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 MANUFACTURE 
 
 METALLIC ALLOYS 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2011 with funding from 
 The Library of Congress 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/practicalguidefoOOguet 
 
A PRACTICAL GUIDE 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 MANUFACTURE 
 
 OF 
 
 METALLIC ALLOYS 
 
 COMPRISING THEIR 
 
 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, 
 
 WITH THEIR 
 
 PREPARATION, COMPOSITION, AND USES. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH OF 
 
 A. GUETTIER, 
 
 R OF "LA FONDERIJ 
 
 ENGINEER AND DIRECTOR OF FOUNDRIES, AUTHOR OF "LA FONDERIE 
 EN FRANCE," ETC. ETC. 
 
 BY 
 
 T > V J ,No'< 
 
 A. A. FESQUET, :; J , , /iL^ 
 
 CHEMIST AND ENGINEER. \/^<T-> <"\« J 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 
 
 INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 
 
 406 Walnut Street. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 SAMPSON LOW, SON, & MARSTON, 
 
 CROWN BUILDINGS, 188 FLEET ST. 
 1872. 
 

 
 6 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by 
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 
 
 in the Office of the Librarian of Congress. All rights reserved. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 UOLLiNS, PRINTER, 705 JaTNE STREET. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 Hundkeds of times have we held back from the 
 undertaking of a special treatise on alloys. 
 
 A complete work, adequate to the importance of 
 the subject, would require innumerable researches and 
 studies, and one volume would not be sufficient. Yet, 
 it would scarcely be possible to give anything beyond 
 a concise idea of a subject entirely too vast and com- 
 plex to be treated in a strict and exact manner. 
 
 Let us consider all the metals actually employed, 
 from those which are essentially industrial, to the pre- 
 cious metals which belong to the arts rather than to * 
 industry proper ; and up to those modern metals so 
 little known that they still remain exclusively within 
 the limits of scientific investigation. When we see 
 these various metals combining with each other, one 
 by one, two by two, three by three, &c, and in various 
 proportions, we may well ask if it be possible to create 
 a methodical and absolute treatise on alloys. 
 
 Not only would it be impossible to resolve all of the 
 problems arising out of the multiple combinations of 
 the metals with each other, on account of their innu- 
 
 1* 
 
VI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 merable quantity; but, as experience must be the de- 
 finitive test, it is impossible for most of these problems 
 to be solved without practical studies, which alone are 
 capable of throwing sufficient light upon this subject. 
 
 In order to study all of the alloys which may be 
 produced by the various metals, beginning with the 
 usual ones and finishing with the new ones, a consider- 
 able expenditure of time and money would be neces- 
 sary. A lifetime would scarcely be sufficient for pro- 
 ducing and studying with profit all of the elementary 
 combinations which the question requires. 
 
 Few, if any, persons among those interested in the 
 metallurgic art, have made longer and more complete 
 researches on alloys than we have. However, with 
 entire humility, we are ready to acknowledge that our 
 efforts, which may have aided the industry up to a 
 certain point, are far from having elucidated the least 
 complex parts of the question. 
 
 We have endeavored to give to these studies a practi- 
 cal turn, by considering the alloys according to their 
 conspicuous qualities; and following the successive 
 variations in combination of the common metals, and 
 the part borne by each one in these modifications. 
 But these researches, already protracted and difficult, 
 have touched only one part of our intended pro- 
 gramme. 
 
 We have been obliged to give approximate results, 
 in place of precise numbers, for the part played by 
 each metal in regard to the resistance, hardness, spe- 
 cific gravity, fusibility, &c. of alloys. But, to have 
 
INTRODUCTION. VU 
 
 done otlierwise ; it would have been necessary to mul- 
 tiply the experiments and the verifications, and to 
 have mechanical trials intervening in a question where 
 the principal part is the work of the founder. 
 
 Time and opportunities have failed, not only for 
 completing these first studies, but also for beginning 
 new ones. Nor can we say when we shall resume this 
 question, if at all. 
 
 Then, and until others more successful or better en- 
 dowed increase the knowledge of alloys by new and 
 correct data, there is nothing left but to sum up, as 
 clearly and as briefly as possible, all that has been 
 ascertained in regard to alloys, by others and by our- 
 self. 
 
 On that account, and in order to make a book within 
 the means of all workers, we shall only examine the 
 combinations of the most usual metals. 
 
 The known metals may be subdivided into four dis- 
 tinct classes: — 
 
 1st, The metals especially industrial, that is to say, 
 those which are most in use in all kinds of manufac- 
 tures. They are : Copper, tin, zinc, lead, iron, steel, &c. 
 
 2d. The metals which belong to the arts, but whose 
 importance is secondary. These are : Bismuth, anti- 
 mony, nickel, arsenic, and mercury. 
 
 3d. The precious metals which belong to the arts, 
 or more particularly to the manufacture of objects of 
 luxury. These are: Gold, silver, aluminium, and pla- 
 tinum. 
 
 4th. The metals scarcely used in industry or in 
 
viii INTROPUCTION. 
 
 alloys; most of them being, at present, without any 
 clearly demonstrated usefulness. 
 
 After some preliminary explanations about the phy- 
 sical and chemical properties of the metals and alloys, 
 we shall examine the metals of the first class in view 
 of their mutual combinations. This investigation is a 
 sort of commentary upon the results of our personal re- 
 searches which were published a few years ago, under 
 the title of Recherches sur Us Alliages des Metaux indus- 
 trials. 
 
 This portion will be followed by general indications 
 concerning the metals of the second and third classes, 
 in view of the alloys with themselves and with metals 
 of the other classes ; most of these metals, with a few 
 well-known exceptions, having given rise to observa- 
 tions more curious and scientific than practical and 
 useful. 
 
 Lastly, we shall consider the metals of the fourth 
 class only in regard to their possible association with 
 alloys presenting certain interest in the arts. 
 
 If we add to these data concise observations in rela- 
 tion to the composition and preparation of the mix- 
 tures, to their smelting and moulding, &o. — in one 
 word, to the industrial treatment of alloys — and if we 
 annex to that the series of compositions of alloys which 
 have been found practical and useful in various sorts 
 of manufactures, we shall have composed a treatise on 
 alloys, or an experimental guide, which will present 
 in a concise form the principal elements of this impor- 
 tant question; but we shall still be far from having 
 
INTRODUCTION". IX 
 
 elucidated even a small portion of a subject which, in 
 many respects, demands the revelations of science 
 combined with a large experience. 
 
 For instance, when the new metals, comparatively 
 unknown, shall be added to the usual metals whose 
 alloys have been tested by long practice, who can fore- 
 see the results of these new combinations, or the new 
 qualities imparted to the ancient metals, as has been 
 done, with more or less success, to copper by aluminium, 
 and to iron and steel by wolfram (tungsten)? 
 
 In regard to the ordinary metals, whose principal 
 combinations are well known, we have to ascertain the 
 proportions, the elements best adapted to certain uses, 
 the hardness and malleability, &c; and to educe sci- 
 entifically with figures these proportions and elements, 
 and to cause them to rise above the empiric state in 
 which they have lingered under the rules of practical 
 routine. This, above all, is -the aim toward which our 
 efforts must tend. 
 
 With those new metals which are not well known, 
 we must endeavor, by uniting them with known alloys, 
 to produce new combinations, which may prove real 
 revelations, and by which the science of alloys will 
 have made, in a short time, very rapid and unexpected 
 strides. This is the road to sure progress, and for im- 
 provements in the working and employment of metals. 
 
 Because it is possible to unite in indefinite propor- 
 tions some metals, which, being thoroughly mixed 
 during their fusion, remain so after solidification, we 
 must not infer that all alloys are mixtures only. Met- 
 
X INTRODUCTION. 
 
 als, equally with all other chemical substances, com- 
 bine in definite proportions, the limits of which must 
 be known, if we desire to obtain an intimate and nor- 
 mal union. Indeed, our object is not to create alloys 
 with any proportions or metals which, by liquation, 
 will not produce homogeneous castings. If such were 
 the case, the different parts of the castings would have 
 different compositions, in indefinite proportions. 
 
 Therefore the science of alloys is not a mere guess- 
 work, which consists in taking metals, no matter what 
 they be, and in mixing them without rule or measure. 
 We must use those quantities best adapted to such and 
 such metals, which we intend to use in an alloy ; and 
 it sometimes happens that a very small proportion of 
 a given metal will impart to another metal new and 
 unexpected properties. 
 
 This is a reason why the study of alloys made with 
 certain metals, which at the present time have been but 
 little experimented upon, may produce very important 
 results ; and we cannot too strongly recommend such 
 researches to those of our readers who may attempt 
 industrial experiments in the department of metallic 
 alloys. 
 
 a. a. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction . . . y 
 
 PART I. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE METALS WHICH ARE COMMONLY 
 USED FOR ALLOYS. 
 
 Copper "... 4 15 
 
 Tin • . " . .- 15 
 
 Zinc . . . . . . . f . . 16 
 
 Lead 17 
 
 Iron . . 18 
 
 Bismuth . . . 19 
 
 Antimony 20 
 
 Nickel 20 
 
 Arsenic 21 
 
 Mercury . . .21 
 
 Gold 22 
 
 Silver 23 
 
 Platinum . . .24 
 
 Aluminium . . 24 
 
 Generalities, Tables, and Data 25 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fusibility 30 
 
 Hardness 31 
 
 Ductility 31 
 
 Tenacity . . . . . . . . . .31 
 
 Specific gravity 31 
 
 Elasticity 34 
 
 Specific heat 35 
 
 Latent heat 35 
 
 Oxidation 35 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 
 
 Processes of mixing 36 
 
 Cooling 38 
 
 Crystallization 39 
 
 Liquation 39 
 
 Temperature ......... 40 
 
 More or less complex alloys ...... 40 
 
 Fusion . • . . 42 
 
 Precautions, &c, to be taken during the fabrication . .42 
 
 Waste .......... 50 
 
 Determination of the elements of an alloy .... 52 
 
 PART II. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ALLOYS OF THE METALS MOST USED IN THE ARTS. 
 
 I. Studies on the Alloys of Copper, Zinc, Tin, and Lead 55 
 
 Alloys of tin and zinc 58 
 
 General observations .... 61 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 
 
 xiii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Alloys of tin and lead . . . . , . .63 
 
 General observations 
 
 
 
 . 64 
 
 " tin, zinc, and lead 
 
 
 
 . 66 
 
 General observations 
 
 
 
 . 68 
 
 " zinc and lead 
 
 
 
 . 69 
 
 General observations 
 
 
 
 , 70 
 
 " copper and tin . . . . 
 
 
 
 . 72 
 
 General observations 
 
 
 
 . 75 
 
 " copper and zinc . 
 
 
 
 . 79 
 
 General observations 
 
 
 
 82 
 
 " copper and lead . 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 General observations 
 
 
 
 86 
 
 " copper, tin, and zinc . 
 
 
 
 . 87 
 
 General observations 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 " copper, tin, zinc, and lead . 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 General observations 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 II. Alloys of Iron with Copper, Zinc, Tin, and Lead 
 
 . 97 
 
 Alloys of iron and copper . . . 
 
 98 
 
 " iron and zinc ....... 
 
 100 
 
 " iron and tin 
 
 102 
 
 " iron and lead ...... 
 
 104 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ALLOYS OF THE METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE IN THE ARTS. 
 
 Alloys of bismuth and copper ...... 106 
 
 " bismuth and zinc .... 
 
 
 . 106 
 
 * bismuth and tin 
 
 
 . 106 
 
 ** bismuth and lead . . . 
 
 
 . 107 
 
 il bismuth and iron .... 
 
 
 . 108 
 
 " bismuth and antimony 
 
 
 . 108 
 
 u bismuth and nickel .... 
 
 
 . 108 
 
 " bismuth and arsenic .... 
 
 
 . 108 
 
 General observations on the alloys of bismuth . 
 
 
 . 108 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Alloys of antimony and copper 
 
 " antimony and zinc 
 
 " antimony and tin 
 
 " antimony and lead 
 
 " antimony and iron 
 
 " antimony and nickel 
 
 " antimony and arsenic 
 General observations on the alloys of antimony 
 
 Alloys of nickel and copper 
 
 " nickel and zinc . 
 
 " nickel and tin 
 
 " nickel and lead . 
 
 " nickel and iron . 
 
 " nickel and arsenic 
 General observations on the alloys of nickel 
 
 Alloys of arsenic and copper 
 
 " arsenic and zinc . 
 
 " arsenic and tin . 
 
 " arsenic and lead . 
 
 " arsenic and iron . 
 General observations on the alloys of arsenic 
 
 Amalgams of the metals of the first and second categories 
 
 " copper . 
 
 " zinc 
 
 tin 
 lead 
 
 " iron 
 
 " bismuth 
 
 " antimony 
 
 " nickel and arsenic . 
 
 Mosaic gold . 
 Other amalgams . 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XV 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS, BELONGIN 
 
 G ESI 
 
 ECIALLY TO THE 
 
 ARTS OF LUXURY. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Alloys of gold and copper 122 
 
 " gold and zinc 
 
 
 
 . 124 
 
 " gold and tin ... 
 
 
 
 . 124 
 
 " gold and lead 
 
 
 
 . 124 
 
 " gold and iron 
 
 
 
 . 125 
 
 " gold and bismuth 
 
 
 
 . 126 
 
 " gold and antimony 
 
 
 
 . 126 
 
 " gold and nickel . 
 
 
 
 . 126 
 
 " gold and arsenic . 
 
 
 
 . 127 
 
 " gold and mercury (amalgams) 
 
 
 
 . 127 
 
 " gold and silver . 
 
 
 
 . 127 
 
 " gold and platinum 
 
 
 
 . 128 
 
 General observations on the alloys of gold 
 
 
 
 . 129 
 
 Alloys of silver and copper 
 
 
 
 . 129 
 
 " silver and zinc . 
 
 
 
 . 130 
 
 " silver and tin ... 
 
 
 
 . 130 
 
 " silver and lead 
 
 
 
 . 130 
 
 " silver and iron . 
 
 
 
 . 131 
 
 " silver and bismuth 
 
 
 
 . 131 
 
 " silver and antimony 
 
 
 
 . 131 
 
 " silver and nickel . 
 
 
 
 . 131 
 
 " silver and arsenic 
 
 
 
 . 131 
 
 " silver and mercury (amalgams) 
 
 
 
 . 132 
 
 " silver and platinum 
 
 
 
 . 132 
 
 General observations on the alloys of silver 
 
 
 . 133 
 
 Alloys of platinum and copper .... 
 
 
 . 133 
 
 " platinum and zinc 
 
 
 
 . 134 
 
 " platinum and tin ... 
 
 
 
 . 134 
 
 " platinum and lead 
 
 
 
 . 134 
 
 " platinum and iron 
 
 
 
 . 134 
 
 " platinum and steel 
 
 
 
 . 135 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PA«E 
 
 Alloys of platinum and bismuth . . . . . 135 
 
 " platinum and antimony 
 
 
 . 136 
 
 " platinum and nickel . 
 
 
 . 136 
 
 " platinum and arsenic . 
 
 
 . 136 
 
 " platinum and mercury (amalgams) 
 
 
 . 136 
 
 General observations on the alloys of platinum 
 
 
 - . 137 
 
 Various alloys of aluminium 
 
 
 . 137 
 
 CHAPTER IY. 
 
 ALLOYS OF THE METALS RARELY OR NEVER USED IN THE ARTS. 
 
 Preamble 143 
 
 Manganese and its alloys 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 145 
 
 Chromium and its alloys 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 148 
 
 Cobalt and its alloys . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 150 
 
 Cadmium and its alloys 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 152 
 
 Titanium and its alloys 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 152 
 
 Uranium atld its alloys 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 153 
 
 Tungsten and its alloys 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 154 
 
 Molybdenum and its alloys . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 162 
 
 Osmium and its alloys 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 163 
 
 Iridium and its alloys . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 163 
 
 Palladium and its alloys 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 165 
 
 Rhodium and its alloys 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 166 
 
 Ruthenium and its alloys 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 167 
 
 Tellurium and its alloys 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 168 
 
 Potassium and sodium, and their alloys 
 
 
 
 . 168 
 
 P. 
 
 AM 
 
 : ii 
 
 [. 
 
 
 
 
 Alloys used in the arts . 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 BRONZES OF ART. 
 
 Conditions required .... 
 
 The alloys which best fulfil these conditions 
 Alloy of the Brothers Keller 
 
 170 
 
 171 
 172 
 172 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XVII 
 
 PAQK 
 
 Composition of the alloys of various public monuments . 172 
 
 Bronzes of the Greeks and Romans 173 
 
 " for gilding 174 
 
 Darcet's experiments 174 
 
 Bronzes of various statues 175 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ALLOYS FOR COINAGE. 
 
 The French standard . 
 
 The English standard . 
 
 The standards of various countries 
 
 Ancient coins and medals . 
 
 Old Indian coins 
 
 Saxon coins .... 
 
 Bronze coins of Attica 
 
 Analyses of coins of various countries 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ALLOYS FOR PIECES OF ORDNANCE, ARMS, PROJECTILES, ETC. 
 
 Early bronze for cannon 
 
 Bronze, for cannon, of the Brothers Keller 
 Bronzes used by various nations of Europe 
 Experiments of French officers of engineers and artillery 
 Characteristics of the alloy best suited for ordnance 
 Alloys of the arms of the ancients .... 
 Various recent experiments . . 
 Various alloys adapted to these uses . . 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ALLOYS FOR ROLLING AND WIRE DRAWING. 
 
 Mr. Le Brun's experiments 
 
 Alloy for hammering, plates, and fine wires 
 
 " pin wire 
 
 Bronze for sheathing 
 
 Brass plates called Jemmapes brass . 
 
 2* 
 
 177 
 
 177 
 179 
 180 
 181 
 181 
 181 
 181 
 
 182 
 182 
 183 
 183 
 183 
 186 
 187 
 187 
 
 190 
 190 
 191 
 197 
 197 
 
XV111 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAfiE 
 
 Similor for gilding- or plating 197 
 
 Maillechort for rolling 197 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 COPPER ALLOYS FOR SHIP SHEATHINGS. 
 
 Mr. Bobierre's experiments on various sheathings, with 
 
 results 198 
 
 Muntz's alloy . 202 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ALLOYS FOR TYPE, ENGRAVING PLATES, ETC. 
 
 Mr. Chas. Laboulaye on the conditions to be fulfilled . 203 
 
 Alloys for printing-types ....... 205 
 
 " small types and stereotypes .... 205 
 
 " • plates for engraving music .... 205 
 
 Yarious alloys 206 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ALLOYS FOR BELLS, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, ETC. 
 
 Bell-metals 207 
 
 Analysis of celebrated bell at Rouen . . . . . 209 
 
 Analyses of modern English and French bells . . . 210 
 
 Metal for gongs 211 
 
 Chinese gongs 211 
 
 Cymbals 211 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ALLOYS FOR PHILOSOPHICAL AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 Chinese mirrors 213 
 
 Mirrors of antiquity 213 
 
 French mirrors 213 
 
 Mr. Despretz's alloys for mirrors ..... 214 
 
 Speculum metals of MM. Stodart, Faraday, and Dumas . 215 
 
CONTENTS. XI X 
 
 PARE 
 
 Mr. Gaudin's recommendations 217 
 
 Fahlun brilliants 217 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY, GOLD AND SILVER WARES, BRITANNIA WARE, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 French legal standards for jewelry gold — first, second, and 
 
 third standards 218 
 
 Colors of the gold — yellow or antique, red, green, gold 
 
 feuille morte, gold vert d'eau, white, and blue gold . 218 
 
 Alloys of gold — conditions necessary 219 
 
 English alloys for imitating gold 219 
 
 Jewelry gold . . . . . . • • • 220 
 
 Ring gold 220 
 
 Gold ........'... 220 
 
 Common jewelry 220 
 
 Yellow metals for dipping ....... 220 
 
 Metal for gilding 221 
 
 Manheim gold 221 
 
 Chrysocale 221 
 
 Tombac, or similor ........ 222 
 
 Red similor 222 
 
 White similor 222 
 
 A whitened copper 222 
 
 Bath metal 222 
 
 Pinchbeck, or Prince Robert's metal .... 222 
 
 Argentan (packfund, or packfong) of Sheffield . . . 223 
 
 White packfong 223 
 
 White malleable alloys 223 
 
 German silver • . 224 
 
 Chinese white copper, or Chinese packfong . . . 224 
 
 German silver for rolling . 224 
 
 Ruolz alloys for false jewelry 224 
 
 Maillechorts . . - . . '. . . . . 225 
 
 Electrum 227 
 
XX 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Tutenag ..... 
 Best alloy for beauty, lustre, &c 
 Alf6nide ..... 
 Alloys of Mr. Toucas . 
 English tutania (white metal) 
 German tutania " " 
 Spanish tutania " " 
 Engestrum tutania 
 Queen's metal .... 
 Algiers metal .... 
 Metal argentin (silver-like metal) 
 
 Minofor 
 
 Britannia metals .... 
 Plate pewter .... 
 Ashberry metal .... 
 English metal . 
 Mock gold, or false gold 
 Ductile alloy of gold with platinum 
 Alloy for mirrors 
 Metals for cutlery 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 WHITE ALLOY! 
 
 English alloys for casts from engravings, stereotypes, &c, 
 
 Pewter 
 
 Algiers metal 
 
 Another alloy 
 
 Alloy for seats of stopcocks 
 
 " plugs of stopcocks 
 
 " keys of flutes, clarionets, etc. 
 
 Hard tin 
 
 Kustitien metal for tinning . 
 English hard white metal (common) 
 Mock platinum, or false platinum 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 
 
 XXI 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Imitation of silver . . . . • . . . . 240 
 
 "White metal, called Prince's metal . 
 
 
 . 240 
 
 White copper, or white tombac . 
 
 
 . 240 
 
 Various alloys for buttons .... 
 
 
 . 241 
 
 Yogel's alloy for polishing steel . 
 
 
 . 241 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 FUSIBLE ALLOYS. 
 
 The alloy of Darcet or of Rose 242 
 
 Darcet's alloys . 243 
 
 Fusible combinations of bismuth, lead, and tin, with table 
 
 of points of fusion of different combinations, by MM. 
 
 Parker and Martin . ■ 244 
 
 Alloys of lead and bismuth 
 
 
 
 . 244 
 
 " bismuth and tin . 
 
 
 
 . 244 
 
 " bismuth, lead, and zinc 
 
 
 
 . 245 
 
 Amalgam of lead, bismuth, and mercury . 
 
 
 
 . 245 
 
 Mackenzie's alloy fusible by friction . 
 
 
 
 . 245 
 
 A very fusible alloy for casts 
 
 
 
 . 245 
 
 Alloy for silvering glass globes . 
 
 
 
 . 245 
 
 " fusible teaspoons, &c. . 
 
 
 
 . 246 
 
 Other fusible alloys .... 
 
 
 
 . 246 
 
 The Appold alloys .... 
 
 
 
 . 246 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ANTI-FRICTION METALS, ETC. 
 
 Bronze for pumps, pillow blocks, nuts, &c. . . . 247 
 Alloys for blocks of connecting rods and collars for eccen- 
 trics 247 
 
 " journals of locomotive driving axles (English) . 248 
 
 " blocks with collars of connecting rods . . 248 
 
 Bronze for pistons 248 
 
 Alloy for locomotive axle journals 249 
 
 " journals of cranes, winches, &c, as required by 
 
 the Northern Railway of France . . . 249 
 
XX11 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Alloy for journals of wagons 
 
 " locomotive whistles 
 
 Mild alloy for pumps, clappers or valves, and stopcocks . 
 Bronze for ball valves and pieces to be brazed . 
 
 Alloy for cleaning plugs 
 
 Hard alloy for bearings of merchandise and ballast wagons 
 Alloys employed at the works of Seraing for Belgian loco- 
 motives . . .■ ....... 
 
 Bronze for journals of locomotive driving axles 
 " blocks of side valve connecting rods 
 
 " regulators .... 
 
 " stuffing boxes . 
 
 " pistons .... 
 
 Brass for turners .... 
 
 Brasses employed in the French navy 
 
 Fenton alloys 
 
 White alloys 
 
 " for lining journal boxes, collars, pillow blocks 
 
 etc. .... 
 " for small journals . 
 
 " for bearings . 
 
 " to be cast directly in journal 
 
 Soft alloy for pillow blocks . 
 
 Vaucher's alloy 
 
 Alloys of Goldsmith and Dewrance . 
 
 Anti-friction metals of Morries-Stirling and of Muntz 
 
 boxes 
 
 PAGSR 
 
 249 
 250 
 250 
 250 
 250 
 251 
 
 251 
 251 
 251 
 251 
 252 
 252 
 252 
 253 
 253 
 254 
 
 255 
 256 
 256 
 257 
 257 
 257 
 258 
 258 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 SOLDERS. 
 
 Solders for iron 261 
 
 Hard solder for tubes of pure copper .... 261 
 
 Middling hard solder . ... . . . . . 261 
 
 Hard solder for small and thin pieces .... 262 
 
 Middling hard solder for small pieces of brass . . .262 
 " " for tubes of brass or of thin copper . 26? 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XX111 
 
 Middling hard solder for soldering the ends of brass 
 together, or to flanges . 
 " " for uniting brass tubes along 
 
 tubes 
 
 their 
 
 262 
 
 lengths. 
 
 
 
 . 263 
 
 Other solders for pure copper . 
 
 
 
 . 263 
 
 Soft solders 
 
 
 
 . 263 
 
 Solder for plumbers . 
 
 
 
 . 263 
 
 Soft solder ..... 
 
 
 
 . 263 
 
 Solder for tinned iron . 
 
 
 
 . 264 
 
 " pewter 
 
 
 
 . 264 
 
 Alloy for sealing up iron in stone 
 
 
 
 . 264 
 
 Zinc solders . - . 
 
 
 
 . 264 
 
 Soft solders of bismuth, tin, and lead 
 
 
 . 264 
 
 Solders for jewelry and the precious metals 
 
 
 . 264 
 
 Hard solder for gold 
 
 
 . 265 
 
 " for silver 
 
 
 . 265 
 
 Other silver solders 
 
 
 . 266 
 
 Solder for platinum 
 
 
 . 266 
 
 Hard solder for aluminium bronze 
 
 
 . 266 
 
 Middling hard solder for aluminium bronze 
 
 
 . 266 
 
 Soft solder for aluminium bronze 
 
 
 . 267 
 
 Solder for German silver .... 
 
 
 . 267 
 
 Silver solder for plated ware 
 
 
 . 267 
 
 Amalgam of copper . 
 
 
 
 . 267 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 
 
 Alloys for small patterns in foundries 
 Plastic alloys 
 KraflVs alloy 
 Homberg's alloy . 
 Alloy of Valentin Rose 
 
 " Rose (father) 
 The martial regulus . 
 Expansion metal 
 
 268 
 268 
 269 
 269 
 269 
 269 
 269 
 270 
 
XXIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Amalgam for varnishing plaster casts . . . .270 
 
 " silvering glass globes, &c. . . . .270 
 
 Alloy for tinning ........ 271 
 
 Amalgam of cadmium and tin for dentists . . . 271 
 
 Alloy of Mr. Bibra for small casts . . . . .272 
 
 Mr. Gersnein . . . ' . . . .272 
 
 Alloy for roller scrapers ....... 273 
 
 Yiolet alloy, susceptible of a fine polish .... 274 
 
 Amalgam for electrical machines ..... 274 
 
 Liquid for amalgamating the zinc of galvanic batteries . 274 
 Tables showing the relative values of French and English 
 weights and measures, &c. ...... 275 
 
 Index 283 
 
PRACTICAL GUIDE 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 PART I. 
 I. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE METALS WHICH 
 ARE COMMONLY USED FOR ALLOYS. 
 
 The metals which we are about to consider are those 
 of the first three classes, as indicated in our introduc- 
 tion. 
 
 These metals, whatever be their value or usefulness, 
 are entitled to a certain degree of importance in manu- 
 factures. 
 
 Although some of them have been long known and 
 some are modern, all have been sufficiently well studied ; 
 and it is not necessary for us to point out all their 
 acknowledged characteristics. 
 
 At every epoch in the study of metals, recourse has 
 been had, as at present, to certain combinations which 
 exhibit their usefulness in every respect. 
 
 Used in the pure state, that is to say, without having 
 
 been alloyed with other metals which would impart to 
 
 them particular qualities, these metals would have few 
 
 applications in industry; we must, however, except 
 
 2 
 
14 PKACTICAL GUIDE FOB METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 iron, which by itself may be applied to innumerable 
 uses. 
 
 On the contrary, when forming some of those thou- 
 sands of combinations resulting from their union with 
 each other, certain metals, such as copper, tin, and lead, 
 which by themselves would be of secondary interest in 
 the arts, acquire an enormous importance as soon as 
 they are alloyed. 
 
 Thence we see all the interest attached to the study 
 of alloys, which requires the aid both of science and 
 practice for improvement and progress. 
 
 However, it is necessary that all of our readers who 
 are interested in this study should have presented to 
 them some general data concerning the characteristics 
 and properties of the metals which are the component 
 parts of alloys. 
 
 We admit that most of our readers possess this in- 
 formation : but memory might fail some of them, and 
 some essential though elementary details may escape 
 others. Nevertheless, a book like this should be - com- 
 plete, and it ought to include all the rudiments abso- 
 lutely necessary for the understanding of the subject, 
 without the trouble of searching for the information in 
 other books. 
 
 The metals which we are about to consider are: — 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Gold. 
 
COPPER — TIN". 15 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 Aluminium. 
 
 We shall give a cursory glance at each of these 
 metals, in the order in which they have been named. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Copper is one of the oldest known metals. Its color 
 is brown pink or a brilliant brown red, and presents 
 shades varying from yellow to red, according to the 
 purity of the metal. A good ingot copper has a metal- 
 lic appearance with a bright and regular glitter, and 
 without brown or black spots; its grain is fine, close, 
 without hard portions, and is easily abraded by the 
 file. 
 
 The specific gravity of copper varies between 8.8 
 and 8.9. It is feebly sonorous, and its smell and savor 
 are little appreciable, but very unpleasant. It is malle- 
 able, ductile, and tenacious. Strongly heated, although 
 but slightly volatile, it gives off a fine green vapor. 
 Heated in contact with the air, it readily becomes 
 largely oxidized, and loses part of its ductility and 
 malleability. Exposure to a damp atmosphere pro- 
 duces on its surface a greenish pellicle of an oxide 
 called verdigris. It is attacked more or less rapidly 
 by acids, and is easily dissolved by nitric acid. 
 
 Copper may be readily alloyed with other metals; 
 except iron and lead, the alloys with which are diffi- 
 cult to form. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Tin appears to be the oldest metal employed in the 
 arts, and is mentioned in the history of the earliest 
 ages. White, and with a lustre nearly as brilliant as 
 
16 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 that of silver, it tarnishes more easily and rapidly than 
 the latter metal. 
 
 Its specific gravity varies between 7.3 and 7.5, 
 whether it is cast, hammered, or laminated. 
 
 Tin, when bent, produces a peculiar crackling noise, 
 which may be made use of for ascertaining the purity 
 of the metal. Certain sorts of tin are pure, such as 
 the Banca, Straits, or Malacca ingots, as were also 
 some English marks, which are now seldom found 
 in the trade in a pure state. Those tins which are 
 adulterated with foreign metals, such as lead, iron, 
 copper, and arsenic, may be recognized not only by a 
 difference in the crackling noise, but also by a dull 
 appearance and a more or less radiated surface, accord- 
 ing to the greater or less quantity of foreign matters. 
 
 The smell and savor of tin are very perceptible and 
 unpleasant. This metal is tenacious, ductile, and very 
 malleable ; when pure, it is very soft, but less so than 
 lead. Without being volatile, it is rapidly oxidized 
 when kept for a long time in a state of fusion, with 
 free access to the air. It is corroded by acids, which, 
 acting upon its surface, produce a metallic crystalline 
 appearance. 
 
 It is decomposed by nitric, su]phuric, and muriatic 
 acids, and may be combined and alloyed with most of 
 the metals employed in manufactures. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Zinc, sometimes called Spelter, was possibly em- 
 ployed by the ancients in the state of alloy, by com- 
 bining its ores with copper, tin, and lead ; but as 
 a metal it was not known until a long time after the 
 metals we have just named. Even as regards its uses 
 in industry, zinc has been employed only since the 
 beginning of this century. 
 
 Zinc is bluish- white, and the color of its surface is 
 
LEAD. 17 
 
 similar to that of lead. It has a crystalline fracture 
 with large radiating laminae, which tarnish in the air. 
 
 Its specific gravity varies between 6.9 and 7.2. 
 
 Very malleable at a temperature ranging between 
 120 and 150 degrees centigrade, it is very brittle beyond 
 these limits. At about 300° C. it becomes so brittle 
 that it is possible to pulverize it. Compared with 
 other metals, zinc is soft and possesses little tenacity ; 
 it is not sonorous, and its smell and savor are peculiar, 
 although not very perceptible. 
 
 When melted, zinc is quickly oxidized by air ; and, 
 if the temperature is raised above that of fusion, it 
 will volatilize rapidly and its vapors will burn, pro- 
 ducing a flaring light and white fumes much like cot- 
 ton flakes. 
 
 By the action of the air, zinc is easily oxidized at 
 first ; but soon the oxidation ceases. 
 
 Acids, even diluted, attack zinc rapidly. Caustic 
 alkalies will also oxidize and dissolve it. This metal 
 may be alloyed with most of the usual metals. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Lead, a metal known to the ancients at the same 
 time as copper and tin, is bluish-white, has a very bril- 
 liant lustre when freshly cut, but becomes quickly tar- 
 nished. Malleable and ductile, this metal possesses little 
 tenacity ; without savor, it has a sensible and peculiar 
 odor. It is so soft that it may be scratched by the 
 nail, and leaves a gray streak when rubbed against 
 wood, metals, and paper. Its specific gravity is 11.445. 
 It tarnishes rapidly in contact with the air, and becomes 
 covered with a dark pellicle, which, after a certain lapse 
 of time, turns grayish-white. When melted, it may 
 be rapidly oxidized, if it is stirred, and the air has 
 free access to the surface of the molten metal. The 
 more the temperature is increased, the more rapidly 
 
18 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 the oxidation goes on. At a red heat, lead burns 
 with a flame of a livid white. Nitric acid and aqua 
 regia, even when diluted, attack it easily. Sulphuric 
 and muriatic acids have little action upon it, when 
 cold. 
 
 Lead may be alloyed with most of the metals. How- 
 ever, such alloys are difficult to form when the spe- 
 cific gravities and temperatures of fusion of the other 
 metals are very different from those of its own. Lead 
 has a great affinity for gold and silver. Industry 
 utilizes this property for separating, by cupellation, 
 gold and silver from the other metals and earths which 
 accompany them. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Although Iron was well known to the ancients, it is 
 only in modern times that its production and use began 
 to be developed. This metal, which at present, in its 
 various states of cast iron, wrought iron, and steel, is 
 foremost among the metals employed in the arts, has 
 received a prodigious development, mostly in the pre- 
 sent century. 
 
 It is bluish-gray or grayish-white when granular or 
 laminated, and its lustre is bright or dull, according 
 as it has been drawn or cast. Its hardness, tenacity, 
 ductility, and malleability vary also with its various 
 states. Cast or raw iron is hard and brittle, whereas 
 wrought iron and steel are exceedingly resisting, mal- 
 leable, and ductile. The specific gravity of pig-iron 
 is 7.20, and that of iron or steel rises to 7.7 and 7.9. 
 
 Iron is very easily oxidized ; in a damp atmosphere 
 the rust has a very destructive action, and necessitates 
 the employment of varnishes and other preservative 
 coatings. In the molten state, or at a red heat, iron, 
 when in contact with the air, is rapidly oxidized. Acids 
 attack and dissolve it easily ; and this metal, notvvith- 
 
BISMUTH. 19 
 
 standing its qualities point to a great stability and 
 durability, requires to have its outer surface protected 
 against destructive agents. 
 
 Iron does not alloy well with most of the metals ; a 
 peculiar state and the high temperature necessary for 
 its fusion, etc., are hindrances to its being easily alloyed. 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Bismuth does not seem to have been known by the 
 ancients. Agricola is the first author who mentions it, 
 in a book published in 1546. The discovery of this 
 metal appears, therefore, to date from the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Bismuth has a grayish-white color, shading to that 
 of red. Its fracture is lamellar, and it possesses neither 
 smell nor savor. Its specific gravity varies between 
 9.83 and 9.89. This metal, as found in the trade, is 
 brittle, with little tenacity, and without any ductility or 
 malleability. 
 
 Of all metals, bismuth possesses the greatest facility 
 for crystallizing. When cooled slowly, the crystals 
 it produces are remarkable by their size, their cubic 
 shape, and their peculiar lustre. 
 
 This metal is very fusible, volatile, and oxidizable 
 at a high temperature, like many metals which are not 
 refractory. In a damp atmosphere it becomes covered 
 with a reddish-brown pellicle of oxide. At a red heat 
 it burns with a bluish flame, and produces fumes of a 
 yellow-red color. 
 
 The high price of bismuth limits its uses. This 
 metal is mostly employed for fusible alloys and those 
 of typography, where the metals usually combined 
 with it are lead, tin, antimony, etc. 
 
20 practical guide for metallic alloys. 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Antimony is of relatively limited use in industry, 
 except for certain special alloys. Its color is silver- 
 white, shading to a bluish-white ; its fracture is entirely 
 lamellar, and it is so brittle and friable that it can be 
 easily pulverized. According to its degree of purity, 
 its specific gravity varies from 6.65 to 6.85. 
 
 Antimony melts at a temperature below that of a 
 red heat, and fills the air with thick white fumes. Di- 
 luted or concentrated nitric acid attacks it, and allows 
 its separation, whether from its ores or from its alloys. 
 However, these alloys are few, and used principally for 
 printing-types, plates for engraving music, and certain 
 compouuds of lead, tin, and antimony, to which small 
 quantities of copper and bismuth are sometimes added. 
 \ Antimony is employed in medicine and pharmacy. 
 In the treatment of metals, it is used in the metallic 
 state, and is generally known under the name of regu- 
 lus of antimony. Gold, when exposed to the vapors 
 of antimony, immediately loses its ductility and malle- 
 ability, and becomes as brittle as antimony itself. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Nickel was discovered by Cronstedt at about the 
 middle of the eighteenth century. It has a grayish- 
 white color nearly like that of platinum, and its frac- 
 ture is crooked. Its specific gravity varies between 
 8.4 and 8.8, according to the degree of compression it 
 has been subjected to. Worked when hot, it takes a 
 fibrous structure, and may be forged and laminated. 
 Its hardness is very nearly that of iron ; and it may 
 be easily polished, acquiring a great brightness by this 
 operation. 
 
 Nickel does not oxidize or tarnish at the ordinary 
 temperature; even when hot, it is slowly and with 
 
ARSENIC — MERCURY. 21 
 
 difficulty that it becomes oxidized. This property- 
 furnishes a reason for several countries having intro- 
 duced the use of nickel in the manufacture of small coin. 
 Nickel alloys very well with copper, tin, zinc, anti- 
 mony, iron, cobalt, etc., and is especially employed for 
 those alloys which imitate or replace silver. 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 Arsenic, which chemists place among the metalloids, 
 possesses in the metallic state a steel-gray color, which 
 quickly tarnishes. It is seldom employed in this form. 
 It is very brittle, fuses readily, and is then immediately 
 volatilized, unless the fusion be effected in closed ves- 
 sels. Heated in contact with the air, it burns with a 
 blue flame, emits a garlic odor, and becomes converted 
 into a white volatile substance, which is the white 
 arsenic, or arsenious acid. White arsenic is more 
 soluble in hydrochloric acid than in water. Its uses 
 are for a few pharmaceutical preparations, the manu- 
 facture of fine glass, such as Bohemian glassware, that 
 of Sheele's green, and of other greens employed in 
 dyeing. _ 
 
 Arsenic is rarely alloyed. However, it is employed 
 in the composition of telescope mirrors, and of some 
 other metallic combinations which are seldom used, 
 and which will be noticed hereafter. Its specific gravity 
 is 5.63. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Mercury, sometimes called Quicksilver, is as bright 
 and nearly as white as silver. Fluid at the ordinary 
 temperature, it becomes solid at 39 J° C. below the 
 freezing point. In this state it possesses some tena- 
 city and malleability. Liquid mercury has neither 
 taste nor smell. It transmits heat well, and expands 
 considerably. It does not " wet," that is to say, has no 
 
22 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 molecular attraction for many substances. Its specific 
 gravity when solid is 14.39, when fluid 13.60, and in 
 vapor 6.976. 
 
 Heated in contact with the air, at from 350° to 360° 
 C, which is nearly its point of ebullition, it is trans- 
 formed into a red oxide. 
 
 Like porous substances, mercury absorbs a certain 
 quantity of air and dampness, which cannot be ex- 
 pelled except by ebullition. Everybody knows the 
 sensation of burning produced by the melting of solid 
 mercury in contact with a portion of the human body; 
 also the disorders it occasions when introduced into 
 the human economy. We shall not enlarge on these 
 phenomena, which are foreign to this book. 
 
 Most acids are without action upon this metal, 
 although it is dissolved, with evolution of sulphurous 
 and nitrous fumes, by concentrated sulphuric or nitric 
 acid. 
 
 In the metallic state, mercury is employed in phar- 
 macy; in the construction of barometers, thermometers, 
 and manometers; in tinning looking glasses; in amal- 
 gamating silver and gold ; in producing various colors 
 for the arts ; in the manufacture of the fulminate for 
 percussion-caps, etc. 
 
 Its alloys, which bear the name of Amalgams, are 
 formed with nearly all metals, especially with copper, 
 lead, zinc, tin, bismuth, silver, and gold. It does not 
 amalgamate, or rather combines with difficulty, with 
 iron, nickel, platinum, cobalt, manganese, etc. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Gold is one of the metals known in the earliest ages. 
 Its precious qualities of unalterability, ductility, and 
 rarity have made it the most valuable metal from the 
 beginning of the world. 
 
 Gold is of a fine yellow, somewhat reddish color. 
 
SILVER. 23 
 
 It Las neither smell nor taste; it is the most ductile, 
 malleable, and the least oxidizable of all metals. Its 
 specific gravity varies from 19.26 to 19.37, whether 
 melted or laminated or hammered. 
 
 Nitric, hydrochloric, and sulphuric acids do not at- 
 tack it; but it is dissolved by aqua regia (a mixture 
 of nitric and hydrochloric acids), and by the alkaline 
 polysulphides. At a very high temperature, gold is 
 volatilized with a green flame. 
 
 The alloys of gold would be easy with most metals; 
 however, they are limited on account of the price of 
 gold, and, therefore, are only those where gold is the 
 essential portion of the alloy. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Silver, which ranks next to gold among precious 
 metals, has an origin and uses which are not so old 
 as those of gold, although dating from an early age. 
 
 Its texture is of a dead white color, which will re- 
 ceive a brilliant polish. On account of its malleability, 
 ductility, and resistance to oxidation, it, like gold, is 
 one of the most precious and remarkable metals. 
 
 Its specific gravity varies from 10.47 to 10.-15, ac- 
 cording to the treatment to which it has been previ- 
 ously submitted. 
 
 Unacted upon by air alone, silver, under the influ- 
 ence of a very great heat, becomes rapidly volatilized, 
 emitting greenish fumes. 
 
 Nitric acid dissolves silver, which thus furnishes 
 several products to medicine and the arts. 
 
 The alloys of silver are possible with most of the 
 metals; but, like those of gold, are limited to a certain 
 number of compounds which are employed for the 
 manufacture of articles of luxury. 
 
24 PEACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 Platinum, or Platina, according to recent researches 
 published in Germany, was known by the Eomans. 
 Its uses, however, were quite ignored and very few; and 
 it was only in the middle of the last century that, by the 
 exertions of learned manufacturers, it became generally 
 known. 
 
 Platinum is grayish-white, and acquires by a polish 
 a brightness, which, however, does not last. This metal 
 is without smell or taste, and possesses tenacity, malle- 
 ability, and ductility. Its hardness and elasticity are 
 greatly improved by the addition of a very small pro- 
 portion of iridium. Its specific gravity is 21.50. 
 
 Of all the metals, platinum has the smallest dilatation, 
 and is the most difficult to fuse. It becomes soft at a 
 white heat, and in that state may be forged and welded; 
 but its fusion at present can only be effected by the use 
 of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. This and its high 
 price have prevented this metal from being applied to 
 many industrial uses. 
 
 Platinum is dissolved by nitric acid, when alloyed 
 with an excess of silver ; it is also dissolved by aqua 
 regia. Caustic alkalies, nitre, alkaline persulphides, 
 phosphorus, arsenic, and chlorine attack it more or less 
 rapidly, with the aid of heat. 
 
 The alloys of platinum with most of the metals 
 would certainly be employed, were not its infusibility 
 and its cost a drawback to a general use. 
 
 Aluminium. 
 
 Aluminum, or Aluminium, is of an entirely recent 
 origin; and its employment in the arts dates back only 
 a few years. The industrial development of aluminum 
 is especially due to M. Sainte-Claire-Deville. 
 
 Although the uses of this metal have not yet reached 
 
ALUMINIUM. 25 
 
 their culminating point, we may foresee that it will be 
 very serviceable. 
 
 Already, its manufacture is no longer confined to 
 the limits of the experimental laboratory, its price 
 has considerably decreased, and various trials have 
 shown its usefulness in certain manufactures. The 
 great lightness of aluminium, its malleability, ductility, 
 and difficult oxidation, have retained it for certain uses, 
 but not so many as were expected when it made its 
 appearance in the arts. The specific gravity of alumi- 
 nium, which does not exceed 2.6, is a characteristic of 
 this metal. Gray, and capable of acquiring a bright, 
 although not lasting polish, aluminium would be more 
 generally employed, were it not so soft, dull in lustre, 
 and expensive. 
 
 The chemical properties of aluminium would seem 
 to favor its uses in industry. It is unacted upon by 
 cold nitric and sulphuric acids, by air, water, and steam. 
 Hydrochloric acid dissolves it. 
 
 It appears to alloy with many metals, especially 
 with copper, producing certain kinds of bronzes of 
 which we shall speak hereafter, and which already 
 are among the important uses of aluminium. 
 
 Generalities, Tables, and Data. 
 
 The following tables, borrowed from different authors 
 who have copied from their predecessors, and who could, 
 no more than ourselves, guarantee the accuracy and 
 authenticity of the figures, will terminate all that we 
 have to say concerning the physical and chemical pro- 
 perties of the metals which we have briefly considered. 
 
 We advise the reader to consider, as we do, these 
 
 numbers only as data for relative comparisons, rather 
 
 than as entirely correct results. This is certainly to 
 
 be done, when we look at certain points which need 
 
 3 
 
26 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 the verification of experience, for it would not be pos- 
 sible to admit them without raising certain doubts. 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 ►» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !>.=* 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■2 £ 
 
 ,0 
 
 '3 
 
 <x> 
 
 
 © 
 
 (^ 
 
 Metals. 
 
 4> 
 
 to 
 
 <C © 
 
 © ei 
 a £ 
 
 S3 . 
 
 B n 
 © "2 
 
 a 
 
 P, 
 © 
 
 > 
 
 p-.« 
 
 > 
 
 bo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « © 
 
 
 
 p. a 
 
 
 '■3 2 
 
 IE 
 
 eS 
 
 rQ rP 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 © © 
 
 8* 
 
 w~ 
 
 &* 
 
 © 
 
 o<2 
 
 «<2 
 
 
 
 p. 
 
 CO 
 
 
 0. c. 
 
 
 
 
 kilo. 
 
 
 
 
 Copper 
 
 1090 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 137 
 
 898 
 
 « 
 
 8.88 
 
 Tin 
 
 230 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 303 
 
 « 
 
 7.29 
 
 Zinc 
 
 410 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 50 
 
 363 
 
 « 
 
 6.86 
 
 Lead 
 
 320 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 180 
 
 <« 
 
 11 35 
 
 Iron 
 
 1500 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 250 
 
 374 
 
 650 
 
 7.81 
 
 Cast iron 
 
 1200 
 
 « 
 
 a 
 
 <( 
 
 M 
 
 a 
 
 « 
 
 7.21 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 270 
 
 9 
 
 « 
 
 << 
 
 (( 
 
 it 
 
 a 
 
 9.82 
 
 Antimony 
 
 690 
 
 3 
 
 (« 
 
 (i 
 
 « 
 
 « 
 
 (( 
 
 6.71 
 
 Nickel 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 48 
 
 t< 
 
 (( 
 
 8.38 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 (( 
 
 u 
 
 « 
 
 (< 
 
 « 
 
 k 
 
 " 
 
 5.63 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Solidifi- 
 cation. 
 3910— 
 
 - 12 
 
 M 
 
 «< 
 
 « 
 
 <( 
 
 100- 
 
 ' liquid. 
 13.60 
 solid. 
 14.39 
 
 Gold 
 
 1000 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 68 
 
 1000 
 
 3975 
 5152 
 
 19.36 
 
 
 1000 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 85 
 
 973 
 
 981 
 
 10.47 
 21.50 
 
 Platinum 
 
 2000 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 125 
 
 855 
 
 Aluminium... 
 
 760 
 
 « 
 
 <( 
 
 « 
 
 90 
 
 (< 
 
 « 
 
 2.60 
 
METALS. 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 Resistance to frac- 
 
 Coefficient of elas- 
 
 
 
 ture, IN KILOGRAMMES, 
 
 tic ity according to 
 
 
 
 AND PER SQUARE MILLI- 
 
 the 
 
 
 Metals. 
 
 Specific 
 gravity. 
 
 METRE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Longitudi- 
 
 
 
 
 Slow. 
 
 Sudden. 
 
 nal vibra- 
 tions. 
 
 Exten- 
 sions. 
 
 Lead, cast 
 
 11.21 
 
 1.25 
 
 2.21 
 
 1993 
 
 1775 
 
 Lead, drawn 
 
 11.17 
 
 2.07 
 
 2.36 
 
 2278 
 
 1803 
 
 Lead, annealed 
 
 11.23 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.04 
 
 2146 
 
 1727.5 
 
 Tin, cast 
 
 7.40 
 
 3.40 
 
 4.16 
 
 4643 
 
 « 
 
 Tin, drawn 
 
 7.31 
 
 7.29 
 
 2.45 
 
 1.70 
 
 3.00 
 3.60 
 
 4006 
 
 4418 
 
 << 
 
 Tin, annealed 
 
 it 
 
 
 18.51 
 18.03 
 
 27.00 
 10.08 
 
 27.05 
 11.00 
 
 8599 
 6372 
 
 8131.5 
 
 Gold, annealed 
 
 5584.6 
 
 
 10 37 
 
 29.00 
 
 29.60 
 
 7576 
 
 7357. 7 
 7140.5 
 
 Silver, annealed 
 
 10.30 
 
 16.02 
 
 16.40 
 
 7242 
 
 
 7.13 
 7.10 
 
 1.50 
 12.80 
 
 15.77 
 
 7536 
 9555 
 
 M 
 
 Zinc, drawn 
 
 8734.5 
 
 Zinc, annealed 
 
 7.06 
 
 (t 
 
 14.00 
 
 9272 
 
 a 
 
 Copper, drawn 
 
 8.93 
 
 40.30 
 
 41.00 
 
 12536 
 
 12459 
 
 Copper, annealed... 
 
 8.94 
 
 30.54 
 
 31.60 
 
 12540 
 
 10519 
 
 Platinum, drawn.... 
 
 21.25 
 
 34.10 
 
 35.00 
 
 16159 
 
 « 
 
 Platinum, annealed 
 
 21.20 
 
 23.50 
 
 26.40 
 
 15560 
 
 a 
 
 Iron, drawn 
 
 7.75 
 
 61.10 
 
 64.00 
 
 19903 
 
 20869 
 
 Iron, annealed 
 
 7.76 
 
 46.88 
 
 50.25 
 
 19925 
 
 20794 
 
 Steel wire 
 
 7.72 
 
 70.00 
 
 87.80 
 
 19445 
 
 18809 
 
 Steel wire, annealed 
 
 7.62 
 
 40.00 
 
 53.90 
 
 19200 
 
 17278 
 
 Nickel, pure. 
 
 u 
 
 90.00 
 
 it 
 
 << 
 
 u 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 « 
 
 115.00 
 
 (( 
 
 it 
 
 It 
 
 Antimony, cast 
 
 6.71 
 
 u 
 
 0.67 
 
 (( 
 
 16 
 
 Bismuth, cast 
 
 9.82 
 
 (( 
 
 0.97 
 
 «( 
 
 It 
 
 
 
 Note. — This table and t,he following one are bor- 
 rowed from the interesting researches of Mr. Wertheim 
 on the physical properties of alloys. The results 
 given are certainly not free from errors ; the notable 
 differences between substances whose analogy is too 
 great for allowing much diversity in their relative re- 
 sistance and elasticity, is a proof that all the numbers 
 are not sufficiently accurate. 
 
 At all events, besides an indication of the specific 
 gravity of alloys which few authors have presented so 
 
28 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 completely, we find in these tables very interesting 
 data and comparisons for study. When we compare 
 the results of experience with the figures found by cal- 
 culating, according to the proportion of each metal 
 forming an alloy, we do not find enough regularity to 
 allow us to form a rule by which we may foresee what 
 will be the result of a change in the proportions of the 
 compound. Nevertheless, in practice, we will admit 
 that the coefficient of elasticity may be approxima- 
 tive^ deducted from those of the component metals. 
 
 Mr. Laboulaye, in his Dictionnaire des Arts et Manu- 
 factures, where the question of alloys is treated to a 
 certain extent, is astonished because we have not made 
 accurate experiments for arriving, by figures, at the 
 relative value of alloys, as regards their physical quali- 
 ties, resistance, elasticity, etc. The researches of Mr. 
 Wertheim, though incomplete and insufficient in their 
 results, were made in that direction, and are certainly 
 a progress ; but when we come to examine what that 
 work has produced, notwithstanding the conscientious 
 care with which it was done, we must acknowledge 
 that, for some time to come, the alloys will not be studied 
 in the way recommended by Mr. Laboulaye. There 
 are so many unforeseen circumstances, happening even 
 when studying isolated metals, which leave in the 
 dark many important questions, after numberless ex- 
 periments, that we must not be astonished at the diffi- 
 culties encountered by those who experiment on alloys. 
 
ALLOYS. 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 
 o . 
 
 a> r^ 
 
 
 
 
 *bi 
 
 a§ 
 
 fl'a 
 
 
 Alloys. 
 
 & 60 
 
 .2 "5 a 
 
 S a 
 
 SZ 6 
 
 S «S u 
 
 Lead. 
 
 68.50 
 
 [Tin 
 
 31.50 
 
 
 10.073 
 
 2596 
 
 0.552 
 
 k. 
 0.93 
 
 « 
 
 63.80 
 
 « 
 
 36.20 
 
 
 9.408 
 
 2969 
 
 2.077 
 
 2.46 
 
 « 
 
 42.50 
 
 << 
 
 57.40 
 
 
 8.750 
 
 3512 
 
 1.591 
 
 2.07 
 
 <( 
 
 33.25 
 
 << 
 
 66.75 
 
 
 8.378 
 
 3700 
 
 0.340 
 
 1.07 
 
 Lead. 
 
 62.40 
 
 Bismuth.. 
 
 37.60 
 
 
 11.037 
 
 2021 
 
 0.262 
 
 1.52 
 
 « 
 
 50.00 
 
 " 
 
 50.00 
 
 
 18.790 
 
 2367 
 
 0.440 
 
 1.79 
 
 «( 
 
 33.33 
 
 << 
 
 66.66 
 
 
 10.403 
 
 2838 
 
 0.025 
 
 5.22 
 
 Lead. 
 
 76 00 
 
 Antimony 
 
 24.00 
 
 
 10.101 
 
 2183 
 
 a 
 
 1.87 
 
 i« 
 
 62.00 
 
 « 
 
 38.00 
 
 
 10.064 
 
 2592 
 
 it 
 
 5.59 
 
 a 
 
 43.00 
 
 « 
 
 57.00 
 
 
 8.946 
 
 3242 
 
 a 
 
 « 
 
 <( 
 
 35.00 
 
 <( 
 
 65.00 
 
 
 8.499 
 
 3536 
 
 it 
 
 « 
 
 Lead. 
 
 95.40 
 
 Gold 
 
 4.60 
 
 
 11.301 
 
 2227 
 
 0.055 
 
 4.74 
 
 Lead . 
 
 48.00 
 
 Silver .... 
 
 52.00 
 
 
 10.743 
 
 3095 
 
 « 
 
 <( 
 
 Lead. 
 
 98.85 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 1.15 
 
 
 11.473 
 
 2684 
 
 0.026 
 
 1.65 
 
 u 
 
 85.00 
 
 « 
 
 15.00 
 
 
 12.207 
 
 3107 
 
 « 
 
 <( 
 
 Lead . 
 
 95,00 
 
 Zinc 
 
 5.00 
 
 
 11.195 
 
 2144 
 
 0.069 
 
 2.75 
 
 a 
 
 92.20 
 
 H 
 
 7.80 
 
 
 11.172 
 
 2493 
 
 0.060 
 
 2.02 
 
 it 
 
 87.00 
 
 (( 
 
 13.00 
 
 
 11.130 
 
 2833 
 
 0.060 
 
 2.02 
 
 tt 
 
 76.30 
 
 <( 
 
 23.70 
 
 
 9.430 
 
 4007 
 
 « 
 
 3.47 
 
 tt 
 
 68.20 
 
 it 
 
 31.80 
 
 
 9.043 
 
 6647 
 
 n 
 
 3.40 
 
 tt 
 
 39.00 
 
 It 
 
 61.00 
 
 
 8.397 
 
 6108 
 
 tt 
 
 « 
 
 tt 
 
 24.00 
 
 It 
 
 76.00 
 
 
 7.910 
 
 7352 
 
 0.004 
 
 4.40 
 
 Lead. 
 
 94.20 
 
 Copper ... 
 
 5.80 
 
 
 11.165 
 
 2113 
 
 0.043 
 
 2.13 
 
 Tin ... 
 
 33.00 
 
 Bismuth . 
 
 66.00 
 
 
 8.68 
 
 3610 
 
 0.028 
 
 8.19 
 
 it 
 
 54.60 
 
 a 
 
 45.40 
 
 
 8.89 
 
 2874 
 
 0.015 
 
 6.63 
 
 Tin... 
 
 78.50 
 
 Antimony 
 
 21.50 
 
 
 7.21 
 
 4033 
 
 a 
 
 8.86 
 
 tt 
 
 66.00 
 
 « 
 
 44.00 
 
 
 7.05 
 
 4695 
 
 0.010 
 
 7.82 
 
 tt 
 
 67.70 
 
 a 
 
 42.30 
 
 
 7.007 
 
 5168 
 
 (( 
 
 (< 
 
 Tin ... 
 
 78.50 
 
 Zinc 
 
 21 60 
 
 
 7.366 
 
 5336 
 
 0.246 
 
 5.78 
 
 " 
 
 73.40 
 
 « 
 
 26.60 
 
 
 7.255 
 
 5982 
 
 0.252 
 
 5.00 
 
 <( 
 
 64.00 
 
 <( 
 
 36.00 
 
 
 7.143 
 
 6453 
 
 0.036 
 
 4.68 
 
 « 
 
 48.00 
 
 a 
 
 52.00 
 
 
 7.193 
 
 7113 
 
 0.124 
 
 2.44 
 
 a 
 
 37.50 
 
 tt 
 
 62.50 
 
 
 6.746 
 
 6976 
 
 0.082 
 
 4.32 
 
 tt 
 
 26.70 
 
 a 
 
 73.30 
 
 
 6.957 
 
 7314 
 
 0.023 
 
 7.52 
 
 Tin ... 
 
 96.70 
 
 Platinum 
 
 3.30 
 
 
 7.578 
 
 5309 
 
 a 
 
 4.75 
 
 Tin ... 
 
 61.60 
 
 Copper.... 
 
 38.40 
 
 
 8.332 
 
 6113 
 
 a 
 
 <« 
 
 « 
 
 48.30 
 
 tt 
 
 51.70 
 
 
 8.531 
 
 8280 
 
 tt 
 
 « 
 
 it 
 
 21.00 
 
 it 
 
 79.00 
 
 
 8.813 
 
 9784 
 
 tt 
 
 <( 
 
 u 
 
 7.80 
 
 tt 
 
 82.20 
 
 
 8.738 
 
 « 
 
 tt 
 
 tt 
 
 Tin... 
 
 98.20 
 
 Iron 
 
 1.80 
 
 
 7.266 
 
 4881 
 
 tt 
 
 it 
 
 a* 
 
30 PEACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 
 
 «M >> 
 
 <M 
 
 h a 
 
 
 
 a ^o 
 
 b| 
 
 
 Alloys. 
 
 ■si 
 1* 
 
 151 
 
 13 "S3 
 
 s a 
 
 a 
 .2 £ a?" 
 
 IP 
 
 Silver. 
 
 94.50 
 
 Copper.... 
 
 5.50 
 
 
 10.121 
 
 8913 
 
 tt 
 
 k. 
 44.05 
 
 a 
 
 87.40 
 
 n 
 
 22.60 
 
 
 9.603 
 
 85900.002 
 
 51.97 
 
 Gold.. 
 
 78.20 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 21.80 
 
 
 19.650 
 
 9844 " 
 
 7.12 
 
 Gold.. 
 
 97.25 
 
 Iron 
 
 2.75 
 
 
 18.842 
 
 9024 0.016 
 
 20.41 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 76.80 
 
 Copper.... 
 
 23.20 
 
 
 7.301 
 
 7678 
 
 <( 
 
 4.10 
 
 « 
 
 51.50 
 
 u 
 
 48.50 
 
 
 8.265 
 
 8774 
 
 (t 
 
 18.68 
 
 (< 
 
 43 30 
 
 it 
 
 56.70 
 
 
 8.310 
 
 9105 
 
 (( 
 
 36.80 
 
 <« 
 
 33.75 
 
 n 
 
 65.25 
 
 
 8.606 
 
 10163 
 
 « 
 
 60.20 
 
 a 
 
 14.60 
 
 u 
 
 85.40 
 
 
 8.636 
 
 9778 0.001 
 
 51.90 
 
 Lead. 
 
 57.00 
 
 Antimony 
 
 18.00 
 
 Tin. 25.00 
 
 9.196 
 
 27350.032 
 
 7.80 
 
 Lead. 
 
 44.50 
 
 Bismuth . 
 
 47.80 
 
 Tin. 17.70 
 
 9.795 
 
 2626 0.695 
 
 1.74 
 
 Lead . 
 
 73.00 
 
 Tin 
 
 12.00 
 
 Zinc 15.00 
 
 10.212 
 
 2486 
 
 0.162 
 
 1.44 
 
 Tin ... 
 
 51.00 
 
 Antimony 
 
 28.00 
 
 Cop. 21.00 
 
 7.751 
 
 5770 
 
 «< 
 
 4.17 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 35.00 
 
 Copper.... 
 
 57.50 
 
 Nickel 7.50 
 
 8.403 9517 
 
 0.001 
 
 <( 
 
 « 
 
 18.60 
 
 <( 
 
 60.00 
 
 " 21.40 
 
 8.541 10227 0.001 
 
 61.88 
 
 a 
 
 37.00 
 
 a 
 
 43.00 
 
 " 20.00 
 
 8.436 11722 0.001 
 
 55.00 
 
 a 
 
 21.00 
 
 u 
 
 50.60 
 
 " 8.40 
 
 8.615 12250,0.002 
 
 68.10 
 
 PHYSICAL AND 
 
 II. 
 
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF 
 ALLOYS. 
 
 It is to be understood that the following indications 
 must be considered only from a general point of view. 
 When stating the properties acquired by the alloys of 
 metals, we must eliminate those anomalies presented by 
 certain combinations, which are outside of the general 
 limits in which the experimenter works. 
 
 Fusibility. — The alloys are generally more fusible 
 than the least fusible of the component metals, and 
 very often more fusible than any of them taken sepa- 
 rately. The alloy of Darcet or of Rose, which is a com- 
 
SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 31 
 
 pound of tin, lead, and bismuth, in variable proportions, 
 is a striking example of the principle we have set forth. 
 
 Thus, admitting that — 
 
 Tin melts at 280° C. ; 
 
 Lead at 320° ; 
 and Bismuth at 270° ; most of the alloys made with 
 these three metals will melt below 100° C. (boiling 
 water).* 
 
 However, we must observe that all the alloys do 
 not exactly follow this rule, which is true especially 
 for certain white metals, as those we have named, and 
 to which we must add antimony and arsenic. 
 
 Hardness. — Alloys are generally harder and more 
 brittle than the hardest and most brittle of the com- 
 ponent metals. Certain soft metals, such as lead, for 
 instance, increase the hardness of the metals with which 
 they are alloyed. Thus, in an alloy of lead and tin, 
 lead may sensibly increase the hardness of tin. 
 
 Ductility. — Tenacity. — A few metals, employed sin- 
 gly or united, increase the ductility and tenacity of 
 other metals which are deficient in this respect. How- 
 ever, most alloys have a ductility and tenacity less 
 than that of the most ductile and tenacious of the com- 
 ponent metals. 
 
 The crystalline structure of alloys has a great in- 
 fluence on their tenacity. Certain alloys, whose crys- 
 tallization presents large grains, must be very slowly 
 and gradually cooled, if we desire to retain their natu- 
 ral tenacity. 
 
 Specific Gravity. — There is no precise law which 
 gives the relation between the specific gravity of an 
 alloy and that of its component metals. 
 
 The specific gravity of alloys is sometimes above, 
 sometimes below, that which would be deduced from 
 
 * All the temperatures given in this work are according to the 
 Centigrade scale. 
 
32 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 the specific gravities, and the proportion of the metals 
 forming the mixture. 
 
 The specific gravity of an alloy may be expressed 
 
 by the formula a = L. + ^ , in which P and p are 
 rd+piJ 
 
 the weights of the metals, and D and d their respective 
 
 specific gravities. 
 
 When there is equality between the result of the 
 formula and the specific gravity of the alloy, there is 
 neither dilatation nor contraction; but if the specific 
 gravity of the alloy, taken by direct experiment, gives 
 a number greater or smaller than a, then we arrive at 
 the conclusion that there is contraction or dilatation. 
 
 It is hence possible, by the use of the formula, 
 checked by direct experiments, to determine the spe- 
 cific gravity of a certain number of alloys, and to form 
 the following lists of binary alloys which show the 
 graduation of the specific gravity. 
 
 I. Alloys, the specific gravity of which is greater 
 than the mean specific gravity of the component 
 metals : — 
 
 Copper and zinc. 
 Copper and tin. 
 Copper and bismuth. 
 Copper and antimony. 
 Lead and antimony. 
 Lead and bismuth. 
 Silver and zinc. 
 Silver and lead. 
 Silver and tin. 
 Silver and bismuth. 
 Silver and antimony. 
 Gold and zinc. 
 Gold and tin. 
 Gold and bismuth. 
 
 II. Alloys, the specific gravity of which is less 
 
SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 33 
 
 than the mean specific gravity of the component 
 metals : — 
 
 Iron and antimony. 
 Iron and lead. 
 Iron and bismuth. 
 Copper and lead. 
 Lead and tin. 
 Tin and antimony. 
 Zinc and antimony. 
 Silver and copper. 
 Gold and silver. 
 Gold and iron. 
 Gold and copper. 
 Gold and lead. 
 
 The specific gravity of alloys may give an approxi- 
 mate knowledge of the proportion of the component 
 metals. For instance, we may ascertain the purity of 
 tin by the " trial of the bullet." In a bullet-mould we 
 first cast a ball of pure tin, which will serve as a stand- 
 ard ; then we cast in the same mould, alloyed tin, and 
 the greater or less weight of the balls thus obtained 
 indicates a greater or less proportion of lead. 
 
 The experiments of Muschenbroeck on the variations 
 of specific gravity of alloys, in which the proportions 
 of the component metals were made to vary, would 
 seem to show that there is a point where the combi- 
 nation is more intimate, and which, very likely, cor- 
 responds to alloys in definite proportions* 
 
 We would then be led to admit that the union is 
 more complete, and that there is a tendency to conden- 
 sation, when the alloy is made of metals having a great 
 afiinity for each other. On the other hand, there would 
 be a dilatation when the two metals have little affinity 
 for each other, and are only mixed. Thus copper, which 
 possesses a great affinity for zinc and tin, forms with 
 
 * See the preceding tables by Mr. Wertheim. 
 
34 PEACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 these metals alloys having a specific gravity greater 
 than the mean. 
 
 Elasticity. — Mr. Wertheim, who has closely studied 
 the interesting question of alloys, has tried to ascertain 
 the ratio which exists between the mechanical proper- 
 ties of metals and of alloys, in order to determine the 
 molecular disposition of these compounds. 
 
 The alloys were prepared with pure metals; and 
 these were carefully mixed, stirred, and cast in heated 
 moulds. 
 
 Each alloy was submitted to chemical analysis ; and 
 when, by volatilization, oxidation, or liquation, it de- 
 parted from the original composition, it was rigorously 
 put aside. 
 
 The experiments of Mr. Wertheim were carried on 
 with about sixty binary or tertiary alloys used in the 
 arts. Among them were many well-known alloys, 
 whose mechanical properties had been more or less 
 investigated by several authors ; as, for instance, 
 bronze, brass, similor, type metal, bell metal, gong 
 metal, cymbals, etc. 
 
