 29.527 
 
 34.461 
 
 38,321 
 
 40,359 
 
 45.326 
 
 Preston . . . . 
 
 11,887 
 
 17.065 
 
 24,575 
 
 33.112 
 
 50,131 
 
 69,542 
 
 82,961 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 13,360 
 
 13,802 
 
 14,142 
 
 20,917 
 
 24.453 
 
 27,815 
 
 26,351 
 
 Oxford 
 
 15.124 
 
 15.337 
 
 16,364 
 
 20,432 
 
 23,834 
 
 27.843 
 
 27,561 
 
 POPULATION OF 'tIIE CHIEF CITIES OF THE WORLB. 
 
 From latest returns (Almanack de Gotha, 1865). 
 
 Cities. InJiahitants. 
 
 Alexandria, E;?ypt, abt. 170,000 
 
 Am.stevdam, 1865 . . 261,455 
 
 Antwerj), 1864 . . . 120,444 
 
 Athens and Piraeus . 47,723 
 
 Barcelona, 1861 . . . 252,015 
 
 Basle, i860 . . . 37,918 
 
 Berlin, 1865 . ; . 547,571 
 
 Berne, i860 . . , 29,016 
 
 Bombay, 1864, above . . 600,000 
 
 Bordeaux, 1862 . . 162,750 
 
 Breslau, 1865 . . . 163,179 
 
 Brussels, 1864. . . 184,932 
 
 ■Cairo, estimated . . 265,000 
 
 ■Calcutta, 1864, about . 
 
 Christiania, 1855 . . 38,958 
 
 •Cologne, 1865 . . . 122,162 
 
 Constantinople, ostimtd. 1,075,000 
 
 Copenhagen, i860 . . 155,143 
 
 Dresden, 1864. . . 145,728 
 
 Florence, 1862 . . . 114,363 
 
 Frankfort, 1864 . . 78,177 
 
 Geneva, i860 . . . 41,415 
 
 Genoa, 1862 . . . 127,986 
 
 Ghent, 1864 . . . 122,960 
 
 Cities. Inhabitants. 
 
 Glasgow, 1865 . . 423,723 
 
 Hamburg, i860 . . . 175,683 
 
 Jeddo, reputed . . 1,800,000 
 
 Leipsic, 1864 . . . 85,394 
 
 Li^ge, 1864 . . . 101,710 
 
 Lisbon, 1863 . . . 224,063 
 
 Lisle, 1862 . . . 131,827 
 
 Liverpool, 1865 . . . 476,368 
 London, 1865, estimated 3,015,494 
 
 Lyons, 1862 . . . 318,803 
 Madras, 1864, about 
 
 Madrid, 1861 . . . 475,785 
 
 M.arseUles, 1862 . . 260,910 
 
 Messina, 1862 . . . 62,024 
 
 Mexico, estimated . . 200,000 
 
 Milan, 1862 . . . 196,109 
 
 Montreal, 1S64 . . 120,000 
 
 Moscow, 1858 . . . 377,838 
 
 Munich, 1864 . . . 167,054 
 
 Nankin, estimated . . 1,000,000 
 
 Nantes, 1862 . . . 113,625 
 
 Naples, 1862 . . . 418,968 
 
 New Orleans, i860 . . 168,675 
 
 New York, 1800 . . . 805,651 
 
 Cities. 
 Oporto, 1863 . 
 Palermo, 1862 
 Paris, (fee, 1862 
 Pokin, reputed . 
 Pesth, 1857 
 Philadelphia, i860 
 Prague, 1857 • 
 Quebec, 1861 
 Rio Janeiro, 1855 
 Rome, 1864. 
 Rotterdam, 1865 
 Rouen, 1862 
 Seville, i86i . 
 Smyrna, 1863 
 Stockholm, 1863 
 St. Petersburg, 18; 
 Stutgardt, 1864 
 Teheran, estimated 
 Toulouse, 1862 
 Tunis, estimated 
 Turin, 1862 
 Venice, 1857 
 Vienna, 1864, about 
 "Warsaw, 1865, about 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 86,257 
 
 167,625 
 
 1,696,141 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 131,70s 
 562,529 
 142,588 
 51.109 
 296,136 
 203,896 
 114,052 
 102,649 
 152,000 
 
 124,691 
 586,283 
 09, 084 
 80,000 
 113,229 
 200,000 
 180,520 
 118,172 
 560,000 
 223,000 
 
 PORCELAIN. See PoUenj. 
 
 PORT EGMONT, a fine harbour on the N.W. coast of Falkhmd Islands. Commodore 
 Byron was despatched to foimd a colony here in 1765. See Falkland Islands. 
 
 PORTEOUS MOB. Capt. Porteous, at Edinburgh, on April 15, 1736, commanded the 
 guard at the execution of Wilson, a smuggler, who had saved the life of a fellow criminal, by 
 springing upon the soldiers around them, and by main force keeping them back, while his 
 companion tied. The execution of "Wilson excited great commiseration, and the spectators 
 pelted the guard with stones. Fearing a rescue, Porteous ordered his men to fire upon the 
 mob, and seventeen persons were killed or wounded. He was found guilty of murder, 
 June 22, 1736 ; but the queen granted him a reprieve (the king being then in Hanover). 
 The people, at night, broke open the prison, took out Porteous, and hanged him on a dyer's 
 sign-post, in the Grass Market, Sept. 7, 1736. ISTone of the rioters mms ever detected. 
 
 PORTER. Dr. Ashe says that this beverage obtained its appellation on account of it,"? 
 taving been drunk by porters in the city of London, about I730.t The number of licensed 
 
 * 1861 : parliamentary limits of the boroughs only. 
 
 t The malt liquoi-s previously in use were ale, beer, and twopenny, and it was customary to call for a 
 pint or tankard of half and half, — i.e., half of ale and half of beer. In the course of time it also became 
 the practice to ask for a pint of three-thirds, moaning a third of ale, beer, and twopenny. To avoid 
 trouble, Harwood, a brewer, made a liquor which partook of the united flavours of ale, beer, and 
 twopenny, calling it entire, or entire butt beer, meaning that ib was drawn entirely from one cask or 
 butt. Being relished by porters and othe;- working people, it obtiinei its name of porter, and was first 
 retailed at the " Blue Last," Curtain Road. Leigh. 
 
FOR 
 
 583 
 
 FOE 
 
 "brewers in 1850, in England, was 2257 ; in Scotland, 154 ; and in Ireland, 96 — total, 2507. 
 On Oct. 17, 1814, at Meux's brewliouse two large vats burst, destroying many neighbouring 
 houses. Several lives were lost ; and the total loss of porter was estimated at between 8000 
 and 9000 barrels. 
 
 PORTER BREWED BY THE PRINCIPAL LONBON BRE^VERIES. 
 
 lu 1760. 
 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Calvert & Co. . 
 
 • 74.734 
 
 WMtbread . 
 
 . . 63,408 
 
 Truman 
 
 . 60, 140 
 
 Sir William Calvert 
 
 • 52,785 
 
 GifEord & Co. . 
 
 . 41,410 
 
 Lady Parsons 
 
 • 34,098 
 
 Thrale 
 
 • 30,740 
 
 Huck & Co. . 
 
 . 29,615 
 
 Harman 
 
 . 28,017 
 
 Meux & Co. . 
 
 . 10,012 
 
 In 1815. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Barclay & Perkins . . 337,621 
 
 Meux.Beid, & Co. . . 282,104 
 
 Truman, Hanbury, & Co. 272,162 
 
 Wliitbread & Co. . . . 261,018 
 
 Henry Meux <fc Co. . . 229,100 
 
 P. Calvert ife Co. . . . 219,333 
 
 Combe, Delafield, & Co. . 105,081 
 
 In 1840. 
 
 Sarrels. 
 
 Barclay, Perkins, & Co. . 361,321 
 
 Truman, Hanbury, & Co. 263,235 
 
 Wbltbread & Co. . . 218,828 
 
 Reid (fe Co 196,442 
 
 Combe, Delafield, & Co. . 177,542 
 
 Felix Calvert & Co. . . 136,387 
 
 Sir Henry Meux (fc Co. . 116,547 
 
 FORTERAGE ACT, regulating the charge for porterage of small parcels, passed 1 799. 
 
 PORT JACKSOlSr (N"ew South Wales), thirteen aniles north of Botany Bay, was so 
 named by capt. Cook m 1770. See Sydney. 
 
 PORTLAND ADMIOTSTRATIOITS. The first was the " Coalition ministry," of which 
 "William Henry Cavendish, dulce of Portland,* as first lord of the treasury, was the head. 
 It obtained the name of the "Coalition" ministry, from its [including lord North with 
 Mr. Fox, formerly inveterate opponents. Formed April 5, 1 783 ; dissolved by Mr. Pitt's 
 coming into power, Dec. same year. 
 
 FIRST ADMINISrHA.TION. 
 
 Duke of Portland, /rsi lord oftheti-easury. 
 
 Viscount Stormont, president of the council. 
 
 Earl of Carlisle, frivy seal. 
 
 Frederick, lord North, and Charles James Pox, home 
 
 and foreign secretaries. 
 liord John Cavendi.sh, chancellor of ike excheqiier. 
 Viscount Keppel, o.dmiralty. 
 Viscount Towushend, ordnance. 
 Lord Loughborough, chief commissioner of great seal. 
 Charles Townshend. 
 Edmund Burke. 
 Bichard Fitzpatrick, &c. 
 (See also Aberdeen and Jiroad Bottom Administration.) 
 
 SECOND ADMINISTKATION, MarCh 25, 1807. 
 
 Earl Camden, lord president. 
 
 Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 
 
 Hon. Spencer Perceval, lord Hawkesbury (after- 
 wards earl of Liverpool), Mr. Canning, and 
 viscount Castlereagh (afterwards marquess of 
 Londonderry), home, foreign, and colonial secre- 
 taries. 
 
 Earl Bathurst and Mr. Dundas, boards of trade and. 
 control. 
 
 Lord Mulgrave, admiralty. 
 
 Barl of Chatham, ordnance. 
 
 Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 
 
 PORTLAND ISLE (off Dorset). Fortified hefore 1142. Portland castle was built by 
 Henry VIII. about 1536. Off this peninsula a naval engagement commenced hetween the 
 English and Dutch, Feb. 18, 1653, which continued for three days. The English destroyed 
 eleven Dutch men-of-war and thirty merchantmen. "Van Tromp was admiral of the Dutch, 
 and Blake of the English. — Here is found the noted freestone used for building our finest 
 edifices. The Portland lights were erected 17 16 and in 1789. The "piev, with nearly half a 
 mile square of land, was washed into the sea in Feb. 1792. Prince Albert laid the first 
 stone of the Portland breakwater, July 25, 1849. A mutiny among the convicts here in 
 Sept. 1858 was promptly suppressed. 
 
 PORTLAND OR BARBERINI YASE. This beautiful specimen of Greek art (composed 
 of a glass-like substance, with figures and devices raised on it on white enamel ; height 
 10 inches ; diameter in the broadest part, 7 ; with a handle in each side) was discovered 
 about the middle of the i6th century, in a marble sarcophagus in a sepirlchre at a place 
 called Monte del Grano, about 2| miles from Rome. The sepulchre was supposed to have 
 been that of the Roman emperor, Alexander Severus (222 — 235), and his mother Mammaa, 
 and the vase is supposed to have been the cinerary urn of one or other of these royal 
 personages. It was placed in the palace of the Barberini family, at Rome, where it remained 
 till 1770, when it was purchased by sir William Hamilton, from whose possession it passed 
 to that of the duchess of Portland, and in 1810 it was deposited in the British Museum by 
 the duke, who was one of the trustees. There it remained till Feb. 7, 1845, when it was 
 
 * Born 1738 ; became lord chambe:lain, 1765; lord lieutenant of Ireland, 17S2 ; premier, 1783; home 
 secretary, 1794 ; lord president, 1801 ; premier again, 1807; died, 1809 ; when Jlr. Spencer Perceval bacame 
 premier. 
 
FOR 
 
 584 
 
 FOR 
 
 see). 
 
 smashed to pieces with a stone by a man named William Lloyd. Tlie vase was skilfully 
 repaired, and still exists in the Museum, but is not shown to the public. Josiah Wedgwood 
 made a mould of this vase, and took from it a number of casts. 
 
 FORTO BELLO (S. America), discovered by Columbus, Nov. 2, 1502, was taken by 
 Morgan the buccaneer in 1668 ; by the British under admiral Vernon, from the Spaniards, 
 Nov. 20, 1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifications, in 
 1742. Before the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748, it was the great mart for 
 the rich commerce of Feru and Chili. 
 
 FORTO FERRAJO, capital of Elba {ichicJi see) : built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke of 
 Florence, in 1548. The fortifications were not finished till 1628, Avhen Cosmo II. comijleted 
 them with great magnificence. See France. 
 
 FORT FHILLIF (New S. Wales), the original name of the colony of Victoria {which 
 ). 
 FORTRAIT GALLERY. See National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 FORTREEVE (derived from Saxon words signifying the governor of a port or harbour). 
 The chief magistrate of London was so styled ; but Richard I. appointed two bailiffs, and 
 afterwards London had mayors. Camden. See Mayors. 
 
 FORT ROYAL (Jamaica), once a considerable town, was destroyed by an earthquake in 
 June, 1692 ; laid in ashes by a fire in 1702 ; reduced to ruins by an inundation of the sea in 
 1722 ; and destroyed by a hurricane in 1774. After these extraordinary calamities, the 
 custom-house and public offices were removed to Kingston. Port Royal was again greatly 
 damaged by fire in 1750 ; by another awful storm in 1784 ; and by a devastating fire iu 
 July, 1815. In 1850, this place suffered by cholera. 
 
 PORT ROYALISTS, the learned members of the celebrated convent of the Fort Royal 
 des Champs (founded about 1230 ; and refouuded in 1626), who occupied their time there in 
 religious exercises, and in instructing youth, from about 1636 to 1656, when tliey were 
 expelled by Louis XIV., as Jansenists and heretics. Among the distinguished persons 
 connected with Fort Royal were Lancelot, Pascal, Arnauld, Nicole de Sac}', and Tillemout. 
 Their school-books were gi-eatty esteemed. The establishment was suppressed in 1 709. 
 
 PORTSMOUTH (Hampshire), the most consideiable haven for men-of-war, and the 
 most strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouses were 
 established in the reign of Henry VIII. Population in 1851, 72,096 ; in 1861, 94,546. 
 
 The French under D'Annebaut attempted to 
 destroy Portsmouth, but were defeated by 
 viscount Lisle, in the then finest war-ship in 
 the world, the Great Harry .... 1544 
 
 Here George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, 
 was assassinated by Felton . Aug. 23, 1628 
 
 Admiral Byiig (see ByiKj), on a very dubious 
 sentence, was shot at Portsmouth March 14, 1757 
 
 The dockyard was fired, the loss estimated at 
 4oo,ooo(. ...... July 3, 1760 
 
 Another fire occasioned loss to the amount of 
 100,000^ July 27, 1770 
 
 [French perfidy was suspected both times, but 
 
 there was no actual proof.] 
 Grand naval mock engagement and parade of 
 
 the fleet, tbe king being present, Jmic 22 to 
 
 25, 1773, and ..... June 30, 1794 
 Another great fire occurred . . . Dec. 7, 1776 
 A gi-eat naval review was held near Portsmouth 
 
 on April 25, 1856 
 
 Visited by a French fleet amid great rejoicings, 
 
 Aug. 29— Sept. I, 1865 
 
 PORTUGAL, the ancient Lusitania. The present name is derived from Porto Callo, the 
 original appellation of Ojiorto. After a nine years' struggle, under Viriathes, a brave able 
 leader, the Lusitanians submitted to the Roman arms about 137 B.C. Portugal underwent 
 the same changes as Spain on the iaW of the Roman empire. There are in Portugal two 
 universities, that of Coimbra, founded in 1308, and the smaller one of Evora, founded in 
 1533. Lisbon has also its royal academy, and the small town of Tliomar has an academy of 
 .sciences ; but in*general, literature is at a low ebb in Portugal. The poet Camoens, called 
 the Virgil of his countrj% and author of the Lusiacl (1569), ti'anslated into English by 
 Mickle, was a native of Lisbon. Population of the kingdom and colonies, in 1863, 
 8,037,194. 
 
 Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths here . 472 
 
 Conquered by the Moors 713 
 
 The kings of Asturias subdue some Saracen 
 
 chiefs, .ind Alfonso III. establishes bishops . 900 
 The Moors, conquered by Alfonsj VI. the 
 
 Valiant, of Castile, assisted by many other 
 princes and volunteers. Among those who 
 shone most in this celebrated expedition was 
 Henry of Besau?on (a relative of the duke of 
 Burgundy and king of France). Alfonso 
 
POE 
 
 58L 
 
 POIl 
 
 PORTUGAL, continued. 
 
 bestowed upon him Theresa, his natural 
 daughter, and Portugal as her marri^ige por- 
 tion, which he was to hold of him . . . 1095 
 Alfonso Henriquez defeats five Moorish kings, 
 
 and is proclaimed king ; s&e Oarique . . . 1139 
 Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders on their way to 
 the Holy Land, he takes Lisbon from the 
 
 Moors . ■ 1 147 
 
 Part of Algarve taken from the Moors by 
 
 Sancho 1 1189 
 
 Reign of Dionyf^ius I. or Denis, father of his 
 country, who builds 44 cities or towns in 
 
 Portugiil . 1279 
 
 University of Coimbra founded . . . . 1308 
 Military orders of Christ and St. James insti- 
 tuted 1279 and 1325 
 
 Ines de Castro murdered 1354 
 
 John I., sumamed the Great, carries his ai-ms 
 
 into Africa 1415 
 
 Maritime discoveries .... 1419-30 
 
 Madeira and the Canaries seized . . . 1420 
 
 Code of laws digested 1425 
 
 Lisbon made the capital, about .... 1433 
 
 Discovery of the Brazils 1499 
 
 Passage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good 
 Hope discovered 1487 ; fii'st voyage of Vasco 
 
 de Gama 1500 
 
 Camoens, author of the Lusiad, bom about . 1520 
 
 The Inquisition established 1526 
 
 University of Evora founded . . 1451 or 1533 
 Disastrous African expedition ; king Sebastian 
 defeated and slain in the battle of Alcazar, 
 
 Aug. 4, 1578 
 The kingdom seized by Philip II. of Spain . . 1580 
 The Dutch seize the Portuguese Indian settle- 
 ments 1602-20 
 
 The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and place 
 
 John, duke of Braganza, on the throne . . 1640 
 The great earthquake which destroys Lisbon. 
 
 See Earthquake .... Nov. 1755 
 
 Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and narrowly 
 
 escapes death 1758 
 
 [This affair caused some of the first families of 
 the kingdom to be tortured tn death ; their 
 very names being forbidden to be mentioned ; 
 yet many were unjustly condemned, and 
 their innocence was soon aftei-wards made 
 manifest. Tbe Jesuits were also expelled on 
 this occasion.] 
 Joseph, having no son, obtains a dispensation 
 from the pope to enable his daughter and 
 brother to intermarry. See Incest . . . 1760 
 The Spaniards and French invade Portugal, 
 
 which is saved by the English . 1762 and 1763 
 Regency of John (afterwards king), owing to 
 
 the queen's lunacy 1792 
 
 War with Spain 1801 
 
 The court, on the French invasion, emigrates 
 
 to the Brazils Nov. 2, 1807 
 
 Marshal Junot enters Lisbon . Nov. 29, ,, 
 
 Convention of Ciutra. See Clntra . Aug. 30, 1808 
 Battle of Busaco .... Sept. 27, 1810 
 The British parliament grants the sufferers in 
 
 Portugal 100,000' iSii 
 
 Portugal cedes Guiana to France . . . . 1814 
 Union of Portugal and Brazil .... 1815 
 Revolution in Portugal ' . . . Aug. 29, 1820 
 Constitutional Junta .... Oct. i, ,, 
 Return of the Court .... July 4, 1821 
 Independence of Brazil; the prince regent 
 
 made emperor. See Brazil . . Oct. 12, 1822 
 The king modifies the constitution June 5, 1823 
 
 Disturbances at Lisbon ; Dom Miguel departs, 
 
 &c May i-g, 1824 
 
 Treaty with Brazil .... Aug. 29, 1825 
 Death of John VI. . . . March 10, 1826 
 
 Dom Pedro grants a constitutional charter, and 
 
 confirms the regency . . . April 26, ,, 
 He relinquishes the throne in favour of his 
 daughter. Donna Maria da Gloria May 2, ,, 
 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 Dom Miguel takes the oath of fealty at Vienna, 
 
 Oct. 4, 1826 
 Marquess of Chaves' insiuTection at Lisbon in 
 
 favour of Dom Miguel . . . Oct. 6, ,, 
 Dom Miguel and Donna Maria betrothed. See 
 
 Incest ..... Oct. 29, ,, 
 
 Portugal solicits the assistance of Great Britain, 
 Dec. 3 : departure of the first British auxi- 
 liary troops for Portugal . . . Dec. 17, ,, 
 Bank of Lisbon .stops payment . . Dec 7. 1827 
 Dom Miguel made regent ; he arrives in London, 
 Dec. 30, 1827 ; and takes the oaths at Lisbon, 
 
 Feb. 22, 182S 
 The British armament quits Portugal, April 28 ; 
 
 foreign ministers withdraw . . May 3, „ 
 Sir John Doyle arrested . . . June 13, „ 
 Dom Miguel as.sumes the title of king July 4, ,, 
 He dissolves the three estates . . July 12, ,, 
 His troops take Madeira . , . Aug. 24, ,, 
 Release of sir John Doyle . . . Sept. 7, „ 
 The queen Donna Maria arrives in London, 
 
 Oct. 6 ; and at Windsor . . Dec. 22, ,, 
 Dom Miguel's expedition against Terceira de- 
 feated Aug. II, 
 
 Duke of Palmella appointed regent March, 
 
 Dom Pedro arrives in England . June 16, 
 Insurrection in Portugal, in favour of the 
 queen ; more than 300 lives lost Aug. 21, 
 Dom Pedro's expedition sails from Belle-isle, 
 Feb. 9 ; at Terceira he proclaims himself re- 
 gent of Portugal, April 2 ; and takes Oporto, 
 
 July 8, 
 The Miguelites attack Oporto ; and are defeated 
 
 with considerable loss on both sides, Sept. 19, ,, 
 Mount Cavello taken . . . April 9, 1833 
 Admii-al Napier takes Dom Miguel's squadron 
 
 off Cape St. Vincent . . . July 2, „ 
 
 Lisbon is evacuated by the duke of Cadaval's 
 
 army ; the queen proclaimed . July 24, „ 
 After various conflicts Dom Miguel capitulates 
 to the Pedroite forces, and Santarem surren- 
 ders May 26, 1834 
 
 Dom Miguel is permitted to leave the country 
 vmmolested, and he embarks at Evora for 
 
 Genoa May 31, ,, 
 
 Massacres take place at Lisbon . June 9, ,, 
 The Cortes declare the queen to be of age, 
 
 Sept. 15, ,, 
 
 Dom Pedro dies Sept. 21, ,, 
 
 Oporto wine company abolished . . . . „ 
 Prince Augustus of Portugal (duke of Leuch- 
 tenberg), just married to the queen, dies, 
 
 March 28, 1833 
 The queen marries prince Ferdinand of Saxe 
 
 Coburg April 9, 1836 
 
 Revolution at Lisbon . . . Aug. 9, , , 
 Another outbreak there . . . Nov. 8, ,, 
 The duke of Terceira attempts to restore Dom 
 
 Pedro's charter .... Aug. 18, 1837 
 He and Saldanha fail in the attempt, and em- 
 bark for England .... Sept. i3, ,, 
 Oporto wine company ro-established April 7, 1838 
 The northern province in a state of insurrection 
 
 about this time .... April 20, 1846 
 The duke of Palmella resigns his ministry, 
 
 Oct. 31, ,, 
 Action at Evora, the queen's troops defeat tlie 
 
 insurgent forces .... Oct. 31, ,, 
 British sc'uadron under admiral Parker arrives 
 
 in the Tagus, at the queen's request Oct. 31, ,, 
 Palmella banished .... Nov. 26, ,, 
 Marquess of Saldanha defeats cormt Bomfin at 
 
 Torres Vedras Dec. 22, „ 
 
 The insurgents enter Oporto . . Jan. 7, 1847 
 London conference, by which England, France, 
 and Spain determine to assist the queen 
 of Portugal to terminate the civil war. 
 
 May 21, ,, 
 Submission of Sa de Bandcira to the queen, 
 
 June II, „ 
 
POR 
 
 5S6 
 
 POR 
 
 PORTUGAL, continued. 
 
 A Spanish force enters Oporto, and the Junto 
 capitulates June 26, 1847 
 
 An American squadron anives in the Tagiis to 
 enforce claims against the Portuguese govern- 
 ment June 22, 1850 
 
 Militaiy insurrection, headed by the duke of 
 Saldanha, who being outstripped in his 
 inarch on Santarem by the king of Portugal, 
 flees northward .... April 10, 1S51 
 
 ■Oporto declares for the duke, who had left the 
 city for Vigo to embark for England ; but is 
 called back by the insurgents . April 24, ,, 
 
 Saldanlia's triumphal entry into Oporto, 
 
 April 29, ,, 
 
 The conde de Thomar, prime minister, resigns, 
 and embarks on board a British ship for Eng- 
 land, where he an-ives . . May 16, ,, 
 
 Dom Miguel marries the princess of Lowenstein- 
 Rosenberg Sept. 21, „ 
 
 Bevision of the charter by the Cortes sanctioned 
 by the queen : the prince royal takes tlie oath 
 to the constitution 
 
 ■Conversion of the public debt . 
 
 Death of the queen Maria II. 
 
 King-consort recognised as regent 
 
 The young king visits England 
 
 Tbe slaves on royal domains freed 
 
 The king visits France . 
 
 Inauguration of the king 
 
 Eesignation of Saldanha ministry 
 
 First Portuguese railway (from Lisbon to San- 
 tarem) opened .... Oct. 26, ,, 
 
 Fever rages in Lisbon : the king very active in 
 relieving the sufferers . Oct. and Nov. 1857 
 
 The French emigrant ship for negroes, Charles- 
 et-Georf/es, seized .... Nov. 29, ,, 
 
 Anger of the French government: its ultima- 
 
 July 18, 
 
 I8S2 
 
 Dec. 18, 
 
 ,, 
 
 Nov. 15, 
 
 i«S1 
 
 Dee. 19, 
 
 
 June, 
 
 i8S4 
 
 Dec. 30, 
 
 
 May, 
 
 I8SS 
 
 Sept. 16, 
 
 
 June 5, 
 
 1856 
 
 turn sent, Oct. 13 ; and ships of war to the 
 Tagns : the vessel restored (see Charles-et- 
 
 Georges) Oct. 25, 1858 
 
 Death of the duke of Terceira, prime minister, 
 April 26 ; succeeded by the senhor Aguiar, 
 May 2, who resigns . . . July 2, i860 
 Death of the king, Pedro V. ; succeeded b3' his 
 
 brother the duke of Oporto . . Nov. 11, 1861 
 Death of Dom John, the king's brother Dec. 29, ,, 
 The law of succession altered in favour of the 
 
 king's sisters Jan. 3, 1862 
 
 The due de LouliS becomes minister Feb. 21, ,, 
 The king married to princess Maria Pia of 
 Savoy by proxy, at Turin, Sept. 27 ; at Lisbon, 
 
 Oct. 6, „ 
 Elections : majority for the government Nov. ,, 
 Birth of Dom Carlos, heir to the throne, 
 
 Sept. 28, 1863 
 
 Ministerial changes Jan. 1864 
 
 Death of the celebrated statesman, the duke of 
 
 Palmella April 2, „ 
 
 Free-trade measures introduced . Jvuie i, „ 
 Frontier treaty with Spain concluded Sept. 29, „ 
 U.S. vessels Niagara and Sacramento i:i the 
 Tagiis fired on, through suspicion of their 
 sailing after the confederate vessel Stonewall, 
 March 27 ; the difficulty with the U.S. govern- 
 ment arranged .... April 7, 1865 
 The premier, De Louie, resigns ; marquess de 
 
 Bandeira forms a ministry . April 17, ,, 
 
 Constitutional privileges granted to the colonies, 
 
 May, ,, 
 Another prince bom . . . July 31, „ 
 New ministry formed ; Aguiar premier Sept. 4, ,, 
 The international exhibition at Oporto opened 
 
 by the king Sept. 18, ,, 
 
 The king visits England and France . Dec. ,, 
 
 COUNTS AND KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 3093. Henry, count or earl of Portugal. 
 
 J112. Alfonso, his son, and Theresa. 
 
 1128. Alfonso, count of Portugal, alone. 
 
 1 139. Alfonso I. declared King, having obtained a 
 
 signal victory over a j)rodigious army of 
 
 Moors on the plains of Ourique. 
 1185. Sancho I., son of Alfonso: 
 1212. Alfonso II., sumamed Crassus, or the Fat. 
 1223. Sancho II. or the Idle : deposed. 
 T248. Alfonso III. 
 1279. Denis or Dionysius, styled the father of his 
 
 country. 
 1325. Alfonso IV. , the Brave. 
 1357. Peter, the Severe : succeeded by his son, 
 1367. Ferdinand I. ; succeeded by his natural 
 
 brother, 
 T383. John I., the Bastard, and the Great ; married 
 
 Philippa, daughter of John of Gaimt, duke 
 
 of Lancaster. 
 1433. Edward or Duarte. 
 1438. Alfonso v., the African. 
 :i48i. John II., whose actions procured him the 
 
 titles of the Great and the Perfect ; suc- 
 ceeded by his cousin, 
 1495: Emmanuel, the Fortunate. 
 1521. John III., son of Emmanuel ; he admitted into 
 
 his kingdom the rehgious institution of the 
 
 Inquisition. 
 i5S7- Sebastian : drovsTied after the great battle of 
 
 Alcazarquivir, in Africa, Aug. 4, 157S ; when 
 
 the crown reverted to his great uncle, 
 1578. Henry, the Cardinal, son of Emmanuel. 
 1580. Anthony, prior of Crato, sou of Emmanuel; 
 
 deposed by Phihp II. of Spain, who united 
 
 Portugal to his other dominions till 1640. 
 1640. John IV., dukeof Braganza: dispossessed the 
 
 Spaniards in a bloodless revolution, and was 
 
 proclaimed king, Dec. i. 
 1656. Alfonso VI. : deposed in 1667, and his brother 
 
 and succes.sor Peter made regent : the latter 
 ascended tbe throne in 
 
 1683. Peter II. ; succeeded by his son, 
 
 1706. John V. : succeeded by his son, 
 
 1750. Joseph Emmanuel. The daughter and succes- 
 sor of this prince married his brother, by 
 dispensation from the pope, and they as- 
 cended the throne, as 
 
 1777. Maria-Frances-Isabella and Peter III. jointly. 
 
 1786. Maria, alone : this princess afterwards falls 
 into a state of melancholy and derangement ; 
 dies, 1816. 
 
 1792. Regency — John, son of the queen, and after- 
 wards king, declared regent of the kingdom, 
 1791. 
 
 1 816. John VI., jireviously regent. He had with- 
 drawn in 1807, owing to the French invasion 
 of Portugal, to his Brazilian dominions ; but 
 the discontent of his subjects obUged him to 
 return in 1821 ; died in 1826. 
 
 1826. Peter IV. (Doin Pedro), son of .John VI. : mak- 
 ing his election of the empire of Brazil, ab- 
 dicated the throne of Portugal in favour of 
 his daughter, 
 „ Maria II (da Gloria), who became queen at 
 seven years of age. 
 
 1828. Dom Miguel, brother to Peter IV., usurped the 
 crown, which he retained, amid civil con- 
 tentions, until 1833. 
 
 1833. Maria II. restored: declared in Sept. 1834 
 (being then 15) to be of age, and assumed the 
 royal power accordingly : died Nov. 15, 1853 > 
 succeeded by her son, 
 
 1853. Peter V. (Dom Pedro), born Sept. 16, 1S37 : 
 diedNov. II, 1861 ; succeeded by his brother, 
 
 1861.' Luis I., the present (1S65) king ; born Oct. i, 
 i'838, married to Maria Pia, daughter of Vic- 
 tor Emmanuel, king of Italy, Oct. 6, 1862. 
 Heir : Dom Carlos (son), born Sept. 28, 1863. 
 
POS 
 
 587 
 
 POS 
 
 POSEN, a Polish province, annexed to Prussia 1772 and 1793 ; made part of the duchy 
 of Warsaw, 1807 ; restored to Prussia, 1815. An insurrection here was (xuelled iu May, 
 1848. 
 
 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY* set forth hy Auguste Comte, an eminent mathematician, 
 born about 1795 j "^i^d at Paris, 1852. 
 
 POSTS, said to have originated in the reguhir couriers established by Cyrus, who 
 erected post-houses throughout the kingdom of Persia, about 536 B.C. Augustus was the 
 first who introduced this institution among the Eomans, and who employed post-chaises. 
 This was imitated by Charlemagne about A.D. Scx). Ashe. Louis XL first established post- 
 houses in France owing to his eagerness for news, and they were the first institution of this 
 nature in Europe, 1470. Henault. An International Commission respecting postal 
 arrangements met at Paris May 11, and broke up June 9, 1863. 
 
 POST-OFFICE OF England. In England, in the reign of Edward lY. 1481, riders on 
 post-horses went stages of the distance of twenty miles from each other, in order to procure 
 the king the earliest intelligence of the events that passed in the course of the war that had 
 arisen with the Scots. Gale. Eicliard III. improved the system of couriers in 1483. In 
 1543 similar arrangements existed in England. Sadler's Letters. Post communications 
 between London and most towns of England, Scotland, and Ireland, existed in 1635. 
 Strypc. The first chief postmaster of England was Thomas Poandolph, appointed by queen 
 Elizabeth in 158 1. James I. appointed Matthew de I'Equester as foreign postmaster ; and 
 Charles I. appointed William Frizell and Thomas Witherings in 163 1. A proclamation of 
 Charles I. states in the preamble that "whereas to this time there hath been no certain 
 intercourse between the kingdoms of England and Scotland, the king now commands his 
 postmaster of England for foreign parts to settle a running post or two to run night and day 
 between Edinburgh and London, to go thither and come back again in six days,"+ 1631. 
 An enlarged ofiice was erected by the parliament in 1643 ; and one more considerable in 
 1657, with a view "to benefit commerce, convey the public dispatches, and as the best 
 means to discover and prevent many dangerous wicked designs against the commonwealth 
 by the inspection of the correspondence." Aslie. 
 
 The Post-office as at present constituted was 
 founded 12 Charles If. . . Dec. 27, 1660 
 
 Cross posts established by Ralph Allen . . 1720 
 
 ■The mails were first conveyed by coaches, Aug. 
 2, 1784, when the first mail left London for 
 Bristol. See Mail Coaches. 
 
 Penky Post fii-st set tap in London and its 
 suburbs by a Mr. Robert Murray, uphol- 
 sterer ; in 168 1. He assigned his interest in 
 the undertaking to Mr. Dockwi-a, a merchant, 
 1683 ; but on a trial at the King's Bench bar 
 it was adjudged to belong to the duke of 
 York, as a branch of the general post, and was 
 thereupon annexed to the revenue of the 
 crown, i6go. This institution was consider- 
 ably improved in and around London, and 
 was made a two-penny post, July, 1794, et seq. 
 
 A penny post was first set up in Dublin . . 1774 
 
 The mails first conveyed by railway, 1830; by 
 the overland route to India .... 1835 
 
 Ilarly in 1837, Mr. Rowland Hillt broached his 
 plan of penny postage, which was adopted 
 after a full investigation by a Committee of 
 the House of Oomruons in 1839 
 
 The new postage law, by which the uniform 
 rate of 411. per letter was tried as an experi- 
 ment, came into operation . . Dec. 5, „ 
 
 The uniform rate of id. per letter of half an 
 ounce weight, &c., commenced . Jan. 10, 
 
 The stami)ed postage covers came into use, 
 
 May 6, 
 
 Reduction in postage — to be id. instead of 2d. 
 for every ounce above the first . April, 
 
 Number of letters dehvered in the last year of 
 the heavy postage (1839) was 82,470,596, in- 
 cluding 6,563,024 franks. 
 
 In 1840, the number was 168,768,344; in 1851, 
 360,651,187, whereof 36,512,649 were in Scot- 
 land, and 35,982,782 were in Ireland. 
 
 The number in 1856 was, England 3S8 millions ; 
 Scotland, 42 millions ; Ireland, 48 millions ; 
 total, 478 millions ; being an increase of 4I 
 per cent, on 1855, and an average of 17 to each 
 person. 
 
 On Feb. 14, 1856, 618,000 letters passed through 
 the general post-office. 
 
 In 1859, 544,796,000 letters were posted in the 
 United Kingdom ; being an increase of 45 per 
 cent, on 1858. The average annual number 
 to each person — in England, 22; Scotland, 16; 
 Ireland, 7. 
 
 In i860, 564 millions of letters were delivered 
 in the United Kingdom ; in i36i, 593 millions ; 
 1862, 60s niiUions. 
 
 * It sets aside theology and metaphysics as two merely preliminary stages in life ; and abandons all 
 search after causes and essences of things, and restricts itself to the observation and classification of phe- 
 nomena and the discovery of their laws. Comte asserted that' Europe had now arrived at the third stage 
 of its progress. He aimed at being the founder of a new religion as well as a new philosophy, the "reli- 
 gion of humanity. " 
 
 t The king also commanded his " postmaster of England for foreign parts" to open a regular com- 
 munication by running posts between the metropolis and Edinburgh, West Chester, Holyhead, Ireland, 
 Plymouth, Exeter, &c. (Rates of postage— i letter carried under 80 miles, 2d. ; under 140 miles, 40?. ; above 
 that distance in England, 6d. ; to any part of Scotland, 8d.) Even so late as between 1730 and 1740, the 
 post was only transmitted three days a week between Edinburgh and London ; and the metropoUs, on one 
 occasion, onli/ sent a single letter, which was for an Edinbiu-gh banker, named Ramsay. 
 
 J A national testimonial was presented to him, June 17, 1846 ; on Nov. 30, he v/as appointed secretary 
 to the post office ; and created K.C.B. in i860. 
 
POS 
 
 588 
 
 roT 
 
 POST-OFFICE OF England, continued. 
 
 Book-Post. — On June 5, 1855, a treasury wan-ant 
 was issued, providing for the carriage by post 
 of books, pamphitis, (Sic, under certain restric- 
 tions -4 oz. for id. ; 8 oz. for 2d., &:c. 
 
 Public recejjfacles for letters before 1840, about 
 45CO. 
 
 In i860, tbere were in the United Kingdom, 
 11,412 post-offices ; 1862, 11,316. 
 
 The street Lelttr-boxes were erected in March, 
 1855. The first one was placed at the corner 
 of Fleet- street and Farriugdon-street. There 
 were 1958 in i860; 3460 in 1862. 
 
 I Officers employed, Dec. i, i86x, 25,473. 
 
 A Money-Order Office, set up in 1792, was little 
 u~ed on account of the expense, till 1840. In 
 1839, 188,291 money orders were issued for 
 313,124?. ; in 1861, 7,580,455 orders for 
 14,616, 348?. 
 
 The Postal Gidde first appeared in 1856 ; in 
 which year London and the vicinity were 
 divided into districts for postal purposes : 
 viz. East, West, &c. The postmaster-general 
 has issued Annual Reports (1854-64). 
 
 The Post-office Directory first appeared in 1800. 
 
 1643. It yielded 
 
 1653. Farmed to John 
 
 Manley for . 
 1663. Farmed to Daniel 
 
 O'Neale for . . 
 1674 Farmed for 
 16S5. It yielded . . . 
 1707. Ditto 
 
 1714. Ditto . . . . 
 1723. Ditto 
 
 REVENUE or THE POST-OFFICE. 
 
 £5,000 1744. It yielded . 
 
 1764. Ditto . . . 
 
 io,ooo 1790. Ditto . 
 
 ! i8co. Ditto . . . 
 
 21,500 1805. Great Britain 
 
 43,000 1810. Ditto . . . 
 
 65,000 \ 1815. Ditto . 
 
 111,461 i 1820. United Kingdom . 
 
 145,227 I 1825. Ditto . . . 
 
 201,805 I 1830. Ditto 
 
 POST-OFFICES. 
 
 The General Post-Office of London was originally 
 established in Cloak-lane, near Dowgate - hill, 
 whence it was removed to the Black Swan, in 
 Bishopsgate-street. After the great fire of 1666, it 
 was removed to the Two Black-l'illars in Brydges- 
 street, Covent-Garden.and afterwards (about 1690) 
 to sir Robert Viner's mansion in Lombard-street. 
 It was transfeiTcd to the building in St. Martin 's- 
 le-Grand, erected on the site of an ancient college 
 and sanctuary, from designs by R. Smirke, esq., 
 Sept. 23, 1829. 
 
 The new Post-office of Dublin opened, Jan. 6, 1818. 
 
 The foundation of a new Post-office at Edinburgh 
 was laid by the prince consort in Oct. 1861. 
 
 Post-Office S.wing-Banks established, 1S61 (began 
 Sept. 16) ; interest zi per cent. ; government re- 
 sponsible to depositors. The number of these 
 banks and t!ie amoiuit of deposits received on 
 March 31, 1862, were 
 
 Banhf. 
 England . . . 1795 
 Wales . . . 129 . 
 Scotland . . 299 
 Ireland . . 300 . 
 The Islands . 9 
 
 Deposits. 
 . £668,879 10 
 
 . 28,392 2 
 . . 10,237 9 
 
 . 26,064 18 
 • • 1,679 15 
 
 2 
 10 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 
 2532 
 London district 
 
 £735,253 16 
 . 267,329 13 
 
 4 
 8 
 
 £235,492 
 
 1835. United King 
 
 dom £2,353,340 
 
 432,048 
 
 1839. Ditto . 
 
 . 2,522,495 
 
 480,074 
 
 1840. New rate . 
 
 . . 471,000 
 
 745,313 
 
 1845. Net revenue 
 
 761,982 
 
 1,424,994 
 
 1850 Ditto 
 
 . . 803,898 
 
 1,709,065 
 
 1855. Ditto . 
 
 1,137,220 
 
 1,755,898 
 
 1859. Ditto 
 
 . . 1,150,960 
 
 2,402,697 
 
 i860. Ditto . 
 
 . 1,102,479 
 
 2,255,239 
 
 1861. Ditto 
 
 . . 1,161,985 
 
 2,301,432 
 
 1862. Ditto . 
 
 POSTMASTERS. 
 
 . I, 236,941 
 
 The number of postmasters (2) reduced to i, 1822. 
 The offices of postmaster-general of England and of 
 
 Ireland united in one perscm, 1831. 
 1823. Thomas earl of Chichester. 
 
 1826. Lord Frederick Montague. 
 
 1827. William duke of Manchester. 
 1830. Charles duke of Richmond. 
 
 1834. Francis marquess of Conyngham. 
 
 1835. William lord Maryborough. 
 
 ,, Fi'ancis marque-ss of Conyngham. 
 
 ,, ITiomas earl of Lichfield. 
 1841. William viscount Lowther. 
 1846. Edward earl of St. Germans. 
 
 ,, Ulick marquess of Clanricarde. 
 1855. Geoi-ge duke of Argyle. 
 
 1858. Charles lord Colchester. 
 
 1859. James earl of Elgin. 
 
 i860. Edward lord Stanley of Alderley (the present 
 postmaster). 
 
 SECRETARIES. 
 
 1797. Francis Freeling. 
 1836 Wm. L. Maberley. 
 1846. Rowland Hill, resigned Feb. 29, 1864 : 2000J. 
 
 pension granted. 
 1864. John TiUey (March). 
 
 POSTING. Post-chaises were invented by the French, and, according to Grainger, 
 ■were introduced into this country by Mr. William TuU, .son of the well-kuowu writer on 
 Husbandry. Posting was fixed by statute of Edward VI. at one penny per mile, 1548, 
 By a statute, re-establisliing the post-ofiice, none but the postmaster or his deputies could 
 furnish post-horses for travellers, 1660, and hence tlie name. The post-horse duty was 
 imposed in 1779. Post-horse duty yielded, in 1852, in England, 128,501?., and in Scotland, 
 
 POTASSIUM, a most remarkable metal, discovered in 1807 by Humphry Davy, who 
 first succeeded in separating it from potash b}' means of a powerful voltaic battery, in the 
 laboratory of the Royal Institution, London ; and also the metals Sodium from soda, Calcium 
 from lime, &c. The alkalis and earths had been previously regarded as simple substances. 
 Potassium ignites on contact with v>'ater. 
 
 POTATOES, natives of Chili and Peru, originally brought to England from Santa Fe, 
 in America, by sir John Hawkins, 1563. Others ascribe their introduction to sir Francis 
 Drake, in 1586 ; while their general introduction is mentioned by many wiiters as occurring 
 in 1592. Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir AValter Raleigh, who had large 
 estates in that couutiy, about Youghal, in the county of Cork. It is said that potatoes 
 
POT 
 
 589 
 
 POW 
 
 were not known in Flanders until 1620. A fine kind of potato was first brovioht from 
 America by Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Cardington, near Bedford, 1765 ; and its 
 culture became general soon after. The failure of the potato crop in Ireland, four successive 
 years from 1845, caused famine among the poor, to which succeeded pestilent disease of which 
 multitudes died ; among them many priests and physicians. Parliament voted ten millions 
 sterling in this awful exigency, and several countries of Europe, and the United States of 
 America, forvi'arded provisions and other succours. See Ireland* 
 
 POTIDiEA, a town in Macedonia, a tributary of Athens, against which it revolted 432 
 B.C., but submitted in 429. It was taken from the Athenians after three years' siege, by 
 Philip II. of Macedon in 358 B.C. 
 
 POTOSI (Peru). Silver mines here were discovered by the Spaniards in 1545 ; they are 
 in a mountain in the form of a sugar-loaf. 
 
 POTSDAM (near Berlin), the Versailles of Prussia. It was made an arsenal in 1721. 
 Here is situated the palace of Sans Souci, embellished by Frederic II., which was occupied 
 by Napoleon I. in Oct. 1806. Here also is the new palace, the residence of prince Frederick 
 William and his wife the princess royal of England, married, Jan. 25, 1858. 
 
 POTTERY AND PORCELAIlSr. The manufacture of earthenware (the ceramic art) 
 existed among the Jews as an honom'able occupation (see i Chron. iv. 23), and the power of 
 the potter over the clay as a symbol of the power of God is described by Jeremiah, B.C. 605 
 (ch. xviii.) Earthenware was made by the ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, 
 and Romans. The art, which was lost at the subversion of the Roman Western empire, re- 
 appeared in Spain with the Arabs. 
 
 The Majolica, Eaffaelle, or Umbrian'ware of the 
 15th century, was probably introduced into 
 Italy from the Moors, as coloured tiles of the 
 6th and 7th century adorn some ancient 
 churches. 
 
 Pottery was manufactured at Beauvais in 
 France in the 12th century. 
 
 St. Cloud enamelled pottery made . about 
 
 Luca della Robbia (born about 1410) applied 
 tin enamel to terra-cotta. Fayence ware was 
 made in France by Bernard Palissy (died 1589) 
 and his family. 
 
 Porcelain, formed of earth Tcaolin, was made 
 in China in the 2nd century after Christ. 
 Chinese porcelain is naentioued in histories 
 of the i6th centiiry, when it was introduced 
 into England, and eagerly sought after. 
 
 Porcelain was made at Bow, near London, early 
 in the i8th century, and at Chelsea, before . 
 
 The first European porcelain was made at 
 Dresden by Bottcher, about . . . . 1700 
 
 [The manufacture was fostered by the king 
 Augustus II.] 
 
 The Capo di Monte factory at Naples estab- 
 lished i-,26 
 
 Thos. Frye patented porcelain, 1749; and Dr. 
 Wall established the manufacture at Worces- 
 ter ......... 1750 
 
 The St. Cloud china manufactory removed to 
 Sfevres 1756 
 
 Josiah Wedgwood's patent ware was first made 1762 
 
 Birch's "History of Ancient Pottery" (1.S58) ; 
 JIarryafs " History of Pottery and Porcelain, 
 Medieval and Modern " (1857) ; and Brong- 
 niart's "Arts Ceramiques," are valuable 
 works. 
 
 The British manufacture greatly improved by 
 Herbert Minton, who died in . . . . 1858 
 
 The duty ou earthenware taken off m . . i860 
 
 POULTRY. An exhibition of poultry was held in London in January 1853, when 
 nearly 1000 cocks were exhibited. Similar exhibitions have been held at the Crystal Palace 
 since. 
 
 POULTRY COMPTER (London), was one of the mo^ noted of the old city prisons. 
 The comj)ter of Wood-street belonged to the sheriff of London, and was made a prison-house 
 in 1555. This latter and Bread-street compter were rebuilt in 1667. The Giltspur-street 
 prison, built to sirpply the place of the old city compters, was pulled down in 1855. The 
 Poultry chapel was erected on the site of the Poultry compter, in 1819. Leigh. 
 
 POUND, from the Latin Ponclus. The value of the Roman 2}ondo is not precisely known, 
 thougli some suppose it was equivalent to an Attic mina or 2^.. 4s. -jd. The pound steiling 
 was in Saxon times, about 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth 
 part ; consequently the latter was three times as large as it is at present. Feacham. Our 
 avoirdupois weight pound cam.e from the French, and contains sixteen ounces ; it is in 
 proportion to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen. See under Standard. 
 
 POWDERING THE HAIR is said to have taken its rise from some of the ballad-singers 
 <at the fair at St. Germains whitening their heads, to make themselves ridiculous. It l)pcame 
 very general about 1614. In England the hair-powder tax, one guiuea for each person, 
 
 * From statistical returns, it appears that the potato crop is so very uncertain that it ought not to be 
 relied ou as a staple article of food. 
 
POW 590 PEA 
 
 began in May 1795, at wliicli time the practice was at its height. The tax still exists, 
 yielding in England, a few years ago, 4000L per year, but only 1200Z, in 1863. It was 
 abolished in Ireland. 
 
 POA\^ER-LOOMS. See Looms and Cotton. 
 
 POYNIXGS' LAW, so called after sir Edward Poynings, one of the lord deputies of 
 Ireland at the time of its passing, 1494. By this law all legislation in the Irish parliament 
 was confined to matters first approved of by the king and the English council. This act 
 was repealed together with the English Declaratory act of the 6tli of Geo. I. and some other 
 equally obnoxious Irish statutes, April, 1782. 
 
 PRJIMONSTEATENSIAN ORDER, founded in 1120 by Norbert, a monk. Its first 
 house in England was founded by Peter de Gousla or Gousel, at Newsham, in Lincolnshire, 
 1 143 — Tanner; according to others in 1146. The order spread widely through England soon 
 after. The house at Newsham was dedicated- to St. Mary and St. Martial. Lcxois. 
 
 PRiEMXJNIRE, Law of. This law (which obtained its name from the first two words 
 '^ Prcemoncri," or ^^ Prccniuniri facias," "Cause to be forewarned," and which is applied to 
 any offence in the way of contempt of the sovereign or his government) derived its origin 
 from the aggressive power of the pope in England. The offence introduced a foreign power 
 into the land, and created an imperium in imperio. The first statute of Prsemunire was 
 enacted 35 Edward I. 1306. Coke. The pope bestowed most of the bishopi-ics, abbeys, &c., 
 before they were void, upon favourites, on pretence of providing the church with better 
 qualified successors before the vacancies occurred. To put a stop to these encroach- 
 ments, Edward III. enacted a statute in 1352. The statute commonly referred to as the 
 statute of Prajmunire is the i6th of Richard II. 1392. But several other enactments, with 
 similar object, followed in subsequent reigns. 
 
 PRiETORIAN GUARDS were instituted by the emperor Augustus (13 B.C.) : their 
 numbers were enlarged by Tiberius, Vitellius, and their successors. At first supporters of 
 the imperial tyrants they eventually became their masters, actually putting up the imperial 
 diadem for sale (as in a.d. 193 when it was bought by Didius Julianus). They committed 
 many atrocities, and were finally disbanded by Constantine, in 312. 
 
 PRiETORS, Roman magistrates. In 365 B.C., one prretor was appointed ; a second was 
 appointed in 252 B.C. One {prcctor urhanus) administered justice to the citizens, and the 
 other (prcctor pcregrinus) in causes which related to foreigners. In 227 B.C. two more 
 prretors were created to assist the consul in the go^'emment of the provinces of Sicily and 
 Sardinia, which had been lately conquered ; and two more when Spain was reduced into the 
 form of a Roman province, 197 B.C. Sylla, the dictator, added two more, and Julius Ctesar 
 increased the number to 10, which afterwards became 16. After this, their number fluctuated, 
 being sometimes 18, 16, or 12 ; till, in the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, 
 and their numbers were reduced to three. 
 
 PRAGA, a suburb of "Warsaw, where a most bloody battle was fought, Xov. 5, 1 794 ; • 
 30,000 Poles wei-e butchered by the Russian general Suwarrow. Near here, on Feb. 25, 
 1831, the Poles, commanded by Skrznecki, defeated the Russian arm}'', commanded by 
 general Giesmar, who lost 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 prisoners, and 12 pieces of 
 cannon. • 
 
 PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating to the church and sometimes state 
 affairs. The ordinances of the kings of France are thus called : in one the rights of the 
 Gallican church were asserted against the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops, by 
 Charles VII. in 1438. The Pragmatic Sanction for settling the empire of Germany in the 
 house of Austria, 1439. Again the emperor Charles VI. published the Pragmatic Sanction, 
 whereby, in default of male issue, his daughters should succeed in preference to the daughters 
 of his brother Joseph I., in April 17, 1713 ; and he settled his dominions on his daughter 
 Mai'ia Theresa, in conformity thereto, 1723. She succeeded in Oct. 1740; but it gave rise to 
 a war, in which most of the powers of Europe were engaged, which lasted till 1748. 
 
 PRAGUE, the capital of Bohemia {loMch sec). The old city was founded about 759 ; the 
 new city was rebuilt in 1348 by the emperor Charles IV., who made it his capital and erected 
 a university. Prague has sufi'ered much by war. It was taken by the Swedes in 1648, and 
 by the French in 1741 ; but they were obliged to leave it in 1742. In 1744 it was taken by 
 the king of Prussia ; but he was obliged to abandon it in the same year. The great battle 
 of Prague was fought May 6, 1757. In this engagement the Austrians were defeated by 
 prince Henry of Prussia, and their whole cam]3 taken ; their illustrious commander, general 
 
PKA 591 PRE 
 
 Braun, was mortally wounded, and the brave Prussian, marshal Schwerin, was killed. After 
 this victory, Prague was besieged by the king of Prussia, but he was soon obliged to raise 
 the siege. — An insurrection in Prague, June, 1848, was suppressed in a few days. 
 
 PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. See Barehones. 
 
 PRASLIN" MURDER. The duchesse de Choiseul-Praslin was murdered by her husband, 
 the due de Praslin, at his own hoiise, in Paris, Aug. 17, 1847. She was the only daughter 
 of the celebrated marshal Sebastiani, the mother of nine children, and in her forty-first year. 
 Circumstances were so managed by him as to give it the appearance of teiug the act of 
 another. During the arrangements for the trial, the duke took poison. 
 
 PRAYER-BOOK. See Common Prayer. 
 
 PRAYERS. " Then began men to call upon the name of the Lord " {Gen. iv. 26), 3875 
 B.C. The mode of praying with the face to the east was instituted by pope Boniface II. a.d. 
 532. This last custom, which prevailed among the Jews, has been recently adopted in some 
 Protestant places of worship in England. Prayers for the dead were first introduced into the 
 Christian chm'ch about 190. Easehius. Prayers addressed to the Virgin Mary and to the- 
 saints were introduced by pope Gregory, 593. 
 
 PRECEDENCE was established in very early ages, and was amongst the laws of Justinian. 
 In England the order of precedency was regulated chiefly by two statutes, 31 B[en. VIIL 
 1539, and I Geo. I. 17 14. 
 
 PREDESTINATION. The doctrine concerning this is defined in the seventeenth article 
 of the Church of England. See Articles. It was maintained by St. Augustin, and opposed 
 by Pelagius, in the early part of the 5th century. In later times it has been maintained by 
 the Augustinians, Jansenists, the Church of Scotland, and many dissenters (termed Calvin- 
 istic), and opposed by the Dominicans, Jesuits, and many dissenters (termed Arminian),. 
 especially by the Wesleyan methodists. 
 
 PREROGATIVE COURT, in which formerly all wills were proved, and all administrations- 
 taken, which belonged to the archbishop of Canterbury by his prerogative, a judge being 
 appointed by him to decide disputes. Appeals from this court to the judicial committee of 
 the privy council were instituted in 1830. This court was abolished, and the Probate Courts 
 established in 1857. 
 
 PREROGATIVE ROYAL. In England the sovereign is the supreme magistrate, and it 
 is a maxim that he can do no tvrong. He is the head of the established church, of the army 
 and navj'', and the fountain of office, honour, and privilege, but is subject to the laws, 
 unless exempted by name. The royal prerogatives were greatly exceeded by several despotic 
 sovereigns, such as Elizabeth, James I. and Charles I. Elizabeth used the phrase "We, of 
 our Royal prerogative which we Avill not have argued or brought in question" (1691). 
 James I. told his parliament ' ' that as it Avas blasphemy to question what the Almighty could 
 do of His power, so it was sedition to enquire what a king could do by virtue of his prero- 
 gative." These extreme doctrines were nullified by the revolution of 1688 ; and the exercise^ 
 of the prerogative is now virtually subject to parliament. See Lords. 
 
 PRESBURG, an ancient city in Hungary, where the diets have been held and the kings, 
 crowned. On Dec. 26, 1805, a treaty was signed between France and Austria, by which the 
 a.ncient states of Venice were ceded to Italy ; the principality of Eichstadt, part of the 
 bishoxiric of Passau, the city of Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions of Austria in Suabia, 
 in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were transferred to the elector of Bavaria, and the duke of Wurtem- 
 berg, who, as well as the duke of Baden, were then created kings by Napoleon. The inde- 
 pendence of the Helvetic republic was also stipulated. 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS * are so called from their maintaining that the government of the 
 church appointed in the New Testament was by presbyteries, or association of ministers and 
 ruling elders, equal in power, office, and in order. Presbyterianism was established in place 
 of episcopacy -in England in 1648, but abolished at the restoration in 1660. It became the 
 established form of church government in Scotland. Its tenets were embodied in the 
 formulary of iaith said to have been composed by John Knox, in 1560, which was approved 
 by the parliament, and ratified, 1567, and finally settled by an act of the Scottish senate, 
 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of union with England in 1707. The first Presbyterian 
 meeting-house in England was established at Wandswortli, Surrey, Nov. 20, 1572. 
 
 * "The elders {Graok in-eshj/tcrous) I exhort, who am also an elder (sijinpresl/>/teros}." 1 Peter v. i. 
 
PRE 592 PRE 
 
 PRESCOTT ([Jpper Canada). On Nov. 17, 1838, the Canadian rebels were attacked by 
 the British under major Young, and (on the i8th) by lieut. -colonel Dundas, Avho dispersed 
 the insurgents, several of whom were killed, and many taken prisoners, and the remainder 
 surrendered. The troops also suffered considerably. 
 
 PRESIDENT OF the Council, Lord, the fourth great officer of state, is appointed 
 under the great seal, durante bcncplacito, and, b}^ his office, is to attend the king's royal 
 person, and to manage the debates in council ; to propose matters from the king at the 
 council-table ; and to report to his majesty the resolutions taken thereupon. See Privy 
 Council; United States, 1789; France, 1848; and WrecJcs, 1841. 
 
 PRESS, Liberty of the. The imprimatur "let it be printed,"' was much used on the 
 title-pages of books printed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The libertj'' of the 
 press was severely restrained, and the number of master-printers in London and Westminster 
 limited by the Star Chamber, 13 Charles L, July i, 1637. "Disorders in printing " were 
 redressed by the parliament in 1643 and 1649 ; and by Charles IL in 1662. The censorship 
 of the press (by a licence established in 1655 and 1693) was abandoned in 1695 (6 Will. IIL). 
 The celebrated toast, "The liberty of the press : it is like the air we breathe— if we liave it 
 not we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, at a Whig dinner in 1795. 
 Presses were licensed, and the printer's name required to be placed on both the first and 
 last pages of a book, July, 1799. The severity of the restrictions on the French press was 
 relaxed by M. Persigny, minister of the Interior, in Dec. i860, but soon restored. The 
 liberty of the press in the United States was greatly checked during the Civil War, 
 1861-1865. 
 
 PRESS (Newspaper), a journal, published in Dublin, of considerable talent, but of a 
 most revolutionary tendency. It was commenced in Oct. 1797, and the celebrated Arthur 
 O'Connor, Mr. Emmett, the barrister (whose brother was executed in 1803), and several 
 other conspicuous men were contributors to it ; their writings served to iuflame the public 
 mind in Ireland, on the e^■e of the memorable rebellion, which broke out in 1798. The 
 paper was suppressed by a military force, March 6, 1798, and Mr. O'Connor was arrested at 
 Margate, while attempting his escape to France. — The existing weekly Conservative paper 
 the Press was first published in May, 1853. 
 
 PRESSING TO DEATH. See Mute. For the Sea Service. See Impressment. 
 
 PRESTON (Lancashire). Near here Cromwell totally defeated the royalists under sir 
 Marmaduke Laugdale, Aug. 17, 1648. Preston was taken in 1715 by the Scotch insurgents, 
 under Forster, who proclaimed king James VII. They were defeated in a battle on Nov. 12, 
 by generals Wills and Carpenter, who with the royal army invested Preston on all sides. 
 The Scots at length laid down their arms, and their nobles and leaders were secured ; some of 
 them were shot as deserters, and others were sent to London pinioned and bound together, 
 to intimidate their party. — The stoppage of the cotton manufacture in i86i and 1862 
 occasioned great suffering in Preston. Tlie festival termed "the Preston guild," said to 
 have been instituted in Saxon times, and to have been kept once in 20 years regularly since 
 1562, was duly celebrated in Sept., 1S62.* A fine art and industrial exliibiti(ni here was 
 opened, Sept. 21, 1S65. 
 
 _ PRESTON-PANS, near Edinburgh, the scene of a battle between the Young Pretender, 
 prince Charles Stuart, and his Scotch adherents, and the royal army under sir John Cope, 
 Sept. 21, 1745. The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, and fled. 
 
 PRETENDERS. A name given to the son and grandsons of James II. of England. — 
 The Old Pretender, or Chevalier de St. George, born June 10, 1688, was acknowledged by 
 Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was proclaimed, and his standard set 
 up, at Braemar and Castletown, in Scotland, Sept. 3, 1715 ; and he landed at Peterhead, in 
 Aberdeenshire, from France, to encourage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other 
 adherents had prompted, Dec. 25, same year. This rebellion having been soon suppressed, 
 the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he proceeded to Gravelines), Feb. 4, 1716 ; 
 and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765. — The Young Pretender, Charles-Edward, was born in 
 1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June, 1745. He gained the 
 
 * Prestom Strike. In 1853, a great number of strikes tocik place among the workmen in the north 
 of England. Those at Preston struck for an increase of 10 per cent, on their wages. On Oct. 15, the 
 masters, in consequence, closed forty-nine mills, and zo,ooo persons were thrown out of employment, who 
 were mostly maintained for a long time by subscriptions from their fellows. In the week ending Dec. 17, 
 1853, 14,972 were relieved at the cost of 2820;. 8«. The committee of workmen addressed lord Palmerston, 
 Nov. 15, 1853, who gave them his advice Dec. 24, following. After many attempts at reconciliation, the 
 strike closed for want of funds, May i, 1854. 
 
PEI 
 
 593 
 
 PHI 
 
 battle of Preston-pans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk, Jan. 17, 1746 ; but was defeated at 
 Culloden, April 16, same year, and sought safety by flight. He continued wandering among 
 the wilds of Scotland for nearly six months ; and as 30,000/. were offered for taking him, he 
 was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed round by his enemies, but still 
 rescued by some lucky accident, and at length escaped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He 
 died Jan. 31, 1788. His natural daughter assumed the title of duchess of Albany ; she died 
 in 1789. His brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of England, bom 
 March, 1725, died at Kome in Aug., 1807. See Scotland. 
 
 PRICES. See Corn, Bread, and Provisions. Mr. T. Tooke, in 1838, published a 
 "History of Prices from 1793 to 1856." He was latterly aided by Mr. W. Newmarch. 
 
 PRIDE'S PURGE. On Dec. 6, 1648, colonel Pride at the head of two regiments, 
 surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing in the passage forty-one members of the 
 Presbyterian jmrty, sent them to a low room, then called hell. Above 160 other members 
 were excluded, and none admitted but the most furious of the Independents. The privileged 
 members were named the Runi2>2^arliament, which was dismissed by CromweU, April 20, 
 1653- 
 
 PRIEST (derived from presbyteros, elder), in the English church the minister who presides 
 over the public worship. In Gen. xiv. 18, Melchizedek king of Salem is termed "priest of 
 the most high God." (1913 B.C. See ITebreius yii.) The Greek Mereus, like the Jewish 
 priest, had a sacrificial character, which idea of the priesthood is still maintained by the 
 Romanists and those who favour their views. Among the Jews, the priests assumed their 
 office at the age of thirty years. The dignity of high or chief priest was fixed in Aaron's 
 family, 1491 B.C. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil government and the crown were 
 superadded to the high priesthood ; it was the peculiar privilege of the high priest, that he 
 could be prosecuted in no court but that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their 
 arch-flamen or high priest, resembling the Christian archbishop. 
 
 PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and formerly set forth 
 or published by authority, as the first book children should publicly learn or read in schools, 
 containing prayers and portions of the scripture. Copies of primers are preserved of so early 
 a date as 1539. Ashe. Henry VIII. issued a prayer-book termed a primer in 1546. 
 
 PRIMOGENITURE, Right of. A usage brought down from the earliest times. The 
 firstborn in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren, and in the absence of his 
 father was priest to the family. In England, by the ancient custom of gavel-kind, primo- 
 genitui'e was of no account. It came in with the feudal law, 3 Will. I. 1068. The rights of 
 primogeniture were abolished in France in 1 790. 
 
 PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND (N. America), was discovered by Cabot, in 1497; was 
 finally taken from the French by the British, in 1758 ; united with Cape Breton as a colony 
 in 1 763 ; but separated in 1 768. 
 
 PRINCE OF WALES'S ISLAND. See Penang. 
 
 PRINTED GOODS. See Calico. 
 
 PRINTING. Block-printing was practised by the Chinese several centuries before the 
 Christian era. The honour of printing with single types has been appropriated to Mentz, 
 Strasbom-g, Haarlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, Basle, and Augsburg ; but the names of the 
 three first only are entitled to attention. See Press. 
 
 Adrian Junius awards fhe honour of the inven- 
 tion to Laurenzes John Koster of Haarlem, 
 "who printed with blocks, a book of images 
 and letters, Speculum Humanos Salvationis, 
 and compounded an ink more viscous and 
 tenacious than common ink, which blotted, 
 about : 1438."* 
 
 [The leaves of this book being printed on one 
 side only, were afterwards pasted together.] 
 
 John Fust established a printing-offio at 
 Mentz, and ]priiited the TraciuMis Petri 
 ffispani 1442 
 
 John Guttenburg invented c%it metal types, and 
 used them in printing the earliest edition of 
 the Bible, which was commenced in 1444, 
 and finished in 1460 
 
 Peter SchoeSer cast the first metal types in 
 matrices, and was therefore the inventor of 
 COMPLETE PE.INTIKG 1452 
 
 Book of Psalms, printed by Fust and Schceffer 
 
 Aug. 14, 1457 
 
 The Durandi Rationale, first work printed with 
 east metal types i459 
 
 [Printing was introduced into Oxford, about 
 
 * In 1859 Mr. Samuel Leigh Sotheby issued an elaborate work compiled by his father and himself 
 eniitled " Principia Tppoiirapluca," containing fac-similes, <fcc. of the block-books of the 15th century; 
 and Mr. J. Russell Smith "published a fac-simile of the Biblia Pauperum, a very early block-book. 
 
 Q Q 
 
TRl 
 
 594 
 
 PR I 
 
 PRINTING, continued. 
 
 this time. Collier. But this statement is 
 discredited by Dibdin.] 
 
 A Zii-y printed. Du, Fresnoy 14C0 
 
 The first Bible completed. hUm. . . . ,, 
 Meutz taken and plundered, and the art of 
 printing, in the general ruin, is spread to 
 
 other towns * * 
 
 The types were uniformly Gothic, or old German 
 
 (whence our old Englhh or Black Letter), until 1465 
 Greek characters (quotations only) first used, 
 
 same year ,, 
 
 Cicero de 0;?icn's printed by Fust at Mentz . . ,, 
 Roman characters, first at Rome . . . 1467 
 A Chronicle, said to have been found in the arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury's palace (the fact dis- 
 puted), bearing the date " Oxford, anno 1468 " 
 William Caxton, a mercer of London, set up the 
 
 first press at Westminster* .... 1471 
 He prmted Willyam Caxton's Recuyel of tie Hys- 
 
 toryes of Troy, by Raoul le Feure. Phillips. . ,, 
 His first pieces were, A Treati-^e on the Game of 
 
 Chesse and Tully's Offices (see below). Dibdin. 1474 
 .Ssop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is svipposed 
 
 to be the first book with its leaves numbered. * * 
 Aldus cast the Greek Alphabet, and a Greek 
 
 book printed n^i. Aldi 1476 
 
 He introduces the Italics * * 
 
 The Pentateuch, in Hebrew 1482 
 
 Homer in folio, beautifully done at Florence, 
 
 ecb'psing all former printing, by Deraetrius . 1488 
 Caxton prints the Boke of Eneydos . . . 1490 
 Aldus Manutius begins printing at Venice . . 1494 
 
 Printing used in Scotland 1509 
 
 The first edition of the whole Bible was, strictly 
 tjpeaking, the Complutensian Polyglot of 
 cardinal Ximenes (see /"o/yfir^oO • • • • 1517 
 The Liturgy, the first book printed in Ireland, 
 
 by Humphrey Powell 1550 
 
 Printing in Irish characters introduced by 
 
 Nicholas Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's . 1571 
 The first newspaper printed in England (see 
 
 Newspapers) 1588 
 
 First patent granted for printing . . . . 1591 
 First printing-press improved by WiUiam Blaeu, 
 
 at Amsterdam 1601 
 
 First printing in America, in New England, 
 
 when the Freeman's Oath and an almanack 
 were printed 1639 
 
 First Bible printed in Ireland was at Belfast. 
 Hardy's Tour 1704 
 
 First types cast in England by Caslon. Phillips. 1720 
 
 Stereotype printing practised by William Ged, 
 of Edinburgh, about 1730 
 
 The present mode of stereotype invented by 
 Mr. Tilloch, about 1779 
 
 [Stereotype printing was in use in Holland in 
 the last century. Phillips.'] 
 
 Logof/raphic Printing in which words cast in 
 one piece were employed : patented by H. 
 Johnson and Mr. Walter of the Times; (soon 
 disused) 17S3 
 
 Machine-printing (uhich see) first suggested by 
 Nicholson , . . 1790 
 
 The Stanhope press invented about 1800; in 
 general use 1806 
 
 Columbian press of C'lymer introduced . . 1814 
 
 Albion press introduced 1816 
 
 The roller, which was a suggestion of Nicholson, 
 introduced ,, 
 
 Cowper's and Ajiplegath's rollers . . . . 1817 
 
 Printing for the bhnd (by raised characters) 
 begins 1827 
 
 Printer's Pension Society established . . . „ 
 
 Ty%ie-composing mctchines. — By James Young's 
 several numbers of the "Family Herald" 
 were set up, beginning Dec. 17, 1842 ; Hat- 
 tersley's appeared at the Exhibition of 1862 ; 
 Hart's was shown at the meeting of the 
 British Association at Cambridge . Oct. 6, i86? 
 
 Printing-types electro-faced with copper, about 185a 
 
 Engraved copper- plate electro- faced with iron 
 and nickel 185S 
 
 W. H. Mitchel's machine was tried at Messrs. 
 Spottiswoode's, 1861 ; these machines were 
 said to be in use in America in . Jan. 1863 
 
 Miss Emily FaithfuU established the Victoria 
 printing-office in Great Coram-street, London, 
 in which female compositors are employed : 
 the " Englishwoman's Journal " printed there 
 Aug. 1 861 ; appointed printer and pubhsher 
 in ordinary to her Majesty . . . June 1862 
 [See Printing Machine, Stereotype, a,ii6.NcttUTe-Printing.\ 
 
 TITLES OF THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE WORDE. 
 
 The Game and Plate of the Chesse. \ Translated 
 out of the Frenche and emprynted by me William 
 Caxton. Fynysshid the latt day of Marche the yer 
 of our Lord God a thousand foure hondred and 
 Ixxiiij. 
 
 The Boke of Tulle of Olde age Emprynted by me 
 simple persons William Caxton into Fnglysshe as the 
 play sir solace arid reverence of men groning in to old 
 age the aij day of August the yere of our Lord M. 
 cccc. Ixxrj. Herbert. 
 
 Thf. Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges and 
 Dedes of many Tymes in eyght Bokes. Imprinted by 
 William Caxton after having somewhat chaunged 
 the rude and olde Englysshe, that is to wete [to wit] 
 certayn Words which in these JDayes be neither vsyd 
 ne understanden. Ended the second day of Jvyll at 
 WeHmestre the xxij yere of the Regne of Kynge 
 Edward the fourth, and of the Incarnacion of onre 
 Lord a Thousand four Hondred four Score and 
 tweyne [1482]. Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 
 
 The Croniclks of 'E'^c.i.oi}i> Empnied by me WyUyam 
 Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre by london the v day 
 of Juyn the yere of thincarnacion of our lord god 
 
 M.CCCC.LXXX. 
 
 Polyckonvcon. Ended the thyrtentJi daye of Apryll 
 the tenth yere of the reyne of kinge Harry the senenth 
 And of the Jncca-nacyon of our lord mcccclxxxxv. 
 Emprynted by Wynkyn The worde at Wesmestre. 
 
 The Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the instance 
 of the reverend relygynus fader Tho. Prior of the 
 hous of St. Ann, the order of the charterouse Accom- 
 plysshe[d] and fynysshe[d] att Westmynster the uiii 
 day of Janeuer the yere of our lord Tliousande 
 cccc.Lxxxxvir. And in the xii yere of kynge Henry 
 the vii by me wynkyn de worde. Ames, Herbert, 
 Dibdin. 
 
 The Descripcyon of Englonde Walys Scotland and 
 Irlond speolirg of the Noblesse and Worthynesse of 
 the same Fynysfked and emprynted in Flete strete in 
 the syne of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde the 
 
 * To the west of the Sanctuary in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, where 
 the first printing-press in England was erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged by the learned 
 Thomas Miling, then abbot. lie produced " TIte Gceme and Play of CAesse," the first book ever printed in 
 these kingdoms. There is a .slight difference about the place in which it was printed, but all agree that it 
 ■was within the precincts of this religious house. Leigh. 
 
 t A fac-simile of this book was printed by Mr. Vincent Figgins in if 59. 
 
PRI 
 
 595 
 
 rpj 
 
 PRINTING, mUinucd. 
 
 yere of our lord a m. ccccc and ij. inensis Mayiis 
 [mense Mail]. Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 
 
 Tlie Fesii/vall or Sermons on sondays and holidais 
 taken out of the golden legend enprynted at london 
 in Flete-strcte at y sygne of y Sonne hy wynkyn de 
 worde. In the yere of our lord m. ccccc. viii. And 
 ended the xi daye of Maye. Ames. 
 
 The lord's peayer [As printed by Caxton in 1413..! 
 Father our that art in heavens, hallowed he thy name : 
 thy kingdome come to us; thy will be done in earth as 
 is in heaven : our every days bread give us to day ; 
 
 and forgive us oure trespasses, as ice forgive them 
 that trespass against us; and leadus not in to tempta- 
 tion, but deliver us from all evil sin, amen. Lewis's 
 Life op Caxton. 
 A Placard. [As printed by 'Williani Caxton.] If it 
 plese ony man spirituel or tempcrel to bye ony pies of 
 two or three comemoraciOs of Salisburi use* enprynted 
 after the forme of this preset leltre whiche ben wel and 
 truly correct, late him come to westmonester in to the 
 almonestye at the reed pale [red palej and he shall 
 have them good there. Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 
 
 Printing-machines.— 'William Nicholson, editor of 
 the Philosophical Journal, first projected (1790-1), 
 but M. Konig first contrived and constructed a 
 ■working printing-machine, which began with pro- 
 ducing the limes of Nov. 28, 1814, a memorable 
 day in the annals of typography. 
 
 In 1815, Mr. E. Cowper applied his inventive mind 
 to the subject, t 
 
 Konig's machine printed 1800 an hour on one side ; 
 CovTper's improvements increased this number to 
 4200. This was raised to 15,000, by Mr. Applegath's 
 machine, which prints the Times. 
 
 Hoe's American machine introduced into London in 
 1858, pi-ints 20,000 an hour. 
 
 Printing in Colours was first commenced by the 
 employment of several blocks, to imitate the 
 initial letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz 
 Psalter of Fust, 1457, which has a letter in three 
 colours). Imitations of chiaroscuro soon followed 
 ("Repose in Egypt," engraving on wood after 
 Louis Cranach, in 1519, in Germany : others by 
 Ugo da Carpi, in Italy, 1518). 
 
 J. B. Jackson (1720-1754) attempted, withotit suc- 
 
 cess, to imitate water-colour drawings, and to 
 print paper-hangings. 
 
 About 1783, John Skippe, an amateur, printed some 
 chiaroscuros. 
 
 In 1819-22, Mr. "William Savage produced his re- 
 markable work, "Hints on Colour Printing," 
 illustrated by imitations of chiaroscuro, and of 
 coloured drawings, giving details of the processes 
 employed. 
 
 In 1836, Mr. George Baxter produced beautiful 
 specimens of Picture-Printing, and took out a 
 patent, which expired in 1855. In some of the 
 illu.strations to the " Pictorial Album" (1836), he 
 emialoyed twenty different blocks. 
 
 It has been applied to Lithography (hence Chromo- 
 lithogi-aphy). 
 
 In 1849, Mr. G. C. Leigh ton produced imitations of 
 water-colour-drawings, by means of modifications 
 and improvements of Savage's processes. In 1851 
 he commenced colo\ir-printing by machinery, and 
 has since availed himself of aqua-tinted plates, 
 and also of electrotyped silver and copper surfaces 
 to obtain purity of colour as well as durability. 
 
 The large coloured prints of The Illustrated London 
 News were first issued in Dec. 1856. 
 
 PRIORIES, at first dependent on the great abbeys, are mentioned in 722 in England. 
 See Abbeys and Monasteries. The priories of aliens were seized by the king (Edward I.), in 
 1285, and in succeeding reigns with the breaking out of war with France ; but were usually 
 restored on the conclusion of peace. These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested 
 in the crown, 3 Hen. V. 1414. Rymer's Fcedera. 
 
 PRISONERS OP War, among the ancient nations, when spared, were usually enslaved. 
 About the 13th century, civilised nations began to exchange their prisoners. 
 
 The Spanish, French, and American prisoners 
 of war in England were 12,000 in number, 
 
 Sept. 30, 1779 
 
 The number exchanged by cartel with France, 
 from the commencement of the then war, 
 was 44,000 . . . . . June, 1781 
 
 The English prisoners in France estimated at 
 
 6000, and the French in England 27,000 
 
 Sept. 1798 
 The English in France amounted to 10,300, and 
 
 the French, &c., in England to 47,600, in . . 1811 
 [This was the greatest number, owing to the 
 
 occasional exchanges made, up to the period 
 
 of the last war.] 
 
 PRISONS OF London. See Fleet, King's Bench, Newgate, Poultry, Clerlenwell. 
 
 Horsemonger-lane gaol was built in . 
 
 The state of prisons greatly improved after the 
 
 exertions of Howard. | Cold Bath-fields 
 
 prison was built on his suggestion 
 The atrocities of governor Aris in this prison 
 
 were exposed in parliament . . July 12, 1800 
 White Cross-street prison for debtors was 
 
 erected in 1813-15 
 
 1 791 
 
 ■ 1794 
 
 Borough compter; mean and confined till 
 visited by a parliamentary committee in . 1817 
 
 Savoy prison, for the confinement of deserters 
 from the Gxiards, formerly situated in the 
 Strand, was pulled down to make room for 
 Waterloo-bridge ■ ^819 
 
 New Bridewell prison was erected as a sub- 
 stitute for the City Bridewell, Blackfriars, in 1829 
 
 * Romish Service books, used at SaUsbuiy by the devout called Pies (Pica, Latin), as is supposed from 
 the different colom- of the text and rubric. Our printing-type Pica is called Cicero by foreign printers. 
 Wheatley. 
 
 t In 1817 was published Blumenbach's Physiology by Elliotson, the first book printed by machinery. 
 The machine employed being Bensley's patent, one which printed both sides in one operation at the rate 
 of 900 sheets an hour (1816). 
 
 I John Howard was born Sept. 2, 1726 ; made sheriff of Bedford, 1773 ; investigated into the state of 
 English prisons, 1773-5 ; and gave evidence thereon before the house of commons, which led to amend- 
 ments by law, 1774 ; he -visited prisons all over the continent, and died at Kherson, Jan. 20, 1790. 
 
 Q Q 2 
 
PRI 596 PRO 
 
 PRISONS OF London, continued. 
 
 Tothill Fields Bridewell, built in 1618, was re- j Middlesex House of Detention, Clerkenwell, 
 
 built in 1836 ; was erected in 1847 
 
 The old Marsbalsea prison was pulled down . 1842 Holloway prison was opened . . Feb. 6, 1852 
 Pentonville Model prison was completed in . ,, | Act passed for abolishing Queen's Bench prison 1862 
 
 Prison Ministers' act passed 1863 
 
 PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY owes its existence to the pliilantliropic labours of 
 sir T. F. Buxton, M. P. It was instituted in 1815, and held its first public meeting in 1820. 
 Its objects are the amelioration of gaols, by the diS'usion of information respecting their 
 management, the classification and emploj'raent of the prisoners, and the prevention of 
 crime, by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the criminal, on his discharge, 
 to abandon his vicious pursuits. 
 
 PRIVATEER, a ship belonging to ]irivate individuals, sailing with a licence (termed a 
 Letter of Marqice), granted by a govetnment in time of war, to seize and plunder the ships 
 of the enemy. The practice, said to have been adopted by Edward I. against the Poituguese 
 in 1295, was general during the war between Spain and the Netherlands in the 1 7th centuiy, 
 and during the last French war. Privateering was abolished by the great sovereigns of 
 Europe by treaty, March 30, 1856. The United States government refused to agree unless 
 the right of blockade was also given up. The British government declined this, asserting 
 "that the system of commercial blockade was essential to its naval supremacy." On April 
 17, 1 86 1, Jefferson Daids, president of the southern confederacy, announced his intention of 
 issuing letters of nianiue, and on the 19th president Lincoln proclaimed that all southern 
 privateers should be treated as pirates. This decree was not carried out. See United States. 
 All the great powers forbade privateering during the American civil war. 
 
 PRIVILEGED PLACES. See Asylums. 
 
 PRIVY COUNCIL. A council was instituted by Alfred, 895. The number of the 
 council was about twelve when it discharged the functions of state, now confined to the 
 members of the cabinet ; but it had become of unwieldy amount before 1679, in which 
 year it was remodelled upon sir William Temple's plan, and reduced to thirty men^bers : 
 Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, being president. The number is now unlimited. To 
 attempt the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his office was made capital, occa- 
 sioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was examining him on a charge 
 of high treason, 9 Anne, 171 1.* 
 
 PRIVY SEAL, THE Lord, the fifth great officer of state, has the custody of the privy 
 seal, which he must not put to any grant, without good wari'ant under the king's signet. 
 This seal is used by the king to all charters, grants, and pardons, signed by the king, before 
 they come to the great seal. Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester, held this office in the 
 reign of Henry VIII. previously to 1523, Avhen Cuthbert Tunstall, bishop of London, was 
 appointed. The privy seal has been on some occasions in commission. Beatson. 
 
 PRIZE MONEY, arising from captui-es made from the enemy, was decreed by govern- 
 ment to be divided into eight equal parts, and distributed by order of ranks, April 17, 1793. 
 
 PROBATE COURT, established in 1857 by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77, which abolished all 
 powers exercised by the Ecclesiastical Courts in the granting of proliates of wills, &c. See 
 Prerogative Court. The first judge, ajipointed Jan. 5, 1858, was sir Cresswell Cresswell, who 
 took his seat on Jan. 12. On his death, sir James P. Wilde was appointed judge, Aug. 28, 
 1863. Prohaie is the exhibiting and proving a will before the proper authority. 
 
 PROCLAMATIONS, Royal, " have only a binding force when grounded upon and to 
 enforce the laws of the realm." Coke. Henry VIII., in 1539, declared that they were as 
 valid as acts of parliament. 
 
 PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who, having 
 but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 B.C. Ashe. " Until the end of the 3rd century, 
 
 * JuDiciAi, CoMMTTTEE OF THE Privv CorNCiL. — In licu of the Court of Delegates, for appeals from 
 the lord chancellors of Great Britain and of Ireland in cases of lunacy— from the Ecclesiastical and 
 Admiralty courts of England, and the Vice- Admiralty courts abroad— from the Warden of the Stannaries, 
 the courts of the Isle of Man , and other islands, and the Colonial courts, &c. , — fixed by statute 3 & 4 Will. IV. 
 c. 41, 1833. Judges — the president of the privy council, the lord chancellor, and such members of the privy 
 council as may hold and have held the office of lord keeper or first commissioner of the gi-eat seal, lord 
 chief justice of the Queen's Bench, master of the rolls, vice-chancellor, lord chief justice of the Common 
 Pleas, lord chief baron, judge of the Admiralty, chief judge of the court of Bankruptcy, and others appointed 
 by the queen, being privy councillors. 
 
PRO 597 PRO 
 
 I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face ; they were always painted or appeared in 
 profile, which gives us the view of a head in a very majestic manner." Addison. 
 
 PROGRESSIONIST THEORY in ISTattjkal Histoky supposes that the existing 
 species of animals and plants were not originally created, hut were gradually developed 
 from simple forms. See Species. 
 
 PROMISSORY NOTES were regulated and allowed to be made assignable in 1705. 
 First taxed by a stamp in 1782 : the tax was increased in 1804, and again in 1808, and 
 subsequently. See Bills of Exchange. 
 
 PROPAGANDA FIDE, Congeegatio de (congregation for the propagation of the faith 
 of the Romish church), was constituted at Rome by Gregory XV. in 1622. 
 
 PROPAGATION of the Gospel Society received its charter, June 16, 1701. Its 
 sphere is generally limited to the British Colonies, 
 
 PROPERTY TAX. The assessments on real property, under the property tax of 1815, 
 were 51,898,423?.; of which Middlesex was 5,595, 537?.; Lancashire, 3,087,774?.; and York- 
 shii-e, 4,700,000?.; "Wales, 2,153,801?. See Income Tax. 
 
 PROPHETS. See under Jews. 
 
 PROPHESYING ; about 1570 the puritanical jiart of the clergy, particularly at North- 
 ampton, held meetings (termed prophesyings) for prayer and exposition of the Scripture. 
 These were forbidden by queen Elizabeth, May 7, 1577, and immediately ceased, 
 
 PROTECTIONIST, a name given to that section of the Conservative party which 
 opposed the repeal of the corn-laws, and which separated from sir Robert Peel in 1846. The 
 name was derived from a " Societ)' for the Protection of Agriculture," of which the duke of 
 Richmond was chairman, and which had been established to counteract the efforts of the 
 Anti-Corn Law League, Feb. 17, 1844. Lord George Bentinck was the head of the party 
 from 1846 till his death, Sept. 21, 1848. The Derby administration not proposing the 
 restoration of the corn-laws, the above society was dissolved, Feb. 7, 1853. 
 
 PROTECTORATES m England. That of the earl of Pembroke began Oct. 19, 1216,- 
 and ended by his death the same year. Of Humphry, duke of Gloucester, in England, began 
 Aug. 31, 1422; he was murdered Feb. 28, 1447. Of Richard, duke of Gloucester, began 
 April 9, 1483, and ended by his assuming the royal dignity, June 22, the same year. Of 
 Somerset began Jan. 28, 1547, and ended by his resignation in 1549. Of Oliver Cromwell 
 began Dec. 16, 1653, and ended by his death, Sejjt. 13, 1658. Of Richard Cromwell began 
 Sept. 14, 1658, and ended by his resignation. May 5, 1659. B&e England. 
 
 PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires in 1529, to request aid 
 fi'om the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means for allaying the religious 
 disputes which then raged owing to Luther's opposition to the Roman Catholic religiou. 
 Against a decree of this diet, to support the doctrines of the Church of Rome, six Lutheran 
 princes, with the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, April 
 19, 1529. Hence the term Protestants was given to the followers of Luther, and it after- 
 wards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated from the see of Rome. The six pro- 
 testing princes were : John and George, the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg ; Ernest and 
 Francis, the two dukes of Lunenburg ; the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt : 
 these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasbourg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Constance, Heilbroni 
 and seven other cities. See Lutheranism, Calvinism, HiLguenots, Germany, &c. 
 
 Protestantspersecutedin Scotland andGermany 1546 
 Edward VI. established Protestantism in Eng- 
 land 1548 
 
 Mary re-establishes Romanism, and persecutes 
 the Protustants : above 300 put to death . 1553-8 
 
 Ridley, bishop of Loiidon, and Latimer, bishop 
 of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 
 1555 ; and Cranmer, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury *.,... March 21, 1556 
 
 Elizabeth restores Protestantism . . . . 1558 
 
 * His love of hfe had induced Cranmer, some time previously, to sign a paper wherein he condemned 
 the Refoiination ; and when he was led to the stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth 
 his right hand, with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before the rest of his 
 body, exclaimuig from time to time, " This \m worthy hand ! " Raising his ej-cs to heaven, he expired 
 with the dying prayer of the first martyr of the Christian Church, " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit." 
 
 The following documsnts are taken from a " Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner, mid Supinr, and the cTiarge 
 
PRO 
 
 598 
 
 PEU 
 
 the northern counties of Ireland, established 
 
 in Dublin in Dec. 1829 
 
 (London) Protestant Society, established 1827 ; 
 Protestant Association, 1835 ; Protestant Al- 
 liance 1849 
 
 Protestant Conservative Society established 
 
 Dec. 9, 1831 
 
 Protestant alliance formed at Armagh . Nov. 7, 1845 
 
 PROTESTANTS, continued. 
 
 Protestant settlements formed ia Ulster, N. Ire- 
 land 1608-11 
 
 Thirty years' war between Romanists and Pro- 
 testants in Germany .... 1618-48 
 
 Protestants persecuted at Thorn in Poland . 1724 
 
 Protestant Association (see " Gordon's No- 
 Popery " Mob) 1780 
 
 A society for planting communities of the poorer 
 Protestants on tracts of land, particularly in 
 
 PROVENCE (the Roman Provincia), S. E. France, was made a kingdom by the emperor 
 Lothaire for his son Charles. It afterwards became part of the kingdom of Aries as a feudal 
 country, and was re-united to the German empire in 1032 by Conrad II. On the fall of the 
 Hohenstaufens it was acquired by Charles of Anjou, king of Naples, in 1265 ; and was held 
 by his successors till its annexation to France by Louis XI. in 1481 . 
 
 PROVERBS. The Book of Proverbs by Solomon is dated about icxxD B.C. The latter 
 part were collected by order of Hezekiah, about 7cx> B. c. Ray's collection of English pro- 
 verbs appeared in 1672, and Bohn's general collection in 1857. 
 
 PROVISIONS — Remarkable Statements concerning them. See Oxford. 
 
 Wheat for food for 100 men for one day worth only I 
 one shiUing, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry I. j 
 about 1130. The price of wine raised to sixpence ] 
 per quart for red, and eightpence for white, that t 
 the sellers miglit be enabled to live by it, 2 John, 1 
 1200. Burton's Annals. 
 
 When wheat was at 6». per quarter, the farthing loaf | 
 was to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces | 
 (made of the whole grain), and to sixteen the white. 
 When wheat was is. 6d. per quarter, the farthing 
 white loaf was to weigh .«:ixty-four ounces, and the 
 whole grain (the same as standard now) ninety-six, 
 by the first assize, 1202. Moi. Paris. 
 
 A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. Dufresnoy. 
 
 Wheat IS. per quarter, 14 Edw. 1. 1286. Stow. 
 
 The price of provisions fixed by the common council 
 of London as follows : two pullets, three half-pence ; 
 a partridge, or two woodcocks, three half-jsence ; 
 a fat lamb, sixpence from Christmas to Shrovetide, 
 
 the rest of the year fourpence, 29 Edw. I. 1299. 
 Stow. 
 
 Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate 
 of 2?. 8«. of our money for a fat ox, if fed with com, 
 3'. I2S. ; a shorn sheep, 5s.; two dozen of eggs, ■^d.; 
 other articles nearly the same as fixed by the 
 common comicil above recited, 7 Edw. II. 1313. 
 Rot. Pari. 
 
 Wine the best sold for 20s. per tun, 10 Rich. II. 1387. 
 Wheat being at is. jd. the bushel in 1390, this was 
 deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of 
 com by the historians of that era. 
 
 Beef and pork settled at a half-penny the pound, and 
 veal three farthings, by act of parUament, 24 Hen. 
 VIII. 1533. Anderson. 
 
 Milk was sold three pints, ale-measure, for one half- 
 penny, 2 Eliz. 1560. Stow' s Chronicle. 
 
 In the autumn of 1865, meat, and milk, and butter 
 increased in price, owing to the cattle-plague. 
 
 For the price of Bread since 173s, see Bread. 
 
 PROVVEDIMENTO SOCIETIES in Italy, formed to aid in acquiring Rome and 
 Venice, elect Garibaldi as their chief, March 10, 1862. They were tolerated by Ricasoli, 
 but warned to be moderate by Rattazzi. 
 
 PRUD'HOilMES, Conseils de (from 2^'>'udcns homo, a prudent man), trade tribunals 
 in France, composed of masters and workmen, were constituted to arbitrate on trade disputes 
 in 1806. Similar bodies with this name existed as far back as 1452 at Marseilles, and at 
 Lyons in 1464. 
 
 PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 320 B.C. They 
 were conquered by the Boi-ussi, who inhabited the Riplifean mountains ; and from these the 
 country was called Borussia. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, signi- 
 
 llitreofyfor Cranmer, Latimer, and Bidley," kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were in the custody 
 of those officers, previously to their being burnt aUve : — 
 
 1ST OCTOBER, 1554. 
 
 Bread and Ale 
 
 Oysters 
 
 Butter .... 
 
 ,£0 
 
 Lyng • , • •, ° 
 
 A piece of fresh salmon o 
 
 Wine o 
 
 Cheese and pears o 
 
 Item, for the carriage of these 4 loads 
 
 Item, a post 
 
 Item, 2 chains 
 
 Item, 2 staples 
 
 Item, 4 labourers 
 
 .£0 
 
 The three dinners . 
 
 TO BCR:S LATIMER AND RIDLEY. 
 
 For 3 load of wood faggots . 
 Item, 1 load of furze faggots . 
 
 £0 
 
 £0 12 
 o 3 
 
 TO BURN CRANMER. 
 
 For TOO wood faggots for the fire 
 For 100 and i of furze . . . 
 For the carriage of them . 
 For 2 labourera .... 
 
 £1 
 
 .£060 
 ,034 
 
 £0 22 8 
 
PRtr 
 
 599 
 
 PRU 
 
 fying near, and Russia. The Porassi afterwards intermixed with the foUowers of the 
 Teutonic Icnights, and latterly with the Poles. The constitution, established Jan. 31, 1850, 
 was modihed April 30, 185 1 ; May 21, June 5, 1852 ; May 7 and 24, 1853 ; June 10, 1854; 
 May 30, 1855 ; and May 15, 1857. Population, with Lauenburg (annexed Aug. 14, 1865), 
 19,304,843- 
 
 St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach 
 
 Christianity, and is slain about . . . . 997 
 Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death by 
 
 dreadful ravages 1018 
 
 Berlu) built by a colony from the Netherlands, 
 
 in the reign of Albert the Bear . . . . 1163 
 The Teutonic knights returning from the holy 
 wars, undertake the conquest of Prussia, and 
 the conversion of the peoxDle .... 1225 
 
 Thorn founded by them 1231 
 
 Konigsberg, lately built, made the capital . 1286 
 The Teutonic knights almost depopulate Prussia. 
 It is repeopled by German colonists in the 13th 
 century 
 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg (the founder of the 
 reigning family) obtains by purchase from 
 Sigismond, emperor of Gei-many, the mar- 
 
 graviate of Brandenbui-g 1415 
 
 Casimir IV. of Poland assists the natives against 
 
 the oppression of the Teutonic knights . . 1446 
 Albert of Brandenberg, gi-and master of the 
 ,_^ Teutonic order, renounces the Roman CathoUc 
 religion, embraces Lutheranism, and is ac- 
 knowledged duke of East Prussia, to be held 
 
 as a fief of Poland 1525 
 
 University of Konigsberg founded by duke 
 
 Albert 1544 
 
 John Sigismond created elector of Brandenburg 
 
 and duke of Prussia 1608 
 
 The principality of Halberstadt and the 
 bishopric of Minden transferred to the house 
 
 of Brandenburg 1648 
 
 Poland obUged to acknowledge Prussia as an 
 independent state, under Frederick William, 
 surnamed the Great Elector .... 1657 
 Order of Concord instituted by Christian Ernest, 
 elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia, 
 to distinguish the part he had taken in re- 
 storing peace to Europe i56o 
 
 Frederick III. in an assembly of the states, puts 
 
 a crown upon his own head and upon the head 
 
 of his consort, and is proclaimed king of 
 
 Prussia by the title of Frederick I. . Jan. 18, 1701 
 
 Order of the Black Eagle instituted by 
 
 Frederick I. on the day of his coronation . ,, 
 Ouelders taken from the Dutch . . . . 1702 
 Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neunburg, 
 
 and purchases Tecklenburg .... 1707 
 The principality of Meurs added to Prussia . .1712 
 Eeign of Frederick the Great, during which 
 the Prussian monarchy is made to rank 
 among the first powers in Europe . . . 1740 
 
 Breslau ceded to Prussia 1741 
 
 Silesia, 61a tz, &;c. ceded 1742 
 
 Frederick II., the Great, visits England . . 1744 
 " Seven years' war " («;/iic/i s«e) begins . . 1756 
 Frederick II. victor at Prague, May 6; defeated 
 
 at Kolin, May iS ; victor at Rosbach, Nov. 5, 1757 
 General Lacy, with an Austrian-Russian army, 
 marches to Berlin ; the city is laid under con- 
 tribution, (fee. ; magazines destroyed . . 1760 
 Peace of Hubertsburg (ends "seven years' 
 
 war") Feb. 15, 1763 
 
 Frederick the Great dies . . Aug. 17, 1786 
 
 War with France 1792 
 
 The Prussians seize Hanover . . 1801 and 1806 
 Prussia joins the aUies of England against 
 
 France Oct. 6, ,, 
 
 Fatal battles of Jena and Auei-stadt . Oct. 14, ,, 
 
 [Nearly all the monarchy subdued.] 
 Berlin decree promvilgated . . Nov. 20, ,, 
 Peace of Tilsit (w?tich see) . , . July 7, 1807 
 Convention of Berlin .... Nov. 5, 1808 
 The people rise to expel the French from 
 
 Germany at the king's appeal, and form the 
 " landwehr " oi- militia . . March 17, 
 
 Treaty of Pai-is April n. 
 
 The king visits England . . . June 6, 
 
 Dines at Guildhall .... June 18, 
 Ministry of education established 
 Congress of Carlsbad . . . .Aug. i, 
 Blucher dies in Silesia, aged 77 . . Sept. 12, 
 [From this time Prussia pursued a peaceful and 
 
 undisturbed policy until 1848.] 
 Serious attempt made on the life of the king, 
 by an assassin named Tesch, who fired two 
 
 shots at him July 26, 
 
 Insurrection in Berlin . . . March 18, 
 BerUn declared in a state of siege Nov. 12, 
 The Constituent Assembly meets in Branden- 
 burg castle Nov. 29, 
 
 This assembly is dissolved, and the king issues 
 
 a new constitution to his subjects . Dec. 5, 
 
 The German National Assembly elect the king 
 
 of Prussia "hereditary emperor of the 
 
 Germans" March 28, 
 
 The king declines the imperial crown, April 29, 
 
 The kingdom put under martial law . May 10, 
 
 The Prussians enter Carlsruhe . June 23, 
 
 Armistice between Prussia <fc Denmark, July 10, 
 
 Bavaria declared an imperial constitution with 
 
 the king of Prussia at its head . Sept. 8, 
 
 Treaty between Prussia and Austria Sept. 30, 
 
 Austria protests against the alliance of Prussia 
 
 with the minor states of Germany Nov. 12, 
 
 New constitution, Jan. 31 ; the king takes the 
 
 oath required by it . . . . Feb. 6, 
 
 Hanover withdraws from the Prussian alliance, 
 
 Feb, 25, 
 Treaty signed at Munich between Austria, 
 Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg to main- 
 tain the German union . . Feb. 27, 
 Wurtemberg denounces the insidious ambition 
 of the king of Prussia, and announces a league 
 between Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and Saxony, 
 under the sanction of Austria . March 15, 
 
 Attempt to assassinate the king . May 22, 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian 
 
 league June 30, 
 
 Treaty of peace between Prussia and Denmark, 
 
 July 2, 
 
 A congress of deputies from the states included 
 
 in the Prussian Zollverein opened at Cassel, 
 
 July 12, 
 Prussia refuses to join the restricted diet of 
 
 Frankfort Aug. 25, 
 
 The Prussian government addresses a despatch 
 to the cabinet of Vienna, declaring its resolve 
 to uphold the constitution in Hesse-Cassel, 
 
 Sept. 21, 
 Count Brandenburg, prime minister of Prussia, 
 
 dies Nov. 6, 
 
 Decree, calling out the whole Prussian army, 
 
 223.000 infantry, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000 
 
 artillery, with 1080 field-pieces . Nov. 7, 
 
 The Prussian troops in Hesse occupy the mili-_ 
 
 tary road in that electorate. . . Nov. 9,' 
 
 The Prussian forces withdraw from the grand 
 
 duchy of Baden .... Nov. 14, 
 
 Gener.xl Radowitz, late foreign minister, visits 
 
 queen Victoria at Windsor . . Nov. 26, 
 
 Convention of Olmutz for the pacification of 
 
 Germany Nov. 29, 
 
 The Prussian troops commence their retreat 
 
 from Hcsse-Cassel Dec. 5, 
 
 Prince Schwartzenberg visits the king, Dec. 28, 
 
 The king celebrates the 150th anniversary of 
 
 the Prussian monarchy • • J'^'U. 18, 
 
 1013 
 1814 
 
 1 817 
 1819 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
PRU 
 
 600 
 
 PRU 
 
 PRUSSIA, continued. 
 
 The king visits the Czar of Russia . May i8, 
 
 The king and Czar leave AVarsaw for Olmutz to 
 meet the emperor of Austria . May 27, 
 
 Statue of Frederick the Great, by Kauch, in- 
 augurated at Berlin .... May 31, 
 
 The king revives the council of state as it ex- 
 isted before the revolution of 1848 . Jan. 12, 
 
 A Prussian industrial exhibition opened at 
 Berlin May 28, 
 
 Prussia repudiates a customs' union with 
 Austria June 7, 
 
 But agrees to a commercial treaty Feb. 19, 
 
 Plot at Berhn detected .... April, 
 
 Death of Radowitz .... Dec. 25, 
 
 Vacillation of the government upon the Eastern 
 question .... March and April, 
 
 Agrees to a protocol for preservation of the 
 integiity of Turkey, which is signed at 
 Vienna April 7, 
 
 Continues neutral in the war, Sept. 21, Oct. 13, 
 
 Excluded from the conferences at Vienna, Feb. 
 
 Dispute with Switzerland (see Neufchatcl) 
 Nov. 1856 to May, 
 
 Alarming illness of the king, the prince of 
 Prussia appointed regent . . Oct. 23, 
 
 Chevalier Bunsen ennobled . . . Jan. 
 
 Prince Frederick William of Prussia married to 
 the princess roj-al of England . Jan. 25, 
 
 Queen Victoria visits them at Potsdam . Aug. 
 
 Prince of Prussia made permanent regent, 
 
 Oct. 7, 
 
 Resignation of Manteuffel ministry : succeeded 
 by that of prince Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen 
 (Uberal) : the elections end in favour of the 
 new government Nov. 
 
 Prince Frederick William, son of the princess 
 royal of England, bom . . . Jan. 27, 
 
 Italian war —Prussia declares its neutrality, but 
 arms to protect Germany May and June, 
 
 The regent announces that " the Prussian army 
 will be in future tlie Prussian nation in arms," 
 
 Jan 12, 
 
 The regent and several German sovereigns meet 
 the emperor of the French at Baden (see 
 Baden) June 15-17, 
 
 Baron Bunsen dies (aged 70) . . Nov. 27, 
 
 Disclosures respecting the oppressive system of 
 Prussian police Stieber, the director, prose- 
 cuted and censured, Ijut not punished Nov. 
 
 Death of Frederick William IV. Accession of 
 William I. Jan. 2, 
 
 Meeting of the chambers : on the motion for 
 the address, M. Von Vincke carries an 
 amendment in favour of Italian Unity and 
 " a firm alliance with England " . Feb. 6, 
 
 The Macdonald affair* settled by a firm yet 
 conciliatory despatch from the Baron von 
 Schleinitz May, 
 
 Attempted assassination of the king by Becker, 
 a Leipsic student, July 14; who is sentenced 
 to 20 years imprisonment . . Sept. 23, 
 
 The king meets the emperor Napoleon at Com- 
 peigne Oct. 6-8, 
 
 The king and queen crowned at Konigsberg ; 
 he declares that he will reign by the "Grace 
 of God" Oct. 18, 
 
 Bill for making the ministry responsible, passed, 
 
 March 6, 
 
 The chamber of representatives oppose the go- 
 vernment in regard to the length of milifciry 
 service, March 6 ; and resolve on discussing 
 the items of the budget ; the ministry resigns ; 
 the king will not accept the resignation, but 
 dissolves the chambers, . . . March 11, 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 1857 
 
 The ministry (liberal), resign, and a reactionary 
 
 cabinet formed under Van der Heydt, March 
 
 / 18 — April 12, 
 
 Elections go against the government : only one 
 
 minister elected May, 
 
 Parliament opens ; ministers appeal to the 
 patriotism of the members . . May 19, 
 
 Severe discussion on military expenditure ; the 
 
 chamber reduces the vote for the maintenance 
 
 of the army from 200,000 to 135,000 men, 
 
 Sept. 11-16, 
 
 Van der Heydt resigns ; succeeded as premier 
 by the Count Bi.«marck Schonhausen, Sept. ; 
 who informs the chamber that the budget is 
 deferred till 1863 ; the chamber protests 
 against this as unconstitutional Sept 30, 
 
 The chamber of peers passes the budget with- 
 out the amendments of the chamber of 
 representatives ; which (by 237 against 2) 
 resolves that the act is contrary to the letter 
 and spirit of the constitution . . Oct. 11, 
 
 The king closes the session (65th) saying, "The 
 budget for the year 1862, as decreed by the 
 chamber of representatives, having been 
 rejected by the chamber of peers on the 
 ground of insufficiency, the government of 
 his majesty is under the necessity of con- 
 trolhng the pfiblic affairs outside the consti- 
 tution." Oct. 13, 
 
 Agitation in favour of the constitution proceed- 
 ing : passive resistance adopted ; several 
 liberal papers suppressed . . . Nov. 
 
 The chambers reassemble ; unconciliatory 
 address from the king, Jan. 14 ; and bold 
 reply of the deputies ; adopted . Jan. 23, 
 
 They recommend neutrality in the Polish war 
 
 Feb. 28, 
 
 Violent dissension between the deputies and 
 the ministry May, 
 
 The chamber of deputies address the king on 
 their relation with the ministry, and the state 
 of the country. May 22 ; the king replies, that 
 his ministers possess his confidence, and 
 adjourns the session . . . May 27, 
 
 Resolves to govern without a parUament . 
 
 The press severely restricted, June i ; the 
 crown prince in a speech disavows participa- 
 tion in the recent acts of the ministry, June 
 5 ; and censures them in a letter to the king, 
 July 6; reconciled to the king . Sept. 8, 
 
 The liberal members feted in the provinces, 
 July 18, 19, 
 
 The chamber of deputies dissolved, Sept. 2 ; a 
 liberal majority reelected . . . Oct. 
 
 A motion in favotu- of maintaining the rights 
 of the duchies of Sclilcswig and Holsteiii, 
 carried Dec. 2 ; but the chamber obstinately 
 refuses its assent to it or to defi'ay the ex- 
 penses of war ...... Dec. 
 
 Chambers dissolved Jan. 
 
 [For the events of the w.ar, see Denmark. '[ 
 
 Preliminaries for peace with Denmark Aug. i, 
 
 Peace with Denmark signed . . Oct. 30, 
 
 The opening of the chambers, Jan. 14 : revival 
 of the constitutional agitation for control 
 over the army budget . . . Jan. 16, 
 
 International exhibition at Cologne opened by 
 the crown prince .... June 2, 
 
 The deputies having rejected the budget, the 
 bills for reorganising tlie army and increasing 
 the fleet, and meeting the expense of the war 
 with Denmark, the chamber is prorogiied ; 
 the government will rule witliout it June 17, 
 
 The king at Carlsbad issues a despotic decree 
 
 1863 
 
 1865 
 
 * On Sept. 12, i860, captain Macdonald was committed to prison at Bonn, for resisting the railway 
 authorities there. The English residents appealed and were also censured. A correspondence ensued 
 between the Prussian government and the British foreign secretary ; and strong language was uttered in 
 the house of commons, April 26, and in the Prussian chambers, May 6, 1861. 
 
PKU 
 
 601 
 
 PUB 
 
 PRUSSIA, continued. 
 
 aprropriating and disposing of the revenue, 
 
 July 5, 1865 
 A political dinner of the liberal deputies pro- 
 hibited at Cologne, and forcibly prevented at 
 Overlahnstein in Nassau . . July 24, „ 
 
 Convention of Gastein (see Gadein) signed, 
 
 Aug. 14, 1865 
 The king takes possession of Lauenburg 
 purchased from Austria with his own money, 
 
 Sept. IS, ,, 
 
 MARGRAVES, ELECTORS, DTJKES, AND KINGS. 
 
 1170. 
 1 1 84. 
 1206. 
 
 MARGRAVES OR ELECTORS OF BRANDENBURG. 
 
 1134. Albei-t I. surnamed the Bear, first elector of 
 Brandenburg. 
 
 Otho I. 
 
 Otho II. 
 
 Albert 11. 
 
 John I. and Otho III. 
 1266. John II. 
 1282. Otho IV. 
 1309. Waldemar. 
 
 1319. Hemy I. the Young. 
 
 1320. [Interregnum.] 
 1323. Louis I. of Bavaria. 
 
 1352. Louis II. sm-named the Roman. 
 1365. Otho V. the Sluggard. 
 1373. Wenceslas, of Luxemburg. 
 1378. Sigismund, of Luxemburg. 
 1388. Jossus, the Bearded. 
 
 Sigismund again, emperor. 
 
 Frederick I. of Nuremberg (of the house of 
 Hohenzollern). 
 
 Frederick II. surnamed Ironside. 
 
 Albert III. surnamed the German Achilles. 
 
 John in. his son; as Margrave; stjded the 
 Cicero of Germany. 
 
 John III. as electoi-. 
 
 Joachim I. son of John. 
 
 Joachim II. poisoned by a Jew. 
 
 1411. 
 1415- 
 
 1440. 
 1470. 
 1476. 
 
 1499. 
 1535- 
 
 1571. John-George. 
 
 1598. Joachim-Frederick. 
 1608. John-Sigismund. 
 
 DUKES OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 161 8. John-Sigismund. 
 
 1619. George-William. 
 
 1640. Frederick-William, his son ; generally styled 
 
 the ' ' Great Elector. " 
 1688. Frederick III. son of the preceding; crowned 
 
 king, Jan. 18, 1701. 
 
 170T. 
 1713. 
 1740. 
 
 17S6. 
 
 V 
 
 KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 Frederick I. : king. 
 
 Frederick- WiUiani I. son of Frederick I. 
 
 Frederick II. (Frederick III.; styled the 
 Great), son ; made Prussia a miUtary power. 
 
 Frederick-William II., nephew of the pre- 
 ceding king. 
 
 Fredei'ick-William III. He had to contend 
 against the might of Napoleon, and after 
 extraordinary vicissitudes, he aided England 
 in his overthrow. 
 
 Frederick- William IV. son ; succeeded June 7 
 (Ijorn Aug. 3, 1770; died Jan. 2, 1861). 
 
 William I. brother ; born March 22, 1797. 
 
 Heir. His son prince Frederick- William, born 
 Oct. 18, 1831 ; married Victoria, X-'rimcess- 
 royal of England, Jan. 25, 1858. They have 
 four children. 
 
 PEUSSIC ACID (or hydrocyanic acid) is colourless, smells like peach flowers, freezes at 
 5° Fahrenheit, is very volatile, and turns vegetable Ijlues into red. It M'as accidentally 
 discovered by Diesbach, a German chemist, in 1709. Scheele first obtained this acid in a 
 separate state, about 1 782. Simple water distilled from the leaves of the lauro-cerasios was 
 first ascertained to be a most deadly poison by Dr. Madden of Dublin. 
 
 PRYTANIS, a magistrate of Corinth, annually elected from 745 B. c. till the office was- 
 abolished by Cjqsselus, a despot, 655 B.C. 
 
 PSALMS OF DAVID were collected by Solomon, 1000 B.C.; others were added 580 and 
 515 B.C. The old Church of England version in metre by Sternhold and Hopkins was 
 published in 1562 ; the New Version by Tate and Brady in 1598. 
 
 PSEUDOSCOPE, a name given by professor "Wheatstone (in 1852) to the stereoscope, 
 when employed to produce "conversions of relief," i.e., the reverse of the stereoscope : a 
 terrestrial globe appears like a hollow hemisphere. 
 
 PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, in Egypt (about a.d. 140), 
 supposed that the earth was fixed in the centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and 
 stars moved round once in twenty-four hours. This system (long the official doctrine of the 
 church of Rome) was universally taught till that of Pythagoras (500 B.C.) was revived by 
 Copernicus, a.d. 1530, and demonstrated by Kepler (1619) and Newton (1687). 
 
 PUBLIC EDUCATION, HEALTH, &c. See Education, Health. 
 
 PUBLIC HOUSES. See Victuallers. 
 
 PUBLIC SAFETY, Committee of, was established at Paris during the French Revo- 
 lution on April 6, 1 793, with absolute power ; in consequence of the coalition against France. 
 The severe government of this committee is termed the Reign of Terror, which ended with 
 the execution of Robespierre and his associates, July 28, 1 794. 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. See Education. 
 
 PUBLIC "WORKS ACT, passed July 21, 1863, to provide work for unemployed persons 
 in the manufacturing districts at the time of the cotton famine. It enabled cor^^orate 
 bodies to raise loans, and proved very successful. 
 
PUB 602 PUR 
 
 PUBLIC WORKS AND BUILDINGS. The sum voted for this pm-pose ia 1862 was 
 692,215^.; ill 1863, 893,523?.; in 1864, 867,518?.; in 1865, 799,370?. 
 
 PLTDDLING, making the walls of canals water-tight by means of clay was largely 
 adopted by Brindley in constructing the Bridgewater canals, 1761 ct seq. See also under Iron 
 Manufacture. 
 
 PUEBLA. See Mexico, 1863. PUGILISM. See Boxing. 
 
 PULLEY. The puUey, together with the vice and other mechanical insti'uments, are 
 said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, a discii:)le of Pythagoras, about 516 B.C. 
 It has been ascertained that in a single moveable pulley the power gained is doubled. In a 
 continued combination the power is equal to tlie number of pulleys, less one, doubled. 
 
 PULTOWA (Russia), where Charles XII. of Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the 
 Great of Russia, July 8, 1 709. He fled to Bender, in Turkey. 
 
 PULTUSK (Russia), a battle was fought between the Saxons under king Augustus, and 
 the Swedes under Charles Xll., in which the former were signally defeated. May i, 1703. 
 Here also the French under Napoleon fought the Russian and Prussian armies ; both sides 
 claimed the victory, but it inclined in favour of the French, Dec. 26, 1806. 
 
 PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria, is said to have invented p\imps (with other hydraulic 
 instruments), about 224 B.C., although the invention is ascribed to Danaus, at Lindus, 
 1485 B.C. Pumps were in general use in England, a.d. 1425. An inscription on the pump 
 in front of the late Royal Exchange, London, stated that the well was first sunk in 1282. 
 The air-pump was invented by Otto Guericke in 1654, and improved by Boyle in 1657. 
 
 PUNCTUATION. The ancients do not appear to have had any system, and doubtless 
 employed arbitrary signs to distinguish the parts of a discourse. Of our points the period (. ) 
 is the most ancient. .The colon (:) was introduced about 1485 ; the comma (,) was first seen 
 about 1521, and the semicolon (;) about 1570. In sir Philip Sidney's "Arcadia" (1587), 
 they all appear, as well as the note of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and parentheses (). 
 
 . PUNIC WARS. See Carthage, 264 B.C. 
 
 PUNISHMENTS. See Beheading, Blinding, Boiling, Death, Broinning, Flogging, and 
 Poiso7ii7ig. 
 
 PUNJAB (N. W. Hindostan), was traversed by Alexander the Great, 327 B.C.; and by 
 Tamerlane, a.d. 1398. The war with the Sikhs began here, Dec. 14, 1845, and was closed, 
 March 29, 1849, wlien the Punjab was annexed. See India. The Punjab has since 
 flourished, and on Jan. i, 1859, was made a distinct presidency (to include the Sutlej states, 
 and the Delhi teiritory). See Durbar. 
 
 PURGATIVES of the mild species (aperients), particularly cassia, manna, and senna, 
 are ascribed to Actuarius, a Greek physician, 1245. 
 
 PURGATORY, the middle place between heaven and hell, where, it is believed by the 
 Roman Catholics, the soul passes through the fire of purification before it enters the kingdom 
 of God. The doctrine was known about 250, and was introduced into the Roman chmxh 
 in the 6th century. It was first set forth by a council at Florence, 1438. 
 
 PURIFICATION, after childbirth, was ordained by the Jewish law, 1490 B.C. (Lev. xii). 
 See Churching. The feast of the purification was instituted, 542, in honour of the Virgin 
 Mary's going to the temple. (Lidx ii.) Pope Sergius I. ordered the procession with wax 
 tapers, whence Candlemas-day. 
 
 PURITANS, the name, first given about 1564, to persons who aimed at greater purity of 
 doctrine, holiness of living, and stricter discipline than others. They withdrew from the 
 Established chm'ch, professing to follow the word of God alone, and maintaining that the 
 church retained many human inventions and popish superstitions. See Nonconformists and 
 Presbyteria'nism. 
 
 PURPLE, a mixed tinge of scarlet and blue, discovered at Tyre. It is said to have been 
 found by a dog's having by chance eaten a shell-fish, called murex or 2^ur2}ura; upon 
 returning to his master, Herciiles Tyres, he observed his lips tinged, and made use of the 
 discovery. Purple was anciently used by the princes and gi-eat men for their garments by 
 way of distinction, and to this day the purple colour is the livery of our bishops, &c. The 
 dignity of an archbishop or great magistrate is frequently meant by the purple. The purple 
 was first given to the cardinals by pope Paul II. 1465. 
 
PUR 603 PYX 
 
 PURVEYANCE, an ancient prerogative of the sovereigns of England of purcliasino- 
 provisions, &c., without tlie consent of the owners, led to much oppression. It was regu- 
 lated by Magna Charta, 1215, and other statutes, and was only surrendered by Charles II. 
 in 1660, for a compensation. 
 
 PUSEYISM, a name attached to the views of certain clergymen and lay members of the 
 church of England, who endeavoured to restore the practice of the church of England to 
 Avhat they believed to be required by the language of her Liturgy and Rubrics, but which 
 were considered by their opponents to be contrary to her doctrine and discipline, and of a 
 Romish tendency. The term was derived from the name of the professor of Hebrew at 
 Oxford, Dr. Pusey, who was popularly supposed to be the originator and chief supporter of 
 those views. The heads of houses of the university of Oxford passed resolutions censurinw 
 Dr. Pusey' s attempts to renew practices which are now obsolete, March 15, 1841 ; and his 
 celebrated sermon was condemned by the same body, Ma3'-30, 1843. See Tractarians. 
 
 PYDNA (Macedon), where Perseus, the last king of Macedon, was defeated and made 
 prisoner by the Romans, commanded by jEmilius Paulus, 168 B.C. 
 
 PYRAMIDS OF Egypt, according to Dr. Pococke and Sonnini, "so celebrated from 
 remote antiquity, are the most illustrious monuments of art." The three principal pyramids 
 are situated on a rock, at the foot of some high mountains Avhich bound the Nile. The first 
 building of them commenced, it is supposed, about 1500 B.C. The greatest is said to have 
 been erected by Cheops, 1082 b.c. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpendicular 
 height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of the base is 746 feet. It 
 occupies above twelve acres of ground, and is constructed of stupendous blocks of stone. 
 There are many other smaller pyramids to the south of these. — The battle of the Pyramids 
 when Bonaparte defeated the Mamelukes, and thus subdued Lower Egypt, took place 
 July 21, 1798. 
 
 PYRENEES. After the battle of Vittoria (fought June 21, 1813), Napoleon sent Soult 
 to supersede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to whicli 
 his abilities were inferior, for Soult retreated into France with a loss of more than 20 000 
 men, having been defeated by "Wellington in a series of engagements from July 25 to 
 August 2. One at the Pyrenees on July 28. A railway through the Pyrenees (from Bilbao 
 to Miranda) was opened Aug. 21, 1862. — The Peace of tjte Pyrenees was concluded 
 between France and Spain, by cardinal Mazarin, for the French king, and Don Lewis de 
 Haro, on the part of Spain, in the island of Pheasants, on the Bidassoa. By this treaty 
 Spain yielded Roussillon, Artois, and her right to Alsace ; and France ceded her conquests in 
 Catalonia, Italy, &c., and engaged not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659. 
 
 PYROMETER (fire-measurer), an apparatus employed to ascertain the temperature of 
 furnaces, &c., where thermometers cannot be emjiloyed ; Muschenbroek's pyrometer (a 
 metallic bar) was described by him in 1731. Improvements Avere made by EUicott and 
 others. Wedgwood employed clay cylinders about 1782. Professor Daniell received the 
 Rumford medal for an excellent pyiometer in 1830. Mr. Ericsson's useful jiyrometer appeared 
 in the Great Exhibition of 1851. Eng. Cyc. 
 
 PY^ROXYLIN, the chemical name of Gun Cotton (whicJi see). 
 : PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Pythagoras, of Samos, head of the Italic sect, 
 flourished about 555 B.C. He is said to have taught the doctrine of metempsychosis or 
 transmigration of the soul from one body to another ; forbidden his disciples to eat flesh, 
 and also beans ; to have invented the multiplication table ; to have improved geometry ; and 
 to have taught the present sj^stem of astronomy. 
 
 PYTHIAN GAMES, in honour of Apollo, near the temple of Delphi ; first instituted, 
 according to the more received opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory 
 which he had attained over the serpent. Python, from which they received their name ; 
 though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon, or Diomedes, or bj-- 
 Amphictyon, or lastly, by the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 B.C. 
 
 PYX, the casket in which Catholic priests keep the consecrated wafer. In the ancient 
 chapel of the pyx, at "Westminster abbey, are deposited the standard pieces of gold and 
 silver, under the joint custody of the lords of the treasury and the comptroller-general. 
 The "trial of the pyx" signifies the verification of a jury of goldsmiths of the coins deposited 
 in the pyx-box by the master of the ipiint. This took place on July 17, 1861, at the 
 exchequer office, Old Palace-yard, in the presence of twelve privy councillors, twelve gold- 
 smiths, and others. 
 
QUA 604 QUA 
 
 Q. 
 
 QUACKERY is ooreval -with the art of medicine ; quack medicines were taxed in 1783, 
 ct seq. An inquest was lield on the body of a J'oung lady, Miss Cashin, whose physician, 
 St. John Long, was afterwards tried for manslaughter, Aug. 21, 1830; he was found guilty, 
 and sentenced to pay a fine of 250Z. , Oct. 30, following. He was tried for manslaughter in 
 the case of Mrs. Catherine Lloyd, and acquitted Feb. 19, 1831. Dr. Vries, "the black 
 doctor," a professed caneer-curer, at Paris, was condemned to fifteen months' imprisonment 
 as an impostor in Jan. i860. See Hommopathy and Hydropathy. 
 
 QUADRAGESIMA SUNDAY, first Sunday in Lent. See Lent and QuiTiquagesima. 
 
 QUADRANGLE, or Quadrilateral, terms applied to the four strong Austrian 
 fortresses in N. Italj' : — Peschiera, on an island in the Mincio ; Mantua, on the Miucio ; 
 Verona and Legnago, both on the Adige. See Peschiera, &c. 
 
 QUADRANT, the mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter of a circle. The 
 solar quadrant was introduced about 290 B.C. The Arabian astronomers under the caliphs, 
 in A.D. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feet 8 inches radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 iuclies radius. 
 Davis's quadrant for measuring angles was produced about 1600. Hadley's quadrant, in 
 1 73 1. See Navigation, 
 
 QUADRILLE. This popular dance was introduced into this country in 1813, by the 
 then duke of Devonshire, and others. Raikes. 
 
 QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE, between Great Britain, France, and the emperor (signed at 
 London, July 22, 1718), on the accession of the states of Holland, Feb. 8, 1719, obtained 
 its name. It was for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the reigning families 
 of Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of the Spanish monarchy. It 
 led to war. 
 
 QUiESTOR, in ancient Rome, was an officer who had the management of the public 
 treasure ; appointed 484 B.C. It was the first office any person could bear in the common- 
 wealth, and gave a right to sit in the senate. At finst there were two qusestors, 
 afterwards eight. Two were added in 409 B.C. Two were called Pcrcgrini, two (for the 
 city) Vrbani. 
 
 QUAKERS, or Society of Friends, originally called Seekers, from their seeking the 
 truth, and afterwards Friends (3 John 14). Justice Bennet, of Derb)', gave the society the 
 name of Quakers in 1650, because George Fox (the founder) adn.onished him, and those 
 present, to tremble at the word of the Lord. This sect was commenced in England 
 about 1646, by George Fox (then aged 22), who was joined by George Keith, "William 
 Penn, and Robert Barcla}^, of Ury, and others.* Fox rejected all religious ordinances, 
 explained away the commands relative to baptism, &c. ; discarded the ordinary names of 
 days and mouths, and used thee and thou for yu%(; as more consonant with truth. He 
 published a book of instructions for teachers and professors, and died Jan. 13, 1691. Tl]e 
 first meeting-house in London was in White Hart-court, Gracechurch-street. The first 
 meeting of Quakers in Ireland was in Dublin in 1658 ; and their first meeting-house in that 
 city was opened in Eustace-street, 1692. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was enacted to 
 be taken in all cases in the courts below, wherein oaths are required from other subjects, 
 1696. See Affirmation. In 16S2, "William Penn, with a companj' of Friends, colonised 
 Philadelphia, where on Jan. i, 1788, tliey emanci[iated their negro slaves. On Feb. 15, 1833, 
 Edward Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to parliament on his affirmation. The Quakers had 
 in England 413 meeting-houses in 1800, and 371 in 185 1. At a Conference held on Nov. 2, 
 
 * The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions in England and America. At Boston, U.S., where 
 the first Friends who an-ived were females, th(>y (even females) were cruelly scourged, and had their ears 
 cut off. In 1659 they stated in parliament that 2000 Friends had endured sufferings and impri.soument in 
 Newgate : and 164 Friends offered tliemselvcs at this time, by name to government, to be imprisoned in 
 lieu of an equal number in danger (from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were 
 transported to America, by an order cf council, 1664. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some 
 mtjnths, an embargo was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the 
 service. But the Friends would not w.alk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and 
 soldiers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured by 
 the Dutch, who liberated twenty-eight of the prisoners in Holland, the rest having died of the plague in 
 that year. Of the 120 few reached America. 
 
QUA 
 
 605 
 
 QUE 
 
 1858, it was agreed to recommend that mixed marriages should be permitted, and that many 
 of the peciiliarities of the sect in speech and costume should be abandoned. In i860 an act 
 was passed rendering valid Quaker marriages when only one of the persons is a Quaker. 
 
 QUARANTINE, the custom first observed at Venice, 1127, whereby all merchants and 
 others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in the house of St. Lazarus, or the 
 Lazaretto, forty days before thej' were admitted into the city. Various southei'n cities have 
 now lazarettos ; that of Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and 
 all other nations oblige those that come from the infected places to perform quarantine with 
 their ships, &c., a longer or shorter time, as may be judged most safe. Quarantine acts were 
 passed in 1753 and in 1826. 
 
 QUAETER SESSIONS were established, 25 Edw. III. 1350-1. The days of sitting were 
 appointed, 2 Hen. V. 1413. In 1830 it was enacted, that quarter sessions of the peace 
 should be held in the first week after Oct. 11, Dec. 28, March 31, and June 24. 
 
 QUARTERLY REVIEW, the organ of the Tory party, first appeared in Feb. 1809, 
 under the editorship of William Gifford, the celebrated translator of "Juvenal." 
 
 QUATRE-BRAS (Belgium), where on June 16, 1815, two days before the battle of 
 Waterloo, a battle was fought between the British and allied army under the duke of Bruns- 
 wick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the French under marshal Ney. 
 The British fought with remai-kable intrepidity, notwithstanding their inferiority in number, 
 and their fatigue through marching all the preceding night. The 42nd regiment (Scotch 
 Highlanders) suffered severely in pursuit of a French division by cuirassiers being posted in 
 ambush behind growing corn. The duke of Brunswick was killed. 
 
 QUEBEC (Canada), was founded by the French in 1608. 
 
 Quebec reduced by the English, with all Canada, 
 in 1626, but restored in 1632 
 
 Besieged by the English, but without success, 
 in 1711 
 
 Conquered by them after a battle memorable for 
 the death of general Wolfe in the moment of 
 victory Sept. 13, 1759 
 
 Besieged in vain by the American provincials, 
 under their general, Montgom.ery, who was 
 slain Dec. 31, 1775 
 
 Public and private stores and several wharfs, 
 destroyed by fire ; the loss estimated at 
 u)Dwards of 260,000? Sept. 1815 
 
 Awful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 
 persons, burnt to the ground . May 28, 1845 
 
 Anothei' great fire, 1365 houses burnt, June 28 ,, , 
 
 Disastrous fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost 
 
 Jan. 12, 1846 
 
 Visited by the prince of Wales . Aug. 18-23, i860 
 (See Canada and Montreal.) 
 
 QUEEN. The first woman invested with sovereign authority was Semiramis, queen of 
 Assyria, 2017 B.C. In 1554 an act was passed "declaring that the regall power of this 
 realme is in the queues majestie [Mary] as fully and absolutely as ever it was in any of her 
 moste noble progenitours kinges of this realme. " The Hungarians called a queen-regnant 
 king. See Hxmgary. 
 
 QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY, established in Feb. 1704, by queen Anne, being the First 
 Fruits with the Tenths, to increase the incomes of the poorer clergy. There were 5597 
 clerical livings under $ol. per annum found by the commissioners under the act of Anne 
 capable of augmentation. Chalmers. Act to consolidate the offices of First Fruits, Tenths, 
 and Queen Anne's Bounty, i Vict. 1838. 
 
 QUEEN ANNE'S FARTHINGS. The popular stories of the great value of this coin are 
 fabulous, although some few of particular dates have been purchased by persons at high 
 prices. The current farthing, v/ith the broad brim, when in fine preservation, is worth 1 1. 
 The common patterns of 1713 and 1714 are worth il. The two patterns with Britannia under 
 a canopy, and Peace on a car, R E, E, are worth 2I. 2s. each. The pattern with Peace on a 
 car is more valuable and rare, and worth 5Z. Pinkcrton (died 1826). 
 
 QUEEN'S BENCH COURT and PRISON. See King's Bench. 
 
 QUEEN'S BOUNTY, an annual grant of lOOoZ. which commenced about the beginning 
 of the reign of George III. and was continued until the loth Geo. IV. 1829, when it ceased 
 altogether. The collection upon the king's letter, which used to accompany this grant, has 
 also been discontinued since that year. 
 
 QUEEN'S COLLEGES m Ireland, from their unsectarian character termed the 
 "Godless Colleges," were instituted in 1845, to afford education of the highest order to all 
 religious denominations. They were placed at Belfast, Cork, and Galway ; the last was 
 oijened on Oct. 30, 1849. — The " Queen's University in Ireland " comprehending these 
 
QUE 606 QUI 
 
 colleges, was founded by patent, Aucr. 15, 1850 ; the earl of Clarendon, lord lieutenant, the 
 first chancellor. They were "condemned" by the propaganda and the pope, and by a 
 majority (a small one) of the Irish bishops in a sjTiod held at Thurles, in Sept. 1850. 
 
 QUEEN CAKOLIXE'S TRIAL, &c. 
 
 Caroline Amelia Augrvista, second daughter of I Her trial commences .... Aug. 19, 1820 
 
 Charles Wm. Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, I La.st debate on the bill of Pains and Penalties, 
 
 bom May 17, 1768 ; married to George, prince | when the report was approved by 108 against 
 
 of Wales Aprils, 1795, 99; the numerical majority of nine being pro- 
 
 Their daughter, princess Charlotte bom, J;ui. 7, 1796 ' duced by the votes of the ministers them- 
 The Delicate Investigation (ichich see) May 22, i8o6 | selves. Lord Liverpool moves that the bill bo 
 Charges against her again disproved . . . 1813^ reconsidered tAo/ day «j.r m<5)i<^ . Nov. 10. ,, 
 Embarks for the continent . . . Aug. 1S14 Great exultation throughout England, and 
 
 Becomes queen Jan. 20, 1820 j illuminations for three nights in London, 
 
 Arrives in England June 6, ,, Xov. 10, 11, 12, ,, 
 
 A secret committee in the house of lords, I The queen goes to St. Paul's in state, Xov! 29, ,, 
 appointed to examine x>apers on charges of I She proteste against her exclusion from the 
 incontinence June 8, ,, coronation July iS 
 
 Bill of Pains and Penalties introduced by lord 
 Liverpool July 5, 
 
 The queen removes to Brandenburg-hoise, 
 
 Aug. 3, 
 
 Receives the address of the married ladies of 
 the metropolis .... Aug. 16, 
 
 Taken ill at Drury-lane theatre, July 30 ; diss 
 at Hammersmith .... Aug. 7, 
 
 Her remains removed on their route to Bruns- 
 wick ; an alarming riot occurs, owing to the 
 miUtary opposing the body being carried 
 through the city 7 . . . Aug. 14, 
 
 QUEEX CHARLOTTE Ship of War, a first-rate ship of the line, of no guns, the 
 flag-ship of lord Keith, then commanding in chief in the Mediterranean, was burnt by an 
 accidental fire, off the harbour of Leghorn, and more than 700 British seamen out of a crew 
 of 850 perished by fire or drowning, March 17, 1800. 
 
 QUEEX VICTORIA Steam Ship. Wrecked Feb. 15, 1853. See Wrecks. 
 
 QUEEXS OF EXGLAXD. See under England. 
 
 QUEEX'S LAXD, Moreton-bay, Australia, now including the " plains of promise," 
 Carpenteria, was established as a colony in 1859. Admiral sir George F. Bowen wa? 
 appointed governor, and Brisbane, the capital, was made a bishopric. Population in Dec. 
 1^59) 23,450 ; in Sept. i865jj about 90,000. Its chief productions are sugar, cotton, and 
 tobacco. 
 
 QUEEXS THEATRE. See Ojyera House, the Italian. 
 
 QUEEXSTOWX (Upper Canada). This town, on the river Niagara, was taken in the 
 last war with America by the troops of the United States, Oct. 13, 1812 ; but was retaken 
 by the British forces, who defeated the Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, 
 and prisoners, on the same day. Queeustown suffered severely in this war. — The Cove of 
 Cork was named Queenstown, Aug. 3, 1849, by the queen. 
 
 QUEXTIN, ST. (N. France). Philip II. of Spain, assisted by the EngUsh, defeated 
 the French at St. Quentin, Aug. 10, 1557 ; and in memory of his victory, the Spanish 
 monarch in fulfilment of a vow he had made before the engagement, built the famous 
 monastery, &c. , the Escurial, which is called by the Spaniards the eighth wonder of the 
 world. See Escurial. 
 
 QUERN. The quern, or handmill, is of Roman, or as some say, of Irish invention ; 
 but the latter is not likely, as Roman querns have been found in Yorkshire ; and it is said 
 by others that the Romans found querns there. 
 
 QUESNOY (X. France), was taken by the Austrians, Sept. 11, 1793, but was recovered 
 by the French, Aug. 16, 1794. It surrendered to prince Frederic of the Netherlands, June 
 29, 1S15, after the battle of "Waterloo. — It was here that cannon were first used, and called 
 bombards. Henault. 
 
 QI'IBERON BAY (TV. France). A British force landed here in 1746, but was repulsed. 
 In the Bay admiral Hawke gained a complete victory over the French admiral Conflans, and 
 thus defeated the projected invasion of Great Britain, Nov. 20, 1759. Quiberon was taken 
 by some French regiments in the pay of England, July 3, 1795 ; but on July 21, owing to 
 the treachery of some of these soldiers, the French republicans, under Hoche, retook it by 
 sui-prise, and many of the emigrants were executed. About 900 of the troops, and nearly 
 1500 royalist inhabitants who had joined the regiments in the pay of Great Britain, effected 
 their embarkation on board the ships. 
 
QUI e07 QUO 
 
 QUICKSILVER, iu its liquid state, mercury. Its use in refining silver was discovered, 
 1540. There are mines of it iu various parts, the chief of which are at Almeida, in Spain, 
 and at Idria, in lUyria ; the latter, discovered by accident in 1497, for several years yielded 
 1200 tons. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter 
 at St. Petersbiu'g, in 1759. It was congealed in England by a chemical process, without 
 snow or ice, by Mr. Walker in 1787. Corrosive sublimate, a deadly poison, is a combination 
 of mercury and chlorine. See Calomel. 
 
 QUIETISM, the docti'ine of Molinos, a Spaniard (1627-96), whose work, the Spirituccl 
 Guide, piiblished in 1675, was the foundation of a sect in France. He held that the purity 
 of religion consisted in an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ 
 and the mercies of God. Madame de la Mothe-Guj'on was imprisoned in the Bastile for her 
 visions and prophecies, but released through the interest of Fenelon, archbishop of Cambra}', 
 between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, arose a controversy, 1697. These doctrines 
 were condemned by pope Innocent XL iu 1685. 
 
 QUILLS are said to have been first used for pens in 553 ; some say not before 635. 
 
 QUINCE, the Pyrus Cydonia, brought to these countries from Austria, before 1573. 
 The Japan Quince or Pynis Japonica, brought hither from Japan, 1796, 
 
 QUININE, or Qui^^iA, an alkaloid (much, used in medicine), discovei-ed iu 1820 bj- 
 Pelletier and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all genuine cinchona barks, especiaEy 
 of the yellow bark. See Jesuits Bark. 
 
 QUINQUAGESIMA SUNDAY. The observation was appointed by pope Gregory the 
 Great, about 1572. The first Simday in Lent having been termed Quadragesima, and the 
 three weeks preceding having been appropriated to the gi-adual introduction of the Lent fast, 
 the three Sundays of these weeks were called by names significant of their position in the 
 calendar : and reckoning by decades (tenths), the Sunday preceding Quadragesima received 
 its present name, Quinqicagesima, the second Sexaqesima, and the third Septuagesima. 
 
 QUINTILIANS, heretics in the 2nd century, the disciples of Montanus, who took their 
 name from Quintilia, a lady whom he had deceived by his p)retended sanctity, and whom 
 they regarded as a prophetess. They made the eucharist of bread and cheese, and allowed 
 ■women to be priests and bishops. Pardon. 
 
 QUIEINL^S, a Sabine god; afterwards identified with Eomulus. L. Papirius Cursor, 
 general in the Eoman army, first erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quu'inus, from which 
 time the days began to be divided into hours, 293 B.C. Aspin. The sun-dial was sometimes 
 caUed the Quirinus, from the original place in which it was set up. Ashe. The Eoman 
 citizens were termed Quirites. 
 
 QUITO, a presidency of Columbia (vjJiicJi see), celebrated as having been the scene of the 
 measurement of a degi'ee of the meridian, bj' the French and Spanish mathematicians in the 
 reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls were hurled into eternity by a dreadful earth- 
 quake which almost overwhelmed the city of Quito, Feb. 4, 1797. Since then violent shocks, 
 but not so disastrous, occurred ; till one, on March 21, 1859, when about 5000 persons were 
 killed. See Earthquakes. 
 
 QUIXOTE. See Bon Quixote. 
 
 QUOITS, a game said to have originated with the Greeks. It was first played at the 
 Olympic games, by the Idoei Dactyli, fifty years after the Deluge of Deucalion, 1453 B.C. 
 He who threw the discus farthest, and with the greatest dexterity, obtained the prize. 
 Perseus, the grandson of Acrisius, by Dauae, having inadvertently slain his grandfather, 
 when throwing a quoit, exchanged the kingdom of Argos, to which he was heir, for that 
 of Tirynthus, and founded the kingdom of Mycente, about 13 13 B.C. 
 
 QUO "WAEEANTO ACT, passed 12S0, By it a writ maybe directed to any person 
 to inquire by what authority he holds any office or franchise. Charles II. directed a writ 
 against the corporation of London in 1683, and the court of king's bench declared their 
 charter forfeited. The decision was reversed in 1690. 
 
KAC 
 
 60S 
 
 RAD 
 
 E. 
 
 RACES, one of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece. (See Cluiriots.) 
 Horse-races were known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stephen who wrote in the 
 days of Henry II. mentions the delight taken by the citizens of London in the diversion. 
 In James's reign, Croydon in the south, and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. 
 Near York there were races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. Camden. In the 
 end of Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde Park. Charles II. patronised them, 
 and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. William III. added to 
 the plates (as did queen Anne), and founded an academy for riding. 
 
 The first racing calendar is said to have been 
 
 published by John Cheny in . . . . 
 Act for suppressing races by ponies and weak 
 
 horses, 13 Geo. II 
 
 The most eminent races in England are those at 
 
 Xewmarket {which see), established by Charles 
 
 II. in 1667 ; at Epsom, begun about 1711, by 
 
 Mr. Parkhurst (annual since 1730, Allen's 
 
 Surrey); at Ascot, begun by the duke of 
 
 Cumberland, uncle to George III. ; at Don- 
 caster, established by col. St. Leger in 1778, 
 
 and at Goodwood, begun by the duke of 
 
 Richmond, who died in 
 
 The Jockey Club began in the time of 
 
 I George II. Its latest rules, by which races 
 1727 ' are regulated, were enacted in ... 1828 
 
 ' On the accession of queen Victoria, the royal 
 1739 I stud was sold for 16,476;. on . . Oct. 25, 1837 
 Lord Stamford, said to have engaged Jemmy 
 I Grimshaw, a light-weight jockey at a salary 
 ! of loooi.a year .... March, 1865 
 ' Tattersall's," the "high-change of horse- 
 flesh," was established by Richard Tattersall, 
 near Hyde Park Corner (hence termed "the 
 Corner") in 1766, for the sale of horses. The 
 lease of the ground having expired, the new 
 premises at Brompton were erected and 
 opened for business on . . April 10, 1865 
 
 RACE-HORSES. 
 
 Flying Childers, bred in 1715 by the duke of Devon- 
 shire, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the 
 fleetest horse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that 
 was ever bred in the world ; he ran four miles in six 
 minutes and forty-eight seconds, or at the rate of 
 35J miles an hour, carrying nine stone two pounds. 
 He died in 1741, aged 26 years. 
 
 Eclipse was the fleetest horse that ran in England 
 since the time of Childers : he was never beaten, 
 and died in February, 1789, aged 25 years. His 
 heart weighed 14 lb., which accounted for his 
 wonderful spirit and courage. Christie White's Hist, 
 of the Turf. 
 
 
 RECENT 
 
 WINNERS OF "the DERBY AT EPSOM. 
 
 
 1846. 
 
 Pyirhus. 
 
 1855. Wild Dayrell. 
 
 1863. 
 
 Maccaroni. 
 
 1847. 
 
 Cossack. 
 
 1856. Ellington. 
 
 1864. 
 
 Blair Athol. 
 
 1848. 
 
 Surplice. 
 
 1857. Blink Bonny. 
 
 1865. 
 
 Gladiateur, May 31 (a 
 
 1849. 
 
 Flying Dutchman. 
 
 1858. Beadsman. 
 
 
 horse reared in France, 
 
 1850. 
 
 Voltigeur. 
 
 1859. Musjid. 
 
 
 the property of the 
 
 I85I. 
 
 Teddington. 
 
 1S60. Thormanby. 
 
 
 Comte de Grange. He 
 
 1852. 
 
 Daniel O'Rourke. 
 
 1 861. Kettledrum. 
 
 
 also won the St. Leger 
 
 1853. 
 
 West Australian. 
 
 1862. Caractacus. 
 
 
 at Doncaster, Sept. 13). 
 
 1854. 
 
 Andover. 
 
 
 
 
 RACK, an engine of torture, for extracting a confession from criminals, was early known 
 in the southern countries of Europe. The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was 
 in later times an instrument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of 
 Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now seen in 
 the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of Buckingham, the judges 
 of England nobly protested against the pi'oposal of the privy council to put the assassin to 
 the rack, as being contrary to the laws, 1628. See Ravaillac and Torture. 
 
 RADCLIFFE Library, Oxford, founded under the will of Dr. John Radcliffe, an 
 eminent physician. He died Nov. i, 1714, leaving 40,000?. to the university of Oxford for 
 the founding a librarj', the first stone of which was laid May 17, 1737 ; th^ edifice was com- 
 pletely finished in 1 749, and was opened April 13, in the same year. The library consists chiefly 
 of works of medical and philosophical science. — The Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, 
 was founded by the exertions of Dr. Hornsby, Savilian professor of astronom)', about 1771, 
 and completed iu 1794. The publication of the observations was commenced in 1842, by 
 Mr. Manuel J. Johnson, the director, appointed in 1839. 
 
 RADSTADT, or Eastadt (in Baden), where a peace was signed, March 6, 1714, by 
 marshal Villars on the part of the French king, and by prince Engine on the part of the 
 emperor ; it restored the German frontier to the terms of the peace of Ryswick. — The Con- 
 gress OF Radstadt, to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers, was commenced 
 
RAG 
 
 609 
 
 RAI 
 
 Dec. 9, 1797; and negotiations were earned on throughout the year 1798. The atrocious 
 massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Eadstadt by the Austrian regiment of Szeltzler, 
 took place April 28, 1 799. 
 
 EAGGED SCHOOLS, free schools for outcast destitute ragged children, set up in large 
 towns. The instruction is based on the scriptures, and most of the teachers are unpaid. 
 They existed in London previous to 1844, but did not receive their name till that year, 
 when the "Ragged school union " was formed, principallj- by Mr. S. Stacey, and Mr. Wm. 
 Locke (since hon. secretary). The earl of Shaftesbury was chairman. In 1856 there were 150 
 Ragged school institutions : — 
 
 128 Sunday schools with 16,937 scholars. 
 
 98 Day schools with 13,057 scholars. 
 117 Evening schools with 8085 scholars. 
 
 84 Industrial classes With 3224' scholars. 
 
 163 Paid teachers in day schools. 
 126 Paid teachers in week night schools. 
 43 Paid refuge and industrial masters. 
 2139 Voluntary teachers. 
 
 There were in 1856, 16 refuges, where 500 inmates are fed, lodged, clothed, and educated. In i860, 560 
 ragged schools existed. See Shoe-blacic Srigade. 
 
 RAGMAN ROLL (said to derive its name from Ragimunde, a papal legate in Scotland) 
 contains the instruments of homage and fealty to Edward I., sworn to by the nobility and 
 clergy of Scotland at Berwick in 1296. The original was given up to Robert Bruce, king 
 of Scotland, in 1328, when his son David was contracted in marriage to the princess Joanna 
 of England. 
 
 RAGUSA, a city on the Adriatic, on the south confines of Dalmatia, was taken by the 
 Venetians, I171, but soon after became an independent republic, 1358. It suffered 
 much by an earthquake, 1667; was taken by the French in 1807, and given up to Austria 
 in 1814. 
 
 RAILWAYS. There were short roads in and about Newcastle, laid down by Mr. Beau- 
 mont so early as 1602 ; which are thus mentioned in 1676 :-^" the manner of the carriage is 
 by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel ; 
 and bulky carts are made with four rollers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy 
 that one horse will draw down ioxiv or five chaldron of coals, and is an immense benefit to 
 the coal merchants." Boger North. They were made of iron at "Whitehaven, in 1738. 
 See Tram-roads. 
 
 An iron railway was laid down near Sheffield by John 
 Curr in 1776, which was destroyed by the colliers. 
 
 The first considerable iron railway was laid down at 
 Colebrook Dale in 1786. 
 
 The first iron railway sanctioned by parliament in 
 1801 (with the exception of a few undertaken by 
 canal companies as small branches to mines) was 
 the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the 
 Thames at Wandsworth to Croydon. 
 
 Trevethick and Vivian obtained a patent for a high 
 pressure locomotive engine in 1802. 
 
 William Hedley of Wylam colliery constructed a 
 locomotive in 18 13. 
 
 Stockton and Darlington railway, constructed by 
 Edw. Pease and George Stephenson, was opened 
 Sept. 27, 1825. 
 
 The Liverpool and Manchester railway commenced 
 in Oct. 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830. See liver- 
 pool. This railway led to similar enterprises 
 throughout England and the continent. 
 
 The examination of- railway schemes, before their 
 introduction into parliament, by the Board of 
 Trade, was ordered 1844. 
 
 7 & 8 Vict. c. 85, required companies to run cheap 
 trains every day, and to permit erection of electric 
 telegraphs, and authorised government, after Jan. 
 I, 1866, to buy existing railways with the per- 
 mission of parliament, 1844. 
 
 An act passed 10 Vict. Aug. 28, 1846, for constituting 
 commissioners of- railways, who have since been 
 incorporated with the Board of Trade. 
 
 In 1824, the first locomotive constructed by George 
 Stephenson, travelled at the rate of 6 miles per 
 hour ; in 1829, the- Rocket travelled at the rate of 
 15 miles per hour ; * in 1834, the Fire-Fly attained 
 a speed of 20 miles per hour ; in 1839, the North 
 Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour ; 
 and at the present moment locomotives have at- 
 tained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During the 
 same period, the quantity of fuel required for gene- 
 rating steam has been diminished five-sixths : that 
 is, six tons of coal were formerly cousumed for 
 one at the present time, and other expenses are 
 diminished in a corresponding ratio. 
 
 The CAPITAL invested in railway undertakings has 
 become enormous. Up to 1840, it was 69 millions ; 
 on March i, 1853, it was estimated at 303 millions ; 
 in 1859, *t 330 millions ; in i860, 348,130,127?. 
 
 The Railway Mania and panic year, when 270 rail- 
 way acts passed, was 1846. 
 
 An act for the better regulation of railways passed 
 1854. 
 
 An act for compensating families of persons killed 
 by accidents (see Campbell's Act) passed, 1846. 
 
 An act passed to- enable railway companies to settle 
 their differences with other companies by arbitra- 
 tion in 1859. 
 
 Railway Clauses Consolidation act passed 1863. 
 
 A joint committee of both houses of parliament 
 appointed to report on railway schemes, Feb. 5, 
 1864. 
 
 See Atmospheric and Street Railways. 
 
 * It obtained the prize of $ool. offered by the directors of the Liverpool and Manchester railway 
 company for the best locomotive. 
 
 E R 
 
RAI 
 
 610 
 
 RAI 
 
 RAILWAYS, continued. 
 
 LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 The railways are generally named after their termini. 
 Railways. 
 
 Railways Date of Opening. 
 
 Arbroath and Forfar .... Jan. 3, 1839 
 Atmospheric Railway (which see) . . . ■ 1840 
 Aylesbury branch .... June 10, 1839 
 Bangor and Carnarvon .... July, 1852 
 Belfast and county of Down . . ApriJ, 1850 
 Birmingham and Derby . . . Aug. 12, 1839 
 Birmingham and Gloucester . . Dec. 17, 1840 
 Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Stour 
 
 Valley July, 1852 
 
 Brighton and Chichester . . . June 8, 1846 
 
 Brighton and Hastings . . . June 27, ,, 
 
 Bristol and Exeter May i, 1844 
 
 Bristol and Gloucester . . . . July, 1845 
 
 Caledonian 1848 
 
 Canterbury and Whitstable . . May, 1830 
 
 Charing Cross Railway, London, opened Jan. 11, 1864 
 Cheltenham and Swindon . . . May 12, 1845 
 Chepstow and Swansea, South Wales June, 1850 
 Chester and Birkenhead . . Sept. 22, 1840 
 
 Chester and Crewe .... Oct. i, ,, 
 Cockermouth and Workington . April 28, 1847 
 Colchester and Ipswich . . . June 15, 1846 
 
 Cork and Bandon Dec. 1851 
 
 Cornwall May i, 1859 
 
 Coventry and Leamington . . . Dec. 2, 1844 
 Croydon and Epsom .... May 17, 1847 
 Dublin and Carlow .... Aug. 10, 1846 
 Dublin and Drogheda .... May 26, 1844 
 Dublin and Kingstown ... , Dec. 17, 1834 
 Dublin and Belfast Junction . . June, 1852 
 Dundee and Arbroath . . . April 8, 1840 
 
 Dundee and Newtyle Dec. 1831 
 
 Dundee and Perth .... May 22, 1847 
 Dunfermline and Alloa ; Sterling and Dimierm- 
 
 line Aug. 1850 
 
 Durham and Sunderland , . . June 28, 1839 
 Eastern Counties .... June 18, ,, 
 Eastern Union (London and Colchester) Mar. 29, 1843 
 East and West India Docks and Birmingham 
 
 Junction; from Blackwall railway to Camden 
 
 Town Aug. 1850 
 
 Edinburgh and Berwick . June 18, 1846 
 
 Edinburgh and Dalkeith 1831 
 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow . . . Feb. 8, 1842 
 
 Edinburgh, Leith, and Granton .... 1846 
 Edinburgh and Musselburgh . . July 14, 1847 
 
 Ely and Huntingdon „ 
 
 Ely and Peterborough .... Jan. ,, 
 Exeter and Crediton .... May, 1851 
 Exeter and Plymouth (part) . May 29, 1846 
 
 Glasgow and Ayr Sept. 19, 1840 
 
 Glasgow and Greenock . . . March 24, 1841 
 Glasgow, Garnkirk, and Coatbridge . July, 1845 
 Gloucester and Chepstow . . . Sept. 1851 
 Grand Junction from Binningham to .Newton, 
 
 Jiily, 1837 
 Gravesend and Rochester . . . Feb. lo, 1845 
 Great Western .... June 30, 1841 
 
 Great Northern 1842 
 
 Hertford branch of Eastern Counties Oct. 31, 1843 
 Ipswich and Bury St. Edmund's . Dec 24, 1846 
 Kelso; branch of North British . . June, 1850 
 
 Kendal and Windermere 1847 
 
 Lancaster and Carlisle . . , Dec. 16, 1846 
 
 Lancaster and Preston . 
 Leeds and Bradford . 
 Leeds and Derby 
 Leeds and Selby . 
 Liverpool and Birmingham 
 Xiverpool and Manchester . 
 Liverpool and Preston 
 London and Birmingham . 
 London and Blackwall . 
 London and Brighton . 
 London and Bristol 
 
 June 30, 1840 
 
 July I, 1846 
 
 . July, 1840 
 
 Sept. 1834 
 
 . July 4, 1837 
 Sept. 15, 1830 
 
 Oct. 31, 1838 
 Sept 17, „ 
 
 .Aug. 2, 1 84 1 
 Sept. 21, „ 
 June 30, ,, 
 
 London and Cambridge 
 London and Colchester 
 London and Croydon . 
 Ltindon and Dover . 
 London and Greenwich 
 London and Richmond 
 London and Southampton 
 
 Date of Ojienini/. 
 
 July, 1845 
 
 March 29, 1843 
 
 . June I, 1839 
 
 Feb. 6, 1844 
 
 . Dec. 26, 1838 
 
 July 27, 1846 
 
 . May II, 1840 
 
 London and Warrington ; branch of the Great 
 
 Northern Aug. 1850 
 
 Lowestoft branch of the Norwich and Yar- 
 mouth i8<7 
 
 Lynn and Ely „ 
 
 Manchester and Birmingham . Aug. 10, 1842 
 
 Manchester, Bolton, and Bury . . May 29, 183S 
 Manchester and Leeds . . . March i, 1841 
 Manchester and Sheffield . . . Dec. 22, 1845 
 Margate branch of the London and Dover . . 1846 
 Merthyr-Tydfil and Cardiff . . April 12, 1841 
 
 Metropolitan, London ; act obtained, 1853; 
 
 construction began, i860 ; opened . Jan. 10, 1863 
 Middlesborough and Redcar . , June 4, 1846 
 Newcastle and Berwick . . . July, 1847 
 Newcastle and Carlisle . . . June i8, 1839. 
 
 Newcastle and Darlington 1844 
 
 Newcastle and North Shields . . Jime 18, 1839 
 Newmarket and Cambridge . . . Oct. 1851 
 Newtown-Stewart and Omagh . . Sept, 1852 
 Northampton and Peterborough . June 2, 1845 
 North and South-Westem Junction . .Dec. 1852 
 Northern and Eastern .... July, 1845 
 
 Norwich and Brandon „ 
 
 Norwich and Yarmouth .... May i, 1845 
 Nottingham to Grantham . . July, 1850 
 
 Nottingham and Lincoln . . -Aug. 3, 1846 
 
 Nottingham branch of Rugby _and Derby, 
 
 May 30, 18-5 
 Oxford branch of London and Bristol June 12, 1844 
 Oxford and Banbury .... Aug. 1850 
 Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton . May, 1852 
 Paisley and Renfrew .... May, 1837 
 Penzance to Cumboume .... Jan. 1852 
 
 Rugby and Derby July, 1840 
 
 Rugby and Leamington .... Feb. 1851 
 
 St. Andrew's July, 1852 
 
 St. Helen's ; first act passed .... 1830 
 Salisbury branch of the London and South- 
 ampton 1847 
 
 Sheffield and Rotherham . . . Oct. 1838 
 
 Shrewsbury and Chester . . . Nov. 4, 1846 
 Shrewsbury and Ludlow . . . April, 1852 
 
 Southampton and Dorchester . . June i, 1847 
 South Eastern .... Feb. 6, 1844 
 
 South-Eastem ; North Kent line . . . 1849 
 Stockton and Darlington. . . . Sept. 1825 
 Stockton and Hartlepool . , . Feb. 10, 1841 
 Stourbridge and Dudley . . . IDec. 1852 
 
 Swinton and Barnsley. . . . June, 1851 
 
 TafE Vale Oct. 8, 1840 
 
 Teignmouth to Newton . . . Dec. 31, 1846 
 Tipperary and Clonmel .... April, 1852 
 
 Trent Valley June 26, 1847 
 
 Tunbridge-Wells'branch .... Oct. 1846 
 
 Ulster Aug. 1839 
 
 Wan-ington and Retford ; branch of the Great 
 
 Northern ...'... July, 1852 
 West and East India Docks and Binningham 
 Junction from tLe Blackwall railway to 
 Camden Town . . . . . Aug. 1850 
 
 West Durham June, 1840 
 
 West London f):iart) .... May 27, 1844 
 Worcester and Droitwich . . . Jan. 1852 
 
 York and Darhngton .... Jan. 4, 1841 
 York and Newcastle .... June 17, 1847 
 York and Norman ton . . . .June 30, 1840 
 York and Scarborough . . • July 7, 1845 
 
KAI 
 
 611 
 
 EAI 
 
 KAILWAYS, continued. 
 
 Miles. 
 America .... 3800 
 
 Germany 1570 
 
 Holland 200 
 
 Belgium 1095 
 
 EXTENT OF RAILWAYS IN 1 848 
 
 Miles. 
 
 France 2200 
 
 Italy 115 
 
 Denmark .... 106 
 Cuba 800 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Russia 52 
 
 British Colonies . . . looo 
 
 East India .... 500 
 
 [864 miles ia 1861.] 
 
 Austria . , , . . 
 Belgium ... . . 
 
 Denmarlc . . . . 
 
 France 
 
 Germany (without Austria 
 
 and Prussia) . . . . 
 Great Britain : 
 
 England . . . . 
 
 Scotland . . . . 
 
 EXTENT OF RAILWAYS, JUNE, 1858 (from Captain Galton's Keport) 
 
 Miles. Miles. 
 
 . 2086 Ireland 1070 
 
 . . 813 Holland 182 
 
 220 Naples . ... . . 64 
 
 4509 Portugal 29 
 
 Prussia 2544 
 
 2930 Russia 715 
 
 Sardinia .... 390 
 
 6706 Spain 456 
 
 1243 States of the Church . . 12 Grand Total 
 
 Sweden and Norway . 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 United States of America 
 
 Miles. 
 
 310 
 
 T50 
 
 24,592 
 17,481 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM- 
 
 -LENGTH OF RAILWAY OPENED, NUMBER OF PASSENGERS, AND 
 TOTAL RECEIPTS. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Miles 
 
 tlieu 
 
 opened. 
 
 Travellers. 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Miles 
 
 then Travellers, 
 opened. 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 1845 . . 
 1849 . . . 
 1854 . 
 
 1858 (iyr.) . 
 
 2343 
 4355 
 5962 
 9540 
 
 33.791.253 
 
 63.841,539 
 
 111,206,707 
 
 76,529,202 
 
 £6,277,892 
 9,174.945 
 12,825,826 
 
 1859 (^yr.) . 
 1861 (year) . 
 1863 (year) . 
 
 9795 
 10,869,^ 
 12,322 
 
 67,229,700 
 
 173,721.139 
 204,699,466 
 
 £11,862,639 
 28,561,355 
 31,156,397 
 
 PERSONS KILLED BY RAILWAY ACCIDENTS. 
 
 
 1854-5. 
 
 1855-6. 
 
 1856. 
 
 18S7-8. 
 
 1858-9. 
 
 1859-60- 
 
 1361. 
 
 Total in one year 
 
 By causes beyond their own control . 
 
 236 
 38 
 
 259 
 29 
 
 281 
 38 
 
 [271 
 38 
 
 261 
 
 35 
 
 236 
 23 
 
 284 
 69 
 
 It has been calculated that out of 16,168,459 travellers by railway one person is kiUed, and out of 
 458,370 one is injured by causes beyond their own control. 
 In 1864, 68 persons were killed, and 831 injured. 
 
 MEMORABLE RAILWAY ACCIDENTS. 
 Very many, where only 2 persons Jcilled, are not noted; in nearly all cases a large numher were injured. 
 
 W. Huskisson, M.P., killed at the opening of 
 the Liverpool and Manchester railway. 
 
 Sept 15, 1830 
 
 Great Corby (Newcastle and Carlisle): train runs 
 off line ; 3 killed Dec 3, 1836 
 
 Brentwood (Eastern Counties) : carriages over- 
 turned ; 3 killed .... Aug. 21, 1840 
 
 Cuckfield (London and Brighton) ; engine runs 
 off line; 4 killed .... Oct. 2, 1841 
 
 Sunnyhill cutting, near Reading : engine forced 
 off the line ; 8 killed .... Dec. 24, ,, 
 
 Versailles : carriages take fire, passengers locked 
 in; 52 or 53 lives lost, including admiral 
 D'Urville May 8, 1842 
 
 Masborough (Midland Counties) : collision ; 
 Mr. Boteler and others killed, many injured, 
 
 Oct. 20, 1845 
 
 Stratford (Eastern Counties) ; coUision through 
 great carelessness ; Mr. Hind killed, miany 
 mutUated July 18, 1846 
 
 Pevensey (Brighton and Hastings) : coUision ; 
 40 persons injured . . . Aug. 24, „ 
 
 Clifton (Manchester and Bolton) : express runs 
 
 off line ; 2 killed, many injured Dec. 15, 1846 
 
 Chester (Chester and Shrewsbury) : train runs 
 
 off bridge ; 4 killed, great number injured. 
 
 May 18, 1847 
 Wolverton (North Western) : collision ; 7 killed, 
 
 many injured .... June 5, „ 
 
 Shrivenham (Great Western) ; collision ; 7 killed, 
 
 many injured .... May 10, 1848 
 
 Carlisle (Caledonian) : axletree of carriage 
 
 breaks ; 5 killed .... Feb. lo, 1S49 
 Frodsham Tunnel (Chester and Warrington 
 
 Junction) : collision ; 6 killed . April 30, 1851 
 Newmarket Hill (Lewes and Brighton): traia 
 
 runs off line ; 4 killed. . . . June 6, ,, 
 Bicester (Buckinghamshire) : colhsion ; 6 
 
 killed Sept. 6, „ 
 
 Burnley (Lancashire and Yorkshire) : collision ; 
 
 4 killed July 12, 1852 
 
 Dixonfold (Lancashire and Yorkshire) : ergine 
 
 wheels broke ; 7 killed . . March 4, 1853 
 
 R R 2 
 
EAI 
 
 612 
 
 RAP 
 
 RAILWAYS, continued. 
 
 Near Straffan (Great Southern and Western, 
 Ireland); collision; 13 killed . . Oct. 5, 1853 
 
 Near HarUng, Norfolk (Eastern Counties) : 
 collision ; 6 killed .... Jan. 12, 1854 
 
 Croydon (Brighton and Dover) : collision ; 3 
 kiUed Aug. 24, ,, 
 
 Burlington, between New York and Phila- 
 delphia ; 21 killed .... Aug. 29, „ 
 
 Reading (South Eastern) : collision ; 5 killed, 
 
 Sept. 12, 1855 
 
 Near Paris : collision ; 9 killed . Oct. 9, „ 
 
 Between Thoret and Moret : collision ; 16 killed 
 
 Oct. 23, „ 
 
 Campbell (N. Pennsylvanian) : collision; above 
 100 killed July 17, 1856 
 
 Dunkett (Waterford and Kilkenny) : collision ; 
 7 killed Nov. 19, „ 
 
 Kirby (Liverpool and Blackpool): collision; 
 200 injured, none killed . . .June 27, 1857 
 
 Lewisham (North Kent): collision; 11 killed, 
 
 June 28, „ 
 
 Between Pyle and Port Talbot : collision ; 
 4kUled Oct. 14, „ 
 
 Attleborough (North Western) : train thrown 
 ofiE the line through a cow crossing the rails ; 
 3 killed May 10, 1858 
 
 Near Mons, Belgium : coke waggon on the rails; 
 21 killed June „ 
 
 Chilham (South Eastern); either too gi-eat 
 speed or broken axletree ; 3 kiUed . June 30, ,, 
 
 Near Round Oak Station (Oxford and Wolver- 
 hampton) — Excursion train: collision; 14 
 killed Aug. 23, ,, 
 
 Tottenham (Eastern Counties): engine wheel 
 breaks ; 6 killed .... Feb. 20, i860 
 
 Helmshore (Lancashii-e and Yorkshire) excur- 
 sion train : collision ; 11 killed . Sept. 4, „ 
 
 Atherstone (North Western) : collision of mail 
 and cattle trains : 11 killed Nov. 16, 
 
 Near Wimbledon ; Dr. Baly killed . Jan. 28, 
 
 Railway tunnel falls in near Haddon Hall, 
 Derbyshire : 5 men killed . . July 2, 
 
 Clayton Timnel (.London and Brighton) : colli- 
 sion; 23 killed, 176 injured . Aug. 25, 
 
 Kentish Town (Hampstead Junction) : 16 killed, 
 320 injured Sept 2, 
 
 Market Harborough : coUision ; 1 killed and 50 
 injured Aug. 28, 
 
 Near Winchburgh (Edinburgh and Glasgow): 
 collision ; 15 killed, 100 wounded . . Oct. 13, 
 
 Near Stxeatham (London and Brighton) : ex- 
 plosion of boiler tbj-ough attempting too g^reat 
 speed ; 4 killed : above 30 injured May 30, 
 
 Near Lynn (Ljmn and Hunstanton) : carriages 
 upset thi-ough bullock on the Une ; 5 killed 
 
 Aug. 3, 
 
 Eghara (South-Westem) : collision; 5 killed, 
 above 20 injured .... June 7, 
 
 Canada : train ran otf a bridge at St. Hilaire in 
 crossing ; about 83 killed, 200 wounded 
 
 June 29, 
 
 Blackheath Tunnel :* fast train ran into a ballast 
 train ; 6 killed Dec. 16, 
 
 Near Rednal (on a branch of Great Western) 
 train ran off insecure rails ; 13 killed, about 
 40 injured June 7, 
 
 Near Staplehurst (South Eastern) : train ran 
 off insecure rails, &c. ; 10 killed and many 
 injured . . " . . 1 June 9, 
 
 Near Colney Hatch (Great Northern) : collision 
 with coal trucks ; above 50 persons injured 
 
 Aug. 30, 
 
 i860 
 1 861 
 
 1862 
 
 1863 
 
 1865 
 
 RAINBOW. Its tlieory was developed by Kepler in 161 1, and by Ren^ Descartes in 
 1629. See Spectrum. 
 
 RAMADAN, the Mahometan month of fasting ; in 1865, Jan. 28 to Feb. 27 : in 1866, 
 Jan. 18 to Feb. 16, inclusive. It is followed by the festival of Bairam {which see). 
 
 RAMILIES (in Belgium), the site of a battle between the English under the duke of 
 Marlborough and the allies on one side, and the French on the other, commanded by the 
 elector of Bavaria and the marshal de Villeroy, on Whitsundaj'-, May 23 (0. s. 12), 1706. 
 The French were soon seized with a panic, and a general rout ensued : about 40CX) of the 
 allied array were slain in the engagement. The duke pursued and achieved one of his most 
 glorious victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, &c. Parliament settled 
 his honours upon the inale and female issue of his daughters. 
 
 RANGOON, maritime capital of the Burmese empire, was taken by sir A. Campbell on 
 May II, 1824. In Dec. 1826, it was ceded to the Burmese on condition of the payment of 
 a sura of money, the reception of a British resident at Ava, and freedom of commerce. 
 Oppression of the British merchants led to the second Burmese war ; Rangoon was taken by 
 stoi-m by general Godwin, April 14, 1852; and annexed to the British dominions in 
 December following. 
 
 RANSOME'S ARTIFICIAL STONE, the invention of Mr. Fred. Ransome, 1848, is 
 made by dissolving common flint (silica) in heated caustic alkali, adding fine sand. The 
 mixture is pressed into moulds and heated to redness. 
 
 RANTERS, a name given to a sect which arose in 1645, similar to the Seekers, now 
 termed Quakers. It is now applied to the Primitive Methodists, who separated from the 
 main body in 1810. See Wesleyans. 
 
 RAPE was punished by the Jews with death; by mutilation and the loss of eyes in 
 William I.'s reign. This was mitigated by the statute of Westminster i, 3 Edw. I. 1274. 
 Made felony by stat. Westminster 2, 12 Edw. III. 1338 ; and without benefit of clergy, 
 
 * On Dec. 27, 1864, the queen wrote to the directors of the railway companies of London, requesting 
 them "to be as careful of otber passengers as of herself." 
 
EAP 613 REA 
 
 i8 Eliz. 1575. Rape made puuishable by transportation in 1841 ; by penal servitude for 
 life or a less period, 1861. 
 
 RAPHIA, a port of Palestine. Here Antiochus III. of Syria, was defeated by Ptolemy 
 Pliilopater of Egypt, 217 B.C. 
 
 RAPHOE (a bishopric in N. Ireland). St. Columb-kille, a man of great virtue and 
 learning, and born of royal blood, founded a monastery in this place, and it was afterwards 
 enlarged by other holy men ; but it is the received opinion that St. Eunan erected the church 
 into a cathedral, and was the first bishop of this see in the 8th century. Raphoe was united 
 to the bishopric of Derry by act 3 & 4 Will. IV. 1833. See Bishops. 
 
 RAPPAHANNOCK CASE. See Tnafe, 1865. 
 
 RASPBERRY is not named among the fruits that were early introduced into this 
 country from the continent. The Virginian raspberry (Rubus occidentalis) before 1696, and 
 the flowering raspberry {Rubus odoratus), about 1700, came from North America. 
 
 RASTADT. See Radstadt. 
 
 RATHMINES (near Dublin). Colonel Jones, governor of Dublin castle, made a sally 
 out, routed tiie marquis of Orniond at Rathmines, kUled 4000 men, took 2517 prisoners, 
 with their cannon, baggage, and ammunition, Aug. 2, 1649. 
 
 RATIONALISM, the doctrine of those who reject a divine revelation and admit no other 
 means of acquiring knowledge but reason. The leading writers are Reimarus of Hamburg 
 (died 1768), Paulus of Heidelberg, Eichhorn, Reinhard, and Sti'auss. 
 
 RATISBON (in Bavaria), was made a free imperial city about 1200. Several diets have - 
 been held here. A peace was concluded here between France and the emperor of Germany 
 by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, signed Oct. 13, 1630. In • 
 later times, it was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German princes seceded from . 
 the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under the protection of the emperor Napoleon 
 of France, Aug. i, 1806. Ratisbon was made an archbishopric in 1806, but secularised in ■ 
 1810. In 1815 it was ceded to Bavaria, and became again an archbishopric in 1817. 
 
 RAUCOUX (Belgium). Here marshal Saxe and the French army totally defeated the- 
 allies on Oct. 11, 1746. 
 
 RAVAILLAC'S MURDER of Henry IV. of France, May 14, 1610.* 
 
 RAVENNA (on the Adriatic), a city of the Papal states. It was founded by Greet 
 colonists. It fell under the Roman power about 234 B.C. It was favoured and embellished 
 by the emperors, and Honorius made it the capital of the Empire of the "West, about 
 A.D. 404. In 568 it became the capital of an exarchate. It was subdued by the Lombards 
 in 752, and their king, Astolphus, in 754 surrendered it to Pepin, king of France, who gave 
 it in 754 to the pope Stephen, and thus laid the foundation of the temporal power of the 
 Holy see. On April 11, 1512, a great battle was fought between the French under the great 
 Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII. ), and the Spanish and Papal 
 armies. De Foix perished in the moment of his victory, and his death closed the fortunes 
 of the French in Italy. The confederate army was cut to pieces. The duke of Nemours had 
 performed prodigies of valour, but being too eager in his pursuit of the Spaniards, who were 
 retiring in good order, he was slain. Renault. Ravenna became part of the kingdom of 
 Italy in i860. 
 
 READING (Berkshire). Here Alfred defeated the Danes, 871. The abbey was founded: 
 I in 121 1 by Henry I. The last abbot was hanged in 1539 for denying the king's supremacy. 
 
 REAPING-MACHINES. One was invented in this country early in the present 
 ■ century, but failed from its intricacies. McCormick's American machine was invented 
 about 1 83 1, and perfected in 1846, and received a gold medal from the jurors of the Exhi- 
 bition of 1851. Hussey's machine, also American, exhibited at the same time, was highly 
 commended. 
 
 ; 
 
 * His punislimeiit was most dreadful. He was carried to the GrSve, and tied to the rack, a wooden 
 engine in the shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, within which was fastened the knife with 
 which he did the nmrder, was first burned at a slow fire. Then the fleshy and most delicate parts of his 
 body were torn with red-hot pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil, pitch, and rosin were 
 poured. His body was so robust, that he endured this exquisite pain, and his strength resisted that of the 
 four horses by which his limbs were to be pulled to pieces. The executioner, in consequence, cut him into 
 quarters, and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged him through the streets. 
 
KEA 
 
 614 
 
 EEC 
 
 REASON was decreed to be worshipped as a goddess by tlie French republicans, 
 Nov. lo, 1793. Thomas Paine's "Age of Keason " was published in 1794-5. 
 
 REBECCA RIOTS. See Wales, 1843. 
 
 REBELLIONS (or Insitrrections) in British History. 
 from the period of the Nonnan conquest were the following :- 
 
 Among the most memorable 
 
 Against William the Conqueror, in favour of Edgar 
 Atheling, aided by the Soots and Danes. 1069. 
 
 By Odj of Bayeux and others, against William II. in 
 favour of his brother Robert, 1088. Extinguished, 
 logo. 
 
 Of the Welsh, who defeated the Normans and Eng- 
 lish, commenced in 1095. 
 
 In England, in favour of the empress Maude, 1139. 
 Ended, 1153- 
 
 The rebellion of prince Richard against his father 
 Henry II. 1189. 
 
 Of the Barons, April 1215. Compromised by the 
 grant of Magna CJiarla, June 15 following. See 
 Magna Charta. 
 
 Of the Barons 1261. This rebellion terminated in 
 1267. 
 
 Of the lords spiritual and temporal against Edward 
 II. on account of his favourites, the Gavestons, 
 1312. Again, on account of the Spencers, 1321. 
 
 Of Walter the Tyler, of Deptford, vulgarly called 
 Wat T(/le>; occasioned by the brutal rudeness of a 
 poll-tax collector to his daughter. He killed the 
 collector in his rage, and raised a party to oppose 
 the tax itself, 1381. See Ti/ler. 
 
 Of the duke of Gloucester, and other lords, in 
 England, 1387. 
 
 In Ireland, when Roger, earl ot March, the viceroy 
 and heir presumptive to the crown, was slain, 1398. 
 
 Of Henrv, duke of Lancaster, who caused Richard II. 
 to be deposed, 1399 
 
 Rebellion of the English and Welsh, 1400-2. 
 
 Against king Henry IV. by a number of confederated 
 lords, 1403. 
 
 Of Jack Cade, in favour of the duke of York, against 
 Henry VI. 1450. See Cade's lasu.rvection. 
 
 In favour of the house of York, 1452, which ended 
 in the imprisonment of Henry VI. and seating 
 Edward IV. of York on the throne, 1461. 
 
 Under Wai-wick and Clarence, 1470, which' ended 
 with the expulsion of Edward IV. and the restora- 
 tion of Henry VI. the same year. 
 
 Under Edward IV. 1471, which ended with the death 
 of Henry VI. 
 
 Of the earl of Richmond, against Richard III. 1485, 
 which ended with the death of Richard. 
 
 Under Lambert Simnel, who pretended to be 
 
 Richard III.'s nephew, i486, which ended the 
 
 same year in discovering that Simnel was a 
 
 baker's son ; he was pardoned. 
 
 Under Perkin Warbeck, 1492, which ended in the 
 
 execution of Warbeck. 
 Under Thomas Flammock and Michael Joseph, in 
 Cornwall, against taxes levied to pay the Scottish 
 war expenses. They marched towards London, 
 and lord Audley took the command at Wells. 
 
 They were defeated at Blackheath, June 22, and 
 the three leaders were executed, June 28, 1497. 
 
 Of the English in the West, to restore the ancient 
 liturgy, &c., 1549 ; suppressed same year. 
 
 In Norfolk, headed by Ket, the tanner, but soon 
 suppressed, Aug. 1549. 
 
 In favour of lady Jane Grey, against queen Mary. 
 Lady Jane was proclaimed queen of England on 
 the death of Edward VI. July 10, 1553; but she 
 resigned the crown to Mary a few days after- 
 wards : she was beheaded for high treason, in the 
 Tower, Feb. 12, 1554, aged 17. 
 
 Of sir Thomas Wyatt, the post, and others, against 
 queen Mary's marriage with Philip of Spain, &c., 
 fails ; he is beheaded April 11, 1554. 
 
 Of the Roman Catholic earls of Northumberland and 
 Westmoreland against queen Elizabeth, Nov. and 
 Dec. 1567. The former fled to Scotland, but was 
 given up by the regent Murray and executed. 
 
 Of the Irish, under the earl of Tyrone, 1599, ^^'P- 
 pressed in 1601. 
 
 Under the earl of Essex, against queen Elizabeth, 
 1600 ; it ended in his death, 1601. 
 
 Of the Irish under Roger More, sir Phelim O'Neil, 
 (fee, against the English in Ireland; it ended in 
 1651. 
 
 Rebellion of the Scots, i665; soon afterwards put 
 down. 
 
 Under the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ; it ended in 
 his death. 
 
 Of the Soots in favour of the Old Pretender, 1715 ; 
 quelled in 1716. 
 
 Of the Soots, under the Young Pretender, 1745 ; 
 suppressed in 1746, when lords Lovat, Balmerino, 
 an I Kilmarnock were beheaded. 
 
 Of the Americans, on account of taxation, 1774. 
 This rebellion led to a disastrous war, to the loss 
 of our chief North American colonies, and to the 
 independence of the United States, 1782. 
 
 In Ireland, called the Great Rebellion, when great 
 numbers took up arms, commenced May 24, 1798 ; 
 suppressed next year. 
 
 Again in Ireland, under Robert Emni'stt, a gifted 
 enthusiast, July 23, 1803, when lord Kilwardenwas 
 killed with several others, by the insurgents. 
 
 Canadian Insurrection (which see), Dec. 1837 to Nov. 
 1838. 
 
 Of Charti.sts at Newport (which see), Nov. 4, 1839. 
 
 Smith O'Brien's silly Irish rebellion ; terminated in 
 the defeat and dispersion of a multitude of his 
 deluded followers by sub-inspector Trant and 
 about sixty ijolice constables, on Boulagh com- 
 mon, B.iUingary, co. Tipperary, July 29, 1848. 
 See Ireland. 
 
 Rebellion in India (see India), 1857-8. 
 
 RECEIPTS FOR Money. Receipts were first taxed by a stamp-duty in 1783. The act 
 was amended in 1784, 1791 d scq., and receipts were taxed by a duty varying according to 
 the amount of the money received, in all transactions. Stamps required on bills of 
 exchange, notes, and receipts in Ireland, by stat. 35 Geo. III. 1795. See Bills 0/ Exchange. 
 The uniform stamp of one penny on receipts, for all sums above 2I., was enacted by 
 16 & 17 Vict. c. 59 (Aug. 4, 1853). See Stam^is. 
 
 RECIPROCITY TREATY between Great Britain and the United States, regulating the 
 relation between the latter and Canada, in regard to trade, fisherie.s, &c., was negotiated 
 by lord Elgin, and ratified Aug. 2, 1854. Its abrogation was proposed by the United States' 
 government in 1864. 
 
 RECITATIVE, a species of singing differing but little from ordinary .speaking, and 
 
EEC 
 
 615 
 
 REF 
 
 used for narratives in operas, is said to have been first employed at Rome by Emilio del 
 Cavaliere, who disputed the claim of Rinuccini to the introduction of the Italian opera, 
 1600. See Opera. It was soon afterwards adopted in other parts of Italy, and throughout 
 Europe. 
 
 RECORDER, the principal judicial officer of great corporations. The first recorder of 
 Loudon was JeS"rey de Norton, alderman, 1298; Russell Gurney, esq., Q.C., the present 
 recorder, was elected in 1856. The salary, originally lol. per annum, is now 2500?. 
 
 RECORDS, PtJBLTC, IN England, began to be regularly preserved in iioo, by order of 
 Henry I. The repositories which possessed materials the most ancient and interesting to the 
 historian were, the Chapter-house of Westminster Abbey, the Tower of London, and the 
 Queen's Remembrancer's offices of the exchequer. The early records of Scotland, going 
 from London, were lost by shipwreck in 1298. In Ireland, the council-chamber and most 
 of the records were burned, 171 1. Public Records act, 2 Yict. c. 94 (Aug. 10, 1838). — A 
 new Record Office has been erected on the Rolls estate, between Chancery and Fetter- 
 lanes, to which the recor'ds will be gradually removed. 
 
 RECREATION. ^q% Playground. REDEMPTORISTS. Bee Ligmnans. 
 
 REDHILL. See Reformatory Schools. 
 
 RED SEA. In 1826 Ehrenberg discovered that the colour was due to the presence of 
 marine plants, which he named '■^ Trichodesmium Erythrceum." 
 
 REFLECTORS. B&q Burning-glass. 
 
 REFORM IN Parliament, a chief source of agitation for many yeai's. Mr. Pitt's motion 
 for a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20 in 1782, of 144 in 1783, and of 
 74 in 1785. The first ministerial measure of Reform was in earl Grey's administration, 
 when it was proposed in the house of commons by lord John Russell, March i, 1831. 
 
 BILL OF 1 831. 
 
 S'irst division ; second reading ; for it, 302 ; against 
 it, 301 — majority, one, March. 22. On motion for 
 a committee, General Giscoyne moved an amend- 
 ment, "that the number of representatives for 
 Eagland and Wales ought not to be diminished." 
 
 Ameadment carried on a division, 299 to 291 — 
 majority, eight, April 19. The bill was abandoned 
 and parliament dissolved, April 22. 
 
 A new parliament assembled, June 14. Bill again 
 introduced, June 24. Division on s'.cond reading : 
 for it, 367; against it, 251 — majority, 116, July 4. 
 Division on third reading of the bill : for it, 349 ; 
 against it, 236 — majority, 113, Sept. 21. 
 
 In the Lords— first division on secoK.cJ reading : lord 
 Wharnoliffe moved "that the bill be read that day 
 six months." Porjthe amendment, 199; against 
 it, 158 — majority, fortv-one, Oct. 8. [Parliament 
 prorogued, Oct. 20, 1831.] 
 
 BILL OP 1832.* 
 
 Head in the Commons a. first time, without a division, 
 December 12, 1831. Second reading; division, viz. : 
 for the bill, 324 ; against it, 162— majority, 1S2, 
 Dae. 17, 1831. Third reading ; division, viz. : for 
 the bill, 355 ; against it, 239 — majority for it, 116, 
 March. 23, 1832. 
 
 In the Lords —read a first time on motion of earl 
 Grey, March 26. Second reading : for the bill, 184 ; 
 against it, 175 — majority, nine, April 14. In the 
 committee lord Lyndhurst moved " that the ques- 
 
 tion of enfranchisement should precede that of 
 disfranchisement." The division was 151 and 116 
 — majority against ministers, thirty-five. May 7. 
 
 Resigaation of ministers. May 9 ; great public excite- 
 ment ensued, and they were induced to resume 
 office on the king granting them full power to 
 secure majorities, by the creation of new peers. 
 
 In the Lords, the bill was carried through the com- 
 mittee. May 30 ; read a third time : 106 against 22 
 — majority eighty-four, June 4; received the 
 royal assent, June 7, 1832. 
 
 The royal assent given to the Scotch Reform Bill, 
 July 17 ; and to the Irish one, Aug 7, 1832. 
 
 Lord John Russell introduced a neio reform, bill, 
 Feb. 13, 1854, which was withdrawn, AprU. ir, 
 1854, in consequence of the war with Russia. 
 
 On Feb. 28, 1859, Mr. Disraeli brought in a reform 
 bin, which was rejected by the commons on March 
 31, by a majority of 39. This led to a dissolution of 
 parliament, and eventually a change of ministry. 
 
 The new government (lords Palmerston and J. Rus- 
 sell) brought forward a new bill, March i, i860 ; 
 but withdrew it June 11. No reform bill was 
 brought forward by the government 1861-65. See 
 Commons, note. 
 
 The discussion respecting Parliamentary Reform was 
 revived in the axitumn of 1864 and 1865, in con- 
 nection with the approaching elections, and 
 various plans were proposed. Mr. Baines' re- 
 form bill was rejected by the commons, May 8, 
 
 REFORMATION, The. Efforts for the reformation of the church may be traced to the 
 reign of Charlemague, when Paulinus, bishop of Aquileia, employed his voice and pen to 
 accomplish this object. The principal reformers were Wickliffe, Huss, Jerome of Prague, 
 Savonarola, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Melanchthon, Erasmus, Cranmer, Latimer, 
 
 * By this " Act to amand the Representation of the People in England and Wales " (2 & 3 Will. 4, c. 45), 
 56 boroughs in England were disfranshised (schedule A), 30 ware reduced to one member only (B.); 22 
 new boroughs were created to send two msmbers (C), and 20 to send one member (0 ), and other important 
 changes were made. 
 
KEF 
 
 616 
 
 KEG 
 
 Knox, and Browne. See Wickliffites, Protestants, Calvinists, Lutherans, Presbyterianism, &c. 
 The eras of the reformation are as follow : — 
 
 In England (iricHi^e) 1360 
 
 In Bohemia (Huss) 1405 
 
 In Germany (Xu(Aer) 1517 
 
 In Switzerland {Zvunglius) 1519 
 
 In Denmark 1521 
 
 In Prussia 1527 
 
 In France {Calvin), see Huguenots . . . 1529 
 
 Protestants first so called " , 
 
 In Sweden (Petri) 
 
 In England (Henry VIII.) 
 
 In Ireland {ArclMihop George Srovme) 
 
 In England, completed {Cranmer, Biccer, Fagius, 
 &c.), 1547; annvdled by Mary, 1553; restored 
 by Elizabeth 
 
 In Scotland (Knox), established .... 
 
 In the Netherlands, established . . . . 
 
 1330 
 1534 
 1535 
 
 1558 
 1560 
 156a 
 
 KEFORMATORY SCHOOLS. The increasing number of juvenile delinquents* has 
 long occupied the minds of philanthropists, and various schemes have been devised to check 
 the evil. Two great institutions have been recently set up for this purpose ; the Reformatory 
 Schools at Mettray, near Tours in France, and Redhill, near Reigate in Surrey. The former 
 was established in 1839, by M. de Metz, formerly a councillor at Paris; warmly seconded m 
 his beneficent work by the vicomte de C'ourcelles, who gave the estate on which the 
 establishment is placed. The latter is situated on land purchased in 1849 by the Philan- 
 thropic Society, and was placed under the direction of the rev. Sydney Turner. The first 
 stone of the building was laid April 30, 184^, by the prince consort. The inmates of these 
 establishments are instructed in farm labour, and are divided into so-called families. In 
 1854 the Juvenile Offenders act was passed. In 1851 and 1853 great meetings were held ou 
 the subject : and in Aug. 1856, the first grand conference of the National Reformatory Union 
 was held. In 1852 the North- West London Preventive and Reformatory Institution, in the 
 New Road, was established : in this, all kinds of trades are taught. Acts for establishing 
 reformatory schools were passed in 1857 and 1858. In 1863 there were fifty-one reformatory 
 schools in England, and nine in Ireland. In 1865 an intei-national exhibition of the works 
 of these schools, at the Agricultural-haU, Islington, near London, was opened by the prince 
 of Wales. 
 
 REFRESHMENT HOUSES for the sale of wine, &c., are licensed in pursuance of an 
 act passed in i860, amended in 1861. 
 
 REGENCY BILLS. One was proposed to parliament in consequence of the mental 
 illness of George III., and debated Dec. 10, 1788. It was relinquished on his majesty's 
 recovery, Feb. 26, 1789. The return of the malady led to the prince of Wales (afterwards 
 George IV.) being sworn in before the privy council as regent of the kingdom, Feb. 5, 181 1. 
 The Regency Bill providing for the administration of the government, should the crown 
 descend to the princess Victoria while under eighteen j'ears of age, passed i Will. IV., Dec. 
 23, 1830. A Regency Bill appointing prince Albert regent in the event of the demise of the 
 queen, should her next lineal successor be under age, Aug. 4, 1840. 
 
 REGENTS. See Protectorates. 
 
 REGENT'S CANAL begun at Paddington, where it joins a cut to the Grand Jnnction, 
 passes under Maida-hill, continues its course by the Regent's-park to Islington, where 
 another subterranean excavation, about three-quarters of a mile in length, has been formed 
 for its passage. It then proceeds by Hoxton, Hackney, Mile-end, to Limehouse, where it 
 joins the Thames. The whole length of it is nine miles ; it comprises twelve locks and 
 thirty-seven bridges. Opened Aug. i, 1820. 
 
 REGENT'S PARK, originally part of the grounds belonging to a palace of queen Eliza- 
 beth, near to the north end of Tottenham court-road, pulled down in 1791. Since 1600, the 
 property was let to various persons, but the leases having expired it reverted to the crown ; 
 and in 1814 great improvements were commenced under the direction of Mr. Nash. The 
 park consists of about 450 acres : within it are the gardens of the Zoological Society and the 
 Royal Botanical Society. 
 
 REGGIO. See Ehegium. 
 
 REGIMENTS of Infantry were formed in France about 1588. See Infantry. The 
 following are the dates of the establishment of several of the British regiments : 
 
 * It was calcvilated (about 1856) that there were in London 30,000, and in England 100,000 youths 
 under 17 leading a vagabond life, and that out of 15,000 of those who were committed for trial nearly half 
 were in custody for the first time. 
 
REG 
 
 617 
 
 REM 
 
 REGIMENTS, continued. 
 
 CAVALRY. 
 
 The Dragoon Guards, the Royal Irish, and the 
 Scots Greys were formed by James II., 
 about 1685-6 
 
 Oxford Blues are erroneously said to have been 
 formed in the reign of Henry VIII. ; they 
 derive their name from their colonel, the 
 earl of Oxford in 1661 
 
 Three Indian regiments (19th, 20th, and 21st), 
 added Aug. ,, 
 
 IKFANTRT. 
 
 Coldstream Guards, established by Monk, in i66o' 
 
 ist Royal 1633 
 
 3rd BufiEs 1660 
 
 2nd Queen's Royal 1661 
 
 4th King's Own 1685- 
 
 5th Northumberland Fusiliers .... 1685 
 
 26th Cameronian i68(> 
 
 looth Canadian 1858 
 
 loist to logth (Indian), added . . Aug. 1861 
 
 The Highland regiments are the 42nd, 71st, 72nd, 78th, 79th, 92nd, and 93rd. 
 
 REGISTERS. The registering of deeds and conveyances disposing of real estates was 
 appointed to be effected in Yorkshire and in Middlesex, 2 Anne, 1703, et seq. By this; 
 regulation, greater security was made for purchasers and mortgagees ; and the value of estates 
 increased in the register counties. Wills have been for a series of years kept and registered, 
 in London, at Doctors' Commons. See Wills. The registering of shipping in the Thames 
 was commenced, 1786; and throughout England, 1787; and several acts and amendments. 
 of acts have since followed for keeping and improving registers. See Revising Barristers. 
 
