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-::iC-f .- ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL GEMS
I. Steatite, from Crete; two lions with forefeet on a pedestal; above, a sun. 2. Sardonyx
from Elis; a goddess holding up a goat by the horns. 3- Rock crystal; a bearded Triton.
4. Carnelian; a youth playing a trigonon. 5- Chalcedony from Athens; a Bacchante.
6. Sard; a woman reading a manuscript roll; before her a lyre. 7- Carnelian; Theseus.
8. Chalcedony; portrait head; Hellenistic Age. 9. Aquamarine; portrait of Julia, daughter
of the emperor Titus. 10. Chalcedony; portrait head; Hellenistic Age. 11. Carnelian; bust
portrait of the Roman emperor Decius. 12. Beryl; portrait of Julia Domna, wife of the
emperor Septimius Severus. 13. Sapphire; head of the Madonna. 14. Carnelian; the judg-
ment of Paris; Renaissance work. 15. Rock crystal; Madonna with Jesus and St. Joseph;
probably Norman-Sicilian work.
EARLY
EUROPEAN HISTORY
BY
HUTTON WEBSTER, Ph.D.
PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA
AUTHOR OF "ancient HISTORY," "READINGS IN ANCIENT HISTORY,"
AND "readings IN MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY"
" There is no part of history so generally useful
as that which relates to the progress of the human
mind, the gradual improvement of reason, the suc-
cessive advances of science, the vicissitudes of
learning and ignorance, which are the light and
darkness of thinking beings, the extinction and
resuscitation of arts, and the revolutions of the
intellectual world." — Samuel Johnson, Rasselas.
D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO
J1103
WEBSTER'S HISTORIES
Webster's Ancient History
From prehistoric times to the Age of Charlemagne
Webster's Early European History
From prehistoric times to the seventeenth century
Webster's Early European History — Part I
The Ancient History section of the above book
Webster's Early European History — Part II
From the fall of Rome to the seventeenth century
Webster's Readings in Ancient History
Webster's Readings in Medieval and Modern
History
D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers
COPYRIGHT, I917,
BY D. C. HEATH & CO.
IC7
APR 18 1917
5C!.A482018
PREFACE
Tms book aims to furnish a concise and connected account of
human progress during ancient, medieval, and early modern times.
It should meet the requirements of those high schools and prepara-
tory schools where ancient history, as a separate discipline, is being
supplanted by a more extended course introductory to the study of
recent times and contemporary problems. Such a course was first
outlined by the Regents of the University of the State of New York
in their Syllabus for Secondary Schools, issued in igio.
Since the appearance of the Regents' Syllabus the Committee of
Five of the American Historical Association has made its Report
(191 1), suggesting a rearrangement of the curriculum which would
permit a year's work in English and Continental history. Still
more recently the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission
on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, in its Report (1916)
to the National Education Association has definitely recommended
the division of European history into two parts, of which the first
should include ancient and Oriental civilization, English and Con-
tinental history to approximately the end of the seventeenth century,
and the period of American exploration.
The first twelve chapters of the present work are based upon the
author's Ancient History, published four years ago. In spite of
many omissions, it has been possible to follow without essential
modification the plan of the earlier volume. A number of new maps
and illustrations have been added to these chapters.
The selection of collateral reading, always a difficult problem in the
secondary school, is doubly difficult when so much ground must be
covered in a single course. The author ventures, therefore, to call
attention to his Readings in Ancient History. Its purpose, in the
words of the preface, is "to provide immature pupils with a variety
of extended, unified, and interesting extracts on matters which a
textbook treats with necessary, though none the less deplorable,
condensation." A companion volume, entitled Readings in Medieval
IV
Preface
and Modern History, will be published shortly. References to both
books are inserted in footnotes.
At the end of what has been a long and engrossing task, it becomes
a pleasant duty to acknowledge the help which has been received
from teachers in school and college. Various chapters, either in
manuscript or in the proofs, have been read by Professor James M.
Leake of Bryn Mawr College; Professor J. C. Hildt of Smith College;
Very Rev. Patrick J. Healy, Professor of Church History in the
Catholic University of America; Professor E. F. Humphrey of Trinity
College; Dr. James Sullivan, Director of the Division of Archives
and History, State Dept. of Education of New York; Constantine E.
McGuire, Assistant Secretary General, International High Commis-
sion, Washington; Miss Margaret E. McGill, of the Newton (Mass.)
High School; and Miss Mabel Chesley, of the Erasmus Hall High
School, Brooklyn. The author would also express appreciation of
the labors of the cartographers, artists, and printers, to whose
accuracy and skill every page of the book bears witness.
BUTTON WEBSTER
Lincoln, Nebraska,
February, 19 17
CONTENTS
PAGE
List of Illustrations xiii
List of Maps . . . .- xx
List of Plates xxiii
Suggestions for Further Study xxiv
CHAPTER
I. The Ages before History.
L The Study of History 1
• 2. Prehistoric Peoples 3
3. Domestication of Animals and Plants 6
4. Writing and the Alphabet 8
5. Primitive Science and Art 11
6. Historic Peoples 15
II. The Lands and Peoples of the East to about 500 b.c.
7. Physical Asia 19
8. Babylonia and Egypt 22
9. The Babylonians and the Egyptians 24
10. The Phoenicians and the Hebrews 29
11. The Assyrians 34
12. The World Empire of Persia 37
III. Oriental Civilization.
13. Social Classes 42
14. Economic Conditions 44
15. Commerce and Trade Routes 47
16. Law and Morality 50
17. Religion 52
18. Literature and Art 56
19. Science and Education 60
IV. The Lands of the West and the Rise of Greece to
ABOUT 500 B.C.
20. Physical Europe 65
21. Greece and the ^gean 66
22. The ^gean Age (to about 1100 B.C.) 68
23. The Homeric Age (about 1100-750 B.C.) .... 72
24. Early Greek Religion 75
V
vi Contents
CHAPTER PAGE
25. Religious Institutions: Oracles and Games ... 78
26. The Greek City-State 81
27. The Growth of Sparta (to 500 B.C.) 83
28. The Growth of Athens (to 500 B.C.) 85
29. Colonial Expansion of Greece (about 750-500 B.C.) 87
30. Bonds of Union among the Greeks 90
V. The Great Age of the Greek Republics to 362 b.c.
31. The Perils of Hellas 93
32. Expeditions of Darius against Greece 95
33. Xerxes and the Great Persian War 97
34. Athens under Themistocles, Aristides, and Cimon. 100
35. Athens under Pericles 103
36. The Peloponnesian War, 431-404 b.c 108
37. The Spartan and Theban Supremacies, 404-362
B.c Ill
38. Decline of the City-State 113
VI. Mingling of East and West after 359 b.c.
39. Philip and the Rise of Macedonia 115
40. Demosthenes and the End of Greek Freedom . . 117
41. Alexander the Great 119
42. Conquest of Persia and the Far East, 334-323 B.C. 122
43. The Work of Alexander 125
44. Hellenistic Kingdoms and Cities 127
45. The Hellenistic Age 130
46. The Grsco-Oriental World 133
VII. The Rise of Rome to 264 b.c.
47. Italy and Sicily 136
48. The Peoples of Italy 137
49. The Romans 140
50. Early Roman Society "... 143
51. Roman Religion 145
52. The Roman City-State 149
53. Expansion of Rome over Italy, 509 (?)-264 B.C. . 153
54. Italy under Roman Rule 155
55. The Roman Army 158
VIII. The Great Age of the Roman Republic, 264-31 b.c.
56. The Rivals: Rome and Carthage, 264-218 b.c. . 162
57. Hannibal and the Great Punic War, 218-201 B.C. 164
58. Roman Supremacy in the West and in the East,
201-133 B.c 168
59. The Mediterranean World under Roman Riile . . 171
Contents vii
CHAPTER PAGE
60. The Gracchi 174
61. Marius and Sulla 178
62. Pompey and Caesar 180
63. The Work of Caesar 186
64. Antony and Octavian 188
65. The End of an Epoch 190
IX. The Early Empire: the World under Roman Rule,
31 B.C.-180 A.D.
66. Augustus, 31 B.C.-14 a.d 193
67. The Successors of Augustus, 14-96 a.d 197
68. The " Good Emperors," 96-180 a.d 200
69. The Provinces of the Roman Empire 202
70. The Roman Law and the Latin Language .... 206
71. The Municipahties of the Roman Empire .... 208
72. Economic and Social Conditions in the First and
Second Centuries 210
73. The Graeco-Roman World 215
X. The Later Empire: Christianity in the Roman
World, 180-395 a.d.
74. The "Soldier Emperors," 180-284 A.D. ..... 219
75. The "Absolute Emperors," 284-395 a.d 220
76. Economic and Social Conditions in the Third and
Fourth Centuries 224
77. The Preparation for Christianity 226
78. Rise and Spread of Christianity 229
79. The Persecutions 232
80. Triumph of Christianity •. . 234
81. Christian Influence on Society 237
XL The Germans to 476 a.d.
82. Germany and the Germans 239
83. Breaking of the Danube Barrier 241
84. Breaking of the Rhine Barrier 245
85. Inroads of the Huns 247
86. End of the Roman Empire in the West, 476 a.d. . 248
^ 87. Germanic Influence on Society 250
XII. Classical CmLizATioN.
88. The Classical City 252
89. Education and the Condition of Children .... 253
90. Marriage and the Position of Women 256
91. The Home and Private Life 257
viii Contents
CHAPTER PAGE
92. Amusements 264
93. Slavery 268
94. Greek Literature 270
95. Greek Philosophy 273
96. Roman Literature 276
97. Greek Architecture 278
98. Greek Sculpture 281
99. Roman Architecture and Sculpture 282
100. Artistic Athens 288
101. Artistic Rome 292
XIII. Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages,
476-962 A.D.
102. The Ostrogoths in Italy, 488-553 a.d 298
103. The Lombards in Italy, 568-774 a.d 300
104. The Franks under Clo\ds and His Successors . . . 303
105. The Franks under Charles Martel and Pepin the
Short 305
106. The Reign of Charlemagne, 768-814 a.d 307
107. Charlemagne and the Revival of the Roman Em-
pire, 800 a.d 311
108. Disruption of Charlemagne's Empire, 814-870 a.d. 312
109. Germany under Saxon Kings, 919-973 a.d. ... 315
110. Otto the Great and the Restoration of the Roman
Empire, 962 a.d 317
111. The Anglo-Saxons in Britain, 449-839 A.D. ... 319
112. Christianity in the British Isles 322
113. The Fusion of Germans and Romans 325
XIV. Eastern Europe during the Early Middle Ages, 395-
1095 A.D.
114. The Roman Empire in the East 328
115. The Reign of Justinian, 527-565 a.d 329
116. The Empire and its x\siatic Foes 332
117. The Empire and its Foes in Europe 334
118. Byzantine Civilization 335
119. Constantinople 337
XV. The Christian Church in the East and in the West
TO 1054 A.D.
120. Development of the Christian Church 342
121. Eastern Christianity 346
122. Western Christianity: Rise of the Papacy . . . 348
123. Growth of the Papacy 350
Contents
IX
CHAPTER PACE
124. Monasticism 352
125. Life and Work of the Monks 355
126. Spread of Christianity over Europe 358
127. Separation of Eastern and Western Christianity . 360
128. The Greek Church 363
129. The Roman Church 364
XVI. The Orient against the Occident: Rise and Spread
OF Islam, 622-1058 a.d.
130. Arabia and the Arabs 367
131. Mohammed: Prophet and Statesman, 622-632 a.d. 370
132. Islam and the Koran 372
133. Expansion of Islam in Asia and Egypt 375
134. Expansion of Islam in North Africa and Spain . . 378
135. The Caliphate and its Disruption, 632-1058 a.d. . 379
136. Arabian Civilization . '. 381
137. The Influence of Islam 386
XVII. The Northmen and the Normans to 1066 a.d.
138. Scandinavia and the Northmen 389
139. The Viking Age 391
140. Scandinavian Heathenism 394
141. The Northmen in the West 397
142. The Northmen in the East 399
143. Normandy and the Normans 402
144. Conquest of England by the Danes; Alfred the
Great 403
145. Norman Conquest of England; WiUiam the Con-
queror 407
146. Results of the Norman Conquest 410
147. Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily . 412
148. The Normans in European History 413
XVIII. Feudalism.
149. Rise of Feudalism 415
150. Feudalism as a System of Local Government . . 416
151. Feudal Justice 419
152. Feudal Warfare 421
153. The Castle and Life of the Nobles 424
154. Knighthood and Chivalry 428
155. Feudalism as a System of Local Industry .... 431
156. The Village and Life of the Peasants 434
157. Serfdom 436
158. Decline of Feudalism 437
: Contents
CHAPTER PAGE
XIX. The Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, 962-1273
A.D.
159. Characteristics of the Medieval Church 439
160. Church Doctrine and Worship 440
161. Church Jurisdiction 444
162. The Secular Clergy 446
163. The Regular Clergy 448
164. The Friars 450
165. Power of the Papacy 453
166. Popes and Emperors, 962-1122 a.d 455
167. Popes and Emperors, 1122-1273 a.d 460
168. Significance of the Medieval Church 463
XX. The Occident against the Orient; the Crusades,
1095-1291 A.D.
169. Causes of the Crusades 466
170. First Crusade, 1095-1099 a.d 468
171. Crusaders' States in Syria 472
172. Second Crusade, 1147-1149 a.d., and Third Cru-
sade, 1189-1192 a.d 474
173. Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Con-
stantinople, 1202-1261 A.D 476
174. Results of the Crusades 479
XXI. The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks to 1453 a.d.
175. The Mongols 483
176. Conquests of the Mongols, 1206-1405 a.d. ... 484
177. The Mongols in China and India 487
178. The Mongols in Eastern Europe 488
179. The Ottoman Turks and their Conquests, 1227-
1453 A.D 491
180. The Ottoman Turks in Southeastern Europe . . 493
XXII. European Nations during the Later Middle Ages.
181. Growth of the Nations 496
182. England under WiUiam the Conqueror, 1066-1087
A.D.; the Norman Kingship 497
183. England under Henry II, 1154-1189 a.d.; Royal
Justice and the Common Law 499
184. The Great Charter, 1215 a.d 502
185. Parliament during the Thirteenth Century. . . . 505
186. Expansion of England under Edward I, 1272-
1307 A.D 507
187. Uni^cation of France, 987-1328 a.d 511
Contents
XI
CHAPTER PAGE
188. The Hundred Years' War between England and
France, 1337-1453 a.d 515
189. The Unification of Spain (to 1492 A.D.) 519
190. Austria and the Swiss Confederation, 1273-1499
A.D 522
191. Expansion of Germany 525
XXIII. European Cities during the Later Middle Ages.
192. Growth of the Cities 529
193. City Life 531
194. Civic Industry: the Guilds 534
195. Trade and Commerce 537
196. Money and Banking 541
197. ItaUan Cities 543
198. German Cities; the Hanseatic League 547
199. The Cities of Flanders 549
XXIV. Medieval Civilization.
200. Formation of National Languages 554
201. Development of National Literatures 558
202. Romanesque and Gothic Architecture; the Cathe-
drals 562
203. Education; the Universities 566
204. Scholasticism 570
205. Science and Magic 572
206. Popular Superstitions 575
207. Popular Amusements and Festivals 579
208. Manners and Customs ' . . . . 584
XXV. The Renaissance.
209. Meaning of the Renaissance 589
210. Revival of Learning in Italy 591
211. Paper and Printing 594
212. Revival of Art in Italy 597
213. Revival of Learning and Art beyond Italy . . . 600
214. The Renaissance in Literature 602
215. The Renaissance in Education 606
216. The Scientific Renaissance 607
217. The Economic Renaissance 609
XXVI. Geographical Discovery and Colonization.
218. Medieval Geography 614
219. Aids to Exploration 618
220. To the Indies Eastward: Prince Henry and Da
Gama 620
Xll
Contents
CHAPTER PAGE
221. The Portuguese Colonial Empire 622
222. To the Indies Westward: Columbus and Magellan 624
223. The Indians 630
224. Spanish Explorations and Conquests in America . 633
225. The Spanish Colonial Empire 635
226. French and EngHsh Explorations in America . . 638
227. The Old World and the New 639
XXVII. The Reformation and the Religious Wars, 1517-
1648 A.D.
228. DecHne of the Papacy 643
229. Heresies and Heretics 647
230. Martin Luther and the Beginning of the Reforma-
tion in Germany, 1517-1522 a.d . 651
231. Charles V and the Spread of the German Reforma-
tion, 1519-1556 A.D 654
232. The Reformation in Switzerland: Zwingli and
Calvin 656
233. The English Reformation, 1533-1558 a.d. ... 658
234. The Protestant Sects 662
235. The Catholic Counter Reformation 665
236. Spain under PhiHp II, 1556-1598 a.d 668
237. Revolt of the Netherlands 671
238. England under Elizabeth, 1558-1603 a.d 674
239. The Huguenot Wars in France 679
240. The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648 a.d 682
Appendix — Table of Events and Dates 688
Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 695
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
* PAGE
Disk of Phaestus 1
A Papyrus Manuscript 2
A Prehistoric Egyptian Grave 3
A Hatchet of the Early Stone Age 4
Arrowheads of the Later Stone Age 5
Early Roman Bar Money 7
Various Signs of Symbolic Picture Writing 8
Mexican Rebus 9
Chinese Picture Writing and Later Conventional Characters .... 9
Cretan Writing 10
Egyptian and Babylonian Writing 11
The Moabite Stone (Louvre, Paris) 12
Head of a Girl (Musee S. Germain, Paris) • 13
Sketch of Mammoth on a Tusk found in a Cave in France 14
Bison painted on the Wall of a Cave 14
Cave Bear drawn on a Pebble 14
Wild Horse on the Wall of a Cave in Spain 14
A Dolmen 15
Carved Menhir 16
Race Portraiture of the Egyptians 17
The Great Wall of China . 20
Phil£e 23
Top of Monument containing the Code of Hammurabi (British Mu-
seum, London) 25
Khufu (Cheops), Builder of the Great Pyramid 27
Menephtah, the supposed Pharaoh of the Exodus 27
Head of Mummy of Rameses II (Museimi of Gizeh) 28
The Great Pyramid 29
The Great Sphinx 30
A Phoenician War Galley 32
An Assyrian 34
An Assyrian ReHef (British Museum, London) 35
The Ishtar Gate, Babylon 36
The Tomb of Cyrus the Great 37
Darius with his Attendants 38
xiii
xiv List of Illustrations
PAGE
Rock Sepulchers of the Persian Kings 39
A Royal Name in Hieroglyphics (Rosetta Stone) 42
An Egyptian Court Scene 43
Plowing and Sowing in Ancient Egypt 45
Transport of an Assyrian Colossus 46
Egyptian weighing " Cow Gold " 47
Babylonian Contract Tablet 51
An Egyptian Scarab 53
Amenhotep IV 54
Mummy and Cover of Coffin (U. S. National Museum, Washington) . 55
The Judgment of the Dead 56
The Deluge Tablet (British Museum, London) 57
An Egyptian Temple (Restored) 57
An Egyptian Wooden Statue (IMuseum of Gizeh) 58
An Assyrian Palace (Restored) 59
An Assyrian Winged Human-headed Bull . 60
An Assyrian Hunting Scene (British Museimi, London) 61
A Babylonian ISIap of the World 62
An Egyptian Scribe (Louvre, Paris) 63
Excavations at Nippur 64
Excavations at Troy 68
Lions' Gate, Mycenaa 70
Silver Fragment from Mycenae (National Museum, Athens) 71
A Cretan Girl (Museum of Candia, Crete) 72
^gean Snake Goddess (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) 73
A Cretan Cupbearer (Museum of Candia, Crete) 74
The Francois Vase (Archaeological Museum, Florence) 77
Consulting the Oracle at Delphi 78
The Discus Thrower (Lancelotti Palace, Rome) 80
Athlete using the Strigil (Vatican Gallery, Rome) 81
"Temple of Neptune," Paestum 89
Crcesus on the Pyre 93
Persian Archers (Louvre, Paris) 94
Gravestone of Aristion (National Museum, Athens) 95
Greek Soldiers in Arms 96
The Mound at Marathon 96
A Themistocles Ostrakon (British Museum, London) 97
An Athenian Trireme (Reconstruction) 99
"Theseum" 101
Pericles (British Museum, London) 103
An Athenian Inscription 105
The " Mourning Athena " (Acropolis Museum, Athens) 109
A Silver Coin of Syracuse 110
List of Illustrations xv
PAGE
PhiHp II 115
Demosthenes (Vatican Museum, Rome) 117
Alexander (Glyptothek, Munich) 119
The Alexander Mosaic (Naples Museum) 123
A Greek Cameo (Museum, Vienna) 127
The Dying Gaul (Capitoline Museum, Rome) 129
A Graeco-Etruscan Chariot (Metropohtan Museum of Art, New York) 138
An Etruscan Arch 139
Characters of the Etruscan Alphabet 140
An Early Roman Coin 142
A Roman Farmer's Calendar 144
Cinerary Urns in Terra Cotta (Vatican Museum, Rome) 145
A Vestal Virgin 146
SuovetauriUa (Louvre, Paris) 147
An Etruscan Augur 148
Coop with Sacred Chickens 149
Curule Chair and Fasces 151
The Appian Way 157
A Roman Legionary 158
A Roman Standard Bearer (Bonn Museum) 159
Column of Duilius (Restored) 163
A Carthaginian or Roman Helmet (British Museum, London) .... 166
ATestudo 168
Storming a City (Reconstruction) 170
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Spada Palace, Rome) 180
Marcus Tullius Cicero (Vatican Museum, Rome) 181
Gains JuHus Cassar (British Museum, London) 183
A Roman Coin with the Head of Julius Caesar 186
Augustus (Vatican Museum, Rome) 193
Monumentum Ancyranum 196
Pompeii 199
Nerva (Vatican Museum, Rome) 200
Column of Trajan 201
The Pantheon 202
The Tomb of Hadrian 203
Marcus Aurehus in his Triumphal Car (Palace of the Conservatori,
Rome) 204
Wall of Hadrian in Britain 206
Roman Baths, at Bath, England 209
A Roman Freight Ship 211
A Roman Villa 213
A Roman Temple 215
The Amphitheater at Aries 216
xvi List of Illustrations
PAGE
A Megalith at Baalbec 217
The Wall of Rome 220
A Mithraic Monument 228
Modern Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives 230
Madonna and Child 231
Christ, the Good Shepherd (Imperial Museum, Constantinople) ... 232
Interior of the Catacombs 234
TheLabarum 235
Arch of Constantine 236
Runic Alphabet 240
A Page of the Gothic Gospels (Reduced) . 242
An Athenian School (Royal Museum, BerUn) 254
A Roman School Scene 255
Youth reading a Papyrus Roll 256
House of the Vettii at Pompeii (Restored) 258
Atrium of a Pompeian House 259
Pompeian Floor Mosaic 260
Peristyle of a Pompeian House 261
A Greek Banquet 262
A Roman Litter 263
Theater of Dionysus, Athens 264
A Dancing Girl 265
The Circus Maximus (Restoration) 266
Gladiators 267
A Slave's Collar 270
Sophocles (Lateran Museum, Rome) 271
Socrates (Vatican Museum, Rome) 274
Corner of a Doric Fagade 279
Corner of an Ionic Facade 279
Corinthian Capital 280
Composite Capital 280
Tuscan Capital 280
Interior View of the Ulpian BasiHca (Restoration) 284
A Roman Aqueduct 285
The Colosseum (Exterior) 286
The Colosseum (Interior) 286
A Roman Cameo 287
Tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna 299
Charlemagne (Lateran Museum, Rome) 307
The Iron Crown of Lombardy ^08
Cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle 310
Ring Seal of Otto the Great 316
Anglo-Saxon Drinking Horn 320
List of Illustrations xvii
PAGE
St. Martin's Church, Canterbury 323
Canterbury Cathedral 324
A Mosaic of Justinian 330
The Three Existing Monuments of the Hippodrome, Constantinople . 339
Religious Music 345
The Nestorian Monument . . ' 347
Papal Arms 348
St. Daniel the Stylite on his Column 353
Abbey of Saint Germain des Pres, Paris 356
A Monk Copyist 357
Mecca 368
A Letter of Mohammed 370
A Passage from the Koran 373
Naval Battle showing Use of "Greek Fire" 377
Interior of the Mosque of Cordova 384
Capitals and Arabesques from the Alhambra 386
Swedish Rock Carving 389
A Runic Stone 390
A Viking Ship 392
Norse Metal Work (Museum, Copenhagen) 396
Alfred the Great 404
Alfred's Jewel (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford) 406
A Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry (Museum of Bayeux, Normandy) 408
Trial by Combat 421
Mounted Knight 422
Pierrefonds 425
Chateau Gaillard (Restored) 426
King and Jester 427
Falconry 429
Farm Work in the Fourteenth Century 432
Pilgrims to Canterbury 442
A Bishop ordaining a Priest 447
St. Francis blessing the Birds 451
The Spiritual and the Temporal Power 456
Henry IV, Countess Ma ilda, and Gregory VII 459
Contest between Crusaders and Moslems 467
" Mosque of Omar," Jerusalem 471
Effigy of a Knight Templar 473
Richard I in Prison 476
Hut- Wagon of the Mongols (Reconstruction) 484
Tomb of Timur at Samarkand 487
Mohammed II 492
The ''White Tower" 498
xviii List of Illustrations
PAGE
A Passage from Domesday Book 499
Windsor Castle 501
Extract from the Great Charter 504
Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey 508
A Queen Eleanor Cross 510
Royal Arms of Edward III 515
English Archer 516
Walls of Carcassonne 530
A Scene in Rothenburg 532
House of the Butchers' Guild, Hildesheim, Germany 535
Baptistery, Cathedral, and "Leaning Tower" of Pisa 544
Venice and the Grand Canal 546
Belfry of Bruges 550
Town HaU of Louvain, Belgium 551
Geoffrey Chaucer 557
Roland at Roncesvalles 559
Cross Section of Amiens Cathedral 564
Gargoyles on the Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris 565
View of New CoUege, Oxford 569
Tower of Magdalen College, Oxford 570
Roger Bacon 573
Magician rescued from the Devil 575
The Witches' Sabbath 578
Chess Pieces of Charlemagne 579
Bear Baiting 581
Mummers 582
A Miracle Play at Coventry, England 583
Manor House in Shropshire, England 584
Interior of an English Manor House 585
Costimies of Ladies during the Later Middle Ages 586
Dante Ahghieri 591
Petrarch 592
An Early Printing Press 595
Facsimile of Part of Caxton's " iEneid " (Reduced) 596
Desiderius Erasmus (Louvre, Paris) 601
Cervantes 603
William Shakespeare 604
Shakespeare's Birthplace, Stratford-on-Avon 605
Richard II 612
Geographical Monsters 615
An Astrolabe 619
Vasco da Gama 621
Christopher Columbus (Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid) 626
List of Illustrations xix
PAGE
Isabella 627
Ship of 1492 A.D 627
The Name " America " . . . 628
Ferdinand Magellan 629
Aztec Sacrificial Knife 631
Aztec Sacrificial Stone 632
Cabot Memorial Tower 638
JohnWycUffe 649
Martin Luther 651
Charles V 655
John Calvin 657
Henry VIII 658
Ruins of Melrose Abbey 660
Chained Bible 663
St. Ignatius Loyola 665
PhiHp II 669
The Escorial 670
William the Silent 672
Ehzabeth 675
Crown of Elizabeth's Reign 676
London Bridge in the Time of Elizabeth 677
The Spanish Armada in the English Channel 678
Cardinal Richeheu (National Gallery, London) 682
Gustavus Adolphus 684
LIST OF MAPS
PAGE
Distribution of Semitic and Indo-European Peoples 18
Physical Map of Asia Facing 20 v
Egyptian Empire (about 1450 B.C.) 26
Canaan as divided among the Tribes 31
Solomon's Kingdom 33
Assyrian Empire (about 660 B.C.) Facing 34^
Lydia, Media, Babylonia, and Egypt (about 550 B.C.) . . . Facing 34 ^
Persian Empire at its Greatest Extent (about 500 B.C.) . . Facing 38 ^
Ancient Trade Routes 48
Phoenician and Greek Colonies Facing 50 /
Physical Map of Europe Facing 66 ^^
Ancient Greece and the ^Egean (double page) .... Between 68 and 69 ^
^gean Civilization 69
Greek Conquests and Migrations 75
The World according to Homer, 900 b.c 76 /
Greece at the Opening of the Persian Wars, 490 B.C. ... Facing 94 ^
Vicinity of Athens 107
Greece at the Opening of the Peloponnesian War Facing 108 ^
Route of the Ten Thousand 121 /
Empire of Alexander the Great (about 323 B.C.) Facing 124 "^
Kingdoms of Alexander's Successors (about 200 B.C.) .... Facing 128 ^
The World according to Eratosthenes, 200 b.c 132
The World according to Ptolemy, 150 a.d 132
Ancient Italy and Sicily Facing 136
Vicinity of Rome 141 ,
Expansion of Roman Dominions in Italy, 509-264 B.C. . . Facing 154 v
Colonies and Military Roads in Italy 156
Expansion of Roman Dominions, 264-133 b.c Facing 168 v
Expansion of Roman Dominions, 133-31 b.c Facing 184'
Expansion of Roman Dominions, 31 B.C.-180 A.D Facing 194^
Plan of Jerusalem and its Environs 198
Roman Britain 205
Roman Empire (about 395 a.d.) (double page) . . . Between 222 and 223
Growth of Christianity to the End of the Fourth Century . Facing 236 /
Germanic Migrations to 476 a.d Facing 244 /
XX
List of Maps xxi
PAGE
Europe at the Deposition of Romulus Augustulus, 476 a.d. . Facing 248 "^
Plan of the Ulpian BasiUca 284
Plan of Ancient Athens 289
Plan of the Parthenon 291
Plan of Ancient Rome 293
Europe at the Death of Theodoric, 526 a.d 301
Europe at the Death of Justinian, 565 a.d 301
Growth of the Frankish Dominions, 481-768 a.d 304
Europe in the Age of Charlemagne, 800 a.d Facing 308 ^
The Frankish Dominions as divided by the Treaties of Verdun
(843 A.D.) and Mersen (870 a.d.) 313
Europe in the Age of Otto the Great, 962 a.d 318
Anglo-Saxon Britain 321
Peoples of Europe at the Beginning of the Tenth Century . Facing 326
The Roman Empire in the East during the Tenth and Eleventh
Centuries 332
Vicinity of Constantinople 338
Plan of Constantinople 340
Plan of Kirk stall Abbey, Yorkshire 354
Growth of Christianity from the Fifth to the Fifteenth Century y
(double page) ; Between 358 and 359 ,
Expansion of Islam Facing 376
Discoveries of the Northmen in the West 398
England under Alfred the Great 405
Dominions of WilUam the Conqueror 409
Plan of Chateau GaiUard 424
Plan of Hitchin Manor, Hertfordshire 435
Germany and Italy during the Interregnum, 1254-1273 a.d. .Facing 462
Mediterranean Lands after the Fourth Crusade, 1202-1204 a.d.
(double page) Between 478 and 479^
The Mongol Empire 486
Russia at the End of the Middle Ages 489
Empire of the Ottoman Turks at the Fall of Constantinople, 1453 a.d. 494
Dominions of the Plantagenets in England and France 503
Scotland in the Thirteenth Century 509
Unification of France during the Middle Ages 513
Unification of Spain during the Middle Ages 521
Growth of the Hapsburg Possessions 523
The Swiss Confederation, 1291-1513 a.d 524
German Expansion Eastward during the Middle Ages 527
Trade Routes between Northern and Southern Europe in the Thir-
teenth and Fourteenth Centuries 538
Medieval Trade Routes (double page) Between 540 afid 541 ^
xxii List of Maps
PAGE
Plan of Salisbury Cathedral, England 562
The World according to Cosmas Indicopleustes, 535 a.d 616
The Hereford Map, 1280 a.d 616
Behaim's Globe 625
Portuguese and Spanish Colonial Empires in the Sixteenth Century /
(double page) Between 628 and 629
The West Indies 633
An Early Map of the New Woi-ld (1540 a.d.) 634/
Western Europe in the Time of Elizabeth Facing 634
The Great Schism, 1378-1417 a.d 646 /
Europe at the Beginning of the Reformation, 1519 a.d. . . Facing 654 "^
Extent of the Reformation, 1524-1572 a.d 662
The Netherlands in the Sixteenth Century 673
Europe at the End of the Thirty Years' War, 1648 a.d. . . Facing 684 '
LIST OF PLATES
Ancient and Medieval Gems Frontispiece
Stonehenge Facing page 12^
The Rosetta Stone (British Museum, London) 42 ^^
The Vaphio Gold Cups (National Museum, Athens) 70 ^
Greek Gods and Goddesses: Zeus, Hera, Apollo, Aphrodite .... 76-
Aphrodite of Melos (Louvre, Paris) 77
Hermes and Dionysus (Museum of Olympia) 80>
Sarcophagus from Sidon (Imperial Ottoman IMuseum, Constantinople) 126 ^
Laocoon and his Children (Vatican Museum, Rome) 130^^
Victory of Samothrace (Louvre, Paris) 131^
Oriental, Greek, and Roman Coins 134: K
A Scene in Sicily 152 ^
Bay of Naples and Vesuvius 153^
Relief on the Arch of Titus 198 ^^
The Parthenon 280 Z'
Views of Pediment and Frieze of Parthenon 281 '^
AcropoUs of Athens (Restoration) 290 '^
AcropoHs of Athens from the Southwest 291 1^
Roman Forum and Surrounding Buildings (Restored) 294 ^
Roman Forum at the Present Time 295
Sancta Sophia, Constantinople 338
Fountain of Lions in the Alhambra 386 *- ^
The Taj Mahal, Agra 488 "^'^
Campanile and Doge's Palace, Venice 546 ^
Illuminated Manuscript 558
Reims Cathedral ^ 562 ^'^
Cologne Cathedral 563 ^,
Interior of King's College Chapel, Cambridge 570 ^
Ghiberti's Bronze Doors at Florence 590 *^
St. Peter's, Rome 591 v^
Itahan Paintings of the Renaissance 600 ^
Flemish, Spanish, and Dutch Paintings of the Renaissance 601 1/"
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
All serious students of history should have access to the American His-
torical Review (N. Y., 1895 to date, quarterly, $4.00 a year). This journal,
the organ of the American Historical Association, contains
eno ica s articles by scholars, critical reviews of all important works,
and notes and news. The History Teacher's Magazine is edited under the
supervision of a committee of the American Historical Association (Phila-
delphia, 1909 to date, monthly, $2.00 a year). Every well-equipped school
library should contain the files of the National Geographic Magazine (Wash-
ington, 1890 to date, monthly, $2.00 a year) and of Art and Archceology
(Washington, 1914 to date, monthly, $3.00 a year). These two periodicals
make a special feature of illustrations.
Useful books for the teacher's library include H. E. Bourne, The Teaching
of History and Civics in the Elementary and the Secondary School (N. Y., 1902,
Longmans, Green, and Co., $1.50), Henry Johnson, The
Works on Teaching of History (N. Y., 1915, Macmillan, $1.40), H. B.
A T \' George, Historical Evidence (N. Y., 1909, Oxford University
of History Press, American Branch, 75 cents), Frederic Harrison, The
Meaning of History and Other Historical Pieces (New ed.,
N. Y., 1900, Macmillan, $1.75), J. H. Robinson, The New History (N. Y.,
1912, Macmillan, $1.50), and H. B. George, The Relations of History and
Geography (4th ed., N. Y., 1910, Oxford University Press, American
Branch, $1.10). The following reports are indispensable:
The Study of History in Schools. Report to the American Historical Association
by the Committee of Seven (N. Y., 1899, Macmillan, 50 cents).
The Study of History in Secondary Schools. Report to the American Historical
Association by a Committee of Five (N. ¥., 191 1, Macmillan, 25 cents).
Historical Sources in Schools. Report to the New England History Teachers*
Association by a Select Committee (N. Y., 1902, Macmillan, out of print).
A History Syllabus for Secondary Schools. Report by a Special Committee of the
New England History Teachers' Association (N. Y., 1904, Heath, $1.32).
A Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries. Published under the auspices
of the Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland
(2d ed., N. Y., 1915, Longmans, Green, and Co., 60 cents).
The most useful dictionaries of classical antiquities are H. B. Walters,
A Classical Dictionary (N. Y., 1916, Putnam, $6.50) and H. T. Peck,
Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities
^^d^E^^^"? (N. Y., 1897, American Book Co., $6.00). Cambridge Uni-
nedias versity, England, has published A Companion to Greek
Studies, edited by L. Whibley (2d ed., N. Y., 1906, Putnam,
Suggestions for Further Study xxv
$6.00), and A Companion to Latin Studies, edited by J, E. Sandys (N. Y.,
191 1, Putnam, $6.00). These two volumes treat every phase of ancient life
in separate essays by distinguished scholars. For chronology, genealogies,
lists of sovereigns, and other data the most valuable works are Arthur
Hassall, European History, 4'/6-igio (new ed., N. Y., 1910, Macmillan,
$2.25), G, P. Putnam, Tabular Views of Universal History (new ed., N. Y.,
1915, Putnam, $2.50), and Karl J. Ploetz, A Handbook of Universal History,
translated by W. H. Tilhnghast (Boston, 1915, Houghton MifBin Co., $3.00),
The Illustrated Topics for Ancient History, arranged by D. C. Knowlton
(Philadelphia, McKinley Publishing Co., 65 cents), contain much valuable
^ .. ,. material in the shape of a syllabus, source quotations,
outline maps, pictures, and other aids. The following syl-
labi have been prepared for collegiate instruction:
BoTSFORD, G. W. A Syllabus of Roman History (N. Y., 191 5, Macmillan, 50 cents).
MuNRO, D. C, and Sellery, G. C. A Syllabus of Medieval History, 395-1500
(N. Y., 1913, Longmans, Green, and Co., $1.00).
R1CELA.RDSON, O. H. Syllabus of Continental European History from the Fall of
Rome to 1870 (Boston, 1904, Ginn, boards, 75 cents).
Stephenson, Andrew. Syllabus of Lectures on European History (Terre Haute,
Ind., 1897, Inland Publishing Co., $1.50).
Thompson, J. W. Reference Studies in Medieval History (2d ed., Chicago, 1914,
University of Chicago Press, $1.25). A rich collection of classified references.
An admirable collection of maps for school use is W. R. Shepherd, His-
torical Atlas (N. Y., 191 1, Holt, $2.50), with about two hundred and fifty
. . maps covering the historical field. The latest and one of
the best of the classical atlases is Mtirray's Small Classical
Atlas, edited by G. B. Grundy (N. Y., 1904, Oxford University Press, Ameri-
can Branch, $1.35). A special feature of this work is the adoption of the
system of colored contours to indicate configuration. The Atlas of Ancient
and Classical Geography in "Everyman's Library" (N. Y., 1910, Button,
35 cents) might well be purchased by every student. Other valuable
works are E. W. Dow, Atlas of European History (N. Y., 1907, Holt, $1.50)
and Ramsay Muir, A New School Atlas of Modern History (N. Y., 191 1,
Holt, $1.25). Much use can be made of the inexpensive and handy Literary
and Historical Atlas of Europe by J. G. Bartholomew in "Everyman's
Library" (N. Y., 1910, Button, 35 cents).
Kiepert's New Wall Maps of Ancient History (Chicago, Rand, McNally,
and Co.) and Johnston's Classical Series (Chicago, A. J. Nystrom and Co.)
^, „ may be obtained singly, mounted on common rollers, or
Wall Maps . . . ...
and Charts ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^ with spring rollers. The text is in Latin.
The Spruner-Bretschneider Historical Maps are ten in
number, size 62 x 52 inches, and cover the period from a.d. 350 to 1815.
The text is in German (Chicago, Nystrom, each $6.00; Rand, McNally, and
Co., each $6.50). Johnston's Maps of English and European History are
sixteen in number, size 40 x 30 inches, and include four maps of ancient
xxvi Suggestions for Further Study
history (Chicago, Nystrom, each $2.50). A new series of European History
Maps, thirty-nine in number, size 40 x 32 inches, has been prepared for
the study of ancient history by Professors J. H. Breasted and C. F. Huth,
and for medieval and modern history by Professor S. B. Harding (Chicago,
Denoyer-Geppert Co., complete set with tripod stand, $52.00; in two spring
roller cases, $73.00). These maps may also be had separately. The maps
in this admirable series omit all irrelevant detail, present place names in the
modern English form, and in choice of subject matter emphasize the Ameri-
can viewpoint. The school should also possess good physical wall maps
such as the Sydow-Habenicht or the Kiepert series, both to be obtained
from Rand, McNally, and Co. The text is in German. Phillips's Model
Test Maps and Johnston's New Series of Physical Wall Maps are obtainable
from A. J. Nystrom and Co. The only large charts available are those pre-
pared by MacCoun for his Historical Geography Charts of Europe. The two
sections, "Ancient and Classical" and "Medieval and ISIodern," are sold
separately (N. Y., Silver, Burdett, and Co., $15.00). A helpful series of
Blackboard Outline Maps is issued by J. L. Engle, Beaver, Penn. These are
wall maps, printed with paint on blackboard cloth, for use with an ordinary
crayon. Such maps are also sold by the Denoyer-Geppert Co., Chicago.
The "Studies" following each chapter of this book include various exer-
cises for which small outline maps are required. Such maps are sold by
Outline D. C. Heath and Co., Boston, New York, Chicago. Useful
Maps atlases of outline maps are also to be had of the McKinley
Pubhshing Co., Philadelphia, Atkinson, Mentzer and Grover, Chicago,
W. B. Harison, New York City, and of other publishers.
The best photographs of ancient works of art must usually be obtained
from the foreign publishers in Naples, Florence, Rome, Munich, Paris,
„, ^ ^. Athens, and London, or from their American agents. Such
Illustrations , ,.,,.„ . , ,,
photographs, m the usual size, 8 x 10 mches, sell, unmounted,
at from 6 to 8 francs a dozen. All dealers in lantern slides issue descriptive
catalogues of a great variety of archaeological subjects. In addition to
photographs and lantern slides, a collection of stereoscopic views is very
helpful in giving vividness and interest to instruction in ancient history.
An admirable series of photographs for the stereoscope, including Egypt,
Palestine, Greece, and Italy, is issued by Underwood and Underwood, New
York City. The same firm supplies convenient maps and handbooks for
use in this connection. The Keystone stereographs, prepared by the Key-
stone View Company, Meadville, Penn., may also be cordially recommended.
The architecture, costumes, amusements, and occupations of the Middle
Ages in England are shown in Longmans^ Historical Illustrations (six port-
folios, each containing twelve plates in black-and-white, Longmans, Green,
and Co., 90 cents, each portfolio). The same firm issues Longmans^ His-
torical Wall Pictures, consisting of twelve colored pictures from original
paintings illustrating English history (each picture, separately, 80 cents;
in a portfoUo, $10.50). Other notable collections are Lehmann's Geograph-
Suggestions for Further Study xxvii
ical Pictures, Historical Pictures, and Types of Nations, and Cybulski's
Historical Pictures (Chicago, Denoyer-Geppert Co.; each picture separately
mounted on rollers, $1.35 to $2.25). The New England History Teachers'
Association publishes a series of Authentic Pictures for Class Room Use, size
5x8 inches, price 3 cents each. The Catalogue of the Collection of Historical
Material at Simmons College, prepared by the New England History
Teachers' Association (2d ed., Boston, 191 2, Houghton Mifiain Co., 25
cents), contains an extensive list of pictures, slides, models, and other aids
to history teaching. Among the more useful collections in book form of
photographic reproductions and drawings are the following :
Fechheimer, Hedwig. Die Plastik der Agypter (2d. ed., Berlin, 1914, B. Cassirer,
12 marks). 156 plates of Egyptian sculpture.
FouGERES, GusTAVE. La vie publique et privee des Grecs et des Romains (2d ed.,
Paris, 1900, Hachette, 15 francs). An album of 85 pictures.
FuRTWANGLER, Adolf. Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture (N. Y., Scribner, $15.00).
Hekler, Anton. Greek and Roman Portraits (N. Y., 191 3, Putnam, $7.50). 311
plates, with comment and bibliography.
Hill, G. F. Illustrations of School Classics (N. Y., 1903, Macmillan, $2.50).
MuziK, H., and PERSCmNKA, F. Kunst und Leben im Altertum (Vienna, 1909,
F. Tempsky; Leipzig, G. Freytag, 4.40 marks).
Osborne, Duffield. Engraved Gems (N. Y., 1913, Holt, $6.00).
Parmentier, a. Album historique (Paris, 1894-1905, Colin, 4 vols., each 15 francs).
Illustrations covering the medieval and modern periods, with descriptive text
in French.
Rheinhard, Hermann. Album des klassischen Alleriums (Stuttgart, 1882, Hoff-
man, 18 marks). 72 pictures in colors.
Rouse, W. H. D. Atlas of Classical Portraits. Greek Section, Roman Section
(London, 1898, Dent, 2 vols., each i^. 6d.). Small, half-tone engravings,
accompanied by brief biographies.
Schreiber, Theodor. Atlas of Classical Antiquities (N. Y., 1895, Macmillan,
$6.50).
To vitalize the study of geography and history there is nothing
Works of better than the reading of modern books of travel. Among
Travel these may be mentioned:
Allinson, F. G. and Allinson, Anne C. E. Greek Lands and Letters (Boston,
1909, Houghton Mifflin Co., $2.50). An entertaining work of mingled history
and geography.
Barrows, S. J. The Isles and Shrines of Greece (Boston, 1898, Little, Brown, and
Co., $2.00).
Clark, F. E. The Holy Land of Asia Minor (N. Y., 1914, Scribner, $1.00). Pop-
ular sketches.
Dunning, H. W. To-day on the Nile (N. Y., 1905, Pott, $2.50).
To-day in Palestine (N. Y., 1907, Pott, $2.50).
DwiGHT, H. G. Constantinople, Old and New (N. Y., 1915, Scribner, $5.00).
Edwards, Amelia B. A Thousand Miles up the Nile (2d ed., N. Y., 1888, Dutton,
$2.50).
Forman, H. J. The Ideal Italian' Tour (Boston, 191 1, Houghton MiflSin Co.,
$1.50). A brief and attractive volume covering all Italy.
xxviii Suggestions for Further Study
Hay, John. Castilian Days (Boston, 1871, Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.25).
HuTTON, Edward. Rome (N. Y., 1909, Macmillan, $2.00).
Jackson, A. V. W. Persia, Past and Present (N. Y., 1906, Macmillan, $4.00).
Lucas, E. V. A Wanderer in Florence (N. Y., 191 2, Macmillan, $1.75).
Manatt, J. I. ^gean Days (Boston, 1913, Houghton Mifflin Co., $3.00). De-
scribes the most important islands of the ^gean.
Marden, p. S. Greece and the jEgean Islands (Boston, 1907, Houghton Mifflin
Co., $3.00).
Paton, W. a. Picturesque Sicily (2d ed., N. Y., 1902, Harper, $2.50).
Richardson, R. B. Vacation Days in Greece (N. Y., 1903, Scribner, $2.00).
Warner, C. D. In the Levant (N. Y., 1876, Harper, $2.00).
The following works of historical fiction comprise only a selection from
a very large number of books suitable for supplementary reading. For
extended bibliographies see E. A. Baker, A Guide to His-
Hction*^^ tonca/ Fiction (new ed., N. Y., 1914, MacmiUan, $6.00) and
Jonathan Nield, A Guide to the Best Historical Novels and
Tales (3d ed., N. Y., 1904, Putnam, $1.75). An excellent list of historical
stories, especially designed for children, will be found in the Bibliography of
History for Schools arid Libraries, parts viii-ix.
Bulwer-Lytton, Edward. The Last Days of Pompeii (Boston, 1834, Little,
Brown, and Co., $1.25).
Champney, Elizabeth W. The Romance of Imperial Rome (N. Y., 1910, Putnam,
$3.50).
Church, A. J. Roman Life in the Days of Cicero (N. Y., 1883, Macmillan, 50 cents).
Stories of Charlemagne and the Twelve Peers of France (N. Y., 1902, Mac-
millan, $1.75).
Cox, G. W. Tales of Ancient Greece (Chicago, 1868, McClurg, $1.00).
Dahn, Felix, Felicitas (Chicago, 1883, McClurg, 75 cents). Rome, 476 a.d.
Doyle, A. C. The White Company (Boston, 1890, Caldwell, 75 cents). The Eng-
lish in France and Castile, 1366-1367 a.d.
Ebers, Georg, Uarda (N. Y., 1877, Appleton, 2 vols., $1.50). Egypt, fourteenth
century B.C.
Eliot, George. Rom.ola (N. Y., 1863, Dutton, 35 cents). Florence and Savonarola
in the latter part of the fifteenth century.
Fenelon, Francois. Adventures of Telemachus, translated by Dr. Hawkesworth
(Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., $2.25).
Hale, E. E. In His Name (Boston, 1873, Little, Brown, and Co., $1.00). The
Waldenses about 11 79 a.d.
Hardy, A. S. Passe Rose (Boston, 1889, Houghton Mifflin Co., $1.25). Franks
and Saxons of Charlemagne's time.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter (N. Y., 1850, Dutton, 35 cents),
Massachusetts in the seventeenth century.
Henty, G. a. The Young Carthaginian (N. Y., 1886, Scribner, $1.50). Second
Punic War
Hugo, Victor. Notre Dame (N. Y.. 1831, Dutton, 35 cents). Paris, late fifteenth
century.