 The results, as given by Mr. Wertheim, may be 
 summed up as follows: — 
 
 1. Alloys behave like single metals, as regards 
 vibration and expansion. 
 
 2. The cohesion, and the limit of elasticity or of ex- 
 pansion, cannot be determined prima facie from the 
 data known for each component metal. 
 
 3. The coefficients of elasticity of alloys agree quite 
 well with the average of the coefficients of the compo- 
 nent metals. The contractions or dilatations have little 
 influence on these coefficients. We may, therefore, 
 determine beforehand the composition of an alloy, 
 which should have a certain elasticity, or conduct the 
 sound with a given velocity ; provided that either of 
 these conditions remains between the extreme limits 
 of the coefficients of each of the component metals. 
 
OXIDATION. 35 
 
 4. The coefficient of elasticity is greater as the mole- 
 cular arrangement is closer, and the grain finer and 
 more homogeneous. 
 
 Specific Heat. — The researches of Mr. Eegnault on 
 specific heat have shown that the average specific heat 
 of the component metals is sensibly that of the alloys; 
 provided that the observations are made at an average 
 temperature sufficiently remote from the points of 
 fusion and of softening. 
 
 Latent Heat. — Mr. Eudberg, who has made remark- 
 able researches on the properties of latent heat, has as- 
 certained that, when a melted alloy is allowed to cool, 
 the thermometer becomes generally twice stationary 
 between the points of fusion and solidification. Of 
 these two indications of the thermometer, one is con- 
 stant for every alloy of the same two metals, and the 
 other varies with their respective proportions. 
 
 Two metals melted together, according to Mr. Eud- 
 berg, should form a combination in definite proportions, 
 which inclines towards the one in excess. The chemi- 
 cal alloy, when alone, becomes solid at a determined 
 point, which Mr. Eudberg calls the " constant point." 
 But when one of the two metals is in excess, the solidifi- 
 cation of the metal and of the alloy does not take place 
 at the same point ; the metal in excess, which has a 
 tendency to become solid first, loses its latent heat, and 
 produces a stoppage in the descent of the thermometer. 
 The metal which has first solidified is dispersed through 
 the chemical alloy which remains fluid, and this, in its 
 turn, becoming solid, causes the second stoppage at the 
 thermometer. 
 
 Thus, lead becomes solid at 325° C, tin at 228°; and 
 for the alloys of tin, the " constant point," or point of 
 fusion of the chemical alloy, remains at 187°. 
 
 Oxidation. — The alloys are not generally so easily 
 oxidized as their component metals, when taken singly. 
 In some cases, however, oxidation is greater in the 
 
36 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 alloys. That of lead and tin, for instance, when lead 
 is in excess, burns and becomes oxidized very rapidly 
 at a red heat. 
 
 When one of the component metals is easily oxi- 
 dized, and is united in an alloy with another metal 
 which is not, or very little, oxidable, it is possible to 
 separate the metals by transforming the former into an 
 oxide, while the latter remains unchanged. This pro- 
 perty is the basis of the operation of cupellation, by 
 which silver is separated from lead. We may, by a 
 similar operation, separate two metals differently oxi- 
 dable, the more oxidable being much more rapidly 
 oxidized than the other. 
 
 The oxidation of alloys, under the influence of 
 atmospheric dampness, is generally less than that of 
 the component metal which is the most easily oxidized. 
 It happens also, in statuary bronze for instance, that 
 the alloy becomes rapidly oxidized at the beginning, 
 more so than would the metals, taken singly and simi- 
 larly exposed ; but after this first effect, the oxidation 
 seems stopped, and is not so destructive as would be 
 the case for the isolated metals. 
 
 Although acids appear to act upon the alloys the 
 same as upon the principal metal of the composition, 
 we must also admit that, after a certain length of time, 
 their action will be less destructive for the alloy than 
 for each single metal. 
 
 III. 
 PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 
 
 Alloys are made all at once, that is, by combining 
 the metals in the same crucible, or in the same furnace, 
 in one operation. 
 
PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 37 
 
 Or they are made in several operations, that is to 
 say, by uniting first two metals, then three, and so on, 
 in order to obtain a more complete alloy, by the aid of 
 previous combinations already prepared. 
 
 By the first method, which is that generally prac- 
 tised, the combination is never so intimate that, not- 
 withstanding the care given to the operations of fusion, 
 stirring, and casting, we may consider the alloy per- 
 fectly dense, regular, and homogeneous in all its parts. 
 
 We arrive at greater accuracy by the second process. 
 The combinations made separately of metals having a 
 mutual affinity, allow of more precision in the propor- 
 tions, and more facility in the formation of complex 
 alloys, than would be the case if the metals were added 
 one after the other. 
 
 The order in which metals are added to an alloy is 
 far from being a matter of indifference. Indeed, it 
 would not be sufficient, for obtaining a good result, to 
 throw into a crucible, without method or rule or mea- 
 sure, metals whose properties of assimilation are too far 
 apart to combine in a satisfactory manner. 
 
 In an alloy of copper, tin, and zinc, for instance, it 
 is preferable to add the tin to the melted copper, and 
 then the zinc, than to introduce the zinc first, and the 
 tin afterwards. 
 
 In the quaternary alloy of copper, tin, zinc, and lead, 
 we prefer the order in which the names are here stated. 
 The lead, especially, is to be added the last. 
 
 Many other examples could be given in assertion of 
 this rule, which are worth remembering, and are based 
 upon experience and a knowledge of the metals. 
 
 By a ready experiment we may ascertain the truth 
 of these principles, and see that the method employed 
 for producing an alloy is not without influence. 
 
 Let us combine 10 parts of copper with 90 parts of 
 tin, to which we add 10 parts of antimony. On the 
 4 
 
38 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 other band, let us combine 10 parts of copper and 10 
 parts of antimony, to which we add 90 parts of tin. 
 
 We have two alloys, which, chemically speaking, 
 are the same ; but we may readily ascertain that they 
 are widely different as regards fusibility, tenacity, hard- 
 ness, etc. These transformations, which appear in 
 combinations the component parts and proportions of 
 which are the same, are evidently due to a peculiar 
 molecular arrangement, produced in the alloy by the 
 order in which the component metals have been added. 
 
 In the alloys made in one operation, whatever be 
 the care taken in the fusion and the stirring, the 
 chance is less for the combination to be homogeneous, 
 the greater the difference in the specific gravities of the 
 component metals. When casting, there is a "parting" 
 or liquation by which the heaviest metal goes to the 
 bottom of the mould. 
 
 This liquation is to be seen especially in the alloys 
 of copper and tin, which, when the castings are con- 
 siderable, retain with great difficulty the same homo- 
 geneousness and proportions throughout the full extent 
 of the pieces. 
 
 The difference of specific gravity is not the only 
 cause which produces the separation in castings at the 
 time of cooling. When an alloy begins to congeal, 
 there is generally formed a less fusible alloy, which 
 becomes solid in proximity to the cooling surfaces, 
 and another more fusible and lighter alloy, which has 
 a tendency to form an upward current in the centre of 
 the piece. 
 
 This separation of metals in a fused alloy causes 
 great difficulty in the manufacture of bronze ordnance, 
 where the separation of the tin produces whitish spots, 
 more fusible than the remainder of the metal, and 
 which are melted and removed by the heat of the 
 burning powder. 
 
 A rapid and powerful cooling is the only way to 
 
PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 39 
 
 prevent such results, which cause the rapid destruction 
 of ordnance. The separation is prevented entirely or 
 partially if the alloy solidifies as soon as it is placed 
 in the mould. 
 
 A slow cooling is always an impediment to the 
 homogeneousness of alloys. When it does not pro- 
 duce a separation of the metals, it occasions a state of 
 crystallization, easily seen, which is always detri- 
 mental to the solidity of the metal. 
 
 This crystallization will generally increase the hard- 
 ness of the alloy, but impairs its tenacity considerably. 
 It appears especially in certain alloys which, retaining 
 for a long time a high temperature, when cast are subject 
 to settlings and shrinkages. But this crystallization, 
 and all its accompanying evils, may be prevented by 
 means of large runners, heavy enough to weigh on the 
 metal, and by accessory means which aid in a rapid 
 cooling, such as shaking the moulds after casting, 
 throwing water on certain parts of them, etc. 
 
 However, it is a mistake to believe that, in order to 
 obtain a more rapid cooling, it is proper to cast at a 
 low temperature those alloys which have a tendency 
 to crystallize, to shrink, or to lose their shape. 
 
 All alloys, as a rule, gain by being cast at the highest 
 temperature proper to each of them, taking care not to 
 increase the loss too much by volatilization or oxida- 
 tion. An alloy which is cast when hot, cools off in 
 better condition than an alloy which is run into the 
 moulds in a pasty state, and is not subject to those 
 flaws, blow-holes, and shrinkages to be seen in metals 
 the fluidity of which was incomplete. 
 
 The processes of " liquation" employed in the opera- 
 tions of metallurgy for extracting certain metals from 
 less fusible ones, may not require so thorough and 
 regular a heating as is necessary for alloys which are 
 to be cast. 
 
 On the one hand, our object is only to extract crude 
 
40 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 metals, if we may so term them, which are to be melted 
 and worked up again ; before they are fit for use in the 
 arts. 
 
 On the other hand, we merely require that tempera- 
 ture which is necessary for separating from the alloy 
 one of the combined metals, which melts, leaving the 
 other metal isolated. Thus, for instance, in order to 
 separate silver from copper, we begin by melting the 
 alloy of silver and copper with such a proportion of 
 lead as to have equal parts of copper and lead in the 
 compound. Then, by heating up to a certain point, 
 two alloys are formed: one which is easily fusible, 
 and contains 12 parts of lead for 1 of copper ; and an- 
 other which is less fusible, and contains 12 parts of 
 copper to 1 of lead. The former melts, carrying with 
 it the j| of the silver, which may be extracted by 
 cupellation. 
 
 The alloys, as we have already said at the beginning 
 of this chapter, may be made at once in one operation, 
 or by fractional operations. Binary alloys, having 
 their own characteristics, may be used for forming 
 other compounds, endowed with other properties. 
 
 If these alloys are combined with only one new 
 metal, there generally results a new binary alloy, 
 where the first alloy acts like an elementary metal. If 
 the combination takes place between two alloys pre- 
 viously made, there is formed a new compound whose 
 properties may be very different from those of an 
 alloy made by combining successively each metal. 
 
 The binary alloys have a real importance in this 
 way, that, with them, the peculiar qualities of both 
 metals may be turned to the greatest account. But 
 these alloys, whether they are wanting in cohesion, 
 or because they do not entirely possess those qualities 
 required in the arts, should be modified by the ad- 
 dition of new metals. These produce a sort of "hy- 
 brid" with the former metals of the alloy, and the 
 
PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 41 
 
 combinations are quite different from those where the 
 metals were united two by two. At all events, such 
 alloys are more intimate and homogeneous. 
 
 In general, it is advantageous to introduce into the 
 alloys a certain number of elements, even in small pro- 
 portions for many of them, and although several of these 
 elements would not appear to possess an appreciable 
 utility, or have an important effect. The results of 
 affinity obtained by the new elements favor the mix- 
 tures, increase the density and the homogeneousness, 
 at the same time that they sometimes counterbalance, 
 with great advantage, the tendency to liquation or 
 separation in the melted mass. 
 
 Thus, for instance, a statuary bronze, which could 
 be made entirely of copper and tin, acquires new and 
 indispensable qualities by the addition of zinc and lead, 
 even in small proportions. 
 
 As another example, the alloy of copper and zinc, 
 which as such might be suitable for certain uses in the 
 arts, becomes much more valuable for these same uses, 
 and is improved and completed, by the addition of a 
 small proportion of tin or lead. 
 
 The more complex an alloy is to be, the more im- 
 portant is it that its preparation should be effected by 
 the union of more simple alloys, previously made. Out- 
 side of the considerations which guide the founder as 
 to the order in which the metals should be melted, such 
 as the peculiar conditions of affinity, the similitude in 
 the specific gravities and the points of fusion, it is pro- 
 per to examine the means and processes by which we 
 add to the final melting those metals whose proportions 
 in the alloy are comparatively small. 
 
 These various observations will find their confirma- 
 tion when, further on, we shall state our researches on 
 the alloys of different metals, and examine the princi- 
 pal alloys in actual use in the arts. 
 
 As generally practised, the metals to be combined 
 4* 
 
42 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 are melted by processes and in apparatus which vary 
 according to the quantity of alloys to be cast, or the 
 nature of the metals under treatment. 
 
 The metals easily fusible, such as lead, tin, etc., are 
 melted in a ladle, or in wrought or cast iron kettles. 
 
 The more refractory metals are melted in crucibles, 
 whose qualities of solidity and resistance to the fire are 
 the more sought for, as the metals have a higher point 
 of fusion, or are more valuable. 
 
 For gold, silver, and platinum, we require crucibles 
 of a superior quality, which will not crack, and thus 
 lose in the fire the metals they are intended to receive. 
 
 For copper and its alloys, although requiring cruci- 
 bles as solid and lasting as possible, we look more 
 towards economy, because the work is frequent and 
 regular, and we operate on quantities of less value. 
 
 When the mass of metal becomes considerable, 
 whether because many castings are to be made, or 
 because of the heavy weight of the pieces, instead of 
 the crucibles, we operate in reverberatory furnaces, and 
 sometimes in cupolas. 
 
 The processes of melting and mixing the metals in 
 a crucible, however simple they appear at first sight, 
 require certain precautions upon which we cannot too 
 strongly insist. 
 
 The alloys made in one operation are always very 
 difficult of preparation, when the metals, such as zinc 
 and lead, copper and lead, for instance, possess a sort 
 of " antipathy" in their affinity. It is with much trouble 
 that we obtain, in this way, thoroughly homogeneous 
 castings, presenting the same body and grain of simi- 
 lar alloys which have already passed through a previous 
 fusion. 
 
 In order to arrive at the best possible results, with- 
 out employing the method by separate operations, it is 
 proper, as a general rule, to endeavor to operate ac- 
 cording to the following principles:— 
 
PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 43 
 
 1. To charge the crucible, and melt first the least 
 fusible of the component metals. 
 
 2. When this metal is in fusion, to heat it up to such 
 a point that it will be enabled, without too great a 
 cooling, to bear the introduction of the other component 
 metals. 
 
 3. Once the first charge is in fusion, to introduce the 
 other metals in the order of their difficulty to melt * 
 Whatever are the proportions of the component metals, 
 and no matter which is the basis of the alloy, it is abso- 
 lutely necessary that the most refractory metal should 
 be melted first. Its fluidity, indeed, gives the measure 
 of the temperature necessary for finishing the alloy. 
 By charging first a fusible metal, it may volatilize and 
 become oxidized, and the crucible may also break by 
 raising the temperature high enough to receive, with- 
 out too much cooling, a less fusible metal. At the 
 same time, there will be more waste, and the pro- 
 portion of the alloy will be sensibly changed. 
 
 4. To present at the flame of the furnace the metals 
 which are to be subsequently added, in order to heat 
 them as much as possible, and thus facilitate the change 
 of temperature which takes place when the new metal 
 is added to that or those already melted in the crucible. 
 This practice is especially good when we have to in- 
 troduce a volatile metal, such as zinc, which, being 
 melted too rapidly, may cause the crucible to break. 
 
 5. To stir after the introduction and melting of each 
 component metal ; and to cover the crucible, at the 
 same time that the fire is increased more or less, accord- 
 ing to the less or greater fusibility of the metal. 
 
 6. To cover the alloys rich in zinc with a layer of 
 charcoal-dust. This is not necessary when there is not 
 
 * This is a general rule, to be applied in most cases ; but there 
 are exceptions. For instance, gold will easily dissolve in melted 
 tin, and platinum in many metals. If platinum were first melted, 
 and zinc for instance added, the temperature necessary to obtain the 
 fusion of platinum would be sufficient to volatilize the zinc. — Trans. 
 
41 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 in the alloy any metal, such as copper or iron, having 
 a high point of fusion ; or when the proportion of zinc 
 added does not require a protracted heating, and the 
 alloy may be poured out immediately. With alloys 
 rich in tin, the charcoal-dust will cause the scorifica- 
 tion* of part of this metal ; therefore it is preferable 
 to cover the surface of the molten mass with refractory 
 sand or pulverized sandstone. 
 
 7. To stir thoroughly the molten alloy just before it 
 is cast, and, if possible, during the pouring out. The 
 stirring is to be done with a stick of white wood, 
 burning without splitting ; and not with an iron rod, 
 which has a tendency to produce dry alloys, and may 
 modify the nature of the compounds by adding some 
 iron to the alloy — a small proportion, it is true, but 
 nevertheless appreciable. 
 
 8. To carefully clean the crucible after each opera- 
 tion, in order to maintain the accuracy of the mixture, 
 and facilitate the fusion. 
 
 Such are the main conditions for obtaining alloys 
 in one operation. If alloys thus prepared give some 
 trouble in obtaining good results, they are Yery econo- 
 mical, and present the advantage of keeping, as strictly 
 as is allowed by the fusion, the proportions of the 
 mixture. 
 
 Moreover, in practice, it is generally acknowledged 
 that a small proportion of an old alloy added to a new 
 one, improves it by giving it the homogeneousness 
 which otherwise would be imparted only by a second 
 fusion. 
 
 * The author uses the word " scorification," but we do not think 
 that the term is entirely appropriate. Nevertheless, it is certain 
 that charcoal is not favorable to alloys of tin and copper, and that 
 pure clay crucibles are to be preferred to those of plumbago for 
 such alloys. Metallurgists know that at a certain period of the 
 refining of copper, the metal is carburized and brittle. In order to 
 prevent this carburization, it has been recommended to give a 
 coat of pure clay to the interior of plumbago crucibles. — Trans. 
 
PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 45 
 
 In ternary or quaternary alloys made of copper, 
 zinc, tin, and lead, it will always be well, in order to 
 obtain more homogeneousness in the final mixture, to 
 alloy beforehand the more fusible metals, such as zinc, 
 tin, and lead ; and to combine this first alloy with the 
 copper, under the best conditions possible. In this way 
 the last combination will possess better qualities than 
 an alloy made in one operation. 
 
 However, we repeat it, alloys made by the first 
 direct method, although much more simple and eco- 
 nomical, do not answer all the wants of the arts, and 
 do not present the same guarantees as those which 
 have been remelted. For instance, runners from bronze 
 or brass castings of a first fusion, when melted again, 
 and when the primitive proportions were good, present 
 a better grain, and a metal without defects, which is 
 more easily worked than another alloy made directly 
 by one operation. 
 
 The pieces cast with alloys made by the direct 
 method — we always mean those in which copper is a 
 component part — are possibly less liable to breakage 
 and shrinkage than if made from old metal ; but, on 
 the other hand, the surfaces are not so clean, and the 
 grain is not so close and easily worked. Moreover, 
 such alloys are not very fluid, and do not produce sharp 
 casts. These defects are more to be guarded against 
 in the case of statuary and ornamental bronzes than 
 when pieces of machinery are to be produced. 
 
 As a rule, the oftener a metal is melted, the more it 
 loses its previous qualities. 
 
 This is exemplified by cast iron, which, after having 
 been melted several times, loses part of its softness and 
 tenacity, and becomes hard and brittle. This happens 
 also to all metals, in a greater or less degree. Copper, 
 repeatedly melted, becomes more finely granular and 
 less tenacious. The same applies to tin, zinc, and lead. 
 However, the last two metals become purer by a second 
 
46 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 fusion, and are altogether improved ; but these qualities 
 will disappear, if remelting occurs too often. 
 
 The deterioration which takes place in the nature of 
 metals melted singly is due to new combinations during 
 the remelting, and is entirely caused by the manner in 
 which the operation is conducted. 
 
 Oxidation by the fire and the air, and the presence of 
 iron, which it is nearly impossible to remove during the 
 fusion, are the principal causes of the deterioration we 
 mention. 
 
 It will be understood that these causes act more 
 powerfully when we operate with remelted alloys, which 
 lose their primitive proportions by the waste which 
 takes place. And if an allo} r made by the direct 
 method gives satisfactory results, it will evidently lose 
 its qualities by subsequent meltings. We may, it is 
 true, maintain the alloy within the proportional limits of 
 its composition, by re-establishing, as much by guess 
 as by experience, the proportions modified by the pre- 
 ceding fusions ; but, despite the precautions taken, it is 
 with the greatest difficulty that we can bring it again 
 to its primitive condition. 
 
 The brass-founders, especially those of Paris, have 
 succeeded in casting quite large pieces from crucibles 
 only. The combinations are more certain, and there is 
 less waste, than by any other methods of fusion, con- 
 sidered more simple, rapid, or even economical. 
 
 The furnaces for crucibles, on account of the smaller 
 space they occupy, and their less cost, are better adapted 
 to the majority of founders. We shall not here indi- 
 cate the principles to be followed in melting in cruci- 
 bles, because they are to be found in our book on 
 foundries. 
 
 The main point, as we have already said, is to melt 
 first the more refractory metals — copper, for instance — 
 then to add to the molten mass the other component 
 metals in the order of their resistance to fusion. When 
 
PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 47 
 
 it is time to take the crucible out of the fire, the surface 
 of the metal is cleaned off, and the molten alloy stirred 
 with an iron rod — wood is better, when practicable — 
 the more thoroughly as the metals are more difficult to 
 combine. At last the crucible is rapidly removed, and 
 its contents poured into the moulds, avoiding any un- 
 necessary contact with the air ; and all causes tending 
 to cool the metal. 
 
 When large pieces are to be cast, the fire is so con- 
 ducted that each crucible will be ready to furnish at 
 the same time its contingent of molten alloy. All the 
 crucibles are rapidly removed from the furnace, and 
 their contents poured into a common basin, from whence 
 the metal is delivered to the mould. 
 
 The least delay in the pouring out of the contents of 
 one or several crucibles, the irregularities impossible to 
 avoid in the fusion, a temperature more or less equal, 
 the difficulty of stirring sufficiently well when the con- 
 tents of all the crucibles are united, make this mode of 
 operating somewhat difficult. To succeed with it, we 
 require a well-disposed shop, allowing easy and rapid 
 movement, and skilful workmen practised in that kind 
 of work. 
 
 A properly constructed and conducted reverberatory 
 furnace, and even a cupola, when the use of the latter 
 is well understood, will be found more appropriate and 
 more easy of management for casting large pieces, and 
 that without more expense, and with more rapidity in 
 the fusion.* 
 
 The reverberatory furnaces for the fusion of copper 
 alloys slightly differ from those employed for the 
 fusion of cast iron. However, we prefer the furnaces 
 where the hollow part of the hearth is near the bridge 
 wall. 
 
 The fusion of the metal already deposited on the 
 
 * Our readers will understand that we here refer especially, and 
 industrially, to the fusion of copper and its alloys. 
 
48 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 bed of the reverberatory furnace is conducted with 
 more care than would be necessary for cast iron. The 
 fire should not be so sharp and so frequently increased, 
 its intensity should be more regular, especially when 
 the metal begins to soften and is near the point of 
 fusion. 
 
 When the metal is melted, and when the temperature 
 for running off" is reached, the working door above the 
 hearth is opened, and the more fusible metals which 
 complete the alloy are rapidly added. The whole 
 molten mass is then stirred with an iron ladle with 
 the greatest care ; because upon a good stirring depends 
 the intimate union of the component metals. 
 
 The alloys of copper and tin, more than others, re- 
 quire a thorough stirring. The tin has a tendency to 
 strike (rise) to the surface of the castings, when the stir- 
 ring has not been thoroughly effected under the influ- 
 ence of a somewhat high temperature. Some operators 
 prefer to melt the tin in the casting-ladle, and then 
 throw upon it the copper from the reverberatory fur- 
 nace, stirring the molten mass all the while. 
 
 The alloys of copper and zinc are more easily mixed ; 
 however, the damper of the chimney of the reverberatory 
 furnace is to be kept down at least two-fifths while the 
 zinc is being introduced; the fire should also not be too 
 brisk. Indeed, if we always need to maintain a good 
 heat when the alloy is made, it is also proper not to in- 
 crease the temperature too much, otherwise the waste 
 will increase beyond measure. Moreover, when all the 
 metals are together, and before closing the charging 
 door previous to an additional heating, it is a good pre- 
 caution to throw on the surface of the molten metal 
 a shovelful of charcoal-dust or of silicious sand. 
 
 When the time for casting has come, the tap-hole at 
 the bottom of the hearth is opened with an iron bar, 
 and the metal is received into a casting-ladle, the top of 
 which is covered with ignited charcoal, which keeps 
 up the heat and preserves the surface of the metal from 
 
PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 49 
 
 the contact of the air. The temperature of the alloys of 
 copper with tin or with zinc becomes rapidly lowered, 
 and, if perfectly sound castings are desired, no time 
 should be lost to pour the metal into the moulds. All 
 currents of air are also to be guarded against, and all 
 openings tending to produce them should be closed 
 during the time of casting. 
 
 Keverberatory furnaces are also employed for fusing 
 scoria?, workshop waste, and those large pieces which 
 cannot be broken or divided for melting in crucibles. 
 When the operation is to be made with old alloys, it 
 is necessary first to determine their composition, and 
 then to add the proportions of the required metals, 
 such as zinc, tin, lead, &c, necessary to bring the alloy 
 to the desired composition. The introduction of the 
 new metals into the molten bath is effected according 
 to the rules already given. 
 
 Cupolas may be successfully employed for recasting 
 copper and its alloys. Although many founders hesitate 
 to use cupolas, we are enabled to affirm that they offer 
 great advantages when large pieces, and even the 
 ordinary bronze or brass castings for machinery, are to 
 be melted. 
 
 The essential conditions to obtain with cupolas a 
 well-alloyed metal, producing sound castings at a pro- 
 per temperature, may be thus summed up :■ — 
 
 1. To employ a dense coke, whose broken fragments 
 are of a volume somewhat smaller than those for the 
 fusion of cast iron. 
 
 2. To use a cupola of medium height, whose dimen- 
 sions in the clear are those of a cylinder having a 
 diameter equal to one-fifth of the height, and one or 
 two tuyeres — one opposite the other — giving the blast 
 under feeble pressure. The cupola must be carefully 
 heated before the introduction of the copper. 
 
 3. To make smaller charges than in the case of cast 
 iron. From 100 to 125 kilogrammes are enough for a 
 
 5 
 
50 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 cupola whose diameter is 0.50 metre, and height 2.50 
 metres. 
 
 4. To attend carefully to the tuyere, in order to be 
 ready to tap off the metal as soon as the last drops of 
 the last charge fall on the hearth. 
 
 5. To pour the copper upon the tin already melted 
 in the casting-ladle. 
 
 6. To stir carefully and continuously while the copper 
 is running into the ladle, and the mixture is being 
 effected. 
 
 7. To cover the surface of the molten alloy in the 
 casting-ladle with ignited charcoaL 
 
 In the alloys, where zinc is a component part, it is 
 proper to melt the zinc in a separate vessel, to pour the 
 molten copper into the casting-ladle, and, after having 
 covered the latter with a brasque* to let the zinc into 
 the copper through an opening made in the brasque. 
 This same hole is used for introducing the iron rod or 
 the wooden stick, with which to stir. An operation 
 thus performed, by using all the necessary precautions 
 for obtaining an intimate mixture, without oxidation or 
 volatilization of the more fusible metals ; by managing 
 the fusion of the copper so as to make the minimum of 
 waste ; by adding to the copper in the cupola a few 
 ingots of bronze or brass, old runners, etc., which pre- 
 pare the copper to be alloyed, and give it a fluidity 
 which, alone, it would not have — will permit the casting 
 of even thin pieces, in a satisfactory way, more rapidly 
 than by the use of crucibles or reverberatory furnaces, 
 and, at all events, more simply and economically. 
 
 The waste from alloys of copper and tin is less than 
 that from alloys of copper and zinc, because the latter 
 metal rapidly volatilizes as soon as it is heated to a 
 point slightly above the temperature of its fusion. 
 
 * Brasque is sometimes charcoal-dust alone, sometimes charcoal- 
 dust mixed with ashes or clay. In the latter case, it is used as a 
 lining for furnaces. — Trans. 
 
PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 51 
 
 When we melt in a crucible the filings, turnings, and 
 scraps of brass, the waste may go as far as from 25 to 
 30 per cent., and it is difficult to obtain a metal pure 
 enough for casting. It is therefore necessary to make 
 ingots, which are melted again, and produce another 
 waste of from 3 to 5 per cent. In a cupola, these 
 scraps, kept inclosed in old copper pipes, or enveloped 
 in rough boxes made of old sheet copper or brass, do 
 not produce more waste than in a crucible, and the 
 metal is hotter. 
 
 For the alloys cast into ingots, it is preferable to 
 employ wide and not very deep ingot-moulds, in order 
 to avoid the separation called liquation. In bronze 
 alloys especially, if the ingots are too thick, the tin has 
 a tendency to strike to the surface. This defect is not 
 very serious when the ingots are to be melted again ; 
 on the other hand, it is highly prejudicial when the 
 ingots are to be laminated, or drawn out under the 
 hammer. 
 
 The waste in alloys is entirely dependent on the 
 duration of the fusion, and the time during which the 
 metals, once melted, are subjected to the temperature 
 of the furnaces. However, with equal care and super- 
 vision during the fusion, the proportion of waste ought 
 to be less with the crucibles than with the reverbera- 
 tory furnace or the cupola. 
 
 With crucibles the waste varies with the greater or 
 less skilfulness of the founder, and, excepting accidents 
 and some special cases, remains between 3 and 6 per 
 cent. In cupolas the waste ranges from 4 to 10 per 
 cent. ; and in reverberatory furnaces, from 6 to 15 and 
 even 20 per cent. With the reverberatory furnaces, 
 always very difficult of management when the tempera- 
 ture is to be regulated during the fusion, and an ox- 
 idizing flame is to be avoided, the most skilful work- 
 man is not always sure of the amount of waste he will 
 produce. Therefore, in the large copper-works, the 
 
52 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 management of the reverberatory furnaces is not in- 
 trusted to any but the best workmen ; because it is 
 too easy for a workman little trained, to pass in a 
 few minutes from the limits of an ordinary waste to 
 an unusual one. 
 
 We have given, in another work, a practical process 
 for determining the proportion of the component metals 
 of an alloy. We think it should find a place here, 
 and complete the explanations given in this chapter. 
 
 When we know, for instance, the nature of the ele- 
 ments of a binary alloy, a calculation may give the 
 proportion of each of these elements by the following 
 rule : — 
 
 Take, two by two (in pairs), the three differences be- 
 tween the specific gravity of the alloy and that of each 
 of the two combined metals, then multiply each specific 
 gravity by the difference of the two others, and write 
 the two proportions as follows : — 
 
 The greatest product is to the total weight of the 
 compound as each of the two other products is to the 
 weights of the two component substances. 
 
 Example. — What is the weight of each of the two 
 elements, forming an alloy of copper and tin, whose 
 specific gravity is 8.761, and weight 130 kilogrammes ; 
 knowing that the specific gravity of copper is 8.788, 
 and that of tin 7.291? 
 
 Take successively the three differences between the 
 specific gravities, and multiply each of these differences 
 by the specific gravity which was not part of the 
 subtraction. 
 
 8.788—7.291=1.497x8.761=13.115217 
 
 8.761— 7.291=1.470x8.788=12.918360 
 8.788—8.761=0.027x7.291= 0.196857 
 
 Write the proportions in the manner we have 
 indicated : — ■ 
 
PREPARATION AND COMPOSITION OF ALLOYS. 53 
 
 13.115217 : 130 : : 12.918360 : o:=128.048 
 13.115217 : 130 : : 0.196857 : x= 1.951 
 
 129.999 
 
 The alloy is therefore made of 128.048 parts of cop- 
 per, and 1.951 part of tin ; the approximation is 0.001. 
 By operating in a similar manner, we could find the 
 proportions of a ternary quaternary, etc., alloy. 
 
 As a complement of this method, which will be 
 found useful by founders, we shall explain the prac- 
 tical means for determining the specific gravity of a 
 substance. 
 
 If we take water as the unit for specific gravity, 
 and if we weigh the substance first in the air, then in 
 water, we find the specific gravity by this rule : — 
 
 The difference of the weight in water is to the weight 
 in the air as 1, or the specific gravity of water, is to x, 
 the specific gravity we desire to know. 
 
 But, as it may happen that the substance is lighter 
 than water, we then attach to it another heavier body, 
 so as to weigh it in water. We deduct the weight of 
 the two substances in the water from their weight in 
 the air, then the weight in water from the weight in the 
 air of the additional body, and lastly this second differ- 
 ence from the first, which gives a new difference which 
 is to the weight in the air of the lighter substance as 1, 
 or the specific gravity of water, is to x, the desired 
 specific gravity. 
 
 By these processes, founders may readily determine 
 the component parts of an alloy, without havingrecourse 
 to analysis, with which they are not always familiar. 
 
54 
 
 PART II. 
 
 I. 
 
 ALLOYS OF THE METALS MOST USED IN THE AETS. 
 
 We give the name of industrial metals to those which 
 are in general use in the arts, that is to say, those 
 which, being no longer confined to the limits of the 
 experimental laboratory, may form the basis of a some- 
 what extended manufacture. 
 
 For this reason, iron, copper, zinc, tin, lead, anti- 
 mony, bismuth, nickel, arsenic, and mercury are the 
 industrial metals. 
 
 It is needless to insist on the importance of the first 
 five metals, which will be the subject of our first study ; 
 they are intimately connected with every question of 
 construction ; they depend on each other, if we may say 
 so, and all of them are often employed united. 
 
 " Concerning these metals, which, however, are much 
 better known than the others, science shows us that 
 many facts are to be observed, and many doubts resolved. 
 
 " Many applications which, at the present day, are 
 not thought of, will be found for these metals as soon 
 as practice shall develop the properties already known, 
 and discover new facts. 
 
 "Such should be the aim of all attempts at improve- 
 ment in metallurgic works. 
 
 "At the same time that the ordinary routine of the 
 works is attended to, a manager should not lose sight 
 of any new fact or result, without trying to understand 
 it, and ascertain if in it there is not the basis of future 
 improvements. 
 
ALLOYS OF COPPER, ZINC, TIN, AND LEAD. 55 
 
 "The science of metals is essentially one of practice. 
 Experiments, although they will not from the start lay 
 open the unknown, will alone point out the proper 
 direction for future studies. 
 
 " It is especially when metals are alloyed together, 
 that practice plays an important part. Most of the 
 results are due, if we may say so, to chance. And if 
 from the scale of data already collected, a skilful 
 chemist may foresee a few results and go in advance of 
 facts, it rarely happens that he is enabled to understand 
 all the phenomena which take place, and to deduce from 
 them positive and regular rules." 
 
 These few lines, which we insert here as a preamble, 
 were written fifteen years ago as the heading of a 
 pamphlet on alloys, the success of which was due to 
 the entire lack of similar works on this subject, and 
 possibly to the importance of the experiments and of 
 the stated results. 
 
 The first part of this chapter comprises these experi- 
 ments and their results, relative to the alloys of copper, 
 tin, zinc, and lead. The second part will be devoted to 
 the alloys of iron with the above-named metals. But 
 there our subject will be neither so interesting nor so 
 complete, because, up to the present day, we have not 
 been enabled to bring to satisfactory results the series 
 of studies undertaken at a previous time on this special 
 subject, which has been but slightly elucidated by the 
 authors who have written on alloys. 
 
 1. Studies on the Alloys of Copper, Zinc, Tin, 
 and Lead. 
 
 Few practical men have investigated the question of 
 the alloys made with the above metals, although they 
 form, without doubt, the most important portion of the 
 metallic combinations employed in the arts. Margrafr) 
 Berthier, Levol, Bobierre, Hoffmann, and a few others, 
 may be mentioned as the only experimenters who have 
 
56 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 given to the public a certain number of peculiar data 
 on certain series of alloys applied to various purposes, 
 such as copper sheathings for ships, bronze for coins, 
 statuary bronze, etc. 
 
 Other persons, whether learned or practical men, 
 have more or less confined themselves to those recog- 
 nized alloys, the proportions of which, up to the pre- 
 sent day, are considered as articles of faith. 
 
 Thus we know that bronzes in these proportions — 
 copper 88, and tin 12, are very good for pieces having 
 to resist friction ; copper 78, tin 22, are proper for bells ; 
 that copper 75, zinc 25, make good brass, etc., and the 
 aim has always been to remain within these primitive 
 limits. 
 
 It results, however, from the combinations which we 
 have experimented upon, that by varying sensibly the 
 above proportions, we may arrive at as good alloys for 
 the same uses; some being more economical, and others 
 more lasting, better colored, more tenacious, etc. 
 
 The publication of these experiments has therefore 
 its utility, and will allow a comparison between the 
 results already known, and the new properties derived 
 from new combinations. 
 
 In our researches, we have divided the operation 
 into : — 
 
 1. Fixing the proportions of the constituent metals. 
 
 2. Fusion. 
 
 3. Examination of the product. 
 
 The determination of the proportions would have 
 been very complicated, had we tried to make all the 
 combinations possible between metals taken two by two, 
 three by three, etc., the ratio of each change in the 
 proportions being the unit. 
 
 We would have had thus to undertake an innumer- 
 able series of experiments, without any probable gain, 
 because, in the majority of cases, a difference of one 
 unit in the proportion of one of the component metals 
 
ALLOYS OF COPPER, ZINC, TIN, AND LEAD. 57 
 
 will not produce a sensible modification in the alloy. 
 "We have, therefore, been obliged to operate between 
 limits sufficiently distant from one another to afford a 
 certainty in the results ; and whenever doubt existed, 
 we have experimented on new proportions between 
 these limits taken as landmarks. 
 
 The proportions have been calculated so as to have 
 a total weight of 0.250 kilogramme (about J pound), 
 which is sufficient to give as good indications as could 
 be expected from larger quantities of alloy. 
 
 The metals, after each of them had been weighed, 
 were melted in a crucible, and cast into vertical moulds, 
 so as to produce a square rod or bar, 0.10 metre long 
 (about 4 inches), and 0.01 metre (about T \ inch) for 
 the sides, and a button having a diameter of 0.035 
 metre (about 1 T 3 5 inch), and a height of 0.015 metre 
 (about T 6 o inch). 
 
 The observations which follow, result from the 
 examination of the produced alloy, and bear equally 
 on the nature and appearance of both the bar and the 
 button. These observations are sufficient to characterize 
 the essential properties of the compounds, and are 
 followed by accurate researches on their tenacity, mal- 
 leability, ductility, etc. A more exact determination 
 could be made only by comparative numbers, but the 
 time necessary was not at our command. 
 
 The series of experiments which we are about to 
 present is, without doubt, the most important in the 
 practice, and may be thus subdivided: — 
 
 1st. Alloys of tin, zinc. 
 
 2d. 
 
 u 
 
 tin, lead. 
 
 3d. 
 
 It 
 
 tin, zinc, lead. 
 
 4th. 
 
 It 
 
 zinc, lead. 
 
 5th. 
 
 It 
 
 copper, tin. 
 
 6th. 
 
 it 
 
 copper, zinc. 
 
 7th. 
 
 it 
 
 copper, lead. 
 
 8th. 
 
 tt 
 
 copper, tin, zinc. 
 
 9th. 
 
 it 
 
 copper, tin, zinc, lead. 
 
58 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 "We shall point out only the main characteristics of 
 the alloys of these nine subdivisions, and shall follow 
 our examination with general observations on the whole 
 of the experiments. By thus summiog up the princi- 
 pal results, the differences resulting from each of the 
 possible combinations of the four metals will be brought 
 in opposition, and compared. 
 
 It is needless to say that the elementary metals in- 
 troduced into the alloys were obtained as pure and of 
 as good a quality as the trade could afford. In order 
 to refine them, and, at the same time, to divide them 
 into small rods easily cut, each of these metals was 
 melted. After this fusion, their specific gravities were : — 
 
 Copper . 8.675 
 
 Zinc . 7.080 
 
 Tin . 7.250 
 
 Lead ...... 11.300 
 
 These specific gravities will serve as terms of com- 
 parison for those of the alloys, if we happen to find 
 the opportunity of determining not only these specific 
 gravities, but also the numerical values of the resist- 
 ance, elasticity, etc., of these combinations which we 
 have studied. 
 
 1st. Alloys of Tin and Zinc* 
 
 No. 1. Tin 30, zinc 70.— Texture of a dull white 
 color.f — An average shrinkage. — Breaks easily. — The 
 
 * We repeat that all the following data belong to special re- 
 searches on alloys, and that in no case have we bound ourselves 
 to consult what is known in the ordinary practice, and from works 
 on the subject. As regards the results on a large scale of these 
 alloys actually used in the arts, we can but refer to our work on 
 " foundries," where that question has been treated with all the 
 extension it requires. 
 
 f The color of the texture, which is characteristic of every alloy, 
 depends on the nature of the mould and the temperature of the 
 
ALLOYS OF TIN AND ZINC. 59 
 
 fracture offers larger and brighter facets than zinc. — ■ 
 The metal is denser at the bottom of the mould. — Dry 
 to the file. — A fine file imparts a bluish polish. — 
 Breaks under the chipping chisel. — Slightly sonorous. 
 — Shows an appearance of crystallization at the sur- 
 face, with a slight bluish-yellow color. 
 
 No. 2. Tin 25, zinc 75. — Texture of a white color, 
 sliding to blue. — Slight settling or shrinkage of the bar 
 only, the same as No. 1. — Bright fracture with large 
 bluish facets, like those of zinc. — The tin seems to be 
 in larger proportion at the bottom of the button, the 
 same as No. 1. — The surface is covered with a kind of 
 skin rather wrinkled than crystalline, with the colors 
 of the iris, light blue, violet, and golden yellow. 
 
 No. 3. Tin 50, zinc 50. — Texture pallid white.— The 
 surface of the button is very smooth, granular and 
 lamellar at the same time, without any appearance of 
 shrinkage ; the edges are somewhat round, and do not 
 show plainly the iridescent colors. — The fracture is 
 bright, and finely granflar upon a ground tin-white. — - 
 Clogs the file a little. — The alloy is well mixed, tough 
 and malleable, without being soft. 
 
 No. 4. Tin 70, zinc 30. — The texture is white, and 
 somewhat shining. — No settling. — Feebly sonorous. — ■ 
 The surface is granular, dead white, with some spots 
 light yellow. — Difficult to break. — Bears the hammer- 
 ing well. — Easily worked with the chisel, which takes 
 off long chips. — Clogs the file. — The fracture, like that 
 of tin, is without brightness and crystallization. — 
 When polished, is not so bright as tin. — -The alloy is 
 
 alloy, when cast. We have endeavored to keep these conditions 
 sensibly constant in all the experiments, and to give thus a certain 
 utility to our remarks, which otherwise would not have a decided 
 meaning. 
 
 The same rule applies to our observations on the exterior surface, 
 and the shrinkage of the button. 
 
60 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 more complete and better mixed than the preceding 
 ones. 
 
 No. 5. Tin 75, zinc 25. — Texture tin-white, but with- 
 out brightness. — No settling. — Surface granular, and 
 dusted like with bright particles. — The upper surface 
 has a tint changeable from yellow to a reddish-blue. — 
 Clogs the file more than No. 4. — Very malleable, 
 although resisting the hammer and the chisel more 
 than No. 4.- — Bends without the cracking sound of tin. 
 
 No. 6. Tin 10, zinc 90. — The bar or rod shows, at the 
 fracture, the characteristics of a zinc rod. — Clogs the 
 file more than zinc, and the fracture is not of so dull a 
 gray. — The bottom of the button is soft, and easily 
 receives the impression of a punch. — As with No. 2, 
 tin appears to have become precipitated, and the metal 
 at the bottom is even softer than pure tin. 
 
 No. 7. Tin 90, zinc 10. — The rod presents the jagged 
 fracture* of tin, and the runner could be separated 
 only by cutting it. — The alloy clogs the file less than 
 pure tin. — The button had settled sensibly in the mid- 
 dle, although the edges were sharp. — The alloy is very 
 malleable, although not so soft under the hammer. 
 
 No. 8. Tin 1, zinc 99. — The fracture is like that of 
 zinc, but the facets are not so large. — The lustre is 
 slightly brighter after filing. — The middle of the bar 
 had settled. — The button had also settled in the middle, 
 and the lower part was soft like No. 6, although not 
 so thick, on account of the small proportion of tin in 
 the alloy. — The soft portions are bluish like lead, and 
 are easily streaked by the nail. 
 
 No. 9. Tin 99, zinc 1. — The fracture is slightly 
 granular, not so dull and jagged as that of tin. — 
 
 * In the French, "Fracture arrachte" means the fracture of certain 
 metals, difficult to break, on account of their softness or fibrous 
 state when torn asunder, and their fracture appears to be composed 
 of fibres of unequal length, parallel or crooked. " Jagged fracture" 
 is the nearest translation we can arrive at. — Trans. 
 
ALLOYS OF TIN AND ZINC. 61 
 
 "When polished, is not so bright. There is more shrink- 
 age on the bar than on the button, and the surface of 
 the latter presents dark iridescent colors. 
 
 General Observations. — The alloys where the 
 proportion of zinc is the greatest, present in their frac- 
 ture a crystallization, whose large facets shine like 
 graphite. A very small proportion of tin added to zinc 
 causes this crystallization. In similar circumstances, 
 the exterior of the castings is covered with a yellow- 
 white moreen (moire). 
 
 In thick castings, where zinc predominates, there is 
 a tendency to a separation taking place at the bottom 
 of the mould ; and, what is remarkable, this tendency 
 grows greater as the proportion of tin becomes smaller, 
 which is exemplified by the separation being more 
 sensible in No. 8 than in No. 6. We may add, as a 
 singular anomaly, that the tin, which has passed through 
 the zinc and has become precipitated, loses its distinc- 
 tive qualities, and acquires the softness and the bluish 
 dull color of lead. 
 
 The color of the alloy of zinc and tin, whether 
 simply cast or filed, becomes brighter in a direct ratio 
 with the proportion of tin contained in it. 
 
 The alloys already rich in tin become granular 
 when the proportion of zinc is increased. 
 
 The alloy No. 3 (tin 50, zinc 50) has the fracture 
 of iron, but its color is duller. 
 
 The alloy No. 9 (tin 99, zinc 1) has a fracture pre- 
 senting no longer the jagged appearance of tin, and is 
 dull gray and finely granular. 
 
 The specific gravity of the alloys of tin and zinc is 
 in proportion to the mean specific gravity of the two 
 metals ; therefore the alloys where tin predominates are 
 more dense. 
 
 The waste is greater where zinc is in excess ; the 
 tin having been put into the crucible after the fusion 
 6 
 
62 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 of the zinc, we infer that most of the waste comes 
 from the zinc. 
 
 The addition of 1 per cent, of tin to zinc is sufficient 
 to impart to the latter metal a greater resistance, 
 without diminishing its hardness. 
 
 One per cent, of zinc added to tin impairs the flexi- 
 bility of the latter, and, what is remarkable, prevents 
 its peculiar crackling noise. These two alloys, when 
 the combination is intimate, present no other sensible 
 changes. 
 
 The alloy of tin 50 and zinc 50 is the best as regards 
 stiffness and economy. More zinc would produce an 
 alloy not so well mixed, more crystallized, and brittle ; 
 more tin would give a metal clogging the file, and 
 too soft. However, for thin and resisting castings, an 
 alloy of tin 70 and zinc 80 is well adapted. The alloys 
 kept between these figures and the proportion of half 
 and half are very resisting and tenacious. Their mal- 
 leability increases with the proportion of tin. 
 
 The alloy of zinc 1 and tin 99, without impairing 
 the malleability of the latter metal, increases its hard- 
 ness and tenacity for castings. 
 
 The alloys where the maximum of zinc is employed, 
 are useful in foundries only for thick pieces ; they are 
 then very economical. Up to the proportions of tin 
 30 and zinc 70, they remain nearly as brittle as zinc 
 itself. The proportion of tin 25 and zinc 75 produces 
 an alloy not so flexible as tin, and less brittle than zinc, 
 which could be adopted for foundry patterns. 
 
 The alloys Nos. 6 and 8 appeared to us more brittle 
 than zinc, in those experiments where tin, passing 
 through the molten mass in the mould, had become 
 precipitated to the bottom. We may infer from this, 
 that a quantity of tin sensibly less than 1 per cent, is 
 sufficient to change the nature of zinc. 
 
 The proportions of tin 40 and zinc 60 possess but 
 little malleability. 
 
alloys of tin and lead. 63 
 
 2d. Alloys of Tin and Lead. 
 
 No. 1. Tin 75, lead 25. — Grayish-white fracture, 
 which may be produced by hammering, and the ap- 
 pearance of which is not so jagged as that of pure tin. 
 — Clogs the file more than tin, and less than lead. — 
 Less flexible and more malleable than tin. — Mode- 
 rately ductile. No settling at the button, and very 
 little at the bar. — After being filed, the lustre is some- 
 what duller than that of tin. — The bar does not produce 
 a colored streak on paper. 
 
 No. 2. Tin 25, lead 75. — The fracture is more jagged 
 than No. 1 ; it is more like a metal torn asunder than 
 a broken one. — The fracture looks like that of lead, 
 but is of a brighter white color. — Malleable. — Very 
 easily drawn under the hammer, like lead. Adheres 
 to the file, but not so much as lead. — Forms a distinct 
 colored streak on paper. — The settling takes place 
 especially near the runner, and is scarcely noticeable 
 at the button. — The surface* presents little iridescence. 
 — By filing, the polish is dull. 
 
 No. 3. Tin 50, lead 50. — Broken without difficulty 
 by the hammer, when the bar has been notched one 
 millimetre deep all around by a saw. — Although not 
 so hard as tin under the hammer, it is equally mallea- 
 ble, ductile, and resistant. — As hard under the file as 
 tin, but not so bright after being filed. — The button 
 and the runner present the same amount of settling 
 and the same color as a similar casting of tin. — The 
 rod produces a slightly colored streak on paper. 
 
 No. 4. Tin 90, lead 10. — Fracture not very jagged, 
 like that of No. 1. — After a notch with a saw, as with 
 No. 3., the bar was slightly bent when the runner was 
 broken off by the hammer. — The polish by a file re- 
 mains sensibly the same as that of tin. — The runner 
 
 * The surfaces are such as they come from the mould, without 
 being hammered, cut, or filed. 
 
64 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 has scarcely any settling, the button none. — The alloy 
 clogs the file a little more than tin, is softer, but its 
 texture resembles tin in many points. — It does not give 
 a colored streak on paper. 
 
 No. 5. Tin 10, lead 90. — Fracture as jagged as that 
 of No. 2. — As soft as No. 2, but much less than pure 
 lead. — Produces a streak on paper nearly as colored as 
 that of lead. — Clogs the file. — Stiffer than lead and riot 
 so flexible. — Keceives the impression of the nail, the 
 same as No. 2. 
 
 The nail leaves a slight impression on No. 3, and 
 none upon Nos. 1 and 4. 
 
 General Observations. — The alloys of tin and lead 
 are easily made; they generally impart more resist- 
 ance to the lead, without sensibly impairing the quali- 
 ties of the tin. It would not be impossible to ascer- 
 tain the proportion of lead in the alloy, by the beha- 
 vior of the latter under a chisel, a punch, and by the 
 streak it leaves on paper. 
 
 No. 4 (Tin 90, lead 10) does not give a colored 
 streak on paper; No. 1 (tin 75, lead 25), a very slight 
 one. Between these two limits, as for instance with an 
 alloy of tin 85 and lead 15, no streaks are to be seen 
 on the paper, and it is therefore a practical means to 
 ascertain that lead remains in these proportions. 
 
 The alloys of tin and lead shrink or settle less than 
 either of these metals taken singly ; they are not so 
 fluid when melted, and the castings have not the same 
 sharpness. 
 
 Lead, added to tin, increases its malleability and 
 ductility, but diminishes its tenacity. Difficult to break 
 even after several successive bendings, tin becomes 
 more brittle when alloyed with lead; the fracture is 
 then more marked than that of lead, whatever may be 
 the proportions in the alloy, the latter metal being more 
 easily separated than tin, but requiring, however, to be 
 torn asunder. 
 
ALLOYS OF TIN AND LEAD. 65 
 
 In the alloy No. 4 (tin 90, lead 10), tin preserves its 
 crackling noise, possibly not to the same degree as 
 when pure, but enough to lead into error persons not 
 fully conversant with the metals. This property of the 
 alloy No. 4, which, however, much resembles pure tin, 
 explains the adulterations to be found sometimes in 
 commercial tin. The tests by the streak on paper, and 
 the crackling noise, both favor the adulteration. From 
 the proportions of the alloy No. 4, upwards, it becomes 
 very difficult, unless by long practice, to ascertain im- 
 mediately the presence of lead with the tin. 
 
 On the contrary, in the alloys of zinc with tin, 1 per 
 cent, of zinc is sufficient to destroy the crackling noise 
 of tin. This property alone may help to recognize the 
 alloy, which may also be determined by other charac- 
 teristics already indicated. 
 
 The alloy No. 1 (tin 75, lead 25) produces no crack- 
 ling noise on bending. Bent at a square angle, it 
 begins to show a fracture, which increases when the 
 bar is straightened again. This effect does not take 
 place when pure tin is bent for the first time ; it is 
 even not noticeable with the alloy No. 4, although 
 this latter is more brittle and its fracture not so 
 crooked and jagged as that of tin. 
 
 This fracture will be the best test for distinguishing 
 the alloy No. 4, from pure tin ; and when coupled with 
 a lower crackling noise, a certain mark left on paper, a 
 darker texture and a duller polish, there will be suffi- 
 cient means to prevent error. But all these indications 
 are so slight, that all of them must agree, and a prac- 
 tised eye is necessary to discern them. 
 
 If the proportions of the alloy No. 4 are changed, 
 the less lead is added, the more difficult will it be to 
 ascertain the presence of lead. This explains why in 
 the trade so little tin free from Jead is to be found, 
 even among that claimed as very pure. 
 
 The texture qf the alloy, on those parts cast- in cqn- 
 6* 
 
GQ PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 tact with tbe air, is another means of recognizing the 
 presence of lead. In those alloys where lead is to be 
 found in certain quantity, the texture is less crystal- 
 lized, and covered with a pellicle more granular or 
 wrinkled. There is less iridescence, and the lustre is 
 darker and more metallic. Besides these practical data, 
 and without having recourse to analytical processes, 
 the consumer has other means for distinguishing the 
 alloys of tin and lead. These means are derived as 
 those we have already sketched, from the nature of the 
 alloys themselves. For instance, we may determine 
 them by their specific gravity, which is proportional to 
 the mean specific gravity of the two alloyed metals. 
 
 We may also recognize the alloys of which lead is 
 an important part, when by contact with the air they 
 become covered with a white dust of oxidized lead. 
 
 An alloy of tin and lead with more than 70 per cent, 
 of lead begins to be of inferior quality as a solder. 
 The alloys for solder remain within the limits of tin 
 30, lead 70, for heavy works; and tin 70, lead 30, for 
 soft solders; so that, in these alloys, 30 per cent, is the 
 smallest proportion for either of the two component 
 metals. 
 
 The alloys of tin and lead are advantageous for fusi- 
 ble compositions. The proportion of tin 60 and lead 
 40 gives a compound fusible at about 70° C. By in- 
 creasing the proportion of tin, the fusibility of the alloy 
 increases also, which agrees with results already es- 
 tablished. 
 
 3d. Alloys of Tin, Zinc, and Lead. 
 
 No. 1. Tin 76, zinc 12, lead 12. — Fracture similar to 
 that of steel, with fine and bright grains. — Tough. 
 — Clogs the file slightly. — No settling either on the 
 bar or the button. — Dull white texture. — The lustre 
 acquired by filing rapidly disappears. — Does not leave 
 
ALLOYS OF TIN, ZINC, AND LEAD. 67 
 
 a colored streak on paper. — The alloy is thoroughly 
 mixed. 
 
 No. 2. Tin 12, zinc 76, lead 12. — Like zinc, the frac- 
 ture is lamellar and jagged at the same time. — Tough, 
 but much less than the preceding. — After being filed, 
 its color is more blue than No. 1, and is not so easily 
 tarnished. — Slight settling. — The natural surfaces are 
 covered with a very wrinkled pellicle, of a gold-yellow 
 color sliding to violet. — The alloy is not so thoroughly 
 mixed as the preceding. — A small portion of the sepa- 
 rated tin and lead, 8 millimetres thick, ends the button. 
 
 No. 3. Tin 12, zinc 12, lead 76. — Jagged fracture 
 without lustre, resembling both those of lead and tin. 
 — More easily broken than these two metals. — Less 
 flexible than tin, but softer under the hammer. — Harder 
 than lead alone. — Leaves a colored streak on paper. — ■ 
 The alloy is more completely mixed than No. 2, and 
 there is no separation to be seen on the button. — No 
 settling. — A colored pellicle the same as the preced- 
 ing. — Has the color of lead after being filed. 
 
 No. 4. Tin 34, zinc 33, lead 33. — Fracture duller and 
 not so jagged as that of zinc, which, however, it re- 
 sembles. — When polished, its color is grayish-blue, 
 without brilliancy, and not so marked as that of lead. 
 — The alloy is well mixed, somewhat soft, but resisting 
 and with little flexibility. — Very little settling. — The 
 surfaces resemble those of cast- tin, are light yellow, 
 without iridescence. — Leaves a slightly colored streak 
 on paper. 
 
 No. 5. Tin 10, zinc 45, lead 45. — Fracture resem- 
 bling that of zinc, with triangular and bright facets, on 
 a dull ground. — Kesists fracture like a tough body, 
 although somewhat soft. — Possesses little malleability. 
 — No sensible settling. — The surfaces are much wrin- 
 kled, bluish-violet sliding to yellow at the corners. — 
 Leaves a streak on paper nearly as colored as that of 
 No. 3. — The file gives a dull gray polish. 
 
68 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 No. 6. Tin 45, zinc 45, lead 10. — Fracture resembling 
 that of iron, dull gray with shining points. — Texture 
 granular and slightly crystallized like pure melted tin. 
 — No settling. — The surface is like that of tin. — Leaves 
 scarcely any colored streak on paper. 
 
 No. 7. Tin 45, zinc 10, lead 45. — Like tin, the frac- 
 ture is dry and jagged. — The alloy is more easily 
 broken than the latter metal. — No settling. — The file 
 gives a dull gray polish. — Very malleable and resist- 
 ing. — Its flexibility is a great deal less than that of tin 
 and lead. — Its streak does not color the paper as much 
 as No. 5. 
 
 General Observations. — The presence of lead in 
 these alloys imparts to them more body and resistance 
 than is possessed by the alloys of tin and zinc alone. 
 However, they clog the file as much as the latter. The 
 fractures are, generally, more marked than those 
 of the alloys of tin and zinc. The alloy No. 4, where 
 the three metals are in equal proportions, and other 
 alloys presenting slight variations, are malleable, al- 
 though not very ductile, and may be employed with 
 great economy in many cases. 
 
 The alloy No. 2, as hard and brittle as zinc, although 
 more resisting, may be successfully employed by 
 founders. Like No. 3, it is cheap, and both will be 
 found more serviceable in foundries than either of the 
 three metals taken singly. 
 
 These ternary alloys, which are more thoroughly 
 mixed, and more complete than the alloys of zinc and 
 tin or zinc and lead, present the advantage of being 
 more tough without being more expensive. — Num- 
 bers 1, 3, and 7 appear to stand friction very well. — 
 Nos. 2, 4, and 5 will do for pieces requiring more re- 
 sistance than pure zinc. — No. 6 will do for thin castings 
 requiring a certain malleability. It will also be found 
 serviceable for ornaments, and will bear engraving and 
 chasing. For these uses, Nos. 2, 4, and 5 would be too 
 brittle ; and Nos. 1, 2, and 7 too soft and yielding. 
 
ALLOYS OF ZINC AND LEAD. 69 
 
 All these alloys, when polished, have little lustre, 
 and become rapidly tarnished by exposure or friction. 
 They are not to be used as white metals. But, besides 
 the advantages they offer in foundries, several of them 
 might be applied to the manufacture of types, and in 
 galvanizing metals, etc. 
 
 4th. Alloys of Zinc and Lead. 
 
 No. 1. Zinc 75, lead 25. — Same fracture as zinc, a 
 little closer. — The fracture at the lower part of the bar 
 is more finely granular than No. 4; the facets are 
 shining like those of a large grain iron. — The lead has 
 precipitated to the bottom of the button, occupying 
 half of it ; the separation is also seen on more than 
 one-sixth of the length of the bar. — The portion of the 
 bar where zinc predominates clogs the file more than 
 pure zinc. — No settling at the surface of the button, 
 which is pale yellow. — A slight settling is to be seen on 
 the bar, near the runner. 
 
 No. 2. Zinc 25, lead 75. — The whole bar presents 
 the characteristics of lead ; the runner alone has the 
 appearance and the fracture of zinc. A little below 
 the runner liquation has taken place, and the lead 
 has been precipitated to the bottom, leaving at its 
 junction with the zinc an empty space, like a blown 
 hole. — The lead has also separated in the button, the 
 surface of which is very irregular. — The bar has set- 
 tled like tin. 
 
 No. S. Zinc 50, lead 50. — The fracture near the 
 runner is like that of zinc melted several times. — The 
 lead has become separated both in the bar and the 
 button, and occupies one-third of the bar and two- 
 thirds of the button. — No settling on the button. — On 
 the bar, the settling is like that of No. 2. 
 
 No. 4. Zinc 90, lead 10. — The fracture is like that 
 of a finely granular zinc. — The entire bar presents this 
 character, without any separation. — The bar, however, 
 
70 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 leaves a colored streak on paper, like lead. — Nearly all 
 the lead of the alloy is found precipitated in the button. 
 ■ — The button has settled slightly, and when broken, 
 presents large facets with a few jagged portions, where 
 the zinc is. The presence in the button of nearly the 
 whole of the lead employed for the alloy cannot be 
 well accounted for by the lead having precipitated to 
 the bottom of the crucible, notwithstanding the stirring, 
 because the alloy remaining liquid in the mould for 
 some time, lead would have been able to penetrate 
 part of the bar. The latter, however, contained some 
 lead intimately mixed in the whole mass. 
 
 No. b.-Zinc 10, lead 90. — The fracture is like that 
 of lead, that is to say, appearing more like being torn 
 asunder than a true fracture, and its color is not so dull 
 as that of lead alone. — The bar yields to a punch, the 
 same as lead ; however, when filed, it produces a certain 
 noise, presents more resistance to the tool, and the file 
 dust is easily detached ; in a word, it is tougher than 
 lead alone. — The button, as in the other examples, 
 contains the lead at the bottom and the alloy of zinc 
 at the surface. — The bar and the button present a 
 settling similar to that of lead. 
 
 General Observations. — The five preceding al-, 
 loys, like all the intermediate compositions which we 
 have tried, were all cast at the same temperature, 
 gradually raised. The alloys were carefully stirred, 
 before taking the crucible off' the fire, and while run- 
 ning into the mould. The moulds were of green sand, 
 and so disposed as to be cooled rapidly. Notwith- 
 standing all these precautions, it has not been possible 
 to prevent the separation of the lead, which took place 
 as soon as the alloys were run into the moulds. All 
 the samples present this separation, more or less, ac- 
 cording to the proportion of lead in the alloy. We 
 may then infer that the alloys of zinc and lead are not 
 practicable ; and that, not alone on account of the differ- 
 
ALLOYS OF ZINC AND LEAD. 71 
 
 ence between the specific gravities of the two metals. 
 Indeed, if this separation of the lead may be due to 
 the specific gravity of this metal, we may also suppose, 
 and with as much appearance of truth, that it is occa- 
 sioned by the zinc, which alloys nearly as badly with 
 tin, the specific gravity of which is not very different; 
 while, on the other hand, it alloys very well with copper, 
 which has greater specific gravity. This is an anomaly 
 very interesting to observers, and which might pre- 
 ferably be attributed to the difference of the melting 
 points. 
 
 However, notwithstanding the separation or liqua- 
 tion, it is certain that a very small proportion of the 
 lead remains united with the zinc, sufficient to modify 
 the nature of the former. Thus, from these alloys, it 
 results that the bars of zinc, slightly impregnated with 
 lead, acquire a great power of resistance under the ham- 
 mer, become harder, more malleable, and adhere more 
 to the file. They leave a colored streak on paper, which 
 is a proof of the presence of lead, and that an alloy 
 takes place with a very small proportion of the latter 
 metal. This can be verified by the results of No. 4, 
 which presents at the fracture the characteristics of 
 zinc, and of which the properties have been modified. 
 
 Those portions of the bars where the separation has 
 taken place, and when the lead predominates in the 
 alloy, present an empty blown place, showing how 
 complete and sudden was the liquation. With No. 2 
 the lead was scarcely welded to the zinc, although the 
 alloy had been run very hot into the mould. 
 
 In all these alloys, when the buttons are broken, the 
 zinc is perfectly distinct from the lead ; the two metals 
 appear as if placed one on top of the other, although 
 united, and when the surfaces are smoothed or polished, 
 the line of demarcation is perfectly visible. This 
 peculiar arrangement, more curious than useful, might 
 find an application in a case, where it would be de- 
 
72 PKACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 sirable to obtain a casting composed of zinc one way, 
 and of lead, the other. 
 
 The fracture of zinc holding a minute quantity of 
 lead is not so bright as that of pure zinc ; the crystalli- 
 zation presents smaller facets extending in every direc- 
 tion, instead of being vertical to the plane of fracture, 
 as is the case with pure zinc. Such an alloy, made on a 
 large scale, would not show the nature of the zinc sensi- 
 bly modified. Only those alloys of the two metals hold- 
 ing a small proportion of zinc or lead, about 1 per cent, 
 for instance, will give good castings, if they are care- 
 fully stirred, run into the moulds at a good temperature, 
 and rapidly cooled. The alloys of half and half would 
 be very difficult to produce, if not impossible in prac- 
 tice. A piece of ornamentation, presenting a large 
 surface, and cast horizontally with an alloy of zinc 70 
 and lead 30, had all its lower portions overcharged 
 with lead separated from the zinc, and the line of sepa- 
 ration was full of blown holes. Where the lead pre- 
 dominated, the casting was heavy, without sharpness, 
 more like a paste, and presenting the marks of many 
 bubbles of air which could not escape. 
 
 To sum up, in the alloys of zinc and lead, where one 
 of the metals is in small proportion, the other predomi- 
 nating metal is improved. Thus, with No. 4, the zinc 
 has lost part of its brittleness, and adheres more to the 
 file ; with No. 5, the lead, naturally soft, has acquired a 
 certain hardness and tenacity, at the same time that it 
 has become less flexible. 
 
 As regards the zinc, and the same as with the preced- 
 ing ternary alloys of zinc, tin, and lead, a small propor- 
 tion of the latter metal improves the alloy ; in a large 
 proportion, there is no alloy, or the product is inferior. 
 
 5th. Alloys of Copper and Tin. 
 
 No. 1. Copper 99, tin 1. — Texture of a light violet 
 color. — The polish is light red, without much lustre. — 
 
ALLOYS OF COPPER AND TIN. 73 
 
 Granular fracture, spotted with light red or salmon 
 red bubbles. — Soft under the hammer, but does not 
 clog the file as much as pure copper. — Has more te- 
 nacity than the latter metal. — The surface of the button 
 is convex, reddish on the edges, and covered in the 
 middle with a scoriated pellicle, like pure red copper. 
 
 No. 2. Copper 95, tin 5. — Texture of a very light 
 violet copper. — The polish is yellow, tending to a pale 
 red. — Granular fracture, somewhat jagged, and of a 
 yellowish-orange color. — No settling on the surface of 
 the button, which is wrinkled like bronze (copper 88, 
 tin 12), with some spots of a brown red color resem- 
 bling that of pure copper. — It is dryer to the file, harder 
 under the hammer, and more resisting than the pre- 
 ceding alloy. 
 
 No. 3. Copper 90, tin 10. — The texture is dull yellow 
 sliding to a very light violet. — -The polish is more of a 
 pale yellow and less reddish than No. 2. — Granular and 
 jagged fracture, of a pale yellow, tending to a whitish- 
 yellow. — The surface of the button presents a small 
 and regular settling, and is covered with a wrinkled 
 and tubercled skin, like that of bronze. — Tough, resist- 
 ing, standing the hammer well, and somewhat harder 
 than the preceding. 
 
 No. 4. Copper 80, tin 20. — Yellowish-gray texture. 
 — The polish is light yellow, tending to the pale gold- 
 yellow of alloy No. 7, of copper with zinc. — The frac- 
 ture offers some jagged points, but the remainder is 
 lamellar, with scarcely any grains. — A slight settling on 
 the middle of the surface of the button, which is gray- 
 ish-white on the edges, and covered on the centre with 
 a grayish-black and granular skin. — More difficult to 
 file, yielding less to the punch, more brittle, and conse- 
 quently more easy to break than the preceding. 
 
 No. 5. Copper 75, tin 25. — Dull gray texture. — ■ 
 Polish, pale yellow passing to white. — Perfectly smooth 
 fracture, without any granular and jagged appearance, 
 7 
 
74 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 and with a yellowish-white lustre. — A slight settling 
 on the surface of the button, which is nearly smooth, 
 and of a dull grayish-black color. — May be easily filed, 
 although much harder than the preceding. — A punch 
 leaves no mark on the alloy, which breaks under the 
 shock. — It flies under the chisel. 
 
 No. 6. Copper 65, tin 35. — Grayish-white texture, 
 with more glitter than the preceding alloys. — Gray- 
 ish-white lustre, intermediate between iron-white and 
 silver- white. — The fracture is not jagged, although not 
 so smooth and clean as the preceding ; it is whiter and 
 has more lustre. — Breaks easily to splinters; cannot 
 be chiselled ; very hard to file, and receives no mark 
 from a punch. 
 