 REGISTERS, Parochial, were established by Cromwell, lord Essex, by which the dates 
 of births, marriages, and burials, became ascertainable, 27 Hen. VIII. 1530-8. This measure 
 was opposed by the people, who feared some new taxation. A stamp-tax was laid on them 
 in 1784. Laws for their better regulation were enacted in 1813, et seq. The great Regis- 
 tration act (introduced by lord John Russell), 6 & 7 "Will. IV. c. 86, passed Aug, 17, 1836. 
 See Bills of Mortality, &c. 
 
 REGISTRATION of Voters was enacted by the Reform act, passed June, 1832. 
 
 REGIUM DONUM (Royal gift), an allowance granted by the sovereign to dissenting^ 
 ministers in Ireland, began in 1672, and has since been greatly increased. Its acceptance 
 has been censured by some nonconformists. 
 
 REICHSRATH, the representative council of the empire of Austria, reconstituted by a 
 decree, March 5; met on May 31, i860. In May, 1861, the upper house consisted of 
 17 spiritual, 55 hereditary, and 39 peers. The lower house consisted of 136 elected deputies. 
 No representatives came from Hungary, Transylvania, Venetia, the Banat, Siavonia, Croatia, 
 and Istria. The Reichsrath was abolished by a rescript, Sept. 21, 1865, with the view of 
 restoring, autonomy to Hungary and other provinces. 
 
 REIGN OF TERROR. Maximilien Robespierre headed the populace in the Champ de 
 Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement of the king, July 17, 1791. He was trium- 
 phant in 1793, and great numbers of eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his 
 sanguinary administration. Billaud Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the 
 tribune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant ! " resounded through the hall ; 
 and he was immediately ordered to the place of execution and suffered death. A large 
 number of his companions were also executed. See France. This has been termed the Red- 
 Terror. The re-action, disgraced by many atrocious acts of wanton cruelty, has been termed 
 the White Terror. The Jesuits were conspicuous in the destruction of their adversaries. 
 
 RELIGION (from religo, I bind again, in the sense of a vow or oath) comprehends a 
 belief in the being and jjerfections of God, and obedience to his commandments. The 
 Christian religion is set forth in the New Testament, which is the spirit and interpreter of 
 the Old. Departure from these scriptures has been the origin of all corrupt forms of religion, 
 as foretold in them. See Mahometaiiism, and other religions and sects under their names. 
 The population of the globe with reference to religious worship, is given by Balbi (who 
 assumed the total population to be 1,050,000,000), and Dieterici (who assumed it to be 
 1,288,000,000), as follows : 
 
 Salbi (1836). Dieterici (1861). 
 Idolaters, &c., not professing 
 the Jewish, Christian, or 
 Mahometan worship . 665,500,000 800,000,000- 
 
 Jews 
 
 Christians 
 
 Roman Catholics 
 Mahometans . 
 
 Balbi (1836). Dieterici (1861). 
 
 4,500,000 5,000,000 
 
 . 225,000,000 335,000,000 
 
 . 160,000,000 170,000,000 
 
 . . 155,000,000 160,000,000 
 
 REMONSTRANCE, The Grand, was drawn up by the house of commons, and pre- 
 sented to king Charles L, Dec. i, 1641. It consisted of 206 articles, and dwelt bitterly on 
 all the king's illegal and oppressive acts. 
 
 REMONSTRANTS. See Arminians. 
 
REN 
 
 618 
 
 PtEY 
 
 RENAISSANCE, a term applied to the revival of the classic style of art at the beginning 
 of the 1 6th century, under the patronage of the Medici and others. See Painters and 
 Sculptors. 
 
 RENTS were first made payable in money, instead of in kind, 1135. Numerous statutes 
 have been enacted in various reigns to define the relations and regulate the dealings between 
 landlord and tenant. 8 & 9 Vict. c. 106 (1845) regulates leases. By the act 8 Anne, 1709, 
 no goods are removable from tenements under an execution until the rent shall have been 
 paid to the landlord by the sheriif, 1709. In England, the duke of Sutherland received his 
 rents in the value of corn, and in Scotland, in the value of wool and sheep. The rental of 
 England, including land, houses, and mines, was 6,ooo,oooZ. about the year 1600, and twelve 
 years' purchase the value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to 14,000,000^., and the 
 land was worth eighteen years' purchase. Davcnant on the Revenues. The present rental 
 of the United Kingdom has been estimated in the present century at 127,000,000^. See 
 Land, &c. 
 
 REPEAL OF THE Union, Ireland. An Irish association was formed with this object 
 under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 1829. 
 
 A proclamation of the lord-lieutenant pro- 
 hibited the meetings of a society " leagued 
 for the purpose of procuring a repeal of the 
 union, under the name of the Irish Society 
 for Legal and Legislative Relief, or the Anti- 
 Union Society " . . . ._ Oct. 18, 1830 
 
 The house of commons, by a majority of 484, 
 reject Mr. O'Counell's motion for repeal, 
 
 April 27, 1834 
 
 A new association in 1841, 1842, and 1843 be- 
 came more violent. Assemblies of the lower 
 classes of the people were held in the last- 
 named year, in various parts of Ireland, some 
 of them amounting to 150,000 persons, and 
 called " monster meetings." 
 
 The great meeting at Trim took place on March 
 19; other meetings were held at MuUingar, 
 Cork, and Longford, on May 14, 21, and 28, 
 respectively : at Drogheda, Kilkenny, Mal- 
 
 low, and Dundalk, on June s, 8, 11, and 29 ; 
 at Donnybrook and Baltinglass, July 3 and 
 20 ; at Tara, Aug. 15 ; at Loughrea, Clifton, 
 and Lismore, Sept. 10, 17, and 24; and at 
 Mullaghmast Oct. i, 1843 
 
 A meeting to be held at Clontarf, on Oct. 8, 
 was prevented by government ; and Mr. 
 O'ConneU and his chief associates were 
 brought to trial for political conspiracy, Jan. 
 15, 1844, and convicted, Feb. 12 ; but the 
 sentence was reversed by the house of lords, 
 Sept. 4. See Trials. 
 
 The association for the repeal of the union con- 
 tinued for some time under the direction of 
 Mr. John O'Connell, but was little regarded. 
 The total " repeal rent " amounted to 134,379?. 
 
 A fruitless attempt was made in DubUn to 
 revive repeal agitation . . . Dec. 4, i860 
 
 REPUBLICANS. &qq Democrats. REPUBLICS, ^qq Athens, Rome, Genoa,yenke, hx. 
 
 REQUESTS, Courts of. See Court of Conscience. 
 
 RESERVE FORCES. In the summer of 1859, acts were passed to provide for the 
 establishment of a military reserve force of men who have been in her majesty's service (not 
 to exceed 20,000), and a volunteer reserve force of seamen not to exceed 30,000. 
 
 RESTORATION, The, that of king Charles II. to the crown of England, after an inter- 
 regnum of eleven years and four months, between Jan. 30, 1649, when Charles I. was 
 beheaded, and May 29, 1660, wlien Charles II. was restored, and entered London amidst 
 the acclamations of the people. 
 
 RETREAT of the Ten Thousand Greeks, who had joined the army of the younger 
 Cyrus in his revolt against his brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon. Cyrus was defeated and slain 
 at Cunaxa, 401 B.C. Artaxerxes having enticed the Greek leaders into his power and killed 
 them, Xenophon was called by his couuti-ymen to the command. Under continual alarms 
 from sudden attacks, he led them across rapid rivers, through vast deserts, over the tops of 
 mountains, till he reached the sea. The Greeks returned home after a march of 1155 para- 
 sangs or leagues (3465 miles), which was performed iu 215 days, after the absence of fifteen 
 months. This retreat has been immortalised by the account given by its conductor. 
 
 REUSS-GREIZ and REUSS-SCIILEIZ, two principalities in Central Germany, with 
 a united population of 121,200. The reigning family sprang from Ekbert, count of Osterode, 
 iu the loth century. The princely dignity was conferred by the emperor Sigisniond 
 in 1426. 
 
 1 856. Reigning prince of Reuss-Schleiz, Henry LXIX. 
 Sept. 16 ; bom May 19, 1792. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Reigning prince of Reuss-Greiz, Henry XXII. 
 Nov. 8 ; born March 28, 1846. 
 
 REVELATION. See Apocalypse. 
 
REV 
 
 619 
 
 REV 
 
 REVENUE, PtTBLTC, OF EN'aLA.ND. The revenue collected for tlie civil list, and for 
 all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordinary, was i,20o,oooZ. per 
 annum, in i65o, the first after the restoration of Charles II. in 1690 was raised 6,ooo,oooZ., 
 every branch of the revenue being anticipated ; this was the origin of the funds and the 
 national debt, 2 William and Mary. Salmon. The revenue laws were amended in 1861. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE PUBLIO EEVENTJE SINCE THE CONQUEST. 
 
 William I. 
 William Rufus 
 Henry I. 
 Stephen . 
 Henry II. 
 Bichard I. . 
 Jobn 
 
 Henry III. 
 Edward I. 
 Edward II. 
 Edward III. 
 llichard II. 
 Henry IV. 
 Henry V. , 
 
 £400,000 
 
 Henry VI. . 
 
 350,000 
 
 Edward IV. 
 
 300,000 
 
 Edward V. . 
 
 250,000 
 
 Richard III. 
 
 200,000 
 
 Henry VII. . 
 
 150,000 
 
 Henry VIII. . 
 
 100,000 
 
 Edward VI. . 
 
 80,000 
 
 Mary . 
 
 150,900 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 100,000 
 
 James I. . 
 
 154,000 
 
 Charles I. 
 
 130,000 
 
 Commonwealth 
 
 100,000 
 
 Charles II. . 
 
 76,643 
 
 James II. . 
 
 £ 64,976 
 
 William III. . 
 
 . £3.895,205 
 
 
 Anne (at the Unipn) . 
 
 5,691,803 
 
 100,000 
 
 George I. 
 
 . 6,762,643 
 
 130,000 
 
 George II. . 
 
 . 8,522,540 
 
 400,000 
 
 George III., 1788 . 
 
 15.572,971 
 
 800,000 
 
 ,, 1800, about 38,000,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 United Kingdom, 1820 
 
 65.599,570 
 
 450,000 
 
 George IV., 1825 
 
 62,871,300 
 
 500,000 
 
 William IV., 1830 . 
 
 55.431,317 
 
 600,000 
 
 1835 . 
 
 50,494,732 
 
 895,819 
 
 Victoria, 1845, net . 
 
 53.060,354 
 
 1,517.247 
 
 „ 1850 . 
 
 52,810,680 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 1853 
 
 54,430,344 
 
 2,001,855 
 
 
 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 
 Kevenue. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 1855, net . 
 1856 
 
 1857 . 
 
 1858 . . . 
 
 £63,364,605 
 68,008,623 
 66,056,055 
 61,812,525 
 
 £65,692,962 
 88,428,345 
 75.588,667 
 68,128,859 
 
 1859, gross . 
 i860 . . . 
 
 1863 . 
 
 1864 . . . 
 
 1865 . 
 
 £65.477.284 
 71,089,669 
 70,603,561 
 70,208,964 
 70,313,436 
 
 £64,663,882 
 69,502,289 
 69,302,008 
 67,056,286 
 
 Surplus, on the year ending June 30, 1865, 2,496,849?. 
 
 Prev^iously to 1854 there had been an average surplus of 2,500,000?. since 1849. ^^ consequence pf the 
 Rassiaa war the deficiency in 1854 was 3,209,059?. ,; in 1855, 21,141,133?. ; in 1856, 10,104,412?. In 1857 there 
 was a surplus of 36,097?. ; in 1858, of 1,127,657?. ; in 1859 a deficiency of 2,019,584?. 
 
 Monthly Review 
 
 • 1749 
 
 Quarterly 
 
 . 1809 
 
 Westminster . 
 
 1824 
 
 Critical 
 
 • 1756 
 
 Eclectic 
 
 . 1813 
 
 Southern America 
 
 1828 
 
 Anti-Jacobin . 
 
 • 1798 
 
 North American 
 
 . 18x5 
 
 Dublin 
 
 1836 
 
 Edinburgh . 
 
 . 1802 
 
 Retrospective 
 
 . 1820 
 
 North British . 
 
 . 1844 
 
 REVIEWS. The Journal dis S^avans, published on Jan. 5, 1665, by Denis de Salo, 
 under the name of Hedouville, was the parent of critical journals. It was soon imitated 
 throughout Eui'ope, and was itself translated into various languages. It is still published. 
 George III. spoke of this publication to Dr. Johnson, in the private interview with which 
 he was honoured by his majesty, in the library of the queen's house, in Feb. 1767. Boswell. 
 The Biblwtheque A nglaise ca.m.3 out in 1716-27. For Military Reviews, see Volunteers. 
 
 British Quarterly . 1844 
 
 National . . . 1855 
 
 Saturday . . . ,, 
 
 Fortnightly . . 1865 
 
 REVISING BARRISTERS' COURTS, to examine the lists of voters for members of 
 parliament, were instituted by the Reform bill of 1832. 
 
 REVIVALS on the subject of religion arose in the United States in 1857. In the 
 autumn of 1859, they began in Scotland, the north of Ireland (particularly Belfast), and 
 England. Many meetings were held for prayers and preaching throughout the week, as well 
 as on Sundays. 
 
 REVOLUTIONS :— 
 
 The Assjrrian empire destroyed, and that of the 
 Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the 
 Great B.C. 536 
 
 The Macedonian empire founded on the destruc- 
 tion of the Persian, by the defeat of Darius 
 Codomanus, by Alexander the Great . . 331 
 
 The Roman empire established on the ruins of 
 the republic by JuUus Cassar .... 47 
 
 The empire of the Western Franks begun under 
 Charlemagne a.d. 800 
 
 In Portugal 1640 
 
 In England 1649 and 1688 
 
 In Poland .... 1704, 179s, and 1830 
 
 In Russia 1730 and 1762 
 
 1772 and 1809 
 
 In Sweden .... 
 
 In North America 
 
 In France . . . 1789, 1830, 1848, and 
 
 In Holland, 1795 ; counter-revolution . . . 
 
 In Venice 
 
 In Rome 1798 and 
 
 In the Netherlands 
 
 In Brunswick 
 
 In Brazil 
 
 In Hungary 
 
 In Italy 1859 and 
 
 In United States i 
 
 [See the countries respectively.] 
 
 1775 
 
 1013 
 1797 
 
 1830 
 
 i860 
 860-5 
 
REV 620 RIG 
 
 REVOLVERS. See Pistols. 
 
 RHEGIUM (now REGGIO), S. Italy, a Greek colony, flourished in the 5th century, B.C. 
 It was held by the Campanian legion, 281-271, afterwards severely punished for its rebellion. 
 Reggio was taken by Garibaldi, Aug. i860. 
 
 RHEIMS (N. France). The principal church here was built before 406 ; it was rebuilt 
 in the 12th century, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, the archbishop, is 
 preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine. The kings of France were crowned 
 at Rheims ; probably because Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, when converted 
 from paganism, was baptized in the cathedral in 496. Several ecclesiastical councils have 
 been held here. The city was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the 
 French war, 18 14. 
 
 RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of 
 Byzantium, 200 B.C. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by Photius Gallus, about 
 87 B.C. He taught Cicero, who said, "We are first to consider what is to be said; secondly, 
 how ; thirdly, in what words ; and lastly, how it is to be ornamented." A regius professor of 
 rhetoric was Appointed in Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor. 
 
 RHINE. This river was fortified as the frontier of the Roman empire, 298 and 369, and 
 became the boundary of the French republic in 1794. See Confederation. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND (N. America), settled about 1635, was taken in the war of inde- 
 j)endence by the British, Dec. 8, 1776 ; but was evacuated by them, Oct. 25, 1779. 
 
 RHODES, an island on the coast of Asia Minor, is said to have been peopled from Crete, 
 as early as 916 B.C. The Rhodians were famous navigators, masters of the sea, and 
 institutors of a maritime code which was afterwards adopted by the Romans. The city was 
 built about 432 and flourished, 300-200 B.C. See Colossus. Rhodes, long an ally of the 
 Romans, was taken by the emperor Vespasian, A.D. 71. It was held by the Knights 
 Hospitallers from 1309 to 1522, when it was conquered by the Turks, who still retain it. 
 The knights retired to Malta {which see). Rhodes sufi'ered severely by an earthquake on 
 April 22, 1863. 
 
 RHODIUM, a rare metal, discovered in platinum ore, by Dr. Wollaston in 1804. It has 
 been used for the points of metallic pens. 
 
 RIALTO, BrtiDGE of the, at Venice (mentioned by Shakspeare in his " Merchant oj 
 Venice "), built about 1590, consists of a marble arch across the Grand Canal, 90 feet wide 
 and 24 feet high. 
 
 RIBBONISM, a term given to the principles of a secret society in Ireland, organised 
 about 1820, to retaliate on landlords any injuries done to their tenants, not scrupling even 
 at assassination. To the ribbonnien are attributed many of the agrarian murders. 
 
 RICHMOND (Surrey), anciently called Sheen, which in the Saxon tongue signifies 
 resplendent. Here stood a palace in which Edward 1. and II. resided, and Edward III. died, 
 1377. Here also died Anne,' queen of Richard II. The palace was repaired by Henry V., 
 who founded three religious houses near it. In 1497 it was destroyed by fire ; but Henry VII. 
 rebuilt it, and commanded that the village should be called Richmond, he having borne the 
 title of earl of Richmond (Yorkshii-e) before he obtained the crown ; and here he died in 
 1509. Queen Elizabeth was a prisoner in this palace for a short time during the reign of her 
 sister. When she became queen, it was one of her favourite places of residence ; and here 
 she died, March 24, 1603. It was afterwards the residence of Henry, pi-ince of Wales. The 
 beautiful park and gardens were enclosed by Charles I. The observatory was built by sir W. 
 Chambers in 1769. In Richmond, Thomson "sang the Seasons and their change;" and died 
 Aug. 27, 1748. — Richmond (Virginia) became the capital of the southern confederate states. 
 The congress adjourned from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, where it met July 20, 
 1861. After a siege of 1452 days and many desperate battles Richmond was evacuated by 
 the confederates, April 2, 1865. See United States. 
 
 RIFLE CORPS. See National Association and Fire-arms. 
 
 RIGHTS, Bill of, one of the bulwarks of the constitution, obtained by parliament from 
 king Charles I., although he had endeavoured by various artifices to avoid granting it, 
 June 26, 1628. To the Petition of Rights, preferred March 17, 1627-8, his majesty 
 answered, " I will that right be done, according to the laws and customs of the realm." 
 Both houses addressed the king for a fuller answer to their petition of rights, whereupon he 
 gave them an answer less evasive, ^' Soit fait comme il est desire,'' June 7, 1628. An 
 
 4 
 
PJM 
 
 621 
 
 EIO 
 
 important declaration was made by the lords and commons of England to the pi'ince and 
 princess of Orange on Feb. 13, 1689, in an act "declaring the rights and liberties of the 
 subject, and settling the succession of the crown." 
 
 RIMNIK, near Martinesti, Wallachia. Here the Austrians and Russians, under prince 
 Coburg and Suwarrow, gained a great victory over the Turks, Sept. 22, 1789. 
 
 RINDERPEST, German for cattle-plague (which see) 
 
 RINGS anciently had a seal or signet engraved on them, to seal writings, and they are 
 so used to this day. In Genesis xli. 42, it is said that Pharaoh gave Joseph his ring. 
 Rings are now put upon women's fourth finger a< marriage ; but the first use of rings by the 
 Jews was at the espousal or contract before marriage. 
 
 RIO JANEIRO (S. America) was made capital of the empire of Brazil in 1807. 
 
 RIOTS, in British History. The riotous assembling of twelve or more persons, and 
 their not dispersing upon proclamation, Avas first made high treason by a statute enacted 
 2 & 3 Edw. VI. 1548-9. The present Riot Act was passed i Geo. I. 1714. See below. 
 
 Some riotous citizens of London deinolished the 
 convent belonging to Westminster abbey ; the 
 ringleader was hanged, and the rest had their 
 hands and feet cut off, 6 Hen. III. 1221. 
 
 Goldsmiths' and Tailors' companies fought in the 
 streets of London ; several were kiUed ; the 
 shcriflfs quelled it, and thirteen were hanged, 1262. 
 
 A riot at Norwich ; the rioters burn the cathedral 
 and monastery; the king went thither, and saw 
 the ringleaders executed, 1271. 
 
 Riot of Evil May-day {which see), 1517. 
 
 Dr. Lamb killed by the mob, June, 1628. 
 
 A riot on pretence of pulling down houses of ill- 
 fame ; several of the ringleaders hanged, 1668. 
 
 Another, at Guildhall, at the election of sheriffs ; 
 several considerable persons who seized the lord 
 mayor were concerned, 1682. 
 
 At Edinburgh and Dumfries, on account of the 
 Union, 1707. 
 
 In London, on account of Dr. Sacheverel's trial ; 
 several dissenting meeting-houses were broken 
 open, Feb. 1710. 
 
 Riot of the Whig and Tory mobs, called Ormoud and 
 Newcastle mobs, 171 5. 
 
 The Mug-house riot, in Salisbury-court, between the 
 Whigs and Tories. The riot quelled by the guards. 
 Five rioters hanged, July, 1716. 
 
 Of the Spitalfields weavers, on account of employing 
 workmen come over from Ireland. Quelled by 
 the military, but many lives lost, 1736. 
 
 Porteous riot at Edinburgh (see Porteov.s), 1736. 
 
 The nailers in Worcestershire march to Birmingham, 
 and make terms with the iron-merchants there. 
 
 of Ul-fame in the Strand ; being assisted by a 
 large body, they pulled down the house and 
 destroyed the furnitiire of several other houses, 
 turning the women naked into the streets, 1749. 
 
 Of the Spitalfields weavers ; the duke of Bedford 
 narrowly escaped death ; many lives lost, 1765. 
 
 A mob in St. George's Fields, to see Mr. Wilkes in 
 the King's Bench prison ; the military aid indis- 
 creetly called for by the justices of the peace, and 
 several innocent persons, particularly young 
 Allen, fired upon, and killed, 1768. 
 
 Gordon's "No Fopery" riots, 1780. 
 
 At Birmingham, on account of commemorating the 
 French revolution, July 14, i79r, when several 
 houses were destroyed. 
 
 In various parts of Scotland, on account of the 
 Militia act, Aug. 1797, when several were killed. [ 
 
 At Maidstone, at the trial of Arthur O'Connor and 
 others. May 22, 1798; the earl of Thanet, Mr. . 
 Ferguson, and others, were active in endeavouring 
 to rescue O'Connor, for which they were tried and ' 
 convicted, AprU 25, 1799. j 
 
 At Liverpool, occasioned by a quarrel between a 
 party of dragoons and a press-gang, June 27, 1809. 
 
 O.P. riot {lohich see) at Covent-garden, Sept. 1809. 
 
 In Piccadilly, in consequence of the house of com- 
 mons committing sir Francis Burdett to the 
 Tower, April 6, 18 10. 
 
 At SheflSeld, during which 800 muskets belonging to 
 the local militia were destroyed, April 14, 181 2. 
 
 Machinery destroyed by rioters at Nottingham from 
 Nov. 1811 to Jan. 1812. 
 
 In various parts of the north of England, by the 
 Luddites, duiing 1811 and 1812. 
 
 At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, on account of the 
 celebrated Dog of Moniargis, several nights, Dec. 
 1814. 
 
 Alarming riots at Westminster, on accoimt of the 
 Corn Bill ; they lasted several days, March, 1815. 
 
 At the depot at Dartmoor, in quelling which seven 
 Americans were killed, and thirty-five wounded, 
 April, 1815. 
 
 Popular meetings at Spa-fields, when the shops of 
 the gunsmiths were attacked for arms. Mr. Piatt 
 shot in that of Mr. Beckwith on Snow-hill, Dec. 2, 
 1816. Watson tried for high treason, but acquitted, 
 June, 1 817. 
 
 In the park, on the prince-regent going to the house, 
 in which an air-gun was fired at him, Jan. 28, 18 17. 
 
 At Manchester, at a popular meeting, March 3, 181 7. 
 
 Affray at Manchester, called the " Field of Peterloo,' 
 Aug. 16, 1819. See Manchester Reform Meeting. 
 
 At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, of several nights' 
 duration, 1819. 
 
 Riot at Paisley and Glasgow ; many houses plun- 
 dered, Sept. 16, 1819. 
 
 At Edinburgh, on the acquittal of queen Caroline, 
 Nov. 19, 1820. 
 
 In London, at the funeral of the queen, through the 
 military opposing the body being carried through 
 the city, Aug. 14, 1821. 
 
 At Knightsbridge, between the military and the 
 populace, on the funeral of Honey and Francis, 
 Aug. 26, 1821. 
 
 At the Theatre in Dublin ; the riot called the 
 "Bottle Conspiracy," against the marquess Wel- 
 lesley, lord-lieutenant, Dec. 14, 1822. 
 
 Riot at Ballybay ; Mr. Lawless was arrested, Oct. 9, 
 1828. 
 
 Riot at Limerick ; the provision-warehouses plun- 
 dered and mischief done, June 15, 1830. 
 
 Fatal aifrays at Castlepollard, May 23, 1831 ; and 
 Newtonbarry (which see), June 18, 1831. 
 
 Alarming riots at Merthyr-Tydfil, among the iron- 
 workers, several of whom, fired on by the military, 
 were killed and wounded, June 3, 1831. 
 
 Riot at the Forest of Dean, June 8, 1831. See Dean. 
 
 Nottingham castle burnt by rioters, Oct. 10, 1831. 
 
 Reform riots at Bristol (see Bristol), Oct. 29, 1831. 
 
 Affray at Castleshock, county Kilkenny, when 
 a number of police, attacked by the populace, 
 were, with their commander, Mr. Gibuis, killed, 
 1,'ec. 14, 1831. 
 
 Riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, produced by a 
 body of persons called Thomiles, headed by a 
 
RIO 
 
 622 
 
 EOB 
 
 RIOTS, continued. 
 
 fanatic named Thom, or Courtenay, who with 
 
 others, was killed, May 31, 1838. See Tkomites. 
 Great riots throughout the country, occasioned by 
 
 the Chartists. Suppressed by proclamation, 
 
 Dec. 12, 1838. 
 Kiots in Birmingham, when much mischief ensued, 
 
 July 15, 1839. See Birmingham. 
 Chartist riot at Newport (which see), Nov. 4, 1839. 
 Meditated Chartist outbreak at SheflBeld, with most 
 
 destructive objects, providentially discovered, and 
 
 many persons arrested, Jan. u, 1840. 
 Rebecca riots against turnpikes in Wales, in 1843. 
 Chartist demonstration (see Chartists), April 10, 1848. 
 Fatal affray at Dolly's Brae, near Castlewellan, in 
 
 Ireland, between the Orangemen and the Roman 
 
 Catholics ; several of the latter lost their lives, and 
 
 some of their houses were ransacked and burnt, 
 
 July 12, 184Q. 
 Serious riots at Yarmouth, through a dispute 
 
 between the ship-owners and the seamen, Feb. 23, 
 
 1851. 
 Riots occasioned by a procession of Orangemen at 
 
 Liverpool, and several Uves lost, July 14, 1851. 
 Riot at Stockport, Cheshire; two Catholic chapels 
 
 destroyed and houses burnt, June 29, 1852. 
 Fierce religioxis riots at Belfast, in Ireland, occur, 
 
 July 14, 1852. 
 
 Fatal election riot at Six-mile- Bridge, in the county 
 
 of Clare, in Ireland ; five persons shot dead by the 
 
 miUtary, July 22, 1852. See Six-mile- Bridge. 
 Riots at Wigan, among the coal-miners, suppressed 
 
 by the military without loss of life, Oct. 28, 1853. 
 Bread riots at Livei-pool, Feb. 19, 1855. 
 Riots at Hyde Park, about Sunday Bill, July, 1855 ; 
 
 about dearness of bread, Oct. 14, 21, 28, 1855. 
 Riots at Belfast through the open-air preaching of 
 
 the rev. Hugh Hanna, Sept. 6, 13, 20, 1857. 
 Religious riots at St. George's in the East, London, 
 
 on Sundays in Sept. and Nov. 1850. 
 Break out of the convicts at Chatham, suppressed 
 
 by the military, Feb. 11, 1861. 
 Violent riots at Belfast begin, through an Orange 
 
 demonstration, Sept. 17, 1862. 
 Fierce rioting (caused by the Irish against the 
 
 favourers of Garibaldi) at Hyde Park, London, 
 
 Sept. 28 and Oct. 5 ; and at Birkenhead, Cheshire, 
 
 Oct. 8 and 15, 1862. 
 Rioting at Staleybridge (on account of the mode of 
 
 relief to unemployed cotton-workers), principally 
 
 Irish, put down by the military, March 21, 1863. 
 Fierce conflicts between Romanists and Protestants 
 
 at Belfast; 9 persons killed and about 150 injured, 
 
 Aug 10-27, 1864. 
 
 See Rebellions. 
 
 RIPON (Yorkshire), an ancient town. About 661 an abbey cell was built here by Eata. 
 Ripon was made a bishopric by archbishop Wilfred in 690, but did not endure so. It suffered 
 much by the ravages of the Danes, the Normans (1069), and the Scots (1319 and 1323). The 
 present see Avas erected Oct. 1836, out of the archdeaconry of York in the "West Riding. 
 Income, 4500?. 
 
 BISHOPS. 
 
 1836. Charles Thomas Longley, translated to Dur- | 1856. Robert Bickersteth (present bishop), 
 ham in 1856. j 
 
 ROAD MURDER. On the night of June 29-30, i860, Francis Savile Kent, four years 
 old, was murdered, and his body hid in a garden water-closet. His sister Constance Kent 
 (ac^ed sixteen), and the nurse Elizabeth Gough, the first suspected, after several examinations, 
 were discharged for want of evidence. The coroner was severely blamed for charging the 
 jury improperly, but the court of Queen's Bench, in Jan. 1861, refused to issue a writ for a 
 new inquiry. Constance Kent, on April 25, 1865, before sir Thomas Henry at Bow-street, 
 and on July 21, following, at her trial at Salisbury, confessed hei-self to be guilty of the 
 murder. Her punishment was commuted to penal servitude for life. 
 
 ROADS OF England. The first general repair of the highways of this country was 
 directed about 1285. Acts were passed for the purpose in 1524 and 1555, followed by others 
 in Elizabeth's and succeeding reigns. Roads through the Highlands of Scotland were begun 
 by General Wade in 1746. Loudon M'Adam's roads were introduced about 1818 ; he pre- 
 scribes the breaking of stones to six ounces weight, and calculates the expense of breaking 
 stones at a shilling a ton ; clean flints and granite clippings answer best. Wooden pave- 
 ments were tried with partial success in the streets of London ; at Whitehall in 1839, and 
 in other streets in 1840. Asphalt pavement soon after. See Roman Roads and Wooden 
 Pavements. An act "for the better management of the highways " was passed in 1862, 
 after much opposition. See M'Adam, 
 
 ROASTING ALIVE. An early instance is that of Bocchoris, king of Egypt, by order 
 of Sabacon of Ethiopia, 737 B.C. Lenglet. Sir John Oldcastle, lord Cobham, was thus put 
 to death in 1418, and M. Servetus for heresy at Geneva, in 1553. See Burning Alive and 
 Martyrs. 
 
 ROBBERS. First punished with death by Edmtind I.'s laws, which directed that the 
 eldest robber should be hanged. Remarkable robbers were Robin Hood, in England, I189 
 (see Rohin jS^ooc^), and Claud Du Val, "executed at Tyburn," says an historian, quaintly, 
 " to the great grief of the women, " Jan. 1670. In Ireland, the famous Mac Cabe was hanged 
 at Naas, Aug. 19, 1691. Galloping Hogan, the rapparee, flourished at this period. Freney, 
 the celebrated highwayman, surieudered himself, May 10, 1749. The accomplished 
 Barriugton was transported, Sept. 22, 1790. See Trials. 
 
EOB 
 
 623 
 
 EOH 
 
 EOBIN" HOOD, captain of a band of robbers, in Sherwood forest, Nottinghamshire. 
 Some assert that he was the earl of Huntingdon, disgraced and banished the court by 
 Eichard I. at his accession (1189). Eobin Hood and Little John and their band are said to 
 have continued their depredations till 1247, Avhen Eobin died. Stow, 
 
 " EOBmSON CEUSOE," by Daniel De Foe, first appeared in 17 19. 
 
 EOCHELLE (W. France), a sea-port on the Atlantic, belonged to the English for some 
 time, but finally surrendered to the French leader, Du Guesclin, in 1372. It became a 
 stronghold of the Calvinist party, and was vainly besieged by the duke of Anjou in 1573. 
 It was taken after a siege of thirteen mouths by cardinal Eichelieu in 1628. The duke of 
 Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to relieve it ; but the citizens declined to 
 admit him. A conspiracy here in 1822 caused loss of life to sergeant Bories and others. 
 
 EOOHESTEE, in Kent, an ancient city, built by the Eomans and called Durohrivis. 
 The bishopric, founded by Angustin, 604, is the next in age to Canterbury. The first 
 cathedral was erected by Ethelbert, king of Kent. St. Justus was bishop in 604 ; alterations 
 were made in the diocese in 1845. Eochester is valued in the king's books at 358Z. 3s. 2^d. 
 per annum. Present income, 5000?. 
 
 KECENT BISHOPS. 
 
 1793. Samuel Horsley, trans, to St. Asaph's, 1802. 
 1802. Thomas Dampier, translated to Ely, 1808. 
 1809. Walter King, died Feb. 22, 1827. 
 
 1827. Hugh Percy, translated to Carlisle, Oct. 27. 
 1827. George Murray, died Feb. 16, i860. 
 i860. Joseph Cotton Wigram (present bishop). 
 
 EOCKETS, destructive war implements, were invented by sir "William Congreve about 
 1803. The carcase-rockets were first used at Boulogne, Oct. 8, 1806, when they set the town 
 on fire, their powers having been previously demonstrated in the presence of Mr. Pitt and 
 several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. Improved rockets were made by Hales in 1846. 
 
 EOCKINGHAM ADMINISTEATIONS. 
 
 riKST ADMIN isTEATi ON, July, 1765 to Aug. 1766. 
 Charles, marquess of Eockingham, first lord of the 
 
 treasury/. 
 William Dowdeswell, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, lord president. 
 Duke of Newcastle, privy seal. 
 Earl of Northington, lord chancellor. 
 Duke of Portland, lord chamberlain. 
 Duke of Butland, master of the horse. 
 Lord Talbot, lord steward. 
 Henry Seymour Conway and the duke of Grafton, 
 
 secretaries of state. 
 Lord Egmont, admiralty. 
 Marquess of Granby, ordnance. 
 Viscount Barrington, secretary- at-war. 
 Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 
 Charles Townshend, paymaster of the forces. 
 
 Earl of Dartmouth, first lord of trade. 
 Lords Besborough and Grantham, lord John 
 Cavendish, Thomas Townshend, &c. 
 
 SECOND ADMINISTRATION, March to July 2, 1782, 
 when the marquess died. 
 Marquess of Rockingham, /rsi lord of the treasury. 
 Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Lord Camden, president of the council. 
 Duke of Grafton, privy seal. 
 Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 
 William, earl of Shelburne and Charles James Fox, 
 
 secretaries of state. 
 Augustus Keppel, fl7-st lord of the admiralty. 
 Duke of Richmond, master-general of the ordnance. 
 Thomas Townshend, secretary-at-war. 
 Isaac Barr^, Edmund Burke, &,c. 
 
 EOCEOY (K France). Here, May 19, 1643, ^^^ Spaniards were totally defeated by the 
 French, commanded by the great Cond^. 
 
 EODNEY'S VICTOEIES. Admiral Eodney fought, near Cape St. Vincent, the Spanish 
 admiral, Don Langara, whom he defeated and made prisoner, capturing six of his ships, one 
 of which blew up, Jan. 16, 1780. On April 12, 1782, he encountered the French fleet in the 
 "West Indies, commanded by the count de Grasse, took five ships of the line, and sent the 
 French admiral prisoner to England : Eodney was raised to the peerage, June, 1782. 
 
 EOGATION "WEEK. Eogation Sunday received its title from the Monday, Tuesday, 
 and "Wednesday following it, called Eogation days, derived from the Latin rogare, to 
 beseech.* 
 
 EOHILLAS, an Affghan tribe, who emigrated from Cabul at the end of the 17th centurj'-, 
 and established themselves in the eastern parts of Delhi. They were defeated by the English 
 in 1774, and nearly exterminated by the sovereigns of Oude ; and after a struggle finally 
 subdued by the English in 1849. 
 
 * Extraordinary prayers and supplications for these three days are said to have been appointed in the 
 third century, as a preparation for the devout observance of our Saviour's ascension on the next day suc- 
 ceeding to them, denominated Holy Thursday or Ascension-day. The whole week in which these days 
 happen is styled Rogation week ; and in some parts it is still known by the other names of Crop week. 
 Grass week, and Procession week. The perambulations of parishes have usually been made in this week. 
 
KOL 
 
 624 
 
 EOll 
 
 ROLLS. See Master of the Rolls, and Records. 
 
 EOLLS' CHAPEL (London), founded by Henry IIL, in 1233, for ordaining Jewish 
 rabbis converted to Christianity. On the banishment of the Jews, the buildings now called 
 the Kolls, and the chapel, were annexed by patent to the office of the keeper or master of 
 the rolls of Chancery, from which circumstance they took their name. A number of public 
 Records from the time of Eichard IIL were kept in presses in this chapel, 
 
 EOMAGN A, a province of the Papal States, comprised in the legations of Forli and 
 Eavenna. It was conquered by the Lombards ; but taken from them by Pepin, and given 
 to the pope, 753. Caesar Borgia held it as a duchy in 1501, but lost it in 1503, In 1859 
 the Eomagna threw off the temporal authority of the pope, and declared itself subject to the 
 king of Sardinia, who accepted it in March, i860. It now forms part of the province of 
 iEmilia, in the new kingdom of Italy. Population (i860) 1,014,582. See Rome. 
 
 EOMAINVILLE and Belleville, heights near Paris, where Joseph Bonaparte, Mortier, 
 and Marmont were defeated by the allies after a vigorous resistance, March 30, 1814. The 
 next day Paris capitulated. 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICS, called also Romanists and Papists. Their religion was the 
 established one till the Reformation. Since then many laws were made against them, which 
 have been repealed. * See Religion. 
 
 Bialiop Fisher, sir Thomas More, and others, 
 executed for denying the king's supremacy . 
 
 Catholics absolved from their allegiance to the 
 king by Paul III. 1535 : by Pius V. 
 
 They rebel in 1549 and 
 
 The Gunpowder Plot (vhicli see) .... 
 
 They suffer by Oates's fictitious popish plot 
 
 They are excluded from the throne . . . 
 
 They suffer by the Gordon riots . June, 
 
 Various disabilities removed in . 1780 and 
 
 Mr. Pitt proposes measures for their relief, 
 which he gives up li 
 
 Koman Catholic Association organised in Ire- 
 land, with the object of removing the political 
 and civil disabilities of Roman Catholics 
 
 Bills in their favour frequently brought in with- 
 out effect from. . . . . 1 813 to 
 
 An act of parliament passed for the suppression 
 of the Catholic Association, March 5, 1829 ; 
 but it voted its own dissolution, Feb. 12, 
 preceding. 
 
 The duke of Wellington and sir Robert Peel 
 carry the great Catholic emancipation bill 
 (10 Geo. IV. c. 7) in the commons, March 30 ; 
 in the lords, April 10 ; it receives the royal 
 assent April 13, 
 
 The duke of Norfolk and lords Dormer and 
 Clifford, the first Roman Catholic peers, take 
 their seats April 28, 
 
 The first English member returned, the earl of 
 Surrey for Horsham . . . May 4, 
 
 1535 
 
 1570 
 1567 
 1605 
 1678 
 1689 
 1780 
 1791 
 
 Mr. O'Connell elected for Clare, takes his seat 
 (first Roman Catholic M. P. since 1689), Aug. 1829 
 
 Mr. Alexander Raphael the first Roman 
 Catholic Sheriff of London . . Sept. 28, 1834 
 
 Sir Michael O'Loghlen, the first Roman Catholic 
 judge (as Master of the Rolls in Ireland), 
 appointed Oct. 30, 1836 
 
 Mr. O'Connell elected first Roman Catholic 
 lord mayor of Dublin 1841 
 
 The " Papal Aggression " (if/jicA see); cardinal 
 Nicholas Wiseman appointed archbishop of 
 Westminster Sept. 30, 1850 
 
 Agitation in favour of the pope . . 1860-2 
 
 [In 1851 there were in England 570 Roman 
 Catholic chapels with i86,iii sittings. — The 
 Roman Cathohc Church in Ireland consists 
 of four archbishops, 24 bishops, and (in 1854) 
 2291 priests ; there are numerous monasteries 
 and convents.] 
 
 Roman Catholic university founded at Drum- 
 condra, Ireland July 20, 1862 
 
 Roman Catholic chaplains permitted for gaols, 
 by Prison Ministers Act . . . July, 1863 
 
 Serjeant Wm. Shee made a justice of the 
 Queen's Bench, the first Roman Catholic judge 
 since the Reformation . . Dec. 15, „ 
 
 Death of Cardinal Wiseman, aged 63 ; 7th Eng- 
 lish cardinal since the Reformation Feb. 15, 1865 
 
 Henry Manning (formerly an archdeacon in the 
 English Church) consecrated archbishop of 
 Westminster .... June 8, ,, 
 
 ROMAN" ROADS in England. Our historians maintain, but are mistaken, that there 
 were but four of these roads. Camden. " The Eomans," says Isidore, "made roads almost 
 all over the world, to have their marches in a straight line, and to employ the people;" 
 and criminals were frequently condemned to work at such roads, as we learn from Suetonius, 
 in his life of Caligula. They were commenced and completed at various periods, between 
 the 2nd and 4th centuries, and the Eoman soldiery were employed in making them, that 
 inactivity might not give them an opportunity to raise disturbances. Rede. 
 
 ist, Watlino-stbeet, so named from Vitellianus, 
 who is supposed to have directed it, the Britons 
 calUng him in their language Guetalin (from Kent 
 to Cardigan Bay). 
 
 12nd, Ikeseld, or Ikenild-steeet, from its beginning 
 among the Iceni (from St. David's to Tyiiemouth). 
 
 3rd, Fosse, or Fosse way, probably from its having 
 
 been defended by a fosse on both sides (from 
 Cornwall to Lincoln). 
 4th, Ermin-street, from Irmunsul, a German word, 
 meaning Mercury, whom our German ancestors 
 worshipped under that name (from St. David's to 
 Southampton). 
 
 * Among other disabilities, Roman Catholics were excluded from corporate offices, 1667 ; from 
 parliament, 1691 ; forbidden to marry Protestants, 1708 ; to possess arms, 1695, <fec. See Scully's History 
 0/ V<e Penal Laws, 1812. 
 
ROM 
 
 625 
 
 ROM 
 
 ROMAN "WALLS. One was erected by Agricola (79 to 85) to defend Britain from the 
 incursions of the Picts and Scots ; the first wall extended from the Tyne to the Solway frith 
 ,{80 miles) ; the second from the frith of Forth, near Edinburgh, to the frith of Clyde, near 
 Dumbarton (36 miles). The former was renewed and strengthened by the emperor Adrian 
 (121), and by Septimus Severus (208). It commenced at Bowness, near Carlisle, and ended 
 at WaUsend, near Newcastle. It had battlements and towers to contain soldiers. The more 
 northern wall was renewed by Lollius Urbicus in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140. 
 Many remains of these walls still exist, particularly of the southern one. See Bruce's 
 "Roman Wall," published in 1853. 
 
 ROMANCES. As Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, was the author of 
 EtJiiopics, in Greek, the first work in this species of writing, he is hence styled the " Father 
 of Romances." He flourished, 398. Hicet de Origine Fabul. Roman. Dunlop's " History 
 of Fiction," published in 1814, is an esteemed book on this subject. 
 
 ROME. The foundation of the city, by Romulus, was laid on the 20th April,* according to 
 "Varro, in the year 3961 of the Julian period (3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 
 before the birth of Christ, 431 years after the Trojan war, and in the fourth year of the sixth 
 Olympiad. Other dates given : Cato, 75 1 ; Polybius, 750 ; Fabius Pictor, 747 ; Cincius, 
 728 B. c. ) The Romans conquered nearly the whole of the then known world. In the time 
 of Julius Cfesar, the empire was bounded by the Euphrates, Taurus, and Armenia on the 
 east ; by Ethiopia on the south ; by the Danube on the north ; and by the Atlantic on the 
 •west. Numerous ecclesiastical councils have been held at Rome, beginning in 197. 
 
 Foundation of the city by Romulus . . b. c. 753 
 The Romans seize on the Sabine women at a 
 
 public spectacle, and detain them for wives . 750 
 The CiBninians defeated, and first triumphal 
 
 procession 748 
 
 Rome taken by the Sabines ; the Sabines incor- 
 porated with the Romans as one nation . . 747 
 Romulus sole king of .the Romans and Sabines. 742 
 The Circensian games established . . . . 732 
 Romulus, said to have been murdered by the 
 
 senators 716 
 
 Numa PompUius elected king, 715 ; institutes 
 
 the priesthood, the augurs and vestals . . 710 
 Roman calendar of 10 months reformed and 
 
 and made 12 ,, 
 
 The Romans and the Albans contesting for 
 superiority, agreed to choose three champions 
 on each part to decide it. The three Horatii, 
 Roman knights, and the three CMriaiii, Albans, 
 having been elected by their respective 
 countries, engaged in the celebrated combat, 
 which, by the victory of the Horatii, united 
 
 Alba to Rome about 669 
 
 War with_ the Fidenates; the city of Alba 
 
 destroyed 665 
 
 Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, buUt . . . 627 
 The first census of the Roman state is taken 
 
 (Lenglet) . ■ 566 
 
 Political institutions of Servius Tullius . . 550 
 The rape of Lucretia by Sextus, son of Tarquin. 510 
 Royalty abolished : the Patricians establish 
 ^ an aristocratical commonwealth . . . 509 
 
 Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus first 
 consuls ; first alliance of the Romans with 
 Carthage ... .... 508 
 
 The Capitol finished, and dedicated to Jupiter 
 
 Capitolinus B c. s°7 
 
 The Latins and the Tarquins declare war against 
 the republic, 501 ; defeated at the lake Re- 
 
 gillus 496 
 
 First dictator Titus Lartius 501 
 
 Secession of the Plebeians to the sacred 
 mount ; establishment of tribunes of ,the 
 
 Plebeians 494 
 
 First agrarian law passed ; Spurius Cassius put 
 
 to death by the Patricians 493 
 
 C. Martius Coriolanus banished .... 491 
 He (with the Volsoi) besieges Rome, but with- 
 draws at the suit of his wife and mother . 488 
 Contests between the Patricians and Plebeians 
 
 respecting the agrarian law . . . . 486 
 
 The Fabii slain (see Fahii) . . . ' ■ 477 
 
 Consulship of Cinciiinatus 460 
 
 The Secular Games first celebrated . . . 436 
 
 The Decemviri created 4Si 
 
 Virginius kills his daughter, Virginia, to save 
 
 her from the decemvir, Appius Claudius t • 449 
 The Canuleian law passed, permitting marriages 
 
 between Patricians and Plebeians . . . 445 
 Military tribunes first created . . . . 444 
 
 Office of Censor instituted 443 
 
 Rome afflicted with an awful famine, and many 
 persons on account of it drown themselves 
 
 in the Tiber 440 
 
 The Veientes defeated, and their king Tolumnus 
 slain ......... 437 
 
 "War with the Tuscans 434 
 
 A temple is dedicated to Apollo on account of a 
 
 pestilence 433 
 
 ^qui and Volsci defeated 431 
 
 * In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on the summit of mount Palatine ; and the founder, 
 to give his followers the appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard as a 
 common asylum for criminals, debtors, or miu-derers, who fled from their native country to avoid the 
 punishment which attended them. From such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and 
 before the death of the foiinder, the Romans had covered with their habitations the Palatine, CapitoUne, 
 Aventine, and Esquiline hiUs, with Mounts CoeUus and Quirinalis. 
 
 t Appius Claudius became enamoured of her, and attempted to remove her from the place where she 
 resided. She was claimed by one of his favourites, as the daughter of a slave, and Appius had adjudged 
 her to his friend, when Virginius arrived from the camp. The father demanded to see his daughter, and 
 when she came he plunged a knife into her breast, exclaiming, "This is aU, my daughter, I can give thee 
 to preserve thee from the lust of a tyrant ! " Virginius ran to the camp with the bloody knife in his 
 hand, and the incensed soldiers marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but destroyed himself in prison. 
 Spurius Oppius, another decemvir, killed himself also. Marcus Claudius, the favourite of Appius, was 
 put to death, and the decemviral power abolished. 
 
 S S 
 
ROM 
 
 626 
 
 EOll 
 
 ROME, continued. 
 
 Two new quaestors are added to the former 
 
 number b.c. 421 
 
 Another and more dreadful famine occurs at 
 
 Rome 411 
 
 Three quwstors are chosen from the Plebeians 
 
 for the first time 409 
 
 Institution of the Leetisternian festival on 
 
 account of a pestilence 399 
 
 Teii taken after a siege of more than ten years 396 
 
 Banishment of CamiUus 391 
 
 The Gauls under Brennus, besiege Clusium 
 
 (see Gauls) 390 
 
 They are expelled by Camillus . . . . 389 
 Borne burat to the gi-ound by the Gauls, who 
 
 besiege the Capitol 387 
 
 M. Manlius Capitolinus thrown from the Tar- 
 
 peian rock on a charge of aiming at sovereign 
 
 power 384 
 
 The first appointment of curule magistrates . 371 
 Lucius Sextus, the first Plebeian consul . . 366 
 Marcus Curtius leaps into the gulf which had 
 
 opened in the forum 362 
 
 The Gauls defeated in Italy 350 
 
 "War with the Samnites, which lasts 51 years . 343 
 Embassy to Alexander the Great . . . 324 
 
 Defeat at Caudium 321 
 
 Priests first elected from the Plebeians . . 300 
 
 End of the Samnite war 290 
 
 The Gauls mvade the Roman territory ; siege 
 
 of Arezzo • 284 
 
 The Etruscans defeated at the Vadimonian 
 
 lake 310 and 283 
 
 Pyrrhus of Epirus invades Italy, 281 ; defeats 
 
 the Romans at Pandosia, 280; andat Asculum, 
 
 278 ; defeated by them at Benevento . . 278 
 
 All Italy subdued by Rome 266 
 
 First Punic war commenced (see Punic Wars) . 264 
 
 First Roman fleet built 260 
 
 Attilius Regulus said to be put to a cruel death 
 by the Carthaginians . . . . . . 255 
 
 End of first Punic war ; Sicily made a Roman 
 
 province 241 
 
 Temple of Janus closed 235 
 
 228 
 225 
 218 
 
 216 
 
 Corsica and Sardinia annexed 
 
 First Roman EmViassy to Greece . . . . 
 
 Great invasion of the Gauls ; repulsed 
 
 Second Punic war breaks out . . . . 
 
 The Romans are defeated by Hannibal at 
 
 Thi-asymene, 217 ; Caun» .... 
 S3Tacuse taken by Marcellus . . . " . . 
 Seipio defeats Hannibal at Zama in Africa . 202 
 The Macedonian wars with Philip begin, 213 
 
 and 200 ; his defeat at CynoscephalaB . . 197 
 
 Death of Seipio Africanus the elder . . . 185 
 Third Macedonian war begins 171 ; Macedon 
 
 conquered and annexed 168 
 
 First public library erected at Rome . . 167 
 
 Philosophers and rhetoricians are banished 
 
 from Rome 161 
 
 Third Punic war begins 149 
 
 Corinth and Cai-thage destroyed bythe Romans 
 
 (see Corinth and Carthage) 146 
 
 Numantine war in Si'ain .... 153-133 
 Attains III. of Pergamos bequeaths hiskingdom 
 
 and riches to the Romans .... 133 
 
 The Servile war in Sicily 132 
 
 Two plebeian consuls chosen . . . . , , 
 
 The Jugurthine war 112-106 
 
 The Mithridatic war (ri-liich see) . . . 108-63 
 The Ambrones defeated by Marius . . . 102 
 
 The Social war 90-88 
 
 Rome besieged by four armies (viz. : those of 
 
 Marius, Cinna, Carbo, and Sertorius) and taken 87 
 
 Sylla defeats Marius 82 
 
 Bithynia bequeathed to the Romans by king 
 
 Nicomedes 74 
 
 Revolt of Spartacus and the slaves . . 73-71 
 Syria conquered by Pompey .... 65 
 The Catiline conspiracy suppressed by Cicero . 63 
 
 The first triumvirate : Cajsar, Pompey, and 
 Crassus B.C. 
 
 Caisar's campaigns in Gaul, 58 ; in Britain . 
 
 Crassus killed by the Parthians . . . . 
 
 Gaul conquered and made a province 
 
 War between Cassar and Pompey . . . . 
 
 Battle of Pbarsalia (ichick see) .... 
 
 Cajsar defeats Pharnaces at Zela ; and writes 
 home " Veni, vidi, vici" 
 
 Cato kills himself at Utica ..... 
 
 Cajsar killed in the Senate-house . . Mar. 15 
 
 Second triumvirate : Octavius, Antony, and 
 Lepidus ........ 
 
 Cicero killed, proscribed by Antony . 
 
 Battle of Philippi (which see) 
 
 Lepidus ejected from the triumvirate; war be- 
 tween Octavius and Antony, 32 ; Antony de- 
 feated totally at Actium . . . Sept. 2, 
 
 Octavius becomes emperor, and assumes the 
 title of Augustus 
 
 The empire now at peace with all the world ; 
 the Temple of .Tanus shut ; Jesus Christ 
 born. (See Jews) .... April 4, 
 
 47 
 46 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 Ovid banished to Tomi . . . . a.d. 
 
 Death of Ovid and Livy 
 
 Tiberius retires to Caprea ; tyranny of Sejanus 
 A census being taken by Claudius, the emperor 
 
 and censor, the inhabitants of Rome are stated 
 
 to amount to 6,944,000. — [It is now considered 
 
 that the population of Rome within the walls 
 
 was under a million.] 
 
 Caractacus brought in chains to Rome . . . 
 
 St. Paul arrives in bonds at Rome 
 
 Nero burns Rome to the ground, and charges 
 
 the crime upon the Christians . ... 
 Seneca, Lucan, &c., put to death 
 Peter and Paul said to be put to death . . . 
 Jerusalem levelled to the ground by Titus, 
 
 Sept. 8, 
 
 Coliseum founded 
 
 The Dacian war (continues 15 years) . 
 
 Phny junior, proconsul in Bithynia, sends 
 
 Trajan his celebrated account of the Christians 
 Trajan's expedition into the East against the 
 
 Parthians, &c. ; subdues Dacia . . . . 
 Trajan's column erected at Rome 
 Adrian resides in Britain, and builds the wall . 
 The Capitol destroyed by lightning . , . 
 Byzantium taken ; its walls razed 
 
 The Goths are paid tribute 
 
 [The Goths, Vandals, Alani, Suevi, and other 
 
 Northern nations attack the empire.] 
 Pompey's amphitheatre burnt . . . . 
 Invasion of the Goths . . . . • 
 Pestilence throughout the empire.' . . . 
 Great victory over the Goths obtained by 
 Claudius ; 300,000 slain .... 
 Dacia relinquished to the Goths . . ' . 
 Palmyra conquered, and Longinus put to death 
 The era of Martyrs, or of Diocletian . . . 
 The Franks .settle in Gaul. Fr^ret . 
 
 Constantius dies at York 
 
 Four emperors reign at one time 
 
 Constantine the Great, it is said, in consequence 
 
 of a vision, places the Cross on his banners, 
 
 and begins to favour the Christians 
 Constantme defeats Lieinius, at Chrysopolis, 
 
 and reigns alone .... Sept. 18, 
 He tolerates the Christian faith . . . . 
 Puts his son Crispus to death .... 
 Consfcmtine convokes the first general council 
 
 of Christians at Nice 
 
 The seat of empire removed from Rome to 
 
 Byzantium, 328 ; dedicated to Constantine . 
 Constant ine orders the heathen temples to be 
 
 destroyed 
 
 Revolt of 300,000 Sarmatian slaves suppressed . 
 Death of Constantine, soon after being baptized 
 
 9 
 18 
 26 
 
 51 
 62 
 
 64 
 65 
 67 
 
 70 
 75 
 86 
 
 106 
 114 
 
 121 
 188 
 196 
 222 
 
 248 
 250 
 252 
 
 269 
 270 
 273 
 284 
 287 
 306 
 308 
 
 31? 
 
 324 
 
 325 
 330 
 
 33 
 337 
 
ROM 
 
 627 
 
 EOM 
 
 ROME, continued. 
 
 The army under Julian proclaims him emperor 360 
 Julian, who had been educated for the priest- 
 hood, and had frequently oflBciated, abjures 
 Christianity, and re-opens the heathen 
 temples, becoming the pagan pontiff . . 361 
 Julian killed in battle ; Christianity restored by 
 
 Jovian 363 
 
 The empire divided into Eastern and Western 
 by Valentinian and Valens, brothers : the 
 former has the Western portion, or Rome . 364 
 (See Western 3.nd Eastern Empires ; imd Italij.) 
 Rome placed under the exarchate of Ravenna . 404 
 
 Taken by Alaric 410 
 
 Taken and piUaged by Genseric . . June, 455 
 Odoacer takes Rome, and becomes king of Italy 476 
 Rome recovered for Justinian by Belisarius . 536 
 Retaken by the Goths, 546 ; recovered by Beli- 
 sarius, 547 ; seized by Totila, 549 ; recovered 
 by Narses, and annexed to the eastern empire 553 
 Rome independent underthe popes, about . 728 
 Pepin of France compels Astolphus,king of the 
 Lombards, to cede Ravenna and other places 
 
 to the Holy Church 755 
 
 Confirmed and added to by Charlemagne . . 774 
 Charlemagne crowned emperor of the "West by 
 
 the pope at Rome .... Dec. 25, 800 
 The emperor Henry IV. takes Rome . March, 1084 
 Arnold of Brescia, endeavouring to reform, 
 chiirch and state and to establish a senate, is 
 
 put to death as a heretic 1155 
 
 The pope removes to Avignon . . . . 1309 
 Nicola di Rienzi, as tribune of the people, 
 establishes a republic, but is compelled to 
 abdicate, 1347 ; returning, is assassinated, 
 
 Sept. 8, 1354 
 Papal court returns to Rome .... 1371 
 Rise of the families, Colonna, Orsini, (Sic, about 1377 
 Julius II. conquers the Romagna, Bologna, and 
 
 Perugia 1503-13 
 
 The city greatly embellished by Pope Leo X. 15 13-21 
 It is captured by the constable de Bourbon, 
 who is slain . . • . . . June 6, 1527 
 
 Ferrara annexed 1597 
 
 Harassed by the French, German, and Spanish 
 
 factions frona the i6th to the i8th century. 
 The French invasion ; the Legations incorpo- 
 rated with the Cisalpine republic . . . 1796 
 The French proclaim a Roman republic, Mar. 20, 1798 
 Recovered for the pope by the Neapolitans . 1799 
 
 Retaken by the French 1800 
 
 Restored to pope Pius VII 1801 
 
 Annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy, 
 
 and declared second city of the empire . . 1808 
 Restored to the pope, who returns . Jan. 1814 
 He re-establishes the Inquisition and the 
 
 Jesuits Aug. „ 
 
 The papal government endeavour to annul all 
 innovations, and thus provoke much opposi- 
 tion; the Carbonari increase in numbers . 1815-17 
 Political assassinations in the Romagna . . 1817 
 The " Young Italy " party estabhshed by 
 Joseph Mazzini ; temporary insurrections at 
 Bologna suppressed by Austrian aid . .1831 
 Election of Pius IX. June 16, 1846, who pro- 
 claims an amnesty ; and authorises a na- 
 tional guard and municipal institutions . 1847 
 The Romans desire to join the king of Sardinia 
 against the Austrians ; the pope hesitates ; 
 the AntoneUi ministry retires : and the Ma- 
 miani ministry is formed .... 1848 
 Count Rossi, rainister of justice of the pontifical 
 government, assassinated on the staircase of 
 the Chamber of Deputies at Rome . Nov. 15, „ 
 Insurrection at Rome, the populace demand a 
 democratic ministry and the proclamation of 
 Italian nationality ; the pope (Pius IX.) hesi- 
 tates, the Romans suiTound the palace, and a 
 conflict ensues. The pope accepts a popvdar 
 ministry ...... Nov. i6j ,, 
 
 [Cardinal Palma, the pope's secretary, was shot 
 in this conflict.] 
 
 A free constitution published . . Nov. 20, 
 
 The pope escapes in disguise from Rome to 
 Gaeta Nov. 24, 
 
 M. de Corcelles leaves Paris for Rome, a French 
 armed expedition to Civita Veochia having 
 preceded him, to afford protection to the 
 pope Nov. 27, 
 
 Protest of the pope against the acts of the pro- 
 visional government .... Nov. 28, 
 
 A constituent assembly meets at Rome, Feb, 5, 
 
 The Roman National Assembly divests the pope 
 of all temporal power, and adopts the repub- 
 lican form of government . . . Feb. 8, 
 
 The pope appeals to the great Roman Cathohc 
 powers Feb. 18, 
 
 Civita Vecchia occupied by [the French force 
 under Marshal Oudinot . " . . April 26, 
 
 A French force repulsed from'Rome with loss, 
 
 April 30, 
 
 Engagement between the Romans and Neapoli- 
 tans ; the former capture 60 prisoners and 
 400 muskets May 3, 
 
 The French under marshal Oudinot commence 
 an attack on Rome .... June 3, 
 
 After a brave resistance the Romans capitulate 
 to the French army .... June 30, 
 
 The Roman assembly dissolved . . July 4, 
 
 An oflScer from Oudinot's camp arrives at 
 Gaeta, to present the pope with the keys of 
 the two gates of Rome by which the French 
 army had entered the city . . . July 4 
 
 The re-establishment of the pope's authority 
 proclaimed at Rome .... July 15, 
 
 Oudinot issues a general order stating that the 
 pope (or his representative) now re-possesses 
 the administration of affairs, but that public 
 security in the pontifical dominions still 
 remains under the special guarantee of the 
 French army Aug. 3, 
 
 The pope arrives at Portici .on a visit to the 
 king of Naples Sept. 4, 
 
 He arrives at Rome ; cardinal Antonelli be- 
 comes foreign minister .... April, 
 
 He issues the bull establishing a Roman 
 CathoUc hierarchy in England (see Papal 
 Aggression) Sept. 24, 
 
 Important concordat with Austria . . Aug. 
 
 The pope visits his dominions . . June, 
 
 Insurrection in the Romagna, at Bologna, and 
 Ferrara June, 
 
 They declare for adhesion to Piedmont, Sept. 
 
 Accept Buoncompagni as governor-general, 
 
 Nov. 
 
 The pope appeals to Europe for help against 
 Sardinia July 12, 
 
 The Legations form a defensive alliance with 
 Tuscany, Pai-ma, and Modena . . Aug. 20, 
 
 The queen of Spain engages to send troops to 
 Rome, if the French retire . . Aug. 26, 
 
 The assembly at Bologna vote annexation to 
 Piedmont, Sept. 7 ; the king engages to sup- 
 port their cause before the great powers, 
 Sept. 15 ; the pope annuls the acts of the 
 assembly at Bologna; and denounces the 
 punishment due to those who attack the 
 holy see, Sept. 26; and dismisses the Sar- 
 dinian charge d'affaires at Rome . Oct. i, 
 
 The Romagna, Modena, and Parma formed into 
 a province, to be called jEmiha . Dec. 24, 
 
 The Sardinian government annul the Tuscan 
 
 concordat, Jan. 27 ; and the Lombard one, 
 
 March 20, 
 
 Riots at Rome suppressed by the police with 
 great cruelty .... March 19, 
 
 The pope excommunicates aU concerned in the 
 rebellion in his states . . March 26, 
 
 General Lamoricifere takes command of papal 
 
 s s 2 
 
 185s 
 1857 
 
EOM 
 
 628 
 
 EOM 
 
 ROME, continued. 
 
 army, March ; which is reorganised, and in- 
 creased by volunteers from Ireland, &c., May, 
 
 Irish volunteers are severely treated for insub- 
 ordination ; many dismissed . . July, 
 
 The papal army estimated at 20,000 . Aug. 
 
 Tuscan volunteers enter the papal states and 
 are repulsed May 19, 
 
 Insurrection in the Marches, Sept. 8 ; Fossem- 
 brone subdued by the papal troops ; the 
 people appeal to the Sardinian government, 
 vphose troops, under Cialdini and Fanti, 
 enter the Papal States . . . Sept. 11, 
 
 Fanti takes Pesaro, Sept. 12 ; and Perugia, in- 
 cluding general Schmidt and 1600 prisoners, 
 Sept. 14, 
 
 Ancona besieged by sea and land . Sept. 17, 
 
 Severe allocution of the pojse against France 
 
 and Sardinia ; he appeals to Europe for help, 
 
 Sept. 28, 
 
 Cialdini defeats Lamoricifere at Castel-Fidai-do, 
 Sept. 18 ; and takes Ancona . . Sept. 29, 
 
 Additional French troops sent to Rome . Oct. 
 
 The Marches vote for annexation to Sardinia, 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Monastic establishments suppressed in the 
 Legations ; the monks pensioned ; educa- 
 tional institutions founded . . Dec. 
 
 Subscriptions raised for the pope in various 
 countries ; the formal collection forbidden in 
 France and Belgium ; permitted in England, 
 
 Nov. 
 
 The French emperor advises the pope to give 
 up his revolted provinces . . . Dec. 21, 
 
 Publication of Rome tt Us Eveques, Jan. 6 ; and 
 of Za France, Rome et Vltalie, Feb. 15 ; great 
 excitement, and strong advocacy of the pope's 
 temporal government (attacked by prince 
 Napoleon) in the French chambers . March, 
 
 Petition to the emperor Napoleon to withdraw 
 French troops from Rome, signed by num- 
 bers of the Romans .... May 10, 1861 
 
 The emperor of France declines a union with 
 Austria and Spain for the maintenance of the 
 pope's temporal power . . . J\ine, ,, 
 
 Grand ceremony at the canonization of 27 
 Japanese martyrs (see Canonization) . June 8, „ 
 
 The pope declares a severe allocution against 
 the Italians June 9, „ 
 
 Garibaldi calls for volunteers, taking as his 
 watchword, " Rome or death ! " . July ig, 1862 
 
 Railway between Rome and Naples completed ; 
 its opening opposed by the papal government, 
 
 Nov. ,, 
 
 Earl Russell's offer to the pope of a residence at 
 Malta, Oct. 25; declined . . . Nov. 11, ,, 
 
 Antonelli's resignation of his office not ac- 
 cepted March 5, 1863 
 
 Convention between Prance and Italy : French 
 troops to quit Rome within two years, 
 
 Sept. 15, 1864 
 
 Encyclical letter of the pope, censuring 80 er- 
 rors in religion, philosophy, and politics 
 (caused much dissatisfaction, and was for- 
 bidden to be read in churches in France and 
 other counti-ies) Dec. 8, ,, 
 
 Jews persecuted at Rome .... Dec. „ 
 
 Fruitless negotiations between the pope and 
 the king of Italy (by Vegezzi) ; mutual con- 
 cessions proposed . April 21 to June 23, 1865 
 
 Pope's severe allocution against secret societies 
 (Freemasons, Fenians, &c.) . . Sept. 25, „ 
 
 Merode, the papal minister of war, dismissed, 
 
 Oct. 20, ,, 
 
 A part of the French troops leave the papal 
 
 dominions . Nov. „ 
 
 See Italy , and France, 1862-5. 
 
 KINGS OF ROME. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 735. Romulus ; murdered by the senators. 
 
 [Tatius, king of the Sabines, had removed to 
 Rome in 747, and ruled jointly with Romulus 
 six years.] 
 
 716. [Interregnum.] 
 
 715. Numa Pompilius, son-in-law of Tatius the Sa- 
 bine, elected ; died at the age of 82. 
 
 672. TuUus Hostilius ; murdered by his successor, 
 by whom his palace was set on fire ; his 
 family perished in the flames. 
 
 640. Ancus Martius, grandson of Numa. 
 
 616. Tarquinius Prisons ; son of Demaratus, a 
 Corinthian emigrant, chosen king. 
 
 578. Servius Tullius ; a manumitted slave ; married 
 the king's daughter ; and succeeded by the 
 united suffrages of the amiy and the people. 
 
 534. Tarquinius Superbus, grandson of Tarquinius 
 Priscus ; assassinates his father-in-law, and 
 usurps the throne. 
 
 510. [The rape of Lucretia, by Sextus,'son of Tar- 
 quin, and consequent insuiTection, leads to 
 the abolition of royalty and the establish- 
 ment of the constilate.] 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 510-82. First period. From the expulsion of Tarquin 
 to the dictatorship of Sylla. 
 
 82-27. Second period. From Sylla to Augu8tus. 
 
 EMPERORS OF ROME. 
 
 " BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 48. Caius Julius Cajsar ; perpetual dictator ; assas- 
 sinated, March 15, 44 B.C. 
 
 31. Octavianus C?esar ; intheyear27 B.C. Adoustus 
 Imperator. Livy. 
 
 AFTER CHRIST. 
 
 14. Tiberius (Claudius Nero). 
 
 37. Caius Caligula ; murdered by a tribune. 
 
 41. Claudius I. (Tiber. Drusus); poisoned by his 
 
 wife Agrippina, to make way for 
 54. Claudius Nero ; deposed ; kiUs himself^ 68. 
 68. Servius Sulpicius Galba ; slain by the prselo- 
 
 riaus. 
 
 69. M. Salvius Otho ; stabbed himself. 
 ,, Aiilus Vitellius; deposed by Vespasian, and put 
 
 to death. 
 ,, Titus Flavins Vespasian. 
 79. Titus (Vespasian), his son. 
 81. Titus Flavius Domitian, brother of Titus ; last 
 
 of the twelve Caesars ; assassinated. 
 96. Cocceius Nerva. 
 98. Trajan (M. Ulpius Crinitus). 
 117. Adrian or Hadrian (PubUus JEUus). 
 138. Antoninus Titus, sumamed Pius. 
 161. Marcus Aurelius (a philosopher) and Lucius 
 Verus, his son-in-law ; the latter died^in 169. 
 I So. Commodus (L. Aurelius Antoninus), son of 
 
ROM 
 
 629 
 
 ROS 
 
 ROME, continued. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius ; poisoned by tis favourite 
 
 mistress, Martia. 
 193. Publius-Helvius-Pertinax ; put to death, by tbe 
 
 pi'cetorian band. 
 [Four emperors now start up : Didianus Juli- 
 
 auus, at Rome ; Pesoennius Niger, in Syria ; 
 
 Lucius Septimius Severus, in Pannonia ; 
 
 and Clodius Albinus, in Britain.] 
 ,, Lucius Septimius Severus ; died at York in 
 
 Britain, in 211 ; succeeded by his sons, 
 211. M. Aurelius Caracalla and Septimius Geta. Geta 
 
 murdered the same year by bis brother, 
 
 who reigned alone till 217, when he was 
 
 slain by his successor, 
 
 217. M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of the guards; 
 
 beheaded in a mutiny. 
 
 218. Heliogabalus (M. Aurelius Antoninus), a youth ; 
 
 put to death for enormities. 
 222. Alexander Severus ; assassinated by some 
 
 soldiers corrupted by Maximinus. 
 235. Caius Julius Verus Maximinus ; assassinated 
 
 in his tent before the walls of Aquileia. 
 
 237. M. Antonius Gordianus, and his son ; the latter 
 
 having been killed in a battle with the par- 
 tisans of Maximinus, the father strangled 
 himself in a fit of despair, at Carthage, in 
 his 80th year. 
 
 238. Balbinus and Pupienus ; put to death. 
 
 „ Gordian, junior, grandson of the elder Gordian, 
 • in his i6th year ; assassinated by the guards, 
 at the instigation of his successor, 
 
 244. PhiliiJ the Arabian ; assassinated by his own 
 soldiers; his son Philip was murdered, at 
 the same timie, in his mother's arms. 
 
 249. Metius Decius ; he perished with his two sons, 
 and their army, in an engagement with the 
 Goths. 
 
 251. Gallus HostUius,' and his son Volusianus ; both 
 slain by the soldiery. 
 
 253. jEmilianus ; put to death after a reign of only 
 four months. 
 
 253. Valerianus, and his son Gallienus ; the first was 
 taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and 
 flayed aUve. 
 
 260. Gallienus reigned alone. 
 
 [About this time thirty pretenders to imperial 
 power start up in different parts of the em- 
 pire ; of these, Cyriades is the first, but he 
 is slain.] 
 
 268. Claudius II. (Gallienus having been assassinated 
 by the officers of the guard) succeeds ; dies 
 of the plague. 
 
 270. Quintillus, his brother, elected at Rome by the 
 senate and troops ; Aurelian by the army in 
 lUyricum. Quintillus, despairing of success 
 against his rival, who was marching against 
 him, opened his veins and bled himself to 
 death. 
 
 270. Aurelian ; assassinated by his soldiers on his 
 march against Persia, in Jan. 275. 
 
 275. [Interregnum of about nine months.] 
 
 ,, Tacitus, elected Oct. 25; died at Tarsus in 
 CiUcia, April 13, 276. 
 
 276. Florian, his brother ; his title not recognised 
 
 by the senate. 
 276. M. Aurelius Probus ; assassinated by his troops 
 at Sirmium. 
 
 282. M. Aurelius Carus ; killed at Ctesiphon by 
 
 lightning ; succeeded by his sons, 
 
 283. Carinus and Numerianus ; both assassinated, 
 
 after transient reigns. 
 
 284. Diocletian ; who associated as his colleague in 
 
 the government, 
 286. Maximianus Hercules ; the two emperors resign 
 in favour of 
 
 305. Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Maximianus ; 
 
 the first died at York, in Britain, in 306, and 
 the troops saluted as emperor, his son, 
 
 306. Constantine, afterwards styled the Great : 
 
 whilst at Rome the praetorian band pro- 
 claimed 
 
 ,, Maxentius, son of Maximianus Hercules. 
 Besides these were, 
 
 ,, Maximianus Hercules, who endeavoured to re- 
 cover his abdicated power, 
 
 „ Plavius Valerius Severus, murdered by the last 
 named pretender ; and 
 
 307. Flavins Valerianus Licinius, the brother-in-law 
 
 of Constantine. 
 [Of these, Maximianus Hercules was strangle* 
 in Gaul, in 310 ; Galerius Maximianus died 
 wretchedly in 311 ; Maxentius was drowned 
 in the Tiber in 312 ; and Licinius was put to 
 death by order of Constantine in 324.] 
 323. Constantine the Great now reigned alone ; died 
 on Whitsunday, May 22, 337. 
 
 ^Sons of Constantine ; di- 
 vided the empire between 
 ( Constantine II. them ; the first was slain 
 237. -J Constans, -■{ in 340, and the second 
 ( Constantius II. murdered in 350, when 
 the third became sole 
 l^ emperor. 
 Julian, the Apostate, so called for abjuring 
 Christianity, having been educated for the 
 priesthood ; mortally wounded in a battle 
 with the Persians, 636. 
 Jovian ; reigned 8 months ; found dead in his 
 bed, supposed to have died from the fumes 
 of charcoal. 
 Valentinian and Valens. 
 Valens with Gratian and Valentinian II. 
 Theodosius I., <Sic. 
 Theodosius alone. 
 
 The Roman empire divided. See Eastern 
 Empire, Western Empire, and Popes. 
 
 361. 
 
 RONCESVALLES (in the Pyrenees), where, it is said, Charlemagne's paladin, Roland, 
 or Orlando, was surprised, defeated, and slain, 778. On July 25, 1813, marshal Soult was 
 defeated by the British entering France. 
 
 ROOF. The largest in the world is said to be that over a riding-school at Moscow, 
 erected in 1791, being 235 feet in span. The proposed width of the roof of the Londoa 
 station of the Midland railway is 240 feet (1866). 
 
 ROPE -MAKING MACHINE. One was patented by Richard March in 1784, and by 
 Edmd. Cartwright, in 1 792. Many improvements have been made since. 
 
 ROSAMOND'S BOWER. Rosamond was daughter of lord Clifford, and mistress of 
 Henry II. about 1154. A conspiracy was formed by the queen, prince Henry, and his other 
 sons, against the king, on account of his attachment to her. Henry kept her in a labyi'inth. ■ 
 at Woodstock, where his queen, Eleanor, it is said, discovered her apartments by the clue 
 of a silk thread, and poisoned her. She was buried at Godstow chui-ch, from whence Hughj 
 bishop of Lincoliij had her ashes removed, 1191. 
 
EOS 630 EOT 
 
 ROSAEY. See Beads. 
 
 EOSAS (N. E. Spain), Bay of, wliere a brilliant naval action was fought by the boats 
 of the Cumberland, Volontaire, Apollo, Topaze, Philomel, Scout, and Tuscan, commanded by 
 lieut. Tailour, -which ended in the capture or destruction of eleven armed vessels in the bay, 
 Nov. I, 1809. 
 
 EOSBACH (Eosebec), in Flanders. Here Charles VI. of France beat the Flemings, who 
 had revolted against their count, 1382. At Eosbach, in Prussia, a great battle was fought 
 between the Prussians, commanded by Frederick the Great, and the combined army of 
 French and Austrians, in which the latter sustained a complete defeat and severe loss, 
 Nov. 5, 1757. 
 
 EOSE.* See under Flowers. 
 
 EOSES, Wars of the, between the Lancastrians (who chose the red rose as their 
 emblem), and the Yorkists (who chose the white rose), began 1455 ^^^^ ended 1485. t It is 
 stated, that in the Wars of the Eoses there perished 12 princes of the blood, 200 nobles, and 
 100,000 gentry and common people. The union of the roses was effected in the marriage of 
 Henry VII. with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., i486. 
 
 EOSETTA (in Egypt), taken by the French in 1798;+ and by the" British and Turks, 
 April 19, 1801. The Turks repulsed the British here. May 21, 1807. Near Eosetta, at the 
 anouth of the Nile, was fought the memorable battle of Aug. i, 1798, between the fleets of 
 France and England, the latter commanded by Nelson. See Nile. All Pacha rendered great 
 service to his country by constructing a canal between Eosetta and Alexandria. 
 
 EOSICEUCIANS, a sect of mystical philosophers, who first appeared in Germany in the 
 14th century, and again early in the 17th century. They derived their name from the Con- 
 /essce i?oseos Cruci's of Valentine Andreas, 1615. They swore fidelity, promised secrecy, and 
 wrote hieroglyphically, and affirmed that the ancient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, 
 Magi of Persia, and Gjmmosophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine. 
 
 EOSS, Cork (S. Ireland), a bishopric founded, it is supposed, by St. Fachnan, in the 
 beginning of the 6th century. It was united to Cork in 1340 ; and Cloyne to both, by the 
 Irish Church Temporalities act (1833). See Bishops; New Ross. 
 
 EOTA CLUB. A society who met at Miles's Coffee-house in New Palace-yard, West- 
 minster, during the administration of Oliver Cromwell : their plan was that all the great 
 officers of state should be chosen by ballot : and that a certain number of members of parlia- 
 ment should be changed annually by rotation, from whence they took their title. Sir William 
 Petty was one of the members in 1659. Biog. Brit. 
 
 EOTHESAY CASTLE. See Wrecks, 183 1. 
 
 EOTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Amschel, or Anselm, was born at No. 148, Jiiden- 
 gasse (Jew-lane), Frankfort, in 1743. In 1772 he began business as a money-lender and 
 dealer in old coins, in the same house, over whicli he placed the sign of the Eed Shield (in 
 German, Eoth Schild). Having had dealings with the landgi'ave of Hesse, that prince 
 entrusted him with his treasure (said to have been 250,000?.) in 1806, when the French held 
 
 * The rose, a symbol of silence, gave rise to the phrase sub rosd, " under the rose ;" said, by Italian 
 •writers, to have risen from the circumstance of the pope's presenting consecrated roses, which were 
 placed over the confessionals at Kome, to denote secrecy, 1526. 
 
 t Richard II., who succeeded his grandfather Edward III. in 1377, was deposed and succeeded in 1399 
 by his cousin Henry IV. (son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, the fouith son of Edward III.), in 
 prejudice to the right of Roger Mortimer (grandson of Lionel, duke of Clarence, Edward's third son), who 
 was declared presumptive heir to the throne in 1385. Rogei's grandson, Richard duke of York, first 
 openly claimed the crown in 1449. Attempts at compromise failed, .and the war began in 1455. The 
 Lancastrians were defeated at St. Albans, May 23, i4,ss- The protector Somerset was sl.ain ; a truce was 
 made, and Richard became his successor. The war was renewed, and the Yorkists defeated the Lancas- 
 trians at Blureheath, Sept. 23, 1459 ; but eventually dispersed, and the duke was attainted. In 1460, he 
 defeated his opponents at Northampton, took Henry prisoner, and was declared heir to the crown ; but 
 fell into an ambuscade near Wakefield, and was put to death, Dec, 31, 1460. His son (Edward) continued 
 the struggle. He was installed as king, March 4, 1461 ; defeated the Lancastrians at Towton, March 29 ; 
 was deposed by Warwick, who restored Henry YI. , Sept. 1470 ; defeated the Lascastrians at Barnet, April 
 14, 1471 ; and finally at Tewkesbury, May 4. The struggle ended with the defeat and death of Richard HI. 
 at Bosworth, Aug. 22, 1485. 
 
 J The Rosetla Stone, discovered by the French in 1799, was brought from Rosetta in a French vessel, 
 from wLenceit was taken by Mr. Wm. R. Hamilton, who depo.'^ited it in the British Museum. In 1841, Mr. 
 Letronne published the text and a translation of the Greek inscription. It is a piece of black basalt, about 
 3 feet long, and 2J leet wide, with an inscription in three languages, viz. hieroglyphics, modified 
 hieroglyphics (enchorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of Ptolemy Epiphaues (about 194 B.C.). It 
 has been investigated by Dr. T. Young and ChampoUion. 
 
ROT 631 EOY 
 
 his country. With this sum as capital, Anselm traded and made a large fortune, and restored 
 the 250,000?. to the landgrave in 181 5. At his death his sons continued the business as 
 partners. His son, Nathan, began at Manchester in 1798, removed to London in 1803 ; and 
 died immensely rich, July 28, 1836, 
 
 EOTTERDAM, the second city in Holland. Its importance dates from the 13th century. 
 The commerce of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1509. It suffered much from the French 
 revolutionary wars, and from inundations in 1775 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus was born 
 here in 1467. The museum and picture-gallery of Rotterdam were destroyed at the fire of 
 the Schieland palace, Feb. 16, 1864. 
 
 ROUElSr (K France), an archbishopric, 260, became the capital of Normandy in the loth 
 century. It was held by the English king till 1204 ; and was retaken by Henry V., Jan. 19, 
 1419. Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, was burnt here, May 30, 143 1. It was subdued by 
 the king of France in 1449 ; and was besieged 1562 and 1591. 
 
 ROUMANIA, the name assumed by the Danubian principalities on Dec. 23, 1861, when 
 their imiou was proclaimedat Bucharest and Jassy. 
 
 ROUND -HEADS. In the civil war which began in 1641, the adherents of Charles I, 
 were called Cavaliers, and the friends of the parliament were Round-heads. The term, it is 
 said, arose from those persons who distinguished themselves by having a round bowl or 
 wooden dish put upon their heads, and their hair cut by the edges or brim of the bowl. See 
 
 Cavaliers . 
 
 ROUNDWAY DOWN, near Devizes, Wiltshire. Here the royalists defeated the parlia- 
 mentarians with great slaughter, July 13, 1643. 
 
 ROXBURGHE CLUB was instituted in 1812 by earl Spencer, and a number of gentle- 
 men, for the republication of rare books, or hitherto unpublished MSS. 
 
 ROYAL ACADEMY. A society of artists met in St. Peter's- court, St. Martin's-lane, 
 about 1739, which Hogai-th established as the society of Incorporated Artists, who held their 
 first exhibition at the Society of Arts, Adelphi, April 21, 1760. From this sprang the Royal 
 Academy, in consequence of a dispute between the directors and the fellows. On Dec. 10, 
 1 768, the institution of the present Royal Academy was completed under the patronage of 
 George III. ; and su' Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was appointed its first 
 president. Leigh. The first exhibition of the Academicians (at Pall-Mali) was in 1769, 
 In 1 77 1 the king granted them apartments in old Somerset-house, and afterwards, in 1780, 
 in new Somerset-house, where they remained till 1838, when they removed to the National 
 Gallery. Among its professors have been Johnson, Gibbon, Goldsmith, Macanlay, and 
 Hallam. Turner, the painter, gave funds to the academy for the award of a medal trienniaUy 
 for landscape painting, which was awarded to Mr. N. 0. Lupton in 1857. A commission pf 
 inquiry into the affairs of the academy, appointed in 1862, recommended various changes in 
 July, 1863. 
 
 PEESIDENTS. 
 
 1768. Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
 1792. Benjamin West. 
 
 1820. Sir Thomas Lawrence. 
 
 1830. Sir Martin A. Shee. 
 
 1850. Sir Charles Eastlake, died Dec. 23, 1865. 
 
 ROYAL ACADEMY of MUSIC was established in 1823, mainly by the exertions of lord 
 Burghersh (afterwards earl of Westmoreland, who died Oct. 16, 1859), and was incorporated 
 by charter in 1830. The first concert took place Dec. 8, 1828. Its re-construction is 
 proposed (1866). 
 
 ROYAL ADELAIDE and EOYAL CHARTER. See WrecJcs, 1850, 1859. 
 
 ROYAL ASSENT. If the king assent to a public bill, the clerk of the parliament 
 declares the Norman French, '^Leroy le veiot," the king wiUs it so to be. If the king 
 refuses his assent, it is in the gentle language of "is ro2j s'avisera," the king will advise 
 upon it. This is the language usually adopted to the present day. Sale. By the statute 
 33 Hen. VIII. 1 541, the king may give his assent by letters-patent. BlacJcstone's Com. 
 
 ROYAL EXCHANGE (Cambium Regis), London. The foundation of the original 
 edifice was laid by sir Thomas Gresham, June 7, 1566, on the site of the ancient Tun prison. 
 Queen Elizabeth opened it in Jan. 23, 1571, and her herald named it the Royal Exchange. 
 H%ome. It was totally destroyed by the great fire, Sept. 1666. Charles II. laid the foun- 
 dation-stone of the next edifice, Oct. 23, 1667, which was completed by Mr. Hawkesmore, a 
 pupil of sir Christopher Wren's, in about three years ; it was repaired and beautified in 1769. 
 This also was burnt, Jan. 10, 1838, with a number of public ofifices, &c. The new Royal 
 Exchange, commenced in 1842 under the direction of, Mr, Tite, was opened by the queen. 
 
EOY 
 
 632 
 
 ROY 
 
 Oct. 28, 1844. — The Royal Exchange, Dublin, was commenced in 1769, and opened 
 in 1779. 
 
 ROYAL GEORGE, a first-rate man-of-war of 100 guns, overset off Sjdthead, and 
 suddenly went down while at anchor, by the guns rolling to one side. Rear-admiral Kem- 
 penfeldt, the crew, many marines, women, and Jews, in all about 600 persons, were drowned, 
 Aug. 29, 1782.* 
 
 ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY (London). See Humane Society. 
 
 ROYAL INSTITUTIOISr of Great Britain, the earliest of the kind in London, was 
 founded March, 1799, by count Rumford and sir Joseph Banks, assisted by earls Spencer and 
 Morton, and other noblemen and gentlemen. It received the immediate patronage of 
 George III. and was incorporated, Jan. 13, 1800, by royal charter, as "The Royal Institution 
 of Great Britain, for the diffusing knowledge, and facilitating the general introduction of 
 useful mechanical inventions and improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical 
 lectures and experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life." It was 
 enlarged and extended by an act of parliament in 1810 ; the original plan, as drawn up by 
 count Eumford, in 1799, having been considerably modified, t 
 
 The House (in Albemarle-street, Piccadilly) was 
 purchased in June, 1799; and the present front 
 was added by subscription in 1838. The Lecture 
 theatre was erected in 1803, under the superin- 
 tendence of Mr. T. Webster. 
 
 The Library was commenced in 1803, by the 
 munificent subscriptions of the proprietors of the 
 institution. It now (1866) comprises about 35,000 
 volumes. Classified catalogues (by W. Harris) 
 were published in 1809 and 1821 ; a new one (by 
 B. Vincent) in 1857. 
 
 The Museum contains geological specimens collected 
 by Davy, Hatchett, WoUaston, .fee, and much of 
 the original philosophical apparatus of Cavendish, 
 Davy, and Faraday. 
 
 The first Lecture was delivered March, 4, 1801, by 
 Z>r. Garnett, he being the first professor of natural 
 philosophy and chemistry. In 1802 he was suc- 
 ceeded by Dr. Thomas Young, so celehirated for his 
 researches in optics, resultnig in the discovery of 
 the interference of light, and the establishment of 
 the theory of undulation. His "Lectures on 
 Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts," 
 first published in 1807, are still considered a text- 
 book of physical science. His works on antiqua- 
 rian literature (hieroglyphic inscriptions, kc.) are 
 also highly esteemed. In Feb. 1801, Mr. (after- 
 wards sir Humphry) Doxy was engaged as assistant 
 lecturer and director of the laboratory, and on 
 May 31, 1802, he was appointed professor of che- 
 mistry. His lectures were eminently successful, 
 and his discoveries in chemistry and electricity 
 have immortalised his name, and conferred honour 
 on the institution : by him the alkaloids, potas- 
 sium and sodium, were discovered in 1807 ; the 
 nature of chlorine was determined in i8io, and the 
 safety-lamp invented in 1815.— iriHiam. Thomas 
 Brande. succeeded sir Humphry as professor of 
 chemistry in 1813, and held that office till his 
 resignation in 1852, since which time he has 
 been elected hon. professor. From 1816 to 1850 he 
 delivered, in the laboratory of this institution, his 
 celebrated chemical lectures to students. — In 1813 
 Michael Faraday, on the recommendation of sir 
 H. Davy, was engaged as assistant in the laboratory, 
 and in 1825 as its director : in 1827 he became one 
 of the permanent lecturers of the institution. 
 In 1820 he commenced those researches in elec- 
 tricity and magnetism which form an era in the 
 history of science. In 1823-4 lie discovered the 
 condensability of chlorine and other gases ; in 1831 
 he obtained electricity from the magnet ; in 1845 
 
 he exhibited the two-fold magnetism of matter, 
 comisrehending all known substances, the magnet- 
 ism of gases, flame, <5ic. ; and in 1850 he published 
 his researches on atmospheric magnetism. — 
 John Tyndall, F.R.S., the present professor of 
 natural philosophy, first elected in July, 1853, is 
 eminent for his researches on magnetism, heat, 
 glaciers, iic, here. — Edward Frank-land, F.R.S., 
 elected professor of chemistry in 1863, is eminent 
 for his discoveries in organic chemistry. 
 
 In 1804 sir J. St. Aubyn and other gentlemen pro- 
 posed to form a School of Mines at this insti- 
 tution ; but the plan, although warmly supported 
 by the members, was withdrawn fur want of 
 encouragement by the government and by mining 
 proprietors. 
 
 The Weekly Evening Meetings, on the Fridays 
 from January to June, as now arranged, com- 
 menced in 1826. Discourses (of which abstracts 
 are printed) are given at these meetings by the 
 professors of the institution, and other eminent 
 scientific men. 
 
 Endowments. In 1833 John Fuller, esq., of Rose- 
 hill, endowed two professorships, of chemistry 
 and physiology : the former was bestowed on Mr. 
 Faraday for life ; the latter on Dr. Roget for three 
 years, to be filled up afterwards by triennial elec- 
 tion. — The Fullerian professors of physiology have 
 been R. E. Grant, T. R. Jones, W. B. Carpenter, 
 W. W. Gull, T. W. Jones, T. H. Huxley, R. Owen, 
 and J. Marshall. — In 1838 Mrs. Acton gave loooJ. 
 to be invested for paying every seven years 100 
 guineas for the best essay on the beneficence of 
 the Almighty as Ulustrated by discoveries in 
 science; which have been awarded — in 1844 to 
 Mr. G. Fownes ; in 1851 to Mr. T. Wharton Jones ; 
 in 1858 no award was made ; in 1865 to Mr. George 
 Warington. 
 
 The " Fund for the Promotion of Experimental 
 Researches" was founded on July 6, 1863, by sir 
 Heniy Holland, Professor Faraday, sir R. I. 
 Murchison, Dr. Bence Jones, and others. 
 
 The first officers were sir Joseph Banks, president, 
 till the charter was granted, afterwards the earl of 
 Winchelsea ; Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Bernard, 
 treasure)- ; rev. Dr. Samuel Glasse, secretary. The 
 duke of Northumberland, K.G., elected president 
 1842, was succeeded by sir Henry Holland, in 1865 ; 
 W. Pole, esq. , treasurer, elected 1849, was succeeded 
 by Wm. Spottiswoode, esq., in 1865 ; the rev. John 
 Barlow, secretary, elected 1842, was succeeded by 
 Henry Bence Jones, M.D., i860. 
 
 By the use of the diving-bell, the ship, imbedded in the deep, was surveyed in May 1817, et seq. 
 Portions of the vessel and its cargo were brought up in 1839-42. under the superintendence of sir Charles 
 Pasley, when gunpowder was ignited by the agency of electricity. 
 
 t The members are elected by ballot, and pay five guineas on admission, and five guineas annually, or 
 a composition of sixty guineas. 
 
EOY 
 
 633 
 
 EUM 
 
 ROYAL MAERIAGE ACT, &c. 
 and Navy. 
 
 See Marriage Act; Military and Naval Asylums; 
 
 ROYAL SOCIETY (London). In 1645 several learned men met in Londoa to discuss 
 philosophical questions and report experiments ; 1i\i& Novum Organon of Bacon, published in 
 1620, having given gi'eat impidse to such pursuits. Some of them (Drs. Wilkins, Wallis, 
 &c.), about 1648-9, removed to Oxford, and with Dr. (afterwards bishop) Seth "Ward, the 
 hon. Robert Boyle, Dr. (afterwards sir) W. Petty, and several doctors of divinity and physic, 
 frequently assembled in the apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in "Wadham college, Oxford. They 
 formed what has been called the Philosophical Society of Oxford, which only lasted till 1690. 
 The members were, about 1658, called to various parts of the kingdom, on account of their 
 respective professions ; and tlie majority coming to London, constantly attended the lectures 
 at Gresham college, and met occasionally tiU the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1659. See 
 Societies. 
 
 The society was organised in 1660, and constituted by 
 Chiarles II. a body politic and corporate, by the 
 appellation of "the President, Council, and Fel- 
 lows of the Eoyal Society of London, for improving 
 Natural Knowledge," April 22, 1662. 
 
 Evelyn records the first anniversary meeting, St. 
 Andrew's day, Nov. 30, 1663. 
 
 The Philosophical Transactions begin March 6, 1664-5. 
 
 In 1668, Newton invented his reflecting telescope 
 (now in the possession of the society), and on 
 April 28, 1686, presented to the society the MS. 
 of his Principia, which the council ordered to be 
 printed. This was done under the superintendence 
 and also at the expense of HaUey the astronomer, 
 at that time clerk to the society. 
 
 The society met for some years at Gresham College, 
 and afterwards at Arundel House (1666), where it 
 came into possession of a valuable library, pre- 
 sented by Mr. Howard, grandson of its collector, 
 the earl of Arundel, After various changes the 
 
 fellows returned to Gresham College, where they 
 remained till their removal to Crane-court, in a 
 house purchased by themselves, Nov. 8, i6ro. 
 
 They remove to apartments granted them in Somer- 
 set-house, 1780 ; to apartments in Burlington-house,. 
 Piccadilly, 1857. 
 
 The first Copley Medal was awarded to Stephen Gray 
 in 1 73 1 ; the Royal Medal to John Dalton, 1826 ; 
 the Rumford Medal, instituted in 1797, to count. 
 Rumford himself in 1800. 
 
 ParUament votes annually loooZ. to the Royal Society 
 for scientific purposes. 
 
 Regulations made by which fifteen fellows are to be 
 elected annually, who pay ten pounds on admis- 
 sion, and four pounds annually, or a composition 
 of sixty pounds, March, 1847. 
 
 The "Royal Society Scientific Fund " was founded 
 in imitation of the " Literary Fund " in 1859. See 
 Scientific Fund. 
 
 
 PRESIDENTS. 
 
 1695. 
 
 Chas. Montague (aftds. earl 
 
 1772. 
 
 1660. 
 
 Sir Robert Moray. 
 
 
 of Halifax). 
 
 1778. 
 
 1663. 
 
 Lord Brouncker. 
 
 169S. 
 
 John, lord Somers. 
 
 1820. 
 
 1677. 
 
 Sir Joseph Williamson. 
 
 1703- 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton. 
 
 jj 
 
 1680. 
 
 Sir Christopher Wren. 
 
 1727. 
 
 Sir Hans Sloane. 
 
 1827. 
 
 1682. 
 
 Sir John Hoskyns. 
 
 1741. 
 
 Martin Folkes. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1683. 
 
 Sir Cyril Wyche. 
 
 1752. 
 
 Geo., earl of Macclesfield. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1684. 
 
 Samuel Pepys. 
 
 1764. 
 
 James, earl of Morton. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1686. 
 
 John, earl of Carbery. 
 
 1768. 
 
 James Burrow. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1689. 
 
 Thomas, earl of Pembroke. 
 
 ,, 
 
 James West. 
 
 1858. 
 
 1690. 
 
 Sir Robert Southwell. 
 
 1772. 
 
 James Burrow. 
 
 1861. 
 
 Sir John Pringle. 
 
 Sir Joseph Banks. 
 
 Dr. W. H. Wollaston. 
 
 Sir Humphry Davy. 
 
 Davies Gilbert. 
 
 Duke of Sussex. 
 
 Marquis of Northampton, 
 
 Earl of Rosse. 
 
 Lord Wrottesley. 
 
 Sir Benjamin C. Brodie. 
 
 Major-gen. Edward Sabine. 
 
 RUBICON, a small river flowing into the Adriatic sea, separated Cisalpine Gaul front 
 Italy proper. Roman generals were forbidden to pass this river at the head of an army, 
 Julius Csesar did so, 49 B.C., and thereby began a revolt and deadly civil war. 
 
 RUBIDIUM, an alkaline metal, discovered by Bunsen by means of the spectrum analysis,, 
 and made known in 186 1. 
 
 RUGBY SCHOOL (Warwickshire), was founded in 1567 by Lawrence, sheriff, a London 
 tradesman. Dr. Thomas Arnold, the historian, entered on the duties of head-master here 
 in August, 1828, and under him the school greatly prospered. He died June 12, 1842. 
 
 RUHMKORFF'S INDUCTION COIL. See Induction. 
 
 RULING-MACHINES, used for ruling paper with faint lines, for merchants' account- 
 books, &c. They were invented by an ingenious Dutchman, resident in London, in 1782, 
 and were subsequently greatly improved by Woodmason, Payne, Brown, and others. They 
 were improved in Scotland in 1803. An invention has lately rendered account-books perfect 
 by the numbering of the pages with types, instead of the numbers being written by a pen, so 
 that a page cannot be torn out from them without being discovered. 
 
 RUM (French rhum), ardent spirit distilled from sugar lees and molasses, deriving its 
 peculiar flavour from a volatile oil. Rum is principally made in the West Indies. The duty 
 (since 1858) on colonial rum imported into the United Kingdom is 8s. 2d. per gallon, on 
 
RUM 
 
 634 
 
 RUS 
 
 foreign rum (since 1846) is 155. per gallon, 
 spirits Avas reduced in 1863. 
 
 The duty on rum to be employed as methylated 
 
 Imported. 
 1848 
 1851 . 
 
 Gallons. 
 6,858,981 
 4.745,^44 
 
 Imported. 
 
 1853 
 185s • 
 
 Gallons. 
 5,206,248 
 8,714.337 
 
 Imported. 
 
 1857 
 1863 . 
 
 Gallons. 
 6,515,683 
 7,194.739 
 
 EUMP PARLIAMENT. See Pride's Purge. 
 
 RUNNY-MEDE (council-mead), near Egham, Surrey. 
 Charta, June 15, 1215. 
 
 Here king John signed Magna 
 
 RUSSELL ADMINISTRATION'S.* See Palmerston Administration, &c. 
 
 FIRST ADMINISTRATION (foiTned On the resignation of 
 sir Robert Peel), July, 1846. 
 
 First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. 
 
 Lord chancellor, lord Cottenham (succeeded by lord 
 Truro). 
 
 lord president of the council, marquess of Lansdowne. 
 
 Privy seal. Earl of Minto. 
 
 Chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. (now Sir Charles) 
 Wood. 
 
 Foreign, home, and colonial secretaries, vicount Pal- 
 merston, sir George Grey, and earl Grey. 
 
 Boards of control and trade, sir John Hobhouse (now 
 lord Broughton), and earl of Clarendon (succeeded 
 by Mr. Labouchere). 
 
 Admiralty, the earl of Auckland (succeeded by sir 
 Francis Thornhill Baring). 
 
 Dvxhy of La'Master, lord Campbell (succeeded by the 
 earl of Carlisle, late viscount Morpeth). 
 
 Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule. 
 
 Postmaster, marquess of Clanricarde. 
 
 T. B. Macaulay, &c. 
 
 Lord John Russell and his colleagues resigned their 
 oflBces,- Feb. 21, 1851 ; but were induced (after the 
 failure of lord Stanley's party to form an adminis- 
 tration) to return to power, March 3 following : — 
 
 SECOND ADMiNiSTEATiON (or Continuation of his 
 first), March, 1851. 
 First lord, of the treasury, lord John Russell. 
 President of the Council, marquess of Lansdowne. 
 Lord privy seal. Earl of Minto. 
 Chancellor of the exchequer, sir Charles Wood. 
 Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries, sir George 
 
 Grey, viscount Palmerston (succeeded by earl 
 
 Granville, Dec. 22), and earl Grey. 
 lord chancellor, lord Tniro. 
 
 First lord of the admiralty, sir Francis T. Baring. 
 Board of control, lord Broughton. 
 Board of trade, Mr. Labouchere. 
 Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule (afterwards lord 
 
 Panmure, and now earl of Dalhousie). 
 Postmaster-general, marquess of Clanricarde. 
 Paymaster-general, earl Granville. 
 Lord Seymour, earl of Carlisle, &c. 
 
 This ministry resigned Feb. 21, 1852. See Derby 
 Administration. 
 
 THIRD ADMINISTRATION. (On the dcccase of lord Pal- 
 merston, Oct. 18, 1865, earl Russell received Her 
 Majesty's commands to reconstruct the adminis- 
 tration.) 
 
 First lord of the treasury, John, earl RusselL 
 
 Lord chancellor, Robert, lord Cranworth. 
 
 Postmaster-general, John, lord Stanley of Alderley. 
 
 President of the poor-law board, Chas. Pelham Villiers. 
 
 Lord president of the council, George, earl Granville. 
 
 Lord privy seal, George, duke of Argyll. 
 
 Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. E. Gladstone. 
 
 Secretaries— foreign affairs, George, earl of Clarendon ; 
 colonies, Edward Cardwell ; home, sir George Grej^ ; 
 war, George, earl De Grey and Bipon ; India, sir 
 Charles Wood. 
 
 First lord of the admiralty, Edward, duke of Somerset. 
 
 President of the board of trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. 
 
 Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster , George J. Goschen. 
 
 Secretary for Ireland, Chichester Fortescue. 
 
 RUSSELL INSTITUTION (Great Coram-street, London), was founded in 1808 by sir 
 Samuel Romilly, Francis Horner, Dr. Mason Good, Heniy Hallam, lord Abinger, and others. 
 The building comprises a library, lecture room, news room, &c. 
 
 RUSSELL TRIAL. William, lord Russell's trial for complicity in the Rye-house plot 
 •was marked by a most touching scene. When he supplicated to have some one near him to 
 take notes to help his memory, he was answered, that any of his attendants might assist 
 him ; upon which he said, " My wife is here, and will do it for me." He was beheaded in 
 Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, July 21, 1683, having slept soundly the night before his execution. 
 Lady Russell survived him forty years, dying Sept. 29, 1723, in her eighty-seventh year. 
 The attainder of this nobleman was reversed, i Will. III. 1689, his execution having been 
 deemed a mukdek. 
 
 RUSSIA, the eastern part of ancient Sarmatia. The name is generally derived from the 
 Roxolani, a Slavonic tribe. Rurick, a Varangian chief, appears to have been tlie first to 
 establish a government, 862. His descendants ruled amid many vicissitudes till 1598. The 
 progress of the Russian power under Peter the Great_and Catherine II. is unequalled for 
 
 * Lord John Russell, 3rd son of John, duke of Bedford, was born Aug. 19, 1792 ; M.P. for Tavistock, 
 1813 ; for London, 1841-61 ; was paymaster of the forces, 1830-34 ; secretary for home department, 1835-9 ; 
 for the colonies, 1839-41 ; first minister, July 1846 to March 1852 ; secretary for foreign affairs, Dec. 1852 
 to Feb. 1853 ; president of the council, June 1854 to Feb. 1855 ; secretary for the colonics, March to Nov. 
 1855 ;_ secretary for foreign affairs, June. 1859, to Oi't. 1865, when he succeeded Loi-d Palmerston as 
 premier; created a peer as earl Russell, July 30, 1861. Uis motion for reform in parliament was negatived 
 in 1822 ; adopted March i, 1831 ; he introduced the Registration bill, and a New Marriage bill, in 1836. 
 
RUS 
 
 635 
 
 EUS 
 
 rapidity in tlie history of the world. The established religion of Russia is the Greek church, 
 with a free toleration however of other sects, even the Mahometans. By an imperial ukase, 
 in 1802, six universities were established, viz., at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Wilna, Dorpat 
 (in Livonia), Charcov, and Kasan ; but literature has made little progress, the native publi- 
 cations being very lew, and the best books being all translations. The Russian language, 
 though not devoid of elegance, is, to a foreigner, of very difficult pronunciation : the number 
 of letters and diphthongs is forty-two. The estimated population of the empire in 1865 is 
 80,255,430. By the fii'st Russian budget (1862), the estimated revenue Avas 34,500,000^. ; 
 expenditure, 37,850,000?. 
 
 Kussia invaded by the Huns . . . a.d. 376 
 Kuric the Norman or Varangian, arrives at Nov- 
 gorod (or New City), and becomes grand duke 
 [anniversary kept Sept. 20, 1862] . . . 862 
 Oleg successfully invades the Greek empire . . 904 
 Vladimir the Great marries Anne, sister of the 
 
 emperor Basil II., and is baptized . . . 9S8 
 The Golden Horde of Tartars conquer a large 
 
 part of Russia about 1223 
 
 The grand duke Jurie killed in battle . . 1237 
 The Tartars establish the empire of the Khan of 
 Kaptschak, and exercise great influence in 
 
 Russia 1242 
 
 Alexander Newski defeats the invading Danes, 
 <&c. ......... 1244 
 
 He is made grand duke of Russia by the Tartars 1252 
 Tartar war, 1380; Moscow burnt . . . . 1383 
 
 Tamerlane, after ravaging Tartary, invades 
 
 Russia ; but retires 1395 
 
 Accession of Ivan III. the Great — able and des- 
 potic 1462 
 
 The foxindation of the present monarchy laid . ,, 
 Ivan introduces fire-arms and cannon into 
 
 Russia 1475 
 
 Great invasion of the Tartars ; consternation of 
 
 Ivan T479 
 
 His general Svenigorod attacks them and anni- 
 hilates their power 1481 
 
 Ivan takes the title of czar 1482 
 
 Accession of Ivan IV. , a cruel tyrant . . 1533 
 
 The English " Russian company " established . 1553 
 Richard Chancellor sent to open the trade . .1554 
 
 Discovery of Siberia ,, 
 
 The royal bodyguard (the Strelitz) established . 1568 
 Ivan solicits the hand of queen Elizabeth of 
 
 England 1570 
 
 The race of Ruric, who had governed Russia 
 
 for 700 years, becomes extinct . . . . 1598 
 The imposition of Demeti'ius (see Impostors) . 1606 
 Michael Fedorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, 
 
 ascends the throne 161 3 
 
 Finland ceded to Sweden 1617 
 
 Russian victories in Poland .... 1654 
 
 First Russian vessel built 1667 
 
 Subjugation of the Cossacks .... 1671 
 Reign of Ivan and Peter I. or the Great . . 1682 
 
 Peter sole sovereign 1689 
 
 He visits Holland and England, and works in 
 
 the dockyard at Deptford 1697 
 
 Recalled by a conspiracy of the Strelitz, which 
 he cruelly revenges ; 2000 tortured and slain ; 
 he beheads many with his own hand . . 1697 
 The Russians begin their new year from Jan. i ; 
 
 (but retain the old style) 1700 
 
 War with Sweden, Peter totally defeated by 
 
 Charles XU. at Narva . . . Nov. 30, ,, 
 Peter founds St. Petersburg as a new capital . 1703 
 
 The Strelitz abohshed 1704 
 
 Charles XII. totally defeated by Peter at Pul- 
 
 towa, and flees to Turkey . . July 8, 1709 
 
 14,000 Swedish prisoners sent to colonise 
 
 Siberia ,, 
 
 War with Turkey; Peter and his army cross 
 the Pruth, and are surrounded by the Turks ; 
 they escape by the energy of the empress 
 Catherine, who obtains a truce . . June, 1711 
 Esthonia, Livonia, and a large part of Finland 
 added to the empire 1715 
 
 Peter visits Germany, Holland, and France . .1715 
 
 The Jesuits expelled 1718 
 
 Conspiracy and mysterious death of the prince 
 
 Alexis July, „ 
 
 Peter II. (last of the Romanoffs), deposed, and 
 
 the crown given to Anne of Couiland . . 1730 
 Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I., reigns, in pre- 
 judice of Ivan VI., an infant, who is impri- 
 soned for life 1741 
 
 Peter HI. dethroned and murdered, succeeded 
 
 by Catherine his wife 1762 
 
 Ivan VI., the rightful heir, till now immured, 
 
 put to death 1764 
 
 Rebellion of the Cossacks, 1774 ; suppressed . 1775 
 Dismemberment of Poland ; commenced by 
 
 Catherine (see Poland), 1772 ; completed . 1795 
 Successful invasions of the Crimea . . 1769-84 
 Catherine gives her subjects a new code of 
 laws ; abolishes torture in punishing crimi- 
 nals ; and dies 1796 
 
 Unsuccessful war with Persia • . . . ,, 
 Russian treaty with Austria and England . . 1798 
 Suwarrow with an ai-niy joins the Austrians, 
 
 and checks the French in Italy . . . . 1799 
 Mental derangement of Paul .... 1800 
 He is murdered .... March 23, 1801 
 Accession of Alexander I. (who makes peace 
 
 with Kngland) ,, 
 
 He joins the coalition against France . April, 1805 
 AUies defeated at Austerlitz . . Dec. 2, „ 
 Treaty of Tilset with Prance . . July 8, 1807 
 Russians defeated by the Turks, near Silistria, 
 
 Sept. 26, 1809 
 War with France. .... June, 1812 
 
 The Russians defeated at Smolensko, Aug. 17 ; 
 
 and at the Borodino . . . Sept. 7, ,, 
 Moscow burnt by the Russians, retreat of the 
 
 French Sept. „ 
 
 Alexander present at the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 
 
 1813 ; entered Paris .... March, 1814 
 He visits England .... June, ,, 
 Alexander forms the Holy Alliance . . . 1815 
 The grand duke Constantino renounces the 
 
 right of succession .... Jan. 26, 1822 
 Emperor Nicholas crowned at Moscow, Sept. 3, 1826 
 Russian war against Persia . . Sept. 28, ,, 
 
 Nicholas visits England ; invested with the 
 
 order of the Garter . . . Jiily 9, 1827 
 Peace between Russia and Persia . Feb. 22, 1828 
 War between Russia and the Ottoman Porte 
 
 declared (see Turkey, and Battles) . April 26, ,, 
 The war for the independence of Poland against 
 
 Russia (see Poland) .... Nov. 29, 1830 
 Failure of the expedition against Khiva . Jan. 1840 
 Treaty of London (see <Si/ria) . . July 15, ,, 
 The emperor Nicholas arrives in London June i, 1844 
 The grand duke Constantine arrives at Ports- 
 mouth in the Ingernianland, of 74 guns, June 9, 1846 
 [For the participation of Russia in the Hun- 
 garian war of 1848-9, see Hungary. '\ 
 Russia demands the expulsion of the Hun- 
 garian and Polish refugees from Turkey (see 
 
 Turkey) Nov. 5, 1849 
 
 They are sent to Konieh, in Asia Minor . Jan. 1850 
 Conspiracy against the life and policy of the 
 
 emperor detected .... Jan. 6, ,, 
 Harbour of Sebastopol completed . . Feb. ,, 
 The emperor decrees seven men in each thou- 
 
RUS 
 
 636 
 
 EUS 
 
 RUSSIA, continued. 
 
 sand of the population of Western Russia to 
 be enrolled in the army, giving a total in- 
 crease of 180,000 soldiers . . . Aug. 1850 
 
 The czar visits Vienna . . . May 8, 1852 
 
 Concentrates his forces on the frontiers of 
 Turkey Feb. 1853 
 
 Origin of the Russo-Tnrkish war {icldch see, and 
 Holy Places) March, ,, 
 
 Conference between the emperors of Russia 
 and Austria at Olmutz . . Sept. 24, „ 
 
 And king of Prussia at Warsaw . Oct. 2, ,, 
 
 Interview of Mr. J. Sturge and other quakers 
 with the czar, to obtain peace . . Feb. 1854 
 
 Ten northern provinces put in a state of siege, 
 
 March 5, ,, 
 
 The czar issues a manifesto to his subjects ; 
 he wiU combat only for the faith and Chris- 
 tianity April 23, ,, 
 
 Death of the czar Nicholas, and accession of 
 Alexander II.; no change of policy, March 2, 1855 
 
 Most extensive levy ordered by the czar (at 
 Nicolaieff) Nov. 3, ,, 
 
 He visits his army at Sebastopol . Nov. 10, „ 
 
 Death of prince Ivan Paskiewitsch, aged 74, 
 
 Feb. I, 1856 
 
 Amnesty granted to the Poles, May 27; political 
 offenders, ifec Sept. 7, ,, 
 
 Alexander II. crowned at Moscow . Sept. 2, ,. 
 
 Manifesto on account of the EngUsh and French 
 interference in the affairs of Naples, Sept. 2, ,, 
 
 St. Petersburg and Warsaw Railway begun by 
 government, 1851 ; ceded to Great Russian 
 railway company (about 335 miles, the half 
 completed) ,, 
 
 Grand duke Constantine visits France and 
 England April, 1S57 
 
 The czar meets the emperor Napoleon at Stut- 
 gardt, Sept. 25 ; and the emperor of Austria 
 at Weimar Oct. i, ,, 
 
 Partial emancipation of the serfs on the im- 
 perial domains July 2, 1858 
 
 A Russian naval station established at Villa 
 Franca, on the Mediterranean, creates some 
 political excitement . . . Aug. , , 
 
 New commercial treaty with Great Britain, 
 
 Jan. T2, 1859 
 
 Russia reproves the warlike movements of the 
 German confederation during the Italian war. 
 
 May 27, ,, 
 
 The czar protests against the recognition of the 
 sovereignty of peoples . . . Feb. 13, i860 
 
 Fruitless meeting of the emperors of Russia 
 and Austria and the regent of Prussia at 
 Warsaw Oct. 20-25, „ 
 
 Treaty with China, for enlargement of com- 
 merce Jan. I, 1861 
 
 Decree for the total emancipation of the serfs 
 
 (23,000,000) throughout the empire in two 
 years March 3, 
 
 Demonstrations and repression in Poland 
 (which see) Feb. — April, 
 
 Disturbances in South Russia, caused by an 
 
 impostor asserting himself to be a descendant 
 
 of Peter III. ; many peasants shot and flogged 
 
 May and June, 
 
 Inundations at Kiev, Moscow ; 615 houses 
 under water May, 
 
 Death of prince Michael Gortschakoff, governor 
 of Poland May 30, 
 
 Student riots at the university of St. Peters- 
 brn-g, which is closed, Oct. 6-9; reopened, 
 
 Oct. 24, 
 
 The nobles sign a petition for a political con- 
 stitution Nov. 
 
 Increased privileges granted to the Jews, 
 
 Jan. 26, 
 
 Death of Nesselrode, the chancellor of the 
 empire March 23 or 24, 
 
 Alarming increase of fires at St. Petersburg, 
 Moscow ; the government supj>resses various 
 educational institutions . . . June, 
 
 Russia recognises the kingdom of Italy, July 10, 
 
 Anniversary of the foundation of the establiah- 
 ment of the Russian monarchy at Novgorod, 
 celebrated Sept. 20, 
 
 Re-organisation of the departments of justice 
 decreed ; juries to be employed in trials, &c. 
 
 Oct. 14, 
 
 Trade tax bill introduced ; admitting foreigners 
 to merchants' guilds, &c. . . Nov. 26, 
 
 Insurrection in Poland . . . Jan. 22-24, 
 [For events, see Poland.} 
 
 Termination of serfdom . . March 3, 
 
 Provincial institutions established throughout 
 Russia Jan. 13, 
 
 Great victory over the Oubykhs in the Cau- 
 casus, March 31 ; emigration of the Caucasian 
 tribes into Turkey, April ; submission of the 
 Aibgas ; the war declared to be at an end, 
 
 June 2, 
 
 The czarowitch betrothed to the princess Dag- 
 mar of Denmark .... Sept. 28, 
 
 Serfdom abolished in the Trans-Caucasian 
 provinces ; new judicial system promul- 
 gated Dec. 
 
 The Russian nobles request the emperor to 
 estabUsh two houses of representatives 
 [declined] Jan. 24, 
 
 New province, " Turkestan," in central Asia, 
 created Feb. 14, 
 
 The czarowitch Nicholas dies at Nice, April 24, 
 
 Industrial exhibition at Moscow closes, July 16, 
 
 Censorship of the press relaxed : law begins, 
 
 Sept. 13, 
 
 1861 
 
 DUKES, CZARS, AND EMPERORS. 
 
 862. 
 
 972. 
 980. 
 
 1015. 
 1054. 
 1078. 
 1093. 
 1 1 14. 
 1125. 
 1132. 
 1138. 
 
 "39- 
 1146. 
 
 "54- 
 
 DUKE.S OF Kiev. 
 
 Rurick. 
 Igor. 
 
 ( Olega, regent. 
 
 ( Swiatoslaw or Spendoblos. 
 Jaropalk I. 
 Vladimir, Wladimir, or Waldimir I., styled the 
 
 Great. 
 Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. 
 Isjialaw I. 
 Wsewolod I. 
 Swiatopalk. 
 Vladimir II. 
 Mtislaw or Michael I. 
 Jaropalk II. 
 
 ( Wiatschelaw, 
 
 ( Wsewolod II. 
 
 f I.'sjialaw II. 
 
 It Rostislaw. 
 
 1155. June or George I. ; the city of Moscow was 
 built by this duke. 
 
 OEAKD-DUKES OF WLADIMIR. 
 
 f Andrew I. until 1175; first grand-duke. 
 "S7- -(Michael IF. 
 1177. Wsewolod III. 
 
 ( June or George II. 
 1213. I Constantine, until 1218. 
 1238. Jaraslaw II. ; succeeded by his son, 
 1245. Alexander-Nevski or Newski, the Saint. 
 1263. Jaraslaw III. 
 1270. Vasali or Basil I. 
 1277. *Dmitri or Demetrius I. 
 1284. *Andrew II. 
 1 294. *Daniel-Alexandrovitz. 
 1302. *Jurie or George III. : deposed. 
 1305. *Michael III. 
 X320. *Vasali or Basil II. 
 
EUS 
 
 637 
 
 RUS 
 
 RUSSIA, continued. 
 
 1325. *Jurie or George III. : restored. 
 
 [Those marked thus * are doubtful, owhig to 
 the difficulty that occurs at every step in 
 early Eussian annals. ] 
 
 GR.VND-DUKES Or MOSCOW. 
 
 1328. Ivan or John I. 
 
 1340. Simon, surnamed the proud. 
 
 1353. Ivan or John I [. 
 
 1359. Demetrius II. prince of Susdal. 
 
 1362. Demetrius III. Donskoi. 
 
 1389. *Vasali or Basil III. Temnoi. 
 
 1425. Vasali or Basil IV. 
 
 CZARS OF MUSCOVY. 
 
 1462. Ivan (Basilovitz) or John III. : took the title 
 
 of czar 1482. 
 1505. Vasali or Basil V. obtained the title of emperor 
 
 from Maximilian I. 
 1533. Ivan IV. 
 1584. Feodor or Theodor I. ; supposed t ohave been 
 
 poisoned, and his son, Demetrius, miirdered 
 
 by his successor, 
 1598. Boi'is-Godonof, who usurped the throne. 
 1606. Demetrius, the Impostor, a young Polish 
 
 monk ; pretended to be the murdered prince 
 
 Demetrius ; put to death. 
 ,, Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski. 
 1610. [Interregnum.] 
 1613. Michael-Feodorovitz, of the bouse of Romanof, 
 
 descended from the czar Ivan-Basilovitz. 
 1645. Alexis, son of the preceding, styled the father 
 
 of his country. 
 1676. Feodor or Theodor II. 
 ,g ( Ivan IV. and 
 ^ ^' \ Peter I. brothers of the preceding. 
 
 EMPERORS. 
 
 1689. Peter I. the Great, alone ; took the title of 
 
 emperor in 1728, founded St. Petersburg, 
 
 and elevated the empire. 
 1725. Catherine I. his consort ; at first the wife of a 
 
 Swedish dragoon, who is said to have been 
 
 killed on the day of marriage. 
 1727. Peter II. son of Alexis-Petrovitz, and grandson 
 
 of Peter the Great : deposed. 
 1730. Anne, duchess of Courland, daughter of the 
 
 czar Ivan. 
 
 1740. Ivan VI. an infant, grand-nephew to Peter the 
 
 Great ; immured in a dungeon for 18 years ; 
 murdered in 1764. 
 
 1741. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, reigned 
 
 during Ivan's captivity. 
 
 1762. Peter III. son of Anne and of Charles-Fre- 
 derick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp: deposed, 
 and died soon after, supposed to have been 
 murdered. 
 ,, Catherine II. his consort: a great sovereign ; 
 extended the Russian territories on all 
 sides ; died in 1796. 
 
 1796. Paul, her son ; found dead in his chamber ; 
 supposed to have been murdered. 
 
 1801. Alexander, his son ; who, after many adverse 
 battles, and a forced alliance with France, 
 at length aided in the overthrow of Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte. 
 
 1825. Nicholas, brother to Alexander; succeeded 
 Dec. I, 1825. 
 
 1855. Alexander II. son of Nicholas, born April 29, 
 1818'; succeeded at his father's death, 
 March 2, 1855; mairied April 28, 1841, Mary 
 princess of Hesse ; the present emperor of 
 Russia. 
 
 Heir : his son Alexander, born March 10, 1848. 
 
 RUSSO -TURKISH WAR.* The Russian and French governments havhig each taken 
 a side in the dispiite between the Greek and Latin churches as to the exclusive possession of 
 the Holy Places (which see) in Palestine, the Porte advised the formation of a mixed com- 
 mission, which decided in favour of the Greeks, and a firman was promulgated accordingly, 
 March 9, 1853 : to this decision the French acceded, although dissatisfied. 
 
 The Russians make further claims, and prince 
 Menschikoff (who arrived at Constantinople 
 Feb. 28, 1853), by various notes (between 
 March 22 and May 18), demands that a con- 
 vention should be signed by the sultan 
 granting to the czar such a protectorate over 
 the Greek Christians in Turkey, as the sultan 
 considered inimical to his own authority, 
 March 22 — May 18, 
 
 MeiischikofE's ultimatum rejected; he quits 
 Constantinople May 21, 
 
 The sultan issues a hatti-scherif confirming all 
 the rights and privileges of the Greek 
 Christians, and appeals to his allies June 6, 
 
 The English and French fleets anchor in Besika 
 Bay June 13, 
 
 The Russians, under gen. Luders, cross the 
 Pruth and enter Moldavia . . July 2, 
 
 1853 
 
 Circular of count Nesselrode in justification, 
 July 2 ; lord Clarendon's reply . July 16 
 
 The conference of I'epresentatives of England, 
 France, Austria, and Prussia meet at Vienna, 
 agree to a note, July 31 ; which is accepted 
 by the czar, Aug. 10 ; but the sultan requires 
 modifications, Aug. 19; which the czar rejects, 
 
 Sept. 7, 
 
 Two English and two French ships enter the 
 Dardanelles Sept. 14, 
 
 The sultan (with the consent of a great 
 national council) declares war against Russia, 
 
 Oct. s, 
 
 The Turkish fortress at Issaktocha fires on a 
 Russian flotilla (the first act of war) Oct. 23, 
 
 The Turks cross the Danube at Widdon and 
 occupy Kalafat .. . Oct. 28 — Nov. 3, 
 
 Russia declares war against Turkey Nov. i. 
 
 1853 
 
 * In 1844, when the czar was in England, he conversed with the duke of Wellington and lord Aberdeen 
 (whom he had known many years) respecting the dissohition of the Turkish empire ; and on his return 
 he embodied his views in a memorandum drawn up by count Nesselrode, which was transmitted to 
 London, but kept secret till March 1854. In January and February of that year the czar had several con- 
 versations on the subject with the British envoy at St. Petersburg, sir G. H. Seymour, in one of which 
 (Jan. 14) he compared Turkey to a man in a state of decrepitude and sickness, on the point of death, and 
 made proposals to the British government as to the disposal of his property. He stated frankly that he 
 would not permit the British to establish themselves at Constantinople ; but said in another conversation, 
 he would not object to their possessing Egypt. The purport of these conversations was conveyed in des- 
 patches to lord John Russell, who replied that the British government decUned to make any provision for 
 the contingency of the fall of Turkey. The czar made similar proposals to the French government with 
 the same result. 
 
RUS 
 
 638 
 
 RUS 
 
 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR, continued. 
 
 English and French fleets enter Bosphorus, 
 
 Nov. 2, 1853 
 Russians defeated at Oltenitza . Nov. 4, ,, 
 Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bayandur, Atskur, 
 
 and Achaltzik . . . Nov. 14, 18, 26, „ 
 Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope . Nov. 30, ,, 
 Collective note from the four powers requiring 
 to know ou what terms the Porte will 
 negotiate for peace . . . Dec. 5, „ 
 
 Contests at Kalafat (Russians defeated at 
 
 Citate, Jan. 6) . . Dec. 31, 1853 — Jan. g, 1854 
 At the request of the Porte (Dec. 5), the allied 
 
 ileets enter the Black Sea . . Jan. 4, „ 
 
 Reply of the Porte to the note of Dec. 5, con- 
 taining four points as bases of negotiation : 
 viz. I. The promptest possible evacuation 
 of the principalities. 2. Revision of the 
 treaties. 3. Maintenance of religious privi- 
 leges to the comnuuiities of all confessions. 
 4. A definitive settlement of the convention 
 respecting the Holy Places (dated Dec. 31), — 
 approved by the four powers . Jan. 13, ,, 
 Vienna conferences close . . . Jan. 16, ,, 
 Kalafat invested by the Russians Jan. 28-31, ,, 
 Proposal in a letter from the emperor of France 
 
 to the czar (Jan. 29) declined . Feb. 9, ,, 
 Turkish flotilla at Rustchuk destroyed by the 
 
 Russians under Schilders . . Feb. 15, „ 
 
 Ultimatum of England and France sent to St. 
 
 Petersburg Feb. 27, ,, 
 
 The czar " did not judge it suitable to give an 
 
 answer " March 19, , 
 
 Baltic fleet sails, under sir C. Napier, March 11, , 
 Treaty between England, France, and Turkey, 
 
 March 12, , 
 Russians, under GortschakofI, pass the Danube 
 and occupy the Dobrudscha : severe conflicts ; 
 the Turks retire . . . March 23, 24, , 
 France and England declare war against Russia, 
 
 March 27, 28, , 
 Rupture between Turkey and Greece, March 28, , 
 Gen. Canrobert and French troops arrive at 
 Gallipoli, soon after followed by the English, 
 
 March 31, , 
 Russians defeated by the Turks at Karakai, 
 
 May 30, , 
 English vessel Furious, with a flag of truce, 
 
 fired on at Odessa . . . April 8, , 
 
 Four powers sign a protocol at Vienna, 
 guaranteein g the integrity of Turkey and civU 
 and rehgious rights of her Christian subjects, 
 
 April 10, , 
 Russians defeated at Kostelli by Mustapha 
 
 Pacha. April lo, , 
 
 Offensive and defensive alliance between 
 
 England and France . . . April 10, , 
 Treaty between Austria and Prussia April 20, , 
 Bombardment of Odessa by allied fleet April 22, , 
 Russians, under gen. Schilders, assaiilt Kalafat ; 
 
 repulsed ; the blockade raised April 19-21, , 
 The Tiger steamer run aground near Odessa, 
 I"- captured by the Russians . . May 12, , 
 
 Russians defeated at Turtukai . May 13, , 
 Siege of Silistria begun . . . May 17, , 
 Allied armies disembark at Varna . May 29, , 
 Mouths of the Danube blockaded by allied fleets, 
 
 June I, , 
 Russians repulsed at Silistria; Paskiewitsch 
 
 and many officers wounded . June 5, , 
 Turks defeated at Ozurgheti (in Asia) June 16, , 
 Severe conflict before Silistria ; the siege raised, 
 
 June 18-26, , 
 Batteries at the Sulina mouths destroyed by 
 
 capt. Parker .... June 26, 27, , 
 
 Captain Parker killed .... July 8, , 
 
 Russians defeated at Giurgevo . July 7, , 
 
 10,000 French troops embark at Boulogne for 
 
 the Baltic July 15, ,, 
 
 Turks defeated at Bayazid in Armenia, July 
 
 29, 30 ; and near Kars . . _ . Aug. 5, 
 
 Surrender of Bomarsund '."'^ ""■', Aug. 16, 
 
 [In July and August the allied armies and 
 
 fleets in thq east suffered severely from 
 
 cholera.] 
 
 The Russians defeated by Schamyl in Georgia, 
 
 about Aug. 28, 
 
 They evacuate the pi-incipalities, Aug. Sept. 20, 
 
 By virtue of a treaty with Turkey (June 14) 
 
 the Austrians under count Coronini, enter 
 
 Bucharest Sept. 6, 
 
 Allies sail from Varna, Sept. 3, and land at Old 
 Fort, near Eupatoria* . . . Sept. 14, 
 Skirmish at the Bulganac . . . Sept. 19, 
 Battle of the Alma (see Alma) . Sept. 20, 
 Russians sink part of their fleet at Sebastopol, 
 
 Sept. 23, 
 
 Allies occupy Balaklava . . . Sept. 26, 
 
 Death of marshal St. Amaud . Sept. 29, 
 
 General Canrobert, his successor Nov. 24, 
 
 Siege of Sebastopol commenced — grand attack 
 
 (without success) .... Oct. 17, 
 
 Battle of Balaklava — charge of the light cavalry, 
 
 with severe loss .... Oct. 25, 
 
 Sortie from Sebastopol repulsed by generals 
 
 Evans and Bosquet .... Oct. 26, 
 
 Russian attack at Inkerman ; defeated, Nov. 5, 
 
 Miss Nightingale and nurses arrive at Scutari, 
 
 Nov. 6, 
 
 Great tempest in the Black Sea, loss of the 
 
 Prince and store vessels . . Nov. 14-16, 
 
 Treaty of alliance between England, France, 
 
 Avistria, and Prussia— a commission to meet 
 
 at Vienna : signed .... Dec. 2, 
 
 Russian sortie .... Dec. 20, 
 
 Omar Pacha arrives in the Crimea (foUowed by 
 
 the Turkish army from Varna) . Jan. 5, 
 
 Sardinia joins England and France Jan. 26, 
 
 Great sufferings in the camp from cold and 
 
 sickness .... Jan. and Feb. 
 
 Russians defeated by the Turks at Eupatoria, 
 
 Feb. 17, 
 Death of Emperor Nicholas ; accession of Alex- 
 ander II. (no change of policy) . March 2, 
 Sortie from the Malakhoff tower March 22, 
 
 Capture of Russian rifle-pits . . April 19, 
 Arrival of Sardinian contingent . . May 8, 
 Resignation of Gen. Canrobert, succeeded by 
 gen. Pelissier .... May 16, 
 Desperate night combats . . May 22-24, 
 Expedition into the sea of Azoff (under sir E. 
 Lyons and sir G. Brown) ; destruction of 
 Kertch and large amount of stores. May 24- 
 
 June 3, 
 Taganrog bombarded . . . June 3, 
 Massacre of an Enghsh boat's crew with flag of 
 truce at Hango .... June 5, 
 
 Russians evacuate Anapa . . June 5, 
 
 The White Works and Mamelon Vert taken, 
 
 June 6, 7, 
 Unsuccessful attack on the Malakhoff tower 
 
 and Redan June 18, 
 
 Death of Lord Raglan ; succeeded by general 
 
 Simpson June 28, 
 
 Russians invest Kars in Armenia, defended by 
 
 gen. Wilhams July 15, 
 
 Bombardment of Sweaborg . . Aug. 9, 
 Defeat of the Russians at theTchemaya, Aug. 16 
 Ambuscade on the glacis of the Malakhoff 
 taken ; Russian sortie repulsed . Aug. 18, 
 The French take the Malakhoff (^rhich see) by 
 assault ; the English assault the Redan with- 
 out success ; the Russians retire from Sebas- 
 topol to the North Forts, and the alUes enter 
 the city ; the Russians destroy or sink the 
 remainder of their fleet . . Sept. 8 &c. 
 Tanan and Fanagoria captured . . Sept. 24, 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 40,000 men, a large number of horses, and a powerful artillery were landed in one day. 
 
 I 
 
EUS 
 
 639 
 
 SAB 
 
 EUSSO-TUEKISH WAE, cmtinued. 
 
 The Russians assaulting Kars are defeated with 
 
 IB- great loss Sept. 29, 1855 
 
 Russian cavalry defeated (50 killed, 105 pri- 
 soners) at Kougbil, near Eupatoria, by the 
 
 French Sept. 29, ,, 
 
 Kinburn taken Oct. 17, ,, 
 
 Russians blow up Oczakoff . . Oct. 18, ,, 
 Large stores of corn destroyed near Gheisk in 
 
 the sea of AzoflF Nov. 4, ,, 
 
 Defeat of the Russians, and passage of the 
 Ingour by the Turks under Omar Pacha, 
 
 Nov. 6, ,, 
 The czar visits his army near Sebastopol 
 
 Nov. 10, „ 
 Sir Wm. Codrington takes the command in 
 
 room of gen. Simpson . . . Nov. 14, ,, 
 Explosion of 100,000 lbs. of powder in the 
 French siege-train at Inkermau, with great 
 
 loss of life Nov. 15, ,, 
 
 Sweden joins the allies by a treaty Nov. 21, ,, 
 Capitulation of Kars to gen. Mouravieff, after a 
 gallant defence by gen. WiUiams , Nov. 26, „ 
 
 Death of admiral Bruat . . . Nov. 27, 
 Russian attack on the French posts at Baidar 
 
 repulsed Deo. 8, 
 
 Proposals of peace from Austria, with the 
 
 consent of the allies, sent to St. Petersburg, 
 
 Dec. 12, 
 Centre dock at Sebastopol blown up by the 
 
 English Jan. 2, 
 
 Council of war at Paris . . . Jan. 11, 
 
 Protocol signed accepting the Austrian proposi- 
 tions as a basis of negotiation for peace, Feb. i, 
 Destruction of Sebastopol docks . Feb. i. 
 Report of sir John M'Neill and col. Tulloch on 
 
 state of the army before Sebastopol, published 
 
 Feb. s, 
 Peace conferences open at Paris, an armistice 
 
 till JIarch 31 agreed on . . Feb. 25, 
 Suspension of hostilities . . . Feb. 29, 
 Proclamation of peace in the Crimea, April 2, 
 
 in London April 29, 
 
 The Crimea evacuated . , . July 9,* 
 
 1855 
 
 EUTHENIUM, a rare metal, discovered in the ore of platinum by M. Clans, in 1845, 
 
 EUTHEEFOED'S ACT, Loed (13 & 14 Yict. c. 36), for simplifying law proceedings in 
 Scotland, passed 1850. 
 
 EUTHVElSr, Eaid of, a term applied to the seizure of the person of James VI. of 
 Scotland by William Euthven, earl of Go^viie, and other nobles, in 1582. They compelled 
 the king to dismiss his favomites, Arran and Lennox. Ostensibly for this, Gowrie was 
 judicially put to death by his two opponents in 1584. 
 
 EYE-HOUSE PLOT, a plot (some think pretended) to secure the succession of the duke 
 of Monmouth to the throne in preference to the duke of York (afterwards James II.), a 
 Eoman Catholic. Some of the conspirators are said to have projected the assassination of 
 the king, Charles II., and his brother. This design was said to have been frustrated by the 
 king's house at Newmarket accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away 
 eight days before the plot was to take place, March 22, 1683. See Newmarket. The plot 
 was discovered June 12 following. Lord "William Eussell on July 21, and Algernon 
 Sidney on Dec. 7 following, suffered death for being concerned in this conspiracy. The 
 name was derived from the conspirators' place of meeting, the Eye-house at Broxbourne, 
 Hertfordshire. 
 
 EYSWICK (Holland), where the celebrated peace was concluded between England, 
 France, Spain, and Holland, signed, by their representatives, Sept. 20, and by the emperor 
 of Germany, Oct. 30, 1697. 
 
 S. 
 
 SABBATAEIANS. Traces exist of Sabbatarii, or Sabbathaires, among the sects of the 
 i6th century on the continent. Upon the publication of the " Book of Sports" in 1618, a 
 long and violent controversy arose among English divines on these two points : first, 
 whether the Sabbath of the fom'th commandment was in force among Christians ; and 
 secondly, whether, and on what ground, the first day of the week was entitled to be distin- 
 guished and observed as " the Sabbath." In 1628, Theophilus Brabourne, a clergyman, 
 published the first work in favour of the Seventh-day or Saturday, as the true Christian 
 Sabbath. He and several others suffered great persecution for this opinion ; but after the 
 restoration there were three or four congi'egations observing the last day of the week for 
 public worship in Ijondon, and seven or eight in the country jjarts of England. In 185 1 
 there were three Sabbatarian or Seventh-day Baptist congregations in England ; "but in 
 America (especially in the Ifew England states) they are more numerous. 
 
 * The English lost : killed in action and died of woimds about 3500 ; died of cholera, 4244 ; of other 
 diseases nearly 16,000 ; total loss nearly 24,000 (including 270 officers) ; 2873 were disabled. The war added 
 to the national debt 4i,o4i,ooo(. The French lost about 63,500 men : the Russians about half a mOlion. 
 The army suffered greatly by sickness. See Scutari, Times, and Nightingale. 
 
SAB 640 SAD 
 
 SABBATH: ordained by God. Gen. ii. ; Exod. xx. 8; Isaiah \viii. 13. Jews observe 
 the seventh day in commemoration of the creation of the world and of their redemption 
 from the bondage of the Egyptians ; Christians observe the first day of the week in 
 commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the redemption of man. 
 See Sunday. 
 
 SABBATH SCHOOLS. The first " Sabbath school" was founded by Ludwig Hacker 
 between the years 1740 and 1747, at Ephrata, Lancaster county, Penns3'lvania, among the 
 German Seveuth-day Baptists there. The school-room was used as an hospital after the 
 battle of Brandywine, fought in 1777. This event occasioned the breaking up of the schools, 
 about five years before the first Sunday-school was instituted in England, at Gloucester, by 
 Eobert Kaikes, about 1 782. See Sunday Schools. 
 
 SABBATICAL YEAR: a Jewish institution, 149 1 B.C. Every seventh year, during 
 which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled ; and every forty-ninth year all 
 debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, &c. , that were before sold or mortgaged, 
 returned to their original families, &c. Josephics. 
 
 SABELLIANISM, from Sabellius (of Ptolemais in Egypt), who flourished in the 3rd 
 century, and who taught that there was but one person in the Godhead, the other persons of 
 the Trinity being but different names of the same person. This doctrine was condemned at 
 a council held at Rome, 263. 
 
 SABINES, from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away their daughters by force, 
 having invited them to some public sports or shows on purpose. When the Sabines deter- 
 mined to revenge this affront, the women became mediators to their fathers in behalf of their 
 husbands, the Romans, and a lasting peace was made between them ; the Sabines became a 
 part of the Roman people, 750 b.c. One of the ecclesiastical provinces is still called Terra 
 Sabina ; chief town, Magliano. 
 
 SACHEVEREL RIOTS. See Riots, 17 10. 
 
 SACRAMENT (from sacramentum, an oath, obligation, also mystery). The council of 
 Trent, in 1 547, affirmed that there were seven sacraments : viz. , baptism, the Lord's supper, 
 confirmation, penance, holy orders, matrimony, and extreme unction. The name was given 
 to the Lord's supper by the Latin fathers. The wine was laid aside, and communion by the 
 laity under one form alone, that of bread, took its rise in the "West, under pope Urban II. 
 1096. M. de Marca. Communion in one kind only was authoritatively sanctioned by the 
 council of Constance, in 1414. Br. Hook. Henry VIII. of Germany was poisoned by a 
 priest in the consecrated wafer, 13 14. The sacramental wine was poisoned by the gi-ave- 
 digger of the church at Zurich, by which sacrilegious deed a number of persons lost their 
 lives, Sept. 4, 1776. In 1614, by the Test act, all members of both houses of parliament 
 were ordered to take the sacrament, as a guard against the introduction of Roman Catholics. 
 The act was repealed in 1828. 
 
 SACRED WAR {Sacrum Belhmi). The first, concerning the temple of Delphi, took 
 place 448 B.C. The Athenians and Lacedaemonians were auxiliaries on opposite sides. The 
 second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being seized by the Phocians, 357 B.C. This latter 
 war was terminated by Philip of Macedon taking all the cities of the Phocians, and dispersing 
 the inhabitants, 346 B. c. Plutarch. 
 
 SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice M^as offered to God by Abel, 3875 B.C. Sacrifices 
 to the gods were introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of Argos, 1773 B.C. Human 
 sacrifices seem to have originated with the Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into 
 other Eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God were to cease with the sacrifice of 
 Christ, 33. Heb. x. 12-14. Pagan sacrifices were forbidden by the emperor Constan- 
 tius II. 341. 
 
 SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups. Saddles 
 were in use in the 3rd century, and are mentioned as made of leather in 304, and were known in 
 England about 600, Side-saddles for ladies were introduced by Anne, queen of Richard II, 
 in 1388. Stmv. 
 
 SADDUCEES, a Jewish sect, said to have been founded by Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, 
 about 200 B.C., who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine, taught that there was neither 
 heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul was mortal, and that there was no resur- 
 rection of the body from the dead. The Sadducees were opposed by the Pharisees, 
 
SAC 641 SAL 
 
 SACRAMEFTO, St., a Portuguese settlement in S. America, claimed by Spain in 1680, 
 but relinquished in 1713 ; ceded in 1777 ; and acquired by Brazil in 1825. 
 
 SADLER'S "WELLS (N. London), so called after Mr. Sadler, who built an orchestra to 
 entertain the invalids who used the waters medicinally, 1683. In time the orchestra was 
 enclosed, and the building became a place for dramatic performances. The present theatre 
 was opened in 1765. Eighteen persons were trampled to death at this theatre, on a false 
 alarm of fire, Oct. 15, 1807. See under Theatres. 
 
 SAFETY-LAMP. One was invented in 181 5 by sir Humphry Davy, to prevent accidents 
 which happen in coal and other mines. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that 
 flame, in passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be capable of 
 igniting inflammable gases. It should be mentioned, that the father of all safety-lamps is 
 Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are authenticated in the 
 Transactions of the Society of Arts for 1817. A safety-lamp, the " Geordy," was also devised 
 by George Stephenson, the engineer, in 1815. A miner's electric light, by MM. Dumas and 
 Benoit, was exhibited in Paris on Sept. 8, 1862. 
 
 SAFFRON" (Saffran, French ; Saffrano, Italian), the flower of crocus, was first brought 
 to England in the reign of Edward III. by a pilgrim, about 1339, probably from Arabia, as 
 the word is from the Arabic saphar. Miller. It was cultivated in England in 1582 ; and 
 the best grows in Essex, between Cambridge and Saffron AValden. 
 
 SAGE (Sauge, French ; Salvia, Latin), a wholesome herb, comfortable to the brain and 
 nerves. Mortimer. A species of this garden plant grew early in England, and some varieties 
 were imported. The Mexican sage, &?t?2'a Jlfeccicama, was brought from Mexico, 1724. The 
 blue African sage. Salvia Africana, and the golden African sage. Salvia aurea, were brought 
 to England from the Cape of Good Hope in 1731. 
 
 SAGUNTUM (now Murviedro, in "Valencia, E. Spain), renowned for the dreadful siege 
 it sustained, 219 b.c. The heroic citizens, after performing incredible acts of valour for eight 
 months, chose to be buried in the ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hannibal. 
 They burnt themselves, with their houses and all their effects, and the conqueror became 
 master of a pile of ashes, 218 B.C. 
 
 SAILORS' HOME, in "Wells-street, London Docks, established by Mr. George Green in 
 1835. In one year it admitted 5444 boarders, who, besides a home, had evening instruction, 
 the use of a savings' bank, &c. The establishment is self-supporting, aided by subscriptions. 
 Similar institiitions have since been established. 
 
 SAINT. For the names with this prefix, see the names themselves throughout the book. 
 
 SALADS, introduced into England from the Low Countries, 1520-47. 
 
 SALAMANCA ("W. Spain), taken from the Saracens, 861. The university was foimded 
 1240, and the cathedral built 15 13. Near here the British and allies, commanded by lord 
 "Wellington, totally defeated the French army under marshal Marmont, July 22, 1812. The 
 loss of the victors was most severe, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 
 6000 men. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7 141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stands 
 of colours, and 2 eagles. This victory was followed by the capture of Madrid. 
 
 SALAMIS (near Athens). In a great sea-fight here, Oct. 20, 480 B.C., Themistocles, 
 the Greek commander, with only 310 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, king of Persia, 
 which consisted of 2000 sail. — Near Salamis, in Cyprus, the Greeks defeated the Persian 
 fleet, 449 B.C. 
 
 SALDANHA BAY, S. Atlantic Ocean, northward of the Cape of Good Hope. Here, 
 on Aug. 17, 1796, a Dutch squadron, under admiral Lucas, was captured by vice-admiral sir 
 George Keith Elphinstone, without resistance ; sir George was created loi'd Keith. 
 
 SALENCKEMEN, on the Danube. Here a victory was gained by the imperialists, 
 under prince Louis of Baden, over the Tm'ks, commanded by the gi'and vizier Mustapha 
 Kiuprigli, Aug. 19, 1691. 
 
 SALIQUE, or Salic Law, by which females are excluded from inheriting the crown of 
 France, is said to have been instituted by Pharamond, 424, and ratified in a council of state 
 hy Clovis I., the real founder of the French monarchy, in 511. Henault. This law prevailed 
 long in Spain, but was formally abolished, March, 1830 ; and on the death of Ferdinand VIL 
 his daughter succeeded to the sceptre as Isabella II., Sept. 29, 1833. See Spain. By this 
 
 T T 
 
SAL 612 SAM 
 
 law also Hanover was separated from England, when queen Victoria ascended the English 
 throne, in 1837. 
 
 SALISBURY (Wilts), foiinded in the beginning of the 13th century, on the removal of 
 the cathedral hither from Old Sarum. National councils or parliaments were repeatedly held 
 at Salisbury, particularly in 1296, by Edward I. ; in 1328, by Edward III.; and in 1384. 
 Henry Staflord, duke of Buckingham, was executed here by order of Richard III., in 1483. 
 On Salisbtjky Plain is Stonehenge {ivldch see). This plain was estimated at 500,000 acres. 
 On it were so many cross-roads, and so few houses to take directions from, that Thomas, earl 
 of Pembroke, planted a tree at each milestone from Salisbury to Shaftesbury, for the 
 traveller's guide. The first seat of the Bishopeic was at Sherborne, St. Aldhelm being 
 prelate, 705. Herman removed the seat to Old Sarum, about 1072 ; and the see was removed 
 to this city, under the authority of a papal bull, in 12 17. It has yielded to the church of 
 Rome one saint and two cardinals. The building of the cathedral commenced April 28, 
 1220, and was completed in 1258. This edifice is reckoned one of our finest ecclesiastical 
 erections. Its spire, the loftiest in the kingdom, was considered in danger in April, 1864, 
 and subscriptions were begun for its repair. The bishopric is valued in the king's books at 
 1367Z. 115. ?>d. Present income, 5000Z. 
 
 KECENT BISHOPS OF SALISBURY. 
 
 1707. John Fisher, died July 2, 1825. 1 1837. Edmund Denison, died March 6, 1854. 
 
 1825. Thomas Biu-gess, died Feb. 19, 1837. | 1854. Walter Kerr Hamilton (present bishop, 1866). 
 
 SALMON FISHERIES. The laws relating to them were consolidated and amended in 
 1861, and the report of a commission of inquiry (including sir Wm. Jardine) was published 
 in Feb. 1862. An act restricting the exportation of salmon at certain times was passed 
 in 1863. 
 
 SALT (chloride of sodium, a compound of the gas chlorine and the metal sodium) is 
 procured from rocks in the earth, from salt-springs, and from sea-water. The famous salt- 
 mines of Wielitzka, near Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years. The salt-works- 
 in Cheshire, called the wiches (Nantwich, Northwich, and Middlewich), were of great 
 importance in the time of the Saxon heptarchy. Since 1797 salt has been largely employed 
 in the manufacture of bleaching powder (by obtaining its chlorine), and soap (by obtaining 
 its soda). On this are based the chemical works of Cheshire and Lancashire. The salt- 
 mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670. Salt duties were first exacted in 1702 ; 
 they were renewed in 1732 ; reduced in 1823 ; and in that year were ordered to cease in 1825. 
 i3uring the French war, the duty reached to 30^. per ton. For the salt-tax in France, see 
 Gabelle. The government monopoly in India was abolished in May, 1863, by sir C. 
 Trevelyan. 
 
 SALT-PETRE (from sctl petrce, salt of the rock), or nitre, is a compound of nitric acid 
 and potash (nitrogen, oxygen, and potassium), and hence is called Nitrate of Potash. It is 
 the explosive ingredient in gunpowder, many detonating powders, and lucifer matches. 
 Boyle in the 1 7th century demonstrated that salt-petre was composed of aqua fortis (nitric 
 acid) and potash; but the discoveries of Lavoisier (1777) and Davy (1807) showed its real 
 composition. Its manufacture in England began about 1625. During the French revo- 
 lutionary war, the manufacture was greatly increased by the researches of Berthollet. 
 
 SALUTE AT Sea. It is a received maxim at sea, that he who returns the salute always 
 fires fewer guns than he receives, which is done even between the ships of princes of eqtial 
 dignity; but the Swedes and Danes return the compliment without regarding how many 
 guns are fired to them. The English claim the right of being saluted first in all places, as 
 sovereigns of the seas ; the Venetians claimed this honour within their gulf, &c. See Flag 
 and Naval Salute. 
 
 SALVADOR, SAN, one of the Bahamas, and]the first point of land discovered in the 
 "West Indies or America by Columbus. It was previously called Guanahami, or Cat's Isle, 
 and Columbus (in acknowledgment to' God for his deliverance) named it San Salvador, 
 Oct. II, 1492. — A small re]iublic, with a constitution, established Jan. 24, 1859. It has 
 been much troubled by internal dissension. Present president, Francis Dne&as, elected 
 April, 1865. The capital, San Salvador, was destroyed by an earthquake, April 16, 1854, 
 and is now abandoned. 
 
 SAMARCAND (in Tartary) was conquered by the Mahometans, 707 ; by Genghis Khan, 
 1219 ; and by Timour in 1359. 
 
SAM 643 SAN 
 
 SAMARITANS. Samaria was built by Oinri, 925 B.C., and became the capital of the 
 kingdom of Israel. On the breaking iip of that kingdom (721 B.C.), the conqueror Shal- 
 maneser placed natives of other countries at Samaria. The descendants of these mixed races 
 were abominable to the Jews, and much more so in consequence of the rival temple built on 
 Mount Gerizim by Sanballat the Samaritan, 332 B. c, which was destroyed by John Hyrcanus, 
 130 B.C. (See John iv. & viii. 48, and Luke x. 33.) 
 
 SAMNITES, a warlike people of S. Italy, who strenuously resisted the Roman power, 
 and were not subjugated till after three sanguinary wars, from 343 to 292 b. c. Their brave 
 leader, Cains Pontius, who spared the Romans at Caudium, 320, having been taken prisoner, 
 was basely put to death, 292. They did not acquire the right of citizenship till 88 B.C. 
 
 SAMOS, an island on the W. coast of Asia Minor. Colonised by lonians about 1043 B.c 
 The city was founded about 986. Here Pythagoras was born 555 B.C., and flom-ished in the 
 favour of Polycrates, Avho aided him in his travels, 532. Samos was taken by the Athenians, 
 440; and, with Greece, became subject to Rome, 146. It was taken by the Venetians, 
 A.D. 1 125, who here made velvet (samet), and became subject to the Turks, 1459. 
 
 SANCTION. See Pragmatic. 
 
 SANCTUARIES. See Asylums. Privileged places for the safety of offenders are said to 
 have been granted by king Lucius to churches and their precincts. St. John's of Beverley 
 was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons. St. Burein's, in Cornwall, was privileged by 
 Atlielstan, 935 ; "Westminster, by Edward the Confessor ; St. Martin' s-le- Grand, 1529. 
 Being much abused, the privilege of sanctuary was limited by the pope in 1503, at the 
 request of Henry VII. ; it was abolished at the Reformation. — In London, persons were secure 
 from arrest in certain localities : these were the Minories, Salisbury-court, "Whitefriars, Ful- 
 wood's-rents, Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens, the Savoy, Clink, Deadman's-place, Montagiie- 
 close, and the Mint. This security was abolished 1696, but lasted in some degree till the 
 reign of George II. 
 
 SANDALS. See Slioes. SANDEMANIANS. See Glasites. 
 
 SANDHURST, Royal Milttary College, founded, first at High "Wycombe, in 1799. 
 Removed to Great Marlow in 1802, and to Sandhurst in 1812. The college, for which the 
 land was purchased at Blackwater, near Bagshot, consists of senior and junior departments r 
 competitive examination for entrance into the junior began in Feb. 1858. 
 
 SAND'WICH ISLANDS, a group in the Pacific Ocean, discovered by captain Cook in 
 1778. In Oiuhyhee or Hawaii, one of these islands, he fell a victim to the sudden resentment 
 of the natives, Peb. 14, 1779. The king and queen visited London in 1824, and died there 
 in July. These people have made great progress in civilisation, and embraced Christianity 
 before any missionaries were settled among them. The present king, Kamehameha V., 
 succeeded his brother, Nov. 1863. The preceding king, Kam^ham^ha IV., married Miss 
 Emma Rooker, 1856. She came to England in 1865 ; landing at Southampton, July 13, 
 and visited our queen, Sept. 9. An English bishopric was established at Honolulu in 1861, 
 for which Dr. Thomas Staley was consecrated, Aug. 18, 1862. 
 
 SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jurisdiction, of seventy, or, as 
 some say, seventy- three members, usually considered to be • that established by Moses, 
 Nimi. xi. 16, — 1490 B.C. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus Christ, John xviii. 31. 
 A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon I. at Paris, July 23, 1806, 
 and assembled accordingly, Sept. 18, 
 
 SANITARY LEGISLATION. Strict cleanliness is enjoined in the law of Moses, 
 1490 B.C. Great attention has been paid to the public health in France since 1802. Tardieu 
 published his " Dictionnaire de Hygiene," 1852-54. To Dr. Southwood Smith is mainly 
 attributable the honour of commencing the agitation on the subject of public health in 
 England about 1832 ; his " Philosophy of Health" having excited much attention. Since 
 1838 he has published numerous sanitary reports, having been much employed by the 
 government. Among the results are — 
 
 Nuisances Removal Acts passed (repealed) 1845 — 1860 
 Baths and Washhouses Act . . 1846 — 1847 
 Public Health Act, and subsequent Supple- 
 mental Acts i; 
 
 Smoke Nuisance Abatement Act (and amend- 
 
 naent 1853 
 
 Diseases Prevention Act 1855 
 
 Public Health Act 
 
 Common Lodgmg Houses Act . . 1851 — 1S53 i Metropolitan Interments Acts . . 1850 — 1855 
 Labouring Classes Lodging Houses Act . . 1851 | 
 
 SAN SALVADOR. See Salvador. 
 
 T T 2 
 
SAN 644 SAR 
 
 SANSKRIT, the language of the Brahmins of India, spoken at the time of Solomon, has 
 been much studied of late j'ears. Sir Wm. Jones, who published a translation of the poem, 
 Sakuntala, in 1783, discovered that a complete literature had been preseiTed in India, 
 comprising sacred books (the Vedas), history and philosophy, lyric and dramatic poetry. 
 Texts and translations of many works have been published by the aid of the East India 
 Company, the Oriental Translation Fund, and private liberality. The professorship of 
 Sanskrit at Oxford was founded by colonel Boden. The first professor, H. H. AVilson, 
 appointed in 1832, translated part of the Eig-veda Sanhiti, the sacred hymns of the 
 Brahmins, and several poems, &c. The present professor, Monier "Williams (elected i860), 
 published an English and Sanskrit dictionary, 1851. Professor Max Miiller published his 
 History of Sanskrit Literature in 1859, and has edited part of the original text of the Vedas. 
 Philologists have, discovered an intimate connection between the Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, 
 Latin, Teutonic, Slavonian, Celtic, and Scandinavian languages. 
 
 SANTA CRUZ (Teneriffe, Canary Isles). Here admiral Blake, by daring bravery, 
 entirely destroyed sixteen Spanish ships, secured with great nautical skill, and protected by 
 the castle and forts on the shore, April 20, 1657. Clarendon. In an unsuccessful attack 
 made upon Santa Cruz by Nelson, several officers and 141 men were killed, and the admiral 
 lost his right arm, July 24, 1797.* 
 
 SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA (N.W. Spain), was sacked by the Moors in 995, and 
 lield by them till it was taken by Ferdinand III. in 1235. The order of Santiago, or St. 
 James, was founded about 11 70 to protect pilgrims to the shrine of St. James, said to be 
 buried in the cathedral. The town was taken by the French in 1809, and held till 1814. — 
 Santiago, the capital of Chili, S. America, was founded by Valdina in 1541, has suffered 
 much by earthquakes, especially in 1822 and 1829. About seven o'clock in the evening of 
 Dec. 8, 1863, the feast of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, and the last day 
 of a series of religious celebrations in the "month of Mary," the church of the Campania, 
 when brilliantly illuminated in a dangerous manner, was burnt down, the fire beginning 
 amidst the combustible ornaments, and above 2000 persons, principally women, perished ; 
 the means of egress being iitterly insufficient. On Dec. 20 the government ordered the 
 church to be razed to the ground, and much public indignation was excited against the 
 fanatical priesthood. 
 
 SAPPERS AND MiNEKS, a name given in 1812 to the non-commissioned officers and 
 privates of the corps of Royal Engineers. JBrande. 
 
 SAPPHIC VERSE, invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mitylene. She was equally 
 celebrated for her poetry, beauty, and a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth of her native 
 country, on which last account it is said she thi-ew herself into the sea from Mount Leucas, 
 and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine honours, and caUed her 
 the tenth muse, 594 B. c . Some consider the story fabulous. 
 
 SAPPHIRE, a precious stone of an azure colour, and transparent ; in hardness it exceeds 
 the ruby, and is next to the diamond. Thamas Kouli Khan is said to have possessed a 
 .sapphire valued at 300,000?., 1733. Artificial sapphires were made in 1857 by M. Gaudin. 
 Equal parts of alum and sulphate of potash were heated in a crucible. 
 
 SARACENS, an Arab race, the first disciples of Mahomet, who within forty years after 
 his death (632) had subdued a gi'eat part of Asia, Africa, and Europe. They conquered 
 Spain in 711, et scq., and (under Abderahman) established the caliphate of Cordova in 755, 
 which gave way to the Moors in 1237. The empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being 
 taken by the Tartars, 1258. Blair. 
 
 SARAGOSSA (N. E. Spain), anciently Caesarea Augusta, was taken from the Arabs by 
 Alfonso of Spain, in 11 18. Here Philip V. was defeated by the archduke Charles, in 17 10. 
 On Dec. 17, 1778, 400 of the inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Saragossa was 
 taken by the French, after a most heroic defence by general Palafox, Feb. 20, 1809. The 
 inhabitants, of both sexes, resisted until worn out by fighting, famine, and pestilence. 
 
 SARAH SANDS. See Wrecks, 1857. 
 
 * It was remarkable, that captain Fremantle, the friend of Nelson, and his companion in most 
 of his brilliant achievements, was also wounded in the arm immediately i)efore Nelson had received Ms 
 wound in the same limb. The following characteristic note, addressed to the lady of captain Fremantle 
 (who was on board with her husband at the time he wrote), has been preserved, as being the first letter 
 written by the hero with his left hand : — " My dear Mrs. Fremantle, — Tell me how Tom is, I hope he 
 has saved his arm. Mine is off; but, thank God ! I am as well as I hope he is. 
 
 "Ever yours, Horatio Nelson." 
 
SAR 
 
 645 
 
 SAR 
 
 SARATOGA (N"ew York State, N. America). Here, general Burgoyne, commander of a 
 body of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans (Oct. 7), being 
 surrounded, surrendered all his army (5791 men) to the American general Gates, Oct. 17, 
 1777. This was the greatest check the British suffered in the war. 
 
 SARAWAK. See Borneo. 
 
 SARDINIA, an island in the Mediterranean, successively possessed by the Phoenicians, 
 Greeks, Carthaginians (550 B.C.), Romans (subjugated it 231), Saracens, Genoese, and 
 Spaniards. From settlers belonging to these various nations the present inhabitants derive 
 their origin. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, acquired Sardinia in 1720, with the title of 
 king. See Savoy. Population of the Sardinian dominions in 1858, 5,194,807. The king of 
 Sardinia was recognised as king of Italy by his parliament in Feb. 1861. See Italy. 
 
 James of Arragon becomes master of a large 
 
 part of Sardinia 
 
 Conquered by the English naval forces, under 
 
 sir John Leake and gen. Stanhope . . . 
 Given to the emperor Charles VI. 
 
 Eecovered by the Spaniards 
 
 Ceded to the duke of Savoy with the title of 
 
 king, as an equivalent for Sicily 
 Victor Amadeus abdicates in favour of his son . 
 Attempting to recover his throne, he is taken, 
 
 and dies in prison 
 
 The court kept at Turin, tiU Piedmont is over- 
 run by the French 
 
 The king resigns his crown to his brother, dvike 
 
 of Aosta June 4, 
 
 Piedmont annexed to Italy, and Napoleon 
 
 crowned king of Italy . . . Dec. 26, 
 The king resides in Sardinia . . 1798— 
 Piedmont restored to its rightful sovereign, 
 
 with Genoa added to it . . . Dec. 
 King Charles- Albert promulgates a new code . 
 Cavour establishes the newspaper " II Risorgi- 
 
 niento" (" the Revival ") . . . . 
 The king grants a constitution, and openly 
 
 espouses the cause of Italian regeneration 
 
 against Austria .... March 23, 
 Defeats the Austrians at Goito ; and takes 
 
 Peschiera May 30, 
 
 Sardinian army defeated by Radetzky, July 26, 
 Sardinians at Milan capitulate to Radetzky, 
 
 Aug. 5, 
 Armistice between Sardinia and Austria, 
 
 Sept. 21, 
 Hostilities resumed . . . . March 12, 
 Radetzky defeats a division of the Sardinians, 
 
 and occupies Mortara . . . March 21, 
 Complete defeat of the Sardinians by the 
 
 Austrians at Novara . . . March 23, 
 Charles- Albert abdicates in favour of his son, 
 
 Victor- Emmanuel . . . March 23, 
 The Austrians occupy Novara, &c. March 25, 
 Another armistice .... March 26, 
 Death of Charles-Albert, at Oporto July 28, 
 Treaty of Milan between Austria and Sardinia, 
 
 signed Aug. 6, 
 
 Adoption of the Siccardi law, which abohshes 
 
 ecclesiastical jurisdictions . . . April 9, 
 Arrest of the bishop of Turin . . May 4, 
 He is released from the citadel . . June 2, 
 Cavour minister of foreign affairs . * 
 Bill for suppression of convents passed, 
 
 March 2, 
 Convention with England and Prance signed ; 
 
 a contingent of 15,000 troops to be supplied 
 
 against Russia .... April 10, 
 
 10,000 troops under general La Marmora arrive 
 
 ia the Crimea .... May 8, 
 
 1714 
 1717 
 
 1720 
 1730 
 
 1732 
 
 1792 
 
 1802 
 
 1847 
 
 1B51 
 1855 
 
 Who distinguish themselves in the battle of the 
 Tchemaya Aug. 16, 
 
 The king visits London, <fcc. . Nov. 30, &c. 
 
 Important note on Italy from count Cavour to 
 England April 16, 
 
 Rupture with Austria ; subsequent war, see 
 Aiisti-ia, 1857, et seq. 
 
 Cavour declares in favour of free-trade June, 
 
 Prince Napoleon Jerome marries princess 
 Clotilde Jan. 30, 
 
 Preliminaries of peace signed at Villa Franca, 
 July 11; count Cavour resigns, July 13; 
 Ratazzi administration formed . July ig, 
 
 The emiieror Napoleon's letter to Victor-Em- 
 manuel, advocating the formation of an 
 Italian confederation : the latter declares it 
 to be impracticable, and maintains his en- 
 gagements with the Italians . . Oct. 20, 
 
 Treaty of peace signed at Zurich . . Nov. 
 
 Garibaldi retires into private life . . Nov. 17, 
 
 Co>uit Cavour returns to office . . Jan. 16, 
 
 The Sardinian government refers the question 
 of annexation of Tuscany, &c., to the vote of 
 the people Feb. 29, 
 
 Annexation of Savoy and Nice proposed by the 
 French government : the Sardinian govern- 
 ment refer it to the vote of the people, 
 
 Feb. 25, 
 
 Annexation to Sardinia voted almost unani- 
 mously by .iEmiUa, March 14 ; by Tuscany, 
 March 16; accepted by Victor-Emmanuel, 
 March 18-20, 
 
 Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to Prance, signed, 
 
 March 24, 
 
 Prussia protests against the Italian annexations 
 
 March 27, 
 
 New Sardinian parliament opens . April 2, 
 
 Annexation to France almost unanimously 
 
 voted for by Nice, April 15; by Savoy, 
 
 April 22, 
 
 The government professes disapproval of Gari- 
 baldi's expedition to Sicily (which see) May 18, 
 
 The chambers ratify treaty of cession of Savoy 
 and Nice May 29, 
 
 The Sardinian troops enter the papal territories 
 (see ItaLi/ and Rome) . . . Sept. 11, 
 
 Victor- Emmanuel enters the kingdom of Naples, 
 
 Oct. 15, 
 
 Naples and Sicily vote for annexation to Sardinia 
 
 Oct 21, 
 [For future history see Itahj.l 
 
 [For the disputes^ and war with America, and 
 the events of 1S59-61, see Austria, France, 
 Rome, Sicily, and Maples.'\ 
 
 i8s5 
 1856 
 
 iSS7 
 1859 
 
 KINGS OF SARDINIA. 
 
 Victor-Amadeus I. kingCas duke II.); re-signed, ' 1802. 
 
 in 1730, in favour of his son ; died in 1732. 1805. 
 1730. Charles-Emmanuel I. his son. 
 1773. Victor-Amadeus II. his son 
 1796. Charles-Emmanuel II., son of the preceding ; 
 
 resigned his crown in favour of his brother. 
 
 1720. 
 
 See Savoy. 
 
 Victor-Emmanuel I. 
 
 [Sardinia merged in the kingdom of Italy, of 
 
 which the emperor Napoleon was crowned 
 
 king. May 26, 1805. J 
 Victor-Emmanuel restored ; resigned in March, 
 
 1821 ; and died in 1824. 
 
SAK 
 
 646 
 
 SAV 
 
 SARDINIA, continued. 
 
 I. Chcirles-Felix ; succeeded by his nephew. 
 
 I. Charles- Albert ; abdicated in favour of his 
 
 son, March 23, 1849. Died at Oporto, July 
 
 28, 1849. 
 
 SARDIS. See Seven Churches. 
 
 1849. Victor-Emmanuel II., March 23 ; born March 
 14, 1820 ; the PRESENT king of Italy. 
 Heir : Humbert, prince of Piedmont ; bom 
 March 14, 1844. 
 
 SARMATIA, the ancient name of modem Russia and Poland. 
 
 SARUM, Old (Wiltshire), an ancient town, the origin of Salisbury, which see. 
 
 SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made its appearance 
 at Rome in the writings of Lucilius, who was so celebrated in this species of composition that 
 he has been called the inventor of it, 116 B.C. Livy. The Satires of Horace (35 B.C.), 
 Juvenal (about a.d. 100), and Perseus (about A.D. 60), are the most celebrated in ancient 
 times, and those of Churchill (1761) and Pope (1729), in modern times. 
 
 SATRAPIES, divisions of the Persian empire, formed by Darius Hystaspes about 516 B.C. 
 
 SATURDAY (the last, or seventh day of the week ; the Jewish Sabbath. See Sabbath). 
 It Avas so called from an idol worshipped on this day by the Saxons, and according to 
 Verstegan, was named by them Saterne's day. Pardon. It is more properly from Saturn, 
 dies Saturni. Addison. 
 
 SATURN, the planet, ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the sun, 
 and its diameter to be about 77,230 miles. One of the eight satellites was discovered by 
 Huyghens (March 25, 1655); four by Cassini (1671-84) ; two by sir William Herschel( 1789), 
 and one by Bond and Lassells (1848). The ring was discovered to be twofold by Messrs. 
 Ball, Oct. 13, 1665 ; and an inner ring was detected in 1850 by Dawes in England (Nov. 29) 
 and by Bond in America. 
 
 SATURNALIA, festivals in honour of Saturn, father of the gods, were instituted long 
 before the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and equality which pre- 
 vailed on the earth in his golden reign. Some, however, suppose that the Saturnalia 
 were first observed at Rome in the reign of TuUus Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the 
 Sabines : whilst others suppose that Janus first instituted them in gratitude to Saturn, from 
 whom he had learned agriculture. Others assert that they were first celebrated after a 
 victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthumius. During these festivals no 
 Isusiness was allowed, amusements were encouraged, and distinctions ceased. Lenglet. 
 
 SAYINGS' BANKS.* The rev. Joseph Smith, of Wendover, began a Benevolent 
 Institution in 1799 ; and in 1803-4 a Charitable Bank was instituted at Tottenham by Miss 
 Priscilla Wakefield. Henry Dundas established a parish bank at Ruthwell in 1810. One 
 was opened in Edinburgh in 18 14. The benefit clubs, among artizans, having accumulated 
 stocks of money for their progres.sive purposes, a plan was adopted to identify these funds 
 with the public debt of the country, and an extra rate of interest was held out as an induce- 
 ment ; hence were formed savings' banks to receive small sums, returnable with interest on 
 demand. 
 
 Sir Geo. Rose developed the system and brought it 
 under parliamentary control, 1816. 
 
 la 1840 there were 550 banks ; 766,354 depositoi's ; 
 amount 22,060,904^. 
 
 Acts to consolidate and amend previous laws relat- 
 ing to savings' banks were passed in 1828 and 1S47 ; 
 extended to Scotland in 1835 ; again consolidated 
 and amended in 1863. 
 
 On Nov. 20, 1851, the number of savings' banks in 
 Great Britain and Ireland was 574, besides above 
 twenty thousand friendly societies and charitable 
 institutions. The depositors (in the banks) were 
 1,092,581, while the societies embraced a vast but 
 
 unknovim number of persons : the amount of de- 
 posits was 32,893,511/. 
 
 Amount of stock held on account of savings' banks 
 m 1853, 34,546,334/. ; in 1857, 35,108,596/. ; in 1859, 
 38,995,876. In 1861 the savings' banks received 
 8,764,870/. ; paid 9,621,539/. ; estimated capital, 
 41,532,945/. (depositors, 1,479,723). The military 
 savings' bank held 204,377/. > tlie seamen's savings' 
 banks held 26,448/. 
 
 For Post-OfiSce Savings' Banks, established in 1861, 
 see under Post Office. 
 
 The deposits in the old savings' banks had not 
 diminished in consequence in 1S64. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIRST 20,000 DEPOSITORS WHO OPENED ACCOUNTS. 
 
 Domestic servants 7245 
 
 Persons in trade, mechanics, &c. . . . 7473 
 
 Labourers and porters 672 
 
 Miners 1454 
 
 Friendly and charitable societies . . . . 58 
 Persons not classed, viz., widows, teachers, 
 sailors, <tc. 3098 
 
 • The first of these was instituted at Berne, in Switzerland, in 1787, by the name of -caisse de domea- 
 tiques, being intended for servants only ; another was set up in Basel, in 1792, open to all depositors. 
 
 I 
 
SAV 
 
 647 
 
 SAX 
 
 SAVOY, the ancient Sapaudia or Sabaudia, formerly a province in N. Italy, east of Pied- 
 mont. It became a Roman province about Ii8 b.c. Tlie Alemanni seized it in A.D. 395, 
 and tbe Franks in 496. It shared the revolutions of Switzei-land till about 1048, when 
 Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Humbert, with the title of count. Count Thomas 
 acquired Piedmont in the 13th century. Amadeus, count of Savoy, having entered his 
 dominions, solicited Sigismund to erect them into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, 
 Feb. 19, 141 7. Victor-Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicily, by a treaty 
 from Spain, in 1713, which he afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of 
 Sardinia, with the title of king, 1720. See Sardinia. The French subdued Savoy in 1792, 
 and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont Blanc, in 1800. It was 
 restored to the king of Sardinia in 1814 ; but was once more annexed to France in i860, 
 in accordance with a vote by universal suffrage, April 23, i860. Savoy was visited by the 
 emperor and empress of the French in August, i860. The annexation was censured in 
 England. 
 
 DUKES OF SAVOY. 
 
 1391. Count Amadeus VIII. is made duke in 1417; 
 lie was named pope as Felix V. He aljdi- 
 cated as duke of Savoy, 1439 ; renounced tlie 
 tiara, 1449 ; died in 1451. 
 
 1439. Louis. 
 
 1465. Amadeus IX. 
 
 1472. Philibert I. 
 
 1482. Charles I. 
 
 1489. Charles II. 
 
 1496. Philip II. 
 
 1497. Philibert II, 
 1504. Charles III. 
 
 1553. Emmanuel-Philibert. 
 1580. Charles-Emmanuel I. 
 1630. Victor-Amadeus I. 
 
 1637. Franois-Hyacinthe. 
 
 1638. Charles-Emmanuel II. 
 
 1675. Victor-Amadeus II. became king of Sicily, 1713 ; 
 exchanged for Sardinia in 1720. 
 
 SAVOY PALACE (London) was given to Peter of Savoy, uncle of Eleanor, queen of 
 Henry III., in 1236. Here was held the conference between the clergy and the non- 
 conformists in 1661. It was partially taken down to make way for Waterloo-bridge. The 
 ancient chapel was destroyed by fire, July 7, 1864, and was rebuilt at the queen's expense, 
 and reopened ITov. 26, 1865. 
 
 SAW. Invented by Daedalus. Pliny. Invented by Talus. ApoUodorus. Talus, it is 
 said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, employed it to cut through a piece of wood, 
 and then formed an instrument of iron like it. Saw-miUs were erected in Madeu-a in 1420 ; 
 at Breslau, in 1427. Iforway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador 
 from Mary of England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-miU there, 1555. The attempts 
 to introduce saw-mills in England were violently opposed, and one erected by a Dutchman 
 in 1663 was forced to be abandoned. Saw-mills were erected near London about 1770. 
 Excellent saw-machinery exists in Woolwich dockyard. Powis and James's band-saw was 
 patented in 1858. 
 
 ' SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (Central Germany), capitals Gotha and Coburg. Population, 
 Dec. 1861, 159,431. The reigning family is descended from John, younger son of Ernest, 
 who became elector of Saxony in 1464. 
 
 DUKES. 
 
 1826. Ernest I. duke of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg ; mar- 
 ried Louisa, heiress of Augustus, duke of 
 Saxe-Gotha, and became by convention duke 
 of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Nov. 12.* 
 
 1844. Ernest II. son, Jan. 29 ; born June, 21, 1818 
 
 (married Alexandrina, duchess of Baden, 
 May 3, 1842 ; no issue). 
 Heir (presumptive) : Prince Alfred of England, 
 bom Aug, 6, 1844 (in whose favour the 
 prince of Wales resigned his rights, April 
 19, 1863). 
 
 SAXE- WEIMAR (Central Germany). The grand-dukes are descended from John Frederic, 
 the Protestant elector of Saxony, who was deprived by the emperor in 1548. See Saxony. 
 The houses of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Gotha, Hilberghausen, and Saxe-Meiniugen also 
 sprang from him. They are all termed the senior or Ernestine branch of the old family. — 
 Saxe -Weimar became a grand duchy in 1815. The dukes have greatly favoured literature, 
 and their capital Weimar has been called the Athens of Germany. Population of the duchy, 
 Dec. 1861, 273,252. 
 
 GRAND-DUKES. 
 
 1815. Charles Augustus. 
 1828. Charles Frederic. 
 
 1853. Charles Alexander, July 8 ; born June 24, 
 1818, the PRESENT (1866) grand-duke. 
 Heir: Charles Augustus, born July 31, 1844. 
 
 * His brother, Leopold, married the princess Charlotte of England, May 2, 1816 ; became king of the 
 Belgians, July 12, 1831 ; and Ferdinand, the son of his brother Ferdinand, mai-ried Maria da Gloria, queen 
 of Portugal, April 9, 1836. 
 
SAX 
 
 648 
 
 SCH 
 
 SAXONY, a kingdom in N. Germany. The Saxons were a fierce warlike race, the teiTor 
 of the inhabitants of the later western empire, frequently attacked France, and conquered 
 Britain {which see). After a long series of sanguinary conflicts they were completely subdued 
 by Charlemagne, who instituted many fiefs and bishoprics in their countiy. Witikind, 
 their great leader, who claimed descent from Woden, professed Christianity about 785. 
 From him descended the first and the present ruling family (the houses of Supplinburg, Guelf, 
 and Ascania intervened from 1 106 to 142 1). Saxony became a duchy, 880; an electorate, 
 1 180 ; and a kingdom, 1806. It was the seat of war in 1813 ; the king being on the side 
 of Napoleon. Population, Dec. 1861, 2,225,240. 
 
 ELECTORS. 
 
 1423. Frederic I. 
 1428. Frederic II. 
 
 [His sons Ernest and Albert divide the states.] 
 1464. Ernest. 
 i486. Frederic III. 
 1525. John. 
 1532. John Frederic ; deprived by the emperor 
 
 Charles V. ; succeeded by 
 1548. Maurice (of the Albertine Une). 
 1553. Augustus. 
 1586. Christian I. 
 1591. Christian II. 
 i6n. John George I. 
 1656. John George II. 
 
 1680. John George III. 
 
 1691. John George IV. 
 
 1694. Frederic Augustus I., king of Poland, 1697. 
 
 1733. Frederic Augustus II., king of Poland. 
 
 1763. Frederic Augustus III. becomes king, 1806. 
 
 KINGS. 
 
 1806. Frederic Augustus I. 
 
 1827. Anthony Clement. 
 
 1836. Frederic Augustus II. succeeded by his 
 
 brother. 
 1854. John, Aug. 9 (bom Dec. 12, 1801), the present 
 
 king. 
 Heir : His son, Frederic Augustus Albert, 
 
 bom April 23, 1828. 
 
 SCANDALUM MAGNATUM, a special statute relating to any wrong, by words or in 
 writing, done to high personages of the land, such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, 
 oflScers in the state, and other great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous 
 statements, false new.s, or horrible messages, by which any debate or discord between them 
 and the commons, or any scandal to their persons, might arise. Chambers. This law was 
 first enacted 2 Rich. II. 1378. 
 
 SCANDINAVIA, the ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and great part of Denmark 
 (lohich see), whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who conquered Normandy (about 
 900), and eventually England (1066). They were also called Sea-kings or Vikings. They 
 settled Iceland and Greenland, and, it is thought, the northern regions of America, about the 
 9th century. A "National Scandinavian Society " has been formed at Stockholm. See 
 Sweden. Dec. 1864. 
 
 SCARLET, or kermes dye, was known in the East in the earliest ages ; cochineal dye, 
 1518. Kepler, a Fleming, established the first dye-house for scarlet in England, at Bow, 
 1643. The art of dyeing red was impi'oved by Brewer, 1667. Bcclcmann. 
 
 SCEPTICS, the sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho, about 334 B.C. Pyrrho was 
 in continual suspense of judgment ; he doubted of everything ; never made any conclusions, 
 and when he had carefully examined the subject, and investigated all its parts, he concluded 
 by still doubting of its evidence. 
 
 SCEPTRE, a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the earlier ages the 
 sceptres of kings were long walking- staves ; afterwards carved and made shorter. Tarquin 
 the elder was the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 B.C. The 
 French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, a.d. 481. Le Gcndre. 
 
 SCHELDT TOLL was imposed by the treaty of Munster (or Westphalia), 1648. The 
 toll was abolished for a compensation. The house of commons voted 175,650?. for' the 
 British portion on March 9, 1864. The Scheldt was declared free on Aug. 3, with much 
 rejoicing at Antwerp and Brussels. 
 
 SCHIEHALLIEN, a mountain in Perthshire, where Dr. Neville Maskelyne, the 
 astronomer-royal, made his observation with a plumb-line in 1774, from which Hutton 
 calculated that the density of the earth is five times greater than water. 
 
 SCHLESWIG. See Holstein, Denmark, and Gastein. 
 
 SCHOOLS. Charity schools were introduced in London to prevent the seduction of the 
 infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. Rapin. Charter schools 
 were instituted in Ireland, 1733. Scxdly. In England there were, in 1847, 13,642 schools 
 (exclusively of Sunday schools) for the education of the poor ; and the number of children 
 was 998,431. The parochial and endowed schools of Scotland were (exclusively of Sunday 
 
SCI 
 
 649 
 
 SCO 
 
 schools) 4836 ; and the nunibei" of children, 181,467. The schools in Wales were 841, and 
 the number of children, 38,164; in Ireland, 13,327 schools, and 774,000 children. In 1851 
 there were 2310 schools in connection with the Education Committee actually inspected in 
 England and Scotland. They included : 17 13 Church of England schools in England and 
 Wales ; 282 Protestant Dissenting schools in England and Wales ; 98 Roman Catholic 
 schools in Great Britain ; and 217 Presbyterian schools in Scotland, whereof 91 were of the 
 Free Church : the whole affording accommodation for 299,425 scholars. See Education, 
 Design, &c. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC RELIEF FUND. In 1859, several Fellows of the Royal Society (Messrs. 
 Gassiot, Wheatstone, Miller, Tyndall, and others) commenced the collection of subscriptions 
 with the view of establishing a permanent fund to be expended in aiding necessitous men of 
 science and their families, in imitation of the "Literary Fund." In the spring of i860, 
 3365Z. had been subscribed ; in Jan. 1865, 5320Z., and many cases had been relieved. 
 
 SCILLY ISLES (the Cassiterides or Tin-islands). They held commerce with the 
 Phoenicians ; and are mentioned by Strabo as being ten in number. A memorable shipwreck 
 of the British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. This brave admiral, 
 returning from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these rocks for land, and struck upon 
 them. His ship, the Association, in which were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, 
 and 800 brave men, went instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, captain Hancock, and the 
 Romtiey and Firebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped. Oct. 22, 1707. Sir 
 Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in Westminster abbey, 
 where a monument was erected to his memory. 
 
 SCIO MASSACRE. See Chios. 
 
 SCONE (near Perth). The Scotch coronation chair was brought from Scone to West- 
 minster abbey by Edward I. in 1296. 
 
 SCOTLAND. (See Oaledonia.) A kingdom till the death of queen Elizabeth, when 
 James VI. of Scotland, as the most immediate heir, was called to the throne of England, 
 Each country had a separate parliament till 1707, when both kingdoms were imited under 
 the general name of Great Britain. See England. 
 
 Camelon, capital of tlie Picts, taken by Ken- 
 neth II. and eveiy living creature put to the 
 sword or destroyed ...... 843 
 
 The Norwegians invade and occupy Caithness 
 
 in the gth century. 
 The fexidal system established by Malcolm II. . 1004 
 
 Divided into baronies 1032 
 
 The Danes driven out of Scotland . . . 1040 
 Duncan I. is murdered by his kinsman Mac- 
 ,-3 beth, by whom the crown is seized . . . ,, 
 Malcolm III. aided by Edward the Confessor, 
 meets the usurper at Dunsinane ; Macbeth is 
 
 killed by Macduff 1057 
 
 The Saxon-English language introduced into 
 Scotland by fugitives from England escaping- 
 
 from the Normans 1080 
 
 Siege of Alnwick : Malcolm III. killed . . 1093 
 Reign of David I., a legislator . . . 1124-53 
 Scotland invaded by Hacho, king of Norway, 
 with 160 ships and 20,000 men ; the invaders 
 are out to pieces by Alexander III., who now 
 recovers the Western Isles .... 1263 
 
 Death of Margaret of Norway, heiress to the 
 throne ...... Oct. 7, 1290 
 
 John Baliol and Edward Bruce contend for the 
 throne, 1291 ; Edward I. of England, as um- 
 pire, decides in favour of John . . Nov. 1292 
 John Baliol, king of Scotland, appears to a 
 summons, and defends his own cause in 
 Westminster hall against the earl of Fife . 1293 
 Edward, wishing to annex Scotland to Eng- 
 land, dethrones John, ravages the ooimtry, 
 destroys the monuments of Scottish history, 
 and seizes the prophetic stone (see Corona- 
 tion) 1296 
 
 William Wallace defeats the English at Cambus 
 Kenneth, and expels them, 1297 ; is defeated 
 at Falkirk, July 22, 1298 ; taken by the Eng- 
 lish, and executed at Smithfield Aug. 24, 1 305 
 
 Robert Bruce, crowned, 1306 ; he defeats the 
 English, 1307 ; and takes Inverness, 1313 ; 
 defeats the English at Bannockburn, ,Tune 25, 
 
 David II. taken prisoner at the battle of Dur- 
 ham, by queen Philippa of England (and 
 detained in captivity n years) . . . . 
 
 Battle of Chevy Chase, between Hotsptn- Percy 
 and earl Douglas. (See Otterburn.) Aug. 15, 
 
 Robert III. defeated at Homelden Hill 
 
 James I. captured by the English near Plam- 
 boi-ough head on his passage to France . . 
 
 St. Andrew's university founded by bishop 
 William Turnbnll 
 
 University of Aberdeen founded . . . . 
 
 Battle of Flodden Field ; James IV. is slain, and 
 his army cut to pieces . . . Sept. 9, 
 
 James V. banishes the Douglases 
 
 He establishes the court of session . . 
 
 Order of St. Andrew, or the Thistle, is revived. 
 
 Mary, the queen of Scots, born, Dec. 8 ; s\icceeds 
 her father, James V. . . . Dec. 13, 
 
 The regent, cardinal Beaton, persecutes the 
 reformers, 1539, 1546; he is assassinated at 
 St. Andrew's May 29, 
 
 The Scots defeated at Pinkie . . Sept. 10, 
 
 Mary marries the dauphin of France April, 
 
 Francis II. dies, leaving Mary a widow Dec. 
 
 The Reformation begins in Scotland, during 
 the minority of Mary . between 1550 and 
 
 The Reformation is consummated by John 
 Knox 
 
 Mary, after an absence of thirteen years, ar- 
 rives at Leith from France . . Aug. 21, 
 
 Upon an inquisition, wbich was officially taken, 
 by order of queen Elizabeth, only 58 Scots- 
 men were found in London. Stow. . . . 
 
 Mary marries her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord 
 Darnley July 27, 
 
 134& 
 
 1388 
 1402 
 
 1406 
 
 1451 
 1494 
 
 1513 
 1528 
 
 1532 
 1540. 
 
 1546 
 1547 
 1558 
 1560 
 
 i56r 
 
 1562 
 1565 
 
SCO 
 
 650 
 
 SCO 
 
 SCOTLAND, continued. 
 
 David Kizzio, her confidential secretaiy, mur- 
 dered by Damley, in her presence Mai'ch 9, 1566 
 
 Lord Damley blown up by gunpowder, in his 
 house (Mary accused of conniving at his 
 death) Feb. 10, 1567 
 
 James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, carries off 
 the queen, who marries him . . May 15, ,, 
 
 Mary made prisoner at Carbeny hill by lier 
 nobles June 15, ,, 
 
 Eesigns her crown to her infant son James VI. ; 
 the earl of Murray appointed regent July 22, ,, 
 
 Mary escapes from prison, and collects a large 
 army, which is defeated by the regent 
 Murray, at the battle of Langside May 15, 156S 
 
 The regent MuiTay murdered . Jan. 23, 1570 
 
 The earl of Lennox, appointed regent. July 12, ,, 
 
 The earl of Lennox murdered ; the earl of Mar 
 chosen regent .... Sept. 6, 1571 
 
 Death of the Reformer John Knox . Nov. 24, 1572 
 
 [His funeral in Edinburgh is attended by most 
 of the nobiUty, and by the regent Morton, 
 who exclaims, " There lies he who never 
 feared the face of man !"] 
 
 The university of Edinburgh founded . . . 1582 
 
 The Raid of Ruth ven (see /fiii/iveH) . . . „ 
 
 Mary, having taken refuge in England, May 16, 
 156S, is, alter a long captivity, beheaded at 
 Fotheringay castle. (See i^o(Aeri?i£r«2/.)Feb. 8, 1587 
 
 Cowrie's conspii-acy . . . Aug. 5, 1600 
 
 Union of the crown of Scotland with that of 
 England by the accession of James VI., 
 March 24, 1603 ; James is proclaimed by the 
 style of "king of Great Britain, France, and 
 Ireland " Oct. 24, 1604 
 
 Charles I. attempts in vain to introduce the 
 Enghsh liturgy 1637 
 
 Solemn league and covenant subscribed, 
 
 March i, 1638 
 
 A Scotch army enters England .... 1640 
 
 Charles joins the Scotch army, 1646 ; betrayed 
 into the hands of the English parliament 
 
 Jan. 30, 1647 
 
 Marquess of Montrose defeated at Philiphaugh, 
 Sept. 13, 164s ; put to death at Edinbiirgh, 
 
 May 21, 1650 
 
 Charles II. crowned at Scone, Jan. i ; defeated 
 at Worcester .... Aug. 22, 1651 
 
 Scotland united to the English commonwealth 
 by Oliver Cromwell .... Sept. ,, 
 
 Charles II. revives episcopacy in Scotland . i66i 
 
 The Covenanters defeated on the Pentland hills i566 
 
 Archbishop Sharps murdered near St. Andrew's, 
 by some fanatics, headed by John Balfour of 
 Burley May 3, 1679 
 
 The Covenanters defeat Claverhouse at Dnmi- 
 clog, June 1 ; but are routed at Bothwell 
 
 bridge June 22, „ 
 
 Revolution effected by a convention in favour of 
 William III. and establishment of presbytery, 
 
 March 14, 1689 
 
 Insurrection of Claverhouse : killed at KiUie- 
 crankie July 27, „ 
 
 Massacre of the Macdonalds at Glencoe, Feb. 13, 1692 
 Legislative union of Scotland with England, 
 
 May I, 1707 
 Insun-ection under the earl of Mar in favour of 
 
 the son of James II. (See Pretender.) . . 1713 
 The rebels defeated at Preston, Nov. 12 ; and at 
 
 Dumblane (or Sheriffmuir) . . Nov. 13, „ 
 Captain Porteous is killed by a mob in Edin- 
 burgh. (See Porteous) . . . Sept. 7, 1736 
 Prince Charles Edward proclaimed at Perth, 
 Sept. 4 ; at Edinburgh, Sept. 16; with the 
 Highlanders defeats sir John Cope at Preston- 
 pans, Sept. 21 ; takes Carhsle, Nov. 15 ; 
 arrives at Manchester, Nov. 28 ; at Derby, 
 Dec. 4 ; retreats to Glasgow . Dec. 25, 1745 
 Defeats general Hawley at Falkirk, Jan. 17 ; is 
 
 totally defeated at Culloden . . April t6, 1746 
 The Highland dress prohibited by act of parlia- 
 ment Aug. 12, ,, 
 
 Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino executed for 
 ■ high treason on Tower-hill. . Aug. 18, ,, 
 
 Simon Eraser, Lord Lovat, aged 80, executed, 
 
 AprUg, 1747 
 Thomson, the poet, dies . . Aug. 27, 1748 
 
 The Old Pretender, " Chevalier de St. George," 
 
 dies at Rome Dec. 30, 1765 
 
 Prince Charles Edward Louis Casimir, the 
 
 Young Pretender, dies at Rome . Jan. 31, 1788 
 Death of Robert Bums . . . July 21, 1796 
 Scott's "Lay of the Last Jlinstrel " published . 1806 
 Cardinal Henry duke of York (last of the 
 
 Stuarts) dies Aug. 1807 
 
 The Court of Session is formed into two divisions , , 
 
 " Waverley " published 1814 
 
 The establishment of a jury court under a lord 
 chief commissioner ... ... 1815 
 
 Visit of George IV. to Scotland . October, 1822 
 
 Sir Walter Scott dies . . . Sept. 21, 1832 
 Seven ministers of the presbytery of Strath- 
 bogie are deposed by the General Assembly 
 of the Chvirch of Scotland for obeying the 
 civil in preference to the ecclesiastical law. 
 (Their deposition was formally protested 
 against by the minority of ministers, headed 
 by Dr. Cook.) .... May 28, 1841 
 
 The General Assembly condemn patronage as a 
 grievance to the cause of true rehgion that 
 ought to be abolished. . . . May 23, 1842 
 
 Visit of the queen, prince Albert, and the court ; 
 
 she landed at Granton pier . . Sept. i, „ 
 The Queen embarks . . . Sept. 13, ,, 
 Secession of the non-intrusion ministers of the 
 church of Scotland (about 400) at the General 
 Assembly. (See Free Church) . . May 18, 1843 
 Death of Jeffrey .... Jan. 26, 1850 
 
 National Association for vindication of Scottish 
 
 rights formed Nov. 1853 
 
 Act for better government of the universities 
 passed Aug. 1858 
 
 See Edinburgh. 
 