Irving, Washington. The Alhambra (N. Y., 1832, Putnam, $1.00). Sketches
of the Moors and Spaniards.
Suggestions for Further Study xxix
Jacobs, Joseph (editor). The Most Delectable History of Reynard the Fox (N. Y.,
189s, Macmillan, $1.50).
KiNGSLEY, Charles. Hypatia (N. Y., 1853, Macmillan, $1.25). Alexandria,
391 A.D.
Westward Ho! (N. Y., 1855, Button, 35 cents). Voyages of Elizabethan
seamen and the struggle with Spain.
Kipling, Rudyard. Puck of Pock's Hill (N. Y., 1906, Doubleday, Page, and Co.,
$1.50). Roman occupation of Britain.
Lang, Andrew. The Monk of Fife (N. Y., 1895, Longmans, Green, and Co., $1.25).
The Maid of Orleans and the Hundred Years' War.
Lane, E. W. (translator). The Arabian Nights' Entertainments (2d ed., N. Y.,
1859, Macmillan, 35 cents).
London, Jack. Before Adam (N. Y., 1907, Macmillan, $1.50). Prehistoric Ufe.
Manzoni, Alessandro. The Betrothed (N. Y., 1825, Macmillan, 2 vols., 70 cents).
Milan under Spanish rule, 1628-1630 a.d.
Mason, Eugene (translator). Aucassin and Nicolette and other Medieval Romances,
and Legends (N. Y., 1910, Button, 35 cents).
Newman, J. H. Callista (N. Y., 1856, Longmans, Green, and Co., $1.25). Per-
secution of Christians in North Africa, 250 a.d.
Reade, Charles. The Cloister and the Hearth (N. Y., 1861, Button, 35 cents).
Eve of the Reformation.
ScHEFFEL, J. VON. Ekkehard, translated by Helena Easson (N. Y., 1857, Button,
35 cents). Germany in the tenth century.
Scott, (Sir) Walter. The Talisman (N. Y., 1825, Button, 35 cents). Reign of
Richard I, 1193 a.d.
Ivanhoe (N. Y., Heath, 50 cents). Richard I, 11 94 a.d.
Sienkiewicz, Henryk. Quo Vadis? (Boston, 1896, Little, Brown, and Co., $2.00).
Reign of Nero.
Stevenson, R. L. The Black Arrow (N. Y., 1888, Scribner, $1.00). War of the
Roses.
"Twain, Mark." A Connecticut Yankee at the Court of King Arthur (N. Y., 1889,
Harper, $1.75).
Wallace, Lew. Ben-Hur; a Tale of the Christ (N. Y., 1880, Harper, $1.50).
Waterloo, Stanley. The Story of Ab (2d ed., N. Y., 1905, Boubleday, Page,
and Co., $1.50). Prehistoric life.
It is unnecessary to emphasize the value, as collateral reading, of his-
torical poems and plays. To the brief list which follows should be added
the material in Katharine Lee Bates and Katharine Coman,
Poetry *^^^ Ewg/wA History told by English Poets (N. Y., 1902, Mac-
millan, 60 cents).
Browning, Robert. Echetlos and Pheidippides.
Burns, Robert. The Battle of Bannockburn.
Byron (Lord) . Song of Saul before His Last Battle, The Destruction of Sennacherib,
Belshazzar's Feast, Prometheus, "Greece" (The Corsair, canto iii, lines 1-54),
"Modern Greece" (Childe Harold, canto ii, stanzas 85-91), "The Beath of
Greece" {The Giaour, Hnes 68-141), "The Isles of Greece" {Don Juan, canto
iii), and "The Colosseum" {Childe Harold, canto iv, stanzas 140-145).
Clough, a. H. Columbus.
Coleridge, S. T. Kubla Khan.
XXX
Suggestions for Further Study
Domett, Alfred. A Christmas Hymn.
Drayton, Michael. The Battle of Agincourt.
Dryden, John. Alexander's Feast.
JONSON, Ben. Hymn to Diana.
Keats, John. Ode on a Grecian Urn.
KiNGSLEY, Charles. Andromeda and The Red King.
Landor, W. S. Orpheus and Eurydice.
Longfellow, H. W. "The Saga of King Olaf" {Tales of a Wayside Inn) and
The Skeleton in Armor.
Lowell, J. R. Rhoecus and The Shepherd of King Admetus.
Macaulay, T. B. Lays of Ancient Rome ("Horatius," "Virginia," "The Battle of
Lake Regillus," and "The Prophecy of Capys"), The Armada, and The Battle
of Ivry.
Miller, Joaquin. Columbus.
Milton, John. Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity.
Praed, W. M. Arminius.
RossETTi, D. G. The White Ship.
Schiller, Friedrich. The Maid of Orleans, William Tell, Maria Stuart, and
Wallenstein.
Scott, (Sir) Walter. "Flodden Field" (Marmion, canto vi, stanzas 19-27, 33-35)-
Shakespeare, William. Coriolanus, Julius Ccesar, Antony and Cleopatra, King
John, Richard the Second, Henry the Fourth, parts i and ii, Henry the Fifth, Henry
the Sixth, parts i, ii, and iii, Richard the Third, Henry the Eighth, and The Mer-
chant of Venice.
Shelley, P. B. To the Nile, Ozymandias, Hymn of Apollo, Arethusa, and Song of
Proserpine.
Tennyson, Alfred. Ulysses, CEnone, The Death of CEnone, Demeter arid Persephone,
The Lotus-Eaters, Boadicea, St. Telemachus, St. Simeon Stylites, Sir Galahad,
and The Revenge: a Ballad of the Fleet.
Thackeray, W. M. King Canute.
Wordsworth, William. Laodamia.
Full information regarding the best translations of the sources of ancient,
medieval, and modern history is to be found in one of the Reports previously
cited — Historical Sources in Schools, parts ii-iv. The use
of the following collections of extracts from the sources
will go far toward remedying the lack of library facihties.
Botsford, G. W., and Botsford, Lillie S. Source Book of Ancient History (N. Y.,
191 2, Macmillan, $1.30).
Davis, W. S. Readings in Ancient History (Boston, 191 2, AUyn and Bacon, 2 vols.,
$2.00).
DuNCALF, Frederic, and Krey, A. C. Parallel Source Problems in Medieval
History (N. Y., 191 2, Harper, $1.10).
Fling, F. M. A Source Book of Greek History (N. Y., 1907, Heath, $1.12).
MuNRO, D. C. A Source Book of Roman History (N. Y., 1904, Heath, $1.12).
Ogg, F. a. a Source Book of Medieval History (N. Y., 1907, American Book Co.,
$1.50).
Robinson, J. H Readings in European History (Abridged ed., Boston, 1906, Ginn,
$1.50).
Thallon, Ida C. Readings in Greek History (Boston, 1914, Ginn, $2.00).
Suggestions for Further Study xxxi
Thatcher, O. J., and McNeal, E. H. A Source Book for Medieval History (N. Y.,
iQos, Scribner, $1.85).
Webster, Hutton. Readings in A^tcieni History (N. Y., igi3, Heath, $1.12).
Readings in Medieval and Modern History (N. Y., 1917, Heath, $1.12).
Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History (N. Y.,
1894-1899, Longmans, Green, and Co., 6 vols., each $1.50).
Most of the books in the following list are inexpensive, easily procured,
and well adapted in style and choice of topics to the needs of immature
Modern pupils. A few more elaborate and costly volumes, especially
Works valuable for their illustrations, are indicated by an asterisk (*) .
For detailed bibliographies, often accompanied by critical estimates, see
C. K. Adams, A Manual of Historical Literature (3d ed., N. Y., 1889, Harper,
$2. 50), and the Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries, parts iii-v.
GENER.\L WORKS
Carlyle, Thomas. On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History (N. Y.,
1840, Button, 35 cents).
Creasy, E. S. The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World from Marathon to Waterloo
(N. Y., 1854, Button, 35 cents).
GiBBiNS, H. DE B. The History of Commerce in Europe (2d ed., N. Y., 1897, Mac-
millan, go cents).
Herbertson, a. J., and Herbertson, F. B. Man and His Work (3d ed., N. Y.,
19 14, Macmillan, 60 cents) . An introduction to the study of human geography.
Jacobs, Joseph. The Story of Geographical Discovery (N. Y., 1898, Appleton, 35
cents) .
Jenks, Edward. A History of Politics (N. Y., 1900, Button, 35 cents). A very
illuminating essay.
EIeane, John. The Evolution of Geography (London, 1899, Stanford, 6s.). Help-
fully illustrated.
Myres, J. L. The Dawn of History (N. Y., 191 2, Holt, 50 cents).
Pattison, R. p. B. Leading Figures in European History (N. Y., 1912, Mac-
millan, $1.60). Biographical sketches of European statesmen from Charle-
magne to Bismarck.
Reinach, Salomon. Apollo; an Illustrated Manual of the History of Art through-
out the Ages, translated by Florence Simmonds (last ed., N. Y., 1914, Scribner,
$1.50). The best brief work on the subject.
Seignobos, Charles. History of Ancient Civilization, edited by J. A. James (N. Y.,
1906, Scribner, $1.25).
History of Medieval and of Modern Civilization, edited by J. A. James
(N. Y., 1907, Scribner, $1.25).
PREHISTORIC TIMES
Clodd, Edward. The Story of Primitive Man (N Y., 1895, Appleton, 35 cents).
Generally accurate and always interesting.
The Childhood of the World (2d ed., N. Y., 1914, Macmillan, $1.25).
Elliott, G. F. S. Prehistoric Man and His Story (Philadelphia, 1915, Lippincott,
$2.00).
HoLBROOK, Florence. Cave, Mound, and Lake Dwellers (N. Y., 191 1, Heath,
44 cents).
xxxii Suggestions for Further Study
Mason, O. T. Woman's Share in Primitive Culture (N. Y., 1894, Appleton, $1.75).
The only work on the subject; by a competent anthropologist.
*OsBORN, H. F. Men of the Old Stone Age (N. Y., 1915, Scribner, $5.00). An
authoritative, interesting, and amply illustrated work.
* Spearing, H. G. The Childhood of Art (N. Y., 1913, Putnam, $6.00). Deals
with primitive and Greek art; richly illustrated.
Starr, Frederick. Some First Steps in Human Progress (Chautauqua, N. Y., 1895,
Chautauqua Press, $1.00). A popular introduction to anthropology.
Tylor, (Sir) E. B. Anthropology (N. Y., 1881, Appleton, $2.00). Incorporates the
results of the author's extensive studies and still remains the best introduction
to the entire field.
ORIENTAL HISTORY
Baikie, James. The Story of the Pharaohs (N. Y., 1908, Macmillan, $2.00). A
popular work; well illustrated.
* Ball, C. J. Light from the East (London, 1899, Eyre and Spottiswoode, 15^.).
An account of Oriental archaeology, with special reference to the Old Testament.
Banks, E. G. The Bible and the Spade (N. Y., 1913, Association Press, $1.00). A
popular presentation of Oriental archaeology.
* Breasted, J. H. A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the Persian Con-
quest (2d ed., N. Y., 1909, Scribner, $5.00). The standard work on Egyptian
history.
Clay, A. T. Light on the East from Babel (4th ed., Philadelphia, 1915, Sunday
School Times Co., $2.00).
* Erman, Adolf. Life in Ancient Egypt (N. Y., 1894, Macmillan, $6.00).
* Handcock, p. S. p. Mesopotamian Archaology (N. Y. 1912, Putnam, $3.5o)-
Hogarth, D. G. The Ancient East (N. Y., 1915, Holt, 50 cents). "Home Univer-
sity Library."
* Jastrow, Morris, Jr. The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria (Philadelphia,
1915, Lippincott, $6.00). A finely illustrated work by a great scholar.
Macalister, R. a. S. a History of Civilization in Palestine (N. Y., 191 2, Putnam,
35 cents). "Cambridge Manuals."
Maspero, (Sir) Gaston. Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria (N.Y., 1892, Appleton,
$1.50). Fascinating and authoritative.
Ragozin, Zenaide a. Earliest Peoples (N. Y., 1899, Harison, 60 cents). A well-
written, fully-illustrated account of prehistoric man and the beginnings of
history in Babylonia.
Early Egypt (N. Y., 1900, Harison, 60 cents).
GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY
Abbott, Evelyn. Pericles and the Golden Age of Athens (N. Y., 1891, Putnam,
$1 .50) . "Heroes of the Nations."
Baikie, James. The Sea-Kings of Crete (2d ed., N. Y., 191 2, Macmillan, $1.75)-
A clear and vivid summary of Cretan archaeology.
Blijmner, Hugo. The Home Life of the Ancient Greeks, translated by Alice Zim-
mem (3d ed., N. Y., 1910, Funk and Wagnalls Co., $2.00).
Bulley, Margaret H. Ancient and Medieval Art (N. Y., 1914, Macmillan, $1.75)-
An elementary treatment, particularly designed for schools.
Church, A. J., and Oilman, Arthur. The Story of Carthage (N. Y., 1886, Putnam,
$1.50). " Story of the Nations."
Suggestions for Further Study xxxiii
Davis, W. S. The Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome (N. Y., 1910, Macmillan,
$2.00). An interesting treatment of an important theme.
A Day in Old Athens (Boston, 1914, AUyn and Bacon, $1.00).
An Outline History of the Roman Empire (N. Y., igog, Macmillan, 65 cents).
Covers the period 44 B.C. -3 7 8 a.d.
* Dennie, John. Rome of To-day and Yesterday; the Pagan City (5th ed., N. Y.,
igog, Putnam, $3.50).
Fowler, W. W. Rome (N. Y., igi2, Holt, 50 cents).
The City-State of the Greeks and Romans (N. Y., i8g3, Macmillan, $1.00).
The only constitutional history of the classical peoples intelligible to elementary
students.
Social Life at Rome in the Age of Cicero (N. Y., igog, Macmillan, 50 cents).
In every way admirable.
Julius CfBsar and the Foundation of the Roman Imperial System (2d ed..
N. Y., i8g7, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations."
* Gardner, E. A. Ancient Athens (N. Y., igo2, Macmillan, $3.50).
Gayley, C. M. The Classic Myths in English Literature and in Art (2d ed., Boston,
igii, Ginn, $1.60). Of special importance for the illustrations.
Goodyear, W. H. Roman and Medieval Art (2d ed., N. Y., i8g7, Macmillan,
$1.00).
Grant, A. J. Greece in the Age of Pericles (N. Y., i8g3, Scribner, $1.25).
GuLiCK, C. B. The Life of the Ancient Greeks (N. Y., igo2, Appleton, $1.40).
* Hall, H. R. J^gean Archceology (N. Y., igi5, Putnam, $3.75)- A well-written
and well-illustrated volume.
Hawes, C. H., and Hawes, Harriet B. Crete, the Forerunner of Greece (N. Y.,
igog. Harper, 75 cents).
How, W. W. Hannibal and the Great War between Rome and Carthage (London,
i8gg, Seeley, 2s).
Jones, H. S. The Roman Empire, B.C. 2q~A.D. 476 (N. Y., igo8, Putnam,
$1.50). "Story of the Nations."
* Lanciani, Rudolfo. The Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome (Boston, 1898,
Houghton Mifflin Co., $4.00).
Mahaffy, J. P. Old Greek Life (N. Y., 1876, American Book Co., 35 cents).
What have the Greeks done for Modern Civilization? (N. Y., igog, Putnam,
$1.50).
Mahaffy, J. P., and Gilman, Arthur. The Story of Alexander's Empire (N. Y.,
1887, Putnam, $1.50). The only concise narrative of the Hellenistic period.
* Mau, August. Pompeii: its Life and Art, translated by F. W. Kelsey (N. Y.,
i8gg, Macmillan, $2.50).
Morris, W. O'C. Hannibal and the Crisis of the Struggle between Carthage and
Rome (N. Y., i8g7, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations."
Oman, Charles. Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Republic (N. Y., igo2, Long-
mans, Green, and Co., $1.60). A biographical presentation of Roman history.
Pellison, Maurice. Roman Life in Pliny's Time, translated by Maud Wilkinson
(Philadelphia, i8g7, Jacobs, $1.00).
Pickard-Cambridge, a. W. Demosthenes and the Last Days of Greek Freedom
(N. Y., igi4, Putnam, $1 .50) . "Heroes of the Nations."
Powers, H. H. The Message of Greek Art (N. Y., igi3, Macmillan, 50 cents).
Preston, Harriet W., and Dodge, Louise. The Private Life of the Romans (N. Y.,
i8g3, Sanborn, $1.05).
xxxiv Suggestions for Further Study
Robinson, C. E. The Days of Alkihiades (N. Y., 1916, Longmans, Green, and
Co., $1.50). A picture of Greek life and culture in the Age of Pericles.
* Seymour, T. D. Life in the Homeric Age (N. Y., 1907, Macmillan, $4.00).
* Stobart, J. C. The Glory that was Greece: a Survey of Hellenic Culture and Civiliza-
tion (Philadelphia, 191 1, Lippincott, $7-5o)-
* The Grandeur that was Rome: a Survey of Roman Culture and Civilization
(Philadelphia, 1912, Lippincott, $7.5o)-
Strachan-Davidson, J. S. Cicero and the Fall of the Roman Republic (N. Y.,
1894, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations."
Tarbell, F. B. a History of Greek Art (2d ed., N. Y., 1905, Macmillan, $1.00).
TozER, H. F. Classical Geography (N. Y., 1883, American Book Co., 35 cents).
A standard manual.
Tucker, T. G. Life in Ancient Athens (N. Y., 1906, Macmillan, $1.25). The most
attractive treatment of the subject.
Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul (N. Y., 1910, Macmillan,
$2.50).
* Walters, H. B. The Art of the Greeks (N. Y., 1900, Macmillan, $6.00).
* The Art of the Romans (N. Y., 1911, Macmillan, $5.00).
* Weller, C. H. Athens and its Monuments (N. Y., 1913, Macmillan, $4.00).
Wheeler, B. I. Alexander the Great and the Merging of East and West into Universal
History (N. Y., 1900, Putnam, $1.50). "Heroes of the Nations."
WiLKiNS, A. S. Roman Antiquities (N. Y., 1884, American Book Co., 35 cents).
MEDIEVAL HISTORY
Adams, G. B. The Growth of the French Nation (N. Y., 1896, Macmillan, $1.25).
The best short history of France.
Archer, T. A., and Kingsford, C. L. The Crusades (N. Y., 1894, Putnam, $1.50).
Baring-Gould, Sabine. Curious Myths of the Middle Ages (N. Y., 1869, Longmans,
Green, and Co., $1.25).
Bateson, Mary. Medieval England (N. Y., 1903, Putnam, $1.50). Deals with
social and economic life. " Story of the Nations."
Cheyney, E. p. An Introduction to the Industrial and Social' History of England
(N. Y., 1901, Macmillan, $1.40). The best brief work on the subject.
Church, R. W. The Beginning of the Middle Ages (N. Y., 1877, Scribner, $1.00).
CuTTS, E. L. Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages (London, 1872, De La More
Press, ys. 6d.). An almost indispensable book; illustrated.
Davis, H. W. C. Medieval Europe (N. Y., 191 1, Holt, 50 cents).
Charlemagne, the Hero of Two Nations (N. Y., 1899, Putnam, $1.50).
"Heroes of the Nations."
Emerton, Ephraim. An Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages (Boston, 1888,
Ginn, $1.10). The most satisfactory short account, and of special value to
beginners.
FOORD, Edward. The Byzantine Empire (N. Y., 191 1, Macmillan, $2.00). The
most convenient short treatment; lavishly illustrated.
* Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
edited by J. B. Bury (N. Y., 1914, Macmillan, 7 vols., $25.00). The best
edition, illustrated and provided with maps, of this standard work.
* Green, J. R. Short History of the English People, edited by Mrs. J. R. Green
and Miss Kate Norgate (N. Y., 1 893-1 895, Harper, 4 vols., $20.00). A beauti-
fully illustrated edition of this standard work.
Suggestions for Further Study xxxv
GuERBER, H. A. Legends of the Middle Ages (N. Y., 1896, American Book Co.,
$1.50).
Haskins, C. H. The Normans in European History (Boston, 191 S> Houghton
Mifflin Co., $2.00).
HoDGKiN, Thomas. The Dynasty of Theodosius (N. Y., 1899, Oxford University-
Press, American Branch, $1.50). Popular lectures summarizing the author's
extensive studies.
Jessopp, Augustus. The Coming of the Friars, and Other Historic Essays (N. Y.,
1888, Putnam, $1.25). A book of great interest.
* Lacroix, Paul. Science and Literature in the' Middle Ages and at the Period of
the Renaissance (London, 1880, Bickers and Son, out of print).
Lawrence, W. W. Medieval Story (N. Y., 191 1, Columbia University Press, $1 .50) .
Discusses the great Uterary productions of the Middle Ages.
Ma\ver, Allen. The Vikings (N. Y, 1913, Putnam, 35 cents).
MuNRO, D. C, and Sellery, G. C Medieval Civilization (2d ed., N. Y., 1907,
Century Co., $2.00). Translated selections from standard works by French
and German scholars.
Rait, R. S. Life in the Medieval University (N. Y., 191 2, Putnam, 35 cents).
"Cambridge Manuals."
Synge, M. B. a Short History of Social Life in England (N. Y., 1906, Barnes,
$1.50).
Tappan, Eva M. When Knights were Bold (Boston, 191 2, Houghton Mifflin
Co., $2.00). An economic and social study of the Feudal Age; charmingly
written.
TiCKNER, F. W. A Social and Industrial History of England (N. Y., 191 5, Long-
mans, Green, and Co., $1.00). Very simply written and well illustrated.
* Wright, Thomas. The Homes of Other Days (London, 1871, Triibner, out of
print) . Valuable for both text and illustrations.
TRANSITION TO MODERN TIMES
Cheyney, E. p. European Background of American History, 1 300-1600 (N. Y.,
1904, Harper, $2.00).
Creighton, Mandell. The Age of Elizabeth (13th ed., N. Y., 1897, Scribner,
$1.00). "Epochs of Modern History."
FiSKE, John. The Discovery and Colonization of North America (Boston, 1905,
Ginn, 90 cents).
Gardiner, S. R. The Thirty Years' War (N. Y., 1874, Scribner, $1.00).
Goodyear, W. H. Renaissance and Modern Art (N. Y., 1894, Macmillan, $1.00).
Hudson, W. H. The Story of the Renaissance (N. Y., 191 2, Cassell, |i .50) . A well-
written volume.
Hulme, E. M. The Renaissance, the Protestant Revolution, and the Catholic Reforma-
tion in Continental Europe (rev. ed., N. Y., 1915, Century Co., $2.50). The
best work on the subject by an American scholar.
* Joyce, T. A. Mexican Archceology (N. Y., 1914, Putnam, $4.00).
South American Archeology (N. Y., 1912, Putnam, $3.50)-
Kerr, P. H., and Kerr, A. C. The Growth of the British Empire (N. Y., 1911,
Longmans, Green, and Co., 50 cents).
Oldham, J. B. The Renaissance (N. Y., 191 2, Dutton, 35 cents).
Seebohm, Frederic. The Era of the Protestant Revolution (N. Y., 1875, Scribner,
$1.00). "Epochs of Modern History."
EARLY
EUROPEAN HISTORY
CHAPTER I
THE AGES BEFORE HISTORY
1. The Study of History
History is the narrative of what civiHzed man has done. It
deals with those social groups called states and nations. Just
as biography de- Subject mat-
scribes the Hfe of *e^ ^^ history
individuals, so history relates
the rise, progress, and decline
of human societies.
History cannot go back of
written records. These alone
will preserve a Manuscripts
full and accurate ^"^^ ^o^ks
account of man's achieve-
ments. Manuscripts and
books form one class of writ-
ten records. The old Baby-
lonians used tablets of soft
clay, on which signs were im-
pressed with a metal instru-
ment. The tablets were then
baked hard in an oven. The
Egyptians made a kind of
paper out of the papyrus, a plant native to the Nile valley. The
Greeks and Romans at first used papyrus, but later they employed
the more lasting parchment prepared from sheepskin. Paper
seems to have been a Chinese invention. It was introduced
into Europe by the Arabs during the twelfth century of our era.
The Disk of Ph^stus
Found in 1908 a.d. in the palace at Phaes-
tus, Crete. The disk is of refined clay on
which the figures were stamped in relief with
punches. Both sides of the disk are covered
with characters. The side seen in the illustra-
tion contains 31 sign groups (123 signs) sepa-
rated from one another by incised lines. The
other side contains 30 sign groups (118 signs).
The inscription dates from about 1800 B.C.
The Ages before History
A second class of written records consists of inscriptions.
These are usually cut in stone, but sometimes we find them
Inscriptions painted over the surface of a wall, stamped on
and remains coins, or impressed upon metal tablets. The his-
torian also makes use of remains, such as statues, ornaments,
A Papyrus Manuscript
The pith of the papyrus, a plant native to the Nile valley, was cut into slices,
which were then pressed together and dried in the sun. Several of the paper sheets
thus formed were glued together at their edges to form a roll. From papyros
and byblos, the two Greek names of this plant, have come our own words,
" paper " and " Bible." The illustration shows a manuscript discovered in Egypt
in 1890 A.D. It is supposed to be a treatise, hitherto lost, on the Athenian con-
stitution by the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
weapons, tools, and utensils. Monuments of various sorts, in-
cluding palaces, tombs, fortresses, bridges, temples, and churches,
form a very important class of remains.
History, based on written records, begins in different coun-
Beginnings tries at varying dates. A few manuscripts and
of history inscriptions found in Egypt date back three or
four thousand years before Christ. The annals of Babylonia are
Prehistoric Peoples
scarcely less ancient. Trustworthy records in China and India
do not extend beyond looo B.C. For the Greeks and Romans
the commencement of the historic period must be placed
about 750 B.C. The inhabitants of northern Europe did not
come into the light of history until about the opening of the
Christian era.
2. Prehistoric People
In studying the historic period our chief concern is with those
peoples whose ideas or whose deeds
have aided human The prehis-
progress and the toric period
spread of civilization. Six-sevenths
of the earth's inhabitants now be-
long to civilized countries, and
these countries include the best and
largest regions of the globe. At the
beginning of historic times, how-
ever, civilization was confined
within a narrow area — the river
valleys of western Asia and Egypt.
The uncounted centuries before the
dawn of history make up the pre-
historic period, when savagery and
barbarism prevailed throughout
the world. Our knowledge of it is
derived from the examination of
the objects found in caves, refuse mounds, graves, and other
sites. Various European countries, including England, France,
Denmark, Switzerland, and Italy, are particularly rich in pre-
historic remains.
The prehistoric period is commonly divided, according to the
character of the materials used for tools and weapons, into the
Age of Stone and the Age of Metals. The one is
the age of savagery; the other is the age of bar-
barism or semicivilization.
Man's earliest implements were those that lay ready to his
A Prehistoric Egyptian
Grave
The skeleton lay on the left side,
with knees drawn up and hands raised
to the head. About it were various
articles of food and vessels of pottery.
The two ages
The Ages before History
OF
A Hatchet
THE Early
Stone i\.GE
hand. A branch from a tree served as a spear; a thick stick in
The stone his strong arms became a powerful club. Later,
Ag® perhaps, came the use of a hard stone such as flint,
which could be chipped into the forms of arrowheads, axes, and
spear tips. The first stone implements were
so rude in shape that it is difiicult to believe
them of human workmanship. They may have
been made several hundred thousand years ago.
After countless centuries of slow advance, sav-
ages learned to fasten wooden handles to their
stone tools and weapons and also to use such
materials as jade and granite, which could be
ground and polished into a variety of forms.
Stone implements continued to be made dur-
ing the greater part of the prehistoric period.
Every region of the world has had a Stone
Age.^ Its length is reckoned, not by centuries,
but by milleniums.
The Age of Metals, compared with its prede-
The Age of cessor, covers a brief expanse of
Metals time. The use of metals came in
not much before the dawn of history. The earliest civilized
peoples, the Babylonians and Egyptians, Avhen we first become
acquainted with them, appear to be passing from the use of
stone implements to those of metal.
Copper was the first metal in common use. The credit for
the invention of copper tools seems to belong to the Eg>^-
tians. At a very early date they were working the
copper mines on the peninsula of Sinai. The Baby-
lonians probably obtained their copper from the same region.
Another source of this metal was the island of Cyprus in the
eastern Mediterranean. The Greek name of the island means
''copper."
1 There are still some savage peoples, for instance, the Australians, who con-
tinue to make stone implements very similar to those of prehistoric men. Other
primitive peoples, such as the natives of the Pacific islands, passed directly from the
use of stone to that of iron, after this part of the world was opened up to European
trade in the nineteenth century.
A hatchet of flint,
probably used with-
out a helve and in-
tended to fit the
hand. Similar im-
plements have
been found all over
the world, except in
Australia.
Copper
Prehistoric Peoples 5
But copper tools were soft and would not keep an edge.
Some ancient smith, more ingenious than his fellows, discovered
that the addition of a small part of tin to the copper
produced a new metal — bronze — harder than
the old, yet capable of being molded into a variety of forms.
At least as early as 3000 B.C. we find bronze taking the place
of copper in both Egypt and Babylonia. Somewhat later bronze
Bronze
Iron
Arrowheads or the Later Stone Age
Different forms from Europe, Africa, and North America.
was introduced into the island of Crete, then along the eastern
coast of Greece, and afterwards into other European countries.
The introduction of iron occurred in comparatively recent
times. At first it was a scarce, and therefore a very precious,
metal. The Egyptians seem to have made little
use of iron before 1500 B.C. They called it "the
metal of heaven," as if they obtained it from meteorites. In
the Greek Homeric poems, composed about 900 B.C. or later,
we find iron considered so valuable that a lump of it is one of
the chief prizes at athletic games. In the first five books
of the Bible iron is mentioned only thirteen times, though
copper and bronze are referred to forty-four times. Iron is
more difficult to work than either copper or bronze, but it is
vastly superior to those metals in hardness and durability.
Hence it gradually displaced them throughout the greater part
of the Old World.i
During the prehistoric period early man came to be widely
1 Iron was unknown to the inhabitants of North America and South America
before the coming of the Europeans. The natives used many stone implements,
besides those of copper and bronze. The Indians got most of their copper from the
mines in the Lake Superior region, whence it was carried far and wide.
6 The Ages before History
scattered throughout the world. Here and there, slowly, and
First steps ^^^^ ^^^ Utmost difficulty, he began to take the
toward civiii- first steps toward civilization. The tools and
^**^°° weapons which he left behind him afford some
evidence of his advance. We may now single out some of his
other great achievements and follow their development to the
dawn of history.
3. Domestication of Animals and Plants
Prehistoric man lived at first chiefly on wild berries, nuts,
roots, and herbs. As his implements improved and his skill
Hunting and increased, he became hunter, trapper, and fisher,
fishing stage ^ ^j-j^g Qf hunters, however, requires an extensive
territory and a constant supply of game. When the wild animals
are all killed or seriously reduced in number, privation and hard-
ship result. It was a forward step, therefore, when man began
to tame animals as well as to kill them.
The dog was man's first conquest over the animal kingdom.
As early as the Age of Metals various breeds appear, such as
Domestica- deerhounds, sheep dogs, and mastiffs. The dog
tion of the soon showed how useful he could be. He tracked
°^ game, guarded the camp, and later, in the pas-
toral stage, protected flocks and herds against their enemies.
The cow also w^as domesticated at a remote period. No
other animal has been more useful to mankind. The cow's
flesh and milk supply food; the skin provides
The cow , , . , . ^^/ ' , , . f ,
clothmg; the smews, bones, and horns yield mate-
rials for implements. The ox was early trained to bear the yoke
and draw the plow, as w^e may learn from ancient Eg}^tian
paintings.^ Cattle have also been commonly used as a kind of
money. The early Greeks, whose wealth consisted chiefly of
their herds, priced a slave at twenty oxen, a suit of armor at one
hundred oxen, and so on. The early Romans reckoned values
in cattle (one ox being equivalent to ten sheep). Our English
word "pecuniary" goes back to the Latin pecus, or "herd" of
cattle.
1 See the illustration, page 45.
Domestication of Animals and Plants 7
The domestication of the horse came much later than that of
the cow. In the early Stone Age the horse ran wild over west-
ern Europe and ^^ ,
^ . The horse
formed an im-
portant source of food for
primitive men. This prehis-
toric horse, as some ancient
drawings show,^ was a small
animal with a shaggy mane
and tail. It resembled the Early Roman Bar Money
wild pony still found on the a bar of copper marked with the figure of a
/• TV r 1. rm 1 bull. Dates from the fourth century B.C.
steppes 01 Mongolia, i he do-
mesticated horse does not appear in Egypt and western Asia
much before 1500 B.C. For a long time after the horse was
tamed, the more manageable ox continued to be used as the beast
of burden. The horse was kept for chariots of war, as among the
Egyptians, or ridden bareback in races, as by the early Greeks.
At the close of prehistoric times in the Old World nearly all
the domestic animals of to-day were known. Be- other ani-
sides those just mentioned, the goat, sheep, ass, mais domes-
and hog had become man's useful servants.^ ^^ ^
The domestication of animals made possible an advance from
the hunting and fishing stage to the pastoral stage. Herds of
cattle and sheep would now furnish more certain Pastoral
and abundant supplies of food than the chase could ^*^se
ever yield. We find in some parts of the world, as on the great
Asiatic plains, the herdsman succeeding the hunter and fisher.
But even in this stage much land for grazing is required. With
the exhaustion of the pasturage the sheep or cattle must be
driven to new fields. Hence pastoral peoples, as well as hunting
and fishing folk, remained nomads without fixed homes. Before
permanent settlements were possible, another onward step
became necessary. This was the domestication of plants.
^ See the illustration, page 14.
2 In the New World, the only important domestic animal was the llama of the
Andes. The natives used it as a beast of burden, ate its flesh, and clothed themselves
with its wool.
8 The Ages before History
The domestication of plants marked almost as wonderful
an advance as the domestication of animals. When wild seed-
Agricultural grasses and plants had been transformed into the
stage gj-eat cereals — wheat, oats, barley, and rice —
people could raise them for food, and so could pass from the hfe
of wandering hunters or shepherds to the life of settled farmers.
There is evidence that during the Stone Age some of the inhabit-
ants of Europe were familiar with various cultivated plants, but
agriculture on a large scale seems to have begun in the fertile
regions of Egypt and western Asia.^ Here first arose populous
communities with leisure to develop the arts of Hfe. Here, as has
been already seen,^ we must look for the beginnings of history.
4. Writing and the Alphabet
Though history is always based on written records, the first
steps toward writing are prehistoric. We start with the pictures
Picture or rough drawings which have been found among
writing the remains of the early Stone Age.^ Primitive
man, however, could not rest satisfied with portraying objects.
^ 2 3 4 5
Various Signs of Symbolic Picture Writing
I, "war" (Dakota Indian); 2, "morning" (Ojibwa Indian); 3, " nothing" (Ojibwa In-
dian); 4 and s, " to eat" (Indian, Mexican, Egyptian, etc.)-
He wanted to record thoughts and actions, and so his pictures
tended to become symbols of ideas. The figure of an arrow
might be made to represent, not a real object, but the idea
of an ''enemy." A "fight" could then be shown simply by
drawing two arrows directed against each other. Many un-
civilized tribes still employ picture writing of this sort. The
American Indians developed it in most elaborate fashion. On
1 The plants domesticated in the New World were not numerous. The most
important were the potato of Peru and Ecuador, Indian com or maize, tobacco, the
tomato, and manioc. From the roots of the latter, the starch called tapioca is
derived. 2 See page 2. 3 See the illustration, page 14.
Writing and the Alphabet 9
rolls of birch bark or the skins of animals they wrote messages,
hunting stories, and songs, and even preserved tribal annals
extending over a century.
A new stage in the development of writing was reached when
the picture represented, not an actual object or an idea, but a
sound of the human voice. This difficult but all- goy^d writ-
important step appears to have been taken through ing; the
the use of the rebus, that is, writing words by pic-
tures of objects which stand
PFTT^ ik fTP^ for sounds. Such rebuses
^ are found m prehistoric
Mexican Rebus Egyptian writing; for ex-
The Latin Pater Nosier, "Our Father," is ample, the Egyptian WOrds
written by a flag (pan), a stone (te), a prickly fQj- ''sun" and "gOOSe"were
pear (mocA), and another stone (/e). . ... , ,
SO nearly alike that the
royal title, "Son of the Sun," could be suggested by grouping
the pictures of the sun and a goose. Rebus making is still a
common game among children, but to primitive men it must
have been a serious occupation.
Song (an ear
Sun Moon Mountain Tall and a bird) Light
O J) V 1^ •s'l ©J)
Chinese Picture Writing and Later Conventional Characters
In the simplest form of sound writing each separate picture or
symbol stands for the sound of an entire word. This method
was employed by the Chinese, who have never Words and
given it up. A more developed form of sound syllables
writing occurs when signs are used for the sounds, not of entire
words, but of separate syllables. Since the number of different
syllables which the voice can utter is limited, it now becomes
possible to write all the words of a language with a few hundred
signs. The Japanese, who borrowed some of the Chinese
symbols, used them to denote syllables, instead of entire words.
lO
The Ages before History
The Babylonians possessed, in their cuneiform ^ characters,
signs for about five hundred syllables. The prehistoric in-
habitants of Crete appear to have been acquainted with a
somewhat similar system. ^
The final step in the de-
velopment of writing is
taken when
Letters
the separate
sounds of the voice are
analyzed and each is rep-
resented by a single sign or
letter. With alphabets of
a few score letters every
word in a language may
easily be written.
The Egyptians early de-
veloped such an alphabet.
Unfortunately they never
gave up their older meth-
ods of writing and learned
Egyptian hi- to rely upon
eroglyphics alphabetic
signs alone. Egyptian
hieroglyphics ^ are a curious jumble of object-pictures, symbols
of ideas, and signs for entire words, separate syllables, and
letters. The writing is a museum of all the steps in the
development from the picture to the letter.
As early, apparently, as the tenth century B.C. we find the
Phoenicians of western Asia in possession of an alphabet. It
consisted of twenty-two letters, each representing a consonant.
Phoenician The Phoenicians do not seem to have invented
alphabet ^j^gj^j- alphabetic signs. It is • generally believed
that they borrowed them from the Egyptians, but recent dis-
coveries in Crete perhaps point to that island as the source of
the Phoenician alphabet.
1 Latin cuneus, "a wedge." 2 ggg page 71.
2 From the Greek words hieros, "holy," and glyphein, "to carve." The Egyp-
tians regarded their signs as sacred.
Cretan Writing
A large tablet with linear script found in the
palace at Gnossus, Crete. There are eight lines
of writing, with a total of about twenty words.
Notice the upright lines, which appear to mark
the termination of each group of signs.
Primitive Science and Art
II
If they did not originate the alphabet now in use, the Phoeni-
cians did most to spread a knowledge of it in other lands. They
were bold sailors and traders who bought and sold Diffusion of
throughout the Mediterranean. Wherever they the Phoenician
went, they took their alphabet. From the Phoe- ^p^*^^*
nicians the Greeks learned their letters. Then the Greeks
^^
I 5
^Zi
l<0 /© fc-
lU
% r^^'t^f^^i'A)
^
SI
*
^^HTT^^M-C^^im^ t^;^-5^T^TTr*
-*rt2S
yf ;|TTi tr^t^^lM 4^ST m^
Egyptian and Babylonian Writing
Below the pictured hieroglyphics in the first Une is the same text in a simpler writing
known as hieratic. The two systems, however, were not distinct; they were as identical as
cur own printed and written characters. The third line illustrates old Babylonian cunei-
form, in which the characters, Uke the hieroglyphics, are rude and broken-down pictures of
objects. Derived from them is the later cuneiform shown in lines four and five.
taught them to the Romans, from whom other European
peoples borrowed them.^
5. Primitive Science and Art
We have already seen that prehistoric men in their struggle
for existence had gathered an extensive fund of information.
They could make useful and artistic implements Foundations
of stone. They could work many metals into a of scientific
variety of tools and weapons. They were practi- ^°^^®^s®
cal botanists, able to distinguish different plants and to culti-
vate them for food. They were close students of animal
1 Our word "alphabet" comes from the names of the first two letters of the
Greek alphabet, alpha (o) and beta {b) .
12
The Ages before History
life and expert hunters and fishers. They knew how to pro-
duce fire and preserve it, how to cook, how to fashion pottery
and baskets, how to spin
and weave, how to build
boats and houses. After writ-
ing came into general use, all
this knowledge served as the
foundation of science.
We can still distinguish
some of the first steps in sci-
Counting and en tific k n O W 1 -
measuring ^^g^^ Thus,
counting began with calcula-
tions on one's fingers, a
method still familiar to
children. P'inger counting ex-
plains the origin of the deci-
mal system. The simplest,
and probably the earliest,
measures of length are those
based on various parts of the
body. Some of our Indian
tribes, for instance, employed
the double arm's length, the
single arm's length, the hand
w^idth, and the finger width.
Old English standards, such
hand, go back to this very
The Moabite Stone
Louvre, Paris
Found in 1868 A.D. at Diban, east of the
Dead Sea. The monument records the victory
of Mesha, king of Moab, over the united armies
of Israel and Judah, about 850 B.C. The in-
scription, consisting of 34 lines, is one of the
most ancient examples of Phoenician writing.
as the span, the ell, and the
obvious method of measuring on the body.
It is interesting to trace the beginnings of time reckoning and
of that most important institution, the calendar. Most primi-
Calcuiation of ^^^^ tribes reckon time by the lunar month, the
time; the interval between two new moons (about twenty-
nine days, twelve hours). Twelve lunar months
give us the lunar year of about three hundred and fifty-four
days. In order to adapt such a year to the different seasons,
the practice arose of inserting a thirteenth month from time
Primitive Science and Art
13
to time. Such awkward calendars were used in antiquity by
the Babylonians, Jews, and Greeks; in modern times by the
Arabs and Chinese. The Egyptians were the only people in
the Old World to frame a solar year. From the Egyptians it
has come down,
through the Ro-
mans, to us.^
The study of pre-
historic art takes
us back Early draw-
to the ing and paint-
early ^^^
Stone Age. The
men of that age in
western Europe lived
among animals such
as the mammoth,
cave bear, and
woolly-haired r h i -
noceros, which have
since disappeared, and among many others, such as the lion
and hippopotamus, which now exist only in warmer climates.
Armed with clubs, flint axes, and horn daggers, primitive
hunters killed these fierce beasts and on fragments of their
bones, or on cavern walls, drew pictures of them. Some of
these earliest works of art are remarkably lifelike.
A still later period of the Stone Age witnessed the begin-
nings of architecture. Men had begun to raise Early archi-
the huge dolmens which are found in various parts lecture
of the Old World from England to India. They also erected
enormous stone pillars, known as menhirs. Carved in the
semblance of a human face and figure, the menhir became a
statue, perhaps the first ever made.
As we approach historic times, we note a steady improve-
ment in the various forms of art. Recent discoveries in Egypt,
Greece, Italy, and other lands indicate that their early inhabit-
^ See page 186 and note 2.
Head of a Girl
Musee S. Germain, Paris
A small head of a young girl carved from mammoth
ivory. Found at Brassempouy, France, in cave deposits
belonging to the early Stone Age. The hair is arranged
somewhat after the early Egyptian fashion. Of the fea-
tures the mouth alone is wanting.
Sketch of Mammoth on a Tusk found in a Cave in France
^' Cave Bear drawn on a Pebble
Bison painted on the Wall of a Cave
Wild Horse on the Wall of a Cave in Spain
PREHISTORIC ART
Later be pictured an aurochs — later he pictured a bear —
Pictured the sabre-toothed tiger dragging a man to his lair —
Pictured the mountainous mammoth, hairy, abhorrent, alone —
Out of the love that he bore them, scribing them clearly on bone. — Kipling.
14
Historic Peoples
IS
ants were able architects, often building on a colossal scale.
Their paintings and sculptures prepared the way significance
for the work of later artists. Our survey of the of prehistoric
origins of art shows us that in this field, as else-
where, we must start with the things accomplished by prehis-
toric men.
6. Historic Peoples
At the dawn of history the various regions of the world were
already „
•^ Races of man
m the
possession of many
different peoples.
Such physical char-
acteristics as the
shape of the skull,
the features, stature,
or complexion may
serve to distinguish
one people from
another. Other
grounds for distinc-
tion are found in
language, customs.
n
^^^^^^ — . — . wjr >j^.^^.
A Dolmen
Department of Morbihan, Brittany
A dolmen was a single-chambered tomb formed by lay-
ing one long stone over several other stones set upright in
the ground. Most, if not all, dolmens were originally cov-
beliefs, and general ered with earth.
intelhgence.
If we take complexion or color as the basis of classification,
it is possible to distinguish a few large racial groups. Each of
these groups occupies, roughly speaking, its sepa- classification
rate area of the globe. The most familiar classi- °^ ^^^^^
fication is that which recognizes the Black or Negro race dwell-
ing in Africa, the Yellow or Mongolian race whose home is in
central and eastern Asia, and the White or Caucasian race of
western Asia and Europe. Sometimes two additional divi-
sions are made by including, as the Red race, the American
Indians, and as the Brown race, the natives of the Pacific
islands.
i6
The Ages before History
Indo-Euro-
peans and
Semites
Semites.^
These separate racial groups have made very unequal progress
in culture. The peoples belonging to the Black, Red, and
The White Brown races are still either savages or barbarians, as
"*^® were the men of prehistoric times. The Chinese
and Japanese are the only representatives of the Yellow race
that have been able to form civil-
ized states. In the present, as in
the past, it is chiefly the members of
the White race who are developing
civilization and making history.
Because of differences in language,
scholars have divided the White or
Caucasian race into two
main groups, called
Indo-Europeans and
This classification is often
helpful, but the student should re-
member that Indo-European and
Semitic peoples are not always to be
sharply distinguished because they
have different types of language.
There is no very clear distinction in
physical characteristics between the
two groups. A clear skin, an oval face, wavy or curly hair, and
regular features separate them from both the Negro and the
Mongohan.
The Indo-Europeans in antiquity included the Hindus of
Principal India, the Medes and Persians dwelhng on the
Indo-Euro- plateau of Iran, the Greeks and Italians, j and
pean peop es ^^^^ q£ ^j^g inhabitants of central and western
Europe. All these peoples spoke related languages which are
believed to be offshoots from one common tongue. Likeness
in language does not imply that all Indo-Europeans were
1 The Old Testament {Genesis, x. 21-22) represents Shem (or Sem), son of
Noah, as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. The title "Indo-Europeans" tells us
that the members of that group now dwell in India and in Europe. Indo-European
peoples are popularly called "Aryans," from a word in Sanskrit (the old Hindu
language) meaning "noble."
Carved Menhir
From Saint Sernin in Aveyron, a
department of southern France.
Historic Peoples
17
closely related in blood. Men often adopt a foreign tongue
and pass it on to their children.
The various Semitic nations dweUing in western Asia and
Arabia were more closely connected with one another. They
spoke much the same type of language, and in pj-incipai
physical traits and habits of Hfe they appear to Semitic
have been akin. The Semites in antiquity included ^®°^ ^^
the Babylonians and Assyrians, the Hebrews, Phoenicians, and
Arabs.
Race Portraiture of the Egyptians
Paintings on the walls of royal tombs. The Egyptians were painted red, the Semites
yellow, the Negroes black, and the Libyans white, with blue eyes and fair beards. Each
racial type is distinguished by peculiar dress and characteristic features.
At the opening of the historic period still other parts of the
world were the homes of various peoples who cannot be classed
with certainty as either Indo-Europeans or Semites, peoples of
Among these were the Egyptians and some of the uncertain re-
inhabitants of Asia Minor. We must remember * ^°°^ ^^
that, during the long prehistoric ages, repeated conquests and
migrations mingled the blood of many different communities.
History, in fact, deals with no unmixed peoples.
i8
The Ages before History
ATLANTIC,
OCEAN
.,„,r^IP EURO
Longitude 20° East from 40 ° Greenwich
Studies
I. On an outline map indicate the areas occupied in antiquity by Semites and
Indo-Europeans. 2. Find definitions for the following terms: society, nation,
state, government, institution, culture,, and civilization. 3. Explain the abbre-
viations B.C. and A.D. In what century was the year 1917 B.C.? the year 1917 a.d.?
4. Look up the derivation of the words "paper" and "Bible." 5. Distinguish
between the three stages of savagery, barbarism, and civilization, and give examples
of existing peoples in each stage. 6. Can you name any savages still living in the
Stone Age? 7. What stone implements have you ever seen? Who made them?
Where were they? 8. Why should the discovery of fire be regarded as of more
significance than the discovery of steam? 9. Why has the invention of the bow-
and-arrow been of greater importance than the invention of gunpowder? 10. How
does the presence of few tamable animals in the New World help to account for its
tardier development as compared with the Old World? 11. What examples of pas-
toral and agricultural life among the North American Indians are familiar to you?
12. Give examples of peoples widely different in blood who nevertheless speak the
same language. 13. In the classification of mankind, where do the Arabs belong?
the Persians? the Germans? the inhabitants of the United States? 14. Enumerate
the most important contributions to civilization made in prehistoric times.
CHAPTER II
THE LANDS AND PEOPLES OF THE EAST TO ABOUT 500B.C.1
7. Physical Asia
Ancient history begins in the East — in Asia and in that part
of Africa called Egypt, which the peoples of antiquity always
regarded as belonging to Asia. If we look at a Grand divi-
physical map of Asia, we see at once that it consists ^^°°^ °^ ^^^*
of two very unequal divisions separated by an almost continu-
ous mass of mountains and deserts. These two divisions are
Farther and Nearer, or Eastern and Western, Asia.