 No. 7. Copper 50, tin 50. — Grayish-white texture, 
 not very brilliant, and tending more to white than to 
 gray. — Lustre, grayish-white with a dull reflection. — 
 The ratio between the lustre of the texture and that of 
 the fracture is more direct than in the preceding alloys, 
 where the ratio is inverse. Fracture, white like that 
 of No. 6, but with less lustre. — As brittle and easily 
 broken as No. 6, it is not so difficult to file, but cannot 
 be chiselled. — The surface of the button is smooth, of a 
 dirty yellowish-gray color, and covered with a whitish 
 dust, like the alloys of copper and zinc. 
 
 No. 8. Copper 40, tin 60.— Texture like that of No. 
 7. — When polished, the lustre is white, with a dull 
 reflection like the preceding, but is much more easily 
 filed and polished. — Between this and No. 7, the differ- 
 ence of action of the file is very considerable ; No. 7 
 is scarcely attacked by the file, while this alloy may 
 be filed nearly like lead, with this difference, that the 
 filings are dryer, finer, and do not clog the file. — The 
 surface of the button is smooth like that of No. 7, and 
 also covered with a dust of oxide of tin. 
 
 No. 9. Copper 30, tin 70. — Texture like Nos. 7 and 
 8. — Is filed and polished like the preceding, to which 
 
ALLOYS OF COPPER AND TIN". 75 
 
 it bears much resemblance. — Easily receives the mark 
 of a punch or hammer, although very brittle. — The 
 fracture presents large laminae, with a lustre like that of 
 No. 8. — The fracture of Nos. 7 and 8 was not lamellar, 
 although not so smooth as No. 6 ; it was characterized 
 by a few hollow spots, as if stamped. 
 
 * No. 10. Copper 20, tin 80.— Texture like Nos. 8 and 
 9. — The same characteristics of these two numbers. — 
 The surface of the button is smooth, with a few grayish- 
 black crevices. — Receives the mark of the punch well. 
 
 Nos. 11 and 12. Copper 10, tin 90 ; Copper 5, tin 95. 
 — The fracture becomes granular and loses its lustre. 
 — Their texture is of a more grayish-white than the 
 four preceding alloys, and they are much less brittle. 
 ■ — They are easily filed, although they hang more to 
 the file, and produce coarser filings. Their polish is 
 whiter, with more brilliancy. 
 
 No. 13. Copper 1, tin 99. — Grayish-white texture, 
 without the brilliancy of that of tin. — The fracture is 
 bright. — Not so easily broken as Nos. 11, and 12, al- 
 though without much tenacity. — Is easily filed, and 
 chiselled with difficulty, although more yielding than 
 the preceding alloys. 
 
 General Observations. — These thirteen alloys are 
 sufficient to give an idea of the anomalies presented 
 by tin alloyed with copper. In the alloys where copper 
 predominates, up to the combination of 85 copper and 
 about 15 tin, the metals obtained are tough, tenacious, 
 with a certain malleability, receiving a fine polish, and 
 very useful in the arts. From the proportion of 15 
 per cent, of tin, the alloys become harder, dryer, more 
 brittle and difficult to file, until the proportion is cop- 
 per 75 and tin 25. — The alloy of copper 65 and tin 
 35 is very brittle, with a fracture like that of white 
 pig-iron, and is scarcely attacked by the file. This 
 brittleness and hardness remain up to the proportions 
 of half and half. However, the alloy of copper 50 
 
76 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 and tin 50 is more easily filed, and the other alloys, 
 where tin predominates, reacquire that property which 
 they had lost between the alloys No. 4, and No. 7. 
 The combinations 11, 12, and 13 recover a certain 
 tenacity, become softer, not so brittle, and may be 
 more serviceable, whether as anti-friction metals, or 
 white metals. 
 
 The worst alloys, therefore, are not those where tin 
 largely predominates, as is generally believed, and as 
 we have ourselves stated in our book on the foundry. 
 The less useful series, on account of their excess of 
 brittleness and hardness, are, according to our experi- 
 ments, those limited between the proportions of copper 
 85, tin 15, and copper 20, tin 80. We must except, 
 however, the sonorous alloys, which reach their maxi- 
 mum of sonorousness with proportions of about 75 
 of copper and 25 of tin, corresponding to the alloys 
 for gongs and cymbals. The bell metal varies be- 
 tween copper 79, tin 21, and copper 77, tin 23. These 
 alloys, as we have seen, are filed with great difficulty, 
 and the results of our experiments agree entirely 
 with those of ordinary practice. We must also 
 notice, among the alloys which we have pointed to 
 as of little service in the requirements of industry, 
 the alloy No. 6, or one not very different, which is 
 employed as speculum metal for telescopes. The per- 
 fectly white color of this metal adapts it to that par- 
 ticular use. 
 
 In the alloys ranging from No. 1 to No. 4, a change 
 in the proportions of tin gives various metals with 
 properties sensibly modified. 
 
 The composition No. 1 is that of a bronze for medals 
 and coin ; it is the only one which is sufficiently mal- 
 leable when cold to make it worth while to notice this 
 property. The malleability, at the ordinary tempera- 
 ture, disappears with the compound No. 2, but will 
 remain at a cherry-red heat up to the proportion of 
 
ALLOYS OF COPPER AND TIN. 77 
 
 copper 85 and tin 15. The combinations remaining 
 between No. 3 (copper 90, tin 10) and No. 4 (copper 80, 
 tin 20), comprise the bronzes for machinery. For a 
 red bronze, we adopt the proportions of No. 3 ; for an 
 ordinary bronze, having a fine orange-yellow color, 
 tough r tenacious, and bearing friction well, without 
 being too hard, we prefer the proportions of copper 88 
 and tin 12. But copper 85 and tin 15 will give the 
 maximum of hardness and resistance, and the alloy 
 may be filed. 
 
 The alloys ranging from No. 2 to No. 4, where the 
 proportion of tin is comparatively small, are difficult 
 to produce by a direct operation. The mixture is often 
 incomplete, and, whatever is the care given to the 
 stirring, the tin has always a tendency to strike to the 
 surface of the castings, and to become thus separated 
 from the copper. We have indicated in our work on 
 the "foundry," the best means for preventing that de- 
 fect, and producing sound alloys by a direct operation. 
 The manufacture of bronzes for machinery is some- 
 times conducted on a large scale, and we have given 
 directions for the use of the cupola. Without repeat- 
 ing here what is already known, we shall however state 
 as an important fact, that, when bronze is melted in a 
 cupola, where a few fusions of cast iron have been pre- 
 viously made, its quality is sensibly improved. This 
 result, which is due to the alloy of a small proportion 
 of iron with the bronze, will be noticed when speaking 
 of the alloys of iron with other metals. Therefore, 
 for the sake of economy and to improve the quality, it 
 is preferable to employ a cupola which has already been 
 used, when we desire to melt large quantities of bronze. 
 Pure copper, when melted in a new cupola, wastes a 
 great deal and penetrates the lining of the hearth, when 
 tl\e temperature is raised too much; while this defect 
 will not take place in an old furnace, the lining of which 
 
 has become hard and vitrified by previous fusions. 
 
 7 * 
 
78 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 The unfavorable results presented by new cupolas 
 are not confined to bronze alone; every founder knows 
 that cast iron becomes hard and brittle at the first 
 melting in a new cupola. 
 
 The alloys of copper and tin, where the proportion 
 of the latter metal predominates, are very apt to become 
 oxidized. Generally, the oxidation of tin begins to 
 be noticeable when the proportions reach two parts of 
 copper to one of tin. 
 
 That tin will have a tendency to separate from 
 the copper, and strike to the surface of the casting, is 
 not the only annoyance to be feared ; we have also to 
 provide against the penetration of the metal into the 
 material of the moulds, and its combination with the 
 sand. When this happens, there is not only danger for 
 the success of the casting, but the waste increases, and 
 the quality of the alloy is sensibly impaired. The 
 facility with which tin separates from the copper and 
 infiltrates the sand of the moulds, cannot be opposed 
 except by an intimate mixture of the two metals, a 
 thorough stirring, running in at a good temperature, 
 and the employment of moulding sands sufficiently 
 wet. Sands, whether too wet or too dry, have an equal 
 tendency to become saturated with the tin which sepa- 
 rates from the alloy. It is obvious that this separation 
 of tin is to be feared only in large pieces, when the 
 cooling is slow, and the alloy remains liquid for a long 
 time. 
 
 A sample of sand thus impregnated with metal, after 
 the casting of a large journal box composed of copper 
 88 and tin 12, had a specific gravity of 4.456, while 
 those of the casting and of the pure sand were re- 
 spectively 7.538 and 1.225. We have thought it use- 
 ful to notice this fact, although foreign to the results 
 of our experiments. - 
 
alloys of copper and zinc. 79 
 
 6th. Alloys of Copper and Zinc. 
 
 No. 1. Copper 99, zinc 1. — Yiolet texture. — Polish 
 pale red. — Fracture jagged and brighter than that of 
 pure copper, although lighter colored. — More difficult 
 to break than the latter. — Somewhat harder under the 
 file. — The surface of the button is scorified and puffed 
 up, like that of pure copper. 
 
 No. 2. Copper 95, zinc 5. — Yiolet texture, similar to 
 No. 1. — The polish is a very pale red, tending to yellow. 
 — Fracture tough, jagged, and of a red color, passing to 
 yellow. — -Malleable, and difficult to break, even after 
 having been bent several times. — A little harder to 
 the file than the preceding. — The surface of the button 
 is bloated, wavy, but not so scorified as No. 1. 
 
 No. 3. Copper 90, zinc 10. — The texture is neither so 
 violet nor so dark as the two preceding alloys. — The 
 polish is yellowish-red, tending more to yellow. — Frac- 
 ture finely granular, and yellowish-red. — Not very 
 difficult to break after having been notched with a 
 file. — Bears the hammer well. — Harder to the file than 
 No. 2. — The surface of the button is puffed up on the 
 edges, and slightly settled in the middle ; it is covered 
 with a brown skin with reddish-violet spots. — This 
 surface differs more from that of pure copper than the 
 buttons of No. 1 and No. 2. 
 
 No. 4. Copper 80, zinc 20. — Texture violet, sliding to 
 dull gray. — Polish dark yellow without red reflection. 
 — The fracture is more coarsely granular than the pre- 
 ceding one, and of a yellow color resembling gold- 
 yellow- . — More difficult to break than the preceding. — 
 Yery malleable. — Harder to file than No. 3. — The sur- 
 face of the button has settled in the middle, and has 
 its edges rounded; its skin is somewhat wrinkled, dark 
 yellow, and presents violet spots as No. 3. 
 
 No. 5. Copper 75, zinc 25. — The texture is light 
 violet, with yellow marbled veins. — Polish dark gold- 
 
80 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 yellow. — The fracture is finely granular, and the gold- 
 yellow color will rarely appear, unless by filing. — The 
 surface of the button is smooth, slightly granular, 
 without settling, not so dark yellow as the preceding, 
 and with very few violet spots. 
 
 No. 6. Copper 65, zinc 35.— A light yellowish-green 
 texture. — Polish yellow, with a greenish reflection, and 
 brighter than No. 5. — Fracture of a yellowish-orange 
 color, and the facets converge towards the centre. — 
 More easily broken than the preceding, and does not 
 hang to the file so much. — The surface of the button 
 is bloated and dirty yellow, with a few spots of a 
 brighter yellow. 
 
 No. 7. Copper 50, zinc 50. — Yellow texture, sliding 
 to a dull gray. — Polish a pale yellowish-red, as the 
 bronzes of copper and tin. — Fracture dark gold-yellow, 
 with large facets presenting a jagged appearance. — 
 Harder to file than the preceding, and slides under 
 the tool. — The surface of the button is scorified, and 
 grayish-yellow, with a few brighter spots. 
 
 No. 8. Copper 40, zinc 60. — Dirty and dull yellow 
 texture. — Polish yellow, tending to white. — Yery hard 
 to file. — Yery brittle. — The fracture is smooth, without 
 any grains or facets, like that of a very white pig-iron. 
 — This fracture is very bright, and more so than the 
 polish of the filed metal ; its brilliant white appearance 
 imitates that of silver. — The surface of the button is 
 slightly settled and scorified, and is spotted with bright 
 yellow spangles. — The fracture of this button, effected 
 while the metal was quite hot, is as smooth as that of 
 the bar, and with a brilliant lustre, resembling more 
 that of gold than that of silver. 
 
 No. 9. Copper 30, zinc 70. — Texture, a dirty gray, 
 without any lustre. — Fracture smooth, but not so even 
 as that of No. 8 ; the lustre is not so sensible as with 
 No. 8, although considerable. — Yery difficult to file. 
 — Yery brittle. — The surface of the button is settled 
 
ALLOTS OF COPPER AND ZTNC. 81 
 
 in the middle and covered with a dull grayish-black 
 skin. — This experiment has been made twice; the first 
 sample presented a duller and more granular fracture, 
 of a white color passing to blue and violet. 
 
 No. 10. Copper 20, zinc 80. — Texture, a very dark 
 grayish-black. — Polish dull grayish-white. — Granular 
 fracture, the tint being grayish-white, with a few bright 
 spots. — Yery brittle. — Very hard to file. — May be re- 
 duced to powder by hammering, the same as the two 
 preceding numbers. — However, a punch will leave its 
 mark on it better than on these two numbers, which 
 do not stand the pressure at all, and fall to pieces im- 
 mediately. — The surface of the button is swollen, and 
 covered with a bloated and gray skin, without lustre, 
 like the texture, and with a few whitish spots of oxi- 
 dized zinc. 
 
 No. 11. Copper 10, zinc 90. — Texture dull gray, 
 sliding less to black than the preceding.— More easily 
 filed. — A great deal less brittle. — The polish has not 
 much lustre, and is white tending to gray. — The frac- 
 ture on a lead-white ground is half granular and half 
 lamellar, with facets having a certain brightness. — The 
 button does not show any sensible settling, and is 
 covered with a very wrinkled, blackish skin. 
 
 No. 12. Copper 5, zinc 95. — Texture a duller gray 
 than the preceding number. — Harder to file than zinc, 
 but softer than Nos. 8, 9, and 10. — Polish dull, with 
 gray reflection. — Fracture a grayish-blue, with bright 
 facets, which are similar to those of zinc. — The surface 
 of the button is smooth, presenting a general shrinkage 
 or settling, and has a dull light-gray color. 
 
 No. 13. Copper 1, zinc 99. — The texture is not so 
 bright as that of zinc, and the gray color is more sad- 
 dened. — It possesses less lustre, and a white color 
 sliding to a dark one, more than zinc. — Fracture imi- 
 tating that of zinc, but the ground is darker and 
 the grains finer. — The surface of the button presents 
 
82 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 the same color as the preceding, but there is more 
 shrinkage. — This alloy is harder, more resisting, and 
 more difficult to file than zinc. 
 
 General Observations.- — The series of the alloys 
 of copper and zinc, like that of the alloys of copper 
 and tin, presents the same general analogies in the 
 nature of the compounds, according as one or the 
 other metal predominates in the compound. 
 
 The malleability, ductility, smoothness, and firmness 
 of the grain seem to increase with the proportion of 
 copper, to disappear when the two metals are nearly 
 in equal proportions, and to reappear, to a certain 
 degree, when zinc predominates. 
 
 Up to No. 7. where the proportions of the two 
 metals are equal, the alloys of copper and zinc are in 
 general use in the arts. With a small amount of zinc, 
 as in all the alloys comprised between Nos. 1, 2, 3, 
 and 4, the products are tough, tenacious, very malleable 
 and ductile, but the objection to them is that they are 
 somewhat expensive. This, evidently, is the only rea- 
 son why they are but little employed ; and manufac- 
 turers will even prefer the alloys of copper and tin, 
 made in the same proportions, although more costly, 
 because they are harder, more resisting, more sonorous, 
 and bearing friction better, which qualities are to be 
 found to a less degree in the corresponding alloys of 
 copper and zinc. 
 
 The next compounds, comprised between Nos. 4 and 
 6, are those most used in the arts. 
 
 The alloys of copper and zinc, known under the name 
 of brass, and used for pieces of machinery, are generally 
 composed of copper 75 and zinc 25, corresponding to 
 No. 6. Questions of economy will decide whether the 
 quantity of zinc is to be above or below this propor- 
 tion. 
 
 No. 7, where the combination was difficult because of 
 the considerable waste of zinc, had the appearance of 
 
ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC. 83 
 
 a tin bronze, judging by the texture, and the polish 
 after filing. A not over-scrupulous founder, having 
 to deal with a consumer not very well conversant in 
 alloys, may pass No. 7 as a bronze ; but if by its ex- 
 ternal appearance this alloy looks like a bronze, it is 
 easy to ascertain that it is wanting in hardness, co- 
 hesion, and even in color, because its polish rapidly 
 becomes tarnished. A little lead added to this alloy 
 gives it more body, and may render it very useful and 
 economical for those castings requiring no chasing, 
 and having no strains to bear. 
 
 The compounds Nos. 8, 9, 10 comprise the series 
 of alloys of copper and zinc that are the least ser- 
 viceable, and are the most brittle, and the dryest, and 
 hardest under the file or the hammer. No. 8, espe- 
 cially, is very brittle, and will fall to pieces by the 
 slightest shock. 
 
 If No. 11 begins to acquire a certain firmness, it never- 
 theless remains very brittle, and of a dull appearance. 
 We do not believe it more serviceable than the three 
 preceding numbers. 
 
 Nos. 12 and 13 possess properties similar to those 
 of zinc ; they are harder and tougher than the latter 
 metal, and this explains why they are sometimes used, 
 especially those economical combinations approaching 
 that of No. 13. 
 
 The direct combination of the alloys of copper and 
 zinc is the more difficult as the proportion of zinc is 
 more considerable. From No. 5 upwards, unless great 
 precautions are taken, a considerable proportion of zinc 
 volatilizes. If, however, care is taken not to keep the 
 copper melted at too high a temperature, to add the zinc 
 in several portions instead of all at once, to heat the 
 zinc previously nearly to its point of fusion, to keep 
 the crucible covered, to have a moderate fire until the 
 moment has come for casting, and then to stir and 
 
84 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 operate rapidly, we avoid much waste of zinc, and the 
 alloy may be produced in the desired proportions. 
 
 At all events, the alloys of copper and zinc, once 
 the proportion of zinc is above 50 per cent., do not 
 seem to us to be worth more extended studies than 
 those already indicated. 
 
 By adding another metal, lead, for instance, we 
 thought that we could arrive at better results; but 
 new experiments with lead in small proportion, gave 
 us samples of alloys sensibly the same as those of cop- 
 per and zinc. 
 
 In the metal works, where brass sheets and wires 
 are manufactured, the alloys of copper and zinc in 
 various proportions have, of course, been experimented 
 upon. The results did not correspond to the require- 
 ments, when the proportion of copper was less than in 
 No. 6. Altogether, these experiments agree with our 
 own. 
 
 We shall notice several of them as a comparison. 
 
 Brittle alloy, with a gray and lamellar fracture like 
 that of zinc. 
 
 Dry, and more brittle than glass : — Conchoidal frac- 
 ture with the brilliancy of silver. 
 
 Same brittleness and lustre, with a slight yellow tint. 
 
 Brittle, and reddish-gray, but purplish at the frac- 
 ture. 
 50 50 But little tenacity, breaking with a jagged fracture 
 of a fine gold-yellow. — Very hard to file ; the tool 
 removing this fine color. 
 55 45 More tenacious and resisting than the preceding 
 alloy; the striae of the fracture become flat and 
 lamellar, some being yellow and others reddish. 
 60 40 Resisting. It was necessary to notch it with a chisel, 
 before it could be broken. The lamina? at the frac- 
 ture are flat and grayish-yellow. 
 
 These alloys confirm what we have stated in 
 principle, that the more useful combinations remain 
 between Nos. 4 and 6. We must remark, however, 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 30 
 
 70 
 
 35 
 
 65 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 45 
 
 55 
 
Copper. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 84 
 
 16 
 
 86 
 
 14 
 
 88 
 
 12 
 
 ALLOYS OF COPPER AND LEAD. 85 
 
 that between Nos. 3 and 4 are to be found the alloys 
 known in the trade under the names of similar, pinsbeck 
 or pinchbeck, Prince Roberts metal, &c. The more im- 
 portant of these compounds are : — 
 
 Shining fracture of a fine yellow color. 
 Of a finer yellow than the preceding. 
 More yellow, and more brilliant. 
 A gold-color, and finer grained. 
 
 With a smaller proportion of zinc, the alloys are 
 improved ; but then arsenic is added to them, in order 
 to make the white coppers; tin, for the manufacture 
 of chrysacal; tin and lead, for bronzes for statuary and 
 gilding, &c. &c. 
 
 We shall examine all of these compounds further on. 
 
 7th. Alloys of Copper and Lead. 
 
 No. 1. Copper 99, lead 1. — Texture, reddish-violet, 
 like pure copper. — Polish, more pallid than pure cop- 
 per. — The fracture is not so jagged as that of pure 
 copper, and therefore more easily effected ; its appear- 
 ance is dull, with whitish or pink mottled laminae, more 
 pallid and with a more mixed coloration than is the 
 case with pure copper. — Under the file, acts like cop- 
 per, although more yielding to the hammer. — The sur- 
 face of the button is dull black, bloated, and settled 
 like copper. 
 
 No. 2. Copper 90, lead 10. — Texture, light violet, 
 sliding to yellow. — The polish is not as bright as the 
 preceding, and its color is a light pink. — The fracture 
 on a pink ground, mixed with gray on the edges, pre- 
 sents laminse converging towards the centre. — The 
 button is smooth, with a slight settling, and is covered 
 with a grayish-black pellicle having a certain lustre. — 
 The metal of the button is granular, gray mixed with 
 pink, and more brittle than that of the bar. — The bar 
 8 
 
86 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 clogs the file, and is softer under the hammer than the 
 preceding alloy. 
 
 No. 3. Copper 75, lead 25. — Texture, gray, slightly 
 pinkish. — Polish, without much lustre, and a light pink 
 sliding to gray. — Fracture, light pink mottled with 
 gray, and with closer laminae than the preceding 
 alloy. — Does not break so easily. — The button is similar 
 to that of No. 2, but its texture is more pallid. — The 
 bar clogs the file, and its resistance to the hammer 
 equals that of No. 2. 
 
 No. 4. Copper 50, lead 50. — Its texture and polish 
 are the same as the preceding. — The colors of the 
 fracture are more mixed, and it is more granular than 
 lamellar. — In this sample, as with the preceding, the 
 lead, penetrating the sides of the mould, has become 
 deposited on the surface of the bar, which is covered 
 with a pink-gray film. — The polished surface shows 
 different tints, tending from light red to gray. — Yields 
 to the hammer, and clogs the file, the same as No. 3. 
 
 No. 5. Copper 25, lead 75. — Presents the general 
 characteristics of lead, although not so yielding to the 
 hammer. — Is more brittle, and breaks with a some- 
 what granular fracture, without a jagged appearance. 
 
 No. 6. Copper 10, lead 90. — Similar to the preceding, 
 that is to say, more brittle, less malleable than lead, 
 and with a fracture not so jagged. 
 
 No. 7. Copper 1, lead 99. — Similar to Nos. 5 and 6. 
 — The presence of the small proportion of copper is 
 scarcely perceptible, except by a few yellow tints on 
 the surface of the bar. 
 
 General Observations. — The alloys of copper and 
 lead are difficult to produce in extreme limits. They 
 are, however, more easy when copper predominates. 
 When the proportion of lead is in excess, this metal 
 cools off the copper in the crucible, or becomes partly 
 oxidized, if the temperature is increased in order to 
 obtain a more thorough mixture. On the other hand, 
 
ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN, AND ZTNO. 87 
 
 the copper has a tendency to strike to the surface, when 
 the alloy is run into the moulds very hot. It results 
 then, that the alloys of copper and lead are difficult to 
 obtain by the direct process, in one fusion. 
 
 The alloys Nos. 3 and 4, although better mixed and 
 combined than the other, are not a complete combina- 
 tion. If they are melted again, their mixture becomes 
 more intimate, their color more uniform, their fracture 
 cleaner and not so easily effected, and their resistance 
 greater. 
 
 A small proportion of lead with pure copper, as is 
 the case with the alloys of copper and tin, copper and 
 zinc, renders these metals more ductile, and better pre- 
 pared to be rolled. 
 
 The proportion of copper 50, lead 50, may give an 
 economical alloy, melting at a low temperature, com- 
 pared with that required to melt copper, and which 
 may be laminated, and found serviceable for those uses 
 where hardness is not the main desideratum. 
 
 In order to obtain the alloys of copper and lead by 
 the direct process, it is proper to heat the copper at 
 the highest temperature which will not produce oxida- 
 tion, then to add the lead already melted and raise the 
 temperature during the stirring in the furnace, and, at 
 last, to stir again just before running into the mould. 
 
 Generally, for these alloys made on a large scale, 
 into which it is desirable to introduce lead, it will be 
 proper to prepare in advance the alloy of equal parts 
 of lead and copper, which appears to be the best suited 
 for mixtures, then to employ this alloy to be remelted, 
 whether with copper or with lead, according to the 
 desired proportions. 
 
 8th. Alloys of Copper, Tin, and Zinc. 
 
 No. 1. Copper 80, tin 15, zinc. 5. — Texture, a light 
 violet. — Polish, a pale yellowish-pink, with the lustre 
 
88 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 of pure copper. — Fracture like that of red bronzes, half 
 granular, half lamellar, and quite difficult to produce. 
 ■ — Resisting. — Malleable. — The surface of the button 
 is like that of the bronzes of copper and tin. 
 
 No. 2. Copper 90, tin 8, zinc 2. — Texture, a very light 
 greenish-yellow. — Polish, a light yellow with lustre. — 
 Fracture, dry, a white ground, very slightly granular, 
 and without lustre. — Yery easily broken ; hard to file ; 
 and very unyielding under the punch. — Its appearance 
 is more like that of alloys of copper and zinc, with a 
 large proportion of zinc, than that of alloys of copper 
 and tin. — The surface of the button is covered with a 
 wrinkled and light brown pellicle. — This alloy appears 
 to be more sonorous than any of the others. 
 
 No. 3. Copper 75, tin 5, zinc 20. — Texture, a light 
 greenish-yellow, sliding to green more than No. 2. — 
 Polish, a light greenish-yellow, more easily tarnished 
 than the preceding. — Fracture without lustre, striated 
 towards the centre, and colored of a very light yellow 
 tint, tending to white near the edges. — More resisting 
 than the preceding, not so hard under the file and the 
 punch, but quite dry and easily broken. — The surface 
 of the button is smooth, brownish-yellow, and slightly 
 concave in the middle. 
 
 No. 4. Copper 92, tin 2, zinc 6. — Texture, a light 
 violet, although the tint is darker than No. 1. — Polish, 
 a pale red reminding us of that of pure copper. — Frac- 
 ture, granular and orange-yellow. — Tough, and difficult 
 to break. — Tenacious. — Malleable. — Yielding to the 
 punch. — Clogs the file a little. — The surface of the 
 button is smooth, raised at the edges, having a brown 
 tint tending to black, and presenting in the middle a 
 scoriated appearance like that of pure copper buttons. 
 
 No. 5. Copper 80, tin 5, zinc 15. — Texture, a dirty 
 yellow, tending to green less than No. 3, and more than 
 No. 2. — Striated fracture, finer than that of Nos. 2 and 
 3, yellow in the centre and white at the edges. — More 
 
ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN, ANIj ZINC. 89 
 
 resisting than Nos. 2 and 3, more easily filed and more 
 yielding to the punch. — It bends before breaking. — 
 The button is smooth, and covered with a brownish- 
 yellow pellicle. 
 
 No. 6. Copper 34, tin 33, zinc 33. — Texture, a dirty 
 gray. — Polish, a dead white, without much lustre. — 
 Smooth fracture, with a few laminse possessing a cer- 
 tain brightness. — Very easily broken, and may be pul- 
 verized under the hammer. — Dry to the file, the filings 
 being very fine, without clogging the tool. — Will not 
 receive the mark of a punch without breaking. — The 
 button is covered with a very wrinkled skin, of a dirty 
 gray, with a few specks of oxide of zinc. 
 
 No. 7. Copper 20, tin 60, zinc 20. — Texture, a gray 
 color, not so dark as that of No. 6. — Polish, whiter and 
 with more lustre than No. 6. — Fracture, more granular 
 and more jagged at the same time, with a dull white 
 color, excepting a few specks Slightly brilliant. — 
 Softer, and adheres more to the file. — Yields more to 
 the punch. — The button is more even than the preced- 
 ing, and is covered with a skin of a dirty gray, tending 
 to white, on account of the presence of oxide of zinc. 
 
 No. 8. Copper 20, tin 20, zinc 60.— Texture, like No. 
 6. — Polish, a dead white as dull as that of No. 6. — 
 The samebrittleness and resistance to the punch. — The 
 fracture shows brighter spots, of a bluish-gray white, 
 more perceptible than with No. 6.— The button has 
 the same appearance.— -Somewhat dryer under the file, 
 the filings being as fine and brittle. 
 
 Nos. 9, 10 and 11. Copper 20, tin 40, zinc 40.— Cop- 
 per 10, tin 45, zinc 45. — Copper 2, tin 49, zinc 49. — 
 These numbers give samples which possess a great 
 analogy with those of Nos. 6, 7, 8, and 12, as regards the 
 texture and exterior qualities. — They are brittle white 
 metals, without probable uses in the arts. — No. 11, 
 however, bears some resemblanpe to number 13 of the 
 alloys of copper and tin, and copper and zinc, in this 
 
90 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 particular, that, the proportion of copper being sensibly 
 lessened, the peculiar qualities of the other metals pre- 
 dominate, and occasion a more serviceable combination 
 than those where the proportion of copper is more con- 
 siderable, as in the Nos. 9 and 10, for instance. 
 
 No. 12. Copper 50, tin 25, zinc 25. — Texture a dirty 
 gray like Nos. 6 and 8. — Polish, a pallid white with 
 very little lustre, which immediately disappears. — 
 Square and smooth fracture, very bright, without any 
 grains, facets, or striae. — Yery brittle, and easily broken 
 to a fine and dry powder under the hammer. — Does 
 not bear the action of a punch without breaking. — 
 This alloy is more brittle than glass ; the preceding 
 six numbers are also very brittle, but not so much so 
 as this latter. — They break under the hammer. No. 
 6 and No. 8, especially, when crushed, do not fly, but 
 form a kind of cake full of rents. — On the contrary, 
 No. 12 becomes reduced to a dry powder ; without any 
 appearance of cohesion. 
 
 General Observations. — The same as with the 
 alloys of the two preceding series, the combinations of 
 copper, tin, and zinc give products the more tough, 
 malleable, colored, easily filed and turned, as the pro- 
 portion of copper is greater. 
 
 The alloys become white, dry, hard, and brittle, 
 when the proportion of copper is below two-thirds of 
 the whole mixture. The compounds, where copper 
 enters as one-half, are extremely hard and brittle. A 
 remarkable fact is, that the alloy of half and half cop- 
 per and tin is dry, brittle, and difficult to file ; whereas 
 the alloy of half and half copper and zinc keeps a 
 certain coloration, may be filed, and, although brittle, 
 possesses a certain amount of resistance. On the other 
 hand, the alloy of copper 50, tin 25, and zinc 25, where 
 copper also enters as one-half of the compound, is 
 sensibly worse than the preceding two. This alloy is 
 exceedingly brittle, is crushed under the smallest 
 
ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN, AND ZINC. 91 
 
 pressure, and seems to have retained none of the 
 characteristic properties belonging to the component 
 metals. • 
 
 The alloy of equal parts of copper and lead, of all 
 the various alloys which we have examined, is that 
 which, with copper as one-half of the compound, ap- 
 pears to us the more serviceable ; and that notwith- 
 standing the difficulty shown by lead to become 
 alloyed with copper or with zinc. 
 
 If we pass the alloys of copper and lead, not em- 
 ployed in the arts up to this day, and which to our 
 mind might be serviceable for rolling, the alloys of 
 copper and zinc are those to be preferred, because they 
 allow of a smaller proportion of copper in the com- 
 pound, without greatly impairing its qualities. 
 
 The alloys of copper and zinc admit of a proportion of 
 from 35 to 40 per cent, of zinc, without entirely losing 
 their tenacity, color, and the property of being easily 
 filed; whereas the alloys of copper and tin, with an 
 equal proportion of tin, are white, very brittle, and 
 cannot rank among the metals which are to be filed 
 and chiselled. 
 
 If equal parts of tin and zinc are added to copper, 
 so as to form one-third of the alloy, this will be more 
 resisting and stronger, and will be easily chiselled, 
 although the chips are brittle and fly readily. This 
 composition is the extreme limit of ternary bronzes 
 useful in the arts. These more favorable results, in 
 the same proportional limits as those given by the 
 alloys of copper and zinc, and copper and tin, seem to 
 be in contradistinction to observed facts, when the 
 alloys, instead of being composed of two- thirds of 
 copper, contain one-half only. Here is another proof 
 of the curious transformations of metals when in the 
 state of alloys. 
 
 Therefore, the most serviceable series of the ternary 
 alloys of copper, tin, and zinc are those where the 
 
No. 13 
 
 84 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 " 14 
 
 83 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 " 15 
 
 81 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 " 16 
 
 78 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 " 17 
 
 73 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 " 18 
 
 70 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 92 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 proportion of copper is not less than two-thirds of the 
 compound. They comprise the most advantageous 
 alloys for the casting of statuary bronzes. 
 
 It is well known that statuary bronzes require 
 special qualities. Above all, they must possess suf- 
 ficient fluidity to completely fill the moulds, and at the 
 same time they must be adapted to the work of the 
 file and the chisel. The combinations which appear to 
 us as fulfilling these requisites, and which at the same 
 time present various tints as required by the arts, may 
 be classified thus :-— 
 
 Copper. Zinc. Tin. 
 
 Polish, yellow-red. 
 Polish, yellow-red. 
 Polish, orange-yellow. 
 Polish, orange yellow. 
 The same, but lighter. 
 Polish, light yellow. 
 84 19 65 32 3 Polish, light yellow. 
 
 No. 13 is the limit of the reddish-yellow bronze,* and 
 No. 19 of the light yellow one. 
 
 Nos. 16, 17, 18, and 19 are evidently harder, and 
 more difficult to be worked than the preceding three 
 alloys ; but they are less expensive, because they con- 
 tain more zinc, and their specific gravities are sensibly 
 lower. 
 
 When we consider the beauty and durability of the 
 work, the three alloys Nos. 18, 14, and 15 are evidently 
 to be preferred. They also take better the color of old 
 bronze (patine). 
 
 Several of these alloys, besides being adapted to 
 statuary, also present excellent qualities for pieces of 
 machinery and for antifriction metals. Nos. 1, 2, 4, 
 
 * These alloys are rather brasses, if a bronze be an alloy of copper 
 and tin, alone, or with other metals, but where the proportion of 
 tin predominates over that of the other metals — copper excepted. 
 
 1 Vans. 
 
ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN, ZINC, AND LEAD. 93 
 
 13, and 14 are the best in this respect. A combina- 
 tion which, by its amount of copper, is similar to No. 
 12 of the alloys of copper and tin, and copper and 
 zinc, appears to give very good results. Known under 
 the name of " Feuton's alloy," its composition, which 
 we shall again examine further on, is copper 5.50, tin 
 1.450, and zinc 80. By its hardness, color, and tenacity, 
 it ranks with the alloy No. 12 of copper and zinc* 
 
 Another ternary alloy, which resists ordinary friction 
 well, does not become heated, and saves a great deal 
 of lubricating material, is composed of copper 57, tin 
 28, zinc 15. It is of a slightly yellowish white, very 
 hard, not malleable, and may be filed sufficiently well. 
 Like the preceding, it is much cheaper than the bronzes 
 of copper and tin only ; and that is its greatest ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 In general, the series of the alloys which we have 
 considered, nearly all give white antifriction metals, 
 and are very economical. But it remains to be proven 
 whether they will resist traction, torsion, compression, 
 etc., as well as the bronzes with a preponderating 
 amount of copper. This we doubt, and await thorough 
 experiments to decide. But it is certain that, as 
 regards beauty and good keeping in machinery, the 
 true bronzes are much to be preferred. 
 
 9th. Alloys of Copper, Tin, Zinc, and Lead. 
 
 No. 1. Copper 78, tin 2, zinc 18, lead 2. — Texture, a 
 gray tending to yellow. — Polish, a light yellow, tending 
 slightly to a red. — Fracture, jagged and without lustre. 
 — Breaks with difficulty. — Hard to file. — Resisting 
 under the hammer. — Possesses malleability and tena- 
 
 * We think that the true name is Fenton, instead of Feuton. 
 Under that name are to be found in the trade several antifriction 
 metals, without any copper in them, and none the better for that, 
 as regards friction and durability ; but they are more easily pre- 
 pared, melted, and cast into or upon pieces of machinery. — Trans. 
 
94 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 city.— Ductile. — The surface of the button is scoriated, 
 and of a dirty gray color. 
 
 No. 2. Copper 75, tin 2.50, zinc 20, lead 2.50. — Tex- 
 ture, a gray with a few yellow and violet tints, and 
 covered with a white oxide. — Polish, a gold-yellow, 
 tending to green. — Jagged fracture of a gold-yellow, 
 somewhat pallid. — More easily broken than the pre- 
 ceding. — More easily filed and polished. — A very fine 
 lustre, when polished. — Presents a certain tenacity, 
 malleability, and ductility. — The surface of the button 
 is wrinkled, and of a brownish-yellow color. 
 
 No. 3. Copper 70, tin 10, zinc 10, lead 10. — Texture 
 a dirty gray. — Polish, a pale yellow, without much 
 lustre. — Fracture, gray, somewhat granular, but dry 
 and easily tarnished.— Brittle, and harder than No. 1. 
 Less resisting under the hammer than Nos. 1 and 2. — 
 Very slight malleability. — Appears exceedingly well 
 adapted for resisting friction, and for journal boxes. 
 The surface of the button is covered with a very 
 wrinkled skin, of a light brown color. 
 
 No. 4. Copper 25, tin, 25, zinc 25, lead 25. — Texture, 
 a somewhat dull greenish-blue. — Polish, a silver-white 
 without much lustre. — Dry fracture, with a certain 
 brilliancy, and with a ground slightly granular. — 
 Breaks very easily. — It is filed without difficulty, but 
 clogs the tool a little. — Bears well the mark of the 
 punch. — The surface of the button is a dull grayish- 
 white, and covered with a large quantity of oxide. 
 
 No. 5. Copper 22, tin 26, zinc 26, lead 26.— Its tex- 
 ture, polish, and fracture present the same character- 
 istics as the preceding alloy. — Breaks more easily, 
 although more yielding under the punch, and clogging 
 the file more. — The surface of the button is like that 
 of No. 4. — The specific gravity is greater than No. 4. 
 
 No. 6. Copper 74, tin 1, zinc 10, lead 15. — Texture, 
 a gold reddish-yellow. — Polish, a yellow sliding to 
 orange-red, without much lustre. — The grains of the 
 
ALLOYS OF COPPER, TIN, ZINC, AND LEAD. 95 
 
 fracture are fine and regular, of a gold-yellow color. — - 
 Eesists fracture. — Yields well to the punch. — Malleable 
 and very tenacious. — Easily filed, without being too 
 hard, or clogging the file too much — Presents all the 
 characteristics of a good bronze. — The surface of the 
 button is a dull brown-red, like that of all the alloys 
 where the proportion of copper largely predomi- 
 nates. 
 
 No. 7. Copper 74, tin 10, zinc 1, lead 15. — Texture, 
 gray tending to pale yellow. — Polish, a pale reddish- 
 yellow, without much lustre. — Fracture, finely granular 
 and of a light pink-gray, like that of a bronze made 
 of copper 88 and tin 12. — More resisting than the pre- 
 ceding under the hammer ; harder and dryer to the 
 file. — Better as to resistance to friction, but not so fine 
 a color. — Less malleable than No. 6. — The surface of 
 the button is granular, and scoriated like the buttons 
 of copper and tin bronzes. 
 
 General Observations. — There is little difference 
 between No. 1 and No. 2 ; the latter, however, has a 
 finer color, and is better adapted to gilding and 
 chasing. No. 1 is harder, more resisting, tougher, 
 and better for friction surfaces than No. 2. 
 
 No. 3, without possessing the qualities of resistance, 
 malleability, and mildness of Nos. 1 and 2, may give a 
 good and economical bronze for certain pieces of ma- 
 chinery ; but it will not suit for statuary work. 
 
 Nos. 4 and 5 offer this singular property, of being 
 very brittle and soft at the same time ; they are to be 
 ranked among the white alloys, without sonorousness, 
 and nearly useless for the arts. 
 
 Nos. 6 and 7, on the other hand, may be applied 
 very advantageously. No. 6 is redder than No. 7, 
 and also more malleable and not so dry under the file. 
 It seemed to us not so resisting under the punch, 
 which may be accounted for by the volatilization of 
 part of the zinc. 
 
96 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 No. 7 is worth, in appearance, the ordinary bronze 
 for machines (copper 88, tin 12); and, on account of 
 the lead, it is more tenacious, less brittle, and more 
 economical. Experiments, made on a large scale, ap- 
 pear to confirm all these advantages. 
 
 It will be easily understood that we could not, with- 
 out inconvenience, multiply the examples of these 
 quaternary alloys. There are so many combinations 
 possible between the four metals with which we have 
 operated, that we have been obliged to confine our- 
 selves to stating a few results only. Several interme- 
 diate trials, ranging within the limits of the alloys which 
 we have indicated, went to confirm the fact, already 
 pointed out in the alloys of tin, zinc, and lead, that the 
 lead sensibly improves the nature of the alloys into 
 which it enters in a small proportion. Thus, when 
 the alloys of copper and zinc, or copper and tin, 
 become dry and brittle, they may be modified, and 
 acquire body by the presence of lead. The same 
 alloys, holding a large percentage of copper, and indi- 
 cated as being malleable, ductile, tenacious, etc., will, 
 with the aid of lead, maintain these qualities through 
 the rollers and the draw-plate. It is thus that a por- 
 tion of lead, as small as 0.50 per cent., gives the best 
 alloys for drawing out under the hammer, for sheets 
 and fine wires ; these alloys being composed of copper 
 67, zinc 32, lead 0.50, and tin 0.50. 
 
 In the quaternary compounds lead combines better 
 than in its binary compounds with copper, or even 
 than in its ternary combinations with copper and tin, 
 or zinc. This is a remarkable fact to state. Besides, 
 the presence of lead does not appear to essentially 
 modify the external nature of the alloys of copper, 
 tin, and zinc; and if it does not always impart impor- 
 tant qualities for the use, the appearance is at least im- 
 proved. At all events, the addition of lead is very 
 economical. 
 
 
ALLOYS OF IKON WITH COPPER, ZINC, TIN, LEAD. 97 
 
 These last observations are especially applicable to 
 those combinations demanded by industrial construc- 
 tions. It is certain that an addition of lead to the 
 statuary bronzes which we have mentioned, will im- 
 prove the nature of the products. 
 
 The Komans composed the bronze for their statues 
 of copper 99, tin 6, and lead 6.* 
 
 The brothers Keller, who were so celebrated as 
 bronze-founders, made their alloys with copper 91.40, 
 zinc 5.53, tin 1.70, and lead 1.47. 
 
 The composition for the Vendome column was cop- 
 per 89.16, tin 10.24, zinc 0.498, and lead 0.102. 
 
 At last Mr. Darcet, who has made numerous trials, 
 recommends the following two alloys as being the best 
 adapted to gilding, chasing, and turning : — 
 
 Copper 82, zinc 18, tin 3, lead 1.50. 
 Copper 82, zinc 18, tin 1, lead 3. 
 
 All of these results prove that the quaternary alloys 
 of copper, tin, zinc, and lead give the best bronzes for 
 the founders of artistical castings. And this will be 
 confirmed by any examination of Nos. 1, 2, 3, 6, and 7, 
 besides many alloys which we do not mention. We 
 shall add, however, that in these compounds a pro- 
 portion of lead of over 3 per cent, takes somewhat 
 from the fluidity of the alloy, prevents it from reach- 
 ing the sharp angles of the moulds, and appears to 
 prevent a good bronzing (patine) or gilding. 
 
 2. Alloys of Iron with Copper, Zinc, Tin, and 
 Lead. 
 
 As we have already stated, the alloys of iron have 
 not, up to the present time, neither by us nor by other 
 persons, been studied with sufficient accuracy to pre- 
 sent interesting facts for the arts, and, above all, to bring 
 
 * The ancients rarely employed zinc in their alloys. 
 
 9 
 
98 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 out new results, susceptible of wide and practical ap- 
 plication. 
 
 As a rule, iron may be alloyed with most metals; 
 but its alloys, always difficult to effect, and in the 
 majority of cases only with a small proportion of 
 iron, have up to the present time resulted in vary few 
 applications to the arts. 
 
 It is evident that iron, introduced in small propor- 
 tions into certain metals or certain alloys, will impart 
 to them new and important qualities. However, the 
 experiments thus far made have been hindered by 
 difficulties in the preparation, which have removed all 
 the interest felt for them, and sometimes rendered them 
 entirely useless. 
 
 Besides the alloys of iron with the above-named 
 metals, of which we shall indicate the principal known 
 data, this metal has recently been experimented upon, 
 in order to combine it with certain modern metals, 
 such as tungsten, for instance, for the manufacture of 
 fire-arms. But all of these attempts, which we con- 
 sider more or less fruitless, and of which we shall 
 speak further on, are not appropriate in this part of 
 the work. 
 
 Alloys of Iron and Copper. — The alloys of iron and 
 copper are difficult to produce, at least by the direct 
 process. The copper remains in a pulverulent state 
 within the iron, has a tendency to become precipitated 
 to the bottom of the fluid mass, or in the moulds, and 
 the combination is generally incomplete. 
 
 With certain precautions, and by operating gradu- 
 ally with small quantities of the metals, in order to make 
 preparatory alloys, which serve afterwards to make 
 the definitive alloy on a larger scale, it is possible to 
 arrive at a union of iron with copper, that is rather a 
 mechanical mixture than an alloy. The copper 
 always shows its presence in the cast iron, and is 
 
ALLOYS OF IRON WITH COPPER, ZINC, TIN, LEAD. 99 
 
 easily seen in the grayish fracture, with grains with- 
 out lustre, of cast iron mixed with copper. 
 
 No matter how small the quantity of copper mixed 
 with cast iron, the latter is rendered dry, hard, and 
 brittle. It is sufficient that a few particles of copper 
 should become scattered in a bath of molten iron to 
 render cold short the iron puddled from that cast iron. 
 
 This is the result of observations made by metal- 
 lurgists and founders who have accidentally seen a 
 small proportion of copper mixed with cast iron. 
 
 An iron holding any copper cannot be welded ; it 
 breaks under the hammer, and runs oft' at a tempera- 
 ture much below that necessary to burn an iron free 
 from copper. 
 
 An alloy of copper 20 parts, and cast iron 1 part, 
 gives a tough metal, hard, resisting, as ductile as cop- 
 per, and presenting a fracture where the presence of 
 cast iron can scarcely be ascertained. 
 
 An alloy of copper 10 and cast iron 1, becomes 
 harder and dryer than the preceding. The metal is 
 scoriated, full of holes, and seems to be wanting in 
 cohesion. It may be forged when cold, and remains 
 quite ductile, although we doubt whether it would 
 bear the drawing process, which, however, we have not 
 tried. 
 
 An alloy of copper 1 and cast iron 20, shows the 
 presence of the copper in the whole mass. The cast 
 iron, however, has become harder and more resisting. 
 
 This hardness and resistance, on account of the 
 little homogeneousness of the alloy, do not appear as 
 if they would be capable of utilization in the arts. 
 Several authors have claimed that pig-iron, intended 
 for castings, and holding 1 per cent, of copper, will 
 become more fluid and tenacious, and will produce 
 sharper castings. This result might be possible if the 
 alloy were thoroughly made, with the copper uniformly 
 divided throughout the mass. But when in the manu- 
 
100 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 facture we throw aside the precautions possible in a 
 laboratory experiment, one of these two things will 
 happen : the copper is oxidized, and most of it be- 
 comes mixed with the scoriae on top of the bath ; or 
 it becomes precipitated, and will be found on the sur- 
 face of the castings in the shape of drops, spots, or 
 scoriated deposits. 
 
 Alloys of Iron and Zinc. — The alloy of these two 
 metals has been, up to the present time, so difficult to 
 produce in a practical way, that it is of no advantage 
 in the arts. 
 
 Although the specific gravities of the two metals are 
 not very different, the great tendency of zinc to vola- 
 tilize as soon as the temperature is raised a little above 
 that of its point of fusion, prevents its union with iron, 
 which requires for its fusion a high temperature. 
 
 It is true that in nature we find certain ores where 
 calamine (carbonate of zinc) is united with iron; where 
 tin and copper pyrites contain iron ; and where there 
 are also certain ores of iron combined with those of 
 lead or zinc, &c; but none of these primitive combi- 
 nations appear to be capable of producing alloys, at 
 least by the known processes. 
 
 When zinc is dipped into molten iron, it decrepitates, 
 becomes divided, and is projected out of the bath in 
 the shape of cadmiae, without leaving a trace of its 
 presence in the castings made after this attempt to 
 alloy. 
 
 By means of peculiar precautions, we have been 
 enabled to introduce zinc into molten cast iron, with- 
 out, however, producing a regular alloy that could 
 find a place in the arts. 
 
 Our process was to introduce a well-heated iron 
 tube, down to a certain depth, into a bath of molten 
 cast iron covered with a thick layer of charcoal-dust, 
 and then to pour the melted zinc through that tube. 
 
ALLOYS OF IRON WITH COPPER, ZINC, TIN, LEAD. 101 
 
 A part of the zinc was lost, but enough remained to 
 form an alloy. 
 
 This alloy was hard, dry, and of a dull white color; 
 it was also brittle when the proportions were approxi- 
 matively zinc 50, cast iron 50. By increasing the 
 quantity of zinc, the alloy became whiter, more like 
 the texture of silver, and slightly more malleable. 
 But, no matter what were the proportions of zinc or 
 cast iron, the compound did not appear of any use in 
 the arts. 
 
 The union of iron and zinc is possible by analogous 
 processes to those employed in the manufacture of 
 tinned iron. A well-scoured sheet of iron, plunged 
 into a bath of molten zinc, becomes uniformly covered 
 with a layer of the latter metal, and the adherence is 
 sufficiently great * However, we do not here arrive 
 at results so good as can be had by the union of tin, 
 or tin alloyed with zinc, for making tinned iron. 
 
 At the present time, it is by the processes of gal- 
 vanization that we arrive at the best union of iron 
 with zinc. 
 
 We shall indicate here, only as a memorandum, a 
 few attempts made in the experimental laboratory at 
 alloying zinc and iron. 
 
 These alloys have been experimented upon by re- 
 ducing together the oxides of iron and of zinc, by 
 cementing in charcoal-dust a mixture of oxide of iron 
 and calamine; or by heating together in a well-closed 
 crucible a mixture of cast-iron filings with granulated 
 zinc. 
 
 All of these purely scientific processes gave no prac- 
 tical results; and, in the absence of new and more satis- 
 factory trials, we are obliged to admit that cast iron is 
 not at all improved by the addition of zinc, even in 
 
 * This adherence is even greater when the sheet-iron has been 
 covered with lead, before being galvanized with zinc. 
 
 9* 
 
102 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 minute proportion ; whereas, on the other hand, a zinc 
 holding a small proportion of iron is more brittle, less 
 ductile, and, in a word, inferior to zinc free from iron. 
 
 Certain iron ores, especially in Belgium and the 
 North of France, contain a small proportion of zinc, 
 which in a few cases may be collected from the blast- 
 furnace. This zinc has no well-marked effect on 
 the nature of the cast iron ; although it is admitted, 
 when the proportion of zinc is considerable, that the 
 cast iron is dryer, more brittle, and more difficult to 
 refine than that obtained from ores without zinc. 
 
 Alloys of Iron and Tin. — But for the great difficulty 
 of operation resulting from the high point of fusion of 
 iron, this metal might be alloyed in all proportions 
 with tin. The specific gravities of the two metals are 
 sufficiently alike to enable a good alloy to be pro- 
 duced. 
 
 These alloys, however, are brittle, and are the more 
 difficult to melt as they contain more iron. With a 
 high temperature, the alloy is easy, but there is a 
 greater or less waste of tin. 
 
 A small proportion of iron in tin, gives to this metal 
 a dull appearance, a greater hardness, and less mal- 
 leability. On the other hand, a very small quantity 
 of tin in iron renders it both cold and hot short, espe- 
 cially the latter. An iron holding a certain amount 
 of tin cannot be forged, and flies to pieces under the 
 hammer. 
 
 Cast iron which contains tin may present at its 
 fracture as fine a grain as that of steel. It becomes 
 black, and may acquire, like most of the hard metals, 
 a fine polish not so easily tarnished as that of ordinary 
 cast iron. Various attempts have been made in order 
 to prevent the oxidation of cast iron by the addition 
 of a small proportion of tin. 
 
 Our own studies have shown that, by doing so, the 
 cost of cast iron will be increased by a greater diffi- 
 
ZINC, TIN, LEAD. 103 
 
 culty to work it, due to its greater hardness, without 
 imparting to it the necessary qualities for resisting 
 oxidation successfully. 
 
 A proportion of 2 per cent, of iron in tin is sufficient 
 to render the latter metal magnetic; hard, dry, and 
 without lustre. 
 
 The same proportion of tin in cast iron, renders the 
 metal dry and brittle, and the iron puddled from that 
 pig-iron is hard and less malleable. 
 
 An alloy of iron 30, and tin 70, presents a dark gray 
 fracture, a certain ductility, but nothing useful in the 
 arts. 
 
 An alloy of iron 50, and tin 50, is white, brittle, and 
 possesses a granular fracture. 
 
 An alloy of iron 70, and tin 30, is crystalline, with 
 an iron-gray texture, and may be pulverized under 
 the hammer. 
 
 An alloy of iron 90, and tin 10, is of a light gray 
 shade. The grain, which is dry and without lustre, is 
 filed with great difficulty. This alloy is very dry, 
 and very brittle and hard. Its polish, obtained upon 
 a stone, is of a grayish-white and fine lustre. 
 
 The practical uses for the combinations of iron and 
 tin are the tinning of metals, which processes consist 
 rather in a covering than in an alloy. 
 
 Tinned sheet-iron, which is often considered as an 
 alloy of tin and iron, is nothing but iron covered with 
 several layers of tin. The first layers may, possibly, 
 form an alloy. 
 
 It is not our object to give the processes for tinning 
 sheet-iron. We shall only mention that the main point 
 is to produce a perfect adherence between the tin and 
 the iron, and not a thorough combination, which would 
 render the latter metal brittle. It is just on account 
 of the penetration of tin, which we try to avoid, that 
 there is no true alloy formed during the manufacture 
 of tinned iron. We may, therefore, admit that tinned 
 
104: PRACTLCAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 iron is made of a sheet of iron, a superficial rather than 
 a complete alloy of tin and iron, and several layers of 
 tin. 
 
 The sheet-iron for this manufacture must be of the 
 first quality; and this quality should not be altered by 
 the operations of pickling, scouring, and tinning. 
 
 With certain qualities of tin, some manufacturers 
 add a small proportion of copper, in order to give 
 more fluidity to the tin, which will then leave on the 
 surface of the iron thin and regular layers. 
 
 The tinning of cast-iron vessels is even less of an 
 alloy than the tinning of sheet-iron. Unless we use a 
 very porous gray metal, there is no penetration by tin, 
 and the tinning process in this case is but a covering 
 with tin, the adherence of which to the cast iron is 
 more or less complete. 
 
 For tinning copper, for instance, some employ an 
 alloy of iron 10, and tin 60, made by fusing block-tin 
 with iron scraps, and keeping the molten mass at a 
 red heat for a certain length of time. 
 
 This alloy, which is very brittle when hot, pos- 
 sesses a certain malleability when cold. It is cut and 
 filed with difficulty. Its fracture is gray, and finely 
 granular. 
 
 Thenard has proposed, for the same purpose, an 
 alloy holding less iron than the preceding, and com- 
 posed of iron 10, and tin 80 parts. This alloy is 
 grayish-white, fusible, denser and not so hard as the 
 alloy of iron 10 and tin 60. 
 
 Alloys of Iron and Lead. — Equally so with zinc, we 
 cannot produce, in a practical way, alloys of iron and 
 tin which will be serviceable in the arts. 
 
 Lead, which is often difficult to alloy with other 
 metals, unless employed in small proportions and with 
 many precautions, has no affinity for iron. 
 
 A piece of lead thrown into a bath of molten iron, 
 becomes oxidized, or is separated and found at the 
 
ALLOYS OF IRON WITH COPPER, ZINC, TIN, LEAD. 105 
 
 bottom of the bath after the cast iron has been run 
 out. As soon as the lead is introduced into the molten 
 cast iron, a certain agitation appears at the surface and 
 even through the whole bath, and the cast iron seems 
 more fluid. When thin or large pieces are to be cast, 
 the founders who are aware of this phenomenon often 
 throw a certain quantity of lead into the molten cast 
 iron, in order to prevent it from congealing too soon 
 against the sides of the casting-ladle. 
 
 The want of affinity of iron for lead, and con- 
 versely, is made use of for separating lead from other 
 metals having a greater affinity for iron. On the other 
 hand, lead may be employed for separating iron from 
 other metals, such as silver, for instance. Thus, if lead 
 is added in sufficient quantity to a fused alloy of cast 
 iron and silver, it will combine with the silver, and 
 the iron will swim at the surface of the bath. 
 
 All the authors who have occupied themselves with 
 the question of alloys, agree upon the impossibility of 
 alloying lead and iron. 
 
 In experiments made by ourselves at Angers, 1847- 
 1848, we obtained a kind of saturation of iron by lead 
 in certain mixtures thoroughly stirred, and rapidly 
 cast, where the proportion of lead was not over 2 to 3 
 per cent. In all these experiments, whether because 
 most of the lead was oxidized, and therefore could not 
 be found in the trial bar, or because it was deposited 
 in the shape of drops at the bottom of the moulds, it 
 was ascertained by analysis that only traces of lead 
 could be found. Which shows that lead had traversed 
 the metal, without producing a true alloy. 
 
 The cast iron thus treated was harder, and its grains 
 were flattened and without lustre. Its specific gravity 
 was 7.2, which corresponds to the average of ordinary 
 cast iron. 
 
106 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 II. 
 
 ALLOYS OF THE METALS OF SECONDARY 
 IMPORTANCE IN THE ARTS. 
 
 We shall successively examine the metals of the 
 second series in the order of their alloys with the 
 metals of the first series, and then between themselves. 
 
 Our observations shall be short. All these metals, 
 up to the present time, have seldom been experimented 
 upon, and that without method or perseverance. With 
 the majority of these alloys, we find that the most 
 conscientious workers entirely disagree. The facts 
 which we indicate in this chapter sometimes result 
 from our own observations; but we must confess that 
 we have not had the time to make with these metals 
 so conclusive and numerous experiments as with those 
 of the preceding series. Therefore, we have been 
 obliged to borrow occasionally from authors who, 
 like ourselves, have examined these alloys more from 
 traditional data than from well-verified experiments. 
 
 Alloys of Bismuth and Copper. — These alloys are 
 easily effected, notwithstanding the difference in the 
 points of fusion of the two metals. They are brittle, 
 and of a pale red color, whatever the proportions em- 
 ployed. The specific gravity of the alloys is sensibly 
 equal to the average of the two metals. 
 
 Alloys of Bismuth and Zinc. — These alloys are 
 seldom made, and produce a metal more brittle, pre- 
 senting a larger crystallization, with less adherence, 
 than zinc or bismuth taken singly. On that account 
 they are useless in the arts. 
 
 Alloys of Bismuth and Tin. — The combinations of 
 bismuth and tin take place easily, and in all propor- 
 tions. A very small quantity of bismuth imparts to 
 tin more hardness, sonorousness, lustre, and fusibility. 
 On that account, and for certain applications, a little 
 
ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. 107 
 
 bismuth is added to tin in order to increase its hard- 
 ness. However, bismuth being easily oxidized, and 
 often containing arsenic, the alloys of tin and bismuth 
 would be dangerous for the manufacture of certain 
 domestic implements, such as culinary vessels, pots, etc. 
 
 The alloys of bismuth and tin are more fusible than 
 each of the metals taken separately. 
 
 An alloy of equal parts of the two metals is fusible, 
 according to se-veral authors who disagree, at a tem- 
 perature varying from 100° to 150° Centigrade. These 
 differences are evidently due to an incorrect measuring 
 of the temperature, or to the temperature being taken 
 after the proper time of fusion. 
 
 When tin is alloyed with as little as 5 per cent, of 
 bismuth, its oxide acquires the peculiar yellowish-gray 
 color of the bismuth oxide. 
 
 According to Eudberg, melted bismuth begins to 
 solidify at 261°, and tin at 228°. For the alloys of 
 the two metals the "constant point" is 143° C. 
 
 Alloys of Bismuth and Lead. — These two metals are 
 immediately alloyed by simple fusion, with merely the 
 ordinary precautions. The alloys are malleable and 
 ductile as long as the proportion of bismuth does not 
 exceed that of lead; they are also much more tena- 
 cious than lead. 
 
 The alloy of bismuth 2, and lead 3 parts, is about 
 ten times harder than pure lead. 
 
 The compounds of bismuth and lead generally have 
 a dark gray color, with a tint intermediate between 
 the color of tin and that of lead. Their fracture is 
 lamellar, and their specific gravity greater than the 
 mean specific gravity of either metal taken singly. 
 
 An alloy of equal parts of bismuth and lead has a 
 specific gravity equal to 10.71. It is white, lustrous, 
 sensibly harder than lead, and more malleable. The 
 ductility and malleability diminish with an increased 
 
108 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOE METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 proportion of bismuth, while they increase with the 
 excess of lead in the alloy. 
 
 An alloy of bismuth 1 and lead 2 is very ductile, 
 and may be laminated into thin sheets without cracks. 
 Berthier says that its point of fusion is 166° C. 
 
 According to Eudberg, melted lead beginning to 
 solidify at 825°, the " constant point" for the alloy of 
 the two metals is 129° C. 
 
 Alloys of Bismuth and Iron. — The learned disagree 
 as to the possibility of combining bismuth and iron. 
 Up to the present day, the combinations indicated are 
 rather doubtful. 
 
 At all events, the principal fact is, that the presence 
 of bismuth in iron tends to render this metal brittle, 
 and is not an improvement in its manufacture. 
 
 Alloys of Bismuth and Antimony. — These alloys are 
 grayish, brittle, lamellar, like the alloys of bismuth and 
 zinc, and present no real utility in the arts. 
 
 Alloys of Bismuth and Nickel. — As with the preced- 
 ing combinations, we are not aware of any interesting 
 application of the alloys of bismuth and nickel. 
 
 Alloys of Bismuth and Arsenic. — These alloys are 
 more brittle and more fusible than bismuth. This 
 metal, which is found in nature combined with arsenic, 
 appears to have little affinity for it, when we make 
 alloys. Nothing practical has been accomplished in 
 the alloys of bismuth and arsenic. Arsenic is rapidly 
 volatilized, and the very small proportion which is 
 absorbed by bismuth is easily oxidized. Therefore 
 the many difficulties attending the formation of the 
 alloy, which itself presents little interest, have prevent- 
 ed further examinations. 
 
 General Observations. — It will be seen from the 
 preceding data, that the alloys of bismuth are not at 
 the present time important in the arts, excepting the 
 fusible alloys made of bismuth and certain white metals, 
 such as tin, lead, &c. The alloys of bismuth with tin, 
 
ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. 109 
 
 the latter predominating, seem to be the most interest- 
 ing. The great fusibility of the alloys of bismuth and 
 lead will have the effect of popularizing these alloys, 
 and also those with tin, as soon as bismuth can be 
 obtained in abundance and at a less cost. 
 
 To sum up, the action of bismuth in alloys is to in- 
 crease their hardness, fusibility, and brittleness. But, 
 although bismuth renders brittle the metals with which 
 it combines, it does so a great deal less than arsenic or 
 antimony, for instance. 
 
 Alloys of Antimony and Copper. — These two metals 
 rapidly combine by fusion. Whatever are the pro- 
 portions, and especially when antimony predominates, 
 the alloys are brittle, of a violet color, and with a spe- 
 cific gravity above the average one of the two metals, 
 considered singly. 
 
 The alloy by equal parts, which was named by the 
 ancients Regulus of Venus, is of a grayish- violet color, 
 which tends to a nearly pure violet when the propor- 
 tion of copper increases within certain limits. 
 
 An alloy of antimony 1 and copper 3 seems to pos- 
 sess the violet shade to the utmost degree. It is dry, 
 brittle, lamellar, more fusible than copper, and has a 
 fine lustre when polished. 
 
 An alloy of antimony 1 and copper 6 is a reddish- 
 yellow, having more of the copper than of the violet 
 color. Its fracture is dryer, not so even, and more 
 granular than the preceding one. 
 
 According to Mr. Herve, author of a manual of alloys, 
 antimony will whiten the copper with which it is alloyed 
 more than is the case with an equal proportion of zinc. 
 
 Alloys of Antimony and Zinc. — The alloys of anti- 
 mony and zinc are but little known. They are exceed- 
 ingly brittle, and too easily oxidized by heat ; their 
 fracture is very lamellar and of a steel-gray color. 
 They have presented but little interest to experimenters. 
 
 Alloys of Antimony and Tin. — The alloys of anti- 
 
110 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 mony and tin are as white as tin, but harder and a 
 great deal less ductile. They are the more brittle as 
 the proportion of antimony is greater. 
 
 The specific gravity of these alloys is below that 
 which would be calculated from the specific gravity 
 of each metal, taken si ugly. 
 
 An alloy of tin 80 and antimony 20, although not 
 so malleable as pure tin, is sufficiently so to be lami- 
 nated and hammered when cold. It is by remaining 
 near these proportions that the proper alloys of tin 
 and antimony are made for the manufacture of tin pots 
 and engraving plates. 
 
 Alloys of Antimony and Lead. — Antimony increases 
 the hardness of lead, and renders it very brittle when 
 the proportion of antimony is considerable. The alloy 
 of lead 76 and antimony 24 appears to be the point 
 of saturation of the two metals. More fusible than the 
 average fusibility of the two component metals, ductile, 
 and harder than lead, this alloy expands in cooling. 
 To this property is due the employment of this alloy 
 for the manufacture of type. But the above compound 
 does not answer perfectly well, especially for small 
 type. When too soft, it gets out of shape; when too 
 hard, it cuts the paper ; and it happens too often that 
 the founder passes to one or the other extreme. When 
 the alloy is melted in contact with the air, antimony 
 is oxidized much before lead ; and this accounts for 
 the difficulty of obtaining an exact composition. It is 
 a constant subject of study for type-founders, to arrive 
 at a fusible and homogeneous metal, with much expan- 
 sion, as resisting as possible, and at the same time soft 
 enough to be repaired, and to bear the action of the 
 press without being soon put out of shape. 
 
 The alloy of equal proportions is dry, porous, and 
 brittle. These defects increase in the same ratio as the 
 proportion of antimony. On the other hand, they dis- 
 appear when the lead takes the place of antimony. 
 
ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. Ill 
 
 An alloy of antimony 1 and lead 4 is compact, much 
 harder than lead, and remains malleable. 
 
 An alloy of antimony 1 and lead 8 possesses much 
 tenacity, and a specific gravity greater than the pro- 
 portional specific gravity of the two metals. It is more 
 malleable than the preceding alloy, and retains a cer- 
 tain hardness. The hardness imparted by antimony, 
 the increase of tenacity, and that of the specific gravity, 
 are very perceptible up to the alloy of antimony 1 and 
 lead 16. 
 
 Alloys of Antimony and Iron. — The two metals ap- 
 pear to have a mutual affinity. Their alloys, which 
 are easily effected, are much more fusible than iron, 
 and are white, hard, and brittle. 
 
 Their specific gravity is less than the average of the 
 two metals. The alloy made of antimony 70 and iron 
 30 is quite fusible, white, and very hard. That made 
 of antimony 30 and iron 70 is exceedingly hard, flies 
 under the hammer, and produces sparks when filed. 
 
 Mr. Herve' has experimented with various alloys of 
 antimony with cast iron. We cite the following : — ■ 
 
 1 part of antimony. 100 parts of cast iron. 
 
 2 " " 100 " " 
 
 3 " " 100 " " 
 
 Antimony was added to the iron only when the 
 latter was in fusion in the crucible. 
 
 The fracture of the samples of the first alloy was 
 uneven, striated, and lamellar ; the crystallization was 
 confused, divergent, with a certain lustre, and grayish- 
 white. 
 
 The fracture of the samples of the second alloy was, 
 like the preceding, uneven, striated, and lamellar ; the 
 crystallization was confused, and of a grayish-white 
 color, but duller. 
 
 The fracture of the samples of the third alloy pre- 
 sented the same characteristics as the preceding alloys, 
 but the color was duller and darker. These samples 
 
112 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 like those of the second series, were very hard and 
 brittle; square bars, with a side equal to 1.7 centimetre, 
 were broken when falling on the ground, from a height 
 equal to 1 metre. 
 