 KINGS OF SCOTLAXD. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 [The early accounts of the kings are by many his- 
 torians deemed in a great measure fabulous. The 
 series of kings is carried as far back as Alexander 
 the Great.] 
 
 330. Fergus I. : ruled 25 years: lost in the Irish 
 Sea.* 
 
 AFTER CHRIST. 
 
 357. Eugenius I., son of Fincormachus ; slain in 
 battle by Masimus, the Roman general, and 
 the confederate Picts. 
 
 *»* With this battle ended the kingdom of the Scots 
 after having existed from the coronation of 
 Fergus I. , a period of 706 years, the royal 
 family fled to Denmark. Boece ; Buchanan. 
 
 * Fergus, a brave prince, came from Ireland with an army of Scots, and was chosen king. Having 
 defeated the Britons and slain their king Coilus, the kingdom o"f the Scots was entailed upon his posterity 
 for ever. He went to Ireland, and, having settled his affairs there, was drowned on his return, launching 
 from the shore, near the harbour, called Carrick-Ferg us to this day, 3699 a.m. Anderson. 
 
SCO 
 
 651 
 
 SCO 
 
 404. 
 420. 
 451. 
 
 457- 
 
 479' 
 501. 
 
 558. 
 569- 
 S70- 
 605. 
 606. 
 621. 
 
 632. 
 646. 
 
 664. 
 
 684. 
 6SS. 
 
 715- 
 730. 
 761. 
 
 764. 
 
 767. 
 787. 
 819. 
 824. 
 831. 
 S34- 
 
 854. 
 
 874. 
 
 S76. 
 S93. 
 904. 
 
 944. 
 953- 
 
 961, 
 965. 
 
 SCOTLAND, continued. 
 
 [Interregnum of 27 years.] 
 Fergus II.* (I.) great-grandson of Eugenius and 
 
 40th. king ; slain in battle with the Romans. 
 Eugenius II. or Bvenus, son of Fergus : reigned 
 
 31 years. 
 Dongardus or Domangard, brother of Eugenius ; 
 
 defeated and drowned. 
 Constantine I. , brother of Dongardiis : assassi- 
 nated by Dugall, a noble whose daughter he 
 
 had dishonoured. 
 Congallus I. nephew ; just and prudent. 
 Goranus, brother ; murdered. Boece. Died 
 
 while Donald of Athol was conspiring to take 
 
 his life. Scott. 
 Eugenius III. nephew " none excelled him in 
 
 justice." 
 Congallus II. brother. 
 Kinnatellus, brother ; resigned for 
 Aidanus or Aldan, son of Goranus. 
 Kenneth, son of Congallus II. 
 Eugenius IV. son of Aidanus. 
 Ferchard or Ferquhard I. son ; confined for 
 
 misdeeds to his palace, where he laid violent 
 
 hands upon himself. Scott. 
 Donald IV. brother ; drowned in Loch Tay. 
 Ferchard II. sou of Ferchard I. ; "most exe- 
 crable." 
 Malduinus, eon of Donald IV. ; strangled by his 
 
 wife for his supposed infidelity, for which 
 
 crime she was immediately afterwards 
 
 burnt. 
 Eugenius V. brother. 
 Eugenius VI. son of Ferchard II. 
 Amberkeletus, nephew ; fell by an arrow from 
 
 an unknown hand. 
 Eugenius VII. brother ; some ruffians designing 
 
 the king's murder, entered his chamber, and 
 
 he being absent, stabbed his queen, Spon- 
 
 tana, to death. Scott. 
 Mordachus, son of Amberkeletus. 
 Etfinus, son of Eugenius VII. 
 Eugenius VIII. son of Mordachvis ; sensual and 
 
 tyrannous ; put to death by his nobles. 
 Fergus III. son of Etfinus ; killed by his jealous 
 
 queen, who afterwards stabbed herself to 
 
 escape a death of torture. 
 Solvathius, son of Eugenius VIII. 
 Achaius ; a just and wise prince. 
 Congallus III. ; a peaceful reign. 
 Dongal or Dougal, son of Solvathius ; drowned. 
 Alpine, son of Achaius ; beheaded by the Picts. 
 Kenneth II. son of Alpine, and sumamed 
 
 Mac Alpine ; defeated the Picts, slew their 
 
 king, and united them and the Scots under 
 
 one sceptre, and became the first sole 
 
 monarch of all Scotland, 843. 
 Donald V. brother ; dethroned ; committed 
 
 suicide. 
 Constantine II. son of Kenneth II. ; taken in 
 
 battle by the Danes and beheaded. 
 Eth or Ethus, sumamed Lightfoot ; died of 
 
 grief in prison, having been thrown into 
 
 confinement for his sensuality and crimes. 
 Gregory the Great ; brave and just. 
 Donald VI. son of Constantine II. ; excellent. 
 Constantine III. son of Ethus ; became a monk, 
 
 and resigned in favour of 
 Malcolm I. son of Donald VI. ; mui'dered. 
 Indulfus or Gondulph ; killed by the Danes in 
 
 an ambuscade. 
 Duff or Duffus, son of Malcolm ; murdered by 
 
 Donald, the governor of Forres castle. 
 Cullen or Culenus, son of Indulfus ; avenged 
 
 the murder of his predecessor ; assassinated 
 
 1003. 
 
 1033. 
 1039. 
 
 1093. 
 
 1094, 
 1094. 
 
 1 107. 
 1124. 
 
 IIS3- 
 1165. 
 1214. 
 
 1249. 
 
 at Methven, by a thane, whose daughter he 
 had dishonoured. 
 970. Kenneth III. brother of Duffus ; murdered by 
 
 Penella, the lady of Fettercairn. 
 994. Constantine IV. son of CuUen ; slain. 
 995 Grimus or the Grim, son of Duffus ; routed 
 and slain in battle by Malcolm, the rightful 
 heir to the crown, who succeeded. 
 Malcolm II. son of Kenneth III. ; assassinated 
 on his way to Glamis ; the assassins in their 
 flight crossing a frozen lake were drowned. 
 Duncan I. grandson ; assassinated by his cousin. 
 Macbeth, usurper ; slain by Macduff, the thane 
 of Fife. 
 
 *jf* Historians so differ up to this reign, in the 
 number of the kings, the dates of succes- 
 sion, and the circumstances narrated, that no 
 account can be taken as precisely accurate. 
 1057. Malcolm III. (Canmore), son of Duncan ; killed 
 while besieging Alnwick castle. 
 Donald VII. (Donald Bane), brother of the 
 
 usurper ; fled to the Hebrides. 
 Duncan II. natural son of Malcolm : raurdered. 
 Donald Bane again; deposed. 
 1098. Edgar, son of Malcolm (Henry I. of England 
 married his sister Maud). 
 Alexander the Fierce, brother. 
 David I. brother ; married Matilda, daughter 
 
 of Waltheof, earl of Northumberland. 
 Malcolm IV. grandson. 
 William, surnamed the Lion ; brother. 
 Alexander II. son ; married Joan, daughter of 
 
 John, king of England. 
 Alexander III. ; married Margaret, daughter 
 of Henry HI. of England ; dislocated his 
 neck, when hunting near Kinghorn. 
 1285. Margaret, the " Maiden of Norway," grand- 
 daughter of Alexander, " recognised by the 
 states of Scotland, though a female,ian infant, 
 and a foreigner;" died on her passage to 
 Scotland. 
 A competition for the vacant throne ; Edward I. 
 
 of England decides in favour of 
 1292. John Bahol, who afterwards surrendered his 
 crown, and died in exile. 
 [Interregnum . ] 
 1306. Robert (Bruce) I. a great prince. 
 1329. David (Bruce) II. son ; Edward Baliol dispiited 
 the throne with him. 
 Edward Baliol, son of John ; resigned. 
 David II. again ; eleven years a prisoner in 
 
 England. 
 Robert (Stuart) II. nephew. 
 1390. Robert III. son (whose name was John). 
 1406. James I. second son ; imprisoned 18 years in 
 England ; set at liberty in 1423 ; conspired 
 against and murdered at Perth, Feb. 20, 
 1437. Banks. 
 1437. James II. son ; killed at the siege of Roxburgh 
 
 castle by a cannon bursting, Aug. 3, 1460. 
 1460. James III. son ; killed in a revolt of his sub- 
 jects at Bannockburn-field, June 11, 1488. 
 14S8. James IV. son; married Margaret Tudor, 
 daughter of Henry VII. of England ; killed 
 at the battle of Flodden. 
 James V. son ; succeeded when little more 
 than a year old; a sovereign possessing 
 many virtues. 
 1542. Mary, daughter; bom Dec. 8, 1542, succeeded 
 in her infancy. See Aytnals, above. 
 James VI. son. Succeeded to the throne of 
 England, and the kingdoms became united, 
 1603. 
 
 See England. 
 
 1332 
 1342 
 
 1371- 
 
 1513 
 
 1567- 
 
 * Some call this Fergus the first king, and suppose that either the foregoing kings were fabulous, or 
 that they were only chiefs or generals of armies, having no royal authority. The contro'\'ersy thus arising 
 I leave to be decided by the antiquaries, and must foUow the received histories of Scotland. Anderson. 
 
SCR 652 SEA 
 
 SCREW was known to the Greeks. The pumping-screw of Archimedes, or screw- 
 cylinder for raising water, invented 236 B.C., is still in use. It is stated that with the 
 assistance of the screw, one man can press down or raise up as much as 150 men can do 
 without it. — The Sckew-Propeller consists of two or more twisted blades, like the vanes 
 of a windmill, set on an axis, running parallel witlr the keel of a vessel, and revolving 
 beneath the water at the stern. It is driven by a steam-engine. The principle is as old as 
 the windmill. It was shown by Hooke in 1681, and since by Da Quet, Bernouilli, and 
 others. Patents for propellers were taken out by Joseph Bramah in 1784 ; by WiQ- Lyttelton 
 in 1 794 ; and by Edward Shorter in 1 799. But these led to no useful result. However, in 
 1836 patents were obtained by F. P. Smith and captain John Ericsson, and to them the 
 successftil application of the screw-propeller must be attribiited. The first vessels with the 
 screw were the Archimedes, built on the Thames in 1836, and the Rattler, built in the United 
 Stales (1814), and tried in England in 1845. Double screw-propellers are now employed. 
 
 SCULLABOGUE. See Massacres, 1798. 
 
 SCULPTURE is said to have begun with the Egyptians. Pausanias refers the nearest 
 approach to perfection in the art to 560 b. c. Bezaleel and Aholiab built the tabernacle in 
 the wilderness, and made all the vessels and ornaments, 1491 B.C., and their skill is recorded 
 as the gift of God. Exod. xxxi. 3. Dipcenus and Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a 
 school at Sicyon. Plin}'^ speaks of them as being the first who sculptured marble and 
 polished it ; all statues before their time being of wood, 568 B.C. Alexander gave Lysippus 
 the sole right of making his statues, 326 B.C. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which 
 were so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in gold. 
 Sculpture did not flourish among the Romans ; and in the middle ages had much degraded. 
 With the revival of painting, it revived also ; and Donato di Bardi, born at Florence, 
 A.D. 1383, was the earliest professor among the modems. An institute of sculptors was 
 established in 1861. 
 
 Pheidon flourished . .B.C. 869 
 
 Myron 480 
 
 Phidias ..... 442 
 
 Praxiteles 363 
 
 Lysippus . . . .328 
 
 Chares 288 
 
 Michael Angelo Buonarotti, 
 
 A.D. 1 474- 1 564 
 
 EMINENT SCULPTORS. 
 Bernini .... 1598-1680 
 Roubiliac, statue of sir I. 
 
 Newton . . . died 1762 
 Bacon .... 1740-1799 
 Canova . . . . 1757-1822 
 Flaxman . . . 1754-1826 
 Chantrey . . . . 1781-1841 
 
 Thorwaldsen . 
 
 ■ 1770- 
 
 1844 
 
 Sir R. Westmacott 
 
 • 1775- 
 
 i8s6 
 
 Ra\ich 
 
 • 1777- 
 
 i8s7 
 
 J. Thomas . 
 
 ■ 1813- 
 
 1862 
 
 Wm. Behnes . 
 
 
 1864 
 
 C. Kiss . 
 
 . 1802- 
 
 i86s 
 
 J. Gibson . 
 
 • 1 791 
 
 
 SCUTAGE or Escuaoe. The service of the shield (scutum) is either uncertain or certain. 
 Escuage uncertain is where the tenant by his tenure is bound to follow his lord ; and is called 
 Castleward, where the tenant is bound to defend a castle. Escuage certain is where the 
 tenant is set at a certain sum of money to be paid in lieu of such uncertain services. The 
 first tax levied in England to pay an army, 5 Hen. II. 1 159. Coivel. 
 
 SCUTARI, Asiatic Turkey, opposite Constantinople, of which it is a suburb. It was^ 
 anciently called Cliryso2Mlis, golden cit}', in consequence, it is said, of the Persians having 
 established a treasury here when they attempted the conquest of Greece. Near here 
 (Jonstantine finally defeated Licinius, 324. The ho.spital was occupied by the sick and 
 wounded of the Anglo-French army, in 1854-5, whose sufferings were mucli alleviated by 
 the kind exertions of Miss Florence Nightingale and a band of nurses under her, aided by a 
 large fund of money (15,000?.) subscribed by the public and placed in the care of the pro- 
 prietors of tlie Times newspaper. See Times. 
 
 SCYTHIA, situate in the most northern parts of Europe and Asia. The boundaries 
 were imknown to the ancients. The Scythians made several irruptions upon the more 
 southern provinces of Asia, especiall}^ 624 B.C., when they remained in possession of 
 Asia Minor for twenty-eight years, and at different periods extended their conquests in 
 Europe, penetrating as far as Egypt. See Tartary. 
 
 SEA FIGHTS. See Naval Battles. 
 
 SEALS or Signets. Engraved gems were used as .such by the Egyptians, Jews, 
 Assyrians, and Greeks (see Exod. xxviii. 14). The Romans in the time of the Tarquins 
 (about 600 B.C.) had gemmed rings. Thej^ sealed rooms, gi'anaries, bags of money, &c. The 
 German emperor Fredeiick I. (a.d. 1152) had seals of gold, silver, and tin. Impressions 
 of the seals of Saxon kings are extant ; and the English great seal is attributed to Edward 
 the Confessor (1041-66). " A seal with armorial bearings before the eleventh century is 
 certainly false." Foshrolce. The most ancient English seal with arms on it is said to be tliat 
 
SEA 653 SEC 
 
 of Ricliard I. or John. White and coloured waxes were used. Our present sealing-wax, 
 containing shellac, did not come into general use in Germany and England until about 
 1556. Red wafers for seals came into use about 1624 ; but were not used for public seals till 
 the i8tli century. 
 
 SEAS, Sovereignty of the. The claim of England to rule the British seas is of very 
 ancient date. Arthur is said to have assumed it, and Alfred afterwards supported this 
 right. It was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken by government in con- 
 sequence, 8 Chas. I. 1633. The Dutch, after the death of Charles I., made some attempts to 
 obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other powers 
 of the north armed to avoid search, 1780; again, 1800. ^eQ Armed Neutrality emA. Flag. 
 
 SEBASTIAN, ST. (N. Spain), was taken by the French, xinder the duke of Berwick, in 
 1 7 19. It was besieged by the British and allied army under Wellington. After a most 
 heavy bombardment, by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, it was stormed by 
 general Graham (afterwards lord Lynedoch), and taken Aug. 31, 1813. The loss sustained by 
 the besiegers, though not considerable, was chiefly British. — On May 5, 1836, the fortified 
 works, through the centre of which ran the high road to Hernani, were carried by the English 
 auxiliary legion under general Evans, after veiyhard fighting. The British naval squadron, 
 off St. Sebastian, under lord John Hay, lent very opportune aid to the victors in this 
 contest. — A vigorous assault was made on the lines of general De Lacy Evans, at St. Sebastian, 
 by the Carlists, Oct. i, 1836. Both parties fought with bravery. The Carlists were repulsed, 
 after suffering severely. The loss of the Anglo-Spanish force was 376 men and 37 officers, 
 killed and wounded. General De Lacy Evans was slightly wounded. 
 
 SEBASTOPOL, or Sevastopol, a town and once a naval arsenal, at S.W. point of the 
 Crimea, formerly the little village of Aktiar. The buildings were commenced in 1 784, by 
 Catherine II. after the conquest of the country. The town is built in the shape of an 
 amphitheatre on the rise of a large hill flattened on its summit, according to a plan laid 
 down before 1794, which has been since adhered to. The fortifications and harbour were con- 
 structed by an English engineer, colonel Upton, and his sons, since 1830. The population in 
 1834 was 15,000. This place will be memorable hereafter for its eleven months' Siege, by 
 the English and French in 1854 and 1855. Immediately after the battle of the Alma, 
 Sept. 20, 1854, the allied army marched to Sebastopol, and took up its position on the 
 plateau between it and Balaklava, and the grand attack and bombardment commenced 
 Oct. 17, 1854, without success.* After many sanguinary encounters by day and night, and 
 repeated bombardments, a grand assault was made on Sept. 8, 1855, upon the Malakhoff 
 tower and the Redans, the most important fortifications to the south of the town. The 
 French succeeded in capturing and retaining the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on 
 the great Redan and of the French upon the little Redan were successful, but the assailants 
 were compelled to retire after a desperate struggle with great loss of life. The French lost 
 1646 killed, of whom 5 were generals, 24 superior and 116 inferior officers, 4500 wounded, 
 and 1400 missing. The English lost 385 killed (29 being commissioned and 42 non-com- 
 missioned oflUcers), 1886 wounded, and 176 missing. In the night the Russians abandoned 
 the southern and principal part of the town and fortifications, after destroying as much as 
 possible, and crossed to the northern forts. They also sank or burnt the remainder of their 
 fleet. The allies found a very great amount of stores when they entered the place, July 9. 
 The works were utterly destroyed in April, 1856, and the town was restored to the Russians 
 in July. See Russo-Titrkish War. 
 
 SECRETARIES of State. The earliest authentic record of a secretary of state is in 
 the reign of Henry III., when John Maunsell is described as " Secretarius Noster," 1253. 
 Rymer. Towards the close of Henry VIII. 's reign, two secretaries were appointed ; and 
 upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third as secretary for Scotch affairs ; this 
 appointment was afterwards laid aside ; but in the reign of George III. the number was 
 again increased to three, one for the American dej^artment. In 1782 this last was abolished 
 by act of parliament ; and the secretaries were appointed for home, foreign, and colonial 
 affairs. When there were but two secretaries, one held the portefeuilU of the Northern 
 
 * In consequence of the sufferings and disasters of the army in the winter of 1854-5, the Sebastopol 
 Inquiry Committee was appointed, and the Aberdeen administration resigned, Feb. 1855. The committee 
 sat from March i to May 15, lord Aberdeen being the last person examined. Its report was presented 
 June 18. Mr. Koebuck, the chairman, moved on July 17 that the house should pass a vote of severe 
 reprehension on every member of the Aberdeen administration. On July 19 his motion was lost by a 
 majority 107 against it. In 1855 the government sent sir John M'NeiU and col. TuUoch to inquire into 
 the state of the armies in the Crimea. Their report was presented to parliament in Feb. 1856. A com- 
 mission was appointed to consider the statements in the report (which were very unfavourable to many 
 officers), but the substance of the report was unshaken.^ 
 
SEC 654 SEM 
 
 department, comprising the Low Countries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Eussia, 
 &c. ; the other, of the Southern department, including France, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, 
 Portugal, and Turkey ; the att'airs of Ireland belonging to the elder secretary ; both secre- 
 taries then equally directed the home afl'airs. Bcatson. There are now five secretaries — 
 home, foreign, colonial, war, and India (appointed in 1858), all in the cabinet. 
 
 SECTS, EELIGIOUS. See under Worshi2J, and their respective titles. 
 
 SECULAR GAMES {Lucli Sccculares). Verj' ancient Roman games, celebrated on 
 important occasions. Horace wrote his " Carmen Sfeculare " for their celebration, in the 
 reign of the emperor Augustus (17). This took place again in the reign of Claudiiis (47), of 
 Domitian (88), and for the last time, of Philip (248), believed to be 2000 years after the 
 foundation of the city. 
 
 SECURITY FROM Violence Act, passed in 1863, appointed whipping as a punish- 
 ment for attempts at garotting. 
 
 SEDAN CHAIRS, so called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first seen iii 
 England was iu 1581. One was used in the reign of James I., by the duke of Buckingham, 
 to the great indignation of the people, who exclaimed that he was employing his feilow- 
 creatures to do the service of beasts. Sedan chairs came into fashion in London iu 1634, 
 when sir Francis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of such 
 covered chairs for fourteen years. They came into very general use in 1649. 
 
 SEDGMOOR (Somersetshire), where the duke of Monmouth (the natural son of Charles II. 
 by Lucy "Walters), who had risen in rebellion on the accession of James II., was completely 
 defeated by the royal army, Julj' 6, 1685. The duke was made a prisoner, in the disguise of 
 a peasant, at the bottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger, fatigue, and anxiety. He was 
 beheaded on July 15, following. 
 
 SEDITION. Sedition acts were passed in the reign of George III. The proclamation 
 against seditioiis writings was published May, 1792. The celebrated Sedition bill passed 
 Dec. 1795- Seditious societies were suppressed by act, June 1797. The seditious meetings 
 and assemblies' bill passed March 31, 1817. In Ireland, during the Roman Catholic and 
 Repeal agitation, acts or proclamations against sedition and seditious meetings were 
 published from time to time until 1848. 
 
 SEEKERS. See Quakers. SEICENTO. See Italy, p. 372, note. 
 
 SEIDLICE (Poland), where a battle was fought April 10, 183 1, between the Poles and 
 Russians. The Poles obtained the victory after a bloody conflict, taking 4000 prisoners and 
 several pieces of cannon. The killed and wounded on both sides amoimted to many 
 thousands. This success was soon followed by fatal reverses. 
 
 SEISMOMETRY (from xeismos, Greek for earthquake), an apparatus for measuring the 
 violence of the shocks. One is described by Mr. Robert Mallet in his work on earthquakes, 
 published in 1858. 
 
 SELENIUM, a greyish-white metal discovered in the stone riolite by Berzelius, in 181 7. 
 
 SELEUCIA, a part of Syria, was made the capital of the Syrian monarchy by its builder, 
 Seleucus Nicator, 312 B.C. On the fall of the Seleucidae, it became a republic, 65 B.C. It 
 was taken by Trajan, a.d. 116 ; was several times given up and retaken ; was subjugated by 
 the Saracens, and iiuited with Ctesiphon, 636. 
 
 SELEUCIDES, Era of the, dates from the reign of Seleucus Nicator. It was used in 
 Syria for many years, and frequently by the Jews until the 15th century, and by some 
 Arabians. Opinions vary as to its commencement. To reduce it to our era (supposmg it to 
 begin Sept. i, 312 B.C.), subtract 311 years 4 months. 
 
 SELF-DENYING ORDINANCE, which ordained that no member of parliament should 
 hold any civil or military office or command conferred by either or both of the houses, or by 
 authority derived from them, was passed April 3, 1645, by the influence of Cromwell, who 
 thus removed the earl of Essex and other Presbyterians out of his way. A somewhat 
 similar ordinance was adopted by the parliament at Melbourne in Australia, in 1858. 
 
 SELLASIA (Laconia). Here the Spartans under Cleomenes were defeated by Antigonus 
 Doson and the Achseans, 221 B.C. 
 
 SEMINCAS (Castile, Spain). Here, in 938, the Moors Were totally defeated by 
 Ramirez II., king of Leon and Asturias. It is said that more than 80,000 of the infidels 
 were slain. 
 
 I 
 
SEM 655 SER 
 
 SEMPACH (Switzerland). Here was fought a battle between the Swiss and Leopold, 
 duke of Austria, July 9, 1386. The Swiss gained a great victor}^; and the duke was 
 slain. The liberty of their coiintry was established ; and the day is still commemorated at 
 Sempach. 
 
 SEBIPER EADEM ("Always the same"), one of the mottoes of queen Elizabeth, was 
 adopted by queen Anne Dec. 13, 1702. Many suspected this motto to denote her Jacobitism. 
 It ceased to be iised after her reign. 
 
 SENESCHAL, a high officer of the French royal household. In the reign of Philip I. 
 1059, the office was esteemed the highest place of trust. 
 
 SENONES, a Celtic tribe, invaded lower Italy, and wei'e defeated by Camillus, 367 B.C. 
 They defeated Metellus the consul at Arretium, 284, but were almost exterminated by 
 Dolabella, 283. 
 
 SENTINUM (Central Italy). The site of a great victory of the Eomans over the 
 Samnites and Gauls, whose general, Gellius Egnatius, was slain, 295 B.C. 
 
 SEPOYS (a coi-ruption of SipdM, Hindostanee for a soldier), the term applied to the 
 native troops in India. Under able generals they greatly aided in establisMng British rule 
 in India. For their mutinies, see Madras, 1807, and India, 1857. 
 
 SEPTEMBER, the seventh Roman mouth reckoned from March (from seiMmus, seventh). 
 It became the ninth month when January and February were added to the }='ear by Numa, 
 713 B.C. The Roman senate would have given this month the name of Tiberius, but the 
 emperor opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his own name, Germanicus ; the senate 
 under Antoninus Pius gave it that of Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his surname, Herculeus ; 
 and the emperor Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. 
 
 SEPTEMBRIZERS. In the French revolution a dreadful massacre took place in Paris, 
 Sept. 2-5, 1792. The prisons were broken open, and the prisoners butchered, among them 
 an ex-bishop, and nearly 100 non-juring priests. Some accoiints state the number of persons 
 slain at 1200, others at 4000. The agents in this slaughter were named Septembrizers. 
 
 SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. Edward I. held but one parliament every two years. 
 In the 4th Edward III. it was enacted, "that a parliament should be holden every year 
 once." This continued to be the statute-law till i6th Charles I. 1641, when an act was 
 passed for holding parliaments once in three years at least ; repealed in 1664. The 
 Triennial act was re-enacted in 1694. Triennial parliaments thence continued till the second 
 year of George I.'s reign, May 1716, when, in consequence of the allegation that " a popish 
 faction were designing to renew the rebellion in this kingdom, and the report of an invasion 
 from abroad, it was enacted that the then parliament should continue for seven years. " 
 This Septennial act has ever since been in force. See Parliaments. Several unsuccessful 
 motions have been made for its repeal ; one in May 1837. 
 
 SEPTUAGESIMA SUNDAY in 1866, Jan. 28; in 1867, Feb. 17; in 1868, Feb. 9. 
 See Quadragesima Sunday and WeeTc. 
 
 SEPTUAGINT YERSION of the Bible, made from Hebrew into Greek, 277 e.g. 
 Seventy-two translators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; each pair translated the whole ; 
 and on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or letter. Justin 
 Martyr. St. Jerome affirms that they translated only the Pentateuch ; but St. Justin and 
 others say they translated the whole. Ptolemy Philadelphus gave the Jews about a million 
 sterling for a copy of the Testament, and seventy translators half a million more for the 
 translation. Josephus. Finished in seventy-two days. Hewlett. The above statements 
 are merely traditional. See Bible. 
 
 SERAPIS, Temple of (near Naples), was exhumed in 1750. The investigations of 
 Lyell and Babbage into the history of the sinking and burying of this temple are of great 
 geological interest. 
 
 SERFS. See Slavery (note) and Russia, 1861, 1863. 
 
 SERINGAPATAM (S. India). See Mysore. The battle of Seringapatam, called also the 
 battle of Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Sahib, was fought May 15, 1791. The 
 redoubts were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, Feb. 6, 1792. After this 
 capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed to cede one half of Mysore, 
 and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees (about 3,300,000^. sterling) to England, and to give up to 
 lord Cornwallis his two eldest sons as hostages. — In a new war the Madras army, under 
 general Harris, arrived before Seringapatam, April 5, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bombay 
 
SER 
 
 SEV 
 
 army, April 14 ; and the place was stormed and carried by major-general Baird, May 4, 
 same year. In this engagement Tippoo was killed. 
 
 SERJEANTS-AT-LAW are pleaders from among whom the judges are ordinarily chosen, 
 and who are called Serjeants of the coif. The judges call them brothers. See Coif. 
 
 SERVANTS. An act laying a duty on male servants was passed in 1775. This tax was 
 augmented in 1781, et scq. A tax on female servants was imposed in 1785 ; but this latter 
 act was repealed in 1792. The tax on servants yielded in 1830 about 250,000?. per annum ; 
 in 1840 the revenue from it had fallen to 201,482?.; in 1850 it produced about the 
 same sum. 
 
 SERVIA, a hereditary principality nominally subject to Turkey, south of Hungary. 
 The Servians are of Slavonic origin. They embraced Christianity about 640. The emperor 
 Manuel subjected them in 1150 ; but they recovered their independence in 11 80, and were 
 ruled by princes, generally named Stephen, till their country was finally subdued by the 
 sultan Mahomet II. in 1459. Population in 1854, 985,000. 
 
 A Servian rebellion quelled .... 1737 
 The Servians assist Austiia by free companies, 
 
 1788-90 
 Again rebel, and capture Belgrade . . . 1806 
 Kara George, aided by the Russians, establishes 
 
 a government ...... 1807-11 
 
 The Turks break a treaty and Kara George 
 
 flees 1814 
 
 Their governor Slilosch rebels . . March, 1815 
 Kara George returning, is executed . . . 1816 
 Milosch I. recognised as hereditary prince by 
 
 the sultan Aug. 15, 1829 
 
 Milosch becoming despotic is compelled to 
 
 abdicate, and a new constitution estabhshed, 
 
 June 13, 1839 
 His son Michael also retires ; Alexander, son of 
 
 Kara George, chosen prince . Sept. 14, 1842 
 Alexander becoming unpopular, is compelled to 
 
 abdicate, and Alexander Milosch is re-elected 
 prince Dec. 23, 1858 
 
 Plot against Milosch frustrated, July 11 ; the 
 Servian assembly meets . . . July 13, i860 
 
 Milosch dies ; succeeded by his son Michael 
 III. Obrenovitch (present ruler) . Sept. 26, ,, 
 
 Rising movement to render Servia independent 
 of Turkey March, 1861 
 
 Disputes between the Servians and the Turkish 
 garrison at Belgrade, which leads to blood- 
 shed ; June 15, the city bombarded ; submits, 
 June 17 ; the Turkish pasha dismissed, 
 
 June 19, 1862 
 
 A conference of the representatives of the great 
 powers at Constantinople, Aug. ; the Porte 
 agrees to liberal concessions to the Servians, 
 which their prince accepts . . Oct. 7, ,, 
 
 SESSION COURTS in England were appointed to be held quarterly in 1413, and the 
 times for holding them regulated in 1831. See Quarter Sessions and Court of Session. The 
 kirk-session in Scotland consists of the ministers and elders of each parish. They super- 
 intend religious worship and discipline, dispense the money collected for the poor, &c. 
 
 SESTUS, on the Thracian Chersonesus. See Hellespont. Near Sestus was the western 
 eud of Xerxes' bridge, across the Hellespont, 480 B.C. Sestus was retaken from the Persians 
 by the Athenians, 478 B.C., and held by them till 404, giving them the command of the 
 trade of the Euxine. 
 
 SETTLEMENT, Act of, for securing the succession to the British throne, to the 
 exclusion of Roman Catholics, was passed in 1689. This name is also given to the statute 
 by which the crown, after the demise of William III. and queen Anne, without issue, was 
 limited to Sophia, electress of Hanover, grand-daughter of James I., and to heirs being 
 Protestants, 1702. The Irish act of settlement, passed in 1662, was repealed in 1689. See 
 Hanover. 
 
 SEVEN CHURCHES of ASIA, to the angels (ministers) of which the apostle John was 
 commanded to write the epistles contained in the 2nd and 3rd chapters of his Revelation, 
 viz., Ephesus, Smyrna, Perganios, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea, 96. 
 
 . Ephesus (which see). Paul founded the church 
 here, 57. In 59 he was in great danger from a 
 tumult created by Demetrius : to the elders of 
 this church he'delivered his warning address, 60 
 (Acts xix. XX.). Ephesus was in a ruinous state 
 even in the time of Justinian {527^, and still re- 
 mains so. 
 
 :. Smyrna. Now an important commercial city 
 and seaport of Ionia. Polycarp, its first bishop, 
 suffered martyrdom, 175. 
 
 ,. Pergamos. Capital of the kingdom of the same 
 name, founded by Philetserus, whom Lysimachus, 
 one of Alexander's generals, had made governor, 
 283 B.C. He was succeeded by Bumeues I., 263; 
 
 Attains (who took the title of king), 241 ; Eumenes 
 H. (who collected a great library), 197 ; Attains 
 II., 159; Attains III., 138. He bequeathed his 
 kingdom to the Romans, 133. It revolted, was 
 subdued, and made the Roman province, Asia. 
 Pergamos is still an important place, called Ber- 
 gamo. Parchment is said to have been invented 
 here. 
 
 4. Thyatira. Now a mean town of 2000 houses, 
 called Ak-hissar, "White Castle." 
 
 S- Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, the 
 kingdom of Croesus (560 B.C.), is now a miserable 
 village, named Sart. 
 
 6. Philadelphia was built by Attaltis (III.) Phila- 
 
SEV 657 SHA 
 
 SEVEN CHURCHES of Asia, continued. 
 
 delphus, king of Pergamos (159-138 b.c); was 
 taken by Bajazet I. a.d. 1390. It is now called 
 Allah Shehr, "The city of God," and is a miserable 
 town of 3000 houses. 
 
 7. Zaodicea. In Phrygia, near Lydia, has suffered 
 much from earthquakes. It is now a deserted 
 place called Eske-hissar, " The old castle." 
 
 SEVEN-SHILLING PIECES in gold were authorised to be issued Nov. 29, 1797. 
 SEVEN YEARS' WAR, the conflict maintained by Frederick II. of Prussia against 
 Austria, Russia, and France, from 1756 to 1763. See Battles. He gained Silesia. 
 
 SEVENTH-DAY BAPTIST. See article SaUatarians, &c. 
 
 SEVERUS'S WALL. See Roman Walls. 
 
 SEVILLE (S.W. Spain), the Hisioalis of the Phcenicians, and the Julia of the Romans, 
 was the capital until Philip II. finally established his court at Madrid, 1563. It opened its 
 gates to the Saracens, in 712, and was taken from them by the Christians in 1247, ^fter an 
 obstinate siege. The peace of Seville between England, France, and Spain, and also a 
 defensive alliance" to which Holland acceded, signed Nov. 9, 1729. In the peninsular 
 Avar, Seville surrendered to the French, Feb. i, 1810; and was taken by assault by the 
 British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aug. 27, 1812. 
 
 SEVRES. See Porcelain. 
 
 SEWERS. An act was passed in 1847 enforcing the conveyance of the sewage of houses 
 into the public sewers. The Commissioners of Sewers in London were superseded by the 
 Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers, nominated by the government. They abolished the 
 large brick sewers, introducing pipe drains, and turned the contents of 30,000 cesspools 
 into the river Thames. The necessity for purifying the river led to the construction of a new 
 system of drainage, under the superintendence of the Metropolitan Board of Works {which 
 sec). The main drainage (the plan of Mr. J. W. Bazalgette) consists of the Northern High- 
 level, Middle-level, and Low-level, and Southern High-level and Low-level. On March 14, 
 1865, the works were said to be completed, except the low-level sewer on the north side, 
 which was waiting for the completion of the Thames embankment, &c. On April 4, 1865, 
 the prince of Wales started the engines which commenced lifting the waters of the southern 
 outfall, at Crossness Point, near Eritli.* Estimated total cost, 4,000,000?. See Carbolic 
 Acid. 
 
 SEWING-MACHINE. The first practical sewing-machine was the invention of Elias 
 Howe, an American mechanic, of Cambridge, in Massachusetts, about 1841. It is now 
 known under an improved form as Thomas's shuttle machine, by whom it was introduced 
 into England in 1846. Two threads are wrought into the fabric to be sewn, by a needle and 
 shuttle, which interlace the threads and form a strong seam. In some machines now in 
 extensive use, two needles are employed to make with two threads a double chain stitch, ' 
 and a more simple machine makes by the aid of one needle and a hook, the common single 
 chain stitch with one thread. These machines are all of American origin. 
 
 SEXAGESIMA SUNDAY. See Quadragesima Sunday and Week. 
 
 SEXTANT, an instrument used like a quadrant, containing sixty degrees, or the sixth 
 part of a circle, invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, in 1550. Vince's Astron. The 
 Arabian astronomers are said to have had a sextant of fifty nine feet nine inches radius, 
 about 995. Ashe. 
 
 SHAKSPEARE'S PLAYS. William Shakspeare was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, 
 Warwickshire, April 23, 1564, and died on his birthday, 1616. The first collected edition 
 of his works is dated 1623 [a facsimile of this edition was published, 1862-5] ! ^^^^ second, 
 1632 ;t the third, 1664; the foiu'th, 1685 ; all in folio. Critical editions of the text, edited 
 by Alexander Dyce, were published in 1857 and 1864-6 ; Boydell's edition, Avith numerous 
 
 * The ulilisaiion of disinfected sewage as manure is now much advocated. Great success is said to have 
 been attained at Edinburgh, CarUsle, Croydon, and other places. Much hot controversy has arisen respect- 
 ing this disposal of the London sewage. On Nov. 15, 1864, the Metropolitan board accepted a contract for 
 its disposal from Messrs. Hope and Napier. The Sewage Utilisation Act, and the Metropolitan Sewage and 
 Essex Reclamation Acts were passed in June, 1865. 
 
 t In 1849, Mr. J. P. Collier, editor of an edition of Shakspeare, purchased a copy of the second folio, 
 on which was written in pencil, a number of corrections, supposed to have been made soon after the time 
 of publication. At first he thought little of these marks ; but in 1853 he was induced to publish " Notes 
 and Emendations " derived from this volume. Much controversy ensued as to the authenticity of these 
 corrections ; and in 1859 it was generally agreed that they were of modern date, and consequently of Uttle 
 value. 
 
SHA 
 
 658 
 
 SHE 
 
 plates, was published in nine vols., folio, in 1802. Ayscough's Index to Shakspeare was 
 published in 1790; Twiss's Index, in 1805, and Mrs. Cowden Clarke's Concordance, 1847. 
 See IrdaiuVs Forgeries. 
 
 Shakspeaee's Globe Theatre, London, was situated 
 near the spot still called Bankside, at the com- 
 mencement of the seventeenth century. Shak- 
 speare was himself part-proprietor ; here some of 
 his plays were first produced, and he himself 
 performed in them. It was of a horse-shoe form, 
 partly covered with thatch. After it was licensed, 
 the thatch took fire, through the negligent dis- 
 charge of a piece of ordnance, and the whole 
 building was consumed. The house was crowded 
 to excess, to witness the play of Henry VIII., but 
 the audience escaped unhurt. This was the end 
 of Shakspeare's connection with this theatre : it 
 ■was rebuilt the following year, much in the same 
 style, about 1603. 
 
 Shakspeaee's Jubilee, and that projected by David 
 Garrick, was celebrated at Stratford-on-Avon, 
 Sept. 6-8, 1769 ; a similar festival was kept 
 April 23, 1836. The tercentenary of Shaksjieare's 
 birth was celebrated with many festivities at 
 Stratford-on-Avon, April 23, 1865. 
 
 Shakspeaee's Native Place. In 1847, a nimiber of 
 persons of distinction interested themselves for 
 the preservation of the house in which Shakspeare 
 was bom, then actually set up for sale : they held 
 a meeting at the Thatched-House Tavern, London, 
 Aug. 26, in that year, and took measures for 
 promoting a subscription set on foot by the Shak- 
 spearian Club at Stratford-\ipon-Avon ; and a 
 committee was appointed to carry out their object. 
 In the end Shakspeare's house was sold at the 
 Auction Mart in the city of London, where it was 
 "knocked down" to the United Committee of 
 London and Stratford for the large sum of 3000?. 
 Sept. 16, 1847. In 1856, a learned oriental scholar, 
 John Shakespeare, no relation of the poet, gave 
 2500?. to purchase the adjoining house, that it 
 might be pulled down, in order to ensure the 
 poet's house from the risk of fire. 
 
 Shakspeare's Garden was bought by subscription 
 got up by Mr. J. O. Halhwell, in Oct. and Nov. 
 
 SHAMEOCK. It is said that the shamrock used by the Irish was introduced by Patrick 
 M'Alpiue, since called St. Patrick, as a sinjile of the Trinity, 432. When he could, not 
 make them understand him by his words, he showed the Irish a stem of clover or trefoil, 
 thereby exhibiting an ocular demonstration of the possibility of three uniting into one, and 
 one into three. 
 
 SHAEPSBUEG (Marj'land). See Antiefam. 
 
 SHAWLS are of Oriental origin. The manufacture was introduced by Barrow and 
 Watson, in 1784, at Norwich. It began at Paisley and Edinburgh about 1805. Ure. 
 
 SHEEP were exported from England to Spain, and, the breed being thereby improved, 
 produced the fine Spanish wool, which proved detrimental to our woollen manufacture, 
 8 Edw. IV. 1467. Anderson. Their exportation was prohibited on pain of fine and impri- 
 sonment, 1522. The number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been variously stated — 
 by some at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840. The 
 number must have progressively increased to the present time, particularly as the unre- 
 stricted importation since 1846 %'astly swells the amount. In 1851 there were imported 
 into England 201,859 sheep and lambs ; in 1858, 184,482 ; in 1864, 496,243. In Aug. and 
 Sept. 1862, many sheep in AViltshire died of small-pox ; and on Sept. 11, government 
 declared its intention of enforcing the act for the prevention of contagion. The evil soon 
 abated. 
 
 SHEEPSHANKS' DONATIONS. On Feb. 2, 1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks, by a deed 
 of gift, presented to the nation his valuable collection of paintings and drawings, valued at 
 6o,oooZ. In accordance mth the donor's directions, the pictures were placed at the South 
 Kensington Museum. The collection is rich in the works of Mulready, Landseer, and 
 Leslie. He died Oct. 5, 1863. — On Dec. 2, 1858, the trustees of his brother, the late Eev. 
 Eichard Sheepshanks, presented io,oooZ. stock to Trinity college, Cambridge, for the 
 promotion of the study of astronomy, meteorology, and magnetism. 
 
 SHEEENESS (N. Kent), a royal dockyard, planned and fortified by Charles II. in 1667, 
 was taken by the Dutch, under De Eiiyter, June 11, same year. Imijroved since 1815. 
 
 SHEFFIELD, on the river Sheaf, West Eiding, Yorkshire ; renowned for cutleiy, plated 
 goods, &c. Sheffield thwytles are mentioned by Chaucer, in the time of Edward III. 
 Sheffield in the time of the Conqueror was obtained by Eoger de Buisli, and has since been 
 held by the Lovetots, Nevds, Talbots, and Howards. 
 
 St. Peter's church built temp. Heni-y I. 
 Hospital and almshouses erected by the earl of 
 
 Malmesbuiy 1616 
 
 Cutlers' company incorporated .... 1624 
 The castle (built in the 13th century) was taken 
 
 and demolished by the parliamentarians . . 1648 
 Cutlers' hall built 1726 
 
 Plate assay office established . . . . 
 
 Made a borough by the Beform Act . 
 
 Wesley college opened ...... 
 
 Sheflield and Manchester railway opened . 
 Athenajum and Mechanics' Institution opened. 
 John A. Roebuck (grandson of Dr. Roebuck of 
 Sheffield), M.P. for Sheffield . . May, 1849-66 
 
 1773 
 1832 
 1838 
 1845 
 
SHE 
 
 659 
 
 SHI 
 
 SHEFFIELD, continued. 
 
 Embankment of the Bradfield water reservoir 
 broke down, and flooded Sheffield and the 
 comiti-y 12 or 14 miles round ; about 250 lives 
 were lost; many buildings and much pro- 
 
 perty destroyed; estimated loss, 327,000?., 
 
 March 11, 
 
 52,751?. had been collected for the sufferers, 
 
 AiDril 29, 
 The Surrey music haU burnt . March 25, 
 
 SHELBUENE ADMIFISTEATION, formed at the deatli of the marquis of Rock- 
 ingham, July, 1782; terminated April, 1783; and was succeeded by the "Coalition" 
 administration. 
 
 The earl of Shelbume (afterwards marquess of Thomas, lord Grantham, and Thomas Townshend 
 Landsdowne), first lord of the treasury. (afterwards lord Sydney), secretaries. 
 
 William Pitt, chancellor of the exchequer. Viscount Keppel, admiralty. 
 
 Lord (afterwards earl) Camden, president of the Duke of Richmond, ordnance, 
 
 council. Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 
 
 Duke of Grafton, jorivy seal. Henry Dundas, Isaac Barr6, sir George Yonge, (fee. 
 
 SHELLS. See Bomls. 
 
 SHERIFF. The office of sheriff is from sJiire-reve, governor of a shire or county. London 
 had its sheriffs prior to William I.'s reign ; but some say that sheriffs were first nominated 
 for every county in England by William in 1079. According to other historians, Henry 
 Oornhill and Richard Reynere were the first sheriffs of London, i Rich. I. 11 89. The nomi- 
 nation of sheriffs according to the present mode took place in 146 1. Stoiv. Anciently sheriffs 
 were hereditary in Scotland, and in some English counties, as Westmoreland. The sheriffs of 
 Dublin (first caUed bailiffs) were appointed in 1308, and obtained the name of sheriff by an 
 incorporation of Edward VI. 1548. Thirty-five sheriffs were fined, and eleven excused in 
 one year, rather than serve the office for London, 1734. See Bailiffs. 
 
 SHERIFFMUIR. See Dumblane. SHETLAND ISLES. See Orkneys. 
 
 SHIBBOLETH, the word by which the followers of Jephthah tested their opponents the 
 Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1143 B.C. Jiulcjes xii. The term is now applied 
 to any party watchword or dogma. 
 
 SHIITES, a Mahometan sect, predominated in Persia. See Maliometanism. 
 
 SHILLINCt. The value of the ancient Sason coin of this name was fivepence, but it 
 was reduced to fourpence about a century before the conquest. After the conquest the French 
 solidus of twelve pence, in use among the Normans, was called shilling. The true English 
 shilling was first coined, but in small quantity, 18 Hen. YII. 1503. Br. Kelly. In 1505. 
 Bishop Fleetwood. A peculiar shilling, value nine pence, but to be current at twelve, was 
 struck in Ireland, 1560; and a large but very base coinage in England for the service of 
 Ireland, 1598. Milled shillings were coined 13 Chas. II. 1662. See Coins. 
 
 SHIP-BUILDING. The first ship (probably a galley) was brought from Egypt to Greece, 
 by Danaus, 1485 e. c. Blair. The first double-decked ship was built by the Tyrians, 786 b. c. 
 Lenglet. The first double-decked one built in England was of 1000 tons burthen, by order 
 of Henry VIII. 1509 ; it was called the Great Earry, and cost 14,000^. Stoiu. Port-holes 
 and other improvements were invented by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the 
 reign of Louis XII., about 1500. Ship-buUding was first treated as a science by Hoste, 
 1696. A 74-gim ship was put iipon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed 
 with India-rubber, 1829. Iron is now greatly used in ship-building. See Navy and 
 Steam Vessels. 
 
 SHIP-MONEY was first levied about 1007, to form a navy to oppose the Danes. 
 This impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634-6 led to the revolution. He 
 assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men ; Yorkshire in two ships, of 
 600 tons, or i2,oooZ. ; Bristol in one ship, of 100 tons ; Lancashire in one ship, of 400 tons. 
 John Hampden refused to pay the tax, and Avas tried in the Exchequer in 1636. Ship-money 
 was included in a redress of grievances in 1641. The five judges, who had given an opinion 
 in its favoiu-, were imprisoned. Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince 
 Ruj)ert, and died June 24, 1643. 
 
 SHIPPING, BpaxiSH. Shipping was first registered in the river Thames in 1786 ; and 
 throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle of the i8th century, the shipping of England 
 was but half a million of tons— less than London noAv. In 1830, the number of ships in the 
 British empire was 22,785. See Navy and Navigation Acts. 
 
 V V 2 
 
SHI 
 
 660 
 
 SHO 
 
 SHIPPING, British, continued. 
 
 NUMBER OF VESSELS REGISTERED IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE ON JAN. I, 184O. 
 
 Country. Vessels. Tonnage. Seamen. 
 
 England 15,830 .... 1,983,522 .... ii4,593 
 
 Scotland 3,318 . ... 378,194 • • • • 25,909 
 
 Ireland 1,889 • • • • 169,289 .... 11,288 
 
 Guernsey, Jersey, and Man . . . 633 . . . . 39,630 . . . . 4,473 
 
 British Plantations .... 6,075 . • . • 497)798 .... 3S>020 
 
 Total 27,745 .... 3,068,433 .... 181,283 
 
 The following are the numbers" of the Eegistered Sailing and Steam Vessels (exclusive of 
 Kiver Steamers) of the United Kingdom, engaged in the home and foreign trade : — 
 
 1849. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1861. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Men 
 employed. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Men 
 employed. 
 
 Vessels." 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Sailing . . . 
 Steamers 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 17,807 
 414 
 
 2,988,021 144,165 
 108,321 8,446 
 
 18,419 
 851 
 
 3,825,022 
 33i.°55 
 
 151,080 
 22,838 
 
 19,288 
 997 
 
 3,918,5" 
 441,184 
 
 lS,22I 
 
 3,096,342 
 
 152,611 
 
 19,270 
 
 4,155,077 
 
 173,918 
 
 20,285 
 
 4,359,695 
 
 * Men employed — sailing vessels, 144,949 ; steamers, 27,008 ; total, 171,957. 
 
 SHIPWRECKS. See Wrecks. 
 
 SHIRES. See Counties. 
 
 SHIRTS are said to have been first generally worn in the west of Europe early in the 8th 
 century. Dii Frcsnoy. "Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England until aboiit 1253, 
 when linen, but of a coarse kind (fine coming at this period from abroad), was first manu- 
 factured in England by Flemish artisans. Stow. 
 
 SHOEBURYNESS (Essex). Some ground here, purchased in 1842 and 1855, and by 
 an act of parliament in 1862, was set apart as "ranges for the use and practice of 
 artillery." See Cannon, note. Experiments with Mr. Whitworth's projectiles on Nov. 12, 
 1862, sliowed their great improvement in form and material. Shells were sent through 
 5i inch plate and the wood- work behind it. It was objected, that they might not do this 
 with ships in motion. 
 
 SHOEBLACK BRIGADES (Blue, Red, and Yellow) were established at various times, 
 especially in 1851, by the Ragged School Union {which see), founded 1844. In 1855, 108 
 boys had cleaned 544,800 pairs of boots and shoes, and thus earned 2270L; of which 1235/. 
 had been paid to the boys, 527^. to their bank, and 5x6^. to the society. The brigades earned 
 4548L in 1859. 
 
 SHOES, among the Jews were made of leather, linen, rush, or wood. Moons wei-e worn 
 as ornaments in their shoes by the Jewish women. Isaiah iii. 18. Pythagoras would haA'e 
 his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of trees ; probably, that they might not wear what 
 were made of the skins of animals, as they refrained from the use of eveiything that had life. 
 The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their shoes ; and Caligula enriched his with precious 
 stones. In England, about 1462, the people wore the beaks or points of their shoes so long, 
 that they encumbered themselves in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees ; 
 the fine gentlemen fastened theirs with chains of silver or silver gilt, and others with laces. 
 This wa? prohibited, on the forfeiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by the clergy, 
 7 Edw. IV. 1467. See Dress. Shoes, as at present worn, were introduced about 1633. 
 The buckle was not used till 1668. Stow; Mortimer. The buckle-makers petitioned against 
 the use of shoe-strings in I79i- 
 
 SHOP-TAX. The act by which a tax was levied upon retail shops was passed in 1785 ; 
 but it caused so great a commotion, particularly in London, that it was deemed exi^edient to 
 repeal it in 1789. The statute whereby shoplifting was made a felony, without benefit of 
 clergy, was passed 10 & 11 "Will. III. 1699. This statute has been some time repealed. 
 
SHO 661 SIB 
 
 SHOKE, JANE, the mistress of Edward IV. and afterwards of lord Hastings. She did 
 public penance in 1483, and was afterwards confined in Ludgate ; but upon the petition ©f 
 Thomas Hymore, who agreed to marry her, king Richard III., in 1484, restored her to 
 libertj'^ ; and sir Thomas Moore mentions having seen her, which contradicts the story of 
 her having perished by hunger. HarUian MSS. 
 
 SHORT-HAND. See SterLograpliy. 
 
 " SHORT-LIVED " ADMINISTRATION-that of William Pulteney, earl of Bath, lord 
 Carlisle, lord Winchilsea, and lord Granville, existed from Feb. 10 to Feb. 12, 1746. 
 
 SHOT. In early times various missiles Avere shot from cannon. Bolts are mentioned in 
 1413 ; and in 1418 Henry V. ordered his clerk of the ordnance to get 7000 stones made at 
 the quarries at Maidstone. Since then chain, grape, and canister shot have been invented, 
 as well as shells ; all of which are described in Scoffern's work on "Projectile Weapons of 
 War, and Explosive Compounds," 1858. See Bombs and Cannon. 
 
 SHREWSBURY ADMINISTRATION. Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, was made lord 
 treasurer, July 30, 17 14, two days before the death of queen Anne ; his patent was revoked' 
 soon after the accession of George I., Oct. 13 following, when the earl of Halifax became first 
 lord of the treasury. See Halifax. The office of lord treasurer has been executed by com- 
 missioners ever since. 
 
 SHREWSBURY (Shropshire), arose on the ruin of the Roman town Uriconium [see 
 Wroxeter), and became one of the chief cities of the kingdom, having a mint tUl the reign of 
 Henry III. Here Richard II. held a parliament in 1397. On July 21 or 23, 1403, was- 
 fought the sanguinary battle of Shrewsbury between the army of Henry IV. and that of 
 the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland, who had 
 consj^ired to dethrone Henry. Henry was seen in the thickest of the fight, with his son, 
 afterwards Henry V. The death of Hotsj)ur by an unknown hand gave the victory to the 
 king. Hume. Shrewsbury grammar school was founded by Edward VI. in 1553, and 
 endowed by Elizabeth. 
 
 SHROPSHIRE, Battle of, in which the Britons were completely subjugated, and 
 Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, through the treachery of the queen of 
 the Brigantes, a prisoner to the Romans, 50.* 
 
 SHROVE TUESDAY, the day before Ash -Wednesday, the first day of the Lent Fast. 
 See Carnival. 
 
 SIAM,t a kingdom in India, bordering on the Burmese empire. Siam was re-discovered 
 by the Portuguese in 151 1, and a trade established, in which the Dutch joined about 1604. 
 A British ship arrived about 1613. In 1683, a Cephalonian Greek, Constantine Phaulcon, 
 became foreign minister of Siam, and opened a communication with France ; Louis XIV. 
 sent an embassy in 1685 with a view of converting the king, without effect. After several 
 ineffectual attempts, sir John Bowring succeeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and 
 commerce between England and Siam, which was signed Apiil 30, 1855, and ratified April 5, 
 1856 ; and one with France followed in August. Two ambassadors from Siam arrived in 
 Oct. 1857, and had an audience with the queen ; they brought with them magnificent 
 presents, which they delivered crawling, on Nov. 16. They were at Paris in June, 1861. 
 
 SIBERIA (N. Asia). In 1580 the conquest was begun by the Cossacks under Jermak 
 Timofejew. In 17 10 Peter the Great began to send prisoners thither. 
 
 SIBYLS, Sibyllse were women believed to be inspired, who flourished in different parts 
 of the world. Plato speaks of one, others of two, Pliny of three, iElian of four, and Varro 
 of ten. An Erythrean sibyl is said to have offered to Tarquin II. nine books containing the 
 Roman destinies, demanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her ; whereupon the 
 
 * It is asserted that while Caractacus was being led through Rorae, his eyes were dazzled by the 
 splendours tHat surrounded him. " Alas ! " he cried, "how is it possible that a people possessed of such, 
 magnificence at home, could envy me an humble cottage in Britain ? " The emperor was affected with the 
 British hero's misfortunes, and won by his address. He ordered him to be unchained upon the spot, and 
 set at liberty with the rest of the captives. 
 
 t Siamese Twins. Two persons born about iSii, enjoying all the faculties and powers usually 
 possessed by separate and distinct individuals, although united together by a short cartilaginous band at 
 the pit of the stomach. They are named Chang and Eng, and were first discovered on the banks of the 
 Siam river by an American, Mr. Robert Hunter, by whom they were taken to New York, where they were 
 exhibited. Captain Coflan brought them to England. After having been exhibited for several years in 
 Britain, they went to America, where they settled on a farm, and married sisters. In 18S5 they were said 
 to be living in North Carolina in declining health. 
 
SIC 
 
 66'. 
 
 SIC 
 
 sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the same price for the other six, which 
 b?ing still denied, she bui'nt three more, and again demanded the same sum for those that 
 remained ; when Tarqiiin conferring with the pontiffs was advised to buy them. Two 
 magistrates were created to considt them on all occasions, 531 B.C. 
 
 SICILIAlSr VESPERS, the term given to the massacre of the French in Sicily, com- 
 menced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had becrome hateful to the Sicilians, and 
 a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou was already ripe, when the following occurrence led 
 to its development and accomplishment. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had 
 assembled at Palermo ; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride 
 happened to pass by with her train. She was observed by one Drochet, a Frenchman, who 
 began to use her rudely, imder pretence of searching for arms. A j'oung Sicilian, exaspe- 
 rated at this affront, stabbed him with his o^vn sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French 
 were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city, crying out, 
 "Let the French die !" and, without distinction of rank, age, or sex, slaughtered all of that 
 nation they coidd find, to the number of 8000. Even the churches proved no sanctuary, 
 and the massacre became general throughout the island. 
 
 SICILY (anciently Trinacria, three-cornered). The early inhabitants were the Sicani, a 
 people of Spain, and Eti-uscans, who came from Italy aboiit 1294 b.c. A second colony, 
 under Siculus, arrived eighty years before the destruction of Troy, 1284 B.C. The 
 Phcenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here (735-582). Itds supposed that Sicily was 
 separated from Italy by an earthquake, and that the straits of the Charybdis were thus 
 formed. Its government has frequently been united with and separated from that of ^Naples 
 {which sec) ; the two now form part of the kingdom of Italy. Population of Sicily in 1856, 
 2,231,020. 
 
 Arrival of Ulysses. Homer. . . . B.C. ri86 
 
 Syracuse founded Eusebius . . about 732 
 Gela founded. Tlw.cydides . . . 680 or 713 
 
 Agrigentum founded 582 
 
 Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to death. 
 
 See Braztii Bull . . . . . . , 549 
 
 Law of Petalism instituted .... 460 
 
 Athenian expedition fails 413 
 
 War with Carthage 409 
 
 Dionysius becomes master of Syracuse, makes 
 
 peace with the Carthaginians and reigns . 406-367 
 Dionysius II. sells Plato for a slave, who is 
 
 ransomed by his friends 360 
 
 Dionysius expelled by Timoleon . . . . 343 
 
 Who governs well : and dies .... 337 
 Agathoclcs usurps sovereign power at Syracuse, 
 317 ; defeated at Himei-a by the Carthaginians, 
 
 310 ; poisoned 289 
 
 Tyrrhus, king of Epirus, invades Sicily ; expels 
 the Carthaginians from most of their settle- 
 ments, but returns to Italy . . . 278-277 
 
 The Romans enter Sicily 
 Agrigentum taken by the Romans . . B.C. 262 
 Palermo besieged by the Romans . . . . 254 
 Archimedes flourishes . . . about 236 
 Hiero II. defeated by the Romans, 263 ; 
 
 becomes their ally, and reigns till . . . 216 
 The Romans take Syracuse, and make all Sicily 
 
 a province; Archimedes slain . . . 212 
 
 The Carthaginians lose half their possessions, 
 
 241 ; all the remainder „ 
 
 The Servile wars . . . 135, 134, and 132 
 
 Tyrannical govenin\ent of Verres (for which he 
 
 was accused by Cicero) 73-71 
 
 Sicily held by Sextus Pompeius, son of the 
 
 great Pompey 42-36 
 
 * » * * * 
 
 Invaded by the Vandals, A.n. 440 ; by the 
 Goths, 493 ; taken for the Greek emperors by 
 Belisarius a.d. 535 
 
 Conquered by the Saracens .... 832 
 
 The Greeks and Arabs driven out by a Norman 
 prince, Roger I. son of Tancred, 1058 : who 
 takes the title of count of Sicily . 1061-1090 
 
 Roger II. son of the above-named, unites Sicily 
 with Naples, and is crowned king of the Two 
 SicUies 1131 
 
 Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of 
 France, conquers Naples .and Sicily, deposes 
 the Norman princes, and makes himself king, 1266 
 
 The French becoming hated by the Sicilians, 
 a general massacre of the invaders tikes 
 place. See Sicilian Vespers . . . . 1282 
 
 Sicily is seized by a fleet sent by the kings of 
 Aragon ; but Naples remains to the house of 
 Anjou j^ 
 
 Alphonso, king of Aragon, takes possession of 
 Naples i^3r 
 
 The kingdom of Naples and Sicily united to the 
 Spanish monarchy under Ferdinand the 
 Catholic 1501 
 
 Victor, duke of Savoy, made king of Sicily, by 
 the treaty of Utrecht 1713 
 
 Which he gives up to the emperor Charles VI., 
 and becomes king of Sardinia .... 1720 
 
 Charles, sou of the king of Spain, becomes king 
 of the Two Sicilies 1735 
 
 The throne of Spain, becoming vacant, Charles, 
 who is heir, vacates the thi-one of the Two 
 SicUies in favour of his third son Ferdinand, 
 agreeably to treaty 1755 
 
 Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, 
 which destroys 40,000 persons . . . . 1783 
 
 The French conquer Naples (which see) ; Ferdi- 
 nand IV. retires to Sicily .... i8r,6 
 
 Political disturbances 1810 
 
 New constitution granted, under British 
 auspices 1812 
 
 The French expelled from Naples ; kingdom of 
 The Two Sicilies re-established; Ferdinand 
 returns to Naples 1815 
 
 He aboUshes the new constitution 
 
 Revolution at Palermo suppressed . . '. 1820 
 
 The great towns in Sicily rise and den^nd the 
 constitution ; a provisional government pro- 
 claimed Jan. 12, 1848 
 
 The king nominates his brother, the count of 
 Aquila, viceroy, Jan. 17 ; promises a new 
 constitution Jan. 29, 
 
 The Sicilian parli.ament decrees the exclusion 
 of the Bourbon family, April 13 ; and invites 
 the duke of Genoa to the throne . July n, „ 
 
 Messina bombarded and taken by the Neapo- 
 litans Sept. 7, „ 
 
SIC 
 
 663 
 
 [SIE 
 
 SICILY, continued. 
 
 Catania taken by assault, April 8 ; Syracuse' 
 surrenders, April 23 ; and Palermo . May 15, 1849 
 
 Insurrections supisressed at Palermo, Messina, 
 and Catania, April 4 et seq. ; the rebels retire 
 into the interior . . . April 21 et seq. i860 
 
 Garibaldi and his followers (2,200 men) embark 
 at Genoa, May 5 ; and land at Marsala, 
 May II ; he abandons his ships ; and assumes 
 the dictatorship in the name of the king of 
 Sardinia May 14, ,, 
 
 He defeats the royal troops at Calatafimi, 
 May 15 ; storms Palermo, May 27 ; which is 
 bombarded by the royal fleet, May 28 ; an 
 armistice agi-eed to . . . May 31, „ 
 
 A provisional government formed at Palermo, 
 June 3 ; which is evacuated by the Neapoli- 
 tans June 6, „ 
 
 Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans at Melazzo, 
 
 July 20, 21, ,, 
 
 Convention signed, by which the Neapolitans 
 agree to evacuate Sicily (retaining the citadel 
 of Messina) July 30, ,, 
 
 The Sicilian constitution proclaimed . Aug. 3, 
 Garibaldi embarks for Calabria : see Naples. 
 
 Aug. 19, 
 Professor Saffi (late of Oxford), a short time 
 
 dictator Sept. 
 
 The Sicilians by universal suffrage vote for 
 
 annexation to Sardinia (432,054 against 667), 
 
 Oct. 21, 
 
 Victor-Emmanuel visits Sicily . Dec. i. 
 
 Citadel of Messina blockaded, Feb. 28 ; sur- 
 renders to general Cialdini . . March 13, 
 
 King- Victor-Bmmanuel warmly received at 
 Messina May, 
 
 Imprudent speeches of Garibaldi at Marsala, 
 July ig ; he enters Catania, and establishes 
 a provisional government, Aug. 19 ; embarks 
 for Italy Aug. 24, 
 
 Sicily placed under blockade ; removed in 
 Sept. ; tranquil Oct. 
 
 (See Italy, 1862.) 
 
 1 861 
 1862 
 
 SICYON, an ancient Grecian kingdom in the Peloponnesus, founded, it is said, about 
 2080 B.C. In 252 it became a republic and joined the Achaean league formed by Aratus. It 
 was the country of the sculptors Polycletes (436) and Lysippus (238 B.C.). 
 
 SIDON (Syria), a city of Phoenicia, to the north of Tyre. It was conquered by Cyrus 
 about 537 B.C.; and surrendered to Alexander, 332 B.C. See Phcenicia. The town was taken 
 from the pacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of his allies, assisted by some ships 
 of the British squadron, under admiral the hon. sir Kobert Stopford and commodore Charles 
 Napier, Sept. 27, 1840. See Syria, and Turkey. 
 
 SIEGES, Memorable. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerful, held 
 out for nineteen years. Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. Herodotus. This was 
 the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siege of Troy was the most cele- 
 brated, and occupied ten years, 11 84 B.C. The following are the most memorable sieges 
 since the 12th century; for details see separate articles. 
 
 Acre, 1 192, 1799, 1832, 1840. 
 
 Algesiras, 1341. 
 
 Algiers, 1681 : Bomb vessels first used 
 
 by a French engineer named Re- 
 
 nau, 1816. 
 Alkmaer, 1573. 
 Almeida, Aug. 27, 1810. 
 Amiens, 1597. 
 Ancona, 11 74, 1799, i860. 
 Antwerp, 1576, 1583, 1585, 1746, 
 
 1832. 
 Arras, 1640. 
 Azoff, 1736. 
 Badajoz, March 11, 1811 ; April 6, 
 
 1812. 
 Bagdad, 1258. 
 Barcelona, 1697, 1714. 
 Belgrade, 1439, 1456, 1521, 1688, 
 
 1717, 1739. 1789- 
 
 BeUe-Isle, 1761. 
 
 Bergen-op-Zoom, 1622, 1747, 1814. 
 
 Berwick, 1333. 
 
 Bethune, 1710. 
 
 Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. 
 
 Bologna, 1512, 1796, 1799. 
 
 Bommel : the invention of the covert- 
 way, 1794. 
 
 Bonn, 1672, 1689, 1703. 
 
 Bouchain, 171 1. 
 
 Boulogne, 1544. 
 
 Breda, 1625. 
 
 Brescia, 1238, 1512, 1849. 
 
 Breslau, 1807. 
 
 Brisac, 1638, 1704. 
 
 Brussels, 1695, 1746. 
 
 Bomarsund, 1854. 
 
 Buda, 1541, 1686. 
 
 Burgos, 1812, 1813. 
 
 Cadiz, 1812. 
 
 Calais, 1 347 {British historians affirm 
 that cannon were used at Cressy, 
 1346, and here in 1347. First 
 used here in 1388. Rymer's 
 FcED.), 1538, 1596. 
 
 Calvi, X794. 
 
 Candia : the largest cannon then 
 known in Europe, ii.sed here by the 
 Turks, 1667. 
 
 Cathagena, 1706-7, 1740. 
 
 Chalus, 1 199. 
 
 Charleroi, 1693. 
 
 Charleston, U.S., 1864-5. 
 
 Chartres, 1568. 
 
 Cherbourg, 1758. 
 
 Ciudad Rodrigo, 1810, 1812. 
 
 Colchester, 1648. 
 
 Comorn, 1849. 
 
 Compifegne {Joan of Arc), 1430. 
 
 Cond^, 1676, 1793, 1794- 
 
 Coni, 1691, 1744. 
 
 Constantinople, 1453. 
 
 Copenhagen, 1658, 1801, 1807. 
 
 Corfu, 1716. 
 
 Coini;ray, 1646. 
 
 Cracow, 1702. 
 
 Cremona, 1702. 
 
 Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813, 1814. 
 
 Delhi, 1S57. 
 
 Douay, 17 10. . 
 
 Dresden, 1756, 1813. 
 
 Drogheda, 1649. 
 
 Dublin, 1500. 
 
 Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. 
 
 Flushing, Aug. 15, 1809. 
 
 Frederickshald: Charles XIl. kilUd, 
 
 1718. 
 Gaeta, 1435, 1734, 1860-1. 
 Genoa, 1747, 1800. 
 Gerona, i8og. 
 Ghent, 1708. 
 
 Gibraltar, 1704, 1779, 1782-3. 
 Glatz, 1742, 1807. 
 Gottuigen, 1760. 
 Graves, 1674. 
 Grenada, 1491, 1492. 
 Groningen, 1594. 
 Haerlem, 1572, 1573. 
 Harfleur, 1415. 
 Heidelberg, 1688. 
 Herat, 1838. 
 Ismail, 1790. 
 Ears, 1855. 
 Kehl, 1733, 1796. 
 Landau, 1702 et seq., 1792. 
 Landrecy, 1712, 1794. 
 Laon, 988, ggi. 
 Leipsic, 1757 et seq., 1813. 
 Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1810. 
 Leyden, 1574. 
 Lifege, 1408, 1688, 1702. 
 Lille, 1708, i7g2. 
 Limerick, 1651, 1691. 
 Londonderry, 1689. 
 Louisbourg, 1758. 
 Luxemburg, 1795. 
 Lyons, 1793. 
 Maestricht, 1579, 1673 : Favian 
 
 flr.it came into notice: 1676, 1748. 
 Magdeburg, 1631, 1806. 
 Malaga, 14S7. 
 Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. 
 
SIE 
 
 664 
 
 SIL 
 
 SIEGES, cmitiiiucd. 
 
 Mantua, 1797, 1799. 
 
 Marseilles, 1524. 
 
 Menin, 1706. 
 
 Mentz, 1689, 1793. 
 
 Messina, 1282, 1719, 1848, i86i. 
 
 Metz, 1552-3. 
 
 Mons, i6pi, 1709, 1792. 
 
 Montargis, 1426. 
 
 Montauban, 1621. 
 
 Montevideo, Jan. 1807. 
 
 Mothe : the Freitch, taiiglit by a. Mr. 
 
 Muller, first practised the art of 
 
 throwing shells, 1634. 
 Namur, 1692, 1746, 1794. 
 Naples, 1435, 1504, 1557, 1792, 1799, 
 
 1 806. 
 Nice, 1706. 
 Nieuport, 1600. 
 Olivenza, 1801, 1811. 
 Olmutz, 1758. 
 Orleans, 1428, 1563. 
 Ostend, 1601, 1798. 
 Ondenarde, 1706. 
 Padua, 1509. 
 Pampeluna, 1813. 
 Paris, 806, 1420, 1594. 
 Parma, 1248. 
 Pavia, 1524, 1655. 
 Perpignan, 1542, 1642. 
 Philipsburg, 1644, 1676, 1688, first 
 
 experiment of firing aHillery a-ri- 
 
 cocliet, 1734, 1799. 
 Plataia, 427 B.C. 
 Pondicherry, 1748, 1793. 
 Prague, 1741 — 1744. 
 Quesnoy, 1793, 1794. 
 Rheims, 1359. 
 Rhodes, 1521. 
 Richmond, U.S., 1864-5. 
 Riga, 1700, 1710. 
 Rochelle, 1573, t-^^j. 
 Rome, 1527, 1798, 1849. 
 Romorentin : artilkri/ first used in 
 
 sieges. Voltaire, 1356. 
 Rouen, 1419, 1449, 1591. 
 Roxburgh, 1460. 
 St. Sebastian, 1813. 
 Saragossa, 1710, 1808, 1809; the 
 
 two last dreadful. 
 Sebastopol, 1854-5. 
 Schweiduitz : fint erperiment to 
 
 reduce a fortress by springing 
 
 globes of compression, 1757 — 1762. 
 Scio (see Greece), 1822.^ 
 Seringapatam, 1799. 
 Sestos, 478 B.C. 
 Seville, 1247-8. 
 SUistria, 1854. 
 Smolensko, 1632, 1812. 
 Stralsund ; the method of throwing 
 
 red-hot balls first practised icith 
 
 certainty, 1715. 
 Tarragona, 1811. 
 Temeswar, 17 16. 
 Tbionville, 1792. 
 Thorn, 1703. 
 Tortosa, 1811. 
 Toulon, 1707, 1793. 
 Toulouse, 1217. 
 Tovirnay, 1340, 1513, 1583, 1667, 
 
 1709 {this was the best defence ever 
 
 drawn from countermines), 1792. 
 Trfeves, 1635, 1673, 1675. 
 Tunis, 1270, 1535. 
 Turin, 1640, 1706. 
 Valencia, 1705, 1707, 1712. 
 Valenciennes, 1677, 1793, 1794- 
 Vannes, 1342. 
 Venloo, 1702. 
 Verdun, 1792. 
 Vicksburg, U.S., 1863. 
 Vienna, 1529, 1683. 
 Wakefield, 1460. 
 Warsaw, 1831. 
 Xativa, 1246. 
 Xeres, 1262. 
 Ypres, 1648. 
 Zurich, 1544. 
 Zutphen, 1586. 
 
 SIEERA LEONE (W. Africa), discovered in 1460. In 1786, London swarmed with free 
 negroes living in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with sixty whites, mostly women of 
 bad character and in ill-health, were sent out to Sierra Leone, at the charge of government 
 to form a settlement, Dec. 9, 1786. The settlement was attacked by the Trench, Sept. 1794; 
 by the natives, Feb. 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murdered by 
 the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824.— 16 & 17 Vict. c. 86, relates to the government, &c., of 
 this colony. It is now a bishopric. See Ashaniees. 
 
 SIGNALS are alluded to by Polybius.- Elizabeth had instmctions drawn up for the 
 admiral and general of the expedition to Cadiz, to be announced to the fleet in a certain 
 latitude : this is said to have been the first set of signals given to the commanders of the 
 English fleet. A system for the navy was invented by the duke of York, afterwards 
 James II. 1665. Guthrie. See Fog-signals. 
 
 SIGNETS. See Seals. 
 
 SIGN ]\IANTJAL, ROYAL, a stamp employed when the sovereign was so ill as to be 
 unable to -vmte : in the case of Henry Vlll. 1547 ; James I. 1628 ; and George IV., May 29, 
 1830. Rosse. 
 
 SIKHS, a people of N. India, invaded the Mogul's empire, 1703-8. See Punjab and 
 India, 1849. 
 
 SILESIA, formerly a province of Poland, was invaded by John of Bohemia, 1325, and 
 ceded to him, 1355. It was conquered and lost several tunes during the seven years' war by 
 Frederick of Prussia, but was retained by him at the peace in 1763. 
 
 SILICIUM (from silex, flint), a metal, next to oxygen, the most abundant substance in 
 the earth, as it enters into the constitution of many earths, metallic oxides, and a gi'eat 
 number of minerals. The mode of procuring pure silicium was discovered by Berzelius in 
 1823. Gmelin. See Water-glass and Raiisome^s Stone. 
 
 SILISTRIA, a strong military town in Bulgaria, European Turkey. It was taken by the 
 Russians, Sept. 26, 1 829, after nine months' siege, and held some years by them as a pledge 
 for the payment of a large sum by the Porte ; but was eventually returned. In 1854, it was 
 again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 strong, under prince Paskiewitch, and many assaults 
 were made. The Russian general was compelled to return in conseqiience of a dangerous 
 contusion. On June 2, Mussa Pacha, the brave and skilful commander of the garrison, was 
 killed. On June 9, the Russians stormed two forts, which M'ere retaken. A grand assault 
 took place on June 13, under prince GortschakofI and general Schilders, which was 
 vigorously repelled. On the 15th, the garrison assumed the oflensive, crossed the river, 
 defeated the Russians, and destroyed the siege works. The siege was thus raised, and the 
 
SIL 665 SIM 
 
 Eussians commenced their retreat, as Omar Paclia was drawing near. The garrison was ably 
 assisted by two Britisli officers, captain Butler and lieutenant Nasmyth, the former of whom", 
 after being wounded, died of exhaustion. To them, in fact, the successful defence is 
 attributed. They were highly praised by Omar Pacha and lord Hardinge, and lieutenant 
 Nasmyth was made a major. 
 
 SILK. Wrought silk was bi'ought from Persia to Greece, 325 B.C. Known at Eome in 
 Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate prohibiting the use of plate of massy gold, 
 and also forbidding men to debase themselves by wearing silk, fit only for women. Helio- 
 gabalus first wore a garment of silk, A.D. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, 
 Aveight for weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. Silk- 
 worms were brought from India to Europe in the 6th century. Charlemagne sent Offa, king 
 of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, 780. The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, 
 king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1 146, when the Sicilians not only bred the silk-worms, but spun 
 and wove the silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the 
 south of France, a little before the reign of Francis I. about 15 10; and Henry IV. pro- 
 pagated miilberrj'- trees and silk -worms throughout the kingdom, about 1600. In England, 
 silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at Kenilwortli castle, 1286. 
 Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1534. Manufactured in England in 1604 ; and 
 broad silk wove from raw silk in 1620. Brought to perfection by the French refugees in 
 London at Spitalfields. 1688. A silk thi'owing-mill was made in England, and fixed up at 
 Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the original mill then in 
 the king of Sardiuia's dominions, about 17 14. Six new species of silk-worm were rearing in 
 France, 1861.* 
 
 SILTJRES, a British tribe, occupying the counties of Monmouth and Hereford, was 
 subdued by the Roman general Ostorius Scapula, 50. The chief, Caractacus, was taken to 
 Rome. — From this tribe is derived the geological term " Silurian strata, " among the lowest 
 of the palaeozoic or primary series, from their occurrence in the above mentioned counties. 
 Murchison's " Siluria." 
 
 SILVER exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other ores in various 
 mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America are far the richest. A mine 
 was discovered in the district of La Paz in 1660, which was so rich that the silver of it was 
 often ciit out with a chisel. In 1749, one mass of silver weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. 
 From a mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum at 
 Copenhagen, weighing 560 lbs. and worth 1680Z. In England silver-plate and vessels were 
 first used by Wilfrid, a Northumbrian bishop, a lofty and ambitious man, 709. Tyrrell. 
 Silver knives, spoons, and clips, were great luxuries in 1300. See Mirrors. In 1855, 
 561,906 oz. and in 1857, 532,866 oz. were obtained from mines in Britain. Pattinson's 
 process for obtaining silver from lead ore was introduced in 1829. 
 
 SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say at iEgina, in Greece, 
 783 ; others, by Pheidon of Argos, 869 B. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius Pictor, 
 269 B. 0. Used in Britain 25 B. c. The Saxons coined silver pennies which were 22^ grains 
 weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the lai'gest silver coin in England. See Shillings, &c. 
 New silver coinage, 1816. From 1816 to 1840, inclusive, were coined at our mint in 
 London, 11,108,265^. 15s. in silver, being a yearly average of 444,330^. The total amount 
 of the seniorage received on this coin was 616,747^. 8s. 2d. Pari. Rot. From 1837 to 1847, 
 the amount of silver coined was 2,440,614?. See Coin of England. 
 
 SIMONASAKI. See Jajpan, 1864. 
 
 SIMONIANS, a sect named after the founder, Simon Magus, the first heretic, about 41. 
 A sect of social reformers called St. Simonians sprang up in France in 1819, and attracted 
 considerable attention ; the doctrines were advocated in England, particularly by Dr. Prati, 
 who lectured upon them in London, Jan. 24, 1834. St. Simon died in 1825, and his 
 follower, Pere Enfantin, died Sept. i, 1864. 
 
 SIMPLON, a moiintain road, leading from Switzerland into Italy, constructed by 
 Napoleon in 1801-7. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and i^asses by galleries through 
 solid rock, and has eight principal bridges. The number of workmen employed at one time 
 varied from 30,000 to 40,000. 
 
 * In 1858, M. Guerin-Mfeneville introduced into France a Ctinese worm termed the Cynthia Bomhyx, 
 which feeds on the Ailanthus glandulosa, a hardy tree of the oak kind. The Cynthia yields a silk-like sub- 
 stance termed Ailaniine, which promises to become valuable. It was brought to Turin by Fantoni in 1856. 
 
Sm 666 SLA 
 
 SINGAPORE. See Straits Settlements. SINGING. See M^isk and Hymns. 
 
 SINKING FUND. First projected by sir Eobert Walpole to redeem the debt to the 
 bank of England ; act passed in 1716. The act establishing the sinking fund of Mr. Pitt 
 was passed in March, 1786. A then estimated surplus of 900,000/. in the revenue was 
 augmented by new taxes to make up the sum of 1,000,000/. which was to be invariably 
 applied to the reduction of the national debt. The fallacy of the scheme was shown by 
 Dr. Hamilton in 1813. In July, 1828, tlie sinking fund was limited to the actual surplus 
 of revenue. 
 
 SINOPE (Sinoub), an ancient sea-port of Asia Minor, formerly capital of the kingdom of 
 Pontus, said to have been the birth-place of Diogenes, the cynic philosopher. On Nov. 30, 
 1853, a Turkish fleet of seven frigates, three corvettes, and two smaller vessels, was attacked 
 by a Russian fleet of six sail of the line, two sailing vessels, and three steamers, under 
 admiral Nachimoff, and totally destroyed, except one vessel, which conveyed- the tidings to 
 Constantinople. Four thousand lives were lost by fire or drowning, and Osman Pacha, the 
 Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol of his wounds. In consequence of this event, the Anglo- 
 French fleet entered the Black Sea, Jan. 3, 1854. 
 
 SION COLLEGE akd Hospital, situated on the site of a nunnery, which, having fallen 
 to decay was purchased by William Elsynge, a citizen and mercer, and converted into a 
 college and hospital, called from his name Elsynge Spital. In 1340 he changed it to an 
 Austin priory, which was afterwards granted hj Henry VIII. to sir John Williams, master 
 of the jewel-office, who, with sir Roland Hayward, inhabited it till its destruction by fire. 
 In 1623, Dr. Thomas Wliite having bequeathed 3000/. towards purchasing and building a 
 college and alms-house on the ancient site, his executors erected the present college. It is 
 held by two charters of incorporation, 6 Chas. I. 1630 and 16 Chas. II. 1664. It contains a 
 valuable library (easily accessible by the public) maintained by a treasury gi-ant, 
 
 SIRENE, an instrument for determining the velocity of aerial vibrations corresponding 
 to the different pitches of musical sounds, was invented by Baron Cagniard de la Tour of 
 Paris in 1819. 
 
 SIX ARTICLES. See Articles. 
 
 SIX CLERKS, officers of the court of chancery, who were anciently clerici or clergy. 
 They were to conform to the laws of celibacy, and forfeit their places if they married ; but 
 when the constitution of the court began to alter, a law was made to permit them to marry ; 
 statute 24 & 25 Hen. y III. 1533. The six clerks continued for many ages officers of the 
 chancery court, and held their offices in Chancery-lane, London, where proceedings by bill 
 and answer were transacted and filed, and certain patents issued. Law Bid. The Six Clerks 
 were discontinued by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 103, 1841. 
 
 SKINS. The raw skins of cattle were usually suspended on stakes and made use of 
 instead of kettles to boil meat, in the north of England, and in Scotland, i Edw. III. 1327. 
 Lelancl. In 1857, 4,489,163 skins of oxen, lambs, kid, &c., dressed and undressed, were 
 imported into Great Britain. 
 
 SLAVERY has existed from the earliest ages. The traffic in men came from Chaldsea 
 into Egypt, Arabia, and all over the East. In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners 
 of war were treated as slaves. The Lacedsemonian youths, trained up in the practice of 
 deceiving and butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show their 
 proficiency; and once, for amusement only, murdered, it is said, 3000 in one night. — 
 Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold the whole people for .slaves, 335 B.C. Seellclots. 
 There were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 B.C. In Rome slaves were often chained to the 
 gate of a great man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. By one 
 of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them 
 in their houses, till by their services or labour the}'- had discharged the sum they owed. 
 C. PoUio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest off'ence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his 
 lampreys, 42 B.C. CfEcilius Isidorus left to his heir 41 16 slaves, 12 B.C. The first Janissaries 
 were Christian slaves, 1329.* 
 
 * Serfs were peasants attached to, and part of, the landed estates. The system was abolished by- 
 Frederic I. of Prussia in 1702 ; by Christian VII. of Denmark in 1766, by the emperor Joseph II. in his 
 hereditary states in 1781 ; by Nicholas I. of Russia, on the imperial domains in 1842 ; and by his successor, 
 Alexander II. (March 3, 1861), throughout his emi^ire. Slavery ceased in the Dutch West Indies on July 
 1, 1863. 
 
SLA 
 
 667 
 
 SLA 
 
 SLAVERY IN England. Laws respecting the sale of slaves were made by Alfred. The 
 English peasantry were so commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times that 
 children were sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ireland 
 and others to Scotland. Under the Normans the vassals were termed villains (of and 
 pertaining to the mil). They were devisable as chattels during the feudal times. 
 
 Severe statiites were passed in the reign of 
 Richard II. 1377 and 1385 ; the rebellion of 
 Wat Tyler, 1381, arose partly out of the evils 
 of serfdom.* 
 
 In 1574 queen Elizabeth ordered her bondsmen 
 in the western counties to be made free at 
 easy rates . . 
 
 Serfdom was finally extinguished in 1660, when 
 tenures in capite, knight's service, <&c., were 
 abolished. 
 
 In 1772 it was decided that slavery could not 
 exist in England, t 
 
 IS74 
 
 Act for the abolition of slavei-y throughout the 
 British colonies, and for the promotion of 
 industry among the manumitted slaves, and 
 for compensation to the persons hitherto 
 entitled to the services of such slaves by the 
 grant from parliament of 20,000,000^. sterling, 
 passed Aug. 28, 1833 
 
 Slavery terminated in the British possessions 
 on Aug. I, 1834, and 770,280 slaves became 
 free. 
 
 Slavery was abolished in the East Indies, 
 
 Aug. I, 1838 
 
 SLAVERY IN United States. Before the war of independence all the states contained 
 slaves. In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of Rights, "All men are born free 
 and equal," was declarfed in the supreme court at Boston to bar slave-holding in that state. 
 Slaves in the United States in 1790, 697,897 ; in 1810, 1,191,364; in 1820, 2,009,031 ; in 
 1850, 3,204,313 ; in i860, 4,002,996. 
 
 Congress passes unanimously the celebrated 
 ordinance ' ' for the government of the terri- 
 tory to the N.W. of the Ohio," which con- 
 tained an "unalterable" article, forbidding 
 slavery or involuntary servitude in the said 
 state, July 13, 1787; after 1800, several of the 
 states prayed, without effect, to be relieved 
 from this prohibition. 
 
 Louisiana purchased, which was considered by 
 many as fatal to the constitution . . . 1S03 
 
 The enormous increase in the growth of cotton 
 in the Southern States (see Cotton) led to 
 a corresponding increase in the demand for 
 slave labour. The Missouri Compromise, drawn 
 up by Henry Clay, by which slavery was per- 
 mitted in that state, but was prohibited in all 
 that part of it to the north of 36° 30' N. Lat. 
 carried Feb. 1S20 
 
 Contest between the slave-holders and their 
 opponents at the annexation of Texas ; a 
 similar division to that of Missouri obtained. 
 
 Bee. 25, 1S45 
 
 Another compromise effected ; California ad- 
 mitted as a free state ; but the Fugitive Slave 
 act passed (which see) 1850 
 
 The Missouri Compromise was abrogated by 
 the admission of Nebraska and Kansas as 
 slave-holding states ; civil war ensued. See 
 Kansas 
 
 Dred Scot's case (see United States) . . '. 
 
 John Brown's attempt to create a slave re- 
 bellion in Virginia failed (see United States), 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, the anti-slavery candidate, 
 elected president of the United States, Nov. 4, 
 
 Secession of South Carolina (see United States), 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Slavery abolished in the district of Colombia, 
 
 April 16, 
 
 President Lincoln proclaims the abolition of 
 
 slavery in the Southern states if they have 
 
 not returned to the Union on Jan. i, 1863, 
 
 Sept. 22, 
 
 Slavery was extinguished by the defeat and 
 submission of the Southern states . April, 
 
 The total abolition of slavery in the United 
 States ofacially announced . Dec. 18, 
 
 See United States, 1860-5. 
 
 i8s4 
 1857 
 
 1859 
 
 1865 
 
 SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Congou and Angola was begun by the Portu- 
 guese in 1481. The commerce in man has brutalised a tract iifteen degrees on each side of 
 the equator, and forty degrees wide, or of 4,000,000 of square miles ; and men and women 
 have been bred for sale to the Christian nations during'the last 250 years, and war carried on 
 to make prisoners for the Christian market. The Abbe Raynal computed (1777) that, at the 
 time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans. The slave- 
 trade is now approaching extinction. 
 
 * A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a runaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, 
 should be brought before two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the breast, and 
 adjudged the slave of him who bought him for two years. He was to take the slave and give him bread, 
 water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and caiise him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise ; and if, 
 •^vithin that space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on the forehead or cheek, by a 
 hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever : second desertion was made felony. It was lawful 
 to put a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A child might be put apprentice, and, on running away, 
 become a slave to his master, 1547. 
 
 1- Determined by the judgment of the court of king's bench, at the instance of Mr. GranviUe Sharpe. 
 A poor slave named Somerset, brought to England, was, because of his ill state, turned adrift by his 
 master. By the charity of Mr. C Sharpe, he was restored to health, when his unfeeling and avaricious 
 master again claimed him. This was resisted, and a suit was the consequence, which established, by its 
 result in favour of the black, the great point, that slavery could not exist in Great Britain, June 22, 1772. 
 In iSs3, John Anderson, a runaway slave, killed Septimus Digges, a planter of Missouri, who attempted 
 to arrest him, and escaped to Canada. The American government claimed him as a murderer. The 
 Canadian judges deciding that the law required his surrender, Mr. Edwin James, Q.C. (Jan. 15, 1861), 
 obtained a writ of habeas corpus for his appearance before the court of queen's bench. Anderson was' 
 however, discharged on Feb. 16, following, on technical grounds. 
 
SLA 
 
 668 
 
 SMI 
 
 tinction of the slave trade, died, aged 85, Sept. 
 1846. 
 
 Foreign CorNTRiES : — The trade was abolished by 
 Aiistria in 1782 ; by the French convention in 
 1794. 
 
 The Allies at Vienna declared against it Feb. 1815. 
 
 Napoleon, in the hundred days, abolished the trade, 
 March 29, 1815. 
 
 Treaty for its repression with Spain, 1817 ; with the 
 Netherlands, May 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826. 
 
 Its revival was proposed in the congress of the 
 United States of America, Dec. 14, 1856, and nega- 
 tived by 183 votes to 58. 
 
 In June, 1857, the French government gave permis- 
 sion to M. Regis to convey free negroes from Africa 
 to Guadaloupe and Martinico, French colonies. 
 Thi.s having led to abuses and consequent troubles 
 (see Charles ei Georges), was eventually given up in 
 Jan. 1859. 
 
 It is said that about 40,000 slaves were landed at 
 Cuba in i860. 
 
 A treaty between Great Britain and the United 
 States for the abolition of the slave trade, was 
 signed April 7 ; ratified Jlay 20, 1862. 
 
 Ths Spanish government denounce the slave trade 
 as piracy, Nov. 1865. 
 
 SLAVE TRADE, continued. 
 
 In 1768 the slaves taken from their own continent 
 
 amounted to 104,100. In 1786 the annual number 
 
 was about 100,000. 
 In 1807 it was shown by documents, produced by 
 
 government, that since 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 
 
 Africans had been torn from their country, and 
 
 had either perished on the passage or been sold in 
 
 the West Indies. 
 Slave Trade or England : begvin by sir John 
 
 Hawkins. His first exijedition, with the object of 
 
 procuring negi'oes on the coast of Africa, and 
 
 conveying them for sale at the West Indies, took 
 
 place in Oct. 1562. See Guinea. 
 England employed 130 sbiiJS and carried oft 42,000 
 
 slaves, 1786. 
 Slave-trade qviestion debated in parliament, 17S7. 
 The debate for its abolition lasted two days, April, 
 
 1791. 
 Mr. Wilberforce's motion lost by a majority of 88 to 
 
 83, April 3, 1798. 
 The question introduced under the auspices of lord 
 
 GrenviUe and Mr. Fox, then ministers, M.arch 31, 
 
 1806. 
 The trade abolished by parliament, March 25, 1807. 
 Thomas Clarkson, whose whole life may be said to 
 
 have been passed in labouring to effect the ex- 
 
 SLIDING-SCALE. See Corn Laws. 
 
 SLING, an ancient missive weapon. In Judges xx. 16, is mentioned the skill of the 
 Benjamite sliugers (about 1406 B.C.), and with a sling David slew Goliath 1063 B.C. (i. Sam. 
 xvii). The natives of the Balearic isles (Majorca, Minorca, and Iviga) were celebrated 
 slingers, and served as mercenaries in the Carthaginian and Roman armies. Slings are said 
 to have been used by the Huguenots at the siege of Sancerre, in 1672, to economise their 
 powder. 
 
 SLUYS (Holland), near which Edward III. gained a signal naval victory over the French. 
 The English had the wind of the enemy, and the sun at their backs, and began the action, 
 which was fierce and bloody, the English archers galling the French on their approach. Two 
 hundred and thirty French ships were taken ; thirty thousand Frenchmen were killed, with 
 two of their admirals ; the loss of the English was inconsiderable : June 24, 1340. 
 
 SMALCALD (Hesse), Treaty of, entered into between the elector of Brandenburg and 
 the other princes of Germany in favour of Protestantism, Dec. 31, 1530. See Protestants. 
 The emperor, apprehensive that the kings of France and England would join this league, 
 signed the treaty at Nuremburg, in July 1532, allowing liberty of conscience. 
 
 SMALL POX, Variola (the diminutive of varus, a pimple), a highly contagious disease, 
 supposed to have been introduced into Europe from the East by the Saracens. Rhazes, an 
 Arabian, was the first who accurately described it, about 900. From Europe it was carried 
 to America, soon after its discovery, and raged there vnth. great severity, destroying the 
 Indians by thousands. In 1694, queen Mary of England died of small pox, as did in 171 1 
 and 1712 the emperor of Germany, dauphin and dauphiness of France and their son, in 
 1730 the emperor of Russia, in 1741 the queen of Sweden, and in 1774 Louis XV. of France. 
 It is staled that in the middle of the last century two millions perished by it in Russia. In 
 London in 1723 one out of fourteen deaths was caused by small pox, and in France in 1754 
 the rate was one in ten. For the attempts to alleviate this scourge, see Inoculatimi, 
 inti-oduced into England in 1722, and Vaccination, announced by Dr. Jenner in 1798. In 
 Sept. and Oct. 1862 a great many sheep died of small pox in the West of England, till 
 successful preventive measures were resorted to. 
 
 SMITHFIELD, WEST, in the heart of London, was once a favourite walk of the London 
 citizens, outside the city walls. Sir W. Wallace was executed here, Aug. 24, 1305. On 
 June 13, 1381, Wat Tyler was met by king Richard II. at this place, and was stabbed by 
 Walworth the mayor. ]\Iauy tournaments were also held here. In the reign of Mary, 
 (1553-8), 277 persons perished by fire ; and Bartholomew Leggatt and Edward Wightman, 
 Arians, M'cre burnt here in 1612. — Bartholomew fair was held here till 1853. — This place 
 is mentioned as the site of a cattle-market as far back as 1150. The space devoted to this 
 purpose was enlarged from about three acres to four and a half, and in 1834 to six and a 
 quarter. The ancient regulations were called the "statutes of Smithfield." In one day 
 
SMI 669 SOA 
 
 there were sometimes assembled 4000 beasts and 30,000 sbeep. The annual amount of the 
 sales was about 7,000,000^. In 1846 there were sold here 226, 132 beasts, 1,593,270 sheep 
 and lambs, 26,356 calves, 33,531 pigs. There were about 160 salesmen. The contracted 
 space of the market, the slaughtering places adjoining, and many other nuisances, gave 
 ground to much dissatisfaction, and after parliamentary investigation, an act was passed on 
 Aug. I, 1851, appointing metropolitan market commissioners with powers to provide a new 
 market, slaughtering places, &c. ; and to close the market at Smithfield. Smithfield was 
 used as a cattle market for the last time on June 11, 1855 ; and the new market in Copen- 
 hagen-fields was opened on June 13. See Metro]}olitan Market. The act passed in 1861 by 
 which a dead-meat and poultry market was ordered to be erected in Smithfield, and Newgate 
 market to cease, has not yet been carried into effect, 1865.* 
 
 SMITHSOJSriAlSr INSTITUTION, "for the increase and difiiision of knowledge among 
 men," a handsome building at Washington, U.S., was founded in 1846, by means of a legacy 
 of above ioo,oooZ. bequeathed for the purpose to the United States government by James 
 Smithson, illegitimate son of sir Hugh Smithson, who became duke of Northumberland in 
 1 766. It publishes and freely distributes scientific memoirs and reports. The library was 
 burnt on Jan. 25, 1865. 
 
 SMOKE NUISANCE. An act was passed in 1853 to abate this nuisance, proceeding 
 from chimney shafts and steamers above London bridge. In 1856 another act, obtained for 
 its further application to steamers below London bridge, and to potteries and glass-houses 
 previously exempted, came into operation, Jan. i, 1858 ; enactments have been made for 
 all the kingdom. 
 
 SMOLENSKO (Russia). The French in a most sanguinary engagement here were three 
 times repulsed, but ultimately succeeded in entering Smolensko, and found the city, which 
 had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins, Aug. 16-19, 1812. Barclay de Tolly, the 
 Eussian commander in chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor Alexander because he 
 retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff succeeded to the command. 
 
 SMUGGLERS. The customs duties were instituted originally to enable the king to 
 afford protection to trade against pirates ; and they afterwards became a branch of public 
 revenue, but gave rise to much smuggling. The act so well knoAvn as the Smugglers' Act 
 was passed in 1736. Its severity was mitigated in 1781 and 1784. A revision of these 
 statutes took place, 1826 and 1835. 
 
 SMYRNA. See Seven CJmrches. 
 
 SNEEZING. The custom of saying "God bless you" to the sneezer, originated, 
 according to Strada, among the ancients, who, through an opinion of the danger attending 
 it, after sneezing made a short praj'er to the gods, as " Jupiter help me." Polydore Yergil 
 says it took its rise at the time of the plague, A.D. 558, when the infected fell down dead 
 sneezing, though seemingly in good health. 
 
 SNUFF-TAKING took its rise in England from the captures made of vast quantities of 
 snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo in 1702. It soon became general, from which 
 the revenue now draws, with tobacco, considerably more than 5,000,000^. per annum. In 
 1839 there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 196,305 lbs. were entered for home 
 consumption ; the duty was 88,263?. See Tobacco. In 1858, 2,573,925 lbs. of snuff and 
 cigars, in 1861, 2, 110,429 lbs. were imported. 
 
 SOANE MUSEUM, at No. 13, lincoln's Inn Fields, was gradually formed by sir John 
 Soane, the architect, who died in 1837, after making arrangements for its being open to the 
 public. It contains Egyptian and other antiquities, valuable paintings, rare books, &c. 
 
 SOAP was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express mention of it occurs in 
 Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be an invention of the Gauls, though he 
 prefers the German to the Gallic soa]). In remote periods clothes were cleaned by being 
 rubbed or stamped upon in water. ISTausicaa and her attendants. Homer tells us, washed 
 theirs by treading upon them with their feet in pits of water. Odyssey, book vi. The 
 Romans used fuller's earth. Savon, the French word for soap, is ascribed to its having been 
 manufactured at Savona, near Genoa. The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, 
 before which time it was supplied by Bristol at one x^enny per pound. The duty upon soap 
 imposed in 171 1, was totally repealed in 1853, then set down by the chancellor of the 
 exchequer, Mr. Gladstone, as yielding a yearly revenue of 1,126,000/!. 
 
 * The Smithfield Club, to promote improvements in the breed of cattle, was established in 1798. For 
 many years the'members supported a cattle show in December in Gos well-street, which was removed to 
 Baker-street in 1840, and to the New Agricultural Hall, Liverpool-road, Ishngton, in 1862. 
 
SOB 
 
 670 
 
 SOC 
 
 SOBRAON (N.^Y. India). The British army, 35,000 strong, under sir Hugh (afterwards 
 viscount) Gough, attacked the Sikli force on the Sutlej, Feb. 10, 1846. The enemy was 
 dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; and in attempting the 
 passage of the river by a floating bridge in their rear, the weight of the masses that crowded 
 upon it caused it to break down, and more than 13,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or 
 drowned. The British loss was 2338 men. 
 
 SOCIALISM was advocated in London, Jan. 24, 1834, by the celebrated Robert Owen. 
 He laboured indefatigably to propagate his doctrines, and established a settlement at New 
 Harmony in America in 1824. He died Nov. 17, 1858, aged 90. The French socialists, 
 termed Communists, became a powerful political body in that country, and were much 
 implicated in the revolution in 1848. 
 
 SOCIAL SCIENCE. The National Association for the Promotion of Social Science 
 originated in a meeting at lord Brougham's in May, 1857. Its object is to promote improve- 
 ments in the administration of law, in education, in public health, and in social economy. 
 It holds annual meetings, and publishes its proceedings. The first meeting was at Birming- 
 ham, Oct. 12, 1857; 2nd at Liverpool, Oct. 11, 1858; 3rd at Bradford, Oct. Ii, 1859; 4th 
 at Glasgow, Sept. 24, i860 ; 5th at Dublin, Aug. 14, 1861 ; 6th in London, June 5, 1862 ; 
 7th at Edinburgh, Oct 7, 1863 ; 8th at York, Sept. 22, 1864 ; 9th at Sheffield, Oct. 3, 1865. 
 
 SOCIAL WARS. See Athens and Marsi. 
 
 SOCIETIES AKD Institutions, Literary and Scientific, in Great Britain. Further 
 details of many of these Avill be found under their respective heads. All in the list below 
 are in London, except otherwise stated. An act was passed, Aug. 11, 1854, ''to afford 
 facilities for the establishment of institutions for the promotion of Literature and Science," 
 by grants of land, &c. ; and for their regulation. The Royal and London Institutions are 
 exemj)ted from the operation of the act. 
 
 Charter 1662 
 
 Royal Society . 
 
 Christian Knowledge Society .... 
 
 Society of Antiquaries . . (Charter 1751) 
 
 Society of Dilettanti 
 
 Royal Society of Edinburgh . (Charter 1783) 
 Society of Arts . . . (Charter 1847) 
 Bath and West of England Society . 
 Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society . 
 
 Highland Society 
 
 Royal Irish Academy . . . Charter 
 Linnajan Society .... (Charter 1802) 
 Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society . 
 Royal Institution . . . (Charter 1810) 
 
 Royal Horticultural Society . (Charter 1809) 
 Royal Medical and Chu-urgical Society 
 
 1717 
 
 1734 
 1782 
 
 1753 
 1777 
 
 1786 
 1788 
 
 1793 
 1800 
 1804 
 
 (Charter 1834) 
 (Charter 1826) 
 
 London Institution 
 Geological Society 
 Russell Institution . 
 
 Swedenborg Society 
 
 Liverpool Literary and PhUosophical Society . 
 
 Roxburghe Club 
 
 Institution of Civil Engineers (Charter 1828) 
 Leeds Literary and Philosophical Society . 
 
 Egyptian Society 
 
 Cambridge Philosophical Society (Charter 1832) 
 Royal Astronomical Society . (Charter 1831) 
 
 Medico-Botanical Society 
 
 Hull Literary and Philosophical Society . 
 Yorkshire Philosophical Society . ... 
 Sheffield Literary .and Philosophical Society 
 Royal Society of Literature . (Charter 1826) 
 Royal Asiatic Society . . (Charter 1824) 
 Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh .... 
 
 Athenajum Club 
 
 Western Literary Institution .... 
 
 Eastern Literary*Institution 
 
 Zoological Society 
 
 Incorporated Law Society . (Charter 1 831) 
 
 Mechanics' Institution, London 
 
 Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge 
 
 Ashniolean Society, Oxford 
 
 Maitland Club, Glasgow 
 
 Royal Geographical Society 
 
 Gaelic Society 
 
 1810 
 1812 
 
 1818 
 
 1819 
 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 
 1S23 
 
 Ib24 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 1830 
 
 Royal United Service Institution 
 
 Royal Dublin Society 
 
 Harveian Society .... 
 
 British Association ... 
 
 Marylebone Literary Institution . . . 1832 
 
 Entomological Society 1833 
 
 Statistical Society 1834 
 
 Westminster Literary Institution 
 
 Surtees Society, Durham 
 
 Royal Institute of British Architects (Charter 
 
 1837) „ 
 Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society . 1835 
 Abbotsford Club, Edinburgh . . . 1835-7 
 
 Numismatic Society 1836 
 
 Ornithological Society 1S37 
 
 Electrical Society 1837-S 
 
 Etching Club 1838 
 
 English Historical Society . . . .1838-56 
 
 Royal Agricultural Society 1838 
 
 Camden Society ,, 
 
 Royal Botanical Society 1839 
 
 Microscopical Society ,, 
 
 Ecclesiological Society ,, 
 
 Spalding Club, Ahei-deen ,, 
 
 Royal Botanical Society of London . . . „ 
 
 Parlier Society 1840-55 
 
 Percy Society 1840-52 
 
 Irish Archaeological Society, Dublin . . . 1840 
 
 London Library 
 
 Shakespeare Society. 
 
 Chemical Society 
 
 Pharmaceutical Society 
 
 Wodrow Society, Edinburgh .... 1841-7 
 
 Philological Society 1842 
 
 zElfric Society 1843-56 
 
 Chetham Society, Manchester . 
 Spottiswoode Society, Edinburgh 
 Ajchfeological Association . 
 Ai-cha?ological Institute , 
 Sydenham Society 
 Ethnological Society 
 Law Amendment Society . . 
 
 Handel Society 1844 
 
 Syro-Egyptian Society 
 
 Ray Society .... 
 
SOC 671 SOL 
 
 SOCIETIES, continued. 
 
 Celtic. Society, Dublin 1843-53 
 
 Pathological Society 1846 
 
 Sussex Archasological Society, Lewes . . „ 
 Cambrian Archajological Association . . . „ 
 
 Cavendish Society „ 
 
 Hakluji; Society . . . . . . ,, 
 
 Palseontographical Society 1847 
 
 Instituteof Mechanical Engineers (Birminghain) ,, 
 
 Institute of Actuaries 1848 
 
 Arundel Society , , 
 
 British Meteorological Society . . . . 1850 
 
 North of England Institute of Mining Engineers 185 1 
 
 Photogi-aphic Society 1852 
 
 Philobiblon Society 1853 
 
 Juridical Society 1855 
 
 Genealogical Society 1857 
 
 National Association for Social Science . . ,, 
 
 Horological Institute 185S 
 
 Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts . ,, 
 Institution of Naval Architecture . . . i860 
 Anthropological Society 1S63 
 
 SOCINIAITS. Persons who accept tlie oxjinions of Faustus Socinus (died 1562), aud Ms 
 nephew Lselius (died 1604), Siennese noblemen. They held — i. That the Eternal Father 
 was the one only God, and that Jesus Christ was no other-wise God than by his superiority 
 to all other creatures ; 2. That Christ was not a mediator ; 3. That hell will endure for a 
 time, after which the soiil and body will be destroyed ; and 4. That it is unlawful for 
 princes to make war. Hook. They established a church in Poland, and made proselytes in 
 Transylvania, 1563. 
 
 SO-DIUM, a remarkable metal; first obtained in 1807 b}' sir Humpln-y Da,Yj from soda 
 (which was formerly confounded with potash, but proved to be a distinct substance by 
 Duhamel in 1736). This metal, like j)otassium, was obtained by the agency of the electric 
 battery. In consequence of Deville's improved processes, sodium is now manufactured by 
 Bell Brothers, of Newcastle, at los. a pound. Common salt (chloride of sodium) is a com- 
 pound of sodium and chlorine. 
 
 SODOM AND GoMOEEAH (Palestine), with their inhabitants, were destroyed by fire from 
 heaven, 1898 e.g., Gen. xix. 
 
 SODOR is a village of Icolmkill. Dr. Johnson calls it "the luminary of the Caledonian, 
 regions, whence," he adds, "savage clans and ro^^ng barbarians derived the benefits of 
 knowledge, and the blessings of religion." The bishop's seat was at Eushin, or Castletown, 
 in the Isle of Man, and in Latin is entitled Sodo7-cnsis. But when that island became 
 dependent upon the kingdom of England the western islands withdrew themselves fi'om the 
 obedience of theii' bishop, and had a bishop of their o^vn, whom they entitled also 
 Sodorensis, but commonly bishop of the Isles. See Isles. Germanus was settled here by St. 
 Patrick in 447. The bishop of Sodor and Man is not a lord of parliament. See Man. 
 
 SOISSONS (France), capital of the GaUic Suessiones, was subdued by Julius Csesar, 
 57 B.C. It was held by Sj^agrius, after his father iEgidius, till his defeat by Clovis, a.d. 486. 
 Several CoimcUs have been held at Soissons (in 744, 1092, 1122). 
 
 SOLAR SYSTEM, nearly as now accepted, is said to have been taught by Pythagoras of 
 Samos, about 529 B.C. He placed the sun in the centre, aud all the planets moving in 
 elliptical orbits round it — a doctrine superseded by the Ptolemaic system {wMcli sec). The 
 system of _^ Pythagoras, revived by Copernicus (1543), is called the Copernican system. Its 
 truth was demonsti'ated by sir Isaac Newton in 1687. 
 
 SOLDIERS' DAUGHTERS' HOME was established at Hampstead, near London, in 
 Aug. 1857, by the sm-plus of the money collected by the central association in aid of the 
 ■wives and families of soldiers in active service dming the Crimean war, and opened in 1859. 
 
 SOLEBAY, or Sotjthwold Bat (Suffolk), where a fierce naval battle was fought between 
 the fleets of England and France on one side, and the Dutch on the other, the former com- 
 manded by the duke of York, afterwards James II., May 28, 1672. The English lost four 
 ships, and the Dutch three ; but the enemy fled, and were pursued to their coasts. The 
 earl of Sandwich was blown up, and thousands were killed and wounded. 
 
 SOLFERIISrO (in Lombardy), the site of the chief struggle on the great battle of June 24, 
 1859, between the allied French and Sardinian army commanded by their respective 
 sovereigns, and the Austrians rmder general Hesse ; the emperor beiag present. The 
 Austrians, after their defeat at Magenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, and took up 
 a position in the celebrated quadrilateral, and were expected there to await the attack. But 
 the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of prince Najjoleon and the Tuscans on the other, 
 induced them to recross the Mincio and take the offensive, on June 23. The conflict began 
 early on the 24th, and lasted fifteen hours. At first the Austrians had the advantage ; but 
 the successful attack of the French on Cavi'iana and Solferino changed the fortune of the day, 
 and the Austrians were after desperate encounters compelled to retreat. The French attri- 
 
SOL 
 
 672 
 
 SON 
 
 bute the victory to the skill and bravery of their emperor and the generals M'Mahon and 
 Niel ; the Austrians, to the destruction of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their adver- 
 saries. The Sardinians maintained a fearful contest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is said 
 against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 630 officers, and 19,311 .soldiers ; of the 
 allies, 8 generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers killed and wounded. This battle closed 
 the war ; preliminaries of j)eace being signed at Villa Franca, July 12. 
 
 SOLFIDIANS (from solus, only, and Jides, faith), a name given to the Antinomians 
 (which see). 
 
 S0LICITOK. See Attorney. 
 
 SOLICITOR-GENERAL, the legal officer next in rank to the attorney-general, to whom 
 he is deputy. Those below with a* became attorney -general. 
 
 1851. Sir W. Page Wood, March 28. 
 
 1852. *Sir Fitzroy Kelly, Feb. 
 
 ,, *Sir Richard Bethell, Dec. 
 
 1856. Rt. Hon. James Stuart Wortley, Nov, 
 
 1857. Sir Heiiry Keating, May.1 
 1858 Sir Hugh M. Cairns, Feb. 26. 
 1859. Sir Henry Keating, June 18. 
 
 ,, *Sir William Atherton, Dec. 
 
 1861. Sir Roundell Palmer, June 27. 
 
 1863. Sir Robert Porrett Collier, Oct. 2. 
 
 1839. *Sir Thomas Wilde (afterwards lord Truro), 
 
 Dec. 5. 
 1841. *Slr William Follett (second time), Sept. 6. 
 
 1844. *Sir Frederick Thesiger (since lord Chelms- 
 
 ford), April 17. 
 
 1845. *Sir Fitzroy Kelly, July 17. 
 
 1846. *Sir John Jervis, July 4. 
 „ Sir David Dundas, July 18. 
 
 1848. *Sir John Romilly, April 4. 
 
 1850. *Sir Alex. J. E. Cockburn, July 11. 
 
 SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. See Temple. 
 
 SOLWAY MOSS, bordering on Scotland. On Nov. 13, 1771, it swelled, owing to heavy 
 rains. Upwards of 400 acres rose to such a height above the level of the ground, that at 
 last it rolled forward like a torrent above a mile, sweeping along with it houses, trees, &c. 
 It covered 600 acres at Netherby, and destroyed about 30 small villages. Near Solway Moss 
 the Scots were defeated, Nov. 25, 1542. 
 
 SOMBRERO ("West Indies). On this desert isle, Robert Jeffery, a British man-of-war's 
 man, was put ashore by his commander, the hon. captain W. Lake, for having tapped a 
 barrel of beer when the shii) was on short allowance. After sustaining life for eight days on 
 a few limpets and rain-water, he was saved by an American vessel, Dec. 13, 1807 ; and 
 returned to England. Sir Francis Burdett advocated his cause in parliament, and he 
 received 600?. as a compensation from captain Lake, who was tried by a court-martial, and 
 dismissed the service, Feb. 10, 1810. 
 
 SOMERSET THE BLACK. See Slavcrij in England. 
 
 SOMERSET-HOUSE (London), formerly a palace, founded on the site of several churches 
 and other buildings levelled in 1549, by the protector Somerset, whose residence fell to the 
 crown after his execution. Here resided at times queen Elizabeth, Anne of Denmark, and 
 Catherine, queen of Charles II. Old Somerset-house, a mixture of Grecian and Gothic, was 
 demolished in 1775, and the present edifice, from a design by sir "William Chambers, was 
 erected for public offices. The Royal Academy of Arts first assembled in the apartments 
 given to the members by the king, Jan. 17, 1771, and the Royal Society met here in 1780. 
 Large suits of government buildings were erected in 1774. The Navy-office, Pipe-office, 
 Victualling and other offices, were removed here in 1 788, and various government depart- 
 ments since. The east wing, forming the King's College (see King's College), was completed 
 in 1833. By an act passed in 1854, the offices of the duchy of Cornwall were ordered to be 
 transferred to Pimlico. 
 
 SOMNATH GATES, the gates of an ancient Hindoo temple at Guzerat which was 
 destroyed by Mahmoud of Ghuznee in 1025. The priests wished to preserve the idol ; but 
 Mahmoud broke it to pieces and found it filled with diamonds, &c. He carried the gates to 
 Ghuznee. "When that city was taken by gen. Nott, Sept. 6, 1842, lord Ellenborough 
 ordered the gates to be restored after an exile of 800 years. They are made of sandal wood, 
 and are figured in the Archseologia of the Society of Antiquaries, vol. xxx. 
 
 SONDERBUND, 8ee Swilzerlaiid, 1846. 
 
 SONNET, a poem in fourteen lines, the rhymes being adjusted by rules, invented, it is 
 said, by Guido d'Arezzo, about 1024. The most celebrated sonnets M'ere written by 
 Petrarch (about 1327), Shakspeare (1609), Milton (about 1650), and^AVordsworth (1820). 
 
 SONNITES, the orthodox Mahometans who now possess the Turkish empire. See 
 Mahometanism. 
 
SOK 673 SOU 
 
 SONTHALS, a tribe of Northern India, brought to Bengal about 1830, where they 
 prospered ; till, partly from the instigation of a fanatic, and partly from the exactions of 
 money-lenders, they broke out into rebellion iu July, 1855, and committed fearful outrages. 
 They were quite subdued early in 1856, and many were removed to the newly-conquered 
 province of Pegu. 
 
 SOPHIA, ST. (in Constantinople). The first church was dedicated to St. Sophia (wisdom) 
 by Constantius II., 360 ; having been destroyed, the second, the present edifice, was 
 founded by Justinian, 532. Since the Mahometan conquest in 1453, it has been used as an 
 imperial mosque. Its length is 269 feet, and its breadth, 243 feet. It abounds in curiosities. 
 Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the temple of Diana, at Ephesus ; and of 
 porphyry, from the temple of the Sun, at Rome. Four minarets were added by ^elim II., 
 who reigned in 1566. The interior of the dome is beautifully ornamented with mosaic work. 
 
 SORBOITISrE, a society o.f ecclesiastics at Paris, founded by Robert de Sorbonne in 1252. 
 The members lived in common, and devoted themselves to study and gratuitous teaching. 
 They attained a European reputation as a faculty of theology, their judgment being 
 frequently appealed to, from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries. The influence of 
 the Sorbonne was declining when the society was broken up in 1 789. 
 
 SORCERERS and Magicians. A law was enacted against their seductions, 33 Hen. 
 VIII. 1541 ; and another statute equally severe was passed, 5 Eliz. 1563, The pretension to 
 sorcery was made capital, i James I. 1603. See Witchcraft. 
 
 SOUDAN", or Soxtjah, the title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, which they 
 bore in their provinces«and armies. These officers afterwards made themselves sovereigns. 
 Saladin, general of the forces of Noureddin, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon 
 him this title in Egypt, 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym. 
 
 SOULAGES COLLECTION". About 1827, M. Soulages of Thoulouse, collected 790 
 specimens of Italian art and workmanship, &c. These were bought for ii,oool. by 73 
 English gentlemen, with the view of first exhibiting them to the public, and afterwards 
 selling them to the government (who gradually purchased them between 1858 and 1865). 
 They'foi'med part of the "Art Treasures" exhibited at Manchester in 1857. 
 
 SOUND. Robesval stated the velocity of sound to be 560 feet in a second ; Gassendi, 
 1473 ; Derham, 1 142 feet. The velocity increases as the temperature falls. At Paris, where 
 cannon were fired under many varieties of weather, in 1738, it was found to be 1107. The 
 range of perception of sound by the human ear was determined by Savart (1830) to extend 
 from 7 to 24,000 vibrations in a second. The fire of the British on landing in Egypt was 
 distinctly heard 130 miles on the sea. See Acoustics. 
 
 SOUND DUTIES. Till the year 1857 no merchant ship was allowed to pass the Sound 
 (a narrow channel separating Zealand from Sweden) without clearing at Elsineur and paying 
 toll. These duties had their origin in an agreement between the king of Denmark and the 
 Hanse towns (1348), by which the former iindertook to maintain lighthouses, &c., along the 
 Cattegat, and the latter to pay duty for the same. The first treaty with England in relation 
 to this was in 1450 ; other countries followed. In 1855 the United States determined to pay 
 the dues no more ; and in the same year the Danish government proposed that these dues 
 should be capitalised ; which was eventually agreed to, the sum agreed on being 
 30,476,325 rix-dollars. In Aug. 1857, the British government paid 10,126,855 rix-dollars, 
 {1,125,206?.) to the Danes as their proportion. — The passage of the Sound was effected, in 
 defiance of strong fortresses, by sir Hyde Parker and lord Nelson, April 2, 1801. See Baltic 
 Expedition. 
 
 SOUNDINGS AT Sea. Captain Ross of H.M.S. (Edipus, in 1840 took extraordinary 
 soundings at sea. One of these was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, where it extended 
 to the depth of 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was made in the latitude of 33 degrees S. 
 and longitude 9 degrees W. about 300 miles from the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 fathoms 
 were sounded ; the weight employed amounted 450 lbs. 
 
 SOUTHAMPTON, a seaport (S. England), a county of itself, near the Roman Clausentum 
 and the Saxon Hantune. It frequently sufi"ered by Danish incursions : Canute when king 
 occasionally resided here. The charter was granted by Henry I. and confirmed by Richard 
 I. and John ; and the free grammar school was founded by Edward VI. On July 17, 1861, 
 a monument to Dr. Isaac "Watts was inaugurated, and on Oct. 15, l852, the Hartley insti- 
 tution was opened by lord Palmerston. 
 
sou 674 SOU 
 
 SOUTH AUSTEALIA was discovered by capt. Start in 1830, and explored shortly after 
 by capt. Parker and ilr. Kent, the former of whom was killed by the natives. The boun- 
 daries of the pro^^nce were fixed by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 95 (1834) ; and it was occupied Dec. 
 26, 1836, by capt. Hindmar.sh, the first governor. It was colonised according to Mr. E. 
 Gibbon Wakefield's scheme, which was carried out by the South Australian Colonisation 
 Association. The colony for several j'cars underwent severe trials through the great influx 
 of emigrants, land-jobbing, building speculations, &c., which produced almost iiniversal 
 bankruptcy in 1839. In "five years after the energy of the colonists had overcome their 
 difficulties, and the prosperity of the colony appeared fully established. In 1842 the 
 highly productive Burra Burra copper mines were discovered, and large fortunes were 
 suddenly realised; but in 185 1 the discovery of gold in New Soiith AVales and Victoria- 
 almost paralysed this province by drawing off a large part of the labouring population. 
 Very little gold was found in South Australia ; but a reaction took place in favour of the 
 copper mines and agriculture, &c. Before the discovery of gold, little trade existed between 
 Adelaide (the capital of South Australia) and Melbourne ; but in 1852 gold was transmitted 
 from the latter to the former to the amount of 2,215,167?. principally for bread-stuffs, farm 
 produce, &c. The bishopric of Adelaide was founded in 1847. Sir Dominic Daly was 
 ajjpointed governor in Nov. 1861. Population in 1855, 85,821 ; in 1857, 185,698. 
 
 SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA, a fanatic, born in 1750, came from Exeter to London, where 
 her followers at one period amounted to many thousands, among Avhom were military 
 officers, but the low and ignorant were her principal dupes. In 1792 she announced 
 herself as the woman spoken of in the book of Eevelation, chap. xii. ; and a disorder gave 
 her the appearance of jtregnancy after she had passed her grand climacteric, fiivouring the 
 delusion that she would be the mother of the promised Shiloh. ^he died Dec. 27, 1814. 
 In 185 1 there existed in England four congi-egations, professing to expect her return. 
 
 SOUTHERN CONFEDERATE STATES. See Confederates. 
 
 SOUTHERN CONTINENT. The Southern Ocean was first traversed by Magellan in 
 1520; and explored by Wallis and Carteret in 1766; and by Cook in 1773 and 1774. Of 
 the soiithern continent little more is known than that it is ice-boimd, and contains active 
 volcanoes. It was discovered in the first instance by capt. John Biscoe, on Feb. 27, 1831, 
 in lat. 65° 57' S., long. 47° 20' E., extending east and west 200 miles, — this he named 
 Enderby Land, after the gentleman who had equipped him for the A^oyage. Capt. Biscoe 
 also discovered Graham's Land on Feb. 15, 1832, situated in lat. 67° i' S., long. 71° 48' W. 
 The Messrs. Enderby equipped three other expeditions in search of the southern continent, 
 the last (in connection with some other gentlemen) in 1838, when capt. Balleny had 
 command, who on Feb. 9, 1839, discovered the Balleny Islands, in lat. 67° S., long. 165° E., 
 and in March, 1839, Salvina Land, in lat. 65° 10' S., long. 118° 30' E. In 1840, a French 
 expedition, under the command of admiral D'Urville, and an American expedition, imder 
 the command of commodore "VVilkes, greatly added to our knowledge in respect to the exis- 
 tence of a southern continent, and this was again increased by the expedition which sailed 
 from England in 1839, under the command of capt. sir James Clark Ross, who discovered 
 Victoria Land in 1841, and subsequently penetrated as far south as 78° 11'. 
 
 SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, near Brompton old church (containing the pictures 
 presented by JSIr. Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, Mrs. Ellison, and those bequeathed by Tui-ner, 
 the great painter, as well as specimens of sculpture and art, educational collections, products 
 of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, &c.), was opened on June 24, 1857. A 
 special Exhibition of Works of Art, of immense value, lent for the occasion, was opened here 
 in the slimmer of 1862, and closed in November. 
 
 SOUTH-SEA BUBBLE commenced with the establishment of the South-sea company in 
 1710, which was at first unwisely and afterwards dishonestly managed. It exploded in 1720, 
 ruining thousands of families, and the directoi\s' estates, to the value of 2,014,000/. were 
 seized in 1721 and sold. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with 100,000/. ; but he com- 
 pounded the fraud for io,oooZ. and returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy 
 persons in the kingdom had become speculators ; the artifices of tlie directors having raised 
 the shares, originally 100/. to the price of 1000/. A parliamentary inquiry took place in 
 Nov. 1720, and Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, and several members of parliament 
 were expelled the house in 1721. See Law's Bubble. 
 
 SOUTHWARK (S. London), was governed by its own bailiffs till 1327. The city, 
 however, found great inconvenience from the number of malefactors who escaped tliither, in 
 order to be out of the reach and cognizance of the city magistrates ; and a grant was made of 
 Southwark to the city of Loudon by the crown, for a small annuity. In Edward VI.'s reign 
 
sou 
 
 675 
 
 SPA 
 
 it was formed into a cityward, and was named Bridge "Ward Without, 1550. — Southwark 
 iriclge was begun September 23, 1814, and was completed March 26, 1819, at an expense of 
 8oo,oooZ. It consists of three great cast-iron arches, resting on massive stone piers and 
 abutments ; the distance between the abutments is 708 feet ; the centre arch is 240 feet span, 
 the two others 210 feet each ; and the total weight of iron 5308 tons. 
 
 SOUTHWOLD. SeeSolebai/. 
 
 SOVEREIGN", an ancient and modern British gold coin. In 1489 22^ pieces, in value 205. 
 "to be called the sovereign," were ordered to be coined out of a pound of gold. Ending. 
 In 1542 sovereigns were coined in value 20s., which afterwards, in 1550 and 1552 (4 & 6 
 Edw. "V"I.), passed for 245. and 30s. "Sovereigns " of the new coinage were directed to pass 
 for 205. July I, and half-sovereigns for los. Oct. 10, 1817. See Coin and Gold. 
 
 SPA-FIELDS (N". London). Here upwards of 30,000 persons assembled to vote an 
 address from the distressed manufacturers to the prince regent, Nov. 15, 1816. A second 
 meeting, Dec. 2 following, terminated in an alanning riot ; the shops of several gunsmiths 
 were attacked for arms by the rioters ; and in the shop of Mr. Beckwitli, on Snowhill, Mr. 
 Piatt Avas wounded, and much injury was done before the tumult was suppressed. For this 
 riot, Cashman the seaman was hanged, March 12, 181 7, 
 
 SPAHIS, African horsemen, incorporated by the French in Algeria in 1834'; three 
 regiments of them came to France in 1863. 
 
 SPAIN (the ancient Iberia and Hispania). The first settlers are supposed to have been 
 the progeny of Tubal, fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians (360 33. c.) 
 successively planted colonies on the coasts ; and the Eomans conquered the whole country, 
 206 B.C. Population of Spain in 1857, 15,464,078 ; of the colonies, 4,528,633. Estimated 
 revenue in 1861, 19,324, 743 Z. ; expenditure, 19,386, 800Z. 
 
 The Cai-thaginians enriched by the mines of 
 
 Spain (B.C. 480^4 seg.) form settlements B.C. 360 
 Hamilcar extends their dominions in Spain 238-233 
 New Carthage (Carthagena) founded by 
 Hasdrubal ........ 229 
 
 At his death, Hannibal, his son takes the com- 
 mand, 221; and prepares for war, 220; he 
 takes Saguntum, 219 : crosses the Alps and 
 
 enters Italy 218 
 
 The Romans carry the war into Spain ; two 
 ^■^Scipios defeated and slain by Hasdrubal . 212 
 Pub. Cornelivis Scipio Africanus takes New 
 Carthage, 210 ; and drives the Carthaginians 
 
 out of Spain 207 
 
 Numantine war 153-133 
 
 Viriathus, general of the Celtiberians and Lusi- 
 
 tanians, subdued all West Spain, 145 ; makes 
 
 peace with the consul FalDius ServiUanus, 
 
 142 ; assassinated by order of the Romans. . 140 
 
 Insurrection of Sertorius, 78 ; subdued by 
 
 Pompey, and assassinated .... 72 
 Julius Csesar qiiells an insurrection in Spain . 67 
 Pompey governs Spain ..... 60-50 
 Revolt through the rapacity of Crassus . . 48-47 
 
 The Vandals, Alani, and Suevi wrest Spain from 
 
 the Romans a.d. 409 
 
 Adolphus founds the kingdom of the Visigoths 414 
 The Vandals pass over to Africa . . . . 427 
 Theodorio I. vanquishes the Suevi . . . 452 
 Assassinated by his brother Euric, who becomes 
 
 master of all Spain 466 
 
 Recared I. expels the Pranks .... 587 
 He abjures Arianism, and rules ably . till 601 
 Wamba's wise administration ; he prepared a 
 
 fleet for defence against the Saracens . 672-677 
 The Arabs invited into Spain against king 
 
 Roderic 709 
 
 His defeat and death at Xeres 711 
 
 Establit^hment of the Saracens at Cordova . ,, 
 Victorious progress of Musa and Tank . . 712-13 
 Emirs rule at Cordova ; Pelnyo, of Gothic blood, 
 
 rules in Asturias and Leon 718 
 
 The Saracens defeated at Tours by Charles 
 
 Martel 732 or 733 
 
 Abderahman the first king at Cordova . . 755 
 Unsuccessful invasion of Charlemagne . 777-78 
 
 Sancho Inigo, count of Navarre, <&;c. . . . 873 
 
 Sancho of Navarre becomes king of Castile . 1026 
 The kingdom of Aragon commenced under 
 
 Ramirez I. 1035 
 
 Leon and Asturias united to Castile . . . 1037 
 Portugal taken from the Saracens by Henry of 
 
 Besangon. (See Portugal.) .... 1095 
 The Saracens, beset on all sides by the Chris- 
 tians, call in the aid of the Moors from Africa, 
 who seize the dominions they came to protect, 
 and subdue the Saracens . . . 1091 et seq. 
 Exploits of the Cid Rodrigo ; dies . about 1099 
 Dynasty of the Almoravides at Cordova 1094-1144 
 The Moors defeated in several battles by 
 
 Alfonso of Leon 1 144 
 
 Dynasty of the Almohades at Cordova . 1144-1225 
 Cordova, Toledo, Seville, &c., taken by Ferdi- 
 nand of Castile and Leon . . . 1233-1248 
 The kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors, 
 
 last refuge from the power of the Christians . 123S 
 The crown of Navarre passes to the royal family 
 
 of Prance 1274 
 
 200,000 Moors arrive to assist the king of 
 
 Granada 1327 
 
 They are defeated at Tarifa by Alfonso XI. of 
 Castile with great slaughter .... 1340 
 
 Reign of Pedro the Cruel 1350 
 
 His alliance with Edward the Blank Prince . 1363 
 Defeated at Montiel and treacherously slain . 1369 
 Ferdinand II. of Aragon marries Isabella of 
 Castile; and nearly the whole Christian 
 dominions of Spain are united in one 
 monarchy ... .... 1474 
 
 Establishment of the Inquisition . . 1480-4 
 
 Persecution of the Jews .... 1492-8 
 
 Granada taken after a two years' siege ; and 
 the power of the Moors is finally extirpated 
 
 by Ferdinand 1492 
 
 Columbus is sent from Spain to explore the 
 
 western ocean .... April 17, ,, 
 Mahometans persecuted and expelled . 1499-1502 
 Death of Columbus. . . . May 20, 1506 
 Ferdinand conquers great part of Navarre . 1512 
 Accession of the house of Austria to the throne 
 
 of Spain; Charles I. of Spain. . . . 1516 
 Able administration of Ximenes ; ungratefully 
 
 used, 1516 ; his death 1517 
 
 Chaaies elected emperor of Germany . . .1519 
 
 X X 2 
 
SPA 
 
 676 
 
 SPA 
 
 SPAIN", continued. 
 
 Dreadful insurrection in Castile . . . 1520-21 
 Philip of Spain marries Mary of England . . 1554 
 Charles retires from the world . . . . 1556 
 War with France ; victory at St Quentin, 
 
 Aug. 10, 1557 
 Philip II. commences his bloody persecution of 
 
 the Protestants 1561 
 
 The Escurial begun building . • . . . 1562 
 Revolt of the Moriscoes, 1567 ; suppressed . 1570 
 Naval victory of Lt-panto over the Turks . . 1571 
 Porti^al united to Spain by conquest . . 1580 
 The Spanish Armada destroyed. See Anaada. 1588 
 Philip III. banishes the Moors (900,000) . 159B-1610 
 
 Philip IV. loses Portugal 1640 
 
 Death of Charles II., last of the houfe of 
 Austria ; accession of Philip V. of the house 
 
 of Bourbon 1700 
 
 Wiir of the Succession 1702-13 
 
 Gibraltar taken by the English . . . . 1 704 
 
 Siege of Barcelona 1713 
 
 Able government of cardinal Alberoui ; he re- 
 established the authority of the king, reformed 
 many abuses, and raised Spain to the rank of a 
 first power, 1715-1720 : ordered to quit Spain 1720 
 Charles, son of Philip V. conquers Naples . . 1735 
 Charles III. king of the Two Sicilies, succeeds 
 to the crown of Spain ..... 1759 
 
 War with England 1796 
 
 Battle of Cape St. Vincent . . . Feb. 14, 1797 
 Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,000 
 
 dollars, seized by the English . Oct. 29, 1804 
 
 Battle of Trafi^lgar. See Trafalgar Oct. 21, 1805 
 Sway of Godoy, prince of Peace . . . 1806 
 The French enter Spain ; a Spanish army sent 
 
 to the Baltic 1807 
 
 Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias against his 
 
 father July 25, ,, 
 
 Treaty of Fontainebleau . . . Oct. 27, ,, 
 The French take Madrid . . . March, 1808 
 The prince of Peace dismissed. . March 18, ,, 
 Abdication of Charles IV. in favour of Ferdi- 
 nand, March 19 ; and at B lyonne, in favour 
 of his " friend and ally " Napoleon, when 
 Ferdinand relinquished the crown . Maj- i, ,, 
 Kevolutiun : the French massacred at Madrid, 
 
 May 2, „ 
 The province Asturias rises en matse . May 3, ,, 
 Napoleon assembles the notables at Bayonne, 
 
 May 25, ,, 
 Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of 
 
 Sp.ain, July 12 ; retires . . July 29, ,, 
 
 Battle of Vimiera ; French defeated . Aug. 21, ,, 
 Supreme Junta installed . . . Sept. ,, 
 Madiid taken by the French, and Joseph 
 
 restored Dec. 2, ,, 
 
 Napoleon enters Madrid . . . Dec. 4, ,, 
 The royal family of Spain imprisoned in the 
 
 palace of Chnmbery in Savoy . Dec. 5, ,, 
 The French take Ferrol, Jan. 27 : Saragossa, 
 Feb. 21; Oporto, Feb. 29; Cordova and 
 Seville, Nov. ; Gorona . . . Dec. 12, i8og 
 Ney takes Ciudad Rodrigo . . July 10, 1810 
 Thfi Spanish cortes meet . . . Sept. 24, ,, 
 Wellington defeats Massona at Fuentes d'Onore, 
 
 May 6, 1811 
 Soult defeated at Albuera . . May i6, ,, 
 Constitution of the cortes . . . May 8, 1812 
 Wellington takes Ciudad Rodrigo, Jan. 19. 
 storms Badajoz, April 6 ; defeats Marmont 
 
 at Salamanca July 22, ,, 
 
 lie occupies Madrid, and totally defe its the 
 
 French at Vittoria, June 21 ; defeats Soult in 
 
 the Pyrenees, July 28 ; takes St. Sebastian, 
 
 Aug. 31 ; and enters France . . Oct. 8, 1813 
 
 Ferdinand VII. (iufamouslyungrateful)restored 
 
 May 14, 1814 
 Slave trade abolished for a compensation . .1817 
 Insurrection at Valencia refjressed . . . i8ig 
 Spanish 1 evolution began .... Jan. 1820 
 
 Ferdinand swears to the constitution of the 
 
 cortes Mnrch 8, 1820 
 
 The cortes remove the king to Seville, and 
 
 thence to Cadiz .... March, 1823 
 
 The French enter Spain April 7 ; and invest 
 
 Cadiz June 25, „ 
 
 Battle of the Trocadero . . . Aug. 31, „ 
 Despotism resumed ; the cortes dissolved ; exe- 
 cutions of liberals Oct. „ 
 
 Riego put to death . . . . Nov. 27, ,, 
 
 The French evacuate Cadiz . . Sept. 21, 1828 
 Cadiz made a free port . . . Feb. 24, 1829 
 
 Salique law abolished . . . March, 1830 
 Queen of Spain appointed regent during the 
 king's indisposition ; change in the ministry, 
 
 Oct. 25, 1832 
 Don Carlos declares himself legitimate successor 
 
 to the king April 29, 1833 
 
 Death of Ferdinand VII., and his queen 
 assumes the title of governing queen until 
 Isabella II. her iiifiint daughter, attains her 
 
 majority Sept. 29, „ 
 
 The royalist volunteers disarmed with some 
 
 bloodshed at Madrid . . . Oct. 27, ,, 
 Queen Christina marries Ferdinand Mufloz 
 
 (afterwards duke of Rianzares) . Dec. 28, ,, 
 The quadruple treaty establishes the right of 
 
 Isabella to the throne . . April 22, 1834 
 
 Don Carlos suddenlj' appears in Spain, July 10, „ 
 The peers vote his exclusion . . Aug. 30, „ 
 Mendizabal, prime minister ; Mina and 
 Espartero commanded the royalists ; the rebel 
 leader, Zumlacarregui killed near Bilboa . 1835 
 Sir De Lacy Evans, lord John Hay, and others, 
 
 raised a British legion for the queen of Spain, ,, 
 They defeat the Carlistsat St. Sebastian, Oct. i, 1836 
 Espartero gains the battle of Bilboa . Dec. 25, ,, 
 General Evans t ikes Irun . . May 17, 1837 
 The Carlis's under Maroto desert Don Carlos 
 
 and conclude a treaty of peace . Aug. 29, 1839 
 D<in Carlos seeks refuge in France Sept. 13, ,, 
 Surrender of Morello . . . May 28, 1840 
 Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to maintain 
 
 the war, enters France . . . July 7, „ 
 The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Sebastian 
 
 and Passages . . . . • Aug. 25, ,, 
 Revolutionary movement at Madrid : the 
 
 authorities triumphant . . . Sept. i, ,, 
 Dismissal of the ministry and dissolution of the 
 
 cortes Sept. 9, ,, 
 
 Espartero makes his triumphal entry into 
 
 Madrid Oct. 5, ,, 
 
 The queen regent appoints a new ministry, 
 who are nominated by Espartero, Oct. 5 ; she 
 abdicates and leaves tlie kingdom ; visits 
 France ; next Sicily ; but returns to France, 
 
 Oct. 12, „ 
 Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the papal 
 
 nuncio Dec. 29, ,, 
 
 The Spanish cortes declare Espartero regent 
 during the minority of the young queen, 
 
 April 12, 1S41 
 Queen Christina's protest to the nation. 
 
 July 19, „ 
 Insurrection in favour of Christina is com- 
 menced at Pampeluna by general O'DonucU, 
 
 and Concha Oct 2, ,, 
 
 Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at Madrid ; 
 his followers are repulsed, and numbers 
 slain by the queen's guards . Oct. 7, ,, 
 
 Don Diego Leon shot at Madrid . . Oct. 15, „ 
 Zurbano captures Bilboa . . Oct. 21, „ 
 
 Rodil, the constitutional general, enters 
 
 Vittoria Oct 21 ,, 
 
 Montes de Oca shot . . . . Oct. 21, „ 
 General O'DouncU takes refuge in the French 
 
 territory Oct. 21, ,, 
 
 Esiiartero decrees the suspension of queen 
 Christina's pension . . . . Oct. 26, ,, 
 
SPA 
 
 677 
 
 SPA 
 
 SPAIN, continued. 
 
 Fueros of the Basque provinces abolished, 
 
 Oct. 29, 
 
 Borio and Gobemado implicated in the Chris- 
 tina plot, put to death at Madrid . Nov. 9, 
 
 Espartero enters Madrid . . Nov. 23, 
 
 General pardon of all persons not yet tried, 
 concerned in the events of October, Dec. 13, 
 
 The effective strength of the army fixed at 
 130,000 men ..... June 28, 
 
 An insurrection breaks out at Barcelona ; the 
 national guard joins the populace, Nov. 13 ; 
 battle in the streets between the national 
 guard and the troops ; the latter lose 500 in 
 killed and wounded, and retreatj to the 
 citadel '..... Nov. 15, 
 
 Barcelona blockaded ; the British consul refuses 
 refuge to any but British subjects on board 
 British ships .... Nov. 26, 
 
 The regent Espartero arrives before Barcelona, 
 
 Nov. 29 ; its bombardment and surrender, 
 
 Dec. 3, 4, 
 
 The disturbances at Malaga . . May 25, 
 
 The revolutionary junta is re-established at 
 Barcelona June 11, 
 
 [Corunna, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, and 
 numerous other towns, shortly afterwards 
 ■" pronounce " against the regent Espartero.] 
 
 Arrival of general Narvaez at Madrid, which 
 surrenders July 15 
 
 Espartero bombards Seville . . July 21, 
 
 The siege is raised .... July 27, 
 
 [The revolution is completely successful, and 
 Espartero flies to Cadiz, and embarks on 
 board her Majesty's ship Malaboj-.] 
 
 The new government deprives Espartero of his 
 titles and rank .... Aug. 16, 
 
 Espartero arrives in London . . Aug. 23, 
 
 Re-action against the new government breaks 
 out at Madrid .... Aug. 23, 
 
 The young queen Isabella II. 13 years old, is 
 declared by the cortes to be of age ; Narvaez 
 (friend of the queen-mother), lieutenant- 
 general Nov. 8, 
 
 The queen-mother returns to Spain, March 23, 
 
 Zurbano's insurrection, Nov. 12, 1844; he is 
 shot . . . . . . . Jan. 21, 
 
 Don Carlos rehnquishes his right to the crown 
 in favour of his son . . . May 18, 
 
 Narvaez and his ministry resign Feb. 12 ; return 
 to power, March 17 ; again resign March 28, 
 
 Escape of Don Carlos from France Sept. 14, 
 
 Marriage of the queen to her cousin, Don 
 Francisco d'Assiz, duke of Cadiz ; and 
 marriage also of the infanta Louisa to the 
 duke de Montpensier . . . Oct. 10, 
 
 [The Montpensier marriage occasions the dis- 
 pleasure of England, and disturbs the fiiendly 
 relations of the French and Englif h govern- 
 ments.] 
 
 Amnesty granted to poUtioal offenders, Oct. 18, 
 
 Two shots fired at the queen by an assassin, 
 La Riva May 4, 
 
 He is sentenced to " death by the cord," and is 
 executed June 23, 
 
 Espartero restored .... Sept. 3, 
 
 Sir Henry Lytton Bulwcr, British envoy, 
 ordei-ed to quit Spain in 48 hours . March 19, 
 
 Narvaez dismissed and recalled . . . . 
 
 Diplomatic relations between the two countries 
 not restored .... until April iS, 
 
 The queen of Spain delivered of a mala child 
 ■which lives but ten minutes .... 
 
 The American expeditions under Lopez against 
 Cuba. See Cuba and the United States, 1850, 
 
 Resignation of Narvaez . . . .Jan 10, 
 
 The infante dou Hem-ique permitted to return 
 to Spain Feb. 2, 
 
 Madrid-Aranjuez railway opened . Feb. 9, 
 
 The queen pardons the prisoners taken in the 
 attempt upon Cuba .... Dec. n 
 
 184s 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 
 Her majesty gives birth to a princess Deo. 20, 1851 
 Attempt made on tbe life of the queen ; she is 
 slightly wounded by the dagger of Merino, a 
 
 Franciscan Feb. 2, 1852 
 
 Gen. Castaflos, duke of Baylen, renowned in 
 the war against the French, dies in his 96th 
 year Sept. 23, ,, 
 
 Narvaez exiled to Vienna . . . Jan. 1853 
 
 Ministerial changes — Lersundi forms a cabinet, 
 
 April II, ,, 
 
 Resignation of Lersundi — Sartorius's cabinet, 
 
 Sept. „ 
 
 Birth and death of a princess . . Jan. 5, 1854 
 
 General O'DonneU, Concha, and others 
 banished Jan 18, 
 
 Disturbances at Saragossa, &c. . . Feb, ,, 
 
 Don Francisco (father of the king consort), 
 mari'ies an " unfortunate" woman . March, ,, 
 
 Military insurrection near Madrid . June 28, ,, 
 
 The movement headed by Espartero ; Barcelona 
 and Madrid pronounce against the govern- 
 ment ; barricades in Madrid . . July 1-17, ,, 
 
 Triumph of the insurrection; resignation of 
 the ministry ; the queen sends for Espartero, 
 
 July 19, ,, 
 
 Peace restored : the degraded gener.als rein- 
 stated, &c. ; Espartero forms an administra- 
 tion July 31, „ 
 
 The queen mother impeached ; she quits Spain, 
 
 Aug. 28, ,, 
 
 Ministerial crisis ; Espartero resign', but re- 
 sumes office .... Nov. 21-30, „ 
 
 New constitution of the cortes proposed, 
 
 Jan. 13, 1855 
 
 The cortes vote that all power proceeds from 
 the people ; they permit liberty of belief, but 
 not of worship Feb. ,, 
 
 Don Carlos dies .... March 10, ,, 
 
 Insurrection at Valencia . . . April 6, 1S56 
 
 Resignation of Espartero ; new cabinet formed 
 headed by marshal O'DonneU ; insurrection 
 in Madrid, July 14 ; O'DonneU and the govern- 
 ment troops subdue the insurgents ; the 
 national guard suppressed . July 15-16, „ 
 
 Insurrection at Barcelona and Saragossa, quelled 
 by O'DonneU, as dictator. . July 15-23, „ 
 
 Amnesty granted to poUtical offenders, Oct. 19, ,, 
 
 O'DonneU compelled to resign ; Narvaez 
 becomes minister .... Oct 12, ,, 
 
 Esp.irtero resigns as senator . . Feb. i, 1857 
 
 Insurrection in Andalusia ; quickly suppressed ; 
 cruel miUtary executions ; 98 insurgents shot 
 (24 at SeviUe) . . . June and July, ,, 
 
 Ministerial changes ; Armero becomes minister 
 
 Oct. 26, ,, 
 
 Isturitz becomes minister, Jan. 14 ; O'DonneU 
 becomes minister .... July i, 1858 
 
 Cessation of state of siege at Barcelona, &c. 
 
 Sept. 20, ,, 
 
 Joint French and Spanish expedition against 
 Cochin China announced . . Dec. i, ,, 
 
 War with Morocco {which see) Nov. and Dec. 1859 
 
 An association for reforming the tariff, &c. 
 formed ,, 
 
 O'DonneU commands the army in Africa ; inde- 
 cisive conflicts reported; battle at Castellejos; 
 a Spanish " Balaklava " charge . Jan. t, i860 
 
 The Moors defeated near Tetuan, which sur- 
 renders Feb. 4, ,, 
 
 An ineffectual truce . . . Feb. 16-23, >• 
 
 The Moors defeated at Guad-el-ras, March 23, ,, 
 
 Treaty of peace signed ; 400,000,000 reals to be 
 paid by Moors, and Tetuan to be held till 
 paid March 26, „ 
 
 General Ortega, governor of the Balearic Isles, 
 lands near 'Tortosa, in Valeutia, with 3000 
 men, and proclaims the comte de Jlonte- 
 molin king, as Charles VI. : histvoox^s resi-t,' 
 and he is compelled to fleo, with the comte 
 and others April 3, „ 
 
SPA 
 
 C78 
 
 SPA 
 
 SPAIN, contiinicd. 
 
 He is arrested and shot . . . . April ig, 
 The comte de Montemolin and his brother Fer- 
 dinand ai'e arrested at Tortosa, April 21 ; they 
 renounce their claim to the throne, April 23, 
 An amnesty proclaimed . . . May 2, 
 Their brother Juan asserts his right, June 5 ; 
 and they, when at Cologne, annul their re- 
 nunciation June 28, 
 
 The emperor Napoleon's proposal to admit 
 
 Spain as a first-class power is opposed by 
 
 England, and given up . . . Aug. 
 
 The comte de Montemolin and his wife die at 
 
 Trieste Jan. 14, 
 
 The annexation of St. Domingo to Spain rati- 
 fied ; slavery not to be re-est.ablished, May 19, 
 Insurrection at Loja suppressed . . July, 
 The queen said to be governed by the nun Pa- 
 
 trocinio Dec. 
 
 Intervention in Mexico (see Mexico) . Dec. 8, 
 Much church property in course of sale, April, 
 Jos6 Alhama and Manuel Matamoras, protes- 
 tant propagandists, sentenced to 10 years' im- 
 prisonment Oct. 14, 
 
 Don Juan de Bourbon renounces his right to 
 
 the throne Jan. 8, 
 
 Resignation of the premier, marshal O'Don- 
 
 nell, Feb. 26 ; a ministry formed by marquis 
 
 de Miraflores .... March 4, 
 
 Insurrection at St. Domingo ; v.'ar ensues (sou 
 
 Domingo) Sept. i, 
 
 Empress of France visits the queen . Oct. 
 Rupture with Peru (which see) . April, 
 
 General Prim exiled for con.spiracy . Aug. 13, 
 M. Mon forms a ministr3', March i ; resigns, 
 Sept. 13 ; Narvaez forms a cabinet . Sept. 16, 
 Queen Christina returns to Spain . Sept. 26, 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 English government recogfnises the insun-ec- 
 tion at St. Domingo ; Narvaez advises aban- 
 donment of the contest ; the queen refuses ; 
 the ministry resign ; but resume ofiice, 
 JDec. 14-18, 
 
 Peace with Peru, which has to pay a heavy 
 indemnity Jan. 27, 
 
 The queen orders the sale of crown lands, 
 giving up three-fourths to the nation, Feb. 20, 
 
 Student riots at Madrid ; several persons killed, 
 
 April 10, 
 
 Decree relinquishing St. Domingo . May 5, 
 
 Dispute with ChUi ; M. Tavira's settlement (Slay 
 20) disavowed by the government . July 25, 
 
 Suppression of a conspiracy at Valentia to re- 
 unite Spain and Portugal . . June 10, 
 
 Resignation of Narvaez, June 19 ; O'Donnell 
 forms a liberal cabinet . . . June 22, 
 
 Kingdomof Italy recognised by Spain, June 26, 
 
 Admiral Pareja, at Valparaiso, insults the 
 Chilian government, Sept. 18; which declares 
 war, Sept. 25 ; Pareja declares a blockade, 
 
 Oct. 
 
 The Chilian capt. Williams captures the 
 Spanish vessel Coradonga . . Nov. 26, 
 
 Intervention fruitless .... Dec. 
 
 New cortes elected ; the great Progfresista party 
 still abstain from action in pubUc affairs ; 
 queen opens cortes .... Dec. 27, 
 
 Military insurrection at Ai-anjucz, headed by 
 gen. Prim, Jan. 3 ; martial law in JIadrid, 
 Jan. 4; Concha and Zabala march against 
 rebels, Jan. 4, &c. ; riots at B.ircclona ; state 
 of siege in Now C'asti)e, Catalonia, and Arra- 
 gon, Jan. 6-12 ; insui-gents said to be en- 
 deavouring to enter Portugal . Jan. 17, 
 
 1864 
 1865 
 
 KINGS OF SPAIN, 
 
 EEICN OF THE GOTHS. 
 
 411. 
 415- 
 
 452. 
 466. 
 483. 
 506. 
 5"- 
 531- 
 
 548. 
 549- 
 554- 
 567. 
 
 568. 
 
 S86. 
 601, 
 603. 
 610. 
 612. 
 621. 
 
 631. 
 636. 
 64c. 
 642. 
 
 672. 
 
 680. 
 6S7. 
 693. 
 
 Ataulfo ; Aiurdered by hi.s soldiers. 
 
 Sigerico ; reigned a few days only. 
 
 Valia, or Wallia. 
 
 Theodoric I. ; killed in a battle, which he 
 
 gained, against Attila. 
 Thorismund, or Torrismund ; assassinated by 
 
 his favourite. 
 Theodoric II. : assassinated by 
 Euric, the first monarch of all Spain. 
 Alaric II. ; killed in battle. 
 Gesalric ; his bastard son. 
 Amalric, or Amalaric ; legitimate son of Alaric. 
 Theudis, or Theodat ; assassinated by a mad- 
 man. 
 Theudiscia, or Theodisele ; murdered. 
 Agila ; taken prisoner, and put to death. 
 Atauagildo. 
 Liuva, or Levua I. 
 Leuvigildo ; associated on the throne with 
 
 Liuva, in 568 ; and sole king in 572. 
 Recarcdo I. 
 
 Liuva II. ; assassinated. 
 Vitoricus ; also murdered. 
 Gundemar. 
 
 Sisibut, or Sisebuth, or Siscbcrt. 
 Recaredo II. 
 Suintila ; dethroned. 
 Sisenando. 
 Chintclla. 
 Tulga, or Tulca. 
 Cindasuinto ; died in 652. 
 Recesuinto ; associated on the throne this 
 
 year, and in 653 became sole king. 
 Vamba, or Wamba ; dethroned, and died in a 
 
 monastery. 
 Ervigius, or Ervigio. 
 Egica, or Egiza. 
 Vitiza, or Witiza ; associated on the throne ; 
 
 in 701 sole king. 
 
 711. Rodrigo, or Rodoric ; slain in battle. 
 [Six independent Suevic kings reigned 409-469 : 
 and Two Vakdalic kings : Gunderic 409-425 ; his 
 successor Genseric with his whole nation passed 
 over to Africa.] 
 
 MAHOMETAN SPAIN. 
 
 CORDOVA. 
 
 I. Emirs. The first, Abdelasis ; the last, Yussuf-el- 
 Tehri: a.d. 714-753. 
 Kings. The first, Abderahman I. ; the last, Abu 
 AU : 755-1238. 
 
 Kidffs. The first, Mohammed I. ; the last, Ab- 
 dalla : 1238-1492. 
 
 CHRISTIAN SPAIN. 
 
 KINGS OF ASTURIAS AND LEOK. 
 
 1 3. Pelagius, or Pelayo ; overthrew the Moors, 
 and checked their conquests. 
 
 Fa\-ila ; killed in hunting. 
 
 Alfonso the Catholic. 
 
 Froila ; murdered his brother Samaran, in 
 revenge for which he was murdered by his 
 brother and successor, 
 
 Aurelius or Aurelio. 
 
 Mauregato, the Usurper. 
 
 Veremundo (Bermuda) I. 
 
 Alfonso II., the Chaste. 
 
 Ramiro I. : he put 70,000 Saracens to the 
 sword in one battle. Rahhe. 
 
 Ordouo I. 
 
 Alfonso III., sumamcd the Great; relin- 
 quished his crown to his son. 
 
 737- 
 739' 
 757. 
 
 768. 
 774- 
 
 791. 
 842. 
 
 850. 
 866, 
 
SPA 
 
 671 
 
 SPA 
 
 tbe Monk ; abdicated, 
 killed in battle. 
 
 SPAIIST, contiimed. 
 
 910. Garcias. 
 914. Ordouo II. 
 
 923. Proila II. 
 925. Alfonso IV., 
 930. Ramiro II. ; 
 950. Ordoiio III. 
 
 955. Ordoilo IV. 
 
 956. Sancho I., the Fat ; poisoned with, an apple. 
 967. Ramiro III. 
 
 983. Veremundo II. (Bermuda), the Gouty. 
 999. Alfonso V. ; killed in a siege. 
 1027. Veremundo III. (Bermuda) ; killed. 
 
 KINGS- OF KAVAEKE. 
 
 S73. Sanoho luigo, Count. 
 
 S85. Garcia I., king. 
 
 905. Sancho Garcias ; a renowned ■warrior. 
 
 924. Garcias II., surnamed the Trembler. 
 
 976. Sancho II., surnamed the Great (king of Cas- 
 tile through his wife). 
 
 1033. Garcias III. 
 
 1054. Sancho III. 
 
 1076. Sancho IV., Ramirez, king of Aragon. 
 
 1094. Peter of Aragon. 
 
 H04. Alfonso I., of Aragon. 
 
 1134. Garcias IV., Ramirez. 
 
 1150. Sancho V., surnamed the Wise. 
 
 1194. Sancho VI., surnamed the Infirm. 
 
 1234. Theobald I., count of Champagne. 
 
 1253. Theobald II. 
 
 1270. Henry Crassus. 
 
 1274. Joanna ; married to Philip the Fair of France, 
 1285. 
 
 1305. Louis Hutin of France. 
 
 1316. John; lived but a few days. 
 ,, Philip v., the Long, of France. 
 
 1322. Charles I. tbe IV. of France. 
 
 1328. Joanna II., and Philip, count d'Evreux. 
 
 1343. Joanna alone. 
 
 1349. Charles II., or the Biid. 
 1387. Charles III., or the Noble. 
 
 1425. Blanche and her husband John II., afterwards 
 
 king of Aragon. 
 1479. Eleanor. 
 
 „ Francis Phcebus de Foix. 
 1483. Catherine and John d'Albret. 
 1512. Navarre conquered b3' Ferdinand the Catholic, 
 and united with Castile. 
 
 KINGS OF LEON AND CASTILE. 
 
 1035. Ferdinand the Great. 
 
 1065. Sancho II., the Strong, son of Ferdinand ; 
 
 Alfonso in Leon and Asturias, and Garcias 
 
 in Galicia. 
 1072. Alfonso VI., the Valiant, king of Leon, 
 nog. Uraoa and Alfonso VII. 
 1 126. Alfonso VII., Raymond. 
 
 1157. Sancho III., surnamed the Beloved. 
 
 1 158. Alfonso VIII., the Noble. 
 
 [Leon is separated from Castile under Fer- 
 dinand II., 1157-118S. 
 1 1 88. Alfonso IX., of Leon. 
 1 2 14. Henry I. 
 1217. FerdinandIII.,the SaintandtheHoly. By him 
 
 Leon and Castile were permanently united. 
 1252. AUonso X., the Wise (the Alphonsine Tables 
 
 were drawn up under his dh-ection). 
 1284. Sancho IV., the Great and the Brave. 
 1295. Ferdinand IV. 
 1312. Alfonso XI. 
 
 1350. Peter the Cruel : deposed ; reinstated by 
 
 Edward the Black Prince of England ; slain 
 by his natural brother and successor. 
 
 1369. Henry II., the Gracious ; poisoned by a monk. 
 
 1379. John I: he united Biscay to Castile. 
 
 1390. Henry III., the Sickly. 
 
 1406. John II., son of Henry. 
 
 1454. Henrj' IV., the Impotent. 
 
 1474. Isabella, now queen of Castile, married FeT- 
 dinand of Aragon. 
 
 1504. Joanna, (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella) 
 and Philip I. of Austria. On her mother's 
 death Joanna succeeded, jointly with her 
 husband Philip ; but PhiliiJ dying in 1506, 
 and Joanna becoming imbecile, her father 
 Ferdinand continued the reign ; and thus 
 perpetuated the union of Castile with Ai'agon. 
 
 KINGS or ARAGON, 
 
 1035. Ramiro I. 
 
 1065. Sancho Ramirez (IV. of Navarre). 
 
 1094. Peter of Navarre. 
 
 1 104. Alfonso I., the Warrior, king of Navarre. 
 
 1134. Ramiro II., the Monk. 
 
 1137. Petronilla, and Raymond, count of Barcelona. 
 
 1 163. Alfonso II. 
 
 1 196. Peter II. 
 
 1213. James I. ; succeeded by his son. 
 
 1276. Peter III. ; coTiq\\ere6. Sicily (which see) 10.12^2. 
 
 1285. Alfonso III., the Beneficent. 
 
 1291. James II., surnamed the Just. 
 
 1327. Alfonso IV. 
 
 1336. Peter IV., the Ceremonious, 
 
 1387. John I, 
 
 1395. Martin. 
 
 1410. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1412. Fei-dinand the Just, king of Sicily. 
 
 1416. Alfonso v., the Wise. 
 
 1458. John II., king of Navarre, brother of Alfonso ; 
 died 1479. 
 
 1479. Ferdinand II., the Catholic, the next heir : in 
 consequence of his marriage with Isabella of 
 Castile (1474), the kingdoms were united. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 1512. Ferdinand V. (of Castile), the Catholic. This 
 prince having conquered Granada and Na- 
 varre, became king of all Spain ; succeeded 
 by his grandson, 
 
 1516. Charles I., son of Joanna of Castile and Philip 
 of Au.stria (became emperor of Germany, as 
 Charles v., in 1519); resigned both crowns, 
 and retired to a monastery. 
 
 1556. Phihp II., his son, king of Naples and Sicily; 
 a merciless bigot ; married Mary, queen- 
 regnant of England ; died a most dreadful 
 death, being covered with ulcers. 
 
 1598. Philip III., his son, drove the Moors from 
 Granada and the adjacent provinces. 
 
 1621.- Philip IV. his son : a reign of unfortunate war 
 with the Dutch and French ; he lost Por- 
 tugal in 1640. 
 
 1665. Charles II., his son; last of the Austrian line ; 
 he nominated, by will, as his successor, 
 
 1700. Philip v., duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis 
 XIV. of France : hence arose the " war of 
 the Succession," terminated by the treaty 
 of Utrecht in 1713 ; resigned. 
 
 1724. Louis I., son ; reigned only a few months. 
 ,, Philip V. : again. 
 
 1746. Ferdinand VI., the Wise ; liberal and bene- 
 ficent. 
 
 1759. Charles III., brother-king of the Two Sicilies, 
 which he gave to his third son Ferdinand. 
 
 1788, Charles IV., son of Charles III. ; the influence 
 of Godoy, prince of Peace, reached to almost 
 royal authority in this reign ; Charles abdi- 
 cated in favour of his son and successor, in 
 1808, and died in 1819. 
 
 1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon of France also 
 forced to resign. 
 „ Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon ; forced 
 to abdicate. 
 
 1S14. Ferdinand VII., restored; succeeded by 
 
 1833. Isabella II. daughter (born Oct. 10, 1830); 
 ascended the throne, Sept. 29, 1833 ; mar- 
 ried her cousin, Don Francis d'Assisi, Oc- 
 tober 10, 1846. The PRESENT queen of Spain. 
 [Heir : Alfonso, prince of Asturias, bom Nov. 
 28, 1S57.] 
 
SPA 
 
 680 
 
 SPA 
 
 SPANISH ARMADA. See Armada. 
 
 SPANISH ERA. See Eras. 
 
 SPANISH GRANDEES, the higher nobility, almost equal to the kings of Castile and 
 Aragon, and who often set their authority at defiance, were restrained on the union of the 
 crowns by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1474, who compelled several to relin- 
 quish the royal fortresses and domains which they held. Charles V. reduced the grandees 
 to sixteen families (Medina-Sidonia, Albuquerque, &c.) dividing them into three classes. 
 
 SPANISH LANGUAGE (Lengua Castellana), is a dialect of Latin largely intermingled 
 with Arabic, which was the legal language till the fourteenth century. Spanish did not 
 become general till the i6th century. 
 
 Sorn 
 Garcilasso de la Vega 1503 
 Boscan . . . 1496 
 Las Casas . . . 1474 
 Cervantes (author of 
 Don Quixote) . . 1547 
 
 Died 
 1536 
 1543 
 1566 
 
 1616 
 
 EMINENT SPANISH AUTHORS. 
 
 Died 
 1623 
 1625 
 1635 
 1647 
 1682 
 
 
 Dorn 
 
 Mariana . 
 
 ■ 1536 
 
 Herrei-a 
 
 ■ • 1565 
 
 Lope de Vega . 
 
 . 1,568 
 
 Qusvedo 
 
 • • 1570 
 
 Calderon , 
 
 . 1601 
 
 Solis . 
 Feyjos . 
 Yriarte 
 Conde . 
 
 Sorn 
 
 . 1610 
 . 1 701 
 
 • J7SO 
 
 • 1765 
 
 Died 
 1686 
 1765 
 1798 
 1820 
 
 SPANISH SUCCESSION AND MARRIAGES. See S2Mi)i, 170x3 and Oct. 10, 1846. 
 
 SPARTA, the capital of Laconia, the most considerable republic of the Peloponnesus, and 
 the rival of Athens. Though without walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the 
 valour of its citizens for eight centmies. Lelex is supposed to have been the first king. 
 From Lacedaemon the fourth king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the 
 founders of the city, it obtained the names by which it is most known. The Lacedseraonians 
 were a nation of soldiers. They cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agri- 
 culture. 
 
 B.C. 1490 
 
 Sparta founded. Pausanlas 
 
 Tyndaru.s marries Leda : Helen bom 
 
 Helen stolen by Theseus, king of Athens, but 
 
 recovered by her brothers . . , . 1213 
 The princes of Greece demand Helen in mar- 
 riage ; she makes choice of Menelaus of 
 
 Mycenai 1201 
 
 Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, carries off 
 
 Helen, iigS ; which leads to 
 
 The Trojan war 1193 
 
 After a war of ten years, and a disastrous voyage 
 
 of nearly eight, Menelaus and Helen return 
 
 to Sparta 1176 
 
 Eeign of Orestes, the sou of Agamemnon. 
 
 Pausanias 1175 
 
 The kingdom is seized by the Ueraclida;. 
 
 Zenglet 1104 
 
 EstabUshment of two kings, Eurysthenes and 
 
 Procles, by their father, Aristodemus . . 1102 
 Rule of Lycurgus, who establishes the senate, 
 
 and enacts a code of laws. Eustbius . . 881-884 
 Charilaus declares war against Polymnestor, 
 
 king of Arcadia 848 
 
 Alcamenes, known by his apophthegms, makes 
 
 war upon the Me.ssenians 81^ 
 
 Nicandcr succeeds his father, Charilaus ; war 
 
 with the .iVrgives 
 
 Theopompus introduces the Ephori into the 
 
 government about 
 
 War declared against the Messenians, and 
 
 Aniphia taken 743 
 
 AVar with the Argives, and celebrated battle* . 735 
 The Progeny of the Parthenix, the sons of 
 
 Virgins ........ 733 
 
 Battle of Ithome 730 
 
 Ithome taken ; the Messenians become vassals 
 
 to Sp.irta, and the war ends, which had lasted 
 
 nineteen years 724 
 
 Conspiracy of the Parthenii with the Helots to 
 
 take Sparta 7°7 
 
 800 
 
 757 
 
 The Parthenii colonise Tarentum . .B.C. 
 
 The Messenians revolt, and league with Elis, 
 Argos, and Arcadia, against the Lacedsemo- 
 nians. [This war lasts fourteen years.] . 
 
 Carnian festivals instituted 
 
 The Messenians settle in Sicily .... 
 
 The states of Greece iniite against the Persians 
 
 Leonidas, at the head of 300 Spartans, with- 
 stands the Persian arms at the defile of 
 Thermopylaj. (See Therinopyhe, Battle of) 
 
 Persians defeated by Pausanias .... 
 
 Ue is put to death for treason ; the Grecian 
 armies choose an Athenian general . . . 
 
 An earthquake at Sparta destroys thirty thou- 
 sand persons ; rebellion of the Helots 
 
 Platsea taken by the Spartans . . . . 
 
 The Spartans, under Agis, enter Attica, and 
 lay waste the country 
 
 Agis (king 427) gains a great victory over the 
 Argives and the Mantin:eans . . . . 
 
 The Lacedflemonian fleet, \inder Mindarus, 
 defeated at Cyzioum, and Mindarus slain in 
 the battle 
 
 The Spartans, defeated by land and at sea, 
 sue for peace, which is denied by the Athe- 
 nians 
 
 Reign of Pausanias 
 
 The Athenians defeated at iEgospotamos by 
 Lysander 
 
 Athens taken by him, which ends the Pelopon- 
 nesian war 
 
 Agcsilaus (king 398) enters Lydia 
 
 The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, .and Corin- 
 thians enter into aleague against the Spartans 
 which begins the Corinthian war . . . 
 Agcsilaus defeats the Allies at Coronea 
 The Laced;Emonian fleet, under Lysander, 
 defeated by Conon, the Athenian commander, 
 near Cnidos ; Lysander killed in an engage- 
 ment 
 
 706 
 
 685 
 675 
 669 
 482 
 
 480 
 479 
 
 466 
 428 
 
 426 
 
 418 
 
 4IO' 
 
 409 
 408 
 
 405 
 
 404 
 396 
 
 39S 
 394 
 
 * This celebrated battle was fought between 300 select heroes of each nation, and .all perished except 
 two Argives and one Spartan. The latter remained on the field, whilst the two former repaired to Argos to 
 announce their victory. Each party claimed the advantage ; the Argives because they had lost the fewest 
 men ; the Lacedaimonians, because they remained masters of the field. A second battle was fought, in 
 which the Argives were beaten. Pausanias. 
 
SPA 
 
 681 
 
 SPE 
 
 SPARTA, continued. 
 
 The Thebans drive the Spartans from Cadmea. 
 
 Lenglet B.C. 378 
 
 The Spartans lose the dominion of the seas ; 
 
 their fleet totally destroyed by Timotheus . 376 
 The Spartans defeated at Leuctra . . . 371 
 Epaminondas, heading 50,000 Thebans, appears 
 
 before Sparta 369 
 
 Battle of M'lntinea : the Thebans obtain the 
 
 victory. See Mantinea 362 
 
 Pyrrhus invades Sparta ; is defeated before the 
 
 "walls ......... 294 
 
 Agis endeavours to revive the laws of Lycurgus 244 
 Leonidas vacates the throne, and flies from 
 
 Sparta 243 
 
 He is recalled, and becomes sole sovereign ; 
 
 Agis put to death 241 
 
 Reign of Cleonaeues III. the son of Leonidas . 236 
 He re-establishes most of the laws of Lycurgus. 225 
 Antigonus meets Cleomenes on the plains of 
 
 Sellasia, routs his army, and enters Sparta as 
 
 conqueror 222 
 
 Cleomenes retires to Ej-jrpt . . . e.g. 222 
 The Spartans murder the Bphori . . . 221 
 Maohanidas ascends the throne, and abolishes 
 
 the Ephori 210 
 
 He is defeated and slain by PbUopoenien, Praetor 
 
 of the Achsean league 2o5 
 
 Government of Nabis, execrable for his 
 
 cruelties „ 
 
 The Romans besiege Sparta, and the tyrant 
 
 sues for peace 197 
 
 The .ailtolians obtain Sparta by treachery : Nabis 
 
 is assassinated 192 
 
 The laws of Lycurgus abolished .... 188 
 Sparta, under the protection or rather subjuga- 
 tion of Rome, retains its authority for a short 
 time 147 
 
 Taken by Mahomet II a.d. 1460 
 
 Burnt by Sigismund Malatesta .... 1463 
 Rebuilt at Misitra ; it is now called Sparta, and 
 is part of the kingdom of Greece (1865). 
 
 SPARTACUS'S INSURRECTION. He was a noble Thracian, who served in an 
 auxiliary corps of the Roman army. Having deserted and been apprehended, he was reduced 
 to slavei'y and made a gladiator. With some companions he made his escape, collected a 
 body of slaves and gladiators, 73 B.C. ; ravaged Southern Italy ; and defeated the Roman 
 forces under the consuls sent against him. Knowing the impossibility of successfully 
 resisting the repiiblic, he endeavoured to conduct his forces into Sicily, but on the way was 
 defeated and slain by Crassus, 72 b. c. 
 
 SPEAKERS OF THE House of Commons. Peter de Montfort, afterwards killed at the 
 battle of Evesham, was the first speaker, 45 Hen. III. 1260 ; but sir Peter de la Mare is 
 supposed to have been the first regular speaker, 50 Edw. III. 1376. The king refused his 
 assent to the choice of sir Edward Seymour, as speaker, March 6, 1678 ; and Serjeant William 
 Gregory was chosen in his room. Sir John Trevor was expelled the chair and the house for 
 taking a gratuity after the act for the benefit of orphans had passed, March 20, 1694. 
 
 RECENT SPSAKEE.S. 
 
 1801. Henry Addington (afterwards viscoimt Sid- 
 
 mouth), Jan. 22. 
 , , Sii- John Mitf ord (afterwards baron Redesdale), 
 Feb. II.. 
 
 1802. Charles Abbot (afterwards lord Colchester), 
 
 Feb. 10. 
 
 1817. Charles Manners Sutton (afterwards viscount 
 
 Canterbury), June 2. 
 1835. James Abercromby (afterwards baron Dun- 
 
 fermUne). Feb. 19. 
 1839. Charles Shaw Lefevre (afterwards viscount 
 
 Eversley), May 27. 
 1857. John Evelyn Denison, April 30. 
 
 SPEAKING-TRUMPET, used by ships at sea. One is said to have been used by 
 Alexander, 335 B.C. One was constructed from Kircher's description by Saland, 1652. 
 Philosophically explained and brought into notice by Moreland, 167 1. 
 
 SPECIES. Much controversy among naturalists arose in consequence of the pub- 
 lication, in 1859, of Mr. Charles Darwiir's "Origin of Species," in which he suggests that 
 all the various species of animals Avere not created at one time, but have been gradually 
 developed by what he terms "natural selection," and the struggle for life of the strong 
 against the weak. 
 
 SPECTACLES, unknown to the ancients, are generally supposed to have been invented 
 by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about 1285. According to Dr. Plott, 
 they were' invented by Roger Bacon, about 1280. Mr. Manni in his Treatise gives proof 
 in favour of Salvino being the inventor. 
 
 SPECTATOR. The first number of this periodical appeared on March i, 171 1 ; the last 
 was No. 635, Dec. 20, 17 14. The papers by Addison have one of the letters c L i o at the 
 end. The most of the other papers are by sir Richard Steele, a few by Hughes, Budgell, 
 Eusden, Miss Shephard, and others. — The Spectator newspaper began in 1828. 
 
 SPECTRUM, the term given to the image of the sun or any other luminous body formed 
 on a wall or sci'een, by a beam of light received through a small hole or slit and refracted 
 by a prism. The colours thus produced are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and 
 violet. The discovery was made by Newton, whose "Optics" were published in 1704. 
 
SPE 682 SPI 
 
 Several of these colours are considered to be compounds of three primary ones, by Mayer 
 <I775)» red, yellow, and blue ; by Dr. Thos. Young (1801), red, green, and violet ; by Prof. 
 Clerk Maxwell {i860), red, green, and blue.* As the colour of a flame varies according to 
 the substance producing it or introduced into it, so the spectrum varies also. This has led 
 to the invention of a method of chemical analysis by professors Bunsen and KirchhofT (i860), 
 by which they have discovered two new metals, and have drawn conclusions as to the nature 
 of the atmosphere of the sun and stars, and of the light of the nebuloe, by comparing the 
 spectrum with that produced by flames into which iron, sodium, and other substances have 
 been introduced, f 
 
 SPECULATIVE SOCIETY, Edinburgh (which had included amongst its members 
 David Hume), celebrated its hundredth anniversary on Oct. 14, 1863. 
 
 SPHEliES. The celestial and terrestial globes, and also sun-dials, are said to have 
 been invented by Anaximander, 552 B.C. ; and the armillary sphere by Eratosthenes, about 
 225 B.C. The planetarium was constructed hy Archimedes before 212 B.C. Pjrthagoras 
 maintained that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible 
 to mortals, which he eaUed the music of the spheres. 
 
 SPINNING was ascribed by the ancients to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom. Areas, 
 king of Arcadia, taught his subjects the art about 1500 B.C. Lucretia with her maids was 
 found spinning, wlien her husband Collatinus paid a \'isit to her from the camp. The wife 
 of Tarquiu was an excellent spinner ; and a garment made by her, worn by Scrvius Tullius, 
 was preserved in the temple of Fortune. Augustus Csesar usually wore no garments but such 
 as were made Iw his wife, sister, or daughter. Tlic spinning-wheel was invented at 
 Brunswick, about A.D. 1530. Till 1 767, the spinning of cotton was performed by the hand 
 spinning-wheel, when Hargreaves, an ingenious mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning 
 jenny, with eight spindles. Hargreaves also erected the first carding machine, with 
 cylinders. Arkwright's machine for spinning by water was an extension of the principle of 
 Hargreaves ; but he also applied a large and small roller to expand the thread, and, for this 
 ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first he worked his machinery by 
 horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 1774-9, 
 Crompton invented the Mule (which sec). 
 
 SPIPtES (in Bavaria). The emperors held many diets at Spires since 1309, and it was the 
 seat of the Imperial chamber till 1688, when the city was burnt by the French, and not 
 rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick, in 1697. The diet to condemn the reformers was 
 held at Spires, called there by the emperor Charles V. 1529. See Protestants. 
 
 SPIRIT-RAPPING, &c. Spiritual manifestations (so called) began it is said in America, 
 about 1848, and attracted attention in this country about 1851, in the shape of table-turning, 
 &c. Many inquisitive or credulous persons visited Mr, Hurae and Mr, Forster, noted 
 "spiritual mediums." 
 
 SPIRITS. See Disiillcction. In all nations spirituous liquors have been considered as a 
 proper subject of heavy taxation for the support of the state. Sec Alcohol, Bratuly, Methy- 
 lated Spirits, tfcc. 
 
 In 1840 England made about ten millions of gallons' In 1858, 9,195,154?. was paid as duty on 27,370,934 
 
 of spirits, Scotland about seven millions of gallons, ; gallons. 
 
 and Ireland about nine millions of gallons. I In 1855, methylated spirits of wine, for use in the arts 
 
 In 1851 the number of gallons on -which duty was and sciences, were made duty free. 
 
 paid for home consumption was 23,976,596. The ' In 1S59, 27,657,721 gallons of spirits were distilled in 
 
 total amount paid w.as 6,017, 2i8(., of which; the Ifnited Kingdom. The uniform duty of 8.«. 
 
 3,758,186?. were paid by England, 1,252,297?. by; per gallon was paid on 24,254,403 gallons for home 
 
 Scotland, and 1,006,735?. by Ireland. 1 consumption, producing 9,701,764?. 
 
 The total duty on homo consumption paid in 1853 j In 1S61 an act was passed repealing wholly or in part 
 
 Wiis 6,760,422?. 26 previous acts, and embodying all regulations for 
 
 ! the guidance of manufacturers and dealers in spirits 
 
 SPITALFIELDS (East London). Here the French Protestant refugees settled and 
 established the silk manufacture iu 1685. In consequence of commercial changes the 
 
 weavers endured much distress about 1829. 
 
 
 * Fraunliofer's Lines. In 1802 Dr. Wollaston observed several dark line* iu the solar spectrum ; in 
 T815 Joseph Fra\nihofer not only observed them but constructed a map of them, giving 590 lines or dark 
 bands. By the researches of Brewster and others the number observed is now above- 2000. 
 
 t Mr. Fox Talbot observed the orange line of strontium in the spectrum in 1826; .and sir David 
 Brewster obser^'cd other lines, 1833-42-3. In 1862-3 Mr. Wm. Huggins analysed the light of the fixed stars 
 and of the nebula; ; and in 1865 Dr. Bence Jones, by means of spectrum analyses, detected the presence of 
 minute quantities of metals in the li^-ing body, introduced only a few minutes previously. 
 
SPI 
 
 683 
 
 STA 
 
 SPITZBEKGElSr, an archipelago iu the Arctic ocean, discovered in 1553, by sir Hugh 
 Willoiighby, who called it Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. 
 In 159s it was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be the 
 original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from the many sharp 
 pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds. See Pliiiyps. 
 
 SPONTANEOUS GENEEATION. The origin of the germs of infusorial animalcules 
 developed during putrefaction, &c., has been and is still fiercely debated by naturalists. 
 Spallanzani (about 1766), and especially M. Pasteur and others at the present time (1865), 
 assert that these germs are really endowed with organic life existing in the atmosphere. 
 Needham (about 1747), and especially M. Pouchet and his friends in our day, pretend that 
 these germs are spontaneously formed out of organic molecules, and may be formed 
 artificially. Pouchet's " Heterogenie,'''' appeared in 1859. 
 
 SPORTS. T:h.e first "Book of Sports," under the title of "The King's Majestie's 
 Declaration to his Subjects concerning Lawful Sports to be used " on Sundays after evening 
 prayers, was published by king James I. May 24, 1618. The second " Book of Sports, " with 
 a ratification by his majesty Charles I. is dated Oct. 18, 1633. On the publication of the 
 first " Book of Sports," there arose a long and violent controversy among English divines 
 on certain points. See Sahhatarians, Sunday, &c. The book was ordered to be burnt by 
 the hangman and the sports were suppressed by the parliament. 
 
 SPRINGFIELD (Missouri), near which was fought the desperate battle of Wilson's 
 Creek, in which the federals had the advantage over the confederates, but lost their brave 
 general, Nathaniel Lyon, Aug. 10, 1861. 
 
 SPURS. Anciently the difi"erence between the knight and esquire was, that the knight 
 wore gilt spurs {cques auratus) and the esquire silver ones. Two sorts of spurs seem to have 
 been in use at the time of the Conquest, one called a pryck, having only a single point, the 
 other a number of points of considerable size. Spurs nearly of the present kind came into 
 use about 1400. See Plating. 
 
 SPURS, Battle of. Henry VIII. of England, the emperor Maximilian, and the Swiss, 
 in 1513, entered into an offensive alliance against France. Henry YIII. landed at Calais in 
 the month of July, and soon formed an army of 30,000 men, counting his own troops. He 
 was joined by the emperor with a good corps of horse and some foot. The emperor was so 
 mean as to act as a mercenary to the king of England, who allowed him a hundred ducats a 
 day for his table ! Tliey invested Teroiienne with an army of 50,000 men ; and the due de 
 Longueville, marching to its relief, was signally defeated on the i6th of August, at Guine- 
 gate. This battle was called the battle of Spurs, because the French used their sjyurs more 
 than they did their swords. The English king laid siege to Tournay, which submitted in a 
 few days. Henault. Sec Courtrai, for another "battle of spm's." 
 
 STADE DUES. At a castle near the town of Stade, in Hanover, certain dues were 
 charged by the Hanoverian government on all goods imported into Hamburg. The i3ritish 
 government settled these dues in 1844 ; and they were resisted by the Americans in 1855. 
 Negotiations on the subject began in i860, and the dues were abolished in June, 1861. 
 Great Britain paid l6o,oooZ. as her share of the compensation. 
 
 STADTHOLDER. See Holland. 
 
 STAFF COLLEGE (Sandhurst), for providing an education to qualify militarj^ officers 
 for the duties of the staff. The foundation stone was laid by the duke of Cambridge, on 
 Dec. 14, 1859. 
 
 STAGE-COACHES. So called from the stages or inns at which the coaches stopped to 
 refresh and change horses. Bailey. The stage-coach duty act passed in 1785- These 
 coaches were made subject to salutary provisions for the safety of passengers, in 1809 ; to 
 mileage duties, 1814. See Mail Coaches, &c. 
 
 STAMP-DUTIES, first instituted in 1671. They were re-enacted 1694, when a duty was 
 imposed upon paper, vellum, and parc;Uuient. The stamp-duty on newspapers was com- 
 menced in 1 7 13, and every year added?|^o the list of articles upon which stamp-duty was 
 made payable. ' V , ' 
 
 The American Stamp Act, a memorable statute, 
 one of those imposts levied by tho parliament 
 of Great Britain, which led to the American 
 war, and the independence of that country, 
 passed March 22, 1765. It was repealed in . 1766 
 
 Stamp duties in Ireland commenced . . . 1774 
 Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in . . 1782 
 The stamp-duties produced in England, in 1800, 
 
 a revenue of 3,126,535^. 
 Many alterations made in 1853 and 1S57. In 
 
STA 684 STA 
 
 (on leases, bills of exchange, dock wair.ants, 
 extracts from registers of births, &c.) ; in 
 1861 (on leases, licences to hou'=e agents, &c.). 
 
 Stamp-duties reduced in 1S64, 1865. 
 
 All fees payable in the superior ci;urts of law, 
 after Dec. 31, 1865, are to be collected by 
 stamps, by an .act passed in June, 1865. 
 
 STAMP-DUTIES, continued. 
 
 June, 185s, the stamp-duty on newspapers as 
 
 such was totally abolished : the stamp on 
 
 them being henceforth for postal purposes. 
 In July and Aug. 1854, 19,115,000 newspaper 
 
 stamps were issued ; in the same months, 
 
 1855, only 6,870,000. 
 Drafts on bankers to be stamped . . . . 
 Additional stamj) duties were enacted in i860 
 
 AMOUNT OF STAMP DUTIES KECEIA'ED IN THE UXITED KINGDOM. 
 1840 .... £6,726,817 I 1850 .... £6,558,332 I 1859 (to Mar. 31) . . £7,994,636 
 1845 7,710,683 I 1855 6,805,605 I 1864 (ditto) . . 9,324,850 
 
 STANDARD. First fixed by the law for gold and silver in England, 1300. Standard 
 gold is 22 parts ont of 24 of pure gold, the other two parts or carats being silver or copper, 
 The standard of silver is 11 oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver alloj-ed with 18 dwts. of cojiper, or 37 
 parts out of 40 pure silver, and three parts copper. In 1300 these I2 oz. of silver were 
 coined into 20 shillings ; in 1412 they were coined into 30 shillings ; and in 1527 into 45 
 shillings. In 1545, Henry VIII. coined 6 oz. of silver and 6 oz. of alloy into 48 shillings ; 
 and the next year he coined 4 oz. of silver and 8 oz. of alloy into the same sum. Elizabeth, 
 in 1560, restored the old standard in 60 shillings ; and in 1601 in 62 shilling.s. It is now 66 
 shillings. The average proportions of silver to gold at the royal mint are 154 to i. The 
 standard of plate and silver manufactures was affirmed, 6 Geo. I. 17 19 ct scq. See Gold and 
 Cowag'c.— Battle of the Standard. See Northallerton. 
 
 STANDARD MEASURES. In the reign of Edgar a law was made to prevent frauds 
 arising from the diversity of measures, and for the establishment of a legal standard measure 
 to be used in every part of his dominions. The standard vessels made by order of the king 
 were deposited in the city of Winchester, and hence originated the well-known term of 
 " AVinchester measure." The bushel so made is still preserved in the guildhall of that city. 
 Heniy I. also, to jirevent frauds in the measurement of cloth, ordered a standard yard of the 
 length of his own arm to be made and deposited at Winchester, with the standard measm-es 
 of king Edgar. The Guildhall contains the standard measures of succeeding sovereigns. 
 Camden. — The standard weights and measures were settled by parliament in 1824. The 
 pound troy was to be 5760 grains, and the pound avoirdupois 7000 grains. The " Standard 
 yard of 1760," in the custody of the clerk of the house of commons, was declared to be the 
 Imperial Standard yard and the unit of measures of extension. This standard having been 
 destroj'ed by the lire in 1834, a new commission was apjiointed to reconstruct it, and 
 researches for this purpose, in conformity with the act, which directed the comparison of the 
 .standard with a pendidum vibrating seconds of time in the latitude of London, were begun 
 by Francis Baily (died in 1844), continued by the rev. R. Sheepshanks till his death in 1855, 
 and completed by G. B. Airy, astronomer royal. In 1855 was passed "an act for legalising 
 and preserving the lost standards of weights and mea.sures." The parliamentary copies of the 
 standard pound and yard are deposited at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. 
 
 STANDARDS. See Banners, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using a cross on 
 standards and shields is due to the asserted miraculous appearance of a cross to Constantine, 
 previously to his battle with Maxentius ; Eusebius says that he received this statement from 
 the emperor himself, 312. For the celebrated French standard, sec Auriflammc. — Standard 
 OF Mahomet ; on this ensign no infidel dared look. It Avas carried in procession about 
 1768, when several hundred Christians, who ignorantly looked upon it, were massacred by 
 the Turkish po]mlace. — The British Imterial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower of 
 London, and on Bedford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of 
 the kingdoms, Jan. i, 1801. 
 
 STANFORD BRIDGE, York. In 1066, Tostig, brother of Harold II., rebelled against 
 his brother, and joined the invading army of Harold Hardrada, king of Norwaj'. They 
 defeated the northern earls and took York, but were defeated at Stanford-bridge by Harold, 
 Sept. 25, and were both slain. The loss by this victory no doubt led to his own ruin at the 
 battle of Hastings on Oct. 14, following. 
 
 STANHOPE ADMINISTRATION was formed by James (afterwards earl) Stanhope and 
 the earl of Sunderland in April, 171 7. It included earl Stanhope, chancellor of the exche- 
 quer ; earl Cowper, lord chancellor ; earl of Sunderland and Joseph Addison, secretaries of 
 state, &c. In ilarch, 17 18, Addison resigned, and the earl of Sunderland became premier. 
 
 STANNARY COURTS of Devon and Cornwall for the administration of justice among 
 
ST A 685 STA 
 
 the tin miners, whose privileges were confirmed by 33 Edw. I. 1305. They were regulated 
 by parliament in 1641 and 1855. 
 
 STAKCH is a sediment produced at the bottom of vessels wherein wheat has been 
 steeped in water : it is soft and friable, easily broken into powder, and is used to stiffen and 
 clear linen, with blue ; its powder is employed to powder the hair. The art of starching 
 linen was brought into England by Mrs. Dinghein, a Flemish woman, i Mary, 1553. Stow. 
 Patents for obtaining starch from other substances have been taken out : from potatoes by 
 Samuel Newton and others in 1707 ; from the horse-chestnut by Wm. Murray in 1796 ; from 
 rice by Thomas Wickham in 1823 ; from various matters by Orlando Jones in 1839-40. 
 
 STAR-CHAMBER, Coukt of. So called haply from its roof being garnished with stars. 
 Coke. This couii of justice was called Star- Chamber, not from the stars on its roof (which 
 were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), but from the Starra, or Jewish 
 covenants, deposited there by order of Richard I. ISTo star was allowed to be valid except 
 found in those repositories, and here they remained till the banishment of the JeAvs by 
 Edward I. The court was instituted 2 Hen. YII. i486, for trials by a committee of the 
 privy council, which was in violation of Magna Charta ; as it dealt with civil and criminal 
 causes unfettered by the rules of law. In Charles I.'s reign (1634-37), it exercised its power 
 upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in their sufferings, and contributed 
 to render government odious and contemptible. It was abolished in 1641. There were in 
 this court from 26 to 42 judges, the lord chancellor having the casting voice. 
 
 STAR OF INDIA, a new order of knighthood for India, gazetted June 25, 1861.* 
 
 STARS, THE Fixed. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 
 1200 B.C. Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and 
 that the earth moved round them, about 344 B.C. (this is mentioned by Cicero, and perhaps 
 gave the first hint of this .system to Copernicus). Job, Hesiod, and Homer mention 
 several of the constellations. The Royal Library at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the 
 heavens, made about 600 B.C. in which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of 
 the stars was discovered by Dr. Bradlej^ 1727. See Astronomy a.-a.A Solar Si/stem. Maps 
 of the stars were published by the Society for the Diffusion of Knowledge in 1 839, and a set 
 of Celestial Maps, issued under the superintendence of the Royal Prussian Academy, was 
 completed in 18^9, 
 
 STATE PAPER OFFICE was foimded in 1578. In 1857 the British government began 
 the publication of Calendars of State Papers, which will be invaluable to future historians. 
 
 STATES-GENERAL of FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France, first met, it is said, 
 in 1302 to consider the exactions of the pope. Previously to the Revolution, it had not met 
 since 1614. The states consisted of three orders, the clergy, nobility, and commons. They 
 were convened by Louis XVI. and assembled at Versailles, May 5, 1789 (30S ecclesiastics, 
 285 nobles, and 621 deputies or tiers etat). A contest arose whether the three ordei's should 
 make three distinct houses, or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and, 
 assuming the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to proceed 
 to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if they refused to join them. 
 The nobility and clergy found it expedient to concede the point, and they all met in one 
 hall. See National Assembly. 
 
 STATES OF THE CHURCH. See Po-pe and Rome. 
 
 STATIONERS. Books and papers were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the dealers 
 were called station ei'S. The company of stationers of Loudon is of great antiquity, and 
 existed long before printing was invented, yet it was not incorporated until 3 Philip & Mary, 
 1555. Their old dwelling was in Paternoster-row. Mortimer. 
 
 STATISTICS, defined as the science of figures apjjlied to life, is stated to have been 
 founded by sir Wm. Petty, who died in 1687. The term is said to have been invented by 
 professor Achenwall of Gottingen in 1 749. The first statistical society in England was formed 
 at Manchester in 1833 ; the Statistical Society of London, which publishes a quarterly 
 journal, was established in 1834 ; similar societies have been established on the continent. 
 International Statistical Congresses areaiow held occasionally. The ist at Brussels, in 1853 ; 
 2nd at Paris, 1855 ; 3rd at Vienna, 1857 ; 4th at London, under the presidency of the 
 prince consort, July 16-21, i860. 
 
 ^ It comprises tlie sovereign, the grand master, 25 kniglits (Europeans and natives), .ind extra or 
 honorary kniglits, sucli as the prince consort, the prince of Wales, &c. The queen invested several knights 
 on Nov. I, 1S61. 
 
STA 
 
 CS6 
 
 STE 
 
 STATUES. See Sculpture, &o. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter passed for one of the 
 wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among the ancients, 440 B.C. He had 
 lirevionsly made a statue of Minerva at the request of Pericles, which was placed in the 
 Parthenon. It was made of ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius raised 
 a golden statue to his father, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the art of 
 taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards cast models in wax, 326 B.C. 
 Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among the moderns. The first equestrian statue 
 erected in Great Britain was that of Charles I. in 1678.* By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 10 (July 10, 
 1854), public statues are placed under the control and protection of the Board of Works. 
 The following are the chief public statues in London : — 
 
 Acbilles, Hyde-pai-k, in honour of the duke of 
 
 Wellington, by the ladies of Great Britain, 
 
 June 1 8, 
 
 Albert, prince consort, Horticultural Society 
 gardens 
 
 Anne, queen, St. Paul's Church-yai-d . . . 
 
 Bedford, duke of, Russell-square 
 
 Canninj?, George, New Palace-yard . . . 
 