Farther Asia begins at the center of the continent with a
series of elevated table-lands which rise into the lofty plateaus
known as the "Roof of the World." Here two _ ^, . .
. Farther Asia
tremendous mountain chains diverge. The Altai
range runs out to the northeast and reaches the shores of the
Pacific near Bering Strait. The Himalaya range extends
southeast to the Malay peninsula. In the angle formed by
their intersection Hes the cold and barren region of East Tur-
kestan and Tibet, the height of which, in some places, is ten
thousand feet above the sea. From these mountains and
plateaus the ground sinks gradually toward the north into the
lowlands of West Turkestan and Siberia, toward the east and
south into the plains of China and India.
The fertile territory of central China, watered by the two
streams, Yangtse and Hoangho, was settled at a remote period
by barbarous tribes. The civilization which they
slowly developed in antiquity has endured with
little change until the present day. The inhabitants of neighbor-
ing countries, Korea, Japan, and Indo-China, owe much to
1 Webster, Readings in Ancient History, chapter ii, "The Founders of the
Persian Empire: Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius."
19
20 The Lands and Peoples of the East
this civilization. It has exerted slight influence on the other
peoples of Asia because the Chinese have always occupied a
distant corner of the continent, cut off by deserts and mountains
from the lands on the west. As if these barriers were not enough,
they raised the Great Wall to protect their country from inva-
.ac
m
jn
^
^
'■^
^^
The Great Wall of China
The wall extends for about fifteen hundred miles along the northern frontier of
China. In 1908 a.d. it was traversed for its entire length by an American, Mr. W.
E. Geil. He found many parts of the fortification still in good repair, though built
twenty -one centuries ago.
sion. Behind this mighty rampart the Chinese have lived
secluded and aloof from the progress of our western world. In
ancient times China was a land of mystery.
India was better known than China, especially its two great
rivers, the Indus and the Ganges, which flow to the southwest
and southeast, respectively, and make this part
of the peninsula one of the most fertile territories
on the globe. Such a land attracted immigrants. The region
now known as the Punjab, where the Indus receives the w^aters
of five great streams, was settled by light-skinned Indo-Euro-
peans ^ perhaps as early as 2000 B.C. Then they occupied the
valley of the Ganges and so brought aU northern India under
their control.
1 See page i6.
Physical Asia 21
India did not remain entirely isolated from the rest of Asia.
The Punjab was twice conquered by invaders from the West;
by the Persians in the sixth century B.C./ and India and the
about two hundred years later by the Greeks.- ^®^*
After the end of foreign rule India continued to be of im-
portance through its commerce, which introduced such luxu-
ries as precious stones, spices, and ivory among the western
peoples.
Nearer, or Western Asia, the smaller of the two grand divisions
of the Asiatic continent, is bounded by the Black and Caspian
seas on the north, by the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, .
and Indian Ocean on the south, eastward by the
Indus River, and westward by the Mediterranean and the Nile.
Almost all the countries within this area played a part in the
ancient history of the Orient.
The lofty plateaus of central Asia decline on the west into
the lower but still elevated region of Iran. The western part of
Iran was occupied in antiquity by the kindred Countries of
people known as Medes and Persians. Armenia, Nearer Asia
a wild and mountainous region, is an extension to the northwest
of the Iranian table-land. Beyond Armenia we cross into the
peninsula of Asia Minor, a natural link between Asia and
Europe. Southward from Asia Minor we pass along the Med-
iterranean coast through Syria to Arabia. The Arabian penin-
sula may be regarded as the link between Asia and Africa.
These five countries of Nearer Asia were not well fitted to
become centers of early civilization. They possessed no great
rivers which help to bring people together, and no influence of
broad, fertile plains which support a large popu- geographical
lation. Armenia, Asia Minor, and Syria were *^°° ^*^°^^
broken up into small districts by chains of mountains. Iran
and Arabia were chiefly barren deserts. But two other divisions
of Nearer Asia resembled distant India and China in the pos-
session of a warm climate, a fruitful soil, and an extensive river
system. These lands were Babylonia and Egypt, the first
homes of civilized man.
^ See page 39. 2 See page 125.
22 The Lands and Peoples of the East
8. Babylonia and Egypt
Two famous rivers rise in the remote fastnesses of Armenia —
the Tigris and the Euphrates. As they flow southward, the
The Tigris ^^^'^^ Streams approach each other to form a
and the common valley, and then proceed in parallel
up rates channels for the greater part of their course. In
antiquity each river emptied into the Persian Gulf by a separate
mouth. This Tigris-Euphrates valley was called by the Greeks
Mesopotamia, "the land between the rivers."
Babylonia is a remarkably productive country. The annual
inundation of the rivers has covered its once rocky bottom with
Productions deposits of rich silt. Crops planted in such a soil,
of Babylonia under the influence of a blazing sun, ripen with
great rapidity and yield abundant harvests. "Of all the coun-
tries that we know," says an old Greek traveler, "there is no
other so fruitful in grain." ^ Wheat and barley w^ere perhaps
first domesticated in this part of the world.^ Wheat still grows
wild there. Though Babylonia possessed no forests, it had the
date palm, which needed scarcely any cultivation. If the allu-
vial soil yielded little stone, clay, on the other hand, was every-
where. Molded into brick and afterwards dried in the sun, the
clay became adobe, the cheapest building material imaginable.
In Babylonia Nature seems to have done her utmost to make
Babylonia an ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ people to gain a living. We can under-
early center stand, therefore, w^hy from prehistoric times men
have been attracted to this region, and w^hy it is
here that we must look for one of the earliest seats of civiliza-
tion.^ -H
Egypt may be described as the valley of the Nile. Rising in
the Nyanza lakes of central Africa, that mighty stream, before
Upper and entering Egypt, receives the waters of the Blue
Lower Egypt ^j^g ^ear the modern town of Khartum. From
this point the course of the river is broken by a series of five
1 Herodotus, i, 193. 2 See page 8.
3 It is interesting to note that Hebrew tradition {Genesis, ii, 8-15) places Paradise,
the garden of God and original home of man, in southern Babylonia. The ancient
name for this district was Edin (Eden) .
Babylonia and Egypt
23
rocky rapids, misnamed cataracts, which can be shot by boats.
The cataracts cease near the island of Philae, and Upper Egypt
begins. This is a strip of fertile territory, about five hundred
miles in length but averaging only eight miles in width. Not
far from modern Cairo the hills inclosing the valley fall aAvay,
the Nile divides into numerous branches, and Lower Egypt, or
■"WifliiiWiiWP'^
""ijiiiiii
tV-'^.^' yMA:
imi
iiiif :.._«"^r^ii*»*t^=2
.-cC^^pw'i^.i^'^^^^^i^.^t
The island was originally only a heap of granite bowlders. Retaining walls were built
around it, and the space within, when filled with rich Nile mud, became beautiful with
groves of palms and mimosas. As the result of the construction of the Assuan dam, Philse
and its exquisite temples are now submerged during the winter months, when the reservoir
is fuU.
the Delta, begins. The sluggish stream passes through a region
of mingled swamp and plain, and at length by three principal
mouths empties its waters into the Mediterranean.
Egypt owes her existence to the Nile. All Lower Egypt is a
creation of the river by the gradual accumulation of sediment
at its mouths. Upper Egypt has been dug out j. ^ ^^^
of the desert sand and underlying rock by a process " gift of the
of erosion centuries long. Once the Nile filled all ^^
the space between the hills that line its sides. Now it flows
through a thick layer of alluvial mud deposited by the yearly
inundation.
The Nile begins to rise in June, when the snow melts on the
Abyssinian mountains. High-water mark, some thirty feet above
24 The Lands and Peoples of the East
the ordinary level, is reached in September. The inhabitants
Annual inun- ^^^^ make haste to cut the confining dikes and
dationofthe to spread the fertihzing water over their fields.
Egypt takes on the appearance of a turbid lake,
dotted here and there with island villages and crossed in every
direction by highways elevated above the flood. Late in Octo-
ber the river begins to subside and by December has returned
to its normal level. As the water recedes, it deposits that
dressing of fertile vegetable mold which makes the soil of
Egypt perhaps the richest in the world.^
It was by no accident that Eg3^t, like Babylonia, became one
of the first homes of civilized men. Here, as there, every con-
Egypt an dition made it easy for people to live and thrive,
early center Food was cheap, for it was easily produced. The
peasant needed only to spread his seed broadcast
over the muddy fields to be sure of an abundant return. The
warm, dry climate enabled him to get along w4th Uttle shelter
and clothing. Hence the inhabitants of this favored region
rapidly increased in number and gathered in populous towns
and cities. At a time when most of their neighbors were still
in the darkness of the prehistoric age, the Egyptians had en-
tered the light of history.
9. The Babylonians and the Egyptians
The earhest inhabitants of Babylonia of whom we know any-
thing were a people called Sumerians. They entered the Baby-
Inhabitants Ionian plain through the passes of the eastern
of Babylonia mountains, three or four thousand years before the
Christian era. Here they formed a number of independent
states, each with its capital city, its patron god, and its king.
After them came Semitic tribes from the deserts of northern
Arabia. The Semites mingled with the Sumerians and adopted
Sumerian civihzation.
1 The problem of regulating the Nile inundation so as to distribute the water for
irrigation when and where it is most needed has been solved by the building of the
Assuan dam. It Ues across the head of the first cataract for a distance of a mile
and a quarter, and creates a lake two hundred and forty miles in length. This
great work was completed in 1912 a.d. by the British officials who now control Egypt.
The Babylonians and the Egyptians
25
Of all the early Babylonian kings the most famous was Ham-
murabi. Some inscriptions still remain to tell how he freed his
country from foreign invaders and made his native Babylon the
capital of the en- „
^- 1 ^ rj... Hammurabi,
tire land, inis king of Baby-
city became hence- L°i"f ' ^^°^*
-^ 2000 B.C.
forth the real cen-
ter of the Euphrates valley,
to which, indeed, it gave its
name. Hammurabi was also an
able statesman, who sought to
develop the territories his sword
had won. He dug great canals
to distribute the waters of the
Euphrates and built huge gran-
aries to store the wheat against
a time of famine. In Babylon
he raised splendid temples and
palaces. For all his kingdom
he pubHshed a code of laws, the
oldest in the world. ^ Thus
Hammurabi, by making Baby-
lonia so strong and flourishing,
was able to extend her influence
in every direction. Her only
important rival was Egypt.
The origin of the Egyptians
is not known with certainty. In physical characteristics they
resembled the native tribes of northern and inhabitants
eastern Africa. Their language, however, shows °^ Egypt
close kinship to the Semitic tongues of western Asia and Arabia.
It is probable that the Egyptians, like the Babylonians, arose
from the mingling of several peoples.
The history of Egypt commences with the union of the two
kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes. An ancient
tradition made him the builder of Memphis, near the head of
Top of Monument containing
THE Code of Hammurabi
British Museum, London
A block of black diorite, nearly 8 feet
high, on which the code is chiseled in 44
columns and over 3600 lines. The re-
lief at the top of the monument shows the
Babylonian king receiving the laws from
the sun god, who is seated at the right.
1 See page 50.
26 The Lands and Peoples of the East
the Delta, and the founder of the Egyptian monarchy. Scholars
Menes, king once doubted these exploits and even regarded
ab^u/3400 Menes himself as mythical. Recently, however,
B.C. his tomb has been discovered. In the gray dawn
of history Menes appears as a real personage, the first of that
Aegean Sea <^ <
neveh
line of kings, or "Pharaohs," who for nearly three thousand
years ruled over Egypt.
Several centuries after Menes we reach the age of the kings
who raised the pyramids. Probably no other rulers have ever
stamped their memory so indelibly on the pages of history as
The Babylonians and the Egyptians
27
The pyramid
kings, about
3000-2500
B.C.
the builders of these mighty structures. The most celebrated
monarch of this hne was the Pharaoh whom the
Greeks called Cheops. The Great Pyramid near
Memphis, erected for his tomb, remains a lasting
witness to his power.
For a long time after the epoch of the pyramid kings the
annals of Egypt
fur- After the
n i S h pyramid kings
a record of quiet
and peaceful prog-
ress. The old city
of Memphis grad-
ually declined in
importance and
Thebes in Upper
Egypt became the
capital. The vig-
orous civilization
growing up in
Egypt was des-
tined, however, to
suffer a sudden eclipse. About 1800 B.C. barbarous tribes from
western Asia burst into the country, through the isthmus of
Suez, and settled in the Delta. The Hyksos, as they are
usually called, extended their sway over all Egypt. At first
they ruled harshly, plundering the cities and enslaving the in-
habitants, but in course of time the invaders adopted Egyptian
culture and their kings reigned like native Pharaohs. The
Hyksos are said to have introduced the horse and military
chariot into Egypt. A successful revolt at length expelled
the intruders and set a new line of Theban monarchs on the
throne.
The overthrow of the Hyksos marked a new era in the his-
tory of Egypt. From a home-loving and peace- The Egyptian
ful people the Egyptians became a warlike race, Empire
ambitious for glory. The Pharaohs raised powerful armies and
Khufu (Cheops), builder of
the Great Pyramid
Menephtah, the supposed
Pharaoh of the Exodus
Two Famous Pharaohs
28
The Lands and Peoples of the East
Imperial
splendor of
Egypt
by extensive conquests created an Egyptian Empire, reaching
from the Nile to the Euphrates.
This period of the imperial greatness of Egj^t is the most
splendid in its history. An extensive trade with Cyprus, Crete,
and other Medi-
terranean islands
introduced many
foreign luxuries. The con-
quered territories in Syria paid
a heavy tribute of the pre-
cious metals, merchandise,
and slaves. The forced labor
of thousands of war captives
enabled the Pharaohs to build
public works in every part of
their realm. Even the ruins
of these stupendous structures
are enough to indicate the
majesty and power of ancient
Egypt.
Of all the conquering Pha-
Rameses II, ^^^^s none won
about 1292- more fame than
1225 B.C. T) TT 1,
Kameses 11, who
ruled for nearly seventy years. His campaigns in Syria were
mainly against the Hittites, a warlike people who had moved
southward from their home in Asia Minor and sought to estab-
lish themselves in the Syrian lands. Rameses does not appear
to have been entirely successful against his foes. We find him
at length entering into an alhance with "the great king of the
Hittites," by which their dominion over northern Syria was
recognized. In the arts of peace Rameses achieved a more
enduring renown. He erected many statues and temples in
various parts of Egypt and made Thebes, his capital, the most
magnificent city of the age.
Rameses II was the last of the great Pharaohs. After his
death the empire steadily declined in strength. The Asiatic
Head of Mummy of Rameses II
Museum of Gizeh
The mummy was discovered in 1881 a.d. in
an underground chamber near the site of
Thebes. With it were the coffins and bodies
of more than a score of royal personages.
Rameses II was over ninety years of age at
the time of his death. In spite of the some-
what grotesque disguise of mummification, the
face of this famous Pharaoh still wears an
aspect of majesty and pride.
The Phoenicians and the Hebrews
29
possessions fell away, never to be recovered. By iioo B.C.
Egypt had been restricted to her former boun- Decline of
daries in the Nile valley. The Persians, in the the Egyptian
sixth century, brought the country within their p°^®^
own vast empire.
S
The Great Pyramid
The pyramid when completed had a height of 481 feet. It is now 451 feet high. Its base
covers about thirteen acres. Some of the blocks of white limestone used in construction
weigh fifty tons. The facing of polished stone was gradually removed for building pur-
poses by the Arabs. On the northern side of the pyramid a narrow entrance, once care-
fully concealed, opens into tortuous passages which lead to the central vault. Here the
sarcophagus of the king was placed. This chamber was long since entered and its con-
tents rifled.
10. The Phoenicians and the Hebrews
The Phoenicians were the first Syrian people to assume
importance. Their country was a narrow stretch of coast,
about one hundred and twenty miles in length, The Phoeni-
seldom more than twelve miles in width, between "^^^
the Lebanon Mountains and the sea. This tiny land could not
support a large population. As the Phoenicians increased in
numbers, they were obliged to betake themselves to the sea.
The Lebanon cedars furnished soft, white wood for shipbuild-
ing, and the deeply indented coast offered excellent harbors.
Thus the Phoenicians became preeminently a race of sailors.
Their great cities, Sidon and Tyre, established colonies through-
out the Mediterranean and had an extensive commerce with
every region of the known world.
30 The Lands and Peoples of the East
The Hebrews lived south of Phoenicia in the land of Canaan,
west of the Jordan River. Their history begins with the emi-
„, „ , oration of twelve Hebrew tribes (called Israelites)
The Hebrews ? , * , . • ^ -r
from northern Arabia to Canaan. In their new
home the Israelites gave up the life of wandering shepherds and
% ^A^
The Great Sphinx
This colossal figure, human-headed and lion-bodied, is hewn from the natural rock. The
body is about 150 feet long, the paws 50 feet, the head 30 feet. The height from the base
to the top of the head is 70 feet. Except for its head and shoulders, the figure has been
buried for centuries in the desert sand. The eyes, nose, and beard have been mutilated by
the Arabs. The face is probably that of one of the pyramid kings.
became farmers. They learned from the Canaanites to till the
soil and to dwell in towns and cities.
The thorough conquest of Canaan proved to be no easy task.
At first the twelve Israelitish tribes formed only a loose and
Period of weak confederacy without a common head, "In
the Judges those days there was no king in Israel; every
man did what was right in his own eyes." ^ The sole authority
was that held by valiant chieftains and law-givers, such as
Samson, Gideon, and Samuel, who served as judges between
the tribes and often led them in successful attacks upon their
foes. Among these were the warlike Philistines, who occupied
the southwestern coast of Canaan. To resist the Philistines
1 Judges, xvii, 6.
The Phoenicians and the Hebrews
31
with success it was necessary to have a king who could bring
all the scattered tribes under his firm, well-ordered rule.
In Saul, ''a young man and a goodly," the warriors of Israel
found a leader to unite them against their enemies. Reigns of
His reign was passed in constant struggles with Saul and
the Philistines. David, who followed him, utterly ^^^
destroyed the Phihstine power and by further conquests
extended the boundaries of the new state. For a capital city
he selected the ancient fortress of Jerusalem. Here David
built himself a royal palace and here he fixed the Ark, the sanc-
tuary of Jehovah. Jerusalem became to the Israehtes their
dearest possession and the center of their national life.
32
The Lands and Peoples of the East
The reign of Solomon, the son and successor of David, was
the most splendid period in Hebrew history. His kingdom
stretched from the Red Sea and the peninsula of Sinai north-
Rei n of Sol- ^ard to the Lebanon Mountains and the Eu-
omon, about phrates. With the surrounding peoples Solomon
95 -9 5 . . ^^^^^ ^^ terms of friendship and alliance. He m.ar-
ried an Egyptian princess, a daughter of the reigning Pharaoh.
He joined with Hiram, king of Tyre, in trading expeditions on
A Phcenician War Galley
From a slab found at Nineveh in the palace of the Assyrian king, Sennacherib.
The vessel shown is a bireme with two decks. On the upper deck are soldiers with
their shields hanging over the side. The oarsmen sit on the lower deck, eight at
each side. The crab catching the fish is a humorous touch.
the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. The same Phoenician monarch
supplied him with the ''cedars of Lebanon," with which he
erected at Jerusalem a famous temple for the worship of Jeho-
vah. A great builder, a wise administrator and governor,
Solomon takes his place as a typical Oriental despot, the most
powerful monarch of the age.
But the political greatness of the Hebrews was not destined
.to endure. The people were not ready to bear the
the Ten burdens of empire. They objected to the stand-
qJi^Tf r^^°"* ^^^ army, to the forced labor on public buildings,
and especially to the heavy taxes. The ten
The Phoenicians and the Hebrews
33
northern tribes seceded shortly after Solomon's death and estab-
lished the independent kingdom of Israel, with its capital at
Samaria. The two southern tribes, Judah and Benjamin,
formed the kingdom of Judea, and remained loyal to the suc-
cessors of Solomon.
The two small Hebrew kingdoms could not resist their
powerful neighbors. About two centuries after Decline of
the secession of the Ten Tribes, the Assyrians the Hebrew
overran Israel. Judea was subsequently conquered P°^®^
by the Babylonians. Both countries in the end became a
part of the Persian Empire.
34
The Lands and Peoples of the East
il. The Assyrians
Assyria, lying east of the Tigris River, was colonized at an
early date by emigrants from Babylonia. After the Assyrians
Greatness of f^^^^d themselves from Babylonian control, they
Assyria, entered upon a series of sweeping conquests.
Every Asiatic state felt their heavy hand. The
Assyrian kings created a huge empire stretching from the Cas-
pian Sea to the Persian Gulf, the
Mediterranean, and the Nile. For
the first time in Oriental history
Mesopotamia and Egypt, with the
intervening territory, were brought
under one government.
This unification of the Orient
was accomplished only at a fearful
Character of cost. The records of
Assyrian rule Assyria are full of ter-
rible deeds — of towns and cities
without number given to the
flames, of the devastation of fer-
tile fields and orchards, of the
slaughter of men, women, and
children, of the enslavement of
entire nations. Assyrian mon-
archs, in numerous inscriptions,
boast of the wreck and ruin they
brought to many flourishing lands.
The treatment of conquered peoples by the Assyrian rulers
is well illustrated by their dealings with the Hebrews. One of
Sargon II, the mightiest monarchs was an usurper, who
722-705 B.C. ascended the throne as Sargon IL Shortly after
his succession he turned his attention to the kingdom of Israel,
which had revolted. Sargon in punishment took its capital
city of Samaria (722 B.C.) and led away many thousands of the
leading citizens into a lifelong captivity in distant Assyria.
An Assyrian
From a Nineveh bas-relief,
original is colored.
The
Ancient Oriental Empires
The Assyrians
35
The Ten Tribes mingled with 'the population of that region
and henceforth disappeared from history.
Sargon's son, Sennacherib, though not the greatest, is the
best known of Assyrian kings. His name is famihar from the
many references to him in Old Testament writings. Sennacherib,
An inscription by Sennacherib describes an expedi- 705-681 B.C.
tion against Hezekiah, king of Judea, who was shut up "like
An Assyrian Relief
British Museum, London
The relief represents the siege and capture of Lachish, a city of the Canaanites, by
Sennacherib's troops. Notice the total absence of perspective in this work.
a caged bird in his royal city of Jerusalem." Sennacherib, how-
ever, did not capture the place. His troops were swept away
by a pestilence. The ancient Hebrew writer conceives it as the
visitation of a destroying angel: "It came to pass that night
that the angel of Jehovah w^ent forth, and smote in the camp of
the Assyrians an hundred fourscore and five thousand; and
when men arose early in the morning, behold, these were all
dead bodies." ^ So Sennacherib departed, and returned with a
shattered army to Nineveh, his capital.
Although Assyria recovered from this disaster, its empire
1 2 Kings, xix, 35. See Byron's poem, The Destruction of Sennacherib.
36 The Lands and Peoples of the East
rested on unstable foundations. The subject races were attached
Downfall of ^^ their oppressive masters by no ties save those
Assyria, 606 of force. When Assyria grew exhausted by its
^'^' career of conquest, they were quick to strike a
blow for freedom. By the middle of the seventh century Egypt
had secured her in-
dependence, and
many other provinces
were ready to revolt.
Meanwhile, beyond
the eastern moun-
tains, the Medes
were gathering omi-
nously on the Assyr-
ian frontier. The
storm broke when
the Median monarch,
in alliance with the
king of Babylon,
moved upon Nineveh
and captured it. The
city was utterly de-
stroyed.
After the conquest
of the Assyrian Em-
Partition of pire the
Assyria victors
m^w^^^
'^
The Ishtar Gate, Babylon
Explorations on the site of Babylon have been conducted
since 1899 a.d. by the German Oriental Society. Large
parts of the temple area, as well as sections of the royal
palaces, have been uncovered. The most important struc-
ture found is the Ishtar Gate. The towers which flank it
are adorned with figures of dragons and bulls in brilUantly
colored glazed tile.
proceeded to divide
the spoils. The share
of Media was Assyria itself, together with the long stretch of
mountain country extending from the Persian Gulf to Asia
Minor. Babylonia obtained the western half of the Assyrian
domains, including the Euphrates valley and Syria. Under its
famous king, Nebuchadnezzar (604-561 B.C.), Babylonia be-
came a great power in the Orient. It was Nebuchadnezzar
who brought the kingdom of Judea to an end. He captured
Jerusalem in 586 B.C., burned the Temple, and carried away
The World Empire of Persia
37
many Jews into captivity. The day of their deUverance, when
Babylon itself should bow to a foreign foe, was still far distant.
12. The World Empire of Persia
Not much earlier than the break-up of the Assyrian Empire,
we find a new and vigorous people pressing into western Iran.
They were the Persians, near kinsmen of the cyrus the
Medes. Subjects at first of Assyria, and then Great,
of Media, they regained their independence and
secured imperial power under a conquering king whom history
The Tomb of Cyrus the Great
The mausoleum is built of immense marble blocks, joined together without cement. Its
total height, including the seven steps, is about thirty-five feet. A solitary pillar near the
tomb still bears the inscription: " I am Cyrus, the King, the Achaemenian."
knows as Cyrus the Great. In 553 B.C. Cyrus revolted against
the Median monarch and three years later captured the royal
city of Ecbatana. The Medes and Persians formed henceforth
a united people.
The conquest of Media was soon followed by a war with
the Lydians, who had been alUes of the Medes. The throne
of Lydia, a state in the western part of Asia
Minor, was at this time held by Croesus, the last
and most famous of his line. The king grew so
wealthy from the tribute paid by Lydian subjects
and from his gold mines that his name has passed into the
proverb, "rich as Crcesus." He viewed with alarm the rising
Conquest of
Lydia by
Cyrus, 546
B.C.
38
The Lands and Peoples of the East
power of Cyrus and rashly offered battle to the Persian
monarch. Defeated in the open field, Croesus shut himself up
in Sardis, his capital. The city was soon taken, however, and
with its capture the Lydian kingdom came to an end.
The downfall of Lydia prepared the way for a Persian attack
on Babylonia. The conquest of that
Capture of country proved unexpec-
Babyion, 539 tcdly easy. In 539 B.C.
^' ' the great city of Baby-
lon opened its gates to tlie Persian
host. Shortly afterwards Cyrus
issued a decree allowing the Jewish
exiles there to return to Jerusalem
and rebuild the Temple, which Nebu-
chadnezzar had destroyed. With the
surrender of Babylon the last Semitic
empire in the East came to an end.
The Medes and Persians, an Indo-
European people, henceforth ruled
over a wider realm than ever before
had been formed in Oriental lands.
Cyrus was followed by his son,
Cambyses, a cruel but stronghanded
despot. Cambyses determined to
Cambyses, add Egypt to the Per-
529-522 B.C. si^^i;^ dominions. His
land army was supported by a power-
ful fleet, to which the Phoenicians
and the Greeks of Cyprus contributed
ships. A single battle sufficed to
overthrow the Egyptian power and to
bring the long rule of the Pharaohs
to a close.^
The reign of Darius, the successor
of Cambyses, was marked by further extensions of the frontiers.
An expedition to tlie distant East added to the empire the region
^ See page zg.
D-VRius WITH HIS Attend-
ants
Bas-relief at Persepolis. The
monarch's right hand grasps a staff
or scepter; his left hand, a bunch
of flowers. His head is surmounted
by a crown; his body is enveloped
in the long Median mantle. Above
the king is a representation of the
divinity which guarded and guided
him. In the reixr are two Persian
nobles, one carr>-ing the royal fan,
the other the royal parasol.
The World Empire of Persia
39
of the Punjab/ along the upper waters of the Indus. Another
expedition against the wild Scythian tribes along j^anus the
the Danube led to conquests in Europe and Great,
brought the Persian dominions close to those of
the Greeks. Not without reason could Darius describe himself
in an inscription which still survives, as "the great king, king
of kings, king of countries, king of all men."
Rock Sepulchers of the Persian Kings
The tombs are those of Darius, Xerxes, and two of their successors. They are
near Persepolis. *
It was the work of Darius to provide for his dominions a
stable government which should preserve what the sword had
won. The problem was difficult. The empire organization
was a collection of many peoples widely different of the Persian
in race, language, customs, and rehgion. Darius ^^^^
did not attempt to weld the conquered nations into unity. As
long as the subjects of Persia paid tribute and furnished troops
for the royal army, they were allowed to conduct their own
affairs with little interference from the Great King.
The entire empire, excluding Persia proper, was divided
into twenty satrapies, or provinces, each one with its civil
^ See page 21.
40 The Lands and Peoples of the East
governor, or satrap. The satraps carried out the laws and col-
The satrapal lected the heavy tribute annually levied through-
system Q^^ ^]^g empire. In most of the provinces there
were also military governors who commanded the army and
reported directly to the king. This device of intrusting the
civil and mihtary functions to separate officials lessened the
danger of revolts against the Persian authority. As an addi-
tional precaution Darius provided special agents whose busi-
ness it was to travel from province to province and investigate
the conduct of his officials. It became a proverb that "the
king has many eyes and many ears."
Darius also established a system of military roads throughout
the Persian dominions. The roads were provided at frequent
^ . , intervals with inns, where postmen stood always in
Persian roads , . -^
readmess to take up a letter and carry it to the
next station. The Royal Road from Susa, the Persian capital,
to Sardis in Lydia was over fifteen hundred miles long; but
government couriers, using relays of fresh horses, could cover
the distance within a week. An old Greek writer declares with
admiration that " there is nothing mortal more swift than these
messengers." ^
The political history of the East fitly ends with the three
Persian conquerors, Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius, who thus
Union of the . brought into their huge empire every great state
East under of Oriental antiquity. Medes and Persians,
Babylonians and Assyrians, Lydians, Syrians, and
Egyptians — all were at length united under a single dominion.
In the reign of Darius this united Orient first comes into contact
with the rising power of the Greek states of Europe. So we
may leave its history here, resuming our narrative when we
discuss the momentous conflict between Persia and Greece,
which was to affect the course, not alone of Persian or Greek,
but of all European history .^
1 Herodotus, viii, q8. 2 See chapter v.
The World Empire of Persia 41
studies
I. On the map facing page 20 see what regions of Asia are fess than 500 feet
above sea level; less than 3000 feet; less than 9000 feet; less than 15,000 feet;
over 15,000 feet. 2. On an outline map of the Orient indicate eight important rivers,
two gulfs, three inland seas, the great plateaus and plains, the principal mountain
ranges, two important passes, and the various countries and cities mentioned in
this chapter. 3. On an outline map draw the boundaries of the Persian Empire
under Darius, showing what parts were conquered by Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius,
respectively. 4. For what were the following places noted: Jerusalem; Thebes;
Tyre; Nineveh; and Babylon? 5. For what were the following persons famous:
Hammurabi; Rameses II; Solomon; Cyrus; Nebuchadnezzar; and Darius?
6. Define and illustrate these terms: empire, kingdom, province, tributary state,
satrapy. 7. Identify these dates: 606 B.C.; 539 B.C.; and 546 B.C. 8. Why was
India better known in ancient times than China? 9. What modern countries are
included within the limits of ancient Iran? 10. Why was a canal through the isth-
mus of Suez less needed in ancient times than to-day? 11. Can you suggest any
reasons why the sources of the Nile remained unknown until late in the nineteenth
century? 1 2 . What is the origin of the name Delta applied to such a region as Lower
Egypt? 13. Comment on the statement: "Egypt as a geographical expression is
two things — the Desert and the Nile. As a habitable country it is only one thing —
the Nile." 14. Why did the Greek traveler, Herodotus, call Egypt "the gift of
the Nile"? 15. Distinguish between Syria and Assyria. 16. What is the exact
meaning of the words, Hebrew, Israelite, and Jew? Describe some features of
Assyrian warfare (illustration, page 35). 17. What modern countries are included
within the limits of the Persian Empire under Darius? 18. Trace on the map
facing page 38 the course of the Royal Road, noting the countries through which it
passed.
A Royal Name in Hieroglyphics
CHAPTER III
ORIENTAL CIVILIZATION 1
13. Social Classes
Our present knowledge of the Orient has been gained within
recent times. Less than a century ago no one could read the
Rediscovery wTitten records of the Egyptians and Babylonians.
of the Orient 'pj^g decipherment of the Rosetta Stone, w^hich
contained an inscription in both Greek and hieroglyphics, led
to the understanding of
Eg}^tian wTiting. Scholars
later succeeded in inter-
preting the Babylonian
(Rosetta Stone) cuneiform script. Modern
The cut shows the symbols contained in one of eXCavatioUS in the VallcyS
the oval rings, or cartouches, for Ptolemaios, the of the Nile and the Eu-
Greek name of King Ptolemy. Each symbol ^ . ^ • i i
represents the initial letter of the Egyptian name phratCS have nOW prOVldcd
for the object pictured. The objects in order are: them with abundant matC-
a mat, a half-circle, a noose, a lion, a hole, two • ^ r . j • .^ i
reeds, and a chair-back. The entire hieroglyph ^^^^ ^^^ ^tudy m the shapC
is read from left to right, as we read words in of books and inscriptions.
°^ ^ ■ As these are gradually de-
ciphered, new light is being thrown on all features of ancient
Oriental civilization.
The Oriental peoples, when their history opens, were living
under the monarchical form of government. The king, to his
The king as subjects, was the earthly representative of the
an autocrat go^s. Often, indeed, he was himself regarded as
divine. The belief in the king's divine origin made obedience
to him a religious obligation for his subjects. Every Oriental
I Webster, Readings in Ancient History, chapter i, "Three Oriental Peoples as
Described by Herodotus."
42
/
v?4
THE ROSETTA STONE
British Museum, London
A block of black basalt, three feet seven inches in height, found in 1799 a.d., near the
Rosetta mouth of the Nile.
Social Classes
43
monarch was an autocrat. Every Oriental monarchy was a
despotism.
The king had many duties. He was judge, commander, and
high priest, all in one. In time of war, he led his troops and
faced the dangers of the battle field. During The king's
intervals of peace, he was occupied with a constant t^^t^es
round of sacrifices, prayers, and processions, which could not
An Egyptian Court Scene
Wall painting, from a tomb at Thebes. Shows a Pharaoh receiving Asiatic envoys bear-
ing tribute. They are introduced by white-robed Egyptian officials. The Asiatics may be
distinguished by their gay clothes and black, sharp-pointed beards.
be neglected without exciting the anger of the gods. To his
courtiers he gave frequent audience, hearing complaints, set-
tling disputes, and issuing commands. A conscientious mon-
arch, such as Hammurabi, who describes himself as "a real
father to his people," must have been a very busy man.
Besides the monarch and the royal family there was generally
in Oriental countries an upper class of landowners. In Egypt
the Pharaoh was regarded as sole owner of the land. Nobles and
Some of it he worked through his slaves, but the P^^sts
larger part he granted to his favorites, as hereditary estates.
Such persons may be called the nobles. The different priest-
hoods also had much land, the revenues from which kept up
the temples where they ministered. In Babylonia, likewise,
we find a priesthood and nobility supported by the income
from landed property.
The middle class included professional men, shopkeepers
44 Oriental Civilization
independent farmers, and skilled craftsmen. Though regarded
The middle as inferiors, still they had a chance to rise in the
^^^^^ world. If they became rich, they might hope to
enter the upper class as priests or government officials.
No such hopes encouraged the day laborer in the fields or
shops. His lot was bitter poverty and a life of unending toil.
Workmen If he was an unskilled workman, his wages were
and peasants Q^iy enough to keep him and his family. He
toiled under overseers who carried sticks and used them freely.
*'Man has a back," says an Egyptian proverb, ''and only obeys
when it is beaten." If the laborer was a peasant, he could be
sure that the nobles from whom he rented the land and the tax
collectors of the king would leave him scarcely more than a
bare living.
At the very bottom of the social ladder were the slaves.
Every ancient people possessed them. At first they were
prisoners of war, who, instead of being slaughtered,
were made to labor for their masters. At a later
period people unable to pay their debts often became slaves.
The treatment of slaves depended on the character of the
master. A cruel and overbearing owner might make life a
burden for his bondmen. Escape was rarely possible. Slaves
were branded like cattle to prevent their running away. Ham-
murabi's code ^ imposed the death penalty on anybody who
aided or concealed the fugitives. There was plenty of work for
the slaves to perform — repairing dikes, digging irrigation canals,
and erecting vast palaces and temples. The servile class in
Eg3^t was not as numerous as in Babylonia, and slavery itself
seems to have assumed there a somewhat milder form.
14. Economic Conditions
Such fruitful, well-watered valleys as those of the Nile and
the Euphrates encouraged agricultural life. Farming was the
. chief occupation. Working people, whether slaves
or freemen, were generally cultivators of the soil.
All the methods of agriculture are pictured for us on the monu-
1 See page 25.
Economic Conditions
45
ments. We mark the peasant as he breaks up the earth with a
hoe or plows a shallow furrow with a sharp-pointed stick. We
see the sheep being driven across sown fields to trample the seed
into the moist soil. We watch the patient laborers as with hand
sickles they gather in the harvest and then with heavy flails
separate the chaff from the grain. Although their methods were
very clumsy, ancient farmers raised immense crops of wheat
Plowing and Sowing in Ancient Egypt
and barley. The soil of Egypt and Babylonia not only sup-
ported a dense population, but also suppHed food for neighboring
peoples. These two lands were the granaries of the East.
Many industries of to-day were known in ancient Egypt and
Babylonia. There were blacksmiths, carpenters, stonecutters,
workers in ivory, silver, and gold, weavers, potters, Manu-
and glass blowers. The creations of these ancient facturmg
craftsmen often exhibit remarkable skill. Egyptian linens were
so wonderfully fine and transparent as to merit the name of
"woven air." Babylonian tapestries, carpets, and rugs enjoyed
a high reputation for beauty of design and color. Egyptian
glass with its waving lines of different hues was much prized.
Precious stones were made into beads, necklaces, charms, and
seals. The precious metals were employed for a great variety
of ornaments. Egyptian paintings show the goldsmiths at
work with blowpipe and forceps, fashioning bracelets, rings, and
diadems, inlaying objects of stone and wood, or covering their
surfaces with fine gold leaf. The manufacture of tiles and
glazed pottery was everywhere carried on. Babylonia is be-
lieved to be the original home of porcelain. Enameled bricks
found there are unsurpassed by the best products of the present
day.
46
Oriental Civilization
The development of the arts and crafts brought a new indus-
trial class into existence. There was now need of merchants
and shopkeepers to collect manufactured products
where they could be readily bought and sold. The
cities of Babylonia, in particular, became thriving markets.
Transport of an Assyrian Colossus
A slab from a gallery of Sennacherib's palace at Nineveh. The immense block is
being pulled forward by slaves, who work under the lash.
Partnerships between tradesmen were numerous. We even
hear of commercial companies. Business life in ancient Baby-
lonia wore, indeed, quite a modern look.
MetaUic money first circulated in the form of rings and bars.
The Egyptians had small pieces of gold — ''cow gold" — each
of which was simply the value of a full-grown cow.^
It was necessary to weigh the metal whenever a
purchase took place. A common picture on the Egyptian
monuments is that of the weigher with his balance and scales.
Then the practice arose of stamping each piece of money with
its true value and weight. The next step was coinage proper,
1 See page 6.
Money
Commerce and Trade Routes
47
Coinage
where the government guarantees, not only the weight, but
also the genuineness of the metal.
The honor of the invention of coinage is generally given to
the Lydians, whose country was well supphed with the precious
metals. As early as
the eighth century B.C.
the Lydian monarchs began to
strike coins of electrum, a natural
alloy of gold and silver. The fa-
mous Croesus,^ whose name is still
a synonym for riches, was the first
to issue coins of pure gold and sil-
ver. The Greek neighbors of Lydia
quickly adopted the art of coinage
and so introduced it into Europe.^
The use of money as a medium of
exchange led naturally to a system
of banking. In Babylonia, for instance, the bankers formed-
an important and influential class. One great
banking house, estabhshed at Babylon before
the age of Sennacherib, carried on operations for several cen-
turies. Hundreds of legal documents belonging to this firm
have been discovered in the huge earthenware jars which served
as safes. The Babylonian temples also received money on de-
posit and loaned it out again, as do our modern banks. Knowl-
edge of the principles of banking passed from Babylonia to
Greece and thence to ancient Italy and Rome.
Egyptian weighing
Gold "
"Cow
15. Commerce and Trade Routes
The use of the precious metals as money greatly aided the ex-
change of commodities between different countries. The cities
of the Tigris-Euphrates valley were admirably situ- Asiatic com-
ated for commerce, both by sea and land. They fierce
enjoyed a central position between eastern and western Asia.
The shortest way by water from India skirted the southern
1 See page 37.
* For illustrations of Oriental coins see the plate facing page 134.
48
Oriental Civilization
coast of Iran and, passing up the Persian Gulf, gained the
valley of the two great rivers. Even more important were the
overland roads from China and India which met at Babylon
and Nineveh. Along these routes traveled long lines of caravans
laden with the products of the distant East — gold and ivory,
jewels and silks, tapestries, spices, and fine woods. Still other
ANCIENT
TRADE ROUTES
rv^
... ^ *' 'Vv ■ <
avenues of commerce radiated to the west and entered Asia
Minor, Syria, and Egypt. Many of these trade routes are in
use even to-day.
While the inhabitants of Babylonia and Assyria were able to
control the caravan routes of Asia, it was reserved for a Syrian
Commerce people, the Phoenicians, to become the pioneers of
with Europe commerce with Europe. As early as 1500 B.C.
the rich copper mines of Cyprus attracted Phoenician colonists
to this island.^ From Cyprus these bold mariners and keen
business men passed to Crete, thence along the shores of Asia
Minor to the Greek mainland, and possibly to the Black Sea.
Some centuries later the Phoenicians w^re driven from these
regions by the rising power of the Greek states. Then they
1 See page 4.
Commerce and Trade Routes 49
sailed farther westward and established their trading posts in
Sicily, Africa, and Spain. At length they passed through the
strait of Gibraltar into the Atlantic and visited the shores of
western Europe and Africa.
The Phoenicians obtained a great variety of products from
their widely scattered settlements. The mines of Spain yielded
tin, lead, and silver. The tin was especially Phoenician
valuable because of its use in the manufacture imports and
of bronze.^ From Africa came ivory, ostrich ®^^°' ^
feathers, and gold; from Arabia, incense, perfumes, and costly
spices. The Phoenicians found a ready sale for these com-
modities throughout the East. Still other products were
brought directly to Phoenicia to provide the raw materials
for her flourishing manufactures. The fine carpets and glass-
ware, the artistic works in silver and bronze, and the beau-
tiful purple cloths ^ produced by Phoenician factories were
exported to every region of the known world.
The Phoenicians were the boldest sailors of antiquity. Some
of their long voyages are still on record. We learn from the
Bible that they made cruises on the Red Sea and Phoenician
Indian Ocean and brought the gold of Ophir — voyages of
"four hundred and twenty talents " — to Solomon.^ exploration
There is even a story of certain Phoenicians who, by direction
of an Egyptian king, explored the eastern coast of Africa,
rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and after three years' absence
returned to Egypt through the strait of Gibraltar. A much
more probable narrative is that of the voyage of Hanno, a
Carthaginian admiral. We still possess a Greek translation of
his interesting log book. It describes an expedition made
about 500 B.C. along the western coast of Africa. The explorers
seem to have sailed as far as the country now called Sierra
Leone. Nearly two thousand years elapsed before a similar
voyage along the African coast was undertaken.
^ See page 5.
^ "Tyrian purple" was a dye secured from a species of shellfish found along the
Phoenician coast and in Greek waters.
' See I Kings, ix, 26-28. The site of Ophir is not known, though probably it
was in southern Arabia.
50 Oriental Civilization
Wherever the Phoenicians journeyed, they established settle-
ments. Most of these were merely trading posts which con-
Phcenician tained the warehouses for the storage of their
settlements goods. Here the shy natives came to barter
their raw materials for the finished products — cloths, tools,
weapons, wine, and oil — which the strangers from the East
had brought w^ith them. Phoenician settlements sometimes
grew to be large and flourishing cities. The colony of Gades
in southern Spain, mentioned in the Old Testament as Tar-
shish,^ survives to this day as Cadiz. The city of Carthage,
founded in North Africa by colonists from Tyre, became the
commercial mistress of the Mediterranean. Carthaginian
history has many points of contact with that of the Greeks and
Romans.
16. Law and Morality
It is clear that societies so highly organized as Phoenicia,
Egypt, and Babylonia must have been held together by the
Babylonian firm bonds of law. The ancient Babylonians,
contracts especially, were a legal-minded people. When a
man sold his wheat, bought a slave, married a wdfe, or made a
will, the transaction was duly noted on a contract tablet,
which was then filed away in the public archives. Instead of
writing his name, a Babylonian stamped his sea] on the wet
clay of the tablet. Every man who owned property had to have
a seal.
The earliest laws were, of course, unwritten. They were no
more than the long-estabhshed customs of the community. As
Code of civihzation advanced, the usages that generally
Hammurabi prevailed were written out and made into legal
codes. A recent discovery has given to us the almost complete
text of the laws which Hammurabi, the Babylonian king,
ordered to be engraved on stone monuments and set up in all
the chief cities of his realm.^
The code of Hammurabi shows, in general, a high sense of
1 See Ezekiel, xxvii, 12, 25.
2 A monument containing the code of Hammurabi was found on the site of Susa
in 1901-1902 A.D. See the illustration, page 25.
§ g? § & ll
-< ' \ / ^ ~^^~--^ / /
" ^ 1 / o ^-^-^W"^---^ /
-iDDOD iJ!M>yr'V>-
1 £• I i § 3 S // K rynf-~~l / /
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/ ^ h r ^ d \^ \
-— J— -^ ^ A ^ ^^ / ) y
7 — rW— ^-4^^ fl -L^C
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sj lJk;c!3o.fSiA
1 v^ 1
r 17^^
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Ul
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^--p^'^i ''I ^r w^<;^i ^ -
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\ s/ A^-V^^^^ \ \ % « \ ^ V\
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« ^^x^^^.^\x^^
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§ s s &
Law and Morality
51
justice. A man who tries to bribe a witness or a judge is to be
severely punished. A farmer who is careless with g^^jject mat-
his dikes and allows the water to run through ter of Ham-
and flood his neighbor's land must restore the ^^^^ 1 s co e
value of the grain he has damaged. The owner of a vicious ox
which has gored a man r^
must pay a heavy fine, '
provided he knew the
disposition of the ani-
mal and had not
blunted its horns. A
builder who puts up a
shaky house which
afterwards collapses
and kills the tenant is
himself to be put to
death. On the other
hand, the code has some
rude features. Punish-
ments were severe. For
injuries to the body
there was the simple
rule of retaliation — an
eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, a limb for a limb. A son
who had struck his father was to have his hands cut off. The
nature of the punishment depended, moreover, on the rank of
the aggrieved party. A person who had caused the loss of a
''gentleman's" eye was to have his own plucked out; but if
the injury was done to a poor man, the culprit had only to
pay a fine.
Hammurabi's laws thus present a vivid picture of Oriental
society two thousand years before Christ. They always re-
mained the basis of the Babylonian and Assyrian jniportance
legal system. They were destined, also, to exert of Hammu-
a considerable influence upon Hebrew legislation.
Centuries after Hammurabi the enactments of the old Baby-
lonian king were reproduced in some of the famiHar regulations
^_ l-t"
Xj«uU— I
Babylonian Contract Tablet
The actual tablet is on the right; on the left is a
hollow clay case or envelope.
52 Oriental Civilization
of the laws of Moses. In this way they became the heritage
of the Hebrews and, through them, of our modern world.
The laws which we find in the earlier books of the Bible were
ascribed by the Hebrews to Moses. These laws covered a
The Mosaic wide range of topics. They fixed all religious
code ceremonies, required the observance every seventh
day of the Sabbath, dealt with marriage and the family, stated
the penalties for wrongdoing, gave elaborate rules for sacrifices,
and even indicated what foods must be avoided as ''unclean."
No other ancient people possessed so elaborate a code. The
Jews throughout the world obey, to this day, its precepts.
And modern Christendom still recites the Ten Commandments,
the noblest summary of the rules of right living that has come
down to us from the ancient world.
17. Religion
Oriental ideas of religion, even more than of law and morality,
were the gradual outgrowth of beliefs held by the Asiatic peoples
Nature wor- in prehistoric times. Everywhere nature worship
ship prevailed. The vault of heaven, earth and ocean,
sun, moon, and stars were all regarded either as themselves
divine or as the abode of divinities. The sun was an object of
especial adoration. We find a sun god, under different names,
in every Oriental country.
Another inheritance from prehistoric times was the behef in
evil spirits. In Babylonia and Assyria this superstition became
Babylonian ^ prominent feature of the popular religion. Men
belief in evil supposed themselves to be constantly surrounded
spirits ^^ ^ j^^g^ ^£ demons which caused insanity, sick-
ness, disease, and death — all the ills of life. People lived in
constant fear of offending these malignant beings.
To cope with evil spirits the Babylonian used magic. He put
up a small image of a protecting god at the entrance to his
house and wore charms upon his person. If he
^^'^ felt ill, he went to a priest, who recited a long
incantation supposed to drive out the "devil" afflicting the
patient. The reputation of the Babylonian priests was so wide-
Religion
53
spread that in time the name "Chaldean" ^ came to mean one
who is a magician. Some of their magical rites were borrowed
by the Jews, and later by the Romans, from whom they entered
Christian Europe.