 Mr. Herve' has inferred, from these three experiments, 
 that antimony is not entirely volatilized when thrown 
 into fused cast iron, and that a portion remains in combi- 
 nation with the iron, on account of its affinity for the 
 latter metal. On the other hand, antimony exerts a 
 powerful influence on the crystallization of iron, during 
 the cooling. One per cent, of antimony, at most, is 
 sufficient to alter the fracture of cast iron, which then 
 resembles that of zinc. 
 
 At all events, these alloys appear to be without 
 application in the arts. They increase the brittleness 
 of cast iron, whereas we always try to develop its 
 tenacity. Cast iron may, it is true, thus acquire a little 
 more lustre, when polished; but the advantage is so 
 slight, that it does not warrant the increase of cost. 
 
 Alhys of Antimony and Nickel. — These alloys are 
 brittle, of a lead color, and do not present any utility. 
 They have not been studied. 
 
 Alloys of Antimony and Arsenic. — The two metals 
 may be alloyed in every proportion. They combine 
 with a production of light, and the resulting compound 
 is, to a certain point, like the brittle and gray metallic 
 mass found in the mineral kingdom, where native anti- 
 mony is often found combined with arsenic. 
 
 The alloys of antimony and arsenic, which do not, 
 however, present any interest, are very fusible, very 
 hard and brittle, and present a fracture, with lamellar 
 facets smaller and more characterized than those of 
 pure antimony. 
 
 General Observations. — The useful alloys of anti- 
 mony are those where this metal is combined with tin 
 and lead. They are employed in the manufacture of 
 types, engraving plates, and tin pots. The action of 
 
ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. 113 
 
 antimony is also of interest in certain ternary or quater- 
 nary alloys, where, like most of the metals used in 
 such combinations, it tends to aid in the formation of 
 a more complete and thorough alloy. 
 
 The ternary alloys of antimony, lead, and arsenic ; 
 antimony, lead, and bismuth ; antimony, tin, and bis- 
 muth; antimony, copper, and lead; antimony, tin, and 
 lead ; antimony, lead, and zinc — have been, or are yet 
 employed, some for the manufacture of types, others 
 for that of ectypes or engraving plates. We, may then, 
 say that antimony has been the indispensable, if not 
 the predominating, base of all the alloys experimented 
 upon for typographical or printing purposes. 
 
 Notwithstanding all these experiments, the known 
 alloys are not perfect; and very likely a long period 
 will elapse before we arrive at the best alloy for 
 printing, that is to say, one fulfilling all the conditions 
 of hardness, malleability, tenacity, expansion, and mild- 
 ness, which have been found necessary by all those 
 who have tried to improve the manufacture of types. 
 
 Amongst the quaternary alloys, where antimony 
 has been found useful, we may cite the alloys of anti- 
 mony, bismuth, copper, and tin; antimony, bismuth, 
 tin, and lead ; which have been, or are yet employed 
 in the manufacture of the English metals called pewter 
 and queen's metal, from which teapots and vases imi- 
 tating silver have been made. 
 The following alloys of:—- 
 
 Antimony, silver, copper, and zinc ; 
 
 Antimony, tin, zinc, and steel ; 
 
 Antimony, copper, iron, and lead ; 
 
 Antimony, copper, tin, and zinc; 
 
 Antimony, copper, tin, and lead ; 
 have been tried for the manufacture of metallic mirrors, 
 buttons, and other products, when it was desirable to 
 obtain a fine polish, a bright lustre, a certain hardness s 
 
 10* 
 
114 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 and at the same time a sufficient mildness or mallea- 
 bility to allow of their being worked. 
 
 A remarkable property of antimony is to render 
 brittle the metals with which it is united, even when 
 it is in small proportion. This should be remembered, 
 when we desire to employ this metal in experimenting 
 on new alloys. 
 
 Alloys of Nickel and Copper.- — The alloys of nickel 
 and copper are easily effected by fusion. In the mineral 
 kingdom, nickel is united with copper. In Piedmont, 
 in the valley of the Sesia, are to be found large deposits 
 of white magnetic pyrites, holding 5 per cent, of nickel 
 and 1J per cent, of copper. In other countries, the 
 nickel is to be found, under the name of white copper, 
 amongst the slags of certain copper-works, where the 
 nickel had been allowed to go to waste. 
 
 The alloy of 1 part of nickel and 2 of copper gives 
 a grayish-white metal, slightly crystalline at the 
 surface, tenacious, ductile, and sufficiently fusible. 
 
 Alloys of Nickel and Zinc. — Few experiments have 
 been made on these alloys. According to certain 
 chemists, Thomson for instance, nickel does not alloy 
 with zinc by fusion. Others, on the contrary, assert 
 that an alloy is possible, and they give as a proof, the 
 use of it by the Chinese for the composition of their 
 palcfong, or white copper. 
 
 Berthier has tried to make an alloy of nickel and 
 zinc ; the resulting button had the composition of nickel 
 0.53 and zinc 0.47. It had a fine silver-white color, 
 and could be hammered before it would crack and 
 break. From this experiment, this skilful chemist 
 infers that it might be possible to employ zinc for 
 making, on a small scale, a melted nickel, compact and 
 malleable. This is the most striking fact we have 
 collected among the data, given by various authors, 
 on the subject of alloys of nickel and zinc. 
 
 Alloys of Nickel and Tin. — We do not find any im- 
 
ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. 115 
 
 portant experiments on these alloys. This remark 
 applies equally to the alloys of nickel and lead. These 
 alloys, however, are possible ; and, if they do not ap- 
 pear immediately useful as binary combinations, they 
 may become serviceable in the ternary and quaternary 
 alloys, by introducing copper or zinc, or both, into the 
 combinations of nickel and tin, or nickel and lead. 
 
 Alloys of Nickel and Iron. — Nickel easily unites with 
 iron, and gives, according to certain authors, a soft and 
 tenacious alloy. This fact is open to discussion. We 
 may be allowed to suppose that nickel, like copper, 
 has a tendency to render cast iron dry and brittle. 
 Meteoric iron, and certain aerolites, contain from 3 to 
 10 per cent, of nickel. 
 
 This kind of iron, generally very soft when it is not 
 combined with substances other than carbon, may 
 acquire a very fine polish. It may be imitated by 
 certain alloys of iron and nickel, which are less easily 
 oxidized than iron, and remain ductile as long as the 
 proportion of nickel is not over 10 per cent. 
 
 In England, MM. Faraday and Stodart have tried 
 to reproduce meteoric iron with the following alloys. 
 They melted in a crucible 97 parts of good iron and 
 3 parts of nickel : the alloy had the appearance of 
 being as malleable and easily worked as pure iron. 
 When polished, its color was quite white; the specific 
 gravity was 7.804. 
 
 Another alloy of iron 90 and nickel 10 produced a 
 metal having a yellow tint after having been polished, 
 a specific gravity equal to 7.849, less oxidizable and 
 malleable than iron, and more brittle than the pre- 
 ceding alloy. 
 
 An alloy of the same kind, tried by Berthier, by 
 reducing in a brasqued crucible a mixture of oxides 
 corresponding to 12 parts of iron and 1 part of nickel, 
 gave a metal semi-ductile, very tenacious, with a 
 
116 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 fracture granular and slightly scaly, and presenting 
 exactly the characteristics of meteoric iron. 
 
 MM. Faraday and Stodart have also succeeded in 
 combining steel and nickel in the proportion of 10 
 parts of nickel with from 80 to 100 parts of steel. 
 
 But, in opposition to what has been previously 
 related in regard to iron, they mention that steel, 
 combined with nickel, is more easily oxidized than 
 pure steel. 
 
 M. Dumas thinks that such alloys might be service- 
 able for the manufacture of telescopic mirrors, which 
 quite contradicts the opinion that they are easily 
 oxidized. 
 
 On the other hand, Karsten believes that the experi- 
 ments of MM. Stodart and Faraday produced no true 
 chemical combinations ; and that, if a metal united 
 with steel only by simple mixture, may increase its 
 tenacity, the same effect may not take place with a 
 thorough combination. Recent and not very conclu- 
 sive experiments have been made in that direction, 
 for combining cast iron and steel with wolfram (tung- 
 sten), in the hope that a resistance superior to that of 
 the ordinary metals will be obtained. 
 
 Alloys of Nickel and Arsenic. — We mention these 
 combinations rather as existing in nature than as a 
 future source of useful alloys for the arts. According 
 to Berzelius, nickel easily combines with arsenic, and 
 holds it, even when submitted to a very high tempera- 
 ture. A small proportion of arsenic added to nickel 
 does not impair the malleability or the magnetic pro- 
 perty of the latter metal, but increases its fusibility. 
 Alloys made under these conditions are very hard, 
 and tinged with a light red shade. Their specific 
 gravity, according to Thomson, is much below the 
 average of the two metals. 
 
 General Observations. — The preceding indica- 
 tions show sufficiently well that nickel and its alloys 
 
ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. 117 
 
 have been submitted to sufficiently thorough investi- 
 gations, in order to reveal unexpected facts. It is, 
 however, sure that if nickel were produced in greater 
 abundance, this metal would find new and useful appli- 
 cations. At the present time, the industrial uses of 
 metallic nickel seem to be confined to certain alloys 
 with copper and zinc, which, in Birmingham espe- 
 cially, are employed in the manufacture of white 
 metal wares, imitating the color, lustre, and polish of 
 silver. The proportions of these alloys remain in the 
 neighborhood of copper 8. nickel 2 to 6, and zinc from 
 So to 6. When the proportion of nickel is below 2 
 parts, the metal obtained is not better than a pale brass, 
 and tarnishes rapidly in the air. When the proportion 
 of nickel is 6 parts or more, the alloy possesses a fine 
 polish with much lustre, but is difficult to produce, 
 and subject to shrinkage, fracture, and other accidents 
 during the casting. 
 
 Alloys of Arsenic and Co}oper. — It is difficult to com- 
 bine directly copper and arsenic. This latter metal is not 
 held with sufficient strength by the copper, whose high 
 point of fusion volatilizes it before the combination 
 can take place. 
 
 The alloy is obtained by melting copper and arsenic 
 in a covered crucible, with a layer of salt or charcoal- 
 dust, in order to prevent oxidation of the arsenic by 
 the air. 
 
 The alloy of equal parts of copper and arsenic is 
 white, brittle, and without malleability. It becomes 
 slightly ductile and malleable only by considerably 
 diminishing the proportion of arsenic. The contact 
 of the air tarnishes it. By calcination, the greater part 
 of the arsenic disappears by volatilization, and the 
 remaining metal regains a certain malleability. 
 
 The alloys of copper and arsenic are generally known 
 under the name of white copper or tombac. 
 
 The ordinary composition of these alloys is about 
 
118 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 copper 62 and arsenic 37. They are of a brilliant gray 
 color, very brittle, fusible at a red heat, and unaltered 
 at the temperature of boiling water. By increasing 
 the proportion of copper, the alloy becomes whitish, 
 somewhat ductile, and is preferred for the manufacture 
 of small articles of white copper. 
 
 Alloys of Arsenic and Zinc. — The alloys of these two 
 metals are difficult of preparation. They are very 
 brittle, and useless for the present wants of the arts. 
 
 Alloys of Arsenic and Tin. — These two metals easily 
 combine by fusion, and in all proportions. The alloys 
 are gray, lamellar, brittle, and less fusible than tin. 
 
 By its union with arsenic, tin becomes whiter, more 
 brilliant, harder, and more sonorous ; but it becomes 
 very brittle if it contains but one per cent, of arsenic. 
 
 6 parts of arsenic with 100 of tin are sufficient to 
 produce an alloy, crystallizing with large laminae, like 
 bismuth, and entirely deprived of ductility. 
 
 The alloys of arsenic and tin are of no actual utility 
 in the arts. A compound of arsenic 1 part and tin 3 
 parts is employed in laboratories for the preparation 
 of the arseniureted hydrogen gas. The arsenides of 
 zinc may be used instead. 
 
 Alloys of Arsenic and Lead. — These combinations are 
 not produced without difficulty, and not equally easy 
 in all proportions. Beyond the proportions of arsenic 
 16 parts and lead 84 parts, which seem to be the highest 
 degree for an intimate atomical combination, the ar- 
 senides, where the proportion of arsenic is greater, are 
 easily decomposed by raising the temperature. The 
 metal also becomes brittle, and presents a fracture like 
 that of bismuth, but of a darker color. 
 
 The arsenides of lead are, therefore, the less ductile 
 and the more brittle, as they contain more arsenic ; 
 their fracture is brilliant, lamellar, and of a grayish- 
 white color. They are very fusible. 
 
 A white heat expels a notable portion of the arsenic, 
 
ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. 119 
 
 and seems to leave an arsenide having the constant 
 composition of arsenic 1 and lead 2, which will bear a 
 very high temperature without losing weight. 
 
 The arsenide of lead is employed for facilitating the 
 manufacture of shot lead, which is prepared, as we 
 know, by letting fall from an elevated place drops of 
 lead into water. An addition of two or three thousandths 
 of arsenic to the lead helps its solidification, and gives 
 to the shot a more spherical shape. 
 
 Alloys of Arsenic and Iron. — These alloys are possi- 
 ble in various proportions, but they have no direct 
 utility in the arts. The alloy is more or less white, 
 hard, brittle, and with a fracture resembling that of 
 steel, with grains finer than those of iron. The most 
 evident result of the combinations of arsenic with iron, 
 and we may say with most metals, is that iron becomes 
 harsh, brittle, and loses much of its malleability and 
 ductility even with a very small amount of arsenic. 
 
 General Observations. — The alloys of arsenic, 
 generally known under the name of arsenides, are 
 rather " unions" than alloys of metals. Nevertheless, 
 these " unions" possess a metallic lustre. The effect 
 of the presence of arsenic is to increase the brittleness 
 and fusibility of the metals with which it is united. 
 
 The arsenides having a certain importance in the 
 arts are the alloys of arsenic and copper, known under 
 the name of white coppers. Among the ternary and 
 quaternary combinations, we may mention the follow- 
 ing, which are more or less employed : — 
 
 Arsenic, antimony, and lead, for types. 
 
 Arsenic, bismuth, and copper, for buttons. 
 
 Arsenic, copper, and tin, tried for the manufacture 
 of telescopic mirrors, and other optical instruments. 
 
 Arsenic, copper, tin, and zinc, also tried for telescopic 
 mirrors. 
 
 Amalgams. — These are alloys of mercury and other 
 metals ; but we shall not dwell on these compounds, as 
 
120 PKACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 they do not strictly belong to our subject, which com- 
 prises more especially those combinations obtained by 
 fusion in the foundry. 
 
 The amalgams of mercury and copper are difficult of 
 preparation, and present no practical interest. 
 
 Mercury and zinc give white compounds, very brittle, 
 and remaining pasty when mercury predominates. 
 
 Mercury and tin combine in all proportions with the 
 aid of heat, and will also combine at the ordinary tem- 
 perature. The amalgam formed of mercury 10 parts 
 and tin 1 is liquid, and resembles mercury, except that 
 it does not run so well. 
 
 An amalgam of equal parts of mercury and tin is 
 solid. 
 
 An amalgam of mercury and lead, half and half, is 
 susceptible of crystallization. With the aid of heat, 
 lead is very rapidly dissolved by mercury. At the 
 ordinary temperature, the solution is effected by rubbing 
 and trituration. Mercury may absorb half of its weight 
 of lead, and yet remain liquid. 
 
 Mercury and iron do not directly combine. Mercury 
 being without action upon iron, it is kept and trans- 
 ported in iron bottles or vessels. The amalgams of iron 
 which are effected with the aid of potassium and zinc, 
 or by any other indirect process, have no stability* 
 
 Mercury and bismuth may form a kind of solution, 
 by which mercury absorbs a great proportion of bis- 
 muth, without losing its fluidity; the drops, however, 
 affect the pear shape. The amalgam of mercury 4 
 parts and bismuth 1 part is very fusible, and may be 
 used for tinning, it being very adhesive to bodies with 
 which it comes in contact. 
 
 The amalgams of antimony are granular, white, with- 
 out consistence, and present no interest. 
 
 * The greater part of these data are borrowed from the interesting 
 works of Mr. Berthier. — Author. 
 
ALLOYS OF METALS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE. 121 
 
 The same remarks apply to the amalgams of nickel 
 and arsenic. 
 
 The amalgams which are most employed in the arts, 
 and outside of those which belong to the laboratory, 
 are those of tin for silvering mirrors, and the prepara- 
 tion of mosaic gold; and of tin or zinc for exciting 
 electrical apparatus, &c. Mercury also enters into the- 
 composition of a few ternary and quaternary com- 
 pounds, of which we may mention : — 
 
 A fraudulent amalgam of mercury 3 parts, lead 1 
 part, and bismuth 1 part, which is very fluid at the 
 ordinary temperature, and is used for adulterating 
 mercury. This alloy, which is fluid enough to pass 
 through chamois leather like pure mercury, has its 
 drops pear-shaped ; which is a means of ascertaining 
 the fraud. 
 
 The amalgam of Mr. Makenzie, which is solid at the 
 ordinary temperature, and becomes liquid by simple 
 friction, may be prepared as follows : melt 2 parts of 
 bismuth and 4 parts of lead in separate crucibles ; then 
 throw the melted metals into two other crucibles, each 
 containing 1 part of mercury. When cold, these 
 alloys or amalgams are solid, but will melt when rubbed 
 one against the other. 
 
 The amalgams of mercury, bismuth, tin, and lead, 
 which are very fusible, are employed for metallic 
 injections, and the silvering of the inside of glass globes 
 and hollow mirrors, &c. 
 
 There is, in our opinion, no doubt that these metals 
 of secondary importance in the arts, which we have 
 just examined, will yet be called to take an important 
 part in the practice of the industrial arts ; and that 
 several of their alloys will sooner or later emerge from 
 the experimental state, in which, up to the present 
 time, they have given only neutral results. 
 
 For this, it will be necessary, as with copper, 
 zinc, tin, and lead, to take bismuth, antimony, arsenic, 
 11 
 
122 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOK METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 and nickel, and examine their combinations between 
 each other, and afterwards those with the other metals. 
 We do not here mention mercury, because this metal 
 will require other kinds of experiments. 
 
 It will, therefore, be necessary to undertake a long 
 series of comparative experiments, and not to abandon 
 them until all the practical facts have been gathered. 
 But such experiments are not easy, and cannot be con- 
 ducted in a short time and without expense. They 
 will consume much time and money, which are not at 
 the disposal of everybody. 
 
 For us, these experiments would be very attractive. 
 They were even a part of our programme when we 
 undertook our first studies. But it is impossible to 
 say that we will ever find the opportunity and the 
 years necessary for their study. 
 
 III. 
 
 ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS, BELONGING 
 
 ESPECIALLY TO THE ARTS OP LUXURY. 
 
 The metals of which we will treat in this chapter 
 are gold, silver, platinum, and aluminium. We shall 
 consider them in regard to their combinations with the 
 preceding metals, and between themselves. 
 
 We shall try to pass rapidly over the data which 
 present no interest in the arts, leaving for the end of 
 this book, where we sum up all the known alloys, the 
 completion of what we have omitted or have not clearly 
 explained. 
 
 Alloys of Gold and Copper. — Gold and copper have 
 a great mutual affinity, and may be alloyed in all pro- 
 portions. 
 
 The alloys are harder and more fusible than gold 
 alone. Copper diminishes the ductility of gold, when 
 
ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 123 
 
 it enters into the combination in a proportion over 10 
 to 12 per cent. 
 
 The great value of gold is the reason, in every case, 
 why the proportion of copper in the alloy should not 
 be very considerable. This remark applies equally to 
 all the alloys of gold, and of the metals of this chapter, 
 with all the common metals. We may hence observe, 
 that the more precious a metal is, the less it should be 
 mixed with common metals, in order not to be debased. 
 Or, in other words, the higher the value of a metal, the 
 greater should be the proportion of this metal in the 
 alloy, unless in a very few cases, when a certain pur- 
 pose is to be reached without reference to cost. 
 
 However, there are exceptions ; as, for instance, when 
 the costly metal being combined in a small proportion 
 with a common metal, increases the value of the latter 
 by imparting to it new and valuable properties. Such 
 is the case with aluminium and copper. Aluminium, 
 at the present time, is expensive, and therefore a pre- 
 cious metal. But when it is combined in a small pro- 
 portion with copper, for the manufacture of the alumi- 
 nium bronze, a new compound is produced which 
 possesses many of the qualities of the precious metals, 
 that is, lustre, brilliancy, solidity, and, above all, a 
 great resistance to oxidation. We may, therefore, 
 employ aluminium in small or large proportions, but 
 we cannot do so in regard to gold and silver, which 
 will be debased by a large admixture of other metals. 
 
 Gold, which is considered as the purest, most unalter- 
 able and perfect metal, must acquire a certain hardness, 
 which alone it does not possess, for the manufacture of 
 coins, medals, jewelry, etc. It acquires that hardness 
 and solidity by being alloyed with copper. In such 
 alloys, the respective proportions of gold and copper 
 form what is called " the degree of fineness." Or, in 
 other words, the fineness is the greater as the alloy 
 contains more gold. 
 
124: PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 The standards or degrees of fineness are variable 
 with different countries, and are regulated by law, espe- 
 cially those of the coin. We shall further examine 
 this subject hereafter. 
 
 The specific gravity of the alloys of gold and cop- 
 per is less than the average of the two metals. 
 
 An impure copper alters the malleability of gold, 
 and may render it very brittle. A pure copper is 
 therefore necessary for these alloys. 
 
 The maximum of hardness caused by the admix- 
 ture of copper with gold appears to be when the alloy 
 is made in the proportions of gold 7 parts and copper 
 1 part. 
 
 Alloys of Gold and Zinc. — The alloys of gold and 
 zinc are greenish-yellow, brittle, and susceptible of 
 receiving a brilliant polish. The zinc produces a 
 sensible contraction in these alloys, and it so readily 
 alters the qualities of gold, that when fumes of vola- 
 tilized zinc reach melted gold, this latter metal be- 
 comes brittle. 
 
 An alloy of gold 11 parts and zinc 1 part resembles 
 the pale yellow brass obtained with an excess of zinc. 
 Its specific gravity is 19.937, and it does not tarnish. 
 
 Alloys of Gold and Tin. — The alloys of gold and 
 tin are easily effected by fusion, and in all proportions. 
 They are generally brittle; but may retain a certain 
 ductility, when the proportion of tin is not over one- 
 twelfth. The color of these alloys is pale and nearly 
 white. Like the alloys of gold and zinc, the union of 
 the two metals produces contraction. 
 
 Alloys of Gold and Lead. — These alloys may be pro- 
 duced in all proportions; they are exceedingly brittle, 
 and without any utility in the arts. According to Ber- 
 thier, one-half of one-thousandth of lead alloyed to gold 
 is sufficient to render the latter metal entirely brittle, 
 and without any ductility. All the alloys of gold and 
 lead present the phenomenon of expansion, which is 
 
ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 125 
 
 the greater when the proportion of lead diminishes, 
 and its place is taken by copper, the proportion of 
 gold remaining constant. 
 
 The maximum of expansion takes place when the 
 lead is only 0.001 of the alloy. 
 
 An alloy of gold 11 parts and lead 1 part possesses 
 the color of gold; but its fragility is such that it 
 breaks like glass. Its fracture is finely granular, of 
 a light brown, with a metallic lustre, and the appear- 
 ance of broken chinaware. 
 
 The specific gravity of this alloy, which is harder 
 and more fusible than gold, is 18.080, or a little less 
 than the average specific gravity of the two alloyed 
 metals. 
 
 Alloys of Gold and Iron. — Gold and iron easily com- 
 bine in all proportions. Their mutual affinity is very 
 great, and their alloy is decomposed with difficulty. 
 Gold facilitates the fusion of iron, which is a proof of 
 the tendency of these metals to become alloyed. 
 
 According to Karsten, iron does not change the 
 tenacity of gold ; and, on the other hand, gold does not 
 seem to impair the qualities of iron, or to be an im- 
 pediment to its manufacture. 
 
 An alloy of gold 1 part and iron 3 parts melts at a 
 temperature below the point of fusion of iron. 
 
 An alloy of equal parts of gold and iron is of a gray- 
 ish color, brittle, and somewhat magnetic. An alloy 
 which contains T ^ of iron is pale yellow, and the color 
 becomes grayish-yellow when the proportion of iron 
 is increased to j. The alloy is grayish-white when 
 the atomical proportions are 3 to i for iron and 1 for 
 gold. 
 
 The alloy holding £ of iron is employed in jewelry, 
 under the name of gray gold. The alloy where iron 
 enters as § or f has been tried for making cutting in- 
 struments. This furnishes a metal susceptible of tak- 
 ing a hard temper. 
 
 11* 
 
126 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Alloys of Gold and Bismuth. — The alloys are ob- 
 tained by fusion, in all proportions; tbey have the 
 appearance of brass, and are harsh and brittle. A trace 
 of bismuth is sufficient for rendering gold brittle and 
 without ductility. The action of bismuth on gold is 
 the same as that of zinc. Vapors of bismuth, in con- 
 tact with melted gold, are sufficient to impair the mal- 
 leability of gold, and make it brittle. 
 
 The alloys all present the phenomenon of contrac- 
 tion ; they are greenish-yellow, and their fracture is 
 finely granular, with an earthy appearance. A com- 
 pound made of equal parts of gold and bismuth has 
 a specific gravity equal to 18.058, and suffers a loss 
 in volume equal to 1.2 per cent., which shows a con- 
 siderable contraction. 
 
 Alloys of Gold and Antimony. — Antimony possesses 
 a remarkable affinity for gold, and dissolves it rapidly. 
 The slightest fume of antimony is sufficient to alter the 
 malleability of gold, and cause its brittleness. The 
 alloys of gold and antimony are of a pale yellow color, 
 and their fracture is finely granular, resembling that 
 of chinaware. 
 
 The facility with which antimony unites with gold, 
 attracted, from the earliest epochs of science, the atten- 
 tion of the alchemists, who pretended that gold increased 
 in weight, when, after having been combined with anti- 
 mony, the latter metal was separated. From that false 
 idea, due to an imperfect separation, it had been sup- 
 posed that antimony exerted a certain influence on the 
 production of gold, and therefore favored the " trans- 
 mutation." Thence the name of Regulus (little king) 
 given to antimony, as characterizing the tendency of 
 gold to assimilate this metal. 
 
 Alloys of Gold and Nickel. — To the best of our know- 
 ledge, these alloys have not been experimented upon. 
 Some useful results might possibly occur by trying to 
 substitute nickel for copper in certain gold alloys. 
 
ALLOYS OF THE PKECIOUS METALS. 127 
 
 Alloys of Gold and Arsenic. — Gold easily combines 
 with arsenic ; the products are white or grayish-white, 
 and very brittle. One-thousandth of arsenic is suffi- 
 cient to take off all the malleability of gold, although 
 its color is not changed. The arsenide of gold, pre- 
 pared by exposing melted gold to the fumes of arsenic, 
 is white and very brittle. Once united with gold, 
 arsenic cannot be removed, except by a very high heat. 
 
 Amalgam of Gold. — Mercury has a very powerful 
 action on gold ; it dissolves it in large proportions, 
 without losing its fluidity. The point of saturation 
 appears to be 2 parts of gold for 1 part of mercury. 
 The gold amalgam may be produced at a very low 
 temperature, by the fumes of mercury. A piece of 
 gold, rubbed with mercury, is immediately penetrated 
 by it, and becomes exceedingly brittle. 
 
 The compound of gold and mercury is white, pasty, 
 and crystallizes when cooled slowly. The amalgam, 
 saturated with gold, is yellowish-white, remains soft, 
 and may be kneaded between the fingers. 
 
 The great affinity of gold and mercury is the base of 
 all the processes for gilding metals, especially copper. 
 For gilding copper, bronze, and brass, we employ 
 amalgams formed of 8 to 9 parts of mercury to 1 of 
 gold. The uses of these amalgams have been greatly 
 lessened since the adoption of the galvanoplastic 
 methods. The description of the old process is to be 
 found in a special treatise by d'Arcet ; and we refer 
 those of our readers who may be interested in the 
 gilding process to that and other treatises on the 
 subject. 
 
 Alloys of Gold and Silver. — Gold and silver may 
 be easily mixed together, but do not appear to form 
 true combinations. These alloys, more fusible than 
 gold, do not seem to unite intimately, except in small 
 proportions, and that without evident utility. Made 
 within these conditions, the compounds are generally 
 
128 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 greenish- white, more ductile, harder, more sonorous 
 and elastic than gold or silver, considered singly. 
 One-twentieth of silver is sufficient to modify the 
 color of gold. 
 
 Silver, like copper, increases the firmness and tough- 
 ness of gold, and on that account it is employed at 
 various degrees of fineness for jewelry work. These 
 alloys are known by jewellers under the names of 
 yellow gold, green gold, and pale gold, according to the 
 proportion of silver. Green gold contains about 30 
 per cent, of silver; and pale or white gold, as much 
 as 66 per cent. 
 
 Gilt silver is silver gilt with gold amalgams, and by 
 processes of manufacture similar to those employed for 
 gilding copper. 
 
 At all events, whatever is the temperature, the alloys 
 of gold and silver are not susceptible of oxidation, 
 whether by contact with the atmospheric air or with 
 pure oxygen. 
 
 Alloys, of Gold and Platinum. — The two metals may 
 be alloyed in all proportions ; but, on account of the 
 infusibility of platinum, the alloy takes place only at 
 a very high heat. All of these alloys are ductile and 
 very elastic. 
 
 The combinations of gold and platinum have been 
 studied by many chemists, who do not entirely agree, 
 even on the appearance of the alloys. Some pretend 
 that a very small proportion of platinum is sufficient 
 to modify the yellow color of gold, and that an alloy 
 made of 4 to 6 parts of gold to 1 of platinum pos- 
 sesses nearly the color of pure platinum. Others, 
 on the contrary, claim that as long as the proportion 
 of platinum is not over one-seventeenth of the alloy, 
 the color of gold is not sensibly altered. 
 
 It would be interesting to ascertain the limit of modi- 
 fication in the color of gold, as, for instance, in the case of 
 platinum fraudulently alloyed with gold. This fraud, 
 
ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 129 
 
 which at a certain epoch was to be feared, does not 
 appear to be extensively practised, and may be de- 
 tected by the powerful means which modern chemistry 
 possesses for determining and separating the most 
 intimate compounds. 
 
 General Observations. — From the preceding 
 data, we observe that gold is one of the metals which 
 most readily enters into combination with other 
 metals. But this property is without importance 
 when we consider the inutility of the majority of the 
 compounds, and the necessity of not debasing the 
 value or impairing the qualities of gold. Moreover, 
 it is certain that, excepting its alloys with copper, 
 silver, iron, and platinum, the latter two being without 
 actual utility, gold loses part of its ductility, resistance, 
 and cohesion when it is combined with other metals, 
 such as zinc, tin, lead. etc. Therefore it is entirely 
 useless to experiment on those alloys where gold loses 
 not only part of its money value, but also these valua- 
 ble properties which participated in making it a 
 precious metal. A similar reasoning will equally 
 apply to the ternary or quaternary alloys into which 
 gold may enter as a component part; they are not 
 rational, and we shall not examine them. 
 
 Alloys of Silver and Copper. — Silver and copper are 
 easily alloyed in all proportions. The combination 
 takes place with expansion, and its specific gravity is 
 less than that calculated from the proportions of the 
 component metals. The majority of these alloys are as 
 ductile as pure silver, and possess a great deal more 
 hardness, elasticity, and sonorousness. The presence 
 of copper does not modify the color of silver, so long 
 as the proportion of copper is not above 35 to 40 per 
 cent. A greater proportion of copper imparts to the 
 alloy a yellowish tint, similar to that of brass ; and if 
 the combination contains from 65 to 70 per cent, of 
 
130 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 copper, its color is reddish, approaching the tint of 
 pure copper. 
 
 The peculiar qualities of the alloys of silver and 
 copper cause them to be preferred, in certain cases, 
 and within certain limits, to pure silver, which is want- 
 ing in hardness. 
 
 An alloy made of 9 parts of silver and 1 of cop- 
 per is white, tough, more fusible than silver, but not 
 quite so ductile. These proportions are adopted for 
 the French silver coinage. The maximum of hard- 
 ness of the alloys of silver and copper appears to be 
 when the proportion of copper is one -fifth. 
 
 These alloys of silver and copper, although easily 
 effected by the ordinary processes of fusion, are never- 
 theless subject to the defect of separation or " liqua- 
 tion," which necessitates certain precautions when run- 
 ning the metal into the moulds. When such an alloy 
 is run into a cold ingot-mould, the centre of the 
 ingot is at a lower degree of fineness than the portions 
 nearer the mould ; and we observe, also, even in the 
 monetary alloys, that all the portions are not of the 
 same degree of fineness. 
 
 Alloys of Silver and Zinc. — Silver and zinc easily 
 combine, but their products present no interest. They 
 have a bluish tint, and a finely granular fracture. 
 They are of no practical use. 
 
 Alloys of Silver and Tin. — The alloys of silver and 
 tin present the phenomenon of contraction. They are 
 harsh, very hard, and brittle. A small proportion of 
 tin is sufficient to destroy the ductility of silver, and 
 make it brittle. 
 
 Alloys of Silver and Lead. — Silver and lead unite in 
 all proportions. A very small proportion of lead is 
 sufficient to sensibly diminish the ductility of silver. 
 The alloys are more fusible, and of a greater specific 
 gravity, than the average of the two component metals. 
 
 An alloy of equal parts of silver and lead possesses 
 
ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 131 
 
 a great deal more of the properties of the latter metal 
 than of the former. It is soft, and quite ductile and 
 malleable. 
 
 An alloy of 1 part of silver and 7 parts of lead is 
 grayish-white, less ductile than lead, and much less 
 than silver. This alloy is less fusible than pure lead. 
 
 The alloys of silver and lead are easily and entirely 
 decomposed by the process of cupellation. Lead plays 
 an important part in the metallurgy of silver, which 
 it is not our intention to consider here, our object being 
 only the alloys proper. 
 
 Alloys of Silver and Iron. — We cannot say whether 
 or not these alloys, which present no interest, have 
 been the subject of any experiments* 
 
 Alloys of Silver and Bismuth. — These alloys are very 
 fusible, harsh, brittle, and lamellar. Their color is 
 white, similar to that of bismuth. They possess a cer- 
 tain malleability, but are without interest. Bismuth 
 is considered by a few chemists as being preferable to 
 lead for refining silver ; but its cost is too high for this 
 purpose. 
 
 Alloys of Silver and Antimony. — These combine in 
 all proportions, and the alloys present a whitish color 
 tending to gray when they are overcharged with anti- 
 mony. They are always brittle. Certain combinations 
 of silver and antimony are found in the natural state, 
 which possess a gray lamellar fracture, and a great 
 brittleness and fusibility. They are easily decomposed 
 by cupellation or fusion with nitre. 
 
 Alloys of Silver and Nickel. — There are no data on 
 these compounds. 
 
 Alloys of Silver and Arsenic. — These alloys may be 
 
 * No true alloys of silver and iron have been made, only more 
 or less intimate mixtures, where silver appears in the shape of 
 drops, or filaments. The experiments of Messrs. Stodart and 
 Faraday, made with steel, rather than with iron, show that the 
 proportion of -^ of silver corresponds to the best mixture. — Trans. 
 
132 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 formed directly by fusion ; and the silver will retain a 
 certain proportion of arsenic even when the tempera- 
 ture is very high. The compound made of 8b' parts of 
 silver to 14 parts of arsenic is of a dead grayish-white 
 color, brittle, and acquires a metallic lustre by friction. 
 It is very fusible. 
 
 Amalgams of Silver. — -Mercury acts upon silver with 
 nearly as much power as upon gold. Therefore, silver 
 amalgams are employed for silvering, in the same man- 
 ner as gold amalgams for gilding. 
 
 The amalgam of silver is white, very fusible, and 
 remains soft; its specific gravity is above the average 
 of the two metals. It crystallizes easily, is not altered 
 by contact with the air, and is dissolved only in a large 
 proportion of mercury. It is decomposed by heat. 
 This amalgam may be produced by throwing granules 
 or scraps of silver into 12 to 15 parts of mercury, 
 heated to 200° 0. By pressing the product through a 
 chamois-skin, the free mercury runs out, while the 
 soft amalgam is retained, and used in that state for 
 silvering. 
 
 We find in the mineral kingdom a crystallized silver 
 amalgam, which is soft and possesses a very bright 
 grayish-white lustre. According to Berthier, its specific 
 gravity is 13.755. 
 
 Alloys of Silver and Platinum,. — -Platinum forms with 
 silver a white alloy, which is harder and tougher than 
 silver, and is less fusible and ductile as the proportion 
 of platinum is greater. 
 
 This alloy is difficult to produce, on account of the 
 separation of the platinum, due to the superior specific 
 gravity of the latter metal. What might be its uses, 
 we do not see, unless it is employed for the separation 
 of gold from platinum, the alloy of platinum with a 
 great excess of silver being soluble in nitric acid, while 
 gold remains unaffected. This process may be useful 
 for certain kinds of native gold, holding platinum. 
 
ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 133 
 
 General Observations. — The alloys of silver pre- 
 sent a real interest only when they are made with gold 
 or copper. 
 
 With the other metals up to the present time, and 
 with very few exceptions, they are of no use in the 
 arts. The alloys of silver and gold, and silver and 
 copper, are those employed for articles of luxury, and 
 for coin. The alloys of silver, gold, and copper are 
 used for the same purposes. These ternary compounds 
 are much used in England for coins and by goldsmiths. 
 An alloy of silver, copper, and tin is made into a solder 
 for plated ware and false jewelry. 
 
 The alloys of silver, copper, and platinum are also 
 employed, but on a very small scale, for certain articles 
 of jewelry and watchmaking. The quaternary com- 
 pound of silver, copper, gold, and platinum produces 
 an alloy having the appearance of the article known 
 under the name of dore (gilt). 
 
 The alloy of silver, copper, tin, and gold is easily 
 effected, and gives a tough and lasting metal. This 
 alloy is found in certain coins and medals of antiquity. 
 
 The alloy of silver, arsenic, copper, and tin has been 
 tried as speculum metal for telescopic mirrors. Equally 
 with many other alloys, tried for the same purpose, 
 this compound has not fulfilled expectations. 
 
 Alloys of Platinum and Copper. — These alloys are 
 obtained by fusion, in all proportions. Like all the 
 compounds into which platinum enters, they require 
 a high temperature for their fusion. 
 
 The products vary with the proportion of platinum. 
 With equal parts, the alloy is of a pale yellow, more 
 brittle than malleable. 
 
 A compound of 1 part of platinum to 4 parts of 
 copper is hard, although ductile, of a yellow pink 
 color, and susceptible of a fine polish. 
 
 A compound of platinum 3 parts and copper 2 
 parts is nearly white, vory hard, brittle, and without 
 12 
 
134: PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 ductility. When the proportion of platinum is more 
 than one-half, the alloy is sensibly hardened, and the 
 color of copper rapidly disappears. 
 
 The alloys of platinum and copper, even with a 
 small proportion of platinum, are much less oxidable 
 than the alloys of copper with zinc or tin, for instance. 
 
 Alloys of Platinum and Zinc. — We know nothing 
 relative to these alloys ; moreover, they are scarcely 
 possible by the ordinary processes of fusion, on account 
 of the great tendency to volatilization in zinc, and the 
 high point of fusion of platinum. 
 
 Alloys of Platinum and Tin. — These alloys take place 
 in all proportions, but with the oxidation of a con- 
 siderable portion of the tin employed, the alloy being 
 formed at a white heat. 
 
 They are more or less brittle, or fusible, according 
 to the proportions of platinum. A small percentage of 
 the latter metal is sufficient to impair, and even destroy, 
 the malleability of tin. An alloy of equal parts of pla- 
 tinum and tin is brittle, of a dark gray color, and with 
 a coarse granular fracture. It tarnishes rapidly after 
 being polished. 
 
 If the proportion of platinum is not more than one- 
 tenth of the alloy, the latter becomes much more duc- 
 tile, white, and lustrous, and its polish is much less 
 easily tarnished. 
 
 Alloys of Platinum and Lead. — We possess no data on 
 these alloys, which do not appear to have been experi- 
 mented upon. 
 
 Alloys of Platinum and Iron. — By the ordinary pro- 
 cesses of fusion, platinum appears to combine in all 
 proportions, if not with wrought iron, at least with its 
 carburized compounds, pig-metal and steel. 
 
 Berthier has tried alloys made of 1 part of platinum 
 with from 4 to 10 parts of iron. The fusion was com- 
 plete in brasqued crucibles. The fracture of the alloy 
 was gray and granular, and it was possible to flatten 
 
ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 135 
 
 the metal with a hammer before breaking it. The 
 alloy was also easily filed, and presented a fine polish, 
 whose tint was more like that of platinum than of iron. 
 
 These alloys appear to have remained within the 
 limits of the laboratory, without having ever been em- 
 ployed in practice. The same may be said of the alloys 
 of steel and platinum, which, however, have been the 
 subject of more serious and conclusive trials on an 
 industrial scale. 
 
 MM. Stodart and Faraday have made quite positive 
 experiments on the alloys of platinum and steel. 
 
 With equal parts, they have obtained a metal which 
 takes a very fine polish, not susceptible of being tar- 
 nished, and with a specific gravity of 9.862. With 90 
 parts of platinum to 20 parts of steel they produced an 
 equally homogeneous alloy, which did not tarnish, and 
 had a specific gravity equal to 15.88. Both alloys were 
 malleable. 
 
 It would seem that platinum presents the advantage 
 of removing from steel its tendency to become oxi- 
 dized. This is the reason why the alloys of platinum 
 and steel have been tried for certain weapons. 
 
 The best proportions for that fabrication appear to 
 range between 2 and 3 of platinum for 100 of steel. 
 
 According to M. Dumas, an alloy of platinum 10 
 parts and steel 90 parts is very well adapted to the 
 fabrication of mirrors. Its specific gravity is 8.1. 
 
 M. Breant, inspector of the mint of Paris, had, about 
 twenty years ago, caused to be tried several pieces of 
 cutlery made of an alloy of \ part of platinum to 100 
 parts of highly carburized steel. 
 
 The bulletins of the "Socie*te d'Bncouragement" have 
 mentioned a few very remarkable samples. However, 
 since that time, we do not believe that the usual appli- 
 cations of these products have followed the experi- 
 ments of M. Breant. 
 
 Alloys of Platinum and Bismuth. — These metals 
 
136 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 combined produce but brittle alloys, which have only 
 been experimented upon in a scientific manner by Mr. 
 Lewis. With alloys ranging from 1 to 24 parts of 
 bismuth to 1 of platinum, Mr. Lewis has obtained brittle 
 products, nearly as mild as bismuth; their fracture 
 had a foliated appearance, and, by contact with the air, 
 acquired a purple, violet, or bluish color. 
 
 Alloys of Platinum and Antimony. — The combination 
 of platinum with antimony gives a dark gray alloy, 
 hard, harsh, and brittle, whose finely granular fracture 
 is a shade darker than that of either metal. A trace 
 of antimony is sufficient to render platinum brittle. 
 
 According to Berthier, when a mixture of 2 equiva- 
 lents of antimony and 1 of platinum is heated at a high 
 temperature, part of the antimony is volatilized, and the 
 remaining alloy is compact, very brittle, with a lamel- 
 lar fracture, a great lustre, crystalline, and platinum- 
 gray, at the surface, but darker than antimony. 
 
 Alloys of Platinum and Nickel. — We have no data 
 on these alloys, which do not seem to have been ex- 
 amined by chemists. 
 
 Alloys of Platinum and Arsenic. — These metals ap- 
 pear to combine in all proportions. A very small pro- 
 portion of arsenic is sufficient to make platinum brittle. 
 According to The'nard, an alloy of 20 parts of arsenic 
 and 2 of platinum presents the following characteris- 
 tics : a grayish-white color, great brittleness, and fusi- 
 bility below a red heat. The air at the ordinary tem- 
 perature has no action on this compound. 
 
 In such alloys the arsenic becomes separated by a 
 high temperature, and leaves the platinum in a spongy 
 state. 
 
 Amalgams of Platinum. — These amalgams are very 
 difficult to produce. Mercury has no action even upon 
 forged or drawn out platinum. However, with the aid 
 of heat we may obtain platinum amalgams of a fine 
 silver-white color, and which may be kept without 
 
ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 137 
 
 tarnishing. These amalgams, which are soft at the 
 beginning, gradually become hard and brittle. They 
 are decomposed by heat, and are generally formed of 
 mercury 73 parts and platinum 27. 
 
 General Observations. — The alloys of platinum, 
 most of which present no practical interest, have been 
 especially the subject of scientific studies and of labo- 
 ratory experiments. Their principal applications have 
 been the construction of reflectors, the manufacture of 
 weapons, and certain precious alloys with gold, silver, 
 or copper. 
 
 The high price of platinum causes it to be rarely 
 used. Moreover, the high temperature necessary to 
 fuse it prevents or renders very difficult the practical 
 production of those of its alloys which might become 
 useful. Most of the applications of platinum belong to 
 the chemical arts, where this metal is employed for' 
 crucibles, capsules, retorts, &c. On account of its com- 
 parative infusibility or unalterability, platinum has 
 been very useful for insuring the success of a great 
 many delicate operations, which require that the ves- 
 sels employed should not suffer any alteration capable 
 of exerting a detrimental influence on the results. 
 
 Aluminium and its Alloys. — We shall not follow for 
 these alloys the order adopted with the preceding 
 metals. Aluminium is a comparatively new metal, 
 the combinations of which with the other metals have 
 as yet been little experimented upon up to the present 
 day. Its most important industrial applications have 
 been its alloys with copper. 
 
 Before aluminium had been obtained in the metallic 
 state, its combinations, like those of the metals of the 
 next chapter, had presented just enough interest to 
 attract the attention of science. Alloys were not then 
 thought of, and the experimenters were trying chemi- 
 cal assimilations, rather than mechanical alloys, in the 
 full sense of the word. 
 
 12* 
 
138 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 From examination of works treating on the question 
 of alloys, we find very few data concerning the intro- 
 duction of alumina, not aluminium, into other metallic 
 compounds. 
 
 Alumina, which, in the natural state, is combined 
 with a certain number of metals, especially with iron, 
 takes from their useful qualities, when it remains in 
 combination after fusion, rather than imparts new ones 
 to them. 
 
 Taking for granted that the damaskeened appear- 
 ance of wootz or Indian steel, after being forged and 
 polished, was due to alumina, several learned persons 
 have studied the alloys of steel and alumina. 
 
 Small pieces of steel were submitted to a protracted 
 and very high temperature, and the resulting carbides 
 having been powdered and mixed with pure alumina, 
 after a powerful heating in a crucible, gave a white 
 alloy, very brittle, and granular in structure. 
 
 From 50 to 70 parts of this alloy, melted with from 
 500 to 700 parts of good steel, gave a metal which, 
 after having been forged, polished, and treated by 
 diluted sulphuric acid, had the damaskeened appear- 
 ance of wootz steel. 
 
 The specific gravity of this compound, not hammered, 
 was 7.665. Although presenting a lamellar fracture, 
 the metal was sufficiently malleable to be drawn out 
 without flaws or cracks. The grain, after the harden- 
 ing process, was exceedingly fine and hard. 
 
 We may be permitted to think that these results of 
 more or less authenticated experiments require to be 
 confirmed by new experiments, more thorough and 
 complete. So many savans have claimed that traces 
 of various metals, added to steel, would improve and 
 transform the properties of this metal, without the 
 results bringing an entire certitude, that we should 
 desire new experiments on the subject; the previous 
 experiments having been confined to the laboratory, 
 
ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 139 
 
 and the results being due to fortuitous circumstances 
 which could not be repeated in daily practice. 
 
 There is no doubt that, since industry produces 
 metallic aluminium, it will be possible to combine this 
 metal in all proportions with the majority of the known 
 metals. And supposing that, instead of true alloys, 
 we obtain only mixtures, these ; by their metallic 
 nature, will find more or less important or useful 
 applications in the arts, and, at all events, will furnish 
 more correct data than those in the possession of 
 science up to the present day. 
 
 Metallic aluminium, as extracted from alumina, the 
 base of clays and kaolins, so abundant in nature, ap- 
 proaches iron, cobalt, chromium, and nickel in its 
 chemical properties ; and gold,, silver, copper, tin, zinc, 
 &c, in its physical properties. Its specific gravity, 
 however, is an exception among metals, and is as 
 low as 2.60, while the average specific gravity of the 
 known metals reaches 7.20. 
 
 Aluminium was, for the first time, half a century 
 ago, isolated from alumina by Wohler, a German 
 chemist; but this metal exhibited its true character- 
 istics, only fourteen years ago, through the experiments 
 of M. Sainte-Claire Deville. 
 
 The applications of aluminium were quite exagge- 
 rated at the beginning. Being light, easily laminated, 
 embossed, drawn out, and chased, it was welcomed by 
 fashion with a favor too great to be lasting. 
 
 At the present day, we have passed through that in- 
 fatuation for a metal, the qualities of which are not 
 good enough to rank it among the precious metals. 
 Dull in color and soft, aluminium was too expensive to 
 vulgarize its applications. Although it has been ex- 
 tolled too much, this metal is, nevertheless, a very 
 interesting conquest of modern metallurgy. Its manu- 
 facture and uses, although limited, have been useful in 
 the arts; and the works at Nanterre, where aluminium 
 
140 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 is produced, refined, and worked, are to be ranked 
 among those manufacturing establishments which have 
 recourse to the laboratory only for improvements and 
 new results. Other works, in England and Germany, 
 have been created in the same manner as those of 
 Kanterre, and have for several years already produced 
 aluminium and its alloys on a manufacturing scale. 
 
 We may form several alloys with aluminium and 
 tin, zinc, silver, iron, platinum, copper, &o. ; but most 
 of them have no practical interest. Alloyed with the 
 precious metals, aluminium takes from them a part of 
 their intrinsic value, without imparting new qualities 
 to them as a compensation. Combined with certain 
 industrial metals, such as zinc, tin, iron, &c, it loses 
 itself part of its intrinsic value, without acquiring, 
 from what we actually know, any peculiar property 
 which might widen the field of its useful applications. 
 
 Its alloys with copper are the only combinations 
 which, at the present time, have been seriously practised. 
 
 To speak exactly, the combinations of aluminium 
 with the other metals are rather associations than true 
 alloys. The low specific gravity of aluminium is a 
 drawback to an alloy easily made by the direct process. 
 We are obliged to introduce aluminium, gradually 
 and by small portions at a time, into the other melted 
 metals, in order to saturate them, rather than to pro- 
 duce a combination. 
 
 For the compounds of copper and aluminium, the 
 best kinds of refined copper are necessary. 
 
 The atomic proportions appear to range between 10 
 parts of aluminium and 90 of copper. 
 
 When an ingot of aluminium is introduced into the 
 middle of a bath of molten copper, the latter is im- 
 mediately cooled off, and becomes hard. It is only 
 after a vigorous and continuous stirring that the 
 nearly coagulated mass becomes fluid again, and the 
 combination takes place. According to Mr. Morin, 
 
ALLOYS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS. 141 
 
 the director of the manufactory of Nanterre, very 
 homogeneous alloys are obtained with the proportions 
 of 5, 7|, and 10 per cent, of aluminium; whilst with 
 the proportions of 6, 7, or 8 per cent, there is no 
 thorough mixture or combination. The alloys with 
 5 and 10 per cent, of aluminium are both of a golden- 
 yellow color, whereas that with 7J per cent, gives a 
 metal having a greenish tint, perfectly different from 
 that of the two other compounds. We may be allowed 
 to suppose that, in such cases, there is some peculiar 
 process of handicraft which cannot be seen by the 
 observer ; and that the above indications would require 
 to be confirmed by other experiments. 
 
 The direct mixture, by first fusion, of 10 parts of 
 aluminium and 90 of copper, gives a brittle metal, 
 which increases in strength and tenacity only after 
 several successive fusions. At each operation, a little 
 aluminium is lost. 
 
 However, when the compound has been remelted 
 three or four times, the proportion of aluminium does 
 not seem to change, and the alloy may be remelted 
 several times without alteration. These fusions are 
 effected in crucibles. The aluminium bronze, when 
 melted several times, is homogeneous, and possesses 
 sufficient expansion to fill the remotest parts of the 
 moulds. It may be cast into very thin and sharp 
 objects, nearly as well as good statuary bronze. On 
 the other hand, when the pieces are bulky, this alu- 
 minium bronze is subject to shrinkage, and requires 
 numerous runners and a heavy feeding head {dead 
 head). 
 
 Aluminium bronze may be forged at a brown-red 
 heat, and hammered until cooled oft without present- 
 ing any flaw or cracks. This alloy, the same as cop- 
 per, is rendered milder and more ductile by being 
 plunged into cold water when hot. 
 
 The specific gravities of the alloys of copper and 
 
142 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 aluminium are sensibly proportional to the amount of 
 aluminium. According to Messrs. Bell Brothers, of 
 Newcastle, the specific gravities of compounds of copper 
 and aluminium are : — 
 
 • an alloy of 3 per cent, of aluminium 
 
 , 
 
 . 
 
 8.691 
 
 n a 4 a u u 
 
 , 
 
 . 
 
 8.621 
 
 « u 5 u a (( 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 8.369 
 
 it u 20 " " " 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 7.689 
 
 From the experiments made by Colonel Strange, 
 and stated in the Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical 
 Society of London, it results that : — ■ 
 
 The resistance to traction of aluminium bronze is 
 5328 kilogrammes per square centimetre; whereas 
 that of the ordinary ordnance metal (bronze) of Wool- 
 wich is 2552 kilogrammes. 
 
 The resistance to compression is feeble ; the metal 
 becomes flattened under the charge, the same as with 
 soft metals. 
 
 The malleability is great, although no figures ac- 
 company the experiments. Aluminium bronze may 
 be forged with great facility. From a dark red heat 
 up to a limit near its point of fusion, this metal behaves 
 perfectly well under the hammer. 
 
 The absolute rigidity was not determined. Mr. 
 Strange's experiments were confined to the relative 
 rigidity of brass, ordinary bronze, and aluminium 
 bronze ; and the results were that aluminium bronze 
 was about forty times as rigid as brass, and three times 
 as much so as ordinary bronze. 
 
 Other experiments have shown that aluminium 
 bronze does not expand or contract so much as ordi- 
 nary bronze, and does so, much less than brass. That 
 under the tool aluminium bronze produces long and 
 resisting chips, does not clog the file, &o. That, in the 
 melted state, this metal expands very much, and is fit 
 for the sharpest castings ; but that, as it cools oft* 
 
ALLOYS RARELY USED IX THE ARTS. 143 
 
 rapidly, it is subject to shrinkage, and hence to cracks. 
 At last, that although not being entirely inoxidable, it 
 is, however, not so easily tarnished by contact with the 
 air as polished brass, bronze, iron, steel, &c. 
 
 At all events, notwithstanding its imperfectly ob- 
 served qualities, it is certain that aluminium bronze has 
 not yet found a large place in the arts. The price of 
 this alloy, which ranges from 15 to 50 francs (S3 to 
 S10) per kilogramme (2.20 pounds), whether in the raw 
 state or more or less worked, and we do not speak of 
 artistic works, is certainly an impediment to its com- 
 mon use. If we add that when polished its color is 
 not very pleasing, and does not, whether by its tint or 
 lustre, resemble those of the precious metals; that its 
 unalterability is not entirely demonstrated ; we will 
 understand the slowness of the progress of aluminium 
 bronze in public favor. 
 
 The articles actually manufactured from aluminium 
 bronze are generally copies of goldsmith's ware. 
 Spoons, forks, dessert-knives, supports for decanters, 
 coffee-pots, &c, are made with the alloy holding the 
 maximum of aluminium. Candlesticks, small jewelry 
 ware, broaches, buckles, the accessory parts for surgical 
 or mathematical instruments, etc., are made with an 
 alloy of a lower grade. 
 
 In fact, the tendency is to substitute these alloys for 
 many gilt, silvered, or plated articles, when on account 
 of their peculiar properties they may present the same 
 advantages of duration at nearly the same cost. 
 
 IT. 
 
 ALLOYS OF THE METALS RARELY OR NEVER 
 USED IX THE ARTS. 
 
 We shall include in this chapter the mfxtures, 
 rather than alloys, formed between themselves or with 
 
144: PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 the preceding metals, by certain metals which chemis- 
 try classes among metalloids,* rather than among 
 metals proper. 
 
 Most of the elementary bodies which we now have to 
 examine are rare, little known, scarcely or never used, 
 and belong more to science than to the arts. Several 
 of them have not been obtained in the metallic state; 
 and we believe that under such conditions their combi- 
 nations are more interesting from a scientific point of 
 view than adapted to use in the arts; more for the 
 laboratory than for the foundry ; and therefore not 
 within the limits of this work. 
 
 This chapter shall be short, and limited to concise 
 indications relating to alloys. 
 
 However, brief as are the indications we have to 
 give concerning the more or less useful combinations 
 of the following metals: — 
 
 Manganese, 
 
 Chromium, 
 
 Cobalt, 
 
 Cadmium, 
 
 Titanium, 
 
 Uranium, 
 
 Tungsten or wolfram, 
 
 Molybdenum, 
 
 Osmium, 
 
 Iridium, 
 
 Palladium, 
 
 Rhodium, 
 
 Tellurium, 
 
 Silicon or silicium, 
 
 Potassium, 
 
 Sodium — 
 
 * The term Metalloid is applied in chemistry to those elementary- 
 bodies which, combined with oxygen or hydrogen, may act as acids, 
 and whose oxides do not play the part of bases. Silicium is the 
 only metalloid among the metals to be examined in this chapter. — 
 2\ans. 
 
MANGANESE. 145 
 
 we shall precede them by a rapid sketch of the 
 history and characteristics of these metals. We shall 
 not mention any of those which are scarcely known 
 hy chemists themselves. 
 
 Manganese. 
 
 Discovered in the metallic state, in 1774, by Scheele 
 and Gahn. Specific gravity about 7.05. Fascicular 
 and crystalline fracture, of a grayish-white color, re- 
 sembling that of white pig-iron. Less fusible than 
 cast iron. Without smell or savor. Brittle and dif- 
 ficult to file. According to Mr. Regnault, however, it 
 possesses a certain ductility and malleability which 
 would approach that of iron, if it could be obtained 
 in a pure state. 
 
 In order to preserve manganese, it must be kept 
 from contact with the air. This metal has a great ten- 
 dency to become oxidized, and its surface is rapidly 
 covered with a dark brown oxide as soon as it is ex- 
 posed to a damp atmosphere. 
 
 Manganese, according to Bergmann, unites with cop- 
 per and gives a very malleable alloy, of red color, 
 which after some time turns to a greenish-brown. 
 
 According to Berthier, alloys of copper and manga- 
 nese are ductile, and each metal possesses a great affi- 
 nity for the other. 
 
 The same savant has tried the following alloys, made 
 by heating the mixture in a brasqued crucible, and 
 obtained in the shape of metallic buttons. 
 
 Protoxide of manganese 
 Metallic copper . 
 Cuarcoal ..... 
 Borax 
 
 37.10 42.56 26.74 36.66 
 
 Alloy No. 1 gave a compact metal of a grayish- 
 "13 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4.46 
 
 8.92 
 
 8.92 
 
 17.84 
 
 51.64 
 
 31.64 
 
 15.82 
 
 15.82 
 
 0.50 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 0.50 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 
146 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 white color, shaded with red, perfectly ductile, very 
 tenacious, and with a granular and scaly fracture. The 
 proportion of manganese was about 10 per cent. 
 
 Allov No. 2 was platinum-gray, ductile, tenacious, 
 and susceptible of a fine polish. 
 
 Alloy No. 3 gave similar results to the preceding 
 ones, although its composition after fusion was 2' atoms 
 of copper to 1 of manganese. The composition of alloy 
 No. 2 was 4 atoms of copper to 1 of manganese. 
 
 Alloy No. 4 gave a well-melted metal, iron-gray, 
 ductile, very tenacious, susceptible of acquiring a very 
 fine polish, and with a scaly and at the same time 
 fibrous fracture. This metal, the composition of which 
 was about 4 atoms of copper to 3 of manganese, 
 exhaled a smell of hydrogen when breathed upon. 
 
 The composition of these alloys shows a great affi- 
 nity between the two metals; because, without the 
 presence of the copper the proportion of reduced man- 
 ganese would not have been so considerable. 
 
 Gold, like copper, may be alloyed with manganese. 
 This latter metal, melted with 33 per cent, of gold, 
 forms a hard alloy of a light gray color, with little 
 ductility, and having a granular fracture. With only 
 10 per cent, of gold the alloy becomes entirely ductile, 
 finely granular, and of a light gray. 
 
 The alloy composed of 12 per cent, of manganese 
 and 88 per cent, of gold is a pale yellowish-gray, w r ith 
 a fine lustre, similar to that of polished steel. This 
 alloy, which is less fusible than gold, is very hard and 
 slightly ductile. Its fracture presents a spongy ap- 
 pearance, the grains are coarse, and the color is a red- 
 dish-gray. It is not altered by contact with the air. 
 According to M. Dumas, the above proportion of 
 manganese is the maximum which can be employed 
 without debasing the gold too much. 
 
 Manganese is often found combined with certain 
 kinds of pig-iron. But these forced combinations are 
 
MANGANESE. 147 
 
 to be found in white, lamellar, and very brittle pig- 
 iron, and there seems to be no advantage in direct 
 alloys of iron with manganese. 
 
 It appears, however, that the presence of manganese 
 in pig-iron is valuable for the manufacture of steel. 
 In this respect it would be interesting to study more 
 thoroughly than has been done what is the action 
 of manganese on pig-iron. The main point would be 
 to obtain a combination of manganese with pure pig- 
 iron — that is, deprived of such other substances as are 
 susceptible of altering its qualities. Several kinds of 
 pig-iron, holding manganese, have been found by 
 analysis to contain also copper, zinc, silica, alumina, 
 phosphorus, &c. Most of these substances being pre- 
 judicial to pig-iron, whether for casting or the manu- 
 facture of iron and steel, it is certain that all of the 
 bad effects are not attributable to manganese. 
 
 Berthier has indicated an alloy of — 
 
 Copper . . . . . . . . 0.661 
 
 Tungsten 0.216 
 
 Iron . . 0.091 
 
 Manganese 0.031 
 
 0.999 
 
 which is semi-ductile, very hard, susceptible of a fine 
 polish, and nearly as red as pure copper. This skilful 
 chemist has thought that, by increasing the proportion 
 of copper, the alloy would become entirely malleable. 
 as fine as copper, harder, and a great deal less fusible. 
 
 This would be a curious experiment to make, unless 
 it has already been done. But, as regards alloys, we 
 must be prepared for unforeseen results; and changes 
 in the proportions will not always be accompanied by 
 corresponding transformations in the nature of the 
 alloys, such as would have been presupposed from the 
 composition of the primitive alloy. 
 
 From what we know, no other experiments on 
 
148 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 alloys of manganese have been made. At least, none 
 have been published. 
 
 Chromium. 
 
 Discovered by Vauquelin, in 1797. Specific gravity 
 = 5.9. Very hard and brittle. Scratches glass, and 
 is very slightly fusible. Its color resembles that of 
 tin, and, after polishing, acquires a fine metallic lustre. 
 
 Chromium, in the natural state, is found combined 
 with iron and lead, forming chrome iron, and chro- 
 mate of lead or croco'ide. It is difficult to obtain in an 
 entirely metallic state ; by the known processes, it is 
 produced as an agglutinated grayish mass, or a dark 
 gray powder. In either case, it is not completely pure. 
 Chromium is not very oxidizable by contact with the 
 air, at the ordinary temperature; but, at a red heat, 
 and with that contact, it becomes incandescent by the 
 absorption df oxygen, and is changed into the green 
 oxide of chromium. 
 
 The chemical combinations of chromium are re- 
 markable for their colors. 
 
 Experimenters appear to have studied only the com- 
 binations of chromium with iron and steel. From 
 their researches it has been ascertained that chromium 
 has a powerful affinity for iron, and may be alloyed 
 with this metal in all proportions. 
 
 According to Berthier, if we submit to a powerful 
 heat, in a brasqued crucible, a mixture of the oxides 
 of chromium and iron, they are perfectly reduced, and 
 we may obtain, in all proportions, intimate and homo- 
 geneous combinations of the two metals. 
 
 These alloys are generally hard, brittle, crystalline, 
 grayish-white, and, when polished, more lustrous than 
 iron. With an increase in the proportion of chromium, 
 they become proportionally more refractory, less mag- 
 netic, and more indifferent to the action of acids. 
 
CHROMIUM. 149 
 
 The alloy made of- 
 
 Iron 68.60 
 
 Chromium 31.40 
 
 100.00 
 
 has a fibrous structure, a white color nearly like that 
 of silver, and is very brittle and difficult to file. 
 
 The alloys of chromium and iron have not, as yet, 
 been used on a very large scale in the arts. In case 
 they should, it would be better, according to Berthier, 
 to substitute, in the mixtures, the chrome ore (chrome 
 iron) for the pure oxide of chromium. The chrome 
 ores are not scarce, and a large deposit has been found 
 in the department of Var (France). 
 
 In his experiments on the combinations of chromium 
 with iron and steel, Berthier has employed the alloys 
 of chromium and iron for introducing the former 
 metal into cast steel. 
 
 The alloys of steel and chromium made by that pro- 
 cess, and holding from 1 to 2 per cent, of chromium, 
 gave a metal which, like wootz or Indian steel, could be 
 polished, and then damaskeened by means of diluted 
 sulphuric acid. The damaskeened pattern (the white 
 portions of which were chromium, upon which diluted 
 acid has no action) presented variegated veins, with a 
 brilliant silver lustre, and similar to those obtained in 
 the alloy of silver with steel. 
 
 Several manufacturers of arms in Belgium have, by 
 similar processes, tried the alloys of steel and chro- 
 mium for their damaskeened blades. We believe that 
 these alloys are in actual use, but that steel of cemen- 
 tation has been substituted for cast steel, which was 
 employed in the experiments. 
 
 Other trials made by Berthier on alloys of chromium 
 and copper, chromium and tin, do not appear to have 
 been applied in the arts. We shall detail them as 
 subjects of information, reminding our readers that 
 
 13* 
 
150 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 among these brief data they may find a basis for new- 
 studies, which, if made in a practical manner, may pos- 
 sibly lead to unforeseen results. 
 
 According to Berthier, the alloy made of — 
 
 Copper 0.912 
 
 Chromium 0.088 
 
 i.000 
 
 is malleable and harder than copper. It has the same 
 color as the latter metal, and will acquire a fine polish. 
 The alloy composed of — 
 
 Tin 0.808 
 
 Chromium 0.192 
 
 1.000 
 
 is grayish-white, soft, semi-ductile, harder than tin, 
 but cannot be laminated. Its fracture is granular, and 
 iron-gray. 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 Was discovered by Brandt in 1733. Specific gravity 
 8.6. Fracture, a reddish-gray ; when polished, its color 
 is of a steel-gray, as magnetic as iron, more fusible, 
 and less ductile. It takes a fine polish. Its tenacity 
 is remarkable, and, according to M. Eegnault, nearly 
 double that of iron. 
 
 In the natural state, cobalt is found combined prin- 
 cipally with sulphur and arsenic, under the names of 
 arsenical cobalt or smaltine, and gray cobalt or cobal- 
 tine. 
 
 Pure cobalt, or its alloys, have no industrial uses. 
 Its oxide is employed for the manufacture of azure 
 blues, Thenard blue, &c, for the enamels of decorators 
 on china and glass ware. The savans of this period 
 have paid considerable attention to the chemical com- 
 binations of this metal, which appear to have been em- 
 ployed, from the earliest ages, by the Egyptians, Greeks, 
 and Komans, for their glasses and blue enamels. 
 
COBALT. 151 
 
 Cobalt is not so much affected by dampness as iron. 
 However, by the permanent action of damp air, it be- 
 comes covered with a pellicle of a fine black oxide. 
 Heated in the air, it is transformed into oxide. 
 
 Berthier has tried an alloy made of — 
 
 Copper ........ 68.2 
 
 Cobalt 31.8 
 
 100.0 
 
 the composition of which was ascertained after fusion. 
 This alloy was compact, ductile, tenacious, of a white 
 slightly tinged with red, strongly magnetic, and sus- 
 ceptible of a fine polish. 
 An alloy of — 
 
 Tin . 80 
 
 Cobalt 20 
 
 100 
 
 was very fusible, easily cut and hammered, although 
 brittle, and with a rugged and crystalline fracture. 
 
 These laboratory experiments, made in brasqued 
 crucibles, and investigated upon buttons weighing no 
 more than 15 to 20 grammes, may give some indica- 
 tions of the mode of operation, but do not actually pre- 
 sent any practical result of interest in the arts. 
 
 Indeed, what is to be expected from such alloys, 
 which, as all those we are now examining, are at present 
 incapable of furnishing economical compounds? Only 
 unforeseen results, which may be applied to the arts, 
 in cases where the alloys and metals now in use do not 
 possess the qualities desired. Then, a few experiments, 
 made in the manner of Berthier, will be sufficient to 
 show the investigator if he is moving in the right di- 
 rection. 
 
 Cobalt has also been tried with iron. Berthier says 
 that such alloys possess the same qualities as pure iron, 
 and are of a whiter color. 
 
152 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Cadmium. 
 
 Discovered by Stromeyer and Hermann in Germany, 
 about the same time, in 1818. Its color is white, with 
 a tinge greener than that of tin. Possesses as much 
 lustre as tin. Fracture, fibrous and crystallizing in 
 regular octahedrons. Specific gravity, 8.6. Fusible 
 below a red heat, and volatilizes at about 400° C. 
 Malleable, ductile, somewhat harder than tin, and may 
 be laminated and drawn out. 
 