 Cartwright, major. Burton Crescent . 
 
 Charles I. Charing Cross 
 
 Charles II. Soho-squaro 
 
 Cumberland, duke of, Cavendish-square . . 
 
 Elizabeth, queen, St. Dunstan's, Fleet-street . 
 
 Fox, Charles James, Bloomsbury-square . 
 
 George I. Grosvcnor-square 
 
 George I. Leicester-square 
 
 George III. Somerset-house 
 
 1822 
 
 1711 
 
 1809 
 1832 
 1831 
 1678 
 
 1770 
 1586 
 1816 
 1726 
 
 George III. Cockspur-street .... 1836 
 Havelock, sir Henry, Trafalgar-square . . . 1861 
 Howard, John ; fir.st erected in St. Paul's. . 1796 
 Jenner, Edward, Trafalgar-square, 1858 ; re- 
 moved to Kensington-gardens . . . . 1862 
 
 James II. Whitehall 1687 
 
 Myddelton, sir Hugh, Islington-green . . . 1862 
 
 Napier, gen. sir Charles J., Trafalgar^square . 1856 
 
 Nelson, lord, Trafalgar-square .... 1843 
 
 Pitt, William, Hanover-square . . . . 1831 
 
 Peel, sir Robert, Cheapside .... 1855 
 
 Richard Coeur de Lion, near Westminster abbey i860 
 
 Wellington, duke of, Royal Exchange . . . 1844 
 
 Wellington, duke of, arch, Hyde-park corner . 1846 
 William III. St. James's-squarc . . . .1717 
 
 William IV. King William-street . . . . 1845 
 
 York, duke of, Waterloo-place .... 1834 
 
 STATUTES. See Acts of Parliament, Clarendon, Merlon, &c. The Statute Law 
 Revision act was passed in 1863. 
 
 STEA5I CARRIAGE {for ordinary roads), invented by the earl of Caithness, was said to 
 be successful in i860. It travels over roiigh roads at the rate of 8 miles an hour, at a cost 
 of less than id. per mile. His lordship made a journey of 140 miles in two days. 
 
 STEAM-ENGINE and NAVIGATION. Hero of Alexandria, in his "Pneumatics," 
 describes various methods of employing steam as a power ; and to him is ascribed the 
 .fElopile, which, although a toy, possesses the properties of the steam-engine : he flourished 
 about 284-241 B.C. Roger Bacon appears to have foreseen the application of steam-power. 
 See Railways, Locomotives, &c. 
 
 Solomon dc Cans, a French protestant, p\ib- 
 lishes a work which Arago considers to have 
 contained the germs of the steam-engine . . 1615 
 The marquess of Worcester alludes to steam in 
 his " Century of Inventions " . . . . 1663 
 
 Papin's digester invented 1681 
 
 Captain Savery's engine constructed for r.aising 
 
 water 1698 
 
 Papiu's engine exhibited to the Royal Society 
 
 about 1699 
 Atmospheric engine by Savery and Newcomen 1713 
 First idea of steam navigation set forth in a 
 
 patent obtained by Jonathan Hulls . . 1736 
 Watt's invention of performing condensation 
 in a separate vessel from the cyhnder . . 1763 
 
 His first patent 1769 
 
 His engines upon a large scale erected in manu- 
 factories, and his patent renewed by act of 
 
 parliament 1775 
 
 Thomas Paine proposes the application of 
 
 steam in America 1778 
 
 Engines made to give a rotary motion . . . „ 
 
 Watt's expansion engine „ 
 
 Double-action engines proposed by Dr. Falck 
 
 on Newcomen's principle . .... 1779 
 Watt's double-engine, and his first patent for it 
 gi-anted 1781 
 
 The marquess Jouffroy constructed an engine 
 on the Sa6ne 
 
 Wm. Patrick Miller patented paddle-wheels 
 
 [He and Mr. Symington are said to have con- 
 structed a small steamboat which travelled at 
 about 5 miles an hour soon after.] 
 
 W. Symington made a passage on the Forth 
 and Clyde canal 
 
 First steam-engine erected in Dublin by Henry 
 Jackson 
 
 First experiment with steam navigation on the 
 Th.ames 
 
 Trcvethick's high-i^ressuro engine . . . . 
 
 Woolf's double cylinder expansion engine con- 
 structed ........ 
 
 Slanufactories waiTned by steam . . . . 
 
 Fulton's steam-boat " Clermont " on the Seine, 
 Aug. g, 1803 ; at New York .... 
 
 Fulton started a steam-boat on the river 
 Hudson, America 
 
 Steam power to convey coals on a railway, 
 employed by Blenkinsop 
 
 The Comet built by Henry Bell, plies on the Clyde, 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Steam applied to printing in the Times ofiice. 
 See Printing Machines. 
 
 1781 
 1787 
 
 1789 
 1791 
 1801 
 
 1807 
 iSii 
 
 l8l2 
 
 1814 
 
 * This statue is of brass, cast by Le Sueurs, in 1633, at the expense of the How.ard-Arundel family. 
 During the civil war, the x^arUament sold it to John River, a brazier, in Holborn, with strict orders to 
 break it to pieces ; but he concealed it underground till the Restoration, when it was erected, in 1678, on a 
 pedestal executed by Grinlin Gibbons. The first equestrian statue of bronze, founded at one cast, was that 
 of Louis XIV. of France, 1699; it was elevated about 1724. 
 
STE 
 
 6S7 
 
 STE 
 
 STEAM-ENGINE, continued. 
 
 There were five steam- vessels in Scotland ( Pa rZ. 
 Returns) 
 
 First steam-vessel on the Thames brought by 
 Mr. Dodd from Glasgow 
 
 First steamer built in England (Pari. Returna) . 
 
 The Savannah steamer, of 350 tons, came from 
 New York to Liverpool in 26 days July 15, 
 
 First steamer in Ireland 
 
 Steam-gun invented by Perkins .... 
 
 Steam-jet applied 
 
 Captain Johnson obtained io,oooZ. for making 
 the first steam voyage to India, in the Enter- 
 prise, which sailed from Falmouth . Aug. i5. 
 
 The locomotive steam-carriages on railways, 
 at Liverpool Oct. 
 
 The railway opened. See Liverpool . . . 
 
 Peninsular and Oriental Steam Company formed 
 
 The Great JFe.s^e™ arrives from Bristol at. New 
 York, being her first voyage in 18 days, 
 
 June 17, 
 
 War- steamers built in England . ... 
 
 War-steamers built at Birkenhead, named the 
 Nemesis and Phlegetkon, carrying each two 
 thirty-two pounders, sent by government to 
 China 
 
 iai4 
 iSis 
 
 iBig 
 1820 
 1S24 
 1825 
 
 1830 
 
 The Cunard steamers began to sail . July 5, 
 [Sir Sam. Cunard died April 28, 1865, aged 78.] 
 
 The Collins steamers began j 
 
 The Pacific crosses the Atlantic in g days, 
 
 19 hours, 25 minutes, arriving at Holyhead, 
 
 May 20, 
 Steam packets leave Galway for America . 
 The merits of an attacking vessel ternaed a 
 
 steam ram advocated by sir G. Sartorius, were 
 
 discussed in i8. 
 
 An iron-plated frigate. La Gloire, completed in 
 
 France. See Navy, French 
 
 The Warrior, an iron-plated vessel, launched, 
 
 Dec. 29, 
 The Far East, a vessel with two screws, launched 
 
 at Millwall . . . . . Oct, ^i, 
 
 ia4o 
 850 
 
 iSsi 
 1858 
 
 ;g-6o 
 i860 
 
 
 THE LARGE 
 
 STEAM ^V 
 
 
 Long. 
 
 Broad. 
 
 Great Western 
 
 . 236 feet 
 
 35 feet 
 
 Duke of Wellington . 
 
 . . 240 feet 
 
 60 feet 
 
 British Queen 
 
 . 275 feet 
 
 61 feet 
 
 Great Britain . 
 
 . . 322 feet 
 
 SI feet 
 
 Himalaya 
 
 . 370 feet 
 
 43 feet 
 
 Steam vessels belonging to the British empire in 
 1814, 6 ; in 1815, 10; in 1820, 43 ; in 1825, 168; in 
 1830, 315 ; in 183s, 545 ; in 1845, looi ; in 1850, 
 1187 ; in 1S64, 2490. 
 
 See Navy and Shipping. 
 
 Long. Broad. 
 
 Persia 390 feet 45 feet 
 
 Great Eastern* . ... 692 feet 83 feet 
 
 Horse Poioer : — Paddles, 1000 ; Screw, 1600 ; 
 
 Weight of ship, (fee, 12,000 tons; ordinary 
 
 light draught 12,000 tons. 
 
 STEAM-HAMMEE was invented by Mr. James Nasmyth in 1S38, and patented by him 
 June 18^ 1842. The main feature in the construction of the steam-hammer is, the abso- 
 lutely direct manner by which the elastic power of steam is employed to lift up and let fall 
 the mass of iron which constitutes the hammer, which mass or block of iron is attached 
 direct to the end of a piston-rod passing through the bottom of an inverted steam cylinder 
 placed immediately over the anvil. The vast range and perfect control over the power of the 
 blows enable the largest or smallest forge-work to be executed by the same steam-hammer. f 
 In 1842, Mr. Nasmyth applied his steam-hammer to driving piles, which invention has 
 importantly assisted in the execution of every great public work in which pile-driving has 
 been required. 
 
 STEAM NAVIGATION. See under Steam. 
 
 STEAM-PLOUGH was invented by John Fowler, who died in 1864. 
 
 * The Great Eastern — for a short time only (in 1857-8) called Leviathan — was designed by Mr. I. K. 
 Brunei [who died Sept. 15, 1859], and built by Messrs. Scott Russell and Co., at Millwall. Its launching lasted 
 from Nov. 3. 1857, to Jan. 31, 1858. The capital subscribed having been all expended, a new company was 
 formed to fit her for sea. On Sept. 7, 1859, she left her moorings at Deptford for Portland-roads. On the 
 voyage an explosion took place (off Hastings), through some neglect in regard to the casing of one of the 
 chimneys, when ten firemen were killed, and many persons seriously injured. After repairs she sailed 
 to Holyhead, arriving there Oct. 10 ; she endured the storm of Oct. 25-26 well ; and proceeded to South- 
 ampton for the winter, Nov. 4. — She was constructed to convey 5000 persons from London to Australia, a 
 distance of 22,500 miles ; with accommodation for 800 ist class passengers ; 2000 2nd class ; and 1200 3rd 
 class. Her able captain (Harrison) was drowned in the Solent, Jan. 22, i860, deeply regretted. She sailed 
 for New York, June 17, under command of captain Vine Hall, and arrived there June 28th. After being 
 exhibited she left New York, Aug 16, and returned to England Aug. 26. Owing to a lawsuit in April, the 
 ship came into the hands of sheriff's officers ; but was released and sailed for New York on May i, i86r. 
 On Sept. 12, 1861, she suffered much loss through a violent gale. In 1862 she performed several voyages 
 to and from New York ; but on Aug. 1862, ran on a rock near Long Island, and injured her bottom. She 
 was repaired a.nd arrived at Liverpool, Jan. 17, 1863, and sailed to New Yor-k (May 16-27). The ship was 
 bought by Glass, Elliot, and Co., in March or April, 1S64, and was chartered to convey the Atlantic 
 telegraph cable. It sailed from Sheerness, July 15 ; and returned, Aug. 19, 1S65. See Electric Telegraph, 
 p. 270. 
 
 t It is now employed in every country where the working of malleable iron is carried on. Owing to 
 the vast range of power possessed by the steam-hammer, forged iron work can now b}^ its means be 
 executed on a scale, and for a vai-ietj' of purposes, with such ease and perfection as could not have been 
 possible by the means previously existing. Parts of the most gigantic marine steam-engines, anchors, and 
 Armstrong guns, as well as the most minute details of machinery, as in Enfield rifles, are now executed 
 by the steam-hammer. 
 
STE 688 STE 
 
 STEAM-RAM (to be used in naval warfare^ was invented by Mr. James Nasmyth in 
 1836, and communicated to the Admiralty in 1845. Steam-rams built by Mr. James Laird 
 of Birkenhead for the confederates in N. America, were stopped and eventually bought by 
 the British government in 1864. 
 
 STEAPJNE (from stcar, suet), that part of oils and fats which is solid at common tem- 
 peratures. The nature of these substances was first made known by Chevreul, in 1823, who 
 showed that they were compounds of peculiar acids, with a base termed glycerine ; of these 
 compounds the chief are stearine, margarine, and elaine. See Candles. 
 
 STEEL, metal, a compound of iron and carbon, exists in nature, and has been largely 
 fabricated from the earliest times. A manufactory for cast steel is said to have been set up 
 by Benjamin Huntsman at Handsworth, near Slieffield, in 1740. The manufacture of shear 
 steel began at Sheffield about 1800. German steel was made at Newcastle previously by Mr. 
 Crawley. The inventions of Mushat (1800) and Lucas (1804) were important steps in this 
 manufacture. See Engraving. In 1856, Mr. H. Bessemer made steel by passing cold air 
 through liquid iron ; in 1859, tungsten steel was made in Germany ; and in 1861, M. Fremy 
 made steel by bringing red hot iron in contact with carbonate of ammonia. The subject has 
 been much investigated by M. Caron, 1861-5. In i860, much attention was excited by 
 cutlery made from a metallic sand, brought from Taranaki or New Plymouth, in New 
 Zealand. In consequence of improved modes, steel is now made cheaply in large masses, 
 and will be employed in the manufacture of cannon, &c. 
 
 STEEL PENS. "Iron pens" are mentioned by Chamberlayne in 1685. Steel pens 
 came into use about 1820, when the first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for 7?. 4s. 
 In 1830, the price was 8s., and in 1832, 6s. A better pen is now sold for 6d. a gross ; the 
 cheapest sort at 2A ; Birmingham in 1858 produced about 1000 million pens per annum. 
 Women and childi-en are principally employed in the manufacture. Perry, Mitchell, and 
 Gillott are eminent makers. 
 
 STEEL-YARD. An ancient instrument, the same that is translated balance in the Pen- 
 tateuch. The Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is mentioned in 315 B.C. — The Steel- 
 Yard Company, London merchants, who had the steel-yard assigned to them by Henry III. 
 A.D. 1232, were Flemings and Germans, and the only exporters, for many years after, of the 
 staple commodities of England. Anderson. The company lost its privileges in 1551. 
 
 STEENKIRK. See EngUin. 
 
 STENOGRAPHY (from stenos, narrow), the art of short-hand, said to have been 
 practised by the ancients. Its improvement is attributed to the poet Eunius, to Tyro, 
 Cicero's freedman, and still more to Seneca. The Ars Scribendi Characteris, written about 
 141 2, is the oldest system extant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on steno- 
 graphy in 1590 ; and John "Willis 'published his " Stenog7-aphie " in 1602. There are now 
 numerous systems : Byrom's (1750), Gurney's (1753), Taylor's (1786), Pitman's (phono- 
 graphic), (1857). 
 
 STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, ST., Westminster. The commons of England held their 
 assemblies in this chapel, wliich was built by king Stephen, and dedicated about II35- It 
 was rebuilt by Edward III. in 1347, and by him made a collegiate church, to which a dean 
 and twelve secular priests were appointed. Soon after its surrender to Edward VI., about 
 1548, it was applied to the use of parliament. See Parliament. It was destroyed by fire, 
 Oct. 16, 1834. The Society of Antiquaries xiublishcd memorials of it about 1810 ; and Mr. 
 Mackenzie's work appeared in 1844. 
 
 STEREOCHROMY, a mode of painting in which water-glass (an alkaline solution of 
 flint, silex) serves as the connecting medium between the colour and the substratum. Its 
 invention is ascribed to Von Fuchs, who died at Munich on March 5, 1856. Fine specimens 
 of this art by Kaulbach and Echter exist in tlie Museum at Berlin, and also at Munich. 
 
 STEREOMETER, by which is compassed the art of taking the contents of vessels of 
 liquids by gauging, invented about 1350. Anderson. M. Say's stereometer, for deter- 
 •minin"' the specific gravity of liquids, porous bodies, and powders as well as solids, was 
 described in 1797. 
 
 STEREOSCOPE (from slercns, solid, and skopcin, to see), an optical instrument for 
 representing in apparent relief natural objects, &c., by uniting into one image two piano 
 representations of these objects as seen hy each eye separately. The first stereoscope b}'- 
 reflection was constructed and exhibited by professor Charles Wheatstone in 1838, who 
 announced its principle in 1833. Since 1854, stereoscopes have been greatly improved. 
 
STE 689 STO 
 
 STEREOTYPE (a cast from a page of moveable printing- types). It is said that stereo- 
 typing was known in 171 1. It was practised by Wm. Ged of Edinburgh, about 1730. Some 
 of Ged's plates are at the Royal Institution, London* A Mr. James attempted to introduce 
 Ged's process in London, but failed, about 1735. Nichols. Stereotype printing was in use 
 in Holland, in the last century ; and a quarto Bible and a Dutch folio Bible were printed 
 there. Phillips. It was revived in London by Wilson in 1804. Since 1850 the durability 
 of stereotypes has been greatly increased by electrotyping them with copper or silver. 
 
 STERLING (money). Camden derives the word from eastcrling or esterling, observing 
 that the money brought from the east of Germany, in the reign of Richard I., was the most 
 esteemed on account of its purity, being called in old deeds, " mommi easterling." 
 
 STETHOSCOPE. In 1816 Laennec, of Paris, by rolling a quire of paper into a kind of 
 cylinder, and appl}'ing one end to the patient's chest and the other to his own ear, perceived 
 the action of the heart in a much more distinct manner than by the immediate application 
 of the ear. This led to his inventing the stethoscope, or "breast-explorer;" the principle 
 of which, now termed "auscultation," was known by Hippocrates. 
 
 STEWARD OF England, Lord High. The first grand officer of the crown. This 
 office was established prior to the reign of Edward the Confessor, and was formerly annexed 
 to the lordship of Hinckley, Leicestershire, belonging to the family of Moutfort, earls of 
 Leicester, who were, in right thereof, lord high stewards of England ; but Simon de Mont- 
 fort, the last earl of this family, having raised a rebellion against his sovereign Henry III., 
 was attainted, and his estate forfeited to the king, who abolished the office, 1265. It is now 
 revived only pro hdc vice, at a coronation, or the trial of a peer. The first afterwards 
 appointed was Thornas, second son of Henry IV. The first for the trial of a peer was 
 Edward, earl of Devon, on the arraignment of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1400. The last 
 was lord Denman at the trial of the earl of Cardigan, Feb. 16, 1841. The duke of Hamilton 
 was lord high steward at the coronations of William IV. and Victoria. 
 
 STEWARD OF THE Household, Loed (an ancient office), has the sole direction of 
 the king's house below-stairs ; he has no formal grant of his office, but receives his charge 
 from the sovereign in person, who, delivering to him a white wand, the symbol of his office, 
 says, " Seneschal, tenez le baton de noire maison." This officer has been called lord steward 
 since 1540 ; previously to the 31st of Henry VIIL, he was styled grand master of the house- 
 hold. His function as a judge was abolished in 1849. 
 
 STICKLESTADT (Norway). Here Olaf II., aided by the Swedes, was defeated in his 
 endeavours to recover his kingdom from Canute, king of Denmark, and slain, July 29, 1030. 
 He was afterwards sainted, on account of his zeal for Christianity. 
 
 STIRRUPS were unknown to the ancients. Gracchus fitted the highways with stones 
 to enable the horsemen to mount. Warriors had projections on their spears for the same 
 purpose. Stirrups were used in the 5th century, but were not common even in the 12th. 
 
 STOCKHOLM, capital of Sweden, was fortified by Berger Jarl in 1254. Here the 
 Swedish nobility was massacred by Christian II. in 1528. 
 
 Peace of Stockholm, between the kmg of Great 
 Britain and the queen of Sweden, by which 
 the former acquired the duchies of Bremen 
 and Verden as elector of Brunswick, Nov. 20, 1719 
 
 Treaty of Stockholm, between Sweden and 
 Russia, in favour of the duke of Holstein- 
 Gottorp March 24, 1724 
 
 Another between England and Sweden, March 3, 1813 
 
 STOCKINGS of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 1560 queen 
 Elizabeth was presented with a pair of knit black silk stockings, by her silk-woman, 
 Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones any more. Howell. He adds, "Henry VIII. 
 wore ordinary cloth hose, except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk 
 stockings ; for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented with a pair 
 of Spanish sUk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; and the present was then 
 much taken notice of. Idcrti. Others relate that William Rider, a London apprentice, 
 seeing at the house of an Italian merchant a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, 
 made a pair like them, the first made in England, which he presented to the earl of 
 Pembroke, 1564. Stow. The art of weaving stockings in & frame was invented in England 
 by the rev. Mr. Lee, of Cambridge, in 1589, twenty-five years after he had learnt to knit 
 them with wires or needles. Cotton stockings were first made in 1730. ^qq Cotton. 
 
 * In the library of this institution is an edition of Sallust, (printed at Edinburgh by William Ged 
 of Edinburgh, goldsmith, not with moveable types, as is commonly done, but with cast tablets or plates, '_ 
 with this imprint : " Edinburgi, Gulielmus Ged, auri faber Edinensis, non typis mobiUbus, ut vulgo fieri 
 solet, sed tabellis seu laminis fusis, excudebat. 1744." 
 
 T Y 
 
STO 
 
 690 
 
 STO 
 
 STOCKPOKT (in Cheshire) has become eminent on account of the cotton trade. 
 Heaton Norris, in Lancashire, is united, to it by a bridge over the river. Here the Man- 
 chester blauketeers were dispersed, March ii, 1817; and here was a serious religious riot, 
 ■when two Eoraan Catholic chapels were destroyed, and the houses of many Eoman Catholics 
 ■were gutted, and their furniture and other contents smashed or burnt, June 29, 1852. 
 
 STOCKS, in which drunkards were placed. The last in London was removed from 
 St. Clement's Danes, Strand, Aug. 4, 1826. 
 
 STOCKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, about 1173, and was intro- 
 duced into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have had its rise 
 in 1690. 
 
 Act to prevent stock-jobbing, passed March, 
 1734; repealed i860 
 
 The foundation of the Stock Exchange, in 
 Capel- court, the residence of the lord mayor, 
 sir Wm. Capel, in 1504, was laid on May 18, 
 iSoi. It was stated on the iirst stone that 
 the public debt was then 552,730,924/. 
 
 The memorable Stock Exchange hoax, for 
 which lord Cochrane, the celebrated admiral 
 Johnstone, and others were convicted, Feb. 
 . 22, 1814. Lord Cochrane was in consequence 
 expelled the house of commons. His inno- 
 cence was afterwards proved, and he was 
 restored to his rank by king WiUiam IV., and 
 to the honours belonging to it by queen 
 Victoria. 
 
 Stock-exchange coffee-house destroyed by fire, 
 
 Feb. II, 1816 
 
 The number of stock-holders in 1840 amounted 
 
 to 337,481. 
 Three per cent, annuities created . . . 1726 
 Three per cent, consols created . . . . 1731 
 
 Three per cent, reduced 1746 
 
 Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South 
 
 Sea-house 1751 
 
 Three-and-a-half per cent, annuities created . 1758 
 
 Long annuities 1761 
 
 Four per cent, consols 1762 
 
 Five per cent, annuities . . . 1797 and 1802 
 Five per cents, reduced to four . . . . 1822 
 Old four per cents, reduced to three-and-a-half 
 
 in 1824 
 
 Further reductions made in 1825, 1830, 1834, 
 
 1841, and 1844: the maximum being now 
 
 three per cent. 
 
 By a return of the average price of the public funds by the commissioners for the reduction 
 of the national debt, it appears that Consols (i.e., consolidated annuities, paying 3 per cent, 
 per annum) averaged in the year — 
 
 1749 . . £100 
 1780 . . . 63 13 6 
 1785 . . 68 6 6 
 1790 . . . 71 2 6 
 1795 . . 74 8 6 
 
 1798 . . £59 10 
 1800 . . . 66 3 3 
 1805 . . 58 14 
 1810 . . . 67 16 3 
 1815 . . 58 13 9 
 
 1820 
 1823 . 
 1830 
 1840 . 
 
 . £68 12 
 90 8 
 
 . 89 15 7 
 89 17 6 
 
 1845 
 184S 
 1850 
 1852 
 
 . £93 2 
 . . 86 IS 
 
 . 96 10 
 . . 99 12 
 
 The price of £100 stock varied in 
 
 
 
 1853, irom £101 to £90! 
 
 1856, from £96J to £87| 1 1859, from 
 
 £97! to £89 
 
 1863, 
 
 from £94 to £90 
 
 1854, „ 96 „ 85! 
 
 1857. „ 958 .. 864 
 
 1861, „ 
 
 94i „ S9I 
 
 1864, 
 
 » 9ii » 87 
 
 iSss, „ 933 ,. 86f 
 
 1858, „ 98I „ 94 
 
 1862, „ 
 
 94I » 9°! 
 
 
 
 STOICS, dieciples of Zeno, the philosopher (about 290 B.C.); obtained the name because 
 they listened to his instructions in a porch or portico at Athens, called in Greek Stoa. 
 Zeno taught, that man's supreme happiness consisted in living agreeably to nature and 
 reason, and that God was the soul of the world. Stanley. 
 
 STOKE (near Newark, Nottinghamshire). Near here, on June 16, 1487, the adherents 
 of Lambert Simnel, who personated Edward, earl of Warwick, and claimed the crown, were 
 defeated by Henry VII. John De la Pole, the earl of Lincoln, and most of the leaders were 
 slain ; and Simnel, whose life was spared, was afterwards employed in the king's household. 
 
 STONE BUILDINGS, &c. Stone buildings were introduced into England, 670. A 
 stone bridge was built at Bow, in 1087, and is accounted the first ; but a bridge exists at 
 Crowland, which is said to have been built in 860. See Bridges. The first stone building 
 in Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Building. Stone china-ware was made by Wedgwood in 
 1762. Artificial stone for statues was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced into 
 England, 1776. Stone paper was made in 1776. ^ee Ransom's Artificial Stone. 
 
 STONEHENGE (on Salisbury-plain, Wiltshire) is said to have been erected on the 
 counsel of Merlin, by Aurelius Ambrosius, in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered 
 by Hengist the Saxon, about 450. Geoffrey of Monmouth. Erected as a sepulchral monu- 
 ment of Ambrosius, 500. PoUjdorc Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in which the 
 Druids officiated. I)r. Stukeley. The Britons had annual meetings at Abury and Stone- 
 henge, where laws were made, j\istice administered, and heinous crimes punished. 
 
 STONE OPERATION. Extracting stone from the bladder was first performed by 
 
 Ammonius of Alexandria, about 240. Cutting for the stone was first performed on a 
 
 criminal, at Paris, -in 1474, with success. A remedy discovered by Mrs. Stevens, for which 
 
 she was rewarded by government, 1739. See Lithotomy. 
 
STO 
 
 C91 
 
 STO 
 
 STOKMS. The following are among the best atithenticated and most memoraljle. In 
 London a storm raged Avhlch destroyed 1500 houses, 944. One in several j)arts of England, 
 the sky being very dark, the wind coming from the S. W. ; many chm-ches were destroyed ; 
 and in Loudon 500 houses fell, Oct. 5, 1091. One on the coast of Calais, when Hi;gh de 
 Beauvais and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against the 
 barons, perished, 1215. IToHrished. See Meteorology, 
 
 It thundered 15 days successively, with tempests of 
 rain and wind, 1233. 
 
 Storm with violent lightnings ; one flash passed 
 through a chamber where Edward I. and his 
 queen were conversing, did them no damage, but 
 killed two of their attendants, 1285. Hoveden. 
 
 Violent storm of hail near Chartres, in France, which 
 fell on the army of Edward III. then on its march. 
 The hail was so large that the army and horses 
 suffered very much, and Edward was obliged to 
 conclude a peace, 1339. Matt. Paris. 
 
 When Richard II. 's queen came from Bohemia, on 
 her setting foot on shore an awful storm arose, 
 and her ship and a number of others were dashed 
 to pieces in the harbour, Jan. 1382. HoUnshed. 
 
 Eichard's second queen also brought a storm with 
 her to the English coasts, in which the king's 
 baggage was lost, and many ships cast away, 1396. 
 Idem. 
 
 Hurricane throughout Europe, which did very con- 
 siderable damage, on Sept. 3, 1658, the day that 
 Cromwell died. Mortimer. 
 
 Storm on east coast of England : 200 colliers and 
 coasters lost, with most of their crews, 1696. 
 
 The " Great Storm," one of the most terrible that 
 ever raged in England. The devastation on land 
 was immense ; and in the harbours and on the 
 coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives was still 
 greater, Nov. 26-27, 1703.* 
 
 Snow-storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, it is 
 said, perished upon the mountains, in their march 
 to attack Drontheim, 1719. 
 
 One in India, when many hundreds of vessels were 
 cast away, a fleet of Indiamen greatly damaged, 
 and some ships lost, and 30,000 persons perished, 
 Oct. II, 1737. 
 
 Dreadful hurricane at the Havanah : many public 
 edifices and 4048 houses were destroyed, and 1000 
 inhabitants perished, Oct. 25, 1768. 
 
 Awful stoi-m in the North of England, in which many 
 vessels were destroyed, and four Dubhn packets 
 foundered, Oct. 29, 1775. 
 
 One at Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 7000 of 
 the inhabitants, April 22, 1782. 
 
 One hundred and thirty-one villages and farms laid 
 waste in France, 1785. 
 
 One general throughout Great Britain : several 
 hundred sail of shipping destroyed or damaged, 
 Oct. 6, 1794. 
 
 One which did vast damage in London, and through- 
 out almost the whole of England, Nov. 8, 1800. 
 
 A tremendous storm throughout Great Britain and 
 Ireland, by which immense damage was done, and 
 many ships wrecked, Dec. 16-17, i8i4- 
 
 An awful gale, by which a great number of vessels 
 were lost, and much damage was done to the 
 shipping in general on the EngUsh coast, Aug. 31, 
 1816. 
 
 Dreadful hurricane, ravaged the Leeward Islands, 
 from the 20th to 22nd Sept. 1819. At the island of 
 St. Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. 
 
 Great storm along the coast from Durham to Corn- 
 wall ; many vessels lost, Nov. 1821. 
 
 In Ireland, particularly in the vicinity of Dubhn, 
 many houses were thrown down, and vast num- 
 bers unroofed, Dec. 12, 1822. 
 
 Awful storm on the coast of England : many vessels 
 lost, and 13 driven ashore and wrecked in Ply- 
 mouth alone, Jan. 12-13, 1828. 
 
 At Gibi-altar, where more than 100 vessels were de- 
 stroyed, Feb. 18, 1828. 
 
 Dreadful storm at the Cape of Good Hope, where 
 immense property was lost, July 16, 1831. 
 
 A hurricane visited London and its neighbourhood, 
 which did great damage to the buildings, but 
 without the destruction of human life, though 
 many serious accidents occurred, Oct. 28, 1838. 
 
 Awful hurricane on west coast of England, and in. 
 Ireland. The storm raged through Cheshire, 
 Staffordshire, and Warwickshire ; 20 persons were 
 killed in Liverpool, by the falling of buildings, 
 and 100 were drowned in the neighbourhood ; the 
 coast and harbours were covered with wrecks ; 
 the value of two of the vessels lost being nearly 
 half-a-milhon sterling. In Limerick, Galway, 
 Athlone, and other places, more than 200 houses 
 were blown down, and as many more were burnt, 
 the winds spreading the fires. Dublin suffered 
 dreadfully ; London and its neighbourhood scarcely 
 sustained any damage, Jan. 6-7, 1839. 
 
 [The winter of 1852-3 (Dec. and Jan.) was one of 
 storms, many of which were very destructive,, 
 particularly to shipping.] 
 
 Great storm in the Black Sea, Nov. 13-16, 1854, 
 causing much loss of life, shipping, and stores sent 
 for the allied armies in the Crimea. 
 
 Great storm on N. coast of Europe, &c., Dec. 31, 1854- 
 
 Great storm on N.E. coast of Scotland; 42 fishermen 
 lost, Nov. 23, 1857. 
 
 Dreadful storm on the night Oct. 23-26 : the Eoyal 
 Charter totally lost, and many other vessels ; 
 another storm Oct. 31, and Nov. i, 1859. 
 
 Great storm in the channel causing much loss of 
 life and property, Jan. i, i860. 
 
 Dreadful gales, doing much mischief, Feb. 26, 27, 2S ; 
 May 28 ; and June 2, i860. 
 
 Great storm : part of the Crystal palace blown down ; 
 Chichester cathedral steeple fell, Feb. 20, 21, 1861. 
 
 Great storm on British coasts, 143 wrecks, May 28, 
 1861. 
 
 Storm on the north-east ; 50 wrecks, Nov. 13, 14, 
 1861. 
 
 At Market Laverton, (fee. ; hail six and seven feet 
 deep ; much damage to crops ; Sept. 2, 1862. 
 
 Storm on British coasts ; very many wrecks ; Oct. 
 19, 20, 1862. 
 
 There were severe gales, doing much damage and 
 loss of life, Jan. 19, &c., 1863 ; and Jan. 14, <fcc., 
 1865. (See under Wreclcs.) 
 
 Dreadful hurricance in the Indian Ocean, <&c. (see 
 Cyclone, Calcutta), Oct. 5, 1864. 
 
 Hurricane at Lisbon, causes much damage ; worst 
 for many years, Dec. 13, 1864. 
 
 * The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,ooo,oooJ. sterUng. The number of persons 
 drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown 
 from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Twelve men-of-war, with 
 more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Trees were torn up by the roots, 
 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone Ught-house was destroyed, and in it the ingenious contriver 
 of it, Winstanley, and the persons who were with him. The bishop of Bath and Wells and his lady were 
 kiUed in bed in their palace in Somersetshire, ilultitudes of cattle were also lost : in one level 15,000 
 sheep were drowned. 
 
 Y Y 2 
 
STO 692 STR 
 
 STORTHING, the Norwegian parliament, said to have been first held at Bergen by 
 Hacho V. in 1223. 
 
 STOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet 
 do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of the room, the roof being open. 
 Apartments were warmed by portable braziers. Stoves on this old principle, improved, con- 
 tinue in use in many houses and public establishments in England, and generally on the 
 continent. See Chimneys and Cottager's Stove. 
 
 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS, including Malacca, Penang or Prince of Wales island, and 
 Singapore, were made a separate dependency of the British crown in 1853, and placed under 
 the governor- general of India. 
 
 STRAND (London). Houses were first built upon the Strand about 1353, at which 
 period it was the court end of the town, or formed the communication betAveen the two cities 
 of London and Westminster, being then open to the Thames and to the fields. Somerset 
 and other palaces were erected 1549-1605. Slow. The Strand bridge was commenced Oct. 1 1, 
 181 1. See Waterloo Bridge, The Strand improvements were commenced in 1829. 
 
 STRASBURG, the Roman Argentoratum, the capital of Alsace. Here Julian defeated 
 the AUemanni, 357. This town, formerly imperial, was taken by Louis XIV. in 1681. 
 The citadel and fortifications, which he constructed, have been so much augmented, that 
 Strasburg may be considered one of the strongest places in Europe. It was confirmed to 
 France by the peace of Ryswick in 1697. Strasburg is remarkable for its magnificent cathe- 
 dral and tower, the latter, the loftiest in the world. An attempt at insurrection in the city 
 was made, Oct. 30, 1836, by prince Louis Napoleon (afterwards president of the French 
 republic, and now emperor), aided by two officers and some privates. It was instantly 
 suppressed by their arrest. The prince was then shipped off to America by the French 
 government. See France. 
 
 STRATHCLUYD, a kingdom formed by the Britons, who retired northward after the 
 Saxon conquest, about 560. It extended from the Clyde to Cumberland. The Britons in it 
 submitted to Edward the Elder, in 924. 
 
 STRATHMORE, Countess of. Miss Bowes of Durham, the then richest heiress in 
 Europe, whose fortune was 1,040,000^. with vast additions on her mother's death, and 
 immense estates on the demise of her uncle, married the earl of Strathmore, Feb. 25, 1766. 
 Having, after the earl's death, married Mr. Stoney, she was forcibly carried off by him and 
 other armed men, Nov. 10, 1786. She was brought up to the King's Bench by habeas corpus 
 and released, and he committed to prison, Nov. 23. The lady recovered her estates, which 
 she had assigned to her husband under the influence of terror, in May, 1788. 
 
 STRATTON-HILL, Battle of, in Cornwall, May 16, 1643, between the ro5'al army 
 under sir Ralph Hopton, and the forces of the parliament under the earl of Stamford. The 
 victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed and wounded. 
 
 STRAWBERRY-HILL, the Gothic villa of Horace Walpole, erected by him, 1753-76, at 
 Twickenham, near London. In April and May, 1842, his collection of i)ictures, and articles 
 of taste and virtii, were sold by auction for 29,615?. 8s. <)d. 
 
 STREET-MUSIC. An act was passed in 1864 for the better regulation of street-music 
 in the metropolitan police districts. 
 
 STREET RAILWAYS, previously established by Mr. Train in New York, were opened 
 by him at Birkenhead, Cheshire, Aug. 30, i860, and at Bayswater, London, March 23, 1861. 
 A street railway bill was rejected by the house of commons in April, 1861. Several of these 
 railways existed for a time in various parts of the metropolis in 1861, but were all taken up 
 in 1862. 
 
 STRELITZ, the imperial guard of Russia, established by Ivan IV. in 1568. Becoming 
 frequently seditious, it was suppressed by Peter the Great ; great numbers were put to death, 
 many by the czar's own hand, 1697- 1704. 
 
 STRIKES. See Preston and London, 1859-1861. The tailors of London struck for 
 increase of wages in April, 1834. The strike of the calico-printers of Glasgow, lasted nine 
 months in 1834. The strike of the amalgamated engineers took place in 1852 ; and of the 
 London cabmen, July 27-30, 1853. A strike amongst the silk-workers at Coventry came to 
 an end, Aug. 30, i86o. An unsuccessful attempt to get up a strike in the building trade 
 
STG 693 SUE 
 
 began March 23, 1861. A strike of the puddlers in the iron trade occurred in tlie snrin<^ of 
 1865. See Iron. '- *= 
 
 STRONTIUM. The native carbonate of strontia was discovered at Strontian, in Argyle- 
 shire, in 1787. Sir Humphry Davy first obtained from it the metal strontium in 1808. 
 
 STRYCHNIA, a poisonous vegetable alkaloid, discovered in 1818 by Pelletier and 
 Cayentouiu the seeds of the strychnus ignatia and nux vomica, and also in the upas poison. 
 Itis so virulent that half a grain blown into the throat of a rabbit occasions death in four 
 minutes ; its operation is accompanied by lock-jaw. Much attention was given to strychnia 
 in 1856, during the trial of William Palmer, who was executed for the murder of Cook, 
 June 14, 1856. 
 
 STUCCO -WORK was known to the ancients, and was much prized by them, particularly 
 by the Romans, who excelled in it. Able Lenglet. It was revived by D'Udine, about 1550 • 
 and in Italy, France, and England in the 18th century. ' 
 
 STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Cassar's ordering leap-year to be once in 
 four years, and the month Sextilis to be called Augustus, 8 B.C. See New Style. 
 
 STYLE Royal. See Majesty and Titles. The styles of the English sovereigns are given 
 in the later editions of K icolas's ' ' Chronology of History. " 
 
 SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH. See Telegraph (under Eleetricity). 
 
 SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly gi-anted in kind, particularly 
 in wool ; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account of the war with France, 1340. 
 Anderson. Subsidies were raised upon the subjects of England by James I. 1624 ; but they 
 Avere contained in a bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. Four subsidies were granted to 
 Charles II. in 1663. England granted subsidies to foreign powers in several wars, particu- 
 larly in the war against the revolutionists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One 
 of the most remarkable of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was 
 ratified at Vienna between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be 
 vigorously prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting powers should 
 enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia, Russia, the Porte, and other 
 powers, were afterwards given by England to the amount of many millions sterling. 
 PMllipn. 
 
 SUCCESSION ACTS. See Settlement. 
 
 SUCCESSION, War of (1702-1713), distinguished by the achievements of the duke of 
 Marlborough and the earl of Peterborough, and their unprofitable results, arose on the 
 question whether an Austrian prince or a French prince, should succeed to the throne of 
 Spain. The British coiurt opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the allies 
 withdrew one after another, and the French prince succeeded. See Spain, Utrecht. 
 
 SUCCESSION DUTY ACT (16 & 17 Yict. c. 51), after much discussion, was passed 
 Aug. 4, 1853. By this act the legacy duty was extended to real estate, and was made 
 payable on succession to both landed and personal property. 
 
 SUDBURY, in Suff'olk, was disfranchised for bribery in 1848. 
 
 SUEYI, a warlike Gothic tribe, which with the Alaui and the Yisigoths entered Spain 
 about 408, were overcome by the latter, and absorbed into their kingdom about 584. 
 
 SUEZ CANAL. A plan for a canal between the head of the Red Sea and the bay of 
 Pelusium was brought forward by M. de Lesseps in 1852. The consent of the Egyptian, 
 Turkish, Russian, French, and Austrian governments was gradually obtained, but not that 
 of the British. A company has been formed for the purpose, and the work commenced in 
 1858. The cost was estimated at 8,ooo,oooZ.* 
 
 * M. de Lesseps undertook to cut a canal through go miles of sand, to run out moles into the Medi- 
 terranean ; to deepen the shallow waters ; to create ports to receive the ships from India and Australia, 
 and to adapt the canal to irrigation. Writing on Nov. 7, 1862, M. Delacour, a French engineer, after 
 viewing the works which were "employing 25,000 men in the desert," expresses his conviction that this 
 important work will be completed in four or five years. Cosmos. The waters of the MediteiTanean have 
 been admitted into a narrow channel communicating with Lake Timsah. This, however, is a very insigni- 
 ficant part of the work (Dec. 1862). In 1863 the works were visited by the sultan and by Mr. Hawkshaw. 
 In Aug. 1863 the company were compelled, by the Egyptian government, to give up tlie employment of 
 compulsory labour, and litigation ensued. In Feb. 1865, M. de Lesseps reported that a vessel con- 
 taining 30 persons had been tugged along the canal the whole distance between the two seas. On April 17, 
 1865, delegates from the British chambers of commerce visited the works, and reported that the success of 
 the scheme was only an afE\ir of time and money. On Aug. 15, 1865, the floodgates of the smaller Suez 
 Canal were opened, the fresh water from the Xile was admitted, and a coal vessel jjassed from the Medi- 
 terranean to the Red Sea. M. de Lesseps expects the larger canal for ships will be ready in 1S68. 
 
SUF 69i SUI 
 
 SUFFRAGAN BISHOPS. Power to appoint them was given by parliament in 1534 to 
 Henry VIII. as head of the church. See Suiircmacy. 
 
 SUGAR* {Saccharum offtcinarum) is supposed to have been known to the ancient Jews. 
 Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 325 B.C. Strabo. An oriental 
 nation in alliance with Pompey used the juice of the cane as a common beverage. Lucan. 
 The best sugar was produced in India. Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen. 
 Brought into Europe from Asia, a.d. 625. In large quantities, 1150. It was attempted to 
 be cultivated in Italy ; but not succeeding, the Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to 
 America about i5io.t Our chief importations of sugar are from the British West Indies, 
 the East Indies, Mauritius, and Brazil. Sugar was first taxed by name, 1 James II. 1685. 
 The previous customs duties upon sugar were repealed, and moderated duties substituted, 
 by the act 9 & 10 A'^ict. c. 63, passed Aug. 18, 1846, by which act the same duties were 
 levied upon the sugar of foreign countries as levied upon sugar the produce of British 
 colonies: annually reduced until July 5, 185 1. The importations of sugar have in con- 
 sequence considerably increased, and amounted in 1852 to upwards of 8,000,000 cwts., 
 paying a duty exceeding 4,000,000?. sterling. Sugar imported in 1854, 9,112,364 cwts. ; in 
 1864, 10,767,538 cwts. In 1855, the duty was increased, but was reduced in 1864. J Sugar 
 was extracted from beet-root in France, by Achard, in 1799, and has been since largely 
 manufactured. 
 
 SUGAR-REFINING was made known to Europeans by a Venetian, 1503, and was first 
 practised in England in 1659, though some say that we had the art a few years earlier. Dr. 
 Scoffern's improved processes were patented in 1848-50. 
 
 SUICIDE (from swi, self; cczdere, to kill), the slayer of himself. The first instances 
 recorded in Jewish history are those of Samson, about 1 120, and Saul, 1055 B.C. The Greek 
 and Roman philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from the 
 rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only instance recorded occurs 
 in the reign of Tarquin I., when the .soldiers, thinking themselves disgraced by being ordered 
 to make common sewers, destroyed themselves, 606 B.C. Instances afterwards occurred, 
 however, of illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 46 b.g.§ In the Roman Catholic 
 church, in the 6th century, it was ordained that no commemoration should be made in the 
 Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesiastical law continued till the 
 Reformation, when it was admitted uito the statute law of England by the authority of 
 parliament, with the confiscation of land and goods. Till 1823 the body of the suicide was 
 directed to be buried in a cross-road, and a stake to be driven through it. 
 
 A FEW OF THE MOST MEMORABLE LATE CASES OP SUICIDE IN" GREAT BRITAIN', ETC. 
 
 Gen. Pichegru April 7, 
 
 Miss Champante .... Aug. 15, 
 Sellis, valet of the duke of Cumberland, May 31, 
 Abraham Goldsmid, an eminent merchant 
 "Williams, murderer of the Marr family, Dec. 15, 
 Lord French Dec. 9, 
 
 Marshal Berthier .... June i, 181 5 
 Samuel Whitbread, Esq. . . . Sept. 6, „ 
 Sir Samuel Romilly .... Nov. 2, 1818 
 Sir Richard Croft .... Nov. 6, ,, 
 
 Christophe, king of Hayti . . . Oct. 8, 1820 
 
 Adm. sir George Campbell . . . Jan. 23, 1821 
 
 * Sugar, long considered a neiitral substance, without congeners, has of late years become the head of 
 a numerous family, daily increasing, viz. : Cane-sugar (sucrose, from the sugar-cane ; boiled with dilute 
 acids it yields j^Jucoie) ; fruit-sugar (from many recent frviits) ; grape-sugar (jr; (/cose,- from dried fruits and 
 altered starch) ; sugar of milk ; Melitote (from Eucalyptus, by Berthelot in 1856) ; sorbin (from the berries 
 of the moimtain ash, by Pelouze) ; inosite (from muscular tissue, Scherer) ; dulcose (by Laurent) ; mannite 
 (from manna, obtained from the Fraxinus Ornus, a kmd of ash) ; quercite (from acorns) ; to these have been 
 lately added mycose, by M. Mitscherlich, and melezetose and trehalose, by M. Berthelot. 
 
 t About the year 11 38 the sugar-cane was transported from Ti-ipoli and Syria to Sicily, thence to 
 Madeira, and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at what date sugar was introduced 
 into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII. ilr. Whittaker, in the Historj- 
 of "Whalley, p. 109, quotes an earlier instance in 1497. A mauuscrijit letter from sir Edward Wotton to lord 
 Cobham, dated Calais, 6th JIarch, 1546, advertises him that sir Edward had taken up for his lordship 
 twenty -five sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, " whiche is eighte pence a pounde." 
 
 t In 1840, the imports of sugar into the United kingdom were nearly 5,000,000 cwts., of which nearly 
 four milhons were for home consumption ; and the duty amounted to about five millions and a half sterhng. 
 In 1850, the imports were 8,285,734 cwts. -ind the reduced duty, amounted to4,i38,95iZ. ; in 1853, 7,272,833 
 cwts. were retained for home consumption ; duty, 4,083, 836^. ; in 1859, 8,641,920 cwts. were retained for 
 home consumption; duty, 5,935,909/. ; in 1S64. 8,937,798 cwts. were retained. 
 
 § There have been three instajices of self-destruction by fire ; that of the philosopher Empedocles, who 
 threw himself into the crater of Mount Etna ; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw himself, in 
 1820, into the crater of Vesuvius ; and of an Engli.shman, who jumped into the furnace of a forge about the 
 year 1811. Plutarch relates that an unaccountable passion for suicide seized the Mile.sian virgins, from 
 which they could not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a decree being issued 
 that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should be drawn naked through the streets, a stop 
 was soon put to the extraordinary frenzy. 
 
SUI 
 
 695 
 
 SUN 
 
 1822 
 
 182s 
 
 IK32 
 
 1840 
 
 1854 
 
 iSss 
 
 Charles Russell, Esq., late chairman of Great 
 Western Kailway .... May 15, 1856 
 
 Hugh Miller, geologist, author of The Old Red 
 Sandstone (insane, through overwork) Dec. 23, ,j 
 
 Major-gen. Stalker, C.B. of Indian army (March 
 14), and commodore Ethersey, of the Indian 
 navy. (Both through physical and mental 
 depression while on the expedition against 
 Persia ; see Bushire.) . . March 17, 1857 
 
 Major "VVarburton, M.P. for Harwich, brother 
 of Eliot, lost in the ^niazo?!. . . Oct. 23, ,, 
 
 Henry M. Witt, a promising young chemist, at 
 the Government School of Mines June ig, 1858 
 
 Dr. Sadleir, Senior FeUow of Trinity College, 
 Dublin July, ,, 
 
 Rev. G. Martin, chancellor of the diocese of 
 Exeter Aug. 27, i860 
 
 Lord Forth, son of earl of Perth . . Oct. 8, 1861 
 
 Wm, G. Prescott, banker. . . April 29, 1865 
 
 Admiral Robert Pitz-Roy (see JVeic Zealand and 
 Meteorology) April 30, „ 
 
 INQQESTS ON SUICIDES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 1856 
 
 919 males 
 
 395 females 
 
 1314 
 
 1858 
 
 909 .. 
 
 366 „ 
 
 127s 
 
 i860 
 
 g6r ,, 
 
 396 ,, 
 
 I3S7 
 
 1861 
 
 961 ,, 
 
 363 „ 
 
 1324 
 
 1862 
 
 938 „ 
 
 346 ,, 
 
 1284 
 
 1863 
 
 1048 „ 
 
 337 „ 
 
 138s 
 
 1864 
 
 978 „ 
 
 359 » 
 
 1337 
 
 SUICIDE, continued. 
 
 Marquess of Londonderry . . Aug. 12, 
 
 Hon. colonel Stanliope . . . Jan. 26, 
 
 Mr. Montgomery in Newgate (see Pi-ussic Acid), 
 
 July 4, 
 
 Miss Charlotte Both . . . Jan. 3, 
 
 Lord Greaves Feb. 7, 
 
 Colonel Brereton . . . • . Jan. 13, 
 
 Major Thompson June 13, 
 
 Mr. Simpson, the traveller . . July 24, 
 
 Lord James Beresford . . . April 27, 
 
 Gen. sir Rufane Sbaw Donkin . . May i. 
 
 The earl of Munster . . . March 20, 
 
 Lord Congleton .... June 8, 
 
 Laman Blanchard .... Feb. 15, 
 
 Colonel Gurwood .... Dec. 29, 
 
 Rear-admiral Collard . . . March 18, 
 
 Haydon, the eminent painter . June 22, 
 
 Count Bresson Nov. 2, 
 
 Colonel King, in India . . . July 12, 
 
 .Walter Watts, lessee of the Olympic theatre, 
 
 July 13, 
 
 Rev. Dr. Rice Jan. 20, 
 
 Lieut. -col. Layard .... Deo. 27, 
 
 Rev. T. Robinson (threw himself off Shak- 
 spere's Cliff, Dover) , . . Aug. 16, 
 
 Dr. Franks, late editor of the Allgemeine Zeitung, 
 after killing his son . . . Nov. 3, 
 
 John Sadleir, M.P. (in 1852, a lord of the trea- 
 sury), by prussic acid ; on Hampstead Heath. 
 (He was found to have been guilty of enormous 
 frauds upon the Tipperary bank, (fee.) Feb. 16, 
 
 A. Smart, a watchmaker, threw himself from 
 the whispering gallery in St. Paul's, March 14, 
 
 SUITORS' FUND (in the Coiirt of Chancery), in 1862 amounted to 1,290,000?. As this 
 money had no specific owner, a proposal was made hy government to apply it to the building 
 of new law-courts, payment of all legal claims being guaranteed. The scheme was deferred 
 by parliament. 
 
 SULPHUE has been known from the earliest times. Basil Valentine mentions its pro- 
 duction from green vitriol. Sulphuric acid (vitriol), produced from the burning of sulphur, 
 was introduced into England aboat 1720. Sulphur has been the object of research of many 
 eminent chemists during the present century, and many discovei'ies have been made, such as 
 its allotropic condition, &c. It is the inflammable constituent in gunpowder. — The sulphur 
 mines of Sicily have been wrought since the i6th century, but the exportation was incon- 
 siderable till about 1820 ; in 1838 the trade increased so much that Great Britain alone 
 imported 38,654 tons. In that year the Neapolitan government was induced to grant a 
 monopoly of the trade to a French company; but a firm remonstrance from the British 
 government led to a discontinuance of this impolitic restriction in 184 1, which, however gave 
 a great and a lasting impetus to the British sulphur manufacture. 
 
 SULTAN, a Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying king of kings, and given to the 
 grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the Turkish princes, Angrolipez 
 and Musgad, about 1055. Vatiier. It was first given, according to others, to the emperor 
 Mahmoud, in the 4th century of the Hegira. 
 
 SUMPTUARY LAWS restrain excess in dress, farniture, eating, &c. Those of Zaleucus 
 ordained that no woman should go attended by more than one maid in the street, unless she 
 were drunk ; and that she should not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed 
 to act unchastely, 450 B.C. Diog. Lacrt. The Zea; Orchia among the Romans (181 B.C.), 
 limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the dishes at an entertainment ; 
 and it also enforced that during supper, which was the chief meal among the Romans, the 
 doors of every house should be left open. The English sumptuary laws, chiefly of the reigns 
 of Edward III. and Henry VIIL, were repealed in 1856. See Dress. 
 
 SUN.* Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about 529 B.C. 
 
 * The estimated diameter is 882,000 miles, and the distance from the earth, till lately given as 9s,ooo,ooa 
 miles, has been recently corrected to 94,000,000, by the result of the experiments and calculations of N. M. 
 Fizeau and Foucault (1864). "The error corrected corresponds to the appai-ent breadth of a human hair 
 at 125 feet, or of a sovereign at 8 miles off." tferschel. The sun is now described as consisting of a solid or 
 liquid nucleus, surrounded by a luminous envelope (photosphere) over which is a dense atmosphere, con- 
 tarnicg the vapours of various metals and other elements (1865). See Spectrum. 
 
SUN 
 
 696 
 
 SUR 
 
 I 
 
 The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated geometrically by Aristarchus, 
 •who also maintained the stability of the sun, about 280 B.C. Numerous theories were 
 ventured during fifteen centuries, and astronomy lay neglected until about a.d. 1200, when 
 it was brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system 
 was made known in 1530. See Copernican System and Solar System. Galileo and Newton 
 maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. The transit of Mercury was observed by 
 Gassendi, 
 
 By the observations of Dr. Halley on the spot 
 ■which darkened the sun's disc in July and 
 August. 1676, he estabhshed the certainty of 
 its motion round its own axis. 
 
 Parallax of the sun, Dr. Halley .... 
 
 Solar spots were first observed by Fabricius and 
 Harriot in 1610. A macula three times the 
 size of the earth passed the sun's centre, 
 April 21, 1766, and frequently since. 
 
 Herschel measured two spots, whose length 
 together exceeded 50,000 miles . April 19, 1779 
 
 Since 1851 much attention has been given to the 
 luminous protuberances observed on the edge 
 of the sun's disc during a total eclipse. On 
 July 18, i860. Mr. Warren De la Rue took two 
 photographs at the time of total obscuration. 
 
 " Solar physics " especially studied by Messrs.- 
 SVarren De la Rue, Balfour, Stewart, &c. 1865-6 
 
 SUNCION, Treaty of, between general TJrquiza, director of the Argentine confede- 
 ration, and C. A. Lopez, president of the republic of Paraguay, recognising the independence 
 of Paraguay, July 15, 1852. 
 
 SUNDAY, or Lord's Day. Most nations have counted one daj'^ in seven holy. Sunday 
 was the day on which, anciently, divine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among Christians 
 it is commonly called Dies Dominica, or Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's appearance 
 on that day, after his resurrection. The first civil law that was issued for the observance of 
 this day, combined it with that of the seventh-day Sabbath and other festivals {Eiisebius, 
 Life of Constantine), and it was followed by several imperial edicts in favour of this day, 
 which are extant ia the body of Roman law, the earliest being that of Constantine the 
 Great, dated March 7, 321. Corpus Juris Civilis. See Sabbath; Sabbatarians; SportSy 
 Book of, &c. 
 
 The council of Orleans prohibited country 
 labour, which that decree had allowed . . 33S 
 
 The Sabbath-day was ordained to be kept holy 
 in England, from Saturday at three in the 
 afternoon to Monday at break-of-day, 4th 
 Canon, Edgar 960 
 
 Act of parliament, levying one shilling on every 
 person absent from church on Sundays, 3 ] 
 
 James 1 1606 j 
 
 James I. and Charles I. authorised certain 
 sports after divine service on Sundays. See 
 Sports. I 
 
 Act resrtraining amusements, i Charles I. . 1625 
 
 Act restraining the performance of servile 
 
 works, and the sale of goods except milk at 
 
 certain hours and meat in public-houses, and 
 
 works of necessity and charity, on forfeiture 
 
 of five shillings, 29 Charles II 1677 
 
 The Sunday act was passed in 1781. In March, 
 1855, Lord Robert Grosvenor (since lord 
 Ebury), Introduced a bill to suppress Sunday 
 trading. It met with much opposition and 
 was withdrawn. 
 
 SUNDAY SCHOOLS were first established in England about 1781, by Robert Raikes, 
 an eminent printer of Gloucester, conjointly with Dr. Stock. See Education and Sabbath 
 Schools. 
 
 SUNDERLAND ADMINISTRATION, formed in 1718, arose out of a modification of 
 the Stanhope ministry. After various changes it was broken iip in 172 1. 
 
 Charles, earl of Sunderland, ^r«« lord of the treasury. [ Earl Stanhope and Mr. Craggs, feeretaries. 
 Earl Covrper, lord chancellor. | Mr. Aislabic, chancellor of the exchequer, &c. 
 
 SUN-DIALS were invented by Anaximander, 550 B.C. Pliny, I. 2. The first put up 
 at Rome was by Papirius Cursor, at the temple of Quirinus, when time was divided into 
 hours, 293 B.C. Sun-dials were first set up in churches, a.d. 613. Lenglet. 
 
 SUPERANNUATION ACT for the Civil Service was passed in April, 1859. 
 
 SUPREMACY over the church was claimed by pope Gelasiiis I. as bishop of Rome, 494- 
 On Jan. 15, 1535, Henry VIII. by virtue of the act 26 Hen. VIII. c. i, formally assumed 
 the style of "on earth Supreme Head of the Church of England," which has been retained 
 by all .succeeding sovereigns. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and the ex-lord chancellor 
 (sir Thomas More), and many others were beheaded for denying the king's supremacy in 
 • 1535 ; and in 1578, John Nelson, a priest, and Thomas Sherwood, a young layman, were 
 executed at Tyburn for the same offence. 
 
 SURAT (E. Indies). Before the English East India Company obtained possession of 
 Bombay, the presidency of their affairs on the coast of Malabar was at Surat ; and they had 
 
SUR 697 SUS 
 
 a factory here established lender captain Best in i6xi. The Great Mogiil had here an officer 
 who was styled his adniiml. An attack of the Mahratta chief Sivajee, on the British factory, 
 was defeated by sir George Oxenden, 1664. The English Avere again attacked in 1670, and 
 1702, and often snbseqnently. The East India Company, in 1759, fitted out an armament, 
 which dispossessed the admiral of the castle ; and, soon after, the possession of this castle 
 was confirmed to them by the court of Delhi. Surat was vested in the British by treaty in 
 1800 and 1803. 
 
 SURGEOlSrS, EoYAL College of. The first charter was granted by Henry VIII. 1540. 
 Formerly barbers and surgeons were iinited, until it was enacted that " no person using any 
 shaving or barbery in London shall occupy any surger}', letting of blood, or other matter 
 excepting only the drawing of teeth." The surgeons obtained a new charter in 1745, 1800, 
 and 1844. Since that period, various legislative and other important regulations have been 
 adopted to promote their utility and respectability ; and no person is legally entitled to 
 practise as a surgeon in the cities of London and Westminster, or within seven miles of the 
 former, who has not been examined at this college. The college in Lincoln' s-inn-Fields was 
 re-modelled in 1836, and the interior completed in 1837. The premises were enlarged in 
 1852-3. See Medical Council, 
 
 SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made a separate 
 study from philosophy, &c., about 410 B.C. Hippocrates mentions the ambe, the ancient 
 instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones. Celsus flourished about a.d. 17 ; 
 Galen, 170; iEtius, 500; Paulus ^gineta, in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 
 900 ; and in the i6th century a new era in the science began ; between these periods surgery 
 was confined to ignorant priests and barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the illustrious 
 Vesalius, the father of modern sirrgery, in 1538. Surgeons and doctors were exempted from 
 bearing arms or serving on juries, 15 13, at which period there were only thirteen in London. 
 See Physic. 
 
 SURIlSrAM (Dutch Guiana). The factories established by the English in 1640 were 
 occupied by the Portuguese, 1643 ; by the Dutch, 1654 ; taken by the British, 1804 ; and 
 restored to the Dutch, 18 14. 
 
 SURNAMES first began in Greece and Egypt, as Soter, Saviour ; Nieator, conqueror ; 
 Eucrgctcs, benefactor ; Philopator, lover of his father ; PMlemetor, lover of his mother, &c. 
 Strato was surnamed Physicus, from his deep study of nature ; Aristides was called the 
 Just; Phocion, the Good; Plato, t\ie Athenian Bee ; Xenophon, ihe Attic Muse ; Aristotle, 
 the Stagyrite ; Pythagoras, the Saniian Sage ; Menedemus, the Eretrian Bull ; Democritus, 
 the Laughing Philosopher ; Virgil, the Mantuan Sivan, &c. Surnames were introduced into 
 England by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility about iioo. The old Normans 
 used Fitz, which signifies son, as Fitz-herbert. The Irish irsed 0, for grandson, as O'Neal, 
 O'Donnell. The Scottish Highlanders used Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. The 
 Saxons added the word son to the father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common 
 surnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and 
 other Flemings, who were naturalised in the reign of Henry VI. 1435. M. A. Lower's 
 " Dictionary of English Surnames " was published in i860. 
 
 SURPLICES. First worn by the Jewish priests, and said to have been first used in 
 churches, 316, and encouraged by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying public j)rayers 
 shall wear a comely surplice witli sleeves. Canon 58. The garb prescribed by stat. 2 Edw. 
 VI. 1547 ; again, i Eliz. 1558 ; and 13 & 14 Chas. II. 1662. 
 
 SURREY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS (near London), were established in 183 1, by Mr. 
 Edward Cross, who brought hither the menagerie formerly at Exeter change. Various 
 picture models have been exhibited here since 1837, viz. Vesuvius, Iceland, &c. , accompanied 
 by fireworks. In 1856, a company which had taken the gardens, erected a large yet elegant 
 building for concerts ; the architect being Mr. Horace Jones. On Oct. 19, 1856, when the 
 hall contained about 9000 persons, attending to hear the rev. C. H. Spurgeon, seven were 
 killed and thirty seriously injured, by a false alarm of fire. In 1862 the hall was temporarily 
 taken for the reception of the patients of St. Thomas's hospital. 
 
 SURVEY. See Ordnance. 
 
 SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The oldest in the world is in China, near King-tuug ; it is 
 formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. 
 The bridge over the Menai Strait is a most surprising work. The Hungerford (or Chariug 
 Cross) suspension bridge, opened May i, 1845, was removed to Clifton and opened there'^ 
 Dec. 8, 1864. Parliament empowered the commissioners of woods to erect (among other 
 
sus 
 
 69S 
 
 SWE 
 
 improvements there) a suspension bridgo at Battersea, Sept. 1846 ; and many bridges of 
 similar construction have been erected in various parts of the kingdom. Lambeth and 
 Westminster suspension bridge was opened Nov. 10, 1862. See Menai Strait, Hungerford, 
 Clifton, &c. 
 
 SUSSEX, Kingdom ov. See Britain. 
 
 SUTLEJ, a river in N.-W. India, on tho banks of which were fought the desperate 
 battles of Aliwal and Sobraon {which sec). 
 
 SUTTEES, the burning of widows. This ciistom began in India from one of the wives of 
 '* Bi'amah, the Son of God," sacrificing herself at his death, that she might attend him in 
 heaven. So many as seventeen widows have burnt themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; 
 and in Bengal alone, 700 have thus perished, until lately, in each year. But the English 
 government, after long discouraging suttees, formally abolished them, Dec. 7, 1829. They 
 have since occasionally taken place. Tho wife of the sou of the rajah of Beygoou thus 
 perished, June, 1864. 
 
 SWABIA, a province in S. Germany ; was conquered by Clovis, and incorporated into 
 the kingdom of the Franks, 496. After various changes of rulers, it was made a duchy by 
 the emperor Conrad I. in 912, for Erchanger ; according to some, in 916, for Burckhardt. 
 The duchy became hereditary in the house of Hohenstaufen in 1080. Duke Frederic III. 
 became emperor of Germany as Frederic I. (usually styled Barbarossa, red beard), in 1152. 
 Conradin, his descendant, was defeated at the battle of Tagliacozzo {which see), in 1268, and 
 beheaded shortly after. The breaking up of the duchy gave rise to many of the small 
 German states ; part of Swabia is included in Wurtembcrg and Switzerland. Swabia was 
 made a circle of the empire in 1387 and 1500. 
 
 SWAN KIVER SETTLEMENT. See Western Australia. 
 
 SWEABORG, a strong fortress in Finland, 3^ miles south of Helsingfors : it is situated 
 on seven rocky islands, the fortifications were commenced by the Swedes in 1748, and 
 were not completed in 1789, when Finland was united to Russia, by whose government the 
 works were zealously continued. It is termed the Gibraltar of the north. On Aug. 6, 1855, 
 the English and a part of the French fleet anchored off Sweaborg, and bombarded it by 
 mortar and gun-boats from the 9th to the nth, causing the destruction of nearly all the 
 principal buildings, including the dockyard and arsenal. But few casualties and no loss of 
 life ensued in the allied squadron. Success could not be pursued for want of mortars. 
 
 SWEARING ON THE Gospels, first used about 528, and introduced in judicial pro- 
 ceedings about 600. Rapin. Profane SwEAraNG made punishable by fine ; a labourer or 
 servant forfeiting is. others 25. for the first offence ; for the second offence, 45. ; the third 
 oflFence, 6s. ; 6 Wm. III. 1695. See Oaths. 
 
 SWEATING SICKNESS. See Plague. 
 
 SWEDEN (N. Europe). The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern 
 inhabitants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory on the 
 appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been masters of Sweden. 
 See Scandinavia. The internal state of this kingdom is little kno-\vn previously to the nth 
 century. By the irnion of Calmar in 1397, Sweden becanie a province of Denmark, and was 
 not rescued from this subjection till 1521, when Gustavus Vasa recovered the kingdom from 
 the Danish yoke. He became king in 1523, and his descendants ruled till 1809. The 
 government of Sweden is a limited monarchy. The diet consists of four orders, the nobles, 
 the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers, and meet every three years (last time Oct. 15, 
 1865). The king is, as in Britain, the head of the executive. There are two universities, 
 Upsal and Lund ; and Sweden can boast, among its great men, Linnteus, Celsus, Scheele, 
 Bergman, Berzelius, Thorwaldseu, and Andersen. Population of Sweden (1863) 4,022,564 ; 
 of Norway (1855) 1,490,007. 
 
 Odin arrives in the north, and dies . .B.C. 70 
 
 His son Skiold reigns 40 
 
 The Skioldimgs reign till Olaf the Infant is 
 
 baptised, and introduces Christianity among 
 
 his people .... about a.d. iooo 
 
 Walderaar I. of Denmark subdues Rugen, and 
 
 destroys the pagan temples . . . . ii63 
 
 Stockholm founded 1260 
 
 Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular iorm of 
 
 government 1279 
 
 The crown of Sweden which had been here- 
 ditary, is made elective ; and Stecnchel Mag- 
 nus, surnamed Smeek, or the Foolish, king of 
 
 Norway, is elected 1319 
 
 Waldemar lays Gothland waste . . . . 1361 
 Albert of Mecklenburg reigns .... 1363 
 Treaty or union of Calmar {which see), by which 
 Sweden is united to Denmark and Norway, 
 
 under Margaret 1397 
 
 University of Upsal founded .... 1476 
 
SWE 
 
 699 
 
 SWE 
 
 SWEDEN, continued. 
 
 Christian II. " the Nero of the North," massa- 
 cres the Swedish nobihty, to fixhisdespotista 1520 
 The Swedes delivered frota the Danish yoke by 
 
 the valonr of Gustavus Vasa .... 1521 
 Gustavns Vasa is raised to the throne . . . 1523 
 He introduces Lutheranism and religious liberty 1 527 
 Makes the crown hereditary .... 1544 
 Gustavus Adolphus heads the Protestant cause 
 
 in Germany ; takes Magdeburg and Jlunich, 1630 
 He is slain at Lutzen . . . Nov. 6, 1632 
 
 Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark . . 1648 
 
 Abdication of Christina 1654 
 
 Charles X. overruns Poland .... 1657 
 Arts and sciences begin to flourish . . . 1660 
 
 University of Lund founded .... i665 
 Charles XII. " the Madman of the North," be- 
 gins his reign ; he makes himself absolute ; 
 
 and abolishes the senate 1699 
 
 Battle of Pultowa, where Charles is defeated 
 
 by the czar of 'Russia (aee Pultowa) , . . . 1709 
 He escapes to Bender, where, after three years' 
 
 protection, he is made a prisoner by the Turks 1713 
 He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, and 
 lighting numerous battles, is killed at the 
 siege of Frederickshald . . . Dec. 11, 1718 
 Queen Ulrica Eleanora abolishes despotic 
 
 government 1719 
 
 Eoyal Academy founded by Linn^, afterwards 
 
 called Linnseus 1741 
 
 Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home, who 
 
 are beheaded 1756 
 
 The Hats and Caps (French and Russian parties), 
 1738-57: put down by Gustavus III. . . 1770 
 
 Despotism i-e-established 1772 
 
 Order of the Sword instituted . . . . ,, 
 
 Assassination of Gustavus III. by count Anker- 
 strom, at a ball, March 16 ; he expired the 
 29th ......... 1792 
 
 The regicide was scourged with whips of iron 
 thongs three successive days ; his right hand 
 was cut off, then his head, and his body im- 
 paled May 18, „ 
 
 Gustavus IV. detlu-oned and the government 
 assumed by his uncle, the duke of Suder- 
 
 mania 'March 13, 1809 
 
 Representative constitution established, June 7, „ 
 
 Sweden cedes Finland to Russia . Sept. 17, 
 
 Jlarshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte Corvo 
 (one of Bonaparte's greatest generals), is 
 chosen the crown prince of Sweden, Aug. 21, 
 
 Gustavus IV. arrived in London . Nov. 12, 
 
 Swedish Pomerania seized by Napoleon, Jan. 9, 
 
 Alliance with England . . . July 12, 
 
 Sweden joins the grand alliance against Na- 
 poleon March 13, 
 
 Noi-way is ceded to Sweden by the treaty of 
 Kiel, Jan. 14 ; carried into effect . Nov. 
 
 Bernadotte ascends the throne of Sweden, as 
 Charles John XIV. . . . Feb. 5, 
 
 Canals and roads constructed .... 
 
 Treaty of navigation between great Britain and 
 Sweden May 19, 
 
 Death of Bernadotte, whose son Oscar ascends 
 the throne March 8, 
 
 Treaty of alliance with England and France, 
 
 Nov. 21, 
 
 Banishment decreed against CathoUc converts 
 from Lutheranism .... Oct. 
 
 Demonstration in favour of ItaUan indepen- 
 dence ...... Dec. 17, 
 
 Increased religious toleration towards seoeders. 
 
 May, 
 
 The king visits England and France , Aug. 
 
 He is warmly received in Denmark . July 17, 
 
 Treaty of commerce with Italy, signed June 14, 
 
 Strong demonstration in favour of Poland, 
 
 April, 
 
 Inaugfuration of free trade . . Jan. i, 
 
 Sweden protests against the occupation of Sles- 
 wig by the allies. . . . Jan. 22, 
 
 Groat excitement tliroughout the country, 
 March : preparation for war ; (no result) 
 
 April, 
 
 Foundation of a " National Scandinavian So- 
 ciety " at Stockholm to obtain by legal means 
 a confederation of the three kingdoms for 
 military and foreign affairs, reserving inde- 
 pendent interior administi-ation . Dec. 
 
 Reform of the constitution proposed Nov.; 
 adopted by the legislature ; great rejoicings, 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Commercial treaty with France signed,Feb. 15, 
 
 1S13 
 
 1814 
 
 iBiS 
 1S22 
 
 1826 
 
 1844 
 
 i8ss 
 1857 
 
 18G1 
 1862 
 
 1863 
 
 KINGS OF SWEDEN (previously Kings of Upsal). 
 
 1026. 
 1051. 
 1056. 
 1066. 
 1090. 
 1112. 
 1118. 
 1129. 
 II55- 
 1161. 
 1167. 
 1 199. 
 
 T2IO. 
 I216. 
 1222. 
 1250. 
 1266. 
 
 1275- 
 1290. 
 
 1319- 
 1350. 
 1359- 
 1363- 
 
 Olaf Schotkonung, or Ohf Schcetkonung the 
 
 Infant, is styled king, 1015. Christianity 
 
 introduced in this reign. 
 Edmund Colbrenner. 
 Edmund Slemme. 
 Stenkill. 
 Halstan. 
 
 Ingo I. styled the Good. 
 PhiKp. 
 Ingo II. 
 
 Swerker or Suercher I. 
 St. Eric I. 
 
 Charles VII. : made prisoner by his successor, 
 Canute, son of Eric I. 
 Swerker or Suercher II. ; killed in battle. 
 Eric II. 
 John I. 
 
 Eric III. the Stammerer. 
 Birger Jarl, regent. 
 Waldemar I. 
 JIagnus I. 
 Birger II, 
 
 Magnus II. ; dethroned. 
 Eric IV. 
 
 Magnus restored. 
 Albert of Mecklenburg : his tyranny causes a 
 
 revolt of his subjects, who invite Margaret 
 
 of Denmark to the throne. 
 Mai'garet, queen of Sweden and Noi'way, now 
 
 also of Denmark, and Erie XIII. 
 
 1397- 
 
 1412. 
 1440. 
 1448. 
 1471. 
 1483. 
 TS02. 
 1503. 
 1512. 
 1520. 
 
 1560. 
 
 1568. 
 1592. 
 
 1604. 
 161 1. 
 
 1633. 
 
 1654. 
 
 [Union of Calmar, by which the three king- 
 doms are united under one sovereign.] 
 Eric XIII. governs alone ; deposed. 
 Christopher III. 
 
 Charles VIII. surnamed Canuteson. 
 [Interregnum.] Sten Sture, Protector. 
 John II. (I. of Denmark) 
 [Inten-egnum.] 
 Swante Sture, Protector. 
 Sten Sture, Protector. 
 Christiei-n, or Christian II., of Denmark, styled 
 
 the "Nero of the North;" deposed for his 
 
 crueltie.i. 
 Gustavus Vasa f by whose valour the Swedes 
 
 are delivered from the Danish yoke. 
 Eric XT v., son of Gustavus ; dethroned and 
 
 slain by 
 John III. his brother. 
 Sigismund, king of Poland, son of John III. ; 
 
 disputes for the sixccession continued the 
 
 whole of this reign. 
 Charles IX brother of John III. 
 Gxistavus (Adolphus) II. the Great ; fell at the 
 
 battle of Lutzen, Nov. 6, 1632. 
 [Interregnum.] 
 Chi-istina, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus. 
 
 Resigned the crown to her cousin ; died at 
 
 Rome in 1689. 
 Charles X. (Gustavus), son of John Casimir, 
 
 count palatine of the Rhine. 
 
SWE 
 
 700 
 
 SAVI 
 
 SWEDEN, continued. 
 
 1660. Charles XI. son of the preceding ; the arts and 
 
 sciences flourished in this reign. 
 Charles XII. styled the " Alexander " and 
 
 the "Madman of the North;" killed at | 
 
 Frederickshald, Dec. 11, 1718. 
 Ulrica Eleanora, his sister, and her consort 
 
 Frederick I. landgrave of Hesse Cassel. 
 
 Ulrica relinquishes the crown, and in I 
 
 Frederick reigned alone. 
 
 Adolphus Frederick of Hnhtein Gottorp, de- 
 scended from the family of Vasa. 
 Gustavus (Adoljjhus) III.; assassinated by 
 
 count Ankerstrom at a masked baU. I 
 
 1697. 
 
 1 7 19. 
 
 1 741 
 1751- 
 
 1771. 
 
 1792. Gustavus (Adolphus) IV. ; dethroned and the 
 
 government assumed by his uncle, the duke 
 
 of Sudermania. 
 1809. Charles XIII. duke of Sudermania. 
 1814. Treaty of Kiel, by which Norway falls under 
 
 the sovereignty of Sveden. 
 1S18. Charles (John) XIV. Btrnodotle the French 
 
 prince of Ponte Corvo ; succeeded by his son, 
 1S44. Oscar, March 8. 
 1859. Charles XV. July 8 (bom May 3, 1826); the 
 
 PRE.'iENT king of Sweden and Norway. 
 Daughter, Princess Lou i.sa, born Oct. 31, 1851. 
 Brother, Prince Oscar, bom Jan. 21, 1829. 
 
 SWEDENBORGIANS. A sect (calling themselves "the New Chiirch " or "the New 
 Jerusalem Church " *) which holds the opinions of baron Emanuel Swedenborg (born at 
 Stockholm, 1688 ; died at London, 1772). He stated that he began to receive spiritual 
 manifestations, &c., in 1745, of which an account is given in his numerous works. The 
 sect arose about 1760, and began to spread in 1783 in England, where there were 50 congre- 
 gations in 1 85 1. 
 
 SWEET-BAY, Laurus nohilis, was brought to these realms from Italy before 1548. 
 Laurus indica, or Eoyal Baj'^, was brought from Madeira in 1665. Tlie Sweet-Fern bush, 
 Gom'ptonia asplcnifolia, came from America, 1714. Laurus aggrcgata, or the Glaucous 
 Laurel, came from China in 1806. 
 
 SAVING. Between 1830 and 1833 many haystacks and bai-ns were fired in the rural 
 districts of England, and attributed to an imaginary person named " Swing." Many persons 
 were caught and j)unished. The probable cause was disputes between the farmers and their 
 deluded labourers. 
 
 SWITHIN, ST., lived in the ninth century, and, having been the preceptor to king 
 Ethelwulf, was by that prince made bishop of Winchester in 852. The tradition, that if it 
 rain upon St. Swithin's day, July 15, it will rain forty days following, is supposed to have a 
 shadow of reason only from the circumstance of some constellations, which have the 
 character of ^lortending rain, rising cosmically about the time of St. Swithin's festival. 
 
 SWITZERLAND, the ancient Helvetia, was conquered by the Romans, 15 B.C. ; and 
 afterwards was successively subject to the Burgundians and Germans. Franks also settled 
 here in the early ages. The.canton of Schweitz was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving 
 their original habitation in Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman 
 general Marius ; after which the_v fled into Helvetia, about 100 B.C. TJiis canton has given 
 name to the whole confederacy. — The present national council is elected every third year, 
 at the rate of one member for 2000 persons. 
 
 The Helvetians, invading Gaul, severely de- 
 feated by Julius Csesar . . .B.C. 
 
 The Helvetians converted to Christianity by 
 Irish missionaries A.D. 
 
 Helvetia ravaged by the Huns , . . . 
 
 Becomes subject to Germany .... 
 
 Friburg built by Beithold IV 
 
 Berne built 
 
 Tyranny of Gessler, which occasions the memo- 
 rable revolt under the patriot WUham Tell . 
 
 Confederation against Austria ; declaration of 
 Swiss independence 
 
 A malignant fever carries off", in the canton of 
 Basle, 1100 souls 
 
 Form of government made perpetual 
 
 Leopold I. of Austria defeated at Morgarten, 
 
 Nov. 16, 
 
 Lucerne joins the confederacy . ... 
 
 The canton of Zurich joins and becomes head 
 of the league 
 
 Beme, Claris, and Zug join 
 
 Leopold II. of Austiia defeated and slain at 
 Sempach July 9, 1386 
 
 S8 
 
 612 
 909 
 1032 
 1179 
 1 191 
 
 1306 
 
 1307 
 
 1314 
 131S 
 
 1335 
 
 1350 
 1351 
 
 The Austrians defeated at Nafels ; make peace, 
 
 April 9, 
 
 The Grisons league (see Caddee) . . . • 
 
 Second league of the Grisons . . . . 
 
 The third league of the Grisons .... 
 
 Battle of St. Jacobs on the Birs, near Basle 
 (1600 Swiss resist 30,000 French, and are all 
 killed, the enemy losing 10,000) . Aug. 26, 
 
 The Swiss defeat Charles the Bold at Granson, 
 April 5 ; and at Morat . . June 22, 
 
 And aid the duke of Lorraine at Nancy, where 
 Charles is slain. . . . Jan. 5, 
 
 Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay of France, 
 under Louis XI 
 
 Union of Fribourg and Soleure . . . . 
 
 Maximilian I. emperor acknowledges Swiss in- 
 dependence ....... 
 
 Schaffhausen joins the union . . . . 
 
 The Swiss invade Milan and defeat the French 
 at Novara June 6, 
 
 Defeated by them at Mariguano Sept. 13, 14, 
 
 The Swiss confederacy acknowledged by France 
 and other powers 
 
 1389 
 1400 
 1424 
 1436 
 
 1444 
 1476 
 1477 
 
 1480 
 1481 
 
 1499 
 1501 
 
 1513 
 1515 
 
 1516 
 
 * It does not receive the u.sual doctrine of the Trinity, believing that the three persons arc one in 
 Christ : it rejects the doctrine of justification by faith alone, and the imputed righteousness of Christ, and 
 holds that salvation cannot be obtained except by faith and good works. It accepts baptism and the Lord's 
 Supper, and uses a liturgy and hymns. 
 
SWI 
 
 701 
 
 SYD 
 
 SWITZERLAND, continued. 
 
 The Keformation begins at Basle ; the bishop 
 
 compelled to retire 1319 
 
 The Grison leagues join the Swiss confederacy 
 
 as allies 1544 
 
 Appenzel joins the other cantons . . . . 1597 
 Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by 
 surprise, scales the walls, and penetrates the 
 town, but in the end is defeated . . . 1602 
 [This circumstance gave rise to an annual 
 festival commemorative of their escape from 
 tyranny.] 
 Independence of Switzerland recognised by the 
 
 treaty of Westphalia (see Westphalia, Peace of) 1648 
 [From this period until the French revolution 
 the cantons enjoyed tranquillity, disturbed 
 only by the changes arising out of their 
 various constitutions.] 
 Alliance with France . . . May 2s, 1777 
 Strife in Geneva, between the aristocratic and 
 
 democratic parties ; France interferes . . 1781 
 icoo fugitive Genevese seek an asylum in 
 
 Ireland (see Geneva) 1782 
 
 Swiss guards ordered to quit France . . . 1792 
 Helvetic confederation dissolved ; its subjuga- 
 tion by France 1798 
 
 Helvetian republic formed . . . ' . ,, 
 Switzerland the seat of war . . 1799-1802 
 
 The number of cantons increased to 19 ; the 
 federal government restored ; and a lan- 
 damman appointed by France . May 12, 1802 
 Uri, Schweitz, and Underwald separate from 
 
 the republic July 13, ,, 
 
 Switzerlandjoins France with 6ooomen, Aug.24, 1811 
 The allies entered Switzerland in the spring of 1814 
 The number of cantons increased to 22, and the 
 independence of Switzerland secured by the 
 
 treaty of Vienna 1815 
 
 Revision of the constitution of the cantons . 1830 
 Law to make education independent of the 
 
 clergy 1839 
 
 It leads to dissensions between the Catholics 
 
 and Protestants 1840-4 
 
 Dispute about the convents of Aargau, 1844; to 
 
 put education into the hands of the Jesuits, 
 
 &c. ; opposition of the Protestant cantons 1846 
 
 Lucerne, Uri, Schweitz, Unterwalden, Freiburg, 
 
 Zug, and Yalais (Roman Catholic cantons), 
 
 form a separate league (Sonderbund) to sup- 
 port education by the Jesuits, &o. . . . 1S46 
 
 Insurrection at Geneva against Jesuit teaching ; 
 a temporary provisional government estab- 
 Ushed Oct. 7, ,, 
 
 The diet declares the Sonderbund illegal, and 
 dissolves it, July 20 ; the seven cantons pro- 
 test, July 22 ; the diet orders the expulsion 
 of the Jesuits, Sept. 3 ; communal assemblies 
 held to resist it, Sept. 26; Oct. 3, 10 . . . 1847 
 
 The diet prepares to repress the Sonderbund, 
 Nov. 4 ; civil war ; the Sonderbund defeated ; 
 submits to the expulsion of the Jesuits, and 
 the secularisation of monastic propertj'', 
 
 Nov. 19-29, ,, 
 
 New federal constitution . ■. Sept. 12, 184S 
 
 Dispute about Neufchatel (j!;7i''c7iSfe) . . 1857 
 
 Declaration of neutrality in the coming Italian 
 . war March 14, 1S59 
 
 Mutiny and punishment of the Swiss mercenary 
 troops at Naples ; the confederation forbid 
 foreign enlistment . . July and Aug. „ 
 
 Swiss government protests against the annex- 
 ation of Savoy to France . . March 15, i860 
 
 150 Swiss attempting to enter Savoy, are 
 stopped by the Genevese government, 
 
 March 30, ,, 
 
 M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtains a prize at the 
 national shooting match at Wimbledon, July, „ 
 
 The government forbid the Swiss to enlist in 
 foreign service without permission July 30, ,, 
 
 Proposed European congi-ess to preserve Swiss 
 neutrality, put off .... July, ,, 
 
 Glarus destroyed by fire . . . May 3, i85i 
 
 French troops occupy Valine des Dappes, Oct. 
 28 ; the Swiss announce the violation of their' 
 territory Nov. 5, ,, 
 
 Treaty of France settles the question of the 
 Valley of Dappes by mutual cession of teri-i- 
 tory ; no miUtary works to be constructed on 
 territory ceded ; signed . . Dec. 8, 1862 
 
 Serious election riots at Geneva, with bloodshed, 
 Aug, 22 ; federal troops arrive . Aug. 23, 1864 
 
 Federal troops quit Geneva . . Jan. 11, 1863 
 
 Revision of the constitution ; deliberations 
 begin ....... Oct. 23, „ 
 
 M. Kniisel elected president . . Nov. 6, „ 
 
 SWISS CONFEDERATION OF 1815. 
 
 Uri •) 
 
 first con- 
 
 SchaShausen 
 
 Solothurn 
 
 Pays de Vaud 
 
 Schweitz 
 
 h federa- 
 
 Appenzel 
 
 Basel 
 
 Valais 
 
 Unterwalden . 
 
 tion. 
 
 St. GaU 
 
 Grisons 
 
 Neufchatel 
 
 Ziuich 
 
 
 Glarus 
 
 Aargau 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Berne 
 
 
 Zug 
 
 Thurgau 
 
 
 Lucerne 
 
 
 Frieburg 
 
 Tessins 
 
 
 SWORDS were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Cliiuese, 1879 B.C. Univ. 
 Hist. The Roman s^Yords were from 20 to 30 iiiclaes long. The broadsword and scimitar 
 are of modern adoption. Tlie sword of state carried at an Englisli liing's coronation by a 
 king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus steel swords are most prized; the next tlie sword of 
 Ferrara steel. The Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter from the 
 celebrated artificer named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrew Ferraras, 
 The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 1724. 
 
 SYBARIS, a Greek colonj' in S. Italy, founded about 720 B.C. ; destroyed by the Croto- 
 nians about 510 B.C. The people were greatly addicted to luxury, hence the term Sybarite. 
 
 SYCAIMORE TREE, called the Egyptian fig-tree. In IMrs. Jameson's " JMemoirs of 
 Female Sovereigns," we are told that Mary queen of Scots brought over from France a little 
 sycamore tree, which she planted in the gardens at Holyrood, and that from this have 
 sprung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. 
 
 SYDNEY, capital of New South Wales ; founded by governor P]iillip, on a cove on 
 Port Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally intended 
 for Botany bay. It was named after lord Sydney, secretary for the colonies. A legislative 
 
SYM 
 
 702 
 
 SYR 
 
 council was first held July 13, 1829 ; tlie university opened, Oct. II, 1852. Sydney was 
 erected into a bishopric in 1836, afterwards into an archbishopric. It was lit with gas in 
 May, 1841, the first place so lit in Australia. The Roman Catholic cathedral burnt, and 
 valuable property destroyed, June 29, 1865. See Australia, New South Wales, Convicts, &c. 
 
 SYMPIESOMETER, a species of barometer invented by Adie of Edinburgh in 1819. 
 
 SYNAGOGUE (usually an assembly), a congregation of the Jews, the place where such 
 assembly is held for religious purposes. "When first held is uncertain i some refer it to the 
 times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 synagogues. In 1851 there 
 were in London 10 synagogues, in England and Wales, 53. 
 
 SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by Chri.stian 
 princes ; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his legates usually presiding 
 (see Councils). The first national synod held in England was at Hertford, 673 ; the last was 
 held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but by royal authority, 
 25 Hen. VIII. 1533. See Dort and Thurles. 
 
 SYRACUSE, S.-E. Sicily, founded by Archias, 734 B.C. 
 Uiiiv. Hist. See Sicily. 
 
 732 B.C. Eitsehius ; 749 B.C. 
 
 Gelon becomes supreme . . . . B.C. 485 
 
 Succeeded by Hiero 478 
 
 Republic established 467 
 
 Becomes predominant in Sicily .... 453 
 Athenian expedition against Syracuse, imder 
 
 Nicias 415 
 
 Gylippus the Lacedaemonian succours Syracuse ; 
 
 defeats Nicias . . . . , . .413 
 Government of Dionysius the elder, 406; he 
 
 receives Plato well 3S9 
 
 Dionysius, the younger, succeeds . . . 367 
 Opposed by Dion, 361 ; who is banished, and 
 
 Plato, who endeavoured to reconcile them, is 
 
 gold for a slave 360 
 
 Dion returns vrith a Greek army and fleet, and 
 
 expels Dionysiiis, 356 ; rules Syracuse, 355 ; 
 
 assassinated by CalUppus .... 353 
 Dionysius recovers his authority, 347 ; but is 
 
 banished to Corinth by Timoleon, 343 ; who 
 
 governs well till his death . . . B.C. 337 
 
 Agathocles usurps power 317 
 
 He is poisoned by Hicetas, and the republic 
 
 restored 2S9 
 
 Hiero, i^retor of Syracuse, 275 ; elected king, 
 
 270 ; rules in peace till his death, 216 ; 
 
 HieronjTnus, his grandson, succeeds, 216 ; 
 
 murdered 214 
 
 Syracuse declares against Rome, besieged by 
 
 Marcellus, 214, and taken ; Archimedes, the 
 
 illustrious mathematician, slain. . . . 212 
 Syracuse taken by the Saracens, a.d. 669, and 
 
 retaken by count Roger, the Norman . . 1088 
 Destroyed by earthquakes in 1542, Jan. 1693 ; 
 
 and nearly destroyed .... Aug. 6, 1757 
 In the insurrection, Syracuse surrendered to 
 
 the NeapoUtan troops . . . April 8, 1849 
 
 SYRIA. The capital was originally Damascus ; but after the battle of Ipsus, Seleucus 
 founded Antioch. 
 
 Alliance of king David and Hiram king of 
 
 Syria B.C. 1049 
 
 Syria conquered by David 1040 
 
 Liberated by Rezin 980 
 
 Benhadad, king of Syria, makes war on the 
 
 Jews 898 
 
 Benhadad II. reigns .... about 830 
 Syria subjugated by TiglathpUeser king of 
 
 Assyria 740 
 
 Syria conquered by Cyrus 537 
 
 And by Alexander 333 
 
 Seleucus Nicator enters Babylon . . , . 312 
 J<;ra of the Seleucidae (tchich see) . . . . „ 
 Great battle of Ipsus ; death of Antigonus, de- 
 feated by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus 301 
 
 The city of Antioch founded 299 
 
 Antiochus, son of Seleucus, falUng in love with 
 his father's queen, Stratonice, he pines away 
 nearly to death ; but the secret being dis- 
 covered, she is divorced by the father, and 
 
 married by the son 297 
 
 Battle of Cyropedium ; Lysimachus slain by 
 
 Seleucus 281 
 
 Seleucus foully assassinated by Ceraunus ; 
 Antiochus I. king ...... 280 
 
 Antiochus I. defeats the Gauls, and takes the 
 name of the Soier, or Saviour . . . . 275 
 
 Antiochus II. surnamed by the Milesians Theos 
 
 (God !), king 261 
 
 Poisoned by Laodice 246 
 
 Seleucus 11. (king, 246) makes a treaty of 
 
 alliance with Smyrna and Magnesia . . 243 
 Seleucus III. Ceraunui (or Thunder), king . . 226 
 
 Antiochus III. the Great (king, 223), conquers 
 Palestine, but is totally defeated at RaphiaB.c. 217 
 
 Again conquers Palestine, 198 ; but gives it to 
 Ptolemy 193 
 
 Enters Greece, 192 ; defeated by the Romans 
 at Thermopylae, 191; and at Magnesia . . 190 
 
 Makes peace with the Romans, giving up to 
 them Asia Minor 188 
 
 Seleucus Philopator king 187 
 
 Antiochus IV. king, who assumes the title of 
 Tkcos-Epiphaius, or the Illustrious God . . 175 
 
 He sends ApoUonius into Judea ; Jerusalem is 
 taken ; the temple pillaged ; 40,000 inhabi- 
 tants destroyed, and 40,000 more sold as slaves 16S 
 
 Antiochus V. Eupator (king, 164), murdered by 
 Demetrius Soter, who seizes the throne . . 162 
 
 Demetrius is defeated and slain by his successor 
 Alexander Bala, 150 ; who is also defeated 
 and slain by Demetrius Nicator . • . 146 
 
 Antiochus VI. Sidetes (son of Demetrius Soter) 
 rviles during the captivity of his brother 
 Demetrius Nicator (after slaying the usurper 
 Trypho) 137 
 
 Antiochus grants peace to the Jews, and 
 Placates the Romans, 133 ; invades Parthia, 
 129 ; and is defeated and slain . . . 128 
 
 Demetrius Nicator restored „ 
 
 Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Seleucus 
 with her own hand . . . . . -124 
 
 Her son Antiochus VII. Grypus (king, 125), 
 whom she attempts to poison ; but he com- 
 pels his mother to swallow the deadly draught 
 herself 123 
 
SYR 
 
 703 
 
 TAG 
 
 SYRIA, continued. 
 
 Beign of Antiochus VIII. Cyzicenus at Damas- 
 cus, and of Gry pus at Antioch . .B.C. Ill 
 
 Seleucus, king gS 
 
 Antiochus Eusebes, king 94 
 
 Dethroned by Philip 85 
 
 Tigranes, king of Armenia, acquires Syria . 83 
 Antiochus X. Asiaticus, solicits the aid of the 
 
 Romans 75 
 
 Defeat of Tigranes by LucuUus, 69 ; he submits 
 to Pompey, who enters Syria, and dethrones 
 
 Antiochus Asiaticus 65 
 
 Syria made a Roman province , . . . 63 
 **«*♦* 
 
 Syria invaded by the Parthians . . . a.d. 162 
 
 By the Persians 256 
 
 Violent earthquakes 341 
 
 Invaded by the Saracens, 497, 502, 529 ; by the 
 
 Persians 607 
 
 Conquered by the Saracens .... 63S 
 Conquest of Syria by the Fatimite caliphs . . 970 
 Revolt of the emirs of Damascus . . . 1067 
 
 The emirs of Aleppo revolt 1068 
 
 The crusades commence (see Crxisades) , . 1095 
 Desolated by the Crusades {u-kich see) . 1096-1272 
 Noureddin conquers Syria .... 1166 
 
 Saladin dethrones the Fatimite dynasty . . 1171 
 The Tartars overrun all Syria .... 1259 
 The sultans of Egypt expel the Crusaders . .1291 
 Syria overrun by Tamerlane .... 1400 
 Syria and Egypt conquered by the Turks . . 1517 
 Syria continued in possession of the Turks till 
 
 the invasion of Egypt by the French July i, 1798 
 Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes "svith great 
 
 loss, Aug. 6 ; overruns the country, and takes 
 
 Gaza and Jaffa ,, 
 
 Siege of Acre . . . March 6 to May 27, 1799 
 Bonaparte returns to France from Egypt, 
 
 Aug. 23, „ 
 Egypt and Syria evacuated by the French army, 
 
 Sept. 10, iSoi 
 Mehemet Ali attacks and captures Acre, and 
 
 overruns the whole of Syria . . . 1831-32 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha, his son, defeats the army of 
 the grand signior at Konieh . . Dec. 21, 1832 
 
 Numerous battles and conflicts foUow with 
 various success : the European powers 
 intervene and peace is made . . May 6, 1833 
 
 The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria, and 
 deserts to Mehemet Ali . . . July 14, ,, 
 
 The war renewed. May; Ibrahim defeats the 
 Turks at Nezib June 24, 1839 
 
 The Five Powers unite to support the Porte, 
 
 July, ,, 
 
 Death of lady Hester Stanhope . June 23, 1S40 
 
 Treaty of London (not signed by offended 
 France) July 15, „ 
 
 Capture of Sidon (see Sidon) . . Sept. 27, ,, 
 
 Fell of Beyrout (see JScyroui) . . Oct. 10, ,, 
 
 Fall of Acre (see Acre) . . . Nov. 3, 
 
 Long negotiations : the sultan grants hereditary- 
 rights to Mehemet, who gives up Syria Jan. 1841 
 
 The Druses said to have destroyed 151 Christian 
 villages and kiUed 1000 persons (see Druses), 
 
 May 29 to July i, i860 
 
 The Mahometans massacre Christians at Da- 
 mascus ; about 3300 slain ; many saved by 
 Abd-el-Kader .... July g, &c., ,, 
 
 TheEnglish and French government intervene; 
 a convention signed at Paris ; 12,000 men to 
 be sent by Prance .... Aug. 3, 
 
 Vigorous conduct of Fuad Pacha ; he punishes 
 the Mahometans implicated in the massacres 
 at Damascus very severely ; 167 of all ranks, 
 including the governor, executed, Aug. 20, 
 
 et seq. ,, 
 
 4000 French soldiers, under general Hautpoul, 
 land at Beyrout .... Aug. 22, ,, 
 
 Lord Dufferin, the British commissioner in 
 Syria, arrives at Damascus . . Sept. 6, „ 
 
 The French and Turks advance against Le- 
 banon ; 14 emirs surrendered . . Oct. ,, 
 
 Pacification of the country effected . Nov. ,, 
 
 The French occupation ceases . . June 5, 1861 
 
 Prince of Wales visits Syria . . . April, 1862 
 
 T. 
 
 TABERNACLE, tlie Holy Place of the Israelites, till the erection of Solomon's temple, 
 was constructed by Divine direction, 149 1 B.C. When the Jews were settled in Canaan, the 
 tabernacle was set up at Shiloh by Joshua, 1444 B.C. It was replaced by the temple erected 
 by Solomon, 1004 b.c. — The chapel erected for (5reorge "Whitfield in Moorfields in 1741, being 
 of a temporary nature, received the name of Tabernacle, which was afterwards given to their 
 chapels by the Calvinistic Methodists. Whitfield's Tabernacle in Tottenham-court-road was 
 erected in 1756, and enlarged in 1760. His lease expired in 1828 ; and the chapel was 
 opened by the Independents in 1830. A large Metropolitan Tabernacle, erected for the 
 ministrations of Mr. C. H. Spurgeon, a Baptist, near the Elephant and Castle, Kennington- 
 road, Surrey, was opened on March 31, 1861. 
 
 TABOR, in Bohemia, was founded by Ziska in 1419, and became the chief seat of the 
 Hussites, or Taborites. Casimir of Poland, invited to be their king, was defeated here by 
 Albert of Austria in 1438. Tabor itself was taken by the emperor in 1544. 
 
 TADMOR. See Palmyra. TAEPINGS. See C7ima, 185 1, note. 
 
 TAFFETY, an early species of silken manufacture, more prized formerly than now, 
 woven very smooth and glossy. It was worn by our elder queens, and was first made in 
 England by John Tyce, of Shoreditch, London, 41 Eliz. 1598. Siow's Chron. 
 
 TAGLIACOZZO, in the Abruzzi mountains, S. Italy, where, on Aug. 23, 1268, Charles 
 of Anjou, the usurping king of Naples, defeated and made prisoner the rightful monarch, 
 young Conradin (th& last of the Hohenstaufens, and grandson of the emperor Frederic II.), 
 who had been invited into Italy by the Ghibelline or Imperial party ; their opponents, the * 
 Guelfs, or papal party, supportiug Charles. Conradin was beheaded, Oct. 29, following. 
 
TAH 704 TAP 
 
 TAHITI. The Freuch abbreviated name for Otdieite. See Olahcite. 
 
 TALAVERA de la Reyna, Central Spain, was taken from the Mahometans by Ordono, 
 king of Leon, 913. Here a battle was fought July 27, 28, 1809, between the united British 
 and Spanish armies under sir Arthur Wellesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and 
 the French army (47,000) commanded by marshals Victor and Sebastiani. After a battle on 
 the 27th, both armies remained on the field during the night, and the French at break of 
 day renewed the attack, but were again repulsed by the Britisli with great slaughter. At 
 noon Victor cliarged the whole British line, but was repulsed at all points, and sir Arthur 
 Wellesley secured the victory, the enemy retreating with a loss of 10,000 men and 20 pieces 
 of cannon. The British lost 800 killed, and 4000 wounded or missing. Soult, Ney, and 
 Mortier, being in the rear, obliged tlie British to retire after the battle. 
 
 TALBOTYPE. See Plwtograpky. 
 
 TALLY OFFICE in the Exchequer took its name from the French word tailler, to cut. 
 A tally is a piece of wood written upon both sides, containing an acquittance for money 
 received ; whicli, being cloven asunder by an officer of the Exchequer, one part, called the 
 stock, was delivei-ed to the person who paid, or lent, money to the govei-nment ; and the 
 other part, called the counter-stock, or counter-foil, remained in the office, to be kept till 
 called for, and joined with the stock. This manner of striking tallies is very ancient. 
 Beatson. The practice was ordered to be discontinued in 1782. On Oct. 16, 1834, the 
 houses of parliament were burnt down by too many of these tallies being used in heating the 
 stoves in the house of lords. See Exchequer. 
 
 TALMTJDS, two books concerning the religion and morality of the Jews, — the Talmud 
 of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. The one composed by the Rabbi Juda 
 Hakkadosh, about the close of the 2nd centur}' ; the second contains commentaries, &c. , 
 by succeeding rabbis, collected by Ben Eliezer, about the 6th century ; abridged by 
 Maimonides in the 12th century. 
 
 TANAGRA (Bceotia). Here the Spartans defeated the Athenians 457 B.C., but were 
 defeated by them in 426, when Agis II. headed the Spartans, and Nicias the Atlienians. 
 
 TANDY ARREST. James Napper Tandy proposed his plan of reform in 1791. In the 
 French expedition against Ireland he acted as a general of brigade, Aug. 1798. He failed, and 
 fled to Hamburg, and was there delivered up to the English, Nov. 24 ; for whicli Bonaparte 
 declared war upon Hamburg, Oct. 15, 1799. Tandy was liberated after the peace of Amiens 
 in 1802. 
 
 TANGIER (Morocco, N.W. Africa). Besieged by prince Ferdinand of Portugal, who 
 was beaten and taken prisoner, 1437. It was conquered by Alfonso V. of Portugal in 1471, 
 and given as a dower to princess Catherine, on her marriage with Charles II. of England, 
 1662 ; but he did not think it worth keeping, and in 1683, caused the works to be blown up, 
 and the place abandoned. Tangiers afterwards became a piratical station ; but the discon- 
 tinuance of piracy has greatly diminished its importance. 
 
 TANISTRY (in Ireland), the equal division of lands, after the decease of the owner, 
 amongst his sons, legitimate or illegitimate. If one of the sons died, his son did not 
 inherit, but a new division was made by the tauist or chief. Abolislied 1604. Davies. 
 
 TANNING leather with the bark of trees was early practised. It was introduced iitto 
 these countries from Holland by William III. for raising orange-trees about 1689. It was 
 discontinued until about 1719, when ananas were first brought into England. Great 
 improvements have been made in tanning by means of chemical knowledge. 
 
 TANTALUM, a rare metal, discovered in an American mineral by Hatchett, in 1801, and 
 named by him Colubium ; and in a Swedish mineral by Ekeberg, who gave it its present 
 name. Wollaston pointed out the indentity of the two metals in 1809 ; and Berzelius 
 prepared pure metallic tantalum in 1824. In 1846 Rose discovered that tantalum was really 
 a mixture of three metals, which he named tantalum, niobium, and pelopium. Gmelin. 
 
 TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence its original 
 workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of tapestry hangings belongs [the 
 date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. Gidcciardini. Manufactured in France under 
 Henry IV. by artists invited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by 
 , William Sheidon ; and the first manufactory of it was established at Moftlake by sir Francis 
 Crane, 17 James I. 1619. Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much 
 improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early instances of making tapestry are 
 
TAR 705 TAV 
 
 nie-utioncd b.y the ancient poets, and also in Scriptnre ; so tliat the Saracens' manufacture is 
 a revival of tlie art. For the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Baycux Tapestry. 
 
 TAR. The ch3niist Becher first proposed to make tar from pit-coal — the earl of Dun- 
 donald's patent, 1781. The mineral tar was discovered at Colebrook-dale, Shropshire, 1779 ; 
 and in Scotland, Oct. 1792. Tar- water was first recommended for its medicinal virtues by 
 the good Dr. Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, about 1744. From coal-tar brilliant dyes are now 
 produced. Sec Aniline. 
 
 TARA, a hill in Meath, Ireland, where it is said a conference was held between the 
 English and Irish in 11 73. Near here, on May 26, 1798, the royalist troops, 400 strong, 
 defeated the insurgent Irish (4000 men), 500 killed. On Aug 15, 1843, Daniel O'Connell 
 held a monster meeting here (250,000 persons said to have been assembled). 
 
 TARANTISM. See Dancing. 
 
 TARBES (S. France, near the Pyrenees). The French, under Soult, were forced from 
 their position at Tarbes, with considerable loss, by the British army commanded by Wel- 
 lington, March 20, 1814. See Toulouse. 
 
 TARENTUM (now Taranto, S. Italy) was founded by the Greek Phalantus, B.C. 708. 
 The people of Tarentum, assisted bj^ Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, sirpported a war against the 
 Romans, which had been undertaken B.C. 281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the 
 Tarentines had offered to their ships when near their harbours ; it was terminated after ten 
 years ; 300,000 prisoners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome. Tarentum 
 has shared in all the revolutions of Southern Italy. 
 
 TARIFF, a book of duties charged on goods exported or imported; Our tariff in 1840 
 comprised 1042 articles ; the number was reduced (by sir Robert Peel) in 1845 and 1847. It 
 comprised 439 articles in 1857 ; the nimiber was greatly reduced in i860. 
 
 TARRAGONA (N.E. Spain), occupied as a naval station by the British before their 
 capture of Gibraltar, in 1704. It was stormed and sacked by the French under Sucliet, 
 Jan. 28, 181 1, and the inhabitants put to the sword. 
 
 TARTAN, or HighlA-ND Plaid. This dress of the Scottish Highlanders is said to have 
 been derived from the ancient Gauls, or Celtse, the Galli nan hraccati. 
 
 TARTARIC ACID is said to have been tlie first discovery of the eminent chemist, 
 Scheele, who procured it in a separate state by boiling tar with lime, and in decomposing 
 •the tartrate of lime thus formed by means of sulphuric acid, about 1770. In 1859 Baron 
 Liebig formed tartaric acid from other sources. 
 
 TARTARY (Asia). The Tartars, Mongols, or Moguls, Avere known in antiquity as 
 Scythians. During the decline of the Roman empire, these tribes began to seek more fertile 
 regions ; and the first who reached the frontier of Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the 
 modern Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous 
 Genghis Khan. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all Central Asia 
 (1206-27), became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it was split into parts in 
 a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered Persia, broke the power of the Turks 
 in Asia Minor (1370-1400), and founded the Mogul dynasty in India, which began with 
 Baber in 1525, and formed the most splendid court in Asia till the close of the i8th century. 
 See Golden Horde. The Calmuck Tartars, expelled from China, settled on the banks of the 
 Volga in 1672, but returned in 1771, suffering much on the journe3^ 
 
 TASMANIA, the name noAV given to the British settlement in Yan Diemen's Land 
 {wMcli see), 
 
 TAYERNS maybe traced to the 13th century " In the raigne of king Edward the Third, 
 only three taverns were allowed in London : one in Chepe, one in Walbrok, and tlie other in 
 Lombard-street." * Spelman. The Boar's Head, in Eastcheap, existed in the reign of Henry 
 IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute companions. Shakspeare 
 mentions it as the residence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of Falstaff's merriment. 
 Shakspeare, Henry IV. The White Hctrt, Bishopsgate, established in 1480, was rebuilt in 
 1829. Taverns were licensed in 1752. 
 
 •■■ Taverns were restricted by an act of Edward VI. 1552, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Noi-wioh, 3 in 
 Westminster, 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in 
 Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 
 3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
 
TAX 
 
 708 
 
 TEE 
 
 TAXES were levied by Solon, the first Athenian legislator, 540 B.C. The first class of 
 citizens paid an Attic talent of sUver, abont 55?. of our money. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, 
 levied a land-tax by assessment, which was deemed so odious that his subjects styled him, by 
 way of derision, Darius tlie Trader, 480 B.C. If Eon. Taxes in .specie were first introduced 
 into England by William I. 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily ; yet subsidies in kind, 
 as in wool, leather, and other products of the country, continued till the accession of 
 Richard II. 1377. Camden. Sec Revenue and Income Tax. 
 
 Assessed Taxes. 
 
 1800 
 1805 
 iSio 
 1815 
 1820 
 1825 
 1830 
 183s 
 
 
 La 
 
 nd Tar. 
 
 £3,468,131 
 
 1800 
 
 ■ £1,307,941 
 
 4,508,752 
 
 180S . 
 
 . . 1,596,481 
 
 6,233,161 
 
 1810 
 
 • 1,418,337 
 
 6,524,766 
 
 1815 . 
 
 . . 1,084,251 
 
 6,311,346 
 
 1820 
 
 ■ 1,192,257 
 
 5,176,722 
 
 1825 . 
 
 . . 1,288,393 
 
 5,013,405 
 
 1830 
 
 . 1,189,214 
 
 3,733.997 
 
 1835 . 
 
 • • 1,203,579 
 
 3,866,467 
 
 1840 
 
 1,298,622 
 
 Assessed Taxes. — Gross Arnounl. 
 1851 (to Jan. 5) . . £4,365,033 
 1855 (year end. March 31) 3,160,641 
 i860 ,, ,, 3,232,000 
 
 1865 ,, ,, 3,292,000 
 
 TCHERNAYA, a river in the Crimea. On Aug. 16, 1855, the lines of the allied army at 
 this place were attacked by 50,000 Taissians under prince Gortschakoff without success, being 
 repulsed with the loss of 3329 slaiu, 1658 wounded, and 600 prisoners. The brunt of the 
 attack was borne by two French regiments under general D'Herbillon. The less of tli! 
 allies was about 1200 ; 200 of these were from the Sardinian contingent, which behaved witli 
 great gallantry under the command of general La ilarmora. The Russian general Read, and 
 the Sardinian general Montevecchio, were killed. The object of the attack was the relief of 
 Sebastopol, then closely besieged by the English and French. 
 
 TEA was brought to Europe by the Dutch, 1610. It is mentioned as having been used 
 in' England on very rare occasions prior to 1657, and sold for 61. and even lol. the pound. 
 
 Samuel Pepys records his first " cup of tea," 
 
 Sept. 25, 1660 
 
 A duty of 8d. was charged upon every gallon of 
 tea made for sale (12 Ch. II. c. 13), 1660; the 
 East India Company first import it . . 1669 
 
 It was brought into Eugland in 1666, by lord 
 Ossory and lord Arlington, from Holland : 
 and being admired by persons of rank, it was 
 imported from thence, and generally sold for 
 60 shillings per pound, till our East India 
 Company took up the trade. Anderson. 
 
 Green tea began to be used ' 1715 
 
 Price of black tea per lb. 13s. to 20s., of green, 
 12S. to 30S 1728 
 
 The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767 : 
 this ta.x occasioned the destruction of 17 
 chests at Xew York, and 340 at Boston, Nov. 
 1773, and ultimately led to the American war 
 (see Boston). 
 
 The tea-plant brought to England . . about 1768 
 
 Tea-dealers obliged to have sign-boards fixed 
 up, announcing their sale of tea . Aug. 1779 
 
 Commutation act fur reducing the duty on tea 
 from 50 to 122 per cent, and taxing windows 
 in lieu June, 1784 
 
 " Millions of pounds' weight of sloe, liquorice, 
 and ash-tree leaves, ai'c every year mixed 
 with Chinese teas in England." Rexiort o/ihe 
 Ifiuse of Commons 
 
 " The consumption of the whole civilised world, 
 exclusively of England, is about 22,000,000 of 
 pounds, while the annual consumption in 
 Great IBritain is 30,000,000." Evidence in 
 House of Commons . ...... 
 
 The first tea-sale in London on the abolition of 
 
 the exclusive privilege of the East India 
 
 Company took place in Mincing-lane, 
 
 Aug. 19, 
 
 New diities were charged, 1796 ; the duty was 
 96 and 100 per cent. , made 2s. id. per pound 
 The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850 
 amounted to 5,47i,46i(. : andtbe amount was 
 5,902,433? in 
 
 Various changes made in 1854, 1855 . . and 
 
 Duty of IS. 5d. per pound bcgmi . . April, 
 
 The duty upon tea gradually reduced from 
 
 2«. sid. to IS. per pound ; reduced to 6c?. per 
 
 ■ pound June i, 
 
 ib34 
 1836 
 
 1852 
 1056 
 1857 
 
 1S65 
 
 TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND, OR CHARGED WITH DUTY, IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS :- 
 
 1726 
 1766 
 1792 
 1800 
 1805 
 1810 
 
 lb. 
 
 700,000 
 7,000,000 
 13,185,000 
 23.723,000 
 24,133,000 
 25,414,000 
 
 1815 . 
 
 1840 
 
 lb. 26,368,000 
 25,662,474 
 24,803,668 
 
 1845 . 
 
 1850 f/ovt. reti'.rns 
 
 1856 . 
 
 . lb 
 
 44,193,433 
 50,512,384 
 86,200,414 
 
 30,544,404 
 44,360,550 
 38,068,555 
 
 1858 . 
 1861 . 
 1864 . 
 
 
 75,432,535 
 96,577,383 
 124,359,243 
 
 w 
 
 TE-DEUM. A song of thanksgiving used in the Romish and English Churches, beginning 1 1 
 "Te Dcum laudamus —^^ e praise thee, God," supposed to be the composition oi \\ 
 Angnstin and Ambrose, about 390. 
 
 TEETOTALLER. Richard Turner, an artisan of Preston, Lancashire, in addressing 
 temperance meetings, acknowledged that he had been a hard drinker, and being an illiterate 
 man, and in want of a word to express how much he then abstained from malt and .spirits, 
 
TEL 
 
 707 
 
 TEM 
 
 exclaimed. 
 Kingdom. 
 
 ' I am noAv a Teetotaller ;" about 1831. See Encratites, Temperance, and United 
 
 TELEGRAPHS. Polybius calls the different instruments used by the ancients for 
 communicating information, ]pym"^j because the signals were always made by fire. In 1663, 
 a plan was suggested by the marquess of "Worcester, and a modern telegraph was suggested 
 by Dr. Hooke, 1684. M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs 
 about this period. M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French in 1793, 
 and two were erected over the Admiralty-office, London, 1796. The Semaphore was erected 
 there 1816. The naval signals by telegraph enabled 400 previously concerted sentences to 
 be transmitted from ship to ship, by varying the combinations of two revolving crosses. See 
 Electric Telegraph, under Electricity. 
 
 TELESCOPES were noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571. Roger Bacon, about 1250, 
 described telescopes and microscopes exactly, and yet neither were made till one Metius, at 
 Alkmaer, and Jansen, of Middlebm-g, constructed them about 1590-1609. Galileo imitated 
 their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of which magnified 
 a thousand times, 1630. With these he discovered JuiDiter's moons and the phases of 
 Venus. Telescopes were improved by Zucchi, Huyghens, Gregory, and Newton, and after- 
 wards by Martin, Hall, DoUond, and Herschel. 
 
 The reflecting telescope invented by Newton . 1668 
 Achromatic telescopes made by More Hall about 1723 
 A telescope made in London for the observatory 
 of Madrid, which cost ii,oooi., in 1802 ; but 
 the Herschel telescope, made 1789-1793, was 
 superior ; it had the great speculum 48 inches 
 diameter, 3^ inches thick, weighed 2118 lbs., 
 and magnified 6400 times. See Herschel. 
 The earl of Eosse erected on his estate at Par- 
 sonstown, in Ireland, the largest telescope 
 ever constructed, at a cost exceeding 20,000?. 
 This wonderful instrument is 7 feet in 
 diameter, and 52 feet in length ; the machinery 
 is supported on massive walls, and notwith- 
 
 standing its great weight and size, is moved 
 with the utmost ease, and can be lowered to 
 any angle, while it sweeps the horizon by 
 means of wheels running on a graduated 
 cu-cle 1828-1E 
 
 One of gigantic size, 85 feet in length (vei-y im- 
 perfect), completed at "Wandsworth by the 
 rev. John Craig lE 
 
 Magnificent equatorial telescopes set up at the 
 national observatories at Greenwich and Paris 16 
 
 M. Foucault exhibits at Paris a reflecting 
 telescope, the mirror 314 inches in diameter ; 
 the focal length 17.I feet 18 
 
 TELLURIUM, a rare metal, in its natural state containing small quantities of iron and 
 gold, was discovered by Miiller at Reichenstein in 1 782. 
 
 TEMESWAR (Hungary), capital of the Banat, often besieged by the Turks. On Aug. 
 10, 1849, Haynau totally defeated the Hungarians besieging this town, and virtually ended 
 the war. 
 
 TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES originated with Mr. Calhoun, who, while he was secretary 
 of war in America, in order to counteract the habitual use of ardent spirits among the 
 people, prohibited them altogether in the United States' army, 181 8. The first public 
 temperance society in America was projected in 1825, and formed Feb. 13, 1826. Tem- 
 perance societies immediately afterwards were formed in England and Scotland. In Ireland, 
 the rev. Dr. Edgar, of Belfast, published upon temperance in 1829-31 ; and Father Mathew, a 
 Roman Catholic clergyman, affirmed that in 1839, 1840, and 1841, he had made more than 
 a million of converts to temperance. * In England, the National Temperance Society was 
 formed in 1842 ; the London Temperance League in 1851 ; and the United Kingdom 
 Alliance for the legislative suppression of the sale of intoxicating liquors, June i, 1853. See 
 Teetotaller. 
 
 TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights Temjplars was founded in 11 18, by 
 Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. The Templars were numerous in several countries, and 
 came to England 1185. Their wealth having excited the cupidity of the French kings, the 
 order was suppressed by the council of Vienne, and part of its revenues was bestowed upon 
 other orders in 13 12. Numbers of the order were burned alive and hanged in 13 10, and it 
 suffered great persecutions throughout Europe. The grand-master Molay was burnt alive at 
 Paris in 13 14. 
 
 TEMPLE (London), the dwelling of the Knights Templars, at the suppression of the 
 order, was purchased by the professors of the common law, and converted into inns, 1340. 
 They are called the Inner and Middle Temple, in relation to Essex-house, which was also a 
 
 " This success was probably owing to the general poverty, as the majority of the converts are stated 
 to have relapsed on the return of prosperity. Father Mathew arrived in America in July, 1849, but was not 
 so successful there. Ho died Deo. 8, 1856, aged 66. 
 
 z z 2 
 
TEM 
 
 708 
 
 TET 
 
 it employed 220 years ; destroyed by the Goths, 
 
 A.D. 260. 
 The temple of Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot 
 
 where once a woman had fed with her milk her 
 
 aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and 
 
 excluded from all aliments. Val. Max. 
 Temple of Theseus, built 480 B.C., is at this day the 
 
 most perfect ancient edifice in the world. 
 Most of the heathen temples were destroyed 
 
 throughout the Roman empire by Constantine the 
 
 Great, 331. See separate articles. 
 The temple at Paris, formerly an asylum for debtors, 
 
 was made the site of a market in 1809, and rebuilt 
 
 in 1864. 
 
 part of the house of the Templars, built in 1185, and called the Outer Temple, because it 
 wa.s situated without Temple Bar.— St. Mary's, or the Temple Church, situated in the Inner 
 Temple, is an ancient Gothic stone building, erected by the Templars in 1240, and is remark- 
 able for its circular vestibule, and for the tombs of the crusaders, who were buried here. 
 The church was recased with stone by Mr. Smirke in 1828. — The TemjJle Ball was built in 
 1572, and Temple Bar in 1672. The new Middle Temple library was opened by the prince 
 of AVales, Oct. 31, 1861. 
 
 TEMPLES originated in the sepulchres built for the dead. EuseUus. The Egyptians 
 were the first who erected temples to the gods. Herodotus. The first erected in Greece is 
 ascribed to Deucalion. AxMllonius. 
 
 The temple of Jerusalem built by Solomon, 1012 b. c. ; 
 consecrated 1004 ; pillaged by Sheshak, 971 ; re- 
 paired by Joash, 856; profaned byAhaz, 740; re- 
 stored by Hezekiah, 726; pillaged and fired by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 58S, 587 ; rebuilt, 536 ; pillaged 
 by Antiochus, 170 ; rebuilt by Herod, 18 ; destroyed 
 by Titus, a.d. 70. 
 
 The temple of Apollo, at Delphi, first a cottage with 
 boughs, built of stone by Trophonius, about 
 1200 B.C. ; burnt by the Pisistratidse, 548; a new 
 temple raised by the family of the Alcmaionida;, 
 about 513. 
 
 Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times; 
 planned by Ctesiphon, 544 B.C. ; fired by Hero- 
 stratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 b.c; to rebuild 
 
 TENANT. See Rent. "Tenant-right" in Ireland has caused much discussion iu that 
 country. 
 
 TENASSERIM (N.E. India), ceded by Burmah to the British, Feb. 1826. 
 
 TENERIFFE (Canaries, KW. coa.st of Africa). The celebrated peak of Teneriffe is 
 15,396 feet above tlie level of the sea. It was ascended in 1856 by professor C. Piazzi 
 Smyth for astronomical observations. An earthquake in this island destroyed several towns 
 and many thousands of people in 1704. In an unsuccessful attack made at Santa Cruz, 
 -admiral (afterwards lord) Nelson lost his right arm, and 141 officers and men were killed, 
 July 24, 1797. For the jiarticulars of this heroic aflair, see Santa Cruz. 
 
 TENNESSEE, a southern state of North America, was settled in 1765, and admitted 
 into the Union, June i, 1796. An ordinance of secession fi'om the Union was passed, it is 
 asserted illegally, on May 6, 1861. On Feb. 23, 1862, the Federal general Nelson entered 
 Nashville, and in March, Andrew Johnson (now the president of the United States) was 
 made military governor over a large part of Tennessee. In Sept. 1863, Rosencrans expelled 
 the Confederate government. 
 
 TENTHS. See Tithes. ■ 
 
 TENURES, the mode in which land is held. Military tenures were 
 Lyttelton's book on Tenures is dated 148 1. 
 
 TERBIUM, a metal sometimes found with yttrium {which see). 
 
 TERMS OF L.vw and Vacations. They were instituted in England from the Norman 
 usage, the long vacation being suited to the time of the vintage in France, 14 Will. I. 1079. 
 Glanville da Leg. Anglic. They were gradually formed. Spebnan. The terms were fixed 
 by statute 11 Geo. IV. and i Will. IV. July 22, 1830 : Hilary Term to begin Jan. 11 and 
 end Jan. 31 ; Easier, April 15, to end May 8 ; Trinity, May 22, to end June 12 ; Michaelmas, 
 Nov. 2, to end Nov. 25. This act was amended i Will. IV. Nov. 15, 1830. 
 
 TERROR. See Reign of. 
 
 TEST ACT, directing all officers, civil "and military, under government, to receive the 
 sacrament according to the forms of the Church of England, and to take the oaths against 
 transubstantiation, &c. ; enacted March 1673. The Test and Corporation acts were repealed 
 by statute iu 1828. 
 
 TESTER. Testone. A silver coin struck in France by Louis XII. 15 13 ; and also in 
 Scotland in the time of Francis II. and of Marj', queen of Scots, 1559. It was so called from 
 the head of the king, stamped upon it. In England the tester was of l2cZ. value in the reign 
 of Henry VI II., and afterwards of (>d. (still called a tester). 
 
 TETUAN (Morocco), was entered by the Spaniards, Feb. 6, i860, after gaining a decisive 
 victory on Feb. 4. The general, O'Donnell, was made a grandee of the first class. 
 
TEtr 
 
 709 
 
 THA 
 
 TEUTONES (hence Dciotsche, German), a people of Germany, who with the Cimbri made 
 incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies, 113 and 105 B.C. They were at 
 last defeated by the consul Marius at Aix, and a great mimber made prisoners, 102 B.C. 
 See Cimbri, with whom authors commonly join the Teutones. The appellation came to be 
 applied to the German nation in general. 
 
 TEUTONIC ORDER, military knights established in the Holy Land about 119 1, through 
 the humanity of the Germans (Teutones) to the sick and wounded of the Christian army in 
 the Holy Land, under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan, when before Acre. The order was 
 confirmed by a bull of pope Ceelestine III. On their return to Germany, they were invited 
 to siibdue and Christianise the country now called Prussia and its neighbourhood, which they 
 gradually accomplished. A large part of their possessions was incorporated into Poland in 
 1466, and into Brandenburg about 1521. In 1525, the grand-master was made a prince of 
 the empire. The order was dissolved, and its remaining possessions seized, by Napoleon I. 
 in 1809. See Prussia, &c. 
 
 TEWKESBURY (Gloucestershire), where Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the 
 Lancastrians, May 4, 147 1. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI. and her son, were 
 taken prisoners. Tlie queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, where king Henry 
 expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being, as is generally supposed, murdered 
 by the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475 by the 
 French king, Louis XI. , for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses of 
 York and Lancaster. See Moses. 
 
 TEXAS (IST. America). Separated from Mexico in 1836. Its independence was acknow- 
 ledged in 1840. Its proposed annexation led to war between Mexico and the United States. 
 It was admitted into the Union by the latter in 1846 ; seceded from it in 1861 ; submitted 
 in 1865. 
 
 TEXEL (at the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, Holland). Its vicinity has been the scene of 
 memorable naval engagements. An engagement of three days' continuance, between the 
 English under Blake, Dean, and Monk, and the Dutch under Van Tromp and De Ruyter, 
 in which the latter were worsted, and admiral Van Tromp was killed, 1653. Again, in the 
 mouth of the Texel, when D'Etrees and Ruyter were signally defeated, Aug. 11, 1673. The 
 Dutch fleet vanquished by lord Duncan, on Oct. 11, 1797. See Cam2Jercloum. The Dutch 
 fleet of twelve ships of war, and thirteen Indiamen, surrendered to admiral Mitchell, who, 
 entering the Texel, possessed himself of them without firing a shot, Aug. 28, 1799. 
 
 THALLIUM, a metal, occurring in the sulphnric-acid manufacture, discovered by Mr. 
 "Wm. Crookes, by means of the spectrum analysis in March, 1861. 
 
 THAMES (London). The richest river in the world. It has been erroneously said that 
 its name is Isis tiU it arrives at Dorchester, when, being joined by the Thame or Tame, it 
 assumes the name of Thames. "What was the origin of this vulgar error cannot now be 
 traced : poetical fiction, however, had perpetuated the error, and invested it with a kind of 
 classical sanctity. It was called Thames or Tems before it came near the Thames. Camden. 
 
 The rivei- rose so high at Westminster that the 
 lawyers were brought out of the hall in boats 1235 
 
 It rose to a great height, 1736, 1747, 1762 . . 1791 
 
 The conservation of the Thames was given to 
 the mayors of London 1489 
 
 The Thames was made navigable to Oxford . 1624 
 
 It ebbed and flowed twice in three hours, 1658 ; 
 again, three times in four hours, March 22, 
 1682 ; again, twice in three hom-s Nov. 24, 1777 
 
 An act of parliament gave the conservation of 
 the Thames to the corporation of London : 
 twelve consei-vators were to be appointed — 
 three by the government 1857 
 
 Thames Tdnnel.— Projected by Mr. I. K. 
 Bi-unel, to form a communication between 
 Rotherhithe and Wapping. The biU received 
 the royal assent, June 24, 1824. The shaft 
 was begun in 1825 ; the first brick was laid 
 by Mr. Smith, March 2 ; the excavation com- 
 menced, April I ; and the first horizontal 
 excavation in Dec. 1825 
 
 At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft, the first 
 irruption took place . . . May 18, 1827 
 
 The second irruption, by which six workmen 
 perished Jan. 12, 1828 
 
 The tunnel was opened throughout for foot- 
 passengers, March 25, 1843. The length of 
 
 the tunnel is 1300 feet ; its width is 35 feet; 
 height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway, 
 including foot-path, about 14 feet ; thickness 
 of earth between the crown of the tunnel and 
 the bed of the river, about 15 feet. 
 
 In consequence of the great contamination of 
 the Thames by the influx of the sewage of 
 London, and the bad odours emanating from 
 it in the suramer of 1858, an act was passed 
 empowering the Metropolitan Board of Works 
 (ichich see) to undertake its purification by 
 constructing new drainage. The works are 
 still in progress 1866 
 
 Thames Embankment : sir Christopher Wren 
 recommended it in 1666. The corporation 
 embanked a mile in 1767. It was fm-ther 
 recommended by sir Fred. Trench, in 1824 ; by 
 the duke of Newcastle in 1844 ; and by John 
 Martin the painter in 1856. In i860, the 
 Metropolitan Board of Works recommended 
 that the north bank of the Thames should 
 be embanked ; whereby the bed of the river 
 would be improved; a low-level sewer 
 could be easily constructed beneath a broad 
 roadway ; docks to be constructed within 
 the embankment wall ; the expense to be 
 defrayed by the City duties on coal, and by 
 
THA 
 
 "10 
 
 THE 
 
 THAMES, continued. 
 
 means provided by government. The prin- 
 ciple of this recommendation was approved 
 by parliament, and a committee was ap- 
 pointed, which sat for the first time April 30, 1861 
 
 An act for " embanking the north side of the 
 Thames from Westminster bridore to Black- 
 friars bridge, and for making new streets in 
 and near thereto," passed Aug. 7 ; the work 
 begun in Nov. 1862 
 
 Mr. J. W. Bazalgette presented a report, with a 
 plan for embanking the south side of the 
 
 Thames, Nov. 6, 1862 ; act for carrying it out 
 passed July 28, 1863 
 
 The Thames Angling Preservation Society 
 (established about 1838) is revived in . . ,, 
 
 First stone of the embankment laid by Mr. 
 Thwaites near Whitehall-stairs . July 20, 1864 
 
 Mr. Leach, engineer of the conservators, re- 
 ported that "the river is dreadfully mis- 
 managed from its source to its mouth," 
 
 July 23, ,, 
 
 THANE, a Saxon title of nobility, abolished in England at the conquest, npon the intro- 
 duction of the feudal system, and in Scotland by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl 
 was adopted, 1057. 
 
 TH ANET, Kent, was the first permanent settlement of the Saxons, 428. The Danes held 
 a part of it, 853-865, and ravaged it 980. 
 
 THEATINES. An order of religious, the, first who assumed the title of regular clerks, 
 founded by Caraffa, bishop of Theate, in Naples (afterwards pope Paul IV.), 1524, to repress 
 heresy. They first established themselves in France, according to the historian Henault, in 
 Pari.s, 1644. The Theatines endeavoured, but vainly, to revive among the clergy the poverty 
 of the apostles. Ashe. 
 
 THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 B.C., was the first erected. 
 Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 B.C. Theatres were afterwards numerous, 
 and were erected in most cities of Italy. There was a theatre at Pompeii, where most of the 
 inhabitants of the town were assembled on the night of Aug. 24, a.d. 79, when an eruption 
 of Vesuvius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by Balthazar 
 Sienna, a.d. 1533. See Drama, Plays, &c. 
 
 THEATRES in England. The first royal licence for a theatre in England was iu 1574, 
 to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the 
 Globe, Bank.side. See Glohc. But, long before that time, miracle plays were represented in 
 the fields. The prices of admission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were — gallery, 2d. : lords' 
 room.s, 1.9. The first play-bill was dated April 8, 1663, and is.sued from Drnry-lane ; it runs 
 thus : "By his Majestic his company of Comedians at the New Theatre in Drury-lane, will 
 be acted a comedy called the Ilumovrous LievtcnanV After detailing the characters, it 
 concludes thus : ' ' The play will begin at three o'clock exactl}'. " Lincoln's-inn theatre was 
 opened in 1695. The licensing act (10 Geo. II. c. 23, 1735) was passed in consequence of 
 the performance of Fielding's Pasquin at the Haj^market, satirising Walpole's administration. 
 Marionettes or Puppets were produced at the Adelaide Gallery in 1852. See Covent Ga.rdcn, 
 Drury Lane, Opera House, Drama, &c. In Jan. i860, several of the theatres were first 
 opened on Sunday evenings for religious worship, and were filled. 
 
 DRURY LANE. 
 
 Killigrew's patent .... April 25, 1662 
 
 Opened April 8, 1663 
 
 Nell Gwynn performed 1666 
 
 Theatre burnt down 1671 
 
 Rebuilt by sir Christopher 'Wreh, and opened, 
 
 March 26, 1674 
 
 Gibber, Wilkes, Booth 1712 
 
 Garrick's debut here 1742 
 
 Garrick and Lacys tenure (revival of Shak- 
 
 speare) ^747 
 
 Interior rebuilt by Adams; opened Sept. 23, 1775 
 Garrick's farewell .... June 10, 1776 
 
 Sheridan's management ,> 
 
 Theatrical fund founded by Mr. Gan-ick . .1777 
 Mrs. Siddons' dcbv.t as a star . . Oct. 10, 1782 
 Mr. Kemble's Mbut as Hamlet . Sept. 30, 1783 
 The theatre rebuilt on a large scale, and re- 
 opened March 12, 1794 
 
 Charle-i Kemble's first appearance (as Malcolm 
 
 in Macbeth) April 21, „ 
 
 Dowton's first appeai-ance (as Shcva in the Jew), 
 
 Oct. II, 1796 
 Hatfield fired at George IIL . . May 11, 1800 
 The theatre burnt .... Feb. 24, 1809 
 
 Rebuilt by Wyatt, and re-opened with a pro- 
 logue by lord Byron . . . Oct. 10, 
 
 Edmund Ivean's appearance (as Shylock), 
 
 Jan. 26, 
 
 Mr. EUiston, lessee .... Oct. 3, 
 
 Madame Vestris's first appear.ance (as Lillo.), 
 
 Feb. ig, 
 
 Re.al water introduced in the Cataract of the 
 Ganges Oct. 27, 
 
 Mr. Price, lessee ..... July, 
 
 Miss Ellen Tree's appearance (as Violante), 
 
 Sept. 23, 
 
 Charles Kean's appearance (as H'orval) Oct. i, 
 
 Mrs. Nisbett's first aj^pearance (as the Widow 
 Cheerly) Oct. 9, 
 
 Mr. Alexander Lee's and Captain Polhill's 
 management 
 
 Mr. Alfred Bunn, lessee 
 
 Mr. Forrest's first appearance (as Spartacus), 
 
 Oct. 17, 
 
 Jfr. Hammond's management . . . . 
 
 German operas commenced at this theatre, 
 
 March 15, 
 
 Mr. Macready's management .... 
 
 Mr. Bunn, again lessee 
 
 1814 
 1819 
 
 1820 
 
 1823 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1830 
 1831 
 
 1835 
 1839 
 
THI 
 
 711 
 
 THE 
 
 THEATRES, continued, i 
 Miss Clai-a Webster burnt on the stage, Dec. 14 ; 
 
 and died Dec. 16, 1844 
 
 Mr. Anderson's management 1849 
 
 Mr. Macready's farewell . . . Feb. 26, 1851 
 Mr. Bunn, lessee and manager . . . . 1852 
 
 Mr. E. T. Smith 1853-9 
 
 English opera (Mr. Harrison and Miss Pj'ne) . 1858 
 
 Italian opera 1859 
 
 Opened by Mr. E. T. Smith . . Oct 13, i860 
 Suddenly closed .... April 20, 1867 
 Mr. G. V. Brooke appears (as Othello) Oct. 27, „ 
 
 [Drowned in the London. See Wrecks, Jan 11, 1866] 
 
 Mr. Falconer Dec. 1862-1865 
 
 Messrs. Falconer and Chatterton, managers, 
 
 Jan. 1866 
 
 COVENT GARDEN. 
 
 (The Duke's Theatre) Sir AVilliam Davenant's 
 
 patent April 25, 1662 
 
 The theatre opened by Bich . . . Dec. 7, 1732 
 Beef-steak Society, founded by Rich and 
 
 Lambert 1735 
 
 Theatrical fund instituted 1765 
 
 Mr. Harris's tenure 1767 
 
 Lewis's first appearance in the character of 
 
 Belcour Sept. 15, 1773 
 
 Miss Reay killed by Mr. Hackman, coming 
 
 from the house .... April 7, 1779 
 Jack Johnstone's first appeai-ance in Irish 
 
 characters Oct. 3, 1783 
 
 Munden's appearance .... Dec. 2, 1790 
 Pawcett's first api^earance (as Caleb) SexJt. 21, 1791 
 G. F. Cooke's appearance (as Richard III.), 
 
 Oct. 31, iSoo 
 Braham's appearance .... Dec. 9, 1801 
 Mr. Kemble's naanagement .... 1802 
 Appearance of Master Betty, the Infant Roscius, 
 
 Dec. I, 1803 
 Lewis's last appearance (as the Cop'per Captain), 
 
 May 28, 1S08 
 Theatre bm-nt down . . . Sept. 20 ,, 
 Rebuilt by R. Smirke, R.A., and re-opened 
 
 with Macbeth Sept. 18, 1S09 
 
 The O. P. Riot {which see) . Sept. i8to Dec. 10, ,, 
 Horses first introduced ; in Bluebeard . Feb. 18, 1811 
 The farewell benefit of Mrs. Siddons (immense 
 
 house) June 29, 1B12 
 
 [Mrs. Siddons, however, performed once after- 
 wards, in June, 1819, for Mr. and Mrs. C. 
 Kemble's benefit.] 
 Aliss Stephens's fu'st appearance (as Mandane), 
 
 Sept 7, 1813 
 Miss Foote's appearance here (as Amanihis), 
 
 May 26, 1814 
 Miss O'Neill's appearance here (as Juliet), Oct. 6, ,, 
 Miss Kelly fired at by George Barnet, in the 
 
 house . Feb. 7, 1816 
 
 Mr. Macready's first appearance (as Orestes), ; 
 
 Sept. 16, ,, 
 Mr. J. P. Kemble's farewell (as Coriolanus), 
 
 June 23, 1817 
 Henry Harris's management. . ' . . 1818 
 Charles Kemble's management .... 1823 
 iMiss Fanny Kemble's appearance (as Juliet), 
 
 Oct s, 1829 
 Mr. Fawcett's farewell . .- . May 21, 1830 
 Charles Young's farewell . . May 30, 1832 
 Mr. Maci-eady's management .... 1837 
 jtladame Vestris's management . . . . 1839 
 Miss Adelaide Kemble's appearance (as Norma), 
 
 Nov. 2, 1 841 
 Charles Kemble again . . Sept. 10, 1842 
 
 Mr. Laurent's management . . Dec. 26, 1844 
 Opened for Italian opera . . . April 6, 1847 
 Destroj'ed by fire (during .a hal masque, eon- 
 ducted by Anderson the Wizard) . March 5, 1856 
 New theatre (by Barry), opened by Mr. P. Gye 
 
 (Zes Huguenots) May 15, 1858 
 
 English opera (Miss Pjnie and Mr. Harrison), 
 
 Oct. 1859 
 
 All principal actors perform parts of plays for 
 the benefit of the Dramatic College, March 29, 
 Balfe's Blanca brought out . . . Dec. 6, 
 Italian opera (Mr. Gye) . . . April, 
 
 Last appearance of Grisi . . . Aug. 3, 
 English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . Oct. 21, 
 Italian opera (Mr. Gye) . . . Axoril, 
 
 Eng-lish opera (Pyne ai.d Harrison) . Aug. 25, 
 Italian opera (Mr. Gye) . . . April 7, 
 
 Gounod's Faust July, 
 
 English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . Oct. 12, 
 ItaUan opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 
 English opera, &c. (Opera Company, Limited), 
 
 Oct. 17, 
 
 Italian opera (Mr. Gye) . . . April 28, 
 
 Becomes the property of a company, Mr. Gye 
 
 manager Aug. 
 
 1S60 
 1861 
 
 18O3 
 
 1865 
 
 ITALIAN OPERA-HOUSE, OR QUEEN'S 
 THEATRE. 
 
 Opera-house opened. Pennant. (See Op:ra- 
 
 house) 1705 
 
 The theatre was enlarged 1720 
 
 Burnt down ...... June 17, 1789 
 
 Rebuilt, and re-opened . . . Sept. 22, 1791 
 Exterior improved by Mr. Nash . . . 1818 
 
 The rilievo by Mr. Bubb 1821 
 
 Madame Rachel's appearance . . May 10, 1S41 
 
 Mr. Lumley s management 1842 
 
 Jenny Liud's first appearance . . May 4, 1847 
 Association formed for conducting financial 
 
 affairs of the tiouse 1852 
 
 Jullien's concerts Oct. 1857 
 
 Festive performances on the marriage of tlie 
 
 princess royal Jan. 1859 
 
 Maofarren's .So&iji .HoofZ brought out . Oct. 11, 1S60 
 
 [Not opened in 1S61.] 
 Italian opera (Mr. Mapleson) . April 26, 1862 — 
 
 April, 1865 
 
 HATMARKET. 
 
 Built 1702 
 
 Opened by French comedians . Dec. 29, 1720 
 Fielding's Mogul company .... 1734-S 
 A French company prohibited from acting by 
 
 the audience 1738 
 
 Mr. Foote's patent 1747 
 
 The Bottle-conjuror's duperj' (see Bottle Con- 
 juror) Jan. 16, 1748 
 
 The theatre rebuilt 1767 
 
 Mr. Colman's tenure . . . Jan. i, 1777 
 
 Miss FaiTen's appearance here (afterwards 
 
 countess of Derby) ,, 
 
 Royal visit — great crowd — 16 persons killed and 
 
 many wounded .... Feb. 3, 1794 
 Mr. Elliston's debut here . . Jime 24, 1796 
 
 First appearance of Mr. Mathews (as Lingo), 
 
 May 16, 1803 
 
 Mr. Morris's management 1S05 
 
 Appearance of Mr. Listen (as Sheepface), June 8, ,, 
 The tailors' riot .... Aug. 15, ,, 
 Appearance of Mr. Toung(as Hamlet), Jime 22, 1807 
 Of Miss F. Kelly (as Floretta) . . June 12, 1810 
 Theatre rebuilt by Nash ; opened . July 4, 1821 
 Miss Paton's (Mrs. Wood) appearance (as 
 
 Susannah) Aug. 3, 1822 
 
 Mr. Webster's management . . June 12, 1837 
 Mr. Charles Kean's appearance here . . . 1839 
 Mr. Webster's management (16 years) termi- 
 nated with his farewell appeai-ance, March 14, 1853 
 First appeai-ance of Our American Cousin (said 
 to be by Tom Taylor, and to have been acted 
 800 times in America), Mr. Sothern, Lord 
 
 Dundreary Nov. 11, 1861 
 
 Mr. Buckstone's management . . . 1853-66- 
 
THE 
 
 (12 
 
 THE 
 
 THEATRES, continued. 
 
 EXGLISH OPERA-HOUSE, or LYCEUM. 
 
 Built by Dr. Arnold 1794-S 
 
 Winsor expei-iments with gas-lighting . . 1803-4 
 
 Opened as the Lyceum in 1809 
 
 Appearance of Mr. Wrench (»,» Ihlcour) . Oct. 7, ,, 
 Re-opened with an address spoken by Miss 
 
 Kelly June i.s, 1816 
 
 House destroyed by fire . . . Feb. 16, 1830 
 Re-built, and re-opened . . . July 14, 1834 
 Ecfuestrian performances . . Jan. 16, 1844 
 ■ Mrs. Keeley's management . . April 8, ,, 
 Madame Vestris and Mr. C. Mathews' manage- 
 ment Oct 1847-56 
 
 Retirement of Jlr. C. Mathews . March, 1855 
 
 Appearance of Madame Ristorl . . June, 1856 
 Taken by Mr. Gye for Italian opera for forty 
 
 nights April 14, 1857 
 
 Opened for English opera by Miss Louisa Pyne 
 
 and Mr. Harrison .... Sept. 21, „ 
 Balfe's opera, iJosc 0/ Cttsff^e, produced ." Oct. ,, 
 Mr. G. Webster and Mr. Falconer, July, 1858 ; 
 
 closed April, 1859 
 
 Opened by Madame Celeste, Nov. 1859, and 
 
 Oct. i860 
 The " Savage Club" perform before the queen 
 
 and prince March 7, ,, 
 
 Italian opera June 8, 1861 
 
 Mr. Falconer, manager (English comedi'), 
 
 Aug. 19, ,, 
 i'ee^j 0' JPay brought out . . . Nov. 9, ,, 
 Mr. Fechter . . . Jan. 10, 1863-June, 1865 
 
 THE ADELPHI THEATRE. 
 
 Formerly called the Sans Pareil, opened under 
 
 the management of Mr. and Miss Scott, 
 
 Nov. 27, 1806 
 Under Rodwell and Jones, who gave it the 
 
 present n.ame 1820-1 
 
 Terry and Yates 1825 
 
 Messrs. Mathews and Yates' management join 
 
 {Mathews at Home) 182S 
 
 New front 1840 
 
 Madame Celeste's management . . Sept. 30, 1844 
 Rebuilt and opened, with improved arr.ange- 
 
 ments Dec. 27, 1858 
 
 Colleen Baicn represented . . Sept. 10, i86o 
 
 [Immense run ; above 360 nights.] 
 Miss Butcman appears as Leak, Oct i, 1863, to 
 
 June II, 1S64 
 Mr. B. Webster, present lessee . . . 1844-66 
 
 PRINCE'S, LATK ST. JAMES'S. 
 
 This theatre was built by, and opened under 
 
 the management of, Jlr. Braham . Dec. 14, 1835 
 German operas performed here under the 
 
 management of Mr. Bunu 1840 
 
 Mr. Mitchell's tenure ; perfoi-mance of French 
 
 plays Jan. 22, 1844 
 
 German plays 1852 
 
 Mrs. Seymour's tenure . . . Oct. 22, 1854-5 
 
 French plays 1857 
 
 Neapolitan Buffo-oijera .... Nov. ,, 
 
 Italian plays 1858 
 
 French opera Jan. 1859 
 
 French plays ...... Ma}', ,, 
 
 Enghsh comedy, under Mr. F. Chatterton, 
 
 manager Oct. ,, 
 
 French plays Jlay 28, i860 
 
 English plays Aug. 12, „ 
 
 Mr. Wigan, manager 1860-2 
 
 French plays May 20, 1861 
 
 Mr. Bartley's farewell here . . Dec. 18. 1852 
 Mr. Charles Kean's management, 1S50 ; closed, 
 
 Aug. 29, 1859 
 Mr. A. Han-is's management; opened, Sept. 29, ,, 
 Zouave Crimean company . . . July 23, i860 
 Mr. Fechter appears (as i/am?eO • March 20, i86i 
 
 Mr. Harris, lessee 1860-1 
 
 Mr. Lindus, manager . . . Oct. 20, 1862 
 Mr. G. Viiiing, lessee and manager . May, 1863-66 
 
 OLYMPIC. 
 
 Erected by the late Jlr. Astley, and opened 
 
 with horsemanship .... Sept. 18, 1S06 
 Here the celebrated Elliston (1813), and after- 
 wards Madame Vestris, had managements ; 
 
 the latter imtil 1839 
 
 Mr. George Wild's tenure 1840 
 
 Miss Davenport's tenure . . , Nov. ii, 1844 
 
 Mr. Watts's management 1848 
 
 The theatre destroyed by fire . . March 29, 1849 
 Rebuilt and opened— Mr. Watts resumes his 
 
 management .... Dec. 26, ,, 
 Mr. William Farren's management . . . 1850 
 Lessee and manager, Mr. A. Wigan , Oct. 17, 1853-7 
 Messrs. Robson and Embden's management, 
 
 Aug. 1857-62 
 Mr. Horace Wigan, manager. Nov. 1864 — June, 1865 
 
 STRAND THEATRE. 
 
 1831 
 
 First opened — Mr. Rayner and Mrs. Waylett 
 
 Mr. William F arren's management 
 
 Lessee, Mr. F. AUcroft ; manager, Mr. T. Payne 1855 
 
 Lessee, Miss Swanborough .... 1858-61 
 
 Mr. Swanborough, sen Dec. 1862 
 
 Mrs. Swanborough . . June, 1865 — Jan. 1866 
 
 ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATRE. 
 
 Built by Philip A.stley, and opened . . . 1773 
 Destroyed by fire, with numerous adjacent 
 
 houses Sept. 17, 1794 
 
 Rebuilt 1795 
 
 Burnt again, with forty houses . . Sept. i, 1803 
 
 Ducrow's management 1825 
 
 Again destroyed by fire . . . June 8, 1841 
 Rebuilt and reopened by Mr. Batty . April 17, 1843 
 Lessee and manager, Mr. W. Cooke . 1855 60 
 
 Mr. W. Cooke's farewell benefit . J.an. 30, i860 
 A man killed by a lion .... Jan 7, 1861 
 Opened by Mr. Batty . . . Dec. 6, ,, 
 Opened by Mr. Boucicault, as the Theatee 
 
 Royal, 'West.minster . . . Dec. 26, 1862 
 Horsemanship and opera (under Mr. B. T. 
 
 Smith) exhibiting in . . . . June, 1865 
 
 CIRCUS, NOW SURREY THEATRE. 
 
 [Originally devoted to equestrian exercises, 
 
 under Mr. Hughes] .... Nov. 4, 17S2 
 Opened for performances . . Nov. 4, 1783 
 
 Destroyed by fire .... Aug. 12, 1805 
 Mr. Elliston's m.anagement .... 1809 
 
 Mr. Elliston again .... Jime 4, 1827 
 
 Mr. Davidge's tenure 1833 
 
 Mr. Shepherd and Mr. Anderson, managers, 
 
 Sept. 12. 1863-5 
 Destroyed by fire, Jan. 31 ; rebuilt and opened, 
 
 Dec. 26, 1865 
 
 COBURG, NOW VICTORIA. 
 
 PRT\-rTrs4«-« TTTvvTiJw rvVT?ncn «twfi,'t ^The erection was commenced under the 
 fRINCESb S TIILAIRE, OXFORD STREET. patronage of the late princess Charlotte and 
 
 First opened 1840 the prince Leopold of Saxc-Coburg . . 1816 
 
 .Sold for 16,400? Sept. 9, 1841I The house was opened i8i3 
 
 I 
 
THE 
 
 713 
 
 THE 
 
 THEATRES, continued. 
 
 Messrs. Egerton and Abbott had the manage- 
 ment in 1S3 
 
 Mr. Osbaldiston's tennre 184 
 
 Alarm of tire, sixteen persons killed . Dec. 27, 185 
 
 SADLER'S WELLS. 
 
 Opened as an orchestra 1683 
 
 Present house opened 1765 
 
 Eighteen persons trampled to death on a false 
 
 alarm of fire . . . . . Oct. 15, 1807 
 Management of Mrs. "Warner and Mr. Phelps, 
 
 May 20, 1S44-S9 
 
 Management of Mr. Joseph . March 25, 1861 
 
 Re-opened by Mr. Phelps . . Sept. 7, ,, 
 
 Lessee, Miss C. Lucette . . . Sept. 27, 1862 
 
 Miss Mariott, manager, Septs, 1863— May 20, 1864 
 
 Miss C. Lucette, for opera . . May 22, 1865 
 
 Miss Mariott, legitimate drama . . Oct. ,, 
 
 OTHER THEATRES. 
 
 Queen's Theati-e, Tottenham-court-road . . 1828 
 
 Garrick Theatre, Goodman's-fields . . . 1850 
 
 Bowery Theatre, Lambeth * * * 
 
 City Theatre, Norton-Folgate . . . . 1837 
 
 Miss Kelly's Theatre 1840 
 
 Marylebone, opened 1842 
 
 Pavilion Theatre burnt . . . Feb. 23, 1856 
 
 New Royalty (Soho) . . . Aug. 31, 1863 
 
 DUBLIN THEATRES. 
 
 Werburg-street, commenced 
 Orange-street, now Smock-alley 
 Aungier-street ( Victor) 
 Ditto, management of Mr. Hitchcock 
 Crow-street Music-hall 
 Rainsford-stroet Theatre 
 Smock-alley Theatre, rebuilt 
 Pishamble-street Music-hall . 
 Capel-street Theatre . 
 Crow-street, Theatre Royal . 
 Ditto, Mr. Daly's patent 
 Ditto, Mr. Fred. Edw. Jones's patent 
 Peter-street, Theatre Royal 
 Hawkin's-street, Theatre Royal . 
 Ditto, Mr. Abbott, lessee . 
 Ditto, Mr. Biinn, lessee . 
 Ditto, Mr. Calcraft, lessee . 
 Queen's Theatre, Brunswick-street 
 
 • 163s 
 . 1662 
 . 1728 
 
 • 1733 
 ■ 1731 
 
 • 1732 
 
 • 1735 
 
 • 1 741 
 
 • 174s 
 
 • 1758 
 . 1786 
 
 • 179S 
 
 • 1789 
 . 1821 
 . 1824 
 . 1827 
 . 1830 
 
 EDINBURGH THEATRES. 
 
 Theatre of Music 1672 
 
 Allan Ramsay's 1736 
 
 Theatre, Shakspeare-squai'e .... 1769 
 
 The Caledonian Theatre 1822 
 
 Adelphi Theatre burnt down . . May 24, 1853 
 Royal Theatre burnt down (several lives lost), 
 
 Jan. 13, 1865 
 
 FIRST OR LAST APPEARANCES. 
 
 Quin's first appearance 1716 
 
 Macklin at Lincoln's-inn-flelds . . . . 1725 
 GaiTick's at Goodman's-fields, as iJjcAnrt? ///., 
 
 ,,. _, . Oct. 19, 1741 
 
 Miss Farren (afterwards countess of Derby) 
 
 first appears at Liverpool .... 1773 
 
 Garrick's last appearance . . June 10' 1776 
 Mrs. Robinson, Perdiia : her last appearance,' 
 
 Dec. 24, 1779 
 
 Braham's first appearance at the Royalty, 
 ■»r J rwx April 20, : 
 
 Madame Storace ; her first appearance in 
 
 London Nov. 24, 
 
 Inoledon's first appearance .... 
 
 Miss Mellon, her first appearance as Zi/dia 
 
 Latiffuish Jan. 31, 
 
 Listen's first appearance in London . Juno i, 
 Romeo Coates appears as Lothario April 10, 
 
 Mrs. Jordan's last appearance, aaZadi/ Teazle, 
 
 June I, 
 Mr. Macready's first appearance at Bath, as 
 
 Homeo Dec. 29, 
 
 Booth's first appearance . . Feb. 12, 
 
 W. Farren's first appearance .... 
 Munden's last appearance . . May 31, 
 Fanny Kemble's first appearance . Oct. 5,' 
 
 Edmund Kean's farewell 
 
 Liston's last appearance . . , May 31 
 Adelaide Kemble's first appearance Nov. 2' 
 
 Jenny Lind s first appearance . . May 4', 
 Mrs. Glover's farewell . . . .July 12' 
 Mr. Bartley's farewell . . . Dec. is' 
 
 Mr. W. Farren's farewell ....,' 
 Clara Novello's farewell . . . Nov. 21' 
 Miss Batcman appears as Leah , . Oct. i' 
 Her farewell at'H. M. 's theatre . Dec. 22' 
 
 MEMORANDA. 
 
 David Garrick died 
 
 Charles Macklin died . . . . ' . ". 
 
 Mr. Palmer died on the stage at Liverpool^ 
 
 . Aug. 2, 
 
 Bannister retired from the stage 
 
 John P. Kemble died 
 
 Talma died in Paris \ 
 
 Weber came to London . . . Feb. 
 
 The Brunswick theatre fell, owing to the weight 
 of a newly-erected roof, and numbers of per- 
 sons were wounded and some killed, Feb. 20, 
 
 Sarah Siddons died 
 
 Edmimd Kean died ' \ 
 
 Madame Malibran died at Manchester, Sept. 23', 
 
 Paganini died ]\£ay 29,' 
 
 Power lost in the President steamer, about 
 
 _, March 13, 
 
 Elton lost in the Pegasus . . " ' 
 
 Theatres' Registry Act passed 
 
 Madlle. Mars died at Paris . 
 
 M.'idame Catalini died at Paris 
 
 Alexander Lee died 
 
 Mrs. Warner died . 
 
 C. Kemble died .... 
 
 John Braham died . 
 
 Madame Vestris died . 
 
 Madlle. Rachel died 
 
 Mrs. Nisbett (lady Boothby) died 
 
 Louis Lablache (buftb singer) died 
 
 John Pritt Haiiey died . 
 
 Flexmore, celebrated clown, died 
 
 Mrs. Bates died 
 
 Alfred Bunn died 
 
 WiUiam Fan-en died 
 
 Mr. Vandenhofl' died . 
 
 M. Tree (Mrs. Bradshaw) died . . ^ ^„ 
 
 Subscription testimonial (value 2000^.) pre 
 sented to C. J. Kean : Mr. Gladstone in the 
 chair March 22, 
 
 Sheridan Knowles died . . . Nov. 30, 
 
 Mrs. Wood (once Miss Baton) died . July 21' 
 
 Mr. F. Robsondied. . . . Aug. n 
 
 Madame Pasta died, aged 66 . . April i,' 
 
 July 19, 
 
 Aug. 22, 
 
 March 23, 
 
 June 13, 
 
 . Oct. 9, 
 
 Sept. 5, 
 
 . Nov. s, 
 
 Feb. 17, 
 
 . Aug. 8, 
 
 Jan. 4, 
 
 . Jan. 16, 
 
 . Jan. 23, 
 
 Aug. 22, 
 
 . Aug. 20, 
 
 Oct. 30, 
 
 . Deo. 20, 
 
 Sept. 25, 
 
 . Oct. 4, 
 
 Feb. 
 
 17S9 
 1790 
 
 179s 
 180s 
 1811 
 
 1814 
 
 i»i7 
 1818 
 1824 
 
 1850 
 1852 
 185s 
 
 1779 
 1797 
 
 1815 
 1823 
 1826 
 
 1833 
 1836 
 1840 
 
 1S41 
 184^ 
 
 1856 
 
 1 861 
 1S62 
 
 iS6s 
 
 THEATRICAL FUNDS. The Theatrical fund of Coveut Garden Avas established in 
 1 755 ; that of Drury Lane m 1 776. They grant pensions to their members and their families 
 I he General Theatrical fnnd was established in 1839. 
 
THE 714 THE 
 
 THEBES or LtrxoR, in Eg375t, called also Hecatompylos on account of its hundred gates, 
 and Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. In the time of its splendour, it extended above 
 thirty-three miles, and upon any emergency could send into the field, by each of its hundred 
 gates, 20,000 lighting men and 200 chai'iots. Thebes was ruined by Cambyses, king of 
 Persia, 521 B.C., and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvenal. Plutarch. Thebes 
 (the capital of the country successively called Aonia, Messapia, Ogygia, Hyantis, and 
 Bceotia) was called Cadmeis, from Cadmus, its founder, 1493 B.C. It became a republic 
 about 1 1 20 B.C., and flourished under Epaminondas 378 — 362 B.C. It was taken by the 
 Romans, 198 A. D. ^^.a Bxotia &uA Greece. 
 
 THEFT. This offence was punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By death at 
 Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominally punished theft 
 with death, if above i2cl. value ; but the criminal could redeem his life b}'^ a ransom. In 
 the 9th of Henry I. tliis power of redemption was taken away, 1108. The punishment of 
 theft was very severe in England, till mitigated by Peel's acts, 9 & 10 Geo. IV. 1829. The 
 laws respecting theft were consolidated in 1862. 
 
 THEISTS {Theos, God). A kind of deists about 1660. Deem Martin. 
 
 THELLUSSON'S WILL. One of the most singular testamentary documents ever 
 executed. Mr. Peter Isaac Thellusson, an affluent London merchant, left ioo,oooZ. to his 
 widow and children ; and the remainder, amounting to more than 6oo,ooo7., he left to 
 trustees, to accumulate during the lives of his three sons, and the lives of their sons ; then 
 the estates, directed to be purchased with the produce of the accumulating fund, were to be 
 convej'ed to the eldest lineal male descendant of his three sons, with the benefit of survivor- 
 ship. Sliould no heir then exist, the whole was to be applied, by the agency of the sinking- 
 fund, to the discharge of the national debt. ]\Ir. Thellusson died on July 21, 1797. His 
 will incurred much public censure,* and was contested by the heirs-at-law, but finally 
 established by a decision of the house of lords, June 25, 1805. The last surviving grandson 
 died in Feb. 1856. A dispute then arose Avhether the eldest male descendants or the 
 descendants of the eldest son should inherit the property. Tlie question was decided on 
 appeal to the house of lords (June 9, 1859), in favour of the latter, lord Eendlesham, and 
 Charles S. Thellusson, confirming the decision of the Master of the RolLs' in 1858. In 
 consequence of legal expenses the property is said not to exceed gi'eatly its value in the 
 testator's lifetime. 
 
 THEOLOGY (from the Greek Tlicos, God), the science which treats of the nature and 
 attributes of God, of his relations to man, and of the manner in which they may be 
 discovered. It is generally divided into two heads. I. Inspired (including the Holj'- 
 Scriptures, their interpi'etation, &c.). 2. Natural; which lord Bacon calls the first part 
 of Philosophy. — Butler's Analogy of Picligion (1736) and Paley's Natural Theology (1802) 
 are eminent books on the latter subject. — The " Summa Totius Theologioe " by Thomas 
 Aquinas (born about. 1224), a standard Roman Catholic work, was printed with commen- 
 taries, &c., in 1596. 
 
 THEOPHILANTHROPISTS (lovers of God and man), a sect formed in France in 1796; 
 was headed by one of the five directors, Lepaux, in 1797, and broke up in 1802. 
 
 THERMIDOR REVOLUTION. On the 9th Thermidor of the 2nd year (July 27, 
 1794), the Convention deposed Robespierre, and on the next day he and twenty-two of his 
 partisans were executed. 
 
 THERMO-ELECTRICITY. See under Electricity and Heat. 
 
 THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several scientific 
 persons, all about the same time. To Galileo, before 1597. Libri. Invented by Drebbel of 
 Alcmaer, 1609. Boerhaave. Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. Fulgenlio. Invented by 
 Sanctorio in 16 10. Borclli. Fahi'enheit's thermometer was invented about 1726 ; Reaumiir's 
 and Celsius's (the latter now termed Centigrade) soon after. Fahrenheit's scale is usually 
 employed in England and Reaumur's and the Centigrade on the continent. Freezing point : 
 Fall. 32° ; R. 0° ; C. 0°. Boiling point : Fah. 212°, B. 80, C. 100. The mode of con- 
 struction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some 3'ears subsequently. 
 Halley proposed it in 1697. Mr. L. M. Casella issued a minimum thermometer in Sept. 
 1 86 1. It registers degrees of cold by means of mercury ; hitherto deemed impossible. 
 
 * In 1800 an act of parliament was passed, preventing; toptitors devising their property for purposes of 
 accumulation for longer tban-2o years after their death. 
 
THF. 715 THO 
 
 THERMOPYLAE, in Doris K Greece. Leonidcas, at the liead of 300 Spartans and 700 
 Thespians, at the defile of Thermopylae, withstood the whole force of the Persians during 
 three days, Aug. 7, 8, 9, 480 B.C., when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the 
 enemy by a secret path up the mountains, brought them to the rear of the Greeks, who, thus 
 placed between two assailants, perished gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. One 
 Greek only returned home, and he was received with reproaches for having fled. Here 
 Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, was defeated by the Romans, 191 B.C. 
 
 THESSALONICA (now Salonica), a city in Macedonia. Here Paul preached, 53 ; and to 
 the church here he addressed two epistles in 54. In consequence of seditions, a frightful 
 massacre of the inhabitants took place in 390, by order of the emperor Theodosius. Thes- 
 salonica partook of the changes of the Eastern empire. It was sold to the Venetians by the 
 emperor Androuicus in 1425 ; taken by the Turks in 1430 ; burnt, July 11, 1856. 
 
 THESSALY (K Greece), the seat of many of the adventures described by the poets. 
 The first king of whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from 
 whom his subjects were called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to all Greeks. From 
 Thessaly came the Achceans, the Jjltolians, the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The tAvo most 
 remarkable events in the early history of this country are the deluge of Deucalion, 1 548 B. c. , 
 and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263 B.C. See them severally. Thessaly was conquered 
 by the great Philip, 352 B.C., and partook of the fortunes of Macedon. It is now part of the 
 kingdom of Greece. 
 
 THETFORD (Norfolk), the Roman Sitomagus, was a bishopric from 1070 to 109 1, when 
 the see was removed to Norwich. 
 
 THIMBLES are said to have been found at Herculaneum.— The art of making them was 
 brought to England by John Lofting, a mechanic, from Holland, who set up a workshop at 
 Islington, near London, and practised the manufacture in various metals Avith profit and 
 success, about 1695. Anderson. 
 
 THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES. See Articles. 
 
 THIRTY TYRANTS, a term applied to the governors of Athens, in 404 B.C., who were 
 expelled by Thrasybulus ; and also to the aspirants to the imperial throne of Rome during 
 the reigns of Gallienus and Aurelian, a.d. 259 — 274. 
 
 THIRTY YEARS' WAR, in Germany, between the Catholics and Protestants. It 
 began with the latter in Bohemia in 16 18, and ended with the peace of Westphalia in 1648. 
 It is renowned for the victories of Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden. 
 
 THISTLE,* Oeder of the, Scotland, founded by James V. 1540. It consisted 
 originally of himself, as sovereign, and twelve knights, in imitation of Christ and his twelve 
 apostles. In 1542, James died, and the order was discontinued, about the time of the 
 Reformation. The order Avas renewed by James VII. of Scotland and II. of England, by 
 making eight knights, May 29, 1687 ; increased to twelve by queen Anne in 1703 ; to 
 sixteen by George IV. in 1827. 
 
 THE ORIGINAL KNIGHTS OF 1687. 
 
 James, earl of Perth. ; attainted. 
 Kenneth, earl of Seaforth : attainted. 
 George, earl of Dumbarton. 
 John, earl of Melford ; attainted. 
 
 George, duke of Gordon. 
 .John, marquess of Athol. 
 James, earl of Arran, afterwards duke of Hamilton ; 
 
 killed in a duel, 1712. 
 Alexander, earl of Moray. 
 
 THISTLEWOOD'S CONSPIRACY. See Cato-street Conspiracy. 
 
 THOMAS'S HOSPITAL, St. (Southwark), was founded as an almshouse by Richard, 
 prior of Bermoudsoy, in 1213, and surrendered to Henry VIII. in 1538. In 155 1 the mayor 
 and citizens of London, having purchased of Edward VI. the manor of Southwark, including 
 this hospital, repaired and enlarged it, and admitted into it 260 poor, sick, and helpless 
 objects ; upon which the king, in 1553, incorporated it, together Avith Bethlehem, St. 
 Bartholomew's, &c. It was built in 1693. In 1862, the site Avas sold to the raihvay com- 
 pany, and the patients were removed to the Suri-ey music hall. A noAV hospital is to be 
 erected near the Surrey side of Westminster bridge. 
 
 " Some Scottish historians make the origin of this order very ancient. The abbot Justinian says it 
 was 'instituted by Achaius I. of Scotland, 809, when that monarch made an alliance with Charlemagne, 
 and then took for his device the thistle. It is stated that king Hungus, the Piot, had a dream, in which 
 St. Andrew made a midnight visit, and promised him a sure victory over his foes, the Northumbrians ; and 
 that the next day St. Andrew's Cross appeared in the air, and the Northumbrians were defeated. On this 
 storv, it is said, Achaius framed the order more than 700 years before J.ame'? V. revived it. 
 
THO 716 THU 
 
 THOMITES (or Tomites), a body of enthusiasts who assembled at Broughton, near 
 Canterbury. A Cornish publican named Thom, or Tom (religiously insane), assumed the 
 name of sir W. Courtenay, knight of Malta and king of Jerusalem, and incited the rabble 
 against the Poor Law Act. On May 31, 1838, a farmer of the neighboxu-hood, whose servant 
 had joined the crowd which attended Thom, sent a constable to fetch him back ; but on his 
 arrival on the ground he was shot dead by Thom. The military were then called out, and 
 lient. Bennett proceeded to take the murderer into custody ; but Thom advanced, and, 
 firing a pistol, killed the lieutenant on the spot. One of the soldiers fired at Thom, and 
 laid him dead by the side of lieut. Bennett. The people then attacked the military, who 
 were compelled to fire ; and several persons were killed before the mob dispersed. Many 
 considered Thom a saint. 
 
 THORACIC DUCT, discovered first in a horse by Eustachius, about 1563 ; in the human 
 body, by 01. Eudbec, a Swedish anatomist. Thomas Bartholine, of Copenhagen, and 
 Dr. Jolitfe, of England, also discovered it about 1654. See Lacteals. 
 
 THORINUM, a very rare metal (a heavy gray powder), discovered by Berzelius in 1828. 
 
 THOEiSr (on the Vistula, Poland) was founded by the Teutonic Knights in 123 1. Many 
 Protestants were slain here (after a religious riot) at the instigation of the Jesuits in 1724. 
 
 THEACE (now Moumdia, in Turkey) derived its name from Thrax, the son of Mars. 
 As^nn. Thraces, the people, were descendants of Tiras, son of Japhet, and hence their 
 name. They were a warlike people, and therefore Mars was said to have been born and to 
 have his residence among them. EuriiJides. Thrace was conquered by Philip and 
 Alexander, and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 335 B.C. ; and it so remained till 
 the conquest of Macedonia by the Eomans, 168 B.C. On the ruins of B)'zantium, the 
 capital of Thrace, Constantinople was built. The Turks under Mahomet II. took the 
 country A. D. 1453. Priestley. 
 
 THRASHING-MACHINES. The flail was the only instrument formerly in use for 
 thrashing corn. The Eomans used a machine called the tribulum, a sledge loaded with 
 stones or iron, drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first machine attempted in 
 modern times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 1732 ; Andrew 
 Meikle invented a machine in 1776. Many improvements have been since made. 
 
 THEASYMENE (N. Italy). A most bloody engagement took place here between the 
 Carthaginians under Hannibal and the Eomans under Flaminius, 217 B.C. No less than 
 15,000 Eomans were left dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners ; or, accord- 
 ing to Livy, 6000; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of Hannibal was about 1500 men. 
 About 10,000 Eomans made their escape, all covered with wounds. Livy,- Polybius, On 
 the same day an earthquake occurred which desolated several cities in Italy. 
 
 THEEATENING LETTEES. Sending letters, whether anonymously written, or with 
 a fictitious name, demanding money, or threatening to kiU a person or fire his house, was 
 made ])unishable as a felony without benefit of clergy, in 1723, 1730. Persons extorting 
 money by threatening to accuse others of such offences as ai'e subjected to death, or other 
 infamous punishments, were to be adjudged imprisonment, whipping, or transportation, by 
 30 Geo. II. 1756 ; and other acts, the latest 10 & II Vict. c. 66, 1847. 
 
 THUMB-SCEEW, an inhuman instrument, commonly used iu the first stages of torture 
 by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England also. The rev. Wra. Carstaii-s was 
 the last who suffered by it before the privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted 
 to him, which he firmly resisted. After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was 
 presented to him by the council. King William expressed a desire to see it, and tried it on, 
 bidding the doctor to turn the screw; but at the third turn he cried out, "Hold; hold I 
 doctor ; another turn would make me confess anything." 
 
 THUNDEEING LEGION. During a contest with the invading Marcomanni, the 
 prayers of some Christians in a Eoman legion are said to have been followed by a storm of 
 thunder, lightning, and rain, which tended greatly to discomfit the enemy. Hence the 
 legion received the name above, A.D. 174. 
 
 THUEINGIA, an early Gothic kingdom iu central Germany, was overrun by Attila and 
 the Huns, 451 ; the last king, Hermanfried, was defeated and slain by Thierry, king of the 
 Franks, who annexed it to his dominions. It was made an independent duchy, 674 ; a 
 laudgi-aviate, 880 ; given to Otho of Saxony, 909, when the landgrave Burchardt was slaiu ; 
 it was separated from Saxony, ix8o ; but reunited to it in 1548. 
 
THU 717 TIM 
 
 THUELES (S. Ireland). Here was held a synod of the Eoman Catholic archbishops, 
 bishops, inferior clergy, and religious orders, under the direction of archbishop CuUen, the 
 Eoman Catholic primate, Aug. 22, 1850. It condemned the Queen's Colleges, and recom- 
 mended the foundation of a Eoman Catholic jxnirersity, Sept. 10, following. The acts 
 were forwarded to Eome for approval of the pope, Pius IX. 
 
 THUEOT'S INVASION. Thurot, an Irish commodore in the French service, by his 
 courage and daring became a terror to^all the merchant-ships of this kingdom. He had the 
 command of a small armament, and landed 1000 men at Carrickfergus in Ireland, and 
 plundered the town. He reached the Isle of Man, and was overtaken by captain Elliot, 
 with three frigates, who engaged his little sqxiadron, which was taken, and the commodore 
 killed, Feb, 28, 1760. Thurot's true name was O'Farrell ; his grandfather had followed the 
 fortunes of James II. ; but his mother being of a family of some dignity in France, he 
 assumed her name. Burns. 
 
 THUESDAY, the fifth day of the week, derived from Thor, a deified hero worshipped by 
 the northern nations, particularly by the Scandinavians and Celts. His authority was said to 
 extend over the winds, seasons, thunder and lightning, &c. He is said to have been the 
 most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day still retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, 
 and Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English. Thursday is in Latin dies Jovis, or 
 Jupiter's day. 
 
 TIAEA, the triple crown of the pope, indicative of his civil rank, as the keys are, of his 
 ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The ancient tiara was a high round cap. Pope Damasus II. first 
 caused himself to be crowned with a tiara, 1048. John XX. encompassed the tiara with a 
 crown, 1276. Boniface VIII. added a second, 1295 : and Benedict XII. formed the tiara 
 about 1334. 
 
 TICINUS, a river, N. Italy. Here Hannibal defeated the Eomans, 217 B.C. 
 
 TICKETS OF Leave. See Transportatiooi and Crime.. 
 
 TICONDEEOGA (N. America). The French fortress here was unsuccessfully besieged 
 by Abercromby in July, 1758; taken July 26, 1759. The Americans took it in 1775, but 
 retired from it in July, 1777. The British retired from it shortly after. 
 
 TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posidonius of 
 Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, about 79 B.C. ; and Ccesar 
 speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic war. The theory of the tides was first 
 satisfactorily explained by Kepler, 1598 ; but the honour of a complete explanation of them 
 was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, about 1683. 
 
 TIEN-TSIN. See China, 1858. 
 
 TIEEEA DEL FUEGO. See Missions, note. 
 
 TIGEIS, a river forming the eastern boundary of Mesopotamia, celebrated for the cities 
 founded on its banks :— Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctesiphou, and Bagdad. It was explored by an 
 English steamer in 1838. 
 
 TILBUEY (Essex). The camp formed here in 1588 to resist the Spanish invasion was 
 visited by queen Elizabeth. 
 
 TILES were originally flat and square, and afterwards parallelogramic, &c. First made 
 in England about 1246. They were taxed in 1784. The number of tiles taxed in England 
 in 1820 was 81,924,626 ; and in 1830, 97,318,264. The tax was discontinued as discouraging 
 house-building and interfering Avith the comfort of the people, in 1833. 
 
 TILSIT (on the river Niemen), where a treaty was concluded between France and Eussia. 
 Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his territories, and Eussia recognised 
 the Confederation of the Ehine, and the elevation of Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph, 
 Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naples, HoUand, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 
 1807, and ratified July 19 following. 
 
 TILTS. See Totirnaments. 
 
 TIMBEE. The annual demand of timber for the royal navy, in war, was 60,000 loads, 
 or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which thirty-five will stand on an acre ; in peace, 
 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship consumed 3,000 loads, or 2,000 tons 
 of trees, the produce of fifty-seven acres in a century. Hence the whole navy consumed 
 102,600 acres, and 1026 per annum, AUnut. Iron is now much used in preference to 
 
TIM 
 
 718 
 
 TIN 
 
 timber. In 1843 we imported 1,317,645 loads of timber (cut and uncut) ; in 1857, 2,495,964 
 loads ; in 1864, 3,366,478 loads. The duties on timber were modified in 185 1. 
 
 TIMBER BENDING. Apparatus was invented for tliis purpose by Mr. T. Blancliard, 
 of Boston, U.S., for whicli a medal was awarded at the Paris Exhibition of 1855. A 
 company was formed for its application in this country in 1856. 
 
 TIME. Our ideas in regard to time have been of late greatly extended. The distant 
 planet Neptune, discovered by Le Verrier and Adams in 1846, requires -above 900 of our 
 j'ears for a single revolution ; and the coal measures in Wales, a thickness of strata of more 
 than twelve miles, would require for its deposition hundreds of thousands of years ; whUe 
 other formations could only be estimated in millions of years. Phillips. See Clock, Sun- 
 dials, Watches, &c. 
 
 TIMES NEWSPAPER. On Jan. 13, 1785, Mr. John Walter published the first number 
 of the Daily Universal Reciistcr, price 2hd., printed on the logographic sj'^stem (invented by 
 Henry Johnson, a compositor), in which types containing syllables and words were employed 
 instead of single letters. 
 
 On Jan. i, 17S8, the paper was named the Times. 
 
 In 1S03, when Mr. Walter gave up the paper to his 
 son, the circulation was about 1000; that of the 
 
 ■ Morning Post being 4500. 
 
 Dr. Stoddart (satirised as Dr. Slop by JMoorc the 
 jjoet) became editor in 1812, but five years after 
 retired and set up in opposition the Neio Times, an 
 im profitable speculation. Thomas Barnes became 
 next editor. He died May 7, 1841. The succeeding 
 editors were William F. A. Delane, who died in 
 1858, and John Thaddeus Delane (his son). 
 
 Ou Nov. 28, 1814, the Times was first printed by steam 
 power (the invention of F. Konig), 1200 per hour, 
 afterwards increased to 2000 and 4000. 
 
 The powerful aitieles coiitributed by Edward Stir- 
 ling gained the paper the name of the Thunderer. 
 
 On Jan. 19, 1829, the first double number appeared. 
 
 In July, 1834, an -attack of Mr. OConnell in the house 
 of commons on the correctness of the reports of 
 the debates in the Times was sigiially defeated. 
 
 Shortly after began the convenient summary of 
 the debates, written in the first instance by Mi\ 
 Horace Twiss. 
 
 In 1 841 the Times was instrumental in detecting and 
 exposing a scheme organised by a comp.any, to 
 defraud by forgery all the influential bankers of 
 Europe. This brought on the proprietors an action 
 for libel (in the case Cogle v. Law.«on). The jury 
 found the charge to be true, giving a verdict of 
 onefarthinij damages, but the judges refused costs. 
 Subscriptions were set on foot in all parts of 
 Europe to reimburse the proprietors for the 
 immense outlay in defending the action. This 
 they firmly declined ; and the money was expended 
 in esttiblishiug Times Scholarships at Oxford and 
 Cambridge, and at Christ's Hospital, and other 
 
 schools ; marble tablets also, commemorating the 
 event, were set up in the Royal Exchange and in 
 other places. These were the greatest honours 
 ever conceded to a newspaper. 
 
 In Oct. 1845, the Times express was for the first time 
 conveyed to India overland, by the agency of lieut. 
 W.aghorn. 
 
 Of the number of the Times containing the life of 
 the duke of Wellington for Nov. 19, 1852, 70,000 
 were sold — the ordinary number bcint; then 36,000 ; 
 the present circulation is stated to vary from 
 50,000 to 60,000 (1866). 
 
 In 1854, the proprietors sent Mr. W. H. Russell as 
 their special correspondent to the seat of war in 
 the Crimea; in 1857 to India, and in i86i to the 
 southern states of North America. 
 
 Times Fund. — On the 12th of October, 1854, sir Robert 
 Peel originated by a letter in the Timei a subscrip- 
 tion for the sick and wounded in the Crimean war, 
 and in less than a fortnight, is,oooi. were sent to 
 the Times' otfice to be thus appropriated. ]\Ir. 
 Macdonald (the iJi-esent man.ager) was sent out by 
 the proprietors as special commissioner to ad- 
 minister the lund, from which large quantities of 
 food and clothing were supplied to the sufferers, 
 with inestimable advantage. Sec Scutari and 
 Nightinpale. 
 
 In Dec. 1858, the Times drew attention to the state 
 of the houseless poor of London ; and in a few 
 days 8000J. were sub.':cribed for their reUef. 
 
 In 1851, 13,000,000 copies were sold; in 1857. 
 16,100,000; in 1859, 16,900,000 ; in i860, 16,670,000. 
 
 In i860, 16,400 copies per hour were printed. 
 
 On Juno 21, 1861, the Times consisted of 24 pages, 
 containing 4076 advertisements (about 1810 it con- 
 tained 150 advertisements). 
 
 TIN. The Phceuicians traded with England for this article for more than iioo years 
 before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave theur commercial importance 
 in the ancient world. Under the Sa.xons, our tin mines appear to have been neglected ; but 
 after the coming in of the Normans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of 
 Cornwall, particularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. A charter and various imnimiities 
 were granted by Edmund, eail Richard's brother, who also framed the Stannary laws (ichich 
 see), laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of CornwalL Edward III. confirmed the 
 tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, with Avhich he invested his 
 son, Edward the Black Prince, 1337. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the crown of 
 England, if eldest sous, have enjoyed it successively. Tin mines were discovered in 
 Germany, which lessened the value of tliose in England, till then the only tin mines in 
 Europe, 1240. Anderson. Discovered in Barbary, 1640 ; in India, 1740 ; in New Spain, 
 1782. We export at present, on an average, 1500 tons of unwrought tin, besides manufac- 
 tured tin and tin plates, of the value of about 400,000^. In 1857, 9783 tons, in i860, 
 10,462 tons, in 1864, 10,108 tons of metallic tin were procured from British mines. Of tin 
 plates and tin and pewter ware, we exported in value, in 1847, 484, 184?. ; in 1854, 1,075,531?. : 
 in i860, 1,500,812?. ; in 1861, 907,590?. ; in 1864, 1,26.1., 100?. 
 
TUT 
 
 fl9 
 
 TOB 
 
 TINCHEBRAY {'SAY. France), where a battle was fought hetween Henry I. of Eugland 
 and Robert duke of Normandy. Enghand and Normandy were reuuited nnder Henry, on 
 the decease of William Rufus, who had already possessed himself of Normandy, though he 
 had no other right to that province than by a mortgage from his brother Robert, at his 
 setting out for Palestine. Robert, on his return, recovered Normandy by an accommodation 
 Avith Henry ; but the two brothers having afterwards quarrelled, the former was defeated by 
 the latter in tlie battle of Tiuchebray, Sept. 28, 1 106, and Normandy was annexed to the 
 crown of Englaifd. Ilenault. 
 
 TITANIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Gregor in menakite, a Cornish mineral, in 1791, 
 and in 1 794 by Klaproth. 
 
 TITHES, or Tenths, were commanded to be given to the tribe of Levi, 1490 b.c. 
 Lev. xxvii. 30. Abraham returning from his victory over the kings [Gen. xiv.), gave tithes 
 of the spoil to Melchisedek, king of Salem, priest of the most high God (1913 B.C.). For the 
 first 800 years of the Christian church they were given purely as alms, and were voluntary. 
 Wickliffe. "I will not put the title of the clergy to tithes iipon any divine right, though 
 such a right certainly commenced, and I believe as certainly ceased, with ^the Jewish 
 theocracy." Blaclcstone. They were established in France by Charlemagne, about 800. 
 Henault. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran coimcils, 1215. Rainailda. — The pay- 
 ment of tithes appears to have been claimed by Augustine, the first archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, aud to have been allowed by Ethelbert, king of Kent, under the term " God's fee," 
 about 600. 
 
 TITHES IN EKGLAND. 
 
 The first mention of thein in any English written 
 law, is a constitutional decres made in a synod 
 strongly enjoining tithes, 786. 
 
 Ofia, king of Meroia, gave unto the church the tithes 
 
 t of all his kingdom, to expiate the death of Ethel- 
 bert, king of the East Angles, whom he had caused 
 to be basely murdered, 794. 
 
 Tithes were first gi-anted to the English clergy in a 
 general assembly held by Ethelwold, a.d. 844. 
 IlM-nj. 
 
 In 154s, tithes were fixed at the rate of 2s. g-i. in the 
 
 pound on rent ; since then, many acts have been 
 
 passed respecting them. 
 The Tithe Commutation act, passed Aug. 13. 1836. It 
 
 was amended in 1837, 1840, and 1846. 
 A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; a vicar to a 
 
 small jjart only, frequently to none. 
 
 TITHES IN IRELAND. 
 
 Several acts relating to tithes have been passed in 
 1832, 1838, 1839, 1840, and 1841, altering and im- 
 proving the tithe system. 
 
 TITHING. T]ie number or company of ten men with their families knit together in a 
 society, all of them being bound to the king for the peaceable and good behaviour of each of 
 their society ; of these companies there was one chief person, who, from his office, was 
 called (toothingman) titbingmau ; but now he is nothing but a constable, formerly called the 
 headborough. Coioel. 
 
 TITLES, ROYAL. Henry IV. had the title of "Grace" and "My liege," 1399. 
 Henry VI., "Excellent Grace," 1422. Edward IV., "Most High and Mighty Prince," 
 1461. Henry VII. , "Highness," 1485; Henry VIII. the same title, and sometimes 
 "Grace," 1509 e;! scg. But these two last were absorbed in the title of "Majesty," being 
 that with which Francis I. of France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520. 
 See Field of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled 
 "Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to "Majesty" the piresent "Sacred," or "Most 
 Excellent Majesty." "Majesty " was the style of the emperors of Germany ; the first king 
 to whom it was given was Louis XL of France, about 1463. 
 
 TOBACCO, Nicotiana, talacum, received its name from Tabacco, a province of Yucatan, 
 New Spain ; some say from the island of Tobago, one of the Caribbees ; others from Tobasco, 
 in the gulf of Florida. It is said to have been first observed at St. Domingo, 1492 ; and to 
 have been used freely by the Spaniards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first brought to 
 England in 1565, by sir John Hawkins ; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake are 
 also mentioned as ha^ang first introduced it here, 1586. It was manufactured only for 
 exportation for some years. Stow's Chron. The Pied Bull inn, at Islington, is said to have 
 been the first house in England where tobacco was smoked. In 1584 a proclamation was 
 issued against it. The star-chamber ordered the duties to be 65. lod. per pound, 1614. 
 Its cultivation was prohibited in Eugland by Charles II., 1684. Act laying a duty on 
 the importation Avas passed 1684. The cultivation was allowed in Ireland, 1779. The 
 tax was increased and put under the excise, 1789. Anderson; Ashe. Various statutes 
 have passed relative to tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in 
 Ireland parsed 2 Will. IV. Aug. 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be 
 purchased in order to its being destroyed, March 24, 1832. The quantity consumed in 
 
TOB 720 TON 
 
 England in 1791 was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen niillioni 
 of pounds. We imported in 1850, 35,166,358 lbs., and 1,557,558 lbs. manufactured 
 (cigars and snuff); in 1855, 36,820,846 lb.s., and 8,946,766 lbs. manufactured; in i860, 
 48,936,471 lbs., and 12,475,000 lbs. manufactured ; and in 1864, 60,092,768 lbs., and 
 6,522,408 lbs. manufactured. The tobacco duties were modified in 1863. 
 
 TOBAGO (West Indies), discovered by Columbus in 1492 ; settled by the Dutch, 1642. 
 Takeu by the English, 1672 ; retaken, 1674. In 1748, it was declared a neutral island; 
 but in 1763 it was ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grassc 
 in 1781, and confirmed to them in 1783. Again taken by the English, April 14, 1793, but 
 restored at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was once more taken by the 
 British under general Grinfield, July i, 1803, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 
 Paris, in 1814. Population in 1861, 15,410. 
 
 TOISOK D'OR. See Golden Fleece. 
 
 TOKENS, BANK, silver pieces issued by the Biink of England, of the value of 5s., 
 Jan. I, 1798. The Spanish dollar had a small profile of George III. stamped on the neck of 
 the Spanish king. They were raised to the value of 5s. 6d. Nov. 14, 181 1. Bank tokens 
 were also current in Ireland, where those issued by the bank passed for 6s. and lesser sums 
 until 1817. They were called in on the revision of the coinage. 
 
 TOLBIAC (now Zru'icn), near the lihine, where Clovis totally defeated the Allenianni, 
 496. 
 
 TOLEDO (Central Spain), capital of the Visigothic kingdom, 554, subdued by the 
 Saracens, 711. Toledo was taken by Alfonso VI. of Castile, 1084. The university was 
 founded in 1499. Toledo sword-blades have been famed since the 15th centur}'. 
 
 TOLENTINO (in the Papal States), where a treaty was made between the pope and the 
 French, Feb. 19, 1797. Here Joachim Murat having resumed arms against the allies, was 
 defeated by the Austrians, May 3, 1815. 
 
 TOLERATION ACT, passed in 1689* to relieve Protestant dissenters from the church 
 of England. Their liberties were, however, greatly endangered in the latter days of queen 
 Anne, who died on the day that the Schism bill was to become a law, Aug. i, 17 14. 
 
 TOLLS were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, 1109. They were first 
 demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341. See Stadc and Sound. Toll- 
 bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for every waggon that passed 
 through a certain manor; and the first regular toll was collected a few years after for mendin" 
 the road in London between St. Giles's and Temple-bar. Gathered for repairing the high- 
 ways of Holburn-inn-lane and Martin's-lane (now Aldersgate-street), 1346. Toll-gates"or 
 turnpikes were set up in 1663. In 1827, 27 turupiices near London were removed by 
 parliament ; 81 turnpikes and toll-bars ceased on the north of Loudon on July i, 1864 ; 
 and 61 on the south side, ceased on Oct. 31, 1865. 
 
 TONNAGE. See Tunnacje. 
 
 TONOJIETER, a delicate apparatus for tuning musical instruments, by marking the 
 number of vibrations, was invented by H. Scheibler, of Crefeld, about 1834. It received 
 little notice till M. Kcenig removed some of the difficulties opposed to its successful use, and 
 exhibited it at the International Exhibition of 1862. 
 
 TONQUIN, South Asia, part of the kingdom of Anam. Here a French missionary 
 bishop, Melchior, was murdered with great barbarity July 27, 1858 : the abbe Ncron was 
 also murdered, Nov. 3, i860. See Anam. 
 
 TONTINES, loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, invented by 
 Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris to reconcile the people to 
 cardinal Mazarin's government, by amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, 
 1653. Voltaire. Tonti died in the Bastille after seven years' imprisonment. A Mr. Jennings 
 was an original subscriber for a 100?. share in a tontine company ; and being the last survivor 
 of the shareliolders, his share produced him 3000^. per annum. He died, aged 103 years, 
 June 19, 1798, worth 2, 115,244/. 
 
 * The toleration granted was somewhat limited. It exempted persons who took the new oath of 
 allegiance and supremacy and made also a declaration against popcrj--, from the penalties incurred by 
 absenting themselves from church and holding luilawful conventicles ; and it allowed the Quakers t;) 
 substitute an affirmation for an oath, but did not rela-x the provisions of the Test act {which see). The party 
 spirit of the times checked the king in his liberal measures. 
 
 i 
 
TOR 721 TOU 
 
 TORBANEHILL MINERAL. Mr. Gillespie, of Torbanehill, granted a lease of all the 
 coal in the estate to Messrs. Russell. In the course of working, the lessees extracted a 
 combustible mineral of considerable value as a source of coal-gas, and realised a large profit 
 in the sale of it as gas-coal. The lessor then denied that the mineral was coal, and disputed 
 the right of the lessees to work it. At the trial in 1853 there was a great array of scientific 
 men and practical gas engineers. The evidence was most conflicting. One side maintained 
 the mineral to be coal, the other that it was bituminous schist. The judge set aside the 
 scientific evidence, and the jury pronounced it to be coal. The authorities in Prussia 
 have since pronounced it not to be coal. Percy. 
 
 TORGAU (K Germany), the site of a battle between Frederic II. of Prussia and the 
 Austrians, in which the former obtained a signal victory ; the Austrian general, count Daun, 
 a renowned warrior, being wounded, Nov. 3, 1760. He had, in 1757, obtained a great 
 victory over the Prussian king. Torgau was taken by the allies in 1814. 
 
 TORIES, a term given to a political party about 1678. See Whig. Dr. Johnson defines 
 a Tory as one who adheres to the ancient constitution of the state, and the apostolical 
 hierarchy of the Church of England. The Tories long maintained the doctrines of ' ' divine 
 hereditary indefeasible right, lineal succession, passive obedience, prerogative," &c. Boling- 
 hrohe. See Conservatives. For the chief Tory administrations, see Pitt, Perceval, Liverpool, 
 Wellington, Peel, and Derby. 
 