Another Babylonian
practice which spread
westward was that of
divination, particu-
larly by inspecting the
entrails of animals
slain in sacrifice. This
was a very common ^^ Egyptian Scarab
method of divination
among the Greeks and
Romans.^
Astrology received
much attention. It was beheved that the five planets, comets,
and eclipses of the sun and moon exerted an in-
fluence for good or evil on the life of man. Baby
Ionian astrology hkewise extended to western lands and became
popular among the Greeks and Romans. Some of it survives
to the present time. When we name the days Saturday,
Sunday, and Monday, we are unconscious astrologers, for in
old belief the first day belonged to the planet Saturn, the
second to the sun, and the third to the moon.^ Superstitious
people who try to read their fate in the stars are really prac-
ticing an art of Babylonian origin.
Less influential in later times was the animal worship of the
Egyptians. This, too, formed a heritage from the prehistoric
past. Many common animals of Egypt — the cat, Egyptian ani-
the hawk, the jackal, the bull, the ram, the croco- ^^^ worship
dile — were highly reverenced. Some received worship be-
cause deities were supposed to dwell in them. The larger
The beetle, as a symbol of birth and resurrection, and
hence of immortality, enjoyed much reverence in ancient
Egypt. A scarab, or image of the beetle, was often
worn as a charm and was placed in the mummy as an
artificial heart.
Astrology
1 Chaldea was another name for Babylonia. 2 ggg ^^g^ j^g^
^ The names of four other week days come from the names of old Teutonic deities.
Tuesday is the day of Tyr, Wednesday of Woden (Odin), Thursday of Thunor
(Thor), and Friday of the goddess Frigga. See page 394.
54
Oriental Civilization
number, however, were not worshiped for themselves, but as
symbols of different gods.
In the midst of such an assemblage of nature deities, spirits,
and sacred animals, it was remark-
Monotheism able that the belief in
in Persia q^q gQ^ should ever
have arisen. The Medes and Per-
sians accepted the teachings of
Zoroaster, a great prophet who lived
perhaps as early as looo B.C. Ac-
cording to Zoroaster, Ahuramazda,
the heaven-deity, is the maker and
upholder of the universe. He is a
god of hght and order, of truth and
purity. Against him stands Ahri-
man, the personification of darkness
and evil. Ahuramazda in the end
w^ill overcome Ahriman and will
reign supreme in a righteous world.
Zoroastrianism was the only mono-
theistic religion developed by an
Indo-European people.^
The Hebrews, alone among the Semitic peoples of antiquity,
were to develop the worship of their god, Jehovah, into a lasting
Hebrew mon- monotheism. This was a long and gradual proc-
otheism ^gg^ Jehovah was at first regarded as the pecu-
liar divinity of the Hebrews. His worshipers did not deny
the existence of the gods of other nations. From the eighth
century onward this narrow conception of Jehovah was trans-
formed by the labors of the Hebrew prophets. They taught
that Jehovah was the creator and ruler of the world and the
loving father of all mankind. On Hebrew monotheism two
1 Zoroastrians are still to be found in the East. In Persia, now a Mohammedan
country, there is a little band of devoted followers of Zoroaster, who keep up to this
day the tenets of their ancient faith. In India the Parsees of Bombay are the
descendants of those Persians who fled from Persia at the time of the Mo-
hammedan conquest (page 376), rather than surrender their cherished beliefs
and embrace a new religion.
Amenhotep IV
A striking likeness of an Egyptian
king (reigned about 13 75-1358 B.C.)
who endeavored to introduce mono-
theism in Egypt by abolishing the
worship of all gods except the sun
god. This religious revolution ended
in failure, for after the king's death
the old deities were restored to honor.
Religion
55
world religions have been founded — Mohammedanism and
Christianity..
We do not find among the early Hebrews or any other Oriental
people very clear ideas about the life after death. The Egyp-
tians long beheved Egyptian
that the soul of the ideas of the
J J • J J • future life
dead man resided m
or near the tomb, closely asso-
ciated with the body. This notion
seems to have first led to the
practice of embalming the corpse,
so that it might never suffer de-
cay. If the body was not pre-
served, the soul might die, or it
might become a wandering ghost,
restless and dangerous to the liv-
ing. Later Egyptian thought re-
garded the future state as a place
of rewards and punishments.
One of the chapters of the work
called the Book of the Dead de-
scribes the judgment of the soul
in the spirit world. If a man in
the earthly life had not murdered,
stolen, coveted the property of others, blasphemed the gods,
borne false witness, ill treated his parents, or committed certain
other wrongs, his soul would enjoy a blissful immortality.
Some Oriental peoples kept the primitive belief that after
death all men, good and bad alike, suffered the same fate. The
Babylonians supposed that the souls of the de- „ , , .
, , , , . . , Babylonian
parted passed a cheerless existence m a gloomy and Hebrew
underworld. The early Hebrew idea of Sheol, ideas of the
future life
"the land of darkness and the shadow of death," ^
was very similar. Such thoughts of the future hfe left noth-
ing for either fear or hope. In later times, however, the
Hebrews came to believe in the resurrection of the dead
Mummy and Cover of
Coffin
U. S. National Museum, Washington.
1 Joh, X, 21.
S6
Oriental Civilization
and the last judgment, conceptions afterwards adopted by
Christianity.
18. Literature and Art
Religion inspired the largest part of ancient literature. Each
Oriental people possessed sacred writings. The Egyptian Book
The Egyptian ^/ ^^^^ Dead was already venerable in 3000 B.C.
It was a collection of hymns, prayers, and magical
phrases to be recited by the soul on its journey
beyond the grave and in the spirit world. A chapter from this
w^ork usually covered the inner side of the mummy case.
\m\m\]mnnmmmwwm]nnmmm\\\mmnm\»mw\mmm\M\wmn^
Book of the
Dead
iniiiuiiuiiMiuiuiuiuuiMuauuuilili|lliUIUIIIIIIIIiUliilfl|.;^^""
An Assyrian Hunting Scene
British Museum, London
A bas-relief from a slab found at Nineveh.
formed another Babylonian achievement. Such astronomical
discoveries must have required much patient and accurate
observation.
Geographical ideas for a long time were very crude. An
ancient map, scratched on clay, indicates that about eight
centuries before Christ the Babylonians had
gained some knowledge, not only of their own
land, but even of regions beyond the Mediterranean. The
chief increase in man's knowledge of the world in ancient times
was due to the Phoenicians.^
The skill of Oriental peoples as mechanics and engineers is
proved by their success as builders. The great Practical
pyramids exactly face the points of the compass, sciences
The principle of the round arch was known in Babylonia
Geography
^ See page i86, note 2.
* See page
62
Oriental Civilization
at a remote period. The transportation of colossal stone
monuments exhibits a knowledge of the lever, pulley, and in-
cHned plane.^ Babylonian inventions were the sundial and the
water clock, the one
to register the passage
of the hours by day,
the other by night.
The Egyptians and
Babylonians also
made some progress
in the practice of
medicine.
The schools, in both
Egypt and Babylonia,
The temple were at-
schooi t ached
to the temples and
were conducted by
the priests. Writing
was the chief subject
of instruction. It
took many years of
patient study to
master the cuneiform
symbols or the even
more difficult hiero-
glyphics. "He who
the
A Babylonian Map of the World
A tablet of dark brown clay, much injured, dating from
the 8th or 7th century B.C. The two large concentric cir-
cles indicate the ocean, or, as it is called in the cuneiform
writing between the circles, the " Briny Flood." Beyond t^qiiM eXCcl in
the ocean are seven successive projections of land, repre-
sented by triangles. Perhaps they refer to the countries SChool of the SCribcS,"
existing beyond the Black Sea and the Red Sea. The
ran an ancient
two parallel lines within the inner circle represent the
Euphrates. The little rings stand for the Babylonian maxim, "mUSt rlse
cities in this region. ^-^j^ ^^le dawn.''
Writing was learned by imitating the examples supplied in
copy-books. Some of the model letters studied by Egyptian
boys of the twentieth century B.C. have come down to us.
Reading, too, was an art not easy to learn. Dictionaries and
1 See the illustration, page 46.
Science and Education
63
An Egyptian Scribe
Louvre, Paris
grammars were written to aid the beginner. A little instruc-
tion was also provided in counting and calculating.
Having learned to read and write, the pupil was ready to
enter on the coveted career of a scribe. In a community where
nearly every one ^,
-'.„. •' , The scribes
was illiterate, the
scribes naturally held an honor-
able place. They conducted the
correspondence of the time.
When a man wished to send a
letter, he had a scribe write it,
signing it himself by affixing his
seal. When he received a letter,
he usually employed a scribe to
read it to him. The scribes
were also kept busy copying
books on the papyrus paper or
clay tablets which served as writing materials.
Every large city of Babylonia possessed a collection of books.
Several of the larger Hbraries have been discovered. At
Nippur, in Babylonia, thirty thousand clay tablets The temple
were found. Another great collection of books ^i^^ary
was unearthed in a royal palace at Nineveh. This Assyrian
library seems to have been open for the general use of the
king's subjects. The Egyptians also had their libraries,
usually as adjuncts to the temples, and hence under priestly
control.
Learning and education were so closely limited to a few in-
dividuals that the mass of the people were sunk in deepest
ignorance. Men could not pursue knowledge for Widespread
themselves, but had to accept everything on author- popular igno-
ity. Hence the inhabitants of Oriental lands ^^^^^
remained a conservative folk, slow to abandon their time-
honored beliefs and very unwilling to adopt a new custom even
when clearly better than the old. This absence of popular
education, more than anything else, made Oriental civilization
unprogressive.
64
Oriental Civilization
Excavations at Nippur
Nippur was the ancient " Calneh in the land of Shinar " (Genesis, x, lo). Excavations
here were conducted by the University of Pennsylvania during 1889-1900 a.d. The city
contained an imposing temple, a library, a school, and even a little museum of antiquities.
Studies
I. What was the origin of the "divine right" of kings? 2. Explain what is
meant by despotism; by autocracy. 3. What European state comes nearest to being
a pure despotism? What European monarch styles himself as an autocrat? 4.
What do the illustrations on pages 38, 43 tell about the pomp of Oriental kings?
5. Why did the existence of numerous slaves in Egypt and Babylonia tend to keep
low the wages of free workmen? Why is it true that civilization may be said to
have begun "with the cracking of the slave whip"? 6. What Ught is thrown on
the beginnings of money in ancient Egypt by the illustration on page 47? 7.
Name some objects which, in place of the metals, are used by primitive peoples as
money. 8. Interest in Babylonia was usually at the rate of 20% a year.' Why is
it so much lower in modern countries? 9. On the map, page 48, indicate the trade
routes between eastern and western Asia which met in Mesopotamia. 10. The
Phoenicians have been called "the EngUsh of antiquity." Can you give any reason
for this characterization? 1 1 . Why should the Phoenicians have been called the "co-
lossal peddlers" of the ancient world? 12. What books of the Bible contain the laws
of Israel? 13. What reasons can you suggest for the universal worship of the sun?
14. Define polytheism and monotheism, giving examples of each. 15. Describe
the Egyptian conception of the judgment of the dead (illustration, page 56).
16. How many "books" are there in the Old Testament? 17. W^hat is the Apocry-
pha? 18. How are the pyramids proof of an advanced civilization among the
Egyptians? 19. What is a bas-relief? Select some examples from the illustrations.
20. From what Oriental peoples do we get the oldest true arch? the first coined
money? the earliest legal code? the most ancient book? 21. Enumerate the most
important contributions to civilization made in Oriental antiquity.
CHAPTER IV
THE LANDS OF THE WEST AND THE RISE OF,
GREECE TO ABOUT 600 B.C.i
20. Physical Europe
The continent of Asia, projecting its huge bulk southwest-
ward between the seas, gradually narrows into the smaller
continent of Europe. The boundary between the Europe a
two regions is not well defined. Ancient geogra- peninsula
phers found a convenient dividing line north of
the Black Sea in the course of the river Don. Modern map
makers usually place the division at the Ural Mountains, the
Caspian Sea, and the Caucasus. Each of these boundaries
is more or less arbitrary. In a geographical sense Europe is
only the largest of the great Asiatic peninsulas.
But in physical features the two continents disclose the most
striking contrasts. The sea, which washes only the remote
edges of Asia, penetrates deeply into Europe and phygjcai fea-
forms an extremely irregular coast line with numer- tures of
ous bays and harbors. The mountains of Europe, "^°P®
seldom very high and provided with easy passes, present no
such barriers to intercourse as the mightier ranges of Asia. We
miss in Europe the extensive deserts and barren table-lands
which form such a feature of Asiatic geography. With the
exception of Russia the surface, generally, is distributed into
plains, hills, and valleys of moderate size. Instead of a few
large rivers, such as are found in Asia, Europe is well supphed
with numerous streams that make it possible to travel readily
from one district to another.
The almost unbroken mountain chain formed by the Pyrenees,
1 Webster, Readings in Ancient History, chapter iii, "Early Greek Society as
Pictured in the Homeric Poems"; chapter iv, "Stories from Greek Mythology";
chapter v, "Some Greek Tyrants"; chapter vi, "Spartan Education and Life."
6S
66 The Rise of Greece
the Alps, and the Balkans, sharply separates the central
Central and ^^^^ msLSS of Europe from the regions to the south,
northern Central Europe consists, in general, of lowlands,
^°^® which widen eastward into the vast Russian plain.
Northern Europe includes the British Isles, physically an exten-
sion of Europe, and the peninsulas of Scandinavia and Finland,
betw^een the Baltic Sea and the Arctic Ocean. Twenty centuries
ago central and northern Europe was a land of forests and
marshes, of desolate steppes and icebound hills. The peoples
who inhabited it — Celts in the west, Teutons or Germans in
the north, Slavs in the east — were men of Indo-European ^
race and speech. They were still barbarians. During ancient
times we hear little of them, except as their occasional migra-
tions southward brought them into contact w4th the Greeks
and the Romans.
Southern Europe comprises the three peninsulas of Spain,
Italy, and the Balkans, which reach far south into the Mediter-
Southern ranean. This great inland sea is divided into two
Europe parts near the center, where Africa and the island
of Sicily almost touch each other across a narrow strait. The
eastern part contains several minor seas, of which the one
called the ^Egean had most importance in Greek history.
21. Greece and the ^gean
The yEgean is an almost landlocked body of water. The
Balkan peninsula, narrowing toward the Mediterranean into
The ^gean the smaller peninsula of Greece, confines it on the
S®^ west. On the east it meets a boundary in Asia
Minor. The southern boundary is formed by a chain of islands,
while the only opening northward is found in the narrow pas-
sage leading to the Black Sea. The coasts and islands of the
.^gean thus make up a little world set off by itself.
Continental Greece is a tiny country. Its greatest length is
Continental scarcely more than two hundred and fifty miles; its
Greece greatest breadth is only one hundred and eighty
miles. Mountain ridges, offshoots of the Balkans, compose
1 See pages 16-17.
Greece and the JEgesm 67
the greater part of its area. Into the yalleys and deep gorges
of the interior the impetuous sea has everywhere forced a chan-
nel. The coast Hne, accordingly, is most irregular — a constant
succession of sharp promontories and curving bays. The
mountains, crossing the peninsula in confused masses, break it
up into numberless valleys and glens which seldom wdden into
plains. The rivers are not navigable. The few lakes, hemmed
in by the hills, have no outlets except in underground channels.
In this land of the Greeks no place is more than fifty miles from
a mountain range, or more than forty miles from some long
arm of the Mediterranean.
From the Greek mainland to the coast of Asia Minor the
traveler follows a route thickly studded with rocky islands.
They are near enough together to permit the The ^Egean
passage from one to another without losing sight islands
of land. The ^^gean islands thus served as ''stepping-stones"
between Greece and Asia Minor. ^
Western Asia Minor resembles Continental Greece in its
deeply indented coast, variety of scenery, and mild climate.
The fertile river valleys of this region early at- Western Asia
tracted Greek colonists. They built here many Minor
flourishing cities, especially along the central coast, which
came to be known as Ionia.
Greek history well illustrates the influence of geographical
conditions on the life of a people. In the first place, mountain
ranges cut up Continental Greece into many small influence of
states, separated from one another by natural geographical
ramparts. Hence the Greeks loved most of all
their own local independence and always refused to unite into
one nation under a single government. In the second place,
the near presence of the sea made sailors of the Greeks and led
them to devote much energy to foreign commerce.. They
early felt, in consequence, the stimulating effects of inter-
course with other peoples. Finally, the location of Greece at
the threshold of Asia, with its best harbors and most numer-
ous islands on the eastern coast, enabled the country to receive
1 For the island routes see the map between pages 68-69.
68
The Rise of Greece
and profit by all the culture of the Orient. Greece faced the
civilized East.
22. The ^gean Age (to about 1100 B.C.)
The Greeks of historic times knew very httle about their
prehistoric period. Instead of accurate knowledge they had
..-1^^1fr-^--^-^a ___ A prehistoric only the
.,,^<^^m^^-';-'-''''^if:J^^Z^^T^ civilization be^y ,-i_
f ul legends preserved
in ancient poems,
such as the Iliad
and the Odyssey.
Within our own
day, however, re-
markable excava-
tions have disclosed
the remains of a
widespread and
flourishing civiliza-
tion in times so dis-
tant that the historic
Greeks had lost all
sight of it. As in the
Orient,^ the labors
of modern scholars
are yearly adding to
our knowledge of
ancient Hfe.
The man who did
most to reveal the
prehistoric civilization of Greece was a wealthy German mer-
chant named Heinrich Schhemann. An enthu-
siastic lover of Homer, he believed that the stories
of the Trojan War related in the Iliad were not
idle fancies, but real facts. In 1870 a.d. he started to test his
behefs by excavations at a hill called Hissarlik, on the north-
• Excavations at Troy
The great northeast tower of the sixth city. The stairs
at the right belong to the eighth city.
Schliemann's
excavations
at Troy
* See page 42.
The yEgean Age
69
western coast of Asia Minor. Here tradition had always fixed
the site of ancient Troy. SchHemann's discoveries and those of
later explorers proved that at Hissarhk at least nine successive
cities had come into existence, flourished, and passed away.
Excavations completed in -1892 a.d. have shown that the sixth
city in order from the bottom was the one described in the
Homeric poems. It had powerful walls defended by towers,
well-fortified gates, and palaces of stone. The marks of fire
throughout the ruins indicate that the 'city must have been
destroyed by a disastrous conflagration.
The remarkable disclosures at Troy encouraged Schhemann
to excavate other Homeric sites. At Mycenae, a prehistoric
70
The Rise of Greece
Schliemann's
excavations
at Mycenae
and Tiryns
city of Argolis in Greece, he laid bare six rock-hewn graves,
containing the skeletons of nineteen persons, men,
women, and children. The faces of the dead had
been covered with thin masks of gold, and their
bodies had been decked with gold diadems, brace-
lets, and pendants. The other funeral offerings include gold
rings, silver vases,
and a variety of
bronze weapons.
At Tiryns, once
the capital of Ar-
golis, he uncov-
ered the ruins of
an extensive
structure with
gateways, open
courts, and closed
apartments.
Characteristic of
i this edifice were
the separate quar-
ters occupied by
men and women,
the series of store-
rooms for provi-
sions, and such a
modern conven-
ience as a bath-
room with pipes and drains. In short, the palace at Tiryns
gives us a clear and detailed picture of the home of a Homeric
prince.
But the fame of even Schliemann's discoveries has been some-
what dimmed by the excavations made since 1900 a.d. on the
Evans's ex- ^^^^ ^^ Gnossus, the ancient capital of the island of
cavations at Crete. At Gnossus an Englishman, Sir Arthur
Evans, has found the remains of an enormous
palace, with numerous courts, passages, and rooms. Here is
Lions' Gate, Mycen^
The stone relief, of triangular shape, represents two lions
(or lionesses) facing each other on opposite sides of a pillar.
The heads of the animals have been lost.
^ "'
s ^
H 3
3 <
q 3
i -
The iEgean Age
71
Antiquity of
^gean civi-
lization
the royal council chamber with the throne on which the king
once sat. Here are the royal magazines, still filled with huge
earthenware jars for the storage of provisions. A great number
of brilliant pictures — hunting scenes, landscapes, portraits of
men and women — cover the palace walls. Buried in some of
the chambers were thousands
of clay tablets with inscrip-
tions which, if ever read, will
add new chapters to ancient
history.^
These discoveries in the
iEgean enable us to place
another venerable
center of civilized
hfe by the side of
Babylonia and Egypt. As
early as 3000 B.C. the primitive
inhabitants of the ^gean were
giving up the use of stone tools
and weapons for those of metal.
Bronze soon came into general
use, as is shown by the excava-
tions. The five centuries between 1600 and iioo B.C. appear
to have been the time when the civilization of the ^gean Age
reached its highest development.
Remarkable progress took place during JEgesm times in some
of the fine arts. We find imposing palaces, often splendidly
adorned and arranged for a life of comfort. Wall
paintings, plaster reliefs, and fine carvings in stone
excite our admiration, ^gean artists made beautiful pottery
of many shapes and cleverly decorated it with plant and ani-
mal forms. They carved ivory, engraved gems, and excelled
in the working of metals. Some of their productions in gold,
silver, and bronze were scarcely surpassed by Greek artists a
thousand years later.^
There was much intercourse throughout the Mediterranean
1 See the illustration, page lo. ^ See the plate facing page 70.
Silver Fragment from Mycen^
National Museum, Athens
A siege scene showing the bows, slings,
and huge shields of Mycenaean warriors. In
the background are seen the masonry of
the city wall and the flat-roofed houses.
The fine arts
72
The Rise of Greece
Commerce
during this period. Products of JEgesin art have been found
as far west as Sicily, Italy, and Spain. yEgean
pottery has frequently been discovered in Egyp-
tian tombs. Some objects unearthed in Babylonia are ap-
_ parently of iEgean workmanship.
In those ancient days Crete was
mistress of the seas. Cretan mer-
chants preceded the Phoenicians as
carriers between Asia and Europe.^
Trade and commerce thus opened
up the Mediterranean world to
all the cultural influences of the
Orient.
iEgean civilization did not pene-
trate beyond the shores of Asia
Downfall of ^'^^ov, the islands,
JEgesLn civi- and the coasts of
Continental Greece.
The interior regions of the Greek
peninsula remained the home of
barbarous tribes, which had not
yet learned to build cities, to Cre-
ate beautiful objects of art, or to
By iioo B.C. their destructive inroads
A Cretan Girl
Museum of Candia, Crete
A fresco painting from the palace
of Gnossus. The girl's face is so aston-
ishingly modern in treatment that one
can scarcely believe that the picture
belongs to the sixteenth century b.c.
traffic on the seas
brought the ^Egean Age to an end.
23. The Homeric Age (about 1100-750 B.C.)
The barbarians w^ho overthrew iEgean civilization seem to
have entered Greece from the north, perhaps from the region
of the Danube River. They pushed gradually
southward, sometimes exterminating or enslaving
the earher inhabitants of the country, but more
often settling peaceably in their new homes. Conquerors and
conquered slowly intermingled and so produced the one Greek
people which is found at the dawn of history. These Greeks,
as we shall call them henceforth, also occupied the islands of
^ See pages 2g, 48.
Coming of
the northern
barbarians
The Homeric Age
73
the iEgean Sea and the coast of Asia Minor. The entire basin
of the JEgesLU thus became a Greek world.
The period between the end of the iEgean Age and the open-
ing of historic times in Greece The Homeric
is usually called the Homeric ^^^^^
Age, because many features of its civiliza-
tion are reflected in two epic poems called
the Iliad and the Odyssey. The former
deals with the story of a Greek expedition
against Troy; the latter describes the wan-
derings of the hero Odysseus on his return
from Troy. The two epics were probably
composed in Ionia, and by the Greeks were
attributed to a blind bard named Homer.
Many modern scholars, however, consider
them the work of several generations of
poets. The references in the Iliad and the
Odyssey to industry, social life, law, gov-
ernment, and rehgion give us some idea
of the culture which the historic Greeks
received as their inheritance.
The Greeks as described in the Homeric
epics were in a transitional stage between
the life of shepherds and that ^ ,
Industry
of farmers. Wealth consisted
chiefly of flocks and herds, though nearly
every freeman owned a little plot of land
on which he cultivated grain and cared for
his orchard and vineyard. There were few
skilled workmen, for almost everything was made at home.
A separate class of traders had not yet arisen. Commerce was
httle followed. The Greeks depended on Phoenician sailors to
bring to their shores the commodities which they could not
produce themselves. Iron was known and used, for instance,
in the manufacture of farm tools. During Homeric times, how-
ever, that metal had not yet displaced copper and bronze.^
1 See page 5.
.^GEAN Snake
Goddess
Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston
A gold and ivory statu-
ette found in Crete. Dates
from the sixteenth cen-
tury B.C. The goddess
wears the characteristic
Cretan dress, with low-
cut jacket and full skirt
with five plaited flounces.
On her head is an elabo-
rate crown.
74
The Rise of Greece
Social life
Social life was very simple. Princes tended flocks and built
houses; princesses carried -^^ater and washed clothes. Agamem-
non, Odysseus, and other heroes were not ashamed
to be their own butchers and cooks. The Homeric
knights did not ride on horseback, but fought from chariots.
They sat at table instead of reclining
at meals, as did the later Greeks.
Coined money was unknown. Trade
was by barter, values being reckoned
in oxen or in lumps of gold and silver.
Men bought their wives by making
gifts of cattle to the parents. The
art of writing is mentioned only once
in the Homeric poems, and doubtless
was little used.
The times were rude. Wars, though
petty, were numerous and cruel. The
Law and vanquished suffered
morality death or slavery. Piracy,
flourishing upon the unprotected seas,
ranked as an honorable occupation.
It was no insult to inquire of a sea-
faring stranger whether he was pirate
or merchant. Murders were frequent.
The murderer had to dread, not a pub-
lic trial and punishment, but rather
the personal vengeance of the kinsmen
of his victim. The Homeric Greeks,
in fact, exhibited the usual defects
and vices of barbarous peoples.
The Iliad and Odyssey disclose a considerable acquaintance
with peninsular Greece and the coasts of Asia Minor. Cyprus,
Homeric Egypt, and Sicily are also known in part. The
geography p^g^ imagines the earth as a sort of flat shield,
with Greece lying in the center.^ The Mediterranean, ''The
Sea," as it is called by Homer, and its continuation, the
1 See the map, page 76.
A Cretan Cupbearer
Museum of Candia, Crete
A fresco painting from the pal-
ace of Gnossus. The youth car-
ries a silver cup ornamented with
gold. His waist is tightly drawn
in by a girdle, his hair is dark
and curly; his profile is almost
classically Greek.
Early Greek Religion
75
Euxine,^ divided the world into two equal parts. Surrounding
the earth was "the great strength of the Stream of Ocean," ^ a
river, broad and deep, beyond which lay the dark and misty
realm of the mythical Cimmerians. The underworld of Hades,
home of the dead, was beneath the surface of the earth.
24. Early Greek Religion
We may learn from the Homeric poems what were the religious
ideas held by the early Greeks. The greater gods and goddesses
were not numerous. Less than a score everywhere The Oly in-
received worship under the same names and in all p^*" council
the temples. Twelve of the chief deities formed a select council,
which was supposed to meet on the top of snow-crowned Olym-
pus. The Greeks, however, did not agree as to what gods and
goddesses should be included in this august assemblage.
^ The Greek name of the Black Sea. 2 //^aJ, xviii, 607.
76
The Rise of Greece
Many of the Olympian deities appear to have been simply
personifications of natural phenomena. Zeus, '^ father of gods
Attributes of and men," as Homer calls him, was a heaven god,
the deities ^]^q gathered the clouds in storms and hurled the
lightning bolt. Apollo, a mighty god of light, who warded off
rrHE WORLD
according to
HOMER
(900 B.C.)
darkness and* evil, became the ideal of manly beauty and the
patron of music, poetry, and healing. Dionysus was worshiped
as the god of sprouting and budding vegetation. Poseidon,
brother of Zeus, ruled the sea. Hera, the wife of Zeus, repre-
sented the female principle in nature. Hence she presided over
the life of women and especially over the sacred rites of marriage.
Athena, who sprang full-grown from the forehead of Zeus,
embodied the idea of wisdom and all womanly virtues. Aphro-
dite, who arose from the foam of the sea, was the goddess of
love and beauty. Demeter, the great earth-mother, watched
over seed-time and harvest. Each deity thus had a kingdom
and a function of its own.
IK^^
^^■1
^; >* ^
^^^^^^^^1
1^^^^^^^^^^^^^ >
> ^ -X
^^^^^^^^^^11
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l^^^^^^^^w .. ''Jmk
ap^" ■***'• f
^■hi^^^^^^^HI
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^^Kf^^^^^^H
1^^^^ %. M
■i&af^^^^^^HI
^m,'.'/
■*"■ n
^^^H
^^^V f^'
r^-^H
^■^ T'-
. ..A'
<^^I^^^H
^^^m 'p^'^k
'^:^^l
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i^^^H
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Zeus Otricoli
Vatican Gallery, Rome
Hera
Ludovisi Villa, Rome
Apollo of the Belvedere Aphrodite of Cnidus
Vatican Gallery, Rome Glyptothek, Munich
GREEK GODS AND GODDESSES
THE APHRODITE OF MELOS
Louvre, Paris
More commonly known as the " Venus of Milo." The statue was dis-
covered in 1820 A.D. on the island of Melos. It consists of two principal
pieces, joined together across the folds of the drapery. Most art critics date
this work about 100 B.C. The strong, serene figure of the goddess sets forth
the Greek ideal of female loveliness.
Early Greek Religion
77
The Greeks made their gods and goddesses after themselves.
The Olympian divinities are really magnified men and women,
subject to all human passions and appetites, but Conceptions
possessed of more than human power and endowed °^ *^® deities
with immortahty. They enjoy the banquet, where they feast
Calydonian boar hunt
Games at the funeral
of Patroclus
Peleus, Thetis, and the
gods
Pursuit of Troilus by
Achilles
Animal scenes,
sphinxes, etc.
The Francois Vase
Archaeological Museum, Florence
Found in an Etruscan grave in 1844 a.d. A black -figured terra cotta vase of about
600 B.C. It is nearly three feet in height and two and one-half feet in diameter. The
figures on the vase depict scenes from Greek mythology.
on nectar and ambrosia; they take part in the struggles of
the battle field; they marry and are given in marriage. The
gods, morally, were no better than their worshipers. They
might be represented as deceitful, dissolute, and cruel, but
they could also be regarded as upholders of truth and virtue.
Even Homer could say, "Verily the blessed gods love not evil
deeds, but they reverence justice and the righteous acts of
men." ^
Greek ideas of the other world were dismal to an extreme.
1 Odyssey, xiv, 83-84.
78
The Rise of Greece
The after-Ufe in Hades was believed to be a shadowy, joyless
Ideas of the copy of the earthly existence. In Hades the shade
other world ^f great Achilles exclaims sorrowfully, "Nay,
speak not comfortably to me of death. Rather would I live
on earth as the hireling of another,
even with a landless man who had
no great livelihood, than bear
sway among all the dead." ^ It
was not until several centuries
after Homer that happier notions
of the future life were taught, or
at least suggested, in the Eleusin-
ian mysteries.^
25. Religious Institutions :
Oracles and Games
The Greeks believed that com-
munications from the gods were
received from certain
inspired persons at
places called oracles.
The oracle of Apollo at Delphi in
Phocis enjoyed the utmost veneration. It lay within a deep
cave on the rocky side of Mount Parnassus. Out of a chasm
rose a volcanic vapor which had a certain intoxicating power.
The Pythia, or prophetess of Apollo, sat on a tripod over the
steaming cleft and inhaled the gas. The words she uttered in
delirium were supposed to come from the god. They were
taken down by the attendant priests, written out in verse, and
delivered to the suppliants.
The fame of Apollo as the patron of inspiration and prophecy
spread throughout Greece and penetrated to foreign lands.
Every year thousands of visitors made their way
to Apollo's shrine. Sick men prayed for health,
childless men prayed for offspring. Statesmen wished to learn
the fate of their political schemes; ambassadors sent by kings
1 Odyssey, xi, 488-491. 2 See page 227.
Consulting the Oracle at
Delphi
Oracle of
Apollo at
Delphi
Inquiries at
the oracle
Religious Institutions: Oracles and Games 79
and cities sought advice as to weighty matters of peace and war.
Above all, colonists came to Delphi in order to obtain directions
as to the best country in which to settle. Some of the noblest
cities of the Greek world, Cyrene and Byzantium, for example,^
had their sites fixed by Apollo's guidance.
The priests who managed the oracle and its responses were
usually able to give good advice to their inquirers, because
news of every sort streamed into Delphi. When character of
the priests were doubtful what answer to give, the responses
the prophecy of the god was sometimes expressed in such
ambiguous fashion that, whatever the outcome, neither Apollo
nor his servants could be charged with deceit. For instance,
when Croesus, the Lydian king, was about to attack Cyrus,
he learned from the oracle that ''if he warred with the Persians
he would overthrow a mighty empire"^ — but the mighty
empire proved to be his own.^
Athletic games were held in different parts of Greece from a
remote period. The most famous games were those in honor
of Zeus at Olympia in Ehs. They took place The Olym-
every fourth year, in midsummer."^ A sacred p^^^ games
truce was proclaimed for an entire month, in order that the
thousands of spectators from every part of Greece might arrive
and depart in safety. No one not of Greek blood and no one
convicted of crime or of the sin of impiety might participate in
the contests. The candidates had also to prove that they were
qualified for the severe tests by a long and hard training. Once
accepted as competitors, they could not withdraw. The man
who shrank back when the hour of trial arrived was considered
a coward and was punished with a heavy fine.
The games occupied five days, beginning with the contests
in running. There was a short-distance dash ^, ^ ^
° The contests
through the length of the stadium, a quarter-mile
race, and also a longer racQ, probably for two or three miles.
1 See pages 88, go. 2 Herodotus, i, 53. « See page 37.
* The first recorded celebration occurred in 776 B.C. The four-year period between
the games, called an Olympiad, became the Greek unit for determining dates.
Events were reckoned as taking place m the first, second, third, or fourth year of a
given Olympiad.
8o
The Rise of Greece
Then followed a contest consisting of five events: the long
jump, hurling the discus, throwing the javelin, running, and
wrestling. It is not known how victory in these five events
taken together was decided. In the
long jump, weights like dumb-bells
were held in the hands, the swing of
the weights being used to assist the
spring. The discus, which weighed
about twelve pounds, was some-
times hurled more than one hun-
dred feet. The javelin was thrown
either by the hand alone or with the
help of a thong wound about the
shaft and held in the fingers. In
wrestling, three falls were necessary
for a victory. The contestants were
free to get their grip as best they
could. Other contests included box-
ing, horse races, and chariot races.
Women were apparently excluded
from the games, yet they were al-
lowed to enter horses for the races
and to set up statues in honor of
the victors.
The Olympian festival was pro-
foundly religious, because the dis-
The victor's play of manly strength
reward ^^g thought to be a
spectacle most pleasing to the gods.
The winning athlete received only a
wreath of wild olive at Olympia, but
at home he enjoyed the gifts and veneration of his fellow-citi-
zens. Poets celebrated his victories in noble odes. Sculptors
reproduced his triumphs in stone and bronze. To the end of his
days he remained a distinguished man.
There were few Greeks who at least once in their lives did not
attend the festival. The crowds that gathered before and after
The Discus Thrower
(Discobolus)
Lancelotti Palace, Rome
Marble copy of the bronze origi-
nal by Myron, a sculptor of the fifth
century b.c. Found in 1781 a.d. on
the Esquiline Hill, Rome. The stat-
ue represents a young man, perhaps
an athlete at the Olympian games,
who is bending forward to hurl the
discus. His body is thrown vio-
lently to the left with a twisting ac-
tion that brings every muscle into
play.
HERMES AND DIONYSUS
Museum of Olympia
An original statue by the great sculptor, Praxiteles. It was found in 1877 a.d. at Olym-
pia. Hermes is represented carrying the child Dionysus, whom Zeus had intrusted to his
care. The symmetrica] body oi Hermes is faultlessly modeled; the poise of his head is full of
dignity; his expression is refined and thoughtful. Manly strength and beauty have never
been better embodied than in this work.
The Greek City-State
the games turned the camp into a great fair, at which mer-
chants set up their shops and money changers their Significance
tables. Poets recited their hnes before admiring of the games
audiences and artists exhibited their masterpieces to intending
purchasers. Heralds read treaties re-
cently formed between Greek cities, in
order to have them widely known.
Orators addressed the multitude on
subjects of general interest. The games
thus helped to preserve a sense of fel-
lowship among Greek communities.
26. The Greek City-State
The Greeks in Homeric times had
already begun to live in towns and cities.
A Greek city, being inde- Nature of the
pendent and self-govern- city-state
ing, is properly called a city-state. Just
as a modern nation, it could declare war,
arrange treaties, and make alliances
with its neighbors. Such a city-state
included not only the territory within
its walls, but also the surrounding dis-
trict where many of the citizens lived.
The members of a Greek city-state
were very closely associated. The citi-
zens believed themselves to ^,
The citizens
be descended from a com-
mon ancestor and so to be all related.
They were united, also, in the worship of
the patron god or hero who had them
under his protection. These ties of sup-
posed kinship and common religion were of the utmost impor-
tance. They made citizenship a privilege which came to a
person only by birth, a privilege which he lost by removal to
another city. Elsewhere he was only a foreigner without legal
rights — a man without a country.
Athlete using the Stri-
GIL (ApOXYOMENUS)
Vatican Gallery, Rome
Marble copy of the bronze
original by Lysippus, a sculp)-
tor of the fourth century B.C.
The statute represents an ath-
lete rubbing his arm with a
flesh scraper to remove the oil
and sand of the palestra, or
exercising ground. His slen-
der form suggests quickness
and agility rather than great
strength.
82 The Rise of Greece
The Homeric poems, which give us our first view of the Greek
city-state, also contain the most ancient account of its govern-
Government ^^^^- Each city-state had a king, ''the shepherd
of the city- of the people," ^ as Homer calls him. The king
did not possess absolute authority. He was sur-
rounded by a council of nobles, chiefly the great landowners of
the community. They helped him in judgment and sacrifice,
followed him to war, and filled the principal offices. Both king
and nobles were obliged to consult the common people on
matters of great importance. For this purpose the ruler would
summon the citizens to the market place to hear the delibera-
tions of his council and to settle such questions as making war
or declaring peace. All men of free birth could attend the
assembly, where they shouted assent to the decision of their
leaders or showed disapproval by silence. This public assembly
had little importance in the Homeric Age, but later it be-
came the center of Greek democracy.
After the middle of the eighth century B.C., when historic
times began in Greece, some interesting changes took place in
Political de- ^^^ government of the city-states. In some of
velopment of them, for example, Thebes and Corinth, the nobles
e ci y-s a e ^^^.^^j^g strong enough to aboHsh the kingship
altogether. Monarchy, the rule of one, thus gave away to
aristocracy,^ the rule of the nobles. In other states, for instance,
Sparta and Argos, the kings were not driven out, but their power
was much weakened. Some states came under the control of
usurpers whom the Greeks called "tyrants." A tyrant was a
man who gained supreme power by force and governed for his
own benefit without regard to the laws. There were many
tyrannies in the Greek world during the seventh and sixth
centuries B.C. Still other states went through an entire cycle
of changes from kingship to aristocracy, from aristocracy to
tyranny, and from tyranny to democracy or popular rule.
The isolated and independent Greek communities thus
1 Iliad, ii, 243.
2 Aristocracy means, literally, the "government of the best." The Greeks also
used the word oligarchy — "rule of the few" — to describe a government by citizens
who belong to the wealthy class.
The Growth of Sparta 83
developed at an early period many different kinds of govern-
ment. To study them all would be a long task.
T . 1 r . 1 . Sparta and
It IS better to fix our attention on the two city- Athens as
states which held the principal place in Greek ^^^^ ^^ *^®
, . , , . ^ , , city-state
history and at the same time presented the
most striking contrasts in government and social life. These
were Sparta and Athens.
27. The Growth of Sparta (to 500 B.C.)
The Greek invaders who entered southern Greece, or the
Peloponnesus,^ were known as Dorians. They founded the city
of Sparta, in the district of Laconia. By the close gparta and
of the sixth century B.C. the Spartans were able the Peiopon-
to conquer their immediate neighbors and to °®^^^^ ^^g\xQ
organize some of the city-states of the Peloponnesus into a
strong confederacy called the Peloponnesian League. The
members of the league did not pay tribute, but they furnished
troops to serve in war under Spartan leaders, and they looked
to Sparta for guidance and protection. Thus this single city
became the foremost power in southern Greece.
It is clear that the Spartans must have been an extremely
vigorous and warlike people. Their city, in fact, formed a
military camp, garrisoned by soldiers whose whole gparta a
Hfe was passed in war and in preparation for war. mUitary
The Spartans were able to devote themselves to *^^°^^
martial pursuits because they possessed a large number of serfs,
called helots. The helots tilled the lands of the Spartans and
gave up to their masters the entire product of their labor,
except what was necessary for a bare subsistence.
Spartan government also had a military character. In form
the state was a kingdom, but since there were always two kings
reigning at once and enjoying equal authority. Government
neither of them could become very powerful. The °^ Sparta
real management of pubhc affairs lay in the hands of five men,
known as ephors, who were elected every year by the popular
1 "Pelops's island," a name derived from a legendary hero who settled in
southern Greece.
84 The Rise of Greece
assembly. The ephors accompanied the kings in war and di-
rected their actions; guided the dehberations of the council
of nobles and the assembly of freemen; superintended the
education of children; and exercised a general oversight of the
private life of citizens. The ephors had such absolute control
over the hves and property of the Spartans that we may describe
their rule as socialistic and select Sparta as an example of an-
cient state socialism. Nowhere else in the Greek world was the
weKare of the individual man so thoroughly subordinated to the
interests of the society of which he formed a unit.
Spartan education had a single purpose -^ to produce good
soldiers and obedient citizens. A sound body formed the
The Spartan first essential. A father was required to submit
^°y his son, soon after birth, to an inspection by the
elders of his tribe. If they found the child puny or ill-shaped,
they ordered it to be left on the mountain side, to perish from
exposure. At the age of seven a boy was taken from his parents'
home and placed in a military school. Here he was trained in
marching, sham fighting, and gymnastics. He learned to sing
warlike songs and in conversation to express himself in the
fewest possible words. Spartan brevity of speech became pro-
verbial. Above all he learned to endure hardship without
complaint. He went barefoot and wore only a single garment,
winter and summer. He slept on a bed of rushes. Every year
he and his comrades had to submit to a flogging before the
altar of the goddess Artemis, and the hero was the lad who
could bear the whipping longest without giving a sign of pain.
It is said that boys sometimes died under the lash rather than
utter a cry. Such ordeals are still a feature of savage life
to-day.
On reaching the age of twenty the youth was considered a
warrior. He did not live at home, but passed his time in bar-
The adult racks, as a member of a mihtary mess to which he
Spartan contributed his proper share of food, wine, and
money. At the age of thirty years the young Spartan became a
full citizen and a member of the popular assembly. He was then
compelled to marry in order to raise children for the state.
The Growth of Athens 85
But marriage did not free him from attendance at the pubHc
meals, the drill ground, and the gymnasium. A Spartan, in
fact, enjoyed httle home life until his sixtieth year, when he
became an elder and retired from actual service.
This exclusive devotion to military pursuits accomplished
its object. The Spartans became the finest soldiers of antiquity.
''AH the rest of the Greeks," says an ancient Excellence
writer, ''are amateurs; the Spartans are profes- of the Spar-
sionals in the conduct of war." ^ Though Sparta *^ ^° ^^^^
never produced great thinkers, poets, or artists, her military
strength made her the bulwark of Greece against foreign foes.
The time was to come when Greece, to retain her Uberties,
would need this disciplined Spartan soldiery .^
28. The Growth of Athens (to 500 B.C.)
The district of Attica, though smaller than our smallest
American commonwealth, was early filled with a number of
independent city-states. It was a great step in ' Athens as a
advance when, long before the dawn of Greek "ty-state
history, these tiny communities were united with Athens.
The inhabitants of the Attic towns and villages gave up their
separate governments and became members of the one city-
state of Athens. Henceforth a man was a Athenian citizen, no
matter in what part of Attica he lived.
At an earlier period, perhaps, than elsewhere in Greece, mon-
archy at Athens disappeared before the rising power of the
nobles. The rule of the nobility bore harshly on oppressive
the common people. Popular discontent was rule of the
especially excited at the administration of justice. ^° ^^
There were at first no written laws, but only the long-estabhshed
1 Xenophon, Polity of the Lacedcemonians, 13.
2 The Spartans believed that their mihtary organization was the work of a great
reformer and law-giver named Lycurgus. He was supposed to have Uved early in
the ninth century B.C. We do not know anything about Lycurgus, but we do know
that some existing primitive tribes, for instance, the Masai of East Africa, have cus-
toms almost the same as those of ancient Sparta. Hence we may say that the rude,
even barbarous, Spartans only carried over into the historic age the habits of Ufa
which they had formed in prehistoric times.
86 The Rise of Greece
customs of the community. Since all the judges were nobles,
they were tempted to decide legal cases in favor of their own
class. The people, at length, began to clamor for a written
code. They could then know just what the laws were.
After much agitation an Athenian named Draco was employed
to write out a code for the state. The laws, as pubhshed, were
Draco's code, very severe. The penalty for most offenses, even
621 B.C. i]^Q smallest theft, was death. The Athenians
used to declare that the Draconian code had been written, "not
in ink, but in blood." Its publication, however, was a popular
triumph and the first step toward the estabhshment of Athenian
democracy.
The second step was the legislation of Solon. This celebrated
Athenian was accounted among the wisest men of his age. The
Legislation people held him in high honor and gave him power
of Solon, to make much-needed reforms. At this time the
' ' condition of the Attic peasants was deplorable.
Many of them had failed to pay their rent to the wealthy land-
owners, and according to the old custom were being sold into
slavery. Solon abolished the custom and restored to freedom
all those who had been enslaved for debt. He also limited the
amount of land which a noble might hold. By still another law
he admitted even the poorest citizens to the popular assembly,
where they could vote for magistrates and judge of their con-
duct after their year of office VN^as over. By giving the common
people a greater share in the government, Solon helped forward
the democratic movement at Athens.
Solon's reforms satisfied neither the nobility nor the com-
mons. The two classes continued their rivalry until the disorder
Tyranny of ^^ ^^^ times enabled an ambitious politician to gain
Pisistratus, supreme power as a tyrant.^ He was Solon's own
nephew, a noble named Pisistratus. The tyrant
ruled with moderation and did much to develop the Athenian
city-state. He fostered agriculture by dividing the lands of
banished nobles among the peasants. His aUiances with neigh-
boring cities encouraged the rising commerce of Athens. The
1 See page 82.
Colonial Expansion of Greece 87
city itself was adorned with handsome buildings by architects
and sculptors whom Pisistratus invited to his court from all
parts of Greece.
Pisistratus was succeeded by his two sons, but the Athenians
did not take kindly to their rule. Before long the tyranny came
to an end. The Athenians now found a leader in a Reforms of
noble named Clisthenes, who proved to be an able ciisthenes,
statesman. He carried still further the democratic ^ ~^^^ ^'^'
movement begun by Draco and Solon. One of his reforms
extended Athenian citizenship to many foreigners and emanci-
pated slaves C'freedmen") then living in Attica. This liberal
measure swelled the number of citizens and helped to make the
Athenians a more progressive people. Chsthenes, it is said,
also established the curious arrangement known as ostracism.
Every year, if necessary, the citizens were to meet in assembly
and to vote against any persons whom they thought dangerous
to the state. If as many as six thousand votes were cast, the
man who received the highest number of votes had to go into
honorable exile for ten years. ^ Though ostracism was intended
as a precaution against tyrants, before long it came to be used
to remove unpopular politicians.
There were still some steps to be taken before the rule of the
people was completely secured at Athens. But, in the main,
the Athenians by 500 B.C. had estabhshed a truly Athens a
democratic government, the first in the history of democratic
the world. The hour was now rapidly approach- ^*^*®
ing when this young and vigorous democracy was to show forth
its worth before the eyes of all Greece.
29. Colonial Expansion of Greece (about 750-500 B.C.)
While Athens, Sparta, and their sister states were working
out the problems of government, another signifi- ^j^^ ^^^^
cant movement was going on in the Greek world, of coloniza-
The Greeks, about the middle of the eighth cen- *^°^
tury B.C., began to plant numerous colonies along the shores of
^ The name of an individual voted against was written on a piece of pottery
(Greek ostrakon), whence the term ostracism. See the illustration, page 97.
SS> The Rise of Greece
the Mediterranean and of the Black Sea. The great age of
colonization covered more than two hundred years.^
Several reasons led to the founding of colonies. Trade was an
important motive. The Greeks, like the Phoenicians,^ could
Reasons for realize large profits by exchanging their manufac-
founding tured goods for the food and raw materials of other
countries. Land hunger was another motive.
The poor soil of Greece could not support many inhabitants
and, when population increased, emigration afforded the only
means of relieving the pressure of numbers. A third motive
was political and social unrest. Greek cities at this period con-
tained many men of adventurous disposition who were ready to
seek in foreign countries a refuge from the oppression of nobles
or tyrants. They hoped to find in their new settlements more
freedom than they had at home.
A Greek colony was not simply a trading post; it was a center
of Greek hfe. The colonists continued to be Greeks in customs,
Character of language, and religion. Though quite independent
the Greek of the parent state, they always regarded it with
coony reverence and affection: they called themselves
"men away from home." Mother city and daughter colony
traded with each other and in time of danger helped each other.
A symbol of this unity was the sacred fire carried from the
pubhc hearth of the old community to the new settlement.