 Cadmium is found in the natural state, combined 
 with sulphur and zinc in several varieties of calamine 
 and blende. It is not sensibly oxidized at the ordi- 
 nary temperature, but, when heated to redness, it vola- 
 tilizes sooner than zinc, and its vapors burn with bril- 
 liancy. Distilled in a retort, pure cadmium may be 
 obtained in the shape of regular and crystalline drops. 
 
 The great facility with which cadmium volatilizes 
 has been the serious drawback to the formation of its 
 alloys and their study. 
 
 Cadmium is very easily dissolved in mercury, even 
 at the ordinary temperature. The amalgam is of a 
 very fine silver-white, and its texture is granular and 
 crystalline. It melts at 75° C, and when cooled oft' is 
 hard and very brittle. Its specific gravity is above 
 that of mercury. 
 
 Titanium. 
 
 Its oxides appear to have been studied from 1790 to 
 1795 by Gregor and Klaproth. Since 1821, its com- 
 binations have been investigated by the chemist Rose. 
 
 Combined with various substances, especially with 
 iron and oxygen, carbon and nitrogen, titanium is one 
 of the most refractory of metals. Reduced to the metal- 
 lic state, it forms a black and amorphous powder, simi- 
 
URANIUM. lo3 
 
 lar to that of iron reduced by hydrogen at a low tem- 
 perature. 
 
 Heated in contact with the air. titanium burns and 
 produces a vivid scintillation: the incandescence is 
 sudden, and the metal is projected out of the crucible, 
 when it is heated in contact with the oxides of lead or 
 copper". 
 
 We must acknowledge that the black powder of re- 
 duced titanium is far from presenting a characteristic 
 metallic appearance. Hence a great difficulty of as- 
 similation, which has prevented experimenters from 
 trying the alloys of titanium. The only experiments 
 known were based on the alloys of this metal with iron, 
 and the results have been negative. Karsten, in his 
 work on the metallurgy of iron, "mentions an attempt 
 to combine titanium with steel ; and although the pro- 
 portion of titanium was only 1 per cent., the alloj 7 did 
 not take place, and the titanium was found irregularly 
 scattered throughout the mass. 
 
 - 
 
 Uranium 
 
 Was isolated from the oxide known under that name, 
 by M. Peligot, in 1642. Metallic uranium, whether in 
 a black powder or aggregated in the shape of small 
 
 laminae, presents a lustre similar to that of silver. In 
 the latter case, it appears to possess a certain mal- 
 leability. 
 
 This metal, heated to a temperature above 200' C. 
 in presence of the air, burns with much brilliancy, and 
 is transformed into a dark green oxide. At the ordi- 
 nary temperature it does not decompose water, and i3 
 not altered by the contact of the air. 
 
 TTith acids, the protoxide of uranium, UO. produces 
 green salts ; the sesquioxide, U 2 Q 3 , gives yellow salts. 
 The latter oxide is employed for imparting to gl 
 ware a yellow shade with a green tinge, 
 
154 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 It has not been possible, up to the present time, to 
 combine uranium with the other metals. This is most 
 likely due to its imperfect metallic state, which, like 
 that of titanium and certain other metals obtained in 
 the form of powder, is not adapted to the production 
 of alloys. 
 
 Tungsten 
 
 Was isolated from wolfram, in 1790, by the brothers 
 d'Elhuyart. We obtain it, either as a black powder 
 or a solid mass, rather coagulated than melted, which 
 acquires under the file a certain metallic lustre, of a dull 
 gray color. 
 
 This metal is very expensive, and but slightly fusi- 
 ble. Its specific gravity is considerable, and attains 
 17.6. 
 
 In the natural state, tungsten is combined with lime 
 or lead, forming the scheelite or scheelitine ; and with iron 
 and manganese in wolfram. 
 
 During the last few years, the alloys of tungsten 
 with cast iron, steel, and wrought iron have attracted 
 a great deal of attention, in the hope that these metals 
 would acquire new qualities of resistance and hardness. 
 Mr. Leguen, major of artillery, has superintended all 
 the experiments made in this direction, for improving 
 the quality of the metals employed in the manufacture 
 of ordnance, and other weapons. 
 
 We do not think, whatever has been said, that these 
 experiments, up to the present time, have given con- 
 clusive results. We shall, however, relate here, for the 
 instruction of our readers, the principal data of the 
 report of Mr. Leguen to the minister of war. 
 
 A small proportion of wolfram imparts to cast iron 
 an extraordinary hardness and tenacity. The latter 
 quality increases in a greater ratio than the former, as 
 the proportion of wolfram also increases up to a certain 
 limit. Therefore, it is important to vary the propor- 
 
rUNGSTEW. 155 
 
 tion of wolfram accord ngtc : e future : the cast 
 
 iron employed. 1 - .: ra may vary from | bo 
 
 : -- :-. ■;: ;:■■■.'-' : ::. Toe , ::/.:. e rnr.'.oyei :n : -. 
 -:; eriments -_: Mr. Leguen was extracted from the 
 le -. : Pn r-les-Vignes neai Saint Leonard, in the 
 Haute Vienne. Il is the only mine ;:' this kind kn 
 in France. The wolfram imbedded in a "cry hard 
 _ igae of c ; artz ; a a t ; 1 1 " per cent, of tung- 
 
 sten the remainder being iron, manganese and oxygen. 
 
 Mr. Leguen infers from this som asition that tung- 
 sten, being in a pi -. : ::: c i al least three times that . : 
 the thertwc metals together will perform the princ 
 part in the mc lifications imparted to cast iron by this 
 He exj a \ e m we I 1 1 the small propor- 
 tion ;: mangs lese introduced in:; the ices not 
 
 ^ act upon it : that the n of iron a 
 
 *her efiect than &c increase :he c : ..: . :ne ; •: r. 
 and that, the:r fore the incres se in hardness and resLst- 
 
 je is loe be tungsten alone. 
 
 H we examine the question by the tight of the 
 experiments :: Mr. Sfa I ig in I ..' which : 
 
 : -. '■■• -.".:.: :ne tenaciry :: . "^ iron = con.- V: \ r 
 increased by the ad tion of wrought iron if we 
 state that many persons believe tfa a K m : g d e se 
 iron imparts to :: greater resistance — we may well 
 have some doubt whether tungsten alone, as Mr. Le- 
 guen says is the true cause of the increase of resistance 
 of cast iron, with which wolfram has been alloyed. 
 
 We have ourselves, with the prepared and fritted 
 wolfram aent be us by the owner of the mine at P 
 e ; ":^:- m>ie :are:V. cz^erinoon:= ;n :_^ introo::- 
 tion of wolfram into cast iron : and these experiments 
 repeated several times gave us samples, which being 
 gave results sometimes favorable, sometimes un- 
 rable to the action of wolfram. The figures 
 obtained by these trials exhibited such slight differen 
 that it would be as proper to suppose these differen . 
 
156 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 due to possible variations in the nature of the cast 
 iron, from one smelting to another, as to the presence 
 or absence of wolfram. 
 
 It is well known that metals in general, and pig- 
 iron especially, may widely differ in their resistance, 
 even when they have been uniformly mixed, melted, 
 cooled, &c. We have also demonstrated in another 
 work, that four railroad chairs, cast at the same time 
 in the same mould, presented in certain cases differ- 
 ences quite considerable in their resistance. Therefore, 
 we may infer, a fortiori, that these differences will 
 take place if trial bars are cast at different times, at 
 variable temperatures, and although the whole opera- 
 tion appears to be conducted in the ordinary regular 
 manner, with the same qualities and proportions of 
 metal for the mixtures. 
 
 Therefore, we should consider it quite natural that 
 results from certain trials have caused wolfram to be 
 regarded as possessing the qualities necessary for con- 
 siderably increasing the resistance of cast iron. 
 
 Certain bars, tried by the skilful directors of the 
 Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, have indicated that 
 wolfram improved cast iron, but it was not ascertained 
 whether the bars with wolfram, and those without, had 
 been cast on the same day ; or, notwithstanding the 
 precautions taken to operate in exactly the same con- 
 ditions, if bars of cast iron without wolfram, and cast 
 at different times, would not have presented the same 
 differences. 
 
 It will be sufficient, in order to a better understand- 
 ing, to state the results of several experiments made 
 by ourselves, at the Marquise iron-works, in 1862.* 
 
 * The results are shown by figures indicating the relative resist- 
 ance. In the trials hy shock, the square bars had their sides 
 equal to 4 centimetres, and were put upon edged supports, 16 cen- 
 
TUNGSTEN. 
 
 157 
 
 A. Gray cast iron, from Marquise, and without any 
 admixture. Six bars tried by shock : — 
 
 1st bar, 
 
 breaks at 
 
 , 
 
 0.65 metre of fall 
 
 2d " 
 
 a 
 
 " 
 
 „ 
 
 0.75 
 
 <( u 
 
 3d " 
 
 (< 
 
 « 
 
 . 
 
 0.70 
 
 a a 
 
 4th " 
 
 « 
 
 tc 
 
 , 
 
 0.80 
 
 a a 
 
 5th " 
 
 «< 
 
 a 
 
 . 
 
 0.85 
 
 « « 
 
 6th " 
 
 « 
 
 tt 
 
 . 
 
 0.90 
 
 u a 
 
 Average 
 
 0.775 
 
 B. The same cast iron, with J per cent, of wolfram. 
 Six bars tried by shock : — 
 
 1st bar, 
 
 breaks at 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 0.55 metre of fall 
 
 2d " 
 
 (i 
 
 a 
 
 • 
 
 9 
 
 0.55 
 
 u a 
 
 3d « 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 , 
 
 , , 
 
 0.60 
 
 a it 
 
 4th " 
 
 << 
 
 it 
 
 „ 
 
 , 
 
 0.65 
 
 a it 
 
 5th " 
 
 « 
 
 it 
 
 , 
 
 . 
 
 0.75 
 
 it it 
 
 6th « 
 
 « 
 
 tt 
 
 • 
 
 . 
 
 0.85 
 
 tt tt 
 
 Average 
 
 0.658 
 
 C. The same cast iron, with 1 per cent, of wolfram. 
 Six bars tried by shock :— - 
 
 1st bar, 
 
 breaks at 
 
 . 
 
 0.75 metre of fall 
 
 2d " 
 
 << 
 
 a 
 
 . 
 
 0.80 
 
 n tt 
 
 3d « 
 
 « 
 
 it 
 
 9 
 
 0.90 
 
 tt a 
 
 4th « 
 
 <« 
 
 tt 
 
 , „ 
 
 0.90 
 
 it a 
 
 5th " 
 
 « 
 
 << 
 
 . 
 
 0.90 
 
 it li 
 
 6th « 
 
 (« 
 
 it 
 
 . 
 
 0.95 
 
 it tt 
 
 Average . . 0.866 
 
 D. The same cast iron, with 8 per cent, of iron turn- 
 ing scraps, and without wolfram. Six bars tried by 
 shock : — 
 
 timetres distant from centre to centre. The shock was given by 
 a ball weighing 12 kilogrammes. 
 
 In the trials by flexion, the numbers indicate the breaking strain 
 of square bars (side = 25 millimetres), put upon edged supports 
 50 centimetres distant from centre to centre. 
 
 14 
 
158 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 1st bar, breaks at . . . 0.80 metre of fall. 
 
 2d " " 
 
 " ... 0.80 
 
 a 
 
 << 
 
 3d " " 
 
 " ... 0.80 
 
 (( 
 
 << 
 
 4th " 
 
 " . . . . 0.85 
 
 <( 
 
 « 
 
 5th " " 
 
 " ... 0.85 
 
 « 
 
 a 
 
 6th " " 
 
 " . 0.85 
 Average . . 0.825 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 A'. Kepetition of the experiment A. 
 
 Six bars tried 
 
 r shock :— 
 
 
 
 
 1st bar, breaks at . . . 0.65 metre of fall. 
 
 2d " " 
 
 " ... 0.65 
 
 « 
 
 a 
 
 3d " • " 
 
 " ... 0.70 
 
 <( 
 
 a 
 
 4th " « 
 
 " ... 0.70 
 
 it 
 
 « 
 
 5th " " 
 
 " ... 0.70 
 
 u 
 
 it 
 
 6th " " 
 
 " ... 0.75 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 Average 
 
 0.692 
 
 B'. Kepetition of the experiment B. Six bars tried 
 by shock : — 
 
 1st bar, 
 
 breaks at 
 
 . 
 
 0.70 metre of fall 
 
 2d " 
 
 « 
 
 « 
 
 . , 
 
 0.70 
 
 a a 
 
 3d " 
 
 « 
 
 a 
 
 . 
 
 0.70 
 
 n « 
 
 4th " 
 
 (< 
 
 n 
 
 . 
 
 0.75 
 
 u u 
 
 5th " 
 
 » 
 
 a 
 
 ■ • 
 
 0.75 
 
 U (( 
 
 6th " 
 
 « 
 
 a 
 
 ■ 
 
 0.75 
 
 a a 
 
 Average 
 
 0.725 
 
 E. Gray cast iron of Marquise, the same which had 
 been employed in the previous experiments. Six bars 
 tried by flexion : — 
 
 1st bar, breaks by a strain of 
 
 2900 kilogrammes 
 
 2d " 
 
 2900 " 
 
 3d " " " " 
 
 3000 " 
 
 4th " " " " 
 
 3000 " 
 
 5th " « « " 
 
 3300 
 
 6th " « " " 
 
 3300 
 
 Average 
 
 3066 
 
TUNGSTEN. 
 
 159 
 
 F. The same cast iron, with \ per cent, of wolfram. 
 Six bars tried by flexion : — 
 
 1st bar, breaks 
 
 by a 
 
 strain of 
 
 2700 kilogrammes. 
 
 2d " 
 
 (< 
 
 a 
 
 « 
 
 3000 
 
 (< 
 
 3d " 
 
 <( 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 3000 
 
 « 
 
 4th " 
 
 (i 
 
 a 
 
 n 
 
 3000 
 
 « 
 
 5th " 
 
 « 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 3000 
 
 <( 
 
 6th " 
 
 it 
 
 tt 
 
 u 
 
 3100 
 
 u 
 
 Average 
 
 2966 
 
 G. The same cast iron, with 1 per cent, of wolfram. 
 Six bars tried by flexion : — 
 
 1st bar, 
 
 breaks 
 
 by a 
 
 strain of 
 
 2600 
 
 kilog 
 
 rammes. 
 
 2d " 
 
 « 
 
 a 
 
 « 
 
 2700 
 
 
 « 
 
 3d " 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 2700 
 
 
 « 
 
 4th " 
 
 it 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 2900 
 
 
 a 
 
 5th " 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 3100 
 
 
 a 
 
 6th " 
 
 tt 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 3100 
 
 
 tt 
 
 Average » 2850 
 
 H. The same cast iron, with 8 per cent, of iron turn- 
 ings. Six bars tried by flexion : — 
 
 1st bar, 
 
 breaks by 
 
 a strain of 
 
 2700 
 
 kilogrammes. 
 
 2d " 
 
 « 
 
 < tt 
 
 2700 
 
 a 
 
 3d " 
 
 tt 
 
 t a 
 
 2700 
 
 a 
 
 4th " 
 
 a 
 
 i a 
 
 2900 
 
 a 
 
 5th " 
 
 it 
 
 it a 
 
 2900 
 
 a 
 
 6th " 
 
 n 
 
 t a 
 
 3100 
 
 a 
 
 Average . 2833 
 
 The examination of these results shows that cast 
 iron without wolfram, and cast iron with wolfram, 
 give, excepting the results of the trials B, figures suf- 
 ficiently near to suppose that the differences are due 
 to the anomalies presented by the same cast iron in 
 similar experiments. The influence of wolfram is not 
 sufficiently demonstrated, even in the experiments C, 
 where it is the most perceptible, to be admitted with- 
 out dispute. Moreover, the trials D, where iron had 
 
160 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 been added to cast iron, gave results so near those of 
 C, that we cannot say whether it is the iron or the 
 wolfram which has increased the resistance of the 
 metal. 
 
 On the other hand ; the trials A r and B r , repeated 
 under exactly the same conditions as those of A and 
 B, come into direct opposition to the former trials, and 
 show that wolfram has a beneficial influence, while in 
 the former cases it was rather hurtful. 
 
 It may be objected that the preparation of the alloys 
 has possibly been defective. Indeed, it is difficult to 
 meit wolfram, which, when pure, is nearly infusible. 
 
 The nature of the elements of cast iron appears to 
 facilitate its fusion ; nevertheless, the alloy is difficult, 
 on account of the great specific gravity of tungsten. 
 But we are certain that we took all the necessary pre- 
 cautions to obtain the mixture, whether operating in a 
 crucible or in a cupola. 
 
 The experiments of Mr. Leguen were conducted in 
 a similar manner, as regards the fusion in crucibles. 
 The cast iron and the wolfram were charged at the 
 same time in the red-hot crucibles, and the tempera- 
 ture was raised afterwards. The trials were, like ours, 
 made upon square bars (side = 0.04 metre), first with 
 cast iron only, and then with the same metal combined 
 with 1, 1J, 2, and 2 J per cent, of wolfram. The re- 
 sult of the trials has shown an increase of tenacity 
 by each addition of wolfram, but not in proportion 
 to the quantities employed. However, the ratio of 
 increase of tenacity appears to have been regular up 
 to 2 J per cent, of wolfram. 
 
 Mr. Leguen infers from his experiments that as 
 cast iron may have its tenacity increased one-third by 
 allo}nng with wolfram, all ordnance should be trans- 
 formed on these new bases. This conclusion goes too 
 far, the more so as Mr. Leguen recognizes himself 
 
TUNGSTEN". 161 
 
 that the trials have been insufficient, and should be 
 repeated in various ways. 
 
 From cast iron Mr. Leguen passes to steel, which, 
 according to the same authority, is even a great deal 
 more improved by wolfram. Steel combined with 
 wolfram ought to acquire similar qualities to those of 
 steel combined with pure tungsten, or with molybde- 
 num, chromium, titanium, and alumina, which sub- 
 stances, according to certain experimenters, may form 
 five damaskeened compounds. According to Mr. Le- 
 guen, careful experiments on a practical scale have 
 been attempted in order to impart, by means of wol- 
 fram, various degrees of hardness and tenacity to the 
 steel intended for the manufacture of files, cutting in- 
 struments, weapons, &c. But, at the present day, we 
 cannot say that anything in that line has been intro- 
 duced into the art. On the contrary, we know that an 
 important steel- works, which had great faith in the 
 alloys of wolfram and steel, has abandoned the idea, 
 after a few experiments, which demonstrated the diffi- 
 culty of arriving at certain and unfailing results. 
 
 Consequently, it seems better to wait before forming 
 an opinion on the influence of wolfram upon steel or 
 cast iron. Wootz, the Damascus steel of the East, and 
 the other compounds where steel appears with peculiar 
 properties, are rather natural products than alloys pro- 
 per, and, therefore, cannot well be compared with the 
 alloys which we are studying. 
 
 Mr. Leguen also considers the alloys of wolfram 
 with copper and tin, in order to improve the bronze 
 for ordnance. These alloys are exceedingly difficult 
 to obtain, on account of the differences in fusibility 
 and specific gravity of wolfram, and of the component 
 metals of bronze. The alloy of wolfram and copper 
 is very difficult, and there, as with cast iron, nothing 
 demonstrates that wolfram increases the hardness or 
 tenacity of copper. Our own experiments gave no 
 
 14* 
 
162 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 useful data, and too often, after running out the copper 
 or the brass, we found the wolfram in a pulverulent 
 state, uncombined with the copper and tin, notwith- 
 standing all the precautions taken by the founder for 
 rapidly melting, stirring, and running out. 
 
 To sum up, we will say that in our opinion, and 
 that of many of the chemists who have studied the 
 action of wolfram, if tungsten could be separated from 
 wolfram in an economical way, it might give more 
 important and more conclusive alloys* 
 
 Molybdenum. 
 
 Obtained by Scheele in 1778, and isolated afterwards 
 by Hielm. Specific gravity, 8.6. Color, a dead white, 
 susceptible of a fine polish. Is found in the natural 
 state combined with sulphur or lead. It is obtained 
 as a grayish powder, which acquires a metallic lustre 
 by being burnished, and sometimes in the shape of 
 small melted masses which resemble unpolished silver. 
 
 Molybdenum is easily oxidized. Heated in the 
 presence of the air, it becomes incandescent, and is 
 transformed into molybdic acid. 
 
 Molybdenum is without application in the arts. Its 
 combinations with tin have been experimented upon, 
 and Berthier says that the alloy of: — 
 
 Tin . . . . . . . . 83 
 
 Molybdenum . . . . . . 7 (or 17?) 
 
 is as white, ductile, and tenacious as tin, and may be 
 laminated to thin sheets. Muriatic acid dissolves the 
 tin of the alloy, and leaves molybdenum in the metallic 
 state. 
 
 * Mr. C. W. Siemens says that tungsten has the remarkable effect 
 upon steel of increasing its power to retain magnetism when hard- 
 ened. A horseshoe magnet of tungsten steel has been made 
 which supports twenty times its weight. — Trans. 
 
IRIDIUM. 163 
 
 An alloy of molybdenum with lead whitens the 
 color of lead,- if the proportion of molybdenum is not 
 over a twentieth ; above that, lead becomes harder and 
 darker. Molybdenum unites with certain other metals 
 only in definite proportions, but these alloys present 
 nothing of interest in the arts. 
 
 Osmium. 
 
 Discovered in 1803, by Tennant, in the ores of pla- 
 tinum; it is generally combined with iridium and ruthe- 
 nium. Specific gravity, 10. Color, a metallic gray, 
 resembling that of platinum. This metal presents suf- 
 ficient malleability to be obtained in the shape of 
 aggregated plates, which, however, are easily pulver- 
 ized by percussion. 
 
 It is oxidized by exposure to a damp atmosphere ; 
 but, when heated at a low temperature in presence of 
 oxygen gas, it takes fire and is transformed into osmic 
 acid, which volatilizes. 
 
 From its chemical properties, Mr. Eegnault thinks 
 that osmium should be classified among the metalloids. 
 
 Osmium has been tried in an alloy with steel for 
 improving cutting instruments. It is even said that 
 certain steel manufacturers of Sheffield have largely- 
 used this metal for their products. 
 
 Iridium. 
 
 A gray metal found, like the preceding one, in cer- 
 tain ores of platinum. Discovered in 1803 by Ten- 
 nant and Collet-Descotils, in the black residuum from 
 the treatment of platinum ore with aqua regia. Specific 
 gravity, 15.8. 
 
 Iridium is obtained in the shape of a spongy mass, 
 which acquires a metallic lustre by being burnished. 
 It may also be transformed into a very hard and com- 
 
164 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 pact mass, which is susceptible of being polished, if 
 the pulverulent metal is wetted, strongly compressed, 
 and then calcined. The specific gravity given above 
 is that of this aggregated and porous metal. Brought 
 to a red heat with potassa or nitre, iridium becomes 
 oxidized and is transformed into iridiate of potassa. 
 
 Of course, like those metals which seem to be a uni- 
 versal panacea in developing and improving the quali- 
 ties of steel, iridium has been combined with that 
 metal, especially by English experimenters. 
 
 Messrs. Stodart and Faraday, who have tried iri- 
 dium on a large scale, claim that this metal produces 
 one of the best combinations with steel, and that the 
 most advantageous proportion for improving the steel 
 for cutting instruments is about 1 per cent, of iridium. 
 
 According to Berthier, an alloy of: — 
 
 Lead 89 
 
 Iridium . 11 
 
 100 
 
 is whiter than lead, which is rendered harder and 
 more malleable, without any loss of tenacity. 
 
 When platinum and iridium can be melted together, 
 which is quite difficult, on account of the refractory 
 nature of the two metals, the resulting alloys are 
 harder than pure platinum and not so easily altered 
 by the action of the fire and reagents. They are, 
 therefore, useful for the fabrication of certain chemical 
 apparatus. We learn from the recent studies of 
 several chemists, that platinum alloyed with one-tenth 
 of iridium has more lustre, is more malleable than 
 pure platinum, and may be hardened. Such an alloy 
 might be useful for metallic mirrors. 
 
 We have not seen any other important alloys of 
 iridium, which metal appears to form, with most 
 metals, mixtures rather than complete combinations. 
 
PALLADIUM. 165 
 
 Palladium. 
 
 Discovered by Wollaston, in 1803, in certain platinum 
 ores; Specific gravity, 11.5. Unalterable by the air, 
 this metal has a white lustre, slightly duller than that 
 of silver. Yery malleable, and may be welded and 
 forged at a white heat. Nearly infusible by the ordi- 
 nary processes. It is not attacked by certain acids ; 
 but hot nitric acid dissolves it readily. 
 
 Metallic palladium is actually to be found in the 
 trade, and is a secondary product of certain gold ores, 
 which are a true combination of gold and palladium ; 
 such is the auro-poudre (gold-powder) of Brazil. 
 
 Palladium unites readily with gold, and the alloy is 
 hard, ductile, and platinum-white, when the proportion 
 of palladium is not too considerable. The fracture of 
 this alloy is coarsely granular. 
 
 One of the great graduated circles of the observa- 
 tory of Paris appears to have been made of that alloy, 
 which is dense, hard, and firm enough to receive the 
 finest divisions. M. Regnault states somewhere that 
 this circle is entirely made of palladium. Another 
 author says that the alloy is made of silver and palla- 
 dium.* 
 
 We incline towards the latter alloy, which is easily 
 made, is malleable, ductile, and possesses a fine color, 
 grayer than silver, but whiter than platinum. An 
 alloy of equal parts of palladium and silver has a spe- 
 cific gravity, 11.29. 
 
 An alloy of palladium with from 10 to 20 per cent, 
 of silver is employed by dentists for filling teeth. 
 
 The ternary alloy of palladium, silver, and gold can 
 be made easily and in all proportions, according to 
 
 * In Dana's mineralogy we find that, at the suggestion of Dr. 
 Wollaston, an alloy of palladium — 1 part to gold 6 parts — was em- 
 ployed by Troughton for the construction of the graduated part of 
 the mural circle, at the Royal Observatory of Greenwich. — Trans. 
 
166 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Berthier. The compounds are ductile, but more dense 
 and elastic than the binary alloys of palladium with 
 silver or gold. 
 
 From the preceding indications it seems that in 
 every case palladium, by its white color, its disposi- 
 tion to acquire a fine polish, its resistance to sulphur- 
 ous fumes and to oxidation, may be successfully em- 
 ployed by manufacturers of philosophical instruments. 
 
 Palladium unites more or less easily with certain 
 metals, such as zinc, tin, lead, and platinum. We 
 possess no exact data on these various combinations. 
 Lead, tin, and zinc appear to increase its fusibility, but 
 the compounds remain gray, hard, and brittle. Mr. 
 Fischer has found out that at the moment when the 
 combination of palladium with these metals takes place, 
 the alloy becomes phosphorescent in the crucible. 
 
 An alloy of platinum and palladium is harder than 
 platinum, but less ductile. With equal parts of these 
 metals, the compound is gray, possesses nearly the 
 hardness of wrought iron, and has a specific gravity 
 of 15.14. 
 
 Palladium may be united with steel, according to 
 Mr. Herve, author of a work on alloys, from which 
 we borrow a few citations, which we do not endorse, 
 especially when we have not had an opportunity of 
 verifying the results. 
 
 The alloy of steel and palladium, with one-tenth of 
 the latter metal, is considered by Messrs. Faraday and 
 Stodart as one of the most useful combinations of 
 steel for instruments which must cut smoothly. 
 
 Ehodium. 
 
 Like palladium, rhodium was discovered in platinum 
 ores, by Wollaston, in 1803. Specific gravity, 10.6. 
 Ehodium, so called on account of the pink color of the 
 solution of its salts, is a gray metal, like platinum. 
 
RUTHENIUM. 167 
 
 This metal is not oxidized by the air at the ordi- 
 nary temperature, but when it is in a minute state of 
 division it easily combines with oxygen at a red heat. 
 
 Ehodium, like most of the metals of this chapter, is 
 very scarce, expensive, and little known. 
 
 According to Wollaston, rhodium is one of the nu- 
 merous metals destined to improve the qualities of 
 steel. A very small proportion of rhodium ought to 
 render steel much harder and less easily oxidable by a 
 damp atmosphere. 
 
 Messrs. Stodart and Faraday, who made at Sheffield 
 numerous experiments for improving steel, found out 
 that the alloys of steel, holding from 1 to 2 per cent, 
 ■of rhodium, presented very great tenacity, united to 
 such a hardness, that the cutting instruments made 
 with these alloys could bear a tempering heat 30° Fahr. 
 above that of the best Indian wootz, although the 
 tempering point of the latter is 40° above that of the 
 best English cast steel. 
 
 A compound of equal parts of steel and rhodium 
 gives, according to the same investigators, a fusible 
 alloy which acquires a magnificent polish, is not tar- 
 nished, and therefore very well adapted to the manu- 
 facture of metallic mirrors. 
 
 Ehodium is not very difficult to alloy with gold, and, 
 if added in small proportion to the latter metal, will 
 increase its hardness without altering its ductility. 
 
 Ehodium has not, like platinum and palladium, the 
 property of discoloring gold, therefore it might be used 
 for combining with the latter metal, if rhodium itself 
 were not too scarce and too expensive. 
 
 EUTHENIUM. 
 
 Discovered, like the preceding, in platinum ores, but 
 especially in the osmide of iridium, which contains 
 
168 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 from 5 to 6 per cent, of it. Specific gravity, about 8.6. 
 This metal, which bears a great resemblance to iridium, 
 for which it has often been mistaken, is gray, infusible, 
 does not aggregate by heat, and is scarcely acted upon 
 by aqua regia. 
 
 Rutherium is without actual utility, and its alloys 
 are not known. 
 
 Tellurium. 
 
 Discovered in 1782, by Miiller, in a gold ore from 
 Transylvania. It is a bluish-white metal, friable, and 
 with a lamellar fracture. Specific gravity, 6.25. 
 
 Tellurium, which possesses much analogy with sul- 
 phur in its chemical combinations, is found in the min- 
 eral kingdom combined with gold, silver, lead, and bis- 
 muth. But it appears to possess the greatest affinity 
 for gold ; and for a long time the Transylvania ore, 
 from which Miiller obtained tellurium, was known by 
 chemists under the names of paradoxical gold, proble- 
 matical gold, and white gold. 
 
 No important experiments on the alloys of tellurium 
 with the other metals have been made. 
 
 Potassium, Sodium. 
 
 We might here examine the possible alloys of cer- 
 tain alkaline and earthy metals. We shall, however, 
 confine ourselves to potassium and sodium. 
 
 Potassium, which was discovered in potassa by 
 Davy, is a silver-white metal, with a white lustre, 
 readily tarnished by contact with the air. Its specific 
 gravity is less than that of water, and scarcely attains 
 0.87. Fusible at 68° C, potassium becomes sufficiently 
 soft to be kneaded between the fingers. 
 
 It is nearly as inflammable as phosphorus, and may 
 cause severe burns. In order to avoid its oxidation by 
 the air, it is generally kept in naphtha. 
 
 Sodium, also discovered by Davy, presents a great 
 
169 
 
 analogy to potassium. However, it is more tenacious, 
 less volatile, and less fusible. Its specific gravity is 
 about 0.97, and its point of fusion 90° C. 
 
 These two metals may be alloyed with the majority 
 of the other metals. But these alloys, or rather com- 
 pounds, present no great interest for the metallurgic 
 arts ; and most of them are decomposed in the presence 
 of air or water. 
 
 The various metals we have just examined do not 
 properly belong to the arts. 
 
 In order to find real applications for them, it is 
 necessary that they should be obtained at compara- 
 tively cheap rates, and that they present the peculiar 
 qualities of tenacity, malleability, and unalterability, 
 so desirable in the arts. 
 
 In the form of alloys, their uses would be facilitated 
 by allowing the introduction into common metals of 
 other more rare and expensive metals, which, but for 
 the new qualities they impart, would remain unem- 
 ployed. This is the reason why we have mentioned a 
 subject where all remains to be studied and applied, as 
 regards their use in the arts. 
 
 Therefore, the present chapter is to be considered 
 more as a recapitulation of data and experiments for 
 directing the attention of the experimenter, than as a 
 field already cultivated, in which the crops have only 
 to be gathered. To sum up and to finish the compari- 
 son, we open here a new field, where the seeds are few 
 and scattered, and the culture of which is necessary, 
 if we desire, from new and positive results, to arrive 
 at a plentiful harvest. 
 
 15 
 
170 
 
 PART III. 
 
 ALLOYS USED IN THE ABTS. 
 
 In the last part of this work we shall recapitulate, 
 by distinct industrial categories, the alloys known and 
 adopted in practice. 
 
 This classification will allow our readers to ascertain 
 more rapidly, by seeking in the place which they oc- 
 cupy in the arts, the usual metallic compound they 
 require. 
 
 By noticing the observations which accompany each 
 kind of alloy, by examining the proportions admitted 
 in practice, and by going back to the various chapters 
 of the first part of this work, which show the charac- 
 teristic properties of each metal, the possible affinities 
 between various metals, the results obtained by chem- 
 ists and experimenters, &c, the inquirer will certainly 
 find the bases of new, interesting, or useful combina- 
 tions. 
 
 Among the many alloys employed in the arts, there 
 are certainly several which we have omitted, or incom- 
 pletely described, or, on the other hand, repeated. The 
 difficulty in a work of this kind lies in the method of 
 classification, and we hope that, considering the order 
 and clearness we have endeavored to introduce into 
 the whole, we shall be forgiven the few omissions or 
 repetitions which have escaped our attention. 
 
BRONZES OF ART. 171 
 
 BRONZES OF ART. 
 
 The component elements of the statuary or artistic 
 bronzes, intended to be gilt, are copper, tin, zinc, and 
 lead combined in various proportions. 
 
 We have already described the principal alloys 
 formed by these metals, combined two by two, or by 
 three, or by four. It will therefore be sufficient to 
 sum up in this place the requisite qualities for statuary 
 bronzes, and which are the combinations most gene- 
 rally used in the arts. 
 
 The principal conditions required for statuary 
 bronzes, and which we have indicated in our work on 
 foundries, are as follows :— 
 
 A yellow-red color, without the yellow green or 
 light yellow shades ; 
 
 A grain adapted to the work of the file, chisel, and 
 other chasing tools; 
 
 Sufficient fusibility and fluidity to fill and reach all 
 the parts of the mould, and reproduce the pattern in 
 all its minutiae; 
 
 An appropriate texture for receiving, without altera- 
 tion, the mordants imparting the appearance of old 
 bronze (pat'ine). 
 
 The binary alloys of copper and tin, copper and 
 zinc, rarely fulfil these conditions. The alloys of 
 copper and tin are difficult to produce in one opera- 
 tion, often crack by shrinkage, are not easily chased, 
 and take with difficulty the artificial color of old 
 bronze. 
 
 The alloys of copper and zinc are wanting in hard- 
 ness, and do not resist the action of the chisel suffi- 
 ciently well. If the proportion of zinc be too consider- 
 able, they are but slightly fluid, and do not give sharp 
 If the copper is in too great excess, the sur- 
 
172 PEACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 face is full of blow-holes. Moreover, the former are 
 hard and brittle, while the latter are soft and without 
 homogeneousness. 
 
 The alloys of copper, tin, and zinc answer best to 
 the wants of statuary, and range between the propor- 
 tions of: — 
 
 Copper 85, zinc 11, tin 5, 
 Copper 65, zinc 32, tin 3, 
 
 which we have already indicated. 
 
 However, most of the bronze manufacturers add to 
 these alloys a small proportion of lead, which improves 
 and renders them smooth. With these bases the com- 
 position of the alloys remains sensibly within the 
 limits admitted by the brothers Keller, and which are 
 on an average : — 
 
 Copper 91.40 
 
 Zinc 5.60 
 
 Tin 1.60 
 
 Lead 1.40 
 
 100.00 
 
 These proportions are those of the Column of July, 
 the composition of which was more seriously reasoned 
 out than that of the Column Vendome, whose alloy 
 was composed of: — 
 
 Copper 89.35 
 
 Tin 10.05 
 
 Zinc 0.50 
 
 Lead 0.10 
 
 100.00 
 
 But, in this case, the proportions were so little 
 attended to, that many pieces, being cast with scarcely 
 any tin, were soft, thick, without relief, and have neces- 
 sitated considerable expense in repairs and chiselling. 
 
 The alloys of several large statues, cast recently, 
 average less copper than those of the brothers Keller. 
 The analyses of the bronze of the statues of Henry 
 
BLOXZLS OF ART. . 173 
 
 IV., Louis XIV., and Louis XV., cast in Paris, give on 
 
 an average : — 
 
 Copper 82.45 
 
 Zinc 10-30 
 
 Tin 4.10 
 
 Lead 3.15 
 
 100.00 
 
 This composition is more economical than that of 
 the Keller bronze, and is well adapted for a statuary 
 bronze. 
 
 The ancients, who had no knowledge of zinc, or do 
 not seem to have extracted or worked this metal, em- 
 ployed for their bronzes the ternary alloys, made on 
 an average of: — 
 
 With the Romans, 
 
 Copper ......... &9 
 
 Tin 6 
 
 Lead £ 
 
 111 
 With the Greeks, 
 Copper ......... 62 
 
 Tin 32 
 
 Lead 6 
 
 However. Roman medals have bee in which 
 
 the proportions of copper and zinc were in the ratio 
 of 45 to 1, with a slight addition of lead and tin. 
 Small bronze statues, found in France at various 
 ; the Roman cohorts had sojourned, al so 
 c - itain zinc. Various bronzes, recently obtained from 
 excavations made at Athens, and of whi . lad seve- 
 
 ral sam >les, had an average composition as follows: — ■ 
 
 :er . . . . . . . . . 72 
 
 Tin 24 
 
 Z .-: 2 
 
 Lead 2 
 
 102 
 
 15* 
 
174 PKACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 We must suppose that the ancients accidentally em- 
 ployed zinc combined with lead and tin, but without 
 knowing the characteristics of zinc, the classification 
 of which among the usual metals does not go further 
 back than the sixteenth century. 
 
 The manufacture of the bronzes intended for gilding 
 requires fusible and fluid alloys, giving sharp castings, 
 easily chased, cut, and turned, and, besides, possessing 
 such a degree of compactness that the minimum of 
 gold necessary for gilding may be employed. 
 
 The alloys of copper and tin are too porous, and too 
 pallid ; the alloys of copper and zinc are too pasty, 
 and will absorb too much of the amalgam of gold, with 
 the chance of breaking while cooling after the gilding 
 process. If the proportion of zinc is too considerable, 
 the metal becomes harder, but it loses the yellow color 
 required for gilding. 
 
 Therefore, the bronzes for gilding are to be found 
 among the ternary alloys of copper, tin, and zinc ; and 
 better yet, in the quaternary alloys of copper, tin, zinc, 
 and lead. 
 
 With these bases, according to our personal experi- 
 ence, and the opinion of many experienced founders, 
 the best alloys for gilding are comprised between the 
 following limits: — 
 
 82 
 18 
 3 
 1.5 
 
 100 104.5 
 
 These alloys appear to fulfil all the conditions re- 
 quired for the founder, the turner, the mounter, and 
 the gilder. 
 
 The experiments related by Darcet in his excellent 
 memoir on the art of gilding bronze, which is still 
 
 Copper . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 70 
 
 Zinc 
 
 , 
 
 , 
 
 . 
 
 25 
 
 Tin 
 
 , 
 
 , 
 
 , 
 
 2 
 
 Lead 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 3 
 
BRONZES OF ART. 175 
 
 full of interest, although old, confirm these data, and 
 show : — - 
 
 1. That copper alone is difficult to melt and to cast, 
 is too soft, clogs the file, does not take the gilding 
 well, and requires too much gold; 
 
 2. That copper alloyed with zinc in the proportions 
 of 70 to 30, is pasty, soft, not adapted to chasing, but 
 takes the gilding well enough ; 
 
 8. That copper alloyed with tin in the proportions of 
 80 to 20, is easily melted and cast, but very dry and 
 brittle under the tools, and too hard to cut. The cast- 
 ing is not sharp, is difficult to scour, and does not take 
 the gold amalgam well. 
 
 These defects of the alloys of copper and zinc, and 
 copper and tin, are more or less marked, according to 
 the proportions employed, but they are perceptible, 
 nevertheless, in all the binary alloys of these metals. 
 At the same time, these binary alloys are not well 
 suited to the old process of gilding by amalgam. 
 
 This latter inconvenience, it is true, may disappear 
 by the present process of gilding by electricity; but 
 the difficulties of casting, chasing, etc., are not changed, 
 and are sufficient to induce bronze manufacturers to 
 retain the quaternary alloys we have indicated. 
 
 In the binary alloys, the compounds of copper and 
 zinc are preferable to those of copper and tin. It is 
 true that the latter are more fluid, but they are too 
 hard and harsh, even with the proportions of tin 10 and 
 copper 90. Their color is too gray, they are polished 
 with difficulty, and resist the action of the burnishing 
 tool. 
 
 We shall conclude these indications by giving the 
 composition of the bronzes of various statues, analyzed 
 at the French mint in Paris. 
 
 Bronze of the statue of Henri IV., Pont Neuf, 1817. 
 
176 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Copper 89.20 
 
 Tin 5.00 
 
 Zinc 3.50 
 
 L^ad 1.20 
 
 Iron, loss, &c . 1.10 
 
 100.00 
 
 Bronze of the statue of Napoleon, 1833. 
 
 Copper 84.80 
 
 Tin 5.80 
 
 Zinc 6.00 
 
 Lead 2.70 
 
 Iron, loss, &c. . . . . . . . 0.70 
 
 100.00 
 
 Bronze of the statue of the Genius of Liberty, Column 
 of July, 1832. 
 
 Copper 92.00 
 
 Tin ... 3.00 
 
 Zinc 4.20 
 
 Lead 0.70 
 
 Iron, loss, &c 0.10 
 
 100.00 
 
 Bronze of the statue of J. J. Eousseau, at Geneva. 
 
 Copper 85.60 
 
 Tin 6.20 
 
 Zinc 7.80 
 
 Lead 0.40 
 
 100.00 
 
 Bronze of the statue of d'Assas, at Vigan. 
 
 Copper 91.10 
 
 Tin 3.80 
 
 Zinc 0.80 
 
 Lead 0.60 
 
 Iron, loss, &c 4.20 
 
 100.00 
 
ALLOYS FOR COINAGE. 177 
 
 Bronze of the statue of Moliere, at Paris. 
 
 Copper 90.30 
 
 Tin 590 
 
 Zinc 2.50 
 
 Lead 1.20 
 
 Iron, loss, &c. ....... 0.10 
 
 100.00 
 
 We see that all these alloys correspond to the above 
 quaternary alloys. These compositions are followed 
 in the works of Victor Thiebaut, at Paris, who, at the 
 present time, has quite the monopoly in the casting of 
 large monumental bronzes. 
 
 II. 
 ALLOYS FOR COINAGE. 
 
 The conditions which such alloys should fulfil are : — 
 
 A perfect regularity in the composition of the alloys. 
 
 The most convenient proportions to arrive at com- 
 pounds which bear well the action of the rollers, shears, 
 and presses ; are not easily oxidable ; are sufficiently 
 hard to resist wear ; and, above all, have enough in- 
 trinsic value, so as not to debase that of the metal made 
 into gold, silver, or copper coins. 
 
 For the gold and silver coin3, we must employ 
 metals perfectly refined, and alloy them with copper 
 also pure, which imparts to gold and silver, too soft 
 by themselves, the required resistance and hardness. 
 
 The standard or fineness of a coin is the proportion 
 of pure metal it contains. The French standard of 
 coins is T % ; that of medals is higher, as will be seen : — ■ 
 
 For gold coin . . . .90 gold, 10 copper. 
 
 " " medals .... 91.6 " 8.4 " 
 For silver coin . . . .90 silver, 10 " 
 
 " " medals ... 95 " 5 " 
 
 The English standard is about \\. The gold coin 
 contains 11 parts of pure gold and 1 part of copper. 
 
178 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 The silver coin contains a greater proportion of pure 
 metal, and is composed of — 
 
 Silver . 72.5 
 
 Copper . 7.5 
 
 100.0 
 
 Before 1826, silver entered into the composition of 
 the British gold coins. Hence the difference in color 
 of these coins, at various epochs. 
 
 The copper coins, manufactured in France since 1852, 
 contain: — ■ 
 
 Copper ....... ■■"■«, 95 
 
 Tin ......... . 4 
 
 Zinc ......... 1 
 
 100 
 
 Previously, their composition had often varied. 
 Nevertheless, zinc was rarely employed ; whereas the 
 proportion of tin was sometimes considerable. 
 
 The small coins have not only often varied, but their 
 intrinsic value has been singularly changed. At cer- 
 tain epochs, the small coins contained from 1 to 2 parts 
 of silver for 4 of copper. During the revolution, the 
 small coinage was made with all kinds of metals, with 
 scarcely any regard to the standard or quality. Hence, 
 the great variety in the currency which was remelted 
 in 1852. 
 
 The old red sous, or sols royaux, were nearly pure 
 copper. The hard, sonorous, and yellowish-white sous, 
 coined during the Republic with the metal from church- 
 bells, had for an average composition copper 86 and 
 tin 14. The yellow sous, manufactured at the same 
 time with a refined bell metal, were made of copper 
 96 and tin 4. 
 
 The manufacture of coins is at the present time pro- 
 tected by a very efficient system of checks. Skilful 
 chemists are employed at the mint, who, every day, 
 receive samples taken from the beginning, middle, and 
 
ALLOYS FOR COINAGE. 179 
 
 end of each casting operation, and assay them. The 
 latitude allowed is 0.002, more or less. 
 
 It has been proposed to manufacture the new silver 
 fractionary coins of the standard of 835 thousandths. 
 The difference of 65 thousandths in excess of copper, 
 or about 7 per cent, less in the weight of silver, is 
 intended as a compensation for the supposed difference 
 between the nominal and the intrinsic value of these 
 coins. 
 
 The alloy of 835 parts of silver and 165 parts of 
 copper is said to be as malleable as the ordinary alloy, 
 but with a somewhat yellower color. Mr. Peligot has 
 proposed to add zinc to this alloy, which would pos- 
 sess all the required qualities with a composition of 
 835 parts of silver, 93 parts of copper, and 72 parts of 
 zinc. According to Mr. Peligot, such coins are white, 
 elastic, sonorous, and less ready to turn black than the 
 present alloys, on account of the feeble affinity of zinc 
 for sulphur. 
 
 The standards of foreign coins are very variable. 
 The silver coins in certain countries, and especially in 
 Germany, are of a very low standard. Some have 
 been made of equal parts of silver and copper. Others, 
 which are more properly called monnaies de billon 
 (small currency), contain more copper than silver. 
 
 Belgium, the United States, &c, have manufactured 
 coins of nickel, or of alloys of nickel with copper and 
 silver. 
 
 The last small fractional coins made in Belgium 
 contain copper 75, nickel 20, and zinc 20. 
 
 The small Swiss currency, coined in Paris a few 
 years ago, contained copper, zinc, silver, and nickel. 
 Their nominal value has recently been much lowered. 
 
 The new billon coinage of Italy is made of: — 
 
 Copper . 95 
 
 Tin . . 5 
 
 100 
 
178 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 The silver coin contains a greater proportion of pure 
 metal, and is composed of — 
 
 Silver . 72.5 
 
 Copper . . . . . e „ . 7.5 
 
 100.0 
 Before 1826, silver entered into the composition of 
 
 the British gold coins. Hence the difference in color 
 
 of these coins, at various epochs. 
 
 The copper coins, manufactured in France since 1852, 
 
 contain: — 
 
 Copper ........ 95 
 
 Tiu 4 
 
 Zinc 1 
 
 100 
 
 Previously, their composition had often varied. 
 Nevertheless, zinc was rarely employed ; whereas the 
 proportion of tin was sometimes considerable. 
 
 The small coins have not only often varied, but their 
 intrinsic value has been singularly changed. At cer- 
 tain epochs, the small coins contained from 1 to 2 parts 
 of silver for 4 of copper. During the revolution, the 
 small coinage was made with all kinds of metals, with 
 scarcely any regard to the standard or quality. Hence, 
 the great variety in the currency which was remelted 
 in 1852. 
 
 The old red sous, or sols royaux, were nearly pure 
 copper. The hard, sonorous, and yellowish-white sous, 
 coined during the Republic with the metal from church- 
 bells, had for an average composition copper 86 and 
 tin 14. The yellow sous, manufactured at the same 
 time with a refined bell metal, were made of copper 
 96 and tin 4. 
 
 The manufacture of coins is at the present time pro- 
 tected by a very efficient system of checks. Skilful 
 chemists are employed at the mint, who, every day, 
 receive samples taken from the beginning, middle, and 
 
ALLOYS FOR COINAGE. 179 
 
 end of each casting operation, and assay them. The 
 latitude allowed is 0.002, more or less. 
 
 It has been proposed to manufacture the new silver 
 fractionary coins of the standard of 835 thousandths. 
 The difference of 65 thousandths in excess of copper, 
 or about 7 per cent, less in the weight of silver, is 
 intended as a compensation for the supposed difference 
 between the nominal and the intrinsic value of these 
 coins. 
 
 The alloy of 835 parts of silver and 165 parts of 
 copper is said to be as malleable as the ordinary alloy, 
 but with a somewhat yellower color. Mr. Peligot has 
 proposed to add zinc to this alloy, which would pos- 
 sess all the required qualities with a composition of 
 835 parts of silver, 93 parts of copper, and 72 parts of 
 zinc. According to Mr. Peligot, such coins are white, 
 elastic, sonorous, and less ready to turn black than the 
 present alloys, on account of the feeble affinity of zinc 
 for sulphur. 
 
 The standards of foreign coins are very variable. 
 The silver coins in certain countries, and especially in 
 Germany, are of a very low standard. Some have 
 been made of equal parts of silver and copper. Others, 
 which are more properly called monnaies de billon 
 (small currency), contain more copper than silver. 
 
 Belgium, the United States, &c, have manufactured 
 coins of nickel, or of alloys of nickel with copper and 
 silver. 
 
 The last small fractional coins made in Belgium 
 contain copper 75, nickel 20, and zinc 20. 
 
 The small Swiss currency, coined in Paris a few 
 years ago, contained copper, zinc, silver, and nickel. 
 Their nominal value has recently been much lowered. 
 
 The new billon coinage of Italy is made of: — 
 
 Copper ......... 95 
 
 Tin . . 5 
 
 100 
 
180 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 In certain foreign gold coins, gold is brought up to 
 the proper standard by a mixture of equal parts of 
 silver and copper. This alloy expands more than if 
 copper alone were employed, although the specific 
 gravity of gold alloyed with silver differs very little 
 from the average specific gravity of the two metals. 
 
 Moreover, we would remark that, as gold, almost 
 always, naturally contains a small percentage of silver, 
 difficult to separate in an economical way, silver is a 
 constituent part ofgold coins, which therefore are ternary 
 alloys. It is always possible to bring the gold to the 
 proper standard, but the determination of this standard, 
 on account of the presence of silver, is more difficult 
 than that of silver coins, where copper alone has been 
 added. 
 
 At the present time, the bronze for medals is gene- 
 rally made of copper 99 and tin 1. Zinc is rarely 
 added to it. Nevertheless, according to the size of the 
 medals, it is sometimes necessary to change the pro- 
 portions, which vary between 90 to 95 of copper, and 
 10 to 5 of tin. 
 
 The ancient coins and medals were also based on 
 ternary or quaternary alloys. The numerous analyses, 
 made of coins found in various excavations or collec- 
 tions, have never been concordant, and do not show 
 any constancy or method in the manufacture of the 
 coins. 
 
 In certain Roman coins found in Flanders and in 
 the north of France, silver was the predominating 
 metal ; in others it was copper. The proportions of 
 tin and gold were comparatively very small. 
 
 The coins of antiquity were often manufactured from 
 bronze statues, which the ancients erected and melted 
 again with an equal facility, according to the fickleness 
 of arms and fortune. The gold found in these coins 
 was probably that used for decorating the broken 
 statues ; and the tin had quite likely the same origin. 
 
ALLOYS FOR COINAGE. 181 
 
 Moreover, the ancients did not know how to refine 
 the compound metals, and their metallurgic knowledge 
 did not enable them to eliminate the foreign elements, 
 which we at present extract by the refining processes. 
 
 The old Indian coins, like the Koman ones, were 
 made from quaternary alloys of silver, copper, tin, 
 and gold. In those where silver predominated, the 
 proportion of copper varied from 9 \ up to 48 per cent, 
 of the weight of silver. 
 
 The Saxon coins were an alloy of copper and tin, 
 with smaller proportions of silver and lead. 
 
 Some bronze coins from Attica contain, according to 
 the analysis made at the mint of Paris — ■ 
 
 Copper 88 
 
 Tin 10 
 
 Lead 1.5 
 
 Loss 0.5 
 
 100.0 
 
 To sum up, the majority of the coins of antiquity, 
 recently analyzed, show the constant and nearly always 
 simultaneous presence of gold, silver, copper, and tin; 
 and that, whether they were gold, silver, or bronze 
 coins. Moreover, a few of these coins have been 
 proved to contain small proportions of lead, iron, or 
 zinc, which metals, the latter especially, were less 
 known or employed, and were only to be found acci- 
 dentally in the alloys employed in the arts of the 
 earliest ages. 
 
 From analyses made at the beginning of this century 
 by the chemist Thomson, the composition of the silver 
 coins of various countries was as follows : — 
 
 16 
 
182 PKACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Coppei 
 
 England . 
 
 8 
 
 " sterling 
 
 ; money 
 
 
 
 . 92.5 
 
 7.5 
 
 Austria 
 
 
 
 
 . 90.5 
 
 9.5 
 
 Denmark 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 88 
 
 12 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 89.5 
 
 10.5 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 84.5 
 
 15.5 
 
 France 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 90 
 
 10 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 9 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 92 
 
 8 
 
 Hamburg . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 50 
 
 50 
 
 Piedmont . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 90.5 
 
 9.5 
 
 Portugal , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 89 
 
 11 
 
 Russia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 76 
 
 24 
 
 Switzerlan( 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 79 
 
 21 
 
 III. 
 
 ALLOYS FOR PIECES OF ORDNANCE, ARMS, 
 PROJECTILES, ETC. 
 
 Pieces of ordnance from the beginning were cast of 
 bronze. The ancient rules prescribed an alloy of 100 
 parts of copper to 11 of tin. 
 
 Numerous experiments have been made, at various 
 times and in different countries, in order to determine 
 exactly the best proportions of copper and tin ; yet, 
 notwithstanding these trials, at present we use nearly 
 the same proportions as formerly. 
 
 Originally zinc entered into the composition of 
 bronze for cannon, but its use has been gradually dis- 
 continued. There was a time when pieces of ord- 
 nance were generally made of a mixture of brass and 
 bronze ; these two alloys being made separately and 
 then combined. 
 
 The brothers Keller have employed the following 
 composition for the pieces of ordnance cast in their 
 foundry : — 
 
 Copper . 
 
 Tin 
 
 Zinc 
 
 100 
 9 
 6 
 
 115 
 
ALLOYS FOR PIECES OF OBMTAKCK, ABMS, ETC. lo3 
 
 The proport .v. ice admitted among the principal 
 nations of Europe have been:— 
 
 ".■.::■-.■ 1 ' . 
 
 En-land iOfl 12. 5 
 
 90 10 
 
 « « to r j2 12 v, 5 
 
 Arid, according to various authc . — 
 
 .Copier... 100 Tin.. .10 
 
 Mi ' V Tin. ..10 Zinc.-OE-: 
 
 St.^ Copper. ..100 -.11 
 
 Prussia i 
 
 5 Cagper-.J Tin... 10 
 
 - '--'-7 J 
 
 The mining engineers and officers of artillery in 
 France have lndertakeo many experiments oof cralj 
 
 oo the binary ai jv= of tt .tt-' ano" . '. out also on the 
 -.'.:...:.:■ hoys t ; bronze uniteo -on leao zinc 
 
 &c. It has generaiiy been found that ah o.oo oomoiex 
 alloys ore altered b j remelt ng irere iiffici 
 tain, and recj : red great trocautio . . : ir o the cast ng 
 3 it giving m ict certainty at to the results. 
 
 It has been tried to coml ie separately first and 
 then together the cast iron ton: or aod t t •o.t.ter- 
 ig at truly homogeneous and oys. There- 
 
 fore if has been necessary to return to bronze, and to 
 study thoroughly the properties of this metaL W e 
 have tt tot ie here the applications oi tt t 
 
 v/rougbt iron t: -.teei tt the mar ;.f'acture tf ordnance. 
 aJ oy of ooooer and tin in troo: to be best 
 suited tt the manufacture of ordnanoe ; must present 
 the : - g chars tttott tt : — 
 
 A fineiy granh.ar fraotire. of t reddish tinge vrith- 
 out any admixture of whitish spots. — Yellowish tex- 
 t o. — Specific gravity above to average of the 
 tto tt'tot .'nott.it. — Present tg toe rnez mom oi" rnai- 
 leability and tenacity possible with the alloys of cop- 
 
186 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 of certain metals into other. This is a field from 
 which we may expect many important changes and 
 discoveries on the subject of alloys. We confine our- 
 selves to this indication, and pass to the rapid classi- 
 fication of the interesting data furnished by the past 
 and the present, concerning our present study. 
 
 The ancients, who were not conversant with the art 
 of working iron, and had scarcely any knowledge of 
 the metal itself, used for their weapons the various 
 alloys of copper and tin known under the name of 
 bronze. 
 
 Many of these alloys appear to have been made of 
 14 parts of tin to 100 of copper. However, it has 
 been found by analysis that certain arms contained 
 from 17 to 18 parts of tin for 83 to 82 of copper. 
 
 Roman weapons have shown by analysis — 
 
 Copper 81 
 
 Tin 19 
 
 100 
 
 Other weapons, collected from recent excavations 
 made on the places traversed by the Roman cohorts 
 in ancient Gaul, gave on an average — 
 
 Copper . . . 92 
 
 Tin 7 
 
 Lead 1 
 
 100 
 
 Several have exhibited a trace of zinc. 
 
 The ancient alloys for weapons or edge-tools appear, 
 most of them, to have been hammer-hardened, after 
 being cast, in order to increase the density and hard- 
 ness of the metal. The makers of these primitive 
 tools have evidently tried to find in bronze certain of 
 the qualities of steel, which metal was not known to 
 them. 
 
 The hardening by a slow and protracted hammering 
 must evidently have imparted to their alloys a greater 
 
ALLOYS FOR PIECES OF ORDNANCE, ARMS, ETC. 187 
 
 hardness, and therefore a sharper edge; but the te- 
 nacity of the metal would have been impaired, and the 
 weapons rendered brittle, if the ancients had not had 
 recourse to the annealing and dipping processes, which 
 were certainly known, and without which the cold 
 hammered metal would have lost all toughness and 
 suppleness. 
 
 We know that if iron and steel become brittle by 
 the hardening process, it is not so with bronze, which, 
 being heated to the proper point and then dipped into 
 cold water, acquires toughness and ductility at the 
 same time. 
 
 Arms and cutting instruments have recently been 
 studied by many savans and manufacturers. We 
 have already seen in this work how many metals have 
 been experimentally alloyed with steel in order to im- 
 prove its cutting edge, to give it a damaskeened pat- 
 tern, &c. 
 
 Gold, silver, platinum, nickel, aluminium itself, and 
 many other metals, have been brought forward to im- 
 part to steel peculiar properties. Nothing that we 
 know of at the present time has given sufficiently cer- 
 tain, complete, and secure results to encourage the 
 manufacturers in working them on a large scale. 
 
 Therefore we have no such alloys to indicate, and 
 we refer our readers to what we have already said 
 about the possible combinations of steel with the other 
 metals. 
 
 We shall terminate this chapter by rapidly mention- 
 ing a few alloys adapted to our subject. 
 
 The bronze or brass for the mountings of arms, 
 which is said to best fulfil the required conditions of 
 hardness, malleability, and tenacity, is made of: — 
 
 Copper 80 
 
 Zinc 17 
 
 Tin 3 
 
 100 
 
188 PRACTICAL GUrDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 We at present employ, for the same purpose, the 
 alloys of copper and aluminium, and the white alloys 
 in which copper, zinc, and nickel are generally em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Alloys for projectiles : — 
 
 Lead shot. Lead 99 
 
 Arsenic ..*.... 1 
 
 100 
 
 In the preparation of lead shot, a little arsenic is 
 added to the lead, which is allowed to fall from a great 
 height, and acquires a more spherical shape, instead 
 of an elongated one. In order to produce the arsenide 
 of lead necessary for the operation, it is sufficient to 
 melt the lead with some arsenious acid. Certain 
 makers employ the ordinary commercial lead, without 
 any preparation ; however, from the opinion of the 
 majority of manufacturers, the arsenide of lead is to 
 be preferred. 
 
 Gun balls. Lead 97 98 
 
 Zinc 3 2 
 
 100 100 
 
 This alloy is said to give more exactness in firing 
 than is the case with balls of pure lead ; but we think 
 that this result requires confirmation. We rather be- 
 lieve that a little zinc added to lead, increases its hard- 
 ness, and prevents its loss of shape by cooling. In- 
 deed, it often happens that the balls, by the contraction 
 due to the cooling, contain cavities which may be seen 
 by cutting. But zinc, when the alloy is well com- 
 bined, appears to prevent the shrinkage entirely, or at 
 least partially. 
 
 This defect has been obviated by giving an ovoid 
 shape to the ball moulds, and then compressing the 
 cast balls to a spherical form under a press. In Eng- 
 land, several manufacturers have tried to obtain the 
 
ALLOYS FOR ROLLING AND WIRE DRAWING. 189 
 
 balls from drawn-out cylinders of lead, cut into frag- 
 ments of convenient size, and then compressed into 
 shape* 
 
 The modifications in the shape of the projectiles, 
 which tend to be substituted for the spherical balls in 
 weapons of war, will bring into use, for the reasons 
 already stated, the alloys of lead and zinc, or zinc 
 alone, especially if the volume of these projectiles be 
 much more considerable than that of the old balls. 
 
 IV. 
 ALLOYS FOR ROLLING AND WIRE DRAWING. 
 
 The alloys of the majority of the usual metals, 
 which we have previously examined, may be rendered 
 ductile and malleable by following certain proportions 
 indicated by experience. 
 
 In the ordinary practice of the arts, the so-called 
 ductile metals, such as gold, silver, copper, &c.,f when 
 alloyed with other metals, tin, lead, zinc, for instance, 
 may furnish intermediary products, which are ductile 
 and malleable at various degrees. 
 
 We shall not examine here all the ductile alloys 
 which may be produced for the rolling and drawing 
 processes. Moreover, the bases of these alloys will be 
 found in various parts of this book. 
 
 We shall only speak in general of the preparation 
 of the principal alloys of copper with zinc, tin, or lead, 
 
 * Lead is not entirely devoid of elasticity, and this property has 
 prevented the further use of compression in the manufacture of 
 balls. The balls, which, immediately after being compressed, fitted 
 the bore of the gun, had expanded so much after some time of rest 
 in the armories, that they would not enter the same gun. — Trans. 
 
 t We do not mention iron, which being ductile and malleable 
 when alone, loses these qualities, or at least does not acquire any 
 new ones, when it is combined with other metals. 
 
190 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 which are the most useful for the manufacture of plates, 
 sheets, bars, and wires. 
 
 A malleable brass was, for a long time, obtained by 
 directly treating calamine in the " German" furnace. 
 It has only been since the beginning of this century 
 that the large foundries have made brass by the direct 
 alloy of copper and zinc in the metallic state. 
 
 The distance of the mines of calamine was also the 
 principal drawback to the manufacture of brass in the 
 French works. At the end of the year 1816 experi- 
 ments were begun at the Romilly works, as we have 
 mentioned in our book Be la Fonderie, for the direct 
 alloy of copper with zinc, but were not satisfactory 
 for a long time. The metal produced was tenacious 
 enough, but hard and little malleable. Better results 
 were obtained by refining the copper intended for the 
 crucible, because, until then, a portion of the zinc was 
 oxidized and lost in the drosses. But it is to the small 
 proportion of J of one per cent, of lead, added to the 
 alloy, that we owe the success of that mode of operation. 
 
 From that time, the metal, without losing its tena- 
 city, became milder under the rollers, more ductile in 
 the draw-plate, and wires were obtained as fine as 
 those made from the best brass of Namur. 
 
 Mr. Le Brun, at present inspector of the Ecoles des 
 Arts et Metiers, was one of the authors of the progress 
 made in the manufacture of malleable brass at the 
 Eomilly works, of which he was then the manager. 
 We owe to him the following proportions, which have 
 been the base of all such alloys, without sensible change. 
 
 Alloy for hammering, plates, and fine wires: — 
 
 Copper ........ 67 
 
 Zinc 33 
 
 Lead . 0.5 
 
 100.5 
 
ALLOTS FOR ROLLING AND WIRE DRAWING. 191 
 
 Alloy for pin wire, which must possess a certain 
 toughness : — 
 
 Copper 67 
 
 Zinc 33 
 
 Lead 0.5 
 
 Tin 0.5 
 
 101.0 
 
 In general, if we increase the proportion of copper, 
 the alloy is harder and clogs the file more ; if the pro- 
 portion of zinc is increased, the metal becomes less 
 homogeneous and tenacious. The stirring in the cru- 
 cible must be made with dry white wood, instead of 
 an iron tool, which becomes mixed in the alloy, and 
 renders it flawy and hard. 
 
 From these compositions, we see that the brass for 
 rolling, sensibly remains between the limits of 2 parts 
 of copper to 1 of zinc, in the case of brass of first 
 quality. It appears to be demonstrated that a less 
 proportion of zinc will not give a metal a3 malleable, 
 when hot, as the above alloys, and without the aid of 
 lead and tin. 
 
 But it is possible, in the brass of second quality, to 
 employ as much as 40 parts of zinc to 60 of copper. 
 The color of this alloy is a pale yellow, intermediate 
 between that of brass of first quality, and tombac. The 
 fracture of the metal is close and fine ; its specific 
 gravity reaches 8.45, whereas by calculation it would 
 give about 8 only, from whence we infer that there is 
 a contraction. 
 
 This alloy, which ought to be considered as a chemi- 
 cal compound in definite proportions, is harder than 
 copper, very difficult to break, and so malleable that 
 it may easily be forged wmen hot, and planed when 
 cold. 
 
 "We published, a few years ago, a note relative to the 
 process of casting the copper intended for rolling. We 
 
192 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 shall borrow from it all that we have to say on this 
 subject, nor do we believe that our conclusions should 
 be modified by what has since been done in the works 
 where malleable copper is manufactured. 
 
 " The experiments we have made in running cast 
 iron into metallic moulds, have caused us to ascertain 
 whether a similar process would not be advantageous 
 for casting the copper plates intended for rolling. From 
 inquiries made at one of the copper- works of the depart- 
 ment of l'Eure, and from our own researches, we have 
 obtained sufficiently satisfactory data on the casting of 
 copper into metallic moulds, to enable us to advise 
 manufacturers to prefer this process, which, in future, 
 will be found more advantageous than those actually 
 employed in the majority of works where sheet-copper 
 is produced. 
 
 " The method, which, in the absence of a better one, 
 was preferably employed for casting rolling copper, 
 consisted in pouring the melted copper into moulds of 
 hard stone, covered with an earthy coating, heated 
 upon the stone itself. These moulds, which, moreover, 
 did not produce castings always free from blown holes, 
 and other grave defects, were also exceedingly heavy 
 and difficult to move. Besides, they would become out 
 of shape, on whatever bottom they were resting. The 
 repairs were frequent and costly, on account of the 
 wear due to the shrinkage, notwithstanding the fact 
 that the cast metal was taken off as rapidly as possible. 
 
 "The importance of these defects caused a search 
 for better processes, and several manufacturers soon be- 
 gan to employ cast-iron moulds. The melted copper 
 was run first into uncovered moulds resting upon a 
 fixed copper bottom ; the whole being heated to a 
 temperature of from 80° to 100° C. This method, 
 which is possibly employed at the present day in some 
 works, replaced with advantage the use of stones, 
 
ALLOYS FOR ROLLING AND WIRE DRAWING. 193 
 
 although it is open to the general objection of un- 
 covered and too easily disturbed moulds. 
 
 "After numerous and often unsuccessful trials, it 
 became possible to obtain better results with the pro- 
 cess which we are going to describe. In our opinion, 
 casting under pressure is the base of the new improve- 
 ments which are to be sought for. 
 
 "The upright standing ingot-moulds, tried with 
 great success in two or three works in the vicinity of 
 Evreux, are made of two cast-iron pieces, perfectly 
 planed, and inclosing a space equal to the metallic 
 slabs desired, but not less than 0.012 metre in thick- 
 ness. On the top is an opening, like a funnel, for run- 
 ning in the metal, and for the escape of gases. 
 
 " The side of the funnel opposite that for the entrance 
 of the copper is somewhat higher, in order that the 
 liquid shall not run over. Each mould is kept closed 
 by clamps or wedges, and is inclined during the cast- 
 ing about ten degrees. 
 
 " The moulds are subjected to the following neces- 
 sary operation before casting : they are smeared over 
 with just enough oil to retain a very thin layer of 
 charcoal-dust, which is thrown upon it by means of a 
 sack similar to that used by moulders in sand. The 
 temperature of the moulds also requires attention, 
 as more than from 80° to 100° 0. will impair the 
 homogeneousness of the alloy ; a less heat will occa- 
 sion flaws, blown holes, and separated drops. The 
 workman in charge of the moulds must be careful to 
 open them immediately after the casting is done, 
 otherwise the slabs will be broken. The same person 
 attends to the cooling of the moulds, when, after each 
 operation, they have acquired too high a temperature. 
 