 TORONTO, the capital of Canada "West, founded in 1794 as York ; it received its present 
 name in 1834. 
 
 TORPEDO SHELLS, a name given to explosives placed under ships, an invention 
 ascribed to David Bushnell, in 1777. Torpedo shells ignited by electricity were employed 
 in the war in the United States, 186 1-5. On Oct. 4, 1865, Messrs. M'Kay & Beardslee tried 
 them at Chatham before the duke of Somerset and others. An old vessel, the Terpsichore, 
 was speedily sunk. The preliminary arrangements are considered rather complicated. 
 Magneto-electricity was employed. 
 
 TORRES VEDRAS (a city of Portugal). Near here Wellington, retreating from the 
 French, took up a strong position, called the Lines of Torres Vedras, Oct. 10, 1810. 
 
 TORTURE was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It was 
 used early in the Roman Catholic Church against heretics, and was used in England so late 
 as 1558, and in Scotland until 1690. The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; 
 in France, by Louis XVI., in 1789; and in Sweden, by Gustavus III., 1786. General 
 Picton was convicted of applying the torture to Louisa Calderon, in Trinidad, at his 
 trials, Feb. 21, 1806, and June 11, 1808. 
 
 TOULON (S. France), an important military and naval port. It was taken by Charles V., 
 in 1536. In 1707 it was bombarded by the allies, both by land and sea, by which almost 
 the whole town was reduced to a heap of ruins, and several ships burned ; but the allies 
 were at last obliged to raise the siege. It surrendered Aug. 27, 1793, to the British admiral, 
 lord Hood, who took possession both of the town and shipping, in the name of Louis XVII. , 
 under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitution of 1789. A conflict took 
 place between the English and French forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. 
 Toulon was retaken by Bonaparte, Dec. 19, when great cruelties were exercised towards such 
 of the inhabitants as were supposed to be favourable to the British. — A naval battle off this 
 port was fought Feb. 10, 1744, between the English under Mathews and Lestock, against the 
 fleets of France and Spain : in this engagement the brave captain Cornewall fell. The 
 victory was lost by a misunderstanding between the English admirals. Mathews was after- 
 wards dismissed for misconduct by the sentence of a court-martial. 
 
 TOULOUSE (S. France), founded about 615 .B.C. ; was the capital of the Visigothic 
 kings in a.d. 419 ; and was taken by Clovis in 507. A dreadful tribunal was established 
 here to extirpate heretics, 1229. The troubadours, or rhetoricians of Toulouse, had their 
 origin about 850, and consisted of a fraternity of poets, whose art was extended throughout 
 Europe, and gave rise to the Italian and French poetry. See Troubadours. The allied 
 British and Spanish army entered this city on April 12, 1814, immediately after the Battle 
 OP Toulouse, fought between the British Peninsular army under lord Wellington and the 
 French, April 10, 1814. The French were led by marshal Soult, whom the victorious 
 British here forced to retreat, after twelve hours' fighting, from seven o'clock in the morning 
 xmtil seven at night, the British forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. At 
 
 3 A 
 
TOU 722 TOW 
 
 the Ijattle, neither of the commanders knew that Napoleon had abdicated the throne of 
 France, 
 
 TOULOUSE : the county was created out of the kingdom of Aquitaine by Charlemagne, 
 in 778. It enjoyed great prosperity till the dreadful war of the Albigenses {which see), when 
 the count Eaymond VI. was expelled, and Simon de Montfort became count. At his death, 
 in 1218, Eaymond VII. obtained his inheritance. His daughter Jane and her husband, 
 Alphonse (brother of Louis IX. of France), dying without issue, the county of Toulouse was 
 united to the French monarchy in 127 1. 
 
 TOURNAMENTS, or Jotjsts, were martial sports of the ancient cayaliers. Tournament 
 is derived from the French word (ourner, " to turn round. " Tournaments were frequent 
 about 890 ; and were regulated by the emperor Henry I., about 919. The Lateran council 
 published an article against their continuance in 1136. One was held in Smithfield so late 
 as the 12th century, when the taste for them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in 
 a tilt with the count of Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused the 
 king's death in a few days, June 29, 1559. Tournaments were then abolished in France. — 
 A magnificent feast and tournament, under the auspices of Archibald, earl of Eglintoun, 
 took place at Eglintoun castle, Aug. 29, 1839, and the following week : many of the visitors 
 (among whom was the present emperor of the French) assumed the characters of ancient 
 knights, lady Seymour being the " Queen of Beauty." 
 
 TOURNAY (S. Belgium) was veiy flourishing till it was ravaged by the barbarians in the 
 5th century. It has sustained many sieges. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the 
 house of Austria by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison 
 in it, as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French iinder general Labourdonnaye, 
 Nov. II, 1792. Battle near Tournay, between the Austrians and British on one side, and 
 the French on the other; the former victorious, May 8, 1793. 
 
 TOURNIQUET (from tourner, to turn), an instrument for stopping the flow of blood into 
 a limb, by tightening the bandage, employed in amputations, is said to have been invented 
 by Morelli at the siege of Besancon, 1674. J. L. Petit, in France, invented the screw 
 tourniquet in 17 18. 
 
 TOURS, an ancient city, central France, near which Charles Martel gained a great 
 victory over the Saracens, Oct. 10, 732, and from which he acquired the name of Martel, 
 signifying hammer. This victory saved Europe. 
 
 TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of Shinar 
 {Gen. xi.), 2247 B.C. See Bahd. The Tower of the Winds at Athens, built 550 B.C. The 
 Tower of Pharos (see Pharos). 280 B.C. The round towers in Ireland were the only structures 
 of stone found at the arrival of the English, 1169, except some buildings in the maritime 
 towns founded by the Danes. These towers are tall hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but 
 narrowing towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, and covered with 
 conical roofs. Fifty-six of thera still remain, from 50 to 130 feet high. See Pisa. 
 
 TOWER OF London. The tradition that Julius Ctesar founded a citadel here is very 
 doubtful. A royal palace, consisting of no more than what is now called the White Tower, 
 which appears to have been first marked out by William the Conqueror, 1076, was com- 
 menced in 1078, and completed by his son, William Rufus, who, in 1098, surrounded it 
 ■with walls, and a broad deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it, and 
 king Edward III. built the church. In 1638, the White Tower was rebuilt ; and since the 
 restoration of king Charles II. it has been thoroughly repaired, and a great number of 
 additional buildings made to it. Here are the Armoury, Jewel-office, and various other 
 divisions and buildings of peculiar interest ; and here took place many executions of 
 ilhistrious persons, and many murders (king Henry IV., 147 1 ; king Edward V. and his 
 brother, 1485 ; sir Thomas Overbury, 1613). See England. The armoury and 280,000 
 stand of arms, &c., were destroyed by fire, Oct. 30, 1841. The "New Buildings" in the 
 Tower were completed in 1850. 
 
 TOWNLEY MARBLES, in the British Museum, were purchased in 1812. 
 
 TOWTON (Yorkshire), where a sanguinary battle was fought, March 29, 146 1, between 
 the houses of York' (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter of whom it was 
 fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and 
 the most merciless slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner, and confined in the 
 Tower ; his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders. 
 
TOX 723 TEA 
 
 TOXOPHILITES (from toxon, a bow, and p7w7os, a lover), a society established by sir 
 Aston Lever in 1781. In 1834 they took grounds in the inner circle of Regent's-park, and 
 built the archery lodge. They possess a very curious piece of plate, given by Catherine, 
 queen of Charles II., to be shot for by the Finsbury archers, of whom the Toxoijhilites are 
 the representatives. 
 
 TRACTAEIAXISM, a term applied to certain opinions on church matters propounded in 
 the "Tracts for the Times," of which ninety numbers were published, 1833-41. The 
 principal writers were the revs. Dr. E. Pusey, J. II. ISTewman, J. Keble, J. Froude, and 
 I. Williams — all of the university of Oxford. See Piiseyism. 
 
 TRACTION-ENGINES were used on common roads in London in i860, but afterwards 
 restricted. In Aug. 1862 one of Bi'ay's traction-engines conveyed through the city a mass 
 of iron, which would have required 29 horses. 
 
 TRADE AND PLANTATIONS, Board of. Cromwell seems to have given the first 
 notions of a board of trade : in 1655 he appointed his son Richard, with many lords of his 
 council, judges, and gentlemen, and about twenty merchants of London, York, Newcastle, 
 Yarmouth, Dover, &c., to meet and consider by what means the trade and navigation of the 
 republic might be best promoted. Thomas's Notes of the Rolls. Charles II., on his restora- 
 tion, established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole commerce of the 
 nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and plantations, which was 
 remodelled by William III. This board was abolished in 1782 ; and a new council for the 
 affairs of trade on its present plan was appointed, Sept. 2, 1786. 
 
 TRADES' MUSEUM. Its formation was undertaken in 1853, jointly by the commis- 
 sioners of the Great Exhibition of 185 1, and the Society of Arts. The animal department 
 was opened May 17, 1855, when a paper on the mutual relations of trade and manufactures 
 was read by professor E. Solly. The contents of this museum were removed to the South 
 Kensington Museum, which was opened June 24, 1857. The French " Conservatoire des 
 Arts et Metiers" was established in 1795. 
 
 TRAFAIjGAR (Cape, S. Spain), off which a great naval victory was gained by the 
 Biitish, under Nelson, against the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by 
 admiral Villeneuve and two Spanish admirals, Oct. 21, 1805. The enemy's force was 
 eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line ; that of the British, twenty-seven 
 ships. After a protracted fight, Villeneuve and the other admirals were taken, and nineteen 
 of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. Nelson was killed, and admiral CoUingwood 
 succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and his last signal was, 
 "England expects every man to do his duty." See Nelson, 
 
 TRAGEDY. See Drama. 
 
 TRAINING SCHOOLS, the first of these useful establishments was founded at Batter- 
 sea in 1840, by sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, and Mr. E. C. TufneU ; the latter, who was then 
 in the Poor Law Commission, devoting a year's salary towards the expenses. Mr. Mann 
 stated in 1855 that there were about 40 of these schools in difl'erent parts of the country. 
 
 TRAJAN'S PILLAR (in Rome), erected 114, by his directions, to commemorate his 
 victories, and executed by Apollodorus, still exists. It was built in the square called the 
 Forum Romanum; it is 140 feet high, of the Tuscan order. 
 
 TRAM-ROADS, an abbreviation of Outram-roads, derive the name from Mr. Benjamin 
 Outram, who, in 1800, made improvements in the system of railways for common vehicles, 
 then in use in the north of England. The iron tram-road from Croydon to Wandsworth was 
 completed on JiUy 24, 1801. Mr. Outram was father of the late sir James Outram, the 
 Indian general. Chambers. 
 
 TEANQUEBAR (East Indies), the Danish settlement here, founded in 1618, was pur- 
 chased by the English in 1845. 
 
 TRANSFIGURATION. The change of Christ's appearance on Mount Tabor, in the 
 presence of Peter, James, and John, a.d. 32 (Matt. xvii.). The feast of the Transfiguration, 
 kept on Aug. 6, was instituted by po^je Calixtus II. in 1455. 
 
 TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD. See Blood. TRANSIT. See Venus. 
 
 TRANSLATION to Heaved. The translation of Enoch to heaven for his faith at the 
 age of 365 years, took place 3017 B.C. The prophet Elijah was translated to heaven in a 
 chariot of fire, 896 B.C.— The possibility of translation to the abode of eternal life has been 
 maintained by some extravagant enthusiasts. The Irish house of commons expelled Mr. 
 
 3 A 2 
 
TEA 724 TI!A 
 
 Asgill from his seat, for his book asserting the possibility of translation to the other world 
 without death, 1703. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION. See Banishment. Judges were given the power of sentencing 
 offenders to transportation "into any of his Majesty's dominions in North America," by 
 18 Charles II. c. 3 (1666), and by«^ Geo. I. c. 11 (1718). Transportation ceased in 1775, 
 but was revived in 1784. The reception of convicts has been .successfully refused by the 
 Cape of Good Hope (in 1849), and by the Australian colonies (1864). Transportation, even 
 to West Australia, where labour is wanted, is to cease in a few years, through the fierce 
 opposition of the eastern colonies. In consequence of the recent difficulty experienced in 
 transporting felons, 16 & 17 Vict. c. 99 was passed to provide other punishment, namely- 
 penal servitude, empowering her majesty to grant pardon to offenders under certain condi- 
 tions, and licences to others to be at large : such licences being liable to be revoked if 
 necessary; and many have been. These licences are termed "tickets of leave." The 
 system was much assailed in Oct. and Nov. 1862, on account of many violent crimes being 
 traced to tickct-of-leavers. See Crime. 
 
 John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced 
 to transportation for stealing a few qiiires of 
 paper (P/n7(<^;s) Nov. i, 
 
 The Rev. Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of 
 Chesterfield, was transported for forging a 
 
 arrived with about 800 on Jan, 20, 1788 ; con- 
 victs were afterwards sent to Van Diemen's 
 I;and, Norfolk Island, &c. 
 Returning from transportation was punishable 
 with death until 5 Will. IV. c. 67, Aug 1834, 
 
 frank (lod. postage) . . Sept. 9, 1818 when an act was passed making the offence 
 
 The first transportation of felons to Botany Bay j punishable by transportation for life, 
 
 was in May 1787 ; where governor Phillip I 
 
 TRANSUBSTANTIATION, the doctrine that the bread and wine in the Eucharist are 
 changed into the very flesh and blood of Christ by the consecration, was broached in the 
 days of Gregory III. (731), and accepted by Amalarius and Radburtus (about 840), but 
 rejected by Rabanus Maurus, Johannes Scotus Erigena, Berengarius, and others. In the 
 Lateran council, held at Rome by Innocent III., the word " transubstantiation " was used to 
 express this doctrine, which was decreed to be incontrovertible ; and all who opposed it were 
 condemned as heretics. This was confirmed by the Council of Trent, Jan. 18, 1562. John 
 Huss, Jerome of Prague, and other martyrs of the reformation, suffered for denying this 
 dogma, which is renounced by the Church of England (28th Article), and by all protestant 
 dissenters. 
 
 TRANSYLVANIA, an Austrian province, was part of the ancient Dacia {which see). In 
 1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of the emperor Ferdinand I. by the aid of 
 the Turks. His successors ruled with much difficulty till 1699, when the emperor Leopold I. 
 finally incorporated Transylvania into the Austrian dominions. The Transylvaniau deputies 
 did not take their seat in the Austrian parliament till Oct. 20, 1863. 
 
 PETXCES OF TRANSYLVANIA. 
 
 1526-40. John Zapoly. 
 1571. John Sigismund. 
 
 ,, Stephen Zapoly I. Bathoii. 
 1581. Christopher Bathori. 
 1602. Sigismund Bathori. 
 1606. Stev)hen II. Bottskai. 
 
 1613. Gabriel I. Bathori. 
 
 1629. Gabriel II. Bethlem (Bethlem Gaboi-). 
 
 1648. George I. Ragotzski. 
 
 1661. George II. Ragotzski. 
 
 1690. Michael I. AbafiS. 
 
 1699. Michael II. AbaflB. 
 
 TRAPPISTS. The first abbey of La Trappe in Normandy was founded, in 1 140, by 
 Retrou, count de Perche. The present order of Trappists owes its origin to the learned 
 Bouthillier de la Rauce (editor of Anacrron when aged 14), who, from some cause not 
 certainly known, renounced the world, and sold all his property, giving the proceeds to the 
 abbey of La Trap[)e, to which he retired in 1662, to live there in great austerity. After 
 several efforts he succeeded in reforming the monks, and in establishing a new rule, which 
 comm<ands silence, prayer, reading, and manual labour, and which forbids study, wine, fish, 
 &c. Ranc6 was born in 1620, and died in 1700.* 
 
 TRAVELLING in England. In 1707, it took in summer one day, in winter nearly two 
 daj's, to travel from London to Oxford (46 miles). In 1817, the journey was accomplished in 
 
 * A number of these monks, driven from France in the revolution of 1790, were received by Mr. Weld, 
 of Lulworth, Dorsetshire, who gave them some laud to cultivate and a habitation, where they remained 
 till 1815. This order was charged withrebelhon and conspiracy in France, and sixty-four English .and Irish 
 Trappists were shipped by^ the French government at Puimboeuf, Nov. 19, and were landed from the Hebe, 
 French frigate, at Cork, Nov. 30, 1831. They have established themselves at Mount Melleray, county of 
 Waterl'ord ; but do not maintain there the extreme rigour of their order. 
 
TRE 
 
 725 
 
 TRE 
 
 six or seven hours. By the Great Western Eailway express (63 miles) it is done in i| hour. 
 In 1828, a gentleman travelled from Newcastle to Loudon (273 miles) inside the best coach 
 in 35 hours, at an expense of 61. 15s. 3(1 or 6cl. per mile (including dinner, &c.). In 1857, 
 the charge of the Great Northern Railway (275^ miles) first class express (6 hrs.) was 50s. gd. 
 
 TREAD-MILL, an invention of the Chinese, to raise Avater for the irrigation of the 
 fields. The complicated tread-mill introduced into the prisons of Great Britaiu is the 
 invention of Mr. (afterwards sir "William) Cubitt, of Ipswich. It was erected at Brixton 
 gaol, 1 81 7, and soon afterwards in other large prisons. 
 
 TREASON. See High Treason. Petty Treason (a term abolished in 1828) was a wife's 
 murder of her husband ; a servant's murder of his master ; and an ecclesiastical person's 
 murder of his prelate or other superior — so declared by statute, 1352. 
 
 TREASON-FELONY. By the Crown and Government Security Act, 11 Vic. c. 12 
 (1848), certain treasons heretofore punishable with death were mitigated to felonies, and 
 subjected to transportation or imprisonment. The Fenians in Ireland were tried under this 
 act. See Trials, 1865. 
 
 TREASURER of England, Lord High, the third great officer of the crown, a lord by 
 virtue of his office, having the custody of the king's treasure, governing the upper court of 
 exchequer, and formerly sitting judicially among the barons. The first lord high treasurer in 
 England was Odo, earl of Kent in the reign of William I. This great trust is now confided 
 to a commission, and is vested in five persons, called Lords Commissioners for executing the 
 office of Lord High Treasurer, and of these the chancellor of the exchequer is usually one ; 
 the first lord being usually the premier. See Administrations, for a succession of these officers. 
 The first of this rank in Ireland was John de St. John, Henry III.§i2i7 ; the last, William, 
 duke of Devonshire, 1766 ; vice-treasurers were appointed till 1789 ; then commissioners till 
 1816, when the revenues of Great Britain and Ireland were united. The _/??•«< lord high 
 treasurer of Scotland was sir Walter Ogilvie, appointed by James I. in 1420 ; the last, in 
 1641, John, earl of Traquair, when commissioners were appointed. 
 
 TREASURER of the Chamber, formerly an officer of great consideration, and always 
 a member of the privy council. He discharged the bills of all the king's tradesmen, and had 
 his office in Cleveland-row, in the vicinity of the royal palace. His (luties were transferred 
 and the office suppressed at the same time with the offices of master of the great wardrobe 
 and cofferer of the household, in 1 782. Beatson. 
 
 TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made in England with any foreign 
 nation was entered into between Henry III. and the dauphin of France (then in England 
 and leagued with the barons), Sept. 11, 12 17. The first commercial treaty was with the 
 Flemings, i Edw. 1272 ; the second with Portugal and Spain, 1308. Anderson. The chief 
 treaties of the principal civilised nations of Europe will be found described in their respective 
 places : the following forms an index. See Conventions ; Coalitions ; Leagues, &c. 
 
 Abo, peace of . 
 
 Adrianople 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle 
 
 Ais-la-Chapelle, peace of . . 
 
 Akermann, peace of, Oct. 7, 
 
 Alt Eadstadt . . Sept. 14, 
 
 Allahabad (Bahar, &c., ceded 
 to E. I. Company) 
 
 America, peace with . . . 
 
 Amiens, peace of . 
 
 Antwerp, truce . ... 
 
 Armed Neutrality . 
 
 Arras, treaty of . . . . 
 
 Arras, ditto .... 
 
 Augsburg, league of . . . 
 
 Baden, peace of . . . 
 
 Bagnalo (Venice, Naples, <fec.) 
 
 Balta Liman . . 1838 and 
 
 Barcelona (France and Spain) 
 
 BaiTier treaty 
 
 Barwalde (France & Sweden) 
 
 Basel, peace of . . . 
 
 Bassein (Great Britain and 
 Mabrattas) . . . . 
 
 Bayonne, treaty of 
 
 Beckascog (Russia and Prus- 
 sia) 
 
 • 1743 
 Sept. 14, 1829 
 
 1748 
 1S26 
 1706 
 
 1765 
 1783 
 1S02 
 1609 
 1800 
 143s 
 
 1714 
 1484 
 1849 
 1493 
 1715 
 1631 
 
 1795 
 
 Aug. 31, 18 
 
 1807 
 
 Belgiiim, treaty of London 
 
 Belgrade, peace of . 
 I Berlin, peace of . 
 \ Berlin decree . 
 
 Berlin convention . ' . 
 
 Beyara 
 
 Breda, peace of 
 
 Bretigny, peace of . . . 
 
 Bucharest, treaty of 
 
 Cambray, league of . . . 
 
 Cambray, peace of . 
 
 Carnjpo Formic, treaty of . . 
 
 Carlowitz, peace of 
 
 Carlsbad, congress of . . 
 
 Chateau-Canibresis, peace of 
 
 Chaumont, treaty of 
 
 Chunar, India . . . . 
 
 Cintra, convention of . 
 
 Closterseven, convention of . 
 
 Coalition, first, agnst. France, 
 
 Coalition, second, ditto . 
 
 Coalition, third ditto . . 
 
 Coalition, fourth ditto . 
 
 Coalition, fifth ditto ... 
 
 Coalition, sixth ditto 
 
 Commerce (Great Britain and 
 Turkey) . . . Nov. 16, 
 
 1739 
 1742 
 
 1667 j 
 1360: 
 1812 
 1508 
 1529 
 1797 i 
 1699' 
 1S19 
 
 1559 
 1814 
 1781 
 1808^ 
 
 1757' 
 1792 
 1799 
 iSo5^ 
 
 I8I3 
 
 Commerce (Great Britain and 
 the Two Sicilies) . June 25, 
 
 Commerce (Great Britain and 
 France) 
 
 Concordat (which see) 
 
 Conflans, treaty of . 
 
 Constantinople, peace of 
 
 Constantinople, treaty of . 
 
 Constantinople, treaty of, 
 May 8, 
 
 Copenhagen, peace of . 
 
 Copenhacfen (composition for 
 Sound dues) March 14, 
 
 Crecy 
 
 Dresden 
 
 Eliot convention . . April, 
 
 Evora Monte . . May 26, 
 
 Family Compact . 
 
 Fontainebleau, peace of . , 
 
 Fontainebleau, treaty of 
 
 Fontainebleau, concordat at . 
 
 French commercial treaty, 
 Jan. 23, 
 
 Priedwald, treaty of 
 
 Fuessen, peace of . . . 
 
 Gastein Convention, Aug. 14, 
 
 Ghent, pacification of . . 
 
 1845 
 
 1 861 
 1801 
 146s 
 1712 
 1833 
 
 1854 
 i55o 
 
 1857 
 1544 
 1745 
 183s 
 1834 
 1761 
 1679 
 1785 
 1813 
 
 1551 
 174s 
 1865 
 
 1576 
 
TRE 
 
 J26 
 
 TKE 
 
 TREATIES, continued. 
 
 Ghent, peace of (America) . 1814 
 
 Golden Bull . . . . 1356 
 
 Grand Alliance . . . 1689 
 
 Greece, treaty of London . . 1832 
 
 Hague, treaty of the . . 1659 
 
 Hague, treaty of the . . . 1669 
 
 Halle, treaty of . . . 1610 
 
 Hamburg, jseace of . . . 1 762 
 
 Hanover treaty . . . 1725 
 
 Hanover <fe England, July 22, 1834 
 
 Holland, peace with . . 1784 
 
 Holy Alliance . . . . 1815 
 
 Hubertsburg, peace of . . 1763 
 
 Interim treaty . . . . 1548 
 
 Jay's treaty . . Xov. 19, 1794 
 Japan and Great Britain, 
 
 Ang. 26, 1858 
 Kaynardji, or Koutschouc- 
 Kaynardji (Turks and Rus- 
 sians) . . July 21, 1774 
 Kiel, treaty of . . , 1814 
 Lay bach, congress of . .1821 
 
 League 1576 
 
 Leipslc, alliance of . . . 1631 
 
 Leoben, peace of . . . 1797 
 
 Lisbon, peace of . . . 1668 
 
 London, treaty of (Greece) . 7832 
 London, convention of 
 
 (Turkey) 1840 
 
 London, treaty between 
 France and England, 
 
 April 15, 1854 
 
 Lubeck, peace of . , . 1629 
 
 Luneville, peace of . . . 1801 
 
 Madrid, treaty of . . . 1526 
 
 Wethuen treaty . . . . 1703 
 
 Milan decree .... 1807 
 Milan (Austria and Sardinia), 
 
 Aug. 6, 1849 
 
 Munster, peace of . . . 1648 
 
 Nankin (see China) . . . 1842 
 
 Nantes, edict of . . . 1598 
 
 Naumberg, treaty of . . . 1554 
 Nice, treaty of . , .1518 
 
 Ninieguen, peace of . . . 1678 
 
 Noyon, treaty of . , . 1516 
 
 Nuremberg, treaty of . . 1532 
 
 Oliva, peace of , . . i66o 
 
 Paris, peace of (see Paris) . 1763 
 
 Paris, treaty of . . . . 1796 
 
 Paris, peace of (Sweden) . 1810 
 
 Paris, capitulation of . . 1814 
 
 Paris, treaty of . . .1814 
 Paris, peace of . . . . 1S15 
 Paris, treaty of . . .1817 
 Paris, treaty of (ends Russian 
 
 war) .... April, 1S56 
 Paris (settlement of Neuf- 
 
 chatel affair) . May 26, 1857 
 Partition, first treaty . . 169S 
 Partition, second treaty 
 Passarowitz, peace of . . 
 Passau, treaty of . 
 Pekin (peace 'with Gt. Britain 
 
 and France) . Aug. 24, 
 Persia, treaty with 
 Petersburg, St., peace of . 
 Petersburg, St. , treaty of 
 Petersburg, St., treaty of . 
 Petersburg, St. , treaty of 
 Peterswald, convention of 
 Pilnitz, convention of . 
 Poland, partition of . 
 Pragmatic Sanction 
 Pragmatic Sanction . 
 Prague, peace of 
 Presburg, peace of 
 Public good, league for the 
 Pyrenees, treaty of the . 
 Quadruple Alliance . 
 Radstadt, peace of. 
 Radstadt, congress of . 
 Ratisbon, peace of 
 Ratisbon, treaty of 
 Reich enbach treaties . June 
 Religion, peace of . 
 Rhine, Confederation of the 
 Ryswick, peace of . 
 St. Germain's, peace of 
 St. Germain-en-Laye 
 St. Ildefonzo, alliance of Spain 
 
 ■with France 
 Seville, peace of 
 Siorod, peace of 
 Sistowa . . Aug. 4, 
 Smalcald, league of 
 
 Spain, pacification of (London) 1834 
 Stettin, peace of . . . 1570 
 Stockholm ... . . 1630 
 Stockholm, peace of . . 1719 
 Stockholm, treaty of . . 1724 
 Stockholm, treaty of . . 1813 
 Stockholm, treaty of (Sweden 
 and allies) . . Nov. 21, 1856 
 
 1700 
 1718 
 1552 
 
 1857 
 1762 
 1772 
 1 80s 
 1810 
 1813 
 1 791 
 1795 
 1439 
 1713 
 1653 
 1805 
 1464 
 1659 
 1718 
 1714 
 1797 
 1630 
 1806 
 1813 
 1555 
 1806 
 1697 
 1570 
 1679 
 
 1796 
 1792 
 1613 
 1791 
 
 529 
 
 Suncion, treaty of . July 15, 1852 
 Temeswar, truce of . . . 1664 
 Teschen, peace of . . . 1779 
 Teusin, peace of . . .• 1595 
 Tien-Tsin, China . June 26, 1858 
 Tilsit, peace of . . . 1807 
 Tolentiuo, treaty of . . . 1793 
 Toplitz, treaty of . . .1813 
 Triple Alliance of the Hague, 1668 
 Triple Alliance . . . . 1717 
 Troppeau, congress of . . 1820 
 Troyes, treaty of . . . 1420 
 Turin (cession of Savoy and 
 
 Nice) . . . March 24, i860 
 Turkmauchay, peace of .1828 
 Ulm, peace of . . . . 1620 
 Unkiarskelessi , July 8, 1833 
 Utrecht, union of . . . 1579 
 Utrecht, peace of . . . 1713 
 Valen<;ay, treaty of . . .1813 
 Verona, congress of . . 1822 
 Versailles, peace of . . . 1783 
 Vienna, treaty of . . -1725 
 Vienna, treaty of alliance . . 1731 
 Vienna, definitive peace . 1738 
 Vienna, peace of . . . 1809 
 Vienna, tteaty of . March 23, 181 5 
 Vienna, treaty of . May 31, „ 
 Vienna, treaty of . June 9, ,, 
 Vienna (Austria and Prussia), 
 
 commercial . Feb. 19, 1853 
 Vienna, treaty of . Oct. 30, 1864 
 Vienna (Austria and Great 
 
 Britain, conmiercial) Dec. 16, 1865 
 Villa Franca (/jreiim.), July 12, 1859 
 Vossem, peace of . . . 1673 
 Warsaw, alliance of . . 1683 
 Warsaw, treaty of . . . 1768 
 Washington, reciprocity treaty 
 between Great Britain and 
 the United States, respect- 
 ing Newfoundland fishery, 
 commerce, &c. . July 2, 1834 
 Westminster, peace of . . 1674 
 Westminster (with Holland) 1716 
 Westphalia, peace of . . 164S 
 
 Wihia, treaty of . . . 1561 
 Wurms, edict of . . . 1521 
 Wurtzburg league . . . 1610 
 Ziirich (Austria, France, and 
 Sardinia) . Nov. 10, 1859 
 
 TREBIA, now Trebbta, a river in Nortli Italy, wliere Hannibal defeated the Roman 
 consul Sempronius, b.c. 218; and Siu'arrow defeated the French marshal Macdonald and 
 compelled him to retreat, June 17-19, 1799. 
 
 TREBIZOND, a port of Asia Minor in the Black Sea, was colonised by the Greeks, and 
 Ijecame subject to the kings of Pontus. It enjoyed self-government under the Roman 
 empire, and wlien the Latins took Constantinople in 1204, it became the seat of an empire 
 which endured till 1461, when it was conquered by the Turks under Mahomet I. 
 
 EMPERORS OF TKEBIZOND. 
 
 1204. Alexis I. Comnenus. 
 
 1222. Andronicus I. 
 
 1235. John I. 
 
 1238. Manuel I. 
 
 1263. Andrew. 
 
 1266. George I. 
 
 1280. John II. 
 
 1298. 
 
 Alexis II. 
 
 1330- 
 
 Andronicus II. 
 
 1332- 
 
 Manuel II. 
 
 
 Basil I. 
 
 1340. 
 
 Irene. 
 
 1341- 
 
 Anna. 
 
 1341-50. Michael. 
 
 1344. John III. 
 1350. Alexis-III. 
 1390. Manuel III. 
 1412. Alexis IV. 
 1447. John IV. 
 1458-61. David. 
 
 TRECENTO. See Italy, note. 
 
 TRENT (the ancient Tridentum) in the Tyrol, belongs to Austria. The council held 
 here is reckoned in the Roman Catholic church as the i8th or last general council. Its 
 
 il 
 
TKE 
 
 727 
 
 TKI 
 
 decisions are imjjlicitly received as tlie standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that 
 church. It first sat Dec. 13, 1545, and continued (with interruptions) under pope Paul III., 
 Julius III., and Pius IV. to Dec. 4, 1563,* its last sitting (the 25th). A jubilee in relation 
 to this council was celebrated in June, 1863. 
 
 TREVES, the Roman Treviri, in Rhenish Prussia, was a prosperous city of the Gauls 
 12 B.C. The emperor Gallienus held his court here a.d. 255. Treves was made an electorate 
 in the 14th century, and became subject to the archbishop in 1585. The archbishopric is 
 said to have been founded before the 7th century and to be the oldest in Germany. After 
 various changes, Treves was acquired by Prussia in 1815. In 1844 much excitement was 
 occasioned by miracles said to have been wrought by a " Holy Coat." 
 
 "TRIA JUNCTA IN UNO" (three joined in one), the motto of tbe knights of the 
 military order of the Bath, signifying " faith, hope, and charity." See Bath. 
 
 TRIALS. Regulations for conducting trials "were made by Lothaire and Edric, Icings of 
 Kent, about 673 to 680. Alfred the Great is said to have begun trial by jury ; but there is 
 good evidence of such trials long before his time. Jn a cause tried at Hawarden, nearly a 
 hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a list of the twelve jm'ors ; confirmed too 
 by the fact that the descendants of one of them, of the name of Corbyn of the Gate, still 
 preserve their name and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate. Philli]}s. 
 
 KEMAKKA.BLE TRIALS. 
 
 King Charles I. : Jaii. 20 ; convicted, Jan. 29, 
 Oates's Popish Plot : Edward Coleman, con- 
 victed, Nov. 27 ; Wm. Ireland and other 
 
 priests Dec. 17, 
 
 • Robt. Green and others, Feb. 10 ; Thos. 
 
 Whitbread and other Jesuits, June 13 ; 
 
 Richard Langhorne, counsellor, June 14 ; 
 
 convicted 
 
 Sir George "Wakeman, the queen's physician ; 
 
 acquitted July 13, 
 
 Viscount Stafford : convicted Nov. 30-Dec. 7, 
 Eye House Plot : convicted, lord William Russell, 
 
 July 13 ; Algernon Sidney . . Nov. 21, 
 The Seven Bishops ; acquitted . June 29. 
 Colonel Charteris, for the rape of Ann Bond 
 
 Feb. 25, 
 Captain Porteous, for murder. See Porteous, 
 
 July 6, 
 Jenny Diver, for felony, executed March 18, 
 William Duell, executed for murder at Tyburn, 
 
 but who came to life when about undergoing 
 
 dissection at Surgeons' Hall . Nov. 24, 
 Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino for high 
 
 treason July 28, 
 
 Mary Hamilton, for marrying with her own sex, 
 
 14 wives Oct. 7, 
 
 Lord Lovat, 80 years of age, for high treason ; 
 
 beheaded March 9, 
 
 Freney, the celebrated Irish robber, who sur- 
 
 . rendered himself .... July 9, 
 
 Amy Hutchinson, burnt at Ely, for the murder 
 
 of her husband .... Nov. 5, 
 
 Miss Blandy, the murder of her father ; hanged, 
 
 March 3, 
 Ann WUliams, for the murder of her husband ; 
 
 biu-nt alive April n, 
 
 Eugene Aram, for murder at York ; executed, 
 
 ^ug. 13, 
 Earl Ferrers, for the murder of his steward ; 
 
 executed April i5, 
 
 Mr. MacNaughten, at Strabane, for the murder 
 
 of Miss Knox Dec. 8, 
 
 Ann Bedingfield, for the murder of her husband ; 
 
 burnt alive April 6, 
 
 Mr. Wilkes, alderman of London, for an obscene 
 
 poem ("Essay on Woman.") . Feb. 21, 
 Murderers of captain Glas, his wife, daughter, 
 
 mate, and passengers, on board the ship Earl 
 
 of Sandwich, at sea . . . March 3, 
 
 1679 
 
 1683 
 
 1736 
 1740 
 
 1746 
 
 1747 
 1749 
 1750 
 1752 
 1753 
 1759 
 1760 
 1 761 
 1763 
 1764 
 
 1766 
 
 Elizabeth Brownrigg, for the murder of one of 
 her female apprentices ; hanged Sept. 12, 
 
 Lord Baltimore, the libertine, and his female 
 accomplices, for rape . . March 28, 
 
 Great cause between the families of Hamilton 
 and Douglas Feb. 27, 
 
 Great Valencia cause in the house of peers, in 
 Ireland March 18, 
 
 Cause of Somerset, the slave ; see Slavery, 
 
 June 22, 
 
 Elizabeth Herring, for the murder of her hus- 
 band ; hanged, and afterwards burnt at 
 Tyburn Sep. 13, 
 
 Messrs. Perreau brothers, bankers, forgery ; 
 hanged Jan. 17, 
 
 Duchess of Kingston, for marrying two hus- 
 bands ; guilty. See Kingston . April 15, 
 
 Dr. Dodd for forging a bond of 4200!. in the 
 name of the earl of Chesterfield ; Feb. 22. 
 See Forgery; executed . . June 27, 
 
 Admiral Keppel, by court martial ; honourably 
 acquitted Feb. 11, 
 
 Mr. Hackman, for the murder of Miss Reay, 
 when coming out of the Theatre Royal, 
 Covent-gardeu April 16, 
 
 Lord George Gordon on a charge of high trea- 
 son ; acquitted .... Feb. s, 
 
 Mr. Woodfall, the celebrated printer, for a libel 
 on lord Loughborough, afterwards lord chan- 
 cellor. ...... Nov. lo,' 
 
 Lord George Gordon, for a libel on the queen of 
 France ; guilty .... Jan. 28, 
 
 Mr. Warren Hastings : a trial which lasted 
 seven years and three months. See Hastings, 
 Trial of, commenced . . . Feb. 13, 
 
 T/ie Times newspaper, for a Ubel on the prince 
 of Wales ; guilty .... Feb. 3, 
 
 Renwick Williams, called the Moiister, for 
 stabbing women in the streets of London. 
 See Monster July 8, 
 
 Barrington, the pick-pocket, most extraordi- 
 nary adept ; transported . . Sept. 22, 
 
 Thomas Paine, political writer and deist, for 
 libels in the iJifir/j^s o/il/a»,- guilty Dec. 18, 
 
 Louis XVI. of France. See France . 1792, 
 
 Archibald Hamilton Rowan, for libel ; impri- 
 soned and fined .... Jan. 29, 
 
 Mr. Purefoy, for the murder of colonel Roper, 
 iu a duel ; acquitted . . . Aug. 14, 
 
 1767 
 1768 
 1769 
 1772 
 
 1773 
 1776 
 
 1777 
 1779 
 
 1781 
 1786 
 
 1792 
 1793 
 
 * At this council was decreed, with anathemas : the canon of scripture (including the apocrypha), and 
 the church its sole interpreter ; the traditions to be equal with scripture ; the seven sacraments (baptism, 
 confirmation, the Lord's supper, penance, extreme unction, orders, and matrimony) ; transubstantiation ; 
 purgatory; indulgences; celibacy of the clergy; auricular confession, <fec. 
 
TRI 
 
 TKl 
 
 TRIALS, continued. 
 
 Mr. Robert Watt and Downie, at Edinburgh, 
 
 fortrea'son Sept. 3, 
 
 Messrs Hardy, Home Tooke, Tlielwall, and 
 
 Joyce, for high treason ; acquitted Oct. 29, 
 
 Earl of Abingdon, for his libel on Mr. Serman ; 
 
 guilty Dec. 6, 
 
 Major Semple, alias Lisle, for felony Feb. 18, 
 Redhead Yorke, at York, libel . . Nov. 27, 
 Lord Westmeath v. Bradshaw, for crim. con. ; 
 damages, 10,000? .... March 4, 
 Lord Valentia v. Mr. Gawler, for adultery ; 
 damages, 2000;. .... June 16, 
 
 Daniel Isaac Eaton, for libels on kingly govern- 
 ment ; guilty .... July 8, 
 Sir Godfrey Webster v. lord Holland, for 
 adultery ; damages, 6000?. . . Feb. 27, 
 Parker, the mutineer at the Nore, called admi- 
 ral Parker. See Mutinies . . June 27, 
 Boddington v. Boddington, for ci-im. con. ; 
 
 damages, lo.oooZ Sept. 5, 
 
 WilUam Orr at Carrickfergus, for high treason ; 
 
 executed Oct. 12, 
 
 Mrs. Phepoe, alias Benson, murderess Dec. 9, 
 The murderers of colonel St. George and Mr. 
 
 Uniacke, at Cork .... April 15, 
 Arthur O'Connor and O'Coigley, at Maidstone, 
 
 for treason ; latter hanged . . May 21, 
 Sir Edward Crosbie and others, for high trea- 
 son ; hanged . ... June i, 
 Beauchamp Bagenal Harvey, at Wexford, for 
 
 high treason June 21, 
 
 Two Messrs. Sheares, at Dublin, for higli trea- 
 son ; executed .... July 12, 
 Theobald Wovilffe Tone, by court-martial (he 
 
 died on the 1 8th) .... Nov. 10 
 Sir Harry Brown Hayes, for cairymg off Miss 
 
 Pike of Cork April 13, 
 
 Hatfield, for shooting at George III. See Hat- 
 
 .fieM June 26, 
 
 Mr. Tighe of Westmeath v. Jones, for crim. con.; 
 
 damages, 10,000? Dec. 2, 
 
 Mutineers at Bantry Bay ; hanged. See Jianti y 
 
 -Sny Jan. 8, 
 
 Charles Hayes, for an ot)Scone libel . Jan. 9, 
 Governor Wall, for cruelty and murder, twenty 
 
 years before. See Ooree . . Jan. 20, 
 
 Crawley, for the murder of two females in 
 
 Peter'g-row, Dublin . . . March 6, 
 Colonel Despard and his associates, f.ir high 
 
 treason ; hanged on the top of Horsemonger- 
 
 lane gaol. See Des/Mrd . . . Feb. 7, 
 M. Peltier, for libel on Bonaparte, first consul 
 
 of France, in VAmbigvc; guilty . Feb. 21, 
 Robert Aslett, cashier at the bank of England, 
 
 for embezzlement and frauds ; the loss to the 
 
 Bank, 320,000?. ; found vnt guilty, on account 
 
 of the invalidity of the bills . July 18, 
 
 Robert Enxmett, at Dublin, for high treason ; 
 
 executed next day .... Sept. 19, 
 Keenan, one of the murderer.? of lord Kil warden '; 
 
 hanged Oct 2, 
 
 Mr. Smith, for the murder of the supposed 
 
 Hammersmith Ghost .... Jan. 13, 
 Lockhart and Laudon Gordon, for carrying oil 
 
 Mrs. Lee March 6, 
 
 Rev. C. Massy v. marquess of Headfort, for 
 
 crim. con. ; damages, 10,000?. . . July 27, 
 WiUiam Cooper, the Hackney Monster, for 
 
 offences against females . . April 17, 
 General Picton, for applying the tortiu-e to 
 
 JjOuLsa Calderon, to extort confession, at 
 
 Trinidad ; tried in the court of King's Bench ; 
 
 guilty, [new trial, same verdict, June 11, 
 
 1808J Feb. 24, 
 
 Hamilton Rowan, in Dublin; pleaded the 
 
 king's pardon July i. 
 
 Judge Johnson, for a hbel on the earl of Hard- 
 
 wicke ; guilty .... Nov. 23, 
 
 1795 
 1796 
 
 1803 
 
 1S03 
 1804 
 
 Mr. Patch, for the murder of bis partner, Mr. 
 
 BUgh April 6, 
 
 Lord Melville, impeached by the house of 
 
 commons ; acquitted . . . June 12, 
 
 The Warringtcn gang, for unnatural offences ; 
 
 executed ...... Aug. 23, 
 
 Palm, the bookseller, by a Frtnch military 
 
 commission at Brcnnau . . Aug. 26, 
 Lord Cloncurry v. sir John B. Piers, for crim. 
 
 con. ; damages, 20,000?. . . . Feb. 19, 
 HoUoway and Haggerty, the murderers of Mr. 
 
 Steele ; thirty persons were crushed to death 
 
 at their execution, at the Old Bailey, Feb. 20, 
 Sir Home Pojiham, by court-martial ; repri- 
 manded .*.... March 7, 
 Knight V. Dr. Wolcot, alias Peter Pindar, for 
 
 crim. con. ...... June, 27, 
 
 Lieut. Berry, of H.M.S. Hazard; for an un- 
 natural offence Oct. 2, 
 
 Lord Elgin v. Ferguson, for crim. con. ; 
 
 damages, 10,000?. .... Dec. 22, 
 Simmons, the murderer of the Boreham family, 
 
 at Hoddesdon March 4, 
 
 Sir Arthur P.iget, for crim. con. with lady 
 
 Borrington July 14, 
 
 Major Campbell, for killing captain Boyd in a 
 
 duel ; hanged Aug. 4, 
 
 Peter Finnerty and others, for a libel on the 
 
 duke of York .... Nov. 9, 
 
 The Duke of York, by inquiry in the house 
 
 of commons, on charges preferred against 
 
 him by colonel Wardle, from Jan. 26, to 
 
 JMarch 20, 
 
 Wellesley r. lord Paget, for cri»i. con.; damages, 
 
 20,000? May 12, 
 
 The king r. Valentine Jones, for breach of 
 
 duty as commissary-general . . May 26, 
 The earl of Leicester v. Morning Herald, for a 
 
 libel ; damages, looo?. . . June 29, 
 
 Wright r. colonel Wardle, for Mrs. Mary Ann 
 
 Clarke's furniture .... June i, 
 AVilliam Cobbett, for a libel on the German 
 
 legion ; convicted .... Jul^' 9, 
 Hon. captain Lake, for putting Robert Jeflfery, 
 
 a British seaman, on shore at Sombrero ; 
 
 dismissed the service. Sec Sombrero. Feb. 10, 
 Mr Peny, for libels in the Morning Chronicle; 
 
 acquitted Feb. 24, 
 
 The Vere-street gang, for unnatural offences ; 
 
 guilty ...... Sept. 20, 
 
 Peter Finnerty, for a libel on lord Castlereagh ; 
 
 judgment ..... Jan. 31, 
 The king v. Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, lor 
 
 libels ; guilty Feb. 22, 
 
 Ensign Hepburn and White, the drummer; 
 
 both were executed . . . March 7, 
 Walter Cox, iu Dublin ; for libels ; he stood in 
 
 the pillory March 12, 
 
 The king v. W. Cobbett, for libels ; convicted, 
 
 June 15, 
 Lord Louth, in Dublin ; sentenced to imprison- 
 ment and fine, for oppressive conduct as a 
 
 magistrate June 19, 
 
 The Berkeley cause, before the Lo.ise of peers, 
 
 concluded June 28, 
 
 Dr. Sheridan, physician, on a charge of sedition ; 
 
 acquitted ...... Nov. 21, 
 
 Gale Jones, for seditious and blasphemous 
 
 libels ; convicted .... Nov. 26, 
 William Cuudell and John Smith, for high 
 
 treason (see High Treason) . . Feb. 6, 
 Daniel Isaac Eaton, on a cliarge of blasphemy ; 
 
 convicted March 6, 
 
 Bellingham, for the murder of Mr. Perceval, 
 
 prime minisier ..... May 15, 
 The king v. Mr. Lovell, of the Slatesma7i, fur 
 
 libel ; guilty ..... Nov. 19, 
 Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for libels in the 
 
 E.xaminer ; convicted . . ' Dec. 9, 
 
 806 
 
 l8c7 
 
TRI 
 
 ■29 
 
 TRI 
 
 TRIALS, continued. 
 
 JIarquess of Sligo, for concealing a sea-deserter, 
 
 Bee. 16, 
 
 The murderers of Mr. Horsfall ; at York ; 
 executed Jan. 7, 
 
 Mr. Hugh Fitzpatrick, for publishing Scully's 
 History of the Penal Laws . . . Feb. 6, 
 
 The divorce cause against the duke of Hamilton 
 for adultery . . . . ■ April 11, 
 
 Mr. John Magee, in Dublin, for libels in the 
 Evening Post : guilty . . . July 26, 
 
 Nicholson, the murderer of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar; 
 hanged Aug. 21. 
 
 Tuite, murder of Mr. Goiilding; executed 
 
 Oct. 7, 
 
 The celebrated Mary Ann Clarke, for a libel on 
 the right hou. Wm. Vesey Fitzgerald, after- 
 wards lord Fitzgerald . . . Feb. 7, 
 
 Admix-al Bradley, at Winchester, for frauds in 
 ship letters Aug. 18, 
 
 Lord Cochrane, Cochrane Johnstone, Berenger, 
 Butt, and others, for frauds in the public 
 funds ; convicted. See Stocks . Feb. 22, 
 
 Colonel Qaentin, of the loth hussars, by court- 
 martial Nov. 10, 
 
 Sir John Henry Mildmay, bart., for c?'iHi. co)). 
 with the countess of Koseberry : damages, 
 i5,oooi. ...... Dec. 5, 
 
 George Barnett, for shooting at Miss Kelly, of 
 Covent Garden theatre . . . April 8, 
 
 Captain Hutchinson, sir Robert Wilson, and 
 Sir. Bruce, in Paris, for aiding the escape of 
 count Lavalette. See Lavalelte . April 24, 
 
 "Captain Grant," the famous Irish robber at 
 Maryborough .... Aug. 16, 
 
 Vaughan, a police officer, Mackay, and Browne, 
 for conspiracy to induce men to commit felo- 
 nies to obtain the reward ; convicted, Aug. 21, 
 
 Colonel Stanhope, by court-martial, at Cam bray, 
 in France Sept. 23, 
 
 Cashman, the intrepid seanaan, for the Spa- 
 fields riots, and outrages on Snowhill ; con- 
 victed and hanged. See Spajields Jan. 20, 
 
 Count Maubreuil, at Paris, for robbing the 
 queen of Westphalia .... May 2, 
 
 Mr. R. G. Butt, for a libel on lord chief -justice 
 Ellenborough May 23, 
 
 Mr. Wooler, for libels on the government and 
 ministers June 6, 
 
 Thistlewood, Dr. Watson, Hooper, and others, 
 for treason Juno 9, 
 
 The murderers of the Lynch family at Wild- 
 goose-lodge, Ireland . . . July ig, 
 
 Mr. Roger O'Connor, on a charge of robbing the 
 mail ; acquitted .... Aug. 5, 
 
 Brandreth, Turner, and others, at Derby, for 
 high treason Oct. 15, 
 
 Hone, the bookseller, for parodies ; three trials 
 before lord Ellenborough : estempor.meous 
 and successful defence . Dec. 18, ig. 20, 
 
 Mr. Dick, for the abduction and rape of Miss 
 Crockatt March 21, 
 
 Appeal of murder case, Ashf ord, the brother of 
 Mary Ashford, against her murderer, Abraham 
 Thornton. Hee JSattle . . . April 16, 
 
 Eev. Dr. O'Halloran, for forging a frank. See 
 Transportation .... Sept. 9, 
 
 Robert Johnston, at Edinburgh ; his dreadful 
 execution ..... Dec. 30, 
 
 Sir Manassrih Lopez, for bribery at Grampound. 
 See Bribery .... March 18, 
 
 Mosely, Woolfe, and other mex-chants for con- 
 spiracy and fraud .... April 20, 
 
 Carlile for the publication of Paine's Age of 
 Reason, <fec Oct. 15, 
 
 John Soanlan, at Limerick, for the murder of 
 Ellen Hanly March 14, 
 
 Sir Francis Burdett, at Leicester, for a seditious 
 libel March 23. 
 
 Henry Hunt, and others, for their conduct at 
 
 iai2 
 1813 
 
 the Manchester meeting; convicted. See 
 
 Manchester Reform Meeting . . March 27 
 Sir Charles Wolseley and rev. Mr. Harrison, for 
 
 sedition; guilty . . . .April 10, 
 
 Thistlewood, Ings, Brunt, Davidson, and Tidd, 
 
 for conspiracy to murder the king's ministers ; 
 
 commenced. See Cato-street . . April 17, 
 Louvel, in France, for the murder of the duke 
 
 de Beri-i June 7, 
 
 Lord Glerawley v. John Burn, for crim. con. 
 
 June 18, 
 Major Cartwright and others, at Warvs'ick, for 
 
 sedition Aug. 3, 
 
 "Little Waddington," for a seditious libel; 
 
 acquitted Sept. 19, 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel French, 6th dragoon guards, 
 
 by court-martial .... Sept. 19, 
 Carohne, queen of England, before the house of 
 
 lords, for adultery, commenced Aug, 16; it 
 
 terminated (see Quetn Caroline's Trial) Nov. 10, 
 The female murderers of Miss Thompson, in 
 
 Dublin ; hanged May i, 
 
 David Haggart, an extraordinary robber, and a 
 
 man of singularly eventful life, at Edinburgh, 
 
 for the murder of a turnkey . . June g. 
 Samuel D. 'Hayward, the favourite man of 
 
 fashion, for burglary .... Oct. 8, 
 The murderers of Mrs. Torrance, in Ireland; 
 
 convicted and hanged . . . Dec. 17, 
 Cu.ssen, Leahy, and others, for the abduction 
 
 of Miss Gould .... July 29, 
 Barthelemi, in Paris, for the abduction of 
 
 Elizabeth Florence .... Sept. 23, 
 Cuthberfc v. Browne, singular action for deceit, 
 
 Jan. 28, 
 The famous " Bottle Conspirators," in Ireland, 
 
 by ex-qffieio Feb. 23, 
 
 The extraordinary "earl of Portsmouth's case," 
 
 commenced March iS, 
 
 Probert, Hunt, and Thurtell, mui-derers of Mr. 
 
 Weare ; Probert turned king's evidence ; 
 
 afterwards hanged for horse-steaUng. See 
 Executions. ..... Jan. 5, 
 
 Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, banker of London, for 
 
 forgery; hanged .... Oct. 30, 
 Foote V. Hayne, for breach of promise of 
 
 marriage ; damages, 3000^ . . Dec. 22, 
 Mr. Henry Savary, a banker's son at Bristol, 
 
 for forgery April 4, 
 
 O'Keefe and Bourke, the murderers of the 
 
 Franks family Aug. 18, 
 
 John Grosset Muirhead, esq., for indecent 
 
 practices Oct. 21, 
 
 The case of Mr-. Wellesley Pole, and the Misses 
 
 Long : commenced .... Nov. g. 
 Captain Bligh v. the hon. Wm. Wellesley Pole^ 
 
 for adultery Nov. 25, 
 
 Fisher I'. Stockdale, for a Ubel in .Harriettc Wilson 
 
 March 20, 
 Edward Gibbon Wakefield, and others, for 
 
 abduction of Miss Turner . . March 24, 
 Rev. Robert Taylor, for blasphemy; found 
 
 guilty Oct. 24, 
 
 Richmond Seymour, esq., and Macklin, for an 
 
 unnatural crime . • . . March 12, 
 Richard Gillam, for the murder of Maria 
 
 Bagster, at Taunton . . . April 8, 
 Mr. Montgomery, for forgery: he committed 
 
 suicide in prison on the naorning appointed 
 
 for his execution .... July 4, 
 
 Brinklett, for the death of lord Mount Sandford 
 
 by a kick July 16, 
 
 William Corder, for the murder of Maria 
 
 Marten ; executed . . . Aug. 6, 
 
 Joseph Hunton, a quaker merchant, for 
 
 forgery ; hanged .... Oct. 28, 
 
 Burke, at Edinburgh, for the Burking murders ; 
 
 Hare, his accomplice, became approver. See 
 
 Burking Dec. 24, 
 
 1824 
 
TRI 
 
 •30 
 
 TPJ 
 
 TEIALS, continued. 
 
 The king v. Buxton, and others, for a fraudu- 
 lent marriage .... March 21, 1829 
 Jonathan Martin, for setting fire to York- 
 
 minstcr March 31, „ 
 
 Stewart and his wife, noted murderers, at 
 
 Glasgow ; hanged . . . July 14, ,, 
 
 Eeinbauer, the Bavarian priest, for his murders 
 
 of women Aug. 4, ,, 
 
 Captain Dickenson, by court-martial, at Ports- 
 mouth ; acquitted . . . Aug. 26, ,, 
 Mr. Alexander, editor of the Morning Journal, 
 
 for libels on the duke of Wellington ; con- 
 victed Feb. 10, 1830 
 
 Clune, &c. at Ennis, for cutting out the 
 
 tongues of the Doyles . . . March 4, ,, 
 Mr. Comyn, for burning his house in the 
 
 county of Clare ; hanged . . March 6, ,, 
 
 Mr. Lambrecht, for the murder of Mr. Clayton, 
 
 in a duel April 2, ., 
 
 Captain Moir. for the murder of William 
 
 Malcolm ; hanged .... July 30, ,, 
 Captains Smith and Markham, for killing Mr. 
 
 O'Grady in a duel .... Aug. 24, , , 
 Captain Helsham, for the murder of lieut. 
 
 Crowther in a duel .... Oct. 8, , , 
 Mr. St. John Long, for the manslaughter of 
 
 Miss Cashin. See Quack-is . . Oct. 30, ,, 
 Polignac, Peyronnet, and others, mmisters of 
 
 France. See France . . . Dec. 21, „ 
 CarUle, for a seditious libel, inciting to a riot ; 
 
 guilty Jan. 10, 1831 
 
 Mr. D. O'ConneU, for breach of proclamation ; 
 
 pleaded guilty .... Feb. 12, ,, 
 St. John Long, for manslaughter of Mrs. 
 
 Lloyd. See Quads .... Feb. ig, ,, 
 Mr. Luke Dillon, for the violation of Miss 
 
 Frizell ; convicted. . . . April 14, ,, 
 Major Dundas, for the seduction of Miss 
 
 Adams ; damages, 3000?. . . . May 26, ,, 
 Mr. Cobbett, for a seditious libel; the jury 
 
 could not agree .... July 7, ,, 
 Rev. Robert Taylor (who obtained the revolting 
 
 distinction of "the DeriVs Chaplain"), for 
 
 reviling the Redeemer ; convicted July 6, ,, 
 Mr. and Mrs. Deacle v. Mr. Bingham Baring, 
 
 M.P July 14, ,, 
 
 Bird, a boy of 14 years of age, for the murder 
 
 of a child ; hanged. . . . Aug. i. 
 The great cause, earl of King.ston v. lord 
 
 Lorton ; commenced .... Nov. 9 , , 
 Bishop and Williams, for murder of the Italian 
 
 boy. See Burking .... Dec. 3, 
 Earl of Mar, in Scotland, for shooting at Mr. 
 
 Oldham Dec. 17, „ 
 
 Elizabeth Cooke, for the murder of Mrs. Walsh, 
 
 by "Burking" .... Jan. 6, 1832 
 Colonel Brereton, by court-martial, at Bristol. 
 
 See Bristol Jan. 9, ,, 
 
 The murderers of Mr. Blood, of Applevale, 
 
 county of Clare .... Feb. 28, 
 William Duggan, at Cork, for the murder of hi.s 
 
 wife and others .... March 26, 
 Mr. Hodgson (son of the celebrated Miss A.«ton') 
 
 I). Greene July 26, ,, 
 
 Mayor of Bristol, for neglect of duty in the 
 
 Bristol riots Oct. 26, 
 
 Rev. Mr. Irving, by his own (the Scots) churclij 
 
 for heresy March 13, 1833 
 
 Lord Teynham, and Dolan, a tailor, for 
 
 swindling ; guilty .... May 10, . , 
 Mr. Baring Wall, M.P. ; most honourably 
 
 acquitted May 11, ,, 
 
 Attorney-general r. Shore (ladv Hesvley's 
 
 charity, which is taken from the Unitarians), 
 . Dec. 23, ,, 
 
 Captain Wathen, 15th hussars, by court-martial, 
 
 at Cork ; honourably acquitted ; his colonel, 
 
 lord Brudenell, cashiered . . Jan. — , 1834 
 Pi'oprietors of the True Sun, for libels ; guilty, 
 
 Feb. 6, ,, 
 
 Mary Ann Burdock, the celebrated murderess, 
 at Bristol April 10, 
 
 Sir John de Baauvoir, for perjury ; acquitted, 
 
 May 29, 
 
 Fieschi, at Paris, for attempting the life of the 
 king, Louis Pliilippe, by exploding an infernal 
 machine. See Fieschi . . . Jan. 30, 
 
 Hon. G. C. Norton v. lord Melbourne, in Court 
 of Common Pleas, for crim. con. with the hon. 
 Jlrs. Norton ; verdict for defendant, June 22, 
 
 Lord de Roos v. Cumming, for defamation, 
 charging lord de Roos with cheating at 
 cards ; verdict in favour of Mr. Cumming, 
 
 Feb. 10, 
 
 James Greenacre and Sarah Gale, for the murder 
 of Hannah Browne ; Greenacre convicted 
 and hanged ; Gale transported . April 10, 
 
 Francis Hastings Medhurst, esq., for killing 
 Mr. Joseph Alsop ; guilty . . April 13, 
 
 Bolam, for thernurder of Mr. Millie ; verdict, 
 manslaughter July 30, 
 
 Rev. Mr. Stephens, at Chester, for inflamma- 
 tory language .... Aug. 15, 
 
 John Frost, an ex-magistrate, and others, for 
 high treason ; guilty : sentence commuted to 
 transportation. See Newport . . Dec. 31, 
 
 Courvoisier, for the murder of lord William 
 Russell ; hanged . . . June 18, 20, 
 
 Gould, for the murder of Mr. Templeman ; 
 transported June 22, 
 
 Edward Oxford, attempted the life of the 
 queen ; adjudged insane, and confined in 
 Bethlehem. See Oxford . . July 9, 10, 
 
 M.-idame Lafarge, in France, for the murder of 
 her husband ; guilty . . . Sept. 2, 
 
 Prince Louis Napoleon, for his descent upon 
 France. See France . . . Oct. 6, 
 
 Captain R. A. Reynolds, iithhiissars, by court- 
 martial ; guilty : the sentence excited great 
 popular displeasure against his colonel, lord 
 Cardigan Oct. 20, 
 
 Lord Cardigan before the house of peers, 
 capitally charged for wounding captain 
 Harvey Tucket in a duel ; acquitted, Feb. 16, 
 
 The Wallaces, brothers, merchants, for having 
 wilfully caused the destruction of the ship 
 Dri/ad at sea, to defraud the under-writers ; 
 transported March 4, 
 
 Josiah Mister, for attempting the life of Mr. 
 Mackreth ; guilty .... March 23, 
 
 Bartholomew Murray, at Chester, for the 
 murder of Mrs. Cook . . . April 5, 
 
 Earl of Waldegrave and captain Duff, for an 
 aggravated assault on a police constable ; 
 guilty : judgment, six months' imprisonment, 
 and fines of 200?. and 20/. . . . May 3, 
 
 Madame Larfarge again , for robbery of diamonds, 
 
 Aug. 7, 
 
 The great case, Allen Bogle v. Mr. Lawson, 
 publisher of the Times newspaper, for an 
 alleged libel, in stating the plaintiff to be 
 connected with numerous bank forgers 
 throughout Europe in their schemes to 
 defraud Messrs. Glyn and Company, 
 bankers of London, by means of fictitious 
 letters of credit : damages, one farthing. 
 This exposure, so honourable to the Times, 
 led to the Times Testimonial . . Aug. 16, 
 
 Mr. !Mac Leod, at Utica, America, for taking 
 pirt in the destiiiction of the Caroline, com- 
 menced : acquitted after a trial tiiat lasted 
 eight days Oct. 4, 
 
 Robert Blakesley, for the murder of Mr. 
 Burdon, of Eastcheap ; hanged . Oct. 28, 
 
 Mr. Beaumont Smith, for the forgery of 
 Exchequer bills to an immense .amount ; he 
 pleaded guilty, and was sentenced to trans- 
 portation for life Dec. 4, 
 
 Sophia Darbon t'. Rosser ; breach of promise of 
 marriage ; damages i6oof. . . Dec. 8, 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1839 
 
TRI 
 
 ■31 
 
 TRI 
 
 TRIALS, continued. 
 
 Dr. Webster, for bribery at an election of St. 
 Alban's; acquitted . . . March 3, 1842 
 
 Mr. John Levick and Antonio Mattei, principal 
 and second in the duel in which lieut. Adams 
 was killed at Malta; both acquitted, 
 
 March 10, ,, 
 
 Vivier, courier of the Morning Herald, at 
 Boulogne, for conveying the Indian mail 
 through France, for that journal, contrary to 
 the Fi-eoch regulations . . . April 13, ,, 
 
 Daniel Good, for the murder of Jane Jones ; 
 the memorable Roehampton murder; found 
 guilty, and sentenced to be hanged May 13, ,, 
 
 John Francis, for attempting to assassinate the 
 queen (see i?;'anc!s) . . . June 17, ,, 
 
 Thomas Cooper, for the murder of Daly, the 
 policeman ; hanged . . . . July 4, ,, 
 
 Nicholas Smsse, valet of the late marquess of 
 Hertford, at the prosecution of that noble- 
 man's executors, charged with enormous 
 frauds ; acquitted .... July 6, „ 
 
 M'Gill and others, for the abduction of Miss 
 Crelhn ; guilty .... Aug. 8, ,, 
 
 Nicholas Suisse again, upon like charges, and 
 again acquitted .... Aug. 24, ,, 
 
 Bean, for pointing a pistol at the queen ; 18 
 months' imprisonment . . . Aug. 25, ,, 
 
 The rioters in the provinces, under a special 
 commission, at Stafford . . . Oct. i, „ 
 
 The Cheshire rioters, under a special com- 
 mission, before lord Abinger . . Oct. 6, „ 
 
 The Lancashire i-ioters, also under a special 
 commission Oct. 10, ,, 
 
 Alice Lowe, at the prosecution of lord Frank- 
 fort; acquitted .... Oct. 31, „ 
 
 Mr. Howard, attorney, v. sir William Gosset, 
 serjeant-at-arms Dec. s, ,, 
 
 Mr. Egan, in Dublin, for the robbery of a bank 
 parcel ; acquitted .... Jan. 17, 1843 
 
 Rev. W. Bailey., LL.D., for forgery; guilty: 
 transportation for life . . . . Feb. i, ,, 
 
 Mac Naughten, for the murder of Mr. Drum- 
 mond, secretary to sir Robert Peel ; acquitted 
 on the ground of insanity . . March 4, ,, 
 
 The Rebeccaites, at Cardiff, under a special 
 commission Oct. 27, ,, 
 
 Samuel Sidney Smith, for forgery ; sentenced 
 to transportation for life . . Nov. 29, , , 
 
 Edward Dwyer, for the murder of his child at 
 Southwark ; guilty .... Dec. i, „ 
 
 Mr. Holt, of the Age ; libel on the duke of 
 Brunswick ; guilty .... Jan. 29, 1844 
 
 Lieut. Grant, second to lieut. Munro, in his 
 duel with col. Fawcett ; acquitted Feb. 14, ,, 
 
 Fraser v. Bagley, for crim. con: verdict for 
 
 the defendant Feb. 19, ,, 
 
 Lord William Paget v. earl of Cardigan for 
 
 cri'm. con. ; verdict for defendant iFeb. 26, ,, 
 Mary Furley, for the murder of her child in an 
 agony of despah .... April 16, ,, 
 
 The will-forgers, William Henry Barber (since 
 declared innocent*), Joshua Fletcher, 
 Georgiana Dorey, William Sanders, and 
 Susannah, his wife ; all found guilty, April 
 IS ; sentenced .... April 22, 
 
 Crouch, for the murder of his wife : found 
 guilty, May 8 ; hanged . . May 27, 
 
 Messrs. O'Connell, sen., O'Connell, jun., Steele, 
 Ray, Barrett, Grey, Duffy, and rev. Thomas 
 Tierney, at Dublin, for political conspiracy : 
 the trial commenced Jan, 15, and lasted 
 twenty-four days : all the traversers were 
 foundguilty, Feb. 12. Proceedings on motions 
 for a new trial, &c. , extended the case into 
 Easter term ; and sentence was pronounced 
 upon all but the clergyman, on whom judg- 
 ment was remitted . . . May 30, 
 
 Augustus Dalmas, for the murder of Sarah 
 Macfarlane ;• guilty .... June 14, 
 
 Wm. Burton Newenham, for the abduction of 
 Miss Wortham ; guilty . . . June 17, 
 
 Bellamy, for the murder of his wife by pr-ussic 
 acid ; acquitted .... Aug. 21, 
 
 John Tawell, for the murder of Sarah Hart ; 
 hanged March 13, 14, 
 
 Thomas Henry Hooker, for the murder of 
 James Delarue .... April 11, 
 
 Joseph Connor, for the murder of Mary 
 Brothers May 16, 
 
 The Spanish pirates, for the murder of ten 
 Englishmen at sea .... July 26, 
 
 Rev. Mr. Wetherell, for crim. con. with Mrs. 
 Cooke, his own daughter . . Aug. 16, 
 
 Capt. Johnson, of the ship Tory, for the murder 
 of several of his crew .... Feb. s, 
 
 Miss M. A. Smith v. earl Ferrers ; breach of 
 promise of marriage . . . Feb. 18, 
 
 Lieut. Hawkey, for the murder of Mr. Seton, 
 in a duel ; acquitted . . . July 16, 
 
 Richard Dunn, for perjury and attempted 
 fraud on Miss A. Burdett Coutts Feb. 27, 
 
 Mitchell, the Irish confederate ; transported 
 for 14 years. See Ireland . . May 26, 
 
 Wm. Smith O'Brien, Meagher," and other 
 confederates ; sentenced to death ; the sen- 
 tence afterwards commuted to transportation 
 (pardoned in 1856) .... Oct. g, 
 
 Blourafield Rush, for the murder of Messrs. 
 Jermy, at Norwich ; hanged . March 29, 
 
 Gorbam v. the bishoj) of Exeter ; ecclesiastical 
 
 case ; judgment given in the court of Arches 
 
 against the plaintiff f . . . Aug. 2, 
 
 Manning and his wife, for the murder of 
 
 O'Connor ; guilty : death . . . Oct. 27, 
 
 Walter Watts, lessee of the Olympic theatre, 
 
 for forgery, &c May 10, 
 
 Robert Pate, a retired lieutenant, for an assault 
 
 on the queen July 11, 
 
 The Sloanes, man and .wife, for starving then- 
 servant, Jane Wilbred . . . Feb. s, 
 
 184s 
 
 * In 1848 Mr. Barber returned to England with a free pardon, and an acknowledgment of his mno- 
 cence by his prosecutors : he was re-admitted to practise as an attorney : and on the 3rd of August, 1S59, 
 in conformity with the recommendation of a select committee of the house of commons, the sum ot 
 SoooJ. was voted him "as a national acknowledgment of the wrong he had suffered from an erroneous 
 
 t This long-contested case created much sensation at the time. The bishop had refused to institute 
 the rev. Mr. Gorham in the liviug of Brampton-Speke, in Devonshire, to which he had been presented. 
 The cause of the bishop's refusal was alleged want of orthodoxy in the plaintiff, who denied that spiritual 
 regeneration was conferred by baptism ; the court held that the charge against the plaintiff ot holding laise 
 doctrine was proved, and that the bishop was justified in his refusal. Mr. Goi-ham appealed to tJie 
 Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which pronounced its opinion (March 8, 1850) tbat tlie aoctrme 
 held by Mr. Gorham was not contrary or repugnant to the declared doctrine of the Church ot Jinglana, ana 
 that Mr. Gorham ought not, by reason of the doctrine held by him, to have been refused admission to tne 
 vicarage of Brampton-Speke. " This decision led to subsequent proceedings in the three courts ot law, succes- 
 sively for a rule to show cause why a prohibition should not issue directed to the judge ot tue Arcnes 
 Court and to the archbishop of Canterbury, against giving effect to the judgment of hermajesty m council. 
 The rile was refused in each court, and in the end Mr. Gorham was instituted into the vicarage m question, 
 Aug. 7, 1850. 
 
TRI 
 
 732 
 
 TRI 
 
 TRIALS, continued. 
 
 The Board of Custon:is r. the London Dock 
 Company, on a charge of defrauduig the 
 revenue of duties ; a trial of ii daj's ended 
 in a virtual acquittal . . . Feb. i8, 1851 
 
 Sarah Chesham, for tlie murder of her husband 
 by poison : she had nuirdered several of her 
 children and others by the same means ; 
 hanged March 6, ,, 
 
 Thomas Drory, for the murder of Jael Uenny ; 
 hanged March 7, ,, 
 
 Doyle r. Wright, concerning the personal 
 custody of Wiss Augusta Talbot, a Rjnian 
 Catholic ward of Cliancery, before the lord 
 chancellor ; protiaofed case . March 22, ,, 
 
 The murderers of the rev. George Edward 
 Holiest, of Firmley, Esse.^ ; guilty, March 31, ,, 
 
 Miller v. aid. Salomons, M.P., for voting as a 
 member without having taken the required 
 oath ; verdict against the defendant, April 19, 1832 
 
 The case "Bishop of London v. the rev. Mr. 
 Gladstone :" judgment of the Arches court 
 against the defendant . . . June 10, ,, 
 
 Achilli V. Newman, for libel ; tried before lord 
 chief justice Campbell in tlac Queen's Bench : 
 verdict for the plaintiff . . . Jan. 31, ,, 
 
 Lord Frankfort, for scandalous and defamatory 
 libels; guilty ..... Dec. 3, ,, 
 
 Bichard Bourke Kirwan, for the murder of his 
 wife; guilty Dec. 10, ,, 
 
 Eliot Bowe-, for the murder of Mr. Saville 
 Morton, at Paris ; acquitted . Dec. 28, ,, 
 
 Henry Horler, for the murder of his wife ; 
 hanged at the Old Bailey . . Jan. 15, 1853 
 
 James Barbour, for the murder of Kobinson ; 
 hanged at York .... Jan. 15, ,, 
 
 George Sparkes and James Hitchcock, for the 
 murder of William Blackmore at Exeter; 
 guilty March 19, ,, 
 
 Five Frenchmen (principal anil seconds) for 
 the murder of a sixth Frenchman in a duel 
 at Egham ; verdict, manslaughter, Mai-ch 21, ,, 
 
 Moore ahd Walsh, for the miu-der of John 
 Blackburn, at Stafford ; hanged . March 21, 
 
 Saunders, for the mui'der of Mr. Toler ; hanged 
 at Chelmsford .... March 30, ,, 
 
 The Stackpole family, four in number ; two 
 of them females, and wives to the others, for 
 the murder of their relative, also a Stackpole ; 
 hanged at Ennis .... Api-il 28, ,, 
 
 Case of Holy Cross HoRi^ital, Winchester, de- 
 cided against rev. earl of Guildford, Aug. i, ,, 
 
 Smyth V. Smyth, ended in the plaintiff being 
 committed on a charge of forging the will on 
 which he grounded his claim Aug. 8, 9, 10, ,, 
 
 The Braiutree case respecting liability to 
 church-rates, decided by the house of lords, 
 against the rate .... Aug. 12, ,, 
 
 Case of Lximley v. Gye, respecting Madlle. 
 Wagner ; decided .... Feb. 22, 1854 
 
 Mr. Jeremiah Smith, mayor of Rye, convicted 
 of perjury March 2, ,, 
 
 Duchess of Manchester's will case . April, ,, 
 
 Mr. Garden for the abduction of Miss E. 
 Arbuthnot, and assault upon John Smith- 
 wick ; convicted . . . July 28, 29, ,, 
 
 Mary Anne Brough, for murdering her six 
 children ; not guilty (insanit3-) . Aiig. 9, „ 
 
 Case of Pierce Somerset Butler v. viscount 
 Mountgarret ; verdict for plaintiff, who thus 
 came into a peerage, the defendant being 
 proved illegitimate .... Aug. „ 
 
 Courts-martial on lieutenants Perry and Greer ; | 
 
 sentences reversed by lord Hardingc, July 
 
 29 -Aug. 1854 . 
 Courts-martial on sir E. Belcher, captain | 
 
 McClure, &c., for abandoning their ships in 
 the Arctic regions ; acquitted . . Oct. ,, 
 Emanuel BartheliSmy, for murder of Charles 
 
 CoUard and Mr. Jloore (executed) ; Jan, 4, 1855 
 Haridcock v. Delaoour, otherwise De Burgh 
 (cruelty of Mrs. Handcock, and charges 
 against lord Clanricarde) ; compromised . . , , 
 Earl of Seftoii v. Hop wood (will set aside), 
 
 April 3-10, ,, 
 Luigi BaranoUi, for murder of Joseph Latham 
 
 (or Lambert) ; (executed April 30) . April 12, ,, 
 Charles King, a great thief- trainer ; transported, 
 
 April 13, ,, 
 David M. Davidson and Cosmo W. Gordon, for 
 frauds and forgeries of securities, &c. : con- 
 victed May 24, ,, 1 
 
 Wm. Austin (governor), for cruelties in Bir- 
 mingham gaol; acquitted . . Aug. 3, ,, 
 Sir John Dean Paul, William Strahan, and 
 Robert M. Bates, bankers, for disposing of 
 their customers' securities (to the amount of 
 113,625/.) : convicted . . . Oct. 27, , 
 Joseph Wooler, on charge of poisoning his wife ; 
 
 acquitted Nov. 7, 
 
 Westertou v. Liddell* (on decorations, kc, in 
 church in Knightsbridge ; decision against 
 
 them) Dec. 5, ,, 
 
 Celestina Sommers, for murder of her children ; 
 
 convicted (but reprieved) . . March 6, 1856 
 Wm. Palmer, t for murder of J. P. Cook by 
 
 poison (executed) . . . May 14-27, ,, 
 Wm. Dove, for murder of his wife (executed 
 
 Aug. 9) July 19, ,, 
 
 Ditcher v. archdeacon Denison, respecting the 
 doctrine of the eucharist ; defendant deprived, 
 and appeal disallowed . . . Oct. 22, ,, 
 W.S. Hardwicke and H. Attwell ; convicted of 
 
 forgery Oct. 31, ,, 
 
 Wm. Robson, for frauds of Crystal Palace 
 Company (to the amount of about 28,000?.) ; 
 transported for twenty years . Nov. i, ,, 
 Earl of Lucan r. Daily Nev:s tor libel; verdict 
 
 for defendant .... Dec. 3, ,, 
 
 Pearce, Burgess, and Tester. See Gold Robbery 
 
 Jan. 14, 1857 
 
 Leopold Redpath, for forgeries (to the amount 
 
 of i5o,ooo(.) upon Great Northern Railway 
 
 Company ; transported for life . Jan. 16, ,, 
 
 Miss Madeline Smith, on charge of poisoning 
 
 Emile L'Angeher, at Glasgow ; not proven, 
 
 June 30—- July 9, . , 
 Thos. Fuller Bacon, { for poisoning his mother, 
 
 convicted ..... July 25, ,, 
 
 James SpoUen. on charge of murder of Mr. 
 
 Little, near Dublin ; acquitted . Aug. 7-11, ,, 
 Jem Saward, a barrister (called the Penman), 
 Wm. Anderson, and others, convicted of 
 extensive forgery of bankers' cheques. Mar. 5, „ 
 W. AttweU and others, convicted of stealing the 
 countess of EUesrnere's jewels (value 15,000?.) 
 from the top of a cab • . . Dec. 15, ,, 
 Strevens v. Campion, for slander, in charging 
 tlie jilaintiff with complicity in the murder 
 of his aunt, Mrs. Kelly ; damages 6d. Dec. 31, ,, 
 The directors of the British Bank, Humphry- 
 Brown, Edw. Esdaile, H. D. Macleod, alder- 
 man R. H. Kennedy, W. D. Owen, James 
 Stapleton, and Hvigh Innes Cameron, for 
 fraud (see Banks, p. 68) ; convicted Feb. 13-27, 1858 
 
 * Decided again by privy council, partly for both parties ; each to pay his own costs ; March 21, 1857. 
 
 t He was ext.cuted at Stafford on June 14, in the presence of 50,000 persons. If he had been acquitted 
 he would have l)een tried for the murder of his wife and brother. The trial in every respect was the most 
 remarkable one for many years. 
 
 t He was acquitted on a charge of murdering two children in May 13, 14, same year. His wife con- 
 fessed the mvirder, b\it appeared to be insane. 
 
TPJ 
 
 733 
 
 TRI 
 
 TRIALS, continued. 
 
 Kev. S. Smith and liis wife, for murderous 
 assault en John Leech ; convicted, April 6, 7, i 
 
 Edw. Auchmuty Glover, M.P., for false declara- 
 tion of qualification of M.P. . April 9, &;c. 
 
 Simon Bernard, as accessory to the conspiracy 
 against the life of the emperor Napoleon; 
 acquitted .... April 12-17, 
 
 The earldom of Shrewsbury case ; earl Talbot's/ 
 claim allowed .... June i, 
 
 James Seal, for the murder of Sarah Guppy; 
 convicted (and executed) . . July 23, 
 
 The Bt-rkeley peerage case . . July 23, 
 
 Patience Swynfen v. F. H. S\vynfen ; * a will 
 case ; the will affirmed . . . July 27, 
 
 Lemon Oliver, a stockbroker, convicted of ex- 
 tensive frauds .... Nov. 10, 
 
 Marchmont v. Marchmont ; a disgraceful divorce 
 case, began . . , . . Nov. 30, 
 
 W. H. Guernsey, for stealing Ionian despatches 
 from the Colonial Office ; acquitted, Dec. 15, . 
 
 Evans •;;. Evans and Rose ; divorce case Dec. 
 
 Lieut. -col. Dickson v. earl of Wilton, for libel; 
 verdict for the plaintiff . . Feb. 14, ] 
 
 Black V. Elliott, 850 sheep poisoned by a sheep- 
 wash sold by defendant; damages 1400?. 
 
 Feb. 23, 
 
 Wagner, Bateman, and others, a gang of bank 
 forgers ; convicted . . . May 13, 
 
 Earl of Shrewsbury v. Hope Scott, and others ; 
 the earl gains the Shrewsbury estates, June 3, 
 
 Thellussou will case decided (see Thellussoii) 
 
 June 9, 
 
 T. R. Marshall, E. A. Mortimer, and H. S. 
 Eicke, convicted of illegal sale of army com- 
 missions June 29, 
 
 Thomas Smethurst,t a surgeon, for the murder 
 
 by poison of Isabella Bankes, whom he had 
 
 married during his wife's lifetime ; convicted 
 
 Aug. is-ig, 
 
 Oakley v. the Moulvie Ooddeen, " ambassador 
 of the king of Oude." Verdict for the defen- 
 dant, who seems to have fallen among bill- 
 sharpers Dec. 17, 
 
 David Hughes, an attorney, convicted of gross 
 frauds upon his cUents . . . Jan. ^ 
 
 Eugenia Plummer, aged 11 years, convicted of 
 perjury against rev. Mr. Hatch May 14, 
 
 Nottidge V. Prince (see Agapenione) July 25, 
 
 Thomas Hopley, a schoolmaster, convicted of 
 manslaughter of Reginald Cancellor, by 
 flogging July 23, 
 
 Mr. Edward Leatham, M.P., convicted of 
 bribery at Wakefield •-. . . July 19, 
 
 Rev. J. Bonwell, of Stepney, degraded for im- 
 morality Aug. 29, 
 
 James Mullens, convicted for the murder of Mrs. 
 Elmsley ; by endeavouring to inculpate one 
 Ems, he led to his own conviction Oct. 25, 
 
 Miss Shedden v. Patrick. (The plaintiff ably 
 pleaded her own cause when the case was 
 
 opened ; her object, to prove the legitimacy of 
 her father, was not attained) Nov. 9, et seq. 
 
 Hooper v. Ward ; disgraceful profligacy of a 
 magistrate ; verdict for plaintiff Dec. 19, 20, 
 
 Brookv. Brook (see Marriage wilh Wife's Sidcr). 
 The house of lords on appeal decide against 
 the validity of such marriages, even when 
 celebrated in a foreign country March 18, 
 
 Thelwall v. hon. major Yelverton. The plaintiff 
 sued for expenses incurred by defendant's 
 wife ; the major denied the validity of his 
 ■ marriage with Miss Longwurth, having since 
 married the widow of professor Edward 
 Forbes, the eminent naturalist. The court 
 in Dublin, supported the first marriage, J 
 Feb. 21, to March 4, 
 
 Reade v. Lacy ; the dramatising a novel re- 
 strained April 17, 
 
 Beamish v. Beamish ; the lords on appeal decide 
 that a clergyman cannot perform the cere- 
 mony of marriage for himself . April 22, 
 
 Emperor of Austria v. Day ; verdict for plaintiff. 
 The defendant had printed 100 millions florin 
 notes on the bank of Hungary, for Louis 
 Kossuth. The notes were ordered to be de- 
 stroyed within one month, May 6 ; judgment 
 afarmed June 12, 
 
 Cardross case. John MacMillan, a free-church 
 minister, was expelled 4or drunkenness and 
 misconduct. May, 1858. The Glasgow synod 
 and the general assembly of the free church 
 affirmed the sentence. He appealed to the 
 court of session, which set aside the decree 
 (which involved temporalities), asserting that 
 the assembly had only spiritual authority, 
 
 July, 
 
 W. B. Tumbull v. Bird, secretary of Protestant 
 alliance ; libel ; verdict for defendant, July 
 
 8-10, 
 
 J. C. Charlesworth, M.P., convicted of bribery 
 at the Wakefield election . . July 20, 
 
 Baron de Vidil ; convicted of wounding his son ; 
 the latter refused to give evidence against his 
 father Aug. 23, 
 
 Vincent Collucci : convicted of obtaining money 
 on false pretences, from Miss F. Johnstone 
 
 Oct. 23, 
 
 John Curran, a Dublin cabman ; convicted of a 
 violent assault on Miss Jolly, who heroically 
 defended herself .... Oct. 25-30 
 
 Patrick McCaffery ; shot col. Crofton and oapt. 
 Hanham, at Preston ; convicted . Dec. 13, 
 
 Inquiry into sanity of Wm. Fred. Wjmdham (on 
 behalf of his relatives), with a view of an- 
 nulling an injudicious marriage ; trial lasted 
 34 days ; 140 witnesses examined ; verdict, 
 sane mind (see Lunacy), Dec. 16, i86i-Jan. 30, 
 
 [Each party adjudged to pay its own costs, 
 March, 1862.] 
 
 Capt. Robertson, by court-martial ; convicted 
 
 * The plaintiff was Patience Swynfen, widow of Henry John Swynfen, son of the testator Samuel 
 Swynfen. Her husband died June 15, 1854, and his father on July 16 following, having made a will 
 19 days before his death, devising the Swynfen estate (worth above 60,000?.) to his son's wife ; but leaving a 
 large amount of personal estate undisposed of. The defendant, F. H. Swynfen, son of the testator's 
 eldest half-brother, claimed the estate as beir-at-law on the ground of the testator's insanity. The issue was 
 brought to trial in March, 1856 ; but proceedings were stayed by Mrs. Swynfen's counsel, sir F. R. Thesiger, 
 entering into an agreement with the opposite counsel, sir Alexander Cockburn, without her consent, and 
 in defiance of her instructions. After various proceedings, the Court of Chancery cirdered a new trial. 
 She gained her cause, mainly through the energy of her counsel, Mr. Chas. R. Kennedy, to whom she had 
 promised to pay 20,000/. for his extraordinary services. Mrs. Swynfen, however, married a Mr. Broun and 
 repudiated Mr. Kennedy's claim. The latter, in an action against her, obtaim-d a verdict iu his favour on 
 March 29, 1862, which was, on appeal, finally reversed in Feb. 1864. Mrs. Swynfen was non-sviited in an 
 action brought against her counsel (afterwards lord Chelmsford and lord chancellor), in July, 1859, and 
 June, i860. 
 
 t He was reprieved on the ground of insufficient evidence ; but was tried and found guilty of bigamy, 
 Nov. 16, 1859. O" Nov. II, 1862, he proved Miss Bankes's wiU and obtained her property. 
 
 X On appeal, the Scotch court annulled this marriage, July, 1S62, and this judgment was affirmed by 
 the house of lords, July 28, 1864. 
 
TRI 
 
 734 
 
 TRI 
 
 TRIALS, continued. 
 
 of submitting to ungentlemanly conduct from 
 
 his brother officers : — 30 days' inquiry ; ended 
 
 March 24, 
 
 [The coxirt was much blamed by the public and 
 the sentence was annulled.] 
 
 Mrs. A. C. Vyse, for poisoning her two children, 
 acquitted as insane .... July 9, 
 
 Eoupell V. Waite ; during the trial, W. Roupell, 
 M.P., a witness, confessed himself guilty of 
 forging a will, and other frauds Aug. 18, 19, 
 
 Jessie McLacblan ; convicted for the murder of 
 Jessie Macpherson, at Glasgow ; she con- 
 fessed to beiiJg accessary after the murder, 
 which she imjiuted to Mr. Fleming, a gentle- 
 man 80 or 90 years old . . Sept. 17-20, 
 [She was respited, Oct. 27, 1862.] 
 
 Wm. Roupell, M.P. , for forgery; convicted on 
 his own confession . . . Sept. 24, 
 
 Catherine Wilson ; convicted of poisoning Mrs. 
 Soames in 1856 .... Sept. 25-27, 
 
 27 indictments and 24 convictions for savage 
 personal outrages in the streets of the metro- 
 polis during the month . . . Nov. 
 
 Wm. Digby Seymour, M.P., v. Butterworth ; 
 libel ; verdict for plaintiff, damages 400., Dec. 3, 
 
 Hall V. Semple ; verdict for plaintiff, who had 
 been consigned to a lunatic asylum through 
 his wife's getting the defendant to sign a 
 certificate of lunacy with culjiable negligence ; 
 damages, 150? Dec 10, 
 
 George Buncher, Wm. Biu-nett, Richd. Brewer, 
 and James Griffiths, for forging bank-notes, 
 printed on paper stolen from the paper-mill 
 at Laverstoke ; convicted . Jan. 7-12,"] 
 
 Clare v. The Queen; petition of right, for in- 
 fringement of a patent ; verdict for defendant, 
 
 Feb. 2-6, 
 
 Rev. John Campbell v. Spottiswoode (as printer 
 of a libel in Saturday Review); verdict for 
 plaintiff Feb. 27, 
 
 Queen on appeal of earl of Cardigan v. col. Cal- 
 thorpe for libel, charging the earl with de- 
 serting his men at Balaclava, Oct. 25, 1855 : 
 verdictfordefendant(who, however, admitted 
 his error) ..... June g, 10, 
 
 Attorney-general v. Sillim and others, for 
 having built the Alexandra for the Con- 
 federates, against the Enlistment Act ; verdict 
 for defendants June 25, 
 
 [Decision finally affirmed on appeal to the house 
 of lords, April 6, 1864.] 
 
 Col. Lothian Dickson v. viscount Combermere, 
 earl of Wilton, and gen. Peel, for conspiracy 
 to expel him from the army ; verdict for de- 
 fendants .... June 27, et seq. 
 
 Morrison (Zadkiel) v. sir Edward Belcher ; libel ; 
 verdict, 20s. damages . . June 29, 1863 
 
 Richard Roupell v. Haws : arising out of 
 Roupell forgeries ; no verdict . July 16-24, » 
 
 WooUey v Pole for Sun fire-office : verdict for 
 plaintiff', awarding him his claim for 29,000?. 
 for his insurance of Campden-house ; burnt 
 March 23, 1862 .... Aug. 29, ,, 
 
 George Victor Townley; for mui-der of Miss 
 Goodman, through jealousy; convicted 
 
 Dec. 12, „ 
 
 [He escaped execution through a certificate of 
 insanity, too hastily signed ; and committed 
 suicide in prison, Feb. 12. 1865.] 
 
 Lieut.-col. Crawley, by court-martial at Alder- 
 shot, for alleged oppression and cruelty to 
 serjeant-major John Lilley, in consequence of 
 a court-martial at Mhow, in India ; honour- ^K 
 ably acquitted . Nov. 17-Dec. 23, jJH 
 
 Franz MtUler, for murder of Mr. Briggs in a ^B 
 railway carriage, .July 9 ; convicted, Oct. 27-29, 1864 
 
 Gedney v. Smith ; a supposititious child de- 
 tected and depiived of much property, Nov. 10, ,, 
 
 E. K. Kohl, for murder of Theodore Fuhrkop ; 
 convicted Jan. u, 12, 1865 
 
 Queen V. Wm. Rumble, for infringement of 
 Foreign Enlistment Act, in equipping the 
 Rappahannock for the Confederate govern- 
 ment; acquitted .... Feb. 4, ,, 
 
 Woodgate v. Ridout (for Morning Post) for libel 
 respecting the great will case of the earl of 
 Egremout v. Darell ; verdict for plaintiff, 
 1000? Feb. 10, „ 
 
 Bishop Colenso's appeal to privy council against 
 decision of bishop of Capetown, deposing 
 him ; which is annulled . . March 21, „ 
 
 Roberts, Jeffery, Casely, and others ; for jewel 
 robberies in London ; convicted . April 13, ,, 
 
 J. W. Terry and Thos. Burch, for misdemeanour 
 in connexion with the Unity bank ; acquitted 
 
 April „ 
 
 Edw. Wm. Pritchard, M.D., for murder of his 
 wife and her mother, by poisoning; guilty, 
 
 July 3-7. ,> 
 Trials of Fenians for treason-felony : Thos. 
 Clarke Lubj', convicted and sentenced to 20 
 years' penal servitude, Nov. 28-Dec. i ; O'Leary 
 and others convicted ; O'Donovan Rossa (pre- 
 viously convicted) sentenced to imprisonment 
 for life, Dec. 13 ; others convicted at Cork, 
 
 Dec. „ 
 Stephen Forwood (or Ernest Southey), for mur- 
 der of his wife and children ; guilty, Dec. 20-21, , , 
 (See Executions.) 
 Other Fenians convicted at Dublin . Jan. 1866 
 
 TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE {Tribuni Plehis), magistrates of Rome, first chosen from 
 among the commons to represent the people, 493 B. c. , at the time the people, after a quarrel 
 with the Senators, had retired to Mons Sacer. The first two were C. Licinius and L. 
 Albinus ; but their number was soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, which 
 number remained fixed. Their ofiice was annual, and as the first had been created on the 
 4th of the ides of December, that day was chosen for the election. In A.D. 1347, Nicolo di 
 Rienzi assumed absolute power in Rome as tribune of the people, and reformed many abuses ; 
 but committing many extravagances, he lost his popularity and was compelled to abdicate. 
 He returned to Rome and was assassinated, Sept. 8, 1354. 
 
 TRIC0TEUSE3 (knitters), a name given to a number of French republican females, who 
 zealously attended executions in 1792, knitting at intervals. 
 
 TRIENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. On Feb. 15, 1641, an act was passed providing for 
 the meeting of a parliament at least once in three years. It was repealed in 1664. Another 
 triennial bill, passed in 1694, was repealed by the Septennial act, 1716. See Parliaments 
 and Septennial Parliaments. 
 
 TRIESTE, an Austrian port on the Adriatic, declared a free port in 1750. It was held 
 
TEI 735 TEI 
 
 by the Frencli iil 1717, 1797, and 1805. Since the establishment of the overland mail to 
 India, it has risen to great commercial importance. 
 
 TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. See Ordnance. 
 
 TRIMMER ; a term applied to Charles Montague, earl of Halifax, and others who held 
 similar political opinions, midway between those of the extreme Whigs and Tories, about 
 the latter part of the 17th centuiy. He assumed the title as an honour, asserting that it 
 could be rightly given to the British constitution and church. Macaulay says that Halifax 
 was a Trimmer on principle, and not a renegade. He died in 1715. 
 
 TRIlSrCOMALEE. Reckoned the finest harbour in the East Indies. Trincomalee was 
 taken from the Dutch, by the English, in 1782; it was retaken by the French the same 
 year ; but was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1783. It surrendered to the British, 
 under colonel Stewart, Aug. 26, 1795, and was confirmed to England by the peace of A'miens, 
 in 1802. See Ceylon. Of a series of actions off Ti'incomalee between sir Edward Hughes 
 and the French admiral Suffrein, one was fought Feb. 18, 1782, the enemy having eleven 
 ships to nine ; on April 12 following, they had eighteen ships to eleven, and on July 6, same 
 year, they had fifteen ships to twelve. In all these conflicts the French were defeated. 
 
 TRINIDAD, an island in the West Indies, was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was 
 taken from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the French took it from the 
 English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the line, and a military force 
 under command of sir Ralph Abercromby, to whom the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797 ; 
 they captured two, and burnt three Spanish ships of war in the harbour. This possession 
 was confirmed to England by tlie peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes 
 occirrred Jan. 4, 1832. Population in 1861, 84,438. 
 
 TRINITY AND Trikitarians. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by nearly all 
 Christians. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch,. who flourished in the 2nd century, was the 
 first who used the term Trinity, to express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. His 
 Defence of Christianity was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. Watkins. An order of 
 the Trinity was founded, 1198, by John de Matha and Felix do Valois. The Trinity 
 fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, was instituted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. 
 The act to exempt from penalties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity (such as 
 Unitarians and Swedenborgians) passed in 1813. 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGES. See Cambridge and Oxford. Trinity College, Dublin, called 
 the University : grant of the Augirstine monastery of All Saints within the suburbs for 
 erecting this college, conferred by queen Elizabeth, 1591. First stone laid by Thomas Smith, 
 mayor of Dublin, Jan. i, 1593. New chai-ter, 1637. Made a barrack for soldiers, 1689. 
 Burns. The principal or west front erected, 1759. Librar}'- erected, 1732. 
 
 TRINITY HOUSE, London, founded by sir Thomas Spert, 1512, as an ''association 
 for piloting ships," was incorporated in 15 14, and re-incorporated in 1647 ^^'^ 1685. The 
 present Trinity House was erected in 1795. Trinity Houses were founded at Deptford, at 
 Hull, and at Newcastle : these three societies were instituted and incorporated by Henry YIII. , 
 the first in 1512, the other two in 1537. By their charter they have the power of examining, 
 licensing, and regulating pilots, and of erecting beacons and lighthouses, and of placing buoys 
 in the channels and rivers ; and their powers and privileges have been greatly augmented by 
 sjicceeding kings. Recent masters : the Prince Consort, died, Dec. 14, 1861 ; lord Palmerston, 
 appointed June 16, 1862, died Oct. 18, 1865 ; succeeded by the prince of Wales. 
 
 TRINITY SUNDAY. The festival of the Holy Trinity was instituted by pope Gregory 
 IV. in 828, on his ascending the papal chair, and is observed by the Latin and Protestant 
 churches on the Sunday next following Pentecost or Whitsuntide, of which, originally, it was 
 merely an Octave. The observance of the festival was first enjoined in the council of Aries, 
 1260. It was appointed to be held on the present day by pope John XX. in 1334. Trinity 
 Sunday, in 1866, May 27 ; in 1867, June 16 ; in 1868, June 7. 
 
 TRIPLE ALLIANCE was ratified between the States-General and England against 
 France, for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden afterwards joining the 
 league, it was known as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28, 1668. Another Triple Alliance was 
 that between England, Holland, and France against Spain, I7i7' 
 
 TRIPOLITZA, Greece, was stormed by the Greeks, who committed dreadful cruelties, 
 Oct. 5, 1821 ; retaken by the Egyptians, 1825 ; given up to the Greeks, 1828. 
 
 TRIREMES, galleys with three banks of oars, are said to have been invented by the 
 Corinthians, 784 B.C. 
 
TRI 
 
 '36 
 
 TRU 
 
 TRIUMPHS were granted by the Roman senate to generals of armies after they had won 
 great victories. They were received into the city with great magnificence and public accla- 
 jnations. Tliere were the great, called the Triumph ; and the less, the Ovation. See 
 Ovation. 
 
 TRIUMVIRATES, Roman. The first, 60 B.C., consisted of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and 
 Crassus, who formed a coalition to rule the state. Their union lasted ten years, and the civil 
 war ensued. The second triumvirate 43 B.C., was formed by Octavius Csesar, Mark Antony, 
 and Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Octavius disagreed with 
 his colleagues : Lepidus was expelled in 36 ; Antony was subdued in 31, and Octavius made 
 himself absolute in Rome. This triumvirate continued for about twelve years. See Rome, 
 On March 29, 1849, a triumvirate was appointed at Rome, consisting of Joseph Mazzini, 
 Armellini, and Safli, which resigned on July i, 1849, when the city was taken by the French. 
 
 TROPPAU, CoNGKESS OF, in Austrian Silesia. The emperors Francis of Austria and 
 Alexander of Russia met at Troppau, Oct. 20, 1820. The conference between them and the 
 king of Prussia, against Naples, took place Nov. 10 ; and the congress was transferred to 
 Laybach, as nearer to Italy, Dec. 17, 1820. See Laylach. 
 
 TROUBADOURS and Troxtveres ( from troubar, trouver, to find or invent), the poets 
 of the middle ages (from the eleventh to the fifteenth century). The former flourished in the 
 south of France and north of Spain, and used the Langue d'oc (that is oc for oui, yes) ; the 
 latter flourished in the north of France, and used the Langue d'oil (that is oil for oui). The 
 Troubadours produced romances, yet excelled chiefly in lyric poetry ; the Trouveres excelled 
 in romances, several of which are extant ; as, tlie Brut d' Anglcterre, and the Rou, by Wace ; 
 the romance of the "Rose," by Guillaume de Lorris, and Jean de Meuug. The Troubadours 
 were usually accompanied by Jongleurs, who sang their masters' verses, with the accompani- 
 ment of the guitar. Histories of these French poets, and specimens of their works, have 
 been published in France. These poets, although freqiiently very licentious, undoubtedly 
 tended to promote civilisation during those warlike times. 
 
 TROY (Asia Minor). Its obscure and traditional history is immortalised by Homer. 
 
 Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia Minor. Bla ir 
 
 B.C. 1546 
 
 Teucer succeeds his father 1 502 
 
 Dardanus succeeds Teucer, aud builds the city 
 
 of Dardania 1480 
 
 Reign of Erichthonius 1449 
 
 Reign of Tros, from whom the people are called 
 
 Trojans, and the city Troy .... 1374 
 llus, son of Troas, reign.s, and the city is called 
 Ilium . . . , , , , ..1314 
 
 Reign of Laomedon 1260 
 
 Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia. Ilesione de- 
 livered from the sea-monster. Blair; Usher 122s 
 War of Hercules and Laomedon . . . . 1224 
 Reign of Priam or Podarces . . . . ,, 
 
 Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, son of 
 Priam, 20 years before the sacking of Troy. 
 
 Homer's Iliad, book xxiv. line 964, Pope's edit. 
 
 B.C. 1204 
 
 Commencement of the invasion of the Greeks 
 to recover Helen 
 
 Troy taken and burnt in the night of the 
 nth of June, i.e. 23rd of the month Thar- 
 gelion. Parian Marbles. 408 years before 
 the first Olympiad. Apollodorus, Hales, and 
 Clinton, 1183 ; others 
 
 iEueas an-ives in Italy. Levglet . . . . 
 
 [Some time after the destruction of Troy, a 
 new city was built with the same name, 
 about thirty stadia distant from the old site. 
 It was favoured by Alexander the Great in 
 his Asiatic expedition, but never rose to 
 much importance, and in the age of Strabo 
 was nearly in ruins. — Priestlet/.'} 
 
 193 
 
 1184 
 1 183 
 
 TROY WEIGHT. The Romans left their ounce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in Britain, 
 The present ounce of this weight was brought from Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time 
 of the Crusades, 1095. It was first adopted at Troyes, a city of France, whence the name ; 
 and is used to weigh gold, silver, and precious stones. The Troy weight, Scots, was 
 established by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618. See Standard. 
 
 TROYES, Central France, where a treaty was concluded between England, France, and • 
 Burgundy, whereby it was stipulated that " Henry V. shotild marry Catherine, daughter of 
 Charles VI. , be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should inherit the 
 crown. May 21, 1420. Troyes was taken by the allied armies, Feb. 7 ; retaken by Napoleon, 
 Feb. 23 ; and again taken by the allies, March 4, 1814. 
 
 TRUCE OF GOD {Treuga Dei), a term given to a cessation of the private feuds and 
 conflicts so general during the middle ages, all over Europe. The clerg)'^ strenuously exerted 
 their influence for the purpose. A synod at Roussillon, 1027, decreed that none should 
 attack his enemy between Saturday evening (at nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of 
 prime). Similar regulations were adopted in England, 1042 (sometimes Friday and Wednes- 
 day being chosen for the time). The truce of God was confirmed by many councils of the 
 church, especially the Lateran Council, in 11 79. 
 
TRU 737 TUI 
 
 TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trumpet to the 
 Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the time of Homer, hut not at 
 the time of the Trojan war. First torches, then shells of fish sounded like trumpets, were 
 the signals in primitive wars. Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by 
 Alexander the Great in 335 B.C. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time of 
 Offa, king of Mercia, A.D. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by Kircher in 1652, 
 by Salland, 1654, and philosophically explained by Moreland, 1671. 
 
 TRUMPET-FLOWER, Bignonia radicans, was brought hither from North America, 
 about 1640. The Trumpet Honeysuckle, Lonicera sempervircns, came from North America 
 in 1656. The Bignonia capensis was brought to England, from the Cape, in 1823. The 
 Large-flowered Trumpet-flower, or Bignonia grandiflora, was brought from China in 1800. 
 
 TRUSS. A transverse spring truss for ruptures was patented by Robert Brand in 1771, 
 and by many other persons since. The National Truss Society, to assist indigent persons, 
 was established in 1 786 ; and many similar societies since. 
 
 TUAM ("W. Ireland). St. Jarlath, the son of Loga, who lived about 501, is looked upon 
 as the first founder of the cathedral of Tuam, though the abbey is said to have been founded 
 in 487. The church was anciently called Tuaim-da-Gualand. In 1151, Edan O'Hoisin Avas 
 the first archbishop, at least the first who had the use of the pall, for some of his predecessors 
 are sometimes called bishops of Connaught, and sometimes archbishops, by Irish historians. 
 The see of Maj'o was annexed to Tuam in 1559, Tuam is valued in the king's books, by an 
 extent returned anno 28 Eliz., at 50Z. sterling per annum. Beatson. It ceased to be 
 archiepiscopal, conformably with the statute 3 & 4 Will. IV. 1833, and is now a bishopric 
 onl}^ to which Killala and Achonrj', a joint see, has been added. See Archbishops. 
 
 TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tubular Suspension Bridge, then the most 
 wonderful enterprise in engineering in the world, was constructed about a mile southward 
 of the Menai Strait Suspension Bridge.* At this spot is a rock called the Britannia rock, 
 near the centre of the Menai Strait, the surface of which is about ten feet above low-water 
 level, on which is built a tower two hundred feet above high water (commenced building, 
 May 1846), and on which rest two lines of tubes or hollow girders strong enough to bear 
 their weight and laden trains in addition, the ends resting on the abutments on each shore ; 
 each tube being more than a quarter of a mile in length. The height of the tube within is 
 thirty feet at the Britannia tower, diminishing to twenty-three feet at the abutments.- The 
 lifting of these tubes to their places was regarded as the most gigantic operation ever success- 
 fully performed, June 27, 1849. The first locomotive passed through, March, 1850. The 
 Conway Tubular Bridge (1846-48) is a miniature copy of the Britannia, and therefore requires 
 no description. The principal engineers were Mr. Robert Stephenson and Mr. Fairbairu. 
 At Chepstow is a railway tubular bridge, erected in 1852. A bridge or viaduct on the 
 tubular principle (called the Albert viaduct) over the river Tamar at Plymouth was opened 
 by the prince consort, May 2, 1859. The most stupendous tubular bridge in the world is 
 that over the St. Lawrence, Canada. See Victoria Bridge. 
 
 TUDELA ON THE Ebro (N. Spain). Near here marshal Lannes totally defeated the 
 Spaniards, Nov. 23, 1809. 
 
 TUESDAY, in Latin Dies Martis, the day of Mars, the third day of the week, so called 
 from Tuisto Tiw, or Tuesco, a Saxon deity, worshipped on this day. Tuisto is mentioned 
 by Tacitus. See Week Days. 
 
 TUILERIES (Paris), the imperial palace of France, commenced by Catherine de Medicis, 
 after the plans of Philibert de I'Orme, 1564 ; continued by Henry IV. ; and finished by 
 Louis XIV. This palace was stormed by the mob, Aug. 10, 1792; and ransacked in the 
 revolutions of 1830 and 1848. 
 
 * The Britannia tubular bridge was intended to supply the place of — we may also say supersede— one 
 of the finest bridges in the kingdom ; and the railway, of which the tubular bridge forms a part, is in like 
 manner a substitute for one of the finest mail-coach roads ever constructed. The road from London to 
 Holyhead has been long regarded as the highway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; and the late Mr. 
 Telford was applied to by the government to perfect this route by the London and Holyhead mail-joach 
 road, which he did by erecting a beautiful suspension bridge over the river Conway and over the M' nai 
 Strait ; commenced in July i8i8, and finished in July, 1825. When Chester became a centre of railway 
 communication a few years since, it was considered that a through route to Holyhead would be more 
 conveniently established from that point than from Shrewsbui-y, which lies in the route of Telford's road. 
 Accordingly the Chester and Holyhead Railway was constructed ; and in its course, both the Conway and. 
 the Menai had to be crossed ; and hence were formed the present tubular bridges. 
 
 3 B 
 
TUL 738 TUR 
 
 TULIPS came to England from A^ienna, 1578. It is recorded in the register of Alkraaer, 
 in Holland, that in 1639, 120 tnlips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins ; and that one 
 called the Viceroy, sold for 4203 guilders ! The States stopped this ruinous traffic. The 
 tulip- tree, Liriodendron tulij)ifera, was brought to England from America, about 1663. 
 
 TUNBRIDGE WELLS (Kent). The springs M-ere discovered, it is stated, by Dudley, 
 lord North, who, in the last stage of consumption, was restored to health by the use of its 
 waters, 1606. The wells were visited by the queens of Charles L and IL The place soon 
 became fashionable. 
 
 TUNGSTEN (also called wolfram and scheelium), a hard whitish brittle metal. From 
 tungstate of lead, Scheele in 1781 obtained tungstic acid, whence the brothers De Luyart in 
 1786 obtained the metal. In 1859 it was employed in making a new kind of steel. 
 
 TUNIS AND Tripoli (N. Africa). The former stands near where Carthage was built. 
 The territories of both formed jjart of the Carthaginian state, and were entirely destroyed by 
 the Romans after the third Punic war, 148 B.C. Tunis was besieged by Louis IX. of France, 
 1270. It remained under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, for Solyman the Mag- 
 nificent. Barbarossa was expelled by Charles V. ; but the country was recovered by the 
 Turks under Selim II. Taken with great slaughter by the emperor Charles V., when 10,000 
 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was first appointed in 1570. 
 Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the bej' refusing to deliver up the British captives, 
 1655. In July 1856, the bey agreed to make certain constitutional reforms. The bey died 
 Sept. 22, 1859 ; and his successor Sidi Sadok took the oath of fidelity to the constitution. 
 An insurrection broke out in April 18, 1864, and the European powers sent ships of war to 
 protect their subjects in May. 
 
 TUNNAGE AND PorjTDAGE were ancient duties levied on every tun of wine and pound of 
 other goods, imported or exported, and were the origin of our " customs." They commenced 
 in England about 21 Edw. III. 1346. They were granted to the kings of England for life, 
 beginning with Edward IV. At the beginning of his reign Charles I. gave great offence by 
 levj-ing them on his own authority. They ceased in 1689. 
 
 TUNNELS. The earliest tunnel for internal navigation was executed by M. Riguet, in 
 the reign of Louis XIV. at Bezieres in France. The first in England was by Mr. Brindley, 
 on the duke of Bridgewater's navigation, near Manchester, about 1760. Project of the 
 Gravesend tunnel, 1800 — the report upon it, 1801. The Thames Tunnel was projected by 
 Mr. Brunei in 1823, and opened for foot passengers, March 25, 1843. See Thames Tunnel. 
 In 1857 M. Thomi de Gamond proposed the making a submarine tunnel from France to 
 England ! Innumerable tunnels have been made for railways. The railway tunnel at 
 Liverpool was completed in the middle of 1829, lit up with gas, and exhibited once a week. 
 On the London and Birmingham railway there are eight tunnels (the Primrose-hill, "Watford, 
 Kilsby, &c.), their total length being 7336 yards. Smiles. It was computed by Mr. Fowler, 
 that there were 80 miles of tunnels in the United Kingdom in 1865, which cost about 
 6,500,000?., at the average of 45Z. a yard. 
 
 TURIN, an ancient Roman city in Piedmont, capital of the Sardinian States, and of the 
 kingdom of Italy, till 1864, when it was superseded by Florence. Its importance dates from 
 the permanent union of Savoy and Piedmont in 1416. The French besieged this city in 
 1706 ; but prince Eugene defeated their army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 
 1798, the French republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and 
 arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the island of 
 Sardinia. In 1799, the French were driven out by the Austrians and Russians ; but shortly 
 afterwards the city and aU Piedmont surrendered to the French. In 18 14, it was delivered 
 up to the allies, who restored it to the king of Sardinia. See Itahj, 1864. 
 
 TURKESTAN, Independent Tartary. The original country of the Turks, in Central 
 Asia, was reached by Alexander, 331 b.c. The Russians are gradually encroaching on this 
 country; and on Feb. 14, 1865, a new province, named Turkestan, was created by- 
 decree. 
 
 TURKEY. The Turks were originally a tribe of Tartars ; but by incorporation with the 
 peoples they have conquered, they must be regarded as a mixed race. About 760, they 
 obtained possession of a part of Armenia, called from them Turcomania. They afterwards 
 gradually extended their power ; but in the 13th century, being harassed in their new. 
 
TUR 
 
 739 
 
 TUR 
 
 possessions by other Tartar tribes, they returned to Asia Minor. Their dominions, divided 
 for some time into petty states, were united under Othman, who assumed the title of sultan, 
 and established his empire at Prusa, in Bithynia, in 1298. The Turkish empire compre- 
 hends the almost independent principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, Servia, and 
 Montenegro, and the hereditary vice-royalty of Egypt. • The population of the empire in 
 i860 was estimated at 37,430,000. 
 
 The Oghusian Tartars, the ancestors of the 
 
 present Turks, settle in Asia Minor . . . 1231 
 The Turkish empu-e first formed under Othman 
 
 at Bithynia (hence called Oitnman) . . . 1298 
 The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and take 
 
 Adrianoi^le 1361 
 
 Amurath I. institutes the Janissaries, a guard 
 
 composed of young Christian slaves, trained 
 
 as Mahometans . . . . . . 1362 
 
 Bajazet I. overruns the provinces of the 
 
 Eastern empire 1389 et seq. 
 
 He defeats Sigismund of Hvmgary at Nicopolis, 
 
 Sept. 28, 1396 
 He besieges Constantinople ; but is interrupted 
 
 by the approach of Tamerlane (or Timour), 
 
 by whom he is defeated and made prisoner, 
 
 July 28, 1402 
 Ladislas of Hungary defeated and slain at 
 
 Varna by Amurath .... Nov. 10, 1444 
 Amurath defeats John Hunniades at Kossova . 1448 
 The Turks, invading Hungary, are repelled by 
 
 Hunniades 1450 
 
 Constantinople taken by the Turks under 
 
 Mahomet II. which ends the Eastern Roman 
 
 empire 1453 
 
 Greece made subject to the Mahonaetans. See 
 
 Greece ' . . . . 1458 
 
 The Turks penetrate into Italy, and take 
 
 Otranto, which diffuses terror throughout 
 
 Europe 1480 
 
 Selim I. raised to the throne by the Janissaries ; 
 
 he murders his father, brothers, <&c. . . . 1512 
 He takes the islands of the Archipelago from 
 
 the Christians 1514 
 
 He overruns Syria 1515 
 
 Adds EgjTpt to his empire 15 16 
 
 Solyman II. takes Belgrade 1521 
 
 Rhodes taken frora the knights of St. John, 
 
 who go to Malta 1522 
 
 Battle of Mohatz (which see) 1526 
 
 Solyman II. with 250,000 men, is repulsed before 
 
 Vienna 1529 
 
 Cyprus taken from the Venetians . . . . 1571 
 Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an end to 
 
 the fears of Europe from Turkish power. See 
 
 Lepanto ...... Oct. 7, „ 
 
 Amurath II. ascends the throne ; strangles his 
 
 five brothers 1S74 
 
 [Dreadful persecutions of the Christians during 
 
 this reign.] 
 Treaty of commerce with England . . . 1579 
 The Turks driven out of Persia by the famous 
 
 Shah Abbas 1585 
 
 Bloody reign of Mahomet III 1595 
 
 Reign of Achmet I. 1603 
 
 Great fire in Constantinople .... 1606 
 Reign of Amurath IV. who strangles his father 
 
 and four brothers 1624 
 
 War with the Cossacks, who take Azof . . 1637 
 The Turks defeat the Persians and take the 
 
 city of Bagdad 1639 
 
 The island of Candia, or Crete, taken after a 
 
 25 years' siege . . .... 1669 
 
 Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV. but relieved 
 
 by John of Poland ...... 1683 
 
 Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman . . . 1687 
 
 C Peace of Carlovitz 1699 
 
 Mustapha III. deposed 1703 
 
 The Morea retaken by the Turks . . . . 1715 
 The Turks defeated at Peterwaradein . . 1716 
 They lose Belgrade ; and their power declines . 1717 
 Peace of Brivan (with Persia) . . . . 1732 
 
 Belgi-ade taken from Austria ; and Russia 
 
 relinquishes Azof 1739 
 
 The Turks defeated at Kars 1745 
 
 Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio; the 
 
 English and Russian fleets defeat the Turkish 1770 
 The Crimea falls to Russia .... Jan. 1784 
 Disastrous war with Russia and Austria, the 
 Turks lose more than 200,000 men . . 1787-91 
 
 Cession of Oczacow 1791 
 
 Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo . . . 1803 
 War against Russia and England . . . 1807 
 Passage and repassage of the Dardanelles 
 effected by the British fleet, but with great 
 loss. See Dardanelles . . . Feb. 19, ,, 
 Murder of Hali Aga .... May 25, ,, 
 The s\iltan Selim is deposed, and Mustapha IV. 
 
 called to the throne . . . May 29, ,, 
 The Janissaries massacre the newly disciplined 
 
 troops . 1808" 
 
 The Russians defeated at Silistria . . . . 1809 
 Treaty of Bucharest (wZiicTi sec) . . May 28, 1812 
 A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, returning 
 from Mecca, destroyed by a pestilential wind 
 in the deserts of Arabia ; 20 saved Aug. 9, „ 
 Subjugation of the Wahabees {whick see) . 1818-9 
 Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares himself 
 
 independent 1820 
 
 Insurrection of Moldavia and WaUachia, 
 
 March 6, 1821 
 The Greek patriarch put to death at Con- 
 stantinople April 23, ,j 
 
 [For the events in connection with the inde- 
 
 dependence of Greece, see Ch-eece.} 
 Horrible massacre at Scio ; the most dreadful 
 
 in modem history (see note to Greece) April 23, 1822- 
 Sea-fight near Mitylene . . , Oct. 6, 1824 
 New Mahometan army organised . Jlay 29, 1826 
 Insurrection of the Janissaries at Constanti- 
 nople, June 14 ; they are suppressed and 
 
 massacred June 16, ,, 
 
 Fire at Constantinople ; 6000 houses reduced to 
 
 ashes Aug. 30, ,, 
 
 Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet destroyed 
 by the fleets of England, France, and Russia. 
 See Navarino . . . . . Oct. 20, 1827 
 Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, and 
 
 85 Russian settlers from the empire Jan. 5, 1828 
 War with Russia .... April 26, „ 
 The czar Nicholas takes the field . May 20, „ 
 Capitulation of Brahilow . . June 19, ,, 
 Surrender of Anapa .... June 23, ,, 
 The eminences of Shumla taken by the 
 
 Russians July 20, ,, 
 
 The czar arrives before Varna . . Aug. 5, „ 
 Battle of Akhalzic .... Avig. 24, , , 
 Fortress of Bajazet taken . . . Sept. 9, ,, 
 The sultan proceeds to the camp with the 
 
 sacred standard .... Sept. 26, ,. 
 Dardanelles blockaded . . . Oct. i, „ 
 Surrender of Varna .... Oct. 13, ,, 
 Russians retreat from Shumla . . Oct. 16, „ 
 Surrender of the castle of the Morea to the 
 
 French Oct. 30, ,, 
 
 Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians, 
 
 Nov. 10, ,, 
 Victory of the Russians at Kulertscha, near 
 
 Shumla June 11, 1829 
 
 Battle near Erzeroum .... July 2, ,, 
 Adrianople is entered by the Russians, Aug. 20 ; 
 
 armistice agreed on . . . Aug. 29, „ 
 Treaty of peace .... Sept. 14, ,, 
 Fire at Constantinople; extinguished by the 
 
 3 B 2 
 
TUR 
 
 740 
 
 TUR 
 
 TURKEY, continued. 
 
 seamen and marines of H.M.S. Blonde, 
 
 Jan. 22, 1830 
 
 The Porte acknowledges the independence of 
 Greece April 25, „ 
 
 Treaty with America .... May 7, ,, 
 
 St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pacha, son of 
 Mehemet Ali July 2, 1832 
 
 He defeats the army of the sultan at Konieh 
 with great loss .... Dec. 21, ,, 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha mirches within eighty leagues 
 of Constantinople, and the sultan has recourse 
 to the aid of Rus.sia .... Jan. 1833 
 
 The Russians enter Constantinople . April 3, „ 
 
 Treaty with Russia, offensive and defensive, 
 
 July 8, „ 
 
 Office of grand vizier abolished . March 30, 1838 
 
 Treaty of commerce with England, concluded 
 by lord Ponsonby, ratified . . Aug. 16, ,, 
 
 [For the events of 1839 and 1840 in relation to 
 Syria, sec Syria.] 
 
 Chri.stians admitted to office in Turkey June, 1849 
 
 The Turkish government refuses to sun-ender 
 the Hungarian and Polish refugees on the 
 joint demand of Ru.ssia and Au.stria, Sept. 16, ,, 
 
 [The Porte (countenanced by England) firmly 
 resists this demand. J 
 
 Russia suspends intercoxirse with the Porte, 
 
 Nov. 12, ,, 
 
 The British fleet, under Sir W. Parker, anchors 
 in Besica bay .... Nov. 13, ,, 
 
 Diplomatic relations between Russia and the 
 Porte resumed, the latter sending the refugees 
 to Konieh Jan. 1850 
 
 Turkish Croatia in a state of rebellion . Jan. 1851 
 
 Treaty with France respecting the Holy Places 
 {which fee) Feb. 13, 1852 
 
 Prince MenschikofI repairs to Constantinople 
 as Russian negotiator, Feb. 28 ; his peremp- 
 tory demands rejected . . April 19, 1853 
 
 Keschid Pacha becomes foreign minister ; the 
 ultimatum being rejected, Menschikoff quits 
 Constantinople May 21, ,, 
 
 Hatti-shei-if issued, confirming the rights of 
 the Greek Christians . . June 6, ,, 
 
 Russian manifesto against Turkey . June 26, „ 
 
 Ru.s.sian army crosses the Pruth . July 2, ,, 
 
 Grand national council — war to be declared if 
 the principalities are not evacuated Sept. 26, ,, 
 
 War declared against Ru.ssia . . Oct. 5, ,, 
 
 [See Ru.sM-Turhti'h War.} 
 
 Insurrection in Epirus and Albania, favoured 
 by the Greek government at Athens — Hel- 
 lenic empire proclaimed . . Jan 27, 1854 
 
 VoUuiteers from Athens join insurgents, 
 
 March 14, ,, 
 
 Rupture between Greece and Turkey, March 28, ,, 
 [Several conflicts ensue with varied suc- 
 cess.] 
 
 Osman Pacha storms Peta, the central point of 
 the insurrection .... April 25, ,, 
 
 English and French governments, after many 
 remonstrances, send troops, which arrive at 
 the Pirajus ; the king of Greece submits, and 
 promises strict neutraUty : the Greek volun- 
 teers are recalled . . . . May 25, 26, ,, 
 
 Abdi Pacha and Fuad Effendi take the in- 
 trenched camp at Kolampaka, and the msur- 
 rection shortly after ceases . June 18, „ 
 
 Reschid Pacha, having retired (June 3), re- 
 sumes his office .... July i, ,, 
 
 Convention between Turkey and Austria, 
 
 June 14, ,, 
 
 The Russians retire from the principalities, 
 which are thereupon occupied by the Aus- 
 trians . . . Sept. 1854 till March, 1857 
 
 Misunderstanding among the allied powers 
 respecting Moldavian elections, which are 
 annulled July, ,, 
 
 Death of Reschid Pacha . . . Jan. 7, 1858 
 
 Lord Stratford de Redcliflfe, many years English 
 ambassador at Constantinople, returned to 
 England, Jan. ; he is succeeded by sir H. 
 Lytton Bulwer : accredited . . July 12, 1858 
 
 Indecisive conflicts in Montenegro between the 
 natives and the Turks . . . July, „ 
 
 Massacre of Christians at Jeddo (which see), 
 
 July 25, „ 
 
 Turkish financial refoi-ms begun . . Aug. ,, 
 
 The first Turkish railway opened (from Aden to 
 Smyrna) Sept ig, ,, 
 
 Base coinage called in ; a fictitious Turkish 
 coinage begun at Birmingham, and is sup- 
 pressed Oct. ,, 
 
 The allied powers determine the Montenegrine 
 boundaries Nov. 8, ,, 
 
 Prince Alexander Cousa elected hospodar of 
 both Moldavia and Wallachia Feb. 5 and 7, 1859 
 
 [The Porte at first objects, but afterwards 
 accedes to the double election.] 
 
 Electric telegraph completed between Aden 
 and Suez May, ,, 
 
 Great fire at Constantinople ; 1000 houses de- 
 stroyed Sept. 10-14, » 
 
 Great conspiracy against the sultan detected, 
 Sept. 17 ; his brother implicated ; several 
 persons condemned to die are reprieved, 
 
 Sept. and Oct. ,, 
 
 Great agitation for financial reform . Oct. ,, 
 
 Alleged ill treatment of Christians in Turkey ; 
 proposed intervention of the great powers, 
 Mny 5 ; the Turkish government promise 
 investigation and redress ; all the powers 
 satisfied e.vcept Russia . . . May 30, i860 
 
 War between the Druses and Maronites in 
 Lebanon ; massacres. See Driises. June, ,, 
 
 Ma.ssacre of Christians at Damascus. See 
 Dama.<:cus and Surin . . . July 9- 11, „ 
 
 Convention on behalf of the Great Powers at 
 Paris ; armed intervention of the French 
 agreed to Aug. 2, „ 
 
 Inundations at Galatz; loss about 175.000Z., 
 
 Feb. 24, 1 861 
 
 Christians revolt in the Herzegovina, aided by 
 the Montenegrins .... March „ 
 
 Great need of fin.ancial reform ; the British 
 ambassador, sirH. Lytton, proposes a scheme, 
 
 April, , , 
 
 Discussion respecting the French occupation of 
 Syria ; it ceases ..... June 5, ,, 
 
 Death of the sultan, Abdul-Medjid ; accession 
 of Abdul-Aziz, his brother . . June 25, i86i 
 
 Economical refomis begun ; Fuad Pacha made 
 president of the coiincil .... July „ 
 
 The late sultan's jewels sold in London Aug. ,, 
 
 New order of knighthood (Nishan Osmanieh) 
 to include civil as well as military persons, 
 
 Sept. „ 
 
 Imperial guard re-organised . . . Oct. ,, 
 
 Fuad Pacha made grand vizier . Nov. 22, „ 
 
 He puts forth a budget ; treaties of commerce 
 with Sweden, Spain, &e. . . March, 1862 
 
 A Turkish loan (8,000,000/.) taken up in London 
 
 May, „ 
 
 Secuhirisation of the property of the mosques, 
 (value about 3,000,000/,) said to be deter- 
 mined on Oct. „ 
 
 Insurgents in the Herzegovina submit , peace 
 made with Montenegro . . Sept. 23, ,, 
 
 Dispute with i^ervia(?f/((c7i sff) settled Oct. 7, ,, 
 
 Ministerial cri.sis through the sultan's attempt 
 at reaction : Fuad Pacha and others resign, 
 but resume office. . . . Jan. 7, 1863 
 
 A new bank established . . Jan. 28, ,, » 
 
 Fuad Pacha becomes seraskier . Feb. 12, „ 
 
 Exhibition of the produce of the empire, 
 opened in March ; closed . . July 26, „ 
 
 The sultan visits Egypt . . . April 7-17, ,, 
 
 Fuad Pacha made grand vizier . June i, ,, 
 
TUR 
 
 741 
 
 TUS 
 
 TURKEY, continued. 
 
 Great immigration of the Caucasian tribes, 
 
 April, 1 8 
 Financial reforms ; conversion and verification 
 of the Turkish debt .... Aug. i8 
 
 Cholera rages at Constantinople, nearly 50,000 
 deaths, Aug. and Sept. ; great fire there, 
 about 2500 buildings (mosques, dwellings, (fee. ) 
 destroyed, and cholera sub.sides . Sept. 6, 16 
 
 TURKISH EMPERORS. 
 
 1326. 
 1360. 
 
 1402. 
 
 1410. 
 
 1413- 
 1421. 
 
 1451- 
 
 1512. 
 1520. 
 
 1566. 
 1574- 
 
 IS9S- 
 
 1603. 
 1617. 
 
 Othman, Osman, or Ottoman, who assiuned 
 
 the title of Grand Seignior 
 Orchau, son of Othman. 
 
 Aaiurath or Murad I. : stabbed by a soldier, 
 . of which wound he died. 
 Bajazet I., his son : defeated by Tamerlane, 
 
 and died imprisoned. 
 Solyman I., son of Bajazet: dethroned by his 
 
 brother and successor, 
 Musa-Chelebi ; strangled. 
 Mahomet I., also son of Bajazet. 
 Amurath II., succeeded by his son, 
 Mahomet II., by whom Constantinople was 
 
 taken in 1453. 
 Bajazet II., deposed by his son, 
 Selim I. , who succeeded him. 
 Solyman II. the Magnificent, son of the pre- 
 ceding. 
 Selim II., son of the last. 
 Amurath III., his son: on his accession he 
 
 caused his five brothers to be murdered, 
 
 and theii- mother, in grief, stabbed herself. 
 Mahomet III., son of Amurath: commenced 
 
 his reign by strangling all his brothers, and 
 
 drowning all his father's wives. 
 Ahmed or Achmet, his son : succeeded by his 
 
 brother, 
 Mustapha I. ; deposed by the Janissaries, and 
 
 imprisoned ; succeeded by his nephew. 
 
 1618. Osman II. : strangled by the Janissaries, and 
 his uncle restored. 
 
 1622. Mustapha I. again : again deposed, sent to the 
 Seven Towers, and strangled. 
 
 1623. Amurath IV. : succeeded by his brother, 
 1640. Ibrahim : strangled by the Janissaries. 
 1648. Mahomet IV., son of Ibrahim : deposed, and 
 
 died in prison. 
 1687. Solyman III., his brother. 
 1691. Ahmed or Achmet II. : succeeded by his 
 
 nephew, 
 1695. Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet IV. : 
 
 deposed ; succeeded by his brother, 
 1703. Ahmed or Achmet III. : deposed, and died in 
 
 prison in 1736. 
 1730. Mahmud I., or Mahomet V., succeeded his 
 
 uncle, the preceding sultan. 
 1754. Osman III., brother of Mahmud. 
 1757. Mustapha III., brother of Osman. 
 1774. Abdul-Ahmed. 
 1789. Selim III. : deposed by the Janissaries, and 
 
 his nephew raised to the throne. 
 
 1807. Mustapha IV. : deposed, and, with the late 
 sultan Selim, murdered. 
 
 1808. Mahmud II., or Mahomet VI. : succeeded by 
 his son, 
 
 1839. Abdul-Medjid, July 2 (bom April 23, 1823); 
 
 died June 25, 1861. 
 1861. Abdul-Aziz, June 25 (bom Feb. 9, 1830), the 
 
 PRESENT sultan of Tui-key. 
 
 TURKEY TRADE, most lucrative at the time and long afterwards, commenced in the 
 year 1550. The Turkey or Levant Company of London was instituted by charter of 
 Elizabeth, in 1579. 
 
 TURKEYS AND Guinea Fowls. First brought to England, 1523, and to France in 
 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were consequently unknown to the ancients. 
 Mr. Pennant has established this fact by various particulars in the history of these birds ; 
 evincing that they are natives neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa ; a circumstance since 
 placed beyond controversy, by the researches of Mr. Beckmann. 
 
 TURKOMANS. See White Sheep. 
 
 TURNER'S LEGACIES. Joseph M. W. Turner, one of the greatest of landscape 
 painters, was born in April 1775, ^^^d died Dec. 19, 1851. He bequeathed to the nation all 
 the pictures and drawings collected by him and deposited at his residence, 47, Queen Anne- 
 street, London, on condiiion that a suitable gallery be erected for them within ten years ; 
 and directed his funded property to be expended in founding an asylum at Twickenham for 
 decayed artists. The will was disputed by his relatives, but a compromise was made. The 
 oil-paintings (100 in number) and the drawings (1400) were obtained by the nation, and the 
 engravings and some other property were transferred to the next of kin. The drawino-s were 
 cleaned and mounted under the careful superintendence of Mr. Ruskin, and the pictures 
 were sent to Marlborough House for exhibition. In 1861, the pictures were removed from 
 the South Kensington Museum to the National Gallery. 
 
 TURNING. See Lathe. In our dockyards, blocks and other materials for our ships of 
 war are now produced by an almost instantaneous process, from rough pieces of oak, by the 
 machinery of Mr. (afterwards sir Mark Isambard) Brunei (who died in 1849). 
 
 TURNPIKES. See Tolls. 
 
 TURPENTINE TREE, Pistacia Terebinthinus, came from Barbary, before 1656. Spirits 
 of turpentine were first applied, with success, to the rot in sheep ; one-third of the spirit 
 diluted with two-thirds water, 1772. Annual Register. 
 
 TUSCAN ORDER of Architecture, a debased Doric, invented in Tuscany, and used 
 in the erection of coarse and rude buildings, in which strength is principally intended, 
 without regard to ornament or beauty. Wotton, 
 
TUS 
 
 742 
 
 TYL 
 
 TUSCANY, formerly a grand-ducliy in Central Italy, the northern part of the ancient 
 Etruria {vMch see). It formed part of the Lombard kingdom ; at the conquest of which by 
 Charlemagne, it was made a marquisate for Boniface about 812 or 828. His descendant, the 
 great countess Matilda, bequeathed the southern part of her domains to the pope. In the 
 northern part (then called tuscia), the cities, Floi-ence, Pisa, Sienna, Lucca, &c., gradually 
 became flourishing republics. Florence became the chief under the government of the Medici 
 family (see Florence). The duchy in that family began in 1531 ; and the grand-duchy in 
 1569. After the extinction of the Medicis in 1737, Tuscany was given by the treaty of 
 Yienna (1738) to Francis, duke of Lorraine (husband of Maria Theresa of Austria in 1736), 
 who had ceded his hereditary states to France. Population in i860, 1,826,830. 
 
 The French enter Florence . . March 28, 
 The grand-duke is dispossessed, and his do- 
 minions given to Louis duke of Parma (of 
 the royal house of Spain), with the title of 
 
 king of Etruria 
 
 Tuscany incorporated with the French empire 
 The grand-duchy given to Eliza, sister of Napo- 
 leon 
 
 Ferdinand III. restored 
 
 Lucca united to Tuscany 
 
 Leopold IL grants a free constitution . Feb. 
 Insurrection at Florence ; republic proclaimed ; 
 the duke flies .... Feb. 11, 
 He is restored by the Austrians . July, 
 Prosecution of the Madiai * . . . May, 
 The Tuscan army demand alliance with the 
 Sardinians ; the grand-duke refuses, and 
 departs to Bologna ; the king of Sardinia is 
 proclaimed dictator, and a provisional govern- 
 ment formed, April 27 ; the king assumes the 
 command of the army, but declines the dic- 
 tatorship April 30, 
 
 The Sarduuan commissary Buoncompagni in- 
 
 1807 
 
 1814 
 1847 
 
 1850 
 1852 
 
 1859 
 
 vested with the powers of government, 
 
 May II, 
 
 Prince Napoleon arrives at Leghorn, addresses 
 
 the Tuscans and erects his standard, May 23, 
 
 The grand-duke Leopold II. abdicates in favour 
 
 of his son Ferdinand . . . July 21, 
 
 The Tuscan constituent assembly meets, 
 
 Aug. II, 
 It declares against recalling the house of Lor- 
 raine, and votes for annexation to Sardinia, 
 
 Sept. 
 Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan elected 
 governor-general of central Italy ; he de- 
 clines ; but recommends Buoncompagni, 
 Nov. ; who is accepted by the Tuscans, 
 
 Dec. 8, 
 
 Annexation to Sardinia voted by universal 
 
 suffrage, March 11, 12; decreed March 22, 
 
 Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan appointed 
 
 governor March 26, 
 
 Florence made the capital of Italy, by decree 
 
 published Dec. 11, 
 
 (See Italy.) 
 
 1839 
 
 i860 
 
 1864 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF TUSCANY. 
 
 1569. 
 1574- 
 1587. 
 1609. 
 1621. 
 1670. 
 
 1723. 
 1737- 
 
 1765. 
 1790. 
 
 GRAND-DUKES. 
 
 Cosmo I., Medici. 
 
 Francis I. 
 
 Ferdinand I. 
 
 Cosmo II. 
 
 Ferdinand II. 
 
 Cosmo III. (visited England, and wrote an 
 
 account of his travels.) 
 John Gaston (last of the Medici). 
 Francis II. (duke o{ Lorraine) became emperor 
 
 of Germany in 1745. 
 Leopold I. (emperor in 1790.) 
 Ferdinand III. (second son of Leopold I.) ; 
 
 expelled by the French in 1800. 
 
 KINGS OF ETRURIA. 
 
 1801. Louis I., duke of Parma. 
 1803. Louis II. 
 
 QRAND-DUCHE8S. 
 
 1808-14. Eliza Bonaparte (married to Bacciochi, made 
 prince of Lucca). 
 
 GRAND-DUKES. 
 
 1814. Ferdinand III. restored. 
 
 1824. Leopold II., June 18 (bom Oct. 3, 1797 ; abdi- 
 cated, July 21, 1859). 
 1859. Ferdinand IV., July 21 (bom June 10, 1835). 
 
 TWELFTH-DAY, the church festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation of Christ to 
 the Gentiles, Jan. 6. See Ejiiphany. 
 
 TYBURN (W. London), at the west end of Oxford-road (now street) the place in London 
 for the execution of malefactors till 1783. Pennant (who died 1798) remembered Oxford- 
 street as "a deep, hollow road, and firll of sloughs, with here and there a ragged house, the 
 lurking-place of cut-throats." 
 
 TYLER'S INSURRECTION arose in opposition to the poll-tax levied in 1379. One of 
 the collectors acting with indecent rudeness to Wat Tyler's daughter, the father struck him 
 dead. His neighbours took arms to defend him, and in a short time almost the whole of the 
 population of the southern and eastern counties were in a state of insurrection, extorting 
 freedom from their lords, and plundering. On June 12, 1381, they gathered upon Black- 
 heath to the number of 100,000 men. The king, Richard II. , invited Tj'ler to a parley, 
 which took place on the 15th at Smithfield, where the latter addressed the king in a somewhat 
 
 * Much interest and sympathy were excited in England and other Protest.int countries of Europe, by 
 the imprisonment at Florence of the Madiai (husband and wife), who had embraced the English reformed 
 religion, and read the Bible in due conformity with the teaching of their new faith. For this "crime '" 
 they were .separately incarcerated in loathsome dungeons, and subjected to all the rigours of the Romish 
 ecclesiastical law. May, 1852. A Protestant deputation from England, headed by the earls of Shaftesbury 
 and Roden, proceeded to Florence in Oct. 1852, with tlie view to their release from confinement ; but the 
 grand duke refused to receive them. The Madiai were set at liberty, by the interposition of the British 
 government, in March, 1853. An annuity of looi. was provided for them by subscription. 
 
TYP 743 UMB 
 
 insnaciug manner, now and again lifting up liis sword. On this the mayor, Walworth, 
 stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of the king's knights dispatched him, 
 Eichard temporised with the multitude by promising a charter, and tlius led them out of the 
 city, when sir R. KnoUys and a band of knights attacked and dispersed them with much 
 slaughter. The insurrection in Norfolk and Suffolk was subdued by the bishop of Norwich, 
 and 1500 of the rebels were executed. 
 
 TYPE-COMPOSING MACHINES. See iinder Printing. 
 
 TYRANT. In early Greek history, the term was applied to any man who governed with 
 irresponsible power. Solon objected to the term, and chose the name Archon (ruler), 
 594 B.C. The eai'liest tyrants were those at Sicyon, beginning with Clisthenes, in the yth 
 century B.C. Tyranny declined in Greece about 490 B.C., and revived after the close of the 
 Peloponnesian war, 404 B.C. See Thirty Tyrants. 
 
 TYRE (Plioenicia). This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built 
 1257 (about 2267, Rales) B.C. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 B.C., and they retired 
 from before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 B.C. Taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 572 B.C., and the city demolished, when the Tyrians removed to an opposite island, and 
 built a new and magnificent city. It was taken by Alexander with much difficulty, after a 
 siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 B.C. He joined the island to the continent by a mole. 
 Strabo. It was taken by the allied fleet in 1841 A.D. 
 
 TYRE, Era of, began on Oct. 19, 125 B.C., with the month of _ Hyperberetfeus. The 
 months were the same as those used in the Grecian era, and the year is similar to the Julian 
 year. To reduce this era to ours, subtract 124 ; and if the given year be less than 125, 
 deduct it from 125, and the remainder will be the year before Christ. 
 
 TYROL, the eastern part of ancient Rhetia, now a province of th« Austrian empire, was 
 ceded to the house of Hapsburg in 1359, by Margaret, the heiress of the last count Tyrol, 
 The province became an appanage of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the imperial house, 
 which came to the throne in the person of Maximilian II., in 1618. The French conquered 
 the Tyrol in 1805, and united it to Bavaria; but in 1809 an insurrection broke out, headed by 
 Andrew Hofer, an innkeeper, who drove the Bavarians out of the Tyrol, thoroughly defeated 
 some French detachments, but laid down his arms at the treaty of Vienna. He was 
 subsequently accused of corresponding with the Austrians, captured and sent to Mantua, 
 and there shot by order of the French government (to its great disgrace) Feb. 20, 1810. 
 The Austrian emperor ennobled his family in 18 19, and erected his statue in InspTuck in 
 1834. The Tyrolese riflemen were very effective in the Italian war in 1859. 
 
 U. 
 
 UBIQUITARIANS, a small German sect, originated by Brentius about 1560, who 
 asserted that the body of Christ was present everywhere (ubique). 
 
 UKRAINE (a frontier), a vast fertile plain in Russia, ceded to the Cossacks by Poland 
 in 1672, and obtained by Russia in 1682. The country was divided, Poland having the west 
 side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. The whole country was assigned to Russia by the 
 treaty of partition in 1795- 
 
 ULM, in Wurtemberg, S. Germany, where a peace was signed, July 3, 1620, by which 
 Frederick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it previously). Ulm was taken by the 
 French in 1796. After a battle between the French and Austrians, in which the latter, 
 under general Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss by marshal Nej', Ulm surrendered with 
 28,000 men, the flower of the Austrian army, Oct. 17-20, 1805. 
 
 ULPHILAS'S BIBLE. See Bible. 
 
 UMBRELLA, described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to carry in a 
 person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrellas are very ancient, as they 
 appear in the carvings at Persepolis. Niebuhr, who visited the southern part of Arabia, 
 informs us that he saw a great prince of that country returning from a mosque, j)receded by 
 some hundreds of soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his numerous family caused 
 a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old chinaware in our pantries and cupboards 
 shows the Chinese shaded by an imibrella. It is said that the first person who iised an 
 umbrella in the streets of London was tlie benevolent Jonas Hamvaj^ who died m 1786.* 
 
 * For a long while it was not usual for mon to carry tbem without toeing branded as effeminate. At 
 
UNO 744 UNI 
 
 UNCTION, Extreme. S(ie Anointing. 
 
 UNIFORMITY, Act of (2 & 3 Edward VI.), Jan. 15, 1549, ordained that the order of 
 divine worship, drawn up by Craunier and others, '"with the aid of the Holy Ghost," should 
 be the only one used after May 20. The penalties for refusing to use it were fine and impri- 
 sonment. This act was re-enacted by Elizabeth in 1559. The statute known as the act of 
 Uniformity, 14 Charles II. c. 4, was jiassed in 1662. It enjoined uniformity in matters of 
 religion, and obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form 
 of worship, and same book of common prayer. Its enforcement on Aug. 24, 1662, termed 
 Black Bartholomew's day, caused upwards of 2000 ministers to quit the church of England, 
 and laid the foundation of the dissenting interest. The day was commemorated by dissenters 
 in 1862. 
 
 UNIFORMS. Militar}' uniforms were first used in France, "in a regular manner, "by 
 Louis XIV. 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards adopted in the military 
 service, but with little analogy to the modern dress. Ashe. See imder Navy. 
 
 UNION OF Calmar, 1397 ; of Utrecht, 1579. 
 
 UNION of the crowns and kingdoms of England and Scotland by the accession of 
 James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 24, 1603. The legislative union of 
 the two kingdoms was attempted, but failed in 1604 and 1670 ; in the reign of Anne, 
 commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwithstanding a great opposi- 
 tion made by the Tories, every article in the union was approved by a great majority, first 
 in the house of commons, and afterwards by the peers, July 22, 1706 ; was ratified by the 
 Scottish parliament, Jan. 16, 1707, and became a law. May i, same year. 
 
 UNION of Great Britatn and Ireland, proposed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 
 1799. Rejected by the commons of Ireland, Jan. 24, the votes being 105 for, to 106 against 
 the union. The English house of commons on tlie same question divided, 140, 141, and 
 149 for the union ; against it, 15, 25, and 28, respectivel3^ Lord Castlereagh detailed hi.'> 
 plan of the union, in the Irish house of lords, founded on the resolutions of the British 
 parliament thereon, Feb. 5, 1800. Votes of the commons agreeing to it, 161 against 115, 
 Feb. 17 ; and .igain, 152 against 108, Feb. 21. The houses of lords and commons wait on the 
 lord lieutenant with the articles of union, March 27. The act passed in the British parlia- 
 ment, July 2, 1800. The imperial united standard was first displayed at the Tower of 
 London, and upon Bedford Tower, Dublin Castle, in consequence of the act of legislative 
 union becoming an operative law, Jan. i, 1801. For attempts to dissolve the union, see 
 Repeal. 
 
 UNION JACK. The original flag of England was the banner of St. George, i.e., white 
 with a red cross, which, April 12, 1606 (tliree years after James I. ascended the throne), 
 was incorporated with the banner of Scotland, i.e,, blue with a white diagonal cross. This 
 combination obtained the name of " Union Jack," in allusion to the union with Scotland, 
 and the word Jack may be considered a corruption of the word " Jacques," or James. This 
 arrangement continued until the union with Ireland, Jan. i, 1801, when the banner of St. 
 Patrick, i.e., white, with a diagonal red cross, was thus amalgamated with it, and forms the 
 present Union flag. 
 
 UNION CHARGEABILITY ACT, providing for the better distribution of the charge 
 for relieving the poor in unions, was passed in June, 1865. One object of the act is the 
 improvement of the dwellings of agricultural labourers. 
 
 UNION RELIEF ACT was passed in 1862, to enable boards of guardians of certain 
 unions to obtain temporary aid to meet the extraordinary expenditure for relief occasioned 
 by the distress in the cotton manufacturing districts. This act was continued by one passed 
 in 1863. 
 
 first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary occasions — lent as a 
 coach or chiiir in a heavy shower, but not commonly carried by the walkers. The Female Taller advertises : 
 " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, in fear of rain, borrowed the umbrella fynm 
 WUks's Cnfftt-K'Hise, shall the next time be welcome to the maid's putlens." As late as 1778, one John 
 Macdomild, a footman, who wrote his own life, informs us that he had " a fine silk umbrella, which he 
 brought from Spain ; but he could not with ai.y comfort to himself use it, the people calling out, ' French- 
 man ! why don't you get a coach ? ' " TLe hackney-coachmen and chairmen, with true e-prit de corps, were 
 clamorous against their portentous rival. The footman, in 1778, gives us some fart* or information : — " At 
 this time there were no umbrellas worn in London, except in notilemen's and gentlemen's houses, where 
 there was a larye one hung in the hall to hold over a lady if it rained, between the door and her carriage." 
 This man's sister was compelled to quit his ;trm one nay from the abuse .he drew dnwn upon himse f and 
 his umbrella. But, he adds, that "he persisted for three months, till they took no further notice of this 
 novelty. Foreigners began to use theirs, and then the EngUsh. Now it is become a great trade in 
 London." — JVeic Monthly Magazine. 
 
UNI 
 
 745 
 
 UNI 
 
 UNION REPEAL ASSOCIATION, Ireland. See Reveal of the Union. 
 UNIT, a gold coin, value 205., issued by James I. in 1604. 
 
 UNITARIANS,* began with Servetus, a learned man, who printed a tract in disparage- 
 ment of the doctrine of the Trinity. In 1553, proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin 
 induced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy. Servetus, 
 refusing to retract his opinions, was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried 
 into execution, May 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those anatomists who made the 
 nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation of the blood, before Harvey established 
 that doctrine. Tlie Unitarians were numerous in Transylvania in the 1 7th century ; they 
 came to England about 1700, and many of the original English presbyterian churches 
 became Unitarians about 1730. They were not included in the Toleration act till 1813. 
 There were 229 congregations in England in 185 1. The Unitarian marriage bill was passed, 
 June 1827. In Dec. 1833, by a decision of the vice-chancellors the Unitarians (as such) 
 lost the possession of lady Hewley'.s charity ; the decision was affirmed on appeal in 1842. 
 
 UNITED IRISHMEN, a political society which met secretly, was formed in 1795 to 
 counteract the effect of the Orange clubs. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM. England and Wales were united in 1283 ; Scotland to both in 
 1707 ; and the British realm was named the United Kingdom on the union witli Ireland, 
 Jan. I, 1 801. See Union. The United Kingdom Alliance, for the total suppression of 
 liquor traffic, was founded June i, 1853. 
 
 UNITED PROVINCES (Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Eriesland, Groningen, Overyssell, 
 and Guelderland), the deputies of which met at Utrecht, Jan. 23, 1579, and signed a treaty 
 for their mutual defence. See Holland. 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMERICA were so styled by the congress of the revolted 
 Bi'itish provinces, Sept. 9, 1776. Their flag was declared to be thirteen stripes, alternately 
 red and white, and thirteen stars in a blue field, corresponding with the then number of 
 states of the union, f June 20, 1777. The government of the United States is a pure 
 democracy. Each of the states has a separate and independent legislature for the adminis- 
 tration of its local affairs, but all are ruled in matters of imperial i)olicy by two houses of 
 legislature, the senate and the house of representatives, to which delegates are sent from the 
 different members of the confederacy. The president of the United States is elected every 
 fourth year by the free voice of the people. The election of Abraham Lincoln as president 
 on Nov. 4, 1860, was followed by the secession of eleven slaveholdiug states, and led to the 
 great civil war, 1861-5. See Confederates. 
 
 Act of the British parliament, imposing new 
 
 and heavy duties on imported merchandise, 
 
 March 11, 1764 
 Obnoxious stamp act passed . March 22, 1765 
 First American congress held at New York, 
 
 June; the stamp act resisted . Nov. i, ,, 
 
 Stamp act repealed 1766 
 
 British act, levying duties on tea, paper, 
 
 painted glass, (fee. . . . June 14, 1767 
 
 Gen. Gates sent to Boston 1768 
 
 840 chests of tea destroyed by the populace at 
 
 Boston, and 17 chests at New York . Nov. 1773 
 Boston Port Bill .... March 25, 1774 
 Deputies from the States meet at Philadelphia, 
 
 Sept. 5 ; Declaration of Rights issued, Nov. 4, ,, 
 First action bet wetsn the British and Americans, 
 
 at Lexington April ig, 1775 
 
 Act of perpetual union between the States, 
 
 May 20, ,, 
 
 George Washington appointed commander-in- 
 chief, May ; battle of Bunker's hill, June 16, 
 
 America declared "free, sovereign, and inde- 
 pendent " July 4, 
 
 General Howe takes Long Island, Aug. 27 ; 
 New York, Sept. 15; victor at White Plains, 
 Oct. 29; at Rhode Island . . . Deo. 8, 
 
 The Hessians surrender to Wa.shington, Dec. 25, 
 
 La Fayette and other French officers join the 
 Americans 
 
 Washington defeated at Brandywino Sept. n, 
 
 Lord Cornwallis takes Philadelphia . Sept. 
 
 Burgoyne victor at Germautown, Oct. 3 ; is 
 surrounded, and capitulates at Saratoga, 
 
 Oct. 17, 
 
 A federal government adopted by congres.s, 
 
 Nov. 15, 
 
 The States recognised by France . Feb, 6, 
 
 The king's troops quit Philadelphia . June, 
 
 1773 
 177& 
 
 177S 
 
 • Their tenets are different, but somewhat similar to those of the Arians and Socinians, uMcli see. The 
 Unitarians believe in and worship one only self-existeut God, in opposition to those who worship the 
 Trinity in unity. They consider Christ to have been a mere man ; and do not admit the need of an atone- 
 ment, or the complete inspiration of the Scriptures. 
 
 t The following thirteen states formed the union at the declaration of independence in 1776 ; the 
 italics indicate the then slaveholding states ; those with a * prefixed seceded from the federal government 
 in i860 and 1861, and rejoined it in 1865 : — 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 New York. 
 
 Delaware. 
 
 * North Carolina 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 *S(iuth Carolina. 
 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 '''Virginia. 
 
 ^Georgia. 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 
 
 
UNI 
 
 746 
 
 UNI 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMEEICA, contmmd. 
 
 Comwallis defeats Gates at Camden, Avig. 16, 1780 
 Major Andr^ banged as a spy* . . Oct. 2, „ 
 American Academy of Arts and Sciences at 
 
 <■ Boston founded ,, 
 
 The federal government accepted by all the 
 
 states, March 1 ; congress assembles, March 2, 1781 
 Comwallis defeats Green at Guildford, March 
 
 16 ; Arnold defeats the Americans at Eutaw, 
 
 Sept. 8, ,, 
 Surrender of lord Comwallis and bis whole 
 
 army of 7000 men to generals Washington 
 
 and Rochambeau, at Yorktown . Oct. 29, ,, 
 Arrival of sir Guy Carleton to treat for peace, 
 
 May 5 ; provisional articles signed at Paris by 
 
 commissioners .... Nov. 30, 1782 
 Definitive treaty of peace signed at Paris, 
 
 Sept. 3, 1783 : ratified by congress . Jan. 4, 1784 
 Samuel Seabury consecrated bishop of the 
 
 episcopal church in America . . . ,, 
 
 John Adams, first American ambassador's first 
 
 interview with the king of England June 2, 1785 
 The cotton plant introduced into Georgia. See 
 
 Cotton, 1786 
 
 New constitution signed by a convention of 
 States Sept. 17, 
 
 The same ratified .... May 23, 
 
 The quakers of Philadelphia emancipate their 
 slaves Jan. i, 
 
 New government organised . . March 4, 
 
 Washington declared the first president, 
 
 April 6, 
 
 Present departments, of state established, 
 
 July 27, 
 
 Death of Benjamin Franklin . April 17, 
 
 Bank instituted ; capital, 10,000,000 dollars, 
 
 June 7, 
 
 City of Wa.shington chosen the capital of the 
 States Julys, 
 
 Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton-gin gives 
 an immense impetus to the growth of 
 American cotton 
 
 Re-election of general Washington as president, 
 March 4, 1793 ; resigns . . . Sept. 17, 
 
 Washington dies amid universal sorrow, Dec. 14, 
 
 The seat of government removed to Washington 
 
 i787« I 
 1788 
 
 1789 
 
 1790 
 1791 
 1792 
 
 1793 
 
 1796 
 1799 
 1800 
 
 The following have been added : — 
 
 Vermont (from New York) 1791 
 
 * Tennessee (from North Carolina) . . . . 1796 
 
 JTeM^vxi'i/ (from Virginia) 1792 
 
 Columbia district (under the immediate govern- 
 ment of congress) contains Washington, the 
 
 seat of government 1790-1 
 
 Ohio (created) 1802 
 
 •Zoamana (bought from France in 1803) . . 1812 
 
 Indiana (created) 1816 
 
 *Missigsippi (from Georgia,) . . . .'. 1817 
 
 Illinois (created) 1818 
 
 ''Alabama (irom Georgia) 1819 
 
 Maine (from Massachusetts) .... 1820 
 
 Missouri (from Louisiana) 1821 
 
 Michigan 1837 
 
 *Arkansas 1836 
 
 *Florida (ceded by Spain, 1820); made a .state . 1845 
 
 * Seceded from the Union 
 
 Iowa 1846 
 
 Wisconsin 1848 
 
 *Te.xas 1845 
 
 California 1850 
 
 Minnesota (territory, 1849); state . , . 1857 
 
 Oregon (territory, 1850); state . . , . 1859 
 
 A'a?!«a« (territory, 1854); state .... 1861 
 
 New Mexico (territory) 1850 
 
 Utah (ten-itory) . . , 
 
 Washington (territory) 1853 
 
 Nebraska (territory) 1854 
 
 Nevada (ten-itory) i86i 
 
 Colorado (territory) ,, 
 
 Dakota (territory) ,, 
 
 Ainzona (territory) 1863 
 
 Idaho (territoi-y) 1863 
 
 West Virginia (from Virginia) .... 1863 
 
 in i86r, submitted, 1865. 
 
 1776 
 
 POPULATION. See Slavery in A;nerica. 
 
 Slaves. Total. I Slaves. Total. I 
 
 . 2,614,300 1810 . . 1,191,364 . 7,239,903 1850. 
 896,849 . 5,309,756 1 1830 . . 2,009,050 . 12,858,670 I i860 
 
 Slaves. Total. 
 
 3,204,313 . 23,191,918 
 3,952,801 . 31,429,891 
 
 The senate is composed of 2 members for each state, elected for 6 years. The representatives in con- 
 gress are elected in the ratio of i in 93,423 persons (5 slaves were counted as three persons). 
 
 Revenue. — Total receipts, July i, 1854, to .June 30, 1855 . . 65,003,930 dollars. 
 
 ditto July I, 1858, to June 30, 1859 . . 53,405,071 dollars. 
 
 ditto July I, 1862, to June 30, 1863 . 888,082,128 dollars. 
 
 Expenditure. — July i, 1854, to June 30, 1855 . . 56,365,393 dollars. 
 
 , ditto July I, 1858, to June 30, 1859 . . 66,346,226 dollars. 
 
 ditto July 1, 1862, to June 30, 1863 . 714,709,996 dollars. 
 
 Army. — That which achieved independence was disbanded at the end of the war. In 1789, a war 
 department was established, and in 1790 the army consisted of 1216 men. In 1808, the militia was newly 
 equipped. When war with Great Britain was declared on June 18, 1812, 35,000 men were voted,; and this 
 .irmy was disbanded at the peace in 1815. Armies were voted for the wars in 1833 and 1835, afterwards 
 disbanded. 
 
 In 1855, Army, 11,658. Militia, 1,873,558. Fleet, 72 vessels (2290 guns). 
 
 In i860, the United States Militia were 3,070,987. The Fleet consisted of 92 vessels (of all kinds); in 
 Oct. 1862, of 256 vessels of war. 
 
 Federal Army, July 29, i86i, estimated at 660.971. In Dec. 1862, neai-ly 1,000,000 men. In April. 
 1865, about 1,500,000, at the end of the war, when the reduction began at once. 
 
 * Andr(S(born 1751), was an adjutant-general in the British ai-my, and was taken in disgnise on his 
 return from a secret expedition to the traitorous American general Arnold, Sept. 23, 17S0. He was 
 sentenced to execution as a spy by a court of gen er.al Washington's officers at Tappan, New York, and 
 suffered death, Oct. 2 following. His remains were removed to England in a sarcophagus, Aug. 10, 1821, 
 and inteiTed in Westminster abbey. Impartial judges justify the severity of this punishment. 
 
UNI 
 
 747 
 
 UNI 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMEEICA, continued 
 
 Discussion between England and America re- 
 specting the rights of neutrals . . . 1807 
 
 American ports closed to the British, July ; 
 trade suspended .... Dec. 9, ,, 
 
 Slave trade abolished ... ... 1808 
 
 War with Great Britain (New England States 
 opposed to it, threatened to secede) June 18, 1812 
 
 Action between the American ship Constitution, 
 and the British frigate Gaerriere, an xinequal 
 contest ..*... Aug. 19, ,, 
 
 Fort Detroit taken .... Aug. 21 ,, 
 
 The British sloop Frolic taken by the American 
 sloop Wasp Oct. 18, ,, 
 
 The ship United States of 54 guns, great calibre 
 (commodore Decatur), captures the British 
 frigate Macedonian .... Oct. 25 ,, 
 
 Battle of Frenchtown . . . Jan. 22, 1813 
 
 The Hornet captures the British sloop of war, 
 Peacock Feb. 25 ,, 
 
 Fort Erie and Fort George abandoned by the 
 British May 27, ,, 
 
 The American frigate Chesapeake captured by 
 the Shannon frigate, captain Broke June 1, ,, 
 
 At Bxu-Ungton Heights Americans defeated 
 
 June 6, ,, 
 
 H.M. sloop PeKcare takes the sloop .^rgrits, Aug. 14 ,, 
 
 Buffalo town burnt by the British . . Dec. 9 ,, 
 
 American frigate Bssex taken by the Phoebe and 
 Cherub March 29, 1814 
 
 The British defeat the Americans in a severe 
 conflict July 2, ,, 
 
 [Several engagements with various success 
 followed.] 
 
 The British defeat the Americans at Bla dens- 
 burg Aug. 14, „ 
 
 Alexandria capitvilates to the British Aug ky, ,, 
 
 The city of Washington is taken by the British, 
 and the public edifices burnt . Aug. 24, „ 
 
 The British sloop of war Avon sunk by the 
 American sloop Wasp . . . Sept. 8, „ 
 
 The British squadron on Lake Champlain cap- " 
 tured Sept. 11 ,, 
 
 Attack on Baltimore by the British ; general 
 Ross killed Sept. 12, ,, 
 
 Treaty of peace with Great Britain, signed at 
 Ghent Dec. 24 ,, 
 
 The British ship Endymion cajjitures the Presi- 
 dent Jan. 15, 1815 
 
 The Ghent treaty ratified . . Feb. 17, ,, 
 
 Centre foundation of the capitol of Washington 
 laid Aug. 24, 1818 
 
 The "Missouri Compromise" of Henry Clay, 
 regarding slavery, passed . . . Feb. 1820 
 
 Spain cedes Florida to the United States, Oct. 24, 1820 
 
 The States acknowledge the independence of 
 South America March 8, 1822 
 
 Treaty with Columbia .... Oct. 3, 1824 
 
 Death of the two ex-presidents, Adams and 
 Jefferson, on the soth anniversary of the inde- 
 pendence of the American States ■ . July 4, 1826 
 
 Convention with Great Britam concerning in- 
 demnities ..... Nov. 13, ,, 
 
 American Tariff BiU imposing heavy duties on 
 
 British goods .... May 13, 1828 
 
 General Jackson, president . . Feb. 16, 1829 
 
 Treaty between the United States and the Otto- 
 
 naan Porte May 7, 1830 
 
 Ports re-opened to British commei'ce Oct. s, ,. 
 New Tariii laws .... July 14, 1832 
 Commercial panic . . . . . ■ ,, 
 Great fire at New York, 647 houses and many 
 public edifices bui-ut ; loss estimated at 
 20,000,000 dollars. See New York. Nov. 15, 1835 
 
 National debt paid off 1836 
 
 In the Canadian insurrection, many Americans 
 
 assist the insurgents . . Oct. to Dec. 1837 
 The American steamboat Caroline is attacked 
 and burnt by the British, near Schlosser, to 
 the east of the Niagara, on the territory of 
 the United States . . . Dec. 29, ,, 
 
 Proclamation of the president against American 
 citizens aiding the Canadians . Jan. =;, 183S 
 
 The Great Western steam-ship first arrives at 
 
 New York June 17, ,, 
 
 American banks suspend cash payments, Oct. 14, 1839 
 
 Affair of Mr. MacLeod, charged with aiding in 
 the destruction of the Caroline; true bill 
 found against him for murder and arson 
 
 Feb. 6, 1841 
 
 The United States bank again suspends pay- 
 ment Feb. 7, 
 
 Mr. Fox, British minister, demands the release 
 of Mr. MacLeod .... March 12, 
 
 The case of MacLeod is removed to the supreme 
 court at New York .... May 6, 
 
 A party of British volunteers from Canada 
 carry off col. Grogan .... Sept. 9 
 
 Resignation of all the United States ministers, 
 with the exception of Mr. Webster Sept. 11, 
 
 President's proclamation against lawless at- 
 tempts of American citizens to invade British 
 possessions, and to suppress secret lodges, 
 clubs, and associations . . . Sept. 25, 
 
 Grogan is given up to the Americans Oct. 4 
 
 Trial of MacLeod commences at Utioa, Oct. 4 ; 
 acquitted Oct. 12 
 
 Colossal statue of Washington ].ilaced in the 
 capitol at Washington . . . Dec. i. 
 
 Affair of the Creole, which leads to a dispute 
 with England Dec. 
 
 [This vessel, an American, was on her voyage 
 to New Orleans with a cargo of slaves : they 
 mutinied, murdered the owner, wounded the ■ 
 captain, and compelled the crew to take the 
 ship to Nassau, New Providence, where the 
 governor, considering them as passengers, 
 allowed them, against the protest of the 
 American consul, to go at liberty.] 
 
 Announcement of lord Ashbm-ton's mission to 
 the United States .... Jan. i, 1842 
 
 Arrest of Hogan, implicated in the Caj-oline 
 affair Feb.- 2, ,, 
 
 Lord Ashburton arrives at New York April i, ,, 
 
 Washington treaty, defining the boundaries 
 between the United States and the British 
 American possessions, and for suppressing 
 the slave trade, and giving up fugitive 
 crinainals ; signed at Washington, by lord 
 Ashburton and Mr. Webster . Aug. g, ., 
 
 The tariff bill is passed . . . Aug. 10, ,, 
 
 Lord Ashburton leaves the United States, 
 Sept. 5 ; arrives in England . Sept. 23, ,, 
 
 Death of Dr. Channing . . . Oct. 2, ,, 
 
 War declared against the United States by 
 Mexico, on account of the proposed annex- 
 ation of Texas .... June 4, 1845 
 
 [Several actions are fought' between the belli- 
 gerents, adverse to Mexico.] 
 
 Resolution of the senate and house of repre- 
 sentatives for terminating the joint occu- 
 pancy of Oregon . . . . April 20, 1846 
 
 Annexation of New Mexico to the United 
 States, after a protracted war . . Aug. 23, „ 
 
 Treaty fixing the north-west boundary of the 
 U. S. at the 49th parallel of latitude, and 
 giving the British possession of Vancouver's 
 island, the free navigation of the Columbia 
 river, (fee, signed .... June 12, ,, 
 
 The Mexicans defeated by general Taylor, at 
 Bueno Vista .... Feb. 22, 23, 1847 
 
 Vera Cruz taken by storm, March 29 ; the 
 Mexicans everywhere worsted. Great battle 
 of Sierra Gorda ; the Mexicans signally de- 
 feated by gen. Scott . . . April 18 ,, 
 
 Treaty between Mexico and the United States, 
 ratified ... . . May 19, 1848 
 
 Riot at the theatre, New York, occasioned by 
 the dispute between Mr. Forrest and Mr. 
 Macready May 10, 1849 
 
UNI 
 
 748 
 
 UNI 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMEIUCA, continued. 
 
 Proclamation of the president against the 
 
 marauding expedition to Cuba* . Aug. ii, 184c 
 The Freuoh ambassador dismissed from Wash- 
 ington Sept. 14, ,, 
 
 Treaty with England for a transit way across 
 
 Panama 185c 
 
 Death of Mr. Calhoun . . . March 31, ,, 
 
 Destructive lire in Philadelphia . July 9, ,, 
 
 California admitted a member of the states, 
 
 Aug. 15, „ 
 
 Fugitive slave bill passed ,, 
 
 President Fillmore i.ssues a second proclamation 
 
 against the promoters of a second expedition 
 
 j to Cuba, and the ship Cleopatra, freighted 
 
 with military stores destined for that island, 
 
 is seized Apiil 25, 1851 
 
 Census of the United States taken ; the popu- ■ 
 lation ascertained to amount to 23,347,884, in 
 the whole union .... June 16, ,, 
 Death of Henry Clay, the American minister, 
 
 aged 75 June 29, ,, 
 
 Failure of the second expedition against Cuba 
 by Lopez and his followers ; they are all 
 defeated and taken ; 51 are shot by the Cuban 
 authorities, Lopez is garotted, and the rest 
 are sent prisoners to Spain, where, after some 
 negotiation, they are mercifully set at liberty. 
 
 See Cuba Aug. — Sept. ,, 
 
 Death of J. F. Cooper, the American novelist, 
 
 Sept. 17, ,, 
 The president issues a proclamation against the 
 sympathisers with the revolutionary move- 
 ment in Mexico .... Oct. 22, ,, 
 Part of the capitol of Washington, and the 
 whole of the library of the United States con- 
 gress, destroyed by fire . . . Dec. 24, ,, 
 31. Kossuth, the Hungarian chief, arrives at 
 Washington, on the invitation of the United 
 States legislature .... Dec. 30, ., 
 Publication of " Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Mrs. 
 
 Stowe March 20, 1852 
 
 The dispute with England relating to the Fish- 
 eries occurs about this time ; Air. Webster's 
 note upon the subject . . July 14, „ 
 
 Lone Star Society (see Lone Star) . . Aug. ,, 
 The United States ship Crescent City boarded at 
 Havannah, and not allowed to land her mails 
 
 or passengers Oct 3, ,, 
 
 Death of the eminent statesman Daniel Webster, 
 
 in his 70th year Oct. 24, „ 
 
 Expedition to Japan . ,, 
 
 Address to the women of America on slavery, 
 adopted bj- the duchess of Sutherland and 
 other ladies (signed afterwards by 576,000 
 Englishwomen) .... Nov. 26, ,, 
 Affair of Koszta at Smyrna (see Koszla) June 21 , 1853 
 CrystiXl palace opens at New York . July 14, ,, 
 Duel between M. Soule (American minister at 
 
 Madrid) and M. Turgot . . . Dec. 18, ,, 
 Great fire at New York— Greai liejmliUc clipper 
 
 destroyed Dec. 26, ,, 
 
 Astor Library, New Y'ork, opened for the 
 
 public Jan. 9, 1854 
 
 Wm. Walker procliiims the republic of Sonora 
 divided into two states— Sonora and Lower 
 
 California Jan. 18, ,, 
 
 American steamer Black Warrior seized at Cuba 
 
 Feb. 28, „ 
 The Spanish government remitted the fine, but 
 
 considered the seizure legal . . April, ,, 
 Commercial treaty concluded between Japan 
 
 and United States by commodore Peiry (sent 
 thereforthepurpo.se) . . March 23, 1854 
 Captain HoUins in American sloop Cyane, bom- 
 bards San Juan de Nicanxgua . Jtily 13, ,, 
 Reciprocity treatj' betweeM Great Britain and 
 United States (respecting Newfoundland 
 fishery, international trade, &c.) ratified, 
 
 Aug. 2, „ 
 Negotiation for the annexation of the Sandwich 
 Islands . . .... Oct. ,, 
 
 Dreadful election liots in Kansas, March and 
 
 April, 1855 
 Indian war: they are defeated April 25, 29, ,, 
 Dispute with British government on enlistment 
 (see Poreign Legion) .... July, ,, 
 
 Gen. Harney gains a victory over the Siotix 
 
 Indians Sept. 3, ,, 
 
 Senator Charles Sumner savagely assaulted by 
 senator Preston Brooks i:i the senate-house 
 for speaking against slavery . . May 2, 1856 
 Mr. Crampton, the British envoy, dismissed, 
 
 May 28, ,, 
 John C. Fremont nominated the "Republican" 
 
 candid.ate for the presidency . . June 17, ,, 
 Battle iu Kansas ; the slavers (under capt. Reid) 
 
 defeat. Brown and the Abolitionists Aug. 30, ,, 
 James Buchanan elected president Nov. 4, „ 
 
 The Resolute presented to queen Victoria (see 
 
 Frankiin) Dec. 12, ,, 
 
 Lord Napier appointed British envoy to United 
 
 States (Jan. 16); warmly received March 18, 1857 
 Central American question settled . March, „ 
 Judgment given in the " Dred Scott" case in 
 the supreme court. He was claimed as a 
 slave in a free state : 2 judges declared for his 
 fret- dom, 5 against it, which causes great dis- 
 satisfaction throughout the free states March, „ 
 Disorganised state of Utab ; troops march to 
 
 support new governor . May and June, „ 
 Riots in Washington against Irish electors, 
 
 June I, ,, 
 And in New York on account of changes in the 
 
 police arrangements . . . June, ,, 
 
 Insurrection in Kansas quelled . . July, ,, 
 Commercial panic in New York . . Aug. ,, 
 Outrage at Staaten Island ; quarantine house 
 
 btirnt Sept. 7, ,, 
 
 Dispute respecting right of search, settled May, 1858 
 Tranquillity restored iu Utah . . June, „ 
 Great rejoicing at the completion of the Atlantic 
 
 telegraph (see Submarine Telegraph) Aug. ,, 
 Lieut. Aloffat seizes the American slave ship 
 
 Echo and takes her to Charleston . Sept. „ 
 
 Death of W. H. Prescott, tbe historian, Jan. 28, 1859 
 Daniel Sickles, a government official, killing 
 Pbilp Barton Key, foranultery with his wife, 
 is acquitted of murder amid much applause, 
 
 Feb. 26, ,, 
 
 The American commodore Tatnall assists the 
 
 Engli.sh at the Chinese engagement on the 
 
 river Peiho, saying, "Blood is thicker than 
 
 water" ..... June 25, ,, 
 
 Gen. Ward, the United States envoy, goes to 
 
 Pekin, but does not see the emperor . July, ,, 
 Gen. Harney sends troops to Sati. Juan Islaud, 
 near Vancouver s Island, ''to protect the 
 American settlers ; " modei-ation of the 
 Britijh, who have a naval force at hand ; 
 Governor Douglas also sends troops, July 27, ,, 
 Insurrection at Harper's Ferry t . Oct. i6, ,, 
 Gen. Harney superseded by gen. Scott at San 
 
 * This expedition, notwithstanding, under a Spanish adventurer, named Lopez, landed 600 men at 
 Cuba. Alter a short but obstinate struggle they ttok the town of Cardenas ; and shortly aftei-wards had a 
 land engagement with tome Spani.'h soldiers, in which many of them were killed or t.iken prisoners; the 
 others then embarked with Lopez in the Creole steamer, and thus escaped from a Spanish war steamer, the 
 Pizarri), May, 1850. The tecond expedition of Lopez, in Aug. 1851, was, however, fatal to him and his 
 followers, as above related. 
 
 t John Brown, called captain Brown and old Brown, was a prominent leader in the violent conflicts in 
 
UNI 
 
 749 
 
 UNI 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 
 
 Juan, who makes conciliatory overtures ; 
 accepted by governor Douglas . Nov. 
 
 Death of Washington Irving . . Nov. 26, 
 
 Great agitation in the congress, Nov. 1859 ; no 
 speaker elected till .... Feb. i, 
 
 President Buchanan protests against a proposed 
 inquiry into his acts . . . March 28, 
 
 The national republican convention meet at 
 Chicago ; Abraham Lincoln chosen as candi- 
 date for the presidency . . .' May 16, 
 
 Japanese embassy received by the president at 
 Washington May 17, 
 
 Fresh disputes at San Juan, through general 
 Harney, who is recalled . . . May, 
 
 William Goodrich (Peter Parley) dies May, 
 
 The national democratic convention meet at 
 Baltimore ; a large number of delegates 
 secede ; the remainder nominate Stephen 
 Douglas as president ; the seceders nominate 
 John Breckinridge .... June 18, 
 
 The Great EivtemaxrrwQS at New York, June 23, 
 
 The prince of Wales arrives at Detroit in the 
 United States, Sept. 20 ; visits Washington, 
 Oct. 3 ; Philadelphia, Oct. g ; New York, 
 Oct. 11; Boston, Oct. 17; embarks at Port- 
 land Oct. 20, 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, the republican candidate, 
 elected president* (see Southern Confederacy) 
 
 Nov. 6, 
 
 Intense excitement at Charleston, South Caro- 
 lina, and in other southern states . Nov. 
 
 South Carolina secedes from the union, Dec. 20, 
 
 Major Anderson, of United States army, occu- 
 pies Fort Sumter in Carolina . . Dec. 26, 
 
 Delegates from South Carolina not received by 
 the president ..... Dec. 30, 
 
 Vacillating policy of president Buchanan ; the 
 secretaries Cass, Cobb, Floyd, and Thompson 
 resign .... Dec. i860 — Jan. 
 
 New York and other northern states protest 
 against the secession ; a general fast pro- 
 claimed ; observed on . . . Jan. 4, 
 
 Vicksburg, Mississippi, fortified . Jan. 12, 
 
 Kansas admitted a state . . . Jan. 21, 
 
 Secession (by convention) of Mississippi, Jan. 8 ; 
 Alabama, Florida, Jan, 11 ; Georgia, Jan. ig; 
 Louisiana, Jan. 26; Texas (by legislature), 
 
 Feb. I, 
 
 Jefferson Davis, elected by the six seceding 
 states, is inauguratedpresident of the "south- 
 ern confederacy," at Montgomery, Alabama, 
 
 Feb. 18, 
 
 New (Morrill) tariff bill passed (nearly prohibits 
 commerce with England) . . March 2, 
 
 President Davis prepares for war (100,000 men 
 to be raised) March, 
 
 Lincoln, inaugurated president at Washington, 
 says, "the central idea of secession is the 
 essence of anarchy " . . March 4, 
 
 Southern commissioners not received by the 
 president at Washington . . March 12, 
 
 Gen. Winfield Scott, in a letter to president 
 Lincoln, sets before him four courses : either, 
 I., to surrender to slavery half the territory 
 acquired or to be acquired ; II., to blockade all 
 
 1859 
 
 revolted ports ; lit., to say to seceding states, 
 " Wayward sisters, go in peace ! " or IV., to 
 conquer the south, which would require 
 300,000 and afterwards a resident army [the 
 letter became public in Oct. 1862] March, 1S61 
 
 Great excitement at the operation of the new 
 Morrill tariff, which begins . . April i, ,, 
 
 T)ie war begins: Major Anderson refuses to 
 surrender Fort Sumter, Charleston, when 
 summoned, April n ; it is taken by the seces- 
 sionists, after a bloodless conflict April 13, ,, 
 
 President Luacoln summons the congress to 
 meet on July 4; issues a proclamation calling 
 on the states to furnish a contingent of 
 75,000 men, (fee. .... April 15. „ 
 
 Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and 
 other states zealously respond, with vigorous 
 preparations for war ; Kentucky, North Caro- 
 lina, Virginia, Tennessee, and Missouri, de- 
 cidedly refuse, asserting the proposed coer- 
 cion to be wicked, illegal, and unconstitu- 
 tional April, ,, 
 
 The mob in Baltimore, Maryland, attack some 
 Massachusetts regiments on their way to 
 Washington ; several persons killed in the 
 conflict April 19, 
 
 President Davis issues letters of marq\ie, April 
 17 ; president Lincoln proclaims the blockade 
 of the ports of seceding states . April 19, ,. 
 
 U. S. Arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, fired 
 by command, and 15,000 stand of arms de- 
 stroyed, April 18; 9 ships of war and naval 
 stores in the navy yard, Norfolk, Va., burnt 
 to preven* them falling into the hands of the 
 southern confederates, who occupy the place, 
 
 April 21, ,, 
 
 Virginia (except West Virginia) secedes by ordi- 
 nance (the 8th state) . . . April 25, „ 
 
 Lincoln calls for 42,034 volunteers for three 
 years. May 3, and informs foreign powers of 
 his intention to maintain the union by war. 
 
 May 4, ,, 
 
 The confederates under Beauregard and John- 
 ston, in Virginia, threaten Washington, de- 
 fended by the federals under generals Winfield 
 Scott and George McClcllan . . May, ,, 
 
 The British queen commands her subjects to be 
 neutral in the ensuing war . . May 13, ,, 
 
 The federals enter Virginia ; Beauregard calls on 
 the Virginians to rise and expel them, June i, , , 
 
 Formal secession of Arkansas, May 6; Noi-th 
 Carolina, May 20; Tennessee (gth, loth, and 
 nth) June 8, „ 
 
 Several British vessels seized while endeavour- 
 ing to break the blockade ; the southern 
 privateer Savannah captiired . . June, 
 
 Neutrality announced by the French emperor, 
 
 June 10, „ 
 
 Fast-day in confederate states . . June 13, ,, 
 
 Missouri.^ — Gen. Lyon raises a federal army, 
 and defeats the state troops, June 17 ; the 
 federals successful at Carbhage, July 5 ; Fre- 
 mont takes command in W. Missouri, July 
 26 ; federals victorious at Athens, Aug. 5 ; at 
 Wilson's Creek (gen. Lyon killed), Aug. 10 ; 
 
 Kansas, during the agitation respecting the question of its becoming a slave state. He was a monomaniac 
 on the slavery question, and contended that all means for annihilating slavery were justifiable. He 
 gathered together a band of desperate characters, who so much annoyed Missouri and other slave states, 
 that a reward was offered for his head. He had arranged for the successful issue of the insui-rection above 
 mentioned, so far as to devise a provisional government and a new constitiition. On Oct. 16, he and his 
 band, aided by a mob, seized the arsenal at Harper's Fen-y, a town on the borders of Virginia and Baltimore, 
 stopped the railway trains, and cut the telegraph wires ; a conflict with the military ensued, when many 
 of the insurgents were killed. Brown was captured, tried, and exectxted on Dec. 2 ; and several of his 
 companions were executed in March, i860. These events caused a temporary panic in the Southern States, 
 and much excitement in Boston and other northern towns. 
 
 * 303 electors are appointed to vote for a president : 152 to be a majority. The numbers were for 
 A. Lincoln, 180 ; John C. Breckinridge, 72 ; John Bell, 39 ; Stejihen A. Douglas, 12. 
 
 t Very many skii-mishes took place, with various results. 
 
UNI 
 
 750 
 
 UNI 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 
 
 Fremont proclaims martial law, and freedom 
 to slaves or rebels, Avig. 31 ; Lexington sur- 
 renders to confederates, Sept. 20; Fremont 
 blamed, retirea; succeeded by Hunter, 
 
 Nov. 2, 1 
 
 FM-oitita.*— Federals defeated at Big Eethell, 
 June 10 ; occupy Harper's Ferry, evacuated 
 by the confederates, June 16; col. Pegrim 
 and 6co confederates suncnder at Beverley, 
 
 July 13, 
 
 McClellan defeats confederates at Eicb Moun- 
 tain. July II ; Paterson permits the junction 
 of the confederates under Johnston and 
 Beauregard near Manassas, July 15 ; who are 
 repulsed at Blackburn's ford, near Centre- 
 ville July 18, 
 
 Battle of Bull Eun (tchich sr-e) or Manassas, 
 Virginia ; the federals, seized with panic, flee 
 in utter disorder .... July 21, 
 
 greeting of U. S. Congress, July 4 ; a loan of 
 250 million dollars authorised . July 17, 
 
 fleeting of confederate congress at Richmond, 
 Virginia J"ly 20, 
 
 Passport system introduced into the northern 
 states, and the liberty of the press greatly 
 restricted ....•• Aug. 
 
 The charges iii the Morrill tariff greatly raised ; 
 the confederates prohibit exportation of 
 cotton excei't by southern ports . . Aug. 
 
 Federal gen. Butler takes Fort Hatteras, >f. 
 Carolina (700 prisoners and 1000 stand of 
 arms) Aug. 29, 
 
 Fast-day in federal states . . . Sept. 26, 
 
 Garibaldi declines command in the federal 
 army ....•■• Sept. 
 
 Battle of Ball's Bluff; federals defeated and 
 gen. Baker killed, near Leesburg, Virginia ; 
 hundreds drowned .... Oct. 21, 
 
 The federals and confedci-atcs enter Kentucky ; 
 the Kovemor protests: many skirmishes, 
 Sept.— Dec. 
 
 Resignation of lieut. -gen. Scott, Oct. 31 : George 
 McClellan made commander-in-chief of the 
 federal army Nov. 1, 
 
 The federal general Sherman takes Port Royal 
 forts, S. Carolina . . Nov. 7, 8, 
 
 Capt. Wilkes, of federal war steamer So )!/«a«?o, 
 boards the Royal Britit^h mail packet Trent, 
 and carries off Messrs. Mason and SUdell, 
 confederate commissioners, and their secre- 
 taries, Nov. 8, and conveys them to Boston, 
 
 Nov. 19, 
 
 Great rejoicings in the northern states at the 
 capture of Mason and Slidell . . Nov. 
 
 McClellan reviews 70,000 men . . Nov. 20, 
 
 Capt. Pegram, of confederate steavaer Nasltville, 
 burns the federal ship Harvey Birch, Nov. 19, 
 and brings the crew on to Southampton, 
 
 Nov. 21, 
 
 A secession ordinance passed by a party in 
 Missouri, Nov. 2 ; the same in Kentucky, 
 
 Nov. 30, 
 
 Dissensions increase between the repubUcans 
 (abolitionists) and the democrats in New 
 York, &c. . . • , • ,■ /,^"°"^- 
 
 Jefferson Davis elected president of confederate 
 states for six years . . . Nov. 30, 
 
 President Lincoln states that the federal armies 
 comprise 660,971 men . . . Dec. 2, 
 
 Meeting of congress, which votes thanks to 
 capt. Wilkes, Dec. 2 ; the foreign envoys at 
 Washington protest against his act Dec. 3, : 
 
 The federals commence sinking hulks filled 
 with stones to block up Charleston harbour, 
 S. Carolina [it created much indignation in 
 England] Dec. 21, 
 
 Banks at New York, &c., suspend cash pay- 
 ments Dec. 30, 
 
 A firm despatch from the British government 
 arrives, Dec. 18, 1861 ; Mason, &c. surren- 
 dered, sail for Europe . . . Jan. i, 
 
 Phelps' fruitless expedition to Ship I.^land, 
 Mississippi Sound . . Dec. 3, 1861 — Jan. 
 
 Confederate gen. Zollicoflfer defeated and slain 
 
 ' at Mill Springs or Somerset, Kentucky, 
 
 Jan. -19, 
 
 Tennessee. — The federals take Fort Henry, Feb. 
 6; Fort Donuelson, with 15,000 prisoners, 
 Feb. 16 ; and Nashville . Feb. 23, 
 
 Confederates defeated at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, 
 March 6, 7, 
 
 Confederate iron-plated ship Merrimac destroys 
 
 federal vessels Cumberland and Congress in 
 
 Hampton roads, March 8 ; is repulsed by 
 
 federal iron-clad floating battery Monitor, 
 
 March 9. 
 
 McClellan and his army (ioo,coo) cross the 
 Potomac and find the confederate camp at 
 Bull Run evacuated . . . March 10, 
 
 McClellan resigns general command, and as- 
 sumes that of the army of the Potomac 
 only; Fremont that of the Mountain depart- 
 ment ; and Halleck that of the Mississippi, 
 March 11, 
 
 Bumside's expedition sails, Jan. 11 ; takes 
 
 Roanoke, N. Carolina, Feb. 7, 8; Newbem, 
 
 March 14, 
 
 Capt. Wilson (British) boldly rescues his vessel, 
 Emily St. Pierre, a merchantman,! from the 
 federals March 21. 
 
 Confederates defeated at Winchester, March 23, 
 
 General Burnside occupies Beaufort and Fort 
 Macon April i. 
 
 Slavery abolished in district of Columbiii 
 
 April 4, 
 
 McClellan advances into Virginia, with the view 
 of taking Richmond ; he besieges Yorktown, 
 held by 30,000 confederates . . April 5, 
 
 Corre.spoudents of English newspapers ex- 
 cluded from federal army . . April 5, 
 
 Great battles of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, 
 near Corinth, Tennessee; confederates vic- 
 torious, but lose their able ^n. Albert John- 
 stone April 6, 7, 
 
 Treaty between Great Britain and the United 
 States for the suppression of the slave trade, 
 
 April 7, 
 
 Federals take Fort Pulaska, on the Savannah, 
 April II ; and New Orleans . . April 26-28, 
 
 Yorktown evacuated by confederates May 5, 
 
 The Seward-Lyons treaty between Great Bri- 
 tain and the United Ktates, for suppression 
 of the slave trade, signed April 7 ; ratified 
 
 May 20, 
 
 Confederates repulsed at William.sburg, May 5 ; 
 their naval depot at Norfolk, Virginia, sur- 
 renders, May 10; they burn the Merrimac, 
 
 May II, 
 
 • Very many skirmishes took place, with various results. 
 
 i She was sailing from Calcutta to New Brunswick, and whOe attempting to inquire whether a blockade 
 existed was captured off Charleston bar by a federal ship of war. Her captain, William AVilson, and his 
 cook and steward were permitted to remain on board on her voyage to Philadelphia. On March i, 1862, 
 Wilson with his two associates succeeded, by stratagem and courage, in recovering the command of the 
 vessel overcoming two U. S. officers and 13 sailors, and brought her into Liverpool. The owners of the 
 shin gave him 2000 guineas, and the Liverpool merchants presented him with a magnificent testimonial of 
 their admiration of his gallantry. The British government refused to restore the vessel when claimed by 
 the Americans. 
 
UNI 
 
 751 
 
 UNI 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMERICA, coniinued. 
 
 Commodore Farragut with a flotilla ascends the 
 
 Mississippi May, il 
 
 Little Rock, Arkansas, taken by federals, May, 
 McClellan takes Hanover court-house, May 27, 
 Skirmishes in Virginia ; success varying, May, , 
 Severe battles of Pair Oaks, before Richmond 
 
 (indecisive) . . . May 31, June i, . 
 Beauregard and the confederates retreat from 
 Corinth, Tennessee, May 30; pursued by 
 Halleck and the federals . . . June, 
 Memphis, on the Mississippi, taken June 6, 
 Federals defeated near Chai-leston June 16, 
 Federal forces under Fremont, Banks, and 
 McDowell, placed under Pope ; Fremont re- 
 signs June 27, 
 
 Federals suffer through several severe engage- 
 ments in Virginia . ". . June 25-30, 
 General Butler excites great indignation' by bis 
 military rigour at New Orleans. May &l June 
 United States debt estimated at 100,000,000?., 
 
 June, 
 Seven days' conflict on the Chickahominy . 
 before Richmond ; the confederate gen. Lee 
 compels McClellan to abandon the siege and 
 retreat 17 miles, taking up a position at Har- 
 rison's Landing, on James's river, June 26 
 — July I, 
 The tariff still further raised . . . Jiily, 
 Many conflicts in Kentucky, Missouri, and 
 Tennessee, through confederate guerilla par- 
 ties June and JUI3-, 
 
 Lincoln visits and encourages the army of 
 McCleUan, and calls for 300,000 volunteers, 
 
 July, 
 Lincoln's assent to a bill confiscating the pro- 
 perty and emancipating the slaves of ail r«lDels 
 in arms after 60 days . . . July 17, 
 Halleck supersedes McClellan as commander-in- 
 chief July 26," 
 
 Slow volunteering ; many emigrations to Canada 
 and Europe ; habeas corpus 'suspended ; the 
 president ordains a draft if the volunteers are 
 not ready by Aug. 15 . . . July, 
 
 Public debt of United States estimated at 
 1,222,000,000 dollars . . . . July i, 
 Pope takes command of army in Virginia, 
 
 July 14, 
 Lincoln's proclamation of confiscation of pro- 
 perty of rebels .... July 26, 
 The federals take Baton Rouge, Louisiana, but 
 soon after retire from it . . . Aug. 5, 
 Pope's troops ravage Virginia; Banks, his 
 subordinate, defeated at Cedar Mountain by 
 gen. Thomas Jefferson " Stonewall "* Jackson 
 
 Aug. 9, 
 
 McClellan retreats fi-om Harrison's Landing 
 
 (said to have lost 70,000 naen, killed, woimded, 
 
 prisoners, and deserters) . . Aug. 16, 
 
 The federals surprised, and Pope loses his 
 
 baggage Aug. 25, 
 
 Jackson turns the flank of Pope's army, and 
 attacks him at Groveton, Aug. 29 ; and when 
 reinforced by Lee, defeats him and McDowell 
 at Bull Run, Aug. 30 ; Pope retreats to Centre- 
 
 viUe Sept. i 
 
 The remains of Pope's army flee behind the 
 lines of Washington, Sept. 2 ; he is removed 
 to the north-west to act against the Indian 
 
 insun-ection Sept. 3 
 
 McDowell superseded ; charged with treachery, 
 
 he claims a trial Sept. 
 
 McCleUan appointed commander-in-chief, saves 
 Washington, and marches against the con- 
 
 federates 'Under Lee, who, have crossed the 
 Potomac and entered Maryland Sept. 5, 6, ] 
 
 Severe conflicts at South Mountain Gap (or 
 Middletown), Sept. 14-16 ; confederates, after 
 a great fight near Antietam Creek and Sharps- 
 burg road, retreat .... Sept. 17, 
 
 Harper's Ferry surrendered to Jackson, Sept. 
 15 : he crosses Potomac and joins Lee's army 
 
 Sept. 17 
 
 Federal cause declining in the west ; they 
 
 lose Lexington, Aug. ; and MunsfordviUe 
 
 SeiJt. 17, 
 
 Thanksgiving-day in southern states, Sept. 18, 
 
 Rosenorans defeats the confederates at luka, 
 
 Sept. 19, 
 
 Confederates re-enter Virginia laden with stores 
 
 Sept. 22, 
 
 Lincoln proclaims freedom to the slaves in the 
 
 confederate states, on Jan. i, 1863, if the 
 
 states have not returned to the union, 
 
 Sept. 22, 
 
 Secret convention of 16 governors of states at 
 Altoona, Pennsylvania, approve Lincoln's 
 policy . . ' . . . . Sept. 24, 
 
 Draught of 40,000 men ordered in New York 
 state by Oct. 15 ... . Sept. 
 
 Lincoln suspends habeas corpus writ, and 
 authorises severe measures against disloyal 
 persons Sept. 25-27, 
 
 Desperate but indecisive conflicts near Corinth, 
 Tennessee, Oct. 3-5 ; and at Perrysville, Ken- 
 tucky Oct. 8, 
 
 Confederate gen. Stuart crosses Upper Potomac, 
 and enters Pennsylvania ; enters Chambers- 
 burg and other, places, carrying off horses, 
 ammunition, &c. ; rides round the federal 
 army, and returns to his camp Oct. 10, 13, 
 
 Gold at 2g premium at New York . . Oct. 
 