The Greeks planted many colonies on the coast of the northern
^gean and on both sides of the long passage between the
Colonization Mediterranean and the Black Sea,. Their most
in the north important colony was Byzantium, upon the site
where Constantinople now stands. They also
made settlements along the shores of the Black Sea. The cities
founded here were centers from which the Greeks drew their
supplies of fish, wood, wool, grain, metals, and slaves. The
immense profits to be gained by trade made the Greeks willing
to five in a cold country so unlike their own and among bar-
barous peoples.
The western lands furnished far more attractive sites for
1 See the map facing page 50. 2 See page 49.
Colonial Expansion of Greece 89
colonization. The Greeks/ could feel at home in southern Italy,
where the genial chmate, pure air, and sparkUng sea Colonization
recalled their native land. At a very early date ^ *^® '^^s*
they founded Cumae, on the coast just north of the bay of Naples.
Emigrants from Cumae, in turn, founded the city of Neapolis
(Naples), which in Roman times formed a home of Greek cul-
ture and even to-day possesses a large Greek population. To
::^*^
Temple of Neptune," P^stum
Paestura, the Greek Poseidonia, was a colony of Sybaris. The malarial atmosphere of the
place led to its desertion in the ninth century of our era. Hence the buildings there were not
used as quarries for later structures. The so-called "Temple of Neptune" at Paestum is one of
the best- preserved monuments of antiquity.
secure the approaches from Greece to these remote colonies, two
strongholds were established on the strait of Messina: Regium ^
on the Italian shore and Messana ^ on that of Sicily. Another
important colony in southern Italy was Tarentum.^
Greek settlements in Sicily were mainly along the coast.
Expansion over the entire island was checked by the Carthagin-
ians, who had numerous possessions at its western The Sicilian
extremity. The most celebrated colony in Sicily colonies
was Syracuse, estabhshed by emigrants from Corinth. It
became the largest of Greek cities.
In Corsica, Sardinia, and on the coast of Spain Carthage
also proved too obstinate a rival for the Greeks q^^^^. j^edi-
to gain much of a foothold. The city of MassiHa terranean
(Marseilles), at the mouth of the Rhone, was <^°^°"^^^
their chief settlement in ancient Gaul. Two colonies on the
1 Modern Reggie. 2 Modern Messina. s Modern Taranto.
90 The Rise of Greece
southern shore of the Mediterranean were Cyrene, west of
Egypt, and Naucratis, in the DeUa of the Nile. From this
time many Greek travelers visited Egypt to see the wonders
of that strange old country.
Energetic Greeks, the greatest colonizers of antiquity, thus
founded settlements from the Black Sea to the Atlantic Ocean.
Results of "All the Greek colonies" says an ancient writer,
colonization "g^re washed by the waves of the sea, and, so to
speak, a fringe of Greek earth is woven on to foreign lands." ^
To distinguish themselves from the foreigners, or ''barbari-
ans," 2 about them, the Greeks began to call themselves by the
common name of Hellenes. Hellas, their country, came to
include all the territory possessed by Hellenic peoples. The
life of the Greeks, henceforth, was confined no longer within the
narrow limits of the ^gean. Wherever rose a Greek city, there
w^as a scene of Greek history.
30. Bonds of Union among the Greeks
The Greek colonies, as we have seen, were free and independ-
ent. In Greece itself the little city-states were just as jealous
Language as ^^ their liberties. Nevertheless ties existed, not
a unifying of common government, but of common interests
and ideals, which helped to unite the scattered
sections of the Greek world. The strongest bond of union was,
of course, the one Greek speech. Everywhere the people used
the same beautiful and expressive language. It is not a "dead"
language, for it still lives in modified form on the lips of nearly
three million people in the Greek peninsula, throughout the
Mediterranean, and even in remote America.
Greek literature, likewise, made for unity. The Iliad and the
Odyssey were recited in every Greek village for centuries. They
Literature as formed the principal textbook in the schools; an
a unifying Athenian philosopher calls Homep the "educator
orce, omer ^^ Hellas." It has been well said that these two
epics were at once the Bible and the Shakespeare of the Greek
people.
1 Cicero, De republica, ii, 4, 2 Greek harharoi, "men of confused speech."
Bonds of Union among the Greeks 91
Religion formed another bond of union. Everywhere the
Greeks worshiped the same gods and performed the same
sacred rites. Religious influences were sometimes „ ,. .
, T . , r 1 • 1 Religion as a
Strong enough to brmg about federations known unifying
as amphictyonies, or leagues of neighbors. The force; am-
people living around a famous sanctuary would
meet to observe their festivals in common and to guard the
shrine of their divinity. The Delphic amphictyony was the
most noteworthy of these local unions. It included twelve
tribes and cities of central Greece and Thessaly. They estab-
lished a council, which took the shrine of Apollo under its pro-
tection and superintended the athletic games at Delphi.
The seventh and sixth centuries before Christ form a note-
worthy epoch in Greek history. Commerce and colonization
were bringing their educating influence to bear .
... . . A new age
upon the Greeks. Hellenic cities were rising every-
where along the Mediterranean shores. A common language,
literature, and religion were making the people more and more
conscious of their unity as opposed to the ''barbarians" about
them.
Greek history has now been traced from its beginnings to
about 500 B.C. It is the history of a people, not of one country
or of a united nation. Yet the time was drawing ^j^^ Greek
near when all the Greek communities were to be world, 500
brought together in closer bonds of union than
they had ever before known.
B.C.
Studies
I. On the map facing page 66 see what regions of Europe are less than 500 feet
above sea level; less than 3000 feet; over gooo feet. 2. Why was Europe better
fitted than Asia to develop the highest civilization? Why not so well fitted as Asia
to originate civilization? 3. "The tendency of mountains is to separate, of rivers
to unite, adjacent peoples." How can you justify this statement by a study of
European geography? 4. Why has the Mediterranean been called a "highway of
nations"? 5. Locate on the map several of the natural entrances into the basin
of the Mediterranean. 6. At what points is it probable that southern Europe and
northern Africa were once united? 7. Compare the position of Crete in relation to
Egypt with that of Sicily in relation to the north African coast. 8. Why was the
island of Cyprus a natural meeting place of Egyptian, Syrian, and Greek peoples?
9. What modem countries are included within the limits of the Balkan peninsula?
92
The Rise of Greece
10. Describe the island routes across the /Egean (map between pages 68-69),
11. What American states lie in about the same latitude as Greece? 12. Compare
the boundaries of ancient Greece with those of the modern kingdom. 13. What
European countries in physical features closely resemble Greece? What state of
our union? 14. Why is Greece in its physical aspects " the most European of Euro-
pean lands"? 15. What countries of Greece did not touch the sea? 16. Tell the
story of the Iliad and of the Odyssey. 17. Explain the following terms: oracle;
amphictyony; helot; Hellas; Olympiad; and ephors. 18. Give the meaning of
our Enghsh words "ostracism" and "oracular." 19. Explain the present meaning
and historical origin of the following expressions: "a Delphic response"; "Dra-
conian severity"; "a laconic speech." 20. What is the date of the first recorded
Olympiad? of the expulsion of the last tyrant of Athens? 21. Describe the
Lions' Gate (illustration, page 70) and the Frangois Vase (illustration, page 77).
22. Compare Greek ideas of the future life with those of the Babylonians. 23. Why
has the Delphic oracle been called "the common hearth of Hellas"? 24. What
resemblances do you discover between the Olympian festival and one of our great
international expositions? 25. Define and illustrate these terms: monarchy;
aristocracy; tyranny; democracy. 26. Why are the earliest laws always unwritten?
27. What differences existed between Phoenician and Greek colonization? 28. Why
did the colonies, as a rule, advance more rapidly than the mother country in wealth
and population? 29. What is the origin of the modern city of Constantinople?
of Marseilles? of Naples? of Syracuse in Sicily?
CHAPTER V
THE GREAT AGE OF THE GREEK REPUBLICS TO 362 B.C.i
Asiatic
Greeks con-
quered by
Croesus
31. The Perils of Hellas
The history of the Greeks for many centuries had been un-
eventful — a history of their uninterrupted expansion over
barbarian lands.
But now the
time was ap-
proaching when
the independent and isolated
Greek communities must
meet the attack of the great
despotic empires of Asia.
The Greek cities of Asia
Minor were the first part of
the Hellenic world to be in-
volved. Their conquest by
the Lydian king, Croesus,
about the middle of the sixth
century B.C., showed how
grave was the danger to Greek
independence from the am-
bitious designs of Oriental
monarchs.
As we have already learned,
Croesus himself conquests of
soon had to sub- Cyrus and
foreign '^^""^^'^
IMMilikWIlM^
japjgjgnjSJgJBPOF
mit to a
overlord, in the person of Cyrus the Great.
Crcesus on the Pyre
Painting on an Athenian vase of about 490
B.C. According to the legend Cyrus the Great,
having made Croesus prisoner, intended to
burn him on a pyre. But the god Apollo, to
whose oracle at Delphi Croesus had sent rich
gifts, put out the blaze by a sudden shower
of rain. The vase painting represents the
Lydian king sitting enthroned upon the pyre,
with a laurel wreath on his head and a scep-
ter in one hand. With the other hand he
pours a libation. He seems to be performing
a religious rite, not to be suffering an igno-
minious death.
The subjugation
1 Webster, Readings in Ancient History, chapter vii, "Xerxes and the Persian
Invasion of Greece"; chapter viii, "Episodes from the Peloponnesian War " ; chapter
ix, "Alcibiades the Athenian"; chapter x, "The Expedition of the Ten Thousand";
chapter xi, "The Trial and Death of Socrates."
93
94 The Great Age of the Greek Republics
of Lydia and the Greek seaboard by Cyrus extended the Per-
sian Empire to the Mediterranean. The conquest of Phoenicia
and Cyprus by Cambyses added the Phoenician navy to the
_ - resources of the mighty
empire. Persia had now
become a sea power, able
to cope with the Greeks
on their own element.
The subjection of Egypt
by the same king led nat-
urally to the annexation
of the Greek colonies on
the north African shore.
The entire coast of the
eastern Mediterranean
had now come under the
control of a new, power-
ful, and hostile state.
The accession of Da-
rius to the Persian throne
Persian Archers
Louvre, Paris
A frieze of enameled brick from the royal palace
at Susa. It is a masterpiece of Persian art and shows
the influence of both Assyrian and Greek design.
Each archer carries a spear, in addition to the bow
over the left shoulder and the quiver on the back.
These soldiers probably served as palace guards, hence
the fine robes worn by them.
Conquests
of Darius
only in-
creased the
dangers that overshad-
owed Hellas. He aimed
to complete the work of
Cyrus and Cambyses by
extending the empire
wherever a natural
frontier had not been reached. Accordingly, about 512 B.C.,
Darius invaded Europe wdth a large army, annexed the Greek
colonies on the Hellespont (the modern Dardanelles), and sub-
dued the wild tribes of Thrace and Macedonia. The Persian
dominions now touched those of the Greeks.^
Not long after this European expedition of Darius, the Ionian
cities of Asia Minor revolted against the Persians. Unable to
face their foes single-handed, they sought aid from Sparta, then
^ See the map facing page 38.
Expeditions of Darius against Greece 95
the chief military power of Greece. The Spartans refused to
take part in the war, but the Athenians, who real- ^j^^ j^^^.
ized the menace to Greece in the Persian advance. Revolt,
sent ships and men to light for the lonians. Even ^^^~^^^ ^•^•
with this help the Ionian cities could not hold out against the
vast resources of the Persians. One by one they fell again into
the hands of the Great King.
32. Expeditions of Darius against Greece
No sooner was quiet restored in Asia Minor than Darius
began preparations to punish First expedi-
Athens for her part in the Ionian *^°^' ^^^ ^•^•
Revolt. The first expedition under the com-
mand of Mardonius, the son-in-law of the
Persian monarch, was a failure. Mardonius
never reached Greece, because the Persian
fleet, on which his army depended for pro-
visions, was wrecked off the promontory of
Mount Athos.
Darius did not abandon his designs, in con-
sequence of the disaster. Two years later a
second fleet, bearing a force of second expe-
perhaps sixty thousand men, set dition, 490
out from Ionia for Greece. ' '
Datis and Artaphernes, the Persian leaders,
sailed straight across the ^Egean and landed
on the plain of Marathon, twenty-six miles
from Athens.
The situation of the Athenians seemed
desperate. They had scarcely ten thousand
men with whom to face an battle of
army far larger and hitherto Marathon,
invincible. The Spartans prom- ^^® ^•^*
ised support, but delayed sending troops at
the critical moment. Better, perhaps, than
a Spartan army was the genius of Miltiades,
one of the Athenian generals. Relying on Greek discipline and
Gravestone of
Aristion
National Museum,
Athens
Found near Marathon
in 1838 A.D. Belongs to
the late sixth century B.C.
Incorrectly called the
"Warrior of Marathon."
g6 The Great Age of the Greek Republics
Greek valor to win the day, he decided to take the offensive.
His heavy-armed soldiers made a smashing charge on the Per-
sians and drove them in confusion to their ships. Datis and
' Greek Soldiers in Arms
Painting on a Greek vase
Artaphernes then sailed back to Asia with their errand of ven-
geance unfulfilled.
After the battle of Marathon the Athenians began to make
Policies of preparations to resist another Persian invasion.
Aristides and One of their leaders, the eminent Aristides, thought
emis oc es ^-^^^ ^-^^^ should increase their army and meet the
enemy on land. His rival, Themistocles, urged a different policy.
.^1
■^■^^
,-^
;^
m
e
^ ■¥■
V
^
ffl
o
\i/ X
c
>
^
o
A SP
140 The Rise of Rome
language closely related, on the one side, to Greek and, on the
The Italian Other side, to the Celtic tongues of western Europe,
highianders They entered Italy through the Alpine passes, long
before the dawn of history, and gradually pushed southward
until they occupied the interior
of the peninsula. At the be-
ginning of historic times they
had separated into two main
branches. The eastern and
central parts of Italy formed
the home of the highianders,
grouped in various tribes.
Characters of the Etruscan Among them were the Um-
Alphabet brians in the northeast, the
About eight thousand Etruscan inscriptions SabiuCS in the Uppcr Vallcy
are known, ahnost all being short epitaphs on ^f ^J^g Tiber, and the SamuitCS
gravestones. In 1892 a.d. an Etruscan manu-
script, which had been used to pack an Egyp- lU the SOUth. Still Othcr Ital-
tian mummy, was published, but the language j^n pCOplcS OCCUpicd the pcniu-
could not be deciphered. ir r- r-
sula as far as Magna Graecia.
The western Italians were known as Latins. They dwelt in
Latium, the ''flat land" extending south of the Tiber between
the Apennines and the Tyrrhenian Sea. Residence
in the lowlands, where they bordered on the Etrus-
cans, helped to make the Latins a civilized people. Their
village communities grew into larger settlements, until the
whole of Latium became filled with a number of independent
city-states. The ties of kinship and the necessity of defense
against Etruscan and Sabine foes bound them together. At a
very early period they had united in the Latin League, under
the headship of Alba Longa. Another city in this league was
Rome.
49. The Romans
Rome sprang from a settlement of Latin shepherds, farmers,
and traders on the Palatine Mount.^ This was the central
eminence in a group of low hills south of the Tiber, about fifteen
1 The Romans believed that their city was founded in 753 B.C., from which year
all Roman dates were reckoned.
The Romans
141
miles by water from the river's mouth. Opposite the Palatine
community there arose on the Quirinal Hill another Founding of
settlement, which seems to have been an outpost ^^^^
of the Sabines. After much hard fighting the rival hill towns
united on equal terms into one state. The low marshy land
between the Palatine and Quirinal became the Forum, or com-
mon market place, and the steep rock, known as the Capitoline,
formed the common citadel.^
The union of the Palatine and Quirinal settlements greatly
increased the area and population of the Roman union of the
city. In course of time settlements were made on ^®^®^ ^^^^
the neighboring hills and these, too, cast in their lot with Rome.
Then a fortification, the so-called ''Wall of Servius," was built
to bring them all within the boundaries of the enlarged com-
1 See the map, page 293.
142 The Rise of Rome
munity. Rome came into existence as the City of the Seven
Hills.
Long after the foundation of Rome, when that city had grown
rich and powerful, her poets and historians delighted to relate
Myths of the many myths which clustered about the earlier
early Rome stages of her career. According to these myths
Rome began as a colony of Alba Longa, the capital of Latium.
The founder of this city was Ascanius, son of the Trojan prince
iEneas, who had escaped from Troy on its capture by the
Greeks and after long wanderings had reached the coast of
Italy. Many generations afterwards, when Numitor sat on the
throne of Alba Longa, his younger brother, Amulius, plotted
against him and drove him into exile. He had Numitor's son
put to death, and forced the daughter, Rhea Silvia, to take the
vows of a Vestal Virgin.^
But Rhea Silvia, beloved by Mars, the god of war, gave birth
to twin boys of more than human size and
Romulus and beauty. The wicked Amulius
Remus ordered the children to be set
adrift in a basket on the Tiber. Heaven,
however, guarded these offspring of a god; the
river cast them ashore near Mount Palatine,
and a she-wolf came and nursed them. There
An Early Roman , , . , , ,111 ^
P they were discovered by a shepherd, who reared
,^ , . them in his own household. When the twins.
Shows the twins,
Romulus and Remus, Romulus and Rcmus, reached manhood, they
as infants suckled by ^^^led Amulius and restored their grandfather
a wolf. ^ ^
to his kingdom. With other young men from
Alba Longa, they then set forth to build a new city on the
Palatine, where they had been rescued. As they scanned the
sky to learn the will of the gods, six vultures, birds of Jupiter,
appeared to Remus; but twelve were seen by Romulus. So
Romulus marked out the boundary of the city on the Palatine,
and Remus, who in derision leaped over the half -finished wall,
he slew in anger. Romulus thus became the sole founder of
Rome and its first king.
1 See page 146.
Early Roman Society 143
Romulus was followed by a Sabine, Numa Pompilius, who
taught the Romans the arts of peace and the worship of the
gods. Another king destroyed Alba Longa and Successors of
brought the inhabitants to Rome. The last of Romulus
Rome's seven kings was an Etruscan named Tarquin the Proud.
His tyranny finally provoked an uprising, and Rome became a
republic.
These famous tales have become a part of the world's litera-
ture and still possess value to the student. They show us what
the Romans themselves believed about the foun- significance
dation and early fortunes of their city. Sometimes °^ *^® myths
they refer to what seem to be facts, such as the first settlement
on the Palatine, the union with the Sabines on the Quirinal,
the conquest of Alba Longa, and Etruscan rule at Rome. The
myths also contain so many references to customs and beliefs
that they are a great help in understanding the social life and
religion of the early Romans.
50. Early Roman Society
Agriculture was the chief occupation of the Roman people,
"when our forefathers," said an ancient writer, "would praise
a worthy man, they praised him as a good farmer ^j^^ Romans
and a good landlord; and they believed that an agricul-
praise could go no further." ^ Roman farmers *"^^ people
raised large crops of grain — the staple product of ancient
Italy. Cattle-breeding, also, must have been an important
pursuit, since in early times prices were estimated in oxen and
sheep. 2
In such a community of peasants no great inequalities of
wealth existed. Few citizens were very rich; few were very
poor.- The members of each household made their Economic
own clothing from flax or wool, and fashioned out conditions
of wood and clay what utensils were needed for their simple life.
For a long time the Romans had no coined money whatever.
When copper came into use as currency, it passed from hand to
hand in shapeless lumps that required frequent weighing. It
1 Cato, De agricultura, i. 2 See page 6.
144
The Rise of Rome
MENSIS
was not until the fourth century that a regular coinage began.^
This use of copper as money indicates that gold and silver were
rare among the Romans, and luxury almost unknown.
Hard-working, god-fearing peasants are likely to lead clean
and sober lives. This was cer-
Moral char- Mainly true of the
acter of the early Romans.
early Romans rr^i i
1 hey were a manly
breed, abstemious in food and
drink, iron- willed, vigorous, and
strong. Deep down in the Ro-
man's heart was the proud con-
viction that Rome should rule
over all her neighbors. For this
he freely shed his blood; for
this he bore hardship, however
severe, without complaint. Be-
fore everything else, he was a
dutiful citizen and a true pa-
triot. Such were the sturdy men
who on their farms in Latium
formed the backbone of the Ro-
man state. Their character has
set its mark on history for all
time.
The family formed the unit
of Roman society. Its most
The Roman marked feature
family ^^^st he unlimited
IIES-X
ON9VINT
ESHOR'Vlll!
UOX MORXUTJ
SO
CAPRICORNO
TVTELA
IVNONIS
■ PALVS
A9VITVR
SALIX
HARVNDO
C/IDITVR
SACRIFICAN
01 ES
PENATIBVS
MENSIS
FEBRAR
OIESXXVHI
NONPVINT
OIES-HOR-XS
NOXHOH-XIU
S0L-A9VAR10
TVTEUNEPTVNI
SEGETES
SMMVNTVR
VltvlEARVM
SVPERFIC-C01.1T
HARVNOmES
mCENDVNT
PARE NT ALIA
LVPERCALIA
MRACOGNATO
TERMlNALlS
MENSIS
MARTIVS
DIES-XXXl
NONSEPTIMAN
OlES-.HOR-XIl
NOX- HORXll
/EOViNOCTM
Vm KAL-APR
SOL-PlSABVS
TVTEL-MlNERV>t
MIC/tPEDAMIN
INPASTINO
PVTANTVR.
ntlMFIRSCRriMB
INSIOISNAMIQVNl
SACRMAMVRIS
LIBEVAtQVlNCVE
TRIALAVATK)
A Roman Farmer's Calendar
A marble cube, two feet high, of about
31-29 B.C.
The month of May,
XXXI days,
The nones fall on the 7th day.
The day has 145 hours.
The night has 9^ hours.
The sun is in the sign of Taurus.
The month is under the protection of Apollo,
The corn is weeded.
The sheep are shorn.
The wool is washed.
Young steers are put under the yoke.
The vetch of the meadows is cut.
The lustration of the crops is made.
Sacrifices to Mercury and Flora.
authority of the father. In his
house he reigned an absolute king. His wife had no legal rights :
he could sell her into slavery or divorce her at will. Neverthe-
less, no ancient people honored women more highly than the
Romans. A Roman wife was the mistress of the home, as her
husband was its master. Though her education was not car-
ried far, we often find the Roman matron taking a lively inter-
1 See the illustration, page 7.
Roman Religion
145
Cinerary Urns in Terra Cotta
Vatican Museum, Rome
These receptacles for the ashes of the dead were found in
an old cemetery at Alba Longa. They show two forms of the
primitive Roman hut.
est in affairs of state, and aiding her husband both in poUtics
and business. It was the women, as well as the men, who
helped to make Rome great among the nations. Over his un-
married daugh-
ters and his sons, ^^ z^ ^>^^
the Roman father
ruled as supreme
as over his wife.
He brought up his
children to be so-
ber, silent, modest
in their bearing,
and, above all,
obedient. Their
misdeeds he might
punish with pen-
alties as severe as
banishment, slavery, or death. As head of the family he could
claim all their earnings; everything they had was his. The
father's great authority ceased only with his death. Then his
sons, in turn, became lords over their families.
51. Roman Religion
•
The Romans, like the ancient Greeks and the modern Chi-
nese, paid special veneration to the souls of the dead. These
were known by the flattering name of manes, the Worship of
''pure" or ''good ones." The Romans always ancestors
regarded the manes as members of the household to which they
had belonged on earth. The living and the dead were thus
bound together by the closest ties. The idea of the family
triumphed even over the grave.
The ancient Roman house had only one large room, the
atrium, where all members of the family lived together. It was
entered by a single door, which was sacred to the The house-
god Janus. On the hearth, opposite the doorway, ^°^^ deities
the housewife prepared the meals. The fire that ever blazed
upon it gave warmth and nourishment to the inmates. Here
146
The Rise of Rome
the house-
hold deities
dwelt Vesta, the spirit of the kindhng flame. The cupboard
where the food w^as kept came under the charge of the Penates,
who blessed the family store. The house as a whole had its
protecting spirits, called Lares.
The daily w^orship of these deities took place at the family
meal. The table would be placed at
Worship of ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ hearth,
and when the father
and his family sat
down to it, a Httle food would be
thrown into the flames and a por-
tion of wine poured out, as an offer-
ing to the gods. The images of the
Lares and Penates would also be
fetched from the shrine and placed
on the table in token of their pres-
ence at the meal. This religion of
the family lasted with little change
throughout the entire period of Ro-
man history.
The early Roman state was only
an enlarged family, and hence the
Janus and religion of ., the state
Vesta ^yg^g modeled after that
of the family. Some of the divini-
ties, such as Janus and Vesta, were taken over with Uttle change
from the domestic worship. The entrance to the Forum formed
a shrine of Janus,^ which Numa himself was said to have built.
The door, or gateway, stood open in time of war, but shut w^hen
Rome w^as at peace. At the south end of the Forum stood the
round temple of Vesta, containing the sacred hearth of the city.
Here Vesta was served by six virgins of free birth, whose duty
it w^as to keep the fire always blazing on the altar. If by acci-
dent the fire went out, it must be relighted from a ''pure flame,''
/
A Vestal Virgin
Portrait from a statue discovered in
the ruins of the temple of Vesta in the
Roman Forum.
1 Since a door (janua) had two sides, Janus, the door god, was represented with
the curious double face which appears on Roman coins. (See the plate facing
page 134.) The month of January in the Julian calendar was named for him.
Roman Religion
147
either by striking a spark with flint or by rubbing together two
dry sticks. Such methods of kindUng fire were those famiHar
to the prehistoric Romans.
The Romans worshiped various gods connected with their
lives as shepherds, farmers, and warriors. The chief divinity
was Jupiter, who ruled the heavens and sent rain jupiter and
and sunshine to nourish the crops. The war god ^^^^
Mars reflected the military character of the Romans. His
SUOVETAUEILIA
Louvre, Paris
The relief pictures an ancient Italian sacrifice of a bull, a ram, and a boar, oflFered to Mars
to secure purification from sin. Note the sacred laurel trees, the two altars, and the officiat-
ing magistrate, whose head is covered with the toga. He is sprinkling incense from a box
held by an attendant. Another attendant carries a ewer with the libation. In the rear is the
sacrificer with his ax.
sacred animal was the fierce, cruel wolf; his symbols were
spears and shields; his altar was the Campus Martins (Field of
Mars) outside the city walls, where the army assembled in
battle array. March, the first month of the old Roman year,
w^as named in his honor. Some other gods were borrowed from
the Greeks, together with many of the beautiful Greek myths.
The Romans took many precautions, before beginning any
enterprise, to find out what was the will of the gods and how
their favor might first be gained. They did not
, 111 .11 . Divination
have oracles, but they paid much attention to
omens of all sorts. A sudden flash of lightning, an eclipse of
the sun, a blazing comet, or an earthquake shock was an omen
148
The Rise of Rome
which awakened superstitious^ fear. It indicated the disap-
proval of the gods. From the Etruscans the Romans learned
to divine the future by examining the entrails of animal victims.
They also borrowed from their northern neighbors the practice
of looking for signs in the num-
ber, flight, and action of birds.
To consult such signs was called
"taking the auspices." ^
Roman priests, who con-
ducted the state religion, did
■r. . .,- J 110 1 form a sepa-
Pnesthoods ^
rate class, as in
some Oriental countries. They
were chosen, like other magis-
trates, from the general body of
citizens. A board, or ''college,"
of six priests had charge of the
public auspices. Another
board, that of the pontiffs, regu-
lated the calendar, kept the
public annals, and regulated
weights and measures. They were experts in all matters of
religious ceremonial and hence were very important officials.^
This old Roman faith was something very different from
what we understand by religion. It had little direct influence
Importance ^^ morality. It did not promise rewards or
threaten punishments in a future world. Roman
religion busied itself with the everyday life of man.
Just as the household was bound together by the tie of common
worship, so all the citizens were united in a common reverence
for the deities which guarded the state. The religion of Rome
made and held together a nation.
1 Latin auspicium, from auspex, a bird seer.
2 The title of the president of the pontiffs, Pontifex Maximus (Supreme Pontiff),
is still that of the pope. See page 364.
An Etruscan Augur
Wall painting from a tomb at Tarquinii in
Etruria.
of the state
religion
The Roman City-State
149
52. The Roman City-State
We find in early Rome, as in Homeric Greece/ a city-state
with its king, council, and assembly. The king was the father
of his people, having over them the same absolute Early Roman
authority that the house-father held within the government
family. The king was assisted by a council of elders, or Sen-
ate (Latin se^i'es, "old men"). Its
members were chosen by the king
and held office for life. The most
influential heads of families be-
longed to the Senate. The com-
mon people at first took little part
in the government, for it was only
on rare occasions that the king
summoned them to deliberate with
him in an assembly.
Toward the close of the sixth cen-
tury, as we have already learned,-
the ancient monarchy xherepubli-
disappeared from can consuls
Rome. In place of the lifelong
king two magistrates, named con-
suls, were elected every year. Each
consul had to share his honor and
authority with a colleague who enjoyed the same power as him-
self. Unless both agreed, there could be no action. Like the
Spartan kings, ^ the consuls served as checks, the one on the
other. Neither could safely use his position to aim at unlaw-
ful rule.
This divided power of the consuls might work very well in
times of peace. During dangerous wars or insurrections it was
likely to prove disastrous. A remedy was found
in the temporary revival of the old kingship under
a new name. When occasion required, one of the consuls, on
the advice of the Senate, appointed a dictator. The' consuls
1 See page 81. 2 See page 143. 3 See page 83.
Coop with Sacred Chickens
The relief represents the chickens in
the act of feeding. The most favorable
omen was secured when the fowls
greedily picked up more of the corn
than they could swallow at one time.
Their refusal to eat at all was an
omen of disaster.
The dictator
150 The Rise of Rome
then gave up their authority and the people put their property and
Hves entirely at the dictator's disposal. During his term of office,
which could not exceed six months, the state was under martial
law. Throughout Roman history there were many occasions
when a dictatorship was created to meet a sudden emergency.
The Roman state, during the regal age, seems to have been
divided between an aristocracy and a commons. The nobles
Patricians were Called patricians,^ and the common people
and plebeians -were known as plebeians.^ The patricians occu-
pied a privileged position, since they alone sat in the Senate
and served as priests, judges, and magistrates. In fact,
they controlled society, and the common people found them-
selves excluded from much of the religious, legal, and political
life of the Roman city. Under these circumstances it was
natural for the plebeians to agitate against the patrician mo-
nopoly of government. The struggle between the two orders
of society lasted about two centuries.
A few years after the establishment of the republic the
plebeians compelled the patricians to allow them to have officers
^, ., of their own, called tribunes, as a means of pro-
The tribunes . ^ ' . , , , ^,,
tection. There were ten tribunes, elected annually
by the plebeians. Any tribune could veto, that is, forbid, the
act of a magistrate which seemed to bear harshly on a citizen.
To make sure that a tribune's orders would be respected, his
person w^as made sacred and a solemn curse was pronounced
upon the man who injured him or interrupted him in the per-
formance of his duties. The tribune's authority, however,
extended only within the city and a mile beyond its walls. He
was quite powerless against the consul in the field.
We next find the plebeians struggling for equahty before the
The Twelve ^^^- J^^^ ^^ ^^ ancient Athens,^ the early Ro-
Tables, 449 man laws had never been written down or pub-
' * fished. About half a century after the plebeians
had obtained the tribunes, they forced the patricians to give
them written laws. A board of ten men, known as decemvirs,
1 From the Latin patres, "fathers." ^ See page 85.
2 Latin plebs, "the crowd."
i
The Roman City-State
151
was appointed to frame a legal code, binding equally on both
patricians and plebeians. The story goes that this commission
studied the legislation of the Greek states of southern Italy, and
even went to Athens to examine some of Solon's laws which
were still in force. The laws framed by the decemvirs were
engraved on twelve bronze tablets and set
up in the Forum. A few sentences from
this famous code have come down to us in
rude, unpolished Latin. They mark the be-
ginning of what was to be Rome's greatest
gift to civilization — her legal system.
The hardest task of the plebeians was to
secure the right of holding the great offices
of state. Eventually, how- pinal triumph
ever, they gained entrance to of the pie-
the Senate and became eligible
to the consulship and other magistracies
and to the priesthoods. By the middle of
the third century the plebeians and patri-
cians, equal before the law and with equal
privileges, formed one compact body of citi-
zens in the Roman state.
The Roman state called itself a republic
thing of the people." Roman citizens made the laws and
elected public officers. Though the people in their Rome as a
gatherings had now become supreme, their power ^epubhc
was really much limited by the fact that very little discussion
of a proposed measure was allowed. This formed a striking
contrast to the vigorous debating which went on in the Athe-
nian Assembly.^ Roman citizens could not frame, criticize, or
amend pubhc measures; they could only vote ''yes" or "no"
to proposals made to them by a magistrate.
Rome had many magistrates. Besides the two consuls and
an occasional dictator there were the ten tribunes
the praetors, who served as judges, and the quaes-
tors, or keepers of the treasury. The two censors were also very
1 See page 105.
CuRULE Chair and
Fasces
A consul sat on the
curule chair. The fasces
(axes in a bundle of rods)
symbolized his power to
flog and behead offenders.
- respublica — "a
Magistrates
152 The Rise of Rome
important officers. It was their business to make an enumera-
tion or census of the citizens and to assess property for taxation.
The censors almost always were reverend seniors who had
held the consulship and enjoyed a reputation for justice and
wisdom. Their office grew steadily in importance, especially
after the censors began to exercise an oversight of the private
life of the Romans. They could expel a senator from his seat
for immorality and could deprive any citizen of his vote. The
word "censorious," meaning faultfinding, is derived from the
name of these ancient officials.
The authority of the magistrates w^as much limited by the
Senate. This body contained about three hundred members,
Membership who held their seats generally for life. When
of the Senate vacancies occurred, they were filled, as a rule, by
those who had previously held one or more of the higher magis-
tracies. There sat in the Senate every man who, as statesman,
general, or diplomatist, had served his country well.
The Senate furnished an admirable school for debate. Any
senator could speak as long and as often as he chose. The
Powers exer- opportunities for discussion WTre numerous, for
cised by the all weighty matters came before this august assem-
^^^ ^ blage. It managed finances and public w^orks.
It looked after the state religion. It declared and conducted
war, received ambassadors from foreign countries, made alli-
ances, and administered conquered territories. The Senate
formed the real governing body of the republic.
The Senate proved not unworthy of its high position. For two
centuries, while Rome was winning dominion over Italy and the
*'An assem- Mediterranean, that body held the wisest and
bly of kings" i^ioblest Romans of the time. To these men office
meant a public trust — an opportunity to serve their country with
distinction and honor. The Senate, in its best days, was a splen-
did example of the foresight, energy, and wisdom of republican
Rome. An admiring foreigner called it " an assembly of kings." ^
1 The four letters inscribed on Roman military standards indicate the impor-
tant place held by the Senate. They are 5. P. Q. R., standing for Senatus Popu-
lusque Romanus, "The Senate and the People of Rome."
Expansion of Rome over Italy 153
53. Expansion of Rome over Italy, 509 (?)-264 B.C.
The first centuries of the repubhc were filled with constant
warfare. The Romans needed all their skill, bravery, and pa-
triotism to keep back the Etruscans on the north _
Rome
and the wild tribes of the Apennines. About 390 supreme
B.C. the state was brought near to destruction by J.^J'^*^^"^'
338 S.C
an invasion of the Gauls. ^ These barbarians, whose
huge bulk and enormous weapons struck terror to the hearts of
their adversaries, poured through the Alpine passes and ravaged
far and wide. At the river Allia, only a few miles from Rome,
they annihilated a Roman army and then captured and burned
the city itself. But the Gallic tide receded as swiftly as it had
come, and Rome rose from her ashes mightier than ever. Half
a century after the GalHc invasion she was able to subdue her
former alUes, the Latins, and to destroy their league. The
Latin War, as it is called, ended in 338 B.C., the year of the fate-
ful battle of Chaeronea in Greece.^ By this time Rome ruled in
Latium and southern Etruria and had begun to extend her sway
over Campania. There remained only one Italian people to con-
test with her the supremacy of the peninsula — the Samnites.
The Samnites were the most vigorous and warlike race of cen-
tral Italy. While the Romans were winning their way in Latium,
the Samnites were also entering on a career of con- _
* Rome
quest. They coveted the fertile Campanian plain supreme in
with its luxurious cities, Cumae and Neapolis, which central Italy,
^ ' 290 B.C.
the Greeks had founded. The Romans had also
fixed their eyes on the same region, and so a contest between
the two peoples became inevitable. In numbers, courage, and
military skill Romans and Samnites were well matched. Nearly
half a century of hard fighting was required before Rome gained
the upper hand. The close of the Samnite wars found Rome
supreme in central Italy. Her authority was now recognized
from the upper Apennines to the foot of the peninsula.
The wealthy cities of southern Italy offered a tempting prize
to Roman greed. Before long many of them received Roman
1 See page 129. 2 See page 118.
154 The Rise of Rome
garrisons and accepted the rule of the great Latin republic.
Rome supreme Tarentum/ howcvcr, the most important of the
in southern Greek colonies, held jealously to her independence.
Italy, 264 . . Uj^^i^j^. single-handed to face the Romans, Taren-
tuni turned to Greece for aid. She called on Pyrrhus, king of
Epirus, the fmest soldier of his age. Pyrrhus led twenty-five
thousand mercenary soldiers into Italy, an army almost as
large as Alexander's. The Romans could not break the bristling
ranks of the Greek phalanx, and they shrank back in terror before
the huge war elephants which Pyrrhus had brought with him.
The invader won the first battle, but lost many of his best troops.
He then offered peace on condition that the Romans should give
up tiieir possessions in southern Italy. The Senate returned the
proud reply that Rome would not treat with the enemy while he
stood on Italian soil. A second battle was so bitterly contested
that J^yrrhus declared, "Another such victory, and I am lost." -
Weary of the struggle, Pyrrhus now crossed over to Sicily to aid
his countrymen against the Carthaginians. The rapid progress
of the Roman arms called him l)ack, only to meet a severe
defeat. Pyrrhus then withdrew in disgust to Greece; Tarentum
fell; and Rome established her rule over southern Italy.
The triumph over J^yrrhus and the conquest of Magna
Graecia mark a decisive moment in the history of Rome. Had
Political situ- I'yn-hus won, Italy, as well as Asia and Egypt,
ation in 264 might have become a Greek land, ruled by Hellen-
istic kings. Now it was clear that Rome, having
met the invader so bravely, was to remain supreme in the
Italian peninsula. She was the undisputed mistress of Italy
from the strait of Messina northward to the Arnus and the
Ru])icon. Etruscans, Latins, Samnites, and Greeks acknowl-
edged her sway. The central city of the peninsula had be-
come the center of a united Italy.^
> Sec paKo 8y. 2 Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 21.
» It should be noticed, however, that as yet Rome controlled only the central
and southern parts of what is the modern kingdom of Italy. Two large divisions of
that kingdom, which every Italian now regards as essential to its unity, were in
other hands — the To valley and the island of Sicily.
J
Italy under Roman Rule 155
64. Italy under Roman Rule
Italy did not form a single state under Roman rule. About
one-third of Italy composed the strictly Roman territory occu-
pied by Roman citizens. Since ancient Rome The Roman
knew nothing of the great principle of representa- citizens
tive government/ it was necessary that citizens who wished to
vote or to stand for office should visit in person the capital city.
Few men, of course, would journey many miles to Rome in
order to exercise their political rights. The elections, moreover,
were not all held on one day, as with us, but consuls, praetors,
and other magistrates were chosen on different days, while
meetings of the assemblies might be held at any time of the
year. A country peasant who really tried to fulfill his duties as
a citizen would have had little time for anything else. In prac-
tice, therefore, the city populace at Rome had the controlling
voice in ordinary legislation. The Romans were never able to
remedy this grave defect in their political system. We shall see
later what evils government without representation brought in
its train.
Over against this body of Roman citizens were the Italian
peoples. Rome was not yet ready to grant them citizenship,
but she did not treat them as complete subjects.
The Italians were called the ''allies and friends"
of the Roman people. They lost the right of declaring war on
one another, of making treaties, and of coining money. Rome
otherwise allowed them to govern themselves, never calling on
them for tribute and only requiring that they should furnish
soldiers for the Roman army in time of war. These allies
occupied a large part of the Italian peninsula.
The Romans very early began to establish what were called
Latin colonies ^ in various parts of Italy. The colo- The Latin
nists were usually veteran soldiers or poor plebeians colonies
who wanted farms of their own. When the list of colonists
1 See page io6.
2 Latin colonists did not have the right of voting in the assembUes at Rome.
This privilege was enjoyed, however, by members of the "Roman" colonies, which
were planted mainly along the coast. See the map, page 156.
156
The Rise of Rome
was made up, they all marched forth in military array to take
possession of their new homes and build their city. The Latin
colonies were really offshoots of Rome and hence were always
faithful to her interests. Scattered everywhere in Italy they
formed so many permanent camps or garrisons to keep the
conquered peoples in subjection. At the same time they helped
mightily in spreading the Latin language, law, and civilization
throughout the peninsula.
All the colonies were united with one another and with Rome
by an extensive system of roads. The first great road, called
Italy under Roman Rule
157
the Appian Way, was made during the period of the Samnite
wars. It united the city of Rome with Capua and „
Roman roads
secured the hold of Rome on Campania. The
Appian Way was afterwards carried across the Apennines to
Brundisium on the Adriatic, whence travelers embarked for the
The Appian Way
A view in the neighborhood of Rome. The ancient construction of the road and its
massive paving blocks of lava have been laid bare by modern excavations. The width of the
roadway proper was only fifteen feet. The arches, seen in the background, belong to the
aqueduct built by the emperor Claudius in 52 a.d.
coast of Greece. Other trunk lines were soon built in Italy, and
from them a network of smaller highways was extended to
every part of the peninsula.
Roman roads had a military origin. Like the old Persian
roads ^ they were intended to facilitate the rapid dispatch of
troops, supplies, and official messages into every uses of Ro-
corner of Italy. Hence the roads ran, as much as ^^^ ^°^^^
possible, in straight lines and on easy grades. Nothing was
allowed to obstruct their course. Engineers cut through or
tunneled the hills, bridged rivers and gorges, and spanned low,
swampy lands with viaducts of stone. So carefully were these
roads constructed that some stretches of them are still in good
1 See page 40.
158
The Rise of Rome
condition. These magnificent highways were free to the pubHc.
They naturally became avenues of trade and travel and so
served to bring the Italian peoples into close touch with Rome.
Rome thus began in Italy that wonderful process of Roman-
ization which she was to extend
Romaniza- later to Spain, Gaul,
tion of Italy ^nd Britain. She be-
gan to make the ItaHan peoples
like herself in blood, speech, cus-
toms, and manners. More and
more the Italians, under Rome's
leadership, came to look upon
themselves as one people — the
people who wore the gown, or toga,
as contrasted with the barbarous
and trousers-wearing Gauls.
55. The Roman Army
While the Romans were con-
quering Italy, they were making
^, , . many improvements
The legion . 1 . .„
m their army. All
citizens between the ages of seven-
teen and forty-six were liable to
active service. These men were
mainly landowners — hardy, intel-
ligent peasants — who knew how to fight and how to obey or-
ders. An army in the field consisted of one or more legions.
A legion included about three thousand heavy-armed footmen,
twelve hundred light infantry, and three hundred horsemen.
After the conquest of Italy the states allied with Rome had to
furnish soldiers, chiefly archers and cavalry. These auxiliaries,
as they were called, were at least as numerous as legionaries.
The Romans, in carrying on war, employed not only their
citizens but also their subjects.
The legion oft'ered a sharp contrast to the unwieldy phalanx.^
1 See page ii6.
A Roman Legionary
From a monument of the imperial age.
The soldier wears a metal helmet, a
leather doublet with shoulder-pieces, a
metal-plated belt, and a sword hang-
ing from a strap thrown over the left
shoulder. His left hand holds a large
shield, his right, a heavy javelin.
The Roman Army
159
Roman soldiers usually fought in an open order, with the heavy-
armed infantry arranged in three lines: first, the Method of
younger men; next, the more experienced warriors; ^s^t^^s
and lastly the veterans. A battle began with skirmishing by
the light troops, which moved to the front and discharged their
darts to harass the enemy. The companies of the first line next
flung their javelins at a distance of
from ten to twenty paces and then,
wielding their terrible short swords,
came at once to close quarters with
the foe. It was like a volley of mus-
ketry followed by a fierce bayonet
charge. If the attack proved unsuc-
cessful, the wearied soldiers withdrew
to the rear through the gaps in the
line behind. The second line now
marched forward to the attack; if it
was repulsed, there was still the third
line of steady veterans for the last and
decisive blow.
A very remarkable part of the Ro-
man military system consisted in the
use of fortified camps. Fortified
Every time the army c^^^ps
halted, if only for a single night, the
legionaries intrenched themselves
within a square inclosure. It was
protected by a ditch, an earthen
mound, and a palisade of stakes.
This camp formed a little city with
its streets, its four gates, a forum,
and the headquarters of the general.
Behind the walls of such a fortress an
army was always at liberty to accept
or decline a battle. As a proverb said, the Romans often con-
quered by ''sitting still."
Roman soldiers lived under the strictest discipline. To their
A Roman Standard
Bearer
Bonn Museum
From a gravestone of the first
century a.d. The standard con-
sists of a spear crowned with a
wreath, below which is a crossbar
bearing pendant acorns. Then
follow, in order, a metal disk, Ju-
piter's eagle standing on a thunder-
bolt, a crescent moon, an amulet,
and a large tassel.
i6o The Rise of Rome
general they owed absolute, unquestioning obedience. He
•n- -^r^o. could condemn them to death without trial. The
Discipline;
rewards and sentinel who slept on his watch, the legionary who
onors disobeyed an order or threw away his arms on the
field of battle, might be scourged with rods and then .beheaded.
The men were encouraged to deeds of valor by various marks
of distinction, which the general presented to them in the pres-
ence of the entire army. The highest reward was the civic
crown of oak leaves, granted to one who had saved the life
of a fellow-soldier on the battle field.
The state sometimes bestowed on a victorious general the
honor of a triumph. This was a grand parade and procession
in the city of Rome. First came the magistrates
The triumph , ■' , , . , , ,
and senators, wagons laden with booty, and
captives in chains. Then followed the conqueror himself, clad
in a gorgeous robe and riding in a four-horse chariot. Behind
him marched the soldiers, who sang a triumphal hymn. The
long procession passed through the streets to the Forum and
mounted the Capitoline Hill. There the general laid his laurel
crown upon the knees of the statue of Jupiter, as a thank offer-
ing for victory. Meanwhile, the captives who had just appeared
in the procession were strangled in the underground prison of
the Capitol. It was a day of mingled joy and tragedy.
The Romans, it has been said, were sometimes vanquished in
Military gen- battle, but they were always victorious in war.
ius of the With the short swords of her disciplined soldiers,
omans j^^^ flexible legion, and her fortified camps, Rome
won dominion in Italy and began the conquest of the world.
Studies
I. On an outline map indicate the Roman dominions in 500 B.C.; in 338 B.C.; in
264 B.C. 2. Make a list of the Roman magistrates mentioned in this chapter, and
of the powers exercised by each. 3. Give the meaning of our English words "pa-
trician," "plebeian," "censor," "dictator," "tribune," "augury," "auspices," and
"veto." 4. Connect the proper events with the following dates: 753 B.C.; 509
B.C.; and 338 B.C. 5. Why have Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica been called the
"suburbs of Italy"? 6. "Italy and Greece may be described as standing back to
back to each other." Explain this statement. 7. What is the origin of our names
of the two months, January and March? 8. Compare the early Roman with the
The Roman Army i6i
early Greek religion as to (a) likenesses; (b) differences, g. Why have the consuls
been called "joint kings for one year"? lo. What do you understand by "martial
law'? Under what circumstances is it sometimes declared in the United States?
II. Compare the position of the Roman patricians with that of the Athenian nobles
before the legislation of Draco and Solon. 12, What officers in American cities per-
form some of the duties of the censors, praetors, and aediles? 13. In the Roman and
Spartan constitutions contrast: (a) consuls and kings; (b) censors and ephors;
and ic) the two senates. 14. Compare the Roman Senate and the Senate of the
United States as to size, term of ofl&ce of members, conditions of membership, pro-
cedure, functions, and importance. 15. How far can the phrase, "government of
the people, by the people, for the people," be applied to the Roman Republic at
this period? 16. What conditions made it easy for the Romans to conquer Magna
Graecia and difficult for them to subdue the Samnites? 17. What is a "Pyrrhic
victory"? 18. Compare the nature of Roman rule over Italy with that of Athens
over the Delian League. 19. Trace on the map, page 156, the Appian and Flamin-
ian ways, noting some of the cities along the routes and the terminal points of each
road. 20. Explain: "all roads lead to Rome." 21. Contrast the legion and the
phalanx as to arrangement, armament, and method of fighting. 22. "Rome seems
greater than her greatest men." Comment on this statement.
CHAPTER VIII
THE GREAT AGE OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC, 264-31 B.C.i
56. The Rivals: Rome and Carthage, 264-218 B.C.
The conquest of Italy made Rome one of the five leading
states of the Mediterranean world. In the East there were the
The Punic kingdoms of Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt, which
w^^ had inherited the dominions of Alexander the
Great. In the West there were Carthage and Rome, once in
friendly alliance, but now to become the bitterest foes. Rome
had scarcely reached the headship of united Italy before she
was involved in a life-and-death struggle with this rival power.
The three w^ars between them are known as the Punic wars;
they are the most famous contests that ancient history records;
and they ended in the complete destruction of Carthage.