 " As regards the cast-iron moulds, experience has 
 taught that the metal must be very mild, and in every 
 case well annealed. The moulds which have not been 
 17 
 
194 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 annealed, generally produce copper plates or slabs 
 filled with blown holes. 
 
 " But although these processes are to be preferred 
 to the old methods, they may yet be considerably im- 
 proved. For instance, while we retain the principle 
 of casting under pressure in metallic moulds, we may 
 vary the nature of these moulds, and obtain more 
 homogeneous and perfect metallic slabs or plates which 
 are better fitted for the purpose of rolling. 
 
 " Metallic moulds made of brass (copper 70, zinc 30), 
 oiled and then smoked with rosin soot, have furnished 
 plates without blown holes, but presenting a few blem- 
 ishes at the upper part. The moulds become heated 
 very much and crack. 
 
 " Cast-iron moulds, perforated with small holes for 
 the escape of the air, at the same time that they re- 
 tained the clay with which the inside was covered, gave 
 us better results. The clay used was the fine stuff' em- 
 ployed by moulders in clay, and its thickness was 
 not over two to three millimetres, regulated by a 
 board. This clay was then brought to a red heat, and 
 covered afterwards with a coat of the liquid black 
 employed by cast iron moulders. The copper plates 
 obtained from such moulds were very fine and with- 
 out any blown holes. It remains to be ascertained 
 whether the pellicle which covers the metal, and 
 which is thicker that that of the metal cast in direct 
 contact with the metallic moulds, will not prevent the 
 thorough scouring necessary for a fine appearance in 
 the laminated sheets. Once this fact is ascertained — 
 and we have no doubt that it will succeed with the al- 
 loys of copper and zinc* — the process which we have 
 
 * The results will not be so advantageous for pure copper. This 
 metal, employed in the pure state, and cast in sand, loses part of 
 its tenacity, and becomes very flexible and porous, especially if 
 the castings are not very thick. It may be feared that the lining 
 of clay, notwithstanding its thinness, will act the same as sand 
 on the quality of copper. 
 
ALLOYS FOR ROLLING AND WIRE DRAWING. 195 
 
 indicated will be the best, because all of the inconve- 
 niences resulting from the direct contact of the metallic 
 surfaces will be avoided without considerably increas- 
 ing the expenses of labor and repair. Copper moulds 
 with a lining of sheet-iron, or cast-iron moulds alloyed 
 with 5 per cent, of copper, well annealed and maintained 
 at a proper temperature, gave also good copper slabs for 
 rolling; but none of these latter moulds have, as com- 
 pletely as those lined with clay, prevented the forma- 
 tion of blown holes. 
 
 "This, the most troublesome of defects, particularly 
 so for rolling copper, is corrected in the preparation 
 of the alloys. 
 
 "Pure and new copper is naturally porous during 
 the first meltings, but becomes improved by repeated fu- 
 sions. Nevertheless, it is very difficult to obtain sound 
 slabs of pure copper, and it has been found advanta- 
 geous in practice to add from 1 to 2 per cent, of lead 
 to the copper which is to be laminated. A small per- 
 centage of lead is also very proper for brass, and ex- 
 cellent sheets are made of 66 parts of pure copper, 33 
 of zinc, and 1 of lead. The manufacturers of these 
 alloys sometimes carry their economy so far, by re- 
 ducing the proportion of copper, that the proper pro- 
 ducts cannot be obtained. There are limits within 
 which it is prudent to remain, and the proportion of 
 copper should never be less than 60 per cent. The 
 alloys of brass, of similor, &c, like new copper, be- 
 come improved by a second fusion ; but when the di- 
 rect alloy is properly made, that is, when the metals 
 are combined after having been separately melted, and 
 when the proper degree of heat is obtained, the stir- 
 ring sufficient, and the casting rapid, good products 
 may be obtained without incurring the expense and 
 waste of a second melting. 
 
 " Old pieces of copper added to the new alloy help 
 the combination of the metals ; but the old pieces must 
 
196 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 be of good quality, and generally sheets deprived of 
 any trace of solder, tin, or iron. Old kitchen caldrons, 
 saucepans, pipes, &c, are not good, because they are 
 seldom pure; when employed, they are previously sub- 
 mitted to a red heat, in order to eliminate most of the 
 foreign metals or substances. The old copper sheath- 
 ings of ships are not satisfactory ; the cast plates made 
 of them are exceedingly hard and brittle, and experi- 
 ence has proven that these slabs or plates remain of an 
 inferior quality, even after the addition of 50 per cent, 
 of new copper. It is therefore necessary to make a 
 good choice of the old copper which is to be added to 
 the alloy, since it has a great effect on the results. The 
 best old copper comes from stamped, drawn-out, and 
 laminated pieces, from the waste of laminated sheets 
 or imperfect plates, and with them we obtain more 
 homogeneous and tenacious alloys, which, therefore, are 
 better adapted to the laminating process. 
 
 " We must carefully verify, before they are intro- 
 duced into the alloy, the old pieces of copper cast in 
 foundries, because these coppers have a variable com- 
 position, and are almost always the result of all sorts of 
 old copper thrown into the crucible, without regard to 
 their quality. Indeed, the ordinary castings do not 
 require an alloy as rigorously exact as is the case 
 when the metal is to be laminated. 
 
 " To sum up, the manufacture of the copper, brass, 
 and other similar alloys for rolling, is based upon : — 
 
 " 1. The process of casting, the material, shape, and 
 size of the metallic moulds, which receive the molten 
 metal, and we have stated the conditions which, in our 
 opinion, are to be attended to. 
 
 " 2. The quality of the raw materials and the com- 
 position of these alloys. This question is most impor- 
 tant, and it is necessary to determine in advance what 
 will be the most favorable and economical conditions 
 
ALLOYS FOR ROLLING AND WIRE DRAWING. 197 
 
 for the mixture of new copper with zinc, tin, lead, or 
 old copper. 
 
 " 3. The mode of operation, and the proper degree 
 of temperature for casting. Copper and its alloys re- 
 quire generally to be cast hot, nearly in a state of ebul- 
 lition, if we desire to obtain sound castings ; neverthe- 
 less, we should not go beyond certain limits if we wish 
 to avoid waste. The proper time for casting is, as a 
 rule, when the surface of the bath becomes bright, 
 slides to a reddish-white, and shows by its motion that 
 the molten mass has acquired the maximum of tem- 
 perature which is convenient." 
 
 Among the alloys used in the arts for rolling and 
 drawing, we would indicate the following compositions, 
 which we shall examine again further on : — 
 
 Bronze for sheathing — 
 
 Copper . . . . . . . . . 96 
 
 Tin 3 
 
 Zinc 1 
 
 100 
 
 Brass plates, called Jemmapes brass- 
 Copper ........ 64.6 
 
 Zinc . . . . . . ... 33.7 
 
 Lead ......... 1.5 
 
 Tin 0.2 
 
 100.0 
 
 Similor for gilding or plating- 
 Copper 92.7 
 
 Zinc ......... 4.6 
 
 Tin ........ 2.7 
 
 100.0 
 
 Maillechort for rolling- 
 Copper ......... 60 
 
 Zinc ......... 20 
 
 Nickel ......... 20 
 
 100 
 
 17* 
 
198 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 V. 
 
 COPPER ALLOYS FOR SHIP SHEATHINGS. 
 
 Mr. Bobierre, Professor of Chemistry at Nantes, has 
 paid a great deal of attention to the causes of alteration 
 in the bronzes employed for sheathing ships, and to 
 the process for obtaining these bronzes in the best pos- 
 sible conditions of alloy and manufacture. 
 
 We here sum up rapidly the observations of Mr. 
 Bobierre, which will be found sufficient to elucidate 
 the question of these sorts of bronzes. 
 
 Pure copper and zinc are yet employed for sheath- 
 ing ships ; but the experiments of Mr. Bobierre, made 
 on samples of sheathing which had been exposed to 
 the action of the sea for several years, have brought 
 him to the conclusion that bronze is preferable as re- 
 gards solidity and duration. 
 
 As a rule, it is desirable that the sheathing bronzes 
 should be made of copper and tin, with a minimum of 
 4 per cent, of the latter metal. The best proportions 
 appear to be 5 or 6 per cent, of tin. 
 
 According to Mr. Bobierre, we may consider the 
 molecules of such homogeneous alloys as so many 
 voltaic couples, from which the sea- water has a ten- 
 dency to eliminate tin, in preference to copper. On 
 the other hand, the force of cohesion being greater in 
 bronze than in pure copper, the alloy ought to resist 
 better the action of sea- water. 
 
 The noted results of trials made in France and in 
 England, on the sheathing of vessels which had made 
 long voyages, show that good bronze alloys had resist- 
 ed in the proportion of 2 to 1, and 3 to 2, as compared 
 with sheathings of pure copper, or of copper alloyed 
 with from 1 to 2 per cent, of tin. 
 
 The alloys of a very red color, that is to say, which 
 do not contain enough tin, are heterogeneous, scorified, 
 
COPPER ALLOYS FOR SHIP SHEATHING. 199 
 
 and with a coarse and irregular grain. This is ex- 
 plained by the difficulty of thoroughly combining a 
 very small proportion of tin with a large mass of cop- 
 per, notwithstanding a good fire and complete stirring. 
 Therefore, in such alloys too small a proportion of tin 
 causes blown holes and stains, where it ought to act as 
 the electro-positive element in opposition to copper. 
 
 Mr. Bobierre has found by analysis that the sheath- 
 ing bronzes contained not only sensible traces of arsenic, 
 but also a comparatively large proportion of lead. 
 These facts will be explained — first, by the ordinary 
 presence of arsenical iron, and arsenic itself, in the tin 
 oxides of Cornwall and of the coasts of Brittany; sec- 
 ond, by the necessity of aiding the difficult rolling of 
 pure alloys of copper and tin, by an addition of a few 
 hundredths of lead. 
 
 The bronze sheathing of the ship Sarah, which had 
 imperfectly resisted the action of sea-water, was found 
 by Mr. Bobierre to contain — 
 
 Copper ...... 950 to 970 parts. 
 
 Tin ...... 25 " 35 " 
 
 Lead ...... 5 " 13 " 
 
 Arsenic ...... perceptible traces. 
 
 On the other hand, those of the packet-ship Ferdi- 
 nand, which had stood very well, were composed of — 
 
 Copper 850 to 950 
 
 Tin 41 " 45 
 
 Lead 6 " 9 
 
 Arsenic ....... traces. 
 
 Samples from the ship Aline, which had made several 
 long trips, without any alteration of her sheathing, 
 gave — 
 
 Copper ........ 935 
 
 Tin ......... 55 
 
 Lead 10 
 
 Arsenic ........ trace. 
 
 1000 
 
200 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Other samples, taken by several manufacturers and 
 ship-owners of Nantes from well-preserved sheathings, 
 gave a proportion of tin varying from 55 to 65 parts 
 per thousand parts of alloy. 
 
 Mr. Bobierre concludes, from these facts: — 
 
 That tin, which plays the part of an electropositive 
 metal, enters in too small a proportion into the imper- 
 fect alloys; 
 
 That, up to a certain point, it is possible to deter- 
 mine a ratio between the proportion of the more oxi- 
 dable metals and the propensity of the alloy to become 
 altered ; 
 
 That the sheathings which had shown a great power 
 of duration contain at least 4 per cent, of tin ; 
 
 Lastly, that the grain of the alloy is coarse, its color 
 bad, and the stains of tin apparent; or, to sum up, that 
 the tin is not uniformly divided through the mass, 
 when its proportion is below 4 per cent. 
 
 These facts being admitted, and if we remember 
 that when an alloy of copper and tin is melted, the lat- 
 ter metal is oxidized in preference to the former, we 
 may then admit that the experiments of Mr. Bobierre, 
 without having a rigorous exactness, which is not, 
 however, claimed by this chemist, may serve, a priori, 
 as the basis for the production of good bronze sheath- 
 ings, which a ship owner has the right to expect. 
 
 Experiments made on bronze sheathings, allowed to 
 stand for a certain length of time in a solution of — 
 
 Alum ........ 40 parts 
 
 Cream tartar ...... 20 " 
 
 Common salt ...... 40 " 
 
 have shown to Mr. Bobierre, besides his analytical re- 
 sults: that sheathings rich in tin, with a color similar 
 to that of bronze ordnance, a fine grain, and a fine 
 homogeneous appearance, had their thickness uniformly 
 diminished ; 
 
 That the bronzes deficient in tin, and with the ap- 
 
COPPER ALLOYS FOR SHIP SHEATHING. 201 
 
 pearance of bad bronze, were unequally corroded, 
 sometimes rough to the touch and sometimes perfo- 
 rated, but most generally presented large worn surfaces, 
 and irregular-shaped stains. 
 
 Trials made on a larger scale, have confirmed the 
 laboratory experiments of Mr. Bobierre, and we may 
 conclude : — 
 
 That bronze sheathings, as regards stability and 
 duration, are to be preferred to copper and brass 
 sheathings ; 
 
 That the irregular alterations, so ruinous to ship- 
 owners, result from a defect in the manufacture of 
 these bronzes ; 
 
 That the presence of arsenic in these bronzes does 
 not produce as rapid an alteration as is the case with 
 pure copper ; 
 
 That the sheathing bronzes, with only from 2 to 3 
 per cent, of tin, are not homogeneous, and are irregu- 
 larly altered ; and that their durability on the ocean 
 is, in every case, much inferior to that of the bronzes 
 holding from 4.5 to 5.5 per cent, of tin. 
 
 The desire to do the rolling economically by dimin- 
 ishing the hardness of the alloy, and the introduction 
 of harsh copper, of a doubtful quality, are the causes 
 of the inferiority of the low standard bronzes employed 
 for trading ships. 
 
 The addition of a small proportion of lead, and even 
 of zinc, into bronze sheathing, will improve these alloys 
 by aiding the thorough distribution of the electro- 
 positive element in the metallic mass. 
 
 If, during the service at sea, the bronzes are a little 
 more subject to fouling than pure copper, according 
 to certain captains, the inconvenience is not so great, 
 with good alloys, as to prevent the employment of 
 bronze sheathing. 
 
 As for the use of pure zinc sheathing, all naviga- 
 tors know with what rapidity and energy the parasite 
 
202 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 molluscs (barnacles, &c.) stick to that metal, and ren- 
 der its employment impossible. 
 
 Whatever be the duration and the cheapness of zinc, 
 it will always be more advantageous to prefer bronze, 
 brass, or even pure copper, notwithstanding the con- 
 stant alterations due to the frequent impurity and to 
 the thinness of the latter metal. 
 
 A few chemists have recommended the alloys of tin 
 and zinc, in substitution for pure zinc sheathing. 
 These alloys are hard, difficult to roll, and do not ap- 
 pear to give better results than pure zinc ; moreover, 
 their greater cost counterbalances their possible ad- 
 vantages. 
 
 Among the other alloys proposed or employed for 
 sheathings, we may notice the alloy of Muntz, which is 
 made of — ■ 
 
 Copper 56 parts. 
 
 Zinc o 40.75 " 
 
 Lead ....... 4.50 " 
 
 101.25 
 
 According to Mr. Muntz, the lead plaj r s an im- 
 portant part in this alloy, which without it would not 
 be sufficiently oxidizable to prevent the careen from 
 fouling. This alloy may contain more or less copper, 
 and therefore be more or less economical. At all 
 events, the proportion of copper should never be less 
 than 50 per cent. 
 
 This alloy appears to have given satisfactory results ; 
 but Mr. Bobierre does not think it so good as a 
 bronze made under good conditions. In this respect, 
 this chemist disagrees with many ship-owners, who 
 prefer the copper-zinc sheathings to every other alloy, 
 even those of copper and tin made according to the 
 indicated rules. 
 
ENGRAVING PLATES, ETC. 203 
 
 VI. 
 ALLOYS FOR TYPE, ENGRAVING PLATES, ETC. 
 
 According to Mr. Ch. Laboulaye, an authority in 
 such matters, an alloy for type metal must fulfil the 
 following conditions : — 
 
 1. Not too great a propensity to crystallization, 
 otherwise the metal will crystallize near the metallic 
 surfaces of the mould; 
 
 2. Keady fusibility, in order to keep the metallic 
 bath at a proper temperature without too much oxi- 
 dation, which may be rapidly produced by the fre- 
 quent dippings of the casting-ladle; 
 
 3. Sufficient hardness for preventing the crushing of 
 the letter, while printing; and at the same time suffi- 
 cient softness for facilitating the operations following 
 the casting, and the printing itself; 
 
 4. A reasonable cost, so as not to increase beyond 
 measure the value of printing material. 
 
 It results from these conditions, that lead has been 
 considered, up to the present time, as the base of alloys 
 for types. However, as it requires to be hardened, its 
 combinations with brittle metals have been tried. 
 
 Zinc has the advantage of cheapness and easy fusi- 
 bility ; but at the low temperature necessary to insure 
 its combination with lead, it remains pasty and does 
 not fill the moulds. 
 
 The preference has therefore been given to anti- 
 mony, which, alloyed with lead, answers the purpose 
 better. 
 
 The alloys of lead and antimony, which contain 
 from 10 to 30 per cent, of the latter metal, according 
 to the degree of density desired, may be made as 
 brittle as desired by increasing the proportion of anti- 
 mony. As long as the proportion of antimony is not 
 
204 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 over 15 per cent., these alloys possess a property of 
 expansion which is very advantageous for sharp casts. 
 
 The alloy with 15 per cent, of antimony is the most 
 satisfactory, as regards fluidity and expansion by cool- 
 ing. It is more fusible than either of the component 
 metals. 
 
 However, it was ascertained that the alloy of lead 
 and antimony, notwithstanding its proper degree of 
 hardness, had a vitreous nature, and imperfectly 
 resisted the action of the press and of the scouring 
 caustics ; it was then tried to increase the resistance 
 without losing the other qualities of the alloy. This 
 result was obtained by the employment of tin or bis- 
 muth. 
 
 The proportion of tin appears to range from 6 to 8 
 per cent. A greater amount would cause a waste by 
 oxidation; and the alloy would be brittle, by the 
 too great tendency of tin and antimony to crystallize. 
 
 Various alloys of copper and zinc have been tried, 
 but without satisfactory results. 
 
 MM. Didot have employed for their stereotypes an 
 alloy of 1 part of copper, 9 of tin, and 100 of the 
 alloy of lead and bismuth. Mr. Laboulaye has used 
 for the same purpose an alloy of 1 part of copper, 6 of 
 tin, and 100 of type-metal. But these alloys have not 
 been successful, on account of their high price, their 
 hardness when needing repairs, their refractory char- 
 acter and rapid oxidation, and, lastly, their tendency to 
 crystallization. 
 
 Mr. Laboulaye indicates an alloy of tin with from 1 
 to 2 per cent, of iron, which, being added to the type- 
 metal in the place of 1 part of lead, gives a compound 
 not very crystallizable, quite hard, and resisting well 
 hard work, such as the printing of newspapers. The 
 same author also mentions an alloy of Mr. Colson, 
 made of equal parts of tin and zinc, which was very 
 satisfactory as to resistance, but was discarded on 
 
ALLOYS FOR TYPE, ENGRAVING PLATES, ETC. 205 
 
 account of the destruction by the zinc of the iron 
 moulds and matrix, and the difficulty of dressing the 
 types with the knife. 
 
 The following combinations are given, more as 
 guides for the experimenter than as absolute bases:— 
 
 Printing-types — 
 
 Lead ............. 4 parts. 
 
 Antimony 1 part. 
 
 5 
 
 Small types and stereotypes- 
 Lead . . - ... 9 parts. 
 
 Antimony . . . . . . . 2 " 
 
 Bismuth 2 " 
 
 Or 
 
 13 
 
 Lead ........ 16 parts 
 
 Antimony ....... 4 " 
 
 Tin 5 " 
 
 Plates for engraving music- 
 
 25 
 
 Tin . . . . . . . . 5 to 7.5 
 
 Antimony . . . . . . . 5 to 2.5 
 
 10 10.0 
 
 This alloy is the more brittle, as the proportion of 
 antimony is greater. Its specific gravity is less than 
 that of each of the component metals. 
 
 Lead . . . ...... 16 
 
 Antimony ........ 1 
 
 The presence of antimony is sufficient to impart to 
 this alloy a great tenacity. The specific gravity is 
 above the average of the two metals. 
 
 This last alloy has been tried in all proportions, 
 from 4 to 16 parts of lead to 1 of antimony. Some- 
 times tin, zinc, or copper has been added to it; and 
 18 
 
206 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 among several compositions, we may indicate the fol- 
 lowing ones : — 
 
 Lead ........ 8 
 
 Antimony ....... 2 
 
 Tin 1.5 
 
 11.5 parts. 
 
 Lead 4 
 
 Antimony . . 2 
 
 Zinc ........ 1 
 
 7 parts. 
 
 Lead ........ 7.5 
 
 Antimony ....... 2.5 
 
 Copper ........ 0.5 
 
 10.5 parts. 
 
 For large type, ectypes, matrix, &c., the following 
 proportions have been tried : — 
 
 Lead ............ 10 
 
 Copper ....... 2.5 
 
 12.5 parts. 
 
 Lead ........ 9 
 
 Antimony . . . . • • .1 
 
 Arsenic . . • • • • • 0.5 
 
 10.5 parts. 
 
 Copper . 8 
 
 Tin ........ 2 
 
 Bismuth ....... 0.5 
 
 10.5 parts. 
 
 Copper • • 2 
 
 Tin ........ 2 
 
 Bismuth, . 2 
 
 6 parts. 
 
 Copper ....•••• 73 
 Zinc 27 
 
 100 parts. 
 
ALLOYS FOR BELLS, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, ETC. 207 
 
 Copper 5 
 
 Zinc 67 
 
 Tin ........ 25 
 
 Nickel ........ 3 
 
 100 parts. 
 
 Tin ........ 12 
 
 Zinc 16 
 
 Lead ........ 64 
 
 Antimony ....... 8 
 
 100 parts. 
 
 Tin ...... 56 37.5 
 
 Lead 42 60 
 
 Antimony ..... 2 2.5 
 
 100 parts. 100.0 parts. 
 
 The last two alloys have been employed for en- 
 graving plates. 
 
 VII. 
 ALLOYS FOR BELLS, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, ETC. 
 
 The alloy for bells, known under the name of bell- 
 metal, is generally composed of — 
 
 Copper . 78 
 
 Tin 22 
 
 100 parts. 
 
 This alloy is of a yellowish-white color, hard, brittle, 
 difficult to file, and with a crystallization without lus- 
 tre. It acquires a certain malleability when it is 
 rapidly cooled off, whether by immediate exposure of 
 the casting to the air, or by being dipped into water. 
 
 From analyses of old bells made by modern chem- 
 ists it has been found that the proportion of tin varied 
 from 20 to 26 parts to 100 of copper. 
 
 These bells were rarely manufactured with new or 
 pure metals ; therefore, the analyses have often shown 
 
208 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 the presence of foreign compounds, useless or detri- 
 mental to their qualities, especially certain white 
 metals, such as zinc and lead. The former metal, 
 when in small proportion, may not really prove a defect 
 in bell-metal. It has even been tried purposely in 
 certain alloys. Indeed, although zinc neither improves 
 the quality nor the sonorousness of the alloy, it does 
 not act very badly, and allows of the manufacture of 
 cheaper bells, which, however, are not so perfect as 
 those made of copper and tin alone. It is not so with 
 lead, which, if present even in a very small proportion 
 in bell-metal, will impair its sonorousness and hard- 
 ness. Therefore, lead must be avoided at all events. 
 
 We do not see any serious objection to the intro- 
 duction of zinc into the bell-metal, provided that too 
 much of it be not added. A small proportion of zinc 
 renders the alloy more homogeneous, dense, fluid, and 
 ready to acquire the peculiar tint of old bronze. 
 
 It also gives a more economical metal, which ex- 
 plains the sensible reduction in the price of bells, at 
 present manufactured on a large scale in certain 
 works. These manufacturers will soon crush the 
 strolling melters, who for centuries had the monopoly 
 of the casting of bells. 
 
 The new manufacturer of bells tries to work ration- 
 ally, analyzes and experiments with various compo- 
 sitions, in order to apply the metals to the best ad- 
 vantage. In the past, on the contrary, there were no 
 other rules than that of the thumb ; and old metals 
 were employed, such as broken kitchen utensils, 
 spigots, tinned copper with solder, &c, which could 
 give but dubious results. 
 
 If we add to that the want of precise data as to the 
 proportions, the alteration by fusion of the alloys of 
 copper and tin, &c, we must not wonder at the differ- 
 ences shown by the analyses of various bells. These 
 variations were ascertained, especially during the crisis 
 
ALLOYS FOR BELLS, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, ETC. 209 
 
 of the French revolution, when the church-bells were 
 taken for the manufacture of cannon and coins. 
 
 Besides copper and tin, the presence of zinc and 
 iron was often detected, and also, but not often, that of 
 silver and gold. The presence of the latter metal was 
 less frequent than is generally supposed. 
 
 If some credulous minds, at certain epochs, have 
 brought precious objects of gold and silver to be added 
 to the bell-metal, in order to gain indulgences or to 
 make a pious offering, we must believe that the found- 
 ers were smart enough to pass the valuable offerings 
 through a less ardent fire than that of their furnaces. 
 
 As witness, the celebrated bell of the belfry of 
 Rouen, known under the name of the silver bell, and 
 which was believed by tradition to contain an enor- 
 mous amount of silver. Its analysis, made by the 
 learned chemists of the Paris mint, gave : — 
 
 Copper ........ 71 
 
 Tin ......... 23 
 
 Zinc ......... 1.8 
 
 Iron ......... 1.2 
 
 100.0 
 
 and not a trace of silver. 
 
 As we have already said, it is difficult to preserve the 
 ultimate proportions of bell-metal, which is also true 
 of all alloys. It is therefore necessary to increase the 
 proportion of tin, if we desire that the alloy should 
 have the composition demanded. But, whatever be the 
 excess of tin added, we can never arrive at a perfectly 
 exact composition, on account of the oxidation during 
 the fusion, variable with the fire and the shape of the 
 furnace, and of the phenomenon of separation, which 
 takes place in the mould if the metal has not been well 
 stirred and properly cast. 
 
 From experiments on samples of bell-metal, made at 
 different times, we have ascertained variations in the 
 
 lb* 
 
210 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 alloy, ranging from 18 to 35 parts of tin for 100 of 
 copper. 
 
 In order to counterbalance the loss of tin in the 
 alloy, we believe that without increasing the propor- 
 tion of tin, a bell-metal might be composed of — 
 
 Copper 79 
 
 Tin . . . . . . . . 23 
 
 Zinc ...*...■.»■■)• 6 
 
 108 parts. 
 
 If we suppose that the fire is properly managed, 
 and that no unforeseen accidents take place during the 
 melting and the casting, the cast bells ought to have 
 an ultimate composition of — 
 
 Copper 78 
 
 Tin . e . . . . . . 20 
 
 Zinc ........ 2 
 
 100 parts, 
 
 which corresponds to a hard, tough, and slightly mal- 
 leable metal, the sonorousness of which has not been 
 sensibly changed by the presence of the zinc. 
 
 The quality of bells, in regard to sound, resistance, 
 &c, also depends upon the shape and the particular 
 processes of moulding and casting, outside of the ques- 
 tion of the alloy. On this subject we refer our readers 
 to our book de la fonderie (on foundries). 
 
 Zinc, and even lead, are employed in England for 
 the casting of bells ; but if the latter metal is tolerated 
 at all, the proportion must be exceedingly small, just 
 enough to perfect the homogeneousness of the alloy. 
 
 Several analyses of modern English bells give, on 
 an average — 
 
 Copper i * ....... 80 
 
 Tin ......... 11 
 
 Zinc ......... 6 
 
 Lead ......... 3 
 
 100 
 
ALLOYS FOR BELLS, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, ETC. 211 
 
 In old bells of the same country, an exaggeration of 
 tin has been found, as much as 40 per cent, of the alloy. 
 These bells were exceedingly thick, and their shape 
 was widely different from the forms recognized by our 
 present founders. 
 
 In France also the proportion of the white metals, 
 such as tin and zinc, is exaggerated, especially in the 
 alloys for hand-bells, clock-bells, &c. For such objects 
 the common alloy employed is a sort of potin (yellow 
 pewter) made of — 
 
 Copper . . . . . . . 55 to 60 
 
 Tin . . . . . . . . 30 to 40 
 
 Zinc : 10 to 15 
 
 The metal for gongs and cymbals is composed, on 
 an average, of — - 
 
 Copper 75 
 
 Tin . . . . . . . . . 25 
 
 100 
 
 This metal is whiter, more sonorous, more brittle 
 than bell-metal, and is not so easily filed. 
 
 Chinese gongs, analyzed by Mr. Darcet in 1832, 
 have shown 78 parts of copper to 22 of tin ; and a spe- 
 cific gravity =8.815. 
 
 The composition for cymbals, admitted in the shops 
 of the School of Chalons, after the experiments by Mr. 
 Darcet, was— 
 
 Copper ........ 80.5 
 
 Tin ... 19.5 
 
 100.0 
 
 These alloys are brittle, and cannot acquire the 
 desired resistance and sonorousness, unless they are 
 dipped into cold water after being heated up to a cer- 
 tain point. 
 
 The alloys of copper and tin possess the property, 
 which we have already mentioned, of becoming very 
 
212 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 malleable after having been brought up to a red heat 
 and immersed in cold water. This property is made 
 use of in the manufacture of gongs and cymbals. 
 
 These instruments, cast in a slightly wet and loose 
 green sand, in order to avoid any fracture by shrink- 
 age, are then brought up to a red heat and dipped into 
 water with certain precautions. After this operation 
 they may be forged and hammered. The proper pitch 
 is imparted to them either by the tempering process, 
 or by a more or less protracted hammering at certain 
 places, or by annealing them after they have been 
 hardened by the hammer. 
 
 The honor of the discovery of the processes which 
 have permitted of the manufacture in France of gongs 
 and cymbals, has been awarded to Mr. Darcet. The 
 labors of this gentleman are already considerable 
 enough, to make it unnecessary to attribute to him the 
 industrial improvements due to the experience of 
 workers not so well known. Mr. Darcet has certainly 
 made analyses of the alloys of gongs and cymbals, and 
 has given some sound advice; but the processes of 
 manufacture and their improvement are due to the re- 
 searches of founders, and among them, of Mr. Maillard, 
 the skilful, learned, and modest manager of the foundry 
 shop of the School of Chalons, who has made many 
 improvements in founding and in alloys, and has paid 
 special attention to the processes for moulding, casting, 
 tempering, and hammering the alloys which we have 
 mentioned. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 ALLOYS FOR PHILOSOPHICAL AND OPTICAL 
 INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 (Especially Speculum Metals.) 
 
 Without speaking of the white metals, of the maille- 
 chort (German silver), aluminium, platinum, &c, which 
 
PHILOSOPHICAL AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 213 
 
 are in daily use for the manufacture of certain philo- 
 sophical or optical instruments, we shall here confine 
 ourselves to the summing up of the best known alloys 
 corresponding to the title of this 'chapter. 
 
 The greater number of these alloys are for the fabri- 
 cation of metallic mirrors, in which we require a true 
 white color, a fine lustre when polished, hardness, 
 and a clean surface which becomes with difficulty 
 scratched, altered, or tarnished. 
 
 The Chinese mirrors, which have attracted the 
 attention of savans, in order to learn the bases for 
 such compounds, have been found to contain some- 
 times copper, lead, and antimony ; sometimes copper, 
 tin, and lead. The latter alloy is grayish, susceptible 
 of a fine polish, but presents no peculiar qualities. Its 
 composition is generally — ■ 
 
 Copper ,62 
 
 Tin 32 
 
 Lead 6 
 
 100 
 
 The former has a whiter color, a finer polish, and is 
 not so easily tarnished by contact with the air. Its 
 average composition is — ■ 
 
 Copper^ . . 80 
 
 Lead 10 
 
 Antimony 10 
 
 100 
 
 Certain mirrors of antiquity show — 
 
 Copper 62 
 
 Tin 32 
 
 Lead 6 
 
 100 
 
 In France similar mirrors have a composition ranging 
 between — 
 
 Copper .... 66 ... 63 
 Tin 33 ... 27 
 
214 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 These compounds are very bard, brittle, with a fine 
 polish of a steel-white color, and with a lamellar, gray, 
 and dull fracture. 
 
 Other more complex alloys have been employed, 
 such as — 
 
 Copper ........ 10 
 
 Tin ......... 10 
 
 Antimony ........ 10 
 
 Lead 50 
 
 80 parts. 
 
 Copper 32 
 
 Tin ......... 50 
 
 Silver 1 
 
 Arsenic ........ 1 
 
 84 parts. 
 
 In addition to these alloys, which are made of ordi- 
 nary metals, but do not answer all the desired con- 
 ditions, let us mention a few combinations made by 
 chemists with less known metals, or metals difficult to 
 alloy. 
 
 The alloy tried by Mr. Despretz for mirrors is — 
 
 Steel ......... 90 
 
 Nickel 10 
 
 100 
 
 • This alloy is very hard, scarcely alterable by the 
 air, and has a specific gravity = 7.684. The diffi- 
 culties attending its manufacture prevent its applica- 
 tion to the arts. 
 
 The same chemist has also indicated for the same 
 uses the alloys of palladium with gold or silver. An 
 alloy of — ■ 
 
 Palladium 50 
 
 Silver 50 
 
 100 
 
 has a grayish shade, and is harder and less fusible than 
 
PHILOSOPHICAL AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 215 
 
 silver. Its polished surface is whiter than platinum, 
 and its specific gravity is about 11.29. 
 
 It is said that this alloy, recommended for the man- 
 ufacture of marine instruments and the scales of ther- 
 mometers, has been employed for the great graduated 
 circle of the Observatory of Paris. 
 
 However, this point is not perfectly settled, some 
 authors contend that the same circle is made of equal 
 parts of palladium and platinum; others, that the 
 alloy is one of palladium and gold, a small proportion 
 of palladium being sufficient to impart a white color 
 to gold, and to increase its hardness. 
 
 At all events, it appears to be certain that palladium 
 is a component part of the alloy, and has imparted, 
 whether to gold, silver, or platinum, a certain white- 
 ness and hardness at the same time. 
 
 Yarious chemists, and among them MM. Stodart, 
 Faraday, and Dumas, recommend for the manufacture 
 of mirrors for telescopes (speculum metal), or of objects 
 requiring a perfectly neat polish, the following com- 
 pounds — ■ 
 
 Platinum ........ 60 
 
 Copper . . " . . . . . . 40 
 
 100 
 
 which has the same color as platinum, and acquires a 
 very brilliant polish. 
 
 Platinum ........ 50 
 
 Steel 50 
 
 100 
 
 which has a remarkable polish, difficult to tarnish. — 
 Specific gravity, 9.862. 
 
 Platinum . . 50 
 
 Iron . . 50 
 
 100 
 
216 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 which is crystallized, very hard, and sufficiently fusi- 
 ble. It acquires a fine polish, and does not tarnish. — 
 Specific gravity, 9.862. 
 
 Platinum ........ 16 
 
 Steel 90 
 
 100 
 
 whiter and harder than platinum. — A better polish. — - 
 Specific gravity, 8.10. 
 
 Platinum 20 
 
 Copper ....... 80 
 
 Arsenic . 0.5 to 1 
 
 100.5 to 101 
 
 ought to give the best mirrors, the alloy being more 
 easily effected. — The alloy is of a grayish-white color, 
 acquires a fine polish, does not tarnish, but its lustre 
 is not equal to that of the entirely white metals. 
 
 Platinum ......... 60 
 
 Iron 30 
 
 Gold . . . . ..... 10 
 
 100 
 
 which is white and does not tarnish, when polished. 
 
 Gold ............ 60 
 
 Zinc ........ . 50 
 
 100 
 
 which is whitish, finely granular, and oxidized with 
 difficulty. 
 
 Steel . . . . 50 
 
 Rhodium . 50 
 
 100 
 
 which is very well adapted for mirrors, according to 
 MM. Stodart and Faraday. — A very fine polish, which 
 does not tarnish. 
 
PHILOSOPHICAL AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 217 
 
 Platinum . 10 
 
 Iridium ........ 90 
 
 100 
 
 which, according to Mr. Gaudin, possesses more bril- 
 liancy than pure platinum. — Notoxidizable. — Becomes 
 harder by the usual hardening process. — May be ob- 
 tained in sheets for the plating of reflectors. 
 
 The alloys of platinum and iridium are very refrac- 
 tory, and may be employed, according to the same 
 author, for the manufacture of crucibles and retorts 
 for chemical analyses effected at a very high tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 Tin 29 
 
 Lead 19 
 
 This alloy, when melted, will adhere to the polished 
 surfaces with which it is in contact, and leave them on 
 cooling. The thickness of the deposit is regulated at 
 will by the time of contact. It is used for making 
 metallic mirrors, and other pieces with facets, which 
 project a dark lustre, and are known under the name 
 of Fahlun brilliants. 
 
 We certainly pass over many, and possibly valuable, 
 alloys; but the indications which we have just given 
 will show in what direction experimenters have worked 
 up to the present time, in order to arrive at such me- 
 tallic combinations as will take the best polish, con- 
 jointly with the lustre, whiteness, and hardness re- 
 quired for philosophical and optical instruments. 
 
 19 
 
218 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 IX. 
 
 ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY, GOLD AND SILVER WARES, 
 BRITANNIA WARE, ETC. 
 
 The jewelry trade combines the gold ingots, which 
 have a fineness of about 1000 thousandths (24 carats), 
 with various alloys, in order to arrive at the legal 
 standards, and also at the various colors of gold re- 
 quired by the trade. 
 
 The three legal standards for jewelry gold, as pre- 
 scribed by law, are in France : — 
 
 I. First standard or high standard gold. — 920 thou- 
 sandths, or 22g J 2 to \ carats, the unit being divided 
 into 24 carats. This standard is more particularly 
 employed by the goldsmiths. 
 
 II. Second standard or standard gold. — '840 thou- 
 sandths, or 20 g 5 2 and 2 carats. 
 
 III. Third standard or common gold, — 750 thou- 
 sandths, or 18 carats. 
 
 The tolerance is 3 thousandths, one way or the other. 
 
 For the inferior standards, or low gold, the fineness 
 varies from 500 to 750 thousandths. 
 
 The colors of the gold used in jewelry work are :— 
 
 Yellow or antique gold. — Pure gold. 
 
 Bed gold. — Pure gold 750, copper 250. 
 
 Green gold. — Pure gold 750, silver 250. 
 
 Goldfeidlle morte (dead leaf).— Pure gold 700, sil- 
 ver 300. 
 
 Gold vert d'eau (water-green). — Pure gold 600, sil- 
 ver 400. 
 
 White gold, sometimes electrum. — Gold whitened by 
 a greater or less proportion of silver. 
 
 Blue gold. — Pure gold 750, iron 250. This alloy is 
 quite difficult to produce, and is prepared with iron- 
 wire dipped into the molten gold. It is then cast, 
 hammered, in order to make it tough, and afterwards 
 laminated or passed through the draw-plate. 
 
ALLOTS FOR JEWELRY, ETC. 219 
 
 The alloys of gold must be very homogeneous ; 
 therefore they are melted several times. A good alloy 
 should not show any cracks or grains when it is ham- 
 mered or laminated. If the alloy is brittle or harsh, 
 it is rendered softer or milder by melting it with a cer- 
 tain quantity of flux (borax or saltpetre). 
 
 The silversmiths employ silver at two legal stand- 
 ards (in France) : — 
 
 The first standard is 950 thousandths, and the second, 
 800 thousandths. 
 
 The tolerance is 5 thousandths. 
 ^The silver employed for the alloys is pure silver, 
 and the standards are well kept. 
 
 Thanks to the legal standards required by the 
 French government for the works of gold and silver, 
 and thanks also to the obligatory assays previous to 
 the stamping of these metals, the jewelry, gold, and 
 silversmith's wares manufactured in France offer a 
 better guarantee of quality than similar articles manu- 
 factured in England, Germany, &c. In these countries 
 the precious metals, not being subjected to any control, 
 are the object of the most audacious swindles, so much 
 so, that articles sold as gold or silver, will often con- 
 tain scarcely a trace of these metals. 
 
 A quantity of jewelry has been, and is yet, manu- 
 factured in England, from gold at the standard of 12 
 carats and less, alloyed with zinc, instead of silver. 
 This gold, which has nearly the color of 2-carat gold, 
 has no other use than to deceive the trade and the 
 public. Chains, thimbles, pencil-cases, &c., have often 
 been made of this fraudulent alloy, which, after a cer- 
 tain use. becomes separated as though under galvanic 
 action, and leaves the articles entirely useless. 
 
 The alloys employed in England for imitating or 
 falsifying gold are generally kept within the limits of 
 the following alloys: — 
 
220 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Jewelry Gold. 
 
 Pure gold ........ 38. 85 
 
 Silver ........ 5.70 
 
 Pure Copper ....... 10.20 
 
 54.75 
 Ring Gold. 
 Gold (coin standard) . . . . . 49.60 
 
 Pure silver ........ 12.30 
 
 Refined copper . . . . . . . 23.60 
 
 85.50 
 
 Gold {value 45 to 50 francs for 28 grammes). 
 Gold (coin standard) ...... 31 
 
 Pure silver ....... 38 
 
 Refined copper ....... 27.5 
 
 96.5 
 Common Jewelry. 
 Refined copper ....... 3 
 
 Old Bristol bronze ...... 1 
 
 4 
 
 plus 25 parts of tin for 100 parts of copper. 
 
 If this alloy is to receive a fine polish, the tin is re- 
 placed by a compound of lead and antimony. By in- 
 creasing the proportion of this compound, or dimin- 
 ishing that of copper, the color of the alloy will become 
 proportionally whiter. 
 
 Yellow Metal for Dipping. 
 Copper 7 ") 
 
 Tin 2 \ Bronze* . .... 2 
 
 Zinc 3 j 
 
 Copper 1 
 
 3 
 
 plus 10 parts of tin for each 640 parts of copper. 
 
 * We generally call bronzes the alloys of copper with tin, even 
 with the addition of zinc and lead. On the other hand, brasses are 
 the alloys of copper with zinc, or with zinc and lead, but without 
 tin. 
 
ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY, ETC. 221 
 
 Another Metal for Dipping. 
 
 Copper ......... 48 
 
 Zinc ......... 15 
 
 63 
 
 When in the preceding alloys we employ antimony 
 instead of zinc or tin, the proportion of the former metal 
 ought to be very small, otherwise the compound will 
 be very brittle. 
 
 Metal for Gilding. 
 Copper ...... 4 
 
 S er i }*- i 
 
 5 
 
 plus 70 parts of tin for each 80 parts of copper. 
 
 Manheim Gold. 
 Copper ...... 10 
 
 £T r I } Bra - • w 
 
 Tin 0.1 
 
 11.5 
 
 Or:- 
 
 Copper .......... 3 
 
 Zinc 1 
 
 Tin 0.5 
 
 4.5 
 
 Chrysocale. 
 
 Copper 9 
 
 Zinc ......... 8 
 
 Lead ......... 2 
 
 19 
 19* 
 
222 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Tombac or Similor. 
 
 Copper. 8. 
 
 Tin 0.5 
 
 Zinc ......... 0.5 
 
 9.0 
 Red Similor. 
 
 Copper. ........ 5.5 
 
 Zinc ......... 0.5 
 
 6.0 
 White Similor. 
 
 Copper ....... 6.50 to 7 
 
 Arsenic ....... 0.25 to 0.5 
 
 The two metals are put together in the crucible, and 
 melted while the surface of the bath is covered with 
 common salt in order to prevent oxidation. 
 
 For a whitened copper we may also employ : — 
 
 Copper ........ 24 
 
 A Neutral Salt of Arsenic . . . . . 1.5 
 
 25.5 
 
 melted together with a flux of calcined borax, char- 
 coal-dust, and powdered glass. 
 
 Bath Metal 
 
 Copper * " 3 1 Brass 48 
 
 Zinc . . i/ wass . ... 48 
 
 Zinc .... 13.5 
 61.5 
 
 Or another:— 
 
 Copper ......... 75 
 
 Zinc ......... 25 
 
 100 
 Pinchbeck or Prince Robert's Metal. 
 
 I. II. 
 
 Copper .... 90 .... 30 
 Zinc .... 30 .... 60 
 
223 
 
 The two proportions bear the same name ; however, 
 the alloy II. is the one most usually known in Eng- 
 land under the name of Prince Robert's metal. 
 
 The English manufacturers, especially those of 
 Sheffield and Birmingham, employ a great number of 
 alloys, either for counterfeit jewelry, or for many ar- 
 ticles of legitimate trade, such as buckles, window fix- 
 tures, pieces of hardware, locks, &c, in which they 
 excel, not only by the finish or the good taste, but by 
 the metallic appearance of these wares. We shall 
 also indicate the following compounds, which may be 
 useful to know, whether as metals imitating gold, and 
 for gilding, or as metals imitating silver, and for silver- 
 ing. 
 
 These alloys are well known in France, but not so 
 generally as in England and Germany. 
 
 Argentan (packfund or packfong) of Sheffield. — This 
 ordinary quality has a yellowish tinge, and is employed 
 for wires and common articles :— - 
 
 Copper ......... 8 
 
 Nickel 2 
 
 Zinc 3 
 
 13 
 
 A superior quality, known as white packfong, imi- 
 tates the silver of 750 thousandths, and is employed 
 for spoons, forks, ornamental table pieces, &c. : — 
 
 Copper . 8 
 
 Nickel ......... 3 
 
 Zinc 3.5 
 
 14.5 
 
 The following alloys are very malleable, white, and 
 susceptible of a fine polish : — 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 
 II. 
 
 
 Ill, 
 
 Copper . 
 
 . 
 
 4 
 
 . 
 
 2 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 Nickel . 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 Zinc 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
224 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 These compounds resemble the alloys made in 
 France under the name of maillechort. Their white 
 color renders them well adapted for the operation of 
 silvering, and there is so slight a difference between 
 their color and that of silver that the body metal is not 
 apparent after scratching or chiselling. 
 German silver is made of— - 
 Copper ......... 2 
 
 Nickel ......... 1 
 
 Zinc ......... 1 
 
 4 
 
 Chinese white copper or Chinese packfong : — 
 
 Copper ........ 10.4 
 
 Nickel . 31.6 
 
 Iron ......... 2.6 
 
 44.6 
 
 German silver for rolling : — - 
 
 Copper. ........ 6 
 
 Nickel ......... 2.5 
 
 Zinc ......... 2 
 
 Lead 0.3 
 
 10.8 
 
 The French manufacturers employ for false jewelry 
 the Euolz alloys, the compositions of which vary be- 
 tween- 
 Silver . . . . . . e 20 to 30 
 
 Nickel . . . . . . . 25 to 30 
 
 Copper . . . . . . . 35 to 50 
 
 These proportions are those adopted by Mr. de Euolz ; 
 but, by varying them, many combinations may be 
 made, which resemble silver entirely, and are more 
 economical. The metal made according to the above 
 proportions contains from 20 to 25 per cent, of silver, 
 and corresponds inversely to the second standard 
 alloy of silver, which is composed of 20 per cent, 
 of alloy, with 80 per cent, of pure silver. 
 
ALLOYS FOE JEWELKY, ETC. 225 
 
 The metals employed should be of the best quality. 
 The impure nickel is dissolved in muriatic, nitric, or 
 diluted sulphuric acid. Chlorine is passed through 
 the solution, and then the iron of the impure nickel is 
 precipitated by ebullition with carbonate of lime. 
 
 The nickel is afterwards precipitated by carbonate 
 of soda, dissolved again in hydrochloric acid, and the 
 solution is diluted with a great quantity of water. 
 After saturation by chlorine, an excess of carbonate of 
 baryta is added to the solution, which is then allowed 
 to rest. The nickel is afterwards precipitated in the 
 metallic state by a galvanic current, or in the state of 
 oxide, which is reduced in the ordinary way. 
 
 It is advantageous to melt the copper and the gran- 
 ulated nickel first, then to introduce the silver. A flux 
 is employed, which is composed of borax and charcoal- 
 dust. The ingots are rendered malleable by annealing 
 them slowly and for a long time in charcoal-dust. 
 
 The employment of nickel on a large scale for white 
 alloys dates back only a few years ; at present it is an 
 essential base of the compounds which are to be sil- 
 vered. 
 
 The alloys known under the name of maillechort* 
 sometimes, and wrongly, melchior, are made in France 
 in the following proportions :— 
 
 Maillechort, first quality :— • 
 
 Copper ......... 8 
 
 Nickel ......... 4 
 
 Zinc ......... 3 
 
 15 
 Second quality : — 
 Copper .......... 8 
 
 Nickel 3 
 
 Zinc 3.5 
 
 14.5 
 
 * Maillechort, German silver, argentan, and packfong are so 
 much alike, that they may be considered as synonyms. — Trans. 
 
226 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Third quality : — 
 
 Copper 8 
 
 Nickel 4 
 
 Zino . .4 
 
 16 
 
 More complex maillechorts have been made, but are 
 not in great use, such as : — 
 
 Copper 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Iron 
 
 Tin 
 
 55 
 
 17 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 100 
 
 These proportions were those of the first composi- 
 tion of maillechort, patented more than thirty years 
 ago. 
 
 We find in the trade several kinds of maillechort, 
 more or less employed, under the name of: — 
 
 Paris Maillechort. 
 
 Copper 
 Nickel 
 Zinc 
 Iron 
 
 65 
 16.8 
 13 
 3.4 
 
 Copper 
 Nickel 
 Zinc . 
 
 German Maillechort. 
 
 98.2 
 
 50 
 
 18.7 
 
 31.3 
 
 Copper 
 Nickel 
 Zinc 
 
 Chinese Maillechort. 
 
 100.0 
 
 50 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 100 
 
ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY, ETC. 227 
 
 Maillechort for Spoons and Forks. 
 
 Copper ......... 50 
 
 Nickel . . ....... 20 
 
 Zinc ......... 30 
 
 100 
 Maillechort for Bo lling. 
 
 Copper ........ . 60 
 
 Nickel ......... 20 
 
 Zinc 20 
 
 100 
 
 This last alloy may be subdivided into qualities, by 
 varying the proportions in the same manner as we 
 have indicated for the three qualities of maillechort. 
 
 The following alloys also belong to the class of 
 maillechorts, argentans, German silver, &c; that is to 
 say, contain nickel as one of the principal bases :— - 
 
 Electrum. 
 
 Copper ........ 8 
 
 Nickel ........ 4 
 
 Zinc ......... 3.5 
 
 15.5 
 
 This combination, which is nothing else but a mail- 
 lechort of the first quality, imitates burnished silver, 
 and is not so easily tarnished. 
 
 Tutenag, 
 
 Copper 8 
 
 Nickel 3 
 
 Zinc . . . . . . . . . 5.5 
 
 16.5 
 
 It is a maillechort of an inferior quality, which cor- 
 responds to the ordinary quality of the packfong, 
 formerly imported from China. This alloy is very 
 hard, difficult to be laminated, cannot be drawn out 
 into wires, and is good for casting only. 
 
228 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 The founders whose specialty is the manufacture of 
 the alloys of copper with nickel and zinc, whether for 
 maillechorts, or for similar products under different 
 names, concur in admitting that the best alloy for 
 beauty, lustre, &c, is made in the following propor- 
 tions : — 
 
 Copper 
 Nickel 
 Zinc 
 
 8 
 6 
 3.5 
 
 17.5 
 
 It is also the most costly among similar alloys, on 
 account of the large proportion of nickel. 
 
 Alfmide is another compound which may be classi- 
 fied among the maillechorts, but those of a lower 
 standard. It is well adapted for electro-silver-plating 
 spoons, forks, and other articles with a smooth surface ; 
 but it does not succeed so well for decorated pieces, 
 because the deposit of silver — and this is true of all 
 the sorts of maillechort and German silver, to a greater 
 or less degree — does not resist the fire, the acids, or the 
 air as well as upon brass. The composition of alfe- 
 nide is generally :— 
 
 Copper 
 Zinc 
 Nickel 
 Iron 
 
 60 
 30 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 101 
 
 Let us now mention the alloy of Mr. Toucas, which 
 may be added to the preceding compounds, and is 
 made of — 
 
 Copper 
 
 5 
 
 Nickel 
 
 4 
 
 Antimony 
 
 1 
 
 Tin ... 
 
 1 
 
 Lead 
 
 1 
 
 Zinc 
 
 1 
 
 Iron 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY, ETC. 229 
 
 This alloy has the advantage of being complex, if 
 it does not possess other qualities than similar com- 
 pounds. According to the inventor, it has nearly the 
 color of silver, may be worked like it, and laminated 
 by the ordinary processes. It is resisting, malleable, 
 susceptible of a fine polish, with the lustre of platinum, 
 and may be silvered perfectly well. For objects which 
 are to be spun, hammered, or chased, the above alloy is 
 convenient; but for cast and adjusted pieces it is pre- 
 ferable to increase the proportion of zinc, in order to 
 increase the fluidity of the metal. This compound is 
 employed for ornaments, jewelry, harness, etc. 
 
 Besides the nickel, which is used to impart to the 
 alloys for false silverware the required hardness, 
 whiteness, sonorousness, &c, manufacturers employ 
 the alloys of copper, zinc, tin, lead, and sometimes 
 antimony, bismuth, and arsenic, for white compounds, 
 which to a certain point possess the qualities of the 
 preceding alloys. 
 
 We here give a few of these compounds :— 
 
 English Tutania (white metal). 
 
 SETS} 8 "" * 
 
 Tin ....... 12 
 
 Bismuth ...... 12 
 
 Antimony ....... 12 
 
 48 
 
 The bismuth and the antimony are added to the 
 molten alloy of brass and tin. The proportion of the 
 brittle metals may be varied until the alloy has ac- 
 quired the desired hardness and color. 
 
 German Tutania (white metal). 
 
 Copper . . . . . . . . 0.4 
 
 Tin 3.2 
 
 Antimony 42.0 
 
 20 tr t 
 
230 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Spanish Tutania (white metal). 
 
 Iron and steel scraps ...... 24 
 
 Antimony 48 
 
 Nitre ......... 9 
 
 81 
 
 The iron and steel must be heated to whiteness, and 
 the antimony and nitre gradually added. 60 grammes 
 of this composition are combined with 480 grammes 
 of tin (about 2 oz. to 1 pound), in order to finish the 
 alloy. A small proportion of arsenic is said to pro- 
 duce a very fine white metal. 
 
 Engestrurn Tutania. 
 
 Copper . 4 
 
 Antimony .......... 8 
 
 Bismuth ......... 1 
 
 13 
 
 This compound, added to 100 parts of tin, produces 
 a white metal which is employed in England for the 
 manufacture of certain table wares. The following 
 metals are also used in the same country, under the 
 name of Queen's metal, for the manufacture of teapots 
 and other vases imitating silver: — 
 
 Tin . . . . . . . . 3 to 9 
 
 Antimony . . \ . . . 1 " 1 
 
 Bismuth 1 " 1 
 
 Lead . . . . . . . 1 " 1 
 
 The proportion of tin alone varies. 
 Another : — 
 
 6 to 12 parts. 
 
 Copper ......... 2 
 
 Tin . 50 
 
 Antimony ........ 4 
 
 Bismuth 0.5 
 
 56.5 
 
A£LOY3 FOB ffiWKLEY, ETC, 231 
 
 Or:— 
 
 l-f er H Brass . 24 AntaMBj . . 018 
 
 A::.i:i" !- -. Bisranfh . . IS 
 
 Tin . 30 Lead . . .32 
 
 In France similar sompounds are known nndei the 
 names af Algiers :-:'. mnofor and meftd :. :-.:.■:, 
 Fheii vs ..;". ; wnj asition is : — 
 
 J.": era MetaL 
 I. " II. 
 Ha . . . 30 Tin c4.' 
 AnftuBopj , ♦ 1! CSdppes ..." 
 Antimony . . '" '- 
 
 i : : 
 
 I0O.C 
 
 The alloy I is for the ::t; lofkcfcore : :' spoons forks 
 goblets fee.; it has been :: :s ;e: smpl : ■■': .. . :■: ; .: :.i 
 for engra vino ansae bis capable of acquiring a very 
 ban Isome \ dish. 
 
 rhe alloy IX is more especially era] I >yed fbi small 
 hand-beUs 
 
 11-.::. '. A :-.: : silver-like mefc . 
 
 7:- . . . • • • • • ' ' 
 
 Antimonv , , . . . . . . 1- i 
 
 This alloy as the Algiers metal No. I is employed 
 :";: making forks and spoons. 
 
 Tiie following metal Ls used for :offeei ::s teat: ;:s. 
 2.11 similar yases : — 
 
 I/" ?/*: 
 
 7-r-er '- '-- 
 
 T:i" . . . • • • • - "-" - 
 
 An-.iminv . 
 
 Zinc , • ■ • • • • • • - r 
 
 Hk various white alloys "''l:\:. '~-. :.:;■'- ~ ' -: init- 
 iated m :. ~ : e classified among the name ; : h itamn : 
 
232 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 metals, which, at the present time, are very much sought 
 for on account of their fluidity and their facility of 
 acquiring a brilliant polish. The consumption of Bri- 
 tannia metal is considerable in England for low-priced 
 wares. 
 
 The composition of these alloys is exceedingly varia- 
 ble, and we shall confine ourselves to the indication of 
 the principal combinations. 
 
 As a rule, the preparation of these compounds is 
 based on the idea of rendering tin harder, tougher, more 
 sonorous, and more easily polished. 
 
 Copper and antimony impart to it these qualities ; 
 but, and as regards antimony, its proportion must not 
 be exaggerated. An excess of antimony will not only 
 impair the malleability of the alloy, but may also be 
 dangerous to the health, as antimony is considered a 
 poisonous metal, which does not resist the action of 
 the vegetable acids. 
 
 Britannia metal will furnish castings as fine and 
 sharp as those made with the most fluid alloys of tin 
 and lead, copper and zinc, &c. It acquires a finer polish 
 than the alloys of tin and lead, whereas the latter is too 
 soft to bear the action of emery and other polishing 
 materials. 
 
 All these advantages cause Britannia metal to rank 
 among the most useful alloys * 
 
 The most simple formula of Britannia metal is — 
 
 Tin .... . ..... 9 
 
 Antimony ........ 1 
 
 10 
 which is equally suitable for casting and rolling. 
 
 For similar alloys copper and zinc are employed in 
 the following proportions : — 
 
 * For all the alloys of tin and copper, where tin largely pre- 
 dominates, it is better to have prepared, in advance, an alloy of 
 tin and copper, rich in copper, which is called a temper, and is 
 added to the definitive alloy in the proportion desired. By doing 
 so, the alloy is more homogeneous, and there is less waste by oxi- 
 dation, as the point of fusion is not very high. — Trans. 
 
ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY, ETC. 233 
 
 Tin . . 85 to 90 
 
 Antimony . 5 " 10 
 
 Zinc . . . . . . . . 0.5 " 2 
 
 Copper . . . . . . . 1 " 3 
 
 Bismuth is added to other alloys, and an alloy has 
 been made of— 
 
 Tin 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Copper 
 
 85 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 1.5 
 35 
 
 100.0 
 Plate pewter belongs to the Britannia alloys, and is, 
 as its name indicates, especially intended for rolling. 
 Its composition is — 
 
 Tin ......... 90 
 
 Antimony ........ 7 
 
 Bismuth ........ 2 
 
 Copper ...... 2 
 
 101 
 
 Certain kinds of Britannia contain neither zinc nor 
 bismuth. Such is the Ashberry metal, made of— 
 
 Tin . i . . . . . 78 to 82 
 
 Antimony . . ■ . . . . 16 " 20 
 Copper ....... 2 " 3 
 
 When we adopt the alloy made of the five metals 
 tin, antimony, bismuth, zinc, and copper, we may em- 
 ploy the following proportions: — ■ 
 
 1 part of brass (copper and zinc) made in advance, 
 
 1 " tin, 
 
 1 " bismuth, 
 
 1 " antimony, 
 
 which are melted together, and then remelted. During 
 this last operation, from 15 to 20 per cent, of tin is 
 added, according to the judgment of the manufacturer. 
 A more complex alloy, called English metal, is 
 formed of — 
 
 20* 
 
234 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Tin . . . . . . . 88 
 
 Pure copper ..... 2 
 
 Sets h- • 2 
 
 Nickel ...... 2 
 
 Bismuth ...... 1 
 
 Antimony ...... 8 
 
 Tungsten ...... 2 
 
 Mr. Karmarsch, who has thoroughly studied the 
 properties of the Britannia alloys, says that the specific 
 gravity of the alloys is 7.339 for laminated sheets and 
 7.361 for castings. He explains this anomaly by the 
 fact that the molecules, under the action of the rollers, 
 have a tendency to become separated, their softness 
 and malleability not being great enough to allow of a 
 regular and uniform compression. This is not an iso- 
 lated fact. M. Le Brun has also found a lower specific 
 gravity for certain alloys of copper and zinc, which 
 had been laminated or hammered. 
 
 Certain Britannia alloys are very elastic, and well 
 fitted for making wire. In this respect, they possess 
 nearly the same amount of tenacity as pure tin. 
 
 Britannia metal is easily stamped and laminated, 
 although it has a tendency to break under the rollers. 
 
 The casting is generally performed in metallic moulds 
 of cast iron or brass. The different parts, for instance 
 the feet and the handles of teapots, are soldered together 
 with tin. The polishing is effected with fine sand and 
 dry tripoli. 
 
 A great many articles of Britannia metal are, at the 
 present time, silvered by the galvanic process, the 
 same as other objects of German silver, Chinese pack- 
 fong, or maillechort, which are so well manufactured 
 in England, France, and Germany, that it is difficult to 
 distinguish them from pure silver. 
 
 In some cases the Britannia metal is covered, by gal- 
 vanism, with a deposit of tombac. 
 
 A small addition of a solution of gold to the bath of 
 
ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY, ETC. 235 
 
 copper and zinc, imparts to the deposit the color of 
 similor. 
 
 The Britannia alloys and the analogous compounds 
 which require bismuth or antimony, and nickel occa- 
 sionally, ought to be classified among the common 
 white metals, rather than among the metals of a cer- 
 tain value. But as these alloys are employed for arti- 
 cles of luxury, where they are made into artistical pat- 
 terns, we have thought it better to separate them from 
 the more common white compounds made only with 
 tin, lead, or zinc, and to give them a place in this 
 chapter. 
 
 For the same reason we shall mention a few more 
 alloys, of which platinum is a component part, and 
 which properly belong to those trades where the finish 
 imparted to the work corresponds with the value of the 
 metals employed. 
 
 Mock Gold, or False Gold. 
 
 Copper t . . . » . . 16 * 
 
 Platinum ....... 7 
 
 Zinc 1 
 
 24 
 
 Ductile Alloy of Gold with Platinum. 
 
 Pure gold ........ 30 
 
 Platinum 2 
 
 32 
 
 The platinum is to be added only when the gold is 
 in perfect fusion. The two combined metals give an 
 alloy which is of a lighter color than pure gold, more 
 fusible, and very ductile and elastic. These qualities 
 may be found useful for certain works, especially for 
 delicate springs, which cannot be made of steel. 
 
 The alloys of gold and platinum have been studied by 
 an English savant, Mr. Prinsep, with a view of estimat- 
 ing the temperatures of blast-furnaces, and other ap- 
 
236 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 paratus where a powerful heat is employed. But these 
 experiments have not given better results than that 
 previously obtained with platinum alone. 
 
 Alloy for mirrors, ductile, notwithstanding its hard- 
 ness, unalterable in the air, and receiving a brilliant 
 polish : — • 
 
 Platinum . 60 
 
 Copper 40 
 
 100 
 Metals for Cutlery. 
 
 Steel alloyed with -^ of platinum or silver, which 
 is harder and more malleable than steel alone. 
 Also steel with rhodium, &c. &c. 
 
 X. 
 
 WHITE ALLOYS. 
 
 We include in this category all the alloys which are 
 not used in the manufacture of what may be called 
 articles of luxury, and which have not been mentioned 
 in the preceding chapter. 
 
 These alloys, of which we shall indicate the combi- 
 nations most employed in the arts, are very important, 
 as will be seen. 
 
 The alloys of zinc, tin, and lead, which have already 
 been studied in the second part of this book, may, in 
 certain proportions, furnish white metals which, if they 
 do not present all the qualities, possess at least some of 
 the characteristics, of the alloys called tutania, queen's 
 metal, German silver, minofor, Britannia metal, &c. 
 
 The ternary alloys of zinc, tin, and lead are more 
 economical than the former combinations, do not tar- 
 nish more, are as easily polished, and may be laminated. 
 The best proportions are within these limits :— 
 
WHITE ALLOYS. 237 
 
 Tin .......... 16 ....... M 
 
 Zinc .... 4 3 
 
 Lead .... 4 ..... . 3 
 
 It is proper to melt the zinc at the lowest tempera- 
 ture possible, to add tin, and then lead. The whole is 
 carefully stirred, and the bath is covered with borax 
 and charcoal-dust, or rosin, in order to prevent oxida- 
 tion. The proportion of zinc is increased, if toughness 
 and hardness are desired ; more tin increases the mal- 
 leability, the whiteness, and the polish ; but the pro- 
 portion of lead should not be much greater than those 
 indicated above. 
 
 To these metals we sometimes add copper, antimony, 
 or bismuth, in order to obtain the following com- 
 pounds : — * 
 
 English Alloys for Casts from Engravings, Stereotypes, &c. 
 
 No. 1. Common quality. 
 
 Tin, ........ . 3.36 
 
 Lead ,...,.,... 0.48 
 
 Copper ........ 0.18 
 
 Zinc 0.60 
 
 No. 2. Ordinary quality. 
 
 Tin 100 
 
 Antimony . 17 
 
 This quality belongs to the series of the alloys for 
 type-founders, the same as the following ones, which 
 have already been indicated, or have nearly the same 
 composition : — 
 
 Lead . ........ 9 
 
 Antimony ........ 2 
 
 Bismuth 1 
 
 * The white metals, which are not classified here, will be found 
 elsewhere. The alloys which form this chapter are those which 
 we have not been able to classify under the various titles we have 
 hitherto adopted. 
 
238 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Lead 10 
 
 Antimony 2 
 
 Lead ......... 8 
 
 Antimony ........ 2 
 
 Tin ......... 1 
 
 No. 3. Superior quality. 
 
 Tin ........ 5.76 
 
 Antimony ......... 0.48 
 
 Copper ........ 0.12 
 
 The copper must be melted first, and the other 
 metals are added in the following order : tin and anti- 
 mony. 
 
 Pewter is generally composed of — 
 
 Tin ... . ..... 80 
 
 Lead ......... 20 
 
 100 
 
 but gives its name also to the above alloy No. 2 (tin 
 100, antimony 17), and is then a pewter of first quality. 
 According to Mr. Mackenzie, these proportions form 
 the best combination of lead and antimony, as regards 
 hardness, resistance, and whiteness. 
 
 The pewters are employed in England for the same 
 uses as the French alloys, whose composition varies 
 between — 
 
 Tin .... 82 .... 92 
 Lead .... 18 .... 8 
 
 100 100 
 
 for common pots and plates. 
 
 Better articles, under the name of Algiers metal, are 
 made of — 
 
 Tin .... 75 .... 90 
 Antimony ... 25 .... 10 
 
 100 100 
 
WHITE ALLOYS. 239 
 
 An alloy improper for domestic uses has been made of — 
 
 Tin 10 
 
 Steel filings ....... 2 
 
 Metallic arsenic ....... 1.5 
 
 Arsenious acid ....... 2.5 
 
 16.0 
 
 This alloy gives a white metal, ductile, malleable, 
 and very easily cast. But its poisonous nature prevents 
 it from becoming extensively used, except in some par- 
 ticular cases. 
 
 Alloy for Seats of Stopcocks. 
 
 Tin 86 
 
 Antimony ........ 14 
 
 100 
 
 This alloy retains its polish quite well, even in a 
 damp atmosphere. According to The'nard, it presents 
 the remarkable property that when it is dissolved in 
 diluted muriatic acid, the two metals become precipi- 
 tated. 
 
 Alloy for Plugs of Stopcocks. 
 
 Tin 80 
 
 Antimony 20 
 
 100 
 
 This is harder and resists friction better than the 
 preceding. 
 
 Alloy for Keys of Flutes, Clarionets, &c. 
 
 Lead .20 
 
 Antimony 40 
 
 60 
 
 This alloy is hard, and its polish is not easily tarnished. 
 
 Hard Tin. 
 
 Tin ......... 1 
 
 Antimony . . . . . . . . 0.5 
 
240 PKACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 This alloy appears to be on the extreme limit of the 
 alloys of tin and antimony which may be used. 
 
 Kustitien Metal for Tinning, 
 
 Tin ........ 11.52 
 
 Iron 0.48 
 
 Antimony 0.15 
 
 12.15 
 
 This alloy has a blue tint when polished. It is very 
 good for tinning the insides of kitchen utensils made 
 of wrought iron. 
 
 English Hard White Metal {common). 
 
 %T i} Brass m 
 
 Zinc 45 
 
 Tin 15 
 
 540 
 
 Mock Platinum, or False Platinum. 
 
 z"^^ l} Brass ...... 240 
 
 Zinc ...... 150 
 
 390 
 
 Imitation of silver, especially as to its sonorousness: 
 
 Copper ........ 448 
 
 Zinc e ...... . 22 
 
 470 
 White Metal, called Prince's Metal. 
 
 SEth } Variable proportions. 
 