 Great Democratic meeting at New York, con- 
 demning the pi-esident's policy . Oct. 12, 
 
 At New Orleans Butler compels all persons who 
 refuse to take the oath of allegiance to send 
 in their names and register their property to 
 the provost marshal . . . Oct. 12, 
 
 McClellan's head-quarters at Harper's Ferry, 
 
 Oct. 17, 
 
 Raid of confederate gen. Morgan in Kentucky ; 
 he carries oft 80 federal waggons of ammuni- 
 tion, &c Oct. 18 
 
 Ten confederate prisoners at Palmyra shot by 
 order of gen, McNeil in consequence of the 
 disappearance of Abraham AUsman Oct. 18, 
 
 M. Drouyn de Lhuys, on behalf of the French 
 gOA'ernment, proposes joint mediation in the 
 American conflict to Great Britain an d Russia, 
 Oct. 30 ; declined by Gortschakoff, Nov. 8 ; by 
 earl Russell Nov. 13, 
 
 The confederate steamer AUibama, capt. Sem- 
 mes, captures many U. S. vessels, and excites 
 much alarm at New York . . Oct. -Dec. 
 
 Elections for next congress ; great majority for 
 the democrat (opposition) candidates in New 
 York and several other states . Nov. 4, 
 
 McCleUan, while advancing towards Richmond, 
 is superseded by gen. Burnside, who ad- 
 vances towards Richmond . . . Nov. 7, 
 
 President Davis threatens reprisals if gen. 
 McNeil is not surrendered (see Oct. 18) 
 
 Nov. 17, 
 
 Burnside summons Fredericksburg to suiTen- 
 der ; confederate gen. Lee with about 80,000 
 men near ...... Nov. 22, 
 
 100,000 federal soldiers on the sick Ust Nov. 
 
 * According to some accounts he obtained the name by promising Beauregard, at the battle of Bull 
 Run, that his brigade should stand like a "stone waU;" others say that Beauregard gave the name 
 himself. 
 
UNI 
 
 752 
 
 UNI 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 
 
 Great honour shown to McClellan ; he is pro- 
 posed as the next president . . Nov. 
 
 The federal government orders release of dis- 
 affected persons in prisons . . Nov. 25, 
 
 Annual session of U. S. congress ; the presi- 
 dent recommends compensated emancipation 
 of all slaves in the loyal states before the 
 vear 1900 Dec. 1, 
 
 B;ittle of Fredericksburg (which see); Bum- 
 side crosses the Rappahannock, Dec. 10 ; 
 bombards Fredericksburg, Dec. 11 ; a series 
 of desperate attacks on the confederates ; he 
 is totally defeated, Dec. 13; and recrosses the 
 river Dec. 15 
 
 Engagements in Tennessee with varying rssults 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Discovery of frauds on the U. S. army financial 
 accoiuits ; public dissatisfaction with the 
 government ; secretaries Chase and Seward 
 resign, but resume office . . . Dec. 
 
 Battles near Murfreesboro', or Stotie River, be- 
 tween Rosencrans and the federals and Brax- 
 ton Bragg and the confederates : begin Uec. 
 29 ; severe but indecisive, Dec. 31 ; battle 
 continued, Jan. i ; Bragg defeated, retreats, 
 
 Jan. 2, 
 
 {" There have been about 2000 battles and 
 skirmishes since the commencement of the 
 war." — American Almanack. ] 
 
 President Lincoln preclaims the fi-eedom of 
 slaves in the rebel states, except in parts 
 held by the U. S. army . . . Jan. 2, 
 
 Gen. Burnside superseded by gen. Joseph 
 Hooker in command of army of the Potomac 
 
 Jan. 26 
 
 The French government's offer of mediation, 
 /^ Jan. 9 ; declined .... Feb. 6, 
 
 The George Grinwnld, a vessel containing pro- 
 visions and other relief for the distre-ssed 
 cotton workers in Lancashire, arrives, Feb. 9 
 
 A conscription bill (for men between 18 and 45) 
 passed Feb. 25 
 
 The congress authorises the suspension of the 
 habeas corpus act, March 3 ; and establishes 
 a N.ational Academy of Sciences at Washing- 
 ton March 4, 
 
 Confederate loan for 3,000,000!. well taken up 
 in Europe March, 
 
 Charleston, South Carolina, attacked by moni- 
 tors and gunboats; the Keokuk, a monitor, 
 sunk April 7, 
 
 Battle of Chancellorsville (which see) ; the 
 federals under Hooker cross the Rappahan- 
 nock, April 28 ; defeated (gen, St<jnewall 
 Jackson is mortally wounded), May 2-4 ; 
 Hooker recrosses the Rappahannock May 5, 
 
 Stonewall Jackson dies . . . May 9, 
 
 Grant's successful campaign in Tennessee : 
 he defeats the confederates under Joseph 
 Johnston at Jackson, May 14 ; and under 
 Pemberton at Champion Hills, May 16 ; and 
 invests Vicksburg. Mississippi, which is 
 strongly fortified, May 1 8 ; a dreadful assault 
 on it repelled May 22, 
 
 Great peace meeting at Norfolk Jiuie 5, 
 
 Confederate invasion vmder Lee : invade Mary- 
 land and Pennsylvania, and take various* 
 towns .... June 14, ft xeq. 
 
 The federal gen. Hooker superseded by George 
 H. Meade June 27, 
 
 Meade advances against Lee ; great battle of 
 Gettysburg, indecisive ; but the confederates 
 eviicuate Pennsylvania and Maryland 
 
 July 1-3, 
 
 Vicksburg bombarded, July 3 ; surrendered by 
 Pemberton to Grant and Porter . July 4, 
 
 Port Hudson, a confederate fortress on the 
 Mississippi, surrenders . . July 8, 
 
 Pierce riots at New York against the consci'ip- 
 
 1863 
 
 tion ; many negroes miu-dered, and much 
 propertj' destroyed . . . July 13-16, 1863 
 
 The Sioux defeated, Aug. 7 ; gen. Pope reports 
 that the Indian war is ended . . Aug. „ 
 
 New York rioters tried and convicted. Aug. 12 ; 
 conscription going on peaceably . Aug. 21, ,, 
 
 Siege of Charle.-ston ; defended by Beauregard — 
 attacks with varied success, July ; Fort 
 Sumter bombarded and destroyed (and so- 
 called Greek fire employed) ; attacks on the 
 ruins repulsed . . . Aug. 21, 22, „ 
 
 Knoxville occupied by Burnside . Sept. 10, „ 
 
 A Russian squadron warmly received at New 
 York Sept. and Oct. „ 
 
 Battle of Chickamauga, Tennessee ; Rosencrans 
 defeated by Bragg . . . Sept. 20, 
 
 Mason, the confederate commissioner in 
 England, protests against the mode of his 
 reception, and quits . . . Sept. 22, ,, 
 
 Rosencrans' command of the federal army in 
 Tennessee superseded by Grant and Thomas, 
 and Sherman Oct. 19, „ 
 
 The steam rams El Tousson and El Monassir, 
 built by Mr. Laird at Birkenhead, and sus- 
 pected to be for the confederates, are placed 
 imder charge of a government vessel in the 
 Mersey ...... Oct. 31, ,, 
 
 Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers . Oct. 17, „ 
 
 British consuls dismissed from the southern 
 states Oct. ,, 
 
 Meade captures a part of Lee's army on the N. 
 side of the Rappahannock . . . Nov. 7, , , 
 
 The chief justices Lowrie, Woodward, and 
 Thompson declare that the Conscription Act 
 is unconstitutional . . . Nov. 12, ,, 
 
 Longstreet defeats Burnside, and compels him 
 to retire into Knoxville . . Nov. 14-17, ,, 
 
 Sherman and Thomas defeat Bragg at Chatti- 
 nooga Nov. 23, ,, 
 
 Longstreet's attack on Knoxville, defended by 
 Burnside, fails, and he retreats into Virginia, 
 
 Nov. 29 and Dec. i, ,, 
 
 The confederate general Bragg superseded by 
 Hardee ...... Dec. 2, „ 
 
 Lincoln's message to congress warlike ; he 
 proffers amnesty to all except heads of 
 governments, &c., Dec. 4; Davis's message: 
 firm, but acknowledging reverses . Dec. 7, ,, 
 
 Gen. Joseph Johnston takes command of the 
 confederate army in Georgia . . Dec. 27, ,, 
 
 President Lincoln orders a draft of 500,000 men 
 in 3 years Feb. i, 1864 
 
 Federal expedition into Florida ; defeated at 
 Olustee Feb. 20, ,, 
 
 Failure of attack of Kilpatrick and Dahlgren on 
 Richmond . . . Feb. 27 — March 1, ,, 
 
 Ulysses Grant made commander-in-chief, suc- 
 cee'ding Halleok .... March 2 ,, 
 
 Confederate raids into the Western states 
 
 March, ,, 
 
 Sherman's expedition against Mobile, March 2 ; 
 defeated b3' Kirby-Smith . . April 5, ,, 
 
 James E. Stuart, the celebrated confederate 
 cavalry officer, killed . . . May n, ,, 
 
 Campaign in Virginia; the army of the Poto- 
 mac crosses the Rapidan ; advance of Lee 
 (now supported by Longstreet) May 2 ; severe 
 battle in the " Wilderness " (near Chancellors- 
 ville) ; indecisive, May 5, 6 ; battle of Spott- 
 sylvania ; the federals remain on the field ; 
 much carnage .... May 11, 12, ,, 
 
 Sherman (in Georgia) beats the confederates at 
 Resacca, May 14, ar.d at Dallas . May, ,, 
 
 Fugitive flave act repealed by the house of 
 representatives .... June 13, ,, 
 
 After a succession of attacks on both sides. 
 Grant compels Lee to retire gradually, and 
 by a flank movement marches to the other 
 side of Richmond, and faces Petersburg, 
 June 15 ; where, having taken the first 
 
UNI 
 
 753 
 
 UNI 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 
 
 intrenchments after desperate assaults, he 
 is repulsed vvith considerable loss June i8, 
 
 The confederate steamer Alabama (caist. 
 Semmes) attacked and sunk by the U.S. cor- 
 vette Kearsarge (capt. Winslow) near Cher- 
 bourg, France .... Juno 19, 
 
 Lee invades Maryland, July i ; defeats Wallace 
 
 near Monocracy river, July g ; threatens 
 
 Baltimore and Washmgton, and retreats, 
 
 July 12, 13, 
 
 Sherman's 3 battles at Atlanta (Georgia), July 20, 
 22 ; victoi-y reniains with the federals, July 28, 
 
 Confederates again invade Maryland and Penn- 
 sylvania, and destroy Chambersburg, July3o, 
 
 Grant orders the explosion of a mine at Peters- 
 burg, whereby 250 confederates are killed ; 
 but the assault following is repulsed with 
 great slaughter .... July 30, 
 
 Mr. Chase, secretary to the U.S. treasury, re- 
 signs ; succeeded by Mr. Fessenden . July, 
 
 The Tallahassee confederate steamer (built in 
 
 London) destroys many U.S. merchantmen, 
 
 July, Aug. 
 
 Severe conflicts in the Shenandoah valley ; the 
 federals victors Aug. 
 
 The confederate flotilla near Mobile destroyed 
 by Farragut, Aug. ; Fort Gaines taken, 
 
 Aug 8, 
 
 McClellan nominated for the presidency by the 
 "Democratic " Chicago convention Sept. i, 
 
 Sherman occupies Atlanta; the confederate 
 general Hood retires . . . .Sept. i, 
 
 Sherman orders the depopulation of Atlanta, 
 
 Sept. 7, 
 
 McClellan declares for maintaining the union ; 
 the democratic party divided . . Sept. 13, 
 
 Sheridan (federal) defeats Early at Winchestei-, 
 in the Shenandoah valley, but with very 
 great loss Sept. 19, 
 
 Longstreet replaces Early in the command of 
 the confederates .... Oct. 
 
 Longstreet defeats the federals at Cedar Creek ; 
 Sheridan arrives, rallies his troops, and de- 
 feats the confederates . . . Oct. ig, 
 
 St. Alban's raid. — Between 20 and 30 armed 
 men enter St. Alban's, Vermont ; rob the 
 bank, and carry off horses and stores ; fire on 
 and kill several persons, and flee to Canada, 
 Oct. ig; where 13 of them are arrested, 
 
 Oct. 21, 
 
 Lincoln re-elected president ; McClellan re- 
 signs his command in U.S. army Nov. 8, 
 
 Sherman destroys Atlanta, and begins his 
 march through Georgia to Savannah, Nov. 13, 
 
 Hood's attack on Thomas (federal) repulsed 
 with severe loss .... Nov. 30, 
 
 Lincoln's message to congress considered 
 "bold" Dec. 6, 
 
 The St. Alban's raiders discharged by Judge 
 Coursol ; General Dix issues an intemperate 
 order for reprisals (disannulled by the presi- 
 dent) Dec. 14, 
 
 Hood defeated by Thomas (federal) near Nash- 
 ville Dec. 15, 16, 
 
 Sherman storms fort M'AUister, Dec. 13 ; 
 enters Savannah .... Dec. 21, 
 
 Wilmington bombarded ; the attack of gene- 
 ral Butler and admiral Porter repulsed, 
 Dec. 24, 25, 
 
 The St. Alban's raiders recaptured and com- 
 mitted for trial . . . Deo. 27, et seq. 
 
 The federal congress abolishes slavery in the 
 United States Feb. i. 
 
 Fruitless meeting of President 'Lincoln and 
 secretary Seward with the confederate secre- 
 tary Stephens, and 2 commissioners, to treat 
 for peace at Fort Monroe . . Feb. 3, 
 
 The Canadian government sui-renders Burlej'', a 
 raider, to the federals .... Feb. 3, 
 
 Lee takes the general command of the con- 
 
 1865 
 
 federate armies ; he recommends enlistment 
 of negroes Feb. 18, 
 
 Wilmington captured by Schofield ; Charleston 
 evacuated by the confederates ; retreat of 
 Beauregard Feb. 22, 
 
 The confederate congress decree the arming of 
 the slaves Feb. 22 
 
 A new stringent tariff comes into operation, 
 
 April I, 
 
 Three days' sanguinary conflict at Petersburg : 
 at first favourable -to the confederates, March 
 31 ; Sheridan turns Lee's front, at Five-forks, 
 AprU I ; and Lee retreats . . . April 2, 
 
 Richmond and Petersburg evacuated by the 
 confederates and occupied by Grant, April 2, 
 
 Sheridan overtakes and defeats Lee at Farm- 
 ville, April 6 ; Lee surrenders with the army 
 of Northern Virginia, to Grant, at Appomatox 
 courthouse April g. 
 
 Mobile evacuated by the confederates, April 12, 
 
 The Union flag replaced at Fort Sumter, 
 Charleston April 14, 
 
 President Lincoln shot in the head at Ford's 
 Theatre, Washington, about 11 o'clock, p.m., 
 April 14, by Wilkes Booth, who escapes ; Mr. 
 Seward, the foreign secretary, and his son, 
 wounded in his own house by an assassin 
 about the same time ; Lincoln dies at 7. 30 
 a.m. ; Andrew Johnson, vice-president, 
 sworn in as pi=esident . . . April 15, 
 
 The convention between Sherman and Johnston 
 (favourable to confederates), April 18 : dis- 
 avowed by the government, April 21 ; John- 
 ston surrenders on same terms as Lee, 
 April 25, 
 
 Wilkes Booth shot, and his accomplice Harrold 
 captiu'ed in a farmhouse . . April 26, 
 
 The confederate general Dick Taylor (near 
 Mobile) sun-enders .... May 4, 
 
 President Jefferson Davis captured at Irwins- 
 ville, Georgia (and consigned to prison). 
 
 May 10, 
 
 The confedei'ate general Kirby-Smith, in Texas, 
 surrenders ; end of the war . . May 26, 
 
 President Johnson proclaims a conditional 
 amnesty May 26, 
 
 President Johnson proclaims the opening of tha 
 southern ports, May 22 : and an amnesty 
 with certain exemptions . . May 2g, 
 
 Solemn fast observed for death of president 
 Lincoln June i. 
 
 The armies on both sides rapidly disbanding ; 
 fierce riots at New York between the whites 
 and negroes June, 
 
 Galveston, Texas, the last sea-port held by the 
 south, surrendered by Kirby-Smith June 5, 
 
 The British and French governments rescind 
 their recognition of the confederates as 
 belligerents June 2, 6, 
 
 President Johnson, uniting with the demo- 
 crats and acting leniently towards the south ; 
 reorganisation of the state governments, 
 
 June, 
 
 Close of the long trial .of the conspirators, 
 June 2g ; execution of Payne, Atzerott, 
 Harrold or Herold, and Mrs. Suratt, July 7, 
 
 All southern prisoners of war to be released on 
 parole on taking oath of allegiance July 29, 
 
 Federal debt declared 2,757,253,27s dollars, 
 
 July 31, 
 
 The confederate privateer Shenandoah (captain 
 Waddell) captures and destroys many federal 
 vessels (about 30) .... Aug. 
 
 Pacific policy of president Johnson ; he declares 
 himself opposed to centralisation and in 
 favour of state rights; and is bitterly op- 
 posed by the radicals .... Sept. 
 
 Correspondence between earl Russell and Mr. 
 Adams (U.S. minister, London) respecting 
 the Alabama, confederate privateer ; proposal 
 3 C 
 
 186s 
 
UNI 
 
 754 
 
 u:j^i 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 
 
 of a commission to -whom claims for repara- 
 tion shall be referred . April 7 — Sept. i8,iS6 
 
 ilucli public discussion respecting equal negro 
 suflfrage Julj- — Oct. „ 
 
 Tlie national debt stated to be 600,000,000;. Oct. ,, 
 
 General Robert Lee becomes president of 
 Washington College, Virginia . Oct. 2, ,, 
 
 Several southern states pass ordinances an- 
 nulling secession, abolishing slavery, and 
 renouncing confederate debt. Sept. Oct. Nov. ,, 
 
 National thanksgivmg for the peace Nov. 2, ,, 
 
 Capt. 'Waddell arrives at Liverpool, Nov. 6 ; 
 surrenders the Shenandoah to the British 
 government, stating that he had not heaj'd of 
 the end of the war till Aug. 2 ; he and his 
 crew paroled, Nuv. 8 ; the vessel given up to 
 the American cor sul . . . Nov. 9, 
 
 Capt. Wirz, after along military trial, executed 
 for cruelty to the federal prisoners at Ander- 
 sonsvillej Nov. 10, 
 
 A Negi-o convention at Charleston, appeals for 
 justice and generosity . . . Nov. 25, 
 
 Ex-president Buchanan publishes his justifica- 
 tion Nov. 
 
 Habeas corpus act restored In northern states, 
 
 Dec. I, 
 
 Close of correspondence between the British 
 
 and U. S. governments respecting depreda- 
 tions of Alabama, Shenandoah, &c. The earl 
 of Clarendon maintains that " no armed 
 vessel departed during the war from a British 
 port, TO cruise against the commerce of the 
 United States " Dec. 2, 
 
 President Johnson's message conciliatory and 
 firm (he requires from the soiithem states : 
 repeal of their act of secession, abolition of 
 slavery, aud>epudiation of confederate debt), 
 
 Dec. 4, 
 
 The radical party, opposed to the president, 
 and to clemency to the south, predominate 
 in the congress, and move violent resolutions 
 against restoration of southern states to the 
 union Dec. 
 
 E.stimated federal debt, 600,000,000?. ; re 
 venue, 80,000,000/ Dec. 
 
 85 members for the southern states excluded 
 from iccngress; the conservative party 
 support the president in his endeavours to 
 reconstruct the tmion ; the radicals violently 
 oppose his policy, requiring the south to 
 undergo {previously a severe probation ; the 
 president has restored state government to 
 all the southern states except Texas and 
 Florida Dec. 29, 
 
 186s 
 
 PEESIDEXTfi OF THK TJNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 
 
 1789. 
 1793- 
 
 1797- 
 1801 
 1809 
 1817 
 1825. 
 1829 
 1837 
 1841. 
 
 General George Washington, fii-st president. 
 
 Elected April 6. 
 General Washington again ; assumed ofiSce, 
 
 March 4. 
 John Adams. March 4. 
 <fe 1805. Thomas .Jefferson. March 4. 
 <fc 1813. James Madison. March 4. 
 & 1821. James Monroe. March 4. 
 John Quincey Adams. March 4. 
 & 1833. General Andrew Jaokson. March 4. 
 . Martin Van Buren. March 4. " 
 General William Henry Harrison. March 4. 
 Died April 4, succeeded by 
 
 1S41. John Tyler (formerly vice-president). 
 
 1845. James Knox Polk. March 4. 
 
 1849. General Zachary Taylor. March 4. Died July 
 9, 1850, succeeded by the vice-president, 
 
 1S50. Millard Fillmore. 
 
 1853. General Franklin Pierce. March 4. 
 
 1857. James Buchanan. March 4. 
 
 i86i &, 1865. Abraham Lincoln. March 4. Assassi- 
 nated April 14, succeeded by the vice-presi- 
 dent, 
 
 1865. Andrew Johnson. April 15. 
 
 UNIVEESALISTS, who believe in the final salvation of all men, have existed in various 
 countries and ages. Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermons to have adopted the 
 opinion of this universal salvation. Johnson. Certain it is, about 1691, he entertained a 
 design for forming a new book of homilies ; and a sermon which he preached before the queen 
 (Mary) against the absolute eternity of hell torments, involved this doctrine. Universalists 
 are numerous in America. 
 
 UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE, one of the six points of the charter (see Chartists), was 
 adopted by the French in the election of their president in 1851, and of their emperor in 
 1852, and by the Italian States in voting for annexation to Sardinia in i860, 
 
 UNIVERSITIES. The most ancient in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, 
 Salamanca, and Bologna. In old Aberdeen was a monastery, in which youths were 
 instructed in theology, the canon law, and the school philosophy, at least 200 years before 
 the University and King's College were founded. The following dates are generally those 
 given by Bouillet. 
 
 Aberdeen founded . 
 Abo, Finland 
 Andrew's, St., Scotland 
 Angers, chiefly law . 
 Anjou, 1349; enlarged . 
 Athens ... . , 
 Basle, Switzerland 
 Berlin ... 
 Berne .... 
 Besan<;on, Burgundy 
 Bologna, Italy 
 Bonn .... 
 Bourdeaux 
 Bourges ... 
 Bruges, French Flanders 
 
 1494 
 1640 
 1411 
 1364 
 
 1460 
 1810 
 1834 
 1676 
 
 433 
 i8i8 
 1472 
 1465 
 1665 
 
 Brussels 1834 
 
 Caen, Normandy, 1436 ; re- 
 vived 1803 
 
 Cambridge, began about 630 ; 
 revived .... 
 
 Cambridge, New England, 
 projected .... 
 
 Cologne, in Germany, re- 
 founded .... 
 
 Compostella, Spain . . . 
 
 Coimbra, Portugal . 
 
 Copenhagen . . . . 
 
 Cordova, Spain . . . ^ _ 
 
 Corfu 1823 
 
 Cracow, Poland, 700 ; revived 1364 
 
 915 
 
 1630 
 
 1385 
 1517 
 1279 
 1476 
 968 
 
 Dijon, France . . . . 1722 
 Dillingen, Swabia . , . 1565 
 Dole, Burgundy . . . 1422 
 
 Dorpat 1632 
 
 Douay, French Flanders . . 1568 
 Dresden, Saxony . . . 1694 
 Drumcondra (Catholic), Ire- 
 land . t . . . . 1862 
 Dublin (see Trinity College) . 1591 
 Edinburgh, founded by 
 
 James VI 1582 
 
 Erfurt, Thuringia ; enlarged 1390 
 Erlangen .... 1743 
 Evora, Portugal . . . 1533 
 Florence, Italy, enlarged . 1439 
 
UI^I 
 
 755 
 
 USH 
 
 UNIVERSITIES, continued. 
 
 Frankfort-on-tlie-Oder 
 
 Praneker 
 
 Fribourg, Germany . 
 
 Geneva . 
 
 Glasgow . 
 
 Gottingen 
 
 Granada, Spain . 
 
 Gripswald 
 
 Groningen, Friesland 
 
 Halle, Saxony 
 
 Heidelberg 
 
 Helmstadt 
 
 Ingoldstadt, Bavaria , . 
 
 Jena, or Sala, Thuringia 
 
 Kiel, Holstein . . . . 
 
 King's College, London (which 
 
 see) 
 
 Konigsberg, Prussia 
 Leipsic, Saxony . . . 
 Leyden, Holland . 
 
 Liege 
 
 Lima, in Peru 
 
 Lisbon, 1290 ; removed to 
 
 Coimbra 
 
 London University {which see) 
 Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; en- 
 
 Lyons, France 
 Marburg . 
 
 1506 
 158s 
 1460 
 1368 
 1450 
 1735 
 1537 
 1547 
 1614 
 1694 
 1386 
 IS75 
 IS73 
 1558 
 i66s 
 
 1829 
 
 IS44 
 1409 
 
 1575 
 1816 
 1614 
 
 1 391 
 1826 
 
 1426 
 
 Mechlin, Flanders . . . 1440 
 
 Mentz 1477 
 
 MontpeUier . . . . 1289 
 Moscow, I7S4 ; again . . 1803 
 
 Munich 1826 
 
 Munster 1491 
 
 Nancy 1769 
 
 Nantes 1460 
 
 Naples 1224 
 
 Orange 1365 
 
 Orleans, France . . . 1305 
 Oxford (see Oxford) . 8o2(?) 
 
 Paderborn 1592 
 
 Padua, Italy .... 1228 
 Palenza, 1209; removed to 
 Salamanca .... 1249 
 
 Palermo 1394 
 
 Paris, 792 ; renovated . . 1200 
 
 Parma 1482 
 
 Pau 1722 
 
 Pa via, 1360; enlarged • . 1599 
 Perpignan .... 1349 
 Perugia, Italy . . . . 1307 
 Petersburg, St., 1747; again 1819 
 Pisa, 1343 ; enlarged . . 1552 
 Poitiers ..... 1431 
 
 Prague 1348 
 
 Queen's University (Ireland). 1850 
 Rheims, 1145; enlarged . . 1548 
 
 Rome 1245 
 
 Rostock, Mecklenburg . . 1419 
 
 Salamanca .... 1239 
 
 Salerno 1233 
 
 Salzburg 1623 
 
 Saragossa, Aragon . . . 1474 
 
 Seville 1504 
 
 Sienna 1380 
 
 Siguenza, Spain . . . 1517 
 
 Sorbonne, Prance , . . 1253 
 
 Strasbourg .... 1538 
 
 Stutgardt 1775 
 
 Toledo, Spain .... 1499 
 
 Toulouse . . ... 1229 
 
 Treves, Germany . . . 1473 
 Tubingen, Wirtemberg . .1477 
 
 Turin 1405 
 
 Upsal, Sweden . . . . 1476 
 
 Utrecht, Holland . . . 1636 
 
 Valence, Dauphine . . . 1454 
 
 Valencia ..... 1209 
 
 Valladolid 1346 
 
 Venice 1592 
 
 Vienna 1365 
 
 Wittenburg .... 1502 
 
 Wurtsburg 1403 
 
 Wilna 1803 
 
 Zurich 1832 
 
 UNIVERSITY BOAT-RACE. The contest between the universities of Oxford and 
 Cambridge on the river Thames began in 1829, and has been annual since 1856. In 1864, 
 after 20 contests, the opposiag jjarties were equal ; but on April 8, 1865, Oxford won for the 
 fifth time in succession. 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, London. See London University and Oxford. 
 
 UNIVERSITY ELECTIONS. See Dodson's Act. 
 
 UNKNOWN TONGUES. See Irvingites, note. 
 
 URANIUM, a brittle grey metal, discovered by Klaproth in 1789, in the mineral 
 pitch-blende. It has lately been employed in the manufacture of glass for certain philoso- 
 phical purposes. 
 
 URANUS, a planet with six satellites, was discovered by William Herschel, March 13, 
 1 781, first called Georgium Sidus, after George III. ; next Herschel; and finally Uranus. 
 It is about twice as distant from the sun as the planet Saturn. The anniversary of its first 
 revolution (in 84 years 7 days) since its discovery, was celebrated on March 20, 1865. Its 
 perturbations led to the discovery of Neptune in 1846. 
 
 URICONIUM. See Wroxeier. 
 
 URIM AND Thtjmmim, Light and Perfection. {Exodus xxviii. 30.) It is conjectured 
 that these words are in some Avay connected with the breastplate worn by the high priest 
 when he entered into the holy place, with the view of obtaining an answer from God 
 (1420 B.C.). 
 
 URSULINE NUNS (so called from St. Ursula), founded originally by St. Angela, of 
 Brescia, in 1537. Several communities existed in England, and some still exist in Ireland. 
 
 URUGUAY, a republic in South America, declared its independence, Aug. 25, 1825 ; 
 recognised, Oct. 4, 1828. The president of the executive, G. A. Pereyra, elected in 1856, 
 was succeeded in i860 by B. P. Berro. A civil war broke out in consequence of the invasion 
 of the ex-president, general Flores, June 26, 1863. On March i_, 1864, the vice-president 
 Aguirre became president, who refused (in June) to modify his ministry according to 
 the desire of general Flores, who marched towards the capital in June. In Feb. 1865, Flores 
 became provisional president. Population in 1865, about 350,000. 
 
 USHANT,-an island near Brest, N.W. France, near which two naval battles were fought 
 between the British and French fleets. 
 
 (i.) On July 27, 1778, after an indecisive action of 1 
 three hours, the latter, under cover of the night, 
 ■withdrew into the harbour of Brest. Admiral 
 
 Keppel commanded the English fleet ; the count 
 d'Orvilliers the French. The failure of a com- 
 plete victory was attributed to adm. sir Hugh 
 
 3 c 2 
 
USH 756 TAG 
 
 While the two fleets were engaged in this action, 
 a large fleet of merchantmen, on the safety of 
 which the French nation depended for its means 
 of prosecuting the war, got safely into Brest 
 harbour, which gave occasion to the enemy to 
 claim the laurels of the day, notwithstanding 
 their loss in ships, and in killed and wounded, 
 which was very great. 
 
 TJSHANT, continued. 
 
 Palliser's non-compliance with the admiral's sig- 
 nals. Palhser prefen-ed articles of accusation 
 against his commander, who w-as tried and 
 acquitted, and the charge against him declared 
 to be " malicious and Ill-founded." 
 (2.) Lord Howe .signally defeated the French fleet, 
 taking six ships of the line, and sinking one of 
 large force, and several others, June 1, 1794. 
 
 USURY was forbidden by parliament, 1341. Until the I5tli century, no Christians 
 ■were allowed to receive interest of monej^, and Jews were the only usurers, and therefore 
 often banished and persecuted (see Jews). By the 37th of Henry YIII. tlie rate of interest 
 was fixed at 10 per cent. 1545. This statute was repealed by Edward VI. but re-enacted 
 13th Eliz. 1570. See Interest for later legislation. 
 
 UTAH, a western territory of North America, was organised Sept. 9, 1850. The capital. 
 Great Salt Lake city, is tlie chief seat of the Mormonites {ivhich see). 
 
 UTRECHT (the Roman Trajectum ad Rhcniim), was the .seat of an independent bishopric ; 
 founded about 695. The last prelate, Henry of Bavaria, weary of his turbulent subjects, 
 sold his temporal government to the emperor Charles V. in 1528. The union of the Seven 
 United Provinces began here (see United Provinces), 1579. The celebrated treaty of Utrecht, 
 which terminated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of Great Britain and 
 France, and all the other allies, except the ministers of the empire, April 11, 1713. Tiiis 
 treaty secured the Protestant succession in England, the separation of the French and Spanish 
 crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, tlie enlai-gement of the British colonies" and plantations 
 in America, and a full satisfaction for the claims of the allies. Utrecht surrendered to 
 the Pnissians, May 9, 1787 ; was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1795, and restored at 
 the peace. 
 
 V. 
 
 VACCINATION (from Variola Vaccina, the cow-pox), discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner. 
 He was born in 1749, and educated for the medical profession, partially under John Hunter. 
 Having heard that milkmaids who have had the cow-pox never take the small-pox, he, about 
 1780, conceived the idea of vaccination, which was then ridiculed by eminent phy.siologists. 
 He made the first experiment by transferring to a healthy chikl, in May 14, 1796, the 
 pus from the pustule of a milkmaid who had caught the cow-pox from the cows. He 
 announced his success in a memoir publiished, 1798, and vaccination became general in 1799, 
 having been introduced Jan. 21 in that year. Dr. Jenner received io,oooZ. from parliament 
 for the discovery, June 2, 1802, and 20,000?. in 1807. The first national institution for the 
 promotion of vaccination, called the Roj'al Jennerian Institution, was founded Jan. 19, 1803. 
 The emperor Napoleon valued this srrvice of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly, that he 
 liberated Dr. Wickham, wlien a prisoner of war, at Jenner's request, and subsequently whole 
 families of Englisli ; making it a point to refuse him nothing that he asked. Vaccination, 
 although much opposed on moral and religious grounds, was practised throughout all Europe 
 previously to 1816. Dr. Jenner died in 1823.* The Vaccination Act, 3 & 4 Vict, passed 
 July 23, 1840. Vaccination was made compulsory in England in 1853, and in Ireland and 
 Scotland in 1863. See SmaJl-jwx and Inoculation. An important blue-book, entitled 
 "Papers on the History and Practice of Vaccination," edited by Mr. John Simon, was 
 published by the Board of Health in 1857. 
 
 VADIMONIAN LAKE ; here, the Romans totally defeated the Etruscans, 283 B.C. 
 
 VAGRANTS. By law, after being whipped, a vagrant w&s to take an oath to return to 
 the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 1530. A vagrant a second 
 time convicted, to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right ear, 1535 ; and a third time 
 convicted, death. A vagabond to be marked witli a V, and be a slave for two years, 1327. 
 Vagrants were punished by whipping, gaoling, boring the ears, and death for a second 
 offence, 1572. The milder .statutes were those of 17 Geo. II. ; 32, 35, and 59 Geo. III. 
 The present Vagrant Act was passed in 1824. 
 
 * Dr. Jenner died suddenly in 1823. A statue subscribed for by all nations, was erected to his memory 
 in Trafalgar-square, April 30, 1858, in the presence of the prince consort. It was removed to Kensington 
 in 1862. Another statue was erected by the French at Boulogne, and inaugurated Sept. 11, 1865. 
 
VAL 757 7AN" 
 
 VALENCAY, a chateau near Chateauroux, Central France, where Napoleon I . imprisoned 
 Ferdinand of Spain from i8oS to 1813. His kingdom was restored to Ferdinand by a treaty- 
 signed Dec. 8, 1813. 
 
 YALENCIA (E. Spain), the VaUntia Edetanorum of the Romans. Its university was 
 founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and was revived in the 15th. Valencia was taken 
 by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, but submitted to the Bourbons after the unfortunate 
 battle of Almanza, in 1707. — It resisted the attempts made on it by marshal Moncey, but 
 Avas taken from the Spaniards with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and immense stores, 
 by the French under Suchet, Jan. 9, 1812. 
 
 VALENCIENNES (N. France). This city (founded about 399 B.C.) was besieged from 
 May 23 to July 26, 1793, when the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke 
 of York. It was retaken, together with Conde, by the French, Aug. 27-30, 1794 ; on 
 capitulation, the garrison and 1 100 emigrants were made prisoners, with immense stores. 
 
 VALENTINE'S DAY (Feb. 14). Valentine is said to have been a bishop, who suffered 
 martyrdom under Claudius II. at Eome ; otliers say under Aui'elian, in 271. 618,000 letters 
 passed through the post-oflice on Feb. 14, 1856. The origin of the ancient custom of 
 " choosing a valentine " has been much controverted. See Post. 
 
 VALENTINIANS, followers of Valentine, a priest, who, on being disappointed of a 
 bishopric, forsook the Christian faith, declaring there were thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen 
 of each sex, whicli he called ^ones, or Ages. He taught in the 2nd century, and published 
 a gospel and psalms : his followers added other errors. 
 
 VALMY (N. E. France). Here the French, commanded by KeUerman, defeated the 
 Prussians, commanded by the duke of Brunswick, Sept. 20, 1792. The victory was of 
 immense moral advantage to the Eepublicans. 
 
 VALOIS, House of. See France, 1328. 
 
 VALTELINE (Switzerland), now part of Austrian Italy. Here took place a general 
 massacre of the Protestants by the Piomau Catholics, who revolted against the government, 
 July 20, 1620. It began at Tirano, extended to all the district, and lasted three days. 
 
 VALVASOR. The first dignity beneath a peer, was anciently that of vidames, 
 mccdomiai, or valvasors. Valvasors are mentioned by our ancient lawyers as viri magna, 
 dignitatis, and sir Edward Coke speaks highly of them. Now, the first personal dignity 
 after the nobility is a knight of the order of St. George or of the Garter. Blackstone. 
 
 VANADIUM (from Vanadis, the Scandinavian Venus), a metal discovered by Sefstrom, 
 in 1830, combined with iron ore. A simihir metal, discovered in lead ore by Del Rio in 
 1801, and named Enjtlironium, was proved by Wohler to be Vanadium. 
 
 VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, North Pacific ocean, near the main land. Settlements were 
 made here by the English in 1781, which were seized by the Spaniards in 1789, but 
 restored. By a treaty between the British government and that of the United States in 
 1846, this island was secured to the former. It has become of much greater importance 
 since the discovery of gold in the neighbouring main land in 1858, and the consequent 
 establishment of the colony of British Columbia {which see). Victoria, the capital, was 
 founded in 1857. 
 
 VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipmaii under captain 
 Cook, and was appointed to command during a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence 
 of any navigable communication between the North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans. He 
 sailed in 1790, and returned Sept. 24, 1795. He compiled an account of this voyage of 
 survey of the north-west coast of America, and died in 1798. 
 
 VANDALS, a Germanic race, attacked tlie Roman empire in the 3rd century, and began 
 their ravages in Germany and Gaul, 406-414 ; their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411 ; 
 under Genseric they invaded and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, and took 
 Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were subdued by Belisarius in 534. They were driven out 
 by the Saracen Moors. , 
 
 VANDAL KINGS IN AFRICA. 
 
 42Q. Genseric (see Mecklenburg). 1 484. Gundamund. I 523- Hilderic. 
 
 477. Hunneric. 1 496. Thorismund. I 53i- Gelimer. 
 
VAN 758 VEG 
 
 VAX DIEMEN'S LAND was discovered by Tasmaii in 1633. Hence a part is called 
 Tasmania. It was visited by Fumeaux in 1773 ; by captain Cook in 1777 ; and was deemed 
 the south extremity of New Holland (now Australia) until 1 799, when Flinders explored 
 Bass's Straits, and proved Van Diemen's Land to be an island. A British settlement was 
 established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Derwent, in 1804, and named 
 Hobart Town, or Hobarton, now the seat of government. This island was made a convict 
 colony of Great Britain, whither many of our remarkable transports have been sent. 
 Governor, col. Thos. Gore Browne (1S62). Population in 1857, 81,492 ; in 1859, 84,080. 
 
 VAEENNES, a town in N. E. France, is celebrated by the arrest of Louis XVI., his 
 queen, sister, and two children. They fled from the Tuileries on June 21, and were 
 taken here on the 22nd, 1791, and conducted back to Paris, mainly through Drouet the post- 
 master at an intermediate town, who recognised the king. 
 
 VARNA, a fortified town and seaport in Bulgaria, European Turkey. A great battle 
 was fought near this place, Nov. 10, 1444, between the Turks under Amurath II. and the 
 Hungarians under their king, Ladislaus, and John Hunniades. The latter were defeated 
 with great slaughter : the king was killed, and Hunniades made prisoner. The Christians 
 had previously broken a recent truce. — The emperor Nicholas of Russia arrived before Varna, 
 the head-quarters of his army, then besieging the place, Aug. 5, 1828. The Turkish 
 garrison made a vigorous attack on the besiegers, Aug. 7 ; and another on the 2ist, but were 
 repulsed. Varna surrendered, after a sanguinary conflict, to the Russian arms, Oct. 11, 
 1828. It was restored at the peace in 1829 ; its fortifications were dismantled, but have 
 since been restored. — The allied ai'mies disembarked at Varna, May 29, 1854, and remained 
 there till they sailed for the Crimea, Sept, 3 following. While at Varna they suff"ered 
 severely from cholera. 
 
 VASSY (N.E. France). The massacre of the Protestants at this place by the duke of 
 Guise on March i, 1562, led to the civil wars which desolated France to the end of the 
 century. 
 
 VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Slavery. 
 
 VATICAN HILL (Rome) became the seat of the papal government about 800. The 
 pope's palace is said to contain 7000 rooms, rich in works of art, ancient and modern. The 
 library, founded bj"- pope Nicholas V., 1448, is exceedingly rich in printed books and 
 MSS. — Pistolesi's description of the Vatican, with numerous plates, was published 1829-38. 
 — The phrase "Thunders of the Vatican" was first used by Voltaire, 1748. — The ancient 
 Vatican Codex of the Old and New Testament in Greek was published at Rome in 1857. 
 
 VAUDOIS. See Waldenses. 
 
 VAUXHALL BRIDGE, constructed of iron under the direction of Mr. Walker, at an 
 expense of about 150,000?. (to be defrayed by a toll). The first stone was laid May 9, 181 1, 
 by prince Charles, eldest son of the duke of Brunswick ; and the bridge was opened on 
 June 4, 1816. 
 
 VAUXHALL GARDENS, London, were so denominated from the manor of Vauxhall, or 
 Faukeshall ; but the tradition, that this house or any other adjacent was the property of Guy 
 Fawkes, is erroneous. The premises were the property of Jane Vaux in 1615, and the 
 mansion-house was then called Stockden's. From her it passed through various liands, till 
 it became the property of Islv. Tyers in 1752. There is no certain account of the time when 
 these premises were first opened for the entertainment of the public : but the Spring Gardens 
 at Vauxhall are mentioned in the Spectator as a place of gi-eat resort (1711). Some writers 
 of accounts of London suppose 1730 to be the first year of the opening of Vauxhall Gardens, 
 which succeeded Eanelagh Gardens. The greatest season of Vauxhall was in 1823, when 
 133,279 persons visited the gardens, and the receipts were 29,590?. The greatest number 
 of persons in one night was Aug. 2, 1833, when 20,137 persons paid for admission. The 
 number on the then supposed last night, Sept. 5, 1839, was 1089 persons. Vauxhall was 
 sold by auction, Sept. 9, 1841, for 20,200?. The last performances at Vauxliall took place 
 on July 25, 1859. The ground has been sold for building purposes. 
 
 VEDAS, the sacred books of the Hindoos, in Sanskrit, were probably written about 
 1000 B.C. Veda means knowledge. These books comprise hjynns, prayers, and liturgical 
 formula;. The edition by professor Max Miiller, printed under the patronage of the East 
 India Company, appeared in 1849-62. 
 
 VEGETABLES for tlic table were brought from Flanders, about 1520. Sec Gardening. 
 
VEG 
 
 759 
 
 YEN 
 
 VEGETARIAN" SOCIETY, whose members restrict themselves to a vegetable diet, held 
 their fifteenth anniversary in London, on Sept. 4, 1862. 
 
 VEHMIC TRIBUNAL {Velimgericlite or Felimgerichte), secret tribunals established in 
 "Westphalia to maintain religion and the public peace, had their origin in the' time of 
 Charlemagne, and rose to importance about 11 82, when Westphalia became subject to the 
 archbishop of Cologne. Persons of the nrost exalted rank were subjected to their decisions, 
 being frequently seized, tried, and executed. The emperors endeavoured to suppress them, 
 but did not succeed till the i6th century. Sir W. Scott has described them in "Anne of 
 Geierstein." A remnant of this tribunal was abolished by Jerome Bonaparte, king of 
 Westphalia, in 181 1. 
 
 VEII, an independent Latin city near Rome. Between the Romans and Yeientes 
 frequent wars occurred, till Veil was utterly destroyed, 388, B.C. The Roman family, the 
 Fabii, who had seceded from Rome for politiq^l reasons, were surprised and destroyed at the 
 river Cremera, by the Veientes, 477 B.C. A siege of Veil by the Romans lasted from 405 to 
 396 B.C. 
 
 VELLORE (S.E. India), became the residence of the family of the dethroned sultan of 
 Mysore, and was strongly garrisoned by English troops. The revolt of the Sepoys, in 
 which the family of the late Tippoo took an active part, took place July 10, 1806. The 
 insurgents were subdued by colonel Gillespie, and mostly put to the sword : 800 Sepoys 
 were kiUed. 
 
 VELOCIPEDES, vehicles of German construction, first appeared in England in April, 
 18 18, and obtained the name from being impelled by the feet with great celerity, the mover 
 of the vehicle sitting astride upon it as upon a rocking-horse. 
 
 VENDEE. See La Vendee. 
 
 VENEZUELA, the seat of a South American republic. When the Spaniards landed 
 here in 1499, they observed some huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, iu 
 order to raise them above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; and this induced them 
 to give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state in July, 1814, declared in 
 congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, which was recognised in 1818. It 
 formed jmrt of the republic of Columbia till 1831, when it separated from the federal union, 
 and declared itself sole and independent. General D. T. Monagas was elected in 1855 
 president, and continued so till March, 1858, when a revolution broke out, and Don Jose 
 Castro became president, who also was compelled to resign in Aug. 1859 ; and Dr. Pedro 
 Gual assumed the government. A new constitution was promulgated in Dec. 1858. General 
 Jose Paez was elected president, Sept. 8, 1861. He resigned on June 17, 1863, and Juan 
 E. Falcon succeeded him, June 1 7. General Febres Cordero protested and set up a rival 
 government at Porto-Cabello, which broke up in October following. Marshal J. E. Falcon 
 was sworn as president, June 8, 1865. The population in 1859 was about one million and 
 a half. See Columbia. 
 
 VENI, VIDI, 7101,—' 'I came, I saw, I conquered." See Zela. 
 
 VENICE (N". Italy). The Veneti inhabited its site when it was made a kingdom by the 
 Gauls, who conquered it about 356 B.C. Marcellus reconquered it for the Roman republic, 
 and slew the Gaulish king, 221 B.C. Population of the city of Venice in 1857, 118, 172, 
 
 Venice, founded by families from Aquileia and 
 
 Padua fleeing from Attila, about . a.d. 432 
 Pirst doge (or duke) cbosen, Anafesto Paululio, 697 
 
 Bishopric founded 733 
 
 The Eialto made the seat of government . . 811 
 Venice becomes independent of the eastern 
 empire, and acquires the maritime cities of 
 
 Dalmatia and Istria 997 
 
 Its navy and commerce increases . . looo-iioo 
 Bank of Venice estabUshed .... 1157 
 
 Crete purchased 1205 
 
 The Venetians defeat the Genoese near NegTO- 
 
 pont 1263 
 
 War with Genoa, 1293 ; the Venetian fleet is 
 
 destroyed, and peace concluded . . . 1299 
 
 The doge Andrea Dandolo defeats Louis of 
 
 Hungary at Zara 1346 
 
 Venice helps in the Latin conquest of Constan- 
 tinople, and obtains power in the East, 1204 ; 
 severe contest with Genoa. . . . 1330-S1 
 
 The doge Marino Taliero is accused of con- 
 spiracy and beheaded 1355 
 
 The Venetians lose Istria and Dalmatia . . 135S 
 War with the Genoese, who defeat the Vene- 
 tians at Pola, and advance against Venice, 
 which is vigorously defended . . . . 1377 
 The Genoese fleet is captured at Chiozza . . 1380 
 
 And peace concluded 1381 
 
 Venice takes an active part in the Italian war, 1425-54 
 The city suffers from the plague . . . 1447 
 
 War with the Turks ; Venice loses many of its 
 
 eastern possessions 1461-77 
 
 The Venetians take Athens, 1466 ; and Cyprus 1475 
 Venice helps to overcome Charles VIII. of 
 
 France 1495 
 
 Injured by the discovery of America (1492), and 
 
 the passage to the Indies .... 1497 
 
 The Venetians excite the Turks against the 
 
 emperor Cbarles V 1504. 
 
 And are nearly ruined by the league of Cambray 1508 
 
TEN 760 iVER 
 
 VENICE, continued. 
 
 They assist in defeating the Turks at Lcpanto . 1571 ' The whole of Venice annexed to the kingdom 
 
 The Turks rcfcike C.vpius ,, j of Italy by the treaty of Presburg . . . i8c6 
 
 DestructiTe fire at S'enice 1577 All Venice transferred to the empire of Austria, 1814 
 
 The Rialto bridge and the Piazza di San JIarco j Venice declared a free port . . Jan. 24, 1830 
 
 erected 1592 ' Insunection begins March 22, 1848; the city 
 
 Paul V.'s interdict on Venice contemptuously 1 surrenders to the Austrians after a long siege 
 
 disregarded 1607 ''• Aug. 22, 1849 
 
 Kaval victories over the Turks; at Scio, 1651 ; [In consequence of the Italian war in 1859, the ' 
 
 and in the Dardanelles 1655 1 country ha.s been miich disorganised, and 
 
 The Turks take C'andia 1669 j large numbers of persons emigrated in 
 
 Venice recovers part of the Morea . . 1683-991 1860-1.] 
 
 But loses it again 1715-39 Venetian deputies will not attend the Au.strian 
 
 Venice occupied by Bonaparte, who, by the | parliament at Vienna . . . May, 1861 
 
 treaty of Campo Formio, gives part of its [Venice has had 122 doges : Anafesto 697 to 
 
 territory to Austria, and annexes the rest to ! Luigi Maniu, 1797.] 
 
 the Cisalpine republic 1797 , 
 
 YENTILATOES were invented \>j the rev. Dr. Hales, and described to the Eoyal Society 
 of London, May 1741 ; and the ventilator for the use of sliips was announced hy 
 Mr. Triewald, in November, same year. The marquess of Chabanne's plan for warming and 
 ventilating theatres and houses for audiences was applied to those of London in 1819. The 
 systems of Dr. Eeid (about 1830) and others followed. Dr. Arnott's work on this subject 
 was published in 1838. A commission on warming and ventilation issued a report in 1859. 
 
 VENTRILOQUISM (speaking from the belly). The phenomena are evidently described 
 in Isaiah xxix. 4. Among eminent ventriloquists were baron Mengen and M. St. Gille, 
 about 1772 (whose experiments were examined by a commission of the French academy); 
 Thomas King (about 1716) ; Charles Matthews (1824) ; and ;M. Alexandre (1822). 
 
 VENUS. Her transit over the sun on Nov. 24, 1639, was first ascertained by Horrox in 
 1633. The astronomer-royal Maskelync observed her transit at St. Helena, June 6, 1761. 
 Capt. Cook made his first voj^age in the Endeavour, to Otaheite, to observe a transit of 
 Venus, June 3, 1769. See Cook's Voyages. The diurnal rotation of Venus was discovered by 
 Cassini in 1667. The transit on Dec. 9, 1874, may be observed in Eastern Europe and iu 
 Asia, 
 
 VERA CRUZ (Mexico), built about 1600 ; was taken by the Americans in 1847, and by 
 the allies in 1861 dui'ing the intervention. 
 
 VERMONT, a Northern State in North America, was settled by the French 1724-31 ; 
 and ceded to' Great Britain in 1763 ; and freed from the authority of New York, and 
 admitted as a state of the Union iu 1791. 
 
 VERNEUIL (N.W. France), the site of a l>attle fought Aug. 17, 1424, between the 
 Burgi;ndians and Engli.sh under the regent duke of l^cdford, and the French, assisted bjf the 
 Scots, commanded by the count de Narbonne, the earls of Douglas and Buchau, &c. The 
 French at first were successful ; but some Lombard auxiliaries, who had taken the English 
 camp, commenced idllaging. Two thousand English archers came then fresh to the attack ; 
 and the French and Scots were totally defeated, and their leaders killed. 
 
 VERNON GALLERY. The inadequate manner in which modern British art was repre- 
 sented in the National Gallery was somewhat remedied in 1847 by the munificent present to 
 the nation by Mr. Robert Vernon, of a collection of 157 pictures, all but two being by first- 
 rate British artists. They were iirst exhibited at Mr. Vernon's house in Pall Mall, next in 
 the vaults beneath the National Gallery, afterwards at Marlborough House, and are now 
 (1865) at the South Kensington Museum. In 1857, Mr. John Sheep.shanks followed Mr. 
 Vernon's exam^'le. See Shcepshankn' Donations. 
 
 VERONA (N. Italy) was founded by the Gauls or Etruscans. The amphitheatre was 
 built by Titus, a.d. 82. Verona has been the .site of many conflicts. On Sept. 27, 489, 
 Theodoric defeated Odoaccr king of Italy. About 1259 ]\lastino della Scala was elected 
 podest^ ; and his descendants (the Scaligeri) ruled, till subdued by the Visconti, dukes of 
 Milan. Verona was conquered by the Venetians, 1405, and lield by them with some inter- 
 missions till its capture by the French general Masscna, June 19, 1796. Near to it Charles 
 Albert of Sardinia defeated the Austrians, May 4, 1848. Verona is one of the four strong 
 Austrian fortresses termed the Quadrangle, or Quadrilateral, and here the emperor Francis 
 Joseph, on July 12, 1859, in an order of the day announced to his army that he must yield 
 to circumstances unfavourable to his policy, and thanked liis people and army for their 
 support. 
 
TEE 761 TIC 
 
 YEESAILLES, Palace of (near Taris). In the reign of Louis Xlll. A^ersailles was 
 only a small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit ; and here this prince built a hunting- 
 seat, about 1632. Louis XIV. bet^vecn 1661 and 16S7 enlai'ged it into a iiiagniiicent palace, 
 ■u-liich became the usiial residence of the kings of Erance. Here was held the military 
 festival of the royal guards, Oct. i, 17S9, which was immediatel}' followed (on the 5th and 
 6th) by the attack of the mob, who massacred the guards and brought the king back to 
 Paris. It was afterwards the residence of Louis-Philippe, and is still a royal palace. The 
 historical gallery was opened in 1837. Bj' the treaty of peace between Great Britain and 
 British North America, signed at Paris, the latter power was admitted to be a sovereign and 
 independent state, Sept. 3, 1783. On the same day a treaty was signed at Versailles 
 between Great Britain, Erance, and Spain, bj^ which Pondicherry and Carical, with other 
 possessions in Bengal, were restored to Erance, and Trincomalee restored to the Dutch, 
 
 VERSE. See Poetry. Surrey's translation of part of VirgiVs ^neid into blanh verse, is 
 the first English composition of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English language 
 (pirblished in 1547). The verse previously iised in our grave compositions was the stanza of 
 eight lines, the ottccva rima, (as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his 
 Faery Queen), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso. Boccaccio introduced it 
 into Italy in his Tescide, having copied it from the old French chansons. Trissino is said to 
 have been theiirst introducer of blank verse among the moderns, about 1508. Yossiiis. 
 
 VESPEES. See Sicilian Yesijers. In the house of the French ambassador at Black- 
 friars, in London, a Jesuit was preaching to uji-wards of three hundred persons in an upper 
 room, the floor of which gave way with the weight, when the whole congregation was 
 precipitated to the street, and the preacher and more than a hundred of his auditory, chiefly 
 persons of rank, were killed. This catastrophe, termed the Fatal Ycsjyers, occiu'red Oct. 26, 
 1623. Stow. 
 
 VESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, on 
 March 29, 1807; She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude. 
 
 VESTALS were priestesses of Vesta, who took care of the perpetual fire consecrated to 
 her worship. The mother of Eomidus was a vestal. Numa, in 710 B.C. appointed four, and 
 Tarquin added two. After the expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was entrusted 
 with the care of them. Minutia Avas buried alive for breaking her virgin vow, 337 B.C. ; 
 Sextalia, 274 B.C. ; and Cornelia Maximiliana, A.D. 92. 
 
 VESUVIUS. By an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum 
 (wMcli see) were overwhelmed a.d. 79, and more than 250,000 persons perished, among them 
 Pliny the naturalist. Numerous other disastrous eruptions have occurred. In 163 1 the 
 town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 jiersons, and a great part of the surrounding countrj'', 
 were destroyed. One of the most dreadful eruptions ever known took 'place suddenly, 
 Nov. 24, 1759. The violent burst in 1767 was the 34th from the time of Titus. One in 
 1794 was most destructive : the lava flowed over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated 
 land, and the toAvn of Torre del Greco was a second time burned ; the top of the mountain 
 fell in, and the cr.iter is now nearly two miles in circumference. Eruptions in May 1855, 
 May and June 1858, and June 1859, caused great destruction, and in the spring and summer 
 of i860. A series of violent eruptions causing mi:ch damage occurred in Dec. 1861, and in 
 Feb. 1865. Torre del Greco was again destroyed in 1861. 
 
 VETEEINAEY COLLEGE, London, was established at Camden-town, 1791 ; and 
 Albert Veterinary College was opened in 1865. 
 
 VICE, The. An instniment of which Archytas of Tarentum, disciple of Pythagoras, is 
 said to have been the inventor, along with the pullej' and other implements, 420 B.C. 
 
 VICE-CHANCELLOE of ENGLAND, an equity judge, appointed by parliament, first 
 took his seat, May 5, 1813. A new court was erected about 1816, contiguous to Lincoln's- 
 inn-hall. Two additional vice-cliaiicellors were appointed under act 5 Vict. Oct. 1841. 
 The office of vice-chancellor of Ejicjland ceased in August, 1850, and a third vice-chancellor 
 was appointed in 1851, when two more equity judges, styled lords justices, were appointed. 
 
 VICE-CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND. 
 
 1813. Sir Thomas Plumer, April 13. [ 1827. Sir Anthony Hart, May 4. 
 
 1818. Sir John Leach, Jan. 13. | 1827-50. Sir Lancelot Shadw ell, Nov. i, the last. 
 
 YICKSBUEG. See United States, 1863. 
 
A'lC 
 
 762 
 
 TIC 
 
 VICTORIA, formerly Port Phillit (Australia), situated between New South Wales and 
 South Australia, the most successful colony in that region. In 1798, Bass, in his whale-boat 
 expedition, visited 'Westeni Port, one of its. harbours ; and, iu 1802, Flinders sailed into 
 Port Philliii Bay. 
 
 Colonel Collins lands ■with a party of convicts 
 with the intention of founding- a settlement 
 at Port Phillip, bnt afterwards removed to 
 Van Dicmen's Land 1804 
 
 Messrs. Hume and Hovell, two stock-owners 
 from New South Wales, explore part of the 
 country, but do not discover its great advan- 
 tages 1824 
 
 Mr. Henty imports some sheep from Tan 
 Diemen's Land 1834 
 
 Mr. John Batman enters between the heads of 
 Port Phillip, and purchases a large tract of 
 land from the aborigines for a few gewgaws 
 and blankets. He shortly after, with fifteen 
 associates from Hobarton, took possession of 
 600,000 acres in the present Geelong coiuitry. 
 
 May, 1S35 
 
 The Launceston Associates and Jfr. John Pascoe 
 Fawkener ascend the Yarra-Yarra (or ever- 
 flowing) river, and encamp on the site of 
 Melbovirne ,, 
 
 The colonists (450 in number) possess 140,000, 
 sheep, 2500 cattle, and 150 horses ; sir R. 
 Bourke, governor of New South Wales, visits 
 the colony, determines the sites of town.?, 
 and causes the land to be surveyed and re- 
 sold, setting aside many contending claims ; 
 he appoints captain Lonsdale chief-magis- 
 trate. See Melbourne 1837 
 
 The colony named Victoria .... 1839 
 
 Its prosperity brings great numbers to it, and 
 induces much speculation and consequent 
 embarrassment and insolvency . . . 1841-2 
 
 Mr. C. J. Latrobe appointed lieutenant-governor 
 under sir G. Gipps 1839 
 
 The province declared independent of New 
 South Wales; a reward of 200I. offered for 
 
 the discovery of gold in Victoria, which w.as 
 soon after found near Melbourne, and was 
 profitably worked .... Aug. 
 
 7000 persons were at Ballarat, Oct. ; 10,000 
 round Mount Alexander . . Nov. 
 
 From Sept. 30 to Dec. 31, 1851, 30,311 ounces of 
 gold were obtained from Ballarat ; and from 
 Oct. 29 to Dec, 31, 94,524 ounces^from Mount 
 Alexander— -total 124,835 ounces. 
 
 The production was still very great . 
 
 Immense immigration to Melbourne. See Mel- 
 bourne 
 
 A representative constitution granted . 
 
 Sir Henry Barkly appointed governor . . . 
 
 The parliament was opened . . Nov. 2C, 
 
 Four administrations had been formed in 1857- 
 
 Exhiliition of the products of the colony opened 
 by the governor Oct. i, 
 
 Sir Charles Darling appointed governor, May : 
 arrives Sept. 10, 
 
 Great opposition to reception of convicts in any 
 part of Aiistralia; a ship containing them 
 sent back Oct. 
 
 Important land act passed . . March 22, 
 
 The assembly passes the new government tariff, 
 Jan., which is rejected by the legislative 
 council ; the governor raises money for the 
 public service irregularly . . . Jnly, 
 
 The crisis still continues ; appeal to the queen 
 proposed Oct. 
 
 Parliament prorogued . . • . Dec. 
 
 Population of the colony in 1836, 224; in 1841, 
 11,738; in 1846, 32,879; in 1851, 77,345; 
 Dec. 31, 1852, about 200,000 ; in March 1857 
 there were 258,116 males and 145,403 females ; 
 in all 403,519. In 1859, in all 517,366 ; in 1861, 
 540,322. 
 
 1851 
 
 1859 
 
 1852 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 i860 
 
 1861 
 
 VICTORIA. See Ilong Kong and 'Vancouvc7-'s Island. 
 
 VICTORIA CROSS, a new order of merit, instituted to reward the gallantry of persons 
 of all ranks in the army and navy, Feb. 5, 1856. It is a Maltese cross made of Russian 
 cannon from Seljfistopol. The queen conferred the honour on 62 persons (of both services) 
 on Friday, June 26, 1857 ; and on many of the Indian army, Aug. 2, 1858. 
 
 VICTORIA PARK (E. London), was originated by an act passed in 1841, which enabled 
 her majesty's commissioners of woods and forests to purchase certain lands for a royal park, 
 with the sum of 72,000?. raised by the same act, by the sale of York-house to the duke of 
 Sutherland. The act described the land to be so purchased, containing 290 acres, situate 
 in the parishes of St. John, Hackney ; St. Matthew, Bethnal-green ; and St. Mary, 
 Stratford-le-bow, at the east end of London. The park was completed, and opened to the 
 public in 1845. 
 
 VICTORIA RAILWAY-BRIDGE, on the tubular principle, over the St. Lawrence, 
 Montreal, erected by Mr. James Hodges, under the superintendence of Mr. Robert Stephen- 
 sou and Mr. A. M. Ross, engineers, Avas completed and formally opened, Aug. 25, i860. It 
 forms part of the Grand Trunk railway, which connects Canada and the seaboard states of 
 North America. The length is about sixty yards less than two English miles, and aboiit 7| 
 times longer than Waterloo bridge, and ten times longer than new Chelsea bridge ; the 
 height sixty feet between the summer level of the river and the under surface of the central 
 tube. It is supported by 24 piers. The cost was 1,700,000?. On Jan. 5, 1855, whUe 
 constructing, the bridge was carried away by floating ice, but the stonework remained 
 firm. 
 
 VICTORIA, Steam-Packet. Injured on the Thames on her first voyage by explosion 
 of the boiler, April 1837. Sailed from Hull, for St. Petersburg, on Nov. i, 1852, and 
 having encountered a dreadful gale of wind, in which she damaged her machinery and 
 rigging, was obliged to return to Hull, where her injuries were repaired, and whence she 
 
VIC 
 
 763 
 
 VIE 
 
 again sailed on the 7th of same mouth. She had scarcely put to sea when another storm 
 arose, more violent than the first, whereby she was a second time severely crippled, and in 
 that state, the tempest continuing to rage with unabated furj"-, she neared the "Wingo Beacon, 
 off Gottenburg, on the rocks round which she struck, and was instantly wrecked. Many 
 of the crew and passengers were drowned ; the remainder with difficulty saved their lives, 
 ISTov. 8-9, 1852. She was a splendid ship, and her disasti'ous fate excited the deepest 
 sorrow in England, Gottenburg, and St. Petersburg. The storm in which this vessel was 
 lost, was perhaps the most terrible of the many that made the winter of 1852-3 memorable. 
 
 VICTORIA EEGIA, the magnificent water-lily, brought to this country from Guiana by 
 sir Robert Schomburgk, in 1838, and named after the queen. Fine specimens are at the 
 Botanic Gardens at Kew, Regent's Park, &c. It was grown in the open air in 1855, by 
 Messrs. Weeks, of Chelsea. 
 
 VICTORY, Man-of-"War, of 100 guns, the finest first-rate ship in the navy of England, 
 was lost in a violent tempest near the race of Alderney, and its admiral sir John Balchen, 
 and 100 gentlemen's sons, and the whole crew, consisting of 1000 men, perished, October 8, 
 1744. — The Victory, the flag-ship of Nelson at the battle of Trafalgar, Oct. 21, 1S05, is kept 
 in fine preservation at Portsmouth. 
 
 VlCTUxiLLERS, an ancient trade in England, 
 founded 1437 ; their hall rebuilt in 1823. 
 
 The Vintners' company of London was 
 
 None shall sell less than one full quart of the 
 best beer or ale for icJ. and two quarts of the 
 smaller sort for id 1603 
 
 The power of licensing public - houses wa.s 
 gi'anted to sir Charles Mompesson and sir 
 Francis Mitchel 
 
 The number in England then was about 13,000. 
 
 In Great Britain about 76,000 public-houses 
 
 England, 59,335 ; Scotland 15,081 ; Ireland, 
 14,080 ; total, 88,496 in 1850 
 
 Public-houses allowed to be opened on Sund-iys 
 
 i_ from the hour of half -past twelve till half -past 
 
 1621 
 
 1790 
 
 two in the day-time and from six till ten in 
 
 the evening 1848 and 1854 
 
 The prescribed time enlai-ged .... 1855 
 127,352 licences were issued for the sale of beer, 
 cider, and perry in the United Kingdom, pro- 
 ducing a revenue of 304,688^. ; and 93,936 
 licences for the sale of spirits : revenue, 
 
 560,5571; 1S58 
 
 Licensed Victuallers' School established . . 1803 
 Licensed Victuallers' Asylum established, 
 
 Feb 22, 1827 
 
 VICTUALLING OFPICE (London), managed the victualling of the royal navy; was 
 instituted December, 1663. The number of commissioners was five, afterwards seven, and 
 then reduced to six. The various departments on Tower-hill, St. Katherine's, and Rother- 
 hithe, were removed to Deptford in Aug., 1785, and the office to Somerset-house, 1783. In 
 1832, the office of commissioners was abolished, and the victualling office made one of five 
 departments under the lords of the admiralty. 
 
 VIENNA (the Roman Vindchona), was capital of the margraviate of Austria, 984; capital 
 of the German empire, 1278 ; and since 1806 the capital of the Austrian dominions only. 
 Population in 1857, 476,222 ; in 1865, about 560,000. See Austria. 
 
 Vienna made an imperial city in . . .1136 
 "Walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for 
 
 Richard I. of England, 40,000? 1194 
 
 Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the Mag- 
 nificent, with an army of 300,000 men ; but he 
 was forced to raise the siege with the loss of 
 
 70,000 of his best troops 1529 
 
 Besieged July — Sept. 16S3 
 
 The siege raised by John Sobieski, king of 
 Poland, who totally defeats the Turkish army 
 of 100,000 ..... Sept. 12, ,, 
 Vienna taken by the French under prince Murat, 
 
 Nov. 14, 1805 
 
 Evacuated Jan. 12, i8o5 
 
 Again captured by the French . May 13, 1809 
 Eestoi-ed on the conclusion of peace Oct. 14, „ 
 
 Congress of sovereigns at Vienna . Nov. 1814 
 
 The revolt in Hungary induces an insurrection 
 in Vienna March 13, 1848 
 
 The emperor retires. May 17 ; but returns, 
 
 Aug. „ 
 
 A second insurrection : count Latour, the war 
 minister, is murdsred .... Oct. 6, „ 
 
 The emperor again takes flight . Oct. 7, ,, 
 
 Vienna is bombarded by Windischgratz and 
 Jellachich, Oct 28 ; its capitulation Oct. 30, ,, 
 
 Conferences respecting the Russo-Turkish war 
 held at Vienna * 1853-5 
 
 The fortifications demolished, and the city en- 
 larged and beautified 1857-8 
 
 The imperial parliament (Reichsrath) assembles 
 here May 31, i860 
 
 * A conference of the four great powers, England, France, Austria, and Prussia, was held July 24, 
 when a note was a^ced on and transmitted for acceptance to St. Petersburg and Constantinople, July 31. 
 This note was accepted by the czar, A>ig. 10, but the sultan reqiiired modifications, which were rejected by 
 Russia, Sept. 7. The sultan's note (Dec. 31) contained four points :— i. The promptest possible evacuation of 
 the principalities. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Maintenanceofreligiousprivilegesto the communities of all 
 confessions. 4. A definite settlement of the convention respecting the holy places. It was approved by the 
 four powers, and the conferences closed on Jan. 16, 1S54,— A new conference of plenipotentiaries from 
 
YIE 764 YIX 
 
 VIENNA, continued. 
 
 TREATIES or VIENNA. , cedcd to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, aiifl other 
 
 The treaty between the emperor of Germany and 
 the king of Spain, by which they confirmed to 
 each other such parts of the Siianish dominions 
 as they were respectively possessed of; and by a 
 private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a 
 force to pi'ocure the restoration of Gibraltar to 
 Spain, and to use means for placing the Pretender 
 on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed 
 the Pragmatic Sanction. April 30, 1725. 
 
 Treaty of alliance between the emperor of Germany, 
 Charles VI., George II., king of Great Britain, and 
 the states of Holland, by which the Pragmatic 
 Sanction was guaranteed, and the disp\ites as to 
 the Spanish succession terminated. (Spain acceded 
 to the treaty on the 22nd of July.) Signed 
 March 16, 1731. 
 
 Treaty of Peace between the emperor Charles VI. of 
 Germany and the king of France, Louis XV., by 
 
 territories, which were shortly afterwards declared 
 to be united to France under the title of the 
 lUyrian Provinces, and engaged to adhere to the 
 prohibitory system adopted towards England by 
 I'x-ance and Russia. Oct. 14, 1809. 
 
 Treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and 
 Prussia, confirming the principles on which they 
 had acted by the treaty of Chuumont, March i, 
 1814. Signed March 23, 1815. 
 
 Treaty between the king of the Netherlands on the 
 one part, and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and 
 Prussia on the other, agreeing to the enlargement 
 of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sove- 
 reignty in the house of Orange. May 31, 1815. 
 
 Treaty by which Denmark ceded Swedish Pomerania, 
 and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg. 
 June 4, 1815. 
 
 Commercial treaty for twelve years between Austria 
 
 which the latter power agreed to guarantee the and Prussia. Signed at Vienna, Feb. 19, 1853. 
 Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to ' Treaty for the maintenance of Turkey signed by the 
 France. Signed Nov. 18, 173S. See Pragmatic i representatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, 
 Sanction. and Russia, signed April 9, 1S54. 
 
 Treaty between Napoleon I. of France and Francis Treaty between Austriaand Prussia.andDenmark, by 
 (II. of Germany; I. of Austria, by which Austria' which Denmark ceded the duchies, Oct. 30, 1864. 
 
 VIGO (N.-W. Sjwiii) was attacked and burned by the English in 1589. Sir George Rooke, 
 •with the combined English and Dutch fleets, attacked tlie French fleet and the Spanish 
 galleons in the port of Vigo, when several men of war and galleons were taken, and nianj'' 
 destroyed, and abundance of plate and other valuable eflccts fell into the hands of the 
 conquerors, Oct. 12, 1702. Vigo was taken by lord Cobham in 1719, but relinquished after 
 raising contributions. It was again taken by the British, March 27, 1809. 
 
 VILLA FRANCA (in Portugal), here the British cavalry, under sir Stapleton Cotton, 
 defeated the French cavaby of marshal Soult (April 10, 1812) and freed Estremadura. — 
 Villa Franca, a small port on the Mediterranean, near Genoa, was bought for a steam- 
 packet station by a Russian company, about Aug. 1858, whicli caused some political excite- 
 ment. — At Villa Fp.anca, in Lombardy, the emperors of France and Austria met on 
 July II, 1859 (after the battle of Solferino), and on July 12 signed the preliminaries of 
 peace, the basis of the treaty of Zurich {which see). 
 
 VILLAIN. See Slavery in England. 
 
 VIMEIRA (in Portugal), where the British under sir Arthur "Wellesley defeated the 
 French and Spanish forces under marshal Junot, duke of Abrantes, Aug. 21, 1808. The 
 attack made with great bravery, Avas gallantly repulsed ; it was repeated by Kellerman at 
 the head of the French reserve, which was also repulsed,; and the French being charged 
 with the bayonet, withdrew on all points in confusion, leaving many prisoners. 
 
 VINCENT, Cape St. (S.-W. Portugal). Admiral Rooke, with twenty men-of-war, and 
 the Turkej'^ fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville, with a force vastly 
 superior to his own, oif Cape St. Vincent, when twelve English and Dutch men-of-war, and 
 eighty merchantmen, were taken or destroyed by the French, June 16, 1693. Near here 
 admiral Rodney destroyed several Spanish ships, Jan. 16, 1780. (See Rodney's Victories.) 
 The celebrated battle was fought Feb. 14, 1797, between the Spani.sh and British fleets off 
 the Cape. The latter commanded by admiral sir John Jervis, who took (after a well-fonght 
 battle) four line-of-battlo ships, and considerably damaged the rest of the Spanish fleet, 
 Feb. 14, 1797. Two of the captured ships were of 100 guns each, and the other two each of 
 74. From this Cape the earl had his title. 
 
 VINCENT'S, St. (West Indies), long a neutral island; but at the peace of 1763, the 
 French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English. The latter soon after 
 engaged in a war against the Caribs, on the windward side of the island, who were obliged to 
 
 Great Britain (lord John Russell), France (M. Drouyn de I'Huys), Austria (count Buol), Turkey (Arif 
 Effendi), and Russia (count Gortschakoff), took place March, 1854. Two points, the protectorate of the 
 principalities and the free navigation of the Danube, were agreed to ; b<it the proposals of the powers as to 
 the reduction of the Russian power in the Black Sea were rejected by the czar, and the conference closed, 
 June 5, 1S55. The English and French envoys' assent to the Austrian propositions was not approved of by 
 their governments, and the3- both resigned their official positions. 
 
VllSr ^ 70*5 VIE 
 
 consent to a peace, Ly which they ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. In 1779 
 the Caribs greatly contributed to the reduction of this island by the French, who, however, 
 restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops, and again instigated the 
 Caribs to an insurrection, which was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of 
 the Scouffrier mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. Population 
 in 1861, 31,755. 
 
 VINCENT DE PAUL, St., Charitable Society, founded in 1833, in France, by 
 twelve young men. It extends its extremely beneficial operations even into Britain. Its 
 power excited the jealousy of the French government, which suppressed its central committee 
 at Paris, in Oct, 1861. 
 
 VINE.* The vine was planted by Noah 2347, B.C. Gen. ix. 20. A colony of vine- 
 dressers from Phocea, in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in 
 tillage, vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 b. c. Some think the vines are the abori- 
 gines of Languedoc, Provence,- and Sicil}'-, and that they grew spontaneously on the 
 Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The vine was carried into Champagne, 
 and part of Germany, by the emperor Probus, about A.n. 279. The vine and sugar-cane were 
 planted in Madeira in 1420. The vine Avas planted in England in 1552 ; and in the gardens 
 of Hampton-court-palaee is an old and celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in 
 Europe. See Grapes and Wine. The Tokay vines were planted in 1350. 
 
 VINEGAR. Known nearly as early as wine. The ancients had several kinds of vinegar, 
 which ^hey used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accustomed to take it in their 
 marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich citizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for 
 bis reapers (1312 B.C.), a custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy. 
 
 VINEGAR-HILL (near Enniscorthy, in Wexford, S.-E. Ireland). Here a sanguinary 
 conflict took place between the British troops, commanded by Lake, and the Irish insurgent 
 forces, June 21, 1798. The rebels suffered a severe defeat, though they claimed the victory 
 from their having killed so many of the king's troops. 
 
 VINTNERS. See Victuallers. 
 
 VIOL AND Violin. The lyre of the Greeks became our harp, and the viol of the middle 
 ages became the violin. The violin is mentioned as early as 1200, in the legendary life of 
 St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles II, Straduarius 
 (or Stradivarius) of Cremona was a renowned violin-maker (1700 to 1722). 
 
 VIRGIN MARY. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin 
 churches, in honour of the miraculous ascent of Mary into Heaven, according to their belief, 
 Aug. 15, A.D. 45. The Presentation of the Virgin is a feast celebrated Nov. 21, said to have 
 been instituted among the Greeks in the nth centmy ; its institution in the West is 
 ascribed to pope Gregory XI. 1372. f See Annunciation and Conception, Immaculate, 
 
 VIRGINIA. See i2ome, 449 B. c. 
 
 VIRGINIA, the first British settlement in North America, was discovered by John 
 Cabot in 1497, and was taken possession of and named by Raleigh, after the virgin-queen 
 Elizabeth, July 13, 1584. Vain attempts were made to settle it in 1585. Two expeditions 
 were formed by patent in 1606, and others in 16 10. In 1626, it reverted to the crown ; and 
 a more permanent colony was established soon afterwards. George Washington was delegate 
 for Virginia in the congress of 1774. Eastern Virginia seceded from the Union, April 25, 
 1861, but Western Virginia declared for the Union, Feb,. 13, and elected a governor, 
 Feb. 20, 1 86 1. Virginia was the chief seat of the war. See United States and Richmond. 
 
 * Vine Disease. In the spring of 1845, Mr. E. Tucker, of Margate, observed a fungus (since named 
 O'klium Tuckeri) on grapes in the hot-houses of Mr. Slater, of Margate. It is a whitish mildew, and totally 
 destroys the fruit. The spores of this o'iJium, were found in the vineries at Versailles in 1847. The disease 
 soon reached the trellised vines, and in 1850 many lost all their produce. In 1852, it spread over Prance, 
 Italy, Spain, Syria, and in Zante and Cephalonia attacked the currants, reducing the crop to one-twelfth of 
 the usual amoii7it. Through its ravages, the wine manufacture in .Madeira ceased for several years. 
 Many attempts have been made to arrest the progress of the disease, but without much effect. Sulphur 
 dust is the most efBcacious remedy. The disease had much abated in France, Portugal, and Madeira (1863). 
 In 1862 Californian vines were introduced into the two latter. 
 
 + " The Indian incarnate god Chrishna, the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the royal race, 
 and was sought to be destroyed in his infancy, about 900 years B.C. It appears that he passed his life in 
 v.7^orking' miracles and preaching, and was so humble as to wash his friends' feet : at length dying, but rising 
 from the dead, he ascended into heaven in the pi-esence of a multitude. The Cingalese relate nearly the 
 same things of their Buddha. " Sir William Jones, 
 
YIS 766 YOL 
 
 VISCONTI, the name of a noble Italian fomily, whicli ruled in Milan from 12S7 to 1447 ; 
 the heiress of the family was married to Fraucesca Sforza, afterwards duke of Milan. 
 
 A^ISCOUNT ( Vice Comes), anciently the name of an office under an earl, who being 
 oftentimes required at court, was his^deputy, to look after the affairs of the county. The 
 first viscount in England created by patent was John, lord Beaumont, whom Henry VI. 
 created viscount Beaumont, giving him precedence above all barons, Feb. 10, 1440. 
 Ashmole. This title, however, is of older date iu Ireland and France. John Barry, lord 
 Barry, was made viscount Buttevant, iu Ireland, 9 Eich. II. 1385. Beatson. 
 
 VISIER, Grand, an officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointed about 1326. The 
 office was abolished iu 1838. 
 
 VISIGOTHS, separated from the Ostragoths about 330. See Goths. The emperor 
 Yalens, about 369, admitted them into the Roman territories upon the condition of their 
 serving when wanted in the Roman armies ; and Theodosius the Great permitted them to 
 form distinct corps commanded by their own officers. In 400, under Alaric, they invaded 
 Ital}^ and in 410 took Rome. They founded their kingdom of Toulouse, 414 ; conquered 
 the Alani, and extended their[rule into Spain, 414 ; expelled the Romans in 468 ; and finally 
 were themselves conquered by the Saracens under Muza, in 711, when their last king Roderic, 
 was defeated and slain. See Spain for a list of the Visigothic kings. Their rule in France 
 ended with their defeat by Clovis at Vougle, in 507. 
 
 VITTORIA (S. Sjiain), the site of a brilliant victory obtained by "Wellington over the 
 French army commanded by Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, and marshal J^urdan, 
 June 21, 1813. The hostile armies were nearly equal, from 70,000 to 75,000 each. After a 
 long and fearful battle, the French were driven, towards evening, through the town of 
 Vittoria, and in their retreat were thrown into irretrievable confusion. The British loss was 
 twenty-two officers and 479 men killed; 167 officers and 2640 men wounded. Marshal 
 Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 waggons of ammunition, all his baggage, provisions, 
 cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the 
 25th, Wellington took Jourdan's only remaining gun. 
 
 VIVARIUM. See Aquavivarium. 
 
 VIVISECTION", physiological experiments upon living animals, having much increased, 
 the Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in Dresden and Paris in 1859 requested 
 the opinion of a committee of eminent scientific men on the merits of the knowledge thus 
 acquired. Their judgment was not unanimous. The London Society took up the question 
 in i860 ; and printed a pamphlet by ]\Ir. G. Macilwain against vivisection. In Aug. 1862 
 an international conference to discuss the qiiestion was held at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham.* 
 
 VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth there are above 200 volcanoes which 
 have been active in modern times. See M^ia, Vesuviics, and Icclajid. In Mexico a plain 
 was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height by the burning lava from 
 a volcano, in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro broke out Sept. 13, 1777, which threw 
 out an immense quantity of red water, that discoloured the [sea for several leagues. A new 
 volcano appeared in one of the Azore islands, May i, 1808. 
 
 yOLSCI, an ancient Latin people, frequently at war with the Romans. From their 
 capital, Corioli, Caius Martins (who defeated them about 490 B.C.) derived his name 
 Coriolanus. The story of his banishment by his mjgrateful countrymen ; of his revenge 
 on them by bringing the Volsci to the gates of Rome, yet afterwards sparing the city at the 
 entreaties of his mother, Volumnia (487 B.C.), is considered by many as a poetical legend. 
 The Volsci were finally subdued^nd incorporated into the Roman people about 338 B.C. 
 
 VOLTAIC PILE, OB. Battery, was constructed in consequence of the discoveries of 
 Galvani (see Galvanism in article Electricity). The principle was discovered by Alessandro 
 Volta, of Como (born 1745), for thirty years professor of natural philosophy at Pavia, and 
 announced by him to the Royal Society of London in 1793. The battery was first set up in 
 1800. Volta Avas made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon Bonaparte, and was 
 otherndse greatly honoured. While young he invented the electrophorus, electric pistol, and 
 hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged 81. The form of the Voltaic battery has been 
 greatly improved by the researches of modern philosophers. The nitric acid battery of 
 Jlr. W. R. Grove was constructed iu 1839 ; the carbon battery of Professor Robert Bunsen 
 in 1842. The former is very much used in this country ; that of Bunsen on the continent. 
 
 * Sir Charles Bell's opinion of vivisection was, that it either obscured the subject it was meant to 
 illustrate, or misled men into practical en-ors of the most serious character. 
 
YOL 
 
 7G7 
 
 VOL 
 
 VOLTURNO, a river in S. Italy, near Capua, near to whicli Garibaldi and liis followers 
 held a strong position. This was furiously assailed by the royal troops on Oct. i, i860, who 
 were finally repulsed after a desperate struggle, the fiercest iu which Gaiibaldi had yet been 
 engaged. He was aided greatly by a band of Piedmontese from Naples. On Oct. 2 general 
 Bixio completed the victory by capturing 2500 fresh Neapolitan troops and dispersing others. 
 
 VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS. Public contributions for the support of the British 
 government against the piolicy and designs of France amounted to two millions and a balf 
 sterling in 1798. About 200,000?. were transmitted to England from India in 1799. Sir 
 Robert Peel, of Bury, among other contributions of equal amount, subscribed io,oooZ. 
 Annual Register. See Patriotic Fund. In 1862 nearly a million pounds were subscribed in 
 the British empire for the relief of the Lancashire cotton spinners. See Cotton. 
 
 VOLUNTEERS. This species of force was formed in England in consequence of the 
 threatened invasion of revolutionary France, March 1794. Besides our large army, and 
 85,000 men voted for the sea, we subsidised 40,000 Germans, raised our militia to 100,000 
 men, and armed the citizens as volunteers. Between the years 1798 and 1804, Avhen this 
 force was of greatest amount, it immbered 410,000, of which 70,000 were Irish.* On 
 Oct. 26, 1803, king George III. reviewed in Hyde Park 12,401 London volunteers, and on 
 Oct. 28, 14,676 more. The English volunteers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 
 on Jan. i, 1804. See Naval Volunteers. In May, 1859, in consequence of the prevalence of 
 the fear of a French invasion, the formation of volunteer corps of riflemen commenced under 
 the allspices of the government, and by the end of the year many thousands were enrolled in 
 all parts of the kingdom. 
 
 [The first Middlesex volunteers were formed in 
 1S03 as the duke of Cumbeii-land's sharp- 
 shooters. They retained their organisation 
 as a rifle club, when other volunteers were 
 disbanded. In 1835 they were permitted by 
 the duchess of Kent to take the name of the 
 Eoyal Victoria Rifle Club.] 
 
 National VolunteeerAssociationf orpromotingth.e 
 practice of Rifle-shooting, was established in 
 London, under the patronage of tbe queen 
 and prince consort, Mr. Sidney (afterwards 
 lord) Herbert, secretary at war, president, 
 and the earl of Derby and other noblemen 
 vice-presidents. (Annual subscription one 
 guinea, or acompositionforlifeof tenguineas.) 
 
 Nov. 16, : 
 
 2300 Volunteer officers presented to the queen ; 
 a dinner followed, with the duke of Cam- 
 bridge in the chaii- : aiid a ball . March 7, 
 
 The queen reviews about 18,450 volunteers in 
 Hyde-park. June 23, 
 
 [Mr. Tower, of "Wealdhall, Essex, aged So, was 
 present as a private ; he had been present as 
 an officer in a volunteer review in 1803.] 
 
 First meeting of the National Association for 
 
 rifle shooting held at Wimbledon ; captain 
 
 Edwd. Ross obtained the queen's prize of 
 
 250?. and the- gold medal of the association, 
 
 • July 2-7, 
 
 [M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtained a prize.] 
 
 Successful sham-fight at Bromley, Kent, 
 
 July 14, 
 
 Above 20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen 
 at Edinburgh Aug. 7, 
 
 Above 10,000 Lancashire volunteei-s reviewed 
 by the earl of Derby at Knowsley . Sept. i, 
 
 Lord Herbert stated that the association had a 
 capital of 3000^ and an annual income of 1500L 
 
 Feb. 16, 
 
 Volunteers in Britain estimated at about 1 60,000 
 
 May, 
 
 Second meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Jopling 
 gains the queen's prize and the association 
 medal July 4-10, 
 
 Review of 11,504 volunteers at Wimbledon, 
 July 13 ; of 9000 at Warwick . . July 24, 
 
 Registered number of volunteers 162,681, 
 
 April I, 
 
 20,000 volunteers reviewed by lord Clyde at 
 Brighton April 21, 
 
 r/iird meeting at Wimbledon; Mi-. Pixley gains 
 tbe queen's prize, &c. . . July 1-14, 
 
 A commission recommends that an annual grant 
 of either 20s., 30s., or 34s. be given to each 
 volunteer according to circumstances . Oct. 
 
 Fourth meeting at Wimbledon, July 7, &c. ; 
 queen's prize, (fee, won by sergeant Roberts 
 of the 12th Shropshire rifle volunteers, 
 
 July 14, 
 
 An act to amend and consolidate the acts 
 relating to the volunteer force of Great 
 Britain was passed . . . July 21, 
 
 22,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of 
 Wales in Hyde-park (great improvement 
 noticed) May 28, 
 
 Fi/tk meeting at Wimbledon, July 11, &c. ; the 
 queen's prize, <Src., won by private John 
 Wyatt of the London rifle brigade July 23, 
 
 Volunteers estimated at 165,000 in 1S64. 
 
 Reviews and sham fights on Easter Mondays, 
 near Brighton, April 5, 1863 ; near Guildford, 
 March 28, 1864; near Bi-ighton . April 17, 
 
 Sixth meeting at Wimbledon, began July n ; 
 the qtieen's prize was won by private Sliai-man 
 of the 4th West York Rifle Volunteers, July 
 iS : the meeting ended with a review by the 
 duke of Cambridge . • . July 22, 
 
 1S65 
 
 * The first regiment of Irish volunteers was formed at Dublin, under command of the duke of Leinster, 
 Oct. 12, 1779. They armed generally to the amount of 20,000 men, and received the unanimous thanks of 
 the houses of lords and commons in Ireland, for their jjatriotism and spirit, for coming forward and 
 defending their country. At the period when the force appeared, Irish affairs bore a serious aspect ; 
 manufactures had decreased, and foreign trade had been hurt by a prohibition of the export of salted 
 provisions and butter. No notice of the complaints of the people had been taken in the English parliament, 
 when, owing to the alarm of an invasion, ministers allowed the nation to arm, and an immense force was 
 soon raised. The Irish took this occasion to demand a free trade, and government saw there was no trifling 
 with a coimtry with arms in its hands. The Irish parliament unanimously addressed the king for a free 
 trade, and it was granted, 1779. 
 
YOS 
 
 7o3 
 
 WAG 
 
 VOSSEM, Peace of, between the elector of Brandenburg and Louis XIV. of France ; 
 the latter engaged not to assist the Dutch against the elector ; signed June 6, 1673. 
 
 VOUGLE, or Vouille, S.-W. France (near Poitiers), where Alaric II. king of the 
 "Visigoths, was defeated and slain by Clovis, king of France, 507. Clovis immediately after 
 subdued the whole country from the Loire to the Pyrenees, and thus his kingdom became 
 firmly established. A peace followed between the Franks and Visigoths, who had been 
 settled above one hundred years in that part of Gaul called Septimania, Clovis soon after- 
 wards made Paris the capital of his kingdom. Henaiilt. 
 
 VOYAGES. By order of Pharaoli-necho, of Egypt, some Phcenician pUots sailed from 
 Egypt down the Arabian Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good Hope, entered the 
 Mediterranean by the Sh'aits of Gibraltar, coasted along the north of Africa, and at length 
 arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of about three years, 604 a. c— Herodotus. The first 
 voyage round the world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been 
 under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Pliilij)pine Islands in a skirmish) in 
 1519-20. See Circibinnavigators and North-West Passage. 
 
 VULGATE (from Vulgatus, published) a term applied to the Latin version of the 
 Scriptures, which is authorised by the council of Trent (1546), and which is attributed to 
 St. Jerome, about 384. The older version, called the Italic, is said to have been made in 
 the beginning of the 2nd century. Critical editions of the Vulgate were printed by order of 
 pope Sixtus V. in 1590, and of pope Clement V. in 1592 and 1593. (The former was 
 suppressed as imperfect.) The Latin Bible called the Mentz Bible was printed in 1460. 
 
 W. 
 
 WADHAM COLLEGE, Oxford. Founded by Nicholas Wadham, esq. and Dorothy, 
 his wife, in 1613. In this college, in the chambers of Dr. Wilkins (over the gateway), the 
 Koyal Society frequently met prior to 1658. 
 
 AVAGER OF BATTLE. See Appeal. 
 
 "WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of sundry workmen were first fixed by act of 
 parliament 25 Edw. III. 1350. Haymakers had but one penny a day. Master carpenters, 
 masons, tilers, and other coverers of houses, had not more than 3c?. per day (about ^d. of 
 our money) ; and their servants 1 4^^- Vincr's Statutes. 
 
 By the 23Td Hen. VI. the wages of a bailiff of 
 husbandry was? 23s. ^d. per annum, and 
 clothing of the price of 5«. with meat and 
 driiik ; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20s , 
 clothing, 4s. ; common servant of husbandry, 
 i5«., clothing, 401Z. ; woman-servant, io«., 
 
 clothing 4» 
 
 By the nth Hon. VII. a like rate of wages with 
 .- a little advance : as, for instance, a free 
 
 mason, master carpenter, rough mason, 
 t'ricklayer, master tiler, plumber, glazier, 
 carver or joiner, was allowed from Easter to 
 Jlichaelmas to take 6^. a day without meat 
 and drink ; or, with meat and drink, id. : 
 from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate id. A 
 master having under him six men was allowed 
 id. a day extra 
 
 
 WAGES OF IIAKVEST-MEX IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Y(ar. s. d. i Tear. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 In 1350 . 
 
 . per diem i 
 
 In 1716 . . . per diem 9 1 In 1800 . 
 
 per'dUm 2 
 
 In 1460 
 
 • • >> 02 
 
 In 1740 . . . „ 10 In 1811 . . . 
 
 „ 2 li 
 
 In 1568 . 
 
 „ 04 
 
 In 1760 . . . ,, I 1 In 1850 . 
 
 30 
 
 In 1632 
 
 06 
 
 In 1788 . . . „ I 4 In 1857 . . . 
 
 ., 50 
 
 In 1688 . 
 
 ,,.08 
 
 In 1794 ... „ I 6 1 
 
 
 AYAGGONS were rare in the last centuiy. They, with carts, &c., not excepting those 
 used in agriculture, were taxed in 1783. The carriers' waggons are now nearly superseded 
 by the railways. 
 
 WAGHORN'S NE"\V OVERLAND P^OUTE to INDIA. Lieut. "Waghorn devoted a 
 large portion of his life to connect India with England. On Oct. 31, I845, he arrived in 
 London, by a new route, with the Bombay mail of the ist of that month. His despatches 
 reached Suez on the 19th, and Alexandria on the 20th, whence he proceeded by steamboat 
 to a place twelve miles nearer London than Trieste. He hurried through Austria, Baden, 
 Ijavaria, Prussia, and Belgium, and reached London at half-past foirr on the morning of the 
 
WAG 769 WAL 
 
 first-mentioned day. The authorities of the different countries through which he passed 
 eagerly facilitated his movements. The ordinary express, via Marseilles, reached London 
 Nov. 2 following. * Mr. Waghoru subsequently addressed a letter to The Times newspapei", 
 ill which he stated that in a couple of years he would bring the Bombay mail to London in 
 21 days. He died January 8, 1850. 
 
 WAGRAM, a village near Vienna, the site of a battle fought July 5-6, 1809, between 
 the Austrian and French armies, in which the latter was completely victorious. The 
 slaughter on both sides was'dreadful : 20,000 Austrians were taken by the French, and the 
 defeated army retired to Moravia. An armistice was signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24, 
 by a treaty of peace, Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France ; the kingdoms of Saxony and 
 Bavaria were enlarged at her expense ; part of Poland in Galicia was ceded to Russia ; and 
 Joseph Bonaparte was recognised as king of Spain. 
 
 WAHABEES, or Wahabites, a warlike Mahometan reforming sect, considering them- 
 selves the only true followers of the prophet, arose in Arabia about 1750, under the rule of 
 Abd-el-Wahab. His grandson, Saoud, in 1801, defeated an expedition headed by the caliph 
 of Bagdad. In 1803 this sect seized Mecca and Medina, and continued their conquests, 
 although their chief was assassinated in the midst of his victories. His son, Abdallah, long 
 resisted Mahommed Ali, pacha of Egypt, but in 1818 he was defeated and taken prisoner by 
 Ibrahim Pacha, who sent him to Constantinople, where he was put to death. The sect now 
 nourishing is weU described by Mr. W. Gilford Palgrave in his Journey and Residence in 
 Arabia in 1862-3, published in- 1865. 
 
 WAITS, the night minstrels who perform shortly before Christmas. The name was 
 given to the musicians attached to the king's court. We find that a company of waits was 
 ^established at Exeter in 1400 to "pipe the watch." The waits in London and Westminster 
 were long ofiBcially recognised by the corporation. 
 
 WAKEFIELD (W. Yorkshire), the site of a battle between Margaret, the queen of 
 Henry VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists fell 
 upon the field, Dec. 31, 1460. The death of the duke, who aspired to the crown, seemed to 
 fix the good fortune of Margaret ; but the earl of Warwick espoused the cause of the duke's 
 son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., aud the civil war was continued. An art and 
 industrial exhibition was opened at Wakefield, Aug. 30, 1865. 
 
 WALBROOK CHURCH (London), reputed the masterpiece of sir Christopher Wren, 
 completed in 1679. There was a church here in 113S, and anew church was erected in 1429. 
 
 WALCHEREN EXPEDITION". This unfortunate expedition of the British to the 
 island of Walcheren at the mouth of the Scheldt in Holland in 1809 consisted of 35 ships 
 of the line, and 200 smaller vessels, principally transports, and 40,000 land forces, the 
 latter under the command of the earl of Chatham, and the fleet under sir Richard Strachan. 
 For a long time the destination of this expedition remained secret ; but before July 28, 
 1809, when it set sail, the French journals had announced that Walcheren was the point of 
 attack. J Perhaps a more powerful and better appointed armament had never previously left 
 the British ports," or ever more completely disappointed public expectation. Flushing was 
 invested in August ; a dreadful bombardment followed, and the place was taken Aug. 15 ; 
 but no suggestion on the part of the naval commander, nor urging on the part of the officers, 
 could induce the earl to vigorous action, until the period of probable success was gone, and 
 necessity obliged him to return with as many of the troops as disease aud an unhealthy 
 climate had spared. The place was evacuated, Dec. 23, 1809. The hoiise of commons 
 instituted an inquiry, and lord Chatham resigned his post of master-general of the ordnance, 
 to prevent greater disgrace ; but the policy of ministers in planning the expedition was, 
 nevertheless, approved. The following epigram appeared at the time : — 
 
 " Lord Chafham, with his sword undrawn, Stood waiting for sir Richard Strachan ; 
 Sir Bichard, longing to be at 'em, Stood waiting for the earl of Chatham." 
 
 WALDECK, a German principality, established in 1682. The reigning family claim 
 descent from the Saxon hero, Witikind, who flourished about 772. The reigmng prince, 
 George Victor (born Jan. 14, 183 1), succeeded his father, George, on May 15, 1845. 
 Population, in Dec. 1861, 58,604. 
 
 * The Overland Mail, which had left Bombay on Dec. i, 184s, arrived early on the 30th in London, by- 
 way of Marseilles and Paris. This speedy arrival was owing to the great exertions made by the French 
 government to show that the route through France was shorter and better. 
 
 3 D 
 
WAL 
 
 770 
 
 WAL 
 
 WALDENSES, a sect (also called Valdenses and Vaiidois) inhabiting tlie Cottian Alps, 
 derives its name, according to some authors, from Peter de Waldo, of Lyons (1170). Thej*- 
 had a translation of the Bible, and allied themselves to the Albigenses, and were much vilified 
 and persecuted, which led to the establishment of the Holy Office or Inquisition. Pope 
 Innocent III. commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies of the Waldenses in 
 Narbonne and Provence ; but the French bishops were at first jealous of this mission, armed 
 as it was with great power, and the feudalchiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates, 1203-4. 
 One of the monks, the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf, having been assassinated, the 
 aspiring pontiff' called on all the neighbouring powers to march into the heretical district. 
 All obstinate heretics were placed at the disposal of Simon de Montfort, commander of this 
 cnisade, and the whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses Avere ordered to be pursued 
 with fire and sword. See Albigenses. They settled in the valleys of Piedmont about 1375, 
 but were frequently dreadfully persecuted, especially in the 17th century, when Charles I. of 
 England interceded for them (1627-9), ^^^^ Oliver Cromwell (1655-6), obtained them some 
 degree of toleration. They were permitted to have a church at Turin, Dec. 1853. 
 
 WALES, called by the Romans, Britannia Seamda. After the Roman emperor Hono- 
 rius quitted Britain, Vortigern was elected king of South Britain. He invited over the 
 Saxons, to defend his country against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons perfidiously sent 
 for reinforcements, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they made them- 
 selves masters of South Britain. Many of the Britons retired to Wales, and defended 
 themselves against the Saxons, in their inaccessible mountains, about 447. In this state 
 Wales remained unconquered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157; and in 1282 
 Edward I. entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independence by the 
 death of Llewelyn, the last prince.* The Welsh, however, were not entirely reconciled 
 to this revolution, till the queen gave birth to a son at Caernarvon in 1284, whom Edward 
 styled prince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has borne almost 
 ever since. Wales was united and incorporated with England by act of parliament, 1536. 
 See Britain. 
 
 The supreme authority in Britnnnia Secunda 
 
 intrusted to Suetonius Paulinus . . . 58 
 
 Conqviests by JuHus Frontinus .... 70 
 
 The Silures totally defeated , , 
 
 The Roman, Julius Agricola, commands in 
 
 Britain 78 
 
 Bran ab Llyr, sumamed the Blessed, dies about 80 
 
 Reign of Caswallon 443 
 
 The ancient Britons defeat the Saxons 447-448 
 
 The renowned Arthur elected liing . . -517 
 Dyvnwal Moelmud, a great monarch, comes 
 from Armorica, and becomes king of the 
 
 Cymry, about 640 
 
 Reign of Roderic the Great .... 843 
 
 He unites the petty states of Wales into one 
 
 principality ; his death 
 
 Division of Wales — into north, south, and cen- 
 tral (or Powys-land) 
 
 The Welsh princes submit to Alfred . . . 
 The Danes land in Anglesey .... 
 Laws enacted by Howcl Dha, prince of all 
 
 Wales, about 
 
 He acknowledges the supremacy of Athelstan . 
 
 Civil wars at his death, about .... 
 
 Great battle between the sons of Howel Dha 
 
 and the sons of Edwal Voel; the latter 
 
 victorious 952 
 
 Edgar invades Wales 963 
 
 Danes again invade Wales, and lay Anglesey 
 
 waste 980 
 
 Devastations committed by Edwin, the son of 
 
 Eineon 990 
 
 The country reduced by Aedan, prince of North 
 
 Wales 1000 
 
 Aedan, the usurper, slain in battle by Llewelyn 1015 
 Rhun, the fierce Scot, defeated near Caermar- 
 then 1020 
 
 877 
 
 900 
 
 911 
 926 
 
 The joint Irish and Scots forces defeated with 
 
 great slaughter 1021 
 
 Jestyu, lord of Glamorgan, rebelling, is de- 
 feated and slain 1089 
 
 Part of Wales laid waste by the forces of Harold 1055 
 
 Rhys overthrown and slain .... 1056 
 
 William L claims feudal authority over Wales . 1070 
 
 1074 
 1079 
 1080 
 io8i 
 1087 
 
 Rhys ab Owain slain 
 
 Ravaging invasion of the earl of Chester . . 
 
 Invasion of the Irish and Scots .... 
 
 William I. invades Wales 
 
 Battle of Llechryd 
 
 [In this conflict the sons of Bleddynab Cjmvyn 
 were slain by Rhj's ab Tewdwr, the reigning 
 prince, ] 
 
 Rliys ab Tewdwr slain 1087 
 
 The Welsh destroy many Normair castles . . 1092 
 The formidable insurrection of Payne Tuber- 
 ville ......... 1094 
 
 Invasion of the English under the earls of 
 
 Chester and Shrewsb\iry 1096 
 
 The settlement in Wales of a colony of Flemings 1106 
 Violent seizure of Nest, wife of Gerald de 
 Windsor, by Owain, son of Cadwgan ab 
 Bleddyn ........ 1107 
 
 [This outrage entailed dreadful retiibution on 
 
 Cadwgau's family.] 
 Cardigan conquered hy Strongbow . . . „ 
 
 Cadwgan assassinated jno 
 
 Gruffydd ab Rhys lays claim to the sovereignty 1113 
 Another body of Flemings settle in Pembroke- 
 shire ,, 
 
 [The posterity of these settlers are still dis- 
 tinguished from the ancient British popula- 
 tion by their language, manners, and 
 customs, ] 
 Henry I. erects castles in Wales 
 
 1114 
 
 * The statute of Wales, enacted at Rhuddlan. March in, 1284, alleges that— "Divine Providence has 
 now removed all obstacles, and transferred wholly and entirely to the king's dominion the land of Wales 
 and its inhabitants, heretofore subject unto him in feudal right." The ancient laws were to be preserved 
 in civil causes ; but the law of inheritance was to be changed, and the English criminal law to be put in 
 force. Annals 0/ England. 
 
AVAL 
 
 771 
 
 WAL 
 
 WALES, continued. 
 
 Revolt of Owen Gwjmned on the death of 
 
 Henry I. ; part of South Wales laid waste . 1135 
 The Welsh ravage the borders . . . .1136 
 Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, invested with 
 
 the powers of a count palatine in Pembroke . 1138 
 Henry II. invades Wales, which he subse- 
 quently subdues, after a stout resistance by 
 
 Owen Gwynned 1157 
 
 Confederacy of the princes of Wales for the 
 
 recovery of their lost rights and independence 1164 
 Prince Madoc said to have emigrated to America, 
 
 about 1 169 
 
 Anglesey devastated 1173 
 
 The crusades preached in Wales by Baldwin, 
 
 archbishop of Canterbury 1188 
 
 Powys castle besieged 1191 
 
 The earl of Chester makes an inroad into North 
 
 Wales 1210 
 
 King John invades Wales, laying waste a great 
 
 part of the principalities .... 1211-12 
 Revolt of the Flemings ..... 1220 
 Jjlewelyn, prince of North Wales, commits 
 
 great ravages ,, 
 
 Death of Maelgwy ap Rhys .... 1230 
 
 Powys castle taken by Llewelyn ap lorwerth's 
 
 forces ■ 1233 
 
 William, earl of Pembroke, slain . . . 1234 
 Pi'ince David ravages the marshes, &c. . . . 1244 
 
 Invasion of Henry III. 1245 
 
 Anglesey again devastated ,, 
 
 Llewelyn ap Griflith, the last prince . . . 1246 
 Convention of the Welsh nobiUty against the 
 
 EngUsh 1258 
 
 Ilay and Brecknock castles taken by prince 
 
 Edward 1265 
 
 Peace with the English 1267 
 
 Edward I. summons Llewelyn to Westminster ; 
 on his refusal to come, deposes him ; and 
 
 invades Wales 1277 
 
 Edward encamps a powerfiil army on Saltuey 
 
 marsh ,, 
 
 The sons of Grufydd treacherously drowned in 
 the liver Dee, by the earl Warrenne and 
 
 Roger Mortimer 1281 
 
 Hawarden castle taken by surprise by Llewelyn 
 and his brother David ; they destroy Flint 
 
 and Rhuddlan castles 1282 
 
 Great battle between Llewelyn ap Grufydd, 
 the last prince, and the English : Llewelyn 
 slain, after the battle, by De Franctan, 
 
 Dec. II, ,, 
 Wales finally subdued by Edward I., after a 
 
 severe contest ,, 
 
 Prince David surrenders, and is executed as a 
 
 traitor 1283 
 
 The first English prince of Wales, son of Ed- 
 ward, born at Caernarvon castle (see Princes of 
 
 Wales, p. 772) April 25, 1284 
 
 The insurrection of Llewelyn ap Madoc ; 
 
 checked, 1294 ; suppressed .... 1316 
 Great rebelUon of Owain Glyndwr, or Owen 
 
 Glendower (grandson of the last prince, 
 
 Llewelyn), commences 1400 
 
 Radnor and other places taken by Owain 
 
 Glyndwr 1401 
 
 He besieges Caernarvon 1402 
 
 And seizes Harlech castle 1404 
 
 Harlech castle retaken by the English forces . 1408 
 
 Owain Glyndwr dies 1415 
 
 Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI., takes 
 
 refuge in Harlech castle 1459 
 
 Town of Denbigh burnt 1460 
 
 The earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., 
 lands in Pembroke, and is aided by the 
 
 Welsh Aug. 1485 
 
 Palatine jurisdiction in Wales abohshed by 
 
 Henry VIII iS35 
 
 Monmouth made an English county by the 
 same king ......... 
 
 The counties of Brecknock, Denbigh, and 
 
 Radnor fornaed ,, 
 
 Act for "laws and justice to be administered 
 ■in Wales in same form as in England," 
 
 27 Henry VIII „ 
 
 Wales incorporated into England by parhament, 1536 
 Divided into twelve counties . . . . 1543 
 
 Dr. Ferrars, bishop of St. David's, burnt at the 
 
 stake for heresy 1555 
 
 Lewis Owain, a baron of the exchequer, at- 
 tacked and murdered while on his assize torn- „ 
 The bible and prayer-book ordered to be trans- 
 lated into Welsh, and divine service to be 
 performed in that language .... 1563 
 First congregation of dissenters assembled in 
 Wales ; Vavasour Powel apprehended while 
 
 preaching 1620 
 
 Beaumaris castle garrisoned for king Charles I. 1642 
 Powys castle taken by sir Thomas Myddelton, 
 
 Oct. 1644 
 Dr. Laud, formerly bishop of St. David's, be- 
 headed on Tower-hill . . . Jan 10, 1645 
 Surrender of Hawarden castle to the parlia- 
 ment general My tton ,, 
 
 Charles I. takes refuge in Denbigh , . . ,, 
 Rhuddlan castle surrenders . . . . , , 
 Harlech castle surrenders to Cromwell's army 
 
 under Mytton 1647 
 
 Battle of St. Fagan's ; the Welsh to' ally de- 
 feated by col. Horton, Cromwell's lieutenant. 
 
 May 8, 1648 
 Beaumaris castle surrenders to Cromwell . . ,, 
 Pembroke castle taken ; colonel Poyer shot,* 
 
 April 25, 1649 
 The French land in Pembrokeshire, and are 
 
 made prisoners Feb. 1797 
 
 Rebecca or "Becca" riots broke out against 
 toll-gates, Feb. ; an old woman, a toll-keeper, 
 was murdered Sept. 10 ; many persons were 
 tried and punished .... Oct. 1843 
 Subscriptions begun for estabUshing a uni- 
 versity in Wales Dec. 1863 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF WALES. 
 
 640. Dyvifwal Moelmud, king of the Cymry. 
 
 688. Idwallo. 
 
 720. Rhodri, or Roderic. 
 
 755. Conan. 
 
 818. Mervyn. 
 
 843. Roderic, surnam.ed the Great. 
 
 * At the commencement of the civil war, Pembroke castle was the only Welsh fortress in the pos- 
 session of the parliament, and it was entrusted to the command of col. Langharne. In 1647, he, and 
 colonels Powel and Poyer, embraced the cause of the king, and made Pembroke their head quarters ; 
 after the defeat at St. Fagan's, retired to the castle, followed by an army led by Cromwell. They 
 capitulated, after having endured great sufferings from want of water. Langharne, Powel, and Poyer 
 were tried by a court-martial, and condemned to death ; but Cromwell having been induced to spare the 
 lives of two of them, it was ordered that they should draw lots for the favour, and three papers were 
 folded up, on two of which were written the words, " Life- given by God ; " the third was left blank. 
 The latter was drawn by colonel Poyer, who was shot accordingly on the above mentioned day. Pennant. 
 
 3 D 2 
 
WAL 
 
 772 
 
 WAL 
 
 WALES, contimied. 
 
 PRINCES OF NORTH WALES. 
 
 877. Aiiarawd. 
 
 913. Edwal Voel. 
 
 939. Howel Dha the Good, prince of all Wales. 
 
 948. Jevaf, or Jevav, and lago. 
 
 972. Howel ap Jevaf. 
 
 984. Cadwallon ap Jevaf. 
 
 985. Meredith ap Owen ap Howel Dha. 
 
 992. pdwal ap MejTic ap Edwal Voel. 
 998. Aedan, a usurper. 
 
 1015. Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt. 
 I02I. lago ap Edwal ap Meyric. 
 1038. Griffith ap Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt. 
 1061. Bleddyn and Rygwallou. 
 1073. Trahaem ap Caradoc. 
 1079. Griffith ap Conan. 
 1137. Owain Gwynedd. 
 1 169. David ap Owain Gwynedd. 
 1194. Llewelyn the Great. 
 1240. David ap Llewelyn. 
 
 1246. Llewelyn ap Griffith, last prince of the blood : 
 slain after battle, in 1282. 
 
 PRINCES OF SOUTH WALES. 
 
 877. Cadeth or Cadell. 
 
 907. Howel Dha the good. 
 
 948. Owain ap Howel Dha, his son. 
 
 987. Meredith ap Owain. 
 
 993. Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt. 
 
 1021. Rytherch ap Jestyn, a usurper. 
 
 1031. Hywel and Meredydd. 
 
 1042. Rhydderch and Rhys, the sons of the usurper. 
 
 io5i. Meredydd ap Owain ap Edwyn. 
 
 1073. Rhys ap Owain, and Rhydderch ap Caradoc. 
 
 1077. Rhys ap TewdwrMawr. 
 
 1092. Cadwgan ap Bleddyn. 
 
 1 1 15. Griffith ap Rhys. 
 
 1137. Rhys ap Grufydd, or Griffith. 
 
 1 196. Grufydd ap Rhys. 
 
 1202. Rhys ap Grufydd. 
 
 1222. Owain ap Grufydd. 
 
 1235. Meredith ap Owain ; he died in 1267. 
 
 PRINCES AND LORDS OF POWTS-LAND. 
 
 877. Mervyn. 
 
 900. Cadeth ; also prince of South Wales. 
 
 927. Howel Dha the Good. 
 
 * * « « ♦ 
 
 985. Meredydd ap Owain. 
 
 ***** 
 ]o6i. Bleddyn ap CjTivyn. 
 1073. Meredydd ap Bleddyn. 
 1087. Cadwgan ap Bleddyn. 
 1 132. Madoc ap Meredydd. 
 u6o. Griffith ap Meredydd. 
 
 1256. Gwenwinwin, or Gwenwynwyn. 
 ,, Owain ap Grufydd. 
 
 ENGLISH PRINCES OF WALES.* 
 
 1301. Edward Plantagenet (afterwards king Ed- 
 ward II.), son of Edward I., bom in Caer- 
 narvon Castle on the 25th April, 1284. It 
 is asserted that immediately after his birth 
 he was presented by his father to the Welsh 
 chieftains as their future sovereign, the king 
 holding up the royal infant in his arms, and 
 saying, in the Welsh language, " £ich Dyn," 
 literally in English, " This is your man," 
 but signifying " This is your countryman 
 and king." See however " Ich Dien." 
 1343. Edward the Black Prince. 
 1376. Richard, his son (afterwards Richard II.) 
 1399. Henry(afterwardsHenry v.), son of Henry IV. 
 1454. Edward, son of Henry VI. ; slain at Tewkes- 
 bury, May 4, 1471. 
 1471. Edward (afterwards Edward V.), son of Ed- 
 ward IV. 
 1483. Edward, son of Richard III. ; died in 1484. 
 1489. Arthur, son of Henry VII. ; died in 1502. 
 1503. Henry his brother (afterwards Henry VIII). 
 1537. Edward, his son (afterwards Edward VI.) was 
 
 duke of Cornwall, and not prince of Wales. 
 1610. Henry Frederic, son of James I. ; died Nov. 6, 
 
 1612. 
 1616. Charles, his brother (afterwards Charles I.). 
 1630. Charles, his son (afterwards Charles II.), never 
 
 created prince of Wales. 
 1714. George Augustus (afterwards George II.). 
 1729 Frederic Lewis, his son ; died March 20, 1751. 
 1751. George, his son (afterwards George III.). 
 1762. George, his son (afterwards George IV.). 
 1841. Albert-Edward, son of queen Victoria. 
 
 Travelled on the continent, and studied at 
 
 Oxford and Edinburgh in 1859. 
 Visited Canada, with the dignity of a viceroy, 
 
 and the United St ites, i860. 
 Entered the university of Cambridge in Jan. ; 
 attended the camp at Dublin. July to Sept. ; 
 opened New Middle Temple Library, Oct. 31 ; 
 1861. 
 Ordered to be prayed for as Albert-Edward, 
 instead of Alljeit, Jan 8 ; visited 'the con- 
 tinent, Syria, and Egypt, March — June ; 
 Germany and Italy, Aug — Dec. 1862. 
 Admitted to the house of peers, Feb. 5 ; a privy 
 
 councillor, Dec. 8, 1863 
 Married to princess Alexandra of Denmark, 
 
 March 10, 1863. 
 Visited Denmark and Sweden, Sept. — Oct. 
 
 1864. 
 Issue: Albert - Victor, bom Jan. 1864; 
 George-Frederick, bom June 3, 1865. 
 
 WALHALLA (the Hall of Glory), a temple near Ratisbon, erected by Louis, king of 
 Bavaria, to receive the statues and memorials of the great men of Germany, commenced 
 Oct. 18, 1830, and inaugurated Oct. 18, 1842. The name is derived from the fabled 
 meeting-place of Scandinavian heroes after death. 
 
 WALKING. See Pedestrianism. 
 
 WALLACHL4.. See Dannbian Principalities. On Dec. 23, 1861, the union of 
 Wallachia and Moldavia, under the name of Roumania, was proclaimed at Jassy and 
 Bucharest. 
 
 * Wales, Princess of. This title was held, some authors .say, during the early period of her life bv 
 tae pnncess Mary of England, eldest daughter of Henry VIII., and afterwards queen Mary I She 'was 
 created, they state, by her father princess of Wale=i, in order to conciliate the Welsh people and keep alive 
 the name and was, they add, the first and only princess of Wales in her own right ; a rank she enioved 
 unt^ k " * ''"" Henry, who was afterwards Edward VI., born in 1537 This is however denied 
 
WAL 
 
 773 
 
 WAE 
 
 WALLIS'S VOYAGE. Captain Wallis sailed from England on Ms voyage round the 
 world, July 26, 1766 ; and returned to England, May 19, 1768. 
 
 WALLOONS, a people wlio fled to England from the persecution of the cruel duke of 
 Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip IL of Spain, 1566. A church was given 
 to them by queen Elizabeth. 
 
 "WALLS. See Roman Walls. 
 
 WALNUT-TREE has long existed in England.* The black walnut-tree {Jiogkms nigra) 
 was brought to these countries from North America before 1629. 
 
 WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, and earl of 
 Orford), was born in 1676 ; became secretary-at-war in 1708 ; was expelled the house of 
 commons on a charge of misa^ppropriating the public money, 1 7 1 1 ; committed to the Tower, 
 Jan. 17, 1712 ; became first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer in 1715- 
 He resigned, on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking-fund bill on the 
 day of his resignation. On the earl of Sunderland retiring in 1721, he resumed his office 
 and held it till 1742. He died March 18, 1745. 
 
 SECOND WALPOLE ADMINISTRATION (1721). 
 
 Sir Robert Walpole, first lord of the treasury. 
 Thomas, lord Parker, created earl of Macclesfield, 
 
 lo7-d chancellor. 
 Henry lord Carleton (succeeded by WiUiam, duke of 
 
 Devonshire), lord pi-esident. 
 Evelyn, duke of Kingston (succeeded by lord Trevor), 
 
 pirvy seal. 
 James, earl of Berkeley, /rsi lord of the admiralty. 
 
 Charles (viscount Townshend), and John, lord 
 
 Carteret (the latter succeeded by the duke of 
 
 Newcastle), secretaries of state. 
 Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by the earl of 
 
 Cadogan), ordnance. 
 George Treby (succeeded by Henry Pelham), secre- 
 
 tary-ai-war . 
 Viscount Torrington, &c. 
 
 WALTZ, the popular German national dance, was introduced into England by baron 
 Neuman and others in 1813. Raikcs. 
 
 WANDSWORTH, near London. Here T^'-as opened Wandsworth meeting-house, the 
 first place of worship for dissenters in England, Nov. 20, 1572. In Garrett-lane, near this 
 place, a mock election of a mayor of Garratt was formerly held, after every general election 
 of parliament, to which Foote's dramatic piece, The Mayor of Garratt (1763), gave no small 
 celebrity. 
 
 WAR, called by Erasmus "the malady of princes." Osymandyas of Egypt, the first 
 warlike king ; he j^assed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 B.C. Usher. He is sup- 
 posed by some to be the Osiris of the priests. It is computed that, to the present time, 
 no less than 6,860,000,000 of men have perished in the field of battle. See Battles. 
 
 FOREIGN WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE CONQUEST. 
 
 War with 
 Scotland 
 France . 
 Scotland 
 France . 
 France 
 France . 
 France 
 France . 
 Scotland 
 Scotland . 
 France . 
 France . 
 
 1068 . 
 1 1 16 
 1138 . 
 1161 
 
 "94 • 
 1201 
 1224 . 
 1294 
 1296 . 
 1327 
 1339 • 
 1368 
 
 Peace. 
 . 1092 
 . 1118 
 • "39 
 
 1234 
 1299 
 
 1323 
 1328 
 1360 
 1420 
 
 War with 
 
 France 
 France . 
 France 
 France 
 Scotland 
 Scotland . 
 Scotland 
 France . 
 France 
 Scotland . 
 France 
 Spain 
 
 
 Peace. 
 
 1422 
 
 ■ 1471 
 
 1492 
 
 same year. 
 
 I5I2 
 
 • 1514 
 
 1522 
 
 • • 1527 
 
 1522 
 
 . 1542 
 
 1542 
 
 . . 1546 
 
 1547 
 
 • 1550 
 
 1549 
 
 • ■ 1550 
 
 I.S57 
 
 • 1559 
 
 I5S7 
 
 . . 1560 
 
 1562 
 
 . 1564 
 
 isa« 
 
 . . 1604 
 
 War icith Peace. 
 
 Spain . . . 1624 . . 1629 
 
 France . . . 1627 . . 1629 
 
 Holland . . 1651 . . 1654 
 
 Spain . . . 1655 . . 1660 
 
 France . . i665 . . 1668 
 
 Denmark . . 1666 . . 1668 
 
 Holland .' . 1666 . . 1668 
 
 Algiers . . . i66g . . 1671 
 
 Holland . . 1672 . . 1674 
 
 France . . 1689 . . 1697 
 
 Peace of Ryswick, Sept. 20, 1697 
 
 GREAT MODERN W^AKS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 "War of the Succession, commenced May 4, 1702. | War with France, March 31, 1744. Closed also on 
 
 Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. April 30, 1748. 
 
 War with Spain, Dec. 16, 1718. Peace concluded, \ War; the Seven Years' War, June 9, 1756. Peace of 
 
 1721. I Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. 
 
 War ; Spanifh War, Oct. 23, 1739. Peace of Aix-la- War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. General peace, Feb. 
 
 Chapelle, April 30, 1748. | 10, 1763. 
 
 * -Near Welwyn, in Hertfordshire, there was the largest walnut-tree on record ; it was felled in 1627, and 
 from it were cut nineteen loads of planks ; and as much was sold to a gunsmith in London as cost io(. 
 carriage ; besides which there were thirty loads of roots and branches. When standing it covered 76 
 poles of ground ; a space equal to 2299 square yards, statute measure. 
 
WAR 
 
 774 
 
 WAR 
 
 "War against Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. Finally closed 
 
 June 18, 1815. 
 War with America, June 18, 1812. Peace of Ghent, 
 
 Dec. 24, 1814. 
 War with Russia, March 27, 1854. Peace of Paris, 
 
 March 31, 1856. 
 For the wars with India, China, and Persia, see 
 
 those countries respectively. 
 
 WAR, continued. 
 
 War with the United States of North America, July 
 
 14, 1774. Peace of Paris, Nov. 30, 1782. 
 War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of Paris, Jan. 
 
 20, 1783. 
 War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed same time 
 
 Jan. 20, 1783. 
 War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace signed, 
 
 Sept. 2, 1783. 
 War of the Revolution, Feb. i, 1793. Peace of Amiens, 
 
 March 27, 1802. 
 
 WAR A FFAIRS. On account of the war with Russia, the duke of ITewcastle, previously 
 colonial secretary, was appointed a secretary foi- war affairs, and a cabinet minister, June 9, 
 1854. See Secretaries. 
 
 WARBECK'S INSURRECTION. Perkin Warbeck, the son of a Florentine Jew, to 
 whom Edward IV. had stood godfather, was persuaded by Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, 
 sister to Richard III., to personate her nephew, Richard, Edward V.'s brother, which he did 
 first in Ireland, where he landed, 1492. The imposture was discovered by Henry VII. 1493. 
 Some writers consider that Warbeck was not an impostor. 
 
 Made an attempt to land at Kent, with 600 men, 
 when 150 were taken prisoners, and executed, 
 1495- 
 
 Recommended by the king of France to James IV. 
 of Scotland, who gave him his kinswoman, lord 
 Huntley's daughter, in marriage, the same year. 
 James IV. invaded England in his favour, 1496. 
 
 Left Scotland, and went to Bodmin, in Cornwall, 
 
 where 3000 joined him, and he took the title of 
 
 Richard IV., 1497. 
 Taken prisoner by Henry VII., 1498. 
 Set in the stocks at Westminster and Cheapside, and 
 
 sent to the Tower, 1499. 
 Plotted with the earl of Warwick to escape out of 
 
 the Tower, by murdering the lieutenant, for 
 
 which he was hanged at Tyburn, Nov. 28, 1499. 
 
 WARDIAN CASES. In 1829, Mr. N. B. Ward observed a small fern and grass growing 
 in a closed glass ba.ttle, in which he had placed a chrysalis covered with moist earth. From 
 this circumstance he was led to construct his well-known closely glazed cases, which aiford 
 to plants light, heat, and moisture, and exclude deleterious gases, smoke, &c. They are 
 particularly adapted for ferns. In 1833 they were first employed for the transmission of 
 plants to Sydney, «S:c., with great success ; and professor Faraday lectured on the subject in 
 1838. 
 
 WARDMOTES, meetings of the citizens of London in their wards, where they elect 
 annually their common councilmen. The practice is said to have begun in 1386. They had 
 previously assembled in Guildhall, 
 
 WARRANTS, GENERAL, do not specify the name of the accused. They were declared 
 to be illegal and unconstitutional by lord chief justice Pratt, Dec. 6, 1763, in relation to the 
 seizure and committal of Mr. Wilkes to the Tower for a libel on the king. After the 
 decision of the court of common pleas in favour of Wilkes, he brought an action against lord 
 Halifax, then secretary of state, and recovered 4000Z. damages. Wilkes laid his damages at 
 20,oooZ., Nov. 10, 1769. 
 
 WARRIOR.- See under Navy of England. 
 
 WARSAW, the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this city from 
 Cracow in 1566, and it became the seat of government in 1689. Population in 1859, 162,777. 
 See Poland, 1861-5, for recent events. 
 
 Alliance of War.saw, between Austria and 
 Poland, against Turkey, in pursuance of 
 which John Sobieski assisted in raising the 
 siege of Vienna (on the iSth of September 
 following), signed .... March 31, 
 
 Warsaw surrenders to Charles XII. . 
 
 Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, 
 
 Feb. 24, 
 
 The Russian garrison placed here in 1794; 
 expelled by the citizens with the loss of 2000 
 killed and 500 wounded, and 36 pieces of 
 cannon April 17, 
 
 The Poles defeated by the Russians at Maciejo- 
 vice Oct. 4, 
 
 The king of Prussia besieges Warsaw, July ; 
 compelled to raise the siege, Sept. ; it is 
 taken by the Russians . . . Nov. 
 
 Suwarrow, the Russian general, after the siege 
 and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 
 
 1683 
 1703 
 
 1768 
 
 30,000 Poles, of all ages and conditions, in 
 cold blood Nov. 4, 
 
 Warsaw constituted a duchy and annexed to 
 the house of Saxony .... Aug. 
 
 The duchy overrun by the Russians ; Warsaw 
 made the i-esidence of a Russian viceroy 
 
 The last PoUsh revolution commences at War- 
 saw Nov. 29, 
 
 Battle of Grochow, near Warsaw, in which the 
 Russians were defeated, and forced to retreat 
 with the loss of 7000 men . . . Feb. 23, 
 
 Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard 
 fighting, the city capitulated, and was taken 
 possession of by the Russians ; and great part 
 of the Polish army retired towards Plock and 
 Modlin Sept. 6-8, 
 
 The czar meets the emperor of Austria and the 
 regent of Prussia ; no result . Oct. 20-25, 
 
 1794 
 1807 
 1813 
 183c 
 
WAS 
 
 775 
 
 WAT 
 
 WASHINGTON (in Columbia district, partly in Virginia and Maryland, on the bank of 
 the Potomac, N.-E. of Virginia), the capital of the United States, founded in 1791, and made 
 the seat of government in 1800. The house of representatives was opened for the first time, 
 May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late war by the British forces under general 
 Eoss, when all its superb national structures were consumed by a general conflagration, the 
 troops not sparing even the national library, Aug. 24, 1814. General Koss was soon after- 
 wards killed by some American riflemen, in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12, 
 following. — Part of the capitol and the whole of the library of the United States' congress 
 were destroyed by fire, Dec. 24, 185 1. The prince of Wales was entertained by the president 
 here in Sept. i860. See United States. Washington was fortified in April, 186 1, against the 
 Confederates. 
 
 WASIUM (named from the royal house of Wasa or Vasa), a supposed new metal, dis- 
 covered by F. Bahr, of Stockholm, in 1682. In Nov., 1863 Nickles declared it to be a com- 
 pound of didymium, yttrium, and terbium. 
 
 WASTE LANDS. The inclosure of waste lands and commons, in order to promote 
 agriculture, first began in England about the year 1547, and gave rise to Ket's rebellion, 
 1549. Inclosures were again promoted by the authority of parliament, 1785. The waste 
 lands in England were estimated in 1794 to amount to 14 millions of acres, of which there 
 were taken into cultivation, 2,837,476 acres before June, 1801. In 1841, there were about 
 6,700,000 acres of waste land, of which more than half was thought to be capable of 
 improvement. See Agriculture. 
 
 WATCH OF London, at night, appointed 1253, proclaimed the hour with a bell before 
 the introduction of public clocks. Hardie. The old watch was discontinued, and a new 
 police (on duty day and night) commenced, Sept. 29, 1829. See Police. 
 
 WATCHES are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, 1477, although it is 
 affirmed that Eobert, king of Scotland, had a watch about 13 10. 
 
 Watches first used in astronomical observations 
 by Purbach 1500 
 
 Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was 
 the first who had anything that might be 
 called a watch, though some call it a small 
 table-clock 1530 
 
 Watches first brought to England from Ger- 
 many in 1577 
 
 A watch which belonged to queen Elizabeth is 
 preserved ia the library of the Royal Institu- 
 tion, London. 
 
 Spring pocket-watches (watches properly so- 
 called) have had their invention ascribed to 
 Dr. Hooke by the English, and to M. Huy- 
 
 ghens by the Dutch. Dr. Derham, in his 
 Artificial Ciockmaker, says that Dr. Hooke 
 was the inventor ; and he appears certainly 
 to have produced what is called the pendu- 
 lum watch about 1658 ; manifest, among 
 other evidences, from an inscription on one 
 of the double-balance watches presented to 
 Charles II., "Rob. Hooke, inven. 1658; T. 
 Tompion fecit, 1675." 
 Repeating watches invented by Barlowe . . 1676 
 Harrison's first time-piece produced . . . 1735 
 Watches and clocks were taxed in . . . 1797 
 The tax was repealed in 1798. See Clocks. 
 
 WATER. Thales of Miletus, foimder of the Ionic sect, considered water to be the 
 original principle of everything, about 594 B.C. Stanley. In the Eoman church, water was 
 first mixed with the sacramental Avine, A.D. 122. Lenglet. Cavendish and Watt, in 1781, 
 demonstrated that water is composed of 8 parts of oxygen and i part of hydrogen. In 
 freezing, water contracts till it is reduced to 42° or 40° Fahr. ; it then begins to expand till 
 it becomes ice at 32°. — Water was first conveyed to London by leaden pipes, 21 Hen. III. 
 1237. Stow. It took nearly fifty years to complete it ; the whole being finished, and 
 Cheapside conduit erected, only in 1285. The New Eiver water was brought to London 
 from Amwell in Hertfordshire, at an immense expense, by sir Hugh Myddelton, in 1613. 
 The city was supplied with its water by conveyances of wooden pipes in the streets and small 
 leaden ones to the houses, and the New Eiver Company was incorporated, 1620. So late 
 as queen Anne's time there were water-carriers at Aldgate pump. London is now supplied 
 by eight companies :— The New Eiver, East London, Chelsea, Grand Junction, Southwark 
 and Vauxhall, Kent, Lambeth, and West Middlesex. The water-works at Chelsea were 
 completed, and the company incorporated, 1722. London-bridge ancient water- works were 
 destroyed by fire, Oct. 29, 1779. An act to supply the metropolis with water, 15 & 16 Vict, 
 c. 84, was passed July i, 1852. The supply is now considered to be much improved in 
 quality and quantity. In Jan. 1857, a company was formed to carry out Dr. Normandy's 
 patent for converting salt water into fresh. See Artesian Wells, 
 
 WATER-CLOCKS. See Clods. 
 
 WATEE-COLOUE PAINTING was gradually raised from the hard dry style of the last 
 
WAT 776 WAT 
 
 century, to its present brilliancy, by the efforts of Nicholson, Copley, Fielding, Varley, the 
 great Turner, Pyne, Cattermole, Prout, &c., within the present ceutury. The exhibition 
 was founded in 1805. 
 
 WATER-GLASS, a name given to a liquid mixture of sand (silex) and one of the alkalies 
 (potash or soda). Glauber {Dc Lithiase) mentions a similar mixture in 1644. Dr. Von 
 Fuchs, the modern inventor, gave an account of his process in 1825 ; and Mr. Frederick 
 Ransom of Ipswich, ignorant of Von Fuchs' discovery, patented a mode of preparing water- 
 glass in 1845, which he has since greatly improved upon. In 1857, M. Kuhlmann of Lille 
 published a pamphlet setting forth the advantageous employment of water-glass in hardening 
 porous stone and in stereochromy {which see). It has been applied to the exterior of many 
 buildings in France and England. The memoirs of Von Fuchs and Kuhlmann were 
 translated and printed in England in 1859 by direction of the prince consort. 
 
 WATER-MILLS, used for grinding corn, are said to have been invented by Belisarius, 
 the general of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, 555. The ancients parched 
 their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were invented, which were turned 
 by men and beasts with great labour ; yet Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. 
 
 W^ATER TOFANA. See Poisoning. 
 
 WATERFORD (S. Ireland), built 879, was totally destroyed by fire in 981. Rebuilt and 
 considerably enlarged bj' Strongbow in 1171, and still further in the reign of Henry VII., 
 who granted considerable privileges to the citizens. Richard II. landed and was crowned 
 here in 1399 ; in 1690, James II. embarked from hence for France, after the battle of the 
 Boyne ; and William III. resided here twice, and confirmed its privileges. Memoi'ably 
 storm here, April 18, 1792. The cathedral of Waterford, dedicated to the blessed Trinity, 
 was first built by the Ostmen, and by Malchus, the first bishop of Waterford, after his 
 return from England from his consecration, 1096. This see was united with that of Lisraore 
 in 1363. It was valued in the king's books, by an extent returned 29 Henry VIII., at 
 72^. 8s. if^. Irish per annum. By stat. 3 & 4 Will. IV. the. see of Waterford and Lismon- 
 was united by the Irish Church Temporalities act with the see of ('ashel and Emly, Aug. 14, 
 1833. The interior of the cathedral, organ, &;c., were destroyed by fire, Oct. 25, 1815. 
 
 WATERLOO, in Belgium, the site of the great battle on the i8th of June, 1815, between 
 the French army, of 71,947 men and 246 guns, under Napoleon, and the allies, commanded 
 by the duke of Wellington ; the latter, with 67,661 men and 156 guns, resisted the various 
 attacks of the enemy from nine in the morning until five in the afternoon. About that time, 
 16,000 Prussians reached the field of battle; and by seven, the force under Blucher amounted 
 to above 50,000 men, with 104 guns. Wellington then moved forward his whole army. A 
 total rout ensued, and the carnage was immense. Of the British (23,991), 93 officers and 
 1916 men were killed and missing, and 363 officers and 4560 men wounded : total 6932 ; and 
 the total loss of the allied army amounted to 4206 killed, 14,539 wounded, and 4231 missing, 
 making 22,976 hors de combat. Napoleon, quitting the wreck of his flying arm)', returned 
 to Paris ; and finding it impossible to raise another, abdicated the throne of France. 
 P. Nicholas.* 
 
 WATERLOO BRIDGE, Loxdon. A bridge over this part of the Thames was repeatedly 
 suggested during the last century, but no actual preparations to carry it into effect were made 
 till 1806, when Mr. G. Dodd procured an act of parliament, and gave the present site, plan, 
 and dimensions of the bridge ; but, in consequence of some disagreement with the com- 
 mittee, he was superseded by Mr. Rennie, who completed this noble structure. It was 
 commenced Oct. 11, 1811, and finished June 18, 1817, on the anniversary of the battle of 
 Waterloo, when the prince regent, the duke of Wellington, and other distinguished 
 personages, were present at the opening. Its length within the abutments is 1242 feet : its 
 width within the balustrades is 42 feet ; and the span of each arch, of which there are nine, 
 is 120 feet.f 
 
 * It is an historical fact, that the British forces have been twice signally successful over those of 
 France on the same ground — Waterloo ; and that by the side of the ver3T chapel of Waterloo, which was 
 remarked for being uninjured by shot or shell on the memorable i8th of June, 1815, did Marlborough cut 
 off a large division of the French forces opposed to him on the 17th of August, 1705. It is no less a fact, 
 that the conquerors of each of those days, on the same field, are the only commanders in the British 
 service whose military career brought them to the summit of the peerage — to dukedoms. 
 
 t On Oct. 9, 1857, two youths, named Kilsby, found on one of the abutments of the bridge a carpet 
 bag, containing htiman bones and flesh, which had been cut up, salted, and boiled, and some foreign 
 clothes. After much investigation no clue could be found respecting the name of the individual, and the 
 remains were interred in Woking cemetery. 
 
WAT 777 WEE 
 
 WATEESPOUT. Two waterspouts fell on the Glatz mountains in Germany, and caused 
 dreadful devastation to Hautenbach and many other villages ; many persons perished, 
 July 13, 1827. A waterspout at Glanflesk, near Ivillarney, in Ireland, passed over a farm of 
 Mr. John Macarthy, destroying farm-houses and other buildings ; seventeen persons perished, 
 Aug. 4, 183 1. Tile estimated length of one seen near Calcutta, Sept. 27, 1855, was 1000 
 feet. It lasted ten minutes, and was absorbed iipwards. One seen on Sept. 24, 1856, 
 burst into heavy rain. 
 
 WATLING STREET. See Roman Roads. 
 
 WAVE PRINCIPLE (in accordance with which the curves of the hull of a ship should 
 be adapted to the curves of a wave of the sea) formed the subject of experiments begun by 
 Mr. John Scott Russell in 1832, with the view of increasing the speed of ships. Colonel 
 Beaufoy is said to have spent 30,000?. in researches upon this matter. It was also taken up 
 by the British Association, who have published reports of the investigations. The principle 
 has been adopted by naval architects. 
 
 WAVERLEY NOVELS. The publication of the series began with " Waverley ; or, 
 'Tis Sixty Years Since," in 1814, and closed with "Tales of my Landlord," fourth series, in 
 1831. The authorship was acknowledged by su- Walter Scott, at a dinner, Feb. 23, 1827. 
 
 WAWZ, or Wawer (Poland). The Poles under Skrzynecki attacked the Russians at 
 Wawz, and after two days' hard fighting, all the Russians' positions were carried by storm, 
 and they compelled to retreat with the loss of 12,000 men and 2000 prisoners, March 31, 
 1 83 1. The loss of the Poles was small; but their triumph was followed by defeat and 
 ruin. 
 
 WAX came into use for candles in the 12th century ; and wax candles were esteemed a 
 luxury in 1300, being but little used. In China, candles of vegetable wax have been in use 
 for centuries. See Candlehcrry. The wax tree, Ligustrum iucidum, was brought from 
 China before 1794.— SEALrNG-v^^AX was not brought into use in England, iintil about 1556. 
 Its use has been almost superseded by the introduction of adhesive envelopes, about 1844. 
 
 WE.' Sovereigns generally use we for /, which style began with king John, 1199. Coke. 
 The German emperors and French kings used the plural about 1200. 
 
 WEATHER. See Meteorology. 
 
 WEAVING appears to have been practised in China more than a thousand years before 
 it was known in Europe or Asia. The Egyptians ascribed the art to Isis ; the Greeks to 
 Minerva ; and the Peruvians to the wife of Manco Capac. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had 
 not any seam, being woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. The print of a 
 frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in CalrmUs Dictionary under the word Vestments. 
 Two weavers from Brabant settled at York, where they manufactured woollens, which, says 
 king Edward, " may prove of great benefit to us and our subjects," 133 1. Flemish dyers, 
 cloth drapers, linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c. , settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester, 
 Southampton, and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's persecution, 1567. See 
 Loom and Electric Loom. 
 
 WEDGWOOD WARE, pottery and porcelain, produced by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood of 
 Staffordshire, in 1762. His potteries, termed Etruria, were founded in 1771. Previously tO' 
 1763, much earthenware was imported from France and Holland. 
 
 WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, so called from the Saxon idol Woden or 
 Odin, worshipped on this day. " Woden was the reputed author of magic and the inventor 
 of all the arts, and was thought to answer to the Mercury of the Greeks and Romans." 
 Butler. 
 
 WEEDON INQUIRY (Northamptonshire). Commissioners were appointed to inquire 
 into the accounts of Mr. Elliot, superintendent of the great military clothing establishment, 
 at this place in July, 1858, and commenced sitting in September. Many of the statements, 
 afterwards disputed, caused much dissatisfaction. 
 
 WEEK. The space of seven days, supposed to be first used among the Jews, who 
 observed the sabbath every seventh' day. They had three sorts of weeks, the first the 
 common one of seven days, the second of years, which was seven ye«,rs, the third of seven 
 
WEI 
 
 778 
 
 WEL 
 
 times seven years, at the end of which was the jubilee, 
 derived from the Saxou : — 
 
 All the present English names are 
 
 Latin. 
 Dies Solis, 
 Dies LunjB, 
 Dies Martis, 
 Dies Mercurii, 
 Dies Jovis, 
 Dies Veneris, 
 Dies Satumi, 
 
 Day of the Sun, 
 Day of the Sloon, 
 Day of Mars, 
 Day of Mercury, 
 Day of Jupiter, 
 Day of Venus, 
 Day of Saturn, 
 
 English. 
 Sunday, 
 Monday, 
 Tuesday, 
 Wednesday, 
 Thursday, 
 Friday, 
 Saturday, 
 
 Saxon. 
 Sun's day. 
 Moon's day. 
 Tiw's day. 
 Woden's day. 
 Thor's day. 
 Friga's day. 
 Saterne's day. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND Measures. These and the stamping of gold and silver money, were 
 invented by Pheidou, tyrant of Argos, 895, B.C. et seq. Arundelian Marbles. Weights 
 were orginally taken from grains of wheat, the lowest being still called a grain. Chalmers. 
 
 The standard measure was originally kept at Win- 
 chester by the law of king Edgar, 972. 
 
 Standards of weights and measui-es were provided 
 for the whole kingdom of England by the sherififs of 
 London, g Rich. I. 1197. 
 
 A public weighing-machine was set up in London, 
 .nnd all commodities ordered to be weighed by the 
 city-oflBcer, called the weigh-master, who was to do 
 justice between buyer and seller, stat. 3 Edw. II. 
 {Stow) 1309. 
 
 Edward III. ordered that there should be "one 
 weight, measure and yard," throughout the king- 
 dom, 1353. 
 
 First statute, directing the use of avoirdupois 
 weight, of 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. 
 
 Weights and measures ordered to be examined by 
 the justices at quarter-sessions, 35 Geo. III. 1794. 
 
 Again regulated, 1800. 
 
 Statute for establishing a uniformity of weights 
 and measures, 1824, took place throughout the 
 United Kingdom, Jan. i, 1826. 
 
 New acts relating thereto passed in 1834, 1835, 
 1855, and lastly in 1859. 
 
 16 & 17 Vict. c. 29, regulates the weights to be 
 used in the sale of bullion, and adopts the use of 
 the Troy ounce, 1853. 
 
 A committee of the house of commons recom- 
 mended that the decimal system should be lega- 
 lised, but not made compulsory until sanctioned by 
 general approval, 1862. 
 
 See Standard ; and Metrical System. 
 
 WEIMAR (termed the Athens of Germany), capital of the grand-duchy of Saxe Weimar, 
 is celebrated as having been the residence of the German classic writers, Schiller, Goethe, 
 Herder, and Wieland : the grand-dukes having been eminent patrons of literature. The 
 city became important in the yth century, and suffered in the German wars. 
 
 WELLINGTON ADMINISTRATION, succeeded that of Viscount Goderich, Jan. 1828, 
 and resigned Nov. 16, 1830. 
 
 Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 
 
 Mr. Huskisson, earl Dudley, viscount Palmerston, 
 
 and Mr. Grant quitted the ministry, and various 
 
 changes followed in May and June same year. 
 The earl of Aberdeen and sir George Murray became, 
 
 respectively , foreign and colonial secretaries. 
 Sir Henry Hardinge, secretary-at-war. 
 Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald (afterwards lord Fitzgerald), 
 
 India board. 
 Lord Lowther, ^rs< commissio^ieroflandreve^ixus, &c.. 
 
 May and June, 1828. 
 Mr. Arbuthnot, Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, &c. 
 
 Duke of Wellington, ^rs< lord of the treasury. 
 
 Mr. Henry Goulbum, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Earl Bathurst, president of the council. 
 
 Lord EUenborough, privy seal. 
 
 Mr. (afterwards sir) Robert Pool, earl Dudley, and 
 
 Mr. Wm. Huskisson, home, foreign, and colonial 
 
 secretaries. 
 Viscount Melville, board of control. 
 Mr. Chai'les Grant, board of trade. 
 Lord Palmerston, secretary-atwar. 
 Mr. Herries, master of the mint. 
 Earl of Aberdeen, dachy of Lancaster. 
 
 WELLINGTON COLLEGE, Sandhurst, was erected by subscription in memory of the 
 great duke of Wellington. It was instituted for the support and education of the orphan 
 children of soldiers. The first stone was laid by the queen on June 2, 1856 ; and the 
 building was opened by her majesty on June 29, 1859. Out of the 159,000?. subscribed, 
 55,oooZ. were expended on the building and the rest invested for the maintenance of the 
 institution. 
 
 WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA, the largest tree in the world, a native of California, 
 was discovered by Mr. Lobb in 1853, and first described by Dr. John Lindley. When full 
 grown it is about 450 feet high, and 116 feet in circumference. 
 
 WELLINGTON'S VICTORIES, &c. For details, see separate articles. 
 
 Arthur Wellesley was born, according to some 
 authorities in March ; to others May i, 1769 
 
 Appointed to command in the Mahratta war in 
 India; takes Poonah and Ahmednuggur, 
 Aug. 12 ; and gains his first victory at Assaye, 
 Sept. 23 ; defeats Scindiah at Argaum, Nov. ; 
 and at Gawalghur , , . Dec. 13, 1803 
 
 Becomes secretary for IreLand .... 1807 
 Takes the command in Portugal, defeats Jimot 
 
 at Vimeira Aug. 21, 1808 
 
 Defeats Victor at Talavera, July 28 ; created 
 
 viscount Wellington . . . Sept. 4, 1809 
 Repulses Massena at Busaco, Sept. 27 ; and 
 
 occupies the Unes at Torres Vedras Oct. 10, i8ic 
 
WEL 
 
 779 
 
 WES 
 
 WELLINGTON'S VICTORIES, continued. 
 
 Defeats Massena at Fueijtes d'Onore, May s ; 
 takes Almeida May lo, 
 
 Storms Ciudad Rodi-igo, Jan. 19 ; and Badajos, 
 April 6 ; defeats Marmont at Salamanca, 
 July 22; enters Madrid . . . Aug. 12, 
 
 Defeats Joseph Bonaparte and Jourdan at 
 Vittoria, June 21 ; storms St. Sebastian, 
 Aug. 31 ; enters France . . . Oct. 8, 
 
 Defeats Soult at Orthez, Feb. 27 ; and at Tou- 
 louse . April 10, 
 
 Created duke of Wellington, with an annuity uf 
 13,000?. and a grant of 300,000?. . . May, 
 
 Commands the army in the Netherlands ; re- 
 pulses an attack of Ney at Quatre Bras, 
 June 16 ; defeats Napoleon at Waterloo, 
 June 18 ; invests Paris . . . July 3, 
 
 Comniands the army of occupation in France, 
 1815 till Nov. 
 
 His assassination attempted by Cantillon, who 
 escapes . . . . . . Feb. 10, 
 
 Appointed master-general of the ordnance . . 
 
 The Wellington shield and supporting columns 
 
 ibi3 
 1814 
 1814 
 
 1815 
 1818 
 
 designed by Stothard, commemorating all 
 the above-mentioned victories, presented to 
 the duke by the merchants and bankers of 
 London. (It was manufactured by Green 
 and Ward, and cost 11,000?.) . . Feb. 16, 
 
 The duke appointed commander-in-chief, Jan! 
 22 ; resigns April 30, 
 
 Becomes first minister .... Jan. 
 
 Aids in carrying the Catholic Emancipation biU, 
 
 April, 
 
 Asserts that no reform in parliament is needed, 
 Nov. 2 ; resigns .... Nov. 16, 
 
 Transacts all the business of the country after 
 the resignation of lord Melbourne, till the 
 arrival of sir R. Peel from Italy, Nov. ; and 
 becomes foreign secretary under sir R. Peel, 
 Dec. 1834; resigns .... April, 
 
 Dies at WaLmer castle . . . Sept. 14, 
 
 His body removed to Chelsea hospital, where 
 it lay in state Nov. 10, 
 
 Removed to the Horse Guards . Nov. 17, 
 
 Public funeral at St. Paul's cathedral* Nov. 18, 
 
 1822 
 
 1S27 
 1828 
 
 1S29 
 
 183s 
 1852 
 
 WELLS BISHOPRIC (in Soinerset). The cathedral church was built by lua, king of 
 the West Saxons, 704, and by him dedicated to St. Andrew. Several other of the West 
 Saxon kings endowed it, and it was erected into a bishopric in 909, during the reign of king 
 Edward the Elder. The present church was begun by Robert, the i8th bishop of this see, 
 and completed by his immediate successor. The first bishop of Wells was Jilthelm or 
 Adelmus (afterwards bishop of Canterbury). Beatson. The see was united with Bath 
 {ivhich see) in 1088. 
 
 WENDS, a branch of the Slavonic family which spread over Germany in the 6th 
 century, and settled especially in the north-eastern parts. 
 
 WESLEYAN METHODISTS, a large Christian sect foimded by John Wesley (born 1 703, 
 died 1791) and his brother Charles, who in 1727 with a few other students formed themselves 
 into a small society for the purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises. On account 
 of their strictness of life they were called Metlioclists, in 1729 (as living according to the 
 methods laid down in the Bible). John Wesley went to Georgia in America, in 1735, with 
 a view of converting the Indians. On his return to England, in 1738, he commenced 
 itinerant preaching, and gathered many followers. On finding the churches shut against 
 him, he built spacious meeting-houses in London, Bristol, and other places. For some time 
 he was united with George Whitefield ; but diff'erences arising on account of the doctrine of 
 election, which Wesley rejected, they separated in 1741. (See Whitefield.) Wesley was 
 almost continually engaged in travelling through tlie United Kingdom. His society was 
 well organised, and he preserved his influence over it to the last. " His genius for govern- 
 ment was not inferior to that of Richelieu." Macaulay. In 1851 there were 428 circuits in 
 Great Britain, with between 13,000 and 14,000 local or lay preachers, and about 920 
 itinerant pi'eachers, and 6579 chapels. t The 117th annual conference met in London on 
 July 26, i860. 
 
 * A multitude of all ranks, estimated at a million and a half of persons, were congregated in the Une 
 of route, a distance of three miles, to witness and share in the imposing spectacle. The mihtary consisted 
 of the household regiments of horse and foot guards, the 2nd battalion of the Rifles, a battaUon of 
 the Royal Marines, the 33rd regiment, the 17th Lancers, and the 18th Light Dragoons, with the regiment 
 of Scots Greys. There were besides, a body of Chelsea pensioners, and men of different arms of the East 
 India Company. The body was placed, early in the morning of the i8th, by means of machinery, upon a 
 lofty and sumptuous funeral car (which science had contributed to complete), drawn by twelve horses 
 richly caparisoned, and the coffin was thus seen by the whole of the crowd. The procession moved about 
 seven o'clock, and it was three o'clock before the body was lowered into the vault beside the remains of 
 Nelson, under the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral. In 1857 a number of models for the tomb were exhibited 
 in Westminster Hall ; none was chosen. The stone sarcophagus, completed in 1S58, cost iioo?. 
 
 t The Conference, the highest Wesleyan court, is composed of 100 ministers, who meet annually. It 
 was instituted by John Wesley in 1784. At the centenary of the existence of Methodism, 216,000!. were 
 collected, to be expended in the objects of the society. Out of the original connection have seceded : — 
 
 Chapels in 1851. 
 Wesleyan Methodist Association (1834) . . 329 
 Wesleyan Methodist Reformers (1S49). . 2000 
 
 New Connection (in 1796) 
 
 Primitive Methodists (1810) . 
 
 Bible Christians, or Bryanites (1815) 
 
 Chapels in 1851. 
 . . 301 
 
 403 
 
 The last arose out of the publication of "Fly Sheets," advocating reform in the body. The suspected 
 authors and their friends were expelled. By these disruptions the main body is thought to have lost 
 100,000 members. —This sect in America numbered about a million in 1844, when a division took place on 
 the slavery question. 
 
WES 
 
 780 
 
 WES 
 
 WESSEX. See Britain. 
 
 WEST INDIES, islands discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being the first land he 
 made in the ISTew World, and first seen by him in the night between the nth and 12th Oct. 
 1492. The largest are Cuba, Hayti (or St. Domingo), Jamaica, Porto Eico, Trinidad, and 
 Guadaloupe. See tJie Islands respectively. 
 
 WEST SAXONS. See Wessex in Britain. 
 
 WESTERN AUSTRALIA, formerly Swan Riyer Settlemevt, which was projected 
 by colonel Peel in 1828. Regulations issued from the colonial office, and captain Stirling, 
 appointed lieutenant governor, Jan. 17, 1829, arrived at the appointed site in August fol- 
 lowing. The three towns of Perth, Freemantle, and Guildford were founded same year, lu 
 March 1830, fifty ships, with 2000 emigrants, with property amounting to i,ooo,oooZ., had 
 arrived before hardly any dwellings had been erected or land surveyed. The more energetic 
 settlers left for home or the neighbouring colonies, and the colony languished for twenty 
 years for want of suitable inhabitants — the first settlers, from their previous habits and rank 
 in life, proving unable for the rough work of colonisation. In 1848, the colonists requested 
 that convicts might be sent out to them, and in 1849 a band arrived, who were kindly 
 received and well treated. The best results ensued. By 1853, 2000 had anuved, and the 
 inhabitants of Perth had requested that looo should be sent out annually. The reception 
 of convicts is to cease in after years, in consequence of the energetic opposition of the other 
 Australian colonics (1865). — The settlement at King George's Sound was founded in 1826 by 
 the government of New South Wales. It was used as a military station for four years. In 
 1830, the home government ordered the settlement to be transferred to Swan River. Since 
 the establishment of steam communication, the little town of Albanj'- here, employed as a 
 coaling station, has become a thriving sea-port. It possesses an excellent harbour, used by 
 whalers. A journal called the Freemantle Gazette was published here in March 183 1. 
 Population of West Australia in 1859, 14,837 ; Dec. 1861, 15,555. Govei-ncr, John Stephen 
 Hampton, appointed 1861. 
 
 WESTERN CHURCH (called also the Latin or Roman) broke off communion with 
 the Greek or Eastern Church, 653. (See Greek Church.) The history of the Western 
 Church is mainly comprised in that of the Popes and of the several European kingdoms. 
 (See Popes.) This church was disturbed by the Arian heresy about 345 and 500 ; and by 
 the Pelagian about 409 ; by the introduction of image-worship about 600 ; by the injunction 
 of the celibacy of the clergy and the rise of the monastic orders about 649 ; by the contests 
 between the emperors and the popes respecting ecclesiastical investitures between 1073 and 
 1 1 73 j ^y the rise and progress of the Reformation in the 15th and i6th centuries ; by 
 the contests between the Jesuits and Jansenists in the 17th and i8th centuries ; and by 
 the progress of modern philosophy and rationalism in the 19th. See Roman Catholics. 
 
 WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire was first divided into Eastern and Western 
 by Diocletian in a.d. 296 ; but was reunited under Constans in 340. It was again divided 
 into Eastern and Western by Valentiuian and Valens, of whom the former had the Western 
 portion, or Rome, properly so called, 364. See Eastern Empire, Italy and Rome. 
 
 RULERS or THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 364. Valentinian, son of Gratian, takes the Western, 
 and his brother Valens the Eastern emphe. 
 
 367. Gratian, a youth, son of Valentinian, made a 
 colleague in the government by his father. 
 
 375. Valentmian If., another son, also very young, 
 is, on the death of his father, assoeiated with 
 his brother in the empire. Gratian is assassi- 
 nated by his general, Andragathius, in 383. 
 Valentinian murdered by one of his officers, 
 Arbogastes, in 392. 
 
 392. Eugenius, a usurper, assumes the imperial 
 dignity ; he and Arbogastes are defeated by 
 Theodosius the Great, who becomes sole 
 emperor. 
 [ \udragathius throws himself into the sea, and 
 Arbogastes dies by his own hand.] 
 
 395. Honorius, son of Theodosius, reigns, on his 
 father's death, in the West, and his brother 
 Arcadius in the East. Honorius dies in 423. 
 [Usurpation of John, the Notary, who is de- 
 feated and slain near Ravenna.] 
 
 425. Valentinian III., son of the empress Placidia, 
 
 daughter of Theodosius the Great : murdered 
 
 at the instance of his successor, 
 455. Maximus : he marries Eudoxia, widow of 
 
 Valentinian, who, to avenge the death of her 
 
 first husband and the guilt of her second, 
 
 invites the African Vandals into Italy, and 
 
 Rome is sacked. Maximus stoned to death. 
 455. Marcus Mseciliiis Avitus : forced to resign, and 
 
 dies in his flight towards the Alps. 
 457. Julius Valerius Majorianus : murdered at the 
 
 instance of his minister, Ricimer, who raises 
 461. Libius Severus to the throne, but holds the 
 
 supreme power. Severus is poisoned by 
 
 Ricimer. 
 465. [Interregnum. Ricimer retains the authority, 
 
 without assuming the title of emperor. J 
 467. Anthemius, chosen by the joint suffrages of the 
 
 senate and army : murdered by Ricimer, 
 
 who dies soon after. 
 
 472. Flavius-Anicius Olybrius : slain by the Goths 
 
 soon after his accession. 
 
 473. Glycerins : forced to abdicate by his successor. 
 
WES 
 
 ■81 
 
 WES 
 
 WESTERN EMPIRE, continued. 
 
 474. Julius Nepos : deposed by his general, Orestes, 
 
 and retires to Salonaj 
 
 475. Romulus (called Augustulus, or Little 
 
 Augustus), son of Orestes. Orestes is slain, 
 and the emperor deposed by 
 
 476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli : takes Rome, 
 assumes the style of king of Italy, and com- 
 pletes the fall of the Western empire. 
 See Ilabj, Rome, and Germany. 
 
 WESTMIISTSTER. A city so called on account of its western situation in respect to 
 St. Paul's cathedral, or from there heing formerly a monastery named East Minster, on the 
 hill now called Great Tower-hill. This city joins London at Temple-bar. Formerly 
 Westminster Avas called Thornej', or Thorney Island : and in ancient times Canute had a 
 palace here, which was bui-nt in 1263. Westminster and London were one mile asunder so 
 late as 1603, when the houses were thatched, and there were mud walls in the Strand. It 
 is said that the great number of Scotsmen who came over after the accession of James I. 
 occasioned the building of Westminster, and united it with London. HoimVs Londinopolis. 
 See Palace of Westminster and Parliament. 
 
 WESTMINSTER ABBEY. The miraculous stories concerning this pile of buildings 
 were questioned by sir Christopher Wren, who was employed to survey the present edifice, 
 and who, upon close examination, found nothing to countenance the belief that it was 
 erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. Historians have fixed the era of the first abbey in 
 the 6th century, and ascribed to Sebert the honour of erecting it. 
 
 The church becoming ruinous was splendidly 
 rebuilt by Edward the Confessor (1055-65) 
 and filled with monks from Exeter. (Pope 
 Nicholas II. constituted it the place for the 
 inauguration of the kings of England.) De- 
 dicated Dec. 28, 1065 
 
 The church once more built in a magnificent 
 and beautiful style by Henry III. about . 1220 
 
 In the reigns of Edward II. Edward III. and 
 Richai-d II. the great cloisters, abbot's house, 
 and the principal monastic buildings, were 
 erected. 
 
 The western parts of the nave and aisles re- 
 built between .... 1340 and 1483 
 
 The west front and the g^reat window were 
 built by the rival princes Richard III. and 
 Henry VII. ; and it was the latter monarch 
 who commenced the beautiful chapel which 
 
 bears his name, the first stone of which was 
 laid ...... Jan. 24, 1502-3 
 
 The abbey dissolved and made a bishopric, 
 1541 ; finally made a collegiate church by 
 Elizabeth 1560 
 
 Made a barrack for soldiers, July 1643. Mer- 
 curius Rusticus. 
 
 The great west window and the western towers 
 rebuilt in the reigns of George I. and II. 1714-60 
 
 The choir injured by fire . . . July g, 1803 
 
 Mr. Wyatt commenced restoring the dilapidated 
 parts at an expense of 42,000?. in . . . 1809 
 
 A fire, without any serious injury April 27, 1829 
 
 The evening services for the working classes, 
 when a sermon was preached by the dean. 
 Dr. Trench, commenced on . . Jan. 3, 1858 
 
 The Sooth anniversary of the foundation cele- 
 brated Dec. 28, 1865 
 
 WESTMINSTER Bishopric and Deanery. At the dissolution of monasteries, West- 
 n^inster abbey was valued at 3977^. per annum ; king Henry VIII. in 1539, erected it into 
 a deanery ; and in 1541 he erected it into a bishopric, and appointed John Thirleby prelate. 
 But he, having wasted the patrimony allotted by the king for the support of the see, was 
 translated to Norwich in 1550, and with him ended the bishopric of Westminster ; Middle- 
 sex was the diocese, being restored to London. The dean continued to preside until the 
 accession of Mary, who restored the abbot ; but Elizabeth displaced the abbot, and erected 
 the abbey into a collegiate church of a dean and twelve prebendaries, as it still continues. 
 On the revival of the order of the Bath, in 1725, the dean of Westminster was appointed 
 dean of that order, which honour has been continued. Dr. Nicholas Wiseman was created 
 archbishop of Westminster by the pope Pius IX. in Sept. 30, 1850. See Papal Aggression. 
 
 WESTMINSTER BRIDGES. The old bridge was accounted one of the most beautiful 
 bridges in the world. It was begun (after a design of M. Labelye), Sept. 13, 1738 ; the 
 first stone was laid Jan. 29, 1738-9; and it was opened for passengers Nov. 17, 1750; cost 
 426,650?. It was built of Portland stone, and crosses the river where the breadth is 1223 
 feet. Owing to the sinking of several of its piers, most of the balustrade on both sides 
 was removed, to relieve the structure of its weight. — By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 46 (Aug. 4, 1853), 
 the estates of its commissioners were transferred to her majesty's commissioners of works, 
 who were empowered to remove the then existing bridge, and build a new bridge (near the 
 old one), which was shortly after begun. The contract required the completion "of the works 
 by June i, 1857. The driving of the first elm pile commenced on July 3, and the driving 
 of the iron piles and plates in September. The works were suspended for a time, in con- 
 squence of the failure of Messrs. Mare the contractors. The government eventually 
 undertook the building, which they entrusted to Mr. Thomas Page, the engineer. One 
 half of the new bridge was opened for use early in i860 ; the whole on May 24, 1862. 
 
WES 782 WHE 
 
 "WESTMINSTER Coxfession of Faith and Catechtsms were drawn up by the 
 " Assembly of Divines," (partly consisting of laymen) who sat by aiithority of parliament in 
 Henry VII. 's chapel, Westminster, from 1643 to 1647. These have ever since been the 
 doctrinal standards of Scotch Presbyterians. 
 
 WESTillNSTER HALL, London. One of the most venerable remains of English 
 architecture, first built by William Eufus in 1097, for a banqueting-hall ; and here in 1099, 
 on his return from Noi'mandy, " he kept his feast of Whitsuntide very royally." The hall 
 became ruinous before the reign of Richard II. who repaired it in 1397, raised the walls, 
 altered the windows, and added a new roof, as well as a stately porch and other buildings. 
 In 1236, Henry III. on New-year's day caused 6000 poor persons to be entertained in this 
 hall, and in the other rooms of his palace, as a celebration of queen Eleanor's coronation ; 
 and here Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, when the number of the guests 
 each day the [feast lasted was 10,000. Stoiv. The courts of law were established hereby 
 king John. Idcvi. Westminster hall was stated, to be the largest room in Europe unsup- 
 ported by pillars ; it is 270 feet in length, 74 feet broad. The hall underwent a general 
 repair in 1802. Concin-rently Avith the erection of the palace of Westminster, many 
 improvements and alterations liave lately been made in this magnificent hall. The Volun- 
 teer Rifle corps were drilled in the hall in the winter of 1859. 
 
 WESTMINSTER PALACE. See under Palace of Wesimmstcr and Parliament. 
 
 WESTMINSTER SCHOOL, London, was foimded by queen Elizabeth in 1560, for the 
 education of foi-ty boys, denominated the Queen's scholars, who are prepared for the 
 univcrsit)^ It is situated within the walls of the abbey, and is separated into two schools 
 or divisions, comprising seven forms or classes. Besides the scholars on the foundation, 
 many of the nobility and gentry send their sons to Westminster for instruction. A proposal 
 in i860 to remove the school was disapproved of in 1861. 
 
 WESTMORELAND. This county and Cumberland were granted as a fief to Malcolm of 
 Scotland by Edward the Elder in 945 ; and resumed by Henry III. in 1237. Neville, earl 
 of Westmoreland, revolted against Elizabeth in 1569, and was attainted in 1570. 
 
 WESTPHALIA (Germany). This duchy belonged in former times to the dukes of 
 Saxony, and afterwards became subject to the archbishop of Cologne. On the secularisation 
 of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt ; and in 1814, was ceded for an equivalent 
 to Prussia. The kingdom of Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of Bonaparte, 
 composed of conquests from Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, Hanovei', and the smaller states to the 
 west of Elbe, was created Dec. i, 1807, and Jerome Bonaparte appointed king. Hanover 
 was annexed to it, March r, 1810. The kingdom of Westphjilia was abolished in 1813, and 
 the countries restored to their former rulers. 
 
 WESTPHALIA, or JMunstee, Peace of, signed at Munster and at Osnaburg, between 
 France, the emperor, and Sweden ; Spain continuing the war against France. By this peace 
 the principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognised ; Alsace given to France, 
 and part of Pomerania and some other districts to Sweden ; the Elector Palatine restored to 
 the Lower Palatinate ; the religious and political rights of the German States established ; 
 and the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by Germany, Oct. 24, 1648. 
 
 WHALE-FISHERY, it is said, was first carried on by the Norwegians so early as 837. 
 Lcnglet. Whales were killed at Newfoundland and Iceland for their oil only till 1578 ; the 
 use of their fins and bones was not 3'et known, consequently (a writer quaintly adds) no 
 stays were worn by the ladies. The English whale-fishing commenced at Spitzbergen in 
 1598; but the Dutch had been prcAdously fi.sliing there. The fishery was much promoted 
 by an act of parliament passed in 1749. From 1800 to 2000 whales have been killed 
 annually on the coast of Greenland, &c. The quantity of whale-oil imported in 1814 was 
 33,567 tuns. The quantity in 1S26, when gas-light became general, was reduced to 25,000 
 tuns ; so that the consumption of oil had become, on this accoimt, greatly diminished. In 
 1840 the quantity was about 22,000 tuns ; in 1850, 21,360 tuns ; in 1861, 19,176 tuns ; in 
 1864, 14,701 tuns. 
 
 WHEAT. The Chinese ascribe to their emperor, Ching-Noung, Avho succeeded Fohi, the 
 art of husbandrj', and method of making bread from wheat, about 2000 years before the 
 Christian era. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the 6th century, by Coll ap Coll 
 Frewi. Roberts. The first wheat imported into England of which we have a note was in 
 1347. Various statutes have regulated the sales of wheat, and restrained its importation, 
 thereby to encourage its being raised at home. Imported into the United Kingdom in 1854, 
 2,656,455 qrs. of wheat, and 6,329,038 cwts. of flour ; in 1861, 6,912,815 qrs of wheat, and 
 
WHE 783 AVHI 
 
 6,152,938 cwts. of flom- ; in 1864, 23,196,714 cwts. of wheat, and 4,975,935 cwts. of flour. 
 See Corn Laws and Bread. In 1862 attention was drawn to the probable utility of con- 
 sidering the pedigree of wheat. 
 
 WHEEL, Breaking on the. A barbarous mode of death, of great antiquitj^, ordered 
 by Francis I. for robbers, 15 15. See Ravaillac, &c. 
 
 WHEEL-WOEK. See Spinning, Looms, Automatons. 
 
 "WHIGS. In the reign of Charles II. the name Whig was a term of reproach given by 
 the court party to their antagonists for holding the principles of the "whigs," or fanatical 
 covenanters in Scotland ; and the name Torij was given to the court party, comparing 
 them to the Tories, or Popish robbers in Ireland. Balcer. This distinction arose out of the 
 discovery of the Meal-tub plot {which see) in 1678. Upon bringing up the Meal plot before 
 parliament, two parties were formed : the ones who doubted the plot styled those who 
 believed in it, Whigs j these styled their adversaries Tories. In time these names, given as 
 marks of opprobrium, became honoured distinctions. Hiome. The "Whigs brought about 
 the revolution of 1688-9, and established the Protestant succession. They were instru- 
 mental in obtaining the abolition of the slave trade and slavery, the repeal of the Test 
 and Corporation act. Catholic emancipation, parliamentary and municipal reform, and the 
 repeal of the Corn laws. The Whig Club was establishedlby Charles James Eox ; oire of its 
 original members was the great Francis, duke of Bedford, who died in 1802. For the 
 principal Whig ministries, see Goclolphin, Halifax, Walpole, Rockingham, Grenville, Grey, 
 Melbourne, Russell, Pahnerston. 
 
 WHISKY, the distilled spirit produced from malt and other corn in Scotland and 
 Ireland, of which about eight millions of gallons have been distilled annually in the former, 
 and upwards of nine millions of gallons in the latter. The duty upon this article has 
 produced an annual revenue of about three millions. The distillation of whisky in these 
 countries is referred to the i6th century ; but some authors state it to have been earlier. 
 See Distillation. In 1855 the duties on spirits distilled in Scotland and Ireland were 
 equalised -Rith those distilled in England. 
 
 WHITE-BAIT DINNER, when the cabinet ministers meet at the end of each session, is 
 said to have begun at the end of the last century, through sir Eobert Preston and sir George 
 Eose inviting Mr. Pitt and his colleagues to dine at Dagenham, and afterwards at Greenwicli. 
 Another account dates the origin in 1721. 
 
 WHITEBOYS, a body of ruffians in Ireland, so called on account of their wearing linen 
 frocks over their coats. They committed dreadful outrages in 1761, but Avere suppressed 
 by a military force and their ringleaders executed in 1762. They rose into insurrection again 
 and were suppressed 1786-7. Whiteboys have appeared at various times since, committing 
 the most frightful crimes. The insurrection act was passed on their account in 1822. 
 
 WHITEFIELD, George, the founder of the " Cahinistic Methodists,^' was the son of an 
 innkeeper at Gloucester, where he received his first education. He was admitted a servitor 
 at Oxford in 1732, and became a companion of the Wesleys there, and aided them in estab- 
 lishing Methodism. He parted from them in 1741, on account of their rejection of the 
 doctrine of election. He was the most eloquent preacher of his day. His first sermon was 
 preached in 1736 ; and he commenced field preaching in 1739. He is said to have delivered 
 18,000 sermons during his career of 34 years. His followers are termed "the countess of 
 Huntingdon's Connection," from his having become her chaplain in 1748. There were 109 
 chapels of this connection in 185 1 ; but many of his followers have joined the Independents. 
 He was born in 1714, and died in 1770. See Tabernacle. 
 
 WHITE FEIARS. See Carmelites. 
 
 WHITE HATS, a party in the Low Countries formed about 1377, against Louis, count 
 of Flanders. The struggle lasted till 1384, when it was settled by Philip, duke of Bur- 
 gundy. 
 
 WHITE SHEEP, a name given to the Turcomans who conquered Persia about 1468 ; 
 and persecuted the Shiites, but were expelled by Ismail, who founded the Sophi dynasty itr 
 1501. 
 
 WHITEHALL (London), built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent, before the middle of 
 the 13th century. It afterwards devolved, by bequest, to the Black Friars of Holborn, who 
 sold it to the archbishop of York, whence it received the name of York-place, and continued 
 to be the town residence of the archbishops till purchased by Henry VIII. of cardinal 
 
AVHI 784 WJG 
 
 "VVolsey, in 1530. At this period it became the residence of the covirt. Queen Elizabeth, 
 who died at llichmond, in 1603, was brought from thence to Whitehall, by water, in a 
 grand procession. It was on this occasion, Camden informs us, that the following quaint 
 panegyric on her majesty was written : 
 
 " The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, At every stroke the oars did t<ars let fall. 
 More clung about the barge : fish under water Wept out their ei/es of pearl, and swam blind after, 
 I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs. Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes ; 
 For howsoe'er thus much my thoughts have scann'd, She had come by water, had she come by land." 
 
 In 1697, Whitehall Avas destroyed by an accidental fire, except the banqueting-house, 
 which had been added to the palace of Whitehall by James I., according to a design of 
 Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of Whitehall, Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649. 
 George I. converted the hall into a chapel 1723-4. The exterior of this edifice underwent 
 repair between 1829 and 1833. 
 
 WHITE HOUSE (Washington), built of freestone, gives name to the United States 
 government, as St. James's palace does to that of Great Britain. 
 
 WHITE PLAINS (N. America), where a battle was fought Oct. 28, 1776, between the 
 revolted Americans and the British forces under sir William Howe. It terminated in the 
 defeat of the Americans, who suffered considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners. 
 
 WHITE TO WEE, the keep or citadel in the Tower of London, a large square, iiTCgular 
 building, erected in 1070, by Gandulph, bishop of Rochester. It measures 116 feet by 96, 
 and is 92 feet in height ; the walls, which are 1 1 feet thick, having a winding staircase con- 
 tinued along two of the sides, like that in Dover castle. It contains the sea armoury, and 
 the volunteer armoury — the latter for 30,000 men. Within this tower is the ancient chapel 
 of St. John, originally used by the English monarchs. The turret at the N.E. angle, the 
 highest of the four by which the White Tower is surmounted, was used for astronomical 
 purposes by Flamsteed previously to the erection of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. 
 
 AVHITSUNTIDE. The festival appointed to commemorate the descent of the Holy 
 Ghost upon the apostles : the newly-baptized persons or catechumens, used to wear white 
 garments on Whitsunday. This feast is moveable, being always exactly seven weeks after 
 Easter. Rogation week {wJiich see) is the week before Whitsunday. Whitsunday in 1866, 
 May 20 ; in 1867, Jime 9 ; in 1868, May 31. 
 
 WHITTINGTON'S CHARITIES. Sir Richard Whittington, a citizen and mercer of 
 London, served the office of lord mayor three times, the last time in 1419. Many stories con- 
 nected with his name are destitute of truth. His munificent charities are little known and 
 seldom praised. He founded his college, dedicated to the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, 
 in 1424 ; and his almshouses in 1429 ; the latter stand on Highgate-hill, near the supposed 
 site of the famous stone which commemorated the legend of his return to London, after 
 leaving it in despair, the church bells chiming him back by the promise of his future 
 greatness. 
 
 WICKLIFFITES, the followers of John Wickliffe (born 1324), a professor of divinity in 
 the university of Oxford and rector of Lutterworth in Leicestershire. He was the father of 
 the Reformation of the English church from popery, being among the first who opposed the 
 authority of the pope, transubstantiation, the celibacy of the clergy, &c. W^ickliffe was 
 protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's son and Richard's uncle, yet virulently persecuted 
 by the church, and rescued from martyrdom- by a paralytic attack, which caused his death, 
 December 31, 1384, in his 60th year. The council of Constance, in 1428, decreed his bones 
 to be disinterred and burnt, which was done by the bishop of Lincoln, and his dust was 
 cast into the river Swift. Wickliffe's English version of the Bible was commenced in 1380 : 
 an edition of it was printed at Oxford in 1850. 
 
 WIDOWS. The Jewish law required a man's brother to marry his widow (1490 B.C.). For 
 the burning of widows in India, see Suttees. Among the numerous associations in London 
 for the relief of widows, are, one for the widows of musicians, instituted in 1738 ; one for 
 widows of naval men, founded in 1739; one for widows of medical men, 1788; a law 
 society, for widows of professional gentlemen, 181 7 ; and a society for artists' widows, 1827. 
 Widowers were taxed in England as follows : a duke, 12I. 10s. ; lower peers, smaller 
 sums ; a common person, is. 7 Will. III. 1695. 
 
 WIG. Se3 Peruke. 
 
WIG 785 WIL 
 
 ^YIOAIS^ (Laiieaaliire). In the civil war tlie kings troops coniuianeU'd by tlie earl of 
 l)erby, were defeated and driven out of the town in 1643 by the parliamentary forces under 
 sir John Snieaton. The earl was again defeated by colonel Ashton, who razed the fortifica- 
 tions of Wigan to the ground, same year ; and once more by a greatly superior force com- 
 manded by colonel Lilburne, 1651. In this last engagement, sir Thomas Tildersley, an 
 ardent royalist, was slain ; a pillar was erected to his memory in 1679. 
 
 WIGHT, Isle of, the Eoman Veda or Vectis, was conquered by Vespasian in the reign 
 of Claudius. It was conquered by the Saxons imder Cerdic about 530 ; in 787 by the 
 Danes ; and in looi, when they held it for several years. It was taken by the French, 
 July 13, 1377, and has several times suffered from invasions by that people. In the year 
 1442, Henry VI. alienated the isle of Wight to Henry de Beauchamp, first premier earl of 
 England and then duke of Warwick, with a precedency of all other dukes but Norfolk, and 
 lastly crowned him king of the Isle of Wight, with his own hands ; but this earl dying 
 without heirs male, his regal title died with him, and the lordship of the isle returned to the 
 crown. Charles I., after his flight from Hampton- court, was a prisoner in Carisbrook castle, 
 in 1647. In the time of Charles II. timber was so plentiful, that it is said a squirrel 
 might have travelled on the tops of the trees for many leagues together ; but it is now 
 much reduced, through supplying the dockyards for the British navy. The queen has a 
 marine residence here called Osborne-house. 
 
 WII.KES' ISTUMBER, 45, from the 45th number of the North Briton, published by Mr. 
 Wilkes, an alderman of London. He commenced a paper warfare against the earl of Bute 
 and his administration, and in this number, printed April 23, 1763, made so free a use of 
 royalty itself that a general warrant was issued against him by the earl of Halifax, then 
 secretary of state, and he was committed to. the Tower, April 30. His warfare not only 
 deprived him of liberty, but exposed him to two duels ; yet he obtained 4000Z. damages and 
 full costs of suit for the illegal seizure of his papers. He was afterwards condemned for 
 libel; but was, however, elected a fifth time for Middlesex in Oct. 1774, and served the 
 office of lord mayor. He was elected chamberlain of London in 1779, and died in 1797. 
 See North Briton, and also Warrants, General. 
 
 WILLS AND Testaments are of very liigli antiquity. See Genesis xlviii. Solon intro- 
 duced them at Athens, 578 B.C. There are many regulations respecting wills in the Koran. 
 Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the first person who introdiiced codicils to wills at Rome, 
 31 B.C. The power of bequeathing lands by the last will and testament of the owner was 
 confirmed to English subjects i Henry I. iioo ; but with great restrictions and limitations 
 respecting the feudal system, which were taken off by the statute of 32 Henry VIII. 1541. 
 BlacJcstonc' s Commentaries. The first will of a sovereign on record is stated (but in 
 error) to be that of Richard II. 1399 ; Edward the Confessor made a will, 1066. Various 
 laws have regulated the wiUs and testaments of British subjects. All previous statutes 
 were repealed by i Vict. c. 26, 1837, and tlie laws with relation to wills thereby amended.* 
 The present Peobate Court {which see) was established in 1857. An office for the reception 
 of the ■rtIIs of living persons was opened in Jan. 1861. See Thellusson^s Will. 
 
 extracts from the last will of napoleon I., EMPEROR OF FRANCE. f 
 
 [He died May 5, 1821, eleven days after lie had signed these documents. The original in French occupies 
 about twenty-six pages in Peignot's "Testamens Remarquables," 1829.] 
 
 This day, April 24, 1821, at Longwood, in the i the services he has performed for me are those of a 
 
 Island of St. Helena. This is my testament, or act 
 
 of my last will : 
 
 " I leave to the comte de Montholon 2,000,000 
 francs, as a proof of my satisfaction for the atten- 
 
 friend. I desire that he may marry a widow, sister, 
 or daughter of an officer or soldier of my old guard. 
 To St. Denis, 100,000 francs. To Novarre, 100,000 
 francs. To Pijeron, 100,000 francs. To Archam- 
 
 tions he has paid to me for these six years, and to , baud, 50,000 francs. To Cuvier, 50,000 francs. To 
 indemnify him for the losses which my residence ! Chandelle, idem. 
 
 in St. Helena has occasioned him. I leave to the \ "To the Abb^ Vignali, 100,000 francs. I desire 
 comte Bei-trand 500,000 francs. I leave to Mar- • that he may build his house near Ponte Novo de 
 chand, my first valet-de-chambre, 400,000 francs ; I Rossino. To the comte Las Casas, 100,000 francs. 
 
 * By this act the testator must be above 21, not a lunatic or idiot, not deaf and dumb, not drunk at 
 the time of signing, not an outlawed or unpardoned felon. All kinds of property may be devised. The 
 wiU must be written legibly and inteUigibly, and signed by the testator, or by his direction, m the pre- 
 sence of two or more witnesses, who also must sign. A married woman may bequeath only her pin- 
 money or separate maintenance, without the consent of her husband. 
 
 t These documents, dated from April 15-24, which had been deposited since 1821 in England, have 
 been, at the request of the French government, given up to the authorities at Paris, to be deposited 
 among the archives of that capital. 
 
 8 E 
 
WIL 
 
 786 
 
 WIN 
 
 WILLS, continued. 
 
 To comte Lavalette, 100,000 francs. To tlie surgeon 
 in chief, LaiTey, 100,000 francs. He is, the most 
 virtuous man I have known. To general Brayer, 
 100,000 francs. 
 
 "To general Lefevi-e Desnouettes, 100,000 francs. 
 To general Drouet, 100,000 francs. To general Cam- 
 bronne, 100,000 francs. To the children of general 
 Muton Duvernais, 100,000 francs. To the children 
 of the brave Labedoyere, 100,000 francs. To the 
 children of general Girard, killed at Ligny, 100,000 
 francs. To the children of general Chartrand, 
 100,000 francs. To the children of the virtuous 
 general Travost, 100,000 francs. To general Lalle- 
 mand, the elder, 100,000 francs. To general Clausel, 
 100,000 francs. To Costa Bastilica, also 100,000 
 francs. To the baron de Menevalle, 100,000 francs. 
 To Arnault, author of Mariiis, 100,000 fi-ancs. 
 
 "To colonel Marbot, 100,000 francs : I request him 
 to continue to write for the defence and glory of the 
 French armies, and to confound the calumniators 
 
 and the apostates. To the Baron Bignon, 100,000 
 francs : I request him to write the history of French 
 Diplomacy from 1792 to 1815. To Poggi de Talaro, 
 100,000 francs. To the surgeon Emmery, 100,000 
 francs. 
 
 " These sums shall be taken from the six millions 
 which I deposited ou leaving Paris in 1815, and from 
 the interest at the rate of 5 per cent, since July 1815 ; 
 the account of which .shall be adjusted with the 
 bankers by the counts Moutholon and Bertrand, and 
 by Marchand. 
 
 "These legacies, in case of death, shall be paid t'> 
 the widows and children, and in their default, shall 
 revert to the capital. I institute the coimts Mon- 
 tholon, Bertrand, and Marchand my testamentary 
 executors. This present testament, written en- 
 tirely by my own hand, is signed and sealed with 
 my arms. 
 
 " NAPOLEON. 
 
 "April 24, 1821, Longwood." 
 
 The following are part of the eight Codicils to the preceding will of the emperor :— 
 
 has been declared innocent. Cantillon had as much 
 
 "On the liquidation of my civil list of Italy — such 
 as money, jewels, plate, linen, coffers, caskets of 
 which the viceroy is the depositary, and which 
 belong to me, I dispose of two millions, which I 
 leave to my most faithful servants. I hope that 
 without their showing any cause, my son Eugene 
 Napoleon will discharge them faithfully. He cannot 
 forget the forty millions which I have given him 
 
 in Italy, or by the right (parage) of his mother's"' double receipt. 1 have cancelled one of these 
 
 inheritance. 
 
 ' ' From the funds remitted in gold to the empress 
 Maria Louisa, my very dear and well-beloved spouse, 
 at Oi-leans, in 1814, there remain due to me two 
 millions, which I di.spose of by the present codicil, 
 in order to recompense my most faithful servants, 
 whom I beside recommend to the protection of my 
 dear Maria Louisa. I leave 200,000 francs to count 
 Montholon, 100,000 francs of which he shall pay into 
 the chest of the treasurer (Las Casas) for the same 
 purpose as the above, to be employed according to 
 my depositions in legacies of conscience. 
 
 " 10,000 francs to the sub-officer Cantillon, who 
 has undergone a prosecution, being accused of a 
 desire to assassinate lord Wellington, of which he 
 
 right to assassinate that oligarch, as the latter had 
 to send me to perish on the rock of St. Helena, &c., 
 &c., &c. 
 
 LETTER TO M. LAFITTE. 
 
 " MoNSiEtiR Lafitte, — I remitted to you in 1815, 
 at the moment of my departure from Paris, a sum 
 of nearly six millions, for which you gave me a 
 
 receipts, and I have charged comte de Montholon to 
 present to you the other receipt, in order that you 
 may, after my death, deliver to him the said sum 
 with interest at the rate of five per cent., from the 
 ist of July, 1 81 5, deducting the payments with 
 which you have been charged in virtue of my 
 order. I have also remitted to you a box containing 
 my medallion. I beg you will deliver it to comte 
 Montholon. 
 
 " This letter having no other object, I pray God, 
 Monsieur Lafitte, that He may have you in His holj- 
 and worthy keeping. 
 
 " NAPOLEON. 
 
 "Longwood, in the island of St. Helena, April 25, 
 1821." 
 
 WILMINGTON ADMINISTRATION. Feb. 1742. 
 
 Earl of Wilmmgton, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 Lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 
 
 Earl of Harrington, president oftJie council. 
 
 Earl Gower, lord privy seal. 
 
 Mr. Sandys, chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Lord Carteret and the duke of Newcastle, secretaries 
 
 of state. 
 Earl of Winchilsea, first lord of the admiralty. 
 
 Duke of Argyll, cnriimccnder of the forces and master 
 general of the ordnance. 
 
 Mr. Henry PeDaam, poymastei' of the forces. 
 
 With several of the hoiisehold lords. 
 [On lord Wilmington's death, July 26, 1743, Mr. 
 Pelham became ijrime minister ; and in Nov. 
 1744, he formed the "Broad-bottom" administra- 
 tion. See Pelhavi.] 
 
 WINCHESTER (Hampshire), a most ancient city, whose erection may reasonably be 
 ascribed to the Celtic Britou.s, though the alleged date of its foundation, 892 b.o. i.s 
 manifestly unworthy of attention. It became the capital of the West Saxon kingdom under 
 Cerdic, 530 a.d. ; was the residence of Alfred 879-901 ; and under the rule of Eo-bert, wa-: 
 the metropolis of England. In the reign of William I., though Winchester was still a royal 
 residence, London began to rival it, and acquire the pre-eminence ; and the destruction of 
 religious houses by Henry VIII. almost ruined it. Several kings resided at Winchester 
 and many parliaments were held there. Memorials of its ancient superiority exist in tb- 
 national denomination of measures of quantity, as Winchester ell, Winchester bushel, &p 
 the use of which has but recently been replaced by imperial measures. The bishopric is oi' 
 great antiquity. The cathedral church was fiist founded and endowed by KingU or 
 Kenegilsus, the first Christian king of the West Saxons. The church first built becomiii'^- 
 ruinous, the present fobric was begun by Walkin, the 34th bishop, 1073 ; but not finishoil 
 till the time of William of Wykeham. who founded the college about 1373. The churcli 
 was first dedicated to St. Amphibalus, then to St. Peter, and afterwards to St. Swithin, once 
 
,WIK 
 
 787 
 
 wm 
 
 bishop here. St, Birine was the first bishop of the West Saxons, 635. The see is vahxed iri 
 the king's books at 3,793^. 4s. zd. annually. Present income, 10,500?, 
 
 BECENT BISHOPS OF WINCHESTEB, 
 Prelates of the Order of the Garter. 
 I 1827, 
 
 1781. Brownlow North, died July 12, 1820. 
 1820. George Pretyman Tomhne, died 1827. 
 
 Charles Richard Sumner (present bishop, 
 1865), 
 
 WHsTDING-UP ACTS (to facilitate the winding up the affairs of joint-stock companies 
 which are imable to meet their engagements) were passed in 1848, 1857, and 1862. 
 
 "WINDMILLS are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to be of Eoman 
 invention ; but certainly we are indebted for the windmill to the Saracens. They are said 
 to have been originally introduced into Europe bj' the knights of St. John, who took the 
 hint from what they had seen in. the crusades. Baker. Windmills were first known in 
 Spain, France, and Germany, in 1299. Anderson. Wind saw-mills were invented by a 
 Dutchman, in 1633, when one was erected near the Strand, in London. 
 
 WINDOWS. See Glass. There were windows in Pompeii, A.D. 79, as is evident from 
 its ruins. It is certain that windows of some kind were glazed so early as the 3rd century, 
 if not before, though the fashion was not introduced until it was clone by Bennet, 633, 
 Windows of glass were used in private houses, but the glass was imported, 11 77. Anderson. 
 In England, in 1 851, about 6000 houses had fifty windows and upwards in each; about 
 275,000 had ten windows and upwards ; and 725,000 had seven windows, or less than seven. 
 
 Window-tax first enacted in order to defray the 
 expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of 
 gold 169s 
 
 The tax increased, Feb. s, 1746-7 ; again in 1778 ; 
 and again on the commutation-tax for tea, 
 
 Oct. I, 1784 
 
 The tax again increased in . 1797, 1802, and 1808 
 
 Reduced 1823 
 
 The revenue derived from windows was in 1840 
 
 about a million and a-quarter sterling ; and 
 
 in 1850 (to April 5), 1,832,684^. 
 The tax rejoealed by act 14 & 15 Vict. c. 36 
 
 (which act imposed a duty upon inhabited 
 
 houses in lieu thereof) . . July 24, 1851 
 
 WINDSOR CASTLE (Berkshire),* a residence of the British sovereigns, begun by 
 William the Conqueror, and enlarged by Henry I. about mo. Edward III., who was born 
 here, caused the old building, with the exception of three towers at the west end, to be 
 taken down, and re-erected the whole castle, under the direction of William of Wykeham, 
 1356, and built St. George's chapel. He assessed every county in England to send him 
 workmen. James I. of Scotland was imprisoned here 1406-23. Several additions were 
 made by Henry VIII. Elizabeth made the grand north terrace ; and Charles II. repaired 
 and beautified it, 1680. Camden ; Mortimer. The chapel was repaired and opened, Oct. 
 1790. The castle was repaired and enlarged, 1824-8 ; and George IV. took possession of it, 
 Dec. 8, 1828. Our sovereigns have here entertained many royal personages : as the 
 emperor and empress of the Erench, in April 1855. A serioirs fire occurred at the castle, in 
 the prince of Wales's tower, owing to some defect in the heating apparatus, March 19, 1853. 
 
 WINE. "Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of the wine," 2347 B.C. {Gen. ix. 20). 
 See Yine. Chiiig-Noung, emperor of China, is said to have made rice wine, 1998 B.C. The 
 art of making wine is said to have been brought from India by Bacchus. Christ changed 
 water into wine at the marriage in Cana of Galilee, A.d. 30. John ii. 3, 10. Wine was sold 
 in England by apothecaries as a cordial in 1300, and so continued for some time after, 
 although there is mention of "wine for the king" so early as 1249. lu 1400, the price Wds 
 twelve shillings the pipe. A hundred and fifty butts and pipes condemned, for being 
 adulterated, to be staved and emptied into the channels of the streets, by Rainwell, mayor 
 of London, 1427. Btows Chron. The first importation of claret wine into Ireland was on 
 June 17, 1490. The first act for licensing sellers of wine in England passed April 21^, 1661. 
 Wine duties to be zs. gd. per gallon on Cape wine, and 5s. 6d. on all other wines, 1831. In 
 
 * Windsor Forest, situated to the south and west of the town of Windsor, was formerly 120 rniles in 
 circumference ; in 1607, it was 77I miles round, but it has since been reduced in its bounds to about ^6 
 miles. It was surveyed in 1789, and found to contain 59,600 acres. Virginia Water and the plantations 
 about it were taken ovit of the forest. The marshes were drained and the trees planted for Wilham^ duke 
 of Cumberland, about 1746 ; and much was done by George IV., who often resided at the lodge. On Ibe 
 south side is Windsor Great Park, which was fourteen miles in circumference, but it has been mucJi 
 enlarged by the Inclosure act ; it contains about 3,800 acres. The Little Park, on the north and east sic es 
 of the castle, contains about 500 acres. The gardens are elegant, and have been considerably improved by 
 the addition of the house and gardens of the duke of St. Alban's, purchased by the crown. 
 
 3 E 2 
 
^vl^ 
 
 r.'^s 
 
 WIT 
 
 1856, the customs duties on wines produced 2,073,694/.; in 1858, 1,721,742?.; in 1859 
 1,982,302?.; in 1863, 1,212,971?. By the French treaty of commerce about i860, the duty 
 on wines was much reduced. Wine licences are granted to refreshment houses by an act 
 passed in i860. 
 