More than a century before the traditional date at which
Rome rose upon her seven hills, Phoenician colonists laid the
Foundation foundations of a second Tyre. The new city occu-
of Carthage pjgj ^j^ admirable site, for it bordered on rich farm-
ing land and had the largest harbor of the' north African coast.
A position at the junction of the eastern and western basins of
the Mediterranean gave it unsurpassed opportunities for trade.
At the same time Carthage was far enough away to be out of
the reach of Persian or Macedonian conquerors.
By the middle of the third century B.C. the Carthaginians
Commercial ^^^ formed an imposing commercial empire. Their
empire of African dominions included the strip of coast from
art age Cyrene westward to the strait of Gibraltar. Their
colonies covered the shores of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and
1 Webster, Readings in Ancient History, chapter xv, "Hannibal and the Great
Punic War"; chapter xvi, "Cato the Censor: a Roman of the Old School"; chapter
xvii, "Cicero the Orator"; chapter xviii, "The Conquest of Gaul, Related by
Caesar"; chapter xix, "The Makers of Imperial Rome: Character Sketches by
Suetonius."
162
The Rivals: Rome and Carthage
163
mi^'^
-4'
southern Spain. The western hah of the Mediterranean had
become a Carthaginian lake.
Before the opening of the Punic wars Carthage had been
much enlarged by emigrants from Tyre, after the capture of
that city by Alexander.^ The Carthaginian
Phoenician colonists kept their civiUzation
own language, customs, and beliefs and did
not mingle with the native African peoples.
Carthage in form was a republic, but the
real power lay in the hands of one hundred
men, selected from the great merchant fam-
ilies. It was a government by capitalists
who cared very little for the welfare of the
poor freemen and slaves over whom they
ruled. The wealth of Carthage enabled her
to raise huge armies of mercenary soldiers
and to build warships which in size, number,
and equipment surpassed those of any other
Mediterranean state. Mistress of a wide
realm, strong both by land and sea, Car-
thage was now to prove herself Rome's
most dangerous foe.
The First Punic War was a contest for
Sicily. The Carthaginians aimed to estab-
lisPi their rule over that island, origin of the
which from its situation seems First Punic
to belong almost as much to ^^
Africa as to Italy. But Rome, having be-
come supreme in Italy, also cast envious
eyes on Sicily. She believed, too, that the
Carthaginians, if they should conquer
Sicily, would sooner or later invade southern Italy. The fear
for her possessions, as well as the desire to gain new ones, led
Rome to fling down the gage of battle.
The contest between the two rival states began in 264 B.C.
and lasted nearly twenty-four years. The Romans overran
1 See page 123.
Column of Duilius
(Restored)
The Roman admiral,
Duilius, who won a great
victory in 260 B.C., was
honored by a triumphal
column set up in the
Forum. The monument
was adorned with the
brazen beaks of the cap-
tured Carthaginian ves-
sels. Part of the inscrip-
tion, reciting the achieve-
ments of the Roman fleet,
has been preserved.
164 The Great Age of the Roman RepubHc
Sicily and even made an unsuccessful invasion of Africa, but
the main struggle was on the sea. Here at first
Course and , °° ,. , •.-,■,
results of the the Romans were at a disadvantage, tor they had
war, 264-241 ^q ships as large and powerful as those of the
Carthaginians. With characteristic energy, how-
ever, they built several great war fleets and finally won a
complete victory over the enemy. The treaty of peace pro-
vided that Carthage should abandon Sicily, return all prisoners
without ransom, and pay a heavy indemnity.
Carthage, though beaten, had not been humbled. She had lost
Sicily and the commercial monopoly of the Mediterranean. But
The interval ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ready to abandon all hope of recov-
of preparation, ering her former supremacy. The peace amounted
241—218 B C
to no more than an armed truce. Both parties were
well aware that the real conflict was yet to come. The war,
however, was delayed for nearly a- quarter of a century. During
this interval Rome strengthened her military position by seizing
the islands of Sardinia and Corsica from Carthage and by con-
quering the Gauls in the Po valley. The Carthaginians, mean-
while, began to create a new empire in Spain, whose silver mines
would supply fresh means for another contest and whose hardy
tribes would furnish soldiers as good as the Roman legionaries.
57. Hannibal and the Great Punic War, 218-201 B.C. ■
The steady advance of the Carthaginian arms in Spain caused
much uneasiness in Rome and at length led that city to declare
. . war. Carthage herself was not unwilling for a
the Second second trial of strength. Her leading general,
oiTr c^^* Hannibal, who had been winning renown in Spain,
believed that the Carthaginians were now in a
position to wage an aggressive w^ar against their mighty rival.
And so the two great Mediterranean powers, each confident of
success, renewed the struggle for supremacy.
At the opening of the conflict Hannibal was not quite twenty-
seven years of age. While yet a mere child, so the
story went, his father had led him to the altar, and
bade him swear by the Carthaginian gods eternal enmity to
Hannibal and the Great Punic War 165
Rome. He followed his father to Spain and there learned all
the duties of a soldier. As a master of the art of war, he ranks
with Alexander the Great. The Macedonian king conquered
the world for the glory of conquest; Hannibal, burning with
patriotism, fought to destroy the power which had humbled his
native land. He failed; and his failure left Carthage weaker
than he found her. Few men have possessed a more dazzling
genius than Hannibal, but his genius was not employed for
the lasting good of humanity.
The Romans planned to conduct the war in Spain and Africa,
at a distance from their own shores. Hannibal's bold move-
ments totally upset these calculations. The Car- Hannibal's
thaginian general had determined that the con- invasion of
flict should take place in the Italian .peninsula ^
itself. Since Roman fleets now controlled the Mediterra-
nean, it was necessary for Hannibal to lead his army, with its
supplies, equipment, and beasts of burden, by the long and dan-
gerous land route from Spain to Italy. In the summer of 218
B.C. Hannibal set out from Spain with a large force of infantry
and cavalry, besides a number of elephafits. Beyond the river
Ebro he found himself in hostile territory, through which the
soldiers had to fight their way. To force the passage of the
Pyrenees and the Alps cost him more than half his original
army. When, after a five months' march he stood on the soil of
Italy, Hannibal had scarcely twenty-five thousand troops with
which to meet the immense power of Rome — a power that,
given time, could muster to her defense more than half a million
disciplined soldiers.
The Romans were surprised by the boldness and rapidity of
Hannibal's movements. They had expected to conduct the
war far away in foreign lands; they now knew that First victories
they must fight for their own homes and firesides. °^ Hannibal
The first battles were complete victories for the Carthaginians
and opened the road to Rome. Hannibal's plans, however, did
not include a siege of the capital. He would not shatter his
victorious army in an assault on a fortified town. Hannibal's
real object was to bring the Itahans over to his side, to ruin
1 66 The Great Age of the Roman Repubhc
A dictatorship
Rome through the revoUs of her aUies. But now he learned,
apparently for the first time, that Italy was studded with Latin
colonies/ each a minature Rome, each prepared to resist to the
bitter end. Not a single city opened its gates to the invader.
On such sohd foundations rested Roman rule in Italy.
The Senate faced the crisis with characteristic energy. New
forces were raised and intrusted to a dictator,^ Quintus Fabius
Maximus. He refused to meet Hannibal in a
pitched battle, but followed doggedly his enemy's
footsteps, meanwhile drilling his soldiers to become a match for
the Carthaginian veterans. This
strategy was little to the taste of
the Roman populace, who nick-
named Fabius Cunctator, 'Hhe
^ Laggard." However, it gave
Rome a brief breathing space, un-
til her preparations to crush the
invader should be completed.
After the term of Fabius as dic-
tator had expired, new consuls
were chosen. They
commanded th.e
largest army Rome
had ever put in the field. The opposing forces met at Cannae
in Apulia. The Carthaginians numbered less than fifty thousand
men; the Romans had more than eighty thousand troops. Han-
nibal's sole superiority lay in his cavalry, which was posted on
the wings with the infantry occupying the space between.
Hannibal's center was weak and gave way before the Romans,
who fought this time massed in solid columns. The arrange-
ment was a poor one, for it destroyed the mobility of the legions.
The Roman soldiers, having pierced the enemy's lines, now
found themselves exposed on both flanks to the African infantry
and taken in the rear by Hannibal's splendid cavalry. The
battle ended in a hideous butchery. One of the consuls died
fighting bravely to the last; the other escaped from the field
1 See page 155. 2 g^g p^ge 149.
A Carthagixian or Roman
Hel]met
British Museum, London
Found on the battle field of Cannae.
Battle of
Cannae,
216 B.C.
Hannibal and the Great Punic War 167
and with the wreck of his army fled to Rome. A Punic com-
mander who survived such a disaster would have perished on
the cross; the Roman commander received the thanks of the
Senate ''for not despairing of the repubhc." ^
The battle of Cannae marks the summit of Hannibal's career.
He maintained himself in Italy for thirteen years thereafter, but
the Romans, taught by bitter experience, refused
another engagement with their foe. Hannibal's
army was too small and too poorly equipped with siege engines
for a successful attack on Rome. His brother, Hasdrubal, led
strong reinforcements from Spain to Italy, but these were
caught and destroyed before they could effect a junction with
Hannibal's troops. Meanwhile the brilliant Roman commander,
Publius Scipio, drove the Carthaginians from Spain and invaded
Africa. Hannibal was summoned from Italy to face this new
adversary. He came, and on the field of Zama (202 B.C.) met
his first and only defeat. Scipio, the victor, received the proud
surname, Africanus.
Exhausted Carthage could now do no more than sue for peace
on any terms that Rome was willing to grant. In the hour of
defeat she still trusted her mighty soldier, and it Peace in 201
was Hannibal who conducted the final negotia- ■^•^•
tions. The conditions of peace were severe enough. The
Carthaginians gave up Spain and all their ships except ten
triremes. They were saddled with a huge indemnity and bound
to engage in no war without the consent of Rome. Carthage
thus became a dependent ally of the Roman city.
In describing the course and outcome of the Second Punic
War our sympathies naturally go out to the heroic figure of
Hannibal, who fought so long and so bravely for victorious
his native land. It is clear, however, that Rome's Ro"^^
victory in the gigantic struggle was essential to the continued
progress of classical civiHzation. The triumph of Carthage in the
third century, hke that of Persia in the fifth century ,2 must have
resulted in the spread of Oriental ideas and customs through-
out the Mediterranean. From this fate Rome saved Europe.
1 Livy, xxii, 6i. » See page loo.
1 68 The Great Age of the Roman Republic
58. Roman Supremacy in the West and in the East,
201-133 B.C.
Carthage had been humbled, but not destroyed. She still
enjoyed the advantages of her magnificent situation and con-
Third Punic tinned to be a competitor of Rome for the trade of
War begun, the Mediterranean. The Romans watched with
jealousy the reviving strength of the Punic city
and at last determined to blot it out of existence. In 149 B.C. a
A Testudo
A relief from the Column of Trajan, Rome. The name testudo, a tortoise (shell), was ap-
plied to the covering made by a body of soldiers who placed their shields over their heads.
The shields fitted so closely together that men could walk on them and even horses and
chariots could be driven over them.
large army was landed in Africa, and the inhabitants of Carthage
w^ere ordered to remove ten miles from the sea. They resolved
to perish in the ruins of their capital, rather than obey such a
cruel command.
Carthage held out for three years. The doubtful honor of its
capture belonged to Scipio iEmilianus, grandson, by adoption,
Destruction ^^ ^^^ victor of Zama. For seven days the legion-
of Carthage, aries fought their way, street by street, house by
146 B C
* * house, until only fifty thousand inhabitants were
left to surrender to the tender mercies of the Romans. The
Roman Supremacy in the West and in the East 169
Senate ordered that the city should be burned and that its site
should be plowed up and dedicated to the infernal gods.
Such was the end of the most formidable rival Rome ever met
in her career of conquest.^
The two European countries, Sicily and Spain, which Rome
had taken from Carthage, presented to the conqueror very
different problems. Sicily had been long accus-
tomed to foreign masters. Its civilized and peace-
loving inhabitants were as ready to accept Roman rule as, in
the past, they had accepted the rule of Greeks and Car-
thaginians. Every year the island became more and more a
part of Italy and of Rome.
Spain, on the contrary, gave the Romans some hard fighting.
The wild Spanish tribes loved their liberty, and in their moun-
tain fastnesses long kept up a desperate struggle .
for independence. It was not until the Romans
sent Scipio i^milianus to Spain that the Spanish resistance was
finally overcome (133 B.C.).
All Spain, except the inaccessible mountain district in the
northwest, now became Roman territory. Many colonists
settled there; traders and speculators flocked to Romaniza-
the seaports; even the legionaries, quartered in *^°^ ®^ Spam
Spain for long periods, married Spanish wives and, on retiring
from active service, made their homes in the peninsula. Rome
thus continued in Spain the process of Romanization which she
had begun in Italy.^ She was to repeat this process in Gaul
and Britain.^ Her way was prepared by the sword; but after
the sword came civilization.
While Rome was subduing the West, she was also extending
her influence over the highly civilized peoples of the East.
Roman interference in the affairs of Macedonia Rome and
found an excuse in the attempt of that country, Macedonia
during the Second Punic War, to give aid to Hannibal. It
1 In 29 B.C., one hundred and seventeen years after the destruction of Carthage
at the end of the Punic wars, a new town was founded near the old site by the
emperor Augustus. It became in time the third city of the Roman Empire. It
was destroyed by the Arabs in 698 a.d.
2 See page 158. 3 gee pages 184 and 197.
170 The Great Age of the Roman Repubhc
was a fateful moment when, for the second time, the legion
faced the phalanx. The easy victory over Macedonia showed
that this Hellenistic kingdom was no match for the Italian re-
public. Macedonia was finally made into a subject state or
province of Rome. Thus disappeared a great powder, which
Philip had founded and which Alexander had led to the con-
quest of the world.
Storming a City (Reconstruction)
Having subdued Macedonia, Rome proclaimed Greece a
free state. But this "freedom" really meant subjection, as was
Rome and amply proved when some of the Greek cities rose
Greece jj^ revolt against Roman domination. The heavy
hand of Roman vengeance especially descended on Corinth, at
this time one of the most beautiful cities of the world. In 146
B.C., the same year in which the destruction of Carthage oc-
curred, Corinth was sacked and burned to the ground.^ The
fall of Corinth may be said to mark the final extinction of Greek
liberty. Though the Hellenic cities and states were allowed to
1 Corinth offered too good a site to remain long in ruins. Resettled in 46 B.C.
as a Roman colony, it soon became one of the great cities in the empire. It was to
the Corinthians that St. Paul wrote two of his Epistles.
The Mediterranean World under Roman Rule 171
rule themselves, they paid tribute and thus acknowledged the
supremacy of Rome. A century later, Greece became in name,
as well as in fact, a province of the Roman Empire.^
Rome, in the meantime, was drawn into a conflict with the
kingdom of Syria. That Asiatic power proved to be no more
capable than Macedonia of checking the Roman Rome and
advance. The Syrian king had to give up the ^^"^
greater part of his possessions in Asia Minor. The western part
of the peninsula, together with the Greek cities on the coast,
was formed in 133 B.C. into the province of Asia. Thus the
same year that witnessed the complete establishment of Roman
rule in Spain saw Rome gain her first possessions at the op-
posite end of the Mediterranean.
Roman supremacy over the Mediterranean world was now all
but complete. In 264 B.C. Rome had been only one of the five
great Mediterranean states. In 133 b.c no other ponticai situ-
power existed to match its strength with that of ation in 133
Rome. To her had fallen in the West the heritage * *
of Carthage, in the East the heritage of Alexander. Rome had
built up this mighty empire at a terrible cost in blood and treas-
ure. Let us see what use she was to make of it.
59. The Mediterranean World under Roman Rule
Rome's dealings with the new dependencies across the sea
did not follow the methods that had proved so successful in
Italy. The Italian peoples had been treated with creation of
great liberality. Rome regarded them as alhes, the provincial
exempted them from certain taxes, and in many ^^^ ®™
instances gave them Roman citizenship. It did not seem possi-
ble to extend this wise policy to remote and often barbarous
lands beyond the borders of Italy. Rome adopted, instead,
much the same system of imperial rule that had been previously
followed by Persia and by Athens.^ She treated the foreign
' The Greeks were not again a free people until the nineteenth century of our era.
In 182 1 A.D. they rose against their Turkish masters in a glorious struggle for liberty.
Eight years later the powers of Europe forced the Sultan to recognize the freedom
of Greece. That country then became an independent kingdom, with its capital
at Athens. 2 gee pages 39-40 and 104,
172 The Great Age of the Roman RepubHc
peoples from Spain and Asia as subjects and made her con-
quered territories into provinces.^ Their inhabitants were com-
pelled to pay tribute and to accept the oversight of Roman
officials.
As the Romans came more and more to relish the opportu-
nities for plunder afforded by a wealthy province, its inhabitants
Evils of the ^^^^ often wretchedly misgoverned. Many gov-
provincial ernors of the conquered lands were corrupt and
sys em grasping men. They tried to wring all the money
they could from their helpless subjects. To the extortions of the
governors must be added those of the tax collectors, whose very
name of "publican" ^ became a byword for all that was rapa-
cious and greedy. In this first effort to manage the world she
had won, Rome had certainly made a failure. A city-state
could not rule, with justice and efficiency, an empire.
In the old days, before Rome entered on a career of foreign
conquest, her citizens were famous among men for their love of
The profits Country, their simple lives, and their conservative,
of conquest old-fashioned ways. They worked hard on their
little farms, fought bravely in the legions, and kept up with
careful piety all the ceremonies of their religion. But now the
Roman republic was an imperial power with all the privileges
of universal rule. Her foreign wars proved to be immensely
profitable. At the end of a successful campaign the soldiers
received large gifts from their general, besides the booty taken
from the enemy. The Roman state itself profited from the sale
of enslaved prisoners and their property. Large sums of money
were sometimes seized and taken to Rome. When once peace
had been made, the Roman governors and tax collectors fol-
lowed in the wake of the armies and squeezed the provincials at
every turn. The Romans, indeed, seem to have conquered the
world less for glory than for profit.
So much wealth poured into Rome from every side that there
^ In 133 B.C. there were eight provinces — Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, Hither
Spain, Farther Spain, lUyricum, Africa, Macedonia, and Asia. See the map facing
page 184.
2 In the New Testament "publicans and sinners" are mentioned side by side.
See Matthew, ix, 10.
The Mediterranean World under Roman Rule 173
could scarcely fail to be a sudden growth of luxurious tastes.
Rich nobles quickly developed a relish for all Growth of
sorts of reckless display. They built fine houses i^^^y
adorned with statues, costly paintings, and furnishings. They
surrounded themselves with troops of slaves. Instead of plain
linen clothes they and their wives wore garments of silk and
gold. At their banquets they spread embroidered carpets,
purple coverings, and dishes of gilt plate. Pomp and splendor
replaced the rude simplicity of an earlier age.
But if the rich were becoming richer, it seems that the poor
were also becoming poorer. After Rome became mistress of
the Mediterranean, her markets were flooded with Disappear-
the cheap wheat raised in the provinces, especially ance of the
in those granaries, Sicily and Africa. The price P^^^^^^^y
of wheat fell so low that Roman peasants could not raise
enough to support their families and pay their taxes. When
agriculture became unprofitable, the farmer was no longer able
to remain on the soil. He had to sell out, often at a ruinous
sacrifice. His land was bought by capitalists, who turned many
small fields into vast sheep pastures and cattle ranches. Gangs
of slaves, laboring under the lash, gradually took the place
of the old Roman peasantry, the very strength of the state.
Not unjust was the famous remark, ''Great domains ruined
Italy." 1
The decline of agriculture and the disappearance of the small
farmer under the stress of foreign competition may be studied
in modern England as well as in ancient Italy. The exodus
Nowadays an English farmer, under the same cir- *° *^® cities,
cumstances, will often emigrate to America or to Australia,
where land is cheap and it is easy to make a living. But these
Roman peasants did not care to go abroad and settle on better
soil in Spain or in Africa. They thronged, instead, to the cities,
to Rome especially, where they labored for a small wage, fared
plainly on wheat bread, and dwelt in huge lodging houses,
three or four stories high.
We know very little about this poorer population of Rome.
1 Latifundia perdidere Italiam (Pliny, Natural History, xviii, 7) .
174 The Great Age of the Roman RepubHc
They must have hved from hand to mouth. Since their votes
, controlled elections,^ they were courted by candi-
The city mob -^
dates for office and kept from grumbling by being
fed and amused. Such poor citizens, too lazy for steady work,
too intelligent to starve, formed, with the other riffraff of a great
city, the elements of a dangerous mob. And the mob, hence-
forth, plays an ever-larger part in the history of the times.
We must not imagine, however, that all the changes in Roman
life worked for evil. If the Romans were becoming more luxu-
Hellenic in- ^i^us, they were likewise gaining in culture. The
fluence at conquests which brought Rome in touch, first with
°°^® Magna Graecia and Sicily, then with Greece itself
and the Hellenic East, prepared the way for the entrance of
Hellenism. Roman soldiers and traders carried back to Italy
an acquaintance with Greek customs and ideas. Thousands of
cultivated Greeks, some as slaves, others as freemen, settled in
the capital as actors, physicians, artists, and writers. There
they introduced the Greek language, as well as the religion,
literature, and art of their native land. Roman nobles of the
better type began to take an interest in other things than simply
farming, commerce, or war. They imitated Greek fashions in
dress and manners, collected Greek books, and filled their
homes with the productions of Greek artists. Henceforth every
aspect of Roman society felt the quickening influence of the
older, richer culture of the Hellenic world. It was a» Roman
poet who wrote, ''Captive Greece captured her conqueror
rude." 2
60. The Gracchi
In 133 B.C., a year otherwise made memorable by the final
subjugation of Spain and the acquisition of Asia, efforts began
Tiberius and ^^ Rome to remedy some of the disorders which
Gains Grac- were now Seen to be sapping the strength of Roman
^ ^^ society. The first persons to undertake the work
of reform were the two brothers, Tiberius and Gains Gracchus.
The Gracchi belonged to the highest nobility of Rome. Their
father had filled a consulship and a censorship and had cele-
1 See page 155. ^ Horace, Epistles, ii, i, 156.
i
The Gracchi 175
brated triumphs. Cornelia, their mother, was a daughter of
Scipio Africanus, the conqueror of Hannibal. A fine type of
the Roman matron, she called her boys her "jewels," more
precious than gold, and brought them up to love their country
better than their own lives. Tiberius, the elder brother, was
only thirty years of age when he became a tribune and began
his career in Roman politics.
Tiberius signalized his election to the tribunate by bringing
forward his celebrated agrarian law. He proposed that the
public lands of Rome, then largely occupied by Agrarian law
wealthy men who alone had the money neces- of Tiberius
sary to work them with cattle and slaves, should ^^^^ ^^
be reclaimed by the state, divided into small tracts, and given to
the poorer citizens. By getting the people back again on the
soil, Tiberius hoped to revive the declining agriculture of Italy.
This agrarian law, though well intentioned, did not go to the
root of the real difficulty — foreign competition. No legislation
could have helped the farming class, except import defects of
duties to keep out the cheap grain from abroad, the agrarian
But the idle mob at Rome, controlling the assem- ^^
blies, would never have voted in favor of taxing their food, thus
making it more expensive. At the same time the proposal to take
away part of the public domains from its possessors roused a hor-
net's nest about the reformer's ears. Rich people had occupied
the pubHc land for so long that they had come to look upon it as
really their own. They would be very sure to oppose such a meas-
ure. Poor people, of course, welcomed a scheme which promised
to give them farms for nothing. Tiberius even wished to use
the public funds to stock the farms of his new peasantry. This
would have been a mischievous act of state philanthropy.
In spite of these defects in his measure, Tiberius urged its
passage with fiery eloquence. But the great land-
• .1 r- T .,1 1 Failure and
owners m the benate got another tribune, devoted death of
to their interests, to place his veto ^ on the proposed Tiberius,
1 • I • 133 S*C/«
legislation. The impatient Tiberius at once took a
revolutionary step. Though a magistrate could not legally be
1 See page 150.
176 The Great Age of the Roman RepubKc
removed from office, Tiberius had the offending tribune deposed
and dragged from his seat. The law was then passed without
further opposition. This action of Tiberius placed him clearly
in the wrong. The aristocrats threatened to punish him as soon
as his term of office was over. To avoid impeachment Tiberius
sought reelection to the tribunate for the following year. This,
again, was contrary to custom, since no one might hold office
for two successive terms. On the day appointed for the elec-
tion, while voting was in progress, a crowd of angry senators
burst into the Forum and killed Tiberius, together with three
hundred of his followers. Both sides had now begun to display
an utter disregard for law. Force and bloodshed, henceforth,
were to help decide political disputes.
Tiberius Gracchus, in his efforts to secure economic reform,
had unwittingly provoked a conflict between the Senate and the
assemblies. Ten years after his death, his brother.
Gams Grac- . , . '
chus becomes Gaius Gracchus, came to the front. Gains quickly
tnbune, rnade himself a popular leader with the set pur-
pose of remodeling the government of Rome.
He found in the tribunate an office from which to work
against the Senate. After the death of Tiberius a law had
been passed permitting a man to hold the position of tribune
year after year. Gaius intended to be a sort of perpetual
tribune, and to rule the Roman assemblies very much as
Pericles had ruled the people at Athens.^ One of his first
measures was a law permitting the sale of grain from the
public storehouses to Roman citizens at about half the
market price. This measure, of course, won over the city
mob, but it must be regarded as very unwise. It saddled
the treasury with a heavy burden, and later the government
had to furnish the grain for nothing. Indiscriminate charity
of this sort increased, rather than lessened, the number of
paupers.
Having won popular support, Gaius was able to secure the
additional legislation which he deemed necessary to carry out
his brother's work. He reenacted the land laws for the benefit
i See page 103.
The Gracchi 177
of the peasantry and furnished work for the unemployed by
building roads throughout Italy. He also began Measures of
to establish colonies of poor citizens, both in Italy Gaius to re-
and in the provinces. This was a wise policy. ^^^^ * ® ^^^^
Had it been allowed to continue, such state-assisted emigration,
by providing the landless poor of Italy with farms abroad,
would have relieved the economic distress of the peninsula.
Gaius now came forward with another measure which marked
him as an able and prudent statesman. He proposed to bestow
the right of voting in the Roman assemblies upon ,
. , ° , . ^ An effort to
the inhabitants of the Latin colonies.^ He thought, extend
also, that the Italian aUies should be allowed to Ro^^n
• 1 T~. citizenship
mtermarry with Romans and hold property under
the protection of the Roman law. No doubt Gaius believed
that the time might come when all the Italian peoples would
be citizens of Rome. This time did come, thirty years later,
but only after a terrible war that nearly ruined Rome.
The effort by Gaius to extend Roman citizenship cost the
reformer all his hard-won popularity. It aroused the jealousy
of the selfish city mob, which believed that the ^ „
. . Failure and
entrance of so many new citizens would mean the death of
loss of its privileges. There would not be so many Jl^,^^'
free shows and so much cheap grain. So the people
rejected the measure and, turning from their former favorite,
failed to reelect him to the tribunate. When Gaius was no
longer protected by the sanctity of the tribune's office,^ he
fell an easy victim to senatorial hatred. Another bloody
tumult broke out, in which Gaius and three thousand of
his followers perished. The consul who quelled the disturb-
ance erected at the head of the Forum a temple to Harmony
{Concordia) .
The pathetic career of the Gracchi had much significance in
Roman history. They were the unconscious spon- r^^^ Gracchi
sors of a revolutionary movement which did not begin the rev-
end until the republic had come under the rule of
one man. They failed because they put their trust in the
1 See page 155, note 2. 2 See page 150.
1 78 The Great Age of the Roman RepubHc
support of the Roman mob. Future agitators were to appear
with the legionaries at their heels.
61. Marius and Sulla
Although Rome now ruled throughout the Mediterranean,
she was constantly engaged in border wars in one corner or
another of her wide dominions. These wars
Manus and
the Jugur- brought to the front new military leaders, of whom
thine War, |-]^g ^j^gt was Gaius Marius. He was a peasant's
112-106 B.C. . ^
son, a coarse, rude soldier, but an honest, coura-
geous, and able man. Marius rose to prominence in the so-
called Jugurthine War, which the Romans were waging against
Jugurtha, king of Numidia. That wily African had discovered
that it was easier to bribe the Roman commanders than to
fight them; and the contest dragged on in disgraceful fashion
year after year. Marius at last persuaded the people to elect
him consul and intrust him with the conduct of the war. By
generalship and good fortune he speedily concluded the
struggle and brought Jugurtha in chains to Rome.
A few years later Marius had another opportunity to win
distinction. He became the defender of Rome and Italy against
„ . , a dangerous invasion of Germanic barbarians, who
Manus and ° . ^ i i i -r. tt n
the war with were ravaging Transalpine Gaul and the Po Valley.
!^«^^!^^^' The decisive victories which Marius gained over
102-101 B.C. , ^ ^ , . , ,
them removed a grave danger which threatened
the Roman world. The time had not yet come for ancient
civilization to be submerged under a wave of barbarism.
The second miHtary leader whom this troubled period
brought forth was Lucius Cornelius Sulla. He was a man of
Sulla and the i^'^ble birth, and with his social gifts, his appre-
Sociai War, ciation of art and letters, his knowledge of men
90-88 B.C. , , , , , ,
and the world, presented a sharp contrast to
Marius. Sulla's great abihties quickly brought him into pubhc
notice; he rose rapidly from one office to another; and in the
Social War showed his skill as a commander. This struggle was
the consequence of Rome's refusal to grant the rights of citizen-
ship to her Italian alhes. The strength of the rebellion lay
Marius and Sulla 179
among the Samnites and other peoples of central and southern
Italy. The war came to an end only when Rome promised the
franchise to all Italians who returned to their allegiance. Before
many years had passed, the inhabitants of nearly all the Italian
towns south of the Rubicon River received Roman citizenship.
It was, this same wise policy of making conquered peoples equal
with herself that afterwards led Rome to grant citizenship to
the inhabitants of the provinces.^
What military honors were gained in the struggle belonged
to Sulla. His reward was the consulship and an appointment
as general in still another conflict which distracted „ „
^ Sulla and the
Rome had to face. While that city had been busy Mithradatic
with civil enemies and barbarian foes, a powerful War, 88-84
B.C.
state, known as Pontus, had been growing up
in Asia Minor. Its king, Mithradates, overran the Roman
provinces in the Orient and threatened to annex them to his
own kingdom. But Sulla, with greatly inferior forces, com-
pelled Mithradates to abandon his conquests, surrender his
fleet, and pay a large indemnity. If Marius had the honor
of repelling the barbarian invasion of the West, Sulla had the
honor of preserving Rome's possessions in the East.
Marius and Sulla were rivals not only in war but also in pol-
itics. Sulla naturally espoused the aristocratic cause and stood
as the champion of the Senate. Marius just as Rivalry of
naturally became the head of the democratic Marius and
party. The rivalry between the two leaders finally
led to civil war. During Sulla's absence in the East the demo-
crats got the upper hand at Rome and revenged themselves by
murdering their political foes among the aristocrats. The
reign of terror ended only with the sudden death of Marius,
just after he had been elected to his seventh consulship. A few
years later Sulla returned to Italy with his army and defeated
the democrats in a great battle outside the CoUine Gate of
Rome. Sulla signalized his victory by ordering the assassination
of every prominent man in the democratic party.
Sulla regarded this legalized butchery as a necessary step in
» See page 204.
i8o The Great Age of the Roman RepubKc
his self-appointed task of putting the Roman government once
Sulla as more to rights. He now received the title of "Per-
" Perpetual petual Dictator," with complete authority to
govern the state until the new order of things
should be established. Rome thus came under the rule of one
man for the first time since the expulsion of the kings.
The various measures by which Sulla intrenched the Senate
in power did not long survive his death and hence had no last-
Sulla's death, ing influence on Roman politics. After a rule of
78 B.C. three years Sulla voluntarily gave up the dictator-
ship and retired to his villa on the bay of Naples. He died a
few months later. The Senate
honored him with a public funeral,
the most splendid that Rome had
ever seen. His monument bore an
inscription which the dictator him-
self is said to have composed: "No
friend ever did him a kindness and
no enemy, a wrong, without being
fully repaid." ^ That was one epi-
taph which told the truth.
62. Pompey and Caesar
The struggle between Marius and
Sulla, decided as it was by the
„ -r. ^T Rise of sword, marks a stage
Gn^us Pompeius Magnus t, . ' • ,. . f
Pompey ^ the declme of the
Spada Palace, Rome .
Roman Republic. The careers of
these two men showed how easily the state could be ruled by a
successful commander who had his soldiers behind him. After
Sulla's death his friend Pompey became the leading figure in
Roman politics. Pompey 's first service was in Spain, where the
adherents of Marius sought to humble the Senate and the aris-
tocratic party by encouraging the Spaniards to rise against Ro-
rAan rule. Having crushed this rebellion, Pompey returned to
Italy in time to take part in putting down a formidable insur-
1 Plutarch, Sulla, 38.
Pompey and Caesar
i8i
rection of slaves, outlaws, and ruined peasants. He was next
intrusted with the war against the pirates, who swarmed in the
Mediterranean, preyed on commerce, and plundered wealthy
cities near the coast. Brilliant success in clearing the seas of
these marauders led to his being sent to the East to end the
war with Mithradates, who was once more in arms against
Rome. Pompey drove the
Pontic monarch from his king-
dom and then annexed Syria
to the Roman dominions.
When Pompey returned to
Rome in 62 B.C., he brought
with him a reputation as the
most successful general of his
time.
We have seen how steadily
since the days of the Gracchi
the Roman state Marcus
had been moving Tullius Cicero
toward the rule of one man.
Marius, Sulla, and Pompey
each represent a step in the
direction of monarchy. Yet
there were still able and patriotic leaders at Rome who be-
lieved in the old order of things and tried their best to uphold
the fast-perishing republic. No republican statesman was more
devoted to the constitution than Cicero. A native of Arpinum,
the same Italian town which had already given birth to Marius,
Cicero came to Rome a youth without w^ealth or family influ-
ence. He made his way into Roman society by his social and
conversational powers and by his capacity for friendship. His
mind had been carefully trained under the influence of Hellenic
culture; he had traveled and studied in Greece; and through-
out life he loved to steal away from the tumult of the Forum
and the law courts and enjoy the companionship of his books.
Though the proud nobles were inclined to look down on him
as a ''new man," Cicero's splendid eloquence soon gave him
Marcus Tullius Cicero
Vatican Museum, Rome
1 82 The Great Age of the Roman RepubKc
prominence in politics. He ranks in fame as the second orator
of antiquity, inferior only to Demosthenes.
Cicero rose to prominence through his prosecution of Verres,
a thieving governor of Sicily. Verres had powerful friends
Impeachment ^"long the nobles at Rome and counted on his
of Verres, influence and wealth to escape punishment. He
70 B C
openly boasted that he had plunder enough to
live in luxury, even though he had to surrender two-thirds of it
as fees to his lawyers and bribes to the jury. But Verres had
not reckoned with the brilliant young advocate who took up
the cause of the oppressed provincials. Cicero hurried to Sicily
and there collected such an overwhelming mass of evidence that
the bare statement of the facts was enough to condemn the
criminal. Verres went into exile. Cicero became the head of
the Roman bar. Seven years later he was elected consul.
The year of Cicero's consulship was marked by an event
which throws a lurid light on the conditions of the time. Lucius
Conspiracy of Catihne, a young noble of ability, but bankrupt in
Catiline, character arid purse, organized a conspiracy to
seize Rome, murder the magistrates, and plunder
the rich. He gathered about himself outlaws of every descrip-
tion, slaves, and starving peasants — all the discontented and
needy classes throughout Italy. He and his associates were
desperate anarchists who sought to restore their own broken
fortunes 'by overturning the government. The spread of the in-
surrection was checked by Cicero's vigorous measures. In a
series of famous speeches he exposed Catiline's plans to the
astounded Senate. Catiline then fled to his camp in Etruria
and shortly afterwards perished in battle, together with three
thousand of his followers. Cicero now gained fresh popularity'
and honor. The grateful citizens cafled him ''Father of his
Country" {Pater Patrice).
Rome at this time held another prominent leader in politics,
namely, Gains Julius Caesar. He belonged to a noble family.
Rise of but his father had favored the democratic cause
Caesar ^^^ j^jg ^^^j^^ }^^^ married Marius. After Sulla's
death Caesar threw himself with energy into the game of politics
Pompey and Caesar
183
at the capital city. In these early years the future statesman
seems to have been a demagogue of the usual type, who
sought through the favor of the people a rapid rise to power.
He won the ear of the multitude by his fiery harangues, his
bribes of money, and his gifts of food and public shows.
Caesar's expenditures for such purposes
were enormous. Before he was twenty-
four he had spent all his private for-
tune. Henceforth he was "financed"
by the millionaire Crassus, who lent
him the money so necessary for a suc-
cessful career as a politician.
Caesar and Crassus, the two leaders
of the democratic party at Rome, now
joined with Pompey in ^j^^ -p-^^^^
what is called the First Triumvirate,
Triumvirate. To this
''ring" Pompey contributed his mili-
tary reputation, Crassus, his wealth,
and Caesar, his influence over the Ro-
man mob. Supported both by the
people and by the army, these three
men were really masters of Rome.
An immediate result of the First Tri-
umvirate was the appointment of Caesar as governor of
Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul.
The story of his career in Gaul has been related by Caesar
himself in the famous Commentaries. This book describes a
series of military successes which have given the
author a place among the world's generals. Caesar campaigns
overran Transalpine Gaul, twice bridged the Rhine "J^ ^^^^' ^^~
and invaded Germany, made two expeditions to
Britain, and brought within the Roman dominions all the ter-
ritory bounded by the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Rhine, and the
Atlantic Ocean.
Caesar's conquests in Gaul are more than a chapter in the
history of the art of war. They belong to the history of civili-
Gaius Julius C^sar
British Museum, London
184 The Great Age of the Roman RepubHc
zation. Henceforth the frontier of prehistoric Europe retreated
Romaniza- rapidly to the north. The map of the ancient civi-
tion of Gaul Hzed world widened from the Mediterranean basin
to the shores of the Atlantic. Into the conquered lands came
the Latin language, the Roman law, and the customs and in-
stitutions of Rome. Gaul speedily became one of the most
flourishing parts of the Roman world. "Let the Alps sink,"
exclaimed Cicero, "the gods raised them to shelter Italy from
the barbarians, but now they are no longer needed."
During Caesar's long absence in Gaul the First Triumvirate
was suddenly ended by the death of one of its members. It
had been a part of their bargain in dividing the
death of Roman world that Crassus should have the govern-
^q^l^r^' ment of Syria. But this unlucky general, while
aspiring to rival Caesar's exploits by new con-
quests beyond the Euphrates, lost his army and his life in battle
with the Parthians. Besides checking the extension of the
Roman arms in the remote East, the disaster had its effect
on Roman politics. It dissolved the triumvirate and prepared
the way for that rivalry between Caesar and Pompey which
formed the next step in the downward course of the republic.
The two men were now rapidly drawing apart. Pompey
grew more and more jealous of Caesar and more and more fear-
ful that the latter was aiming at despotic power.
Growing op- . <-> X X
position be- He himself had no desire to be king or dictator,
tween Pompey jjg ^^^ equally determined that Caesar should not
gain such a position. In this attitude he had the
full support of Cicero and the other members of the Senate.
They saw clearly that the real danger to the state was Caesar,
not Pompey.
Caesar's command in Gaul was to expire in 49 B.C. The sen-
atorial party desired that he should return to Rome without
an army. His opponents intended to prosecute
Clares war on him when he became a private citizen. Caesar had
in^J^/?"^^^^' 1^0 inclination to trust himself to their tender
mercies and refused to disband his legions unless
his rival did the same. Finally the Senate, conscious of Pom-
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Pompey and Caesar 185
pey's support, ordered him to lay down his arms on pain of
outlawry. Caesar replied to this challenge of the Senate by
leading his troops across the Rubicon, the little stream that
separated Cisalpine Gaul from Italy. As he plunged into the
river, he exclaimed, "The die is cast." ^ He had now declared
war on the republic.
Caesar's bold movement caught the senatorial party un-
awares. Pompey could not gather his legions before his auda-
cious foe reached Rome. Finding it impossible to csesar mas-
make a stand in Italy, Pompey, with the consuls ter of the
and many senators, withdrew to Greece. Caesar
did not follow him at once. He hurried to Spain and, after a
brilliant campaign only six w^eks in length, broke down the
republican resistance in that peninsula. Having now secured
Italy and Spain, Caesar was free to turn his forces against
Pompey in the East.
The final battle took place on the plain of Pharsalus in Thes-
saly. Pompey 's troops, though nearly twice as numerous as
Caesar's, were defeated after a severe struggle. Battle of
Their great leader then fled to Egypt, only to be Pharsalus, 48
foully murdered. Pompey's head was sent to
CiEsar, but he turned from it with horror. Such was the end of
an able general and an honest man, one who should have lived
two hundred years earlier, when Rome was still a free state.
After Pharsalus there still remained- several years of fighting
before Caesar's victory was complete. He made Cleopatra, the
beautiful queen of Eg\pt, secure in the possession of casar in
the throne and brought that country into depend- Jsyp*' ^^la
T^ Tx 11 1 A • n/r- 1 Minor, and
ence on Rome. He passed through Asia Minor and Africa, 48-46
in one swift campaign crushed a revolt headed by ^•^•
the son of Mithradates. The conqueror sent tidings of his vic-
tory in a laconic dispatch: ''I came, I saw, I conquered." ^ After
subduing the remnants of the senatorial party in Africa, Caesar
returned home to crown his exploits by a series of splendid tri-
umphs and to enjoy less than two years of untrammeled power.
1 Suetonius, Julius CcRsar, 32.
2 Veni, vidi, vici (Suetonius, Julius Casar, 37).
1 86 The Great Age of the Roman RepubHc
63. The Work of Caesar
The new government which Caesar brought into being was a
monarchy in all except name. He became dictator for life and
Authority and ^^^^ Other repubHcan offices, such as the consul-
position of ship and censorship. He refused the title of king,
*^^ but accepted as a civil magistrate the name of
imperator,^ with which the soldiers had been wont to salute a
victorious general.
Though he abolished
none of the old repub-
lican forms, the Sen-
ate became simply his
advisory council, the
assemblies, his sub-
A Roman Coin with the Head of
Julius C^sar
missive agents, the
consuls, praetors, and
tribunes, his pliant tools. The laurel wreath, the triumphal
dress, the conqueror's scepter — all proclaimed the autocrat.
Caesar used his power wisely and well. No massacres or con-
fiscations sullied his victory. He treated his former foes with
Character of clemency and even with kindness. No sooner was
Caesar's rule domestic tranquillity assured than, wdth restless
energy, he entered on a series of far-reaching reforms.
Caesar's measures sought to remove the economic evils which
a century of discord had made so manifest. By restricting the
Reforms at nionthly distribution of grain to those actually in
Rome and in need, he tried to discourage the public charity
^^ which was making the capital city a paradise for
the idle and the shiftless. By planning great colonies beyond
the sea, notably at Corinth and Carthage, he sought to provide
farms for the landless citizens of Italy. His active mind even
found time for such matters as the codification of Roman law,
the construction of great public works, and the improvement of
the coinage and the calendar.^
1 Hence our word " emperor."
2 Before Caesar's reform (46 B.C.) the Roman year consisted of 12 months and
355 days. As this lunar year, like that of the Greeks, was shorter than the solar
The Work of Caesar 187
Caesar's reforms in the provinces had an epoch-making char-
acter. He reduced taxes, lessened the burden of their collection,
and took into his own hands the appointment of Reformation
provincial magistrates. Henceforth oppressive of the provin-
governors and swindling publicans had to expect ^^ ^^^ ^^
swift, stern punishment from one whose interests included the
welfare of both citizens and subjects. By granting Roman citi-
zenship to communities in Gaul and Sicily, he indicated his
purpose, as rapidly as possible, to convert the provincials into
Romans. It was Caesar's aim to break down the barriers
between Rome and her provinces, to wipe out the distinction
between the conquerors and the conquered.
Caesar did not live to complete his task. Like that other
colossal figure, Alexander the Great, he perished before his
work as a statesman had hardly more than begun. Assassina-
On the Ides of March, 44 B.C., he was struck down tionof Caesar,
in the Senate-house by the daggers of a group of
envious and irreconcilable nobles, headed by Cassius and Bru-
tus. He fell at the foot of Pompey's statue, pierced with no
less than twenty-three wounds. His body was burnt on a pyre
in the Forum, and his friend, Antony, pronounced the funeral
eulogy.
In the light of all the possibilities of beneficent government
which Caesar was revealing, his cowardly murder becomes one
of the most stupendous follies recorded in history, consequences
Caesar's death could not restore the republic. It of Caesar's
served only to prolong disorder and strife within ^^
the Roman state. As Cicero himself said, hearing the news,
^'The tyrant is dead; the tyranny still lives."
year, it had been necessary to intercalate an additional month, of varying length, in
every alternate year. Caesar adopted the more accurate Egyptian calendar of
36s days and instituted the system of leap years. His rearrangement made the year
II minutes, 14 seconds too long. By 1582 a.d. this difference had amounted to
nearly 10 days. Pope Gregory XIII modified the "Julian Calendar" by calling
Oct. 5, 1582, Oct. 15, and continuing the count 10 days in advance. This " Grego-
rian Calendar" was adopted by Great Britain in 1752 a.d. and subsequently by
other Protestant countries. It has not won acceptance in Russia and Greece.
The difference between the two systems — the Old Style and the New Style — is
now about 13 days.
1 88 The Great Age of the Roman RepubHc
64. Antony and Octavian
The murderers of Caesar called themselves the ''liberators" of
the republic. They thought that all Rome would applaud their
Antony be- deed, but the contrary was true. The senatorial
comes Caesar's order remained lukewarm. The people, instead of
successor flocking to their support, mourned the loss of a
friend and benefactor. Soon the conspirators found themselves
in great peril. Caesar's friend and lieutenant, Antony, w^ho
became sole consul after Caesar's death, quickly made himself
master of the situation. Brutus and Cassius were forced to
withdraw to the provinces w^hich had been previously assigned
to them by Csesar, leaving Antony to rule Rome as his successor.
Antony's hope of reigning supreme was soon disturbed by
the appearance of a new rival. Caesar, in his will, had made
A rival in the ^^^ grandnephew, Octavian,^ his heir. He now
young Octa- came to Rome to claim the inheritance. In that
^^^^ sickly, studious youth people did not at first
recognize the masterful personality he was soon to exhibit.
They rather reechoed Cicero's sentiment that 'Hhe young man
was to be praised, complimented, and got rid of." ^ But
Octavian easily made himself a power, winning the populace
by paying Caesar's legacies to them and conciliating the sen-
atorial party by siding with it against Antony. Men now be-
gan to talk of Octavian as the destined restorer of the republic.
Octavian, however, entertained other designs. He had never
been sincere in his support of the Senate, and the distrustful
The Second pdicy of that body soon converted him into an
Triumvirate, active foe. From fighting Antony, Octavian turned
' ' to alhance with him. The two antagonists made
up their differences, and with Lepidus, one of Caesar's lieuten-
ants, as a third ally, marched on Rome at the head of their
legions. The city fell again under military rule. The three
men then united in the Second Triumvirate with full authority
to govern and reorganize the state. The advent of this new
1 His name was Octavius, but after his adoption by Caesar he called himself
Gains Julius Caesar Octavianus. sQcero, Letters, xix, 20.
Antony and Octavian 189
tyranny was signalized by a butchery almost as bloody as
Sulla's. Cicero, who had incurred the hatred of Antony by his
fiery speeches against him, was the most illustrious victim.
More than two thousand persons, mainly men of high rank,
were slain. The triumvirs by this massacre firmly established
their rule at Rome and in the West.
In the East, where Brutus and Cassius had gathered a for-
midable force, the triumvirs were not to win without a struggle.
It took place on the plain of Philippi in Macedonia. Battles of
The two battles fought there ended in the suicide Philippi,
of the republican leaders and the dispersal of their ' '
troops. This was the last attempt to restore the republic by
force of arms.
Though the republic had been overthrown, it remained to be
seen who would be master of the new empire, Antony or Octa-
vian. The triumvirate lasted for more than ten Diyision of
years, but during this period the incompetent the Roman
Lepidus was set aside by his stronger colleagues. ^°^
The two remaining members then divided between them the
Roman world. Octavian took Italy and the West; Antony
took the East, with Alexandria as his capital.
In the western half of the empire Octavian ruled quietly and
with success. Men were already congratulating themselves on
the return of peace under a second Caesar. In Octavian in
a few years Octavian, from an obscure boy of *^^ ^®^*
eighteen, had grown to be one of the most powerful person-
alities of his age.
In the eastern half of the empire things did not go so well.
Antony was clever, but fond of luxury and vice. He had married
a sister of Octavian, but he soon grew tired of her Antony in
and put her away for the fascinating Cleopatra.^ *^® ^^^*
The Roman world was startled by tidings that she had been
proclaimed "queen of kings," and that to her and her sons had
been given the richest provinces in the East. It was even
rumored that Cleopatra, having enslaved Antony with her
charms, planned to be enthroned as queen at Rome.
' See page 185. _
iQo The Great Age of the Roman RepubHc
Antony's disgraceful conduct aroused the Roman people.
They willingly followed Octavian to a war against one who
Battle of seemed a national enemy. A naval battle in the
Actium, bay of Actium, on the coast of Epirus, decided the
issue. The fight had hardly begun before Cleopatra
and Antony sailed away, leaving their fleet to take care of itself.