 All these alloys are brittle. They present no other 
 interest except their white color and their fine polish. 
 
 White Copper, or White Tombac. 
 
 Copper 75 
 
 Tin 25 
 
 100 
 
WHITE ALLOYS. 241 
 
 This metal is employed in England for the manu- 
 facture of buttons and small articles of hardware. Be- 
 ing sonorous, it may be used for hand-bells, &c. 
 
 Various alloys for buttons employed in England: — 
 
 No. 1. Superior quality. 
 
 £°PP er ? 1 Brass 373 
 
 Zinc 1 ) 
 
 Zino 62 
 
 Tin 31 
 
 466 
 No. 2. Ordinary quality .* 
 
 £°PP er3 I Brass 373 
 
 Ziuu 1 J 
 
 Zinc 47 
 
 Tin 47 
 
 467 
 
 No. 3. Common quality. 
 
 C°PP er3 \ Brass 373 
 
 Zinc 1 J 
 
 Zinc 140 
 
 513 
 
 VogeVs alloy for polishing steel is employed in the 
 shape of thin blades or files for applying rouge to the 
 small pieces of steel of the watchmakers, and is com- 
 posed of — 
 
 Copper ......... 8 
 
 Tiii ........ . 2 
 
 Zinc 1 
 
 Lead 1 
 
 This alloy, which we have studied in the quaternary 
 combinations of copper, tin, zinc, and lead, is very hard, 
 resists the tools, and must be ground upon a stone. 
 
 * From its composition, there being more tin and less zinc, No. 2 
 appears to be the superior quality, and No. 1 the ordinary quality. 
 — Trans. 
 
 21 
 
242 PKACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 XL 
 
 FUSIBLE ALLOYS. 
 
 This name is applied to those alloys which are com- 
 bined in such a manner that they will melt at a given 
 temperature. 
 
 Although it is difficult to determine with perfect 
 exactness their points of fusion, these fusible alloys may 
 be useful in the arts and in manufactures for ascertain- 
 ing a given temperature; for obtaining plastic metals 
 easily melted, in order to obtain casts of delicate ob- 
 jects which may be damaged by too high a tempera- 
 ture ; for making very fusible soft solders ; and lastly, 
 as a matter of precaution for such apparatus as is liable 
 to be instantaneously destroyed by a sudden and exces- 
 sive increase of temperature. In this latter connection 
 may be named the fusible safety plates or plugs of 
 boilers. 
 
 These safety plates were at the beginning very ex- 
 tensively used ; but at the present day they are rarely 
 to be met with, and are no longer required by the rules 
 which regulate boilers and steam-engines. However, 
 it may be found useful to know the composition of 
 these alloys. 
 
 The fusible alloys are based on the property of cer- 
 tain metals to become more fusible when combined, 
 than they were when taken singly. Bismuth, tin, and 
 lead, especially, follow this rule. 
 
 It is difficult to obtain these alloys in a perfectly 
 homogeneous state. They have a tendency to become 
 decomposed while yet in a state of fusion, the lead 
 going to the bottom of the fused mass. 
 
 The alloy of Darcet or of Rose is made of — 
 
 Bismuth . . 50 
 
 Tin 30 
 
 Lead 20 
 
 100 
 
FUSIBLE ALLOYS. 243 
 
 and is fusible at 100° C. (boiling water). A peculiarity 
 of this alloy is, that it will become hot again, and 
 enough to burn the fingers, after it has been cooled in 
 cold water. The cause of this phenomenon is, that 
 during the solidification and crystallization of the in- 
 side portions of the alloy, the latent heat of these parts 
 is immediately transmitted to the cooled surface. 
 
 Mr. Darcet indicates the following alloys, which re- 
 sult from his own experiments, and the proportions of 
 which are : — 
 
 No. 1. Bismuth 70, lead 20, tin 40.— Softens at 100° 
 C, without melting, and may be kneaded in the fingers. 
 
 No. 2. Bismuth 80, lead 20, tin 60.— Softens at 100° 
 C, and is easily oxidized. There is, however, too much 
 tin. 
 
 No. 3. Bismuth 80, lead 20, tin 40. 
 
 No. 4. Bismuth 160, lead 40, tin 70. 
 
 No. 5. Bismuth 90, lead 20, tin 40. 
 
 These three alloys become more or less soft at 100°. 
 No. 4 becomes softer than either No. 3 or No. 5. 
 
 No. 6. Bismuth 160, lead 50, tin 70.— Becomes nearly 
 fluid at 100°. 
 
 No. 7. Bismuth 80, lead 30, tin 40. — Becomes liquid 
 at 100°; but not very fluid. 
 
 No. 8. Bismuth 80, lead 40, tin 40. — Very liquid 
 at 100°. 
 
 No. 9. Bismuth 80, lead 70, tin 10.— Becomes soft 
 at 100°, but does not melt. 
 
 No. 10. Bismuth 160, lead 150, tin 10.— Neither 
 liquid nor soft at 100°. 
 
 These alloys are generally harsh ; nevertheless, they 
 may be cut. Their fracture is a dead blackish-gray. 
 They are rapidly tarnished in the air, and more so in 
 boiling water, in which they become covered with a 
 wrinkled pellicle, which falls as a black powder. 
 
 A few savans have studied with great persistency 
 the fusible combinations of bismuth, lead, and tin. The 
 
244 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 following table, made by MM. S. Parker and Martin, 
 indicates the various points of fusion of these alloys: — ■ 
 
 Metals of the Alloys. 
 
 Tempera- 
 
 Metals 
 
 OF THE A 
 
 LLOYS. 
 
 Tempera- 
 
 
 
 
 tures of 
 fusion. 
 
 
 
 
 tures of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fusiou. 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Degrees 
 centigrade. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Degrees • 
 centigrade. 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 202 
 
 8 . 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 316 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 208 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 312 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 226 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 310 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 236 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 308 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 243 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 310 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 254 
 
 8 
 
 26 
 
 24 
 
 320 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 266 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 24 
 
 330 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 270 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 342 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 300 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 24 
 
 352 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 304 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 332 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 290 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 328 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 390 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 320 
 
 8 . 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 292 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 34 
 
 318 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 298 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 320 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 304 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 38 
 
 322 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 312 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 324 
 
 MM. Parker and Martin have employed these alloys 
 as metallic baths for tempering tools. It is possible in 
 this manner to determine exactly the temperature best 
 adapted for various cutting instruments. 
 
 The alloys of lead and bismuth have also been tried. 
 They are too easily oxidized, and are difficult to make, 
 on account of the separation of the lead. Bismuth in- 
 creases the tenacity of lead. An alloy of equal parts 
 of bismuth and lead possesses a tenacity from fifteen 
 to twenty times that of pure lead. 
 
 The alloys of bismuth and tin succeed better. Those 
 which are best known are — 
 
 ismu 
 
 th 50 
 
 Tin 50 
 
 Melting at about 160O C. 
 
 u 
 
 33 
 
 " 67 
 
 " " 166 
 
 i( 
 
 10 
 
 " 80 
 
 « " 200 
 
FUSIBLE ALLOYS. 245 
 
 The alloys of bismuth, lead, and zinc have been but 
 little studied. An alloy of equal parts of these three 
 metals is fusible at about 100° 0. 
 
 An amalgam of lead, bismuth, and mercury — 
 
 Lead 20 
 
 Bismuth 20 
 
 Mercury ........ 60 
 
 100 
 
 is very fluid at the ordinary temperature, and may be 
 squeezed through chamois leather the same as pure 
 mercury. This combination is sometimes employed 
 for falsifying mercury; but, notwithstanding its fluidity, 
 the drops, when made to run, have an elongated form. 
 
 Mr. Mackenzie indicates an alloy fusible by friction, 
 which is a combination of 2 parts of bismuth melted 
 with 4 parts of lead, and then thrown into a crucible 
 containing mercury. This amalgam becomes solid by 
 cooling, but if we break it, and rub the two portions 
 against each other, they soon melt. 
 
 In general, the fusible compounds of bismuth, tin, 
 and lead have their fusibility increased by the addi- 
 tion of mercury. 
 
 A very fusible alloy for casts is made by adding in 
 weight a sixteenth of mercury to the already men- 
 tioned alloy, fusible at 100° C, and known as the Dar- 
 cet or Rose alloy. The new compound is fusible at 
 the temperature of the human body. 
 
 This quaternary alloy may be employed for ob- 
 taining casts of certain portions of the human body 
 after death; the ear, for instance. The animal sub- 
 stances are destroyed by a concentrated solution of 
 caustic potassa, and the metal remains. 
 
 An alloy for silvering glass globes, by means of a 
 small pellicle deposited on the inside surface, is made 
 of— 
 
 21* 
 
246 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Bismuth ..... e ... 2 
 
 Tin . _ . . 1 
 
 Lead ......... 1 
 
 Mercury ......... 10 
 
 An alloy for fusible teaspoons, &c, is composed of — 
 
 Bismuth . ' . . . . . . . 8 
 
 Tin . . . ...... 3 
 
 Lead . . . . . ; . . . 5 
 
 Mercury . . . . . . . . 1 or 2 
 
 and is employed by amateurs in making amusing ex- 
 periments with tea or coffee spoons, which immediately 
 melt when plunged into a hot liquid. 
 
 Leaving aside bismuth, the arts employ other fusible 
 alloys, among which we may notice the following 
 ones : — 
 
 Tin 3 parts, lead 2 parts. Fusible at 167° C. 
 
 Lead 4 parts, antimony 1 part. Fusible at a red 
 heat, or about 500° C. 
 
 Lead 1 part, zinc 1 part. A very tenacious com- 
 pound, resisting friction well, has a brilliant lustre, is 
 hard, somewhat ductile, and melts at a temperature 
 varying from 460° to 500° C. 
 
 Tin 2 parts, zinc 4 parts. Melts between 300° and 
 350° C. 
 
 Tin 3 parts, zinc 4 parts. Melts between 320° and 
 360° C. 
 
 Tin 1 part, zinc 3 parts. Melts between 280° and 
 300° C. 
 
 We now pass to the Ajopold alloys, useful for ascer- 
 taining certain given temperatures. The principal of 
 these alloys which were composed by MM. Appold 
 Brothers, in order to determine the temperature of 
 their apparatus for making coke, are : — 
 
 Copper 4 
 
 Tin 1 
 
 Melting at about 1050O C 
 
 5 
 
 " 1 
 
 « 
 
 << 
 
 1100 
 
 " 6 
 
 " 1 
 
 <( 
 
 << 
 
 1130 
 
 " 8 
 
 " 1 
 
 «( 
 
 « 
 
 1160 
 
 " 12 
 
 " 1 
 
 n 
 
 <( 
 
 1230 
 
 « 20 
 
 " 1 
 
 « 
 
 <( 
 
 1300 
 
ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ETC. 247 
 
 In this connection we may state that the majority of 
 alloys may be employed, in certain cases, as fusible 
 alloys. It is sufficient to carefully determine the point 
 of fusion of the alloys with proper instruments, and 
 then to construct methodical tables in which are re- 
 corded the variations of temperature corresponding to 
 the nature of the alloys employed, and the proportions 
 of the component metals. 
 
 XII. 
 
 ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ANTI-FRICTION 
 METALS, &c. 
 
 We classify these alloys in three distinct categories: — 
 
 Bronze alloys. 
 
 Brass alloys. • ■*. « 
 
 White alloys. 
 
 Bronze alloys are employed by the constructors of 
 machinery wherever certain conditions of tenacity, 
 wear, hardness, and resistance to friction are required. 
 The following are extensively used: — 
 
 Bronze for pumps, pillow blocks, nuts &c: — 
 
 Copper ........ , 88 
 
 Tin . , . . . . . . . 12 
 
 100 
 
 The same, but harder: — * 
 
 Copper 90 
 
 Tin 10 
 
 100 
 
 These bronzes are employed in the government shops 
 and other large works. An addition of from 1 to 4 
 parts of zinc is allowed in certain cases. 
 
 Alloys for blocks of connecting rods and collars for 
 eccentrics: — - 
 
 * We should suppose that the proportion of tin being smaller, 
 this alloy would be softer than the preceding. — Trans. 
 
24:8 PRACTICAL GUILE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Copper ... 83 Copper . . 83 
 
 Tin 15 Tin . . . 15 
 
 Zinc ... 2 Zinc . . . 1.5 
 
 Lead . . 0.5 
 
 100 ■ 
 
 100.0 
 
 Or— 
 
 Copper . . 84 Copper 84 
 
 Tin ... 14 Tin ... 14 
 
 Zinc ... 1.5 Zinc ... 2 
 
 Lead . . . 0.5 
 
 100 
 
 100.0 
 
 if the alloy is desired slightly softer and more mal- 
 leable. 
 
 The following alloys for journals of locomotive driving 
 axles are employed by English makers : — 
 
 Copper ........ 74 
 
 Tin 9.5 
 
 Zinc 9.5 
 
 Lead ......... 7 
 
 100.0 
 
 Others are satisfied with— - 
 
 Copper ...... 80 85.25 
 
 Tin .18 12.75 
 
 Zinc ....... 2 2 
 
 100 100.00 
 
 Alloys for blocks with collars of connecting rods, which 
 require a milder and more malleable metal : — 
 
 Copper 82 
 
 Tin ......... 16 
 
 Zinc 2 
 
 100 
 Bronze for pistons :■— 
 
 Copper ........ 89.75 
 
 Tin ........ 2.25 
 
 Zinc 8 
 
 100.00 
 
ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ETC. 249 
 
 Alloy for locomotive axle journals : — 
 
 Copper . . . . . ... . 80 
 
 Tin 18 
 
 Zinc . . . . . . = . . . 2 
 
 100 
 
 Or— 
 
 Copper . : . . .-."'. . . . 79 
 
 Tin 18 
 
 Zino . . .' . .' .'."... 2.5 
 
 Lead . . . . . . . .[ , 0.5 
 
 100.0 
 
 Alloy for journals of cranes, ivhiches, &c. y as required 
 by the Northern Railway of France for the apparatus 
 of its fixed stock: — .... 
 
 Copper . " . " * " . . . " . . . 82 
 Tin . . . . . . . ; . . 18 
 
 100 
 
 Alloy for journals of wagons employed by the same 
 company ; — ....... 
 
 Copper . . . . . . ^ . 86 
 
 Tin . . . ' . ■ . . . . . 14 
 
 100 
 
 We see that all these bronzes have very much the 
 same composition. The proportion of copper is rarely 
 below b0 per cent., and that of zinc ranges between 2 
 and 3 per cent. 
 
 A slight variation in the proportions of the alloy 
 may be noticed in practice. This explains why we 
 have indicated the principal combinations in daily use, 
 although several of them differ very little from each 
 other. For the same reason we shall notice the fol- 
 lowing alloys : — 
 
250 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Alloy for locomotive whistles: — ■ 
 
 I. A clear sound, for passenger engines — 
 
 Copper ......... 80 
 
 Tin ......... 18 
 
 Antimony ....... 2 
 
 100 
 
 II. A deeper pitch, for merchandise machines — 
 
 Copper . 81 
 
 Tin ......... 17 
 
 Antimony 2 
 
 100 
 Mild alloy for pumps, clappers or valves, and stop- 
 cocks : — 
 
 Copper ........ 88 
 
 Tin 10 
 
 Zinc 1.75 
 
 Lead ........ 0.25 
 
 100.00 
 
 Or— 
 
 Copper ......... 88 
 
 Tin ......... 10 
 
 Zinc ......... 2 
 
 100 
 
 Bronze for ball valves and pieces to be brazed: — 
 
 Copper ......... 87 
 
 Tin ......... 12 
 
 Antimony ........ 1 
 
 100 
 Alloy for cleaning plugs: — 
 
 Copper 98 
 
 Tin 2 
 
 100 
 
 This composition may be forged like pure copper, 
 for which it is a substitute. The addition of tin ren- 
 ders the casting more easy and sound. 
 
ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ETC. 251 
 
 Hard alloy for bearings of merchandise and ballast 
 wagons: — 
 
 Copper ... . . . . . 78 
 
 Tin 20 
 
 Zinc 2 
 
 100 
 
 The next composition has been tried for the same 
 purpose, but without advantage: — 
 
 Cast iron ........ 70 
 
 Copper .25 
 
 Zinc ......... 5 
 
 100 
 
 The following alloys are employed at the important 
 works of Seraing for Belgian locomotives. Their 
 composition is very nearly that of the corresponding 
 alloys which we have already mentioned. 
 
 Bronze for journals of locomotive driving axles: — 
 
 Copper 86 
 
 Tin ......... 14 
 
 100 
 
 Copper 89 
 
 Tin ........ . 8 
 
 Zinc 3 
 
 100 
 
 Bronze for blocks of side valve connecting rods: — 
 
 Copper 85.25 
 
 Tin 12.75 
 
 Zinc 2.00 
 
 100.00 
 Bronze for regulators :— 
 
 Copper 86.82 
 
 Tin 12.38 
 
 Zinc 0.80 
 
 100.00 
 
252 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS 
 
 Bronze for stuffing boxes : — 
 
 Copper 90.25 
 
 Tin 3.50 
 
 Zinc \ \ ' . . V _ . ; . , . . 6.25 
 
 100.00 
 Bronze for pistons: — 
 
 Copper 89 
 
 Tin 2.5 
 
 Zino . . . . 8.5 
 
 100.0 
 
 The alloys of brass are employed in mechanical con- 
 structions when the resistance of the metal is not ex- 
 posed to very great strains, and for economical or or- 
 namental purposes. 
 
 The brasses for machinery generally have a compo- 
 sition ranging from 20 to 35 per cent, of zinc, and from 
 80 to 65 per cent, of copper. With less than 20 parts 
 of zinc, the alloy becomes red, and may be applied to 
 some particular purposes; but it is no longer to be 
 considered as brass. With more than 35 parts of zinc, 
 the alloy is harsh, brittle, and whitish; and, although 
 it may be employed for certain common uses, it is no 
 longer a brass for mechanical purposes. 
 
 The brass compounds most generally employed in 
 the arts are:— 
 
 Brass for turners:— 
 
 Copper * 61.6 
 
 Zinc 35.3 
 
 Tin . . . . . . . . . 0.5 
 
 Lead . " . . >', ' • • • > • 2.5 
 
 99.9 
 
 Or the three following compositions, presenting various 
 
 shades : — 
 
 No. 1.— Copper 79.5 
 
 Zinc 20 
 
 Lead * 0.5 
 
 100.0 
 
ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ETC. 253 
 
 No. 2. — Copper . . . . . . . 74.5 
 
 Zinc ....... 25 
 
 Lead 0.5 
 
 100.0 
 
 No. 3.— Copper 66.5 
 
 Zinc . S3 
 
 Lead 0.5 
 
 100.0 
 
 The brass employed in the French navy, and in the 
 Ecoles des Arts et Metiers^ is generally made as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 Copper ......... 65.80 
 
 Zir.c . 31.80 
 
 Tin 0.25 
 
 Lead 2.S0 
 
 100.65 
 
 This alloy, when polished, has a pleasing greenish- 
 yellow cgIof, and is quite malleable. It is especially 
 employed for large pieces of machinery. 
 
 The brass for small pieces of machinery is of another 
 composition, as follows : — 
 
 Copper . . . . . . . . .76 
 
 Zinc . 24 
 
 Lead 0.5 
 
 100.5 
 Brass for thin pieces, hinges, &c.z — 
 
 Copper • • .85 
 
 Zinc 15 
 
 Lead 1 
 
 101 
 
 Several English railways have employed for the 
 journal boxes of locomotive and wagon axles the Fen- 
 Urn alloys, which are intermediate between the bronzes 
 and the brasses. Alloy No. 1 has given quite good 
 results. 
 22 
 
254: PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 No. 1.— Copper 56 
 
 Zinc 28 
 
 Tin 16 
 
 100 
 
 This compound appears to resist friction well with- 
 out much heating, and its specific gravity is below that 
 of the ordinary bronzes. It corresponds to the com- 
 bination made by Margraffin his experiments on the 
 alloys of copper, tin, and zinc, and which was made of 
 copper 100, tin 50, and zinc 25 parts. The metal ob- 
 tained by this chemist was of a yellowish-white color, 
 with an irregular grain, very hard, although quite 
 easily filed, but without any malleability. 
 
 No. 2. — Copper . 5.5 
 
 Zinc . • 80.0 
 
 Tin . 14.5 
 
 100.0 
 
 This alloy is more advantageous than the preceding 
 as regards economy and lightness. It has been em- 
 ployed not only for journals which, it has been said, 
 required but little oiling, but also for many kinds of 
 pieces submitted to friction, stuffing-boxes, valves, slide 
 bars, &c. 
 
 These alloys, notwithstanding their qualities, which 
 appear to have been exaggerated, are difficult to make. 
 They are not directly made in one operation, but as 
 follows : The pure copper is melted in a crucible, to 
 which is added a brass composed of copper 70, and 
 zinc 30, and then the tin. When all is melted and 
 well stirred, it is cast into ingots, which constitute 
 hard metal. 
 
 For producing the definitive alloy the zinc is melted 
 in a crucible, and the hard metal, previously melted 
 in another crucible, is poured into it. It is thoroughly 
 mixed, and a new proportion of tin may be added, ac- 
 cording to the degree of hardness or softness required. 
 
ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ETC. 255 
 
 Before casting, the metal is again stirred. The alloy, 
 especially during the melting of the zinc, ought to be 
 covered with a thick layer of charcoal dust, in order 
 to avoid the loss by volatilization or oxidation. 
 
 The Fenton alloys, and all similar compounds, ap- 
 pear to be, as antifriction metals, intermediate between 
 the bronzes and the white metals. The latter have for 
 a certain length of time been much employed by con- 
 structors who regarded them as very economical in 
 first cost and in lubricating principles. 
 
 The white alloys have been experimented upon es- 
 pecially for lining the journal boxes of locomotive and 
 wagon axles; but we believe that everywhere, after 
 having tried the bronzes and the white alloys in com- 
 parison, the former have been found more advanta- 
 geous, as they last longer and are not so easily scratched 
 by the dust as the white alloys. 
 
 Mr. Nozo, the skilful engineer of the repair shops 
 of the Northern Railroad, has published in the Bulletins 
 de la Societe des Ingenieurs Civils the results of his ex- 
 periments on antifriction metals, and has condemned 
 the white metals, even those which had been the most 
 extolled, such as GraftorHs antifriction metal, Vaucher's 
 metal, Detourbefs metal &c. The conclusions of Mr. 
 Nozo are : — 
 
 That the white metals, whether for whole journals 
 or their linings, may be advantageously employed in 
 machinery revolving with a small velocity, or with an 
 average velocity and small strain ; but that they are 
 not suited to the rolling stock of railroads in which 
 the strains and the velocity are such as to rapidly wear 
 all the metals which are not hard enough to resist an 
 energetic friction. 
 
 We will now mention a few of the white alloys at 
 present in use : — 
 
 No. 1. White alloy for lining journal boxes, collars, 
 pilloiv blocks, &c: — ■ 
 
256 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Copper ......... 4 
 
 Tin 96 
 
 Antimony ........ 8 
 
 108 
 
 12 parts of copper are melted, to which are added 
 36 parts of tin, then 24 parts of antimony, and lastly 
 36 parts of tin. As soon as the copper is mehed the 
 temperature is lowered in order to prevent the oxidi- 
 zation of the tin and antimony, and the surface of the 
 bath is protected from the contact of the air. The first 
 composition, made as aforesaid, is employed for the 
 definitive alloy, which is made of 50 parts of the first 
 alloy and 100 parts of tin. 
 
 The pieces of machinery which require only a lining- 
 are luted with clay, and the melted alloy is poured into 
 its proper place, with enough metal to compensate for 
 the shrinkage. 
 
 No. 2. White alloy for small journals, and when the 
 friction is not very great : — 
 
 Copper 9 
 
 Tin . . . . 73 
 
 Antimony . . . . . . . .18 
 
 100 
 
 This alloy may be polished with dry materials, and 
 wears well. It would be more economical if a small 
 proportion of lead were added, but its resistance and 
 durability would be impaired. 
 
 No. 3. White alloy for bearings, made on the same 
 principles as the preceding ones: — 
 
 Copper . 1 
 
 Tin . .50 
 
 Antimony ......... 5 
 
 56 
 
 This alloy is more economical and has a more greasy 
 
ALLOYS FOR MACHINERY, ETC. 257 
 
 touch than compositions No. 1 and No. 2. It is very 
 good for machines which are not overworked. 
 
 No. 4. White alloy to be cast directly in journal 
 boxes : — 
 
 Lead .......... 32 
 
 Zinc 18 
 
 Antimony ......... 50 
 
 100 
 
 No. 5. Soft alloy for pillow blocks: — - 
 
 Lead 85 
 
 Antimony ......... 15 
 
 100 
 
 This alloy, which may also be cast directly in its 
 place, becomes heated with difficulty, and is said to re- 
 sist well a rapid friction. 
 
 A similar but more complete alloy is VaucheYs alloy. 
 Tt has been extensively employed for lining the journal 
 boxes of carriage and wagon axles, but is now nearly 
 forgotten. Its composition is: — 
 
 Zinc ......... 75 
 
 Tin 18 
 
 Lead ......... 4.5 
 
 Antimony . ... . . . . . 2.5 
 
 100.0 
 
 The zinc is melted first, then the tin and the lead 
 are added. The antimony, which requires a greater 
 heat, is melted separately and poured the last into the 
 bath of zinc, tin, and lead. 
 
 This melted alloy is run through small venfe or 
 apertures, left at the upper part of the axle boxes; and 
 small discs of sheet-iron at both ends of these boxes 
 prevent the metal from escaping, In order to leave 
 room for the lubricating material two or three turns 
 of a thick ribbon are wound around the middle of the 
 
 22* 
 
258 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 axle journal, and therefore the alloy does not reach 
 these parts. 
 
 Yaucher's metal, which does not seem to us to pos- 
 sess any special qualities beyond the majority of the 
 antifriction white metals, has been more or less imitated. 
 Is it possible to admit patent rights on alloys? Among 
 the imitations we have already cited are Detourbet 
 and Grafton's metals, and we may add the alloys of 
 Goldsmith and of Dewrance, the latter being composed 
 of 4 parts of copper, 8 of antimony, and 6 of tin. All 
 these alloys are neither worse nor better. 
 
 A few years ago the antifriction metals of Morries- 
 Stirling and of Muntz were extensively employed in 
 England, and had in their composition a certain pro- 
 portion of wrought or cast-iron, besides copper, tin, and 
 zinc. These alloys were very irregular in their com- 
 position, and we do not believe that they have been 
 employed in the French foundries, except in an experi- 
 mental way. 
 
 The alloys prepared by Mr. Stirling, and tried in 
 the arsenals of Woolwich, Portsmouth, and Chatham, 
 had a resistance to flexion much greater than that of 
 ordinary bronzes. Thus, the bronze made at Woolwich, 
 in the following proportions, corresponding to various 
 uses:— 
 
 Copper ....... 20 
 
 Tin ......... 2 
 
 Zinc .,,..... 1 
 
 23 parts 
 
 Copper »»,.-, 6 7 8 10 
 
 Tin . Ill 1 
 
 have shown an average resistance of 11.66 tons per 
 square inch, while the resistance of the corresponding 
 Stirling alloys was 16.42 tons on an average. 
 
 Again, bars one inch square and three feet long 
 were placed upon supports 2 feet 3 inches apart. A 
 
SOLDERS. 259 
 
 load placed in their middle produced a deflection of 
 73.44 with the bronze of Portsmouth (copper 10, tin 1) ; 
 while with the Stirling metal the deflection was only 
 16.79. 
 
 But notwithstanding these results the Stirling metal, 
 which is difficult to obtain in a sound and homogene- 
 ous state, did not succeed. 
 
 Before Mr. Stirling's patent another metal, known 
 as Fazie metal, from the name of its inventor, was 
 patented in England, and composed of wrought-iron, 
 cast-iron, and brass. These alloys were claimed to be 
 more tenacious and to wear better than either of the 
 component metals taken singly. The bronze or brass 
 and the iron and cast-iron were melted separately, then 
 mixed, and the stirring continued all the time, even 
 when being poured out. 
 
 Karsten repeated these experiments by mixing with 
 cast-iron a small proportion of copper, which had the 
 effect of rendering the mixture less easily oxidized, 
 but nothing has been gained from these experiments 
 for ordinary practice in foundries. 
 
 XIII. 
 SOLDERS. 
 
 We shall mention two kinds of solders : — ■ 
 
 1. The solders made by the fusion of the metal itself, 
 without any other metals. These solders are possible 
 with the majority of metals, even the refractory ones, 
 cast-iron, for instance. We have spoken in one of 
 our works of the processes of the Autogenous solders, 
 but which do not find their place here, the subject 
 being alloys. 
 
 2. The solders made upon a metal with another 
 metal, or by an alloy applied to the surfaces which are 
 to be united. 
 
260 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 In the latter case the metal or the alloy must be 
 more fusible than the metal to be soldered, and have 
 for it a powerful chemical affinity. 
 
 In general the soldering is the more perfect as the 
 point of fusion of the metal to be soldered and that of 
 the soldering metal or alloy approach each other. 
 
 When the parts to be soldered and the solder may 
 be brought to an incipient, or even a complete fusion, 
 the maximum of resistance will be obtained, the solder 
 having formed a true alloy with the soldered metal. 
 
 A strong or hard solder is employed for metals diffi- 
 cult to melt, and which, being soldered, have to resist 
 the action of the heat. The soft solders, with a base 
 of lead and tin, are much more fusible than the metals 
 to be united, and are employed when great solidity is 
 not required, and when they are not subjected to the 
 action of heat. 
 
 For making copper solders the copper is melted in 
 a crucible, and then the zinc, previously melted in 
 another crucible, is added. The whole is thoroughly 
 stirred, and when the alloy is at the proper temperature, 
 it is poured from a certain height upon a bundle of 
 birch twigs kept wet and agitated at the surface of a 
 tub of water. The solder is thus obtained in the shape 
 of fine grains having an irregular crystallization. 
 
 When this solder is not sufficiently fine or regular it 
 is broken in a cast-iron mortar, and passed through a 
 sieve. 
 
 The manufacturers of solder generally prefer to cast 
 the hard solder into ingot moulds instead of using 
 the above process, which is good enough for shops. 
 The cooling is prevented as much as possible in order 
 to develop the crystallization, which helps the subse- 
 quent operations of crushing and sifting. 
 
 The solders most generally employed in the arts 
 are: — 
 
SOLDERS. 261 
 
 Solders for Iron. 
 Pure granulated copper, or— 
 
 Copper 67 
 
 Zinc 33 
 
 100 
 
 Or:— 
 
 Copper 60 
 
 Zinc ......... 40 
 
 100 
 
 The last two alloys, which may be replaced by a 
 powdered brass holding from 33 to 40 per cent, of 
 zinc, are also employed for small pieces of iron and 
 copper. 
 
 Solders for pure copper and brass. 
 
 Hard Solder for Tubes of Pure Copper. 
 
 Copper 3 
 
 Zinc ......... 1 
 
 Or:— 
 
 Copper . . . 7 
 
 Zinc .......... 3 
 
 Tin .......... 2 
 
 12 
 
 Or, a brass containing 70 parts of copper to 30 of zinc ; 
 or 75 of copper to 25 of zinc. 
 
 Middling hard solder, more fusible than ordinary 
 brass : — 
 
 Scraps from the metal to be soldered ... 4 
 Zinc 1 
 
 5 
 
 The proportions generally admitted in the French 
 navy yards are : — 
 
2d2 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Hard Solder for Small and Thin Pieces. 
 
 Pure copper 86.5 
 
 Zinc 9.5 
 
 Tin 4. 
 
 100.0 
 
 This solder is a light yellow, with fine and quite 
 regular grains similar to filings. It will become oxi- 
 dized without melting, unless it is kept in the middle 
 of the fire and thus melted rapidly. 
 
 The same alloy, but coarser, may be employed for 
 soldering large pieces. 
 
 Middling Hard Solder for Small Pieces of Brass. 
 
 ssr £}*«■ • »•« 
 
 Zinc ....... 18.5 
 
 Tin 12. 
 
 100.0 
 
 Middling Hard Solder for Tubes of Brass, or of Thin 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Copper 70 ) R 
 
 *Tin 30 |Krass //.5 
 
 Zinc ...... 17.5 
 
 Tin 5. 
 
 100.0 
 
 Middling Hard Solder for Solder inn the ends of Brass 
 Tubes together, or to Flanges. 
 
 nZ 1 lo}*™* ™ 
 
 Zinc 20.5 
 
 Tin 2. 
 
 100.0 
 
 * The name of cuivrejaune or laiton (literally yellow copper, or 
 brass), given by the author, implies the presence of zinc, instead of 
 tin, in its composition. Although we retain the word tin in the 
 foregoing and following alloys marked with the asterisk, we strongly 
 incline to believe that it should be zinc. — Tkans. 
 
SOLDERS. 263 
 
 Middling Hard Solder for uniting Brass Tubes along 
 their lengths, and is to be preferred to the former com- 
 pounds when the soldered portions are to be hammered 
 afterwards : — 
 
 Copper 70 \ B 
 
 *Tin 30 |^rass . . . . . . 7/.5 
 
 Zinc 22.5 
 
 100.0 
 
 Other kinds of solders for pure copper are sometimes 
 employed. They are alloys of copper and lead in 
 various proportions, as for instance : — 
 
 Copper . . .100 Lead . . .25 
 
 " ... 100 " ... 20 
 
 ... 100 " ... 18 
 
 ... 100 " ... 16 
 
 These alloys are sufficiently fusible, have the color 
 of copper, and may be used for brazing it, without 
 borax. They are malleable, clog the file, and are quite 
 serviceable as a solder. To prepare them the copper is 
 melted first, then the molten lead is added to it, just 
 before pouring out. These solders are granulated by 
 the ordinary processes. 
 
 SOFT SOLDEES. 
 
 Among the soft solders to be employed with metals 
 melting at a low temperature, we may notice the fol- 
 lowing ones: — 
 
 o 
 
 So Ider for P lum hers. 
 
 Lead . . . . . . . . 1 or 2 
 
 Tin 11 
 
 2 3 
 Soft Solder. 
 
 Lead ......... 1 
 
 Tin "'.... . . 2 
 
2t)4 PEACT1CAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Solder for Tinned Iron. 
 
 Lead . 7 
 
 Tin - 1 
 
 8 
 
 Solder for Pewter. 
 
 Lead 1 
 
 Tin 2 
 
 This solder, which is employed in England by the 
 manufacturers of pewter wares, is the same as that 
 known in France under the name of soft solder. 
 
 Alloy for Sealing up Iron in Stone. 
 
 Lead 2 
 
 Zinc 1 
 
 This alloy is more resisting, and adheres better than 
 pure lead. 
 
 It has been tried, in certain cases, to substitute the 
 zinc solders, or amalgams of zinc, for the ordinary soft 
 solders. When soldering with zinc, this metal is cut 
 into thin strips and put with a flux between the edges 
 of the metal to be soldered ; or a granular amalgam 
 of zinc is employed with an appropriate flux. The 
 surfaces to be united are heated up until the zinc melts, 
 and sometimes to redness, according to the metals em- 
 ployed. The fluxes are generally borax or sal ammo- 
 niac. 
 
 Soft solders of bismuth, tin, and lead are sometimes 
 used, and their compositions will be found in the 
 chapter on fusible alloys. 
 
 Solders for jewelry, silver or gold wares, ornaments, 
 &c. 
 
 We employ the following solders for jewelry and 
 the precious metals : — 
 
SOLDERS. 265 
 
 Hard Solder for Gold. 
 
 Gold (18 carats or Jftfo) . . . . . 18 
 
 Silver 10 
 
 Pure copper . . 10 
 
 38 
 
 This solder and the following ones are made with fine 
 filings of the metals, which are melted together : — 
 
 Gold solder called one-fourth . gold 3 alloy . 1 
 
 " " " one-third . " 2 " 1 
 
 one-half . " 1 " . 1 
 
 a 
 
 The alloy is made of 6Q per cent, of pure silver, and 
 33 per cent, of copper, except for the solder " one-half," 
 when the proportions are equal parts of silver and 
 copper. 
 
 Hard Solder for Silver. 
 
 Silver . . . . . . . . . 6Q 
 
 Copper 23 
 
 Zinc 10 
 
 99 
 
 This solder is more fusible than the middling hard 
 solders for copper, and is sometimes used for brazing 
 brass : — 
 
 Silver solder called one-sixth silver . . 5 . . brass ... 1 
 " " one-fourth « . . 3 . . " ... 1 
 
 " " one-third " . . 2 . . " ... 1 
 
 In order to obtain a homogeneous product these 
 solders ought to be melted several times. The metal 
 is then laminated into thin bands, which are granulated 
 into spangles, ready to be mixed with borax. 
 
 If a piece of silverware is to be soldered several 
 times, it is proper to employ, at the beginning, the 
 richer solders, which, being less fusible, will not be 
 subject to displacement by the solders of lower stand- 
 ards, employed at the end of the operation. 
 23 
 
266 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Other silver solders are employed, such as — 
 
 Silver 2 
 
 Bronze . . . . . . . 1 
 
 3 parts. 
 
 Silver 4 . . * . . 1 
 
 Bronze ... 3 .... 1 
 Arsenic . . . 0.25 .... 1 
 
 7.25 parts. 3 parts. 
 
 Silver 2 
 
 Dutch gold (brass) 1 
 
 Arsenic 0.5 
 
 3.5 parts. 
 
 The arsenic is added to the bath after the fusion of 
 the other metals. These various solders are drawn 
 out under the hammer, or laminated and then cut into 
 spangles. 
 
 Solder for Platinum. 
 
 Pure gold, or gold with § per cent, of an alloy of 
 platinum and iridium. 
 
 Hard Solder for Aluminium Bronze. 
 
 Gold 88.88 
 
 Silver 4.68 
 
 Copper ........ 6.44 
 
 100.00 
 
 Middling Hard Solder for Aluminium Bronze. 
 
 Gold 54.4 
 
 Silver 27. 
 
 Copper 18.6 
 
 100.0 
 
MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 267 
 
 Soft Solder for Aluminium Bronze. 
 
 Copper 70 \ B ]4 o 
 
 Tin* 30 /■ Brass i4 - c} 
 
 Gold . . . . . 14.3 
 
 Silver 57.1 
 
 Copper . . . . . 14.3 
 
 100.0 
 
 Solder for German Silver. 
 
 Copper 8 "| 
 
 Nickel 2 \ German silver ... 5 
 
 Zinc 3.5 J 
 
 Zinc ..... 4 
 
 9 
 
 This alloy is cast into thin plates, which are cut and 
 pulverized. Its texture has a dead lustre, and is slightly 
 fibrous. It is the more ductile, as the proportion of 
 zinc is smaller. 
 
 Silver solder for plated ware, employed in England : — 
 
 Pure silver ........ 2 
 
 Bronze 1 
 
 3 
 Amalgam of Copper. 
 Copper 30 
 
 Mercury ........ 70 
 
 100 
 
 XIV. 
 MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 
 
 This last series comprises the alloys which we have 
 not been able to classify in the preceding series. "We 
 here insert all such compounds that we have picked 
 up from our own works, or from treatises on alloys. 
 
 A few of these compounds are really useful, while 
 others will look very empirical. We give them as we 
 
 * See foot note page 262. — Trans. 
 
268 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 find them in the works of certain authors, who have 
 tried or verified them no more than we have. 
 Alloys for small patterns in foundries : — 
 
 No. 1.— Tin 7.5 
 
 Lead 2.5 
 
 10.0 parts. 
 
 No. 2.— Zinc 75 
 
 Tin 25 
 
 100 parts. 
 
 No. 3.— Tin 30 
 
 Lead 70 
 
 100 parts. 
 
 The last of these alloys is for patterns which will 
 not be in frequent use, and which may be mended, 
 bent, &c. The first gives harder and stiffer patterns; 
 the second is harder than tin and more tenacious than 
 zinc, at the same time that it preserves a certain duc- 
 tility. 
 
 With from 15 to 20 per cent, of tin, the zinc becomes 
 less brittle, and is better adapted to many useful pur- 
 poses. With from 15 to 20 per cent, of tin, lead becomes 
 harder and more resisting. Even from 2 to 5 per cent. 
 of tin are sufficient to harden lead. On the other 
 hand, a small proportion of lead renders tin more sup- 
 ple, easily worked, and not so subject to cracks. 
 
 An addition of bismuth to lead increases the hard- 
 ness of the latter metal. The alloy which possesses 
 the maximum of tenacity is about : 
 
 Lead . 60 
 
 Bismuth ........ 40 
 
 100 
 PLASTIC ALLOYS. 
 
 The best alloys of lead, tin, and bismuth, for obtain- 
 ing casts of medals, coins, &c, are comprised within 
 the following proportions: — ■ 
 
MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 269 
 
 No. L— Kraft's alloy: 
 
 Bismuth 5 
 
 Lead ......... 2 
 
 Tin l 
 
 This alloy is fusible at about 104° C. 
 No. 2. — Homberg's alloy : — 
 
 Bismuth. ......... 3 
 
 Lead 3 
 
 Tin . 3 
 
 9 
 This alloy is fusible at 122° C, "has nearly the ap- 
 pearance of silver, and is quite hard. It is used in 
 England for casts of medals. 
 
 No. 3. — Alloy of Valentin Rose: — 
 
 Bismuth 4 to 6 
 
 Lead 2 2 
 
 Tin 2 to 3 
 
 8 toll 
 
 This alloy melts between 100° and 130° C. 
 No. 4.— Alloy of Rose (the father) : — 
 
 Bismuth .2 
 
 Lead . 2 
 
 Tin 2 
 
 6 
 
 which melts at 93° C* 
 
 These alloys, of which the points of fusion may be 
 quite accurately determined, have been tried for tem- 
 pering cutting instruments. 
 
 The martial regulus is also employed for medals and 
 objects in relief, and is composed of — • 
 
 * It is curious to observe that the alloys Nos. 2 and 4, both made 
 of equal parts of the same metals, melt at different temperatures. 
 This probably depends on their homogeneousness. — Trans. 
 
 23* 
 
270 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Antimony 7 
 
 Iron ......... 1 
 
 According to certain authors, the casts are sharper 
 than those of cast-iron. 
 
 The following metal, called expansion metal, pos- 
 sesses the property of expanding when cooling, and is 
 therefore very useful for filling small defects in me- 
 tallic pieces, and for sealing and obtaining certain 
 casts : — 
 
 Lead - 6 
 
 Antimony ........ 2 
 
 Bismuth 1 
 
 9 
 
 Various compounds. 
 
 An English author indicates the following amalgam 
 for varnishing plaster casts: — 
 
 Tin 1 
 
 Bismuth. ......... 1 
 
 Mercury 1 
 
 3 
 
 The mercury is added to the tin and bismuth already 
 melted, and the whole is thoroughly stirred, in order 
 to perfect the combination. The cooled amalgam is 
 then pounded with the white of egg, and forms a liquid 
 mass which may be applied with a brush. 
 
 Amalgams for Silvering Glass Globes, &c. 
 
 No. 1. — Lead (pure) ..... 1 
 
 Tin 1 
 
 Bismuth ...... 1 
 
 Mercury ...... 1 
 
 4 parts. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 271 
 
 No. 2.— Lead 1 
 
 Tin 1 
 
 Bismuth ...... 1 
 
 Mercury ...... 2 
 
 5 parts. 
 
 The lead and tin are to be melted first, after which 
 bismuth is added. The drosses are removed, and mer- 
 cury is poured into the compound, which is perfectly 
 stirred. Leaves of Dutch gold are sometimes intro- 
 duced into the mixture, according to the color which it 
 is required to impart to the globes. 
 
 An alloy for tinning various utensils is made of from 
 6 to 8 parts of tin, and 1 part of iron. 
 
 We have already said that zinc has been employed 
 for similar purposes. The galvanoplastic processes 
 make it easy to deposit zinc, tin, lead, &c, upon iron 
 or copper. We shall not linger on these applications, 
 which do not belong to the subject of alloys. 
 
 Amalgam of Cadmium and Tin for Dentists. 
 
 Tin 2 
 
 Cadmium ........ 1 
 
 3 
 
 The two metals are melted together, and the button 
 obtained is filed with a rasp. The metallic powder is 
 then dissolved in a large quantity of mercury, the 
 excess of which is expressed through a chamois leather. 
 The friable mass thus obtained is kneaded in the fingers, 
 and soon becomes soft and homogeneous. This paste, 
 which rapidly hardens, is employed for filling teeth, 
 and is also very serviceable as a hermetic luting for 
 glass instruments, &c. 
 
 The following process, recommended by Mr. Boetger, 
 is more rapid : — 
 
 As soon as the portions of cadmium and tin have 
 been melted in an iron ladle, a certain portion of hot 
 
272 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 mercury is added to the mass, which is pounded and 
 worked in an iron mortar until it has acquired a soft 
 and butter-like consistency. 
 
 Alloy of Mr. Bibra for Small Casts. 
 
 Bismuth 6 
 
 Tin 3 
 
 Lead 13 
 
 22 
 
 These metals are melted in a crucible or iron ladle, 
 cast into ingots, and remelted before being employed. 
 This alloy, which is nearly as fusible as that of Eose 
 (bismuth 3, tin 1, lead 1), is harder, without being 
 brittle or presenting a crystalline fracture. If the casts 
 are wet with diluted nitric acid, then rinsed in water, 
 and lastly rubbed with a woollen rag, the projecting 
 parts become bright, while the cavities acquire the 
 dark gray appearance of antique objects. Without 
 acid the color of the metal is a light gray. 
 
 The medals cast upon plaster of Paris succeed so 
 well that the finest and most delicate letters or lines, 
 which, on the original piece, con-Id be perceived with 
 a magnifying glass only, become at once apparent to 
 the naked eye. As the cost of bismuth is a great deal 
 higher than that of tin, and especially that of lead, we 
 may yet retain a good alloy by increasing the propor- 
 tion of lead and diminishing that of bismuth. 
 
 This alloy may be useful in the manufacture of rol- 
 lers and plates for calico printing. 
 
 The alloy of Mr. Gersnein, for making a soft mastic 
 for uniting glass, chinaware, &c, becomes so hard after 
 a certain lapse of time (8 to 10 hours), that it may be 
 polished the same as silver or brass. 
 
 The copper employed is that obtained by precipita- 
 tion. This copper is ground with concentrated oil of 
 vitriol in a porcelain mortar, and then for from 25 to 
 
MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS. 273 
 
 35 parts of copper 65 to 70 parts in weight of mer- 
 cury are gradually added. When the copper is en- 
 tirely amalgamated, it is washed with boiling water, in 
 order to remove the sulphuric acid, and then allowed 
 to rest. This amalgam is unacted upon by the weak 
 acids, alcohol, ether, or boiling water. Whenever it 
 is desired to employ it as a mastic, it is always easy to 
 bring it back to a soft and plastic state, by heating 
 it up to about 375° C. and triturating it in a mortar 
 until it has become as soft as wax. 
 
 If, in this state, it is put between two surfaces free 
 from oxides, grease, &c, it unites them so thoroughly, 
 that the pieces appear as if they had never been sol- 
 dered. This copper amalgam has been employed by 
 some dentists for filling teeth. 
 
 Alloy for roller scrapers: — 
 
 Copper 81.5 
 
 Zinc 10.5 
 
 Tin 8. 
 
 100.0 
 
 This composition for the scrapers (sometimes called 
 doctors, or ductors), intended to remove the surplus of 
 colors from the calico-printing rollers, appears to pos- 
 sess the maximum of hardness and toughness for this 
 purpose. On the other hand, acids rapidly destroy the 
 scrapers made of an alloy of copper, tin, and zinc. For 
 many years past, a combination which will possess, at 
 the same time, elasticity and softness, hardness and 
 flexibility, without being sensibly attacked by chemical 
 reagents, has been a desideratum. The Societe Indus- 
 trielle de Mulhouse has offered a premium for such a 
 discovery, which has not been yet awarded, because, 
 as we believe, nothing has been invented which is 
 to be preferred to the alloys made within the above 
 limits. 
 
274 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR METALLIC ALLOYS. 
 
 Violet alloy, susceptible of a fine polish : — 
 
 Copper 75 
 
 Antimony 25 
 
 100 
 
 This compound is brittle, without well-known uses, 
 and more fusible than copper. 
 
 Amalgam for electrical machines : — 
 
 Zinc 1 
 
 Tin 1 
 
 Mercury 2 
 
 4 
 
 This amalgam is employed, either in powder, or in- 
 corporated with grease. 
 
 Liquid for amalgamating the zinc of galvanic latte- 
 ries : — 
 
 This liquid was experimented upon by Euhmkorf. 
 A few seconds of immersion are sufficient for amalga- 
 mating the most worn-out zinc. It is made by dis- 
 solving, with the aid of heat, 200 grammes of mercury 
 in 100 grammes of aqua regia. When the solution is 
 completed, 1000 grammes of hydrochloric acid are 
 added to it. 
 
 Note by the Author. — Notwithstanding the innumerable researches 
 which we have made in order to give a complete description of the 
 useful alloys, it is probable, and even sure, that many interesting 
 combinations have escaped our attention. Therefore, we shall wel- 
 come all communications and corrections on this subject, which 
 our readers may have the kindness to address to us, in order thus 
 to improve a future edition, if, as we hope, from the practical 
 character and usefulness of a work of this kind, our book is to be 
 printed again. 
 
TABLES 
 
 SHOWING THE 
 
 RELATIVE VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH WEIGHTS 
 AND MEASURES, &c. 
 
 Measures of Length, 
 
 
 Millimetre 
 
 == 
 
 0.03937 
 
 inch. 
 
 Centimetre 
 
 == 
 
 0.393708 
 
 u 
 
 Decimetre 
 
 = 
 
 3.937079 
 
 inches. 
 
 Metre 
 
 = 
 
 39.37079 
 
 « 
 
 it 
 
 = 
 
 3.2808992 
 
 feet. 
 
 u 
 
 = 
 
 1:093633 
 
 yard. 
 
 Decametre 
 
 = 
 
 32.808992 
 
 feet. 
 
 Hectometre 
 
 = 
 
 328.08992 
 
 « 
 
 Kilometre 
 
 = 
 
 3280.8992 
 
 (< 
 
 <( 
 
 = 
 
 1093.633 
 
 yards. 
 
 Myriametre 
 
 
 10936.33 
 
 u 
 
 it 
 
 = 
 
 6.2138 
 
 miles. 
 
 Inch (g 1 ^- yard) 
 
 = 
 
 2.539954 
 
 centimetres. 
 
 Foot (i yard) 
 
 = 
 
 3.0479449 
 
 decimetres. 
 
 Yard 
 
 = 
 
 0.91438348 metre. 
 
 Fathom (2 yards) 
 
 = 
 
 1.82876696 
 
 ; " 
 
 Pole or perch (5^ yards) = 
 
 5.029109 
 
 metres. 
 
 Furlong (220 yards) 
 
 = 
 
 201.16437 
 
 it 
 
 Mile (1760 yards) 
 
 = 
 
 1609.3149 
 
 tt 
 
 Nautical mile 
 
 == 
 
 1852 
 
 « 
 
276 
 
 VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH 
 
 Superficial Measures. 
 
 Square millimetre 
 
 " centimetre 
 " decimetre 
 
 square inch. 
 
 metre or centiare = 
 
 Are 
 
 « 
 
 Hectare 
 << 
 
 Square inch 
 
 " foot 
 
 " yard 
 
 " rod or perch 
 Rood (1210 sq. yards) 
 Acre (4840 sq. yards) 
 
 0.00155 
 0.155006 
 15.50059 
 0.107643 
 1550.05989 
 10.764299 
 1.196033 
 1076.4299 
 119.6033 
 0.098845 
 11960.3326 
 2.471143 
 645.109201 
 6.451367 
 9.289968 
 0.836097 
 25.291939 
 10.116775 
 0.404671 
 
 " inches. 
 
 " foot. 
 
 " inches. 
 
 " feet. 
 
 " yard 
 
 " feet. 
 
 " yards. 
 rood. 
 
 square yards, 
 acres, 
 square millimetres. 
 
 " centimetres 
 
 " decimetres. 
 
 " metre. 
 
 " metres, 
 ares, 
 hectare. 
 
 Measures of Capacity. 
 
 Cubic millimetre = 
 
 " centimetre or millilitre = 
 " centimetres or centilitre = 
 " " decilitre = 
 
 0.000061027 cubic inch. 
 0.061027 " " 
 
 10 " 
 100 " 
 1000 " 
 
 litre = 
 
 Decalitre 
 
 Hectolitre = 
 
 " = 
 
 Cubic metre or stere or kilolitre = 
 <( <{ <( 
 
 Myrialitre 
 
 0.61027 
 6.102705 
 61.0270515 
 = 1.760773 
 == 0.2200967 
 = 610.270515 
 = 2.2009668 
 = 3.531658 
 = 22.009668 
 1.30802 
 35.3165807 
 353.165807 
 
 " inches. 
 « « 
 
 imp'l pint. 
 " gal'n. 
 cubic inches, 
 imp. gal'ns. 
 cubic feet. 
 imp. gal'ns. 
 cubic yard. 
 " feet. 
 

 w: 
 
 ibi 
 
 c inch 
 
 it 
 
 foot 
 
 a 
 
 yard 
 
 AND MEASURES, ETC. 
 
 277 
 
 = 16.386176 cubic centimetres. 
 — 28.315312 " decimetres. 
 
 = 0.764513422 " metre. 
 
 American Measures. 
 
 Winchester or U.S. gallon (231 cub. in.) = 3.785209 litres. 
 
 " " bushel(2150.42cub.in.) = 35.23719 " 
 
 Chaldron (57.25 cubic feet) = 1621.085 " 
 
 British Imperial Measures. 
 
 litre. 
 
 Gill = 0.141983 
 
 Pint (£ gallon) = 0.567932 
 
 Quart (£ gallon) = 1.135864 u 
 Imperial gallon (277.2738 cub. in.) = 4.54345797 litres. 
 
 Peck (2 gallons) = 9.0869159 " 
 
 Bushel (8 gallons) = 36.347664 " 
 
 Sack (3 bushels) = 1.09043 
 
 Quarter (8 bushels) = 2.907813 
 
 Chaldron (12 sacks) = 13.08516 
 
 hectolitre, 
 hectolitres. 
 
 Milligramme 
 Centigramme 
 Decigramme 
 Gramme 
 
 Decagramme 
 
 u 
 
 Hectogramme 
 
 u 
 
 Kilogramme 
 
 u 
 
 Myriagramme 
 
 Weights. 
 
 0.015438395 troy 
 
 0.15438395 " 
 
 1.5438395 " 
 = 15.438395 " 
 
 0.643 
 
 0.0321633 
 
 0.0352889 
 = 154.38395 
 
 5.64 
 
 3.21633 
 
 3.52889 
 
 2.6803 
 
 2.205486 
 = 26.803 
 = 22.05486 
 
 " grams, 
 pennyweight, 
 oz. troy, 
 oz. avoirdupois, 
 troy grains, 
 drachms avoirdupois, 
 oz. troy, 
 oz. avoirdupois, 
 lbs. troy, 
 lbs. avoirdupois, 
 lbs. troy, 
 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Quintal metrique = 100 kilog. = 220.5486 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 Tonne = 1000 kilog. = 2205.486 " " 
 
 24 3 
 
278 
 
 VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH 
 
 Different authors give tlie following values for the gramme 
 Gramme = 15.44402 troy grains. 
 " = 15.44242 " 
 
 = 15.4402 
 " = 15.433159 
 
 " == 15.43234874 " 
 
 AVOIRDUPOIS. 
 
 Long ton = 20 cwt. = 2240 lbs. = 1015.649 
 Short ton (2000 lbs.) = 906.8296 
 
 Hundred weight (112 lbs.) = 
 
 Quarter (28 lbs.) = 
 
 Pound == 16 oz. = 7000 grs. = 
 
 Ounce = 16 dr'ms. = 437.5 grs. = 
 Drachm = 27.344 grains = 
 
 kilogrammes. 
 
 50.78245 
 12.6956144 
 453.4148 grammes. 
 28.3375 " 
 
 1.77108 gramme. 
 
 TROY (precious metals). 
 Pound = 12 oz. == 5760 grs. = 373.096 
 
 Ounce = 20 dwt. = 480 grs. 
 Pennyweight = 24 grs. 
 Grain 
 
 == 31.0913 
 = 1.55457 
 = 0.064773 
 
 grammes. 
 
 gramme. 
 
 APOTHECARIES' (pharmacy). 
 
 Ounce = 8 drachms = 480 grs. = 31.0913 gramme. 
 Drachm = 3 scruples = 60 grs. = 3.8869 " 
 
 Scruple = 20 grs. = 1.29546 gramme. 
 
 CARAT WEIGHT FOR DIAMONDS. 
 
 1 carat = 4 carat grains = 64 carat parts. 
 
 = 3.2 troy grains. 
 
 = 3.273 " 
 
 = 0.207264 gramme 
 
 = 0.212 
 
 = 0.205 " 
 
 Great diversity in value. 
 4 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, ETC. 279 
 
 Proposed Symbols for Abbreviations. 
 
 M— myria — 10000 
 
 K— kilo — 1000 
 
 H— hecto — 100 
 
 D— deca — 10 
 
 Unit — 1 
 
 d— deci — 0.1 
 
 c — centi — 0.01 
 
 m— milli — 0.001 
 
 Mm 
 Km 
 Hm 
 Dm 
 metre — m 
 dm 
 cm 
 mm 
 
 Mg 
 
 Ml 
 
 Kg 
 
 Kl 
 
 Hg 
 
 HI 
 
 Dg 
 
 Dl 
 
 gramme — g 
 
 litre— 1 
 
 dg 
 
 dl 
 
 eg 
 
 cl 
 
 mg 
 
 ml 
 
 Ha 
 Da 
 are — a 
 da 
 ca 
 
 Km = Kilometre. HI = Hectolitre. eg = centigramme. 
 c. cm = cm 3 = cubic centimetre, dm 2 = sq. dm = square deci- 
 metre. Kgm = Kilogrammetre. Kg = Kilogramme degree. 
 
 Celsius or Centigrade. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Eeaumur. 
 
 
 
 15° 
 
 + 5° 
 
 — 12° 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 + 14 
 
 — 8 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 + 23 
 
 — 4 
 
 
 melting 
 
 + 32 
 
 ice 
 
 + 
 
 5 
 
 + 41 
 
 + 4 
 
 + 
 
 10 
 
 + 50 
 
 + 8 
 
 + 
 
 15 
 
 + 59 
 
 + 12 
 
 4- 
 
 20 
 
 + 68 
 
 + 16 
 
 ■f 
 
 25 
 
 + 77 
 
 + 20 
 
 + 
 
 30 
 
 + 86 
 
 + 24 
 
 + 
 
 35 
 
 + 95 
 
 + 28 
 
 + 
 
 40 
 
 +104 
 
 + 32 
 
 + 
 
 45 
 
 + 113 
 
 + 36 
 
 + 
 
 50 
 
 +122 
 
 + 40 
 
 + 
 
 55 
 
 + 131 
 
 + 44 
 
 + 
 
 60 
 
 +140 
 
 + 48 
 
 + 
 
 65 
 
 +149 
 
 + 52 
 
 + 
 
 70 
 
 + 158 
 
 + 56 
 
 + 75 
 
 + 167 
 
 + 60 
 
 + 
 
 80 
 
 +176 
 
 + 64 
 
 + 
 
 85 
 
 +185 
 
 + 68 
 
 + 
 
 90 
 
 +194 
 
 + 72 
 
 + 
 
 95 
 
 +203 
 
 + 76 
 
 +100 boiling 
 
 +212 
 
 water +80 
 
 +200 
 
 + 392 
 
 + 160 
 
 +300 
 
 +572 
 
 +240 
 
 +400 
 
 +752 
 
 +320 
 
 +500 
 
 +932 
 
 +400 
 
280 
 
 VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 c. = 
 
 = 1° 
 
 .8 Ft. 
 
 = 
 
 90 
 
 "FT 
 
 Ft. = 
 
 = 0°.S E 
 
 
 _ 40 T> 
 
 
 
 1° 
 
 c. 
 
 X 
 
 9 
 7T 
 
 = 1° 
 
 Ft. 
 
 1° 
 
 Ft. 
 
 X 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 1° C. 
 
 1° 
 
 R. 
 
 xf 
 
 =1° 
 
 Ft. 
 
 1° 
 
 c. 
 
 X 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 = 1° 
 
 R. 
 
 1° 
 
 Ft. 
 
 X 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 1° R. 
 
 1° 
 
 R. 
 
 xf 
 
 =1° 
 
 C. 
 
 Calorie (French) = unit of heat -» 
 
 i m j > English. 
 
 = kilogramme degree J ° 
 
 It is the quantity of heat necessary to raise 1° C. the tempera- 
 ture of 1 kilogramme of distilled water. 
 
 Kilogrammetre = Kgm = the power necessary to raise 1 kilo- 
 gramme, 1 metre high, in one second. It is equal to y 1 - of a 
 French horse power. An English horse power = 550 foot pounds, 
 while a French horse power = 542.7 foot pounds. 
 
 Ready-made Calculations. 
 
 No. 
 
 of 
 
 units 
 
 Inches to 
 
 centimetres. 
 
 Feet to 
 metres. 
 
 Yards to 
 metres. 
 
 Miles to 
 Kilometres. 
 
 Millimetre 
 to inches. 
 
 10 
 
 2.53995 
 5.0799 
 7.6199 
 10.1598 
 12.6998 
 15.2397 
 17.7797 
 20.3196 
 22.8596 
 25.3995 
 
 0.3047945 
 0.6095890 
 0.9143835 
 1.2197680 
 1.5239724 
 1.8287669 
 2.1335614 
 2.4383559 
 2.7431504 
 3.0479450 
 
 0.91438348 
 1.82876696 
 2.74315044 
 3.65753392 
 4.57191740 
 5.48630088 
 6.40068436 
 7.31506784 
 8.22945132 
 9.14383480 
 
 1.6093 
 3.2186 
 
 4.8279 
 
 6.4373 
 
 8.0466 
 
 9.6559 
 
 11.2652 
 
 12.8745 
 
 14.4838 
 
 16.0930 
 
 0.03937079 
 0.07874158 
 0.11811237 
 0.15748316 
 0.19685395 
 0.23622474 
 0.27559553 
 0.31496632 
 0.35433711 
 0.39370790 
 
 No. 
 
 Centimetres 
 
 Metres to 
 
 Metres to 
 
 Kilometres 
 
 Square inches 
 
 of 
 
 to inches. 
 
 feet. 
 
 yards. 
 
 to miles. 
 
 to square 
 
 units. 
 
 
 
 
 
 centimetres. 
 
 1 
 
 0.3937079 
 
 3.2808992 
 
 1.093633 
 
 0.6213824 
 
 6.45136 
 
 2 
 
 0.7874158 
 
 6.5617984 
 
 2.187266 
 
 1.2427648 
 
 12.90272 
 
 3 
 
 1.1811237 
 
 9.8426976 
 
 3.280899 
 
 1.8641472 
 
 19.35408 
 
 4 
 
 1.5748316 
 
 13.1235968 
 
 4.374532 
 
 2.4855296 
 
 25.80544 
 
 5 
 
 1.9685395 
 
 16.4044960 
 
 5.468165 
 
 3.1089120 
 
 32.25680 
 
 6 
 
 2.3622474 |l9.6853952 
 
 6.561798 
 
 3.7282944 
 
 38.70816 
 
 7 
 
 2.7559553 J22.9662944 
 
 7.655431 
 
 4.3496768 
 
 45.15952 
 
 8 
 
 3J496632 |26.2471936 
 
 8.749064 
 
 4.9710592 
 
 51.61088 
 
 9 
 
 3.5433711 J29.5280928 
 
 9.842697 
 
 5.5924416 
 
 58.06224 
 
 10 
 
 3.9370790 
 
 32.8089920 
 
 10.936330 
 
 6.2138240 
 
 64.51360 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, ETC. 
 
 281 
 
 No. 
 
 Square feet to 
 
 Sq. yards to 
 
 Acres to 
 
 Square 
 
 Sq. metres 
 
 of 
 
 sq. metres. 
 
 sq. metres. 
 
 hectares. 
 
 centimetres 
 
 to sq. feet. 
 
 units. 
 
 
 
 
 to sq. inches. 
 
 
 1 
 
 0.0929 
 
 0.836097 
 
 0.404671 
 
 0.155 
 
 10.7643 
 
 2 
 
 0.1858 
 
 1.672194 
 
 0.809342 
 
 0.310 
 
 21.5286 
 
 3 
 
 0.2787 
 
 2.508291 
 
 1.204013 
 
 0.465 
 
 32.2929 
 
 4 
 
 0.3716 
 
 3.344388 
 
 1.618684 
 
 0.620 
 
 43.0572 
 
 5 
 
 0.4645 
 
 4.180485 
 
 2.023355 
 
 0.775 
 
 53.8215 
 
 6 
 
 0.5574 
 
 5.016582 
 
 2.428026 
 
 0.930 
 
 64.5858 
 
 7 
 
 0.6503 
 
 5.852679 
 
 2.832697 
 
 1.085 
 
 75.3501 
 
 8 
 
 0.7432 
 
 6.688776 
 
 3.237368 
 
 1.240 
 
 86.1144 
 
 9 
 
 0.8361 
 
 7.524873 
 
 3.642039 
 
 1.395 
 
 96.8787 
 
 10 
 
 0.9290 
 
 8.360970 
 
 4.046710 
 
 1.550 
 
 107.6430 
 
 No. 
 
 Square metres 
 
 Hectares 
 
 Cubic inches 
 
 Cubic feet to 
 
 Cubic yards 
 
 of 
 
 to sq. yards. 
 
 to acres. 
 
 to cubic 
 
 cubic metres. 
 
 to cubic 
 
 units. 
 
 
 
 centimetres. 
 
 
 metres. 
 
 1 
 
 1.196033 
 
 2.471143 
 
 16.3855 
 
 0.02831 
 
 0.76451 
 
 2 
 
 2.392066 
 
 4.942286 
 
 32.7710 
 
 0.05662 
 
 1.52902 
 
 3 
 
 3.588099 
 
 7.413429 
 
 49.1565 
 
 0.08494 
 
 2.29354 
 
 4 
 
 4.784132 
 
 9.884572 
 
 65.5420 
 
 0.11325 
 
 3.05805 
 
 5 
 
 5.980165 
 
 12.355715 
 
 81.9275 
 
 0.14157 
 
 3.82257 
 
 6 
 
 7.176198 
 
 14.826858 
 
 98.3130 
 
 0.16988 
 
 4.58708 
 
 7 
 
 8.372231 
 
 17.298001 
 
 114.6985 
 
 0.19819 
 
 5.35159 
 
 8 
 
 9.568264 
 
 19.769144 
 
 131,0840 
 
 0.22651 
 
 6.11611 
 
 9 
 
 10.764297 
 
 22.240287 
 
 147.4695 
 
 0.25482 
 
 6.88062 
 
 10 
 
 11.960330 
 
 24.711430 
 
 163.8550 
 
 0.28315 
 
 7.64513 
 
 No. 
 
 Cubic 
 
 Litres to 
 
 Hectolitres to 
 
 Cubic metres 
 
 Cubic metres 
 
 of 
 
 centimetres to 
 
 cubic inches. 
 
 cubic feet. 
 
 to cubic feet. 
 
 to cubic 
 
 units. 
 
 cubic inches. 
 
 
 
 
 yards. 
 
 1 
 
 0.06102 
 
 61.02705 
 
 3.5317 
 
 35.31659 
 
 1.30802 
 
 2 
 
 0.12205 
 
 122.05410 
 
 7.0634 
 
 70.63318 
 
 2.61604 
 
 3 
 
 0.18308 
 
 183.08115 
 
 10.5951 
 
 105.94977 
 
 3.92406 
 
 4 
 
 0.24411 
 
 244.10820 
 
 14.1268 
 
 141.26636 
 
 5.23208 
 
 5 
 
 0.30514 
 
 305.13525 
 
 17.6585 
 
 176.58295 
 
 6.54010 
 
 6 
 
 0.36617 
 
 366.16230 
 
 21.1902 
 
 211.89954 
 
 7.84812 
 
 7 
 
 0.42720 
 
 427.18935 
 
 24.7219 
 
 247.21613 
 
 9.15614 
 
 8 
 
 0.48823 
 
 488.21640 
 
 28.2536 
 
 282.53272 
 
 10.46416 
 
 9 
 
 0.54926 
 
 549.24345 
 
 31.7853 
 
 317.84931 
 
 11.77218 
 
 10 
 
 0.61027 
 
 610.27050 
 
 35.3166 
 
 353.16590 
 
 13.08020 
 
 24* 
 
282 
 
 FKENCH AND ENGLISH WEIGHTS, ETC. 
 
 No. 
 
 Grains 
 
 Ounces avoir. 
 
 Ounces troy 
 
 Pounds avoir. 
 
 Pounds troy 
 
 of 
 
 to grammes. 
 
 to grammes. 
 
 to grammes. 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 units. 
 
 
 
 
 kilogrammes. 
 
 kilogrammes. 
 