 IMPORTATTOX OF WINE OF ALL KIXDS INTO THE UNITED KINGDO.M. 
 
 1854 10,875,855 gallons. 
 
 1857 10,336,48s „ 
 
 1859 8,195,513 ,, 
 
 I86I 11,052,436 ,, 
 
 1864 15,451,622 ,, 
 
 1800 3,307,460 gallons. 
 
 1815 4,306,528 „ 
 
 1830 6.879,558 
 
 1839 9,909,056 ,, 
 
 184s 8,469,776 „ 
 
 1850 9,304,312 „ I 
 
 WINTER. See Frosts. 
 
 WIRE. The invention of drawing wire * is ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, about 
 1410. Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nuremberg in 1563. The first wire-mill in 
 England was erected at Mortlake in 1663, Mortimer, 
 
 WIRTEMBERG. See Wurtembcrg. 
 
 WISCONSIN, a N. W. state of N. America, was organised as a territory in 1836 ; and 
 received into the Union, May 29, 1848. 
 
 AVITCHCRAFT. The punishment of witchcraft was commanded in the Jewish law 
 (Exodus xxii. 18) 1491 n.c, " Thou .shalt not suffer a witch to live." Saul, after banishing 
 or condemning witchcraft, incurred the wrath of God by consulting the witch of Endor, 
 1056 B.C. (i Smn. xxviii.) Bishop Hutchinson's important historical "Essay on Witch- 
 craft" was published in 17 18. The church of Rome subjected persons suspected of the 
 crime to the most cruel torments ; and pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull against witchcraft 
 in 1484. Thousands of victims, often innocent, were burned alive, while others were killed 
 by the tests applied. 
 
 Joan of Arc was burnt at Rlieims as a witch, Slay 
 30, 1431. 
 
 About five hinidred witches were burnt in Geneva, 
 in three months, 1515. 
 
 One thousand were burnt in the diocese of Como in 
 a year, about 1524. 
 
 An incredible number in France, about 1520, when 
 one sorcerer confessed to halving 1200 associates. 
 
 Nine hundi-ed were burnt in Lorraine between 1580 
 and 1595. 
 
 One hundred and fifty-seven were burnt at Wurtz- 
 burg between 1627 and 1629, old and young, 
 clerical, learned, and ignorant. 
 
 At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four years, out 
 of a population of 600 ; and more than 100,000 
 perished, mostly by the flames, hi Germany. 
 
 Grandier, the parish priest .at Loudon, was burnt on 
 a charge of having bewitched a whole convent of 
 nuns, 1634. 
 
 In Bretagne, twenty poor women were put to death 
 as witches, 1654. 
 
 Disturbances commenced on charges of witchcraft in 
 America, at Massachusetts, 1648-9; and persecu- 
 tions raged dreadfully in Pennsylvania in 1683. 
 
 At Salem, in New England, nineteen persons were 
 hanged (by the Puritans) for witchcraft, eiglit 
 more were condemned, and fifty confessed them- 
 selves to be witches and were pardoned, 1692. 
 
 Jfaria Renata was burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. 
 
 At Ivalisk, in Poland, nine old women were charged 
 
 with having bewitched and rendered unfruitful 
 the lands belonging to th.at pal.atin.ate, and were 
 burnt, Jan. 17, 1775. 
 Five women were condemned to death by the 
 Brahmins, at Patna, for sorcery, "and executed, 
 Dec. 15, 1802. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT IN ENGLAND. 
 
 Severe laws were in force against them in these 
 countries in former times, by which death was the 
 punishment, and thovisauds of persons sviffered 
 both by the public executioner and the hands of 
 the jjeople. 
 
 A statute was enacted declaring .all witchcraft and 
 sorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy, 
 33 Hen. VIII. 1 541. Again, 5 Eliz. 1562, and 
 I. James, 1603. 
 
 The 73rd canon of the church prohibits the clergy 
 from casting out devils, 1603. 
 
 Barrington estimates the judicial murders for witch- 
 craft in England in 200 years at 30,000. 
 
 Matthew Hopkins, the " wUch-findtr," causes the 
 judicial murder of aboxit 100 persons in Essex, 
 Norfolk, and Suffolk, 1645-7. 
 
 Sir Matthew Plale burnt two persons for witchcraft 
 in 1664. 
 
 Northamptonshire and Huntingdon preserved the 
 superstition about witchcraft later than any other 
 counties. 
 
 * The astonishing ductility which is one of the distinguishing qualities of gold, is no way more con- 
 spicuous than in gilt wire. A cylinder of 48 ounces of silver, covered with a coat of gold wcighu)g only 
 one ounce, is usually drawn into a wire, two yards of which only weigh one grain ; so that 98 yards of the 
 wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one single grain of gold covers the whole 98 yards ; and the 
 thousandth part of a grain is above one-eighth of an inch long. Halley. Eight grains of gold, covering a 
 cylinder of silver, are commonly drawn into a wire 13,000 feet long ; yet so perfectly does it cover the 
 .silver, tbat even a microscope does not discover any appearance of the silver underneath. Boyle. 
 
WIT 
 
 789 
 
 WOO 
 
 WITCHCEAFT, continued. 
 
 Seventeen or eighteen persons burnt at St. Osyths, 
 in Essex, about 1676. 
 
 Two pretended witches were executed at Noi-th- 
 ampton in 1705, and five others seven years after- 
 wards. 
 
 In 1716, Mrs. Hicks, and her daughter, aged nine, 
 were hanged at Huntingdon. 
 
 In Scotland, thoiisands of persons were burnt in 
 the period of abovit a hvmdred years. Among the 
 victims were persons of the highest rank, while 
 all orders in the state concurred. James I. even 
 caused a whole assize to be prosecuted for an 
 
 acquittal. The king published his Scemonologia in 
 Edinburgh, 1597. 
 
 The last sufferer in Scotland was at Dornach in 1722. 
 
 The laios against loiichcraft had lain dormant for 
 many years, when an ignorant person, attempting 
 to revive them, by finding a bill against a poor 
 old woman in Surrey for the practice of witchcraft, 
 Vciey were repealed, 10 Geo. II. 1736. 
 
 Credulity in witchcraft still abounds in the country 
 districts of England. On Sept. 4, 1863, a poor old para- 
 lyzed Frenchman died in conseqence of having been 
 ducked as a wizard at Castle Hedingham, Essex. 
 
 WITENA-MOT, or Witena-gemot, the assemMing of the Avise men, the great council of 
 the Anglo-Saxons. A witena-mot was called in Winchester by Egbert, 800, and in London, 
 833, to consult on the proper means to repel the Danes. See Parliament. 
 
 WITEPSK (in Eussia), Avhere a battle was fought between the French under marshal 
 Victor, duke of Belluno, and the Russians commanded by general Wittgenstein. The French 
 were defeated after a desperate engagement, with the loss of 3000 men, Nov. 14, 1812. 
 
 WITNESSES. The evidence of two witnesses required to attaint for high treason, 
 25 Edw. III. 1352. In civil actions between party and party, if a man be subpoenaed as a 
 witness on a trial, he must appear in court on pain oi.iool. to be forfeited to tlie king, and 
 10^., together Avith damages equivalent to the loss sustained by the want of his evidence to 
 the party aggrieved. Lord Ellenborough ruled that uo witness is obliged to answer 
 questions which may tend to degrade himself, Dec. 10, 1802. New act relating to the 
 examination of witnesses passed 13 Geo. III. 1773. Act to enable courts of law to order the 
 examination of witnesses upon interrogations and otherwise, i Will. IV. March 30, 1831. 
 
 WIVES. See Marriage. By the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes act, passed in 1857 
 the condition of married women has been anuch benefited. When ill-used they can obtain a 
 divorce or judicial separation ; and while in the latter state any property they may acquire 
 is secured to them personally, as if unmarried. By another act passed in 1857, they are 
 enabled to dispose of reversionary interests in personal property or estates. 
 
 WIVES' POISON, or Water Tofano. See Poisoning. 
 
 WOLVES were once very numerous in England. Their heads were demanded as a 
 tribute, particularly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, 961, by which step they were 
 said to be totally destroyed. Carte. Edward I. issued his mandate for the destruction of 
 wolves in several counties of England, 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for many 
 centuries after their extirpation in England ; for there are accounts of some being found 
 there so late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing wolves was made in the county 
 of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which kingdom 834 wolves and cubs were killed in 
 1828-9. 
 
 WONDERS OF THE WoKLD. I. The i^yramids of Egypt. 2. The mausoleum or tomb 
 built for Mausolus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his queeu. 3. The temple of Diana, at 
 Ephesus. 4. The walls and hanging-gardens of the city of Babylon. 5. The vast brazen 
 image of the sun at Rhodes, called the Colossus. 6. The ivory and gold statue of Ju})iter 
 Olympus. 7. The pharos or watch-tower, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. 
 See separate articles. 
 
 WOOD-CUTS. See Engraving on Wood. 
 
 WOOD'S HALF-PENCE, for circulation in Ireland and America, were coined by virtue 
 of a patent, passed 1722-3. Against this project. Dr. Jonathan Swift, by his Drapiers 
 letters raised such a spirit against Wood, that he was effectually banished the kingdom. 
 The half-pence were assayed in England by sir Isaac Newton, and proved to be genuine, in 
 1724. 
 
 WOODEN PAVEMENT (expensive and perishable) seemed at one time likely to 
 supersede stone in the principal thoroughfares of London. A wooden pavement was laid 
 down at Whitehall in 1839 ; and in Oxford- street, the Strand, and other streets. It Avas 
 soon taken up as inefiicient. 
 
 WOODSTOCK (Oxfordshire). In Woodstock, now Blenheim-park, originally stood a 
 royal palace, in which king Ethelred held a ijarliament, and Alfred the Great translated 
 Boelius de Consolations PMlosopMce, 888. Henry I, beautified the palace ; and here resided 
 
woo 
 
 790 
 
 WOO 
 
 Rosamond, mistress of Henry II. 1191. In it were born Edmund, second son of Edward I., 
 1301, and Edward, eldest son of Edward III., 1330; and liere the princess Elizabeth was 
 coniined by her sister Mary, 1554.. A splendid mansion, built at the expense of the nation, 
 for the duke of Marlborough, was erected here to commemorate tlie victory lie obtained at 
 Blenheim, in 1704. At that time every trace of the ancient edifice was removed, and two 
 elms were planted on its site. 
 
 WOOL. From the earliest times down to the reign of queen Elizabeth the wool of 
 Great Britain was not only superior to that of Sjuain, but accounted the finest in the 
 universe ; and even in the times of the Romans a manufacture of woollen cloths was 
 established at Winchester for the use of the emperors. Anderson. In later times, wool was 
 manufactiu-ed in England, and is mentioned 1185, but not in any quantity until 1331, when 
 the weaving of it was introduced by John Kemjie and other artizans from Flanders. This 
 was the real origin of our now uurivallcd manufacture, 6 Edw. III. 133 1. Bijmer's FmLera. 
 
 Duties on exported wool wore levied by Edw. I. 1275 
 
 The exi^ortation prohibited 1337 
 
 Staples of wool established in Ireland, at Dub- 
 lin, Waterford, Cork, and Drogheda, 18 
 Edw. Ill 1343 
 
 Sheep were fir.st poraiitted to be sent to Spain, 
 which has since injured our manufacture. 
 Stoto 1467 
 
 First legislative prohibition of the export of 
 wool from Ireland 1521 
 
 The exportation of English wool, and the im- 
 portation of Irish wool into England pro- 
 hibited i6q6 
 
 The export forbidden by act passed . . .1718 
 
 Bill to prevent the running of wool from Ire- 
 land to France 1738 
 
 The duty on wool imported from Ireland taken 
 off 1739 
 
 Wool-combers' act, 35 Geo. Ill 1794 
 
 The non-exportation law was repealed, 5 
 Geo. IV 
 
 In 1851 we imported 83,311,(575 lb. of wool and 
 alpaca; in 1856, 116,211,392 lb.; in 1859, 
 133,284,634 lb. ; in 1861, 147,172,841 lb. ; in 
 1864, 206,473,6451b. 
 
 We imported from Australia, in 1842, 
 12,979,856 lb.; in 1856, 56,052,139 lb.; in 
 1859, 53,700,542 lb. ; in i86i, 68,506,222 lb. ; 
 in 1864, 99,037,459 lb. 
 
 1824 
 
 WOOLLEN" CLOTH. Woollen cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of 
 Julius Csesar, and are familiarly alluded to by him. 
 
 The Jews were forbidden to wear garments of 
 woollen and linen together . . . B.C. 1451 
 
 70 families of cloth-worker.s (from the Nether- 
 lands) settled in England by Edward III. 
 Kymer 1331 
 
 A kind of blankets were fir.st made in England. 
 Camden about 1340 
 
 Woollens made at Kendal 1390 
 
 No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported 
 into England 1463 
 
 The art of dyeing brought to England. See 
 Dyeing 1608 
 
 Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made . 1614 
 
 Manufacture of fine cloth liegan at Sedan, in 
 France, under the patronage of cardinal 
 Mazarine 1646 
 
 Broadcloth first dressed and dyed in England, 
 by Brewer, from the Low Countries . . . 1667 
 
 British and Irish woollens prohibited in France 1677 
 All persons obliged to be buried in woollen, and 
 
 the i)ersons directing the buiial otherwise to 
 
 forfeit 5?., 29 Chas. II. ... 
 
 The manufacture of cloth greatly improved in 
 
 England by Flemi.sh settlers .... 
 Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 11 Will. III. 
 The exportation frona Ireland wholly prohibited, 
 
 except to certain ports of England 
 Englisla manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne, 
 
 1712, and 2 Geo. 1 1715 
 
 Greater in Yorkshire in 1785 than in all England 
 
 at the revohition. Chaliaers 
 Value of woollen manufactures of all kinds 
 
 exported : in 1847. 6,896,038^ ; in 1854, 
 
 9,120,759?. ; in 1861, 11,118,692?. ; in 1864, 
 
 18,566,078?. 
 
 1678 
 
 1701 
 
 WOOL-COMBERS in several parts of England have a procession on Feb. 3, in comme- 
 moration of bishop Blaize, who is reported to have discovered their art. He is said to have 
 visited England ; and St. Bhazy, a village in Cornwall, is celebrated for having been his 
 landing-place. He was bishop of Sebastia, in Armenia, and suffered martyrdom in the 
 Diocletian persecution, 289. 
 
 WOOLSACK, the seat of the lord high chancellor of England in the house of lords, is so 
 called from its being a large square bag of wool, without back or arms, covered with red 
 cloth. AVool was the staple commodity of England in the reign of Edward III. when the 
 woolsack first came into use. 
 
 WOOLWICH (Kent), the most ancient military and naval arsenal in England, and 
 celebrated for its royal dockyard, wliere men-of-war have been built as early as the reign of 
 Henry VIII. is 12, when the Harry Grace de DieU was constructed. Here she also was burnt 
 in 1552. The royal arsenal was formed about 1720, on the site of a rabbit-warren ; it contains 
 vast magazines of great guns, mortars, bombs, powder, and other warlike .stores ; a foundry, 
 with several furnaces, for casting ordnance ; and a laboratory, wliere fireworks, cartridges, 
 grenades, &c., are made for the public service. The Royal Military Academy was erected in 
 
WOR 
 
 791 
 
 WOR 
 
 the royal arsenal, but the institution was not completely formed until 19th Geo. II. I74S' 
 The arsenal, storehouses, &c., burnt, to the value of 200,000?. May 20, 1802. Another great 
 fire occurred June 30, 1805. Fatal explosion of gunpowder, Jan. 20, 1813. The hemp- 
 store burnt down, July 8, 1813. Another exi^losion by gunpowder, June 16, 1814. About 
 10,000 persons are now employed in Woolwich arsenal. 
 
 WORCESTER was successively an important Welsh, Roman, and Saxon town. It was 
 burnt by the Danes 1041, for resisting the tribute called Danegelt. William I. built a castle 
 1090. The city was frequently taken and retaken during the civil wars of the middle ages. 
 —The Bishopric was founded by Ethelred, king of the Mercians, 680, and taken from the 
 see of Lichfield, of which it composed a part. The married priests of the cathedral were 
 displaced, and monks settled in their stead, 964. The church was rebuilt by Wolstan, 
 25th bishop, 1030. The see has yielded to the church of Rome four saints, and to the 
 English nation five lord chancellors and three lord treasurers. It is valued in the king's 
 books at 1049Z. i6s. ^^d. per annum. Present income, 5000?. 
 
 RECENT BISHOPS OF WOEGESTEK. 
 
 1841. Henry Pepys, diedNov. 13, i860. 
 i860. Henry Philpott (peesent bishop). 
 
 1781. Richard Hiu'd, died May 28, 180S. 
 1808. Folliott H. Cornwall, died Sept. s, 1831. 
 1831. Robert James Carr, died April 24, 1841. 
 
 WORCESTER, Battle of, Sept. 3, 165 1, when the Scots army which came to England 
 to reinstate Charles II. was defeated by Cromwell, who called it his crowning mercy. 
 Charles with difficulty escaped to France. More than 2000 of the royalists were slain, and 
 of 8000 prisoners most were sold as slaves to the American colonists. 
 
 WORKIlSrG MEN'S CLUBS may be considered to have begun with the Working Men's 
 Mutual Imju'ovement and Recreation society, established in Lancaster by the instru- 
 mentality of the Rev. H. Soils, in i860. The Westminster Working Men's club, in Duck- 
 lane, originated with Miss Adeline Cooper, and was opened in Dec. i860. The Working 
 Men's Club and Institute Union was established by Lord Brougham and others, June 4, 1862. 
 
 WORKING MEN'S COLLEGES. The first was established in Sheffield, by working- 
 men. The second, in London, bj' the rev. professor Frederic D. Maurice, as principal, 
 in Oct. 1854 ; a third in Cambridge, and, in 1855, a fourth at Oxford; all, wholly for the 
 Avorking classes, and undertaking to impart such knowledge as each man feels he is most in 
 want of. The colleges engage to find a teacher, wherever 10 or 12 members agree to form a 
 class, and also to have lectures given. There were eleven classes at the one in London in 
 1856 ; Mr. Ruskin gave lessons in drawing. These colleges have been found to be self- 
 supporting. 
 
 WORLD. See Creation and Glohe. 
 
 WORMS, a city on the Rhine, in Hesse Darmstadt. Here Charlemagne resided in 
 806 B. c. Several imperial diets have been held at Worms, where was held the imperial diet 
 before which Martin Luther was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he Avas proscribed. 
 Luther was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a league 
 from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, that when Spalatin sent 
 a messenger to Avarn him of his danger, he ansAvered, ' ' If there AA'ere as many deA'ils in 
 Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs of its houses, I would go on." Before the em])eror, 
 the archduke Ferdinand, six electors, twenty-four dukes, seA'-en margraves, thirty bishops and 
 prelates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther appeared, April 17th, 
 in the imperial diet, acknoAvledged all his Avritings and opinions, and left Worms in fact a 
 conqueror. Yet, to save his life, he had to remain in seclusion under the protection of the 
 elector of Saxony for about a year. 
 
 WORSHIP. The first Avorship mentioned is that of Abel, 3872 B.C. Gen. iv. "Men 
 began to call on the name of the Lord," 3769 B.C. Gen. iv. The Jewish order of worship 
 Avas set up by Moses, 1490 B.C. Solomon consecrated the temple, 1004 B.C. _ To the 
 corruptions of the simple Avorship of the patriarchs all the Egyptian and Greek idolatries 
 oAved their origin. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Upper Egypt, is supposed to be the Co2}t 
 of the Egyptians, and the TotJi, or Hermes, of the Greeks, the Mercury of the Latins, and 
 the Teutates of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 b.o. Usher. 
 
 WORSHIP IN England. The Druids were the priests here, at the invasion of the 
 Romans (55 B.C.), Avho eventually introduced Christianity, Avhich Avas almost extirpated by 
 the victorious Saxons (455-820), Avho were pagans. The Roman Catholic form of Christianity 
 
 was introduced by Augustine, 596, and continued till the Reformation, ichichscc. 
 
WOR 
 
 792 
 
 WRE 
 
 WORSHIP, continued. 
 
 PLACES or WOKSHIP IN ENGLA>-D AND WALES IN 1851. 
 
 I'laces of Worship. Sitthgs. 
 
 Church of England . . . 14,077 S>3i7)9i5 | 
 
 Wesleyan Methodists . . . 6,579 2,194.298 
 
 Independents .... 3,244 1,067,760 : 
 
 Baptists 2,789 752,343 I 
 
 Roman Catholics . . . S70 186,111 
 
 Society of Friends . . . 371 91, 559 
 
 Unitarians ... 229 68,554 
 
 Scottish Presbyterians . . . 160 86,692 
 
 Latter-day Saints (Moi~moniti:.i) . 222 30,783 j 
 
 Brethren (Plymotith) . . 132 (?) 18,529 I 
 
 Jews 53 8,438 I 
 
 New Church (Swedenhorgians) . 
 
 Moravians 
 
 Catholic and Apostolic Church \ 
 
 (Irvingites) . . . . ) 
 Greek Chuich .... 
 Countess of Huntingdon's ) 
 
 Connection . . . . J 
 Welsh Calvinistic Methodists . 
 Various ainaU bodies, some ) 
 
 without names . f 
 
 See WesUyan Metliodisis : note. 
 
 orihip. 
 
 Sittivgi. 
 
 50 
 
 12,107 
 
 32 
 
 9,305 
 
 32 
 
 7,437 
 
 3 
 
 291 
 
 109 
 
 3S,2io 
 
 828 
 
 198,242 
 
 546 
 
 105,557 
 
 WORSTED, spun wool, obtained its name from having been first spun at a town called 
 Worsted, in Norfolk, in which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are 
 still extensively carried on, 14 Edw. III. 1340. Anderson. " A Worsted-stocking Knave " 
 is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspere. 
 
 WORTHIES, NINE, a term long ago given to the following eminent men : 
 
 Jiwt. Died. 
 
 Joshua .... B.C. 1426 
 
 David 1015 
 
 Judas Maccabajus . . .161 
 
 Heathfwt. 
 
 Died. 
 
 Hector of Troy 
 
 . B.C. I184 
 
 Alexander the Great . 
 
 • • 323 
 
 Julius Csesar . 
 
 • 44 
 
 Christians. Died. 
 
 King Arthur of Britain . a.d. 542 
 Charlemagne of France . . 814 
 Godfrey of Bouillon . . iioo 
 
 In Shakspcare's Love's Labour's Lost, act v. sc. 2, Hercules and Pompey appear as worthies, 
 
 WOTHLYTYPE. See under Plwtography. 
 
 WOUNDING. Malicious wounding of another was adjudged death by the English 
 statutes. The Coventry act was passed in 1671. See Coventry Act. By lord EUenborougli's 
 act, persons who stab or cut with intent to murder, maim, or disfigure another were 
 declared guilty of felony without benefit of clergy. Those guilty of maliciously shooting at 
 another in any dwelling-house or other place, are also punishable under the same statute in 
 the same degree, 43 Geo. III. 1802. This offence is met by some later statutes, particu- 
 larly the act for consolidating and amending the acts relating to offences against the pei'son, 
 9 Geo. lY. June, 1828. This last act is extended to Ireland by 10 Geo. IV. 1829. An act 
 for the prevention of maliciously shooting, stabbing, &c., in Scotland, 6 Geo. IV. 1825 ; 
 amended by 10 Geo. IV. June 4, 1829. 16 & 17 Vict. c. 30, 1853, was i)assed for the 
 prevention and punishment of assaults on women and children. 
 
 WRECKS. The loss of merchant and other ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and 
 disasters in the open sea, was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365 
 ships a year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyd's Lists, that 677 British vessels were totally 
 lost, under various circumstances in that year. 
 
 British vessels wrecked in 1848, were, sailing vessels, 
 
 501, steamers 13 ; tonnage, 96,920. 
 In 1 85 1 there were wrecked 611 vessels, of which 
 
 number 1 1 were steamers ; the tomiage of the 
 
 whole being 111,976 tuns. 
 The year 1852-3, particularly the winter months 
 
 (Dec. and Jan.), was very remarkable for the 
 number of dreadful shipwrecks and fires at sea ; 
 but a few of them .are recorded. 
 Many vessels were lost in the great stonns Oct. 25, 
 26, 1859, May 28, 1 861, Oct. ig, 20, 1861, and Nov. 
 13, 14, 1862. 
 
 AV1!ECK.S OF VESSELS ON BKITISH COAST.S. 
 
 i'efstls. Lives tost. 
 
 Ves.-tels. 
 
 Lives lost. 
 
 :8s2 .... 1015 .... 920 
 
 1854 .... 897 .. . 
 
 • 1549 
 
 1853 . . . . 832 6S9 
 
 1855 • ... 1141 . 
 
 . . 469 
 
 Vessels wrecked or so ffering Vesitls r :,<(■< ln,i 
 other casualties. totallt/ wrecked. ■^"'" '"*'■ 
 
 Vessels wrecked or suffering Vessels 
 
 Lires lost. 
 
 other casucdties. tutallii wrecked. 
 
 J856 . . 1153 . . — ... 521 
 
 1861 . . 668 . . — 
 
 . . 884 
 
 1857 . . 1143 . . 384 ... 532 
 
 1862 . . 1827 . . 455 . . 
 
 . 690 
 
 1858 . . 869 . . 354 • • -340 
 
 1863 . . 2001 . . 503 
 
 . . 620 
 
 1859 • • M'S • • — ... 1645 
 
 1864* . . 1741 . . 467 . 
 
 . 516 
 
 i860 . . 1379 . . 541 . . . 536 
 
 
 
 3619 lives were saved by the use of rocket apparatus, life-boa»s, ic. 
 
WEE 
 
 r93 
 
 WRE 
 
 WEECKS OF SiiirriNG, cuiULuic.l. 
 
 REMARKABLE CASES OF BRITISH VESSELS WRECKED OR BURNT. 
 
 Mary Hose, 60 guns, going from Portsmovitli 
 to Spithead, upset in a sqnall ; all on board 
 perished July 20, 1545 
 
 Coronation, 90 guns, foundered off the Ram- 
 head ; crew saved : Harwich, 70 guns, wrecked 
 on Mount Edgcumbe ; crew perished, Sept. i, 1691 
 
 Royal Sovereign, 100 guns; burnt in the Medway, 
 
 Jan 29, 1696 
 
 Stirling Castle, 70 guns, Mary, 70 guns, Nor- 
 ihumberland, 70 guns, lost on the Goodwin ; 
 Vanguard, 70 guns, sunk at Chatham ; York; 
 70 guns, lost near Harwich ; all lost but foiu- 
 men; Resolution, 60 guns, coast of Sussex; 
 Newcastle, 60 guns, at Spithead, 193 drowned ; 
 Resei've, 60 guns, at Yarmouth, 173 perished ; 
 in the night of Nov. 26, 1703 
 
 Association, 70 guns, and other vessels, lost 
 with admiral sir C. Shovel, off the Scilly isles 
 {which see) Oct. 22, 1707 
 
 Solebay, 32 guns, lost near Boston neck ; crew 
 pei-ished Dec. 25, 1709 
 
 Edgar, 70 guns, blew up at Spithead ; all on 
 board perished . . . Oct. 15, 1711 
 
 Victory, 100 guns, near the isle of Alderney ; all 
 perished Oct. 5, 1744 
 
 Colchester, 50 guns, lost on Kentish Knock ; 40 
 men perished Sept. 21, „ 
 
 Namur, 74 gims, foundered near Fort St. David, 
 East Indies ; all perished except 26 persons ; 
 Pembroke, 60 guns, near Porto Novo ; 330 of 
 her crew perished . . . April 13, 1749 
 
 Prince George, 80 guns, burnt in lat. 48 N., on 
 her way to Gibraltar ; about 400 perished 
 
 April 13, 175S 
 
 Lichfield, 50 guns, lost on the coast of Barbary; 
 130 of the crew perished . . Nov. 29 ,, 
 
 Tilbury, 60 guns, lost off Louisbourg ; most of 
 the crew jjerished . . . Sept. 25, 1759 
 
 Ramilies, go guns, lost on the Bolt-head ; only 
 26 persons saved ; Conqueror, lost on St. 
 Nicholas's Island, Plymouth . Feb. 15, 1760 
 
 Due d'Aquitaine, 64 guns, and Sunderland, 60 
 guns, lost off Pondicherry ; all perished, 
 
 Jan I, 1 761 
 
 Raisonnable, 64 guns, lost at the attack of Mar- 
 tinique ' Feb. 3, 1762 
 
 Repulse, 32 guns, foundered off Bermuda; crew 
 perished 1775. 
 
 Thunderer, 74 guns; Stirling Castle, 64; Defiance, 
 64 ; Phcenix, 44 ; Za Blanche, 32 ; Laurel, 28 ; 
 Shark, 28; Andromeda., 28; Deal Castle, 24; 
 Penelope, 24; Scarborough, 20; Barbadoes, 14; 
 Cameleon, 14 ; Endeavour, 14; and Victor, 10 
 guns : all lost in the same storm, in the West 
 Indies, in Oct. 1780 
 
 Gen. Barker, Indiaman, off ScheveUng, Feb. 17, 1781 
 
 Groavenor, Indiaman, coast of Caffraria, Aug. 4, 1782 
 
 Sican, sloop of war, off Waterford ; 130 persons 
 drowned Aug. 4, „ 
 
 Royal George, above 600 persons perished, 
 
 Aug. 29, „ 
 
 Centaur, 74 guns, foundered on her passage 
 from Jamaica; capt. Inglefield and 11 of the 
 
 crew saved Sept. 21, ,, 
 
 Ville de Paris, of 104 guns, one of admiral Rod- 
 ney's prizes ; the Glorieux, of 74 guns, lost in 
 the West Indies Oct. 5, ,, 
 
 Su^Krb, 74 guns, wrecked in Tellicherry roads, 
 East Indies Nov. 5, 1783 
 
 Cato, 50 guns, admiral sir Hyde Parker, on the 
 
 Malabar coast ; crew perished . . . ,, 
 Count Belgioioso, Indiaman, off Dublin Bay ; 147 
 
 souls perished .... March 13, ,, 
 
 Menai, ferry-boat, in the Strait ; 60 drowned, 
 
 Dec. 5, 1785 
 Halseicdl, E, Indiaman ; 100 persons perished, 
 
 Jan. 6, 1786 
 
 Hartwell, Indiaman, with immense wealth on 
 
 boai-d May 24, 17S7 
 
 Charlemont Packet, from Holyhead to Dubhn ; 
 
 104 drowned ..... Dec. 22, 1790 
 Pandora, frigate, on a reef; loo souls perished, 
 
 Aug. 28, 1791 
 Union, packet, of Dover, lost otf the port of 
 Calais ; a similar occurrence had not hap- 
 pened for 105 years before . . Jan. 28, 1792 
 Winterton, B. Indiaman: many perLsh, Aug. 20, ,, 
 Impdtueux, 74 guns, bi.u'nt at Portsmouth, 
 
 Aug. 24, ,, 
 Scorpion, 74 gTins, biu-nt at Leghorn. Nov. 20, 1793 
 Ardent, 64 guns, burnt off Corsica . April, 1794 
 
 Boyne, by fire, at Spithead (see Boyne) May 4, 1795 
 Courageux, 74 guns, capt. B. Hallowell, near 
 Gibraltar ; crew, except 124, perished, 
 
 Dec. 18, 1796 
 La Tribune, 36 guns, off Halifax; 300 souls 
 
 perished Nov. 16, 1797 
 
 Resistance, blown up in the Straits of Banca, 
 
 July 24, 1798 
 Royal Charlotte, East Indiaman, blown up at 
 
 Culpee Aug. i, „ 
 
 Proserpine frigate, in the Elbe ; 15 lives lost, 
 
 Feb. I, „ 
 Luline, 36 guns, wrecked off the Vlie island, 
 coast of Holland; only two men saved, 
 
 Oct. 9, 1799 
 Impregnable, 98 guns, wrecked between Lang- 
 stone and Chichester . . . Oct. 19, „ 
 Sceptre, 64 guns, wrecked in Table Bay, Cape o£ 
 
 Good Hope; 291 of the crew perished . . ,, 
 Nassau, 64 guns, on the Haak Bank ; 100 
 
 perished Oct. 25, ,, 
 
 Ethalion, frigate, 38 guns, on the Penmarks 
 
 Dec. 24, ,, 
 Queen, transport, on Ti'efusis Point; 369 souls 
 
 perished Jan. 14, iSoo 
 
 Mastiff, gunbrig, on the Cockle Sands, Jan. 19, ,, 
 iJepMise, 64 guns, off Ushant . . March 10, ,, 
 Queen, W. Indiaman, by fire, off Brazil. July 9, , , 
 Invincible, 74 guns, near Yarmouth ; capt. John 
 Bennie and the crew, except 126 souls, 
 
 perished March 16, 1801 
 
 Margate, Margate-hoy, near Reculver ; 23 per- 
 sons perished Feb. 10, 1S02 
 
 Bangalore, E. Indiaman, Indian Sea, April 12, ,, 
 Active, West Indiaman, in Margate Roads, 
 
 Jan. 10, 1S03 
 Hindostan, Bast Indiaman, went to pieces on 
 
 the Culvers Jan. 11, ,, 
 
 La DeterminSe, 24 guns, in Jersey Roads : many 
 
 drowned Mai-ch 26, ,, 
 
 Resistance, 36 guns, off Cai^e St. Vincent, 
 
 May 31, ,, 
 Lady Hobart, packet, on an island of ice, 
 
 June 28, ,, 
 Seine, frigate, 44 guns, off Schelliug, July 31, ,, 
 Antelope, capt. WUson, off Pellew Islands, 
 
 Aug. 9, „ 
 Victory, Liverpool ship, at Liverpool ; 27 
 
 drowned Sept. 30, ,, 
 
 Circe, frigate, 32 guns, on Yarmouth coast, 
 
 Nov. 16, ,, 
 Nautilus, E. Indiaman, on Ladrones Nov. 18, ,, 
 Fanny, in Chinese Sea; 46 souls perish, 
 
 Nov. 29, ,, 
 Suffisante, sloop of war, 16 gims, off Cork, 
 
 Dec. 25, ,, 
 .4^30 ?io, frigate, on coast of Portugal . April i, 1804 
 Cumberla7id Packet, 01a Antigua coast, Sept. 4, ,, 
 Romney, 50 gvuis, on Haak Bank, Texel, 
 
 Nov. 18, ,, 
 Venerable, 74 guns, at Torbay; lost 8 men, 
 
 Nov. 24, ,, 
 /SwCT'n, on a rock, near GrouviUe, . Dec. 21, ,, 
 
WRE 
 
 794 
 
 WRE 
 
 WRECKS OF Shipping, contimiecl. 
 
 Doris, frigate, on the Diamond Rock, Qiiiberon 
 Bay ...... Jan. 12, 1805 
 
 Abergavenny, East ludiaman, on the Bill of Port- 
 land ; more than 300 persons perish, Feb. 6, ,, 
 
 Naias, transport, on Newfomidland coast, 
 
 Oct. 23, ,, 
 
 JEneas, transport, off Newfoundland : 340 pe- 
 rished Oct. 23, ,, 
 
 Aurora, transport, on the Goodwin Sands ; 300 
 perished Dec. 21, „ 
 
 King Georyc, packet, from Park-gate to Dublin, 
 lost on the Hoyle bank ; 125 persons, pas- 
 sengers and crew, drowned . Sept. 21, 1806 
 
 Athenien, 64 guns, near Tunis; 347 souls 
 pei-ished Oct. 27, ,, 
 
 Glasgow, packet, off Farm Island; several 
 drowned Nov. 17, „ 
 
 FMx, 12 guns, near Santander ; 79 souls lost, 
 
 Jan. 22, 1807 
 
 Menheim, 74 guns, admiral sir T. Troubridge, 
 and Java, 32 guns, foundered near isle of 
 Rodriguez, East Indies . . Feb. i, ,, 
 
 Jjax, 74 guns, by fire, off the island of Teuedos ; 
 250 perished Feb. 14, ,, 
 
 Blanclie, frigate, on the Pi-ench coast ; 45 men 
 perished March 4, „ 
 
 Ganges, East Indiaman, off the Cape of Good 
 Hope May 29, ,, 
 
 Prince of Wales, Park-gate packet, and Rochdale, 
 transport, on Dunleary point, near Dublin ; 
 nearly 300 souls perished . . Nov. icj, ,, 
 
 Boreas, man-of-war, upon the Hannois rock m 
 the Channel Nov. 28, „ 
 
 Anson, 44 guns, wrecked in Mount's Bay ; 60 
 lives lost Dec. 29, „ 
 
 Agatha, near Memel ; lord Royston and others 
 drowned Apiil 7, 1808 
 
 Astrea, frigate, on Anagada coast . May 23, „ 
 
 Frith, passage-boat, in the Frith of Dornoch ; 
 40 persons drowned . . . Aug. 13, 1809 
 
 Foxhound, 18 guns, foundered on passage from 
 Halifax ; crew perLshed . . Aug. 31, ,, 
 
 Sii-ius, 36 g^ms, and Magicleiine, 36 gims, 
 wrecked when advancing to attack the 
 French, off Isle of France . . Aug. 23, 1810 
 
 Satellite, sloop of war, t6 guns, upset, and all on 
 board perished .... Dec. 14, „ 
 
 Minotaiu; of 74 gvms, wrecked on the Haak 
 Bank ; 360 persons perished . . Dec. 22, ,, 
 
 Payulora, sloop-of-war, off Jutland, 30 persons 
 perished Feb. 13, i8ii 
 
 Saldanha, frigate, on the Irish coast; 300 per- 
 sons perished Dec. 4, ,, 
 
 at. George, of 98, and Defence, of 74 guns, and 
 the Hero, stranded on the coast of Jutland, 
 adm. Reynolds and all the crews (about 2000 
 persons) perished except 18 seamen, Deo. 24, ,, 
 
 Manilla, frigate, on the Haak Sand, 12 jjeraons 
 perished Jan. 28, 1812 
 
 British Queen, packet, from Ostend to Margate, 
 vyrecked on the Goodwin Sands, and all on 
 board perished Dec. 17, 1814 
 
 Duchess of Wellington, at Calcutta, by fire, 
 
 Jan. 21, j8i6 
 
 Seahorse, transport, near Tramore Bay ; 365 per- 
 sons, chiefly soldiers of the 59th regiment, 
 and most of the crew, drowned . Jan. 30, ,, 
 
 Lord Melville and Boadicea, transports, with 
 upwards of 200 of the 82nd regiment, with 
 wives and children, lost near Kinsale ; almost 
 all perished Jan. 31, ,, 
 
 Uarpooner, transport, near Newfoundland ; 100 
 persons drowned .... Nov. 10, „ 
 
 William and Mary packet, struck on the 
 WiUeys rocks, near the Holmes lighthouse, 
 English Channel, neai-ly 60 persons perished, 
 
 Oct. 24, 1817 
 
 Q(iee)i Charlotte, East Indiaman, at Madras ; all 
 on board peiished .... Oct. 24, i8i8 
 
 Ariel, iu the Persian Gulf; 79 souls perished, 
 
 March i8, 1820 
 
 Earl of Moira, on the Burbo Bank, near Liver- 
 pool ; 40 drowned .... Aug. 8, 1821 
 
 Blendon Hall, on Inaccessible Island ; many 
 perished July 23, „ 
 
 Juliana, East Indiaman, on the Kentish Knock ; 
 40 drowned Dec. 26, „ 
 
 Thames, Indiaman, off Beachey Head ; several 
 drovnied Feb. 3, 1822 
 
 Drake, 10 guns, near Halifax; several drowned, 
 
 June 20, „ 
 
 Ellesmere, stes.TaiBr ; n per.sons lost . Dec. 14, „ 
 
 Alert, Dubhn and Liverpool packet ; 70 souls 
 perished March 26, 1823 
 
 Robert, from Dublin to Liverpool ; 60 souls 
 perished May 16, ,, 
 
 Fanny, in Jersey Roads; lord Harley and 
 many drowned Jan. i, 1828 
 
 Venii.s, packet, from Waterford to Dublin, near 
 Gorey; 9 persons drowned . . March 19, „ 
 
 Netory, from Newi-y to Quebec, with 360 pas- 
 sengers ; cast away near Bardsy, about 40 
 persons were drowned . . Ajsril 16, 1830 
 
 Lady Sherbrooke, from Londondeiry to Quebec ; 
 lost near Cape Ray; 273 soxils perished; 32 
 only were saved .... Aug. 19, 1831 
 
 Experiment, from HuU to Quebec ; wi-ecked 
 near Calais April 15, 1832 
 
 Earl of Werayss, near Wells, Norfolk : the cabin 
 filled, and 11 ladies and children were 
 drowned ; all on deck escaped . July 13, 1833 
 
 Amphitrite, ship with female convicts to New 
 South Wales ; lost on Boulogne Sands ; out of 
 131 persons, three only were saved Aug. 30, 1833 
 
 United Kingdom, W. Indiaman, with rich cargo ; 
 run down by the Queen of Scotia mI steamer 
 off Northfleet, near Gravesend . Oct. 15, „ 
 
 Waterwitch, steamer, on the coast of Wexford ; 
 4 drowned Dec. 18, ,, 
 
 Lady Munro, from Calcutta to Sydney ; of 90 
 persons on board, not more than 20 were 
 saved Jan. 9, 1834 
 
 Cameleon, cutter ; run down off Dover by the 
 Casio)' frigate ; 13 persons di-owned Aug. 27, ,, 
 
 Kitlarney, steamer, off Cork ; 29 persons pe- 
 rished Jan. 26, 183S 
 
 Forfarshire, steamer, from Hull to Dundee ; 38 
 persons drowned. Owing to the courage of 
 Grace Darling and her father, 15 persons 
 were saved. (See Forfarshire) . . Sept. 6, ,, 
 
 Protector, E. Indiaman ; at Bengal ; of 178 per- 
 sons on board, 170 perished . Nov. 21, ,, 
 
 William Huskisson, steamer, between Dublin 
 and Liverpool ; 93 passengers saved by capt. 
 C\ogg, of the Hiuldersfield . . Jan. 11, 1S40 
 
 Lord. William Bentinck, off Bombay; 58 recruits, 
 20 officers, and 7 passengers perished : the 
 Lord Castlereagh also wrecked ; most of her 
 crew and passengers lost . . June 17, „ 
 
 H.M.S. Fairy, captain Hewitt; sailed from 
 Harwich on a surveying cruise, and was lost 
 next day in a violent gale, off the coast of 
 Norfolk Nov. 13, ,, 
 
 City of Bristol, steam-packet, 35 souls perished, \-, ■ 
 
 Nov. 18, ,, 
 
 Thames, steamer, captain Gray, from Dublin to 
 Liverpool, wrecked off St. Ives ; the captain 
 and 55 persons perished . . Jan. 4, 1841 
 
 Governoi- Fenner, from Liverpool for America ; 
 •run down off Holyhead by the Nottingham 
 steamer out of Dubhn ; 122 persons perished. 
 
 Feb. 19, „ 
 
 Amelia,' from Loudon to Liverpool ; lost on the 
 Heme Sand Feb. 26, ,, 
 
 President, steamer, from New York to Liverpool, 
 with many passengers on board ; sailed on 
 March 11, encountered a terrific storm two 
 
WRE 
 
 795 
 
 WRE 
 
 WRECKS OF Shipping, contimied. 
 
 days afterwards, and has never since been 
 heard of March 13, 1841 
 
 [In this vessel were, Mr. Tyrone Power, the 
 comedian ; a son of the duke of Bichmond, 
 &c.] 
 William Browne, by striking on the ice; 16 
 passengers who had been received into the 
 long boat were thrown overboard by the crew 
 to lighten her .... April 19, „ 
 
 Isabella, from London to Quebec ; struck by an 
 iceberg May 9, „ 
 
 Solway, steamer, on her passage between Belfast 
 and Port Carlisle ; crew saved . Aug. 23, ,, 
 
 Amanda, off Metis : 29 passengers and 12 of the 
 crew lost Sept. 26, ,, 
 
 Ja.mcs Cooke, of Limerick, coming from SUgo to 
 Glasgow Nov. 21, ,, 
 
 Abercrombie Robinson and Waterloo transports, 
 in Table Bay, Cape of Good Hope : of 330 
 persons on board the latter vessel, 189, prin- 
 cipally convicts, perished . . Aug. 28, 1842 
 
 Spitfire, war-steamer, on the coast of Jamaica, 
 
 Sept. 10, ,, 
 
 Reliance, East Indiaman, from China to London, 
 off Merlemont, near Boulogne; of 116 per- 
 sons on board, seven only were saved Nov. 13, ,, 
 
 Hamilton, on the Gunfleet sands, near Har- 
 wich ; II of the crew perished . Nov. 15, ,, 
 
 Conqueror, East Indiaman, homeward bound, 
 near Boulogne ; crew and passengers lost, 
 
 Jan. 13, 1843 
 
 Jessie Logan, East Indiaman, on the Cornish 
 coast ; many lives lost . . Jan. 16, ,, 
 
 Solway, royal mail-steamer, near Coruuna ; 28 
 lives lost, and the mail . . . April 7, ,, 
 
 Catharine, ti-ader, blown v.p off the Isle of Pines : 
 most of the crew were massacred by the 
 natives, or afterwards drowned . April 12, ,, 
 
 Amelia Thompson, near Madras, part of crew 
 saved May 23, ,, 
 
 Albert, troop-ship, from HaUfax, with the 64th 
 regiment on board, which was miraculously 
 saved July 13, ,, 
 
 Pegasus, steam-packet, from Leith ; off the Fern 
 Islands ; of 59 persons, 7 only were saved, 
 
 July 19, „ 
 
 [Mr. Elton, a favourite actor, was among the 
 sufferers.] 
 
 Pkcenix, in a terrific snow-storm, off the coast of 
 Newfoundland ; many lives were lost, Nov. 26, ,, 
 
 ElberfeUlt, iron steam-ship, from Brielle, Feb. 22, 1844 
 
 Manchester, steamer, from Hull to Hamburg, 
 off the Vogel Sands, near Cuxhaven ; about 
 30 lives lost June 16, ,, 
 
 Margaret, Hull and Hamburg steamer; many 
 lives lost Oct. 22, 1845 
 
 Great Britain, iron steam-ship, grounded in 
 Dundruni bay. (See ffrcai .Bri<c(i?i.) Sept. 22, ,, 
 [Recovered by Brunei, (fee, Aug. 27, 1847.] 
 
 John Lloyd, by collision, in the Irish sea ; 
 several lives lost .... Sept. 25, ,, 
 
 Tweed, W. India mail-packet; 72 souls perished, 
 
 Feb. ig, 1847 
 
 Carrick, brig ; a gale in the St. Lawrence ; 170 
 emigrants perished . . . May 19, ,, 
 
 Avenger, H.M. steam-frigate ; off N. coast of 
 Africa ; ofacers and crew (nearly 200) lost, 
 
 Dec. 20, ,, 
 
 Bxmouth, emigrant-ship, from Londondei-ry to 
 Quebec ; of 240 persons on board, nearly all 
 were drowned .... April 28, ,, 
 
 Ocean Monarch (lohich see) . . . Aug. 24, 1848 
 
 Caleb Grimsha.w, emigrant-ship, by fire ; 400 
 persons miraculously escaped . Nov. 12, 1849 
 
 Royal Adelaide, steamer, wrecked on the Tongue 
 Sands, off Margate, above 400 lives lost, 
 
 March 30, 1850 
 
 Orion, steam-ship, off Poi-tpatrick. (See Orion.) 
 
 June 18, 1850 
 
 Rosalind, from Quebec'; a number of the crew 
 drowned Sept. 9, ,, 
 
 Edmund, emigrant-ship, with nearly 200 pas- 
 sengers from Limerick to New York (of 
 wliom more than one-half perished), wrecked 
 off the Western coast of Ireland . Nov. 12, ,, 
 
 Amazon, W. India mail-steamer. (Hee Amazon.) 
 
 Jan. 4, 1852 
 
 Birkenhead, troop-ship, iron paddle-wheeled, 
 and of 556 horse-power, sailed from Queens- 
 town, Jan. 7, 1852, for the Cape, having on 
 board detachments of the 12th Lancers, 2nd, 
 6th, 12th, 43rd, 45th, and 60th Rifles, 7srd, 
 74th, and gist regiments. It struck upon a 
 pointed pinnacle rock off Simon's bay. South 
 Africa, and of 638 persons, only 184 were 
 saved by the boats ; 454 of the crew and 
 soldiers perished .... Feb. 26, „ 
 Victoria, steam-packet. (See Victoria.) Nov. 8,9, ,, 
 
 Lily, stranded and blown up by gunpowder, 
 on the Gulf-of-Man ; by which more than 30 
 persons lost their Uves . . . Dec. 24, ,, 
 
 St. George, steam-ship, bound from Liverpool to 
 New York, with 121 emigrant passengers 
 (chiefly Irish), and a crew consisting of 
 twenty-nine seamen (the captain inclusive), 
 was destroyed by fire at sea. The crew and 
 seventy of the passengers were saved by the 
 American ship Orlando, and conveyed to 
 Havre, in France ; but the remainder, fifty- 
 one souls, are supposed to have perished, 
 
 Dec. 24, „ 
 
 Queen Victoria, steam-ship, bound from Liver- 
 pool, was wrecked off the Bailey lighthouse, 
 near Dublin ; she mistook her course in a 
 snow-storm; 67 lives were lost out of 120, 
 
 Feb. IS, 1853 
 
 Independence, on the coast of Lower California, 
 and which afterwards took fire ; 140 persons 
 were drowned or burnt to death, a few escap- 
 ing, who underwent the most dreadful ad- 
 ditional sufferings on a barren shore, Feb. 16, ,, 
 
 Duke of Sutherland, steamer from London to 
 Aberdeen ; wrecked on the pier at Aberdeen, 
 and the captain (Hoskms) and many of the 
 crew and passengers perished . April 2, ,, 
 
 Rebecca, on west coast of Van Diemen's Land ; 
 capt. Shephard and many lives lost, April 29, ,, 
 
 William muI Mary, an American emigi-ant-ship, 
 near the Bahamas. She struck on a sunken 
 rock; about 170 persons pei-ished Mays, >j 
 
 Aurora, of Hull; sailed from New York, April 
 26, and foundered ; about 25 Uves lost, May 20, ,, 
 
 Bourneuf, Austrahan emigrant vessel. Struck 
 on a reef near Torres Straits. The captain 
 (Bibby) and six hves lost . . Aug. 3, „ 
 
 Annie Jane, of Liverpool, an emigrant vessel, 
 driven on shore on the Barra Islands on west 
 coast of Scotland; about 348 lives lost, 
 
 Sept. 29, „ 
 
 Harwood, brig, by collision with the Trident 
 steamer, near the Mouse light near the Nore ; 
 foundered with six of the crew, who perished, 
 
 Oct. s, „ 
 
 Dalhousie, foundered off Beachey Head. The 
 captain (Butterworth), the passengers, and 
 all the crew (excepting one), about 60 persons 
 in all, perished. The cargo was valued at 
 above ioo,ooof Oct. 19, ,, 
 
 Marshall, screw-steamer, in the North Sea, ran 
 into the barque Woodhouse ; about 48 persons 
 supposed to have perished . . Nov, 28, „ 
 
 Tayleur, emigrant ship, driven on the rocks off 
 Landbay Island, north of Howth ; about 380 
 lives lost Jan. 20, 1854* 
 
 "•'' Arctic, U. S. mail-steamer, by collision in a fog with the Vesta French steamer off Newfoundland ; 
 above 300 lives lost, Sept. 27, 1854. 
 
WRE 
 
 796 
 
 WRE 
 
 WRECKS OF Shipping, continued. 
 Favowite, in the Charmel, on her way from 
 Bremen to Baltimore, came into violent con- 
 tact with the American barque Hesper, off 
 the Start, and immediately went down ; 2or 
 persons were drowned . . April 29, 1854 
 
 iadi/ Nugent, troop-ship, sailed from Madras, 
 May 10, 1854 ; foundered in a hurricane ; 350 
 ranli and file of the Madras light infantry, 
 officers and crew, in all 400 souls, perished. 
 
 May. » 
 
 Forerunner, African mail-steamer, struck on a 
 sunken rock off St. Lorenzo, Madeira, and 
 went down directly afterwards, with the total 
 loss of ship and mails, and 14 lives . Oct. 25, 1854 
 
 mie, iron screw-steamer, struck on the 
 Godevryrock, St. Ives' Bay, and all perished, 
 
 Nov. 30, „ 
 
 City of Glasffow, a Glasgow steamer, with 480 
 persons on board, disappeared in . . . ,, 
 
 In the storm which raged in the Black Sea, 
 Nov. 13 — 16, 1854, eleven transports were 
 wrecked and six disabled. The new steam- 
 ship Prince was lost with 144 lives, and a 
 cargo worth 500,000?. indispensable to the 
 army in the Crimea. The loss of life in the 
 other vessels is estimated at 340 . . . ,, 
 
 George Cajwin (7, Hamburg and New York packet, 
 near the mouth of the Elbe : g6 lives lost, and 
 Staler/, English schooner, near Neuwreek, in 
 a great storm . . . . . Jan. i, 1855 
 
 Mercury, screw-steamer, by collision with a 
 French ship : passengers saved . Jan. 11, ,, 
 
 Janet Boyd, bark, in a stonu off Margate 
 Sands ; 28 lives lost .... Jan. 20, „ 
 
 Will 0' the nifj), screw-steamer, on the Burn 
 Rook, off Lambay; 18 lives lost . Feb. 9, ,, 
 
 Morna, steamer, on rocks near the Isle of Man ; 
 21 lives lo.st Feb. 25, ,, 
 
 John, emigrant vessel, on the Muiicles rocks off 
 Falmouth ; 200 lives lost . . . May i, ,, 
 
 Pacific, ColUns steamer, left Liverpool for New 
 York, with 186 persons on board : never since 
 heard of (supposed to have sti-uck on an ice- 
 berg) Jan. 23, 1856 
 
 Josephine Willis, packet-ship, lost by collision 
 with the screw steamer Mangcrton in the 
 channel ; about 70 lives lost . . Feb. 3, „ 
 
 John RulMge, from Liverpool to New York, 
 ran on an iceberg and was wrecked ; many 
 lives lost Feb. 20, „ 
 
 Miiny vessels and their crows totally lost,* 
 
 Jan. 1-8, 1857 
 
 Violet, royal mail-steamer, lost on the Good- 
 win ; many parsons jjerished . Jan. 5, „ 
 
 Tyne, ro\ al mail-steamer, stranded on her way 
 to Soutl ampton from the Brazils . Jan. 13, ,, 
 
 St. Andi-'v; screw-steamer, totally wrecked 
 near Lalakia; loss about 145,000?. . Jan. 29, ,, 
 
 Ciarlfniagiif, iron clipper, wrecked by the coast 
 of CauUn: passengers saved; loss, about 
 110,000/ March 20, ,, 
 
 H.M.S. J aleigh, sogmis, wrecked on south-east 
 coas< of Macao .... April 14, „ 
 
 Cat'' liie Adamson, Australian vessel, wrecked, 
 1 wenty-five miles from Sydney, 20 lives lost, 
 
 about June 3, ,, 
 
 H.M.S. Transit, wrecked on arecf in the Straits 
 of Banca July 10, „ 
 
 Dunbar, cUpper, wrecked on the rocks near 
 Sydney; 121 persons, and cargo valued at 
 22,000?., lost; one person only saved, who 
 was on the rocks thirty hours . Aug. 20, „ 
 
 Sarah Sands, an iron screw-steamer, sailed 
 from Portsmouth for Calcutta, in Aug. 1857; 
 300 soldiers on bo.ard. On Nov. 11, the cargo 
 (government stores) took fire. By the exer- 
 tions of colonel Moffat and captain Castle, the 
 master of the vessel, who directed the soldiers 
 and the crew, the flames were subdued, 
 although a ban-el of gunpowder exploded 
 during the conflagration. A new danger then 
 arose — the prevalence of a strong gale — water 
 was shipped heavily where the port quarter 
 had been blown out. Nevertheless, after a 
 fearful struggle, the vessel arrived at the 
 Mauritius, Nov. 21, withoutlosing a single life, 
 
 Nov. 11-21, 1857 
 Wiiidsor, emigrant-ship, struck on a reef near 
 the Cape de Verde Islands . . Dee. i, ,, 
 
 Ava, Indian mail-steamer, with ladies and 
 others from Luoknow on board ; wrecked 
 near Ceylon Feb. 16, 1858 
 
 Eastern City, burnt about the equator on her 
 way to Melbourne ; by great exertions all 
 on board were saved . . . Aug. 23, 24, ,, 
 
 Austria, steam emigrant-ship, b\irnt in the 
 middle of the Atlantic. Of 538 persons on 
 board, only sixty-seven were saved. The 
 disaster due to carelessness . Sept. 13, „ 
 
 St. Paul, captain Pennard, from Hong Kong to 
 Sydney, with 327 Chinese emigiants, wrecked 
 on the island of Rossel, Sept. 30, 1858. The 
 captain and 8 of the crew left the island in 
 search of assistance, and were picked up by 
 the Prince of Denmark- schooner. The French 
 steamer Styx was dispatched to the island, 
 and brought away one Chinese, Jan. 25, 1859. 
 All the rest liad been massacred and devoured 
 by the natives ,, 
 
 Czar, steamer, wrecked off the Lizard, four- 
 teen lives lost .... Jan. 23, 1859! 
 
 Eastern Monarch, burnt at Spithead ; out of 500, 
 eight lives lost. The vessel contained invalid 
 soldiers from India, who with the crew, be- 
 haved admirably .... Jime 2, ,, 
 
 Alma, steamer, grounded on a reef near Aden, 
 Red Sea, about 35 miles from Mocha; all per- 
 sons saved; after 3i days' exposure to the 
 sun, without water, they were rescued by 
 H.M.S. Cyclops: sir John Bowring, who was 
 on board, lost valuable papers . June 12, ,, 
 
 Admella, steamer, running between Melbourne 
 and Adelaide, struck on a reef; of about 72 
 persons, only 23 were saved ; many perished 
 through exposure to cold . . Aug. 6, ,, 
 
 Royal Charter, screw-steamer, captain Taylor, 
 totally wrecked off Moelfra, on the Anglesea 
 coast ; 446 lives lost. The vessel contained 
 gold amounting in value to between 700,000?. 
 and 800,000?. ; much of this has been reco- 
 vered .... night of Oct. 25-26, ,, 
 
 Indian, mail-steamer, wrecked off the coast of 
 Newfoundland; out of ij6, 27 lives lost, 
 
 Nov. 21, ,, 
 
 Dlervie Castle, sailed from London Docks for 
 Adelaide ; lost in the Channel and all on 
 board, 57 persons ; last seen on . Dec. 25, ,, 
 
 Northerner steamer, wrecked on a rock near 
 Cajje Mendorino, between San Francisco and 
 Oregon; 38 lives lost . . . Jan. 6, i£Go 
 
 Endymion, sailing-vessel, burnt in the Mersey ; 
 loss above 20,000?. .... J.an 31, „ 
 
 Dreadful gales ; and many wrecks on the coast, t 
 
 Feb. 15-19, ,, 
 
 * A large American vessel. Northern Belle, was wrecked near Broadstairs. The American government 
 sent 21 silver medals and 270?. to be distributed among the heroic boatmen of the place, who saved the 
 crew. Jan. 5 — 6, 1857. 
 
 t Pomona, an American ship, captam Merrihew ; 419 persons on board, from Liverpool to New York, 
 was wrecked on Blaekwater Bank, through the master mistaking the Blackwater for the Tuskar light, 
 only 24 persons saved, night of April 27-28, 1859. 
 
 } American barque Lima, with emignants, wrecked off Barfieur ; above 100 lives lost, Feb. 17, 1S60. On 
 
WRE 
 
 ^yva 
 
 WRECKS OF Shipping, continued. 
 
 OiuUne, steamer;; lostthroiigh collision ■with the 
 Heroine of Bideford, abreast of Beachey Head, 
 the captain and about 50 persons perished, 
 
 Feb. 19, ] 
 
 Ihxngnrian, new mail-steamer, wrecked off 
 coast of Nova Scotia ; all on board (205) lost 
 on the night of . . . . Feb. 19-20,* 
 
 Nhnrod, steamer, wrecked on rocks near St. 
 David's head ; 40 lives lost . . Feb. 28, 
 
 Malabar, iron ship, on her way to China, with 
 lord Elgin and baron Gros ; wrecked off Point 
 de Galle, Ceylon. The ambassadors displayed 
 much heroism ; no lives lost. Of much specie 
 unk, a good deal was recovered . May 22, 
 
 Arctic, Hull steamer, wrecked off Jiitland ; 
 many persons saved by Mr. Barle, who lost his 
 own life while endeavouring to save others, 
 
 Oct. 5, 
 
 ConnaugJit, steamer, burnt ; crew saved through 
 the gallantry of the crew of an American brig. 
 
 Oct. 7, 
 
 Juanita, wrecked through collision with an 
 
 American vessel, Joseph Fish, 13 lives lost, 
 
 March 15, 
 
 Canadian, steamer, struck on a field of ice in 
 the straits of Belle-isle, and foundered in half 
 an hour ; 35 lives lost . . . June 4, 
 
 H.M.S. Conqueror, stranded on Eum Cay, near 
 Bahamas, and lost [the captain and master 
 were censured for neglect of duty] Dec. 29, 
 
 Harmony, lost with all hands off Plymouth, 
 
 Feb. 27, 
 
 Lotus, merchantman, off Chale Bay, in the great 
 storm ; crew all lost except two . Oct. 19, 
 
 Ocean Monarch, 2195 tons, sailed from New York, 
 March 5, laden with provisions ; foundered in 
 a gale March g, 
 
 Upwai'ds of 60 merchantmen lost during gales m 
 
 March, 
 
 Mars, "Waterford steamer, struck on a rock near 
 Milford haven ; about 50 lives lost April i, 
 
 Bencoolen, East Indiaman, 1400 tons ; struck on 
 sands near Bude haven, Cornwall ; about 26 
 lives lost Oct. 19, 
 
 Many vessels lost duruig storm . . Oct. 19, 
 
 Colombo, Bast India naail steamer, in thick 
 weather, wrecked on Minicog Island; 440 
 niiles from Point de Galle, Ceylon ; no lives 
 lost (the crew and passengers taken off by 
 the Ottawa from Bombay, Nov. 30) Nov, 19, 
 
 860 
 
 Lifeguard, .steamer, left Newcastle, with about 
 41 passengers ; never since heard of ; supposed 
 to have foundered off Flamborough head, 
 
 Dec. 20, ] 
 
 Orpheus, H.M.S. steamer, new vessel, 1700 tons; 
 commander Burnett ; wrecked on Manakau 
 bar, "W. coast New Zealand ; 70 persons saved ; 
 about igo perished . . . Feb. 7, y 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, nrail steamer, captain Burgess, in 
 dense fog, wrecked on reef off Cape Race, 
 Newfoundland; about 237, out of 446, lives 
 lost April 27, 
 
 All Serene, Australian ship ; gqje in the Pacific; 
 above 30 lives lost (the survivors suffered much 
 till they reached the Fiji isles in a punt), 
 
 Feb. 21, : 
 
 Many shipwrecks in consequence of the cyclone 
 at Calcutta Oct. s, 
 
 H.M.S. Racehorse, off Chefoo Cape, Chinese 
 coast ; 99 lives lost . . . Nov. 4, 
 
 The Stanley, Frieiulship, &c., in the gale off 
 Tynemoiith; and the Dalhousie, screw 
 steamer, mouth of the Tay; same gale; 34 
 lives lost Nov. 24, 
 
 H. M. S. Bombay ; burnt off Flores Island, near 
 Montendes ; 91 lives lost . . Dec. 14, 
 
 Lelia, cutter ; off Great Ormes head, during a 
 gale ; several lives lost ; 7 persons drowned 
 by upsetting of the life-boat . Jan. 14, : 
 
 Eagle Speed, emigrant vessel, foundered near 
 Calcutta ; 265 coolies drowned ; great cruelty 
 and neglect imputed . . . Aug. 24, 
 
 Duncan Dunbar, wrecked on a reef at Las Rocas, 
 S. America ; no lives lest . . Oct. 7, 
 
 Ibis, steamer, machinery damaged, off Bally- 
 croneen bay ; 15 lives lost ; sailed from Cork, 
 
 Dec. 18, 
 
 Samphire, mail-steamer ; collision with an 
 American barque ; several lives lost, Dec. 13, 
 
 London, steamer, on her way to Melbourne ; 
 foundered in Bay of Biscay ; about 220 persons 
 perished (including capt. Martin, Dr. Woolley, 
 principal of the university of Sydney, G. V, 
 Brooke, the tragedian) ; about the same time 
 the Amalia steamer went down with a cargo 
 worth 2oo,oGoL ; no lives lost . . Jan. 11, 
 
 Many wrecks and much loss of life during 
 gales Jan. 6-1 1 
 
 "WRITING. Pictures were undoubtedly tlie first essay towards writing. The most 
 ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to ns, are upon hard substances, 
 such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, and matters of public notoriety. 
 Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have Avritten a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the 
 author of the hieroglyphics, 2112 B.C. Usher. "Writing is said to have been taught to the 
 Latins by Europa, daitghter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 B.C. Thucydidcs. Cadmus, 
 the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., brought the Phrenician letters into Greece. Vossius. 
 The commandments were written on two tables of stone, 149 1 b.c. Usher. The Greeks 
 and Romans used waxed table-books, and continued the use of them long after papyrus was 
 known. + See Pcqjyrus, Parchment, Paiier. Astle's " History of "Writing" was first pub- 
 lished in 1784. 
 
 the same rook, on Nov. 25, 1120, was wrecked the Blanche Nef, containing the children of Henry I. and 
 a large number of attendants : in all 363 persons perished. 
 
 * Lima, American emigrant vessel, wi-ecked on rocks off Barfleur; about 100 lives lost, Feb. 19, i860. 
 Lady Elgin, an American steamer, sunk through collision with schooner Augusta on lake Michigan ; of 385 
 persons on board, 287 were lost, including Mr. Herbert Ingram, M.P., founder of the " Illustrated London 
 News," and his son : morning of Sept. 8, i860. 
 
 t "I would check the petty vanity of those who sUght good penmanship, as below the notice of a 
 scholar, by reminding them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the clearness and firmness, Mr. Professor 
 Porson by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones by the case and beauty of the characters 
 they respectively employed." — Dr. Parr. 
 
WRO 
 
 XER 
 
 WROXETER, in Shropshire, the Roman city Uriconium. Roman inscriptions, ruins, 
 seals, and coins were found here in 1752. Some new discoveries having been made, a 
 committee for farther investigation met at Shrewsbury on Nov. 11, 1858. Excavations were 
 commenced in Feb. 1859, which were continued till May. Large portions of the old town 
 were discovered ; also specimens of glass and pottery, personal ornaments and toys, house- 
 hold utensils and imi^lements of trade, cinerary urns, and bones of man and of the smaller 
 animals. A committee was formed in London in Aug. 1859, with the view of continuing these 
 investigations, which were resumed in 1861, through the liberality of Beriah Botfield, M.P. 
 
 WURTEMBERG, originally part of Swabia, was made a county in 1297, and a duchy 
 in 1495. The dukes were Protestants until 1772, when the reigning prince became a 
 Roman Catholic. Wurtemberg has been repeatedly traversed by hostile armies, particularly 
 since the revolution of France. Moreau made his celebrated retreat, Oct. 23, 1796. The 
 political constitution is dated Sept. 25, 1819. Population of Wurtemberg in Dec. 1861, 
 1,720,708; of Stuttgardt, the capital, 51,655. 
 
 I49S- 
 
 1496. 
 
 1550. 
 1568. 
 
 1593- 
 
 1628. 
 1674. 
 1677. 
 
 1733- 
 1737- 
 1793- 
 
 DUKES. 
 
 Eberhard I. 
 Eberhard II. 
 Ulrich ; deprived of his states by tlio emperor 
 
 Charles V. ; recovers them in 1534. 
 Christopher the Pacific. 
 Louis. 
 Frederic I. 
 John Frederic ; joined the Protestants in the 
 
 thirty years' war. 
 Eberhard III. 
 William Louis. 
 Eberhard Louis ; served under William III. in 
 
 Ireland ; and with the English armies on 
 
 the continent. 
 Charles Alexander. 
 Charles Eugene. 
 Louis Eugene (joins in the war agamst 
 
 France). 
 
 1795. Frederic Eugene makes peace with France, 
 
 1796. 
 1797. Frederic II. marries the pnncess royal of 
 
 England, May i8 ; made elector of Germany, 
 
 1803 ; acquired additional territories, and 
 
 the title of kuig in 1805. 
 
 KINGS. 
 
 1805. Frederic I. supplies a contingent to Napo- 
 leon's Russian army ; yet joined the allies 
 at Leipsic in 1813. Died in 18 16. 
 
 1816. William I., Oct. 30; son (born Sept. 27, 1781). 
 He abolished serfdom in 1818 ; instituted 
 representative government in 1819 ; entered 
 into a concordat with Rome in 1857; was 
 the oldest hving sovereign, 1862 ; died June 
 25, 1864. 
 
 1864. Charles I., son ; June 25 ; bom March 6, 1823 ; 
 married princess Olga of Russia. 
 
 WURTZBURGr, in Bavaria, was formerly a bishopric, and its sovereign was one of tlie 
 greatest ecclesiastic princes of the empire. It was given as a principality to the elector 
 of Bavaria in 1803 ; and by the treaty of Presburg, in 1805, was ceded to the archduke 
 Ferdinand of Tuscany, whose electoral title was transferred from Salzburg to this place. In 
 1 8 14 this duchy was again transfeiTed to Bavaria, in exchange for the Tyrol, and the arch- 
 duke Ferdinand was reinstated in his Tuscan dominions. Ministers from the second-rate 
 German states met at Wurtzburg to promote union amongst them, Nov. 21 — 27, 1859. 
 
 WURTZCHEN. See Bautzen. 
 
 WYATT'S INSURRECTION. See Rebellions, 1554. 
 
 X. 
 
 XANTHICA, a military festival observed by the Macedonians in the month called 
 Xanthicus (our April), instituted about 392 B.C. 
 
 XANTHUS, in Lycia, Asia Minor, was besieged by the Romans under Bnitus, 42 b. c. 
 After a great struggle, the inhabitants set fire to their city, destroyed their wives and 
 children, and perished. The conqueror wished to spare them, and offered rewai'ds to his 
 soldiers if they brought any of the Xanthians into his presence, but only 150 were saved, 
 Plutarch. 
 
 XENOPHON. See Retreat of the Greeks. 
 
 XERES DE LA Frontera (S.W. Spain), the Asta Regia of the Romans, and the seat of 
 the wine-trade in Spain of which the principal wine is that so well known in England as 
 Sherry, an English corruption of Xeres. The British importations of this wine in 1850 
 reached to 3,826,785 gallons ; and in the year ending Jan. 5, 1852, to 3,904,978 gallons. 
 Xeres is a handsome and large town, of great antiquity. At the battle of Xeres, July 19-26, 
 711, Roderic, the last Gothic sovereign of Spain, was defeated and slain by the Saracens, 
 commanded by Tarik and Muza. 
 
XER 
 
 799 
 
 YEA 
 
 XEEXES' CAMPAIGlSr. Xerxes crossed the Hellespont by a bridge of boats, and 
 entered Greece in the spring of 480 B.C., with an army which, together with the numerous 
 retinue of servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted (according to some 
 historians) to 5,283,220 souls. Herodotus states the armament to have consisted of 3000 
 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry and the mariners and attendants of the camp. 
 This multitude was stopped at Thermopylse {which sec) by the valour of 300 Spartans under 
 Leonidas, Aug. 7-9, 480 B.C. The fleet of Xerxes was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, 
 Oct. 20, 480 B.C. ; and he hastened back to Persia, leaving behind Mardonius, the best of 
 his generals, with an army of 300, 000 men, who was defeated and slain at Plateea, Sept. 22, 
 479, B.C. Xerxes was assassinated by Artabanus, 465 B.C. 
 
 XIMENA (S. Spain), the site of a battle between the Spanish army under the command 
 of general Ballasteros, and the French corps commanded by general Regnier, Sept. lo, iSll. 
 The Spaniards defeated their adversaries j the loss was gi-eat on both sides, 
 
 Y. 
 
 YARD, The precise origin of our yard is uncertain. It is, however, likely that the 
 word is derived from the Saxon gyrd, a rod or shoot, or gyrdan to enclose ; being anciently 
 the circumference of the body, until Henry I. decreed that it should be the length of his 
 arm. See Standard Measures, 
 
 YARMOUTH, Great (ISTorfolk), was a royal demesne in the reign of William I., as 
 appears from Domesday Book. It obtained a charter from John, and one from Henry III. 
 In 1348, a plague here carried off 7000 persons : and that terrible disease did much havoc, 
 again in 1579 and 1664. The theatre was built in 1778; and Nelson's pillar, a fluted 
 column, 140 feet in height, was erected in 1817. The suspension chain bridge over the river 
 Bure was built by Mr. E. Cory, at an expense of about 4,000?. Owing to the weight of a 
 vast number of persons who assembled on this bridge to witness an exhibition on the water, 
 it suddenly gave way, and seventy -nine lives, mostly those of children, were lost, May 3, 
 1845. The railway from London to Norwich was opened in 1844. 
 
 YEAR. The Egyp)tians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the year. 
 
 The Roman year was introduced by Bomulus, 
 
 738 B.C. ; and it was corrected by Numa, 713 B.C., 
 
 and again by Jiilius Caisar, 45 B.C. See Calendar. 
 The solai- or astronomical year was found to comprise 
 
 365 days, s hours, 48 min\ites, 51 seconds, and 6 
 
 decimals, 265 b.c. 
 The lunar year, which comprehends twelve lunar 
 
 months, or 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, was muse 
 
 among the Chaldaeans, Persians, and ancient Jews. 
 
 Once in every three years was added another lunar 
 
 month, so as to make the solar and the lunar year 
 
 nearly agree. But though the months were lunai-, 
 
 the year was solar ; that is, the first month was of 
 
 thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so 
 
 alternately ; and the month added triennially was 
 
 called the second Adar. The Jews afterwards 
 
 followed the Roman manner of computation. 
 The sidereaJ year, or return to the same star, is 365 
 
 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, 11 seconds. 
 The Jews dated the beginning of the sacred year in 
 
 March ; the Athenians in June ; the Macedonians. 
 
 on Sept. 24 ; the Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia 
 
 on Aug. 29 or 30 ; and the Persians and Armenians 
 
 on Aug. 1 1. Nearly all Christian nations now com- 
 mence the year on January i. 
 Charles IX. of France, ui 1564, published an arrit, 
 
 the last article of which ordered the year for the 
 time to come to be constantly and universally 
 begun, and written on and from January i. 
 
 See Neio Style, Platonic Tear, Sabbatical Year, French 
 Revolutionary Calendar.* 
 
 The beginning of the year has been reckoned from 
 the day celebrating the birth of Christ, Dec. 25th ; 
 his ch-cumcision, Jan. i ; his conception, March 
 25 ; and his resurrection, Easter. 
 
 The English began their year on the 25th of Decem- 
 ber, until the time of William the Conqueror. 
 This prince having been crowned on Jan. i, gave 
 occasion to the English to begin their year at that 
 time, to make it agree with the then most remark- 
 able period of their history. Stow. Until the act 
 for altering the style, in 1752 (see Style), the year 
 did not legally and generally commence in Eng- 
 land until March 2sth. In Scotland, at that 
 period, the year began on the ist of January. This 
 difference caused great practical inconveniences ; 
 and January, Februai-y, and part of March some- 
 times bore two dates, as we often find in old re- 
 cords, 1745-1746, or 1745-6, or i74|. Such a reckon- 
 ing often led to chronological mistakes ; for in- 
 stance, we popularly say '"the revolution of 16S8," 
 as that event happened in February 1688, accord- 
 
 * The year in the northern regions of Siberia and Lapland is described in the following calendar, given 
 by a traveller : — "June 22- Snow melts. July x. Snow gone. July g. Fields quite gi-een. July 17. Plants at 
 full growth. July 2$. Plants in flower. Aug. 2. Fruits ripe. Auc/. 10. Plants shed their seed. Aug. iS. 
 Snow." The snow then continues upon the gi-ound for about ten months, from Aug. 18th of one year to 
 June 23rd of the year following, being 309 days out of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of spring, 
 summer, and autumn are together only fifty-six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weekt>' 
 duration in these countries. 
 
YEA 
 
 800 
 
 YEZ 
 
 YEAE, continued. 
 
 ing to the then mode of computation : but if the 
 year were held to beghi, as it does now, on the 
 first of January, it would tae the revolution of 
 1689. 
 
 Year of Our Lord. See Anno Domini. 
 
 Year of the Regn. From the time of William the 
 Conqueror, 1066, the j'ear of the sovereign's reiga 
 has been given to all public instruments. The 
 king's patents, charters, proclamations, and all 
 acts of parliament have since then been generally 
 so dated. The same manner of dating is used in 
 
 most ot the Evn-opean states for all similar docu- 
 ments and records. See List of Kings under 
 England, p. 275. 
 Year and a Day. A space of time in law, that in 
 many cases est.ablishes and fixes a right, as in an 
 estray, on proclamation being made, if the owner 
 does not claim it within the time it is forfeited. 
 The term arose in the Norman law, which enacted 
 that a beast found on another's land if unclaimed 
 for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the 
 soil. It is otherwise a legal space of time. 
 
 YEAR-BOOKS contain reports in Norman -Frencli of cases argued and decided in the 
 courts of common law. The printed ^'olumcs extend from the beginning of the reign of 
 Edward II. to nearlj' the end of the reign of Henr}' VIII., a period of abont 220 years ; but 
 in this series there are many omissions. These books are the first in the long line of legal 
 reports in which England is so rich, and may be considered as, to a great extent, the founda- 
 tion of our unwritten law, ^'Lcxnon scriiJta." In 1863 ci scq. the year-books of 3© & 31 
 Edward I. 1302-3, were edited bj^ Mr. A. J. Horwood, for the series of the Chronicles and 
 Memorials jjublished at the exiieuse of the British government. 
 
 YELLOW FEVER, a dreadful American pestilence, made its appearance at Philadelphia, 
 where it committed great ravages, a.d. 1699. It appeared in several islands of the West 
 Indies in 1732, 1739, and 1745. It raged with unparalleled violence at Philadelphia in 
 Oct. 1762 ; and most awfully at New York in the beginning of August 1791. This fever 
 again spread great devastation at Philadelphia in July 1793 ; carrying off several thousand 
 persons. Hardic. It again appeared in Oct. 1797 ; and spread its ravages over the 
 northern coast of America, Sept. 1798. It re-appeared at Phiiadeljihia in the summer of 
 1802 ; and broke out in Spain, in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was very violent at 
 Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814 ; in the Mauritius, July 1815 ; at Antigiia, in Sept. 1816 ; and 
 it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz, and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. A 
 malignant fever raged at Gibraltar in Sept. 1828, and did not terminate untU the following 
 year. 
 
 YEOMEN OF THE GrARt>, a peculiar body of foot guards to the king's person, instituted 
 at the coronation of Henrj' VII. Oct. 30, 1485, which originally consisted of fifty men under 
 a captain. The}'^ were of a larger stature than other guards, being required to be over 
 six feet in height, and were armed with arquebuses and other arms. The band was increased 
 by Henry's successors to one hundred men, and seventy supernumeraries ; and when one of 
 the hundred died, it was ordered that his place should be supplied out of the seventj*. 
 They were clad after the manner of king Henry VIII. Ashmole's Jiistit. This is said to 
 have been the first permanent military band instituted in England. John, earl of Oxford, 
 was the first captain in i486. Bcatson's Pol. Index. 
 
 YEW-TREE (Taxus). The origin of planting yew-trees in churchyards was (these latter 
 being fenced) to secitre the trees from cattle, and in this manner preserve them for the 
 encouragement of archer}'. A general plantation of them for the use of archers was ordered 
 by Richard III. 1483. Stair's Chron. Near Fountains Abbey, York.shire, were lately 
 seven yew-trees called the Seven Sisters, supposed to have been planted before 1088 ; the 
 circumference of the largest was thirty-four feet seven inches round the trunk. In 1851, a 
 yew-tree was said to be growing in the churchyard of Gresford, North Wales, whose circum- 
 ference was nine yards nine inches, being the largest and oldest yew-tree in the Britisli 
 dominions ; but it is affirmed on traditionary evidence that there are some of these trees in 
 England older than the introduction of Christianity. The old yew-tree mentioned in the 
 survey taken of Richmond palace in 1649, is said to be still existing. 
 
 YEZDEGIRD, OR Persian Era, was formerly universally adopted in Persia, and is still 
 
 used by the Parsees in India, and by the Arabs, in certain computations. This era began 
 on the 26th of June, a.d. 632, when Yezdegird was elected king of Persia. The year con- 
 sisted of 365 daj^s only, and therefore its commencement, like that of the Old Eg3-ptian and 
 Armenian year, anticipated the Julian year by one day in every four years. This difference 
 amounted to nearly 112 days in the year X075, when it was reformed by Jelaledin, who 
 ordered that in future the Persian year should receive an additional day whenever it should 
 appear necessary to postpone the commencement of the following year, that it might occur 
 on the day of the sun's passing the same degi-ec of the ecliptic. 
 
YNG 
 
 801 
 
 YOR 
 
 YNGLINGS (youths, or off-shoots), descendants of the Scandhiavian hero Odin, ruled 
 Stt'eden till 830, when the last of the pontiff kings, Olaf Trretelia, being expelled, lead to 
 the foundation of the ISTorvvegian monarchy. 
 
 YOKE. The yoke is spoken of as a type of servitude throughout. Scripture. The cere- 
 mony of making prisoners pass under it was practised by the Samnites towards the Romans, 
 32i_B.c. See Caudinc Forks. This disgrace was afterwards inflicted by the Romans upon 
 their vanqiiished enemies. Dufresnuy. 
 
 YORK. The Eboracum of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of England. 
 
 306 
 
 . 1050 
 
 Hei-e Severus (a.d. 207), and here also Constan- 
 tine kept courts, and his son Constantine the 
 Great was born, in 274, and proclaimed em- 
 peror A.D. 
 
 .Abbey of St. Mary's, founded by Seward the 
 /• Dane 
 
 York was burnt by the Danes, and all the Nor- 
 ; mans slaijn 1069 
 
 The city and many churches were destroyed by 
 fire June 3, 1137 
 
 York received its charter from Richard II. and 
 the mayor was made a lord . . . . 1389 
 
 The Guildhall erected ...... 1446 
 
 The castle was built by Richard III., 1484, and 
 was rebuilt 1741 
 
 The corporation built a mansion-house for the 
 lord mayor 1728 
 
 The famous York petition to parliament to re- 
 duce the expenditure and redress grievances 
 was gotten up Dec. 1779 
 
 Yorkshire Philosophical Society established , 1S22 
 
 First meeting of the British Association held 
 here Sept. 27, 1831 
 
 Fall of the iron bridge over the Ouse ; five 
 persons killed .... Sept, 27, 1861 
 
 DTJICES OF YORK, 
 
 1385. Edmund Plantagenet (fifth son of king Ed- 
 ward III.); created duke, Aug. 6; died 
 1402. 
 
 1406. Edward (his son), was degraded by Henry IV. 
 in 1399, but restored in 1414; killed at 
 Agincourt, 1415 ; suoopeded by his nephew. 
 
 1415. Richard (son of Richard, earl of Cambridge, 
 who was beheaded for treason in 1415) ; 
 became regent of France in 1435 : quelled 
 the rebellion in Ireland in 1449 ; claimed 
 the throne, and was appointed protector in 
 1454: his ofQoe was annulled, and he b.gan 
 the civil war in 1455, and was slain after his 
 defeat at Wakefield in 1460. 
 
 1460- Edward (his son.) afterwards king Edward IV. 
 
 1474. Richard (his second son\ said to have been 
 murdered in the Tower, 1483. 
 
 1494. Henry Tudor, afterwards Henry VIII. 
 
 1605. Charles Stuart, afterwards Charles I. 
 
 1643. James Stuart (his second son), afterwards 
 James IE. 
 
 1716. Ernest (brother of George I.) ; died 1728. 
 
 1760. Edward (brother of George III.) ; died 1767. 
 
 1784. Frederic (son of George III.), born, Axig. 16, 
 1762 ; marries princess Prederica of Prussia, 
 Sept. 29, 1791 ; commands the British forces 
 at Antwerp, April 8, 1793 ; present at the 
 siege of Valenciennes, May 23 ; defeated at 
 Dunkirk, Sept. 7 ; at Bois-le-Duc, Sept. 14 ; 
 and at Boxtel, Sept. 17 ; appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief, 1798 ; defeated near Alk- 
 maar, Sept. 19 and Oct. 6, 1799; accused by 
 colonel Wardle of abuse of his yjatronage, 
 he resigns, Jan. 27, 1809 ; becomes agaiu 
 commander-in-chief, 1811 ; strongly opposes 
 the Catholic claims, 1825 ; dies Jan. 3, 1827. 
 
 YORK, ARCHBiSHorpjc of. The most ancient metropolitan see in England, being, it 
 is said, so made by king Lucius about 180, when Christianity was first partially established 
 ia England. The bishop Eborins was present at the council of Aries, 314. The see was 
 overturned by the Saxons, was revived by ])ope Gregory on their conversion, and Paulinus 
 was made archbishop about 625. York and Durlmni were long the only two sees in the 
 north of England, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle and Henry VIII. another at 
 Chester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scottish bishops ; but during the time of 
 archbishop JSTevil, 1464, they withdrew their obedience, and had archbishops of their own. 
 Much dispute arose between the two English metropolitans about precedency, as by pope 
 Gregory's institutions it was thought he meant, that whichever of them was first confirmed, 
 should be superior: appeal was made to the court of Rome by both parties, and it was 
 determined in favour of Canterbury. The archbishop of York was allowed to style himself 
 primate of England, while the archbishop of Canterbury styles himself piimate of all 
 England. The province of York now contains the dioceses of York, Carlisle, Chester, 
 Durham, Sodor and Man, Manchester, and Ripon {loMcJi see). York has yielded to tho 
 church of Rome eight saints and three cardinals, and to England twelve lord cliancellors, 
 two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north. It is rated in the king's books, 
 39 Henry VIII. 1546, at 1609?. 19s. 2d. per annum. Beatson. Present income io,oooZ. 
 
 iSoi. Thomas Savage, died Sept. 3, 1507. 
 
 1508. Christopher Bainbrigg, poisoned at Rome, 
 
 July 14, 1514. 
 
 1514. Thomas Wolsey, died Nov. 29, 1530. 
 
 1531. Edward Lee, died Sept. 13, 1544. 
 
 1545. Robert Holgate, deprived March 23, 1554. 
 
 1555. Nicolas Heath, deprived. 
 
 1361. Thomas Young, died June 26, 1568. 
 
 ARCHBISHOPS OF YORK SINCE I50O. 
 
 1570. Edmund Grindal, translated to Canterbury, 
 
 Jan. 10, 1576. 
 
 1577. Edwin Sands or Sandys, died July 10, 1588. 
 
 1589. John Piers, died Sept. 28, 1594. 
 
 1595. Matthew Hutton. died Jan. 16, i6o5 
 
 1606. Tobias Matthew, died March 29, 1628. 
 
 162S. George Mountaigne, died Oct. 24, 1628. 
 
 „ Samuel Hai'snet, died May 25, 1631. 
 
 3 F 
 
YOR 802 ZAM 
 
 YOEK, continued. 
 
 1632. Eichard Neyle, died Oct. 31, 1640. ' 1747. Matthew Hutton, translated to Canterbury, 
 
 1641. John Williams, died March 25, 1650. i March, 1757. 
 
 [See vacant ti7i j/ears.] I 1757. John Gilbert, died 1761. 
 1660. Accepted Frowen, died Jlarch 28, 1664. 1761. Robert Hay Drummond, died Dec. 10, 1776. 
 
 1664. Eichard Sterne, died June 18, 1683. ' 1777. William Markham, died Nov. 3, 1807. 
 
 1683. John Dolben, died April n, 1686. ! 1S08. Edward Venables Vernon, died Nov. 5, 1847. 
 
 [See vacant two years.] j 1847. Thomas Musgrave, died May 4, i860. 
 
 1688. Thomas Lamplough, died May 5, 1691. i£6o. Charles T. Longley, translated to Canterbury, 
 
 1691. John Sharp, died Feb. 2, 1714. | (from Durham), 1862. 
 
 1714. Sir William Dawes, died April 30, 1724. 11862. WiUiam Thomson, translated from Gloucestdii- ' 
 1724. Laxmcelot Blackburn, died March 23, 1743. | pkesent archbishop. 
 
 1743. Thomas Herring, translated to Canterbury, 
 
 Oct. 1747. I 
 
 YOEK MINSTER was erected at different periods, and on the site of former buildings. 
 The first Christian church erected here, which appears to have been preceded by a Roman 
 temple, was built by Edwin, king of Northumbria, of wood, in 625, and of stone about 635. 
 It was damaged by fire in 741, and was rebuilt by archbishop Albert, about 7S0. It was 
 again destroyed by fire in tlie year 1069, and rebuilt by archbishop Thomas. It was once 
 more burnt down in 1137, with St. Mary's Abbey, and 39 parish churches in York. 
 Archbishop Roger began to build the choir in 11 71 ; AValter Gray added the soutli transept 
 in 1227 ; John de Romayne, the treasurer of the cathedral, built the north transept in 1260. 
 His son, the archbishop, laid the foundation of the nave in 1291. In 1330, William de 
 Melton built the two western tow^ers, which were finished by John de Birmiugliam in 1342. 
 Archbishop Thoresby, in 1361, began to rebuild the choir, in accordance Avith the magnifi- 
 cence of the nave, and he also rebuilt the lantern tower. Thus by many hands, and 
 many contributions of multitudes on the promise of indulgences, this magnificent fabric was 
 com]ileted. It was first set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the roof of the choir 
 and its intenial fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829 ; the damage, estimated at 6o,cxx)Z., was 
 rej'aired in 1832. An accidental fire broke out, Avhich in one hour reduced the belfi-y to a 
 shell, destroyed the roof of the nave, and much damaged the edifice, May 20, 1840. 
 
 YORK AND Lancaster, Wars of. See Hoses. 
 
 YORK (Upper Canada), founded in 1794 ; since 1834 named Toronto. In the war 
 between America and Great Britain, the United States' forces made several attacks upon the 
 province of Upper Canada, and succeeded in taking York, the seat of the government, April 
 27, 1813 ; but it was soon afterwards again retaken by the British. 
 
 Y^ORK TOWlSr (Virginia, United States). Lord Cornwallis had taken possession of 
 York town in Aug. 1781 : but after sustaining a disastrous siege, lie Avas obliged to sur- 
 render his arm)', consisting of about 7000 men, to the allied armies of France and . 
 America, under the command of general Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781. 
 This mischance was attributtd to sir Henr}' Clinton, who had not given the garrison the 
 necessary succour they expected ; and it mainly led to the close of the war. It was strongly 
 fortified by the Confederates in the American civil war, but surrendered to M'Clellan', 
 May, 1862. 
 
 YTTRIUM, a rare metal. The earth yttria was discovered by professor Gadolin in a 
 mineral at Ytterby, in Sweden, 179^. The metal was first obtained by Wohler in 1828. It 
 is of a dark gi-ey colour, and brittle. 
 
 YVRES (now Ivky, N.-W. France), where a battle was fought, March 14, 1590, between 
 Henry IV. of France, aided by his chief nobility, and the generals of the Catliolic league, 
 over whom the king obtained a complete victoiy. 
 
 Z. 
 
 ZAMA (near Carthage, K Africa), the scene of the battle between the two greatest 
 commanders in the world at the time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. The victory was won 
 by Scipio, and was decisive of the fate of Carthage ; it led to an ignominious peace the year 
 after, which closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost about 2000 killed and wounded, 
 while the Carthaginians lost in killed and prisoners more than 40,000: some historians 
 make the loss gi-eater ; 202 B. c. 
 
ZAN 803 ZOO 
 
 ZANTE. One of the Ionian islands, ivhicJi sec. 
 
 ZAlSTZALEEISrS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee, 535 ; he taiight that water 
 baptism was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be baptised with fire, by the applica- 
 tion of a red-hot iron. The sect was at one time verj'' numerons. 
 
 ZE, ZOW, ZIERES, For ye, you, and yours. The letter z was retained in Scotland, 
 and was commonly written for the letter y so late as the reign of queen Mary, np to which 
 period many books in the Scottish language were printed in Edinburgh with these words; 
 1543. 
 
 ZELA (N.-E. Asia Minor). Where Julius Ccesar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, 
 son of Mithridates. Cfesar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous dispatch to the 
 senate of Eome, in these words : " Veni, vidi,vici" — "I came, I saw, I conquered" (perhaps 
 the shortest despatch on record). This battle ended the war : Pharnaces escaped into 
 Bosphorus, where he was slain by his lieutenant, Asander ; Pontus was made a Roman 
 province, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 B.C. 
 
 ZELL, Hanover. Sse Denmark, 1772, 
 
 ZEND-AVESTA, ancient sacred books of the Parsees ; of which 3 out of 21 are extant. 
 The age of these books is much disputed. Professor Max Miiller says that the MSS. had 
 been preserved by the Parsee priests at Bombay, where a colony of fire-worshippers had fled 
 in the loth century. Anquetil Duperron's French translation, from a modern Persian 
 version, was published in 1771. 
 
 ZENO, Sect of. See Stoics. 
 
 ZENOBIA, Queen of the East. See Palmyra. 
 
 ZENTA, in Hungary, the scene of a battle wli^re the Germans under prince Eugene, 
 defeated the Turks, Sept. 11, 1697. This victory led to the peace of Corlowitz, ratified, 
 January, 1699. 
 
 ZIKC. The ore of zinc, calamine, was known to the Greeks, who used it in the manu- 
 facture of brass. It is said to have been known in China also, and is noticed by 
 European writers as early as 1231 ; though the method of extracting it from the ore was 
 unknown for nearly five hundred years after. The metal zinc is first mentioned by Para- 
 celsus (who died in 1541). A mine of zinc was discovered on lord Eibblesdale's estate, 
 C!raven, Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London sliortly after the 
 invention of lithography became known in England, in 181 7. See Lithorjraijhy. Zinc is 
 mucli used in voltaic battei-ies ; and its application in manufactures has greatly increased of 
 late years. It is often called Spelter. See Photozincography. 
 
 ZIRCONIUM, the metallic base of the earth Zirconia, which was discovered by Klaproth 
 in 1789 ; from this Berzelius obtained the metal in 1824. Zirconia is found in the sand of 
 the rivers of Ceylon. The metal exists in the form of a black powder. 
 
 ZIZYPHUS VULGARIS. A shrub brought from the south of Europe about 1640. The 
 Zizyphus Paliurus shrub {Christ's Thorn) was bi'ought from Africa before 1596. See 
 Flowers. 
 
 ZODIAC. Its obliquity was discovered, its twelve signs named, and their situations 
 assigned them by Anaximander, about 560 B.C. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the 
 zodiac from the Hindoos. Sir W. Joiies. 
 
 ZOLLVEREIN" (Customs Union), the name given to the German Commercial union, of 
 which Prussia is at the head. It began in 1818, and was gradually joined by nearly all the 
 German states except Austria, and a treaty was signed March 22, 1833, which became tlie 
 basis of the association. On Feb. 19, 1853, an important treaty of commerce and navigation, 
 between Austria and Prussia, to last from Jan. 1854 to Dec. 1865, was signed, to which the 
 other states of the Zollverein gave in their adhesion on April 5, 1853. In Nov. 1861, 
 Prussia threatened to withdraw unless certain changes were made. 
 
 ZOOLOGY (from zoon, Greek for animal) is the division of biology which treats of 
 animals. Aristotle (322-284 B.C.) is the founder of the science. Systems of classification 
 have been made by John Ray (1628-1705), Charles Linnd (1707-78), G. Buffon (1707-88), 
 and George Cuvier (1769-1832).* 
 
 * The animal kingdom was divided, by Linnwus into six classes ; viz. : — Mammalia, which includes all 
 animals that suckle their young ; Aves, birds ; AmxjUilia, or ampliibious animals ; Pisces, fishes ; 
 Iiisecta, insects ; Vermes, worms ; 1741. Cuvier, who died in Paris, May 13, 1832, in his great work, Rei/ne 
 Aniinale, published in 1816, distributed the animals into four great divisions, the Vertebrata (ribbed; • 
 
 3 P 2 
 
zoo 
 
 804 
 
 ZUT 
 
 ZOOLOGY, continued. 
 
 The Zoological Society of London (originally the \ 
 Zoological Club) was founded in 1826, and its gar- 
 dens in the Regent's Park were opened in April, I 
 1827 ; the society was chartered March 27, 1829. ' 
 
 Dr. James Murie was appointed by the society to be ' 
 their first " anatomical prosector," May 3, 1865. f 
 
 On the demolition of Exeter Change, in 1829, the 1 
 
 menagerie of Mr. Cross was temporarily lodged in 
 the King's Mews, whence it was removed to the 
 Surrey Zoological Gardens, 1832. 
 The Zoological Gardens of Dublin were opened, 
 1832. 
 
 See Aquarium, Hippopotamus, Giraffe, and Accli- 
 ■watisation. 
 
 ZORNDORFF, in Prussia, where a battle was fought between the Prussian and Eussian 
 armies ; the former, commanded by the king of Prussia, obtained a victory over the forces of 
 the czarina, whose loss amounted to 21,529 men, while that of the Prussians did not exceed 
 11,000, Aug. 25 and 26, 1758. 
 
 ZOUAYES AND Foot Chasseurs. When the French established a regency at Algiers, 
 in 1830, they hoped to iind the employment of native troops advantageous, and selected the 
 Zooaouas, a congregation of Arab tribes, famous for daring and skilful courage. In time 
 numbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic Frenchmen, joined the regiments, 
 adopting the costume, &c. : eventually the Africans disappeared from the ranks, and no 
 more were added, they having been frequently guilty of treachery. The French Zouaves 
 formed an important part of the army in the Crimean war, 1854-5.* 
 
 ZUINGLIANS, the followers of the reformer Ulricus Zuinglius, who at Zurich, declaimed 
 against the church of Eome, and effected the same separation for Switzerland from the papal 
 dominion, which Luther did for Saxony. He procured two assemblies to be called ; by the 
 first he was authorised to proceed, by the second,, the ceremonies of the Romish church were 
 abolished, 1519. Zuinglius died in arms as a soldier, being slain in a skirmish against his 
 popish opponents in 1531. The Zuinglians were also called Sacramentarians. 
 
 ZULPICH. See TolMac. 
 
 ZUPJCH was admitted a member and made head of the Swiss confederacy, 1351, and 
 was the first town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome. See Zuinglians. 
 A grave-digger at Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their 
 lives and many otliers were grievously injured, Sept. 4, 1776.* The French were defeated here, 
 losing 4000 men, June 5, 1799. The Imperialists wei'e defeated by Massena, the former 
 losing 20,000 men killed and wounded, Sept. 25, 1799. See Sivitzcrland. On June 24, 
 1859, the Austrians were defeated by the allied French and Sardinian army at Solferino. 
 Preliminaries of peace were signed at Villa Franca by the emperors of Austria and France on 
 July 12 following. A conference between tlie representatives of the powers concerned 
 having been appointed, tiie first meeting took place on August 8. After many delays a 
 treaty was signed on Nov. 11, and ratified Nov. 12. Lombardy was ceded to Sardinia ; the 
 formation of an Italian Confederation, under the presidency of the pope, was determined on, 
 and the rights of the ex-sovereigns of Tuscan}', Modena, and Parma were reseiTed. The 
 formation of the kingdom of Italy in 1861 annulled the treaty of Zurich. 
 
 ZUTPHEN, in Holland. At a battle here Sept. 22, 1586, between the Spaniards and the 
 Dutch, the amiable sir Philip Sidney, author of "Arcadia," was killed. He was serving 
 with the English auxiliaries, commanded by the earl of Leicester. 
 
 the MoUusca (soft bodied) ; the Arliculata (jointed) ; and the Jladiata (the organs disposed round a centre). 
 In 1859, professor Owen made known a .system of arranging the class Mammalia according to the nature of 
 their brains. 
 
 - The Zouave organisation and drill were introduced into the federal army in the great civil war in 
 America, by Ephraim E. Ellesworth, early in 1861. He was assassinated on May 24, f.ame year, at 
 Alexandria, just after taking down a secession flag. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 [The references are to articles in the body of the work ; the italics refer to articles in this Index. The year 
 given is A.D. whenB.c. is not mentioned ; two dates, thus, 1508-82, signify the year of the person's 
 birth and death ; 6., born; d., died; jt., flourished; m., murdered; k., killed.] 
 
 Abbas, Persia, 1582 
 Abbot, abp. ; Canterbury, i6n 
 Abbot, Charles; speaker, 1802 
 Abd-el-Kader ; Algiers, 1835 
 Abderahman, I. — V., caliphs, 755 
 
 1023 
 Abdul-Medjid, Turkey, 1839-61 
 Abdul- Aziz, Turkey, 1861 
 Abelard, d. 1142 ; Abelard 
 Abercromby, Jas., speaker, 1835 
 Abercromby, sii- R, 1738-1801 ; 
 
 Trinidad, Alexandria, 
 Aberdeen, earl of, 1 784-1 860; Aber- 
 deen adm. note 
 Abernethy, J., surgeon, 1764-1831 
 Abingdon, earl of; trials, 1794 
 Abinger, Id., att.-gen., 1827 ; ex- 
 chequer 6., 1834 
 Abrantes, duke of; see Junot 
 Absalom killed, 1023 B.C. 
 Abubeker ; Ali, 632 
 Accum, F. ; adulterations, 1822 
 Achilli V. Newman ; trials, 1852-3 
 Achmet ; see Ahtaed 
 Aoilius ; statues, temples 
 Ackermann, B. ; hthography, 1817 
 Acron; aromatics, 473 B.C. 
 Acton, Mrs. ; Royal Inst., 1838 
 Actuarius ; purgatives, 1245 
 Adair, serj. ; Junius, 1769 
 Adalbert, St. ; Prussia, 997 
 Adam; duel, 1779 
 Adam, R. and bros., architects 
 
 1728-92 
 Adams, J. C , mathemat. ; Nep- 
 tune, 184s ; J. (1797) and J. 
 Q. (1825), United States (pre- 
 sidents) 
 Adams v. Dundas ; trials, 1831 
 Adderley, Mr. ; Birmingham, 1856 
 Addington,H., 1757-1844; Addingt. 
 Addison, Joseph, 1672-1719, Spec- 
 tator, 1711 ; Stanhope ad- 
 ministration, 1717 ; allegory, 
 Clio, clubs 
 Adelais ; Adelaide ; England, 
 queens (Hen. I., William IV.) 
 Adeodatus; pope, 672 
 Adolphus, Frederic ; Sweden, 1751 
 Adrian, Rome; emperor, 117; 
 
 edicts, persecutions ; popes 
 iEgeus ; Athens, 1283 B.C. 
 JEgineta, Paulus ; surgery, 640 
 iEgi.sthus ; Mycena;, 1201 B.C. 
 jEmilianus ; Rome, 146 b c. 
 ./tineas; Italy, Alba, 1182 B.C. 
 jEschines, Gk. orator, 389-344 B.C. 
 iEschylus, Greek tragedy, 526-456 
 
 B.C. ; drama 
 iElsculapius ; infirmaries 
 
 iEsop ; fables (about 600 B.C.) 
 Africanus ; see Scipio 
 Agamemnon; Mycense, 1201 B.C. 
 Agathocles ; Carthage, Sicily, Sy- 
 racuse, 317 B.C. 
 Age, pi-oprietor of ; trials, 1844 
 Agesander ; Laocoon 
 Agesilaus; Spai-ta, 398 B.o. 
 Agis ; Sparta, 427 B.C. 
 Agnew, Mr. Vans ; India, 184S 
 Agnodioe; midwifery 
 Agricola ; Britain, 78 ; Lancaster, 
 
 Caledonia, Roman wall 
 Agi'icola, John ; Antinomians 
 Agrippa; Pantheon, 27 B.C. 
 Aholiab ; sculpture 
 Ahmed I.— III. ; Turkey, 1603, 
 
 et seq. 
 Airy, G. B., i. 1801 ; Greenwich, 
 
 183s ; pendulum, standard 
 Aislabie, Mr. ; Sunderland admi- 
 nistration, 1718 ; South Sea 
 Akbar, India ; 1556 
 Akenside, Mark, poet, 1721-70 
 Alaric, d. 410 ; Rome, France 
 Albemarle, Geo., Monk, duke of, 
 
 1608-70; administrations, 1660 
 Alberoni, card , 1664-1751 ; Spain, 
 
 1715 
 Albert ; Austria, Bohemia, Ger- 
 many, Hungary 
 Albert (prince consort), 18 19-61 ; 
 
 England, 1840; regency bill, 
 
 duelling 
 Albertus Magnus ; automatons 
 Albion the Longobard, killed 573 
 Albuquerque (viceroy) ; India, 
 
 1503-15 
 Alcibiades, killed 404 B.C. ; Athens 
 Alcippe ; Areopagitse 
 Alcock, Mr. ; duelling, 1807 
 Alcuin (theologian), 735-804- 
 Aldebert ; impostors, 743 
 Aldhelme ; Salisbury, 705 ; poetry, 
 
 ballads 
 Alectus ; Britain, 294 
 Alen?on, due d' ; Agincourt, 1415 
 Alexander of Paris : Alexandrine 
 Alexander the Great, 356-323 B.C. ; 
 
 Macedon, Egypt, Gordian, 
 
 Tyre, Memphis 
 AlexanderSeverus; Rome,em.,222 
 Alexander I. ; Rus.'^ia, 1801 ; Aus- 
 
 terlitz, 1805; Leipsic, 1813 
 Alexander ; see pope ; Scotland 
 Alexander, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
 Alexander, sir W. ; Nova Scotia, 
 
 1722 
 Alexius, Bast (emperors), 10S1-1203 
 Alfieri, V., 1749-1S03 
 
 Alfred the Great, 849-901 ; Eng- 
 land, councils, clocks, crown, 
 militia 
 
 Alfred, prince ; Godwin, 1053 ; 
 England; royal family, 6. 1844 
 
 Alibaud ; France, 1836 
 
 Ali Pacha; Rosetta; Turkey, 1820 ; 
 Albania 
 
 Alleyne, Edwd., d. 1617; Dulwioh 
 coll. 
 
 Almansoiir ; Bagdad, 762 
 
 Almeida, L. ; Madagascar, 1506 
 
 Alphonsus ; Sicily, Spain, Por- 
 tugal (kings) 
 
 Alsop, Joseph ; trials, 1839 
 
 Althorp, vise. ; Grey administra- 
 tion, 1830 ; Melbourne, 1835 
 
 Alva, duke of, 1508-82 ; Antwerp, 
 HoUand 
 
 Alvanley, lord ; duel, 183s 
 
 Alvihzi, Marshal; Areola, 1796 
 
 Alyattes ; Lydia, 761 B.C. 
 
 Alypius of Alexandria ; dwarfs 
 
 Amadeus, Savoy; annunciation 
 
 Ambrose, St., d. 397 : anthems, 
 Te Deum, liturgies 
 
 Ambrosius ; Stonehenge 
 
 Amenophis ; Egypt, 1821 B.C. 
 
 Americus Vespuoius, d. 1512 ; 
 America, note 
 
 Amherst, lord ; China, 1816, India 
 1823 
 
 Ammianus Maroellinus, hist., d. 
 
 390 
 Amontons, W. ; telegraphs, 1663- 
 
 170S 
 Amos prophesies abt. 787 B.C. 
 Ampere, A. M. 1735-1836; elec- 
 
 ricity (galvanism) ; electric 
 
 telegraph 
 Amulius ; Alba, 794 b.c 
 Amurath ; Turkey, Beyrout 
 Amyntas ; Macedon, 540 B.C. 
 Anacharsis, 592 B.C. ; anchors, 
 
 bellows 
 Anacletus ; pope, 78 
 Anacreon, poet,./!, about 557 B.C. 
 Anastasius ; pope ; East ; emperors 
 Anaxagoras, 480 B.C. ; earthquakes 
 Anaximander, 547 B.C. ; maps 
 Anaximenes, 548 B.C. ; air 
 Anderson, J.; slavery (in U. States), 
 
 note, 1853 
 Andre, maj., United States, 1780 
 Andrew; Hungary, kings 
 Andrews, H., d. 1820; almanacs 
 Andronicus, 240 B.C. ; drama 
 Andronicus ; Eastern empire 
 
 1071-1391 
 Angela, St. ; Ursuline nuns, 1537 
 
806 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Aiigerstein, J., d. 1822; National 
 
 Gallery 
 Anglesey, Arthur, earl of ; Ireland 
 
 (lord-lieutenant), 1828, 1830 
 Angus, earl of ; Linlithgow 
 Anjou, Plantagenet, Jamac, 1569 ; 
 
 Naples, 1266 
 Ankerstrom (kills Gustavus III.)j 
 
 Sweden, 1792 
 Anna, St. ; Mexico, 1853 
 Anne of Brittany, rf. 1514; maids 
 
 of honour 
 Anne of Austria, d. 1666 ; iron 
 
 mask 
 Anne ; England, semper eadem 
 Ansell, G. ; fire-damp, 1865 
 Anselm, apb. ; Canterbury, 1093 
 Anson, admiral; Acapulco, 1744; 
 
 naval battles, 1747 
 Anson, general ; India, 1857 
 Anthony : monachisni,4th century 
 Antigonus ; Ipsus, 301 B.C., profiles 
 Antiochus I. — X. 280-65 B.C. Syria, 
 
 Jews, 170 or 168 B.C. 
 Antipator ; Cranon, 322 B.C. 
 Autisthenes ; cynics, 3963.0. 
 Antonelli, card. 6. 1806; Rome, 
 
 1848 
 Antoninus Pius ; Rome, emperors, 
 
 138 ; Roman wall 
 Antony, Mark, d. 30 ; Rome, 43 
 
 B.C. ; Armenia, Philippi, 42 
 '" B.C. ; Actium, 31 B.C. 
 Anviti, col., killed; Parma, 1859 
 Apclles, painter, 352-308 b.c. 
 Apollodorus ; Trajan's pillar, 114 
 Apollonius; Syiia, 168 B.C. 
 Appian, hist.,}t. aiiout 147 
 Appius Claudius ; Rome, 449 B.C. ; 
 
 aqueducts, decemviri, Virginia 
 Applegarth ; printing machine 
 Apries; Egypt, 571 B.C. 
 Apsley, Id. ; North adminis., 1770 
 Apuleius, d. 174 
 Aquinas, T., theol. d. 1274 
 Arago, D. P., nat. phil., 1786-1853 
 Aram, Eugene ; trials, 1759 
 Aratus ; Achaia, 245 B.C. 
 Arbogastes ; Aquiloia, 394 
 Arcadius and Honorius, eastern 
 
 and western empire, 395 
 Arclielaus ; Cappadocia, 20 B.C. 
 
 Macedon, 413 b.c. 
 Archemorus ; Nemsean games 
 Archer, F. S. ; collodion, 1851 
 Archidamus ; Sparta, 648 b. c. 
 Archilochus, 708 B.C. ; Iambic 
 
 verse 
 Archimedes, 287-212 B.C. ; circle, 
 
 cranes, mechanics, mensura- 
 tion, organs, reflectors, screw, 
 
 planetarium 
 Archytas ; automaton, pulley 
 Ardesoif, Mr. ; cockfighting, 1788 
 Aretin, Gui ; musical notes, 1025 
 Arfastus, chancellor, lord high, 
 
 1067 
 Arfwedson, Mr. ; lithium, 1817 
 Argyll, duke of ; Dmiblane, 1715 
 Ariarathes ; Cappadocia 
 Ariobarzanes, 322 B.C. ; Cappa- 
 docia, 93 B.C. 
 Ariosto, L. Ital. poet., 1474-1533 
 Aris, gov. ; prisons, 1800 
 Aristarchus, 1568.0. ; sun, globe 
 Aristajus ; conic sections, 330 B.C. 
 Aristides the Just, d. 468 B.C. ; 
 
 Athens 
 Aristippus ; Cyrenaic sect, 392 b.c. 
 Aristocrates ; Arcadia, 715 B.C. 
 Aristodemus; biarchy, 1102 B.C. 
 Aristophanes, d. 427 b.c ; comedy 
 
 Aristotle, 384-332 B.C. ; Aristo- 
 telian philosophy, acoustics, 
 botany, Macedon, mechanics, 
 metaphysics, philosophy 
 
 Anus, d. 336 ; Arians 
 
 Arkwright, R. (1732-92); cotton, 
 Manchester, spinning 
 
 Arlington, lord ; cabal, 1670 
 
 Arminius, d. 1609 ; Arminians, 
 Dort 
 
 Armstrong, W. G. ; electricity, 
 1840; cannon, 1859 
 
 Arne, T., music composer, 1710-88 
 
 Arnold, gen. ; United States, 1780 
 
 Arnold, Dr. Thos., hist., 1795-1842 
 
 Arrian, hist.,./?. 148 
 
 Arsaces; Parthia, 250 B.C. 
 
 Artabazus; Pontus, 487 b.o. 
 
 Artaxerxes ; Persia (kings) 
 
 Artemisia ; mausoleum, 350 B.C. 
 
 Artemones ; battering-ram, 441 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Arthur, king ; Britain, 506 
 Artois, count d' ; duelling, 1778 
 Arundel, abp. ; Canterbury, 1397-9 
 Arundel, Henry, earl of ; adnunis- 
 
 trations, 1547 
 Ascanius ; Alba, 1152 B.C. 
 Asdrubal ; see Ilasdruhal 
 AseUius ; lacteals (1622), lympha- 
 tics 
 Asgill, Mr. ; translation, 1703 
 Ashburton, Id. ; treaty, 1842 
 Ashe, gen. ; Briar's creek, 1779 
 Ashford, Mar}'; appeal, 1818 
 A.shley, lord ; cabal, 1670 
 Ashley, sir Arthur ; cabbages 
 Ashtou, colonel ; Wigan, 1643 
 Aske ; pilgi-image of grace, 1536 
 Aslett, Rob. ; exchequer bills, 1S03 
 Asshetou, Wm. ; clergy, charities 
 Astley, lord ; Naseby, 1645 
 Aston, sir A. ; Drogheda, 1649 
 Astyages ; Media, 594 b.o. 
 Athanasius, d. 373 ; Athanasian 
 
 creed 
 Athelstan ; England (king), 924 ; 
 
 mint, 928 
 Athenajus, Greek, d,. 194 
 Athol, duke of ; Man, sold by, 1765 
 Athothes ; hieroglyphics, writing 
 Atossa ; marriage by sale 
 Attalus, d. 197 B.C. ; seven chiirches 
 
 (Pergamus), jjarchment 
 Atterbuiy, bp. F. ; banished, 1723 
 Attila ; Hungary, Chalons, 451 
 Attwood, T. ; ch.irtists, 1838 
 Atwell, W. ; trials, 1857 
 Aubcr, D., music composer, h. 1784 
 Auchmuty, sir Samuel; Batavia, 
 
 1811 ; Monte Video, 1807 
 Auckland, Id. bp. ; Bath and Wells 
 
 1854 
 Auckland, lord ; Grey administra- 
 tion, 1830 ; India, 1835 
 Augereau, gen. ; Castiglione, 1706 
 Augustenburg, duke of, Denmark, 
 
 1863 
 Augustin, St. (of Hippo), 354-430 
 Augustin the monk, abia. Canter- 
 bury, 602 ; Rochester 
 Augustus (emperor), Rome,27B.c. ; 
 
 prsetorian guards 
 Aulus Gellius, Latin raise, fl. 169 
 Aurelian ; Rome, emp. 270 ; Ale- 
 
 manni 
 Aurelius; Rome, emp. 161 
 Aurungzobe ; India, 1658 
 Ausonius, poet, d. 394 
 Austin ; see Austin, St. 
 Austin, capt. ; Franklin 
 Austin. W. ; trials, 1855 
 
 Austria, John of; Lepanto, 1571 
 Averroes, med. writer,^. 1199 
 A visa ; queens (John) 
 
 B. 
 
 Babbage, C, h. 1792; calculating 
 
 machine 
 Baber ; India, 1525 
 Babeuf ; d. 1791 ; agrarian law 
 Babbington, which set, 1586 
 Babrius ; falDle 
 Bach, J. Sebastian, music, 1685- 
 
 1754 
 Bachelier, M. ; encaustic, 1749 
 Back, G. ; north-w. passage, 1833 
 Bacon, lord (1561-1626); lawyers, 
 
 aeronautics 
 Bacon, sir Nicholas ; keeper, Id., 
 
 1558, baronet 
 Bacon, John, sculptor, 1740-90 
 Bacon, Roger, d. 1292 ; astrologj', 
 camera lucida, loadstone, ma- 
 gic-lantern, magnet, optics, 
 spectacles 
 Bacon, T. F. ; trials, 1857 
 Baffin, W. M. ; Baffin's Bay, 1616 
 Bagnal, lieut. ; duel, 1812 
 Bagot, bishop ; Oxford, 1829 
 Bagration, pr. ; Mohilows, 1812 
 Bagster, Miss M. ; trials, 1828 
 Bailey, rev. W. ; trials, 1843 
 Baillie, col. ; Arcot, 1780 
 Baillie, general ; Alford, 1645 
 Baillie. Joanna, poet, 1763-1851 
 Bailly, M., philo. ; executed, 1793 
 Bainbrigg, abp. ; York, 1508 
 Baines, M . T. ; Palmerston adminis- 
 tration, 185s 
 Baird, sir David ; Cape, t8o6, 
 
 Seringapatam, 1799 
 Bajazet ; Turkev, 1389 
 Baker, colonel ; Bull's Bhiff, 1861 
 Baker, H. ; Bakerian Lecture, 
 
 1765 
 Baker, 8. W. ; Africa, 1864 
 Balard, M. ; amylene, 1844 
 Balchan, admiral ; Alderney, 1744 
 Baldwin I. — V. ; Jerusalem, 1100- 
 
 85 ; East Flanders 
 Bales, P. ; calligraphy 
 Balfe, M. W., b. 1808 
 Balfour, John ; Scotland, 1679 
 Baliol, Edw. ; Scotland, kings, 1329 
 Baliol, John ; Scotland, 1293, 
 
 Oxford, Dunbar 
 Ballarat, Melbourne, 1854 
 Ballard, John; Babington's con- 
 spiracy, 1586 
 Ballasteros, gen. : Ximena, 1811 
 Balmerino, lord ; rebellion, Scot- 
 land, 1745 ; trials, 1746 
 Baltimore, lord ; America, 1632 ; 
 
 trials, 1768 
 Bancroft, abp. ; Canterbury, 1604 
 Bancroft, G., hist., b. 1800 
 B.anks, sir J., 1743-1820 ; hort. soc, 
 
 royal institution, 1799 
 B.innister, Mr.'; retired, 1815 
 Bar, due de ; Agincourt, 1415 
 Barada:us ; Eutychians, Jacobites 
 Baranelli, L. ; trials, 1855 
 Barantz, north-w. passage, 1594 
 Barbaro.ssa, d. 1546; Tunis, Algiers 
 Barbauld, Mrs. A. L., 1743-1825 
 Barber, Fletcher, Saunders, and 
 
 Dorey; trials, 1844, and note 
 Barberini ; Portland vase 
 Barbou ; printers, 1539-1755 
 Barbour, J. ; trials, 1853 
 Barclay, capt.;pedesti'ianism, 1809 
 
INDEX. 
 
 807 
 
 Barclay, Perkins, & Co. ; porter 
 Barclay, Eob., d. i6go; quakera 
 Barham, lord ; admiralty, 1805 
 Bai-ing, Alex., Peel administ. 
 1834; sir F. ; London Insti- 
 tution, iSps ; RusseU adminis- 
 tration, 1846 
 Bai-ker, Robert ; panorama, 1788 
 Barlow ; clocks, 1676 
 Barlow, rev. J. ;Royal Institut. , 1 842 
 Barlow, sir G. ; India, governors, 
 
 1805 
 Barlowe, William ; compass, 1608 
 Barnard, general; India, 1857 
 Barnes, T., d. 1841 ; Times 
 Barnet, Geo. ; trials, 1816 
 BaiT^, Isaac, Rockingham ad- 
 ministration, 17S2 
 Barrett, captain ; Cumberland ; 
 
 naval battles, 1811 
 Bari'ie, capt.; naval battles, 1811 
 Barrington, bp. ; Durham, 1791 
 BaiTington, Mr. ; duel, 1788 
 BaiTington ; trials, 1790 
 Barrot, 0. ; Prance, 1848 
 Barrow, Isaac, 1630-77 
 Barry, sir Charles, architect, 1795- 
 
 1860; parliament 
 Barth, Dr. ; Africa, 1849 
 Barth^l&iy, E. ; trials, 185s 
 Barton, Bernard, poet, d. 1849 
 Barton, Dr. ; insurance, 1667 
 Barton, Elizabeth ; impostor, 1534 
 Baschi, Matt. : Capuchins, 1525 
 Basil, St., d. 380; Basilians 
 Basil ; East. emp. S67 ; Russia 
 Basilowitz ; Russia, czars, 1462 
 Bath, earl of ; Bath admin., 1746 
 Bathou ; Transylvania, 1851, &c. 
 Bathurst, bp. ; Norwich, 1805 
 Bathurst, earl ; Liverpool adminis- 
 tration, 1812. 
 Bathyllus ; pantomimes 
 Batman, J. ; Victoria, 1835 
 Batthyany, Hungai-y, 1848 
 Battus ; Gyrene, 631 B.C. 
 Baumgarten ; festhetics, 1750 
 Bavaria, elector of ; Ramilies, 1705 
 Baxter, sir D.; Dundee, 1863 
 Baxter, G. ; printing in colours, 
 
 1836 
 Baxter, Rd., theologian, 1615-91 
 Bayard, chevalier, killed, 1524 
 Bayle, P., d. 1706 ; dictionary, 1697 
 Bayley, lieut. ; duel, 1818 
 Baynard, Geoffrey ; combat 
 Bazalgette, J. W., 6. 1819; sewers, 
 
 Thames 
 Beadon, bishop ; Bath, 1S02 
 Bean aims at the queen ; trials, 1842 
 Beaton, cardinal; to. 1546 
 Beattie, Jas.; poet, 1735-1803 
 Beauclerc, lord Charles, drowned 
 while assisting at a wreck, i86i 
 Beau Nash ; ceremonies 
 Beaiichamp, Henry de ; Wight 
 Beauchamp, John de ; barons 
 Beaufort, cai'dinal, d. 1447 
 Beauharnais, Eugene, 1781-1824 ; 
 
 Italy, Mockern 
 Beaulieu, general ; Lodi, 1796 
 Beaumont, sir G. , National Galleiy 
 
 opened 
 Beaumont, Mr. ; duel, 1821-1826 
 Beauinont ; viscount, 1440 
 Beauregard, P. G.,6. 1818; United 
 
 States, 1 861 
 Beauvoir, sir J. de ; trials, 1835 
 Becket, T., m. 1170 ; Becket 
 Beckford, W. ; Fonthill Abbey 
 Bede; Venerable, d. 735 
 Bedford, duke of; duel, 1822 ; Ire- 
 
 land, lord-lieuts., 1490-1757 ; 
 France, 1422 ; admiralty, 1744 ; 
 nobility, 1470 
 Bedingfield, Ann ; trials, 1763 
 Beeby, Willfam ; longevity 
 Beeching, J. ; life-boat, 1851 
 Beethoven, L., mus. comp., 1770- 
 
 1827 
 Begum charge, Chunar, 1781 
 Behem, Martin ; Azores 
 Behring, d. 1741 ; Behring's straits 
 Bela, Hungary 
 Belasyse, Id. L. ; adm., 1687 
 Belcher, sir E. ; circumnavigation, 
 
 1836; Franklin 
 Belcredi, count Rd., b. 1823 ; 
 
 Austria, 1865 
 Belisarius, d. 564 ; Africa, east emp. 
 BeU, And., d. 1832 ; Lancasterian 
 
 schools 
 Bell, sir C, 1778-1842 ; nerves 
 Bell, H. ; steam, 1812 
 Bellamont, lord ; duel, 1773 
 Bellamy ; trial, 1844 
 Bellarmine, card., 1542-1621 
 BeUingham kills Perceval, 1812 
 Belhngham, sir Daniel ; mayor (of 
 
 Dublin), 1665 
 Bellini, music, 1802-35 
 Bellot, lieut., d. 1853 ; Franklin 
 Belochus; Assyi-ia, 1446 B.C. 
 Belus ; Assyria, 2245 B.C. 
 Belzoni, d. 1823 
 Bern; Hungary; d. 1850 
 Benbow, adm.; naval battles, 1702 
 Benedict, Benedictines ; popes, 
 
 574-1758 
 Bentham, Jer. (1746-1832); savmgs 
 
 banks 
 Bentinck, lord G., d. 1848 ; protec- 
 tionists 
 Bentinck, lord W. ; Assam, India ; 
 
 1827 
 Bentley, Bd., scholar, 1662-1742 
 Beranger, J. P. de, poet, 1780-1857 
 Berengarius ; fete de Dieu 
 Berenger, Butt, lord Cochrane, and 
 
 others ; trials, 1814 
 Berengeria ; queens (Richard I.) 
 Beresford, lord; Albuera, 1811 
 Beresford, lord J. ; suicide, 1841 
 Beresford, Wm.; Derby adm., 1852 
 Berg, gen.; Poland, 1863 
 Berkeley case ; trials, 1858 
 Berkeley cause ; trials, 1811 
 Berkeley, Hon. C. ; duel, 1842 
 Berkeley, lord ; admiralty, 1717 
 Berkeley, lord ; America, N., 1644 ; 
 
 Brest, 1694 ; Carolina 
 Bemadotte, i764-i8i8;Dennewitz, 
 
 Sweden 
 Bernard, St., 1091-1153 
 Bernard, S. : trials, 1858 
 Bernai-d, sir Thomas ; British Inst. 
 1S05; Royal Institution, 1799 
 Bernini, 1598- 1680 
 Berri,duke and duchess of; France, 
 
 1820-1833 
 Berry, lieut. ; trials, 1807 
 Berthelot, P. M., 6. 1827; acety- 
 lene, defiant gas, 1862 
 Berthier, gen. ; marshals 
 BerthoUet, C. L., 1748-1822; chlo- 
 rine 
 Bertie, lady G. C; lord great 
 
 chamberlain 
 Berwick, duke of, d. 1734 ; Landen, 
 
 Almanza, Newry 
 Berzelius, Jas., 1779-1848; che- 
 mistry, silicium 
 Bessemer, H. ; iron, steel, 1856 
 Bessus; Persia, 331 b.c. 
 
 Best, capt.; duel, 1804 ; Surat, 161 1 
 Bethell, bp.; Gloucester, 1824 
 Bethell, sirR. ; solicitor-gen., 1852, 
 
 attorney -gen., 1S59 (see Wcst- 
 
 hury) 
 Bethencourt ; Canaries, 1400 
 Betty, master ; theatres, 1804 
 Bevern, prince ; Breslau, 1757 
 Bewick, T., 1 753-1828 ; wood en- 
 graving 
 Bexley, Vansittart, lord ; Liverpool 
 
 administration, 1812 
 Beza, Theodore, theologian, 1519- 
 
 1605 
 Bialobrzeski, abp. ; Poland, i86r 
 Bickersteth, bp. ; Ripon, 1856 
 Biela, comet, 1826 
 Big Sam; giants, 1809 
 Bingley, lord; Oxford adm. 1711 
 Bird, the boy; trials, 1831 
 Birkbeck, Dr.. d. 1841 ; mechanics' 
 
 institutes 
 Biscoe, capt.; southern continent, 
 
 1832 
 Bishop ; burking, 1831 
 Bishop, A. ; derrick," 1857 
 Bishop, sir H., music, 1787-1855 
 Bishop, J. F. ; Italy, 1862 
 Bismarck, O., b. 1813 ; Prussia, 
 
 1862 ; Gastein 
 Black, Dr. ; duel, 1835 
 Black, Jos., 1728-99 ; magnesia, air, 
 
 baUoon 
 Blackburn, abp. ; York, 1724 
 Blackstone, sir W., law, 1723-80 
 Blair, Hugh, 1717-1800; rhetoric, 
 
 verse ; — John, chronologist, d. 
 
 1797 
 Blake, adm. R., 1599-1657 ; Algiers, 
 
 Dover straits, Portland isle, 
 
 Santa Cruz 
 Blakesley, Robt. ; trials, 1841 
 Blanc, Louis, &. 1813 ; France, 1848 
 Blanchard ; balloon, 1784-1819 
 Blanchard, Laman ; suicide, 1845 
 Blanchard,T. ; timber bending, 1855 
 Blandy, Miss ; trials, 1752 
 Bligh, captain ; bread-fruit tree ; 
 
 Adventure bay. Bounty mutiny 
 BUgh, captain, v. Mr. Wellesley 
 
 Pole ; trials 1825 
 Bligh, Mr. ; trials, 1806 
 Blomfleld, bp. ; Chester, 1824 ; 
 
 . London, 1828 
 Blondin, crystal palace, 1861 
 Blood, col., d. 1680 ; Blood, crown 
 Blood, Mr. ; trials, 1832 
 Bloomer, Mrs. ; dress, 1849 
 Bloomfleld, R. , poet, 1766-1823 
 Blucher, marshal, d. 1819; Jan- 
 
 vilhers, Ligny, Waterloo 
 Blum, R, ; shot in 1848 
 Blumenbach, J. P., 1752-1840 
 Biundell, lieut. ; duel, 1813 
 Boadicea ; Britain, d. 61 
 Boardman, captain : duel, 1811 
 Boccaccio, 1313-75, Decameron 
 Boddington ; trials, 1797 
 Boden, col. ; Sanscrit, 1832 
 Bodley, T. ; Bodleian Ub., 1602 
 Boerrhaave, H. ; med. writ. 1668- 
 
 1738 
 Boethius, killed, 524 
 Boeticher: Dresden china, 1700 
 Bogle V. Lawson; trials, 1S41 
 Bohemia, king of — "Ich Dien;" 
 
 Creoy, 1346 
 Boileau, Nic, poet, 1636-1711 
 Boiroimhe, Bryan ; Ireland, 1014 
 Bois de Chfene, Bldlle. ; beards, 1834 
 Bolam, Mr. ; trials, 1839 
 Boldoro, capt, ; duel, 1842 
 
808 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Boleslaus ; Poland 
 
 Boleyn, Anne, England (queen 
 
 Hen. VIII.) 
 Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire ; admi- 
 nistrations, 1532 
 Bolingbroke, lord ; Oxford ad- 
 ministration, 1711 ; deism 
 Bolivar (1783-1830), Columbia 
 BoUand, Acta Sanctorum, 1643 
 Bonaparte family, France, p. 
 Bonar, Mr. and Mrs. ; trials, 1813 
 Bonaventura, 1221-74 ; conclave 
 Bonavisa, Anthony; distaff, 1505 
 Bond ; magnetism, 1668 
 Bnid, prof. ; photography, 1831 
 Bonelli, electric loom, 1854 
 Bonheur, Rosa, painter, 6. 1822 
 Bonner, bishop of London ; admi- 
 nistrations, 1554 
 Bonnet, C. naturalist, 1720-93 
 Bonnycastle, J., mathematician, 
 
 ('. 1821 
 Bonpland, A. , naturalist, 1773-1858 
 Bonwell, rev. J. ; trials, i860 
 Boon, colonel ; America, 1754 
 Boosey, T. ; copyright, 1854 
 Booth, B. ; book-keeping, 1789 
 Booth, Wilkes, assassin; U. States, 
 
 i86s 
 Booth, Mr. ; theatres, 1817 
 Borde, Andrev? ; Merry-Andrew 
 Borelli ; mechanics, 1679 
 Borgese, H. ; diamond 
 Borgia, &esar, killed, 1507 
 Borowlaski, count; dwarf, 1739 
 Borrington, lady ; trials, 1808 
 Borromeo, abp. Charles, 1538-84 
 Boscan, poet, 1496-1543 
 Boscawen, adm., 1711-60; Lagos 
 Bosquet, marshal : Inkermann, 
 
 1854 
 Bossuet, J., misc., 1627-1704 
 Bos well, sir A. ; duel, 1822 
 Boswell, James, biogra., 1740-95 
 Bi>tbwell, earl of ; Scotland, 1567 
 Bottle conspirators ; trials, 1839 
 Bo'ichet, Anthony; illuminati 
 Bouchier, archbp. ; Canterbury, 
 
 i486 
 Boufflers, marshal ; 1644-1711 
 Bougainville, d. i8n ; circumnavi- 
 gation, New Hebrides 
 Bouill^, iiiarq\iisde; Eustatia,i7Si 
 Boulby, Mr. ; China, i860 
 Boulton, Mat., d. 1809; Birming- 
 ham 
 Boulton and Watt ; coinage, 1788 
 Bourbon family ; Bourbon, duke 
 
 of; duels, 1778 
 Bourgeois, f-ir F. ; Dulwich, 1813 
 Bourke, sir R. ; Victoi'ia, Australia, 
 
 1831 
 Bourmont, marshal ; Algiers, 1830 
 Bourne, Sturges ; Canning admin- 
 istration, 1827 
 Bousfield, W. ; executions, 1856 
 Bowen, sir G. ; Queensland, 1859 
 Bower, Mr. Elhott ; trials, 1852 
 Bowes, Miss ; Strathmore, 1766 
 Bowring, sir J. ; 6. 1792 ; Canton, 
 
 China, Siam 
 Bow.stead, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 
 Bowyer, bp. ; Ely, Chester, 1812 
 Boyd, captain ; duel, i8o8 
 Boyd, Hugh ; Junius 
 Boydell, aid., d. 1804; British In- 
 stitution 
 Buyle, earl of Orrery ; orrery 
 Boyle, Rob., 1626-92 ; phosphorus. 
 
 Royal Society 
 Boyle, Henry ; Godolphin admin- 
 istration, 1702 
 
 Brabant, duke of ; merchants, 1296 
 Bradbury, H. ; nature -printing, 
 
 1855-6 
 Bradley, admiral : trials, 1814 
 Bradley, Jas., 1693-^762; astro- 
 nomy, Greenwich 
 Bradwardine, abp. ; Canterbury, 
 
 1349 
 Braganza, John of ; Piirtug.al, 1640 
 Bragg, gen. ; United States, 1862-3 
 Braham, John, singer, 1777-1856 ; 
 
 theatres 
 Brahe, Tycho, 1546-1601 ; astro- 
 nomy, globe 
 Braidwood, Jas. ; fires, k. 1861 
 Bramah, J., 1749-1814; hydrosta- 
 tics ; planing-machine 
 Brande, W. T., chemi.st, b. 1788; 
 Royal and London Institutions 
 Brandreth, the Luddite; Derby 
 
 trials, 1 817 
 Brandt, count ; Zell, 1772 
 Brandt ; cobalt, phosphorous, 1667 
 Brantome, P., historian, 1527-1614 
 Brasidas, killed, 422 b.c. 
 Breakspeare, Nicholas; pope, 1154 
 Brederode, H. de ; gueux, 1566 
 Bremer, sir Gordon ; China, 1840 
 Bremer, Fred., noveli.st, 6. 1S02 
 Brendon, St. ; Clonfert, 550 
 Breun, captain ; Hibernia, 1833 
 Brennus ; Rome, 390 B.C. 
 Brereton, col. ; Bristol, 1832 
 Bresson, count ; suicide, 1847 
 Brett, J. W. ; submarine tele- 
 graph, 1845 
 Brewster, David, 6. 1781 ; kalei- 
 doscope, Briti.sh association 
 Brie, Mr. ; duel, 1826 
 Bridgewater, earl ; admiralty, 1699 
 Bridgewater, duke of, 1720-1803 ; 
 
 Bridgewater Canal 
 Bridport, lord ; L' Orient, 1795 
 Biienne, M. de; notables, 1788 
 Bright ; corpulencj', 1809 
 Bright, John, b. 1811 : agitators, 
 
 peace congress 
 Brindley, Jas., 1716-72 ; tunnels, 
 
 Bridgewater canal. Barton 
 Brinklett ; trials, 1828 
 Briuvilliers, madame de, executed, 
 
 1676 ; poisoning 
 Bri.stol, mayor of; trials, 1832 
 Bristol, John, earl of; administra- 
 tions, 1621 
 Brodie, sir B. C, surgeon, 1783- 
 1862; — chemist, b. 1817, gra- 
 phite, 1862 
 Broke, captain ; Chefapcalce, 1813 
 Brome, Adam de ; Oriel, 1337 
 Bromley, sir Thomas ; adminis- 
 trations, 1579 
 Brongniart, A., geo. ; 1770-1847 
 Brooke, sir James, 6. 1803 > Borneo 
 Brothers, R., d. 1824 
 Brough, M. A.; trials, 1854 
 Brougham, H., b. 1778; chancellor, 
 
 impeachment, social science 
 Broughton, lord ; Russell admin- 
 istrations, 1846, 1851 
 Bi-own, gen. ; Prague, 1751 
 Brown, H. ; trials, 1858 
 Brown, captain John ; United 
 
 States, 1859 
 Brown, W., 17S3-1864; Liverpool, 
 
 1857 
 Brown, R., d. 1620; Brownists, 
 
 independents 
 Brown, Bob., botanist, t? . 1858; 
 
 Brownian 
 Browne, American gen. ; Chip- 
 pawa, J 814; Fort Erie 
 
 Browne, Hannah ; trials, 1837 
 Browne, George; Dublin, 1554 
 Brownrigg, Eliz. ; trials, 1767 
 Bro-wnrigg, gen. ; (^andy, 1815 
 Bruck, baron ; Lloyd's, note 
 Bruce, J., 1730-94; Africa, Bruce ; 
 
 Nile, Palmyra 
 Bruce, David ; Nevill's Cross, 1346 
 Bruce, Edward; Dundalk, 1318 
 Bruce, Robert, d. 1329 ; Scotiand, 
 
 king, 1306; Bannockbum,i3i4 
 Bruce, Michael; Lavalette, 1816 
 Bruce, com. ; Lagos, China, 1851 
 Brucher, Ant(mio ; coinage, 1553 
 BnideneU ; trials, 1834 
 Brueys, admiral ; Nile, 1798 
 Brunei, I. K., 1769-1849; blocks, 
 
 steam, Thames tunnel 
 Brunei, I. IC, 1806-59; steam 
 Bruno ; Benedictines, Chartreuse, 
 
 Cologne, turnery 
 Bnmswick, duke of ; Valmy, 1792; 
 
 Quatre Bras, 1815 
 Brunt, Davidson, Thistlewood, 
 
 Ings, and Tidd ; Cato-street, 
 
 iSco 
 Brutus, Lticius Junius ; consuls, 
 
 509 B. C. 
 
 Brutus and Cassius; Philippi, 
 
 42 B.C. 
 
 Bryan Boiroimhe ; harp, Clontarf , 
 
 1014 
 Bubb ; opera-house, 1821 
 Buchan, M ; Buchanites, 1779 
 Buchan, captain; N.-AV. passage, 
 
 1819-22 
 Buchanan, J. ; U. States, 1856 
 Buckhurst. Thomas, lord; admi- 
 nistrations, 1599 
 Buckingham, Stafford, duke of ; 
 
 constable, 1521 
 Buckingh im, G. Villiers, duke of ; 
 administrations, 1615, 1621 ; 
 dress ; killed, 1628 
 Buckingham, duke of ; cab.al 
 ministry, 1670 ; Peel adminis- 
 trations, 1841 ; duel, 1S22 
 Buckingham, mai-quess of ; Ire- 
 land, lord lieutenant, 1787 
 Buckinghamshire, earl of; Liver- 
 pool administration, 1812 
 Buckland, W. ; geologist, 1784-1856 
 Buckland, F. ; fisheries, 1863 
 Buckle, H. r. ; historian, 1823-62 
 Bufalmaco ; caricatures, 1330 
 Buffon, G., 1707-88; geology, 
 
 zoology, 1749 
 Bugeaud, mar.shal, 1784-1849; 
 
 Morocco, 1844 
 Bulkeley, bishop ; Bangor, 1553 
 Bull, J., "God save the King," 
 
 i6o5 
 Bull, G., bishop, 1634-1709 
 Bulwer, E. Lytton, novelist, b. 
 
 1805 
 Bunning, J. B. ; coal-exchange, 
 
 1849 
 Bunsen, baron C. J. ; 1791-1860 
 Buusen, R. ; voltaic pile, 1842 ; 
 
 spectrum, i8fo 
 Bunyan, J., 1628-88, Bedford; al- 
 legory, pilgrim's progress 
 Buonarotti, Michael Angelo; 1474- 
 
 1564 
 Burbage, James ; plays, drama 
 Burdctt, .sir P., 1769-1844; duel, 
 
 1807 ; riots, trial, 1820 
 Burdock, Mary Anne ; trials, 1835 
 Burden, Mr. : trials, 1841 
 Burger, G. ; poet, 1748-94 
 Burgess, bishop ; Salisbury ; St 
 David's, 1825 
 
INDEX. 
 
 809 
 
 Burgh, Hubert de ; Whitehall 
 Burgoyne, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777 
 Burke, Edmund, 1730-97; Rock- 
 ingham administrations, 1782, 
 Canada, Junius 
 Burke and Wills; Aiistralia, 1860-3 
 Burleigh, lord ; administrations, 
 
 1558 
 Bumes, sir A., murdered; India, 
 
 1 841 
 Burnet, Dr. ; antediluvians 
 Bums, R. ; poet, 1759-96 
 Burnside, gen. A. ; U. States, 1862 
 Burr, colonel ; duel, 1804 
 Burton, B. ; 1576-1616 
 Bury, Richard de ; libraries, 1341 
 Bute, earl of; Bute adm., 1762-3 
 Buttevant, viscounts, 1385 
 Butler, bp. S. ; Lichfield, 1840 
 Butler, bp. J., 1692-1752 
 Butler, captain ; Silistria, 1854 
 Butler, Sam. (IJudibras), 1612-80 
 Butler, gen. B. ; New Orleans, 1862 
 Butt, Mr. ; trials, 1817 
 Button, sir Thomas; N.-W. pas- 
 sage, 1612 
 Buxton, Mr. ; trials, 1829 
 Buxton, sir T. F., 1782-1845 ; 
 
 prisons, 1815 
 Byug, J., exec. 1757; Gibraltar; 
 
 Byng, 1757 
 Byi-ne, Miss; riot, 1819 
 Byron, commodore ; port Egmont, 
 
 1765 
 Byron, George, lord, 1788-1824; 
 
 Greece ; Missolonghi 
 Bysse, Dr. ; musical festivals 
 
 Cabot, Sebastian and John ; Ame- 
 rica, 1497 
 Cabral, Alvarez de ; Brazil, 1500 
 Cabrera, general ; Spain, 1840 
 Cade, Jack ; Cade's insurrection, 
 
 1450 
 Cadmus, 1453 B.C. ; alphabet, 
 
 Boeotia 
 Cadogan, captain ; duel, i8og 
 Cadwallader ; Britain, 678 
 ' Caicilius Isidorus ; slavery in 
 Rome, 12 B.C. 
 Casmon ; Anglo-Saxons, 680 
 Cassar, Julius, 100-44 B.C. ; Rome, 
 Britain, calendar, ides, Dover, 
 ■pharsalia, Zela, Rubicon 
 Csesar, Ootavius, 63 B.C. -14 a.d. ; 
 Rome, Actium, massacres, tri- 
 umvirate, Philippi, emperor 
 Cajsalpinus ; blood, circulation, 
 
 1569 
 CagUostro, d. 1795 ; diamond 
 
 necklace 
 Caithness, earl of ; steam-carriage, 
 
 i860 
 Calaphilus ; "wandering Jew 
 Calas, J., judicially murdered, 1761 
 Calder, sir Rob. ; naval batt., 1805 
 Calderon, P., dramatist, 1601-82 
 Calepini ; dictionaries, 1500 
 Calhoun, Mr.; temperance soc, 
 
 1818 
 Caligula ; Rome, emperor, 37 
 Calipijus; Calippic period, 330 B.C. 
 Calixtus, pope ; Calixtins, 1656 
 Callcott, J. W. ; music, 1766-1821 
 Callicratus : calligraphy 
 Callhnachus ; Abacus, architec- 
 ture, Corinthian, 540 B.C. 
 Callinicus ; Creek fire, wildfire 
 Callisthenes ; Chaldean, Macedon, 
 32S B.C. 
 
 Calonne ; notables, 1788 
 Calthorpe, Id. ; Birmingham, 1857 
 Calverly ; pressing to death, 1605 
 Calvert and Co ; porter, 1760 
 Calvin, John, 1509-64 ; Calvinism 
 Cambac^rfes; directory, 1799 
 Cambridge, dukes of ; Cambridge 
 Cambridge, present duke of, b. 
 
 1819 
 Cambyses ; Egypt, Persia, 525 B.C. 
 Camden, lord ; chancellor, lord, 
 Percival adm., 1809, exche- 
 quer, Ireland (lord-lieut.) 
 Camden, W., antiquary, 1551-1623 
 Camelford, lord ; duel, 1804 
 Cameron, H. I. ; trials, 1858 
 Canaillus; Rome, 391 B.C. 
 Camoens, poet, 1524-79 
 Campbell, bishop ; Bangor, 1859 
 Campbell, sir C. See Cli/de. 
 Campbell, John, lord, 1779-1861 ; 
 attorney-general, king'sbench, 
 chancellor, Palmerston 
 Campbell, Rev. J. ; trials, 1863 
 Campbell, major ; duel, trials, 1808 
 Campbell, capt. ; marriages forced, 
 
 1690 
 Campbell, Thos., poet, 1777- 1844 
 Campion ; trials, 1857 
 Canaletti, painter, 1697-1768 
 Canning, George, 1770-1827 ; Can- 
 ning, duel, 1809, grammarians, 
 king's speech 
 Canning, visct., 1812-62; India, 
 
 1855 
 Canova, A., sculptor, 1757-1822 
 Cantillon; wills (Napoleon's), 1821 
 Canton, J., d. 1772 ; phosphorus, 
 
 magnetism 
 Canute; England, 1017; Alney 
 Capel, H. ; admiralty, 1679 
 Capet family ; France, 987 
 Capo d'Istria, count ; Greece, 1831 
 Car ; augury 
 Caracalla ; Rome, emp. 211 ; Ale- 
 
 manni 
 Caracci, L., painter, 1555-1619 ; An., 
 
 I 568- I 609 
 Caraccioli, adm., executed 1799 
 Caractacus ; Britain, 50 
 Caraffa, bishop ; Theatines, 1524 
 Carausius ; Britain, 281 
 Cardan, J., 1501-76 
 Cardigan, lord ; duel, 1840 ; trials, 
 
 1841-63; Balaklava, 1854 
 Carden, Mr. ; trials, 1854 
 Cardross case ; trials, 1861 
 Cardwell, Edward ; Palmerston 
 
 administration, 1855-1859 
 Carey, bishop ; St. Asaph, 1830 
 Carleton, sir Guy ; U. States, 1782 
 Caiiile, R. ; atheist; trials, 1819, 
 
 1831 
 Carlisle, earls of; Ii'cland, lord- 
 lieutenant, 1859 
 Carlyle, Thos., b. 1795 
 Carlo.s, Don ; Spain, 1833 
 Carmarthen, marquess of; admi- 
 nistrations, 1689 
 Carnot, L., mathem., 1753-1823 
 Carohne ; queens (George II.), 
 
 parks 
 Caroline ; queen (George IV.), 
 Brandenburg-house, delicate 
 investigation 
 Carpenter, gen. ; Preston, 1715 
 Carr, bishop ; Worcester, 1831 
 Carr, Hoi well ; National Gallery, 
 
 1824 
 Carr^; congelation, 18G0 
 Carstairs, rev. W. ; thumbscrew 
 Cartier ; America, 1534 
 
 Carter, Richard ; alchemy, 1476 
 Carteret; circumnavigator, 1766 
 Carteret, lord; Walpole adminis- 
 trations, 1 72 1 
 Carthage, St. ; Lismore, 636 
 Cartwright, major ; trials, 1820 
 Carvilius, Spurius ; divorces 
 
 231 B.C. 
 Casella, L. ; thermometer, i86i 
 Cashin, Miss ; quackery, 1830 
 Cashman ; Spafields, riots, i8i5 
 Casimir; Poland 
 Cassander; Macedon, 316 B.C. 
 Cassibelauiius ; chariots 
 Cassini, 1625-1712 ; astronomy; 
 Bologna, latitude, Saturn, 1655 
 Cassius ; Philippi, 42 B.C. 
 Castanos ; Spain, 1852 
 Castel, M. ; Dartmouth, 1404 
 Castlei-eagh, lord ; union with Ire- 
 land, 1800 ; Pitt admin., 1804; 
 Livei'pool admin., 1812 ; duel, 
 1809; suicide, 1S22 
 Catesby, Rob. ; gunpowder, 1603 
 Cathcart, Id. ; Copenhagen, 1807 
 Catbcart, general; Kaffraria; In- 
 
 kermann, 1854 
 Catherine; England, queens (Hen. 
 
 v., VIII., Charles II.) 
 Catherine; Russia, 1725; Odessa; 
 
 Sebastopol 
 Cato (the censor); agriculture; 
 149 B.C. ; (the tribune), kills 
 himself, 46 b. c. 
 Catullus, poet, d. 40 B.C. 
 Catulus ; Cimbri, loi B.C. 
 Caulaincourt ; Chatillon, 1814 
 Cans, S. de ; steam-engine, 1615 
 Cautley, sir P. ; Ganges, 1854 
 Cavaignac, general; France, 1848 
 Cavaliere, Emilio di ; opera, reci- 
 tative, 1600 
 Cavendish, circumnavigator, 1586 
 Cavendish, H., d. 1810; balloons, 
 electricity, chemistry, nitro- 
 gen, hydrogen, water 
 Cavendish, John de ; judges, 1382 
 Cavendish, lord John ; Portland 
 
 administration, 1783 
 Cavour, Camille de, 1810-61 ; Sar- 
 dinia, Austria 
 Caxton, Wm. 1421-91 ; printing 
 Caylus, count ; encaustic painting, 
 
 1765 
 Cecil, Wm. ; administrations, 1572 
 Cecrops ; Athens, 1556 B.C. 
 Celeste, madame; theatres, 1844 
 Celestin : pope, 1143 
 Celsus; midwifery, <fcc., 37 
 Cerdic ; Britain (Wessex) 
 Cerinthus ; apocalypse 
 Cervantes, M.S., 1547-1616; don 
 
 Quixote 
 Chacornac ; jilanets, 1853 
 Chad, St. ; baths, 667 
 Challoner, T. ; alum, 1608 
 Chalmers, Dr. T., 17S0-1847 
 Chambers, bishop; Peterborough, 
 
 1541 
 Chambers; encyclopsedia, 1728, 1859 
 Chamber-s, sir William; Somerset- 
 
 hou.se, 1775 
 Changarnier, general; Prance,i8si 
 Chanuing, W., 1780-1842 
 Chantrey, F., sculpt., 17S1-1841 
 Chappe, M. ; telegraphs, 1793 
 Chares ; colossus, 288 B.C. 
 Charlemagne, 742-814 ; academy, 
 couriers, Avars, Bavaria,Chri.':- 
 tianity, Navarre 
 Charles Albert; Sardinia, 1831 ; 
 Novara, 1849 
 
810 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Charles; England, France, Spain, 
 
 Savoy, Germany, Sweden, 
 
 Sicily, &c. 
 Charles V. ; emperor, 1500-58 ; 
 
 Spain, Austria, Germany, 
 
 Spires 
 Charles V. ; Bastile, 1369 
 Charles VI. ; picquet, 1390 
 Charles XII., 1682-1718 ; Sweden, 
 
 Frederickshald 
 Charles the Bold, Burgundy, 1468, 
 
 Nancy, Liege 
 Charles, archduke, 1771-1847 ; As- 
 
 penie, Eckmiihl, Essling 
 Charles of Aiijou ; Naples, 1266 
 Charles of Lorraine ; Lissa, 1757 
 Charles Stuart, prince ; pretender, 
 
 Culloden, 1746 
 Charlesworth, J. C. ; ti-ials, 1861 
 Charlotte, queen (George III.) 
 Charlotte, princess of Wales, 1796- 
 
 181 7 ; Claremont 
 Charteris, col. ; trials, 1730 
 Chass^, gen. ; Antwerp, 1832 
 Chateaubriand, 'viscovnit, 1769-1848 
 Chatham, earl of, 1708-78 ; New- 
 castle admin., 1757; Chatham 
 
 admin., 1766; Walcheren, 1809 
 Chatterton, T., poet, 1752-70 
 Chaucer, G., 1328-1400; Canterbury 
 
 talcs 
 Chaves, marq. of ; Portugal, 1826 
 Chelmsford, Id. ; Derby adm., 1858 
 Cherubini, music comp., 1760-1842 
 Chesham, Sarah ; trials, 1851 
 Cheshire rioters ; trials, 1842 
 Chevallier, M. , b. 1806 
 Chevreul, E., chemist, &c., 6. 1786; 
 
 candles 
 Chichclej', ai-chbp. ; Canterbury, 
 
 1414-1443 
 Childeric ; France, kmgs 
 Chilhng worth, W., theolo. , 1602-44 
 Ching Nouug ; China, wine, 1998 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Chladni. E. ; 1756-1827 ; acoustics 
 Choiscvil, B. due de, 1719-85 
 Cliulniondcley, gen.; horseguards, 
 
 1693 
 Ghosroes I. ; Persia, 531 
 Christian ; Denmark ; Sweden, 1448 
 Christian IV. ; Christiana, 1624 
 Christian VII. ; Oldenburg 
 Christina; Sweden, 1633 ; Sixiin, 
 
 1833 
 Christophc ; Hayti, 1811 
 Christopher, Robt. Adam ; Derby 
 administration, 1852 ; Deri- 
 mark (kings) 
 Chrysostom, father, 354-407 
 .Churchill, C. ; satires, 1731-64 
 Cialdini, gen.; Italy, i860; Castel 
 
 Fidardo, Gaeta 
 Gibber, C. ; poet-laureate, d. 1757 
 Cicero, 106-43 n.c. ; Athens, Rome, 
 
 Catiline, Philippics 
 Cid (Spanish hero), d. 1099 
 Cimabue, music, 1240-1300 . 
 Cimarosa, musician, 1755-1801 
 Cimon ; Eurymedon, 466 b.c. 
 Cincinnatus, dictator, 458 B.C. 
 Cinna, consul, killed, 84 B.C. 
 Clanny, Dr. Beid ; safety lamp, 
 
 1817 
 Clanriearde, marq. of ; postmaster, 
 1846; Russell administration, 
 1851 ; Palmerston administra- 
 tion, 185s 
 Clapperton, Hugh, traveller, 1788- 
 
 1827 
 Clare, John, poet, 179^-1864 
 Clare, earl of; duel, 1820 
 
 Clarence, duke of ; Anjou, Clarcn- 
 cieux ; rebellion, 1478 ; ad- 
 miralty, 1827 
 Clarendon," earl of (Hyde), 1608-74 > 
 administrations, 1660, 1685 ; 
 — G. F. Yilliers, 6. 1801 ; Ire- 
 land, lord-lieut. ; Aberdeen, 
 Palmerston 
 Clarke, Adam, theol., 1760-1832; 
 Sam., theol., 1675-1729; Edw. 
 D., traveller, 1768-1822 
 Clarke, M.A. ; trials, 1814 
 Clarke, Gen. ; cape, 1795 
 Clarke, M. C. ; Bhakspeare, con- 
 cordance, 1847 
 Clarkson, Thomas, d. 1846; slavery 
 Claude Lorraine, painter, 1600-82 
 Claudian, Latin poet, d. 408 ; 
 
 archery 
 Claudius ; Rome, emperor, 41 
 Claudius, App.; decemviri, 451 B.C. 
 Clausel, marshal ; Algiers, 1836 
 Claussen, chev. ; fla.v, 1851 
 Claverhouse ; Bothwell, 1679 
 Clay, Mr. ; slavery, U.S., 1820, 
 
 Liberia 
 Clayton, Mr. ; duel, 1830 
 Clayton, Dr. ; gas, 1739 
 Cleaver, bishop ; Bangor, St. 
 
 Asaph, 1806-1815 
 Cleisthones ; o.stracism, 510 B.C. 
 Clemens Bomanus, pope, 662 ; 
 
 Alexandrinus, d. abt. 213 
 Clement, popes, 91 ; — IV. ; con- 
 clave, 1268 ; — VII. ; pontiff, 
 benefices, Clementines, 1378 ; 
 — Vin. ; index;— XIV. (Gan- 
 gancUi) ; 1769 ; Jesuits ; — 
 Jacques; France; 1589; — 
 Joseph, ijlaning-machine, 1825 ; 
 — JuUan; midwifeiy, 1663 
 Clementi, M., music, d. 1832 
 Cloombi'otus ; Sparta, 380 B.C. 
 Cleomenes ; Sparta, 520 B.C. 
 Cleon, Athenian demagogue, d. 
 
 422 B.C. 
 Cleopatra; Egypt, 69-30 B.C. ; rose 
 Cliflford, C. ; Ufe-boat (note). 1856 
 Clifford, lord ; Roman Catholics, 
 
 1829 ; — .sir Tho. cabal, 1670 
 Clinton, H. Fynes, 1780-1852 ; 
 
 chronology 
 Clinton, sir H. ; Yorktown, 1781 
 Clinton, Geoffrey de ; Kcnilworth, 
 
 1120 
 Clive, Rob. lord, 1725-74 ; Arcot, 
 
 India, Plassey 
 Cloncurry, lord, v. Piers; trials, 1807 
 Close, Mr. ; duel, 1836 
 Clotaire, France, kings, 558 
 Clovis (Chlodowig, Ludwig, Ludo- 
 vicus, Louis) ; France, 481 ; 
 Normandy, Paris, Clovis, 
 Salique, fleur-de-lis, Alemanni 
 Cloots, Anacharsis, e.xec, 1794 
 Clune, &c. ; trials, 1830 
 Clyde, lord, 6. 1792 ; India, 1857 
 Clymer; printing-press, 1814 
 Cobbett, (William, 1762-1835 ; trials, 
 
 1809, 1811, 1831 
 Cobden, R., 1804-65 ; anti-corn- 
 law league, free trade, French 
 treaty, peace congress 
 Cobham, Id. ; roasting alive, 1418 
 Coburg, prince of ; Fleurus, 1794. 
 
 (See Saxe-Cobvrq.) 
 Cochrane, lord (afterwards Dun- 
 donald);c?. i860; Basque roads, 
 stocks, trials, 1814 
 Cockbum, sir A. , solicitor-general, 
 1858 ; attorney-general, king's 
 bench 
 
 Cocking, Mr. ; balloons, 1837 
 Codrington, admiral sir E. ; Nava- 
 
 rino, 1827 
 Codrus ; Athens, 1092 B.C. 
 Cohorn, B. van (military engineer), 
 
 1641-1704 
 Coke, sir Edw., 1550-1634; parlia- 
 ments, 1592 
 Colbert, J. B., 1619-83 ; tapestry 
 Colbonie, sir John ; Canada, 1838 
 Colclough, Mr. ; duel, 1807 
 Coleman, St. ; Cloyne, 6th cent. 
 Coleman, Mrs. ; actress, 1656 
 Colenso, bp.. Church of England, 
 
 1863 
 Coleridge, Samuel T. ; poet, &c., 
 
 1772-1834 
 Coles, capt. Cowper ; navy of 
 
 England, 1855-62 
 Colet, J., Paul's school, 1512 
 Coligni, admiral, killed 1572 
 CoUard, rear-adml. ; suicide, 1846 
 Collier, J. P., Shakspeare, 1849 ; 
 
 Jeremy, 1650-1726 
 Collingwood, lord, 1750-1810; Tra- 
 falgar, 1805 ; naval battles, 1809 
 Collins, govr. ; Hobart Town, 1804 
 ColUnson. capt. ; Frankhn, 1850 
 Collucci, V. ; trials, 1861 
 Colman, G., d. 1794; G. jun., d. 
 
 1826; thciitres, 1777 
 Colonna family flourish, 1288-1555 
 Colonna, V., poetess, 1490-1547 
 Colpoys, admiral ; mutinies, 1797 
 Colt, colonel ; pistols, 1853 
 Columba, St., 521-97; isles 
 Columbanus, d. 614 or 615 
 Columbiere ; armorial bearings, 
 
 1639 
 Columbus, Chr., 1436 or 1442-1506; 
 America, Bahama, Caraccas, 
 Christopher's, Salvador, Do- 
 mingo 
 Columbus, Bartholomew ; majis, 
 
 1489 
 Columella, medical writer,about 46 
 Colville, sir Charles; Cambray, 
 
 1815 
 Combe, G., 1788-1858; craniology, 
 Combermere, lord ; Bhm-tpoi-e, 
 
 1826 
 Comines, Ph. de, hist., 1445-1509 
 Commodus ; Rome, emperor, 180 
 Comneui ; eastern emperors, 1057 ; 
 
 Poutus, Trebizond, 1204 
 Comtc, A., 1795-1852 ; positive 
 
 phil. 
 Comyn, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
 Cond(5, Louis; Jarnac, 1569 
 Conflans ; Quiberon, 1759 
 Confucius, d. 479 B.C. ; China 
 Conglcton, lord ; suicide, 1842 
 Congrove, W., dramatist, 1672-1729 
 Congreve, sir Wm., d. 1828 ; fire- 
 works, 1814 
 ConoUy, J. ; lunatics, 1839 
 Conon ; Sparta, 394 B.C. ; ArginusM 
 Conrad ; Germany, 911 
 Conrad II. : Germany, 1024 ; Bur- 
 gundy 
 Conradin ; Naples, Germany, 1268 
 Constans ; Aquileia, 340 
 Consfcuitine ; Rome, emp. 323 
 Adrianople, aru.spices, b.anner, 
 Britain, Eastern empire, Rome, 
 York, Scotland 
 Constantine II. ; Aquileia, 340 
 Constantine IV. ; monasteries 
 C'onstantius ; Rome, emps., 305 
 Contariui (doges at Venice), 1041- 
 
 1674 
 Conway; sir Edw,, administra- 
 
INDEX, 
 
 811 
 
 ■tion, 1621 ; general Conway, 
 
 Chatham administration, 1766 
 
 Cook, capt., 1728-79; Australia, 
 
 Cook's voyages, Behring's 
 
 Straits, Botany Bay, Flattery 
 
 Cape, New Hebrides, New 
 
 Zealand, Norfolk Island, Ota- 
 
 heite, Owhyhee, Port Jackson 
 
 Cook, Mrs., raurdered; trials, 1841 
 
 Cook, J. P., murdered ; trials, 1856 
 
 Cooke, sk George ; Chatham, 1766 
 
 Cooke, B. W., R. A., 6, 1810 ori8ii 
 
 Cooke, Eliz. ; trials, 1832 
 
 Cooke, Geo. Fred., actor, 1765-1812 
 
 Cooke, W. F., electric teleg., 18375 
 
 Cooper, Astley, surgeon, 1768-1841 
 
 Cooper, J. Feuimore, Am. novelist, 
 
 1798-1851 
 Cooper, Mr. ; slave trade, 1787 
 Cooper ; trials, 1805, 1842 
 Coote, sir Eyre ; India, Arcot, 
 
 1760 ; Carnatic, Cuddalore 
 Cope, sir John; Prestonpans, 1745 
 Copernicus, Nic. 1473-1543 ; astro- 
 nomy, attraction, solar system 
 Copleston, bishop ; Llandaff, 1827 
 Copley, J., painter, 1738-1815 
 Coram, T., foundhng hosp., 1739 
 Corday, Charlotte ; France, 1793 
 Corder, Wm. ; trials, 1828 
 Cordova, general de ; Granada, 1492 
 Cjrelli, A., musician, h. 1653 
 Corin; libertines, 1525 
 Coriolanus ; Volsci, 490 B.C. 
 Cormac ; Cashel, 901 
 Corneille, P., tragedy, 1606-84 
 Comeha, Maximiliana ; vestals, 92 
 Cornelius ; Spitzbergen, 1595 
 Cornhill, Henry; sheriff, 11 89 
 Cornwall, bj). ; Worcester, 180S 
 Cornwallis, abp, ; Canterbury, 
 
 1768 ; Lichfield, 1781 
 Cornwallis, marquess, 173S-1805 ; 
 admiralty, India, America, 
 Bangalore, Ireland(lord-lieut.), 
 Soringapatam 
 Coroebus; Olympiads, 776 B.C. 
 Correggio. A., painter, 1494-1534 
 Corry ; duel, 1800 
 Coi-t, H. ; iron, 1781 
 Corte Real ; America, north-west 
 
 passage, 1500 
 Cortcz, F. ; Mexico, 1521 ; d. 1547 
 Coryate, Thomas ; forks, 1608 
 Cosmo I. ; Port Ferrajo, 1548 
 Costa, M., musician, &. 1810 
 Coster, L. ; printing 
 Cottenham, lord ; chancellor, lord 
 
 high, 1836 
 Cottington, lord ; administrations. 
 
 Cotton, R. ; Cottonian library, 1600 
 Cotton, sir Stapleton ; Villa Franca, 
 
 1812 
 Coulomb, C, d. 1806; electricity, 
 
 •1785 
 Courtanvaux; ether, 1759 
 Com-tenay, abp. Canterbury, 1381 
 Courtenay ; Thomites, 1838 
 Courtenay, sir Wm. ; Exeter, 1469 
 Courtois, M. de ; iodine, 1812 
 Courvoisier ; trials, 1840 
 Cousin, v., French philos., h. 1792 
 Coutts, Miss A. Burdett, &. 1814 ; 
 
 trials, 1847 
 Coventry, sir John ; Coventry act, 
 
 1670 
 Coventry ; administrations, T. 
 
 1628-1672 
 Coverdale, Miles, 6. 1487 ; Bible, 
 
 1535 
 Cowley, Abraham, poet, 1618-67 
 
 Cowper,loi-d ; Burford,Halifax, 1714 
 Cowper, E. ; printing-machine, 1815 
 Cowper, Wm., poet, 1731-1800 
 Cox, Walter; trials, 1811 
 Coyle, Mr. Bernard ; duel, 1802 
 Crabbe, G., poet, 1754-1832 
 Craggs, Mr. ; Sunderland admin., 
 
 1718 
 CramptoD, Mr. ; United States, 
 
 1856 
 Crane, sir Francis ; tapestry, 1619 
 Cranfield, Lionel, lord ; adminis- 
 trations, 1621 
 Cranmer, archbp., 1489-1556 ; Can- 
 terbury, administrations, 1529; 
 Cranmer,homilies,martyrdom 
 Cranworth, lord ; chancellor, 1852 
 Crassus, Marcus ; ovation, slain, 
 
 S3 B.C. 
 Craterus ; Cranon, 322 
 Crawfui-d, earl of ; Brechin, 1452 
 Crawley ; trials, 1802-1863 ; steel 
 Crellin, Miss; trials, 1842 
 Crespigny, Mr. ; duel, 1828 
 Cresswell, sir C. ; probate, 1857 
 Crewe, bp. ; Bambrough, 1778 
 Crichton,Jas. "the admirable," m. 
 
 about 1560 
 Crillon, due de ; Gibraltar, 1782 
 Crockatt v. Dick ; trials, 1818 
 Croesus ; Lydia, 560 B.C. 
 Croft ; impostors, 1553 ■ 
 Croft, sir Richard; suicide, 1818 
 Crofts, Mr. ; dwarfs, 1653 
 CroUius ; calomel, 1608 
 Croly, G. ; poet, 1785-1860 
 Crompton, S., 1753-1827 ; cotton ; 
 
 mule, 177^ 
 Cromwell, Oliver, 1599-1658 ; ad- 
 ministrations, 1653 ; Amboyna, 
 agitators, commonwealth, Eng- 
 land, Drogheda, Dundalk, 
 mace, Ireland, Marston Moor, 
 Naseby, Worcester 
 Cromwell, Richard ; administra- 
 tions, 1658 ; England 
 Cromwell, T., lord Essex ; admin- 
 istrations, 1532 ; registers 
 Crookes, Wm. ; thalUum, 1861 
 Crosbie, sir Edward ; trials, 1798 
 Cross, E. ; Surrey Gardens, 1831 
 Cro.ssley, F. ; Halifax, 1857 
 Crouch ; trials, 1844 
 Crowther, lieut. ; duel, 1829 
 Crozier, capt. ; N.-W. passage, 1845 
 Cruden, Alex. ; concordance, 1737 
 Cruikshank, G., b. 1794; wood-en- 
 graving 
 Ctesias; hist., 398 B.C. 
 Ctesibius, 140 B.C. ; clock, organ, 
 
 pump 
 Cubitt, Mr. ; treadmill, 1817 
 CuUen, W.", physician, 1710-90 
 Cumberland, duke of ; Closter- 
 seven, CuUoden, Fontenoy, 
 
 174s 
 Cumberland, R. ; comedies, 1732-84 
 Gumming v. lord de Roos ; trial, 
 
 1837 
 Gumming, rev. John, h. 1810 
 Cunard, Sam., 1787-1865 ; steam 
 Curio ; amphitheatres, abt. 50 b. c. 
 Curran, John Philpot, orator, 1750- 
 
 1817 ; duel, 1790 
 Cursor, Papirius ; dials, 293 B.C. 
 Curtius, Marcus ; earthquakes, 
 
 338 B.C. ( 
 
 Cuthbert, St., d. 687 ; Canterbury, 
 
 741 
 Cuthbert v. Browne ; trials, 1829 
 Cuvier, G., natui-alist, 17C9-1832; 
 
 zoology 
 
 Cuyp, A., painter, 1606-72 
 
 Cyprian, father, m. 258 
 
 Cyriacus ; Abrahamites 
 
 Cyril, father, d. 386 
 
 Cyrus the Great, killed, 529 B.C. ; 
 
 Bactriana, Cyprus, Jerusalem, 
 
 Media, Persia 
 Cyrus the younger ; Cunaxa, 
 
 401 B.C. 
 
 Czermak, Dr. ; laryngoscope, 1861 
 
 D. 
 
 Dacier, mad. ; 1650-1720, Delphin 
 Dsedalus ; labyrinth, axe, 1240 b.c? 
 Dagobert ; Denis, St., 673 
 Daguerre, M., rf. 1851 ; photography 
 Dahl, professor ; dahlias 
 D'Alembert, 1717-83 ; acoustics 
 Dalhousie, marquess of, 1812-60; 
 
 India, gov. -gen., 1848 
 Dalmas, A. ; trials, 1844 
 Dalmatia, see SovXt 
 Dalrymple, sir Hew ; Cintra, 1808 
 Dalton, John, chemist, 1766-1844; 
 
 atomic theory, 1808 
 Damasus, pope, 366 ; pontiff,crown, 
 
 pope, tiara 
 Damiens, Damiens' attempt, 1757 
 Dampier; circumnavigator, 1689 
 Dampier, bishop ; Ely, 1808 
 Damremont, marshal ; Algiers, 
 
 Constantia, 1S37 
 Danaus; Greece, 1485 e.g. ? 
 Danby, eai-1 of; administrations, 
 
 1673 ; )3hysic garden 
 Dangerfield ; meal-tub plot, 1679 
 Daniel prophesies, 606 B.C. 
 Daniel, Sam. ; poet-laureate, 1619 
 Danneker, J., sculptor, 1758-1841 
 Dannenberg, gen. ; Oltenitza, 1854 
 Dante, Alighieri, Italian poet, 1265- 
 
 1321 
 Danton,G.,exec. 1794; clubs, Fren. 
 D'Arblay, mad., 1752-1849 
 Dai-bon v. Rosser ; trials, 1841 
 DArcon, M. ; Gibraltar 
 Dardanus, Ilium, 148 b.c. 
 Dargan, Ireland, Dublin exhibi- 
 tion, 1853 
 Darius, IPersia, 521 B.C. ; Greece 
 Darling, Grace ; Forfarshire, 1838 
 Darling, sir C. ; Jamaica, 1857 > 
 
 Victoria, 1863 
 Darmes ; France, 1840 
 Darnley, lord ; Scotland, 1565 
 Dartmouth, earl of; Oxford ad- 
 ministration, 1711 ; Rocking- 
 ham admin., 1766 
 Darwin, Erasmus, naturalist, 1731- 
 
 1800 
 Darwin, Charles, naturalist, h. 1809 
 Dashwood, sir Francis ; Bute ad- 
 ministration, 1762 
 Daubeny, C. ; atomic theory, 1850 
 Dauglish, Dr. ; bread, 1859 
 Daun, count, d.1766; Hochkirchcn, 
 
 Torgau 
 Davenant, William ; drama, opera, 
 
 1684 
 Davenport, Miss ; theatres, 1844 
 David ; Jews, 1065 B.C. 
 David, Geoi'ge ; imijostors, 1556 
 David I. ; Scotland, 1124; Carlisle 
 David, J., painter, 1748-1825 
 Davidson, D. ; trials, 1855 
 Davila, 1576-1631 
 Davis, Jefferson, b. 1808 ; United 
 
 States, 1 861 
 Davis ; N.-W. passage, 1585 ; quad- 
 rant, China 
 
812 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 Davoust, marshal ; Krasuoi, Mo- 
 
 hilow, Jena, Eckmiihl, 1809 
 Davy, sir Humphrey, chemist, &c., 
 1779-1829; Royal Institution, 
 barium, electricity, phospho- 
 rus, calcium, magnesium, 
 potassium, sodium, safety- 
 lamp, strontium 
 Dav.ys, bp. ; Peterborough, 1839 
 Dawes, abp. ; York, 1714 
 Day (Kossuth's notes case), ti-ials, 
 
 i860 
 Day, Mr. ; Fairlop fair 
 Deacle i\ B. Baring ; trials, 1831 
 Deane, adml. ; naval battles, 1653 
 Deane, abp. ; Canterbury, 1501 
 Debain ; harmonium 
 De Balton ; duel, 181 1 
 De Burgh, Hubert ; Whitehall 
 DeCandollc, A., botanist,i778-i84i 
 De Courcy, baron; peers, 1181 
 Decius Mus sacrifices himself, 
 
 295 B.C. 
 Dec, Dr. J., c7. 1608 ; astrology 
 Decrfoot ; pcdestrianism, 1861 
 Dc Foe, Daniel, 1663-1731 ; Robin- 
 son Crusoe, Juau, plague 
 De Foix, Gaston ; Ravenna, 1512 
 De Gasparis, A. ; planets, 1849 
 Dc Genlis, mad., 1746-1830 
 De Grasse, admiral ; Chesapeake, 
 
 naval battles, Tobago, 1781 
 De Grey, earl ; Ireland, lord lieu- 
 tenant, 1427 
 De Haven, lieut. ; Franklin, 1850 
 Delabeche, H., 1796-1855; geology 
 De la Clue, admiral ; Lagos, 1759 
 Delambre, J., mathematician. 1749- 
 
 1822 
 De la Rue ; trials, 1845 
 De la Rue, Warren, photography, 
 
 1857 ; echpse, i860 
 De la Roche, I'aul, 1797-1856 
 De I'Ep^e, abb^, 1712-89; deaf 
 De Lesseps, M. ; Suez, 1857 
 De Loundres, Henry; Dublin, 1205 
 D'Estaign, count; Bencooleii,i76o; 
 
 Georgia 
 D'Esterre, Mr. ; duel, 1815 
 D'Etrees, adml. ; Tcxel, 1673 
 Delille, J., Fr. poet, 1738-1813 
 Demetrius ; Athens, Macedon, 
 
 impostors, Poland 
 Democritus, b. about 470 B.C. 
 Demosthenes, 382-322 B.C. ; philip- 
 pics 
 Denison, archdeacon ; trials, 1856 
 Denison, bishoi^; Salisbury, 1801 
 Denison, E. li. ; bells, 1856 
 Denison, J. E. ; speaker, 1857 
 Denman, lord, 1778-1854; att.- 
 
 gen., king's bench 
 Denmark, prince George ; admi- 
 ralty, 1702, queens (Anne) 
 Denuer, J., clarionet, about 1690 
 Denny, J. ; trials, 1851 
 De Quincey, Thos., tssayist, 1786- 
 
 1859 
 
 Derby, present earl of, 6. 1799; 
 Derby administrations, 1852, 
 1858 
 
 Derby, earl of ; JMan, Wigan, Derby 
 
 Derby, countess of; Latham-house, 
 1644 
 
 De Roos, lord, r. Gumming ; trials, 
 i337 
 
 De Kuyter, adml. : Sheei-ness, 
 1667 ; Chatham, Texel 
 
 Derwentwater, earl of ; execu- 
 tions, 1 716; Greenwich 
 
 Des Cartes, Ren6, 1596-1650; car- 
 tesian, rainbow 
 
 Desmouhns, Camille ; exec. 1794 ; 
 
 clubs, 1782 
 Dessaix, general ; Marengo, 1800 
 Dessalines ; Hayti, 1803 
 De Stael, madame, 1766-1817 
 Deucalion; deluge, 1503 B.C. 
 De Veres, earls of Oxford ; Id. gt. 
 
 chamberlain, marqtiess, duke 
 Devigne, Hen. ; billiards, 1571 
 Deville, H. St. C. ; aluminium, 
 
 1856; platinum, 1859 
 Devonshire, duke of; Devonshire 
 
 administration, 1756 
 De Winter, adm. ; Camperdown, 
 
 1797 
 De Witc ; chain, 1666 ; murderer, 
 
 1672 ; Hague, m. 1762 
 Dhuleep Singh; India, 1849; Pun- 
 jab 
 Diaz, B., discovers Cape of Good 
 
 Hope, i486 
 Di Bardi, Donato ; sculpture, 1383 
 Dibdin, C, 1748-1814; ballads 
 Dibutades ; models 
 Dick, Mr. ; trials, 1818 
 Dickens, Clias., novelist, b. 1812 
 Dickinson, capt. ; trials, 1829 
 Dickson, col. ; trials, 1859, 1863 
 Diderot, D., philos., 1713-84 
 Didius Juli.anus ; Rome, emp. 193 
 Dido ; Carthago, 869 b c. 
 Didot, M. ; jiaper-making, stereo- 
 type 
 Diebitsch, gen. ; Balkan, 1829 
 Diesbach ; prussic acid, 1709 
 Digby, E. ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
 Digges, L. ; optics, 1671 
 Dillon, Mr. Luke ; trials, 1831 
 Diocletian ; Rome, emp. 284 ; Dal- 
 
 matia 
 Diodati, J., theologian, 1576-1649 
 Diodorus Siculus ; 50 B.C.-13 a.d. ; 
 
 Etna 
 Diogenes, cynic, d. 323 B.C. ; an- 
 thropophagi 
 Dionysius; Portugal, annodomini, 
 
 catapultaj 
 Dionysius Halicarnassus, Gr. poet, 
 
 Jl. 30 B.C. 
 
 Dionysius Syracuse, 406 B.C. 
 Diophantus ; algebra, 370 
 Dipcenus ; sculpture, marble 
 Dircks, H. ; ghosts, 1858 
 Disraeli, I., 1766-1848 ; Benjamin, 
 6. 1805 ; Derby administra- 
 tions, 1852, 1858 
 Diver, Jenny ; trials, 1740 
 Dixon, cai)t. ; Apollo 
 Dixon, Hepworth, 6. 1821 
 Dockwra, Mr. ; penny-post, 1683 
 Dodd, Mr. ; steam, 1815 
 Dodd, Dr. ; trials (executed for 
 forgery), 1777 ; Magd<xlens, for- 
 gery 
 Doddridge, Philip, theol , 1702-51 
 Dodsley, R. ; annual register, 1758 
 Dodson, sir John ; admiralty court, 
 
 1857 
 Doggett, T. ; gives prize, 1715 
 Dolci, C, painter, 1616-86 
 Dolben, abp. ; York, 1683 
 DoUond, John, 1706 61 ; achro- 
 matic telescopes, 1753 ; optics 
 Domenichino, Z. , painter, 1 58 1 - 1 64 1 
 Dominic, St. : Dominicans, 1215 
 Domitian ; Rome, emp., 81 
 Donald of the Isles ; Uarlaw, 1411 
 Donatus, grammarian,/. 355 
 Donizetti, G. ; music, 1798-1S48 
 Donkin, sir R., suicide, 1841 
 Donovan ; duel, 1779 
 DoriS, Gustav, artist, 6. 1833 
 
 Dorey, Georgiana ; trials, 1S44 
 
 Doria, And., 1466-1560 
 
 Dormer, lord ; Roman Catholics, 
 
 1829 
 Dorset, duke of ; administration.*!, 
 
 1689 ; Pelham administration, 
 
 1744 
 D'Orvilliers ; Ushant, 1778 
 Dost Mahomed ; Afghanistan, 1829 
 Douglas, earl of ; Homelden, 1402 
 Douglas, William ; Otterbum, 
 
 1388 
 Douglas, James ; British Colum- 
 bia, 1858 
 Douglass, sir John ; delicate inves- 
 tigation, 1806 
 Douw, G., 1613-80 
 Dove, H., b. 1803 ; dichrooscopo, 
 
 i860 
 Dove, W. ; trials, 1856 
 Dowdeswell, WiUiam ; Rocking- 
 ham administration, 1765 
 Doyle, sir John ; Portugal, 1828 
 Doyle, J., 6. 1826; caricatures 
 Doyle V. Wright ; trials, 1851 
 Draco, Athens, 621 B.C. ; laws, 
 
 Draco 
 Drake, Francis, 1545-96 ; Amiida, 
 Cadiz, California, Chatham, 
 circumnavigation, Drake's ; 
 Deptford, New Albion 
 Drayton, M., poet, 1563-1631 
 Drebbel; optics, 1621 ; microscope, 
 
 thermometer 
 Dred Scott case ; slavery, U.S. 
 Drouet ; Varennes, 1791 
 Drummond, abp. ; York, 1761* 
 Drummond, gen. ; Chippawa, 1814 
 Drummond, lieut. ; lime-light, 
 
 about 1826 
 Drummond, Mr. ; murdered, trials, 
 
 1843 
 Dryden, John, poet ; 1631-1700 ; 
 
 poet-laureate 
 Dubois, cardinal, 1656-1723 
 Duboscq, M. ; electric lamp, 1855 
 Dubritius, St. ; Llandaff, 612 
 Duckworth, sir ; Dardanelles, 1807 
 Duchesne, Pfere, see Hebert 
 Ducrow ; theatres, Astley's, 1825 
 Dudley, earl of Leicester; ad- 
 ministrations, 1558 
 Dudley, lord; admin., 1551 
 Duell, Wm. ; trials, 1740 
 Dufay; electricity, 1733 
 Duff, captain ; trials, 1841 
 Dugdale, W., 1605-86 
 Duggan, Wm. ; trials, 1832 
 Du Guesclin, B. ; Montiel, 1369 
 Duilius defeats Carthaginians, 
 
 260 B.C. 
 Dulong, P. L., 1785-1838; acids 
 Dumouriez, gen., 1739-1823 ; Jem- 
 
 mappes, 1792 
 Dun, John ; bailiff 
 Duncan, Dr. ; ichnology, 1828 
 Duncan I. ; Scotland, 1033 
 Duncan, admiral lord ; Camper- 
 down, 1797 ; Texel 
 Duncannon, viscount ; Melbounio 
 
 administration, 1834-5 
 Diuicombe, F. ; sedan chairs, 1634 
 Dundas, Henry; savings' banks, 
 
 1810 ; Pitt admin., 1804 
 Dundas, sir D. ; solicitor-gentral, 
 
 1846; com. -in-chief, 1809 
 Dundas, gen. ; KilcuUen, 1798 
 Dundas, lieut.-col. ; Prescott, 1838 
 Dundas, major; trials, 1831 
 Dundas, sir R. ; Baltic, 1855 
 Dundee, vise. ; Killiecrankie, i68 
 Dundonald, earl, 1775-1860 
 
INDEX. 
 
 813 
 
 Dundonald, lord, see Cochrane : d. 
 
 i860 
 Dunn, Richard ; trials, 1847 
 Dunstan, abp., rf. gSS ; Canterbmy, 
 
 959 ; coi-onation 
 Duns Scotus, d. 1308 ; burying 
 
 alive 
 Dupetit Thouars ; Otaheite, 1843 
 Diipont ; Baylen, 1808 
 Durazzo, Charles of, m. 1386 ; 
 
 iSJaples, king, 1381 
 Durer, A. U., 1471-1528 ; engraving 
 Durham, earl of, 1792-1840; Grey 
 
 admin., 1830 ; Canada, 1838 
 Dui'oc, marshal ; Bautzen, 1813 
 Dutrochet ; endosmosis, abt. 1828 
 Du Val, Claude ; robbers, 1670 
 Dwyer; trials, 1843 
 Dyce, Wm., painter, 1806-64 
 Dymocke family ; championship 
 
 E. 
 
 Eadbald ; convents, 630 
 
 Eadmer, d. about 1124 
 
 Eastlake, sir C, 1793- 1809 : Royal 
 
 Academy 
 Eaton, Daniel ; trials, 1796, 1812 
 Eden, bp. ; Man, 1847 
 Edgar ; England, king, 958 
 Edgar, rev. Mr. : temperance, 1829 
 Edgeworth, Maria, 1767-1849 
 Edmund ; England, 940, 1016 
 Edward the Confessor, England ; 
 
 kings, 1042 ; Danegeld 
 Edward I. ; England, kings, 1272, 
 
 Lewes, Scotland, Wales 
 Edward III. ; England, kings, 
 
 1327, Cressy, Sluys, Garter 
 Edward IV. ; England, kings, 
 
 1461, Barnet, Tewkesbury, 
 
 Towton 
 Edward VI. ; Hngland, kings, 
 
 1 547, Christ's hospital 
 Edward, Black Prince ; 1330-76 ; 
 
 duke, Cressy, Poitiers 
 Edwardes, lieut. ; India, 1848 
 Bdwy, England, 955 
 Egan, Mr. ; trials, 1843 
 Egbert ; England, king, 828 
 Egerton, sir Thomas; chancellor, 
 
 lord high, 1596 
 Egg, Aug., painter, 1816-63 
 Eglinton, earl of; Ireland, lord- 
 lieutenant, 1852, tournament 
 Egmont, lord ; administrations, 
 
 1763 
 Egremont, earl of; Grenville ad- 
 
 mmistration, 1762 
 Ehrenberg, C, naturalist; 6. 1795 
 Eicke, H. ; trials, 1859 
 Eldon, lord ; chancellor, lord, iSoi ; 
 
 d. 1838 
 Eleanor, queens (Edward I., 
 
 Hen. II. and III.) 
 Elgin, lord; Elgin marbles; d. 
 
 1841 ; James, lord, 1811-63 ; 
 
 Canada, 1846 ; China, 1857 ; 
 
 Japan ; Palmerston ; India, 
 
 1861, govr.-gen., 1861 
 Elgin,lord, v. Ferguson ; trials,i8o7 
 Elijah prophesies about 910 b.o. 
 Elisha prophesies 896 b.c. 
 Elizabeth, queen, 1 533-1603 ; Eng- 
 land, 1558 ; goose ; poor laws ; 
 
 Richmond ; Whitehall 
 Elizabeth, England, queens (Ed- 
 ward IV., and Henry VII.) 
 Elizabeth ; France ; trials, 1794 
 Elkington ; gilding ; electrotype 
 
 EUice, E. : Melbourne administra- 
 tion, 1834 
 Ellenborough, lord ; attorney- 
 general, 1801 ; king's bench ; 
 delicate investigation ; 'i->resent 
 lord, h. 1790; Wellington ad- 
 ministration, 1828 ; Indin, 
 govr.-gen., 1842; Derby admi- 
 nistration, 1858 
 Ellesmere, lord ; administrations, 
 
 1615; chancellors, Id., 1603 
 Elliot, captain ; China, 1840 
 Elliot, gen. ; Gibraltar, 1781 
 Elliot, sir Gilbert, North admini- 
 stration, 1770 
 Ellis, Wellbore ; Grenville admi- 
 nistration, 1770 
 Elphinstone,administrations,i795; 
 Cape of Good Hope ; Saldanha 
 .Elsynge, Wm. ; Sion college, 1340 
 Elzevir family, printers, 1583-1680 
 Emerson, Fl. W. ; essayist, b. 1803 
 Emmet, Robert ; rebellions, con- 
 
 .spiracies ; trials, 1803 ; press 
 Empedocles ; suicide 
 Encke, J. F. ; 6. 1791 ; comets, 
 
 1818 
 Enderby, Messrs. ; southern con- 
 tinent, 1838 
 Enghien, due d', executed, 1804 
 B^nnius, 239-169 B.C. ; stenography 
 Epaminondas, 371 B.C. ; Leuctra, 
 
 Mantinea, 362 b.c. 
 Epicurus; 342-270 B.C., philosophy' 
 Epictetus ; philoso. ; fl. 118 
 Epiphanius, St. ; abstinence 
 Erasistratus ; anatomy, about 300 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Erasmus, D., 1467-1536; Greek 
 
 language, Rotterdam 
 Eratoisthenes ; degree, 250 B.C. 
 
 armillary sphere 
 Eratostratus fires Diana's temple, 
 
 356 B.C. 
 Erechtheus ; Athens, 1383 B.C. 
 Eric ; Denmark 
 
 Ericsson, capt. ; caloric ship, 1853 
 Erichthonius ; Troj', 1449 B.C., car 
 Ei-le, sir W. ; common pleas, 1859 
 Ernley sir John ; administrations, 
 
 1685 
 Erroll, earls of ; constable of Scot- 
 land, lord high 
 Erskine, lord ; chancellor, lord ; 
 
 Grenville administration, 1806 
 Erskine, gen. ; India, 1795 
 Esdaile, E. ; tri^ils, 1858 
 Espartero ; Spain, Bilboa, 1836 
 Esquirol, E. ; lunatics, 1810 
 Essex, earl of; administrations, 
 
 1532, 1579; Newbury, 1643 
 Este, Sir Augustus d' ; man'iage 
 
 act, royal, 1844 
 Ethelbert ; 560, Canterbury 
 Etheldra ; Ely, 673 
 Etheh-ed ; 979 ; coronation, Dane- 
 geld 
 Ethersey, com. ; suicide, 1S57 
 Etty, Wm., painter, 1787-1849 
 Euclid; geometry, 300 B.C. 
 Euler ; 1707-83 ; acoustics 
 Euchidas ; pedestrianism 
 Eugene, prince ; 1663-1736 ; Bel- 
 
 gi'ade, Turin, Zenta 
 Eugenie, empress, France, 1853 
 Eugenius ; popes ; Aquileia 
 Eumenes ; parchment, 190 B.C. 
 Eumolpus ; Eleusinian mysteries 
 Euripides, 480-406 B.C. ; tragedy 
 Eurysthenes ; biarohy, 1102 B.C. 
 Eurystheus ; Mycente, 1289 B.C. 
 Eusden, L. ; poet lavxreate, d. 1730 
 
 Eusebius, of Csesarea, 275-340 
 Eustachius ; thoracic duct, 1563 
 Euthalius ; accents, 458 
 Eutyches ; fl. 447 
 Evander ; Circensian games 
 Evans, general de Lacy ; Briti.'-h 
 legion, 1835 ; Spain, 1835, 
 Irun, Sebastian 
 Evans; trials, 1858 
 Evans, W. E., harmonium, 1841 
 Evelyn, J., 1620-1706; horticul- 
 ture, lime-tree 
 Examiner, the; trials, 1812 
 Exmouth, lord ; Algiers, 1816 
 Eyre, John ; transportation, 1771 
 Ezekiel prophesies about 595 b.c. 
 