Octavian pursued the infatuated pair into Egypt. Antony com-
mitted suicide, and Cleopatra, rather than be led a captive in
a Roman triumph, followed his example. With the death of
Cleopatra the dynasty of the Ptolemies ^ came to an end.
Egypt henceforth formed a province of the Roman Empire.
Octavian, on his return to Rome, enjoyed the honors of a
three days' triumph.^ As the grand parade moved along the
The triumph Sacred Way through the Forum, and thence to
of Octavian ^}^g temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline, men noted
that the magistrates, instead of heading the procession as was
the custom, followed in the conqueror's train. It was a signifi-
cant change. Octavian, not the magistrates of Rome, now
ruled the Roman world.
65. The End of an Epoch
The republic, indeed, was doomed. A hundred years of dis-
sension and civil warfare proclaimed clearly enough the failure
Doom of the of the old order. Rome was a city-state suddenly
repubhc called to the responsibilities of universal rule.
Both the machinery of her government and the morals of her
people were inadequate for so huge a task. The gradual revolu-
tion which changed this Roman city-state into imperial Rome,
judged by its results, is perhaps the most momentous move-
ment in the annals of mankind. Let us summarize its course.
In 133 B.C. Roman society had been corrupted and enfeebled
as the result of foreign conquests. The supreme power in the
A century state more and more tended to fall into the hands
of revolution ^f ^ narrow oligarchy — the senatorial nobility.
Its dishonesty and weakness soon led to efforts at reform. The
attempts of the Gracchi to overthrow the Senate's position and
1 See page 127. 2 See page 160.
The End of an Epoch 191
restore popular sovereignty ended in disaster. Then, in quick
succession, arose a series of military leaders who aimed to secure
by the sword what was no longer to be obtained through con-
stitutional and legal means. Marius, a great general but no
politician, could only break down and destroy. Sulla, a sincere
but narrow-minded statesman, could do no more than prop up
the structure — already tottering — of senatorial rule. Pompey
soon undid that work and left the constitution to become again
the sport of rival soldiers. Caesar, triumphing over Pompey,
gained a position of unchallenged supremacy. After Caesar's
death, imperial power was permanently restored in the person
of Octavian. The battle of Actium in 31 B.C. made Octavian
master of the Roman world.
But the Romans were not yet an old and worn-out people.
On the ruins of the old repubhcan order it was still possible to
build up a new imperial system in which good ^, ,
,.,,,., The future \
government, peace, and prosperity should prevail
for more than two centuries. During this period Rome per-
formed her real, her enduring, w^ork for civilization.
Studies
I. Write a summary account (500 words) of Roman expansion 264-133 B.C.
2. On outline maps indicate the possessions of Carthage and Rome at the beginning
of the First Punic War; at the beginning of the Second Punic War; at the end of
the Second Punic War. 3. On outline maps indicate the boundaries of the Roman
world in 133 B.C. and in 31 B.C. and the division into provinces at these dates.
4. What events are connected with the following places: Zama; Cannae; Actium;
Pharsalus; and Philippi? 5. WTio were Quintus Fabius Maximus, Mithradates,
Catiline, and Cleopatra? 6. Indentify the following dates: 146 B.C.; 264 B.C.;
133 B.C.; 201 B.C.; 44 B.C.; and 63 B.C. 7. Why has Carthage been called the
"London " of the. ancient world? 8. What is meant by the statement that Carthage
is a "dumb actor on the stage of history"? 9. Was Rome wise in adopting her new
policy of expansion beyond the limits of Italy? 10. Give some examples in modern
times of war indemnities paid by defeated nations. 1 1 . Why did the Romans call
the Second Punic War the "War of Hannibal"? 12. What is a "Fabian policy"?
Do you know why Washington was called the "American Fabius"? 13. What
reasons can you give for Hannibal's early successes and final failure? 14. Show the
signal importance to Rome of her control of the sea during the Second Punic War.
15. Comment on this statement: "As the rise of Rome was central in history, the
Second Punic War was central in the rise of Rome." 16. What provinces had been
formed by 133 B.C. (map facing page 184)? 17. What parts of the world belonged
to Rome in 133 B.C. but were not yet provinces? 18. Might Rome have extended
192 The Great Age of the Roman RepubHc
her federal policy to her territories outside of Italy? Was a provincial system really
necessary? 19. Compare a Persian satrapy with a Roman province. 20. Would
import duties on foreign grain have revived ItaUan agriculture? 21. Why did the
cattle breeder in Italy have no reason to fear foreign competition? 22. Compare
the Athenian practice of state pay with the Roman "bread and the games of the
circus." 23. Had the Italians triumphed in the Social War, is it likely they would
have established a better government than that of Rome? 24. Was Marius or
was Sulla more to blame for the Civil War? 25. Explain the real meaning of Sulla's
"perpetual dictatorship." 26. Why was the rule of the Senate, unsatisfactory
though it was, to be preferred to that of the Roman populace? 27. Why is the First
Triumvirate described as a "ring"? Did it have an official character? 28. Why
does the First Triumvirate mark a distinct step toward the establishment of the
empire? 29. Why can wars with barbarous and savage peoples be justified as
"the most ultimately righteous of all wars"? 30. Can you suggest why Caesar's
conquest of Gaul had even greater importance than Pompey's conquests in the East?
31. Was Caesar justified in leading his army against Rome? 32. Had Pompey
triimiphed over Caesar, is it probable that the republic would have been restored?
SS- What contrasts can you draw between Caesar and Alexander? 34. Justify
the aphorism, "In the midst of arms the laws are silent," by the statements in this
chapter. 35. How do you account for the failure of the republican institutions of
Rome?
CHAPTER DC
THE EARLY EMPIRE: THE WORLD UNDER ROMAN RULE,
31 B.C.-180 A.D.1
66. Augustus, 31 B.C.-14 A.D.
The period of two hundred and eleven years, between the ac-
cession of Augustus and the death of Marcus AureHus, is known
as the Early Em- ^, ^ ,
, 1, The Early
pire. As we shall Empire, 31
now learn, it B.c.-iso
/ A.D.
was a time of set-
tled government and of inter-
nal tranquillity. Except for a brief
period of anarchy at the close of the
reign of Nero, it was also a time of
regular succession to the throne.
Nearly all the emperors were vigorous
and capable rulers. The peace and
prosperity which they gave to the Ro-
man world amply justify — if justifi-
cation be needed — the change from
republic to empire.
Few persons have set their stamp
more indelibly on the pages of history
than Octavian, whom we The new
may now call by his more ^^^^ Augustus
familiar name Augustus (''Majestic ")• Vatican Museum, Rome
Augustus was no military genius to
dazzle the world with his achievements. He was a cool and
passionless statesman who took advantage of a memorable
1 Webster, Readings in Ancient History, chapter xix, "The Makers of Imperial
Rome: Character Sketches by Suetonius"; chapter xx, "Nero, a Roman Emperor."
193
194 The World Under Roman Rule
opportunity to remake the Roman state, and who succeeded in
the attempt. Absolute power, which destroys weaker men,
with Augustus brought out the nobler elements of character.
From the successful leader of a party he became the wise and
impartial ruler of an empire.
Augustus had almost unlimited power. His position was
that of a king, as supreme as Juhus Caesar had ever been.
The new Better, however, than Julius Caesar, Augustus
government realized that an undisguised autocracy would only
aUenate public opinion and invite fresh plots and rebelhons.
Augustus intended to be the real master, but he would also be
careful to conceal his authority under republican forms. The
emperor w^as neither king, dictator, nor triumvir. He called
himself a republican magistrate — Princeps^ — the ''First
Citizen" of the state.
Augustus gave up the externals, only to keep the essentials,
of royalty. He held the proconsular authority, which extended
Powers en- ^^^^ ^^^ frontier provinces and their legions. He
joyed by held the tribunician authority, which made his
ugus s person sacred. As perpetual tribune he could pre-
side over the popular assembhes, manage the Senate and change
its membership at pleasure, and veto the acts of almost any
magistrate. In the provinces and at home in the capital city
the emperor was supreme.
Augustus ruled a vast realm. In it all the dreams of world
dominion which Alexander had cherished were more than real-
The empire ^^^*^- '^^^ empire included nearly the entire circle
under Augus- of the Mediterranean lands. On the west and
*"^ south it found natural barriers in the Atlantic
Ocean and the African desert. On the east the Euphrates
River had formed, since the defeat of Crassus,^ the dividing
Hne between Rome and Parthia. The northern frontier, be-
yond which lay the Germanic barbarians, required, however,
additional conquests for its protection.
The Danube River made an admirable boundary for much of
the Roman territory between the Black Sea and the Rhine.
^ Hence our word "prince." * See page 184.
Augustus 195
Augustus annexed the district south of the lower course of this
river and formed it into the province of Moesia The Danube
(modern Serbia and Bulgaria). The Hne of the boundary
upper Danube was later secured by the creation of three new
provinces on the northern slopes of the Alps.^ Henceforth the
Balkan peninsula and Italy on the northeast, where the Alpine
passes are low and comparatively easy, were shielded from
attack.
After the conquests of Julius Caesar in Gaul the Rhine had
become the frontier between that country and Germany.
Augustus repeatedly sent the legions into western The Rhine
Germany on punitive expeditions to strike terror boundary
into its warlike tribes and to inspire respect for Roman power.
It is doubtful, however, whether he ever intended to conquer
Germany and to convert it into another province. His failure
to do so meant that the Germans were not to be Romanized as
were their neighbors, the Celts of Gaul. The Rhine continued
to be the dividing-line between Roman civihzation and Ger-
manic barbarism.
The clash of arms on the distant frontiers scarcely disturbed
the serenity of the Roman world. Within the boundaries of the
empire the Augustan Age was an age of peace The Augus-
and prosperity. The emperor, with unwearied de- *^^ ^s®
votion, turned to the task of ruling wisely and well his vast
dominions. He followed the example of Julius Caesar in his
insistence on just government of the provincials.^ In Italy
he put down brigandage, repaired the public highways, and
planted many colonies in unsettled districts. In Rome he es-
tablished a regular police service, organized the supply of grain
and water, and continued, on a larger scale than ever, the
public games. So many were his buildings in the capital city
that he could boast he had "found Rome of brick and left it
of marble." ' Augustus was also very successful as a religious
reformer. He restored numerous temples that had fallen into
1 The provinces of Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia. See the map facing page
194. 2 See page 187.
^ For a description of ancient Rome see pages 292-296.
196
The World under Roman Rule
decay, revived the ancient sacrifices, and celebrated with pomp
and majesty the festivals that had been neglected. These
reforms gave new vigor to the Roman state religion.
Even during the hfetime of Augustus worship had been offered
to him by the provincials. After his death the Senate gave him
Deification of divine honors and enrolled his name among the
Augustus gods. Temples rose in every province to the dei-
fied Augustus, and altars smoked with sacrifices to him. Em-
peror worship spread rapidly over the ancient world and helped
The Successors of Augustus 197
to unite all classes in allegiance to the new government. It pro-
vided a universal religion for a universal empire. Yet just at
the time when this new cult was taking root, and in the midst
of the happy reign of Augustus, there was born in Bethlehem of
Judea the Christ whose religion was to overcome the worship
of the emperors and with it all other faiths of pagan antiquity.^
67. The Successors of Augustus, 14-96 A.D.
For more than half a century following the death of Augustus
his place was filled by emperors who, either by descent or adop-
tion, claimed kinship with himself and the mighty
Julius. They are known as the Julian and Clau- ciaudian
dian Caesars.^ Though none of these four princes £f !^^' ^*~
had the poHtical abihty of Augustus, two of
them (Tiberius and Claudius) were excellent rulers, who ably
maintained the standards set by that great emperor. The other
two (Cahgula and Nero) were vicious tyrants, the recital of whose
follies and crimes occupies much space in the works of ancient
historians. Their doings and misdoings fortunately exerted lit-
tle influence outside the circle of the imperial court and the capi-
tal city. Rome itself might be disturbed by conspiracy and
bloodshed, but Italy and the provinces kept their prosperity.
The reign of Claudius was marked by the beginning of the
extension of the empire over Britain. For nearly a hundred
years after Caesar's expeditions no further attempt conquest of
had been made to annex that island. But its Britain be-
nearness to Gaul, already thoroughly Romanized, ^"^' ' '
brought the country within the sphere of Roman influence.
The thorough conquest of Britain proved to be no easy task.
It was not until the close of the first century that the island, as
far north as the Scottish Highlands, was brought under Roman
sway. The province of Britannia remained a part of the empire
for more than three hundred years.
^ Jesus was bom probably in 4 B.C., the last year of the reign of Herod, whom the
triumvirs, Antony and Octavian, had placed on the throne of Judea in 37 B.C.
^ A Roman emperor was generally called "Caesar" by the provincials. See,
for example, Matthew, xxii, 17-21, or Acts, xxv, 10-12. This title survives in the
German Kaiser and perhaps in the Russian Tsar, or Czar.
198
The World under Roman Rule
During Nero's reign half of Rome was laid in ashes by a great
fire, which raged for a week. But a new Rome speedily
arose. It was a much finer city than the old, with
wide, straight streets instead of narrow alleys,
and with houses of good stone in place of wooden
hovels. Except for the loss of the temples and public buildings,
the fire was a blessing in disguise.
Bxirning of
Rome, 64
A.D.
Pl.'^n of Jerusalem and its Environs
After the death of Nero the dynasty that traced its descent
from Julius and Augustus became extinct. There was no one
Flavian ^^^ ^^^^^ legally claim the vacant throne. The
Senate, which in theory had the appointment of a
successor, was too weak to exercise its powers. The
imperial guard and the legions on the frontiers placed their own
candidates in the field. The Roman world fell into anarchy,
and Italy became once more the seat of civil war. The throne
Caesars,
69-96 A.D
The Successors of Augustus 199
was finally seized by the able general, Flavins Vespasianus,
supported by the armies of the East. He and his two sons,
Titus and Domitian, are called the Flavian Caesars.
Pompeii
During the reign of Vespasian a revolt of the Jews was
crushed, and Jerusalem was captured by Titus, Vespasian's
son. It is said, doubtless with exaggeration, that capture of
one million Jews perished in the siege, the most Jerusalem,
awful that history records. The Holy City, to-
gether with the Temple, was destroyed, and a Roman camp was
pitched upon the spot. We may still see in Rome the splendid
arch that commemorates this tragic event.^
The reign of Titus is chiefly memorable for the destruction of
Pompeii and Herculaneum, two cities on the bay of Naples.
After long inactivity the volcano of Vesuvius sud- Eruption of
denly belched forth torrents of liquid lava and Vesuvius,
mud, followed by a rain of ashes. Pompeii was
covered to a depth of about fifteen feet by the falling cinders.
Herculaneum was overwhelmed in a sea of sulphurous mud
and lava to a depth of eighty feet in many places. The cities
1 In 131 A.D., during the reign of the emperor Hadrian, the Jews once more
broke out in revolt. Jerusalem, which had risen from its ruins, was again destroyed
by the Romans, and the plow was passed over the foundations of the Temple.
From Roman times to the present the Jews have been a people without a country.
200
The World under Roman Rule
were completely entombed, and in time even their location was
forgotten. Modern excavations have disclosed a large part of
Pompeii, with its streets, shops, baths, temples, and theaters.
The visitor there gains a vivid impression of Roman hfe during
the first century of our era.^
68. The "Good Emperors," 96-180 A.D.
The five rulers — Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and
Marcus Aurehus — whose reigns cover the greater part of the
jj^g second century, are
Antonine sometimes called
Caesars ^^^ Antonine Cx-
sars, because two of them bore
the name Antoninus. They
are better known as the *' Good
Emperors," a title which well
describes them. Under their
just and beneficent government
the empire reached its greatest
prosperity.
The emperor Trajan rivaled
Julius Caesar in mihtary abihty
Trajan the and enlarged the
conqueror Roman world to
the widest limits it was ever to
attain. His first conquests were in Europe and resulted in
the annexation of Dacia, an extensive territory north of the
Danube. Thousands of colonists settled in Dacia and spread
everywhere the language and arts of Rome. Its modern name
(Rumania) bears witness to Rome's abiding influence there.
Trajan's campaigns in Asia had less importance, though in ap-
pearance they were more splendid. He drove the Parthians
from Armenia and conquered the Tigris-Euphrates valley. To
hold in subjection such distant regions only increased the diffi-
culty of guarding the frontiers. Trajan's successor, Hadrian, at
once abandoned them.
» See Bulwer-Lytton's novel, The Last Days of Pompeii.
Nerva
Vatican Museum, Rome
A remarkably fine example of Roman
portrait statuary.
i
The "Good Emperors"
20I
Hadrian distinguished himself as an administrator. He may-
be compared with Augustus in his love of peace and in his care
for the interests of the Hadrian the
provincials. Hadrian administrator
made two long journeys throughout
the Roman world. On the frontiers
he built fortresses and walls; in
the provinces he raised baths,
aqueducts, theaters, and temples.
Scarcely a city throughout the em-
pire lacked some monument to his
generosity. Hadrian left behind
him the memory of a prince whose
life was devoted to the public
welfare — the first servant of the
state.
The last of the ''Good Em-
perors," Marcus Aurelius, was a
thinker and a student,
but he enjoyed little
opportunity for medi-
tation. His reign was
filled with an almost uninterrupted
series of campaigns against the Par-
thians on the Euphrates and the
Germans on the Danube and the
Rhine. These wars revealed
the weakness of the frontiers and
rapidly growing strength of the bar-
barians. After the death of Mar-
cus Aurelius the empire entered on
its downward course. But before
passing to this period of our study, we may take a survey of
the world under Roman rule, during the two centuries between
Augustus and Marcus Aurehus.
Marcus Au-
relius, the
philosopher
on the throne
Column of Trajan
A bronze statue of Trajan, for-
merly occupying the top of the monu-
ment, has been replaced by a figure of
St. Peter. The column is decorated
with a continuous spiral relief repre-
senting scenes from the Dacian War.
About twenty-five hundred separate
designs are included in this remark-
able collection.
202
The World under Roman Rule
69. The Provinces of the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire, at its widest extent in the second cen-
tury, included forty-three provinces. They were protected
The standing against Germans, Parthians, and other foes by
army twenty-five legions, numbering, with the auxiliary
forces, about three hundred thousand men. This standing army
The Pantheon
The original building was the work of Agrippa, a minister of Augustus. The
temple was reconstructed by Hadrian, who left the Greek portico unchanged but
added the rotunda and the dome. This great dome, the largest in the world, is
made of solid concrete. During the Middle Ages the Pantheon was converted
into a church. It is now the burial place of the kings of Italy.
was one of Rome's most important agencies for the spread of
her civilization over barbarian lands. Its membership was
drawn largely from the border provinces, often from the very
countries where the soldiers' camps were fixed. Though the
army became less and less Roman in blood, it always kept in
character and spirit the best traditions of Rome. The long
intervals of peace were not passed by the soldiers in idleness.
They built the great highways that penetrated every region of
the empire, spanned the streams with bridges, raised dikes and
aqueducts, and taught the border races the arts of civilization.
It was due, finally, to the labors of the legionaries, that the most
The Provinces of the Roman Empire 203
exposed parts of the frontiers were provided with an extensive
system of walls and ramparts.
The Roman system of roads received its great extension dur-
ing the imperial age. The principal trunk lines began at the
gates of Rome and radiated thence to every prov- The Roman
ince. Along these highways sped the couriers of ^°^^^
the Caesars, carrying dispatches and making, by means of relays
<i:^
. Wall of Hadrian in Britain
The wall extended between the Tyne and the Solway, a distance of seventy miles. It
was built of concrete, faced with square blocks. The height is nearly twenty feet; the thick-
ness, about eight feet. Along the wall were numerous towers and gates, and a little to the
north of it stretched an earthen rampart protected by a deep ditch. A broad road, lined with
seventeen miUtary camps, ran between the two fortifications.
Wherever he lived, a Roman citizen enjoyed, both for his person
and his property, the protection of Roman law.
70. The Roman Law and the Latin Language
The Romans were the most legal-minded people of antiquity.
It was their, mission to give laws to the world. Almost at the
Improve- beginning of the republic they framed the code of
ment of the Twelve Tables,^ which long remained the basis
Oman aw ^£ their jurisprudence. This code, however, was
so harsh, technical, and brief that it could not meet the needs
of a progressive state. The Romans gradually improved their
legal system, especially after they began to rule over conquered
nations. The disputes which arose between citizens and sub-
jects were decided by the praetors or provincial governors in
accordance with what seemed to them to be principles of
justice and equity. These principles gradually found a place in
See Acts, xxv, 9-12.
2 See page 151.
The Roman Law and the Latin Language 207
Roman law, together with many rules and observances of for-
eign peoples. Roman law in this way tended to take over and
absorb all that was best in ancient jurisprudence.
Thus, as the extension of the citizenship carried the principles
and practice of Roman law to every quarter of the empire, the
spirit of that law underwent an entire change, character of
It became exact, impartial, hberal, humane: it Roman law
limited the use of torture to force confession from persons
accused of crime. It protected the child against a father's
tyranny. It provided that a master who killed a slave should
be punished as a murderer, and even taught that all men are
originally free by the law of nature and therefore that slavery is
contrary to natural right. Justice it defined as "the steady
and abiding purpose to give every man that which is his own." ^
Roman law, which began as the rude code of a primitive people,
ended as the most refined and admirable system of jurisprudence
ever framed by man. This law, as we shall see later, has passed
from ancient Rome to modern Europe.^
The conquest by Latin of the languages of the world is almost
as interesting and important a story as the conquest by Rome
of the nations of the world. At the beginning of Latin in
Roman history Latin was the speech of only the ^**^y
people of Latium. Beyond the limits of Latium Latin came
into contact with the many different languages spoken in early
Italy. Some of them, such as Greek and Etruscan, soon dis-
appeared from Italy after Roman expansion, but those used by
native Italian peoples showed more power of resistance. It was
not until the last century B.C. that Latin was thoroughly estab-
lished in the central and southern parts of the peninsula. After
the Social War the Italian peoples became citizens of Rome,
and with Roman citizenship went the use of the Latin tongue.
The Romans carried their language to the barbarian peoples
of the West, as they had carried it to Italy. Their ^atin in the
missionaries were colonists, merchants, soldiers, western
and public officials. The Latin spoken by them p^^^^^^^
was eagerly taken up by the rude, unlettered natives, who tried
1 Institutes, bk, i, tit. i. « See page 331.
2o8 The World under Roman Rule
to make themselves as Roman as possible in dress, customs,
and speech. This provincial Latin was not simply the language
of the upper classes; the common people themselves used it
freely, as we know from thousands of inscriptions found in
western and central Europe. In the countries which now make
up Spain, France, Switzerland, southern Austria, England, and
North Africa, the old national tongues were abandoned for the
Latin of Rome.
The decline of the Roman Empire did not bring about the
downfall of the Latin language in the West. It became the
Romance basis of the so-called Romance languages —
languages French, Itahan, Spanish, Portuguese, and Ru-
manian — which arose in the Middle Ages out of the spoken
Latin of the common people. Even our English language,
which comes to us from the speech of the Germanic invaders
of Britain, contains so many words of Latin origin that we can
scarcely utter a sentence without using some of them. The
rule of Rome has passed away; the language of Rome still
remains to enrich the intellectual life of mankind.
71. The Municipalities of the Roman Empire
The world under Roman rule was a world of cities. Some
had earlier been native settlements, such as those in Gaul
Prevalence of before the Roman conquest. Others were the
city life splendid Hellenistic cities in the East.^ Many
more were of Roman origin, arising from the colonies and
fortified camps in which citizens and soldiers had settled.^
Where Rome did not find cities, she created them.
Not only were the cities numerous, but many of them, even
when judged by modern standards, reached great size. Rome
Some impor- w'as the largest, her population being estimated at
tant cities from One to two millions. Alexandria came next
with more than half a million people. Syracuse was the third
metropolis of the empire. Italy contained such important towns
1 See page 127.
2 Several English cities, such as Lancaster, Leicester, Manchester, and Chester,
betray in their names their origin in the Roman castra, or camp.
The Municipalities of the Roman Empire 209
as Verona, Milan, and Ravenna. In Gaul were Marseilles,
Nimes, Bordeaux, Lyons — all cities with a continuous existence
to the present day. In Britain York and London were seats
of commerce, Chester and Lincoln were military colonies, and
Bath was celebrated then, as now, for its medicinal waters.
Carthage and Corinth had risen in new splendor from their ashes.
Athens was still the home of Greek art and Greek culture.
Roman Baths, at Bath, England
Bath, the ancient Aquae Sulis, was famous in Roman times for its hot springs. Here
are very interesting remains, including a large pool, eighty-three by forty feet in size, and
lined at the bottom with the Roman lead, besides smaller bathing chambers and portions of
the ancient pipes and conduits. The building and statues are modern restorations.
Asia included such ancient and important centers as Pergamum,
Smyrna, Ephesus, Rhodes, and Antioch. The student who
reads in his New Testament the Acts of the Apostles will get a
vivid impression of some of these great capitals.
Every municipality was a Rome in miniature. It had its
forum and senate-house, its temples, theaters, and baths, its
circus for racing, and its amphitheater for gladia- Appearance
torial combats. Most of the municipalities enjoyed °^ *^® ^^^^^^
an abundant supply of water, and some had good sewer systems.
2IO The World under Roman Rule
The larger towns had well-paved, though narrow, streets.
Pompeii, a small place of scarcely thirty thousand inhabitants,
still exists to give us an idea of the appearance of one of these
ancient cities. And what we find at Pompeii was repeated on a
more splendid scale in hundreds of places from the Danube to
the Nile, from Britain to Arabia.
The municipalities of Roman origin copied the government
of Rome itself.^ Each city had a council, or senate, and a popu-
City govern- lar assembly which chose the magistrates. These
ment officials were generally rich men; they received no
salary, and in fact had to pay a large sum on entering office.
Local politics excited the keenest interest. Many of the inscrip-
tions found on the walls of Pompeii are election placards recom-
mending particular candidates for office. Women sometimes took
part in political contests. Distributions of grain, oil, and money
were made to needy citizens, in imitation of the bad Roman prac-
tice. There were public banquets, imposing festivals, wild-beast
hunts, and bloody contests of gladiators, like those at Rome.
The busy, throbbing life in these countless centers of the
Roman world has long since been stilled. The cities themselves,
Survival of the ^^ many instances, have utterly disappeared. Yet
Roman munic- the forms of municipal government, together with
ipa sys em ^-^^ Roman idea of a free, self-governing city, never
wholly died out. Some of the most important cities which flour-
ished in southern and western Europe during the later Middle
Ages preserved clear traces of their ancient Roman origin.
72. Economic and Social Conditions in the First and
Second Centuries
The first two centuries of our era formed the golden age of
Roman commerce. The emperors fostered it in many ways.
Promotion of Augustus and his successors kept the Mediterra-
commerce nean free from pirates, built lighthouses and im-
proved harbors, policed the highways, and made travel by land
both speedy and safe. An imperial currency ^ replaced the vari-
* See page 149.
* For illustrations of Roman coins see the plate facing page 134.
Economic and Social Conditions
211
ous national coinages with their Hmited circulation. The vexa-
tious import and export duties, levied by different countries and
cities on foreign produce, were swept away. Free trade flour-
ished between the cities and provinces of the Roman world.
Roman commerce followed, in general, the routes which
Phoenicians had dis-
covered Principal
c e n t U - t*"*^® routes
ries before. After
the annexation of
Gaul the rivers of
that country became
channels of trade
between western
Europe and Italy.
The conquest of the
districts north and
south of the Danube
opened up an im-
portant route be-
tween central Europe
and the Mediterra-
nean. Imports from
the far eastern coun-
tries came by cara-
van through Asia to
ports on the Black
Sea. The water routes led by way of the Persian Gulf to the
great Syrian cities of Antioch and Palmyra and, by way of the
Red Sea, to Alexandria on the Nile. From these thriving com-
mercial centers products were shipped to every region of the
empire.^
The importation and disposal of foreign goods at Rome fur-
nished employment for many thousands of traders. Local trading
There were great wholesale merchants whose ware- ** ^°™®
houses stored grain and all kinds of merchandise. There were
» See the map on page 48.
A Roman Freight Ship
The ship lies beside the wharf at Ostia. In the after-
part of the vessel is a cabin with two windows. Notice the
figure of Victory on the top of the single mast and the deco-
ration of the mainsail with the wolf and twins. The ship
is steered by a pair of huge paddles.
212 The World under Roman Rule
also many retail shopkeepers. They might be sometimes the
slaves or freedmen of a wealthy noble who preferred to keep
in the background. Sometimes they were men of free birth.
The feeling that petty trade was unworthy of a citizen, though
strong in republican days, tended to disappear under the empire.
The slaves at Rome, like those at Athens,^ carried on many
industrial tasks. We must not imagine, however, that all the
Free laborers manual labor of the city was performed by bond-
atRome rnen. The number of slaves even tended to de-
cline, when there were no more border wars to yield captives
for the slave markets. The growing custom of emancipation
worked in the same direction. We find in this period a large
body of free laborers, not only in the capital city, but in all
parts of the empire.
The workmen engaged in a particular calling frequently
formed clubs, or guilds.^ There were guilds of weavers, shoe-
„, ., , makers, jewelers, painters, musicians, and even of
The guilds "^ ^
gladiators. These associations were not organized
for the purpose of securing higher wages and shorter hours by
strikes or threat of strikes. They seem to have existed chiefly
for social and religious purposes. Each guild had its clubhouse
for ofiicial meetings and banquets. Each guild had its special
deity, such as Vesta, the fire goddess, for bakers, and Bacchus,
the wine god, for innkeepers. Every year the guildsmen held a
festival, in honor of their patron, and marched through the
streets with banners and the emblems of their trade. Nearly
all the guilds had as one main object the provision of a proper
funeral and tomb for deceased members. The humble laborer
found some consolation in the thought that he belonged to a
club of friends and fellow workers, who after death would give
him decent burial and keep his memory green.
Free workingmen throughout the Roman world appear to
Life of the ^SLve led reasonably happy lives. . They were not
working driven or enslaved by their employers or forced to
c asses labor for long hours in grimy, unwholesome fac-
tories. Slums existed, but no sweatshops. If wages were low,
1 See page 107. * Latin collegia, whence our "college."
Economic and Social Conditions
213
so also was the cost of living. Wine, oil, and wheat flour were
cheap. The mild climate made heavy clothing unnecessary
and permitted an outdoor life. The public baths — great club-
houses — stood open to every one who could pay a trifling
fee.^ Numerous hohdays, celebrated with games and shows,
brightened existence. On the whole we may conclude that
A Roman Villa
Wall painting, Pompeii
working people at Rome and in the provinces enjoyed greater
comfort during this period than had ever been their lot in
previous ages.
It was an age of millionaires. There had been rich men, such
as Crassus,^ during the last century of the republic; their
numbers increased and their fortunes rose during _
, 1 ^ r I . ^, , ., , Great fortunes
the hrst century of the empire. The phnosopher
Seneca, a tutor of Nero, is said to have made twelve million
dollars within four years by the emperor's favor. Narcissus,
the secretary of Claudius, made sixteen million dollars — the
largest Roman fortune on record. This sum must be multi-
plied four or five times to find its modern equivalent, since in
antiquity interest rates were higher and the purchasing power
of money was greater than to-day. Such private fortunes are
surpassed only by those of the present age.
The heaping-up of riches in the hands of a few brought its
1 See pages 263 and 285. 2 See page 183.
214 The World under Roman Rule
natural consequence in luxury and extravagance. The palaces
Luxury and of the wealthy, with their gardens, baths, picture
extravagance galleries, and other features, were costly to build
and costly to keep up. The money not lavished by a noble on
his town house could be easily sunk on his villas in the country.
All Italy, from the bay of Naples to the foot of the Alps, was
dotted with elegant residences, having flower gardens, game
preserves, fishponds, and artificial lakes. Much senseless waste
occurred at banquets and entertainments. Vast sums were
spent on vessels of gold and silver, jewelry, clothing, and house
furnishings. Even funerals and tombs required heavy outlays.
A capitalist of imperial Rome could get rid of a fortune in sel-
fish indulgences almost as readily as any modern milHonaire
not blessed with a refined taste or with pubhc spirit.
Some of the customs of the time appear especially shocking.
The brutal gladiatorial games ^ were a passion with every one,
Some social from the emperor to his lowest subject. Infanti-
®^s f^[^Q -^as a, general practice. Marriage grew to be
a mere civil contract, easily made and easily broken. Common
as divorce had become, the married state was regarded as un-
desirable. Augustus vainly made laws to encourage matri-
mony and discourage celibacy. Suicide, especially among the
upper classes, was astonishingly frequent. No one questioned
another's right to leave this life at pleasure. The decline of
the earlier paganism left many men without a deep religious
faith to combat the growing doubt and worldliness of the age.
Yet this dark picture needs correction at many points. It
may be questioned whether the vice, luxury, and wickedness
Brighter as- ^^ ancient Rome, Antioch, or Alexandria much ex-
pects of Ro- ceeded what our great modern capitals can show.
man society t^ • .i • • j i i,i
Durmg this period, moreover, many remarkable
improvements took place in social life and manners. There was
an increasing kindliness and charity. The weak and the infirm
were better treated. The education of the poor was encouraged
by the founding of free schools. Wealthy citizens of the various
towns lavished their fortunes on such public works as baths,
1 See page 267.
The Graeco-Roman World
215
aqueducts, and temples, for the benefit of all classes. Even the
slaves were much better treated. Imperial laws aimed to
check the abuses of cruelty, overwork, and neglect, and
philosophers recommended to masters the exercise of gentle-
ness and mercy toward slaves. In fact, the first and second
centuries of our era were marked by a great growth of the
humanitarian spirit.
73. The Graeco-Roman World
Just as the conquests of Alexander, by uniting the Orient to
Greece, produced a Graeco-Oriental civilization, so The new cos-
now the expansion of Rome over the Mediterranean mopolitanism
formed another world-wide culture, in which both Greek and
A Roman Temple
The best preserved of Roman temples. Located at Nimes in southern France, where it
is known as La Maison Carree ("the square house"). The structure is now used as a museum
of antiquities.
Roman elements met and mingled. A new sense of cosmopoli-
tanism arose in place of the old civic or national patriotism.
This cosmopolitan feeling was the outcome of those unifying
and civiHzing forces which the imperial system set unifying and
at work. The extension of Roman citizenship civilizing
broke down the old distinction between the citi- ^^^^^^
zens and the subjects of Rome. The development of Roman
2l6
The World under Roman Rule
law carried its principles of justice and equity to the remotest
regions. The spread of the Latin language provided the west-
ern half of the empire with a speech as universal there as Greek
was in the East. Trade and travel united the provinces with
one another and with. Rome. The worship of the Caesars
dimmed the luster of all local worships and kept constantly
The Amphitheater at Arles
The amphitheater at Aries in southern France was used during the Mid-
dle Ages as a fortress, then as a prison, and finally became the resort of crimi-
nals and paupers. The illustration shows it before the removal of the
buildings, about 1830 a.d. Bullfights still continue in the arena, where, in
Roman times, animal-baitings and gladiatorial games took place.
before men's minds the idea of Rome and of her mighty emper-
ors. Last, but not least important, was the fusion of alien
peoples through intermarriage wdth Roman soldiers and colo-
nists. ''How many settlements," exclaims the philosopher
Seneca, "have been planted in every province ! Wherever the
Roman conquers, there he dwells." ^
The best evidence of Rome's imperial rule is found in the
monuments she raised in every quarter of the Monuments
ancient world. Some of the grandest ruins of an- of Roman
tiquity are not in the capital city itself, or even
in Italy, but in Spain, France, England, Greece, Switzerland,
1 Seneca, Minor Dialogues, xi, 7.
The Graeco-Roman World
217
Asia Minor, Syria, and North Africa. Among these are Ha-
drian's Wall in Britain, the splendid aqueduct known as the
Pont du Gard near Nimes in southern France, the beautiful
temple called La Maison Carree in the same city, the Olym-
pieum at Athens, and the temple of the Sun at Baalbec in Syria.
Thus the lonely hilltops, the desolate desert sands, the moun-
tain fastnesses of three continents bear witness even now to
the widespreading sway of Rome.
A Megalith at Baalbec
A block of stone, 68 feet long, 10 feet high, and weighing about 1500 tons. It is still
attached to its bed in the quarry, not far from the ruins of Baalbec in Syria. The temples of
Baalbec, seen in the distance, were built by the Romans in the third century a.d. The majestic
temple of the Sun contains three megaHths almost as huge as the one represented in the illus-
tration. They are the largest blocks known to have been used in any structure. For a long
time they were supposed to be relics of giant builders.
The civihzed w^orld took on the stamp and impress of Rome.
The East, indeed, remained Greek in language and feeling, but
even there Roman law and government prevailed, Romanization
Roman roads traced their unerring course, and of East and
Roman architects erected majestic monuments. ^^*
The West became completely Roman. North Africa, Spain,
Gaul, distant Dacia, and Britain were the seats of populous
cities, where the Latin language was spoken and Roman cus-
toms were followed. From them came the emperors. They
furnished some of the most eminent men of letters. Their
2i8 The World under Roman Rule
schools of grammar and rhetoric attracted students from Rome
itself. Thus unconsciously, but none the less surely, local
habits and manners, national religions and tongues, provincial
institutions and ways of thinking disappeared from the ancient
world.
Studies
I. On an outline map indicate the additions to Roman territory: during the reign
of Augustus, 31 B.C.-14 A.D.; during the period 14-180 a.d. 2. On an outline
map indicate ten important cities of the Roman Empire. 3. Connect the proper
events with the following dates: 79 a.d.; 180 a.d.; and 14 a.d. 4. Whom do you
consider the greater man, Julius Caesar or Augustus? Give reasons for your
answer. 5. Compare the Augustan Age at Rome with the Age of Pericles at Athens.
6. What is the Monumentum Ancyranum and its historic importance (illustration,
page 196)? 7. How did the worship of the Caesars connect itself with ancestor
worship? 8. In the reign of what Roman emperor was Jesus born? In whose
reign was he crucified? 9. How did the "year of anarchy" after Nero's death
exhibit a weakness in the imperial system? 10. How many provinces existed
under Trajan? 11. What modem countries are included within the limits of
the Roman Empire in the age of Trajan? 12. Compare the extent of the
Roman Empire under Trajan with (o) the empire of Alexander; and {b) the
empire of Darius. 13. Give the Roman names of Spain, Italy, Gaul, Germany,
Britain, Scotland, and Ireland. 14. Contrast the Roman armies under the empire
with the standing armies of modern Europe. 15. Trace on the map, page 205,
the Roman roads in Britain. 16. "To the Roman city the empire was political
death; to the provinces it was the beginning of new life." Comment on this state-
ment. 17. Why should Rome have made a greater success of her imperial policy
than either Athens or Sparta? 18. Compare Roman liberaUty in extending the
franchise with the similar poHcy displayed by the United States. 19. Compare the
freedom of trade between the provinces of the Roman Empire with that between
the states of the American Union. 20. On the map, page 48, trace the trade route,
during imperial times. 21. Compare as civilizing forces the Roman and the Per-
sian empires. 22. What was the Pax Romana? What is the Pax Britannica?
23. Compare the Romanization of the ancient world with that process of Ameri-
canization which is going on in the United States to-day. 24. Explain this state-
ment: "The Roman Empire is the lake in which all the streams of ancient history
lose themselves and which all the streams of modern history flow out of."
25. "Republican Rome had little to do, either by precept or example, with the mod-
ern life of Europe, Imperial Rome everything." Can you justify this statement?
CHAPTER X
THE LATER EMPIRE: CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN
WORLD, 180-395 A.D.
74. The "Soldier Emperors," 180-284 A.D.
The period called the Later Empire covers the two hundred
and fifteen years from the accession of Commodus to the final
division of the Roman world at the death of ^j^^ Later
Theodosius. It formed, in general, a period of Empire, 180-
decline. The very existence of the empire was ' *
threatened, both from within and from without. The armies
on the frontiers often set up their favorite leaders as contestants
for the throne, thus provoking civil war. Ambitious governors
of distant provinces sometimes revolted against a weak or
unpopular emperor and tried to establish independent states.
The Germans took advantage of the unsettled condition of
afifairs to make constant inroads. About the middle of the
third century it became necessary to surrender to them the
great province of Dacia, which Trajan had won.^ A serious
danger also appeared in the distant East. Here the Persians,
having overcome the Parthians,^ endeavored to recover from
Roman hands the Asiatic provinces which had once belonged
to the old Persian realm. Though the Persians failed to make
any permanent conquest of Roman territory, their constant at-
tacks weakened the empire at the very time when the northern
barbarians had again become a menace.
The rulers who occupied the throne during the first half of
this troubled period are commonly known as the ''Soldier
Emperors," because so many of them owed their "imperial
position to the swords of the legionaries. Em- phantoms"
peror after emperor followed in quick succession, to enjoy a
brief reign and then to perish in some sudden insurrection.
1 See page 200. 2 See pages 184, 194.
219
220
The Later Empire
Within a single year (237-238 a.d.) six rulers were chosen, wor-
shiped, and then murdered by their troops. ''You httle know,'*
said one of these imperial phantoms, ''what a poor thing it is
to be an emperor." ^
The close of the third century thus found the empire engaged
in a struggle for existence. No part of the Roman world had
Political situ- escaped the ravages of war. The fortification of
ation in 284 the capital city by the emperor Aurelian was
■ ' itself a testimony to the altered condition of affairs.
The situation was desperate, yet not hopeless. Under an able
The Wall of Rome
Constructed by Aurelian and rebuilt by Honorius. The material is concrete faced with
brick; thickness, 13 feet; greatest height, 58 feet. This is still the wall of the modern city,
although at present no effort is made to keep it in repair.
ruler, such as Aurelian, Rome proved to be still strong enough
to repel her foes. It was the work of the even more capable
Diocletian to establish the empire on so solid a foundation that
it endured with almost undiminished strength for another
hundred years.
75. The Absolute Emperors," 284-395 A.D.
Diocletian, whose reign is one of the most illustrious in Roman
history, entered the army as a common soldier, rose to high
1 Vopiscus, Saturninus, lo.
The "Absolute Emperors" 221
command, and fought his way to the throne. A strong, am-
bitious man, Diocletian resolutely set himself to Reig^ ^f d^q.
the task of remaking the Roman government. His cletian, 284-
success in this undertaking entitles him to rank, as
a statesman and administrator, with Augustus.
The reforms of Diocletian were meant to remedy those weak-
nesses in the imperial system disclosed by the disasters of the
preceding century. In the first place, experience Weaknesses
showed that the empire was unwieldy. There were in the im-
the distant frontiers on the Rhine, Danube, and ^^^^ ^^^ ^^
Euphrates to be guarded; there were all the provinces to be
governed. A single ruler, however able and energetic, had more
than he could do. In the second place, the succession to the
imperial throne was uncertain. Now an emperor named his
successor, now the Senate elected him, and now the swords of
the legionaries raised him to the purple. Such an unsettled
state of affairs constantly invited those struggles between rival
pretenders which had so nearly brought the empire to de-
struction.
Diocletian began his reforms by adopting a scheme for "part-
nership emperors." He shared the Roman world with a trusted
lieutenant named Maximian. Each was to be an Diocletian's
Augustus, with all the honors of an emperor, reforms
Diocletian ruled the East; Maximian ruled the West. Further
partnership soon seemed advisable, and so each Augustus chose
a younger associate, or CcBsar, to aid him in the government and
at his death or abdication to become his heir. Diocletian also
remodeled the provincial system. The entire empire, including
Italy, was divided into more than one hundred provinces.
They were grouped into thirteen dioceses and these, in turn,
into four prefectures.^ This reform much lessened the author-
ity of the provincial governor, who now ruled over a small
district and had to obey the vicar of his diocese.
The emperors, from Diocletian onward, were autocrats.
1 The number and arrangement of these divisions varied somewhat during the
fourth century. See the map, between pages 222-223, for the system as it existed
about 395 A.D.
222 The Later Empire
They bore the proud title of Dominus (''Lord"). They were
The new ab- treated as gods. Everything that touched their
soiutism persons was sacred. They wore a diadem of pearls
and gorgeous robes of silk and gold, like those of Asiatic mon-
archs. They filled their palaces with a crowd of fawning, flat-
tering nobles, and busied themselves with an endless round of
stately and impressive ceremonials. Hitherto a Roman em-
peror had been an imperator,^ the head of an army. Now he
became a king, to be greeted, not with the old military salute,
but with the bent knee and the prostrate form of adoration.
Such pomps and vanities, which former Romans would have
thought degrading, helped to inspire reverence among the
servile subjects of a later age. If it was the aim of Augustus to
disguise, it was the aim of Diocletian to display, the un-
sounded power of a Roman emperor.
There can be little doubt that Diocletian's reforms helped to
prolong the existence of the empire. In one respect, however,
Constantine ^^^^ must be pronounced a failure. They did not
sole emperor, end the disputes about the succession. Only two
years after the abdication of Diocletian there were
six rival pretenders for the title of Augustus. Their dreary
struggles continued, until at length two emperors were left —
Constantine in the West, Licinius in the East. After a few
years of joint rule another civil war made Constantine supreme.
The Roman world again had a single master.
Constantine was an able general and a wise statesman. Two
events of lasting importance have made his reign memorable.
Reign of Con- It was Constantine who recognized Christianity
stantine g^g q^^ ^f ^j^g reHgions of the empire and thus
paved the way for the triumph of that faith over the ancient
paganism. His work in this connection will be discussed pres-
ently. It was Constantine, also, who established a new capital
for the Roman world at Byzantium ^ on the Bosporus. He
christened it "New Rome," but it soon took the emperor's
name as Constantinople, the "City of Constantine." '
1 See page i86. ^ See the map, page 340.
* See page 88.
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
about 395 A. D.
100 200
*00 600 EOO 700
Scale of.Miles
THE M.-N. WORKS. BUFFALO. N V.
Longitude 10° East
( knw -
20"
25"
35"
40"
I 1 \
lOVINCES 12 Novempopulana
13 Fennine and Graian
ECTURE OF GAUL 14 Vi^lnsia
DIOCESE OP BRITAIN
1 Britain I
2 Britain H
8 Flavia Caesariensis
4 Maxima Caesariensia
5 Valentia
PREFECTURE OF
ITALY
DIOCESE OF AFRICA
1 Byzacium
2 Manretania Caesar-
iensis
S Mauretania Sitif ensis
4 Numidia
5 Tripolitana
DIOCESE OP THE CITT
OF ROME
1 Apulia and Calabria
2 Bruttia and Lucania
OCESE OP SPAIN
itica
earic Isles
■thaginiensia
icia
litania
aretania Tingitana
racon ensis
)CESE OF GAUL
ijtaine I
litaine II
^ca I
jicall
mania I
mania II
•dunensis
itime Alps
dma Sequanorom
bonnensis I
bonnensis II
\ r
3 Campania
4 Corsica
5 Picenum Snbnrbi-
carium
6 Sanuiium
7 Sardinia
8 Sicily
9 Tuscany and Umbria
10 Valeria
DIOCESE OF ITALY
1 Aemilia
2 Cottian Alps
3 Dalmatia
4 Flaminia and Picenum
Annonarium
5 Liguria
6 Noricum mediter-
raneum
7 Noricum ripeusa
8 Pannonia I
9 Pannonia II
10 Raetia I
11 Raetia n
12 Savia
13 Valeria ripeneifl
14 Venetia and Istria
PREFECTURE OF
ILLTRICUM
DIOCESE OF MACEDONIA
1 Achaia
2 Crete
8 Epirua nova
4 Epirus vetua
6 Macedonia
6 Macedonia Salutaria
7 Thessaly
DIOCESE OF DACIA
1 Dacia mediterranea
2 Dacia ripensia
3 Dardania
4 Moesia I
6 Praevalitana
PREFECTURE OP
THE EAST
DIOCESE OP EGYPT
1 Arcadia
2 Augustamnica
\
3 Egypt
4 Lower Libya
5 Thebais
6 Upper Libya
DIOCESE OF THB EAST
1 Arabia
2 Cilicia I
8 Cilicia II
4 Cyprus
5 Eufratensis
6 Isauria
7 Mesopotamia
8 Osrhoene
9 Palestine I
10 Palestine II
11 Palestine (Salutaris)
12 Phoenicia
13 Phoenicia Libani
14 Syria I
15 Syria Salutaris
DIOCESE OF PONTUS ^
1 Armenia I
2 Armenia II
8 Bithynia '
4 Cappadocia 1
5 Cappadocia n
6 Galatia
7 Galatia Salutaria
8 Helenopontua
9 Honorias
10 Paphlagonia
11 Pontus PoiemoniacuB
DIOCESE OF ASIA "^
1 Asia
2 Caria
3 Hellespontua
4 Lycaonia
5 Lycia
6 Lydia
7 Pamphylia
8 Phrygia Pacatiana
9 Phrygia Salutaris
10 Pisidia
DIOCESE OF THRACB
1 Europe
2 Haemimontium
Moesia II
4 Rhodopa
5 Scythia
iraca
The ''Absolute Emperors'' 223
Several good reasons could be urged for the removal of the
world's metropolis from the Tiber to the Bosporus. The Roman
Empire was ceasing to be one empire. Constan- Foundation of
tine wanted a great city for the eastern half to Constanti-
balance Rome in the western half. Again, Con- ^°^ ®
stantinople, far more than Rome, was the military center of
the empire. Rome lay too far from the vulnerable frontiers;
Constantinople occupied a position about equidistant from the
Germans on the lower Danube and the Persians on the Eu-
phrates. Finally, Constantine believed that Christianity,
which he wished to become the prevailing religion, would en-
counter less opposition and criticism in his new city than at
Rome, with its pagan atmosphere and traditions." Constan-
tinople was to be not simply a new seat of government but also
distinctively a Christian capital. Such it remained for more
than eleven centuries.^
After the death of Constantine the Roman world again
entered on a period of disorder. The inroads of the Germans
across the Danube and the Rhine threatened the After Con-
European provinces of the empire with dissolu- stantine, 337-
tion. The outlook in the Asiatic provinces, over-
run by the Persians, was no less gloomy. Meanwhile the east-
ern and western halves of the empire tended more and more
to grow apart. The separation between the two had become
well marked by the close of the fourth century. After the
death of the emperor Theodosius (395 a.d.) there came to
be in fact, if not in name, a Roman Empire in the East and
a Roman Empire in the West.