 1 
 
 0.064773 
 
 28.3375 
 
 31.0913 
 
 0.4534148 
 
 0.373096 
 
 2 
 
 0.129546 
 
 56.6750 
 
 62.1826 
 
 0.9068296 
 
 0.746192 
 
 3 
 
 0.194319 
 
 85.0125 
 
 93.2739 
 
 1.3602444 
 
 1.119288 
 
 4 
 
 0.259092 
 
 113.3500 
 
 124.3652 
 
 1.8136592 
 
 1.492384 
 
 5 
 
 0.323865 
 
 141.6871 
 
 155.4565 
 
 2.2670740 
 
 1.865480 
 
 6 
 
 0.38S638 
 
 170.0250 
 
 186.5478 
 
 2.7204888 
 
 2.238576 
 
 7 
 
 0.453411 
 
 198.3625 
 
 217.6391 
 
 3.1739036 
 
 2.611672 
 
 8 
 
 0.518184 
 
 226.7000 
 
 248.7304 
 
 3.6273184 
 
 2.984768 
 
 9 
 
 0.582957 
 
 255.0375 
 
 279.8217 
 
 *4.0807332 
 
 3.357864 
 
 10 
 
 0.647730 
 
 283.3750 
 
 310.9130 
 
 4.5341480 
 
 3.730960 
 
 
 Pounds per | 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Long tons to square inch to Grammes to 
 
 Grammes to 
 
 Grammes to 
 
 of 
 
 tonnes of 1000 kilogrammes 
 
 grains. 
 
 ounces avoir. 
 
 ounces troy. 
 
 units. 
 
 kilog. 
 
 per square 
 centimetre. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1.015649 
 
 0.0702774 
 
 15.438395 
 
 0.0352889 
 
 0.0321633 
 
 2 
 
 2.031298 
 
 0.1405548 
 
 30.876790 
 
 0.0705778 
 
 0.0643266 
 
 3 
 
 3.046947 
 
 0.2108322 
 
 46.315185 
 
 0.1058667 
 
 0.0964899 
 
 4 
 
 4.062596 
 
 0.2811096 
 
 61.753580 
 
 0.1411556 
 
 0.1286532 
 
 5 
 
 5.078245 
 
 0.3513870 
 
 77.191975 
 
 0.1764445 
 
 0.1608165 
 
 6 
 
 6.093894 0.4216644 
 
 92.630370 
 
 0.2117334 
 
 0.1929798 
 
 7 
 
 7.109543 0.4919418 
 
 108.068765 
 
 0.2470223 
 
 0.2251431 
 
 8 
 
 8.125192 0.5622192 
 
 123.507160 
 
 0.2823112 
 
 0.2573064 
 
 9 
 
 9.140841 ! 0.6324966 
 
 138.945555 
 
 0.3176001 
 
 0.2894697 
 
 10 
 
 10.156490 i 0.7027740 154.383950 
 
 0.3528890 
 
 0.3216330 
 
 
 
 
 Metric tonne.* 
 
 Kilog. per 
 
 Kilog. per 
 
 No. 
 
 Kilogrammes 
 
 Kilogrammes 
 
 of 1000 kilog 
 
 square milli- 
 
 square centi- 
 
 of 
 
 to pounds 
 
 to pounds 
 
 to iong tons of 
 
 metre to 
 
 metre to 
 
 units. 
 
 avoirdupois. 
 
 troy. 
 
 2240 pounds. 
 
 pounds per 
 square inch. 
 
 pounds per 
 square inch. 
 
 1 
 
 2.205486 
 
 2.6803 
 
 0.9845919 
 
 1422.52 
 
 14.22526 
 
 2 
 
 4.410972 
 
 5.3606 
 
 1.9691838 
 
 2845.05 
 
 28.45052 
 
 3 
 
 6.616458 
 
 8.0409 
 
 2.9537757 
 
 4267.57 
 
 42.67578 
 
 4 
 
 8.821944 
 
 10.7212 
 
 3.9383676 
 
 5690.10 
 
 56.90104 
 
 5 
 
 11.027430 
 
 13.4015 
 
 4.9229595 
 
 7112.63 
 
 71.12630 
 
 6 
 
 13.232916 
 
 16.0818 
 
 5.9075514 
 
 8535.15 
 
 85.35156 
 
 7 
 
 15.438402 
 
 18.7621 
 
 6.8921433 
 
 9957.68 
 
 99.57682 
 
 8 
 
 17.643888 
 
 21.4424 
 
 7.8767352 
 
 11380.20 
 
 113.80208 
 
 9 
 
 19.849374 
 
 24.1227 
 
 8.8613271 
 
 12802.73 
 
 128.02734 
 
 10 
 
 22.054860 
 
 26.8030 
 
 9.8459190 
 
 14225.28 
 
 142.25260 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Alfemde, 228 
 
 Algiers metal, 231, 238 
 
 Alloy for keys of flutes, &c, 239 
 
 for hammering plates and fine 
 wires, 190 
 
 for silvering glass globes, 245 
 
 fusible by friction, 245 
 
 of Muntz, 202 
 
 to determine the proportion 
 of the component metals 
 in, 52 
 Alloys, characteristics and quali- 
 ties of, 58, 63, 66, 69, 72, 
 79, 85, 87, 93, 99, 101, 102, 
 107, 109, 110, 111, 114, 
 116, 124, 125, 129 
 
 coefficient of elasticity by vi- 
 bration, 29 
 
 cohesion of, 29 
 
 for bells, musical instruments, 
 &c, 207 
 
 for coinage, 177 
 
 for jewelry, gold and silver 
 wares, Britannia ware, &c, 
 218 
 
 for machinery, 247 
 
 for ordnance, arms, projec- 
 tiles, &c, 182 
 
 for philosophical and optical 
 instruments, 212 
 
 for rolling and wire drawing, 
 189 
 
 for stopcocks, 239 
 
 for type, engraving plates, 
 &c, 203 
 
 fusible, points of fusion of, 244 
 
 maximum of extension, 29 
 
 miscellaneous, 267 
 
 Alloys — 
 
 of copper and lead, 85 
 
 of copper and tin, 72 
 
 of copper, tin, and zinc, 87 
 
 of copper, tin, zinc, and lead, 
 
 93 
 of copper and zinc, 79 
 of copper, zinc, tin, and lead, 
 
 55 
 of iron and copper, 98 
 of iron and lead, 104 
 of iron and tin, 102 
 of iron and zinc, 100 
 of iron with copper, zinc, tin, 
 
 and lead, 97 
 of metals most used in the 
 
 arts, 54 
 of metals rarely used in the 
 
 arts, 143 
 of the metals of secondary 
 importance in the arts, 106 
 of the precious metals, 122 
 of tin and lead, 63 
 of tin and zinc, 58 
 of tin, zinc, and lead, 66 
 of zinc and lead, 69 
 physical and chemical proper- 
 ties of, 30 
 specific gravity of, 29 
 the specific gravity of which 
 is greater than the mean of 
 the component metals, 32 
 the specific gravity of which 
 is less than the mean of 
 the component metals, 32 
 used in the arts, 1 70 
 very white and malleable, 
 223 
 
284 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Alumina, 138 
 
 in steel, 138 
 Aluminium, 123 
 
 and copper, specific gravities 
 of compounds of, 142 
 
 and its alloys, 137 
 
 bronze, 141 
 
 bronze, properties of, 142 
 
 bronze, solders for, 266, 267 
 
 bronze, uses of, 143 
 
 chemical properties of, 25 
 
 first isolated, 139 
 
 properties of, 139 
 
 qualities of, 25 
 Aluminum or aluminium, 24 
 Amalgam for dentists, 271 
 
 for electrical machines, 274 
 
 for varnishing plaster casts, 
 270 
 
 Mackenzie's, 121 
 
 of copper, 267 
 
 of gold, 127 
 
 of lead, bismuth, and mer- 
 cury, 245 
 Amalgams, 22, 119 
 
 for silvering glass globes, 270 
 
 of platinum, 136 
 
 of silver, 132 
 
 of zinc, 264 
 
 use of in gilding, 127 
 Analyses of coinage of various 
 
 countries, 182 
 Ancient alloys for weapons, 186 
 
 bronzes, 173 
 
 coinage, 180, 186 
 Anti-friction metals, 247 
 
 metal, G-rafton's, 255 
 Antimony, 20 
 
 amalgams of, 120 
 
 and arsenic, alloys of, 112 
 
 and bismuth, alloys of, 108 
 
 and copper, alloys of, 109 
 
 and gold, alloys of, 126 
 
 and iron, alloys of, 111 
 
 and lead, alloys of, 110 
 
 and nickel, alloys of, 112 
 
 and tin, alloys of, 109 
 
 and platinum, alloys of, 136 
 
 Antimony — 
 
 and silver, alloys of, 131 
 and zinc, alloys of, 109 
 effectof, on the crystallization 
 
 of iron, 112 
 in fused cast iron, 112 
 oxidation of, 110 
 hardness imparted by, 111 
 qualities of, 20 
 quaternary alloys with, 1 13 
 ternary alloys with, 113 
 useful alloys with, 112 
 
 Appold alloys, 246 
 
 Argentan of Shefiield, 223 
 
 Arms, alloys for, 182 
 
 Arsenic, 21 
 
 amalgams of, 121 
 and antimony, alloys of, 112 
 and bismuth, alloys of, 108 
 and copper, alloys of, 117 
 and gold, alloys of, 127 
 and iron, alloys of, 119 
 and lead, alloys of, 118 
 and nickel, alloys of, 116 
 and platinum, alloys of, 136 
 and silver, alloys of, 131 
 and tin, alloys of, 118 
 and zinc, alloys of, 118 
 effect on gold, 127 
 qualities of, 21 
 
 Arsenical cobalt, 150 
 
 Arsenides of lead, 118 
 
 Ashberry metal, 233 
 
 Attica, bronze coins of, 181 
 
 Ball valves, alloys for, 250 
 Bath metal, 222 
 Bearings, alloys for, 251, 256 
 Belgium, coinage of, 179 
 Bells, alloys for, 207 
 
 English analyses of, 210 
 in France, 211 
 quality of, 210 
 Berthier, M., experiments, 115, 
 120, 124, 132, 134, 136, 145, 
 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 162, 
 164, 166. 
 Bibra's alloy, 272 
 
INDEX. 
 
 285 
 
 Binary alloys, 40 
 
 Bismuth, 19 
 
 added to. tin increases hard- 
 ness, 107 
 and antimony, alloys of, 108 
 and arsenic, alloys of, 108 
 and copper, alloys of, 106 
 and gold, alloys of, 126 
 and iron, alloys of, 108 
 and lead, alloys of, 107, 244 
 and mercury, 120 
 and nickel, alloys of, 108 
 and silver, alloys of, 131 
 and tin, alloys of, 106, 244 
 and zinc, alloys of, 106 
 facility of, for crystallizing, 19 
 for refining silver, 131 
 lead, and zinc, alloys of, 244 
 solidifies. 107 
 tin, and lead, soft solders of, 
 
 264 
 qualities of, 19 
 
 Blocks of side valve, bronze for, 
 251 
 
 Blue gold, 218 
 
 Bobierre, Mr, experiment on 
 ships' sbeathings, 198-202 
 
 Boetger's process, 271 
 
 Brass, 56 
 
 for turners, 252 
 
 hard solder for, 262, 263 
 
 Jemmapes, 197 
 
 malleable, 190 
 
 of second quality, 191 
 
 or bronze for mountings of 
 
 arms, 187 
 plates, bronze for, 197 
 
 Brasses, 252, 253, 254 
 
 Brasque. use of, 50 
 
 Brazed, alloys for pieces to be, 250 
 
 Breant, M., experiments of, 135 
 
 Britannia metals, 231, 232 
 metals, qualities of, 234 
 ware, alloys for, 218 
 
 British coinage, 178 
 
 Brittleness imparted by antimony. 
 114 
 
 Bronzes, 56, 249, 251 
 
 Bronze alloys, 51 
 for medals, 76 
 for pistons, 252 
 for pumps, pillow blocks, nuts, 
 
 ftc, 247 
 for regulators, 251 
 for sheathing, 197 
 for stuffing-boxes, 252 
 made at Woolwich, 258 
 of Column of July, Paris, 172 
 of Column of Yendome, 97, 
 
 172 
 of Genius and Liberty, 176 
 of statue of Henry IV., 175 
 of statue of Moliere, 177 
 of statue of Napoleon 1833, 
 
 176 
 of statue of Bousseau, 176 
 of statue of d'Assas at Vigan, 
 
 176 
 Bronzes for gilding, 174 
 of art, 171 
 
 of statues in Paris, 173 
 of brothers Keller, 97, 1 72 
 of the Greeks and Romans, 
 
 173 
 Roman, for statues, 97 
 Buttons, alloys for, 241 
 metal for, 119 
 
 Cadmium, 152 
 
 Cast iron, re-melting, 45 
 
 tinning, 104 
 Casts, alloy for, 245 
 
 Bibra's alloy for, 272 
 
 English alloys for, 227 
 Casting, 48 
 Characteristics of alloys, 58, 63, 
 
 66, 69, 72, 79, 85, 87, 93, 
 . 101, 102, 107, 109, 110, 
 
 111, 114, 116, 124, 125, 129 
 Charcoal dust, 48 
 Chinese gongs, analyses of, 211 
 
 maillechort, 226 
 
 mirrors, 213, 214 
 
 pack-fong, 114, 22 i 
 
 white copper, 224 
 Chromium and iron, 149 
 
286 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Chromium — 
 
 and its alloys, 148 
 and steel, 149 
 
 Clappers, alloys for, 250 
 
 Cobalt and copper, 151 
 and iron, 151 
 and its alloys, 150 
 and tin, 151 
 
 Cobaltine, 150 
 
 Coefficient of elasticity of alloys 
 by vibration, 29 
 
 Cohesion of alloys, 29 
 
 Coinage, alloys for, 177 
 ancient, 180 
 
 of various countries, analyses 
 of, 182 
 
 Color of texture of an alloy, 58 
 
 Column of July, bronze of, 172 
 
 Column Vendome, bronze of, 97, 
 172 
 
 Common jewelry gold, 220 
 
 Complex alloys, 41 
 
 Component metals in an alloy, to 
 determine, 52 
 
 Composition of alloys, 36 
 
 Conductive power of metals, for 
 electricity, 26 
 
 power of metals for heat, 26 
 
 Connecting rods, alloys for, 248 
 
 Cooling of alloys, 38, 39 
 
 Copper, 15 
 
 alloys for ships' sheathings, 
 
 198 
 and aluminium, specific gra- 
 " vities of compounds of, 142 
 amalgam of, 267 
 and antimony, alloys of, 109 
 and arsenic, alloys of, 117 
 and bismuth, alloys of, 106 
 and gold, alloys of, 122 
 and iron, alloys of, 98 
 and its alloys, 45, 47, 48, 49 
 and lead, alloys of, 85 
 and mercury, amalgams of, 
 
 120 
 and nickel, alloys of, 114 
 and platinum, alloys of, 133 
 and silver, alloys of, 129 
 
 Copper — 
 
 and tin, alloys of, 50, 72 
 
 and zinc, alloys of, 41, 48, 50, 
 79 
 
 for rolling, alloys of, 191 
 
 metals with which it may be 
 alloyed, 15 
 
 remelting, 45 
 
 solders, 260, 261, 262, 263 
 
 tin, and zinc, alloys of, 87 
 
 tin, zinc, and lead, alloys of, 
 93 
 
 tinning, 104 
 
 works, reverberatory fur- 
 naces in, 52 
 
 zinc, tin, and lead, alloys of, 
 55 
 Crocoide, 148 
 Crucibles, use of, 46 
 Crysocale, 221 
 Crystallization, 39 
 Cupolas, 49 
 
 waste with, 51 
 Cutlery, metals for, 236 
 
 of steel and platinum, 135 
 Cuivre jaune, 262 
 Cymbals, metal for, 211 
 
 Darcet's alloys, 97, 242, 243 
 
 Darcet on gilding bronze, 174 
 
 Dead leaf gold, 218 
 
 Dentists, amalgam for, 271 
 
 Despretz, Mr., alloy for mirrors, 
 214 
 
 Detourbat's metal, 255 
 
 Deville, M- St. Claire, 139 
 
 Dewrance, alloy of, 258 
 
 Didot, MM., stereotype plates, 
 204 
 
 Dipping, yellow metal for, 220, 
 221 
 
 Direct method, alloys made by, 45 
 
 DorS, 133 
 
 Ductile alloy of gold and plati- 
 num, 235 
 
 Ductility of alloys, 31 
 
 relative, of metals, 26 
 
 Dumas, M., 116 
 
INDEX. 
 
 287 
 
 Dumas — 
 
 on platinum alloy, 135 
 Eccentrics, alloys for collars of, 
 
 247 
 Elasticity, coefficient of, of metals, 
 27 
 of alloys, 34 
 Electricity and heat conductive 
 power of metals, 26 
 in metallurgic operations in 
 the future, 185 
 Electrical machines, alloy for, 274 
 Electrum, 218, 227 
 Engestrum tutania, 230 
 England, base gold in, 219 
 English bells, analyses of, 210 
 metal, 233 
 tutania, 227 
 English and French weights and 
 
 measures, 275 
 Engraving plates, alloys for, 203 
 Expansion metal, 270 
 Experiments of the author, 56 
 Extension, maximum of, of alloys, 
 29 
 
 Fahlun brilliants, 217 
 Faraday and Stodart's experi- 
 ments, 115, 116, 131, 135, 166, 
 167, 215, 216 
 Fazi6 metal, 259 
 Fenton's alloy, 93 
 Fire, regulation of, 47 
 Fracture, resistance of metals to, 
 
 27 
 France, bells in, 211 
 French coinage, 177, 178 
 
 officers, experiments on al- 
 loys for military uses, 183 
 standards of gold, 218 
 standards for silver, 219 
 French and English weights and 
 
 measures, 275 
 Friction, alloy fusible by, 245 
 Fusible alloys, 242 
 
 alloys, tables of points of fu- 
 sion of, 244 
 alloy for casts, very, 245 
 
 Fusible — 
 
 alloys, various, 246 
 
 by friction, alloy, 245 
 
 combinations, 243 
 
 teaspoons, alloy for, 246 
 Fusibility of alloys, 30 
 
 of alloys of bismuth and tin, 
 107 
 Fusion, 56 
 
 duration of, 51 
 
 temperature of the metals, 
 26 
 
 Galvanic batteries, liquid for amal- 
 gamating, 274 
 Germany, coinage of, 179 
 German maillechort, 226 
 
 silver, 224, 227 
 
 silver, solder for, 267 
 
 tutania, 229 
 Generalities on the metals, 25 
 Gersnein's alloy, 272 
 Gilding, metal for, 221 
 
 similor for, 197 
 
 use of amalgams in, 127 
 Gilt, silver, 128 
 
 Globes, alloy for silvering glass, 
 245 
 
 silvering glass, 121 
 Gold, 22, 123 
 
 acids which do and those 
 which do not attack it, 23 
 
 action of, mercury on, 127 
 
 alloys of, 23 
 
 amalgam of, 127 
 
 and antimony, alloys of, 126 
 
 and arsenic, alloys of, 127 
 
 and bismuth, alloys of, 126 
 
 combines with other metals, 
 129 
 
 false, in England, 220 
 
 feuille mort, 218 
 
 French standards of, 218 
 
 hard solder for, 265 
 
 Manheim, 221 
 
 qualities of, 22 
 
 vert d'eau, 218 
 
 and copper, alloys of, 122 
 
288 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gold— 
 
 and iron, alloys of, 125 
 and lead, alloys of, 124 
 and mercury, affinity of, 127 
 and nickel, alloys of, 126 
 and platinum, alloys of, 128 
 and silver, alloys of, 127 
 and silver wares, alloys for, 
 
 218 
 and tin, alloys of, 124 
 and zinc, alloys of, 124 
 
 Goldsmith's, alloy of, 258 
 
 Gongs and cymbals, metal for, 211 
 
 Grafton's anti-frictiou metal, 255 
 
 Gray cobalt, 150 
 
 Gray gold, 125 
 
 Green gold, 128, 218 
 
 Greeks and Romans, bronzes of, 
 173 
 
 Hammering, alloy for, 190 
 Hardness of alloys, 31 
 
 relative, of metals, 26 
 Hard alloy for bearings, 251 
 Hard solder for gold, 265 
 
 solders, 260, 261, 262 
 
 solder for silver, 265 
 
 tin, 239 
 
 white metal, English, 240 
 Herve's experiments, 109, 111, 
 
 112 
 Homberg's alloy, 269 
 
 Imitation silver, 240 
 
 Industrial metals, 54 
 
 Ingot moulds, 51 
 
 Iridium, 163 
 
 Iron, 18 
 
 alloys of, 97 
 
 and antimony, alloys of, 111 
 
 and arsenic, alloys of, 119 
 
 and bismuth, alloys of, 108 
 
 and copper, alloys of, 98 
 
 and gold, alloys of, 125 
 
 and lead, alloys of, 104 
 
 and mercury, 120 
 
 and nickel, alloys of, 115 
 
 and platinum, alloys of, 134 
 
 Iron — 
 
 and silver, alloys of, 13 
 
 and tin, alloys of, 102 
 
 and wolfram, experiments on, 
 
 157 
 and zinc, alloys of, 100 
 does not alloy well, 19 
 easily oxidized, 18 
 experiments on, 157 
 ores containing zinc, 102 
 solders for, 261 
 
 Italy, coinage of, 179 
 
 Jemmapes brass, 197 
 Jewelry, alloys for, 218 
 
 gold, 220 
 
 solder for, 264, 265 
 Journals, alloys for, 248, 249, 251, 
 255, 256, 267 
 
 Karmarsch, Mr., on britannia 
 
 metals, 234 
 Karsten, 116, 125 
 Keller, Bros., alloy for ordnance, 
 182 
 bronzes of, 172 
 Keller's statuary bronze, 97 
 Keys of flutes, &c, alloy for, 239 
 Krafft's alloy, 269 
 Kustitien metal for tinning, 240 
 
 Laboulaye, Ch., on type metal, 203 
 on alloys, 28 
 
 Large type, &c, metals for, 206 
 
 Latent heat of alloys, 35 
 
 Lead, 17 
 
 acids which attack it, 18 
 elasticity, 189 
 tin, and zinc, alloys of, 66 
 and arsenic, alloys of, 118 
 and antimony, alloys of, 110 
 and bismuth, alloys of, 187, 
 
 244 
 and copper, alloys of, 85 
 and gold, alloys of, 124 
 and iron, alloys of, 104 
 and mercury, amalgam of, 120 
 
IKDEX. 
 
 289 
 
 Lead — 
 
 and nickel, alloys of, 115 
 and platinum, alloys of, 184 
 and silver, alloys of. 130 
 and tin, alloys of, 63 
 and zinc, alloys of, 69 
 copper, tin, and zinc, alloys 
 
 "of, 93 
 bismuth and mercury, amal- 
 gam of. 245 
 shot. 188' 
 qualities of, 17 
 
 Leguen, Maj., experiments with 
 tungsten, 154 
 
 Lewis, Mr., experiments, 136 
 
 Liquation, 38, 89, 51 
 
 Locomotives, alloys for, 248, 249, 
 251 
 
 Lustre, alloys producing, 113 
 caused by antimony, 112 
 
 Machinery, alloys for. 247 
 Maillechort, 225, 226. 227 
 
 for rolling, 194. 227 
 
 for spoons and forks, 227 
 Mackenzie's amalgam, 121 
 Manganese and its alloys, 145 
 
 in manufacture of steel, 147 
 
 ■with pig-iron, 146 
 Manheim gold, 221 
 Martial regulus, 269 
 Maixmum of extension of alloys, 
 
 Measures and weights, English 
 and French, 275 
 
 Dg and mixing the metals, 
 precautions to be taken, 
 43, 44, 47 
 order of, 43, 46 
 the metals, 41, 42. 43 
 Mercury, 21 
 
 absorbs lead, 120 
 
 amalgams of, 119 
 
 and bismuth, 120 
 
 and copper, amalgams of, 120 
 
 and iron. - 
 
 and lead, amalgam of, 120 
 
 and tin, amalgam of. 120 
 
 25 
 
 Mercury — 
 
 and zinc, amalgam of, 120 
 fraudulent amalgam, 121 
 qualities of, 21 
 
 Metal argentin, 231 
 for gilding, 221 
 
 Metallic mirrors, 113, 213, 214 
 
 Metalloid, 144' 
 
 Metals, classes of, 13 
 
 co-efficient of elastic: 
 commonly used, observations 
 
 on, 13 
 conductive powers of heat, 26 
 for cutlery, 236 
 for dipping, 220, 221 
 generalities, tables and data 
 
 on the, 25, 26, 27 
 importance of, when mixed, 14 
 most used, alloys of, 54 
 of secondary importance, al- 
 loys of, 106 
 temperature of, fusion of, 26 
 relative ductility of 2 
 relative hardness of, 26 
 resistance of, to fracture, 27 
 specific gravity, 26, 27 
 tenacity of, 26 
 
 Meteoric iron, 115 
 ! Middling hard solders, 261, 262, 
 - I 
 
 fer, 231 
 ' Mirrors, alloy for, 236 
 metallic, 113 
 
 metallic alloys for, 213, 214, 
 216 
 Bring, 121 
 telescopic, alloys for, 119 
 
 Mock gold or false gold, 235 
 
 Mock platinum, 240 
 
 Molybdenum, 162 
 
 Mosaic gold, 121 
 
 Mountings of arms, bronze or 
 brasE, for. 187 
 
 Muntz, Mr., alloys of - - 
 
 Muschenbroeck's experiments on 
 
 E [ I 
 
 Musical instruments, alloys for, 
 207 
 
290 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Music, metal for plates, 205 
 
 Nanterre, aluminium works at, 139 
 
 Nickel, 20, 114 
 
 and antimony, alloys of, 112 
 and arsenic, alloys of, 116 
 and bismuth, alloys of, 108 
 and copper, alloys of, 114 
 and gold, alloys of, 126 
 and iron, alloys of, 115 
 and lead, alloys of, 115 
 and platinum, alloys of, 136 
 and silver, alloys of, 131 
 and steel, combination of, 116 
 and tin, alloys of, 114 
 and zinc, alloys of, 114 
 alloys of, 114, 116 
 amalgams of, 121 
 in meteoric iron, 115 
 qualities of, 20 
 
 Nozo, M., 255 
 
 Nuts, bronze for, 247 
 
 Observations on metals commonly 
 
 used, 13 
 Old alloys, 49 
 
 alloys, use of, 44 
 
 brass, waste of, 51 
 One operation, alloys made in, 42 
 Optical instruments, alloys for, 
 
 119, 212 
 Order of melting metals, 43, 46 
 Ordnance, alloys for, 182 
 
 of various counties, composi- 
 tion of, 183 
 Osmium, 163 
 Oxidation, 46 
 
 of alloys, 35 
 
 of antimony, 100 
 Oxides of iron and zinc, 101 
 
 Packfund or packfong, 114, 223 
 Pale gold, 128 
 
 Palladium and its alloys, 165 
 Paris maillechort, 226 
 Pewter, 113, 238 
 
 plate, 233 
 
 solder for, 264 
 
 Philosophical instruments, alloys 
 for, 212 
 
 Pillow blocks, bi'onze for, 247 
 soft alloy for, 257 
 
 Pinchbeck, 222 
 
 Pin wire, alloy for, 191 
 
 Pistons, alloys for, 248 
 bronze for, 252 
 
 Plastic alloys, 268 
 
 Plate pewter, 233 
 
 Plated ware, silver solder for, 267 
 
 Plating, similor for, 197 
 
 Platinum, acids which dissolve it, 
 24 
 amalgams of, 136 
 and antimony, alloys of, 136 
 and arsenic, alloys of, 136 
 and bismuth, alloys of, 135 
 and copper, alloys of, 133 
 and gold, alloys of, 128 
 and iron, alloys of, 134 
 and lead, alloys of, 134 
 and nickel, alloys of, 136 
 and silver, alloys of, 132 
 and tin, alloys of, 134 
 and zinc, alloys of, 134 
 effect on steel, 135 
 mock, 240 
 or platina, 24 
 solders, 266 
 qualities of, 24 
 
 Plugs, alloy for cleaning, 250 
 
 Plumbers, solder for, 263 
 
 Precautions in melting and mixing, 
 43, 44 
 
 Precious metals, alloys of, 122 
 
 Preparation and composition of 
 alloys, 36 
 
 Polishing steel, alloy for, 241 
 
 Potassium, 168 
 
 and zinc in amalgams of iron, 
 120 
 
 Pouring out, 47 
 
 Prince's metal, 240 
 
 Prince Robert's metal, 222 
 
 Printing type, metal for, 205 
 
 Prinsep, Mr., on alloys of gold and 
 platinum, 235 
 
INDEX. 
 
 291 
 
 Product, examination of, 56 
 Projectiles, alloys for, 182 
 Properties, chemical and physical, 
 
 of alloys, 30 
 Proportions of the metals, 56 
 Pumps, alloys for, 250 
 
 bronze for, 247 
 Pyrites, white magnetic, 114 
 
 Qualities of alloys, 58, 63, 66, 69, 
 72, 79, 85, 87, 93, 99,101, 102, 
 107, 109, 110, 111, 114, 116, 
 124, 125, 129 
 
 Quartenary alloys, 45 
 
 Queen's metal, 113, 230 
 
 Quicksilver, 21 
 
 Red gold, 218 
 
 similor, 222 
 Regnault, M.> 85, 145, 150, 163, 
 
 165 
 Regulators, bronze for, 251 
 Regulus, 126 
 
 martial, 269 
 
 of Venus, 109 
 Remelted alloys, 46 
 Remelting metals, 45 
 Researches of the author, 56 
 Reverberatory furnace, 47, 49 
 
 furnaces, waste with, 51 
 Rhodium, 166 
 Ring gold, 220 
 
 Rolling and wire drawing, alloys 
 for, 189 
 
 maillechort for, 197 
 Romans, bronzes of, 173 
 
 bronzes of, for statues, 97 
 Roman coins, 180 
 Rose, M. M., alloys of, 242, 269 
 Rouen, bell at, 209 
 Rudberg, Mr., 35 
 Ruhmkorf, 274 
 Ruolz alloys, 224 
 Ruthenium, 167 
 
 Saxon coins, 181 
 
 Sealing up iron, solder for, 264 
 
 Scrapers, alloy for roller, 273 
 
 Scorias, 49 
 
 Scorification, 44 
 
 Sheathing, bronze for, 197 
 copper alloys for, 198 
 analyses of, 199 
 
 Sheet iron dipped in zinc, 101 
 tinning, 103 
 
 Sheffield and Birmingham, alloys 
 of, 223 
 
 Shot lead, 119, 188 
 
 Siemens, C. W., on effect of tungs- 
 ten on steel, 162 
 
 Silicious sand, 48 
 
 Silver, 23 
 
 alloys of, 23, 133 
 and antimony, alloys of, 131 
 and arsenic, alloys of, 131 
 and bismuth, alloys of, 131 
 and copper, alloj^s of, 129 
 and gold, alloys of, 127 
 and iron, alloys of, 131 
 and lead, alloys of, 130 
 and nickel, alloys of, 131 
 and platinum, alloys of, 132 
 and tin, alloys of, 130 
 and zinc, alloys of, 130 
 amalgams of, 132 
 French standards for, 219 
 hard solders for, 265 
 imitation, 240 
 solders, 265, 266 
 qualities of, 23 
 
 Silvering glass globes, 121 
 
 glass globes, alloy for, 245 
 glass globes, amalgams for, 
 
 270 
 mirrors, 121 
 
 Similor for gilding, 197 
 or tombac, 222 
 
 Small patterns, alloys for, 268 
 
 Smaltine, 150 
 
 Sodium, 168 
 
 Soft alloy for pillow blocks, 257 
 solders, 260, 263, 264 
 
 Solders, 259-267 
 zinc, 264 
 
292 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Spanish tutania, 230 
 Specific gravity of a substance, to 
 determine, 53 
 
 gravity of alloys, 29, 31 
 
 gravity of metals, 26, 27 
 
 heat of alloys, 35 
 Speculum metals, 212, 215 
 Spelter, 16 
 Spoons and forks, maillechort for, 
 
 227 
 Statuary bronze, 41 
 Strange, Col., experiments with 
 
 aluminium bronze, 142 
 Steel and nickel, combination of, 
 116 
 
 effect of platinum on, 135 
 Stereotypes, metal for, 205 
 Sterling, Mr., alloys of, 258 
 
 experiments of, 155 
 Stopcocks, alloys for, 239, 250 
 Strong or hard solder, 265 
 Stuffing boxes, bronze for, 252 
 Swiss coinage, 179 
 
 Table of points of fusion of fusible 
 alloys, 244 
 
 Tables and data on the metals, 25 
 
 Teaspoons, fusible alloy for, 216 
 
 Telescopes, mirrors for, 215 
 
 Telescopic mirrors, alloys for, 119 
 
 Tellurium, 168 
 
 Tenacity of alloys, 31 
 of metals, 26 
 
 Ternary alloys, 45 
 
 Thiebaut, Victor, bronzes used by, 
 177 
 
 Tin, 15 
 
 acids which decompose it, 16 
 and antimony, alloys of, 109 
 and bismuth, alloys of, 106, 
 
 244 
 and copper, alloys of, 72 
 and gold, alloys of, 124 
 and iron, alloys of, 102 
 and lead, alloys of, 63 
 and mercury, amalgam of, 120 
 and nickle, alloys of, 114 
 and platinum, alloys of, 134 
 
 Tin— 
 
 and silver, alloys of, 130 
 
 and zinc, alloys of, 58 
 
 copper and zinc, alloys of, 
 87 
 
 hard, 239 
 
 smell and savor of, 16 
 
 solidifies, 107 
 
 zinc, and lead, alloys of, 66 
 
 zinc, lead, and copper, alloys 
 of, 93 
 Tinned iron, solder for, 264 
 
 sheet-iron, 103 
 Tinning, alloy for, 271 
 
 cast iron, 104 
 
 copper, 104 
 
 kustitien, metal for, 240 
 Titanium, 152 
 Tombac, 117, 240 
 
 or similor, 222 
 Tonca, Mr., alloy of, 228 
 Tungsten, 154 
 
 and iron, 116, 154 
 
 and steel, 154 
 
 effect of, on steel, 162 
 Tutenag, 227 
 Type, alloys for, 113, 203 
 
 metal, 119 
 
 metal, requirements of, 110 
 
 Uranium, 153 
 
 Valves, alloys for, 250 
 Vaucher's metal, 255, 257 
 Varnishing plaster casts, amalgam 
 
 for, 270 
 Vendome column, bronze of, 97 
 Violet alloy, 274 
 Vogel's alloy for polishing steel, 
 
 241 
 Volatilization of zinc, 50 
 
 Waste in alloys, 51 
 of brass, 51 
 with zinc in excess, 61 
 Weights and measures, English 
 
 and French, 275 
 Well alloyed metal, to obtain, 49 
 
INDEX. 
 
 293 
 
 Whistles, alloys for locomotive, 
 
 250 
 White alloys, 236 
 
 copper, 117, 119, 240 
 
 gold, 218 
 
 metals, 229, 230, 240, 255, 
 
 256, 257 
 packfong, 223 
 similor, 222 
 Whitened copper, 222 
 Wire, drawing alloys for, 189 
 Wobler, 139 
 Wolfram, 153 
 
 alloys for bronze for ordnance, 
 
 161 
 and iron, 116 
 Wollaston, Dr., 165, 166 
 Woolwich, bronze made at, 258 
 Wootz or Indian steel, 138, 149, 
 
 167 
 Worst alloys, 76 
 
 Wortheim's experiments on alloys, 
 27, 33, 34 
 
 Yellow gold, 128 
 
 metal for dipping, 220, 221 
 
 Yellow gold — • 
 
 or antique gold, 218 
 
 Zinc, 16 
 
 alloys of, 50 
 amalgams of, 264 
 and antimony, alloys of, 109 
 and arsenic, alloys of, 118 
 and bismuth, alloys of, 106 
 and copper, alloys of, 48, 79 
 and gold, alloys of, 124 
 and iron, alloys of, 100 
 and lead, alloys of, 69 
 and mercury, amalgam of, 120 
 and nickel, alloys of, 114 
 and platinum, alloys of, 134 
 and silver, alloys of, 130 
 and tin, alloys of, 58 
 attacked by acids, 17 
 behavior of, 100 
 lead, copper, and tin, alloys 
 
 of, 93 
 oxidized by air, 17 
 qualities of, 17 
 solders, 264 
 
 tin, and copper, alloys of, 87 
 tin, and lead, alloys of, 66 
 
CATALOGUE 
 
 OF 
 
 PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 
 
 INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 
 
 3STo- 406 *W\A. L INT TJ T STREET, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 Any of the Books comprised in this Catalogue will be sent by mail, 
 free of postage, at the publication price. 
 23= My New akd Enlarged Catalogue, S2 pages Svo., with full descriptions 
 of Books, will be sent, free of postage, to any one who will favor me 
 with, his address. 
 
 A RMENGAUD, AMOUROUX, AND JOHNSON.— THE PRACTICAL 
 -* 1 DRAUGHTSMAN'S BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN, AND 
 MACHINIST'S AND ENGINEER'S DRAWING COMPANION: 
 Forming a complete course of Mechanical Engineering and 
 Architectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud 
 the elder, Prof, of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and 
 Industry, Paris, and MM. Armengaud the younger and Amou- 
 roux, Civil Engineers. Rewritten and arranged, with addi- 
 tional matter and plates, selections from and examples of the 
 most useful and generally employed mechanism of the day. 
 By William Johnson, Assoc. Inst. C E., Editor of "The 
 Practical Mechanic's Journal." Illustrated by 50 folio steel 
 plates and 50 wood-cuts. A new edition, 4 to. . $10 00 
 
 A SLOT.— A COMPLETE GUIDE FOR COACH PAINTERS. 
 
 Translated from the French of M. Arlot, Coaeh Painter j late 
 Master Painter for eleven years with M. Ehrler, Coach Manufac- 
 turer, Paris. With important American additions . . $1 25 
 
 A RROWSMITH.— PAPER-HANGER'S COMPANION : 
 
 A Treatise in which the Practical Operations of the Trade are 
 Systematically laid down: with Copious Directions Prepara- 
 tory to Papering; Preventives against the Effect of Damp on 
 Walls; the Various Cements and Pastes adapted to the Seve- 
 ral Purposes of the Trade; Observations and Directions for 
 the Panelling and Ornamenting of Rooms, &c. By James 
 Arkowsmith. 12mo., cloth §1 2$ 
 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 ■DilED.— THE AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER, AND MANA- 
 B GER'S AND CARDER'S GUIDE : 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning; giving the Dimen- 
 sions and Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calcula- 
 tions, etc. ; with notices of recent Improvements : together 
 with Rules and Examples for making changes in the sizes and 
 numbers of Roving and Yarn. Compiled from the papers of 
 the late Robert H. Baird. 12mo. . . . $1 50 
 
 "DAKER.— LONG-SPAN RAILWAY BRIDGES : 
 
 Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and 
 Practical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type 
 Systems of Construction; with numerous Formulae and Ta- 
 bles. By B. Baker. 12mo $2 00 
 
 •pAKEWELL— A MANUAL OF ELECTRICITY— PRACTICAL AND 
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 By F. C. Bakewell, Inventor of the Copying Telegraph. Se- 
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 ■DEANS— A TREATISE ON RAILROAD CURVES AND THE L0- 
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 By E. W. Beans, C. E. 12mo. (In press.) 
 
 -pLENKARN.— PRACTICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF WORKS EXE- 
 •° CUTED IN ARCHITECTURE, CIVIL AND MECHANICAL 
 ENGINEERING, AKD IN ROAD MAKING AND SEWER- 
 ING: 
 
 To which are added a series of practically useful Agreements 
 and Reports. By John Blenkarn. Illustrated by fifteen 
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 -DLINN.— A PRACTICAL WORKSHOP COMPANION FOR TIN, 
 - SHEET-IRON, AND COPPER-PLATE WORKERS : 
 
 Containing Rules for Describing various kinds of Patterns 
 used by Tin, Sheet-iron, and Copper-plate Workers ; Practical 
 Geometry ; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids ; Tables of the 
 Weight of Metals, Lead Pipe, etc. ; Tables of Areas and Cir- 
 cumferences of Circles ; Japans, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, 
 Compositions, etc. etc. By Lerot J. Blinn, Master Me- 
 chanic. With over One Hundred Illustrations. 12mo. $2 50 
 
UTAH 3AKBY BA3B1 3 CATAIOGUB. 3 
 
 BA7Z.-35ATLBLE WUBXEI I A1AAAL1 
 " :v.:i:::;:::::::.---:^----- - - i; Xir.'r: ii ge_e- 
 
 ral. (hem "Attz. Waiting, rod ~ tttz : Veneering of 
 Marble ; Mosaic ; Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, 
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 from tie Frerc-k by M. L. Booth. Wiffi an Appendix con- 
 cerning American Marbles. 12mo., eloth 9i 
 
 "DOOTH A2TD XORFTT.— THE Z5CYCX0PZDIA OF CHE3C5T2T 
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 E^:ri.±::t5 iTtAtitAr- :: tie Arts. VetAAzz- :.' .:.e: -'. z~ 
 jec":>v. MeAAze. tri FAimTT -J ..Arizs 7. 2::rz. 
 -I -- Refiner in Ae United States Mint, Professor of 
 
 Aiilei nerristrr At tie FrtzAAt- Atstitit te. et:.. assist*: : t 
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 - -.-. .•- .- e ^.-— - ;-- i-i 
 
 .^-7t:t eT.;__. _ -- - _ --- -.•--- -^ - - 
 
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 E;—::::z— -iriiTHiH atafaa:al valuation ?t^3:- 
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 :: Aires : CerrAei TeiAer A 5::er:e :t tie _'ezirtner: :: 
 
 ~ . et:e iiA At: : -z z titter it. .zezttsttT t 7=;:= :t ire 
 
 F.tI- riere A ?re:ett:rs: it_- Tte _e:ttter tr zeti 
 til Il^rAs ::-:l;ti:;-:tt:;lst:t:e _tts:ttte] 
 -.t renter:- ezzriTtzs. At :ze -A line. . % 1 5f 
 
 TLLOCZ— TZZ AXZZITAtv A_-JA>_ E-— DEE 
 
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 _ s : :.- 
 
4 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 "D T JLLOCK. — THE RUDIMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE AND 
 
 U BUILDING: 
 
 For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machin- 
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 ■DURGH.— PRACTICAL RULES FOR THE PROPORTIONS OF 
 
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I 
 
 HEXRT CARET B AIRE'S CATALOGUE 5 
 
 DIBITE,— POCKET BOOK FOE RAILROAD A2JD CIVIL EVCfe 
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 B 
 
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 'DAIRD.— THE RIGHTS OF AMERICAN PRODUCERS, AND THE 
 
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 "DAIRD .—STANDARD WAGES COMPUTING TABLES : 
 
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 •DICKNELL'.S VILLAGE BUILDER. 
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 "DISHOP.— A HISTORY OF AMERICAN MANUFACTURES : 
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 QABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE : 
 
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 required in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also, 
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 fUPRON DE DOLE.-DTJSSATJCE.-BLTJES AND CARMINES OF 
 V INDIGO, 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of every Commercial 
 Product derived from Indigo. By Felicien Capron de Dole. 
 Translated, with important additions, by Professor H .^Dc*- 
 saucEc 12mo< 
 
§ HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 n&HEY.— THE WORKS OF HENRY C. CAREY: 
 
 CONTRACTION OR EXPANSION? REPUDIATION OR RE- 
 SUMPTION? Letters to Hon. Hugh McCulloch. 8vo. 38 
 
 FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper 
 
 25 
 
 HARMONY OF INTERESTS; Agricultural, Manufacture g, 
 
 and Commercial. 8vo., paper . . . . . $1 00 
 
 Do. do. cloth . . . $1 50 
 
 LETTERS TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 Paper $1 00 
 
 MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Carey's 
 " Principles of Social Science." By Kate McKean. 1 vol. 
 12mo . . . . $2 25 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS WORKS: comprising "Harmony of Inter- 
 ests," "Money," "Letters to the President," "French and 
 American Tariffs," "Financial Crises," "The Way to Outdo 
 England without Fighting Her," "Resources of the Union," 
 "The Public Debt," "Contraction or Expansion," "Review 
 of the Decade 1857 — '67," "Reconstruction," etc. etc. 1 vol. 
 8vo., cloth . $4 50 
 
 MONEY: A LECTURE before the N. Y. Geographical and Sta- 
 tistical Society. 8vo., paper . . ... . 25 
 
 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 8vo. . . . $2 50 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 volumes 8vo., cloth 
 
 $10 00 
 
 REVIEW OF THE DECADE 1857— '67. 8vo., paper 50 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION: INDUSTRIAL, FINANCIAL, AND PO- 
 LITICAL. Letters to the Hon. Henry Wilson, U. S. S. 8vo 
 paper ...... . . 50 
 
 THE PUBLIC DEBT, LOCAL AND NATIONAL. How to 
 provide for its discharge while lessening the burden of Taxa- 
 tion. Letter to David A. Wells, Esq., U. S. Revenue Commis- 
 sion. 8vo., paper ....... 25 
 
 THE RESOURCES OF THE UNION. A Lecture read, Dec. 
 1865, before the American Geographical and Statistical So- 
 ciety, N. Y., and before the American Association for the Ad- 
 vancement of Social Science, Boston ... 50 
 
 THE SLAVE TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN; Why it 
 Exists, and How it may be Extinguished. 12mo., cloth $1 5G 
 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 LETTERS ON INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. (1867.) 
 Paper ......... 50 
 
 REVIEW OF THE FARMERS' QUESTION. (1870.) Paper 25 
 
 RESUMPTION! HOW IT MAY PROFITABLY BE BROUGHT 
 AROUT. (1869.) 8vo., paper .... 50 
 
 REVIEW OF THE REPORT OF HON. D. A. WELLS, Special 
 Commissioner of the Revenue. (1869.) 8vo., paper 50 
 
 SHALL WE HAVE PEACE ? Peace Financial and Peace Poli- 
 tical. Letters to the President Elect. (1868.) 8vo., paper 50 
 
 THE FINANCE MINISTER AND THE CURRENCY, AND 
 THE PUBLIC DEBT. (1868.) 8vo., paper . . 50 
 
 THE WAY TO OUTDO ENGLAND WITHOUT FIGHTING 
 HER. Letters to Hon. Schuyler Colfax. (1865.) 8vo., paper 
 
 $1 00 
 
 WEALTH! OF WHAT DOES IT CONSIST ? (1870.) Paper 25 
 
 QAMTTS.— A TREATISE OH THE TEETH OF WHEELS : 
 
 Demonstrating the best forms which can be given to them for the 
 purposes of Machinery, such as Mill-work and Clock-work. Trans- 
 lated from the French of M. Camus. By John I. Hawkins. 
 Illustrated by 40 plates. 8vo $3 00 
 
 nOXE.— MINING LEGISLATION. 
 
 A paper read before the Am. Social Science Association. By 
 Eckley B. Coxe. Paper 20 
 
 riOLRURN.— THE GAS-WORKS OF LONDON: 
 
 Comprising a sketch of the Gas-,works of the city, Process of 
 Manufacture, Quantity Produced, Cost, Profit, etc. By Zerah 
 Colburn. 8vo., cloth " 75 
 
 riDLBURN.— THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE: 
 
 Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimat- 
 ing its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construc- 
 tion and Management. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. A 
 new edition. 12mo. $1 25 
 
 pOLBURN AND MAW —THE WATER-WORKS OF LONDON : 
 Together with a Series of Articles on various other Water- 
 works. By Zerah Colburn and W. Maw. Reprinted from 
 "Engineering." In one volume, 8vo. . . $4 00 
 
 niGUERREOTYPIST AND PHOTOGRAPHER'S COMPANION: 
 ** 12mo., cloth . . .' $1 25 
 
10 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 TjIRCXS.— PERPETUAL MOTION : 
 
 Or Search for Self-Motive Power during the 17th, 18th, and 
 19th centuries. Illustrated from various authentic sources in 
 Papers, Essays, Letters, Paragraphs, and numerous Patent 
 Specifications, with an Introductory Essay by Henry Dircks, 
 C. E. Illustrated by numerous engravings of machines. 
 12mo., cloth $3 50 
 
 •ntXOff.— THE PKACTICAL MILLWRIGHT'S AND ENGINEER'S 
 ^ GUIDE : 
 
 Or Tables for Finding the Diameter and Power of Cogwheels ; 
 Diameter, Weight, and Power of Shafts ; Diameter and Strength 
 of Bolts, etc. etc. By Thomas Dixon. 12mo., cloth. %\ 50 
 TVJNC AN.— PRACTICAL SURVEYOR'S GUIDE: 
 
 Containing the necessary information to make any person, of 
 common capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of 
 a teacher. By Andrew Duncan. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth. 
 
 %\ 25 
 TjUSSAUCE.— A NEW AND COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE 
 • ARTS OF TANNING, CURRYING, AND LEATHER DRESS- 
 ING : 
 
 Comprising all the Discoveries and Improvements made in 
 France, Great Britain, and the United States. Edited from 
 Notes and Documents of Messrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, Duval, 
 Dessables, Labarraque, Payen, Rend, De Fontenelle, Mala- 
 peyre, etc. etc. By Prof. H. Dussauce, Chemist. Illustrated 
 
 by 212 wood engravings. 8vo $10 00 
 
 TjUSSAUCE.— A GENERAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE 
 U OF SOAP, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL : 
 
 Comprising the Chemistry of the Art, a Description of all the Raw 
 Materials and their Uses. Directions for the Establishment of a 
 Soap Factory, with the necessary Apparatus, Instructions in ths 
 Manufacture of every variety of Soap, the Assay and Determination 
 of the Value of Alkalies, Fatty Substances, Soaps, etc. etc. By 
 Professor H. Dussauce. With an Appendix, containing Ex- 
 tracts from the Reports of the International Jury on Soaps, as 
 exhibited in the Paris Universal Exposition, 1867, numerous 
 Tables, etc. etc. Illustrated by engravings. In one volume 8vo. 
 
 of over 800 pages $10 00 
 
 TjUSSAUCE.— PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE FABRICATION 
 ^ OF MATCHES, GUN COTTON, AND FULMINATING POW- 
 DERS. 
 By Professor II. Dussauce. 12mo. . , . $3 00 
 
HENRY CARET BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 71 
 
 DTJSSAUCE.— A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE PERFUMER: 
 Being a New Treatise on Perfumery the most favorable to the 
 Beauty without being injurious to the Health, comprising a 
 Description of the substances used in Perfumery, the Form- 
 ulae of more than one thousand Preparations, such as Cosme- 
 tics, Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, Waters, Extracts, Tinc- 
 tures, Infusions, Yinaigres, Essential Oils, Pastels, Creams, 
 Soaps, and many new Hygienic Products not hitherto described. 
 Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Debay, Lunel, 
 etc. Withadditions by Professor H. Dussaitce, Chemist. 12mo. 
 
 $3 00 
 
 DUSSAUCE.— A GENERAL TREATISE OH THE MANUFACTURE 
 OF VINEGAR, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. 
 ■Comprising the various methods, by the slow and the quick pro- 
 cesses, with Alcohol, Wine, Grain, Cider, and Molasses, as well 
 as the Fabrication of Wood Vinegar, etc. By Prof. H. Dussauce. 
 12mo. (hi press.) 
 
 DUPLAXS.- A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE DISTILLATION 
 AND MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS : 
 From the French of M. Dtjplais. Translated and Edited by M. 
 McKennie, M D. Illustrated by numerous large plates and wood 
 engravings of the best apparatus calculated for producing the 
 finest products. In one vol. royal 8vo. (Ready May 1, 1871.) 
 
 Q^= This is a treatise of the highest scientific merit and of the 
 greatest practical value, surpassing in these respects, as well as 
 in the variety of its contents, any similar volume in the English 
 ' language. 
 HE GRAFF.-THE GEOMETRICAL STAIR-BUILDERS' GUIDE: 
 V Bein- a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all 
 its necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by 22 Steel 
 En-ravings ; together with the use of the most approved princi- 
 ples of Practical Geometry. By Simon De Gkaff, Architect. 
 F . $5 00 
 
 4to. 
 
 DYER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION ; 
 Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Co- 
 lors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles 
 and'fabrics now in existence ; with the Scouring Process, and 
 plain Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the 
 Goods. In one vol. 12mo $ l 25 
 
12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S catalogue. 
 
 pASTON.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE OK STREET OR HORSE- 
 
 ■° POWER RAILWAYS ; 
 
 Their Location, Construction, and Management ; with General 
 • Plans and Rules for their Organization and Operation; toge- 
 ther with Examinations as to their Comparative Advantages 
 over the Omnibus System, and Inquiries as to their Value for 
 Investment ; including Copies of Municipal Ordinances relat- 
 ing thereto. By Alexander Easton, C. E. Illustrated by 23 
 plates, 8vo., cloth . . . . . . . $2 00 
 
 p3RSYTH.— BOOK OF DESIGNS FOR HEAD-STONES, MURAL, 
 C AND OTHER MONUMENTS : 
 
 Containing 78 Elaborate and Exquisite Designs. By Forsyth. 
 
 4to., cloth $5 00 
 
 ^* This volume, for the beauty and variety of its designs, has 
 never been surpassed by any publication of the kind, and should 
 be in the hands of every marble-worker who does fine monumental 
 work. 
 
 pAIRBAIRN.— THE PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM AND MA- 
 
 £ CHINERY OF TRANSMISSION : 
 
 Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, 
 Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Couplings of Shafts, and 
 Engaging and Disengaging Gear. By William Fairbairn, 
 Esq., C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S., Corresponding Member 
 of the National Institute of France, and of the Royal Academy 
 of Turin ; Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, etc. etc. Beau- 
 tifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume 12mo. 
 
 $2 50 
 
 pAIRBAIRN.— PRIME-MOVERS : 
 
 Comprising the Accumulation of Water-power ; the Construc- 
 tion of Water-wheels and Turbines; the Properties of Steam; 
 the Varieties of Steam-engines and Boilers and Wind-mills. 
 By William Fairbairn, C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S. Au- 
 thor of "Principles of Mechanism and the Machinery of Trans- 
 mission." With Numerous Illustrations. In one volume. (In 
 press.) 
 
 ILBART.— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON BANKING: 
 
 By James William Gilbart. To which is added: The Na- 
 tional Bank Act as now in force. 8vo. . . $4 50 
 
 (1ESNER,— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON COAL, PETROLEUM, 
 U AND OTHER DISTILLED OILS. 
 
 By Abraham Gesner, M. D., F. G. S. Second edition, revised 
 and enlarged. By George Weltden Gesner, Consulting 
 Chemist and Engineer, Illustrated. 8vo. . . £3 50 
 
 
 
 
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 6 
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 13 
 
 3THIC ALBUM FOE CABINET MAKERS : 
 
 Comprising a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. Il- 
 lustrated by twenty-three large and beautifully engraved 
 plates. Oblong $3 00 
 
 RA.NT.— BEET-ROOT SUGAR AND CULTIVATION OF THE 
 BEET: 
 By E. B. Grant. 12mo $1 25 
 
 REGORY.— MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN : 
 
 Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, 
 and Civil Engineers. By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates, 
 cloth $3 00 
 
 HRIS WOLD .—RAILROAD ENGINEER'S POCKET COMPANION. 
 
 Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and 
 Angles, Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary 
 Tables for Engineers ; also the art of Levelling from Prelimi- 
 nary Survey to the Construction of Railroads, intended Ex- 
 pressly for the Young Engineer, together with Numerous Valu- 
 able Rules and Examples. By W. Griswold. 12mo., tucks. 
 
 $1 75 
 UETTIER.— METALLIC ALLOYS : 
 
 Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Pro- 
 perties, their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated 
 from the French of A. Guettier, Engineer and Director of 
 Founderies, author of " La Fouderie en France," etc. etc. By 
 A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo. 
 (In press,) 
 
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 H 
 
 H 
 
 ATS AND FELTING : 
 
 A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical 
 
 Hatter. Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, &c, 8vo. 
 
 $1 25 
 AY.— THE INTERIOR DECORATOR : 
 
 The Laws of Harmonious Coloring adapted to Interior Decora- 
 tions : with a Practical Treatise on House-Painting. By D. 
 R. Hat, House-Painter and Decorator. Illustrated by a Dia- 
 gram of the Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Colors. 12mo. 
 
 $2 25 
 
 TTUGHES.— AMERICAN MILLER AND MILLWRIGHT'S AS- 
 
 J " L SISTANT : 
 
 By Wm. Carter Hughes. A new edition. In one volume, 
 12mo. .... . ... $1 50 
 
14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 TXUNT.— THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 By Robert Hunt, Vice-President of the Photographic Society, 
 London. With numerous illustrations. 12mo., cloth . 75 
 
 JTURST.— A HAND-BOOK FOR ARCHITECTURAL SURVEYORS : 
 
 Comprising Formulae useful in Designing Builders' -work, Table 
 of Weights, of the materials used in Building, Memoranda 
 connected with Builders' work, Mensuration, the Practice of 
 Builders' Measurement, Contracts of Labor, Valuation of Pro- 
 perty, Summary of the Practice in Dilapidation, etc. etc. By 
 J. F. Hurst, C. E. 2d edition, pocket-book form, full bound 
 
 $2 50 
 
 TEE VIS.— RAILWAY PROPERTY: 
 
 A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways ; 
 designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the 
 holders of this class of property ; as well as Railway Mana- 
 gers, Officers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Chief 
 Engineer of the Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, &c. 
 One vol. 12mo., cloth .... . $2 00 
 
 JOHNSON.— A REPORT TO THE NAVY DEPARTMENT OF THE 
 
 U UNITED STATES -ON AMERICAN COALS: 
 
 Applicable to Steam Navigation and to other purposes. By 
 Walter R. Johnson. With numerous illustrations. 607 pp. 
 8vo., half morocco . . . . . $10 00 
 
 JOHNSTON.— INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SOILS, 
 U LIMESTONES, AND MANURES 
 
 By J. W. F. Johnston. 12mo 35 
 
 TTEENE.— A HAND-BOOK OF PRACTICAL GAUGING, 
 
 For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Dis- 
 tillation, describing the process in operation at the Custom 
 House for ascertaining the strength of wines. By James B. 
 Keene, of II. M. Customs. 8vo. . . . $1 25 
 
HENRY CAREY BATRD'S CATALOGUE. 15 
 
 •gENTISH.— A TREATISE ON A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS, 
 
 And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Lo- 
 garithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measur- 
 ing of Timber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. 
 By Thomas Kentish. In one volume. 12mo. . . $1 25 
 
 T7-0BELL.— ERNL— MINERALOGY SIMPLIFIED : 
 
 A short method of Determining and Classifying Minerals, by 
 means of simple Chemical Experiments in the Wet Way. 
 Translated from the last German Edition of F. Von Kobell, 
 •with an Introduction to Blowpipe Analysis and other addi- 
 tions. By Henri Erni, M. D., Chief Chemist, Department of 
 Agriculture, author of "Coal Oil and Petroleum." In on© 
 volume. 12mo. ... . . $2 50 
 
 TANDRIN.— A TREATISE ON STEEL :" 
 
 Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Work- 
 ing, and Use. By M. H. C. Landrin, Jr., Civil Engineer. 
 Translated from the French, with Notes, by A. A. Fesquet, 
 Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer 
 and the Martin Processes for Manufacturing Steel, from the 
 Report of Abram S. Hewitt, United States Commissioner to 
 the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 12mo. , . $3 00 
 
 T ARKIN.— THE PRACTICAL BRASS AND IRON FOUNDERS 
 JJ GUIDE. 
 
 A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals 
 and their Alloys, etc. ; to which are added Recent Improve- 
 ments in the Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Pro- 
 cess, etc. etc. By James Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass 
 Foundry Department in Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, 
 Philadelphia. Fifth edition, revised, with extensive Addi- 
 tions. In one volume. 12mo. . . . . . $2 25 
 
15 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 JEAVITT.— FACTS ABOUT PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL: 
 "With Remarks upon its Origin and Composition, the Localities , 
 in which it is found, the Methods of Preparation and Manu 
 facture, and the various Uses to which it is applicable ; toge= 
 ther with many other matters of Practical and Scientific Inte~ 
 rest. To which is added a chapter on the Utilization of Coal 
 Dust with Peat for the Production of an Excellent Fuel at 
 Moderate Cost, especially adapted for Steam Service. By H. 
 T. Leavitt. Third edition. 12mo. . . . $1 75 
 
 TEROUX— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFAC- 
 
 Jj TURE OF WORSTEDS AND CARDED YARNS : 
 
 Translated from the French of Charles Leroux, Mechanical 
 Engineer, and Superintendent of a Spinning Mill. By Dr H. 
 Paine, and A. A. Fesquet. Illustrated by 12 large plates, In 
 one volume 8vo $5 00 
 
 TESLIE (MISS).— COMPLETE COOKERY: 
 
 Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss 
 Leslie. 60th edition. Thoroughly revised, with the addi- 
 tion of New Receipts, In 1 vol. 12mo., cloth . . $1 50 
 
 T ESLIE (MISS). LADIES' HOUSE BOOK : 
 
 a Manual of Domestic Economy. 20th revised edition. 12mo., 
 cloth . . . $1 25 
 
 TESLIE (MISS).— TWO HUNDRED RECEIPTS IN FRENCH 
 JJ COOKERY. 
 
 12mo 50 
 
 T LEBER.— ASSAYER'S GUIDE : 
 
 Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for 
 the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the 
 Ores of all the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and 
 Alloys, and of Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. 12mo., cloth 
 
 $1 25 
 
 T OVE.— THE ART OF DYEING, CLEANING, SCOURING, AND 
 
 n FINISHING : 
 
 On the most approved English and French methods ; being 
 Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woollens, and Cottons, 
 Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc.; Scouring and Cleaning Bed and 
 Window Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc.; French and English 
 Cleaning, etc. By Thomas Love. Second American Edition, to 
 which are added General Instructions for the Use of Aniline 
 Colors. 8vo 5 00 
 
M 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
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 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 17 
 
 AIN AND BROWN.— QUESTIONS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED 
 WITH THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE: 
 And Examination Papers ; with Hints for their Solution. By 
 Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, 
 and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R.N. 12mo., cloth $1 50 
 
 AIN AND BROWN.— THE INDICATOR AND DYNAMOMETER: 
 
 With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By 
 Thomas J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass't Prof. Royal Naval College, 
 Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief En- 
 gineer, R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. From 
 the Fourth London Edition. 8vo. ... . $1 50 
 
 AIN AND BROWN —THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at 
 Royal Naval College, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E. 
 Chief Engineer, R. N. Attached to the R,oyal Naval College. 
 Authors of "Questions Connected with the Marine Steam-En- 
 gine," and the <; Indicator and Dynamometer." With numerous 
 Illustrations. In one volume 8vo $5 00 
 
 ARTIN— SCREW-CUTTING TABLES, FOR THE USE OF ME- 
 CHANICAL ENGINEERS : 
 Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the 
 Threads of Screws of any required Pitch ; with a Table for 
 Making the Universal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. 
 Martin, Engineer. 8vo. 50 
 
 ILE8— A PLAIN TREATISE ON H0R3E-SH0EING. 
 With Illustrations. By William Miles, author of " The Horse's 
 Foot" $1 00 
 
 OLESWORTIi.— POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL FORMULiE AND 
 MEMORANDA FOR CIVIL AND MECHiNICAL ENGINEERS. 
 By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of 
 Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. 
 Second American from the Tenth London Edition. In one 
 volume, full bound in pocket-book form . . .. . $2 00 
 
 OORE.— THE INVENTOR'S GUIDE: 
 
 Patent Office and Patent Laws : or, a Guide to Inventors, and a 
 Book of Preference for Judges, Lawyers, Magistrates, and others. 
 
 By J G. Moore. 12mo., cloth $1 25 
 
 APIER.— A MANUAL OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY : 
 Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. 
 By James Napier. Fourth American, from the Fourth London 
 edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. In 
 one volume, 8vo. . $2 00 
 
18 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 TUA.PIER.— A SYSTEM OF CHEMISTRY APPLIED TO DYEING : 
 
 Br James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised 
 Edition, completely brought up to the present state of the 
 Science, including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors. By A. A. 
 Fesquet, 'Chemist and Engineer. "With an Appendix on Dyeing 
 and Calico Printing, as shown at the Paris Universal Exposition 
 of 1867, from the Reports of the International Jury, etc. Illus- 
 trated. In one volume 8vo., 400 pages . . . . $5 00 
 
 TCTEWBERY.— GLEANINGS FROM ORNAMENTAL ART OF 
 ■" EVERY STYLE; 
 
 Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, 
 Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and 
 1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of one 
 hundred exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred ex- 
 amples. By Robert Newbery. 4to $15 00 
 
 JTICHOLSON.— A MANUAL OF THE ART OF BOOK-BINDING: 
 Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forward- 
 ing, Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book- 
 edges and Paper. By James B. Nicholson. Illustrated. 12mo. 
 cloth .... $2 25 
 
 fTORRIS.— A HAND-BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS AND 
 **. MACHINISTS: 
 
 Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing 
 Locomotives ; Manner of Setting Valves ; Tables of Squares, 
 Cubes, Areas, etc. etc. By Septimus Norris, Civil and Me- 
 chanical Engineer. New edition. Illustrated, 12mo., cloth 
 
 $2 00 
 
 JJYSTROM. — ON TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION AND THE 
 CONSTRUCTION OF SHIPS AND SCREW PROPELLERS : 
 For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, late 
 Acting Chief Engineer U. S. N. Second edition, revised with 
 additional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo. 
 
 $2 50 
 
 'NEILL.— A DICTIONARY OF DYEING AND CALICO PRINT- 
 ING: 
 
 Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in 
 use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics : with Prac- 
 tical Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, 
 Analytical Chemist; Fellow of the Chemical Society of London ; 
 Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester ; 
 Author of " Chemistry of Calico Printing and Dyeing." To which 
 is added An Essay on Coal Tar' Colors and their Application to 
 
 
 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 19 
 
 Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesqtjet, Chemist and 
 Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as 
 shown at the Exposition of 1S67, from the Reports of the Interna, 
 tional Jury, etc. In one volume 8vo., 491 pages . . $6 00 
 ASBORN.— THE METALLURGY OE IRON AND STEEL : 
 
 Theoretical and Practical : In all its Branches ; With Special Re- 
 ference to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. Osborn, 
 LL. D., Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, 
 Easton, Pa. Illustrated by 230 Engravings on Wood, and 6 
 Folding Plates. 8vo., 972 pages . . . . . . $10 00 
 
 SBORN.— AMERICAN MINES AND MINING : 
 
 Theoretically and Practically Considered. By Prof. H. S. Os- 
 born, Illustrated by numerous engravings. 8vo. (In preparation.) 
 AINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION : 
 
 Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the 
 Arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, and Glass Staining, with 
 numerous useful and valuable Receipts ; Tests for the Detection 
 of Adulterations in Oils and Colors, and a statement of the Dis- 
 eases and Accidents to which Painters, Gilders, and Varnishers 
 are particularly liable, with the simplest methods of Prevention 
 and Remedy. With Directions for Graining, Marbling, Sign Writ- 
 ing, and Gilding on Glass. To which are added Complete Instruc- 
 tions for Coach Painting and Varnishing. 12mo., cloth, $1 50 
 ALLETT.— THE MILLER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, AND ENGI- 
 NEER'S GUIDE. 
 By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. In one vol. 12mo. . $3 00 
 PERKINS.— GAS AND VENTILATION. 
 
 Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation 
 to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scien- 
 tific Helps to Engineer-students and others. With illustrated 
 Diagrams. By E. E. Perkins. 12mo., cloth ... . $1 25 
 
 ERKINS AND STOWE.— A NEW GUIDE TO THE SHEET-IRON 
 AND BOILER PLATE ROLLER: 
 
 Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and 
 Piles to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the 
 Sizes of Bars to Produce Sheet-iron ; the Thickness of the Bar 
 Gauge in Decimals ; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on 
 the Bar or Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch ; the 
 Weight per sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet- 
 iron of various dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle ; and the 
 conversion of Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight 
 into Short. Estimated and collected by G. II. Perkins and J. G- 
 Stowe $2 50 
 
 P 
 
 
 P 
 
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 20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE 
 
 pHILLIPS AND DARLINGTON.— RECORDS OF MINING AND 
 
 •*" METALLURGY : 
 
 Or, Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and 
 Smelter. Hy J. Arthur Piiillii'S, Mining Engineer, Graduate of 
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 Illustrated by numerous engravings. In one vol. 12mo. . $2 00 
 
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 Containing notices of the Raw Material used in the Ait, and the 
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 ROTEAUX.— PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE MANUFACTURE 
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 By A. Protbaux, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of the School of 
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 the French, with Notes, by Horatio Paine, A. B., M. D. To 
 which is added a Chapter on the Manufacture of Paper from Wood 
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 ■DEGNAULT.— ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
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 piFFAULT, VERGNAUD, AND TOUSSAINT.— A PRACTICAL 
 
 11 TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF COLORS FOR 
 PAINTING : 
 
 Containing the best Formula) and the Processes the Newest and 
 in most General Use. By MM. Riffault, Vergnaup, and Tous- 
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^ HENRY CAREY BAIBD>S CATALOGUE. 21 
 
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22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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 T 
 
 rpE 
 
/TO 
 
 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 23 
 
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 rpHQMSON.— FREIGHT CHARGES CALCULATOR. 
 
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 By Ed. Urbin, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize 
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 TTOGDES.— THE ARCHITECT'S AND BUILDER'S POCKET COM- 
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24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 WATSON.— THE MODERN PRACTICE OF AMERICAN MA- 
 
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 Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. . . $1 25 
 
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 OHLER.— A HAND-BOOK OF MINERAL ANALYSIS. 
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 12mo $3 00 
 
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