 Fabius, Quintus ; painting, 311 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Fabii, killed at Cremera, 477 B.C. ; 
 
 Pabii 
 Faber, F. : oratorians, 1848 
 Fahrenheit, G. D., 1686-1736 ; 
 
 thermometer, about 1726 
 Fairbairn, Mr. ; tubular bridge, 
 
 1849 
 Fairfax, T. ; Naseby, 1645 
 Falck, Dr. ; steam-engine, 1779 
 Falconbridge ; London, 1453 
 Falconer, H., geologist, d. 1865 
 Falieri, M., Venice, 1355 
 Falkland, visct. ; Newbm-y, 1643 
 Falstaff, sir John ; taverns 
 Fancourt, Samuel ; circulating 
 
 libraries, 1740 
 Faustin I. ; Hayti, 1849 
 Faraday, Michael, b. 1791 ; Royal 
 Institution, cliemistry, electri- 
 city, magnetism, magneto- 
 electricity, ice 
 Farqnhar, Mr. ; buys Fonthill 
 
 abbey, 1822 
 Farren, Miss, actress, retires, 1797 
 Fatima ; Mahometanism, note 
 Faulkner, G. ; newspapers, 1728 
 Fauntleroy, H. ; forgery, 1824 
 Faust, John ; ^irinting, 1442 
 Faustulus ; Alba, 770 B.C. 
 Favix, Guy ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
 Fawcett, col. ; duel, 1843 
 Felix, popes 
 
 Fellows, C. ; Lycia, 1840 
 Felton assassinates Buckingham 
 
 at Portsmouth, 1628 
 Fenelon, abp., 1651-1715 ; Cambray 
 Penning, Eliza; executions, 1815 
 Fenwick, J. ; executed, 1697 
 Ferdinand ; Austria, Naples, Por- 
 tugal, Sicilj', Spain, Tuscany, 
 Castile, Cordova 
 Ferdinand of Brunswick, Mind en, 
 
 1759 
 Fergus ; Scotland, coronation 
 Ferguson, J. ; planets, 1854 
 Ferrers, earl ; trials, 1760 
 Fessel ; gyroscope, 1852 
 Fielding, H., noveUst, 1707-54; 
 
 magistrates 
 Fieschi ; France, 1836 
 Fillmore, M" ; United States, presi- 
 dent, 1850 
 Finch, sir John ; chancellor, lord : 
 administrations, 1640; Hene- 
 age, chancellor, 1673 
 Finch, D. ; admiralty, 1680 
 Finiguerra ; engraving, 1460 
 Finnerty, Peter ; ti-ials, 1808, 1811 
 Pinnis, T. ; lord mayor, 1856 
 Finnis, col. ; Indiaj 1857, note 
 
814 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Fisher, bp. ; administrations, 1509, 
 
 Salisbury; executed, 1535 
 Fisher ; duel, 1806 
 Fitzgerald, H. ; life boat, 1856 
 Fitzgerald, lord ; attainder, 1798 
 Fitzgerald, lord, v. Mrs. Clarke ; 
 
 trials, 1 8 14 
 Fitzgerald, lord; Wellingtcn ad- 
 ministration, 1830 
 Fitzherbert, Mrs. ; libel, 1789 
 Fitz-Osborn ; justiciars, 1067 
 Fitzpati-ick, Grenville administra- 
 tion, 1806 
 Fitzpatrick, Hugh ; trials, 1813 
 FitzRoy, R., 1805-65; circumnavi- 
 gation, 1826 ; New Zealand, 
 1843 ; meteorology, 1857 
 Fitzwalter, Robert de; Dunmow, 
 
 1244 
 Fitzwilliam, carl ; Grenville ad- 
 ministration, 1806; Ireland; 
 
 lord-lieut. 
 Flaminius ; Thrasymene, 217 B.C. 
 Flamsteed, J. ; Greenwich, 1745 
 Flannock ; rebellions, 1497 
 Flavins, Titus Lartius ; dictators, 
 
 498 B.C. 
 Flaxman, J., sculptor, 1754-1826 
 Fletcher of Saltoun, jl. 1700; 
 
 ball;\ds 
 Fletcher, will-forger ; trials, 1844 
 Flight and Robsou, apoUonicon, 
 
 1817 
 Flinders, capt. : exijlorcs New 
 
 Holland, 1801 
 Flood, Mr. ; absentees, 1773 
 Florence, Eliz. ; trials, 1822 
 Flores, gen., Uioiguay, 1863 
 Florus, Rom. historian ; fl. 106 
 Flourens, M. J. P.,philos , b. 1794 
 Fohi ; China, 2240 B.C. 
 Folengio, Theo. ; macaroni 
 Foix, Gaston do ; Ravenna, 1512 
 Folkestone, lord ; arts, society of, 
 
 1754 
 FoUett, sir Wm. ; solicitor-gen. ; 
 
 attorney-gen., 1844 
 Folliott, bp. ; Hcretbrd, 1803 
 Foote, Sam. ; 1721-77 ; theatres 
 Foote V. HajTie : trials, 1824 
 Forbes, lord ; horse-guards, 1702 
 Forbes, Edwd., naturalist, 1815-54 
 Forbes, J. D., nat. philos., 6. 1809 
 Forster, Jlr. ; Preston, 1715 
 Forster, M. ; planets, i860 
 Fortescue, lord : Ireland ; lord- 
 lieutenant, 1839 
 Forwood, St. (Southey), murdered 
 wife and four children, Aug., 
 1865 
 Foscaro, doge ; deposed 1457 
 Foster, John, essayist, 1770-1843 
 Fottrell, capt. ; duel, 1817 
 Foucault, M. ; jiendulum, 1851 
 Fouche, J., due d' Otrauto, 1763- 
 
 1820 
 Fould, Achille, 6. 1800; France, 
 
 1S61 
 Foulis, B. & A, ; printers, 1707-76 
 Fourdrinier, M. ; paper, 1807 
 Fourier, C, d. 1 837 ; Foui-ierism 
 Fowke, capt. : exhibition, 1862 
 Fox &, Henderson ; ci-ystal palace, 
 
 1851 
 Fox, bishop of Winchester ; ad- 
 ministrations, 1509; privy seal 
 Fox, Ch.irles James, 1748-1806 ; 
 duel, 1779 ; Portland admin., 
 1783; India bill, people 
 Fox, George ; 1624-91 ; quakers 
 Fox, Henry ; Newcastle admini- 
 stration, 1757 
 
 Fox, sir Stephen ; Chelsea, 1628 
 Foxe, John, martyrologist, 1517-87 
 Francia, Dr., 1755-1840; Paraguay 
 Franci.s, St. ; 1182-1226, Cordeliers, 
 Francis I., emperor, 17 — ; Ger- 
 many, Austria 
 Francis I. France, 1515 ; duelling; 
 
 cloth of gold ; Marignan ; lie ; 
 
 Pavia ; Sicily 
 Francis; trials, 1842 
 Francis, sir Philip ; Junius 
 Francisco d' Assise ; Spain, 1846 
 Franks ; suicide : triaLs, 1825 
 Frankfort, lord, v. Alice Lowe ; 
 
 trials, 1842, 1852 
 Frankland, Edw., ethyl, methyl, 
 
 1849 
 FrankUn, B., 1706-90; electricity, 
 
 1752 ; lightning 
 Franklin, sir John ; north-west 
 
 passage, 1825 ; Franklin 
 Fi-asei- V. Bagley ; trials, 1844 
 Frederick, duke of York, 1762- 
 
 1827 ; York 
 Frederick ; Germany, Prussia, 
 
 Hesse, Nui-emberg, Palatinate, 
 
 Prague, Hochkirchcn, Torgau 
 Fredercik-Augustus ; Poland, 1697 
 Frederick- Lewis, prince ; Wales, 
 
 1729 
 Fremont, J. C, b. 1813 ; U. States, 
 
 1856 
 Fr^my, M. ; steel, 1861 
 French, col. ; trials, 1820 
 Freney : trials, 1749 
 Frewen, abp. ; York, 1660 
 Frith, W. P., painter, 6. 1820 
 Frivell, Wm., po.st-office, 1631 
 Frobisher, sir Martin, d. 1594 ; 
 
 north-west passage, 1576 
 Froissart, historian, 1337-1410 
 Frumeutius ; Abyssinia, 329 
 Frost, John ; chartist ; Newport, 
 
 1839 
 Froude, J. A., historian, 6. 1818 
 Fuad Pasha ; Damascus, Turkey, 
 
 1860-5 
 FuUer, J. ; Royal Institution, 1833 
 Fulton, R. 1765-1815 ; steam- 
 engine, 1803 
 Fiu-ley, Mary ; trials, 1844 
 Furneaux, capt. ; Adventure Bay, 
 
 New Holland ; returns, 1774 
 Fuseli, H., painter, 1741-1825 
 
 G. 
 
 Gage, gen. ; America, 1775 
 
 Gaine, W. ; parchment, i)aper, 1S57 
 
 Gainsborougli, Thomas, painter, 
 1727-88 
 
 Galba ; Rome, emp., 68 
 
 Gale, balloons ; gimpowder, 1865 
 
 Gale Jones ; trials, 1811 
 
 Gale, Sarah, and Greenacre ; trials, 
 1857 
 
 Galen, 130-200; physic 
 
 Galgacus, 84 ; Grampians 
 
 Galileo di Galilei, 1564-1642; 
 acoustics, astronomy, tailing 
 bodies, harmonic tui-ve, ice, 
 inquisition, planets, sun, tele- 
 scopes 
 
 Gall, J., 1758-1828; craniology 
 
 Galle, Dr. ; Nejitune, 1846 
 
 Gallien ; balloons, 1755 
 
 Gallicnus ; Rome, emp., nCo 
 
 Galvani, Loui.s, 1737-98 ; electricity, 
 1 791 ; voltaic pile 
 
 Galway, earl of ; Almanza, 1707 
 
 Gama, Yasco da, d. 1525 
 
 Gambler, lord ; Basque Roads, 
 
 1809 ; Copenhagen 
 Ganganelli ; Clement XIV., popes, 
 
 1769 
 Gangcland; apothecary 
 Gardiner, bp. ; administrations, 
 
 1529 
 Gardiner, lieut. Alan ; missions, 
 
 1850 
 Garibaldi, Joseph, b. 1807 ; Italy, 
 
 1859-62; Solfei-ino, Sicily, 
 
 Naples, Volturno 
 Gamerin, M. ; balloons, 1802 
 Garnet, gunpowder plot, 1605 
 Garnet, Dr. Thos. ; Royal Institu- 
 tion, 1 801 
 Garrick, David, 1717-79; theatres, 
 
 Drury-lane, jubilees 
 GaiTow, Wm. ; attorney-general, 
 
 1813 
 Garth, Dr. ; Kit-Cat club, 1703 
 Gassendi, 1592-1655; sun, sound 
 Ga.ston de Foix ; Ravenna, 1512 
 Gates, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777 ; Cam- 
 den, 1780 
 Gauden, bji. ; eikon basilike, 1649 
 Gaudin, M. ; sapphire, 1857 
 Gaunt, John of, 0. 1340 ; Ghent, 
 
 roses, wars 
 Gausius, 335 B.C. ; caustic 
 Gavestons, beheaded, 1312 ; re- 
 bellions 
 Gay, John, 1687-1732 ; fables,operas 
 G.ay-Lussae, J., 1778-1850 ; balloons 
 Gcd, William ; stereotype, 1730 
 Gcffrard, general; Ilayti, 1858 
 Gelasius I. pope, 492 ; breviary, 
 
 pall ; Candlemas 
 Gellert, C. F., 1715-69 
 Gellius, Aulus, Latin miscellany, 
 
 fl. 149 
 Gelon ; Syraciise, 4853.0., Himera 
 Genghiskhan ; see Jenghis Khan 
 Genscric lands in Africa, 429 
 George, David, a. 1556; family of 
 
 love 
 George, St. ; garter 
 George I. — IV. ; England ; kings 
 George I. ; accession, 1714 
 George II. ; Dcttingcu, 1743 
 Georgi ; dahlia, 1815 
 Gcramb, barons ; aliens, 1812 
 Gerard, J. ; physic garden, 1567 
 Gerbcrt, d. 1003 ; arithmetic 
 Germaine, lord George Siickvillc, 
 
 Minden, 1759 
 Germanus ; Sodor, 447 
 Gerstenzwcig, general, Poland, in., 
 
 1861 
 Gcsler; Switzerland, 1306 
 Geta ; Rome, emp. 211 
 Gibbins, Mr., killed; liots, 1831 
 Giblxin, Edward ; historian, 1737-94 
 Gibbons, Grinhn ; sculptor, 1648- 
 
 1721 
 Gibbons, Orlando; music, 1583- 
 
 1625 
 Gibbs J., architect, 1674-1754 
 Gibbs, sirV. ; attorney-gen., 1S07 ; 
 
 common pleas 
 Gibson, J., .sculptor, 1790-1866 
 GiVison, T. M. ; Palmerston admi- 
 nistration, 1859 
 Giefniar, general; Praga, 1831 
 Giftbrd, lic\it. ; Kildare, 1798 
 ()ifford, R. ; attorney-gen., 1819 
 Gifford, Wm. ; " Quarterly Rev." 
 
 1809 
 Gilbert, archbp. ; York, 1757 
 Gilbert, Dr.; electricity, iCco; 
 
 magnetism 
 Gilbert, gen. ; Ferozeshah, 1843 
 
INDEX. 
 
 815 
 
 Gilbert, G., execution, 1862 
 Gilchrist, carl (of Angus), 1037 
 Gildas, historian, 516-570 
 Gillam, Rd. ; trials, 1S28 
 Gillespie, col. ; Velloro, 1806 
 Gillespie, gen. ; Kalunga ; duol,i788 
 Ginckel, gen. ; Aughi-im, 1691 
 Gioberti, Italian writer, 1801-52 
 Gioja, F., compass, 1302 
 Giotto, paijiter, 1 276-1 336 
 Gladstone, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1852 
 Gladstone, W. E. ; 6. 1809 ; Peel, 
 Aberdeen, Palmerston ad- 
 minist. , Russell 
 Glaislier, J. ; meteorology, 1850 ; 
 
 balloons, 1862 
 Glanville, R. de, ch. justice, 1180 
 Glas, capt., miirdered ; trials, 1766 
 Glas, John; Glasites, 1727 
 Glenelg, lord (Charles Grant) ; 
 
 ■Wellington adm., 1S28 
 Glendo wer, Owen ; Wales, 1401 
 Glerawley, lord, v. Burn; trials, 
 
 1820 
 Gloucester, duke of ; marriage act, 
 
 1772 
 Glover, E. A. ; trials, 1858 
 Gluck, 0. ; music, 1714-87 
 Gobelin, G. ; tapestry ; Gobelins 
 Goderioli, lord, d, 1859 ; Goderich 
 Godolphin, earl ; Godolphin ad- 
 min. 1684 
 Godfrey, M. ; Bank of England, 
 
 1694 
 Godfrey of Bouillon ; Jerusalem, 
 
 1099 
 Godoy, M., prince of peace ; Spain, 
 
 1806; d. 1851 
 Godwin, Wm. ; politics ; novels, 
 
 1755-1836 
 Godwin, sir G. ; Pegu, 1852 
 Goetbe, or GOthe; German miscel. 
 
 1749-1832 
 Gog and Magog ; GuildhaU 
 Goldoni, Italian di'amatist, 1707-95 
 Goldschmidt (Jenny Lind) ; Night- 
 ingale fund 
 Goldschmidt, H. ; planets, 1852 
 Goldsmith, Oliver ; miscel. 1728-74 
 Gonsalvo de Cordova, d. 1515 
 Good, Daniel; trials, 1842 
 Goodrich, bp. ; administ. 1551 
 Goodyear, C. ; caoutchouc 
 Gordian ; Rome, emps. 237 
 Gordon, lord G., d. 1793 ; riots ; 
 
 libel ; trials, 1781, 1788 
 Gordon, col. duel, 1783; China,i863 
 Gordons, L. and L. ; trials, 1804 
 Gorgey, gen. ; Hungary, 1S49 
 Gorham v. bishop of Exeter ; trials, 
 
 1849 
 Gortschakoff, gen. ; Kalafat, 1854; 
 
 Silistria, Tchernaya 
 Gortschakoff, prince ; Vienna con- 
 ference, 1853 ; Poland, 1861 
 Gossett, sir "W. ; trials, 1842 
 Gough, Sir Hugh ; China, 1841 ; 
 India, 1846 ; Goojerat,Sobraon, 
 Eerozeshah 
 Goulbui-n, H. ; 'Wellington admin- 
 istration, 1828 
 Gould, J. ; works on birds, 1832-64; 
 
 humming-birds, 1862 
 Gould, Miss, trials, 1822 
 Gould, murderer ; trials, 1840 
 Gourlay, captain ; duel, 1824 
 Gower, earl; Wilmington adm., 
 
 1742; North adm., 1770 
 Gower, J., d. 1402 
 Gracchus, Tiberius, slain, 133 ; 
 
 Caius slain, 121 B.C. 
 Grady, Mr. ; duel, 1827 
 
 Grafton, duke of; Rockingham 
 adm., 1765; Grafton adm., 
 1767 
 Graham, bp. ; Chester, 1848 
 Graham of Claverhouse, 1643-89 ; 
 
 Killiercankie 
 Grahiim, A. ; planets, 1848 
 Graham, gen. ; Barossa, 1811 ; 
 
 Sebastian, Bergen-op-/oom 
 Graham, Mr. ; magnetism, 1722 
 Graham, Mr. ; duel, 1791 
 Graham, Thos., 6. 1805 ; mint, dif- 
 fusion, dialysis, atmolysis 
 Graham, sir James, 1792-1861 ; 
 
 Grey, Peel 
 Grammont, due de, Dettingen,i743 
 Granard, Arthur, earl of; Kil- 
 
 mainham, 1675 
 Granby, marquess of; Chatham 
 
 ■ adminis., 1766 
 Grant, capt. John; cookery, 1857 ; 
 
 cott.ager's stove 
 Grant, sir Colquhoun ; duel, 1835 
 Grant, lieut. ; trials, 1816, 1844 ; 
 
 Central Africa, 1863 
 Grant, see Glenelg, Pittsburg, 1S62 
 Grant, gen. Ulysses, 6. 1828 ; 
 
 United States, 1863 
 Grantham, lord ; Shelburne ad- 
 ministration, 1782 
 Grantley, Id. ; attorney-gen. , 1763 
 Granville, earl ; Russell, Palmers- 
 ton admin., 1851 
 Gratian ; canon law, 1151 
 Gratian, Rome emp. 
 Grattan, Henry, 1746-1820; duel- 
 ling, 1800, 1820 
 Gray, bp. ; Bristol, 1827 
 Gray, loi'd ; Pomfret castle, 1483 
 Gray, Thomas, 1716-71 
 Greathead,- Mr. ; life-boats, 1789 
 Greatrix, Val. ; impostors, 1666 
 Greaves, lord ; suicide, 1830 
 Greeley, Horace, b. 181 1 
 Green, Mr. ; balloons, 1828 
 Greenacre, J. ; trials, 1837 
 Greene, general ; Camden, 1781 
 Greenwood, T. ; file, i860 
 Gregoire, M. ; national convention, 
 
 1792 
 Gregory the Great, d. 604 ; Aber- 
 deen, chanting, Christianity 
 Gregory I. -XVI. ; popes, 590 et 
 
 seq. 
 Gregory VII. ; Italy, 237 
 Gregory XI. , pope ; pallium 
 Gregory XIII. : calendar, 1582 
 Gregory Nazianzen, Greek father, 
 
 326-390 
 Grenville, George, Newcastle ad- 
 min., 1754; Grenville admin. , 
 1763 
 Grenville, F. ; British Museum, 
 
 1846 
 Grenville, lord ; Grenville admin., 
 
 1806; delicate investigation 
 Gresham, sirT., d. 1579 ; Gresham 
 Grej', bp. ; Hereford, 1832 
 Grey, earl, 1764-1845 ; Grey, reform 
 Grey, Henry, earl ; Russell admi- 
 nistration, 183S 
 Grey, lady Jane, exec. 1554; Eng- 
 land, queens 
 Grey, Sir George; Ru.ssell admin. , 
 1846; Palmerston adm., 1855 
 Grey, sir G. ; Cape, 1856 
 Grey, S. ; electricity, 1720 
 Griesbaoh, J., Greek critic, 1745- 
 
 1812 
 Grimaldi, Joseph, retires, 1828 
 Grimm Jacob, 1785-1863 ; diction- 
 ary (German) 
 
 Grindall, abj-). ; York, 1570 ; Can- 
 
 terbuiy, litui-gy 
 Grinfield, general ; Dcmerara,i8o3, 
 
 Tobago 
 Grinnell, Mr. ; Franklin expedi- 
 tion, 1850 
 Grocyn, Wm. ; Greek, 1490 
 Grogan, col. ; captured, U. States, 
 
 1S41 
 Gros, baron; china, 1858 ■ 
 Grote, G., 6. 1794 
 Grotius, 11., 1 583-1645; philosophy 
 Grove, W. R. ; voltaic battery, 
 
 1839 ; correlation, 1842 
 Growse, Elias ; needles 
 Guelph ; Bavaria, Brunswick 
 Guericke, Otto von, d. 1686; air, 
 electricity, 1647 ; Magdeburg 
 Gu^rin-M(5neville (ailantine), silk, 
 
 1858 
 Guernsey, W. H. ; trials, 1858 
 Guesclin, B. du, d. 13S0 
 Guiociardini, P.; hist., 1482-1540 
 Guido, Aretino, Ji. 1030 
 Guide, Reni, painter, 1575-1642 
 Guilford, earl of; trials, 1853 
 Guinness, Mr. ; Patrick's, St., 1865 
 Guiscard : Naples, 1059 j conspira- 
 cies, 1710 
 Guise, dukes of; Guise 
 Guizot, M., 6. 1787; France 
 Gunter, E. ; Gunter's chain, 1606 
 Gurney, G. ; Bude light, 1841 
 Gurney, Russell ; recorder, 1856 
 Gurwood, Colonel ; suicide, 1845 
 Gustavus Adolphus ; killed, Lut- 
 
 zeu, 1632 ; Sweden, Munich 
 Gustavus Vasa ; Sweden,i52i 
 Gustavus I. — IV. ; Sweden 
 Guter, of Nuremberg ; air, 1659 
 Guttenberg, J., d. 1467 ; printing 
 Guy Faux ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
 Guy, Thos. ; Guy's hospital, 1721 
 Guy ton, Morveau ; banoons,i7S4-94 
 Guzman, Dominickde ; beads, 1202 
 Gwynne, NeJl ; bell-ringing, 1687 
 Gyges ; Lydia, 718 B.C. 
 Gylippus, 414 B.C. ; Syracuse 
 
 H. 
 
 Habakkuk, prophet, ab. 326 b.c. 
 Hacliette, Je.annedela; Beauvais, 
 
 1472 
 Hacker, L. ; Sabbath schools, 1740 
 Hacket, Wm. ; impostors, 1591 
 Hackman, Mr. ; trials, 1770 
 Haddington, earl of ; Ireland (lord- 
 
 lieut.), 1834 
 Hadley ; quadrant, 1731 
 Hadrian; Rome, emperor, 117 
 Hsecker; magnetism, 1851 
 Haflz (Persian poet), fl. 14th cent. 
 Haggai prophesies about 630 b. c. 
 Haggart, David ; trials, 1821 
 Haggarty and HoUoway; trials, 
 
 1807 
 Hahnemann, Sam., 1755 -1843; 
 
 homoeopathy 
 Hakluyt, R.; geog., 1553-1616 
 Hale, sir Matthew, judge, 1609-76 
 Hales, Stephen, philosopher, 1677- 
 
 1761 
 Halifax, earl of ; Halifax adminis- 
 tration, 1714 ; trimmer 
 Hall, sir B. ; health, Palmerston 
 
 administration, 1855 
 HaU i'. Semplc; trials, 1862 
 Hallam, Henry, 1778-1859 
 Hall, Marshall, m.d., 1790-1857 
 Hall, Rev. Robert, 1764-1831 
 Hall, Sam, d. 1862 ; lace 
 
816 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Haller, A. von ; physiologist, 170S- 
 
 77 
 Halley, Edmund, astronomer ; 
 
 Greenwich, 1719 
 Halloi-an, Dr. ; transported for 
 
 forging a frank, t8i8 
 Hamel, J. ; Mont Blanc, 1820 
 Hamilcar ; Carthage, 237 B.C. 
 Hamilton and Douglas cause ; 
 
 trials, 1769 
 Hamilton, bp. ; Salisbury, 1854 
 Hamilton, duke of ; duelling, 1712; 
 
 trials, 1813 
 Hamilton, James, marquess of, 
 
 administrations. 1640 
 Hamilton, J. ; court of honour 
 Hamilton ; duel, 1748, 1804 
 Hamilton, Jlary ; trials, 1736 
 n.imilton, sir W. ; Herculaneum 
 Hammond, Mr. ; ambas.sador. 1791 
 Hampden, Richard ; administra- 
 tions, 1690 
 Hampden, John, killed 1643 ; ship- 
 
 rnoriey, Chalgrove 
 Hampton, H. ; free church, 1859 
 Hsncock, T. caoutchouc, 1843 
 Handcock ; trials, 1855 
 Handel, G. F., 1684-1759; Handel, 
 
 opera, oratorios 
 Hannibal, 247 183 B.C. ; Rome, 
 Bernard, Sagentum, Spain, 
 Canna3, Carthage. Zama 
 Hanson, capt. ; duel, 1776 
 Hans Sachs, German comic writer, 
 
 1474-1578 
 Han way, Jonas, </. 1768 ; umbrella 
 Harcourt, lady, fete de vertu 
 Harcourt, lord ; Oxford adminis- 
 tration, 1711 
 Hardicanute ; England, 1039 
 Harding, prof. ; i^lancts, 1804 
 Hardingo, sir Henry (aft. lord), 
 
 1846 ; India 
 Hardinge, Jlr. ; journal.s 1752 
 Hardwicke, earl of; Pelham ad- 
 min., 1744; Derby admin., 
 1852 ; Ireland (lord-lieut.), 1801 
 Hare, R. ; blowpipe, 1802 
 H.argrave, J. ; cotton, 1767 
 Hurgreaves, E. ; Australia, 1851 
 Harley, Robert, Godolphin ad- 
 ministration, 1702 ; Harleian 
 library, see Oxford 
 Harmodius kills Hipparchus, 514 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Harney, gen. ; United State.s, 1855 
 Harpur, W. ; Bedford, 1561 
 Harold II. ; Ha.sting.s, 1066 
 Haroun-al Raschid, caliph, 786-803 
 Harrington, earl of ; Pelham ad- 
 ministration, 1744 
 Harris, Mr. ; Covent-garden, or- 
 gans, 1682 ; clocks, apples, 
 fluxions 
 Harris, sir W. S. ; lightning con- 
 ductors, 1820 
 Harrison, gen. ; United States, 
 
 president, 1841 
 Harrison, J. ; pneumatic loom, 
 
 1864, Harrison, 1714 
 Harrison, Mr. ; congelation, 1857 
 Harrowby, carl of ; Pitt adminis- 
 tration, 1804 et seg 
 Harsnet, archbp. ; York, 1628 
 Hartinger, Mr. ; duel, 1820 
 Hartland, sir R. ; Madra.s, 1771 
 Harve3', B. Bagenal ; trial, T798 
 Harvey, Dr. William, 1578-1657 ; 
 
 blood, anatomy, midwifery 
 Harwood ; porter, 1730 
 Hasdrubal ; Carthage, Spain ; Me- 
 taurus, 207 B,c. 
 
 Hastings, marquess of, India gov.- 
 gen. 1813 
 
 Hastings, Warren, 1732-1818 ; In- 
 dia, 1772; C'hunar, Hastings 
 
 Hatchell, Jlr. ; duel, 1814 
 
 Hatfield fires atGeorge III. ; trials, 
 i8oo 
 
 Hatfield ; executions, 1803 
 
 Hatton, sir Christopher, d. 1591 ; 
 chancellor (lord high), master 
 in chancery) 
 
 Hatiy, R., 1742-1822 ; crystallo- 
 graphy 
 
 Hatiy, V. ; blind school, 1804 
 
 Havelock, gen. ; India, 1857, Cawn- 
 pore 
 
 Hawke, admiral; naval battles, 
 
 1747 
 Hawkesbury, lord ; admmistra- 
 
 tions, 1807, Amiens 
 Hawkej^, lieut. ; duel, trial, 1846 
 Hawkin.s, Sir John, d. 1595, 
 
 Guinea, .slave tr.ade, 1562; 
 
 potatoes, tobacco, Chatham 
 Hay, lord Jolya ; British legion, 
 
 1835 ; St. Sebastian's 
 Haydn, Joseph [compiler of this 
 
 book], d. 1856 
 Haydn, Jo.ocph, 1732-1809; music 
 Haydon, Benj., painter, 1786- 1846 
 Hayes, Mr.; duel, 1728, 1806; 
 
 trials, t8o2 
 Hayes, sir H. B. ; trials, 1800 
 Haynau, gen. ; Hungary, 1849 
 Hai'ward ; trials, 1821 
 H. B. ; caricatures 
 Head, sir Francis ; Canada, 1836 
 Headfort, marquess ; trial, 1805 
 Hearne, north-west passage, 1769 
 Heath, archbp. ; York, 1555 
 Heberden, Dr. ; Humane Society, 
 
 1774 
 Hcbcrt, J. R. (pfere Duchesue), 
 
 executed, 1794 
 Hector of Troy ; slain, 1183 B.C. 
 Heenan, J. ; boxing, i860 
 Hegel, G. , philosopher, 1770-1831 
 Hehl; animal magneti.sm, 1774 
 Heine, H., German poet, 1797-1856 
 Helena, St. ; cross, 328 ; Bethlehem 
 Heliodorus, fi. 398 
 Heliogabalus : Rome, emp. 218; silk 
 Helmholtz, H., b. 1821 ; ophthal- 
 moscope, 1851 
 Hfloi.se, d. 1163; Abelard 
 Helps, Arthur ; hi.st. and miscel., 
 
 0. i8n 
 Helsham, capt. ; duel, 1829 
 Henians, Felicia, poet, 1794-1835 
 Hencke ; planets, 1845 
 Heugist, octarch, Salisbtiry 
 Henley, lord ; Grenville admini- 
 stration, 1763 
 Henley, Jos. ; Derby administra- 
 tion, 1852 
 Henley, orator, d. 1756 
 Hennis, Dr. ; duel, 1833 
 Henrietta ; queens (Ch.\rles I.) 
 Henry ; kings : England, France, 
 
 Germany, Spain 
 Henry I. ; Tinchebray, 1106 
 Henry V. ; Agincourt, 1415 ; Cher- 
 bourg 
 Henry VII. ; Boswoi-th, 1485 
 Henry VIII. ; England, 1509; age, 
 defender, field, monasteries, 
 spurs 
 Henry II. ; totirnaments, 1559 
 Henry IV. ; France, 1589; Nantes, 
 
 Ravaillac, Yvres 
 Henry the Lion ; Brunswick, 11 39 
 Hcnshaw, Mr. ; duel, 1820 
 
 I Hepburn, ensign; trials, 1811 
 
 Heraclitus, philosopher,/?. 500 B.C. 
 I Her.aclius ; cross, 615 
 Herbert, adm. ; Bantry Bay, 1689 
 Herbert, George, cb. poet, 1593- 
 I 1635 
 Herbert of Cherbury,lord, 1581-1648 
 Herbert, Sidney (aft. lord), i8io-6i ; 
 I Peel, Palmerston admin. 
 
 j Hercules Tyrius ; purple 
 I Herder, J." G. von, philosopher, 
 I 1744-1803 
 
 I Hermann (Ai-minius), Germany, 9 
 i Hero of Alexandria,.^. 284-221 B.C. 
 ■ Herod ; Jews, 42 B.C. 
 I Herodian, hist.,.rf. 173 
 Hero.stratus fires temple at 
 
 Ephcsus, 356 B.C. 
 Herodotus, 6. 484 b. c. : history 
 Herophilus ; anatomy, 302 B.C. 
 I Herries, J. C. ; Peel adm., 1834 
 • Herring, abp. ; Ca7iterbury, 1747 
 Herring, Mrs. ; trials, 1773 
 Herscbel, W., 1738-1822 ; Saturn, 
 astronomy, telescope, sun, 
 Uranus, nebular hypothesis 
 Herscbel, J. F., 6. 1790 ; actino- 
 
 meter, photography 
 Hertford, marquess of ; his execu- 
 tors I'. Suisse, trials, 1842 
 Hertford, earl of ; administrations, 
 
 1547, Pinkey 
 Hervie, H. ; doctors' commons, 
 
 1560 
 Hesiod, Greek poet, fl. 850 B.C. 
 Hess, gen. ; Solferino, 1859 
 Heytesbury, lord ; Ireland (lord- 
 lieut. ), 1844 
 Hiero, Syracuse. 478-275 B.C. 
 Hieronymus. see Jerome 
 Hilary ; hymns, 431 
 Hill, lord ; commander-in-chief, 
 
 1828 
 Hill, Rowland, 6. 1795 ; post-office 
 Hillsborough, lord ; North admi- 
 nistration, 1770 
 Hind, J. R , 6. 1823 ; planets, 1847 ; 
 
 comets 
 Hindes, lieut. ; diiel, 1817 
 Hinds, bp. ; Norwich, 1849 
 Hiijparchus, d. 162 b.c. ; astro- 
 nomy, Can.ary, constellation, 
 degrees, latitude, longitude 
 Hippias ; ostracism, 510 b.c. 
 Hippocrates, d. 357 B.C.; anatomy, 
 
 surgeiy, loadstone 
 Hoadley, bp. B., d. 1761 ; Ban- 
 
 gorian 
 Hobart, lord ; Addington adm., 
 
 1 801 
 Hobbes, T., 1588-1679; academies 
 Hobbima, painter,.rf. 1681 
 Hobhouse, sir J. C. (aft. lord 
 Broughton); Melbourne adm., 
 
 1834 
 Hoche, gen. ; Dtnikirk, 1793 
 Hocker, murderer ; trials, 1845 
 Hoc'gson, gen. ; Belleisle, 1761 
 Hodgson r. Greene ; trials, 1832 
 Hofer, Andrew; Tyrol, 1809-10 
 Uofmann, A., 6. 1818 ; chemistry, 
 
 ammonia, aniline 
 HogJirth, W., painter, 1697-1764 
 Hogg, James, poet, 1772-1835 
 Holljcin, Hans, d. 1554 
 Holcroft, T. ; melodrama, 1793 
 Holdemesse, earl of ; Devonshire 
 
 administrations, 1756 
 Holg.ate, abp. ; York, 1543 
 Holinshed, R.alph, d. about 1580 
 Holkar ; India, 1804 
 Holland, lord; Melbourne admi- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 817 
 
 nistration, 1835 et seq., trials, 
 1797 
 Holland, sirH., 6. 178S ; Roy, Inst. 
 
 ■ iS6s 
 Holiest murderers ; trials, 1851 
 Holmes, adm., Cape Coast, 1663 
 Holt, sir John, King's Bench, 16S9 
 Holt ; trials, 1844 
 Holwell, Mr. ; suttees, 1743 
 Home, lieut. ; Delhi, 1S57 
 Homer, fl. 962 B.C. {Clinton); poetry 
 Hompesch, baron, duel, 1S06 
 Hone, Wm., 1779-1842 ; trials, 
 
 1817, almanacs 
 Honey and Francis ; riots, 1821 
 Honorius ; West, empire, 395 
 Hood, adm. ; Madeira, 1807 ; 
 
 Toulon 
 Hood, Thomas, comic writer, 1798- 
 
 1845 
 Hook, Theodore, novelist, 1788- 
 
 1S41 
 Hooke, Rob., 1635-1703 ; air, boil- 
 ing-, camera, geology, mechan- 
 ics, microscoije, telegraphs 
 HoRker, Rich,, thcol., 1553-1600 
 Hooker, \V., b(5t.inist, 1785-186';; 
 
 J. t>. 6. 1816 ; gen. R., U. S., 
 
 1862-3, Fredericksburg 
 Hopkins, Matthew ; witches, 1645 
 Hopley, T. ; trials, i860 
 Horace, 65-8B.c.,Lat.poet; Athens, 
 
 satires 
 Horler, H. ; trials, 1853 
 Hormisdas ; Persia, 272 
 Horn, count ; Nordlingen, 1634 
 Home, G. , bp. ; aSTorwioh, 1790 
 Home Tooke, John, d. 1812 ; 
 
 Home Tooke, &c. 
 Horner, Pr. ; bullion, iSio 
 Hornor, Mr, ; Colosseum, 1S24 
 Hornsby, Dr, ; Radcliflfe obs., 1771 
 Horrebow ; astronomy, 1659 
 Horrox, Jer., d. 1641 ; astronomy, 
 
 Venus 
 Horsfall, Mr. ; trials, 1813 
 Horsfall, Messrs. ; cannon, 1856 
 Horsley, bp. ; St. Asaph, 1802 
 Hosea prophesies about 785 B.C. 
 Hotham, adm, ; naval battles, 1795 
 Hotspur; Otterburn. 1388 
 Houblon, sir J., Bank of England, 
 
 1695 
 Houghton, John, executed, 1535 ; 
 
 Charterhouse 
 Howard, John, 1726-90 ; prisons, 
 
 potatoes 
 Howard, Luke, d. 1S64 ; clouds 
 Howard, adml. sir Edward , naval 
 
 battles, 1513 
 Howard of Ef&ugham, lord ; 
 
 armada, 1588 
 Howard v. Gossett ; trials, 1842 
 Howe, sir William; Long Island, 
 
 1776 
 Howe, lord, 1784 ; Pitt, 1783; Brest, 
 
 Ushant 
 Howel L)ha ; Wales, 911 
 Howley, Dr., abp. ; Canterbury, 
 
 1828 ; Lambeth 
 Huber, F., 1750-1831 ; bees 
 Hudson, Jeffrey, 1626 ; dwarf 
 Hudson, H. ; Hudson's Bay 
 Huggins, Wm. ; spectrum, -note 
 Hughes, sir B. ; Trincomalee, 1782 
 Hugo, Victor, 6. 1802 
 Hullah, J., h. 1812 ; music, 1840 
 Humbert, gen. ; Killala, 1798 
 Hximbolfit, A. de, 1769-1859 
 Humboldt, W. de, 1767-1835 
 Hume, David, hist,, 1711-76; Jos., 
 
 politics, 1777-1855 
 
 Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, d. 
 
 at Bury, 1447 
 Hunniades, J. ; Hungary, 1442 ; 
 
 Turkey, Varna 
 Hunt, Henry, reformer ; trials, 
 1820, Clerkenwell, Manchester 
 Hunt, John and Leigh ; trials, i8ti- 
 
 181,2 ; J., anthropology 
 Hunt, Wm. Holman, painter, h. 
 
 1827 
 Hunter, John, surgeon, 1728-93; 
 
 W., 1718-83 
 Huntingford, bp. , Hereford, 1802 
 Huntly, earl of ; Brechin, 1452 
 Hunton, Jos. (forgery) ; execu- 
 tions, 1828 
 Hurd, bishop ; Worcester, 17S1 
 Huskissim, Wm., 1770-1830; Wel- 
 lington admin., 1828 ; Liver- 
 pool, 1830 
 Huss, John,buTnt, 1415 , Hussites 
 Hutchinson, Amy ; trials, 1750 
 Hutchinson, John, d. iTiT, Hutch- 
 
 insonians 
 Hutchinson, major ; Alexandria, 
 
 1801 
 Hutchinson, J. H. ; Lavalette's 
 
 escape, 181 5 
 Hiitton, abp. ; Canterbiiry, 3757 
 Hutton, W., d. 1815 ; geology 
 Huyghens, d. 1695 ; astronomy, 
 
 optics, pendulums 
 Hyde, sir E.; chancellor. Id, h,, 1660 
 Hyde, Laurence ; administrations, 
 
 1689 et seq. 
 Hyder Ali, d. 1782 ; India, Arcot, 
 
 Camatic, Mysore 
 Hyginus, pope, 139 ; martyr 
 Hypatia, philosopher, m. 415 B.C. ; 
 
 hydrometer 
 Hyperides ; Cranon, 322 B.C. 
 Hyrcanus, John, d. 107 b.c. ; Sa- 
 maritans 
 
 Ibrahim, pacha, 1789-1848 ; Anti- 
 
 och, Beyrout, Egypt, Greece, 
 
 Syria, Turkey, Damascus, 
 
 Wahabees 
 Ignatius, St. ; mart. 115 : liturgies, 
 
 250 
 Impey, major ; duel, 1801 
 Inachus ; Argos, 1856 B.C. 
 Incledon, C. , d. 1826 
 Inez de Castro ; Coimbra, 1355 
 Inglefield, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 
 Inglis, col. ; Albuera, 1811 
 Ingram, Herbert, d. i860, 111. Lon. 
 
 News 
 Innocent I. — ^XII. ; popes 
 Innocent III., pope, 1198 ; tran- 
 
 substantiation 
 Irenseus, martyr, 202 
 Irving, E., 1792-1834: Irvingites, 
 
 trial, 1832 ; unknown tongues 
 Irving, Washington, 1783 -1859 
 Isabella ; salique law, Spain 
 Isaiah prophesies about 760 b.c. 
 IsUp, abp. ; Canterbury, 1349 
 Isocrates, Gr. orat., 436-338 B.C. 
 Iturbide, ; Mexico, 1821-1865 
 Ivan ; Russia, 1462 ; czars 
 
 Jackson, bp. ; Oxford, 1812 ; Lin- 
 coln, 1852 
 Jackscin, gen ; United States, 1829 
 Jackson, 'Thos. "Stonewall," 1824- 
 
 63 ; Manassas, United States, 
 1862 ; Chancellorsville 
 Jackson, T. ; executions, i86i 
 Jackson, C. T. ; ether, 1846 
 Jackson, J. B.; printing in colours, 
 
 1720 
 Jacob, Dr. ; Christ's hospital, 1854 
 Jacobi ; Baltic, note, electrotype 
 Jacquard loom, i8o5 
 James ; England, Scotland, Spain 
 
 (kings) 
 James IV. ; Flodden, 1513 
 James, H. ; photozincography, i860 
 Jane, England, 1554; queens, 
 
 Sicily 
 Jansen, C., 1585-1638; Jansenism 
 .Jason, argonautic exp., 1263 b.c. 
 Jebb, Joshua, prison reformer, 
 
 1793-1863 
 Jeffcott, sir John W. ; duel, 1833 
 Jefferson, T. ; United States, pre- 
 sident, 1801-8 
 Jeffery, Robert; Sombrero, 1807 
 Jeffrey, Fi~ancis, critic, 1773-1850 
 Jeffreys, George (afterwards lord) ; 
 administrations, 1685 ; king's 
 bench, chancellor, lord hig'h, 
 bloody assize, d. 1689 
 Jellachich ; Hungary, Vienna, 1848 
 Jenghis Khan ; Tartary, 1206 ; 
 Hungary, India, Moguls, Af- 
 ghanistan 
 Jenkinson, bp. ; David's, St., 1825 
 Jenkins, Henry ; longevity, d. 1670 
 Jenner, E. , 1749-1823; vaccination 
 Jennings, Mr. ; tontines, 1798 
 Jeremiah prophesies about 629 b.c. 
 Jemingham, Mrs. ; blue-stookings, 
 
 1760 
 Jerome, 331-420 ; ascension, litur- 
 gies 
 Jerome of Prague ; burnt, 1416 
 Jersey, countess of ; delicate in- 
 vestigation, 1806 
 Jervis, sir John ; Cape St. Vincent ; 
 — sohcitor-gen. , att.-gen. , com- 
 mon pleas, d. 1856 
 .loan of Arc, burnt 1431 : Joan 
 Joan ; queens (Henry IV.), Naples 
 Joel prophesies about 800 B.C. 
 John, St., d. 100 ; baptism, ac- 
 cusers, evangelists, gospels 
 John I. — XXIII. ; popes, 523, &c. 
 John of Austria ; Lepanto, 1571 
 John, king ; Bohemia, Portugal, 
 
 Spain, Franco, Poitiers 
 John, king ; England (1199), char- 
 ter of forests, magna charta, 
 " We " 
 John of Leyden ; anabaptists, 1534 
 John the Fearless ; Burgundy, 1404 
 Johnson, Andrew, b. 1809 ; United 
 
 States, 1865 
 Johnson, Sam,, 1709-84; dictionary, 
 
 literary societies 
 Johnson, judge ; trials, 1805 
 Johnson, capt. ; trials, 1846 
 Johnston, capt. ; steam, 1825 
 Johnston, gen. ; Ross, N., 1798 
 Johnston, Albt., i-. Pittsburg, 1862 ; 
 
 Jos., U. S. 1863 
 Johnston, Robert ; trials, 1818 
 Johnston, sir John; marriages, 
 
 forced, 1690 
 Joinville, Jean de, hist.,1224-1318; 
 prince de ; Ocean Monarch, 
 1848 
 .Jonah prophesies about 862 b.c. 
 Jones, colonel ; Dungan, 1647, 
 
 Rathmines 
 Jones, H. Bence ; Royal Institu- 
 tion, i860 ; spectrum, nate 
 
 3 G 
 
818 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Jones, Gale ; trials, 1811 
 Jones, luigo, architect, 1 572-1652 
 Jones, Jane ; trials, 1842 
 Jones, Mr. : riots, 1819 
 Jones, Mr. Todd ; duel, 1802 
 Jones, Owen, 1842 ; Alhambra, 
 
 James's Hall, St. 
 Jones, sir Wm., 1746-94; Asiatic, 
 
 chess. Menu, Sanskrit 
 Jones, T. ; book-keeping, 1821 
 Jonson, Ben., 1574-1637 ;poet-laur. 
 Joqueniin, M. ; picquet, 1390 
 Jordan, Mrs., actress, d., 1816 
 Joseph; Germany, Namur, Portugal 
 Josephine, empress, 1763-1814; 
 
 France, 1809 • 
 
 Josephus, Jewish hist., d. 93 
 Jotham ; fables, 1209 B.C. 
 Joubert, gen. ; Novi, 1799 
 Jourdan, marshal : Cologne, Fleu- 
 
 rus, Vittoria, 181 3 
 Jovian, Rome, emps. , 363 
 Juarez, B. ; Mexico, 1858 
 Judas Maccabaius ; rules, 168- 
 
 160 B.C. 
 Judith ; Abyssinia, 960 
 Jugurtha, d. 104 B.C. ; Numidia, 
 
 Jugurthine war 
 Julian ; Rome, emp. 360, edicts, 
 
 Paris 
 Julianus, Salvius ; edicts, 132 
 Julius, Mr. ; duel, 1791 
 Julius II., pope, 1503; Rome, 
 
 Bologna, Laocoon, Cambray 
 Julius Caisar ; see Ccesar, Julius 
 Jung Bahadoor : Nepaul, 1857-60 
 Junot, marshal, 1771-1813 ; Ciutra, 
 
 Vimiera, 1808 
 Jussieu, A. L. de, botanist, 1748- 
 
 1836 
 Justin, emp., Rome, 518 and 565 
 Justin, St. ; Rochester, 604 
 Justinian ; eastern empire, 527 
 Justin Martyr, 164 ; millennium 
 Juvenal, 59-128 ; satires 
 Juxon, apb. ; administrations, 
 
 1640 ; Canterbui-y, 1660, bishs. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kane, Dr. ; Franklin, 1843 
 Kant, Imman, 1724-1804 ; meta- 
 physics 
 Kaunitz, 1755-94 
 Kaye, bishop ; Bristol, 1820, 
 
 Lincoln 
 Kean, Charles, b. 1811 ; theatres 
 Kean, Edmund, 1787-1833 
 Kcane, lord ; Ghiznee, 1839 
 Keats, John, 1796-1821 
 Keenan ; trial, 1803 
 Keith, George ; earl-marischal of 
 
 Scotland, Aberdeen, 1593 
 Keith, George ; quakers, 1646 
 KeUet, capt. ; Fnankhn, 1848 
 Kelly, Mi.ss ; theatres, trials, 1816 
 KeUy, sir F. ; solicitor-general, 
 
 1845 ; attorney-general 
 Kemble, Charles, 1775-1854 
 Kemble, John, 1757-1823 
 Kemble, Miss F., b. 1811 
 Kemp abp. ; Canterbury, 1452 
 Kempe, John ; wool, 1331 
 Kempenfeldt, adm. ; Royal George, 
 
 1782 
 Kempis, T. h, theology, 1380-1471 
 Kennedy, alderman ; trials, 1858 
 Kennedy, Mr. ; Franklin, 1851-53 
 Kennedy, C. R. ; trials, 1858, 3i0te 
 Kent, Edw. duke of, 1767-1820 
 Kent, Odo, earl of; treaam-er, 1066 
 
 Kent, G. ; knives (cleaner), 1844 [ 
 Kentigem, St. ; abstinence, Glas- 
 gow, Asajih, 560-83 
 Kenyon, lord ; attorney-general, 
 
 1782, king's bench 
 Kepler, J., 1571-1630; optics, 
 planetary motions, 1609, rain- 
 bow, tides, dye-houses 
 Keppel, adm. ;JBelleisle, Ushant, 
 trials, 1779, coalition, naval 
 battles 
 Keppel, commodore ; China, 1857 
 Keying ; China, 1842-58 
 Killigi-ew, Thos. ; drama, 1662 
 Kilmarnock, lord ; rebellions, 
 
 trials, executions, 1746 
 Kilwarby, abp. ; Canterbury, 1272 
 Kilwarden, lord ; king's bench ; 
 
 trials, 1803 
 King, Thos. ; ventriloquism, 1716 
 King, Mr. Locke ; administrations, 
 
 1851 
 King, Dr. ; Csesarean operation 
 King, col. ; suicide, 1850 
 King, C. ; trials, 1855 ; gems, i860 
 Kinglake, A. W., hist, 6. 1802 
 Kingsley, C, novels, &c. , 6. 1819 
 Kingston, duchess of ; trials, 1776 
 Kingston, earl of, v. Lord Lorton ; 
 
 trials, 1776 
 Kingston, Evelyn duke of; Wal- 
 
 pole, 1721 
 Kirby and Wade, capts. ; shot, 
 
 1702 ; naval battles, 7Wte 
 Kircher ; jEolian harp, 1653, V^^- 
 
 losopher's stone, trumpet 
 Kirkman ; piano-forte 
 Kirwan, Richard B. ; trials, 1852 
 Kiss, Karl, sculptor, 1802-65 
 Klapka, general G. , 1820 
 Kleist; electricity, 1745 ; Leyden 
 Klopstock, poet, 1724-1803 
 Kmety, gen. (Ismail pacha), d. 
 
 1865 ; Hungary, Kars 
 Knatchbull, sir E. ; Peel adminis- 
 trations, 1834-5 
 KneUer, sir Godfrey, painter, 1648- 
 
 1723 
 Knight, Chs., diffusion soc, 1827 
 Knight, G. ; magnetism, 1756 
 Knight, Mr. ; north-west jiassage, 
 
 1602, South Sea bubble, 
 
 bribery 
 Knight V. Wolcot ; trials, 1807 
 Knox, John; 1505-72, Presbyteri- 
 ans ; congi-egation ; Scotland 
 Knutzen, Matthias ; atheism, 1674 
 Kock, Paul de, novelist, 6. 1794 
 Kohl, F. ; execution, 1865 
 Kouig, F. ; iirinting-machine, 1814 
 Konig, M. ; phonoscope,tonometer, 
 
 1862 
 Komer, Th., poet, 1791-1813 
 Kosciusko ; Poland, 1794 ; Cracow 
 Kossuth, L., 6. 1802; Hungary, 
 
 United States 
 Koster, Laurence ; printing, 1438 
 Kotzebue ; north-west pas.sage, 
 
 1815, Aug. drama ; killed, 
 
 1819 
 Kouh Kian ; Moguls, India, Persia, 
 
 1730 
 Kunckel ; phosphorus, 1670 
 Kutusoff, M., 1745-1813 ; Russia, 
 
 Muskwa, Smolensko, 1812 
 Kyhl, P. ; nature-printing, 1833 
 
 Labouchere, Henry ; Russell ad- 
 ministration, 1846 ; Palmer- 
 ston administration, 1S55 
 
 Labourdonnaye ; Toumay, 1792 
 Lachaise, P&re, i624-i709.cemeteiy 
 La Bruyere, French essays, i644-9i6 
 Lacordaire, Pfcre H. D., 1802-61 
 Lactantius ; d. 325 ; fathers 
 Ladislas ; Bohemia, Hungary 
 Laennec, R., physician, 1781-1826 
 Lafarge, madame ; trwls, 1840 
 Lafayette, marq. ; 1757-1834 
 Lafitte, d. 1844 ; wills (N.apoleon's) 
 La Fontaine, 1621-95, fables 
 Lagava, &c. ; execution, 1856 
 Lagny ; circle, 1719 
 La Grange, J. L., 1736-1813 ; 
 
 acoustics, astronomy, 1780 
 Laing, S. ; India, 1S61-2 
 Lhird, Mr. ; Birkenhead 
 Lake, gen. ; Bhurtpore, 1805 ; 
 
 Delhi, Lincellas 
 Lake, hon. capt. ; Sombrero, 
 
 1807-10 
 Lalande. J.,a<!tron., 1732-1804 
 Lally ; beheaded, 1766 
 La Marmora, gen. A., 6. 1804 ; 
 
 Tchernaya, 1855, Italy, 1862 
 Lamartine, A. de ; b. 1792 ; miscel. 
 
 writer 
 Lamb, C. ; 1775-1834 ; essays 
 Lamb, Dr. ; killed, 1628 ; riots 
 Lamballe, princesse de ; France, 
 
 1792 
 Lamberg, ct. ; Austria, 1848 
 Lambert, Mr. ; d. i8og; corpulency 
 Lambert (Latham), J. ; trials, 1855 
 Lambrecht, Mr. ; duel, trials, 1830 
 Lambton, Mr. ; duel, 1826 
 Lamennais, P&re, F. R. de, 1782- 
 
 1854 
 Lamoricifere, gen., 1806-65 i France, 
 
 1851 : Rome, i860 
 Lamplough, archbp. ; York, 1688 
 Lancaster, capt. ; Bantam, 1603 
 Lancaster, duke of; Lancaster 
 Lancaster, Joseph ; 1771-1S38, 
 Lancasterian schools, educa- 
 tion 
 Lander, Richard ; 1804-34 > Africa 
 Laudseer, sir B., painter, 6. 1803 
 Lanfranc, archbp. Canterbury, 1070 
 Langara, adm. ; naval battles, 1780 
 Langdale, Id. ; master of rolls, 1836 
 Langdale, sir M. ; IS'aseby, 1645 
 Langham, abp. Canterbury, 1366 
 Langton, abp. Canterbury, 1206 
 Lannes ; marshals ; Aspeme, 1809 
 Lansdowne, marquess of, 1780- 
 1863 ; see Petty, Shelburne ; 
 Goderich adm. 1827 ; Russell 
 adm. 1846, 1851 ; Aberdeen 
 adm. 1852 ; Palmerston adm. 
 1855 el seq. 
 Laomedon ; Troy, 1260 B.C. 
 Laplace, P. de ; mathemat., 1749- 
 
 1827 
 Latimer, bp. ; burnt, 1555 ; pro- 
 
 testants 
 Latimer, viscount ; administra- 
 tions, 1672-3 
 Laud, William, abp., 1573-1645 ; 
 
 Canterbury, administrations 
 Lauderdale, duke of ; cabal, 1670 
 Laura ; Petrarch, 1327 
 Lautrec ; d. 1528 
 Lavalette's escape, 1815 
 Lavater, J. ; 1741-1801; physiog- 
 nomy 
 Lavoisier, A. ; 1743-94 > carbon, 
 
 nitric acid, &c. 
 Law, bishop ; Chester, Bath, 1824 
 Law's bubble, 1720 
 Lawes, H., 1600-62 
 Lawless, Mr. ; riots, 1828 
 
INDEX. 
 
 519 
 
 Liwreuce, gen. H ; 1806-57 ; India, 
 
 1857 
 Lawrence, Sir J. ; b. i8ii ; India, 
 
 1S63 
 Lawrence, Sir T., painter, 1765-1830 
 Layard, Austen ; b. 1817 ; Nineveh. 
 Layer's conspiracy, 1722; Laj'er 
 Leake, adm. ; d. 1720 ; admiralty, 
 Gibraltar, Mediterranean, Mi- 
 norca 
 Leatliam, E. ; trials, 1861 
 Ledru RoUin, A. ; b. 1808 ; France, 
 
 1848 
 Lee, Alexander ; theatres, 1830 
 Lee Boo, prince ; Pelcw Islands, 
 
 1784 
 Lee, archbp. ; Tork, 1544 
 Lee, W. ; stocking-frame, 1589 
 Lee, gen. Robt., Unit. States, 1862 
 Leech, John, 1S17-64, caricatures 
 Leeds, duke of ; administrations, 
 
 1689 
 Leeke, H., Bushire, 1856 
 Leeuwenhoek ; 1632-1723 ; animal- 
 
 culas, polypus 
 Lefevi-e, C. Shaw ; speaker, 1839 
 Leggatt, B. ; burning, 1612 
 Legge, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 
 Le^ge, H. B. , Newcastle adm., 1754 
 Legros, Raymond ; Dublin, 1171 
 Leibnitz, Gottfried ; 1646-1716, 
 
 mathematics, fluxions 
 Leicester, earl of ; administrations, 
 
 1558 ; national associations 
 Leicester, earl of, v. Morning 
 
 Herald ; trials, 1809 
 Leighton, abp. Robt., 1611-84 
 Leighton, G. C. ; printing in 
 
 colours, 1849 
 Le Jay ; polyglot, 1628-45 
 Lelewel ; Poland, 1863 
 Lely, sir P., painter, 1617-80 
 Le Maire ; circumnavigator, 1615 
 Lennox, col. ; duel, 1789 
 Lenoir; gas, 1S61 
 Le Notre ; James's Park, St. 1668 
 Leo ; popes. Eastern empire 
 Leo X., pope ; 1513, indulgences 
 Leon, Diego de ; Spain, 1841 
 Leon, Ponce de ; America, 1512 
 Leonarda of Pisa ; algebra, 1202 
 Leonardo da Vinci, 1452-1519 
 Leonidas ; ThermopjdiS, 480 b c. 
 Leopardi, Italian orat., 1798-1837 
 Leopold, Germany ; Morgarten, 
 1315 ; Sempach, 1386 ; Bel- 
 gium, 1830 
 Lepidus ; triuravir, 43 r.c. 
 L'Epee, abbe de ; 1712-89, deaf 
 Le Pique, M. ; duel, 1808 
 Le Sage, 1668-1747 
 Leslie, C. R., painter ; 1794-1859 
 Lessing, G. E., German philoso- 
 pher, 1729-81 
 Lestock, admiral ; Toulon, 1744 
 L'Estrange, sir B. ; newspapers, 
 
 1663 
 Lettsom, Dr. ; Humane Soc. 1774 
 Lever, sir Ashton ; museum 
 Leverrier, U., 6. 181 1 ; Neptune, 
 
 1846 
 Levy, Mr. Lyon ; monument, 1810 
 Lewis, Mr. ; theatres, 1773 
 Lewis, Sir G. Cornewall, 1806-63 > 
 
 Palmerston adm. 1855 
 Lewisliam, vise. ; Addington ad- 
 ministration, 180T 
 Leyboume, William de ; admiral, 
 
 1297 
 Libanius, orator, 314-363 
 Liddon, lieut. ; north west pas- 
 sage, 1819 
 
 Lieber, T. ; Brastianism, 1523-84 
 Liebig, J., 6. 1803 ; agricutturo, 
 
 chemistry 
 Light, F. ; Penang 
 Ligonier, lord; Bute, 1762 
 Lilburne, col. ; levellers, Wigan, 
 
 1651 
 Lilly, George, d. 1559 ! charts 
 Lilly ; astrology, 1647 
 Lin ; China, 1S40 
 Linacre, Dr., d. 1524 ; gardening, 
 
 lectures, physicians 
 Lincoln, Abm., b. 1809; United 
 
 States, 1860-2 
 Lincoln, earl of ; administrations, 
 
 1579 
 Lind, Dr. ; anemometer, wind 
 Lind, Jenny (Goldschmidt), b. 1821 
 Lindley, John, bot. 1799-1865 
 Liszt, P. ; music, b. 1811 
 Lindsay, earl of; Edgehill, 1642 
 Lindsay, sir John; Madras, 1770 
 Lingard, J., 1771-1851, bistoi-ian 
 Linlithgow, lord ; guards, 1660 
 Linnseus, C. von, 1707-78 ; butany, 
 
 Linnasan zoology 
 Linus, ■poetjji, 1281 B.C. 
 Liprandi ; Balaklava, Eupatoria, 
 
 iSss 
 Lisle, lord ; administrations, 1344 
 Lisle, sir G. ; Colchester, 1648 
 Lisle, visct. ; Portsmouth, 1544 
 Liston, J. ; retires, 1838 
 Little John ; Sherwood forest 
 Littleton,lord;chancellor,lord,i64i 
 Littleton, Mr ; Melbourne ad- 
 ministration, 1S34 
 Liverpool, earl of; 1770- 1828; 
 Li vei-pool administration, 1812 
 Livingstone, D., b. 1817 ; Africa 
 Livius, Titus, hist. d. 18 
 Llewellyn : AVales, 1194 
 Lloyd, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 
 Lloyd, Mi's. Catherine; quackery, 
 
 1831 
 Lloyd, Charles, esq. ; Junius, 1769 
 Lloyd, W. ; Portland vase, 1845 
 Locke, J., 1632-1704 ; physics, car- 
 tesian, coin 
 Locke, W. ; ragged schools, 1844 
 Lockyer, major ; duel, 1817 
 Lofting, John, thimble, 1695 
 Logeman ; magnetissm, 1851 
 Lollard, Walter ; Lollards, 1315 ; 
 
 burned, 1322 
 Lombe, sir Thomas ; silk, 1714 
 London dock comijany ; trials, 1851 
 Londonderry, lord ; see Castle- 
 
 reagk ; suicide, 1822 
 Long, sir R. ; administrations, 1660 
 Long, Misses Tilney ; trials, 1825 
 Long, St. John ; quack ; ti-ials, 
 
 1830-1 
 Longfellow, H. W., 6. 1807 
 Longinus ; philoso. ; killed, 273 
 Longley, abp. York, i860 ; Ripon 
 Longstreet, gen., Chicamauga, 
 
 1863, U. States 
 Lonsdale, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 
 Lonsdale, earl of; duel, 1792 ; Derby 
 
 administration, 1852 
 Lopez ; Cuba, 1850 ; United States 
 Lopez, sir Manasseh ; Gram- 
 pound ; trials, 18 19 
 L'Orme, Philibert de ; Tuileries ; 
 
 1564 
 Lorraine, Chas. of ; Lissa, Mohatz, 
 
 1687 
 Lorraine, duke of-; Crecy, 1346 
 Lorraine, Claude, painter, 1600-82 
 Losinga, H. ; Norwich, 1091 
 Loudon, C. J., 1 783-1 843 ; botany 
 
 Loughborough ; att -gon. ; coali- 
 tion, 1783 
 Louis ; France, Spain, 1724 
 Louis III. ; landgrave, 1130 
 Louis XL, " Christ. an ;" blood, 
 
 posts, 1470 ; Provence 
 Louis XII ; tester, 1513 
 Louis XIII. ; Louis d'or, 1640 
 Louis XIV. ; Dieu-donng, Nantes, 
 
 1685 
 Louis XVIII. ; Hartwell, 1807-14, 
 
 France 
 Louis, king; Hungary, Buda, 1526 
 Louis, prince of Cond^ ; Jarnac, 
 
 1569 
 Louis Bonaparte ; Holland, 1S06 
 Louis -Napoleon ; France, 1848, 
 
 and n. 
 Louis-Philippe ; France, 1830 
 Louisa-Maria, infanta ; Spain, 1846 
 Louise, queen, d. 1850; Belgium, 
 
 1S32 
 Louth, lord, trials, i8ii 
 Louvel ; trials, 1820 
 Lovel, trials, 1812 
 Lovat, lord ; conspiracy, trials, 
 
 1747 
 Lowe, Alice ; triads, 1842 
 Lowther, vise. ; Wellington adm., 
 
 1828 
 Loyola, Ignatius ; Jesuits, 1534 
 Luby, Thos. ; fenian, trial, 1865 
 Lucan, earl of ; trials, 1856 
 Lncan, killed, 65 ; Rome, Cordova 
 Lucas, Mr. ; steel, 1804 
 Lucian, about 120-200 
 Lucilius ; satire, 116 b. c. 
 Lucretia, d. 47 b. c. ; Rome, 
 
 spinning 
 Lucretius, d. 52 B.C. 
 LuUy ; nitric acid, 1287 (music,) 
 
 1633-72 
 Lumley v. Gye ; trials, 1854 
 Lunardi, M. ; balloons, 1784 
 Lutatius ; naval battles; 241 b.o- 
 Luther, Martin, 1483-1546; Au- 
 
 giistins, Lutheranism, Dort, 
 
 Protestantism, Augsburg, Cal- 
 
 vinists. Worms 
 Luther, R ; planets, 1852 
 Luxemburg, marshal ; Enghien, 
 
 1692 
 Luxmore, bishop; Bristol, 1807 
 Lycurgus ; Sparta, S81 bo 
 LyeU, si I- C, 6. 1797 ; geology, 
 
 man 
 Lyly. W. ; euphuism, 1581 
 Lyndhurst, lord, 1772-1863 ; chan- 
 cellor; lord Canning, adm., 
 
 1827 ; Wellington adm. 1828 ; 
 
 Peel adm. 1834, 1841 
 Lynedoch, lord ; Barrosa, iSii ; 
 
 Bergen-op-Zoom, St. Sebastian 
 Lynch ; trials, 1817 
 Lyon, capt. ; north-west passage, 
 
 1821; gen. N., Springfield, i86x 
 Lyon, Johji ; Harrow school, 1571 
 Lysander; Sparta, 405 B.C. 
 Lysimachus ; Ipsus, 301 B.C., 
 
 Corns 
 Lysippus ; Lysistratus ; sculpture, 
 
 busts, 328 B.C. 
 Lyttelton, Geo., lord ; dreams, 1779 
 Lytton, B. Bulwer, novels, 6. 1805, 
 
 guilds 
 
 M. 
 
 Macadam, J.; macadamising, 1819 
 Macarthy, sir Charles ; Sierra 
 Leone, Ashantees, 1824 
 
820 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Macartney, earl ; duel, 17S6; Cliiiia, 
 
 1793 ; India 
 Macaulay, T. B., 1800-1859; ^^^1' 
 
 bourne adm., 1837 
 Macbetli ; Scotland, 1057 
 MacCabe ; rubbers, i&ji 
 JlacClellan, gen. George, 6. 1826 ; 
 
 United States, i86i 4 
 Macclesfield, eurl of; chancellor, 
 
 lord bigh, 1718 
 MacCormack ; reaping machine, 
 
 1831 
 Macdonald, marshal ; Parma, 
 
 Trebia, 1799 
 Macdonald, cajit ; Prussia, 1861, n. 
 Macdonalds massacred ; Glencoe, 
 
 1692 
 MacDowell, gen. J.; Manassa3,iS6i 
 :MacdufF, Mr. : duel, 1790 
 Macfarlane, S. ; trials, 1844 
 Macgi-egor, J. ; bank, British, 1849 
 Machiavelli, N., 1469-1527 
 Jlack, general ; Ulm, 1805 
 Mackay, gen. ; Killiecrankie, 1689 
 Mackay and Vaughan ; trials, i8it3 
 Mackintosh, sir James ; 1765-1832 
 MacLachlan, Jessie; trials, 1662 
 Mackliu, C, actor, cl. 1797 
 Macklin ; Eible, books 
 Macreath, Mr. ; tri.als, 1841 
 Macleoi, H. D. ; trials, 1858 
 Macleod, Mr. ; United States, 1841 
 Maclise, D. ; p.iinter, 0. 181 1 
 McMillan, 3. ; trials, 1861 
 MacNamaia, capt. ; duel, 1803 
 M'Clure, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 ; 
 
 north-west passage 
 M'CuUoch, J. R., polit. econ., 4. 
 
 1789 
 M'Neill, sir J. ; Sebastopol, 1855 
 McCarly, gen. ; Euniskillen, 1689 
 McClintock, capt. ; FrankUu, 1859 
 McGill, Mr. ; trials, 1842 
 McKcnzie, Mr. ; duel, 1788 
 McNaghten, sir W. ; killed, 1841 
 McXaughten, Mr.; trials, 1761, 1843 
 Macready, W. ; actoi-, b. 1793 
 Macrobius ; wi-iter, d. 415 
 Madan, bp. ; Peterborough, 1794 
 Madiai, the; Tuscany, 1852 
 Madison, James ; United States, 
 
 president, i8og 
 Maecenas, </. 8 ; dedications, baths 
 Magee, J.; trials, 1813 
 M^tgellan ; killed, 1521 ; circum- 
 navigation, Philippine 
 Magi ; fire worshipjaers, Epiphany 
 Magnus, king. Norwaj', Sweden 
 Maguire, capt.; Franklin, 1848 
 Magus, Simon; Simouians, heretics 
 Mahomet, 570-632 ; Hegira, 622 ; 
 Mahometanism, Mecca, Me- 
 dina, Beder, Turkey, Koran 
 Mahomet II., d. 1481 ; eastern em- 
 pire, Turkey, Adrianople, 
 Constantinoiile, Albania 
 Maimonidcs ; Jewish wi-., d. 1208 
 jMaitland, capt.; France, 1815 
 Maitland, sir Fred.; China, 1838 
 Majendie, bishop ; Chester, i&x) 
 Major ; conchology, 1675 
 Malachi prophesies about 397 B.C. 
 Malcolm ; Scotland, kings, clan- 
 ships, Alnwick, Dunsinane 
 Malebranche, X. ; philos., 1638- 
 
 1713 
 Malherbe ; Fr. poet, 1556-1628 
 Malibran, madame ; music, 1808-36 
 Mallet, R. ; earthquakes, seismo- 
 meter, 1858 
 Malracsbury, lord, 6. 1807 ; Derby 
 adiuiuistratious, 1852, 1858 
 
 Malpighi, M. ; anatomist, 1628-94 
 JIaltby, bishop ; Durham, 1836 
 JIaltUus, T., 1766-1834, polit. econ. 
 Miilzel, J. ; metronome, 1815 
 Manasseh, Ben Lsrael ; Jews, 1657 
 Manby, capt. ; life-preserver, 1809 
 Manchester, earl of ; administra- 
 tions, 1620 
 Manchester will ; trials, 1854 
 Mandeville, vise; administrations, 
 
 1620 
 Manes ; killed, 274 ; Manicheans 
 Manfred ; killed, 1266 ; Naples 
 Manlius; Cimbri, 102 B.C., Rpme 
 Majiners, lord John ; Derby ad- 
 ministrations, 1852, 1858 
 Mannings ; murderers, trial, 1849 
 Manny, sirW. ; ch.arter-house, 1371 
 Mansel, bishop ; Bristol, 1808 
 Mansell, T. ; executions, 1857 
 Man.stield, lord ; att.-gen., 1754 ; 
 Dumblain, 1715 ; fictions in 
 law, king's bench 
 Mansfield, C B. ; benzole, 1849 
 Mantiel ; Eastern emijire, Trebi- 
 
 zond 
 JIanutius, see Aldus 
 Mar, earl of; Harlaw, 141 1 
 Marat; stabbed; France, 1793 
 M,arcellus ; Rome, 212 B.C. 
 March, Roger, earl of; rebellions, 
 
 1398 
 March, R. ; rope-making, 1784 
 Marchmont ; trials, 185S 
 Marcion ; Marcionites, 140 
 AUircus Aurelius ; Rome, emp. 161 
 Marcus Curtius ; Rome, 362 B.C. 
 JIardonins ; Mycale, Plateea, 
 
 497 B.C. 
 Jfcirgaret ; queens (Edward I.) 
 Margaret of Anjou (queen of 
 Henry VI.), d. 1481 ; Tewkes- 
 bury, Towton, Wakefield 
 Margaret of Norway; Calmar, 1393 
 Margaret (governess of the Nether- 
 lands, 1559); beards 
 Margraff ; beet>root, 1747 
 .Maria da Gloria ; Poi-tugal, 1826 
 Maria-Louisa, d. 1847 ; France, 
 
 p. 318; wills (Napoleon's) 
 Maria-Theresa; Germany, 1711 
 Maria- Antoinette ; France, 1793; 
 
 diamond necklace 
 Marius, d. 86 B.C. ; Ambroncs, 
 
 Cimbri 
 Markhiim, abp. ; York, 1776 
 Marlborough, duke of, 1650 1716 ; 
 oom.-in-chief, marshals, Blen- 
 heim, Uouay, Liege, Lisle, Mal- 
 plaquet, Oudenarde, RamUies 
 Marlborough, earl of; administra- 
 tions, 1628 
 Marlowe, Chr. ; dramatist, d. 1593 
 Marmont, mai-shal ; Salamanca, 
 
 1S12 
 Marmontcl, J. P., 1723-99 
 Marot, Clement ; poet, 1495-1544 
 Marr, carl of ; trials, 1831 
 Marsh, bp. ; Llandaff, 1816 
 Marshall, Mr. ; California, 1847 
 Marshall, T. R ; trials, 1859 
 Martel, Charles ; France, 714 
 Marten, Maria ; trials, 1S28 
 Marth ; planets, 1854 
 Martial; epigrams,.^. 100 
 Martin, John ; painter, 1790-1854 
 Martin, Jon. ; fires York minster, 
 
 1829 
 Martin ; popes, 649, et seq. 
 Martin, Rd. ; animals, 1822 
 Martin, rev. G. ; suicide, iS(5o 
 Martyr, Peter, d. 1561 
 
 Marvell, A. ; d. 1678 ; ballot 
 
 Mary I., 1^16-58; England, queen, 
 1553; Calais 
 
 Mary II. 1662 94 ; England, queen, 
 1689 
 
 Mary, queen of Scots, 1542-87 ; 
 Scotland, Carlisle, Edinburgh, 
 sycamore, Lang.side, Loch- 
 leven-castle, Fotheringay 
 
 Maryborough, lord ; postmaster, 
 1835 
 
 Masaniello ; Naples, 1647 
 
 Maskelyne, Dr. N.; Greenwich, 
 1765; SchielialUen, 1772 
 
 Maskelyne, N. ; Venus, Greenwich, 
 almanacs 
 
 Mason, Mr. ; U. States, 1861 
 
 Massena ; Zurich, 1799; Almeida, 
 Busaco 
 
 Massey v. Headfort ; trials, 1804 
 
 Massey, W. ; India, 1865 
 
 Massillon, 1663-1742 
 
 Mathew, Theobald, d. 1856; tem- 
 perance 
 
 Mathews, Chas. ; actor, 1776-1835 
 
 Mathias ; anabaptists, 1534 
 
 Matilda, queens (William I.) ; 
 Bayeux tapestry, 1066 
 
 Matilda, queens (Stephen) 
 
 Matilda (empress) ; England, 1135 
 
 Matilda, Denmark ; 1772 ; ZcU 
 
 Matild.a. countess ; Canossa, 1077 : 
 Italy 
 
 Matthew, T., abp, York, 1606 
 
 Matthews, adm. ; Toulon, 1744 
 
 Maud. See Matdda, 
 
 Maule, Fo.x; (lord Panmure), Rus- 
 sell administration, 1846 
 
 Maunsell, col. ; meal-tub plot, 
 1679 
 
 Maupertuis, P. L. de, 1698-1759 ; 
 latitude 
 
 Maurice, F. D.; b. 1805; working- 
 men's college. 1854 
 
 Mausolus ; 377 B.C. mausoleum, 
 wonders 
 
 Maximin ; Rome, emp. 235; giants, 
 persecutions 
 
 Maximilian ; emperors, Gtermany, 
 1493 ; Mexico, 1864 
 
 Mazarin, cardinal ; France, 1643 ; 
 tontines 
 
 Mazzuoli, F. ; engraving, 1532 
 
 Mead, Dr. Rich., 1673-1754; ino- 
 culation 
 
 Mciu, Geo., gen., b. 1816 ; United 
 States, 1863 
 
 Meagher; Ireland, 1848 
 
 Mcdhurst, Frs. H. ; trials, 1839 
 
 Medici ; Medici family 
 
 Medicis, Catherine de, d. 1589 ; Bar- 
 tholomew, St. 
 
 Medina- Sidonia, duke of ; armada 
 
 Medon ; Athens, 1044 
 
 Mehemet, All ; Egypt, Syria 
 
 Meikle, A., tbrashing-uiachine, 
 1776 
 
 Mekmchthon, Philip, 1497-1560; 
 Augsburg confession 
 
 Melas, general; Marengo, i8co 
 
 Melbourne, viscount ; Melbourae ; 
 trials, 1836 
 
 Mellon, Miss (afterwards duchess 
 of St. Alban's), first appear- 
 ance, 1795 
 
 MelviUe, lord ; impeachment, 1806 
 
 Memnon said to invent alphabet, 
 1822 B.C. 
 
 Menander. d. 291 b. c. , drama 
 
 Mendelssohn, F. Bartholdy, 1C09 
 48 
 
 Mendizabal, Spiiin, 1835 
 
INDEX. 
 
 821 
 
 Mendoza, Pedro de ; Buenos 
 
 Ayros, 1530. 
 Menou, general ; Alexandria, 1800 
 Meiiscliikoff, prince ; Iloly Places, 
 1853 ; Russia, Alma, Russo- 
 Turkisb war 
 Mercator, Ger., 1512-94 ; charts 
 Jlerovseus, Merovii>giaiis, France, 
 
 44S 
 Mesnier, Frederic Ant. ; mesmer- 
 ism, 1766 
 Metellus ; Achaia, 147 b. c. 
 Motastasio, Pet., poet, 1698-1782 
 Metius ; telescopes, 1590-1609 
 Mcton ; golden number. 432 B. c. 
 Metternich, prince, 1773-1859 
 Met?;, M. de ; reformatory, 1839 
 IMt-ux and Co. ; porter 
 Meyer, Simon ; Saturn. 1608-9-10 
 Meyerbeer, J. M., 1794- 1864 ; mus. 
 
 comp. 
 Mezentius ; iudiction, 312 
 MicaU prophesies about 75a B.C. 
 Michael Angelo Buonarotti, 1474- 
 
 1564 
 Michael ; eastern empire 
 Micliaelis, J.,W., bib. critic, 1717-91 
 Michelet, J., hist., 6. 1798 
 Middlesex, earl of ; administra- 
 tions, 162 1 
 Middleton, Con ; 16S3-1750 
 Middleton ; N.W. passage, 1742 
 Middleton (or Myddelton), sir 
 
 Kugli, 1555-1631, New River 
 Middleton, John; giants, 1578 
 Miecislas ; Poland, 962 
 Miguel, dora. ; Portugal, 1824 
 Mildmay, sir J. H. ; trials, 1S14 
 Mildmay, sir Walter ; administra- 
 tions, 1579 
 Mill, Jas., hist., 1775-1836 
 Millais, J. E ,6. 1829, painter 
 Miller, Hugh ; geology, suicide, 
 
 1856 
 Miller r. Salomons ; trials, 1852 
 Millie, Mr. ; trials, 1839 
 Miltiades ; Marathon, 490 B.C. 
 Milman, H. H., b. 1791, hist. 
 Milosch; Servia, 1815 
 Milton, John, 160874; Paradise 
 Lost, Cripplegace, EugUsh 
 literati.ire 
 Mina, d. 1836 ; Spain, 1835 
 Minos; Crete, 1015 B.C. 
 Minto, earl of; India, gov— gen. 
 
 1807 
 Miramon, gen. ; Mexico, 1859 
 MirSs, M. ; Mexico, 1S61 
 Mister, Josiah ; trials, 1841 
 Mitchell, sir F. ; victuallers, 1621 
 Mitchell, D. ; aquarium, 1853 
 Mitchell, adm. ; Bantry-baj', 1801-2 
 Mitchell ; Ireland, 184S 
 Mitford, sir John; att. -general, 
 1800 ; speaker, 1801 ; — W., 
 hist, of Greece, 1744-1827 
 Mithridates the Great, 131-63 B c. ; 
 Pontus, comets, electuary, 
 massacres, omens 
 Mitra, gen. B., Buenos Ayi-es, 
 
 1859 
 Moffat, colonel ; wrecks, 1857 
 Mohun, lord; duel, 1712 
 Moir, capt. ; trials, 1830 
 Moira, earl of; India, gov. -gen., 
 
 1813 
 Mole, count, d. 1855 
 Molesworth, sir WilUam ; Aber- 
 deen adm., 1852 
 Molifere, Fr. comic drama., 1622-73 
 Molinos, 1627-96; qnietists 
 Molyneux, Mr. ; absentee, 1738 
 
 Momijcsson, Giles ; victuallers, 
 1621 
 
 Monk, general, administrations, 
 1660, guards, d. 1670 
 
 Monk, bishop ; Gloucester, 1830 
 
 Monmouth, duke of, 1685 ; rebel- 
 lion, Sedgemoor, iron mask, 
 BothwoU 
 
 Monroe, Mr. ; United States, pre- 
 sident, 1817-21 
 
 Monstrelet, Eng. de, hist., d. 
 
 I4S3 
 Montacate, marquess of ; Man, 
 
 „ 1314-43 
 
 Montagu, Lird ; administrations, 
 
 1660-89 
 Montagu, lady M. W. ; inocula- 
 tion, 1718 
 Montague, Mr.s., d. 1800; May- 
 
 ■ day 
 Montaigne, M. de, essayist, 1533- 
 
 93 
 Montalembert, comte de ; France 
 Montanus ; Montanists, about 171 ; 
 
 polyglot, 1559 
 Montefiore, sir Moses ; Jews, 1837 
 Montemolin, comte de ; Spaiu, 
 
 1S60-1 
 Jlontesquieu, 1689-1755 
 Monteverde ; opera, 160-7 
 Montferrat ; assassins, 1192 
 Montfort, Simon de ; bai-ons' war, 
 commons, Kenilworth, stew- 
 ai-d, lord high, speaker, Lewes, 
 killed at Evesham, 1265 
 Montfort, Amauri de ; Albigenses, 
 
 1208 
 Montgolfier, M. ; balloons, 1782 
 Montgomery, Mr. ; suicide, duel, 
 
 1803 
 Montgomery, comte de ; tourna- 
 ments, 1559. 
 Montholon, comte de; will (Napo- 
 leon's), 1821 
 Monti, Ital. poet, 1 754-1828 
 Montpensier ; France, Spanish 
 
 marriage, 1846 
 Jlontrose, duke of; Pitt adm. 1804 
 Montrose, marquess of, executed, 
 1650 ; C'orbiesdale, Scotland, 
 Alford, Philiphaugh 
 Moore, abp. ; Canterbury, 1783 
 iloore ; murdered, trials, 1853 
 Moore, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
 Mooi^e ; almanac, 1698-1713 
 Mooi-e, Serjeant ; leases, 1535 
 Moore, Anne ; abstinence, 1808 
 Moore, sir John, k. at Corunna, 
 
 1809 
 Moore, su" Jonas ; Greenwich 
 Moore, Thos. ; poet, 1780-1852 
 Mordaunt, Charles, viscount ; ad- 
 ministrations, 16S9 
 More, sir Thomas, 1482-1535 ; ad- 
 ministrations, 1529, lord chan- 
 cellor, supremacy 
 More, Hannah, 1745-1833 
 More, Roger ; rebellion, 1651 
 Moreau, general, 1763-1813 ; Ales- 
 sandria, Augsburg, Wilrtem- 
 berg, Dresden 
 Moreland, Sam. ; speaking- 
 trumpet, 167 1 
 Morelli ; tourniquet, 1674 
 Moreton, John, earl of ; Ireland, 
 
 1177 
 Morgan; buccaneer, 1668 
 Morgan, colonel ; Lincoln 
 Morgan, confederate general ; U. 
 
 States, 1862 
 Morland, Geo., 1764-1S04 
 Morley, T. ; music, d. 1604 
 
 Morning Chronicle ; trials, i8io 
 Moniing Hei-ald ; trials, 1809 
 Morning Post; libel, 1792 
 Mornington, lord ; India, 1798 
 Morpeth, viscount (now earl of 
 
 Carlisle) ; Melbourne adm., 
 , 1835 
 
 Morris, George ; flowers, 1792 
 Morris, Mr. ; tbeatx-es, 1805 
 Mortara, E. ; Jews, 1858 
 Mortjer, mar. ; Romainville, 1814 
 Mortimer, E. A. ; trials, 1859 
 Mortimer, earl of March ; Berke- 
 
 ley, 1327 
 Morton, archbishop ; Canterbury, 
 
 i486 
 Morton, regent of Scotland, 1572 
 Morton, sir A. ; administrations, 
 
 1628 
 Morton, Thomas ; ether, 1846 
 Morton ; trials, 1852 
 Moryson, Fynes ; forks 
 Mosely, Wolf, &c. ; trials, i8ig 
 Moses, 1571-1451 B.C. 
 Mosquera, g-en.. New Granada, 
 
 1861 
 Moss, bishop; Oxford, 1807 
 Mosse, Ur. ; lying-in-hospital, 1745 
 Mothe-Guyon, madame de la ; 
 
 qnietists, 1697 
 Mountaigne, abp. ; York, 1628 
 Mount-Sandford, lord, kiUed ; 
 
 trial, 1828 
 Mouravieff ; Kars, 1855 
 Mourzoufle ; Constantinople, east- 
 ern empire, 1204 
 Mozart, W. A ; music, 1756-91 
 Muirhoad, J. G. ; trials, 1825 
 Mudie, C. ; circulating library, 
 
 1S42 
 Mulgrave, earl ; Liverpool adm., 
 
 1812, Ireland, lord-lieut. 
 Mullens, J. ; trials, i860 
 Miiller, P. ;, execution, 1864 
 Miiller, P. Max ; b. 1823, Vedas, 
 
 Sansfci-it, language 
 Miilot, M. ; aj'tesiau well, 1841 
 Mulready, Wm. ; painter, 1786-63 
 Mummiusj L., Corinth, 146 B.C. ; 
 
 paintii>g 
 Munich, marsh.al ; Perekop, 1736 
 Muiloz, duke ; Spain, 1833 
 Wunro, H. ; Buxar, 1764 
 IMnnster, earl of; suicide, 1842 
 Munzer ; leveUors, anabaptists, 
 
 1524-S 
 Murat,Joachim, 1767-1815 : Erfurt- 
 Naples 
 Mui-atori, L. ; hist., 1672-1750 
 iVlurchisun, sir Roderick I. 
 
 1792 ; geology, Brit. Assoc, 
 Murdoch, Mr. ; gas, 1792 
 Murillo, B. S. , 1613-85 ; painting 
 M\UTay, Mr. ; penny post, 1683 
 Murray, earl of ; Scotland, 1567 
 Murray, lady Aug. ; marriage act, 
 
 1793 
 Murray, B. ; trials, 184X 
 Murray, bishop ; David's, St., 1800 
 Murray, sir James ; Tarragona, 
 
 1813 
 Murray, sir Geo. ; Peel adm., 1834 
 Musa ; Spain, 712 
 Musteus,./i. 1413 B.C. 
 Musgr.ave, abp- ; Hereford, 1837 
 Musgrave, sir Richard ; duel, 1S02 
 Miishat, Mr. ; steel, iSoo 
 Myddelton, sir Hugh, 1555-1631 ; 
 
 New River 
 Mylne, R. ; 1734-1811 
 Myron; sculptor,,/?. 480 B.C. 
 Mytton, general ; Wales, 1645 
 
822 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nabi3 ; Sparta, 206 B.C. 
 Nabanasser,.rf. 747 B.C. ; astronomy 
 Kachimoff, admiral ; Sinopc, 1853 
 Nadar; balloon, 1863 
 Nadir Shah ; Persia, 1732 ; Delhi, 
 
 Afghanistan, Cabul 
 Nahum prophesies about 713 B.C. 
 Nana Sahib ; Cawnpore, India, 
 
 1857 
 Napier of Mcrchiston ; logarithms: 
 
 Napier's bones, 1614 
 Napier, admiral sir C, Portugal, 
 
 Sidon, Baltic, 1854 
 Napier, gen. sir C. ; Meeanee, 1843 
 Napier, lord ; China ; Edinburgh ; 
 
 United States, 1856 
 Napier, Mr. ; coin, 1844 
 Napoleon Jerome ; p. 318 re. 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, 1769-1 821, 
 p. 318 ; confederation, legion 
 of honour, models, notables, 
 Cairo, Egypt, Elba, Fontaine- 
 bleau, Malta, Mamelukes, St. 
 Helena, Simplon, vaccination ; 
 his battles : Acre, Areola, As- 
 perne, Auerstadt, Austerlitz, 
 Bautzen, Borodino, Castig- 
 lione, Charlcroi, Dresden, 
 Eckralihl, EssUng, Eylau, 
 Friedland, Hanau, Italy, Jena, 
 La KothiSre, Leipsic, Digny, 
 Lodi, Lutzen, Marengo, Mou- 
 tereau. National guard, Pul- 
 tusk, St. Dizier, Simplon, 
 Tilsit, Troyes, Vienna, Water- 
 loo, Wui'tzburg 
 Napoleon, king of Kome ; p. 319 
 Napoleon III., 6. 1808; p. 318; 
 Boulogne, Strasburg, Cher- 
 bourg, Italy , Magenta, Sol ferino 
 Narses ; East, empire, 552 : Goths, 
 
 Italy, Rome 
 Narvaez, gen, ; Spain, 1846 
 Nash, Mr. ; theatres, parks, 1818 
 Nasmyth, .J. ; steam-hammer, 1838 
 Nasmyth, lieut. ; Silistria, 1854 
 Nasr-ul-Din. ; Persia, 1848 
 Nearchus : sugar, 325 b.c. 
 Nebuchadnezzar; Jews, 605 B.C., 
 
 Tyre, Babylon 
 Necho ; Egypt, 634 B.C. 
 Neil, col. ; India, 1857, Allahabad, 
 
 Benares 
 Neilson, J. ; 1792-1865 ; blowing- 
 machine, 1828 
 Nelson, Horat. ; admiral lord, 
 
 1758-1805 ; Nelson 
 Nero; Rome, emperor, 54 
 Nesselrode, comte de, 1770-1862 
 Newcastle, marquess of ; Marston- 
 
 moor, 1644 
 Newcastle, duke of ; Pelham adm. 
 1749 ; Newcastle adm. 1754 ; 
 Aberdeen adm. 1852 
 Newenham, W. B. ; trials, 1844 
 Newman, rev. J. , and Achilli ; 
 
 trials, 1852 ; Tractarians 
 Newport, sir John ; exchequer, 
 
 1834 
 Newton, sir Isaac, 1642-1727 : air ; 
 binomial ; coin ; diamond ; 
 astronomy ; royal society ; 
 hydrostatics ; gravitation ; 
 mechanics 
 Ney, marshal, 1769-1815 ; Den- 
 newitz, France, Quatre-Bras, 
 Ulm, Ney 
 Neyle, archp. ; York, 1632 
 NiccoU, Nicholas; librai-ies, 1436 
 
 Nicephori, emperors; east. empire, 
 
 802-963 
 Nicephorus ; comets 
 Nicholas ; Russia, 1825-55 
 Nicholas, V., pope, 1447-55 ; St. 
 
 Peter's, Rome 
 Nichols, col. ; New York, 1664 
 Nicholson ; trials, 1813 
 Niebuhr, B. H. ; hist.", 1776-1821 
 Nifepce ; photogi-aphy, 1814 
 Niger, P.; Rome, emp , killed, 194 
 Nightingale, F., b. 1820 ; Scutari, 
 
 Nightingale 
 Ninus ; Assyria, 2059 B.C. 
 Nisbet, sir John ; advocates, 1685 
 Noad, H. M. ; electricity, 1855 
 Noah, 2347 B.C. ; ark, Armenia 
 Noailles, marshal ; Dettiugen, 
 
 1743 
 
 Norfolk, Thomas, duke of ; ad- 
 ministrations, 1540; people 
 
 Norman, sir J. ; mayor, 1453 
 
 Norman. Robert ; magnet, 1576 
 
 Normanby and Buckingham, duke 
 of ; Godolphin adm. 1702 
 
 Normanby, marquess of ; Ireland 
 (lord lieut.) 1835 
 
 North, bishop ; Winchester, 1781 
 
 North, lord; North adm. 1770 
 
 North, sir P. ; king's counsel, 
 1663 
 
 Northampton, Henry, earl of ; ad- 
 ministrations, 1609 
 
 Northumberland, Algernon, duke 
 of ; Derby administi-ation, 1852 
 
 Northumberland, Dudley, duke 
 of; administration.s, 1551 
 
 Northumberland, Hugh, duke of; 
 Ireland (lord-heut.), 1763 
 
 Northumberland, earl of ; coaches, 
 Man 
 
 Norton, sir Fletcher ; att.-gen., 
 1763 
 
 Norton, Jeffrey de ; recorder, 1298 
 
 Norton v. lord Melbom-ne ; trials, 
 1836 
 
 Nostradamus ; almanacs, 1566 
 
 Nott, gen. ; Ghiznee, 1842 
 
 Nottingham, earl of ; administra- 
 tions, 1684 
 
 Numa Pompilius ; Rome, kings, 
 715 B.C. ; calendar 
 
 Numitor ; Alba, 795 B.C. 
 
 Nunez, A. ; Paraguay, 1535 
 
 O. 
 
 Oakley, sir Charles ; Madras, 1792 
 Gates, T. ; Gates' plot, 1678 
 Obadiah prophesies about 587 B.C. 
 O'Brien, king ; Limerick, 1200 
 O'Brien, W. S. ; Ireland, 1846, 1848 
 O'Connell, Mr. Daniel, 1775-1847 ; 
 duel, 1815 ; agitators, duel, 
 emancipation, repeal, trials 
 (1831, 1844), Ireland 
 O'Connell, Mr. Morgan ; duel, 1835 
 O'Connor, Arthur ; press, riots, 
 
 trials, 1798 
 O'Connor, Fergus, il. 1855 ; char- 
 tists 
 O'Connor, Roger; tri.als, 1817 
 Ochus; Persia, 359 B.C. 
 Octavius ; Rome, 37 b.c. 
 Odin; Sweden, 70 b.c 
 Odo, earl of Kent ; treasurer 
 Odo, abp. ; Canterbury, 941-58 
 Odoacer ; Italy, 476, Heruli 
 O'Donnell, gen.; Spain, 1841 
 ffidipus ; Bojotia, 1266-76 b.c. 
 (Enotrus; Arcadia,Gri>ece, 1710B.C 
 
 Oersted, H. C, 1777-1851; elec- 
 tricity, i8ig 
 Ogle, George ; duel, 1802 
 Oglethorpe, gen. ; Georgia, 1732 
 O'Grady, Mr. ; duel, 1803 
 Ogyges ; deluge, 1764 B.C. 
 O'Halloran, Dr. ; trials, 1818 
 O'Keofe ; trials, 1825 
 Olbers, M. ; planet, 1802 
 Oldcastle, sir John; burnt, 1418 
 Oliphant, sir Wm. ; advocate 
 Ohvarez governs Spain, 1621-43 
 Oliver, L. ; trials, 1858 
 Ollondorflf, H. G. ; linguist, 1803-65 
 Ollivant, bp. ; Llandaff, 1849 
 O'Loghlen, sir M. ; Roman catho- 
 lics. 1836 
 Omai ; Otaheite 
 
 Omar, caliph, 634 ; Alexandria, All 
 Omar Pacha ; Citate, Montenegro, 
 Oltenitza, Ingour, Russo- 
 Turkish war, 1855 
 Ommaney, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
 O'Moore, Rory ; Carlow, 1577 
 O'Neil, rebellion ; massaci-e. Black- 
 water, 1598 
 O'Neil, Miss ; appears at Covent 
 
 Garden, 1814 
 Opie, John ; painter, 1761-1807 
 Oppian, poet,/. 171 
 Onslow, sir R. ; Halifax adm., 
 
 1714 
 Orange, William, -prince of ; Hol- 
 land, Maestricht, revolution, 
 1572 ; England, 1689 
 Orange, prince of; Quatre-Bras, 
 
 1815 
 Orbelliaua; Circassia, 1857 
 Orellana ; Amazonia, 1540 
 Orestes ; Mycenaj, Sparta, 1175 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Orfil.a, M. J. ; physic, 1783-1853 
 Orford, earl of; admiralty, 1709 
 Orloff, count ; diamonds, 1772 
 Ormond, James, duke of ; Ireland, 
 
 P- 399 
 Oi-mond, earl of; combat, 1446 
 Ormond, marq. of ; Rathmines, 
 
 1649 
 Orr, Wm. ; trials, 1797 
 Onery, earl of ; Orrery 
 Ortega, gen. ; Spain, i860 
 Osborn, Sherard ; Franklin, 1854 
 Osborne, sir Thos. ; administra- 
 tions, 1672 
 Oscar; Sweden, 1844 
 Osgodeby, Adam de ; master of 
 
 the rolls, 1295 
 Ospina ; New Grenada, 1857 
 Ossory, lord ; tea, 1666 
 Osymandyas; Egypt, 2100 b.c; 
 
 observatories, painting 
 Othman ; Turkey, 1298 
 Otho ; Rome, emp., 69 ; Germany, 
 
 936 ; Greece, 1832-62 
 Otto, M. ; Amiens, 1802 
 Ottocar; Bohemia, 1197 
 Oudinot, marshal ; Rome, 1849 
 Outram, sir James ; 1805 63 ; Mo- 
 
 hammerah. India, 1857 
 Overbury, sir T., poisoned, 1613 
 Ovid ; poet, d. 18 
 Owen, W. D. ; trials, 1858 
 Owen, Robert ; socialists, 1834 
 Owen, Richard, 6. 1804 ; odonto- 
 graphy, palaeontology, zoology 
 Oxenden, sir George ; Surat, 1664 
 Oxford, Edward ; trials, 1840 
 Oxford, earl of ; Godolphin adm., 
 
 1702 ; Oxford adm. 
 Oxford, John, earl of; yeomen, 
 i486 
 
INDEX. 
 
 823 
 
 P. 
 
 Paciolo ; algebra, 1494 
 
 Paddon, liout. ; taiies Cerbbi-e, 
 1800 
 
 Paget, lord ; duel, trials, 1809 
 
 Paget, lord Wm., v. Cardigan, 
 trials, 1844 
 
 Paget, sir A. ; trials, 1808 
 
 Paget, sir William ; administra- 
 tions, 1547 
 
 Paine, Thomas ; trials, 1792 
 
 Pakington, sir John ; admiralty, 
 1858 
 
 Palafox, gen. ; Saragossa, iSog 
 
 Palamedes ; alphabet, backgam- 
 mon, battle, dice, chess, 680 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Palestrina; 1529-94, music 
 Palladio, A. ; architect, 1518-80 
 Palliser, sir Hugh ; Ushant, 1778 
 Palm, the bookseller ; trials, 1806 
 Palma, cardinal, shot ; Rome, 1848 
 Palmer, J. ; mail coaches, 1784 
 Palmer; duel, 181 5 ; trials, 1856 
 Palmerston, Henry, vise. ; 1784- 
 
 1865 ; Palmerston 
 Panizzi, A. ; British Museum, 1859 
 Panmure, lord ; Bussell adm., 
 
 1851 
 Paoli, Pascal ; Corsica, 1753 
 Papaohin, adm. ; flag, 1688 
 Pajjin ; steam-engine, 16S1 
 Papiueau ; Canada, 1837 
 Papirius Cursor ; sun-dial, 293 B.C. 
 Paracelsus ; d. 1541 ; alchemy 
 Parini, Guis. ; poet, 1729-99 
 Paris, count of; b. 183S ; Orleans 
 Park, Mungo ; d, 1805 ; Africa 
 Parker, adm. ; Copenhagen, 1801 
 Parker, abp. Matthew ; Canter- 
 bury, 1558 ; liturgy. Nag's 
 Head 
 Parker (mutineer) ; trials, 1797 
 Parker, capt. ; Boulogne 
 Parker, sir Peter ; Bellair, 1S14 
 Parker, Thomas, lord ; chancellor, 
 
 lord, 1718 
 Parkes, consul; China, i860 
 Parma, duke of ; Yvres, 1590 
 Parma, prince of; Antwerp, 1585 
 Parmenio ; Macedonia, 329 B.C. 
 Parnell, sir Henry ; Melbourne 
 
 adm. 1835 
 Parr, Thomas ; 1483-1635 ; longe- 
 vity 
 Parrhasius ; painting, j!. 397 B.C. 
 Parry, B. ; north-west passage, 
 
 1818 
 Parsons, bp. ; Peterborough, 1813 
 Parsons family ; Cock-lane ghost, 
 
 impostors, 1762 
 Pascal, B. ; 1623-62 ; air, calcu- 
 lating machine, barometers 
 Paskiewitch ; Silistria, 1854 
 Pasteur, M. ; fermentation, 1861 
 Patch, Mr. ; trials, 1806 
 Pate, lieut. ; trials, 1850 
 Paterculus ; d. 31 
 Paterson, W. ; bank, 1694 ; Darien 
 Paton, Miss ; at Haymarket, 1822 
 Patrick, St. ; preaches, 433, Ar- 
 d.agh, Ai-magh, Dubhn, isles, 
 shamrock 
 Paul, St. ; martyred, 65 ; popes 
 Paul ; see Sarpi 
 Paul I. ; Russia, 1796 
 Paul II. ; pope, 1464 ; purple 
 Paul, sir J., &c. ; trials, 1855; 
 
 fraudulent trustees 
 Paulinus ; bells, 4xx) 
 
 Paull, Mr. ; duel, 1807 
 Pauhilio, Anafesto ; doge, 697 
 Paulus iEmihus ; Canute, 216 b.c. 
 Paulus, Marcus ; compass, 1260 
 Paulus; Abrahamites 
 Pausanias; Sparta, 480 B.C. ; Pla- 
 
 tecB, Macedon, 336 b. c. 
 Pausias, of Sicyon, 360-330 B.C. ; 
 
 painting 
 Paxton, sir Joseph; 1S03-65 ; ex- 
 hibition of 1851 ; cx-ystal 
 palace 
 Payne, Mr. 6. ; duel, iSio 
 Peabody, G., b. 1795 ; London, 1862 
 Peace, the prince of ; Spain, 1806 
 Pearce, &c. : gold robbery, 1857 
 Peckham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1279 
 Pedro (Peter); Portugal, Brazil, 
 
 1822 
 Peel, captain sir F. ; India, 1858 
 Peel, col. ; West Australia, 1828 
 Peel, sir Robert ; 178-81855 ; Peel 
 adm. (see note), 1834-1S41 ; acts 
 of parliament, conservative, 
 corn bill, duel, 1815 ; income- 
 tax, tariff 
 Peele, James ; book-keeping, 1569 
 Pelham, H. ; Wilmington adm. 
 
 1742 ; Pelham adm., 1744 
 Pelham, bj). ; Bristol, 1807; Nor- 
 wich, 1857 
 Pelham, sir W. ; engineers, 1622 
 Pelissier, due de Malakhoflf ; 1784- 
 
 1854; Algiers, Dahra 
 Pelletier ; quinine, 1820 
 Pellew, sir Ed.; naval battles, 1795 
 Pelouze, F. J., b. 1807, formic acid 
 Peltier, M. ; libel, trials, 1803 
 Pembei'ton, sir Francis ; king's 
 
 bench, 1681 
 Pembroke, earl of ; Godolphin 
 adm. 1702 ; lord lieutenant ; 
 Lincoln ; protectorates ; SaUs- 
 bury ; admiralty 
 Pengelly, W. ; man 
 Penn, admiral ; Jamaica, 1655 
 Penn, Wm. ; d. 1718 ; Pennsylva- 
 nia, Quaker 
 Penny, captain ; Franklin, 1850 
 Pepe, gen. P. ; Naples, 1820 
 Pepin ; France, 752 ; Ferrara 
 Pepys, bp. ; Worcester, 1841 
 Perceval, Spencer ; m. 1812 ; Per- 
 ceval 
 Percy (Hotspur) ; Otterburn, 1388 
 Percy, lord ; Durham, 1346 ; Ho- 
 
 melden 
 Perdiccas ; Macedon, 454 B.c. 
 Perdita, Mrs. Robinson ; theatres, 
 
 1779 
 Pereire, M. ; credit mobilier, 1852 
 Pereyra ; Uruguay, 1856 
 Pericles; Athens, 469 B.C. 
 Perillus ; brazen bull, 570 B.C. 
 Perkin Warbeck ; Warbeck, 1492 
 Perkin, W. H. ; aniline, 1857 
 Perkins ; engraving ; copper-plate 
 
 printing, 18 19 
 Perreaus ; forgery ; trials, 1776 
 Perreira ; deaf and dumb 
 PeiTing, John ; mayor, 1803 
 Perry, Mr. ; trials, 1810 
 Perry, lieut. ; trials, 1854 
 Perseus ; Pydna, 168 B.C. 
 Persigny, J. G., b. 1808 France, 
 
 i860 
 Persius, 34-65 ; satires 
 Perugino, Paolo, 1446-1524 
 Peter the Cruel ; Montiel, 1369 
 Peter the Great ; 1672-1725; Russia, 
 Deptford, Petersburg, Narva, 
 Pultowa 
 
 Peter the Hermit ; crusades, 1094 
 Peters, C. H. ; planets, 1862 
 Pction ; Port-au-Prince, 1806 
 Peto, S. M., 1809 ; dioiama, 1855 
 Petrarch, 1304-74 ; Petrarch, son- 
 nets 
 Petre, sirWm. ; administrns, 1547 
 Petronius ; Ethiopia, 22 B.C. 
 Petronius Arbiter, '/. 66 
 Pettigrew, T. ; epitaphs, 1857 
 Petty, lord H. ; GrenviUe adm., 
 
 1807 
 Petty, Wm. ; Boyal Society, 1660 
 Pezet, J. A. ; Peru, 1863-5 
 Phalaris ; brazen bull, 599 B.C. 
 Pharamond ; France, 418? 
 Pharaohs ; Egypt, 1899 b c. 
 Pharnaces ; Pontus, Cappadooia, 
 
 744 B. c. 
 Phasdrus writes fables, 8 
 Pheidon, Ji. S69 b.c. ; coinage, 
 
 silver, scales, weights 
 Phelps, Mr. ; theatres, Sadler's 
 
 Wells, 1844 
 Phepoe, Mrs. ; trials, 1797 
 Phidias,/. 438 b.c, statues 
 Philip, D. ; France, Macedon, 
 
 Spain, Hesse, Orleans, 1640 
 Philip, St., Neri; oratorios, 1550 
 Phihp the Good ; Burgundy, liol- 
 
 •land, 1419-67 
 Philip the Great, killed 336 b.c. ; 
 
 Macedon, .3i)tolia, Chseronasa, 
 
 Locri, 338 B.C. 
 Philip II. ; Spain, 1556 
 Philippa, queen (Edward. III.) ; 
 
 Dui'ham, 1346 
 Philipps, T. ; Newport, 1839 
 Phillip, gov. ; Australia, 17S8 
 Phillips, J. T., Brit. Assoc. 1831 ; 
 
 fire annthilator, 1849 
 Philopoemen ; Achaia, 194 B.C. 
 Philpott, bp. ; Worcester, 1861 
 Phipps, capt. ; north-west passage, 
 
 1773 
 
 Phocas ; east, emp., 602 
 
 Phocion ; killed, 317 b.c 
 
 Phoroneus ; Argos (1807 B.C.), sa- 
 crifice, laws 
 
 Photius Gallus ; rhetoric, 87 b.c. 
 
 Piastus ; Poland, 842 
 
 Piazzi, M. ; planet, 1801 
 
 Pichegru ; Mauheim ; killed, 1805 
 
 Pickard, sirH. ; lord mayor, 1357 
 
 Picton, gen., trials, 1806; Quatre- 
 Bras, Waterloo, 181 5 
 
 Pierce ; United States, president, 
 1853" 
 
 Piers, abp. ; York, 1589 
 
 Pigot, David Richard ; exchequer, 
 1846 
 
 Pigot, Id. ; India, Pigot diamond, 
 1802 
 
 Pigot, major-gen. ; Malta, 1800 
 
 Pike, Miss ; Cork, trials, 1800 
 
 Pilkington, bishop ; hturgy 
 
 Pilpay ; fables 
 
 Pindar, 522-439 B.C.— Peter (Dr. 
 Wolcot) ; trials, 1807 
 
 Pinel, M. ; lunatics, 1792 
 
 Pinzon ; America S., 1500, Peru, 
 1863 
 
 Pisander; naval battles, 394 B.C. 
 
 Pisistratus ; Athens, 527 b.c 
 
 Pitman, I. ; phonography, 1837 
 
 Pitt ; diamond, 1720 
 
 Pitt, Wm. ; see Chat/tarn, earl 
 
 Pitt, Wm. ; 1759-1806 ; Pitt admi- 
 nistration, 1783; India com- 
 pany, E., reform, duel, 1798 
 
 Pius ; popes, 142 et seq. 
 
 Pius IV. ; confossion, 1504 
 
824 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Pius VII. ; concordat, 1801 
 Pius IX. ; pope, 1846 ; papal ag- 
 gression, conception 
 Pizarro ; America, 1524 
 Plato, 429-347 B.C. ; academies, 
 anatomy, antipodes, names, 
 Sicily 
 Platts, John ; executions, 1847 
 Plautus, b. 184 B.C. ; diama 
 Pliny, the elder, 24-79; pearls, 
 Vesuvius ; the younger, d. 100 
 Plumer, sir Thomas; att.-gen., 
 
 1812 
 Plummer, Eugenia ; trials, i860 
 Plunket, lord ; lord chancellor 
 
 (Ireland), 1830 
 Plutarch, Jl. 80 ; biography 
 Pocock, admiral ; Cuba, 1762 
 Poerio, C. ; Napks, 1850-59-60 
 Pogson, N. ; planets, 1856 
 Poictiers, Roger de ; Liverpool, 
 
 1089 
 Poitevin, M. ; balloons, 1852-58 
 Pole, Wellesley ; mint ; trials, 
 
 1825 
 Pole, abp, ; Canterbury, 1556 
 Polignac, prince de ; France ; 1830 
 Polk, Jas ; United States, presi- 
 dent, 1845 
 Pollio, C. ; Silaveiy, 42 B.C. 
 Pollock, gen. G. ; India, 1842 , 
 Pollock, sir Frederick ; attorney- 
 general, exchequer, 1834-1844 
 Polo, Marco, writes about 129S 
 Polybius, 207-122 B.C. ; 
 
 telegraphs. Acbaia, physic 
 Polycarp martyred, 166 
 Polydorus : Laocoon 
 Pomare ; Otalieite, 1799 
 Pompey, killed 48 b c. ; Rome, 
 
 Sjiain, Pharsalia 
 Pond, J. ; Greenwich, iSii 
 Pontius, C. ; Claudine forks, 321 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Poole, A. ; auricular confession, 
 
 1858 
 Pope, Alex., 1688-1744 ; alexan- 
 drine verse.satire,Homer,i7i4 
 Pope, gen. J. ; Manassas, United 
 
 States, 1862 
 Popham,sir Home ; Buenos Ayres, 
 
 Cape, trials, 1807 
 Popp:i3a (wife of Nero) ; masks 
 Porsenna ; labyrinth, 520 B.C. 
 Person, prof., 1759-1808; writing 
 Porter, sir Charles ; Limerick 
 Porteus, bp. ; London, 1787 
 Portland, duke of, Portland adm., 
 1783 ; Ireland (lord lieute- 
 nant ; Junius 
 Portman, sir Wm. ; king's bench, 
 
 1554 
 Portsmouth, earl of ; trials, 1823 
 Posidonius/f. 86 B.C. ; atmosphere, 
 
 moon, tides, air 
 Potamon ; eclectics, about i 
 Potter, abp. ; Canterbury, 1737 
 Pottinger, sir H. ; China, 1841 
 Pouchet, M. ; spout, generation, 
 
 1859 
 Poussin, N., painter, 1594-1665 
 Powell, Langhai-ne, and Poyer, 
 
 colonels ; Wales, 1647 
 Power, Mr. ; wrecks, 1841 
 Power, Mrs., Mary ; longevity, 1853 
 Powys, bishop ; Man, 1854 
 Poyer, colonel ; Wales, 1647 
 Praslin murder, 1847 
 Praxiteles,^. 363 B.C. ; mirrors 
 Premislavis:; Poland, 1295 
 Prescott, Wm. ; 1796-1859 
 Preston, lord; conspiracy, 1691 
 
 Pretender, old, 1688-1765 ; yovmg, 
 1720-88 ; Pretender, Falkirk, 
 Prestoupans, Culloden 
 
 Pretsch, P. ; photo-galvanography, 
 
 1854 
 Prevost, sir George ; Plattsburg, 
 
 1814 
 Priam ; Ilium, Troy, 1224 B.C. 
 Price, Mr. ; duel, 1816 ; alchemy 
 Pi-ice, adm. ; Petropaulovski, 1854 
 Prichard, Dr. ; ethnology, 1841-7 
 Priessnitz, V. ; hydropathy, 1828 
 Priestley, Joseph, 1733-1804 ; earth- 
 quakes, eudiometer, nitrous 
 gas, oxygen, fluorine 
 Pride, col. ; Pride's purge, 1648 
 Prim, gen. Juan, 6. 1814; Castel- 
 lejos, Guad-el-ras, i860, Spain 
 Prior, M. ; poet ; 1664-1721 
 Prince, H. J. ; agapemouians 
 Priscillian ; gnostics, 3S4 
 Pritchard, Dr. E. W. ; trials, exe- 
 cution, 1865 
 Probert ; trials, 1824 
 Probus, Rome, emp. 276 ; massacre 
 Procles ; biarch, 1102 b.c. 
 Propertius; poet, 26 B.C. 
 Proudhon, P. de. ; socialist, 1809- 
 
 65 
 Prynne, W. ; lawyer, 1600-70 
 Psammetichus, 650 b.c ; Egypt, 
 
 labyrinth, languages, sieges 
 Pseusennes, 971 b.c. ; Egypt 
 Ptolemy (a.stronomer), d. 161 
 Ptolemy ; Egypt, Bible, Septua- 
 gint, Ipsus, pharos, arithme- 
 tic, academies 
 Ptolemy, Epiphanes, 205 B.C. ; 
 
 Egypt, Rosetta 
 Puckei-ing, sir John ; chancellor, 
 
 lord high, 1592 
 Pugin, A. W., 1811-52 , decorat.art 
 Pullen, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 
 Pulteney, Mr. ; Halifax adm., 1714 
 Pulteney sir James ; Ferrol, 1800 
 Purcell, Henry ; music, 1658-95 
 Purchas, Sam. ; 1577-1628 
 Purdon, col. ; Ashantees, 1826 
 Purefoy ; duel, 1788 ; trials, 1794 
 Pusey, Dr. E. , 6. i860; Puseyism 
 Pye, Hen. J. ; poet-laureate, 1790 
 Pym, J. ; politician, d. 1643 
 Pyrrho ; sceptics, 334 b.c. 
 Pyi-rhus, 281 B.C. ; Macedon, Epi- 
 
 rus, Tarentum, Ascutum 
 Pythagoras,/. 555 b.c. ; acoustics, 
 astronomy, Copernicus, Egypt, 
 the globe, harmonic strings, 
 shoes, solar system, spheres 
 
 Quekett, prof. ; histology, 1857 
 Quentin, coL ; duel, 1815 ; trials, 
 
 1814 
 Quevedo, Span, writer, 1570-1647 
 Quintilia ; Quintilians 
 Quintin ; libertines, 525 
 Quintus Pabius, 291 b.c. ; painting 
 Quiros ; New Hebrides, 1606 
 
 R. 
 
 Rabelais, F., satiri.st, 1483-1553 
 Rachel, mademoiselle, d. 1858 
 Racine, J. ; dramat., 1639-99 
 RadclifiEe, Dr. John ; Raiicliffe 
 
 library, 1737 
 Radetzky, marshal, d. 1858 ; Aus- 
 tria, Novara, Italy, 1848 
 
 Radnor, earl of; administrations, 
 
 1684 
 Rae, Dr. ; Franklin, 1848 
 Raglan, lord ; Russo-Turkish war, 
 
 1857 
 Ragotski ; Transylvania 
 Raikes, Mr.,1781 ; Sunday-schools, 
 
 education, infanticide 
 Raleigh, sir Walter, 1552-1618 ; 
 
 dress, Pennsylvania, Trinidad, 
 
 Virginia, England 
 Ramirez II. ; Semincas, B.C. 938 
 Rameses ; Egypt, 1618 
 Ramsay, David ; combat, 163 1 
 Ramsay, sir George ; duel, 1790 
 Ranee ; Ti-appist, 1662 
 Randolph, T. ; post-ofEoe, 1581 
 Randolph, bp. ; Bangor, London, 
 
 1809 
 R.aphael, 1483-1520 ; cartoons 
 Rai3hael,Alex. ; Roman Catholics, 
 
 1834 
 Rirey, J. S. ; horse, 1858 
 Ratazzi, U., 6. 1808; Italy, 1862 
 R;iuch, C. ; sculj^tor, 1777-1857 
 Ravaillac kills Henry IV., 1610 
 Rawdon, lord ; Camden, 1781 
 Rawlinson.col. sir H. , 6. 1810 ; As. 
 
 Syria, Babylcn, Behisttiu, 1844 
 Ray, John, 1628-T705 
 Raj'bere ; Bartholemew's, iioo 
 Raymond, lord; attoniey-gener.al, 
 
 1725 ; king's bench 
 Reaumvir, d. 1757 ; light 
 Reay, Miss, killed ; trials, 1779 
 Reay, lord ; combat, 163 1 
 Rcbeccaites ; trials, 1843 
 Redanies, D. ; execution, 1857 
 Rede.sdale, lord; att.-gen, 1800 
 Redpath, L. ; trials, 1857 
 Reece, R. ; bogs, 1849 
 Reed, Andrew, 1 787-1862 ; orphan, 
 
 idiots, incurables 
 Reeves, Mr. John ; levellers, 1792 
 Regnier, gen. ; KaUtseh, Maida, 
 
 Ximera, 181 1 
 Regulus, 250 B.C. ; Carthage 
 Reich, F., and Richter, T., in- 
 dium, 1863 
 Reichenbach, C. ; 6. 1788 ; paraf- 
 
 fine, 1831 ; odyl 
 Reichenstein ; telluritini, 1782 
 Reichstadt,dnke de ; France, p. 319 
 Reid, gen. ; India, 1857 
 Reinbauer ; trials, 1829 
 Rembrandt ; painter, 1606-74 
 Remigius de Fescamp ; Lincoln, 
 
 1086 
 Remy, St. ; Rheims 
 Renata, Maria ; witchcraft, 1749 
 Renaudot, M. ; newspapers, 1631 
 Reunie, J. (1761-1821), and sir J. ; 
 
 breakwater, 1S12 ; Waterloo- 
 bridge, London -bridge 
 Reschid, Pacha; Turkey, 1853 
 Reuchlin, J. , reformer, d. 1522 
 Reuss ; engraving 
 R.aynere, Richard; sheriff, 11 89 
 Reynolds, sir Joshua ; royal 
 
 academy, 1768 
 Reynolds, sir Joshua, 1723-92 
 Reynolds, abp. ; Canterbury, 1313 
 Reynolds, capt ; trials, 1840 
 Reynolds, George ; duel, 1788 
 Riall, gen. ; Chippawa, 1814 
 Ricasoli. B. , 6. abt. 1803 : Italy,i86i 
 Rice, Spring (lord Monteagle) ; 
 
 administrations, 1834 
 Rich, Richard, lord; chancellor, 
 
 lord, 1547 
 Richard I., England, 1189; 'Acre, 
 Ascalon, Coeur de Lion, Dieu 
 
INDEX. 
 
 825 
 
 et mon droit, laws, Olcron, 
 
 navigation laws 
 Eichard III., i/jSs ; Bosworth 
 Eichardson, sir John ; naturalist, 
 
 1783-1865, Franklin 
 Eichardson, H., 1852; life-boat; 
 
 Sam., 1689-1761 
 Eichelieu, duke of ; Closterseven, 
 
 1757 
 Eichmond, duke of ; Eookinghani 
 administration, 1782, Aic. ; 
 Ireland, duel 
 Eichter, J. Paul, Ger. novel., 1763- 
 
 1825 
 Eidel, Stephen, 1189 ; chancellor, 
 
 lord, Ireland 
 Eider, William ; silk hose 
 Eidley, bp., burnt, 1554 
 Eiego put to death, 1823 ; Spain 
 Eienzi, N., m. 1354; tribune, Rome 
 Riguet, M. ; tuimels 
 Einuccini, Octavio, 6. 1621 ; opera 
 Eipon, earl of ; Goderich admi- 
 nistration, 1827 
 Elvers, earl, m. 1483 ; Pomfret 
 Eizzio, David, to. 1566 ; Scotland, 
 
 France, Naples 
 Eobert, duke of Normandy ; 
 
 Tinchebray, 1106 
 Eobert II. ; pilgrimages, 1060 
 Eoberts, D., E.A., d. 1864 
 Eobertson, capt. ; trials, 1862 
 Eobertson, Dr. Wm., hist , 1721-93 
 Eobespierre, P. M. ; reign of 
 
 terror, France, 1793-4 
 Eobin Hood; robbers, archery, 
 
 1189 
 Eobinson, P. ; Goderich, nnte 
 Eobinson, James ; ether, 1848 
 Eobinson, R., 1735-90 ; indepen- 
 dents 
 Eobinson, sir Thomas ; Newcastle 
 
 administration, 1754 
 Eobinson, of York, murdered ; 
 
 trials, 1833 
 Eobson, W. ; trials, 1856 
 Rochambeau ; Yorktown, 1781 
 Eochefoucauld, F. De la, philos., 
 
 1613-80 
 Eochester, earl of ; administra- 
 tions, 1679 
 Eockingham, marq. of; Eooking- 
 hani administrations, 1765 
 Eoderick ; Spain, 709 ; Wales, 843 
 Jiodney, G. ; Eustatia, 1781 
 Eodolph of Hapsburg ; Austria, 
 
 1278 
 Eodolph of Nuremberg ; Wire, 
 
 1410 
 Eoebuck, J. ; duel, 1835 ; Sebas- 
 
 topol 
 Eoger ; Sicily, Naples. 1130 
 Eogers, John, burnt, 1555 
 Eogers, Sim., poet, 1763-1855 
 Roggewein ; ciicximnavigatoi-, Eas- 
 ter Island, 1722 
 Eohiin, card. ; diamond neckl., 
 
 1786 
 EoUin, Chas., hist., 1661-1741 
 Remain, M. ; balloons, k. 1785 
 Romilly, sir Samuel ; criminal law, 
 
 suicide, 18 18 
 Eomilly, sir J. ; solicitor-general, 
 
 master of the rolls, 1851 
 Eoniney, Geo., painter, 1734-1802 
 Eomulus; Eume, 753 B.C.; ca- 
 lendar. Alba, aruspices 
 Eomulus Augustulus ; western 
 
 empire, 475 
 Eonalds, P. ; electric telegraph, 
 
 1823 ■ 
 Jlonge, J. ; kindergarten, 1851 
 
 Eooke, sir George ; Gibraltar, 
 1704 ; snuff, Alderney, Cadiz, 
 Cape la Hogue, Cape St. 
 Vincent, Vigo 
 Eoper, colonel ; duel, 1788 
 Eosas ; Buenos Aj'res, 1852 
 Eoscoe, W., hist., 1753-1831 
 Rose, sir Hugh ; India, 1858 
 Eoselserry, countess of ; trials, 1814 
 Eosencrans, gen.. Unit. S., 1862 
 Ross, sir J. ; Franklin, north-west 
 
 passage, 1848 
 Ross, colonel ; duelling, 1817 
 Ross, gen. ; Baltimore, Washing- 
 ton, 1 814 
 Rosse, earl of; telescopes, 1828; 
 
 Royal Society, 1848 
 Eosser, Mr. , and Miss Darbon ; 
 
 trials, 1841 
 Rossi, count, m. 1848 ; Eome 
 Ebssini, G., mus. comp. , 0. 1792 
 Eostopchin ; Moscow, 1812 
 Eothesay ; duke 
 Eothschild, Anselm (the first), 
 
 d. 1812 
 Eothschild, baron ; Jews, 1849 
 Roubiliac, sculptor, rf. 1762 
 EoupeU, W., M.P. ; trials, 1862 
 Rousseau, J. J„ philos., 1712-1778 
 Rowan, A. H. ; trials, 1794, 1805 
 Rowe, Nicholas ; poet-laureate, d. 
 
 171S 
 Eowley, admiral J. ; Bourbon, 
 
 1810 
 Roxana; Macedon, 311 B.C. 
 Koxburgh, duke of, 1S12 ; Boc- 
 caccio 
 Rozier, M. ; balloons, 1783 
 Rubens, P. P., painter, 1577 1640 
 Rudbeck, 01., thoracic duct 
 Rudolph; Austria, Germany 
 Ruhmkorff's induction coil, 1S51 
 Eunjeet Singh ; Afghanistan, 1818; 
 
 diamonds 
 Eupert, prince, 1619-82 ; engraving, 
 Birmingham, Edgehill, Mar- 
 ston-moor, Naseby, Newark 
 Euric ; Russia, 862 
 Eush, Bloomfield, the murderer ; 
 
 trials, 1849 
 Ru.skin, John, art critic, b. i8ig 
 Eussell, C. ; suicide, 1856 
 Russell, colonel ; guards, 1660 
 Eussell, adm. Edw. ; La Hogue, 
 
 1692 
 Russell, J. Scott, 6. 1808; fiires, 
 
 .steam-navixation, wave 
 Eussell. lord John, 6. 1792 ; Eus- 
 sell administration, note, Aber- 
 deen ; reform 
 Russell, lordW., m. ; trials, 1840 
 Russell, W. H. ; Times, 1854, 1857, 
 
 1S61 
 Euthven, Mr. ; duel, 1836 
 Eutland, duke of; Ireland (lord 
 
 lieutenant), 1784 
 Euyter ; see De Ruyter 
 Ryder, bp. ; Gloucester, 1815 
 Ryder, sir Dudley ; king's bench, 
 1754 
 
 S. 
 
 Sabatta, Levi ; 1666 
 
 Sabine, gen. Edw. ; Royal Society, 
 
 1861 ; magnetism 
 Sacheverel, Dr. ; high church 
 
 party, 1709 
 Sackville, lord George ; Minden, 
 
 1759 
 Sadleir, J. ; suicide, 1856 : Dr. ; 1858 
 Sadler, Mr. ; balloons, 1812 
 
 Sadler, Mr. ; Sadler's Wells, 1683 
 Sadler, sir Ralph; administrations, 
 
 1540 
 Safford, Mr. ; planets, 1862 
 Sagarelli ; Apostolici, 300 
 St. Arnaud, marshal ; Russo- 
 
 Turkish war, Alma, 1854 
 St. Charo ; ccmcordance, 1247 
 St. Cyr, marshal ; Dresden, 1813 
 St. George, Mr. ; trials, 1798 
 St. John, John de ; treasurer, 1217 
 St. John Long; quack, 1830 
 St. John, Henry, afterwards lord 
 Bolingbroke ; Oxford admi- 
 nistration, 1 71 1 
 St. John, O. ; benevolences, 1615 
 St. John, Wilham ; chancellor, lord 
 
 high, 1547 
 St. Leonards, lord ; chancellor, 
 
 lord high, 1852 
 St. Mars, M. de ; iron mask 
 St. Ruth, general ; Aughrim, 1691 
 St. Vincent, earl ; admiralty, 1801 ; 
 
 Cape St. Vincent 
 Saladin, 1136-1193; Ascalon, Da- 
 mascus, Egypt, Syria, Aleppo 
 Sale, lady; Cabul, India, 1842 
 Sale, sir Robert ; Moodkee, 184s 
 Salisbury, bishop of ; assay 
 Sahsbury, marquess of ; Derby 
 
 administrations, 1852, 1858 
 Salisbury, Robert, earl of ; admi- 
 nistrations, 1603 
 Salisbury, countess of ; garter 
 Salisbury, earl of, 1604; coronets, 
 
 Orleans 
 Salkeld; Delhi, 1857 
 Sallo, Denis de ; critics, reviews, 
 
 1655 
 
 Sallust, d. 34 B. 0. ; Mauritania, 
 Catiline 
 
 Salomons, D. ; Jews, 1835 ; mayor 
 
 Salt, Titus ; alpaca, 1852 
 
 Salvator Rosa, painter, 1615-1673 
 
 Salvino degli Armato ; spec- 
 tacles 
 
 Salviati, Dr., mosaic, 1861 
 
 Salvius Julianus ; edicts, 132 
 
 Samuel rules I.srael, 1140 B.C. 
 
 Sanballat; Samaritan, 332 B.C. 
 
 Sanoho, king ; Portugal, Spain, 
 970 
 
 Sancroft, abp. Canterbury, 1678 ; 
 bishops, England 
 
 S-mders, will-forger; trials, 1844 
 
 Sandwich, earl of; admii.istra- 
 tions, 1660 ; naval battles, 
 Sulebay, Aix-la-Chapelle 
 
 Sandys ; administrations, 1742, 1767 
 
 Sandys, abp. E. ; York, 1577 
 
 Sapor; Persia, 240 
 
 Sappho; writes 611 B.C. ; Sapphic 
 
 Sardanapalus ; Assyria, 820 B.C. 
 
 Sarpi, Paul, 1552-1622 ; thermo- 
 meter, blood 
 
 Saul, Jews, 1096 B.C. ; Ammonites 
 
 Saumarez, sir James ; Algesiras, 
 1801 
 
 Saunders ; trials, 1853 
 
 Saunders, com,. ; Franklin, 1849 
 
 Saunders, sir Charles ; Chatham 
 administration, 1766 
 
 Saussure, d. 1799; hygrometer 
 
 Savage, John ; Babington's con- 
 spiracy, 1586 
 
 Savage, abp. ; York, 1501 
 
 Savage, E., poet, 1700-43 
 
 Savage, W. ; printing in colours, 
 1819-22 
 
 Sivary ; trials, 1825 
 
 Savary, capt. ; steam-engine, 1698 
 
 Savonarola, Jerome ; burnt, 1498 
 
826 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Saward, J. ; trials, 1857 
 
 Sawtro, sir William ; burning 
 alive, 1 401 ; LoUarda 
 
 Saxe, count ; Foiiteni>y, 1745 
 
 Saye luid Sele, lord administra- 
 tions, 1660 
 
 Saye, lord, beheaded, 1450; Cade 
 
 Sayers, T. ; boxing, iJ6o 
 
 Scanderbeg ; Albania, 1443 
 
 Scanlan, Mr, ; trials, 1820 
 
 S^hamyl ; Circassia, 1859 
 
 Scheele, 1742-86 ; nitrogen, oxygen, 
 prussic acid, tartaric acid, pbo- 
 tography, glycerine, chlorine 
 cheffer, Ary, painter, 1795-1858 
 
 Scheibler, M. ; tonometer, 1834 
 
 bcheiner, Cbr. ; heliometer, 1625 
 
 Scheutz ; calculating - machine, 
 
 1857 
 Scbiaparelli : ptmets, i36i 
 Scliilders, general ; Silistria, 1854 
 Schiller, F., poet, &c,, 1759-3845 
 Seliimnielpenninck; Holland, 1805 
 Schlegel, W. ; 1767-1836;— F., 1772- 
 
 1829 
 Schmidt ; organs, i68z 
 Scboeffer, Foter ; printing, 1452 
 Schonbein, M. ; gun-cotton, 1840, 
 
 ozone 
 Schomberg, capt. ; naval battles, 
 
 i8u 
 Schomberg, duke of; Boyne, Ire- 
 land, Londonderry, Carrick- 
 fergns, 1689 
 Schomburgk, sirR,; Victoria regia, 
 
 1838 
 Schroeder; pianoforte, 1717 
 Schrotter; phosphorus, 1845 
 Schwaun ; cell theory, 1839 
 Schwartz, C. (missionary), d. 1798 
 Schwartz, M. ; gunpowder, 1320 
 Schwartzenberg, prince of ; Dres- 
 den, 181 3 
 Schwerin, marshal; Prague, 1757 
 Scipio Africanus ; honour, Nu- 
 mantia, Rome, Zama, 202 B.C. 
 Scott, G. Gilbert ; architect, b. 
 
 1811 
 Scott, gen. Winfield, b. 1786; 
 jiexico, 1847, United States, 
 1861-2 
 Scott; duelling, 1821, 1836 
 Scott, Walter, 1771-1832 ; Waverley 
 Scott, Dred; United States, 1857 
 Scribe, E., dramatist, d. 1861 
 
 (ajt. 80) 
 Sciidamore, lord; apples 
 Seabui-y, Samuel; bi-shoprics, 1784 
 Seaforth, earl of ; thistle, 1687 
 Seal, J. ; trials, 1858 
 Searle ; planets, 1858 
 Sebacon ; Egypt, 737 B.C. 
 SebastLxni, marshlil ; Talavera, 
 
 1809 
 Sebert ; Westminster Abbey 
 Seeker, abp. ; Cantcrburj', 1758 
 Sefton V. Hopwood ; trials, 1855 
 Scjanus, d. 31 
 Selden, J., 1584-1651 ; seas, poet- 
 
 lavireate 
 Seleucus Nicator ; Soleucides, 
 
 Syria, omens, Ipsus, 311 B.C. 
 Selim ; Turkey, Syria, 1512 
 Selkirk, Alexander; Juan Fer- 
 nandez, 1705 
 Sellis, the valet ; suicide, 1810 
 Semiramis, queen ; Assyria, eu- 
 nuchs, 2007 B.C. 
 Semple; trials, 1795, 1862 
 Seneca, put to death, 65 ; Cordova 
 Sennacherib; Assyria, 710 b.o. 
 Sennefelder; lithography, 1796 ( 
 
 Sergius ; popes, nativity, 690 ; pu- 
 rification, Koran 
 Sertiirner, moriihia, 1803 
 Servotus, Michael, burnt, 1553; 
 
 Unitarians, Arians, blood 
 Servius Tullius ; coins, eensus, 
 
 566 B. c. 
 Sesostris; Egypt, 1618 e.e. 
 Setalla ; burning-glasses 
 Severus, Rome, emp. 193 ; Britain, 
 
 Roman wall.9, Memphis, 202 
 Sextus Pomijeius ; Myl», 36 b.c, 
 Seymour, sir Edw- ; speaker, 1678 
 Seymour, sir M. ; China, 1856 
 Seymour v. Butterworth ; trials, 
 
 1862 
 Seymour, Edward, duke of Somer- 
 set ; administi-atioois, 1547 ; 
 protectors, admiralty 
 Seymour, lord; duel, 1835 
 Seymour, lady ; tournament, 1839 
 Shad well, Thomas; poet-laureate, 
 
 d. 1692 
 Shaftesbury, earl of; administra- 
 tions, 1672 (present earl, b, 
 1 891) 
 Shakspeare, W., i5<>4-i6i6; Shak- 
 speare, drama, mulljerry-tree 
 Shiilmaneser ; Assyria, 730 b. o. 
 Sharp, A, ; circle (squared^, 1717 
 Sharp, arcbpb. ; Scotland, 1679 
 Sharii, Granville ; slavery, 1772 
 Shaw, sir James ; mayor, 1805 
 Shaw, sir John ; Greenock 
 Sheares, the Messrs. ; trials, 1798 
 Shedden v. Patrick ; trials, i860 
 Sheepshanks, R. ; astronomy, 
 standard, 1S55 ; Sheepshanks' 
 donation.^, 1858 
 Shcil, R. L. ; mint, 1S46 
 Shelburne, earl of ; Shelbume ad- 
 ministration, 1782 ; duel, 1780 
 Sheldon, abp. ; Canterbui-y, 1663 
 Sheldon, William ; tapestry 
 Shelley, Percy B., poet, 1792-1822 
 Sheppard, Jack ; execution, 1724 
 Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 1751- 
 1816 ; Grenville administra- 
 tion, comedy, theatres 
 Sheridan, Dr ; trials, 1811 
 Sherman, gen. ; United States, 
 
 1 861 
 Shillibeer ; omnibuses, 1S29 
 Shipley ; arts, soc. of; 1754 
 Shirley, bishop; Man, 1846 
 Short, bishop; Man, St. Asaph, 
 
 1 841 
 Shovel, sir Cloudesley ; Sicily, 1707 
 Shrewsbury i>eerage cases, trials, 
 
 185S, 1859 
 Shrewsbiuy, duke of ; administra- 
 tions, 1714 
 Shrewsbury, earl of; Patay, 1429 ; 
 
 Castillon, 1453 
 Sibour, abp. ; Fnxnec, 1857 
 Sicard, abb^ ; deaf and dumb, 1742 
 Siddons, Sarah ; retired, 1819 
 Sidney, sir P., 1554-86; Algernon, 
 
 1617-83 ; Rye-house plot 
 Sidmouth, Heni-y Addington, vis- 
 count, d. 1844 ; Addington ad- 
 minisiration, 1800, green bag, 
 speaker 
 Si^yfes, abb^ : directory ; France, 
 
 1799 
 Sigismund ; Germany, Bohemia, 
 Hungiry, Nicopolis, Poland, 
 Prussia 
 Silius Italicus, ix>et, d. loi 
 Sillim, Mr ; trials, 1863 
 Simeon the Stylite ; abstinence 
 Simmons; trials, 1808 
 
 Simnel, Lambert ; conspiracies, 
 
 rebellion, 1846 ; Stoke 
 Simon Magus ; Adrianists, Simo- 
 
 nians, 41 
 Simonides ; letters, mnemonics, 
 
 477 BC. 
 SimpUcius, St,; collar of 8S., 1407 
 Simpson, Dr. ; chloroform, 1848 
 Simpson, the traveller; suicide^ 
 
 1840 
 Sindercomb; conspiracy, 1756 
 Singh, Runjoor; AUwal, 1846 
 Sismondi, C, hist., 1773-1842 
 Sisyphus ; Corinth, 1326 b.c. 
 Sixtus ; popes, 1 19 
 Sixtus v., pope; interdict, 1588 
 Skrznecki, gen. ; Praga, Wawz, 
 
 1 831 
 SlideU, Mr. ; United States, i86i 
 Sligo, marquess of; trial.s, 1812 
 Sloane, sir Hans, 1660-1727; aiw- 
 
 thecary, Jesuit's bai-k, British 
 
 Museum, Chelsea 
 Sloanes ; trials, 1851 
 Sni;irt, A. ; snicide, 1856 
 Smart ; chimneys, 1805 
 Smeaton, Mr. ; Eddystone, canal, 
 
 1759 
 Smeaton, sir John ; Wigan, 1643 
 Smethurst, T. ; trials, 1859 
 Smirke, R. ; jKwt-office, 1825 
 Smirke, S. ; Bethlehem, British 
 
 Museum 
 Smith, sir Harry ; India, Aliwal, 
 
 Kaffraria, 1850 
 Smith, Joseph ; savings' banka, 
 
 Morraonites, 1823 
 Smith, Madeleine; trials, 1857 
 Smith, Thomas ; lord mayor, i8og 
 Smith, Miss, v. earl Ferrers ; trials, 
 
 1846 
 Smith, Adam; 1723-90, political 
 
 economy, 1776 
 Smith, sir J. E, (botanist), 1759- 
 
 1828 
 Smith, capt. ; duel, trials, 1830 
 Smith, Dr. R, Angus; air, 1858 
 Smith, Dr. Southwood ; 1790-1861 ; 
 
 sanitary legislation, 1832 
 Smith, Mr. Beaimaont ; exchequer, 
 
 trials, 1841 
 Smith, rev. S. ; trials, 1858 
 Smith, rev. Sidney, 1771-1845 
 Smith, Sam. Sidney ; trials, 1843 
 Smith, sir C. Eardley ; evangelical 
 
 alliance, 1845 
 Smith, sir Sidney ; Acre, 1799 
 Smith, Mr. Thomas ; customs 
 Smith, J. ; bribery, trials, 1854 
 Smith, and Markhana, captains, 
 
 duel, trinla, 1830 
 Smith, Wm. ; getilogy, d. 1840 
 Smithson, J ; Smithsonian Insti- 
 tution, 1846 
 Smollett, Tobias, novels, &c., 
 
 1720-71 
 Smyth (will case); trial.s, 1855 
 Smyth, W. H., astron., 1788-65 
 Snellius; optics, 1624 
 Snow, Dr. ; amy lone, 1856 
 Soames ; cocoanut-tree oil, 1829 
 Soane, sir J., architect, 1753-1837 
 Sobieski, John ; Poland, Cossacks, 
 
 Hungai-y, Vienna 
 Socinus, Faustus (d. 1562) and Ee- 
 
 lius, anti-trinitai-ians, arians, 
 
 unitarians 
 Socrates, 468-399 b.c. ; Athens, 
 
 philosophy 
 Solomon; Jerusalem, 1004 B.C. 
 Solon ; Athens, 594 e.g. ; laws, 
 
 tilX 
 
INDEX. 
 
 827 
 
 Solymau ; Turkey, Belgrade, 
 
 Vienna, 1529 
 Solyman II. ; Hungary, Buda, 
 
 Moliatz, 1526 
 Somers, lord ; administrations, 
 
 i6go ; corn 
 Somers, sir George ; Bennudas, 
 
 i6og 
 Somerset the black declared free, 
 
 1772 ; slavery in England, note 
 Somerset, see Seymour ; admiralty, 
 
 1S59 
 Sophia, princess ; Hanover, 1659 
 Sophia Dorothea, d. 1796 ; Eng- 
 land, queens (Geo. I.) 
 Sophocles, 495-405 B.C. ; tragedy, 
 
 drama 
 Sorel, Agnes ; jewellery, 1434 
 Sostratus ; pharos, 280 B.C. 
 Soto, Perdiaiand de; Louisiana, 
 
 1 541 
 Soult, marshal,i769-i85i ; Albuera, 
 Oporto, Orthes, Pyrenees, 
 Tarbes, Toulouse,Villa Fianca, 
 Douro 
 Southey, Rob., 1774-1843; poet- 
 laureate 
 Soyer, A. (cook), d. 1858 
 Spalding, Mr. ; diving-bell, 1783 
 Sparks, George ; trials, 1853 
 Bpeke, capt., 1827-64 ; Africa, 
 
 1863-4 
 Speilman, sir John ; paper-making, 
 
 Dartford, 1590 
 Spencer, earl ; Grenville admin. 
 
 1806; Roxburghe club 
 Spencer, Mr. ; electrotype, 1837 
 Spenser, E., 1553-98; allegory, 
 
 poet-laureate, verse 
 Spert, sir Thos. ; Trinity-house, 
 
 1512 
 Spina, Alexander de; spectacles, 
 
 1285 
 Spinoza, B. de, 1632-77 ; atheism 
 Spohr, L., mus. comp., 1783-1859 
 SpoUen, Jas. ; trials, 1857 
 Spurgeon, C. H., &. 1834; Surrey 
 gardens, crystal palace, taber- 
 nacle 
 Spurzheim, J. G. ; craniology, 1800 
 Stackpole, captain; duel, 1814 
 Stackpoles, trials ; 1853 
 Stael, mad. de, novelist, d.. 1817 
 Stafford, archbishop ; Canterbury, 
 
 1443 
 Stafford, lord ; popish plot, 1680 
 Stafford, marquess of, d. 1803 ; 
 
 Bloomsbury 
 Staines, sir William ; lord mayor, 
 
 1800 
 Stair, earl of, d. 1707 ; Gleucoe, 
 
 1692 ; Dettingen, 1743 
 Staite ; electric Ught, 1848 
 Stalker, gen. ; Bushire, suicide, 
 
 1857 
 Stanberry, John ; Eton, 1448 
 Stanhope, earl ; Halifax adminis- 
 trations, 1714 
 Stanhope, Cbai-les, earl; 1752-1816 ; 
 printing-press : present earl 
 (before, lord Mahon, the his- 
 torian), 6. 1S05 
 Stanhope, col. ; trials, i8i6 
 Stanhope, hon. col, ; suicide, 1825 
 Stanhope, lieut.-gen. ; Minorca, 
 
 1708 
 Stanislaus; Poland, 1704 
 Stanley, bishop ; Norwich, 1837 
 Stanley, sir John ; Man, 1406 
 Stanley, sir W. ; chamberlain; 
 
 Bosworth, 1485 
 Stanley, lord ; see /?cr6y, 1820 
 
 Stanley, lurd, of Alderley, 6. 1802 ; 
 Aberdeen, Palmerston admin. 
 Stanley, Edw., lord, 6. 1826 
 Stapleton, J., trials, 1858 
 Stapleton, Walter, bp. ; Exeter, 
 
 13^9 
 Statius, Lat. poet (Thebais), jL 79 
 Staunton, Mr. ; China, 1840 
 Steele, sir R., 1671-1729; Tatler, 
 
 Spectator, clubs, Kit-Cat club 
 Steele, Mr. ; murdered, trials, 1807 
 Steenchel, Magnus ; Sweden, 1314 
 Stenhouse, J. ; dyes, charcoal, 
 
 i8s3 
 Stephen, pope ; England, Hun- 
 gary, 997 ; Poland 
 Stephens, Miss ; theatres, 1813 
 Stephens, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1839 
 Stephens, Robert ; Bible, 1551 
 Stephenson, G., 1781-1848 ; rail- 
 ways, Chatmoss 
 Stephenson, R., 1803-59; tubular 
 
 bridges 
 Sterne, Laurence, humourist, 
 
 1713-68 
 Stei-nhold, T. ; Psalms, 1555 
 Stesichorus ; choruses, 556 B.C. 
 Stewart, col. ; Trincomalee, 1795 
 Stewart, gen. ; Madras, 1783 
 Stewart, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
 Stewart, Dugald, philosopher, 
 
 1753-1828 
 Stewart, Duncan ; Csesarean 
 Stewarts, trials, 1829 
 Stifelius ; algebra, 1544 
 Stigand, abp. ; Canterbury, 1052 
 Stillingfleet, B. ; blue-stockiag 
 Stock, Dr. ; Sunday-schools, 1781 
 Stockdale ; trials, 1826 
 Stoddart, Dr. ; Times, 1812 
 Stopford, adm. ; Acre, Sidon, 1840 
 Storace, madame, d. 1817 
 Storck; levellers, anabaptists, 1524 
 Storks, H. ; Ionian Isles, 1859 
 Stormont, vise. ; Portland admin., 
 
 17S3 
 Strabo ; geog. , writes, 14 
 Straohan, admiral sir Richard ; 
 
 Havre, Walcheren, i8og 
 Straduarius ; viol, 1700-22 
 Strafford, lord ; beheaded, 1641 
 S,trafford, earl ; admiralty, 1712 
 Strangford, lord ; bribery, 1784 
 Stratford, abp. ; Canterbury, 1333 
 Stratford de Redchfife, lord, 6. 1788 
 Strevens, Mr. ; trials, 1857 
 Sti-ickland, Hugh ; nat. hist. , 
 
 1811-53 
 Stronieyer ; clubfoot, 1831 
 Strongbow ; Ireland, 1176 
 Struensee, count; Zell, 1773 
 StruttjUdw.; Aberdeen, adm., 1852 
 Struve, P. ; astron., 1793-1864 
 Strzeleoki, A. ; Australia, 1840 
 Stuart, Alexander ; marquess 
 Stuart, conf. gen. ; United States, 
 
 1862 
 Stuart, gen. ; Cuddalore, 1783 
 Stuart, sir John ; Maida, 1806 
 Stukeley, Dr. ; earthquakes 
 Sturt, capt. ; South Australia, 1830 
 Sturmius ; magnet 
 Succoth(St. Patrick), preaches, 433 
 Suohet, marshal ; Valencia, 1812 
 Sudbury, abp. ; Canterbury, 1375 
 Sue, Eug., novelist, 1804-57 
 Suetonius, C. T. ; writes, 118 
 Suetonius PauUnus ; Menai, 61 
 Suffolk, Thomas, earl of ; adminis- 
 trations, 1540 
 Siiffrein, Thos. ; Trincomalee, 1782 
 Sugden, sir Edward (afterwards 
 
 lord St. Leonards) ; chancellor, 
 lord, 1852 
 Suisse, Nicholas ; trials, 1842 
 Sullivan, Mr. ; Lima, 1857 
 Sulpicius, Servius ; civil law, code, 
 
 53 B.C. 
 Sumner, archbiD. ; Chester, 1828; 
 
 Canterbury, 1848 
 Sumner, bishop; Llandaflf, 1826; 
 
 Winchester, 1827 
 Sumner, C. ; United States, 1S56 
 Sunderland, earl of ; administra- 
 tions, 1684 
 Surajah Dowlah ; Black-hole, 
 
 India, Plassey, 1757 
 Surrey, earl of; Flodden, 1513; 
 
 Roman Catholics, 1829 
 Suaarion and Dolon; comedy, 
 
 562 B.C. 
 Sussex, duke of ; marriage, 1793 
 Sutter, capt. ; California, 1847 
 Sutton ; air-pipe, 1756 
 Sutton, abp. ; Canterbury, 1805 
 Sutton, C. M. ; speaker, 1817 
 Sutton, Thos. ; Charter-house, i6ir 
 SuwaiTOw, marshal, 1730-1800 ; 
 Alessandria, Ismael, Novi, 
 Parma, Poland, Praga, War- 
 saw, Trebia, 1799 
 Swan, Mr., M.P. ; bribery, 1819 
 Sweyn ; Denmark, 985 ; England 
 Swift, dean J., 1667-1745; Drapier 
 Swynfen ; trials, 1858 
 Sydenh,am,Floyer,d.i788 ; literary 
 
 fund 
 Sydenham, lord; Melbourne ad- 
 min., 1834 
 Sydenhanv,Thos. , 1624-89 
 Sydney, Henry, viscount ; Ire- 
 land, Id. lieut. , 1690 
 Sydney, see Sidney 
 Sykes and Rumbold, Messrs. ; 
 
 bribery, 1776 
 Sylla ; Rome, Athens, 86 B.C. 
 Symington ; steam-engine, 1789 
 Symonds, rev. Symon ; Bray, 
 1533-58 
 
 T. 
 
 Tacitus, M. C, hist., about 62- 
 100 ; Rome, emp. , 275 
 
 Tait, bp. ; London, 1856 
 
 Talbot, Miss Avigusta ; trials, 1851 
 
 Talbot, H. P. ; photography, calo- 
 type, ifec, 1840 
 
 Tallard, marshal; Blenheim, 1704 
 
 Talleyrand, 1754-1838 ; Benevento, 
 weights 
 
 Tallis, Thos. ; music, d. 1585 
 
 Talma ; actor, d. 1826 
 
 Tamerlane, d. 1404 ; India, Da- 
 mascus, Tamerlane 
 
 Tandemus ; Adamite 
 
 Tankerville, Ford, earl of ; ad- 
 ministrations, 1699 
 
 Tantia Topee ; India, 1857 
 
 Tarquin; Rome, kings, Sibylline 
 books 
 
 Tarquinius Priscus ; cloaca, 588 b.o. 
 
 Tasman, Abel ; circumnavigator, 
 Australia, 1642 ; New Zealand, 
 Van Diemen's Land 
 
 Tasso, Torquato ; poet, 1544-95 
 
 Tate, Nahum, d.1715 ; poet-laureate 
 
 Tatian, about' 170; aquarians, 
 enoratites 
 
 Tattersall, R. ; races, 1766 
 
 Taurosthenes ; carrier-pigeons 
 
 Tavernier ; pearls, 1633 
 
 Tawell, John ; trials, 1845 
 
828 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Taylor, bp. Jeremy, 1613-67 
 Taylor, gen. Zachary ; presidents, 
 
 United States, 1849 
 Taylor, Messrs. ; oil-gas 
 Taylor, Dr. Brook; acou-stics, 1714 
 Taylor, rev. Robert; atheism, 
 
 trials, 1827, 1831 
 Taylor, rev. W. ; blind, bells, 1855-6 
 Teba, countess ; (empress) Prance, 
 
 1853 
 Tekeli ; Hungary, revolts, 1676 
 Tcleki; Austria, i860; Hungary, 
 
 1861 
 Telesphorus ; Lent, 130 
 Telford, T. ; chain-bridges, 1819 
 Tell, William ; Switzerland, 1307 
 Tempel ; planets, 1861 
 Temple, earl; Newcastle admin., 
 
 1757 
 Teniers, D. (tw<->), 1582-1694 
 Tenison, abp. ; Canterbury. 1694 
 Tennant, Mr. ; bleaching, 1798 
 T.nniel, John, 6. 1820; Punch 
 Tennyson, Alfred, b. 1809; poet- 
 laureate 
 Tcnterden, lord; king's bench, 
 
 1818 
 Terentius Varro ; Canne, 216 B.C. 
 Terence, 195-159 i:c. ; drama 
 Tcrtullian wi-ites, 197 ; cross, 
 
 Montanists 
 Teucer, Troy, 1502 B.C. 
 Teynham, lord ; trials, 1S33 
 Thackeray, W. M., novelist, 
 
 1811-63 
 Thales, Miletus; globe, 640 B.C. ; 
 Ionic sect., moon, water,v7orld 
 Thalestris ; queens 
 Thanet, earl of ; riots, 1799 
 Thecla ; Alexandrine codex 
 Themistocles ; Marathon, Salamis, 
 
 480 B.C. 
 Theobald; civil law, 1138 
 Theocritus; verse, 265 B.C. 
 Theodore ; Corsica, 1736; Samos, 
 
 keys, lathe 
 Theodoric ; Spain, Goths, 553 
 Theodosius ; Eastern emp. , 379 ; 
 Aquileia, Ostrogoths, massa- 
 cre, paganism 
 Theodosius, the younger ; acade- 
 mics, Bologna 
 Thcophilus ; An tioch, chronology 
 Theophrastus, 394-287 B.C. 
 Theopompus ; Ephori, funeral 
 
 orations, Sparta, 353 b.c. 
 Theseus ; Athens, 1235 B.C. 
 Thesiger, sir F. ; solicitor-gen., 
 1844; attorney-gen, chanc, 
 lord high, 1858; trials, 1850 
 Thespis ; drama, 536 B.C. 
 Thevenot, M. ; coffee, 1662 
 Tliierry ; Holland, 936 
 Thiers* M., 6. 1798 ; France, 1836 
 Thirleby ; Westminster, 1541 
 Thirlwall, bp. ; St. David's, 1840 
 Thomas, col. ; duel, 1783 
 Thompson, miss ; trials, 1821 
 Thompson, major ; suicide, 1832 
 Thompson, William; lord mayor, 
 
 1828 
 Thomson, Mr. Poulett ; Melbourne 
 
 admin., 1835; calico 
 Thomson, Jas. (the "Seasons"), 
 
 1700-48 ; Richmond 
 Thom*-on, Abraham; appeal, 1817 
 Thorpe, WiUiam de ; bribery, 1351 
 Thon'e, JohnT. ; lord mayor, 1820 
 Thorwald.sen, 1777-1840 
 Thoth ; mytholo.ry, 152 B.C. 
 Thrasybulus ; Athens, 403 B.C. 
 Thucydides, 470-404 B.C. 
 
 Thurlow, lord ; chancel'.or, lord 
 high, 1778 ; great seal 
 
 Thurtell, J. : executions, 1824 
 
 Thyra, Dannawerke 
 
 Tiberius, 903 B.C. ; Capri, Rome, 
 emp., 14 
 
 Tiberius Gracchus ; agrarian law, 
 132 B.C. 
 
 TibuUus, Lat. poet, 50-18 B.C. 
 
 Tieck. L., Ger. poet, 1753-1853 
 
 Tierney, George ; duel, 1798 ; 
 iioderich 
 
 Tighe. Mr. ; trials, 1800 
 
 Tigranes ; Armenia, 93 B.c.;Pontus 
 
 Tiidesle.v, sir Thomas ; Wigan, 1651 
 
 Tilly; Mao-deburg, 163 1 ; Palati- 
 nate, Lech 
 
 TiUoch, Mr. ; stereotype 
 
 Tillotson, abp. ; Canterbury, 1691 ; 
 universalists 
 
 Times newspaper; Times, trials, 
 1790 
 
 Timoleon ; Syracuse, 343 B.C. 
 
 Timour ; see Tamerlane 
 
 Tindal and Coverdale ; Bible, 1526 
 
 Tippoo Sahib; Madras, Serin ga- 
 patam, Mysore, 1792 
 
 Titian, 1477-1576 
 
 Titus, Rome, emp. 79 ; Jerusalem, 
 Tyre, arches 
 
 Tofts, Mary ; impostor, 1726 
 
 Toler, Mr. ; m., trials, 1853 
 
 Tolly, Barclay de; Smolensko, 
 1812 
 
 Tolmidas ; Coronea, 447 B.C. 
 
 Tomline, bp. ; Lincohi, Winchester, 
 1820 
 
 Tom Tliumb ; dwarfs, 1846 
 
 Tone, Theobald W. ; trials, 1798 
 
 Tonson, Jacob, bookseller, d. 1736 
 
 Tonti, Laurence ; tontines 
 
 Tooke, J. Home, 1736-1812 
 
 Tooke, W. ; prices 
 
 Torrence, Mrs. ; trials, 1821 
 
 Torrens, lieut. ; duel, 1806 
 
 Torres ; Australasia, 1606 
 
 Torricelli ; d. 1647 ; air, mici-o- 
 scopes 
 
 Torrington, Herbert, lord ; Wal- 
 pole admin., 1727 
 
 Totila ; Italy, 541 
 
 Toussaint, 1794 ; Hayti, St. Do- 
 mingo 
 
 Tower. Mr. ; volunteer in 1803 and 
 i860 
 
 Townley, G. V. ; trials, 1863 
 
 Townshend, lord; duel, 1773; Ire- 
 land 
 
 Town.'ihends ; Rockingham, Chat- 
 ham, and Graf con admins., 
 
 1765-7 
 Train, Mr. ; street railways, i860 
 Trajan ; Rome, emp. , 98 ; Trajan's 
 
 pillar, Dacia 
 Traugott, R. ; Poland, 1864 
 Travers, Samuel ; poor knights of 
 
 Windsor 
 Treby, George ; Walpole, 1721 
 Tresylian ; king's bench 
 Trevelyan, C. ; Madras, 1859-60 
 Trevet'hick ; steam engine, 1802 
 Trevor, sir John ; speaker, 1694 
 Troas ; Troy, 1374 B.C. 
 Troubridge, sir T. ; wrecks, 1807 
 True Sun, prop, of; trials, 1834 
 Truman, Haubury, <fe Co. ; porter, 
 
 1815 
 Truro, lord ; chancellor, lord, 1850 
 Truxo, Louisa ; longevity, 1780 
 Tucker, E. ; vine di.sease, 1845 
 Tuckett, capt. Harvey ; duel, 1840 
 Tuite, murderer; trials, 1813 
 
 Tuke, W. ; lunatics, 1792 
 TuU, William ; posting 
 Tulloch, col. ; Sebastopol, 1855 
 TuUus Hostilius ; Alba, saturnalia 
 Tunstall, bp. ; administrations, 
 
 1529, arithmetic, privy seal 
 Turenne, m.irshal, 1611-1675 
 Turnbull, W. B. ; trials, 1861 
 Turner, J. W., 1775-1851 
 Turner, miss ; trials, 1827 
 Turner, Richard ; teetotaller, 1831 
 Turner, Sydney ; reformatory, 
 
 schools 1849 
 Turner; trials, 1817 
 Turpin, or Tilpin, bp. ; writes, 8i8 
 Tjirton, bishop ; Ely, 1845 
 Tusser ; agriculture, 1562 
 Tj-ce, John ; taffety, 1598 
 Tycho Braiie, 1546-1601 ; astro- 
 nomy, platonic year, globe 
 Tyler, John ; United States presi- 
 dent, 1 841 
 Tyler, Wat ; killed, 1381 
 Tyndal, Wm. ; martyred, 1536 
 Tyndall, J. : Roy." Inst.. 1853 : 
 magnetism, Mont Blanc, 1857 ; 
 calorescenoe 
 Tyndarus ; Sparta, 1490 B.C. 
 Tyrconnel, earl of; Ireland, 1687 
 Tyrone ; rebelUon, 1599 
 Tysias, or Stesichorus ; choruses, 
 epithalanaium, 536 B.C. 
 
 U. 
 
 Udine ; stucco-work, 1530 
 
 Ulfilas, bp. ; Bible, about 373 
 
 UUoa, Antonio ; platinum. 1741 
 
 Ulpian (lawyer) ; slain, 228 
 
 Ulj'sscs; Trojan war 
 
 Upton, colonel ; Sebastoi^ol, 1830 
 
 Urban ; popes, 223 
 
 Urban II. ; communion, crusades, 
 
 1094 
 Urban VIII., pope, "Eminence," 
 
 1630 
 Ursula, St. ; Cologne, Ursulines, 
 
 1537 
 Usher, abp. ; articles, 1614 
 
 Valens ; eastern empire, western 
 
 empire, 564 
 Valentia, lord ; duel, 1798 ; trials, 
 
 1796 
 Valentia cause ; trials, 1772 
 Valentine, B. ; antimony, 1410 
 Valentinian ; western empire, 364 
 Valerian ; persecutions, 257 
 Vallaret, Foulques de ; Malta, 1310 
 Vallifere,madame de la ; midwifery, 
 
 1663 
 Van Artevelde ; Ghent, 1379-83 
 Vanbrugh, sir J. ; 1670-1726, Cla- 
 rendon printing office, opera 
 V.an Buren (president) ; United 
 
 States, 1837 
 Vancouver ; north-west passage, 
 
 Vancouver, 1790 
 Vander Heyden ; fire-engines, 1663 
 Vandyck, 1599-1641 
 Vane, sir Henry ; administrations, 
 
 1640 
 Van Eyck ; painting, 1366 
 Van Horn ; buccaneer, 1603 
 V.an Leyden ; engraving on wood, 
 
 1497 
 Van Mai-um ; electricity, 1785 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Van 'Mildcrt, bishop ; Llandaff, 
 
 Durham, 1S26 
 Vansittart, Nicholas ; Liverpool 
 
 adm., 1812 
 VauTromp ; Holland, naval battles, 
 
 Portland Isle, 1653 
 Varole, M. ; optics, 1538 
 Varro ; writes " do Re Rustica," 
 37 B.C. ; grammarians, illu- 
 minated books 
 Varus, Alfrenus; civil law, 66 B.C. ; 
 
 code, digest 
 Vasali, or Basil ; Russia, 1270 
 Vasco de Gama ; Cape, 1497 ; India 
 Vattel, E. de ; publicist, 1714-67 
 Vauban, S. ; 1633-1707, fortifica- 
 tions, Cherbourg 
 Vaughan, sir Thos. : Pomfret, 1483 
 Vaughan, Mackay, &c. ; trial, 1816 
 Vauquelin; chromium, glucinum, 
 
 1798 
 Vaux, Jane, Mrs. ; Vavixhall, 1615 
 Vega, G. de, 1503-36 — Lope de, 
 
 1562-1635, poets 
 Velasquez, painter, 1599-1660 ; 
 
 Cuba, 1 51 1 
 Venables, Wm. ; lord mayor, 1825 
 Venner, T. ; anabaptists, 1661 
 Vei-e-street gang ; trials, 1816 
 Vergennes, M. de ; notables, 1788 
 Vermandois, count de ; iron mask 
 Vermuyden, Cornelius; levels, 1621 
 Vernet, 1714-89; Horace,i789-iS63 ; 
 
 painters 
 Vernon, adm. ; grog, Porto Bello, 
 
 1739 
 
 Vernon, abp. ; York, 1808 
 
 Verres ; Sicily, 70 B.C. 
 
 Verrochio, Andrea; plaster, 1466 
 
 Vesalius ; anatomy, surgery, 1538 
 Vespasian ; Rome, emp. 6g ; am- 
 phitheatres. Coliseum, Rhodes 
 
 Vespucius, Americas, 1498 
 
 Victor Amadeus ; Sardinia, 1630 
 
 Victor Emmanuel, 6. 1820;. Sar- 
 dinia, 1849 ' Italy, i860 
 
 Victor, marshal; Talavera, 1809; 
 BaiTOsa, Witepsk 
 
 Victor ; pope, 193 
 
 Victoria, queen, b. 1819; England, 
 Scotland, Ireland, India 
 
 Victory, Espartero, duke of ; Spain, 
 1840 
 
 Vidil, baron de ; trials, 1861 
 
 Vieta, Francis ; algebra, 1590 
 
 Vigilius ; pope, 537 
 
 Villars, marshal; Malplaquet, 1709 
 
 Villeneuve, adm. ; Trafalgar, 1805 
 
 Villeroy, mai-.shal ; Brussels, 1695 ; 
 Ramilies, 1706 
 
 Villiors, sir George ; administra- 
 tions, 161S 
 
 Villiers, bp. ; Durham, i860 
 
 Vincent, B., Royal Inst. Library 
 Catalogue, 1857 J Bible index, 
 1848 
 
 Vincent, H. ; chartists 
 
 Virgil, 70-19 B.C. 
 
 Virginia ; killed, 449 b. c. 
 
 Vitalianus ; pope, 537 
 
 Vitellius, Rome, emp. 6g 
 
 Vitruvius ; abt. 27 b c. ; ink 
 
 Vivier; trials, 1842 
 
 Volta, Alex.,i745-i82S ; electricity, 
 Volta 
 
 Voltaire, F. M. A. de; 1694-1778, 
 miscel. 
 
 Von Fuchs, Dr., d. 1856; water- 
 glass, stereochromy 
 
 Vortigei'ii ; Wales, 447 
 
 Voss, poet, 1751-1826 
 
 Vyse, Mrs. A., trials, 1S62 
 
 W 
 
 Waddington ; trials, 1820 
 ^\■ager, C. ; admiralty, 1733 
 Waghorn, lieut.,d. 1849 ; Waghorn 
 Waithman, Robert ; lord mayor, 
 
 1823 ; obehsk, bank 
 Wake, abp. ; Canterbury, 1715 
 Wakefield, Eliz. ; savings banks, 
 
 1804 
 Wakefield, Ed. Gibbon ; marriages, 
 
 S. Australia, trials, 1827 
 Waldegrave, earl of ; trials, 1841 
 Waldegrave, bp. ; Carlisle, i860 
 AValdemar ; Denmark, 11 57 
 AValdt-n, abp. ; Canterbury, 1398 
 Wales, George, prince of, v. Time!; 
 
 trials, 1790; regency 
 Walker, Mr. ; Vauxhall, congela- 
 tion, ice, 1782 
 Walker, George ; Londonderry, 
 
 Boyne, 1689 
 Walker, gen. ; filibusters, Nica- 
 ragua, 1855, exec, i860 
 WhU, governor; trials, 1802, Goree 
 Wall, Mr. Baring ; trials, 1833 
 Wallace, Sir W. ; exec, 1305 ; Fal- 
 kirk, Cambuskenneth, 1297 
 Wallaces ; trials, 1841 
 Wallenstein, Albert, general, 1583- 
 
 1634 ; Mecklenburg 
 Waller, Sir W. ; Abingdon, 1644 
 Wallis, circumnavigator ; Otaheite, 
 
 Wallis, 1766 
 Walpole, Horace, 1717-97 ; letters 
 Walpole, Sir Robert, 1676-1745 ; 
 
 Walpole adm. ; sinking fund 
 Walpole, Spencer Horatio ; Derby 
 
 administration, 1852-1858 
 Walsh, Mrs. ; murdered, trials, 1S32 
 Walsh, Nicholas; printing, 1571 
 Walsingham, lord; attorney -gen. , 
 
 1766 
 Walsingham, sir Francis ; adminis- 
 trations, 15S7 
 Walter, E. ; commissionaires, 1859 
 Walter, J., 1739-1812 ; Times, 1785 
 Waltheof; beheading, 1076 
 Walton, Brian, i6oo-6i ; polyglot 
 Walton, Izaac, 1593- 1683 ; angling 
 Walworth ; Blackheath, niace,i38i 
 Warburton, Eliot (lostj, Amazon, 
 
 1852 
 Ward, Mr. ; forgery, 1726 
 Ward, N. B. ; aquarium. Ward's 
 
 cases, 1829 
 Wardle, colonel ; impeachment, 
 Wardle v. duke of York ; trials, 
 1809 
 Warenne, earl of ; Dunbar, 1296 
 Warham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1503 ; 
 
 administrations, 1509 
 Warrington, R. ; aquarium, 1850 
 Warner, Mrs., d. 1S54; theatres 
 Waroer, Messrs. ; bells, 1856 
 Warren admiral sir John Borlace ; 
 
 naval battles, 1798 
 Warrington gang ; trials, 1806 
 Warton, Thomas ; poet laureate, 
 
 17SS 
 Warwick, earl of ; Barnet, St. 
 
 Albans, Wakefield, 1460 
 Warwick, John Dudley, earl of ; 
 
 administrations, 1551 
 Washington, George, 1732-99 ; 
 United States, York Town, 
 Virginia 
 Waterton, Chas. ; naturalist, 1783- 
 
 1865 
 Wathen, captain ; trials, 1834 
 Watbou, admiral; India, 1756 
 
 Watson, bishop ; Llandaff, 1782 
 Watson, sirWm. ; eleutriciry, 1740; 
 Htjhtning conductor : trials, 
 1817 
 Watt and Downie ; trials, 1794 
 VVatt,Jas., 1736-1819 : steam engine 
 Watteau, Ant., French painter, 
 
 1684-1721 
 Watts, Isaac, 1673-1748 ; hymns 
 Watts ; theatres, trials, 1859, 
 
 suicide 
 Watts, T. ; new,=!papers, 1766 
 Weare, Mr. ; trials, 1824 
 Weathershed, abp. ; Canterbury, 
 
 1229 
 Webbe, Sam., music, 1740-1819 
 Webei-, Carl von, 17S6-1826 ; music 
 AVebster, Daniel, d. 1852 ; United 
 
 States 
 Webster, Dr. ; trials, 1842 
 Webster, sir Godfrey ; trials, 1797 
 Wedgwood, Josiah, 1731-95 ; earth- 
 enware, Wedgwood (porcelain) 
 Wedgwood, T. ; photography, 1802 
 Weld, Mr. ; trappists 
 Welleslej^ sir A. , see WeUivgton 
 Wellesley, marquess ; India, 1798 
 Wellesley, Mr. Long ; duel, 1828 
 Wellesley Pole, v. Misses Long; 
 
 trials, 1825 
 Wellesley v. Paget ; trials, 1809 
 Wellington, duke of, 1769 1852 ; 
 Wellington; commander-in- 
 chief, duel, 1829; trials, 1830 
 Wells, W. ; dew, 1814 
 Wells, lord Lyon; Ireland (lord- 
 
 lieut.), 1438 
 Wensleydale, lord ; peers, 1857 
 Werner, A. G., 1750-1817 ; geology, 
 
 1775 
 AVesley, J., 1703-91; Wesleyans 
 West, Benj., 1738-1820; Royal 
 
 Academy, 1792 
 Westbury,lord chancellor; Palmer- 
 
 ston adm., 1861 
 Westerton v. Liddell ; trials, 1855 
 Westmacott, sirR., 1775-1856 
 Westmcath, lord ; trials, 1796 
 Westmorland, earl of; Ireland 
 
 (lord-lieut.), 1790 
 Weston, Richard lord ; adminis- 
 trations, 1628 
 Wetherell, sir Chas. ; attorney-gen 
 
 1826; Bristol ■' 
 
 Wetherell, rev. Mr. ; tri.als, 1S45 
 Weyland, Thomas de ; bribery, 1288 
 Weymouth ; north-west passage, 
 
 1602 ° 
 
 Weymouth, visct. ; Grafton adm., 
 
 1767 
 Wharncliffe, Id. ; Peel adm., 1834 
 Wharton, Thomas, marquess of; 
 
 Halifax adm., 1714 
 Wharton, Miss; marriages, i6go 
 Whately, abp. R., 1787-1863 ; 
 
 logic, &c. 
 Wheatstone, C, 6. 1802; stereo- 
 scope, electricity, 1834; elec- 
 tric telegraph, and clock 
 Wheeler, sir Hugh; Cawnpore 
 
 1857 
 Whewell, W., philosopher, 6. 1795 
 Whiston, W. , iheol., d. 1752 
 Whitbread, Samuel; suicide, 1815 
 White, H. K., poet, 1785-1806 
 White, Thos., Sion College, 1623 
 Whitefield, G., 1714-70; Whitefield, 
 
 Wesleyans, 1741 
 Whitehead, W., d. 1785 ; poet lau- 
 reate 
 Wbitelock, gen. ; Buenos Ayres, 
 1807 
 
830 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Whitgift, abp. ; Canterbury, 1583 
 Whitney, Eli ; cotton, 1793 
 Whittington ; lord mayor, 1405 
 Whittlesey, archbp. ; Cam erbiiry, 
 
 1368 
 Whitworth, Mr. ; cannon, Shoe- 
 
 buryness, 1862 
 Whitworth, carl ; Ireland. 1813 
 Whyte, maj.-gen. ; Demorara, 1756 
 Wickham, AVilliam of, 1324-1405 ; 
 education, Oxford, Winchester 
 Wiekliffe, John, 6. 1324 ; Wickliff- 
 
 ites, Bible 
 Wieland, C; Germ, miacel., 1733- 
 
 1S13 
 Wigram, bp. ; Rochester, 1S60 
 Wilberforce, bp. ; Oxford, 1846 
 Wilberforce, W., 1759-1833; slave- 
 trade 
 Wild, Jonathan ; executed 1725 
 Wilde, sir James; probate court, 
 
 1863 
 Wilfride, bp. ; Chichester, 673 
 Wilkes, captain; circumnavigation, 
 
 1838 ; United States, 1861 
 Wilkes, John ; North Briton, 
 obeli.sk, warrants ; Wilkes, 
 duel, 1763 ; trials, 1764 
 Wilkie, sir D., painter, 1785-1841 
 Wilkins, Dr. ; Wadham, 161 3 
 William I., 1066; England, Battel- 
 abbey, conquest, Domesday, 
 castles 
 William IL ; England, 10S7 
 WiUiam III.;;England, 1689, revo- 
 lution, IBoyne, Enghien, Jt 
 maintiendrai. New Forest 
 William IV. ; England, kings, 1830; 
 
 admiral 
 William ; Holland, Scotland 
 William.?, Ann ; trials, 1753 
 Williams, David, d. 1816 ; literary 
 
 fund 
 Williams, John, dean ; adminis- 
 trations, 162 1 
 Williams, see Burking 
 Williams, Roger ; America, 1635 
 Williams, gen. W. F. ; Kars, 1855 
 Williamson, sir Joseph; adminis- 
 trations, 1629 
 Willoughby, sir Hugh ; north-west 
 
 passage, 1553 
 WiUoughby de Eresby, lord ; 
 
 chaniberlain, lord gi'eat, 1626 
 WiUoughby, lieut. ; Delhi, 1857 
 Wills, gen. ; Preston, 171 5 
 Wilmington, earl of ; Wilmington 
 
 adm., 1742 
 Wilson, capt. ; Pelew Islands, 1783 
 Wilson, sir A. ; Delhi, 1857 
 Wilson, H. H. ; Sanskrit professor, 
 
 1832 
 Wilson, sir Robert; Lavalette, 1815 
 Wilson, prof. John, 1785-1854 
 Wilson, Mrs. C. ; poisoning, trials, 
 
 1862 
 Wilson, capt. W. ; United States, 
 
 1862, note 
 Wilton, earl of; trials, 1859 
 Winchelsey, abp. ; Canterbury. 
 
 1293 
 Winchester, gen. ; Frenchtown, 
 
 1813 
 Winchester, Henry; mayor, loid, 
 
 1834 
 Winchester, Wm., marquess of; 
 adniini.stratioii.s, 1554 
 
 Winchilsea, e.arl of ; duel, 1829 
 
 Winchilsea, earl of ; Wilmington 
 adm., 1742 ; Bath .adm., 1746 
 
 Windebank, sir Francis ; adminis- 
 trations, 1635 
 
 Windham, general; India, 1857 
 
 Windham, W. F. ; trials, 1861-2 
 
 Windham, Wm. ; Grenville adm., 
 1806 
 
 Windischgratz, prince ; Vienna, 
 1848 
 
 Winstanley ; Eddystone, 1696 
 
 Winwood, sir Ralph ; administra- 
 tions, 1612 
 
 Winzingerode, gen. ; Kalisch, 1813 
 
 Wiseman, cardinal Nicholas, 1802- 
 65 ; ecclesiastical titles, papal 
 aggression, Rome, Ireland, 
 1858 ■ 
 
 Witts, De ; massacred, 1672 
 
 Withers, Dr. ; libel, 1789 
 
 Witherings, Thomas ; post-office, 
 163 1 
 
 Witherington, W., painter, 1786- 
 1865 
 
 Withing, Richard ; Glastonbury, 
 
 1539 
 Witikind (Saxon chief), 779-785 
 Wittgenstein, gen. ; Polotsk, 
 
 Witepsk, 1812 
 Wodehouse, lord ; Ireland (lord- 
 
 lieut. ), 1864 
 Woden ; Wednesday 
 Wohler, P. ; aluminium, 1827 
 Wolcot, Dr., alias Peter Pindar ; 
 
 trials, 1807 
 Wolfe, gen. ; Quebec, 1759 
 Wolfius ; anemometer, 1709 
 Wollaston, Wm., 1760-1828 ; cryo- 
 phorus, camera, blow-pipe, 
 palladium, rhodium 
 Wolseley, sir Charles ; trials, 1820 
 Wolsey, cardinal, 1471-1530; ad- 
 ministrations, 1514 ; Hampton, 
 Whitehall, York 
 Wood, sir Charles ; Russell adm., 
 1846 ; Palmerston adm., 1855 
 Wood, Matthew ; mayors of Lon- 
 don, 1815 
 Wood ; Palmyra, 1751-53 
 Woodfall, Mr. ; trials, 1786 
 Woodojason ; ruling machines 
 Wooler, Mr. ; trials, 1817 ; 1855 
 WooUey, Mr. ; trials, 1863 
 Worcester, marquess of; steam, 
 
 telegraph, 1663 
 Worcester, Edward, earl of; ad- 
 ministrations, 1621 
 Wordsworth, Wm. ; 1770-1850; 
 
 poet-laureate 
 Wotton, sir Edward ; sugar, 1546 
 Wouvermanns, painters, 1620-83 
 Wray, sir C. ; king's bench, 1573 
 Wrede, gen. ; Hanau, 1813 
 Wren, sir Christopher, architect, 
 1632-1723 ; Chelsea, engraving. 
 Greenwich, monument, St. 
 Paul's, Walbrook 
 Wren, Matthew ; Royal Society 
 Wrench, Mr. ; theatres, 1809 
 Wright; Mercator's charts, 1556 
 Wright, sir Rob.; king's bench, 
 
 1687 
 Wright and Doyle; trials, 1851 
 Wriotbesley,lord ; administrations, 
 
 1547 
 Wurmscr, gen. ; Ca.stiglione, 1796 
 
 Wyat, sirThos. ; rebellions, 1554 
 
 Wyld, S. : globe, 1851 
 
 Wyiikyn de Worde ; angling, 1496 ; 
 
 printing 
 Wynn, W. ; Canning adm., 1827 
 Wyon, W., medallist, 1795-1851 
 
 Xavier, Francis ; 1506-52 ; Jesuits 
 Xenophancs ; Eleatic sect, 535 B.C. 
 Xenophon ; anatom3-, couriers 
 
 cymlials, retreat of the Greeks 
 
 401 B.C. 
 Xerxes ; Persia, 485 B.C. ; Mycale, 
 
 Salamis 
 Ximenes, card., 1437-1517 ; jioly- 
 
 glot 
 
 Yale, Elisha ; auctions, 1700 
 Yeh, commissioner; China, 1857 
 Yelverton, major ; trials, i860 
 Yonge, sir Geo. ; Shelbume adm. , 
 
 1783 
 York, bishop ; Ely, 1781 
 York, cardinal ; Scotland, 1807 
 York, duke of, 1762-1827 ; York 
 York, James, duke of ; Solebay, 
 
 1672 
 Yorke, Charles, chancellor, lord 
 
 high, 1770 
 Yorke, sir Philip; att.-gen.; king's 
 
 bench, 1733 
 Yorke, Mr. Redhead ; trial, 1795 
 Young ; impostors, 1692 
 Young, major ; Prescott, 1838 
 Young, Charles ; theatre, 1807 
 Young, Brigham, 6. 1801 ; Mor- 
 
 monites 
 Young, Edw., poet, 1681-1765 
 Young, Thos. , 1773-1829; Royal 
 
 Institution, colour, spectnim 
 Youngman, W. ; executions, i860 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zacharias ; pope, 741 
 Zaleucus ; sumptuary laws,45o B.C. 
 Zamoyski, count ; Poland, 1862 
 Zechariah prophesies about 520B.C, 
 Zeno (stoic), fi. 299 B.C. eastern 
 
 empire, 474 
 Zenobia ; Palmyra, 263 
 Zenon ; Armenia, 18 
 Zephaniah prophesies abt. 630 B.C. 
 Zephyrinus ; pope, 202 
 Zeuxis, /. 397 B.C. ; painting 
 Zimmermann ; phy.siognomy, 1776 
 Zinzendorf, 1700-60 ; Moravians 
 Ziska ; Bohemia, 1417 
 Zoe ; eastern empire, 1034 
 ZolUcoffer, gen. ; U. States, 1861 
 Zoroaster (supposed author of 
 
 " Zendavesta") ; about 555 B.C. 
 
 fire-worshippers 
 Zosimus ; alchemy, 410 
 ZumalacaiTcgui (Carlist) ; killed 
 
 near Bilbao, 1835 
 Zumpie, M. ; pianoforte, 1766 
 Zurbano, gen. ; Spain, 1844 
 
ADDITIONS AND COEEECTIONS. 
 
 PARE 
 
 4. Note. Abyssinia. — Mr. Plowden was appointed 
 consul at Massowab, in 1848. He concluded a 
 treaty of commerce with Ras Ali, emperor of 
 Abyssinia, Nov. 2, 1849, "wbo was deposed in 
 1854 by bis son-in-law, Tbeodore, the present 
 ruler, who set aside the treaty. 
 
 II. Administrations. — Decease of lord Palmers- 
 ton, Oct. 18, 1865. Earl Russell reconstituted 
 the cabinet ; lord Clarendon became foreign 
 minister. 
 Africa. — M. Du Chaillu, after being robbed, 
 and undergoing many privations, returned to 
 London near the end of 1865. He gave an 
 account of his journey at a meeting of the 
 Royal Geographical Society, Jan 8, 1866. 
 
 20. ALBEiiT Memorial. — A statue of the prince- 
 consort (by Theed) was Inaugurated at Rose- 
 nau, his birth-place, in the presence of the 
 queen and the royal family, Aug. 19, 1865. 
 
 63. A0GUSTINS. — Austin Friars church was restored 
 and reopened, Oct. i, 1865. 
 
 66. Austria. — Peace with Denmark signed Oct. 30, 
 1864. 
 Convention of Gastein (see Gastein) signed, Aug. 
 
 14, 1865. 
 Emperor's rescript suppressing the constitu- 
 tion (reichsrath, &o.), with the view of giving 
 autonomy to Hungary (which see), Sept. 21, 
 1865. 
 Rejoicing in Hungary, but dissatisfaction in 
 Croatia, Austria, and other provinces, Nov., 
 Dec, 1865. 
 Important treaty of commerce withGreat Britain 
 signed December 16, 1865. 
 
 74. Balloons. — Aeronautical Society of Great Bri- 
 tain was founded with the object of fostering 
 and developing aeronautics and aerology, by 
 the duke of Argyll, Mr. James Glaisher, sir 
 Charles Bright, and others, Jan. 12, 1866. 
 
 78. Bank Discount raised to 4^, Sept. 28 ; to s, 
 Oct. 2 ; to 6, Oct. 5 ; to 7, Oct. 7 (three times 
 in one locek) ; reduced tfl 6, Nov. 23 ; raised 
 to 7, Dec. 28, 1865 ; to 8, Jan. 4, 1866. 
 
 92 . Battles. — 2nd col. , line 53, after Oeversee(i)anes 
 
 and Prussians), Feb 6, insert 1864 
 
 93. Bayeux tapestry is now preserved in the public 
 
 library at Bayeux. 
 97. Belgium. — Leopold I. died Dec. 10, 1865 ; suc- 
 ceeded by his son Leopold II. 
 
 114. Bolivia. — General Melgare jo defeats the troops 
 of president De Acha, Dec. 28, 1864 ; and be- 
 comes chief of the republic, Feb. 1865. He puts 
 down an insurrection under Belzu, March, 1865. 
 
 122. Brazil. — The allies under Flores defeat the 
 Paraguayans at Santayuna on the Uruguay, 
 Sept. 1865. 
 Uruguayana surrenders to the allies, Sept. 18, 
 1865. 
 
 130. Brougham. — This popular vehicle is said to 
 have been invented in 1839, and received its 
 name in consequence of its adoption by lord 
 Brougham soon after. 
 
 139. Insert Cachet ; see Zettres cle Cachet. 
 
 141. Calculating Machines. — Tables constructed 
 by means of Scheutz's machine, edited by Dr. 
 "W". Farre, were published by the government 
 in 1864. 
 
 15S. Cattle. — A severe -cattle plague raged in Eng- 
 land, 1745-56. 
 The pi-ivy council ordered diseased beasts to be 
 shot, and their skins destroyed; granting . 
 moderate compensation, March 12, 1746? 
 A royal commission to inquire into the causes 
 of the cattle plague and suggest remedies met 
 first, Oct. 10 ; report of majority consider the 
 disease to have been imported, and recommend 
 slaughter of animals, and stringent prohibi- 
 tion of passage of cattle across pubUc roads, 
 (fee, Oct. 31, 1865. 
 27,432 beasts had been attacked ; 12,680 died ; 
 
 8,998 slaughtered, up to Oct. 21, 1865. 
 Orders in council for reg\ilating the cattle trade 
 (in conformity with the act of 1850), Nov. 23 
 and Dec. 16, 1865 ; and Jan. 20, 1866. 
 Disease still raging ; official report ; cattle at- 
 tacked, 120,740; killed, 16,742; died, 73,750 ; 
 recovered, 14,162 ; unaccounted for, 16,086, 
 Feb. I, 1866. 
 
 158. Caucus. — An American term, applied to a pri- 
 vate meeting of the leading politicians of a 
 party to agree upon the plans to be pursued 
 during an election or session of congress. This 
 institution is now a very powerful antagonist 
 to public opinion. The word is said to be de- 
 rived from " ship "-caulkers' meetings. A 
 " caucus club," is mentioned by John Adams, 
 in 1763. BaMlett. 
 
 170. Chili. Dispute with Spain ; see Spain, 1864-5. 
 
 174. China. — Rebellion of the north, the Nien-fei; 
 
 June, 1865. 
 Sir Rutherford Alcock, ambassador at Pekin, 
 Nov. 26, 1865. 
 
 175. Cholera prevalent at Marseilles, Paris, Madrid, 
 
 and Naples, July — October, 1865. 
 An international meeting at Constantinople, to 
 consider preventive measures, proposed, Oct., 
 1865. 
 
 178. Church of England. — Meeting in London of 
 
 three English bi.shops, Dr. Pusey, and nearly 
 80 of the clergy and laity, with counts Orloff 
 and Tolstse, and the Russian chaplain, to con- 
 sider on the practicability of uniting the 
 English and Russian churches, Nov. 15, 1865. 
 
 179. Cinque Ports. — Lord Palmerston died Oct. 18, 
 
 1865, and earl Granville was appointed lord 
 
 warden, Dec. 1865. 
 Coal. — Explosion at" Gethin mine, Merthyr 
 
 Tydvill ;j 30 lives lost, Dec. 20, 1865. 
 [In 1862 the explosion was at Gethin mine, not 
 
 Cethin. ] 
 Explosion at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan, 
 
 Lancashire ; about 30 lives lost, Jan. 23, 1866. I 
 202. Conservatives. — This name is now given to the 
 
 party in the north of the United States which 
 
ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 
 
 supports the president in his conciliatory 
 efforts to re-establish the Union, J.an iS66. 
 
 213. Cotton. — The executive of the central relief 
 fund heM their last meeting, Dec. 4, 1865. 
 
 231. Death. — The commission on c ijiital puni.shment 
 issued their report (recommending that penal 
 servitude be substituted for death in some 
 cases where murder was unpremeditated, and 
 that executions should not be public^, Dec. 
 1865. 
 
 237. Denmark. — The project of a new constitution 
 rejected by the assembly, Feb. 25, 1865. 
 New ministrj' formed under count Frysenborg, 
 
 Nov. 6, 1865. 
 A new constitution approved by the Eigsraad, 
 Nov. 7, 1865. 
 
 248. Dover. — Earl Granville was appointed con- 
 stable, Dec. 1865. 
 
 265. Education. Cummittee appointed at a meetin'g 
 
 for establishment of higher schools for middle 
 classes in London, by means of funds of lap.'ied 
 charities, &c., Nov. 7 ; nearly 28,ooo<. sub- 
 scribed by end of Dec. 1865. 
 
 266. EoYPT. — 2nd col. rtud Ptolemy II. Philadelphus 
 
 reigns, &c. 285. 
 281. England. — l"he Queen announces her assent to 
 the marriage of princess Helena with prince 
 Christian of Augusteuburg, Dec. 5, 1865. 
 Important commercial treaty with Austria 
 
 signed, Dec. 16, 1865. 
 New Parliament opened by the Queen in person, 
 Feb. 6, 1S66. 
 286. Ethyl ; read " compounds with metals." 
 292. Executions. — Stephen Forward, alias Ernest 
 Southey, for murder of his wife and four 
 children, at Maidstone, Jan. 11, 1866. 
 294. Extradition Trkatv between Great Britain 
 and France was concluded in 1843. I" Dec. 
 1865, the French government gave notice of 
 withdrawing from it in six months. 
 297. Fenians. — They estaVjUsh a provisional govern- 
 ment at New York, and a congress of 600 
 members held at Philadelphia, Oct. 1865. 
 Fierce di.'sputes between the senate and 
 O'.Mahony, the head-centre, who is charged 
 with coiTuption and deposed ; Mr. Roberts 
 appointed his succes.sor, Dec. 1865. 
 Fenians in United States said to have raifed 
 2oo,ooo(. in October ; they prepare to attack 
 Canada, Dec. 1865. 
 380,000 Fenians reported in the United States 
 Jan. 1866. 
 302. Fires. — Great fire at Beale's wharf, ; about 
 i8,oooI. damage, Oct. 30, 1865. 
 Immense fire at St. Kutherine's docks, Jan. 1, 
 1866. 
 300. FiRE-BRiOADE. — The new one came into action 
 and its energies were tested at the great fire at 
 St. Katherine's docks, .Jan. i, 1866. 
 313. France. —Extradition treaty signed, 1843. 
 316. Convention with Italy respecting the evacua- 
 tion of Rome, &c., Sept. i5„i864. 
 Death of M. Mocquard, Dee. 9, 1864. 
 Notice given of the abrogation of the Extradition 
 
 treaty in six months, Dec. 1S65. 
 Riots of repubUcan student.s at Paris ; several 
 expelled from the Academy of Medicine, 
 Deo. 1865. 
 Emperor opens chambers with a pacific speech, 
 Jan 22, 1866. 
 337. Giants. — 2nd column. It is stated that M. Brice 
 
 is Anak. 
 339. Glasc.ow. — Industrial exhibition opened, Dec. 
 
 347. Graphotvpe, a new process for obtaining blocks 
 for surface-printing, the invention of Mr. De 
 Witt Clinton Hitchcock in i860. It was de- 539. 
 scribed by Mr. Fitz-Cook at the Society of Arts, 
 Dec. 6, 1865. Drawings are made on blocks of 1 544. 
 clialk with a silicious ink : when dried, the 
 soft paits arc brushed away, and the drawing | 
 
 remains in relief; stereotypes are then taken 
 from the block. 
 349. Greece. —Brigandage prevails ; frequent minis- 
 terial changes under Djligeorges, Comoun- 
 douros, Bulgaris, Oct., Nov. Roufos becomes 
 minister, Dec. lo, 1865. 
 356. Gypsies are said to have entered P.aris in 1427. 
 363. Hayti. — Military insurrection under Salu.ave 
 against Gefirard, May 7 ; Cape Hayti seized, 
 May 9, 1865. 
 Valoroyue, a rebel vessel, fires into British 
 Jamaica packet, near Acul, St. Domingo, Oct. 
 22; H.M.S. Balhlog threatens Valoroffue : 
 Salnave orders the removal of refugees from 
 British consulate at Cape Hayti, shoots thom, 
 and destroys the building. The Bulldog failing 
 to obtain satisfaction, shells the fort, sinks the 
 Valnrogue, but gets on a reef, and the crew is 
 taken oxit and slie is blown up. H.M.S. Galatea 
 and Lih/ take the other forts and give them 
 up to Geffrard ; the rebels flee inland, Nov. 9, 
 1865. 
 368. High Treason, add, "see Treason." 
 377. Hungary. — The emperor visits Pesth ; the diet 
 opened, Dec. 14 ; Carl Szentivanyi elected 
 president, Dec. 20, 1865. 
 Emperor and empress arrive at Pesth, Jan. 29, 
 1866. 
 3S4. Index Expurgatorius. — Several books were 
 
 in.serted in it in Jan. 1866. 
 390. India. — Much dissatisfaction at mildewed cotton 
 goods being received from England, July — Oct. 
 1865. 
 398. Ireland.— Stephens e.scapes from jail, Nov. 25, 
 1865. 
 Fenian trials began at Dublin, Nov. 27 ; Thos. 
 Clarke Luby convicted of tre;ison-felon3' ; sen- 
 tenced to 20 years' penal servitude, Dec. 1, 
 1865. 
 O'Leary and others convicted, Dec. ; O'Donovan 
 or Rossa sentenced to imprisonment for life, 
 Dec. 13, 1865. 
 More Fenians arrested and convicted at Cork and 
 
 Dublin, Jan., Feb. 1866. 
 Discovery of an aiins manufactory at Dublin ; 
 the city and countj' proclaimed as put under 
 the provisions of the peace preservation act, 
 Jan. II, 1 866. 
 404. Italy. — Serious financial deficiency ; heavy 
 taxation proyjoscd, Dec. 13 ; much dissatisfac- 
 tion ; the ministers resign, Dec. 21 ; a new 
 ministry formed under La Marmora, Dec. 31, 
 1S65. 
 Death of the patriot and soldier, Massimo 
 D'Azeglio, Jan. 15, 1866. 
 406. Jamaica. — note. IVfoses, not Paul, Bogle was 
 h.angod at once ; in December sir Henry 
 Storks was summoned from Malta and sent to 
 Jamaica (Dec. 11) as commissioner to inquire 
 respecting the disturbances, and the mea-sures 
 taken in suppressing them; Governor Eyre 
 was temporarily suspended. Sir Henry Storks 
 arrives in Jamaica, Jan. 6, 1866. 
 458. Madras. — Lord Napier appointed governor, Jan. 
 
 31, 1866. 
 472. Master of the Rolls. — Sir John Romilly was 
 
 made a peer as baron Romilly, Dec. 1865. 
 489. Monaco. — A commercial convention between 
 the prince and France signed, Nov. 9, 1865, 
 was much discussed, as tending towards the 
 abolition of the French navigation laws. 
 507. New Zealand. — The Maoris treacherously kill 
 the envoys of peace : resignation of the Weld 
 ministry ; one formed by Mr. Stafford, Oct. 
 
 Prospects of peace reported, Jan. 1866. 
 Palestine, jiote. — The party arrived at Damas- 
 cus, Dec. 20, 1865. 
 
 Parkesine. — A new substance, composed of 
 gun-cotton, obtained from various vegetable 
 bodies, and oil. It can be formed with the pro- 
 
ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 
 
 833 
 
 perties of ivory, tortoiseshell, wood, india- 
 rubber, gutta-percha, &c. It is the Invention 
 of Mr. Alexander Parkes, of Birmingham, and 
 was shown by him at the Exhibition, in 1862. 
 In Dec. , 1865, at the Society of Arts, Parkesine 
 was proved to be an excellent electric insulator, 
 and therefore likely to be suitable for tele- 
 graphic purposes. 
 
 SSI, Peabody Fund. — The first block of buildings for 
 working classes in Commercial-street, Spital- 
 fields, opened Feb. 29, 1864; others erecting 
 in Islington, ShadweU, Chelsea, and Bermond- 
 sey ; they have been found to be self-sup- 
 porting. Mr. Peabody presented ioo,oooZ. in 
 addition, Jan. 1866. 
 
 568. Planet. — No. 86 discovered, M. Tietjen, Jan. 
 4, 1866. 
 
 587. Post Office. — Number of letters delivered in 
 the United Kingdom, in 1864, 679,084,822. 
 
 S96. Peisons. — An act to consolidate and amend the 
 law relating to prisons was passed July 5, 
 1865. 
 
 601. — Prussia. — The chambers opened vntha super- 
 cilious speech from M. Bismarck, Jan. 15, 1866. 
 
 603. Pyx. — The ceremony of the trial was again 
 performed, Jan. 19-20, 1865. 
 
 631. BOYAL Academy. — Sir Edwin Landseer elected 
 president, declines, Jan. 24; Francis Grant 
 elected, Feb. i, 1866. 
 
 634. EussELL Administrations (third) ; resignation 
 of sir Charles Wood ; earl de Grey becomes 
 secretary for India ; and lord Hartington, 
 secretary of war, Feb. 1866. 
 
 662. ScuLPTUKE. — John Gibson died Jan. 27, 1S66. 
 
 678. Spain. — Prim enters Portugal and lays down 
 arms ; the insurrection ends, Jan. 20, 1866. 
 
 691. Storms. — Severe gales ; many vessels and lives 
 lost (see Wrecks ) Jan, 6-11 1866. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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