More than four hundred years had now elapsed since the
battle of Actium made Octavian supreme in the Roman world.
If we except the abandonment of Trajan's con- poutjcal situ-
quests beyond the Danube and the Euphrates,^ ationin395
no part of the huge empire had as yet succumbed
to its enemies. The subject peoples, during these four centu-
ries, had not tried to overthrow the empire or to withdraw from
^ Until the capture of the city by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 a.d.
2 See pages 200, 219.
224 The Later Empire
its protection. The Roman state, men believed, would endure
forever. Yet the times were drawing nigh when the old order
of things was to be broken up; when barbarian invaders were
to seize the fairest provinces as their own; and when new king-
doms, ruled by men of Germanic speech, were to arise in lands
that once obeyed Rome.
76. Economic and Social Conditions in the Third
and Fourth Centuries
Rome, it has been said, was not built in a day; the rule of
Rome was not destroyed in a day. When we speak of the " fall "
The " fall " of Rome, we have in mind, not a violent catas-
of Rome trophe w^hich suddenly plunged the civilized world
into ruin, but rather the slow and gradual decay of ancient
society throughout the basin of the Mediterranean. This
decay set in long before the Germans and the Persians be-
came a serious danger to the empire. It would have con-
tinued, doubtless, had there been no Germans and Persians
to break through the frontiers and destroy. The truth seems
to be that, during the third and fourth centuries of our era,
classical civilization, like an overtrained athlete, had grown
"stale."
It is not possible to set forth all the forces which century
after century had been sapping the strength of the state. The
Depopulation ^^^t obvious element of w^eakness was the want
due to the of men to fill the armies and to cultivate the fields,
s ave sys em n^^^ slave system seems to have been partly re-
sponsible for this depopulation. The peasant on his Httle
homestead could not compete with the wealthy noble whose
vast estates w^re w^orked by gangs of slaves. The artisan
could not support himself and his family on the pittance that
kept his slave competitor alive. Peasants and artisans grad-
ually drifted into the cities, where the pubUc distributions of
grain, wine, and oil assured them of a living with little expense
and almost without exertion. In both Italy and the provinces
there was a serious decline in the number of free farmers
and free workingmen.
Economic and Social Conditions 225
But slavery was not the only cause of depopulation. There
was a great deal of what has been called "race suicide" in the
old Roman world. Well-to-do people, who could "Race
easily support large families, often refused to be smcide"
burdened with them. Childlessness, however, was not confined
to the wealthy, since the poorer classes, crowded in the huge
lodging houses of the cities, had no real family life. Roman
emperors, who saw how difficult it was to get a sufficient num-
ber of recruits for the army, and how whole districts were going
to waste for lack of people to cultivate them, tried to repopu-
late the empire by force of law. They imposed penalties for the
childlessness and celibacy of the rich, and founded institutions
for the rearing of children, that the poor might not fear to raise
large families. Such measures were scarcely successful. "Race
suicide" continued during pagan times and even during the
Christian age.
The next most obvious element of weakness was the shrinkage
of the revenues. The empire suffered from want of money, as
well as from want of men. To meet the heavy cost Loss of
of the luxurious court, to pay the salaries of the revenues
swarms of public officials, to support the idle populace in the
great cities required a vast annual income. But just when
public expenditures were rising by leaps and bounds, it became
harder and harder to secure sufficient revenue. Smaller num-
bers meant fewer taxpayers. Fewer taxpayers meant a heavier
burden on those who survived to pay.
These two forces — the decline in population and the decline in
wealth — worked together to produce economic ruin. It is no
wonder, therefore, that in province after province Economic
large tracts of land went out of cultivation, that ^^^^
the towns decayed, and that commerce and manufactures
suffered an appalling decline. "Hard times" settled on the
Roman world.
Doubtless still other forces were at work to weaken the
state and make it incapable of further resistance influence of
to the barbarians. Among such forces we must Christianity
reckon Christianity itself. By the close of the fourth century
226 The Later Empire
Christianity had become the religion of the empire. The new
faith, as we shall soon see, helped, not to support, but
rather to undermine, pagan society.
77. The Preparation for Christianity
Several centuries before the rise of Christainity many Greek
thinkers began to feel a growing dissatisfaction with the crude
Decline of faith that had come down to them from prehis-
paganism ^qj-j^, times. They found it more and more diffi-
cult to believe in the Olympian deities, who were fashioned like
themselves and had all the faults of mortal men.^ An adulter-
ous Zeus, a bloodthirsty Ares, and a scolding Hera, as Homer
represents them, were hardly divinities that a cultured Greek
could love and worship. For educated Romans, also, the rites
and ceremonies of the ancient religion came gradually to lose
their meaning. The worship of the Roman gods had never
appealed to the emotions. Now it tended to pass into the mere
mechanical repetition of prayers and sacrifices. Even the
worship of the Caesars,^ which did much to hold the empire
together, failed to satisfy the spiritual wants of mankind. It
made no appeal to the moral nature; it brought no message,
either of fear or hope, about a future world and a life beyond
the grave.
During these centuries a system of Greek philosophy, called
Stoicism, gained many adherents among the Romans. Any one
who will read the Stoic writings, such as those of
the noble emperor, Marcus Aurenus,^ will see how
nearly Christian was the Stoic faith. It urged men to forgive
injuries — to ''bear and forbear." It preached the brotherhood
of man. It expressed a humble and unfaltering reliance on a
divine Providence. To many persons of refinement Stocism
became a real religion. But since Stoic philosophy could reach
and influence only the educated classes, it could not become a
religion for all sorts and conditions of men.
Many Greeks found a partial satisfaction of their religious
longings in secret rites called mysteries. Of these the most
1 See page 77. * See page 196. ' See page 201.
The Preparation for Christianity 227
important grew up at Eleusis/ a little Attic town thirteen
miles from Athens. They were connected with the -^j^g £jgy_
worship of Demeter, goddess of vegetation and of sinian mys-
the life of nature. The celebration of the Eleusinian ®"®^
mysteries came in September and lasted nine days. When the
candidates for admission to the secret rites were worked up
to a state of religious excitement, they entered a brilliantly
lighted hall and witnessed a passion play dealing with the
legend of Demeter. They seem to have had no direct moral
instruction but saw, instead, Hving pictures and pantomimes
which represented the life beyond the grave and held out to
them the promise of a blessed lot in another world. As an
Athenian orator said, ''Those who have shared this initia-
tion possess sweeter hopes about death and about the whole
of life." 2
The Eleusinian mysteries, though unknown in the Homeric
Age, were already popular before the epoch of the Persian wars.
They became a Panhellenic festival open to all influence of
Greeks, women as well as men, slaves as well as *^® mysteries
freemen. The privilege of membership was later extended to
Romans. During the first centuries of our era the influence
of the mysteries increased, as faith in the Olympian religion
decHned. They formed one of the last strongholds of paganism
and endured till the triumph of Christianity in the Roman
world.
The Asiatic conquests of Alexander, followed in later cen-
turies by the extension of Roman rule over the eastern coasts of
the Mediterranean, brought the classical peoples ^ . , ,.
. ' ,. . , . ^ ^ ^ ' Oriental reU-
mto contact with new religions which had arisen gions in the
in the Orient. Slaves, soldiers, traders, and trav- Ro™an
Empire
elers carried the eastern faiths to the West, where
they speedily won many followers. Even before the downfall
of the republic the deities of Asia Minor, Egypt, and Persia had
found a home at Rome. Under the empire many men and
women were attracted to their worship.
Perhaps the most remarkable of the Asiatic religions was
^ See the map, page 107. ^ Isocrates, Panegyricus, 29.
228
The Later Empire
Mithra
Mithraism. Mithra first appears as a Persian sun god, the
leader of Ahuramazda's hosts in the ceaseless
struggle against the forces of darkness and evil.^
As a god of light Mithra was also a god of truth and purity.
His worship, spreading over the length and breadth of the
x4v_
Galerius, the ruler in the East, pubUshed an edict which per-
mitted the Christians to rebuild their churches
and worship undisturbed. It remained for the em- becomes a
peror Constantine to take the next significant tplerated re-
step. In 313 A.D. Constantine and his colleague,
Licinius, issued the Edict of Milan, which proclaimed for the
first time in history the noble principle of
religious toleration. It gave absolute free-
dom to every man to choose and follow
the religion which he deemed best suited to
his needs. This edict placed the Christian
faith on an equality with paganism.
The conversion of Constantine is one of
the most important events in ancient his-
tory. A Roman emperor, him- Constantine's
self a god to the subjects of conversion
Rome, became the worshiper of a crucified
provincial of his empire. Constantine fa-
vored the Christians throughout his reign.
He surrounded himself with Christian
bishops, freed the clergy from taxation,
and spent large sums in building churches.
One of his laws abolished the use of the
cross as an instrument of punishment.
Another enactment required that magis-
trates, city people, and artisans were to rest on Sunday. This
was the first "Sunday law." ^
Significant of the emperor's attitude toward Christianity
was his action in summoning all the bishops in the different
provinces to a gathering at Nicaea in Asia Minor, church Coun-
It was the first general council of the Church. ciiatNicaea,
The principal work of the Council of Nicaea was
the settlement of a great dispute which had arisen over the
nature of Christ. Some theologians headed by Arius, a priest
1 It is highly doubtful, however, whether this legislation had any reference to
Christianity. More probably, Constantine was only adding the day of the Sun, the
worship of which was then firmly established in the empire (see page 229, note i)
to the other holy days of the Roman calendar.
The Labarum
The sacred military
standard of the early
Christian Roman em-
perors. First adopted by
Constantine. It consisted
of a staff or lance with
a purple banner on a
cross-bar. The two Greek
letters XP (CHR) make
a monogram of the word
Christ (Greek Christos).
236
The Later Empire
of Alexandria, maintained that Christ the Son, having been
created by God the Father, was necessarily inferior to him.
Athanasius, another Alexandrian priest, opposed this view and
held that Christ was not a created being, but was in all ways
equal to God. The Council accepted the arguments of Athana-
sius, condemned Arius as a heretic, and framed the Nicene Creed,
Arch of Constantine
Erected at Rome in 315 a.d. to commemorate the victory of Constantine over Maxentius.
The monument consists of a central gateway, and two smaller arches flanked by detached
columns in the Corinthian style. The arch is decorated with four large statues in front of
the upper story and also with numerous sculptures in relief.
which is still the accepted summary of Christian doctrine.
Though thrust out of the Church, Arianism lived to flourish
anew among the Germanic tribes, of which the majority were
converted to Christianity by Arian missionaries.
The recognition given to Christianity by Constantine helped
immensely to spread the new faith. The emperor Theodosius,
whose services to the church won him the title of
''the Great," made Christianity the state religion.
Sacrifices to the pagan gods were forbidden, the
temples were closed, and their property was taken
away. Those strongholds of the old paganism, the
Delphic oracle, the Olympian games, and the Eleusinian mys-
Christianity
becomes the
state religion
under Theo-
dosius, 379-
395 A.D.
Christian Influence on Society 237
teries, were abolished. Even the private worship of the house-
hold Lares and Penates ^ was prohibited. Though paganism
lingered for a century or more in the country districts, it became
extinct as a state religion by the end of the fourth century.
81. Christian Influence on Society
The new religion certainly helped to soften and refine
manners by the stress which it laid upon such ''Christian"
virtues as humihty, tenderness, and gentleness, j^loral teach-
By dwelling on the sanctity of human life, Chris- ings of
tianity did its best to repress the very common ristiamty
practice of suicide as well as the frightful evil of infanticide.-
It set its face sternly against the obscenities of the theater and
the cruelties of the gladiatorial shows.^ In these and other re-
spects Christianity had much to do with the improvement of
ancient morals.
Perhaps even more original contributions of Christianity to
civilization lay in its social teachings. The belief in the father-
hood of God implied a corresponding belief in the social teach-
brotherhood of man. This doctrine of the equaUty ings of
of men had been expressed before by ancient phi- istiamty
losophers, but Christianity translated the precept into practice.
In this way it helped to improve the condition of slaves and, by
favoring emancipation, even tended to decrease slavery."*
Christianity also laid much emphasis on the virtue of charity
and the duty of supporting all institutions which aimed to
relieve the lot of the poor, the sick, and the downtrodden.
At the close of the fourth century the Germanic tribes living
nearest the frontiers had been visited by missionaries and had
become converts to Christianity. The fact that Christianity A^
both Romans and Germans were Christians tended and the
to lessen the terrors of the invasions and to bring
about a peaceful fusion of the conquerors and the conquered.
1 See page 146. s See page 267.
2 See page 253. * See page 270.
238 The Later Empire
studies
I. On an outline map indicate the territories of the Roman Empire and their
division, sqs a.d. 2. What is the date of the accession of the emperor Com-
modus? of the accession of Diocletian? of the death of Theodosius? of the Edict
of Milan? of the Council of Nicsea? 3. What elements of weakness in the imperial
system had been disclosed during the century 180-284 a.d.? 4. Explain Diocle-
tian's plan of " partnership emperors." 5. Define the terms absolutism and central-
ization. Give an example of a European country under a centralized administration;
of a European country under an absolute government. 6. What are the advantages
of local self-government over a centralized government? 7. "The emperor of the
first century was a Prince, that is, 'first citizen'; the emperor of the fourth century
was a Sultan." Comment on this statement. 8. What arguments might have
been made for and against the removal of the capital to Constantinople? 9. Enu-
merate the causes of the decline of population in imperial times. 10. Show how an
unwise system of taxation may work great economic injury. 11. Give reasons
for the decline of Greek and Roman paganism. 12. Why should Mithraism have
proved "the most formidable foe which Christianity had to overcome"? 13. Were
any of the ancient religions missionary faiths? 14. When and where was Jesus
born? Who was king of Judea at the time? Were the Jews independent of Rome
during the lifetime of Jesus? 15. Locate on the map, facing page 230, the three
divisions of Palestine at the time of Christ. 16. To what cities of Asia Minor did
Paul write his epistles, or letters? To what other cities in the Roman Empire?
17. What was the original meaning of the words "presbyter," "bishop," and
"deacon"? 18. What is meant by calling the Church an episcopal organization?
19. How can you explain the persecution of the Christians by an emperor so great
and good as Marcus Aurelius? 20. What is the meaning of the word "martyr"?
21. "The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church." Explain. 22. Describe
the Labarum (illustration, page 235). 23. What reasons suggest themselves as
helping to explain the conversion of the civilized world to Christianity?
CHAPTER XI
THE GERMANS TO 476 A.D.i
82. Germany and the Germans
The Germans were an Indo-European people, as were their
neighbors, the Celts of Gaul and Britain. They had lived for
many centuries in the wild districts of central physical
Europe north of the Alps and beyond the Danube features of
and the Rhine. This home land of the Germans ®^°^*^y
in ancient times was cheerless and unhealthy. Dense forests
or extensive marshes covered the ground. The atmosphere was
heavy and humid; in summer clouds and mists brooded over
the country; and in winter it was covered with snow and ice.
In such a region everything was opposed to civilization. Hence
the Germans, though a gifted race, had not advanced as rapidly
as the Greek and Italian peoples.
Our earliest notice of the Germans is found in the Commen-
taries by Julius Caesar, who twice invaded their country. About
a century and a half later the Roman historian, xhe Germans
Tacitus, wrote a little book called Germany, which described by
gives an account of the people as they were before ^ onians
coming under the influence of Rome and Christianity. Tacitus
describes the Germans as barbarians with many of the usual
marks of barbarism. He speaks of their giant size, their fierce,
blue eyes, and their blonde or ruddy hair. These physical
traits made them seem especially terrible to the smaller and
darker Romans. He mentions their love of warfare, the fury
of their onset in battle, and the contempt which they had for
wounds and even death itself. When not fighting, they passed
much of their time in the chase, and still more time in sleep and
1 Webster, Readings in Ancient History, chapter xxiii, "The Germans as De-
saibed by Tacitus."
239
240 The Germans
gluttonous feasts. They were hard drinkers, too, and so pas-
sionately fond of gambling that, when a man's wealth was gone,
he would even stake his liberty on a single game. In some of
these respects the Germans resembled our own Indian tribes.
On the other hand, the Germans had certain attractive quali-
ties not always found even among civilized peoples. They were
German hospitable to the stranger, they respected their
morals sworn w^ord, they loved liberty and hated re-
straint. Their chiefs, we are told, ruled rather by persuasion
iFU ThORCG W HNIVEOPAS-TBEMLNcjDO
Runic Alphabet
The word "rune" comes from a Gothic word meaning a secret thing, a
mystery. To the primitive Germans it seemed a mysterious thing that let-
ters could be used to express thought. The art of writing with an alphabet
appears to have been introduced into Germanic Europe during the first cen-
turies of our era. Most Runic inscriptions have been found in Denmark and
the Scandinavian peninsula.
than by authority. Above all, the Germans had a pure family
life. "Almost alone among barbarians," writes Tacitus, ''they
are content with one wife. No one in Germany laughs at vice,
nor is it the fashion to corrupt and be corrupted. Good habits
are here more effectual than good laws elsewhere." ^ The Ger-
mans, then, were strong and brave, hardy, chaste, and free.
The Germans, during the three centuries between the time of
Tacitus and the beginning of the invasions, had advanced some-
Progress of what in civilization. They were learning to Hve in
the Germans towns instead of in rude villages, to read and write,
to make better weapons and clothes, to use money, and to enjoy
many Roman luxuries, such as wine, spices, and ornaments.
They were likewise uniting in great confederations of tribes, ruled
by kings who were able to lead them in migrations to other lands.
During this same period, also, the Germans increased rapidly
Reasons for ^^ numbers. Consequently it was a diflScult
the Germanic matter for them to live by hunting and fishing, or
migra ons ^^ ^^^^^ yw^q agriculture as their country allowed.
They could find additional land only in the fertile and well
1 Tacitus, Germania, 19.
i
Breaking of the Danube Barrier 241
cultivated territories of the Romans. It was this hunger
for land, together with the love of fighting and the desire for
booty and adventure, which led to their migrations.
The German inroads were neither sudden, nor unexpected,
nor new. Since the days of Marius and of Julius Caesar not a
century had passed without witnessing some dan- Qj-owing
gerous movement of the northern barbarians, weakness of
Until the close of the fourth century Rome had °°^^
always held their swarming hordes at bay. Nor were the
invasions which at length destroyed the empire much more
formidable than those which had been repulsed many times
before. Rome fell because she could no longer resist with her
earlier power. If the barbarians were not growing stronger, the
Romans themselves were steadily growing weaker. The form
of the empire was still the same, but it had lost its vigor and its
vitality.^
83. Breaking of the Danube Barrier
North of the Danube lived, near the close of the fourth cen-
tury, a German people called Visigoths, or West Goths. Their
kinsmen, the Ostrogoths, or East Goths, held the
land north of the Black Sea between the Danube
and the Don. These two nations had been among the most
dangerous enemies of Rome. In the third century they made
so many expeditions against the eastern territories of the empire
that Aurehan at last surrendered to the Visigoths the great
province of Dacia.^ The barbarians now came in contact with
Roman civilization and began to lead more settled lives. Some
of them even accepted Christianity from Bishop ULfilas, who
translated the Bible into the Gothic tongue.
The peaceful fusion of Goth and Roman might have gone on
indefinitely but for the sudden appearance in
Europe of the Huns. They were a nomadic people cross the
from central Asia. Entering Europe north of the Danube, 376
Caspian Sea, the Huns quickly subdued the Ostro-
goths and compelled them to unite in an attack upon their
1 See pages 224-226. 2 ggg p^gg 219.
242
The Germans
(h DD MUM^^Al!^ Ai;^<^Il.^fi^O@ [!Ss;g\!h)«l^Sifl
German kinsmen. Then the entire nation of Visigoths crowded
the banks of the Danube and begged the Roman authorities
to allow them to cross that river and place its broad waters
between them and their terrible foes. In an evil hour for
Rome their prayer was
granted. At length two
hundred thousand
Gothic warriors, with
their wives and children,
found a home on Ro-
man soil.
The settlement of such
a host of barbarians
Battle of within the
Adrianople, frontier of
378 A.D. ,1
the empire
was in itself a dangerous
thing. The danger was
increased by the ill treat-
ment which the immi-
grants received. The
Roman officials robbed
them of their posses-
sions, withheld the
promised supplies of
food, and even tried to
murder their leaders at
a banquet. Finally, the
Germans broke out in
open revolt. The em-
peror Valens misjudged
their strength and rashly gave them battle near Adrianople in
Thrace. The once invincible legions fell an easy prey to their
foes, and the emperor himself perished.
The defeat at Adrianople is considered one of the few really
decisive battles in the world's history. It showed the barbari-
ans that they could face the Romans in open fight and beat
A Page of the Gothic Gospels (Reduced)
A manuscript of Ulfilas's translation of the Bible
forms one of the treasures of the library of the univer-
sity of Upsala, Sweden. It is beautifully written in
letters of gold and silver on parchment of a rich pur-
ple dye. In making his version Ulfilas, who was himself
a converted Visigoth, generally indicated the Gothic
sounds by means of the Greek alphabet. He added,
however, a few signs from the Runic alphabet, with
which the Germans were familiar.
i
Breaking of the Danube Barrier 243
them. And it broke, once for all, the Danube barrier. Swarms
of fighting men, Ostrogoths as well as Visigoths, Results of
overran the provinces south of the Danube. The *^® battle
great ruler, Theodosius,^ saved the empire for a time by grant-
ing lands to the Germans and by enrolling them in the army
under the high-sounding title of "allies." Until his death the
Goths remained quiet — but it was only the lull before the
storm.
Theodosius, ''the friend of the Goths," died in 395 a.d.,
leaving the defense of the Roman world to his weakling
sons, Arcadius and Honorius. In the same year Alaric the
the Visigoths raised one of their young nobles, Visigoth
named Alaric, upon a shield and with joyful shouts acclaimed
him as their king. The Visigothic leader despised the service of
Rome. His people, he thought, should be masters, not ser-
vants. Alaric determined to lead them into the very heart of
the empire, where they might find fertile lands and settle once
for all.
Alaric at first fixed his attention on Constantinople. Real-
izing, at length, how hopeless would be the siege of that great
city, he turned toward the west and descended Alaric in
upon Greece. The Germans marched unopposed Greece and •
through the pass of Thermopylae and devastated * ^
central Greece, as the Persians had done nearly nine centuries
before.2 Then the barbarians entered the Peloponnesus, but
were soon driven out by Stilicho, a German chieftain who had
risen to the command of the army of Honorius. Alaric gave
up Greece only to invade Italy. Before long the Goths crossed
the Julian Alps and entered the rich and defenseless valley
of the Po. To meet the crisis the legions were hastily called
in, even from the distant frontiers. Stilicho formed them into
a powerful army, beat back the enemy, and captured the
Visigothic camp, filled with the spoil of Greek cities. In the
eyes of the Romans Stilicho seemed a second Marius, who
had arisen in an hour of peril to save Italy from its barbarian
foes.'
1 See page 223. 2 See page 98. ' See page 178.
244 The Germans
Alaric and his Goths had been repulsed; they had not been
destroyed. Beyond the Alps they were regaining their shat-
The Visigoths tered strength and biding their time. Their
before Rome opportunity came soon enough, when Honorius
caused Stilicho to be put to death on a charge of plotting to
seize the throne. The accusation may have been true, but in
killing Stilicho the emperor had cut off his right hand with his
left. Now that Stilicho was out of the way, Alaric no longer
feared to descend again on Italy. The Goths advanced rapidly
southward past Ravenna, where Honorius had shut himself
up in terror, and made straight for Rome. In 410 a.d., just
eight hundred years after the sack of the city by the Gauls,^
Rome found the Germans within her gates.
The city for three days and nights was given up to pillage.
Alaric, who was a Christian, ordered his followers to respect the
Sack of Rome churches and their property and to refrain from
by the Visi- bloodshed. Though the city did not greatly suffer,
^° ^' ■ ' the moral effect of the disaster was immense.
Rome the eternal, the unconquerable, she who had taken
captive all the world, was now herself a captive. The pagans
saw in this calamity the vengeance of the ancient deities, who
"had been dishonored and driven from their shrines. The Chris-
tians believed that God had sent a judgment on the Romans to
punish them for their sins. In either case the spell of Rome
was forever broken.
From Rome Alaric led his hosts, laden with plunder, into
southern Italy. He may have intended to cross the Mediter-
Kingdom of ranean and bring Africa under his rule. The plan
the Visigoths, was never carried out, for the youthful chieftain
died suddenly, a victim to the Italian fever. After
Alaric's death, the barbarians made their way northward
through Italy and settled in southern Gaul and Spain. In these
lands they founded an independent Visigothic kingdom, the
first to be created on Roman soil.
The possessions of the Visigoths in Gaul were seized by their
neighbors, the Franks, in less than a century; ^ but the Gothic
1 See page 153. 2 See page 303.
Breaking of the Rhine Barrier 245
kingdom in Spain had three hundred years of prosperous life.^
The barbarian rulers sought to preserve the insti- Romaniza-
tutions of Rome and to respect the rights of their tion of the
Roman subjects. Conquerors and conquered grad- ^^^^°
ually blended into one people, out of whom have grown the
Spaniards of modern times.
84. Breaking of the Rhine Barrier
After the departure of the Visigoths Rome and Italy remained
undisturbed for nearly forty years. The western provinces
were not so fortunate. At the time of Alaric's ^^ ^
The Germans
first attack on Italy the legions along the Rhme cross the
had been withdrawn to meet him, leaving the ?i^^f'^
frontier unguarded. In 406 a.d., four years before
Alaric's sack of Rome, a vast company of Germans crossed the
Rhine and swept almost unopposed through Gaul. Some of
these peoples succeeded in establishing kingdoms for them-
selves on the ruins of the empire.
The Burgundians settled on the upper Rhine and in the fer-
tile valley of the Rhone, in southeastern Gaul. ^. ^
Aril r • 1 1 1 Kingdom of
After less than a century of mdependence they theBurgun-
were conquered by the Franks.^ Their name, gi^"!'^^^"
however, survives in modern Burgundy.
The Vandals settled first in Spain. The territory now called
Andalusia still preserves the memory of these barbarians.
After the Visigothic invasion of Spain the Vandals ^ ^ , j^-
passed over to North Africa. They made them- dom in North
selves masters of Carthage and soon conquered all tt±^\'-n^^~
the Roman province of Africa. Their kingdom here
lasted about one hundred years. ^
While the Visigoths were finding a home in the districts
north and south of the Pyrenees, the Burgundians in the Rhone
valley, and the Vandals in Africa, still another ^j^^ Franks
Germanic people began to spread over northern in northern
Gaul. They were the Franks, who had long held
lands on both sides of the lower Rhine. The Franks, unlike the
^ See page 378. ^ See page 303. ^ See page 330.
246 The Germans
other Germans, were not of a roving disposition. They con-
tented themselves with a gradual advance into Roman terri-
tory. It was not until near the close of the fifth century that
they overthrew the Roman power in northern Gaul and began
to form the Prankish kingdom, out of which modern France has
grown.
The troubled years of the fifth century saw also the begin-
ning of the Germanic conquest of Britain. The withdrawal of
^, . , the legions from that island left it defenseless, for
The Angles ...
and Saxons the Celtic inhabitants were too weak to defend
m Britain, themselves. Bands of savage Picts from Scotland
from 449 A.D. °
swarmed over Hadrian's Wall, attacking the
Britons in the rear. Ireland sent forth the no less savage
Scots. The eastern coasts, at the same time, were constantly
exposed to raids by German pirates. The Britons, in their
extremity, adopted the old Roman practice of getting the
barbarians to fight for them. Bands of Jutes were invited
over from Denmark in 449 a.d. The Jutes forced back the
Picts and then settled in Britain as conquerors. Fresh
swarms of invaders followed them, chiefly Angles from what
is now Schleswig-Holstein and Saxons from the neighborhood
of the rivers Elbe and Weser in northern Germany. The
invaders subdued nearly all that part of Britain that Rome
had previously conquered. In this way the Angles and Saxons
became ancestors of the Enghsh people, and Engleland became
England.^
By the middle of the fifth century the larger part of the
Roman Empire in the West had come under barbarian control.
Political situ- '^^^ Germans ruled in Africa, Spain, Britain, and
ation in 451 parts of Gaul. But now the new Germanic king-
doms, together with what remained of the old
empire, were threatened by a common foe — the terrible
Huns.
1 The invasion of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons was followed by the migration
across the Channel of large numbers of the defeated islanders. The district in
France where they settled is called after them, Brittany.
Inroads of the Huns
85. Inroads of the Huns
247
We know very little about the Huns, except that they were
not related to the Germans or to any other European people.
Some scholars believe them to have belonged to ^, „
° . The Huns
the Mongolian race. But the Huns, to the excited
imagination of Roman writers, were demons rather than men.
Their olive skins, little, turned-up noses, and black, beady eyes
must have given them a very frightful appearance. They
spent most of their time on horseback, sweeping over the coun-
try Hke a whirlwind and leaving destruction and death in their
wake.
The Huns did not become dangerous to Rome for more than
half a century after their first appearance in Europe.^ During
this time they moved into the Danube region and Attila the
settled in the lands now known as Austria and ^"°
Hungary. At last the Huns found a national leader in Attila,
"a man born into the world to agitate the nations, the fear of
all lands," ^ one whose boast it was that the grass never grew
again where his horse's hoofs had trod. He quickly built up a
great military power obeyed by many barbarous nations from
the Caspian to the Rhine.
Attila, from his capital on the Danube, could threaten both
the East and the West. The emperors at Constantinople
bought him off with lavish gifts, and so the robber- invasion of
ruler turned to the western provinces for his prey. Gaul by
In 451 A.D. he led his motley host, said to number
half a million men, across the Rhine. Many a noble munici-
pality with its still active Roman life was visited by the Huns
with fire and sword. Paris, it is worthy of note, escaped de-
struction. That now famous city was then only a little village
on an island in the Seine.
In this hour of danger Romans and Germans gave up quarrel-
ing and united against the common foe. Visigoths under their
native king hastened from Spain; Burgundians and Franks
joined their ranks; to these forces a German general, named
^ See page 241. 2 Jordanes, De rebus Geticis, 35.
248 The Germans
Aetius, added the last Roman army in the West. Opposed to
them Attila had his Huns, the conquered Ostrogoths, and many
Battle of other barbarian peoples. The battle of Chalons
Chalons, 451 has well been called a struggle of the nations. It
' • was one of the fiercest conflicts recorded in history.
On both sides thousands perished, but so many more of Attila's
men fell that he dared not risk a fresh encounter on the follow-
ing day. He drew his shattered forces together and retreated
beyond the Rhine.
In spite of this setback Attila did not abandon the hope of
conquest. The next year he led his still formidable army over
Attila invades ^^^ JuHan Alps and burned or plundered many
Italy, 452 towns of northern Italy. A few trembling fugi-
tives sought shelter on the islands at the head of
the Adriatic. Out of their rude huts grew up in the Middle
Ages splendid and famous Venice, a city that in later centuries
was to help defend Europe against those kinsmen of the Huns,
the Turks.
The fiery Hun did not long survive this Italian expedition.
Within a year he was dead, dying suddenly, it was said, in a
Death of drunken sleep. The great confederacy which he
Attila, 453 had formed broke up after his death. The Ger-
man subjects gained their freedom, and the Huns
themselves either withdrew to their Asiatic wilds or mingled
with the peoples they had conquered. Europe breathed again;
the nightmare was over.
86. End of the Roman Empire in the West, 476 A.D.
Rome escaped a visitation by the Huns only to fall a victim,
three years later, to the Vandals. After the capture of Car-
Vandal thage,^ these barbarians made that city the seat of
pirates ^ pirate empire. Putting out in their long, light
vessels, they swept the seas and raided many a populous city
on the Mediterranean coast. So terrible were their inroads
that the word "vandalism" has come to mean the wanton
destruction of property.
1 See page 245.
End of the Roman Empire in the West 249
In 455 A.D. the ships of the Vandals, led by their king, Gai-
seric, appeared at the mouth of the Tiber. The Romans could
offer no resistance. Only the noble bishop Leo sack of Rome
went out with his clergy to meet the invader and by the Van-
intercede for the city. Gaiseric promised to spare ^' ' '
the lives of the inhabitants and not to destroy the public build-
ings. These were the best terms he would grant. The Vandals
spent fourteen days stripping Rome of her wealth. Besides
shiploads of booty the Vandals took away thousands of Romans
as slaves, including the widow and two daughters of an emperor.
After the Vandal sack of Rome the imperial throne became
the mere plaything of the army* and its leaders. A German
commander, named Ricimer, set up and deposed ^, „
. , . ' T-r The Roman
four puppet emperors withm five years. He was. Empire in the
in fact, the real ruler of Italy at this time. After his ^f ^^ ^^~
-^ 476 A.D.
death Orestes, another German general, went a
step beyond Ricimer's policy and placed his own son on the
throne of the Caesars. By a curious coincidence, this lad bore
the name of Romulus, legendary founder of Rome, and the
nickname of Augustulus ("the little Augustus"). The boy
emperor reigned less than a year. The German troops clam-
ored for a third of the lands of Italy and, when their demand
was refused, proclaimed Odoacer king. The poor little emperor,
Romulus Augustulus, was sent to a villa near Naples, where he
disappears from history.
There was now no emperor in the West. To the men of that
time it seemed that East and West had been once more joined
under a single ruler, as in the days of Constantine. political sit-
The emperors who reigned at Constantinople did uation in 476
not relinquish their claims to be regarded as the
rightful sovereigns in Italy and Rome. Nevertheless, as an
actual fact, Roman rule in the West was now all but extinct.
Odoacer, the head of the barbarians in Italy, ruled a kingdom as
independent as that of the Vandals in Africa or that of the
Visigoths in Spain and Gaul. The date 476 a.d. may therefore
be chosen as marking, better than any other, the overthrow of
the Roman Empire in the West by the Germans.
250 The Germans
87. Gennanic Influence on Society
Classical civilization suffered a great shock when the Ger-
mans descended on the empire and from its provinces carved
Significance of ^^^ their kingdoms. These barbarians were rude
the Germanic in manners, were very ignorant, and had little
invasions t^LSte for anything except fighting and bodily
enjoyments. They were unlike the Romans in dress and habits
of life. They lived under different laws, spoke different lan-
guages, obeyed different rulers. Their invasions naturally
ushered in a long period of confusion and disorder, during
which the new race slowly raised itself to a level of culture
somewhat approaching that which the Greeks and the Romans
had attained.
The Germans in many ways did injury to classical civiliza-
tion. They sometimes destroyed Roman cities and killed or
Retrogressive enslaved the inhabitants. Even when the invaders
forces settled peaceably in the empire, they took posses-
sion of the land and set up their own tribal governments in
place of the Roman. They allowed aqueducts, bridges, and
roads to go without repairs, and theaters, baths, and other
public buildings to sink into ruins. Having no appreciation of
education, the Germans failed to keep up the schools, univer-
sities, and libraries. Being devoted chiefly to agriculture, they
had no need for foreign wares or costly articles of luxury, and
hence they permitted industry and commerce to languish. In
short, large parts of western Europe, particularly Gaul, Spain,
and Britain, fell backward into a condition of ignorance, super-
stition, and even barbarism.
But in closing our survey of the Germanic invasions we need
to dwell on the forces that made for progress, rather than on
Progressive those that made for decline. Classical civilization,
forces ^g have already found reason to believe,^ had
begun to decay long before the Germans broke up the empire.
The Germans came, as Christianity had come, only to hasten
the process of decay. Each of these influences, in turn, worked
> See page 224.
Germanic Influence on Society 251
to build up the fabric of a new society on the ruins of the old.
First Christianity infused the pagan world with its quickening
spirit and gave a new religion to mankind. Later followed the
Germans, who accepted Christianity, who adopted much of
Graeco-Roman culture, and then contributed their fresh blood
and youthful minds and their own vigorous hfe.
Studies
I. On an outline map indicate the extent of Germany in the time of Tacitus.
2. Make a list of all the Germanic nations mentioned in this chapter, and give a
short account of each. 3. Give dates for the following: battle of Chalons; sack of
Rome by Alaric; battle of Adrianople; and end of the Roman Empire in the West.
4. What resemblances existed between the culture of the Germans and that of the
early Greeks? 5. Why did the Germans progress more slowly in civilization than
the Greeks and the Romans? 6. Comment on this statement : " The Germans had
stolen their way into the very citadel of the empire long before its distant outworks
were stormed." 7. Why is modern civilization, unlike that of antiquity, in little
danger from barbarians? 8. Why has the battle of Adrianople been called "the
Cannae of the fourth century"? 9. Why has Alaric been styled "the Moses of the
Visigoths"? 10. What is the origin of the geographical names Andalusia, Bur-
gundy, England, and France? 11. Why was Attila called the "scourge of God" ?
12. Can you suggest a reason why some historians do not regard Chalons as one of
the world's decisive battles ? 13. In what sense does the date, 476 a.d., mark
the "fall" of the Roman Empire?
CHAPTER XII
CLASSICAL CIVILIZATION 1
88. The Classical City
The history of the Greeks and Romans ought not to be
studied only in their political development and the biographies
The center ^^ their great statesmen and warriors. We must
of classical also know something of ancient literature, phi-
losophy, and art. Especially do we need to learn
about the private life of the classical peoples — their manners,
customs, occupations, and amusements. This life centered in
the city.
A Greek or a Roman city usually grew up about a hill of
refuge {acropolis^ capitolium), to which the people of the sur-
Origin of the rounding district could flee in time of danger.
^^*y The hill would be crowned with a fortress and the
temples of the gods. Not far away was the market place (agora,
forum), where the people gathered to conduct their business
and to enjoy social intercourse. About the citadel and market
place were grouped the narrow streets and low houses of the
town.
The largest and most beautiful buildings in an ancient city
were always the temples, colonnades, and other public struc-
General ap- tures. The houses of private individuals, for the
pearance of an most part, had few pretensions to beauty. They
ci y -^ej-e insignificant in appearance and were often
built with only one story. From a distance, however, their
whitewashed walls and red-tiled roofs, shining brightly under
the warm sun, must have made an attractive picture.
To the free-born inhabitant of Athens or of Rome his city
1 Webster, Readings in Ancient History, chapter xxi, "Roman Life as Seen in
PUny's Letters"; chapter xxii, "A Satirist of Roman Society."
252
Education and the Condition of Children 253
was at once his country and his church, his club and his home.
He shared in its government; he took part in the Life in
stately ceremonies that honored its patron god; *^® "*y
in the city he could indulge his taste for talking and for politics;
here he found both safety and society. No wonder that an
Athenian or a Roman learned, from early childhood, to love his
city with passionate devotion.
89. Education and the Condition of Children
The coming of a child, to parents in antiquity as to parents
now, was usually a very happy event. Especially welcome was
the birth of a son. The father felt assured that importance
through the boy his old age would be cared for of male
and that the family name and the worship of the
family ancestors would be kept up after his own death. "Male
children," said an ancient poet, "are the pillars of the house." ^
The city, as well, had an interest in the matter, for a male child
meant another citizen able to take the father's place in the
army and the public assembly. To have no children was
regarded as one of the greatest calamities that could befall a
Greek or a Roman.
The ancient attitude toward children was in one respect very
unlike our own. The law allowed a father to do whatever he
pleased with a newly born child. If he was very ^ , . , ,
'fi.' l.'^A ^( ji, ij Infanticide
poor, or II his child was deiormed, he could expose
it in some desert spot, where it soon died. An infant was some-
times placed secretly in a temple, where possibly some kind-
hearted person might rescue it. The child, in this case, became
the slave of its adopter. This custom of exposure, an inher-
itance from prehistoric savagery, tended to grow less common
with advancing culture. The complete abolition of infanticide
was due to the spread of Christian teachings about the sacred-
ness of human life.^
A Greek boy generally had but one name. The favorite
name for the eldest son was that of his paternal grandfather. A
father, however, might give him his own name or that of an
1 Euripides, Iphigenia in Tauris, 57. 2 gee page 237.
254 Classical Civilization
intimate friend. The Romans at first seem to have used only
Names ^^^ ^^^ name, then two were given; and later we
have the famiUar three-fold name, representing the
individual, the clan, and the family.^
An Athenian School
Royal Museum, Berlin
A painting by Duris on a drinking-cup, or cylix. The picture is divided by the two handles.
In the upper half, beginning at the left: a youth playing the double flute as a lesson to the
boy before him; a teacher holding a tablet and stylus and correcting a composition; a slave
ipcedagogus), who accompanied the children to and from school. In the lower half: a master
teaching his pupil to play the lyre; a teacher holding a half -opened roll, listening to a recita-
tion by the student before him; a bearded padagogus. The inner picture, badly damaged,
represents a youth in a bath.
Greek education consisted of three main branches, known as
Greek gymnastics, music, and grammar. By gymnastics
education ^j^^ Greeks meant the physical training in the
palestra, an open stretch of ground on the outskirts of the city.
1 In "Marcus Tullius Cicero," "Marcus," the pranomen, corresponds to our
"given" name; "Tullius," the nomen, marks the clan, or gens; "Cicero," the cogno-
men, indicates the family.
Education and the Condition of Children 255
Here a private teacher gave instruction in the various athletic
sports which were so popular at the national games. The train-
ing in music was intended to improve the moral nature of young
men and to fit them for pleasant social intercourse. They were
taught to play a stringed intrument, called the lyre, and at the
same time to sing to their own accompaniment. Grammar,
the third branch of education, included instruction in writing
A Roman School Scene
Wall painting, Herculaneum
and the reading of the national literature. After a boy had
learned to write and to read, the schoolmaster took up with
him the works of the epic poets, especially Homer, besides
jEsop^s Fables and other popular compositions." The student
learned by heart much of the poetry and at so early an age that
he always remembered it. Not a few Athenians, it is said,
could recite the entire Iliad and Odyssey.
A Roman boy began his school days at about the age of
seven. He learned to read, to write with a stylus on wax
tablets, and to cipher by means of the reckoning Roman
board, or abacus. He received a httle instruction education
in singing and memorized all sorts of proverbs and maxims,
besides the laws of the Twelve Tables.^ His studying went on
under the watchful eyes of a harsh schoolmaster, who did not
1 See pages 151, 206.
256
Classical Civilization
hesitate to use the rod. After Rome began to come into close
contact with Greece, the curriculum was enlarged by the study
of hterature. The Romans were the first people who made the
learning of a foreign tongue an essential part of education.
Schools now arose in which the
Greek language and literature
formed the chief subject of instruc-
tion. As Latin Hterature came into
being, its productions, especially the
orations of Cicero and the poems of
Vergil and Horace, were also used as
texts for study.
Persons of wealth or noble birth
might follow their school training by
Travel and a university course at a
study abroad Greek city, such as
Athens, Alexandria, or Rhodes. Here
the Roman youth would listen to
lectures on philosophy, delivered by
the deep thinkers whom Greece still
produced, and would profit by the
treasures of art and science preserved
in these ancient capitals. Many fa-
mous Romans thus passed several
years abroad in graduate study.
During the imperial age, as we have
already seen,^ schools of grammar
and rhetoric arose in the West, particularly in Gaul and Spain,
and attracted students from all parts of the empire.
Youth reading a Papyrus
Roll
Relief on a sarcophagus
The papyrus roll was sometimes
very long. The entire Iliad or
Odyssey might be contained in a
single manuscript measuring one
hundred and fifty feet in length.
In the third century a.d. the un-
wieldy roll began to give way to
the tablet, composed of a number
of leaves held together by a ring.
About this time, also, the use of
vellum, or parchment made of
sheepskin, became common.
90. Marriage and the Position of Women
A young man in Athens or in Rome did not, as a rule, marry
immediately on coming of age. He might remain a bachelor
for several years, sometimes till he was thirty or
Engagements ^, , r ^ 1 ^ i
over. The young man s father had most to do
with the selection of a wife. He tried to secure for his son some
^ See page 218.
The Home and Private Life 257
daughter of a friend who possessed rank and property equal to
his own. The parents of the two parties would then enter into
a contract which, among other things, usually stated how large
a dowry the bride's father was to settle on his daughter. An
engagement was usually very little a matter of romance and
very much a matter of business.
The wedding customs of the Greeks and Romans presented
many likenesses. Marriage, among both peoples, was a reli-
gious ceremony. On the appointed day the prin- Wedding
cipals and their guests, dressed in holiday attire, customs
met at the house of the bride. In the case of a Roman wedding
the auspices ^ were then taken, and the words of the nuptial
contract were pronounced in the presence of witnesses. After a
solemn sacrifice to the gods of marriage, the guests partook of
the wedding banquet. When night came on, the husband
brought his wife to her new abode, escorted by a procession of
torchbearers, musicians, and friends, who sang the happy
wedding song.
An Athenian wife, during her younger years, always remained
more or less a prisoner. She could not go out except by per-
mission. She took no part in the banquets and Position of
entertainments which her husband gave. She women
Uved a hfe of confinement in that quarter of the house assigned
to the w^omen for their special abode. Married women at Rome
enjoyed a far more honorable position. Although early custom
placed the wife, together with her children, in the power of the
husband,^ still she possessed many privileges. She did not re-
main all the time at home, but mingled freely in society. She
was the friend and confidante of her husband, as well as his
housekeeper. During the great days of Roman history the
women showed themselves virtuous and dignified, loving wives
and excellent companions.
91. The Home and Private Life
There were no great differences between the dress of the two
classical peoples. Both wore the long, loosely flowing robes
1 See page 148. 2 gee page 144.
258
that
Classical Civilization
Clothing
contrast so sharply with our tight-fitting garments.^
Athenian male attire consisted of but two articles,
the tunic and the mantle. The tunic was an un-
dergarment of wool or linen, without sleeves. Over this was
thrown a large woolen mantle, so wrapped about the figure as
to leave free only the right shoulder and head. In the house a
House of the Vettii at Pompeu (Restored)
Notice the large area of blank wall both on the front and on the side. The front windows
are very small and evidently of less importance for admitting light than the openings of the
two atria. At the back is seen the large, well-lighted peristyle.
man wore only his tunic; out of doors and on the street he
usually wore the mantle over it. Very similar to the two main
articles of Greek clothing were the Roman tunica and toga.^
On a journey or out in the country broad-brimmed hats were
used to shield the head from the sun. In rainy weather the
Coverings for ^lantle, pulled up over the head, furnished protec-
the head and tion. Sandals, merely flat soles of wood or leather
®®* fastened by thongs, were worn indoors, but even
these were laid aside at a dinner party. Outside the house
leather shoes of various shapes and colors were used. They
^ See the illustrations, pages 117, 271.
2 The corresponding names of women's garments were stola and palla.
The Home and Private Life
259
cannot have been very comfortable, since stockings were not
known in antiquity.
The ancient house lay close to the street Hne.- The exterior
was plain and simple to an extreme. The owner was satisfied
if his mansion shut out the noise and dust of the Exterior of
highway. He built it, therefore, round one or *^® ^°"s®
more open courts, which took the place of windows supplying
Atrium of a Pompeian House
The view shows the atrium with the basin for rainwater; in the center, the iablinum with
its wall paintings; and the peristyle at the rear.
light and air. Except for the doorway the front of the house
presented a bare, blank surface, only relieved by narrow slits or
lattices in the wall of the upper story. The street side of the
house wall received a coating of whitewash or of fine marble
stucco. The roof of the house was covered with clay tiles.
This style of domestic architecture is still common in eastern
lands.
In contrast with its unpretentious exterior a classical dwell-
ing indoors had a most attractive appearance. We cannot
exactly determine just what were the arrangments interior of
of a Greek interior. But the better class of Roman the house
houses, such as some of those excavated at Pompeii,^ followed
1 See page 199.
26o
Classical Civilization
The atrium
PoMPEiAN Floor Mosaic
Greek designs in many respects. The Pompeian remains,
therefore, will give some idea of the sort of residence occupied
by a well-to-do citizen of Athens or Rome.
The visitor at one of these ancient houses first entered a
small vestibule, from which a narrow passage led to the heavy
oaken door. A dog
was sometimes kept
chained in this hallway; in Pompeii
there is a picture of one worked in
mosaic on the floor with the warn-
ing beneath it, *' Beware of the
dog." Having made known his
presence by using the knocker, the
guest was ushered into the recep-
tion room, or atrium. This was a
large apartment covered with a
roof, except for a hole in the center
admitting Hght and air. A marble
basin directly underneath caught the rain water which came
through the opening. The atrium represents the single room
of the primitive Roman house without windows or chimney.^
A corridor from the atrium led into the peristyle, the second
of the two main sections of a Roman house. It was a spacious
court, open to the sky and inclosed by a colonnade
or portico. This delightful spot, rather than the
formal atrium, served as the center of family life. About it
were grouped the bedchambers, bathrooms, dining rooms,
kitchen, and other apartments of a comfortable mansion.
Still other rooms occupied the upper stories of the dwelling.
The ancient Athenian was no sluggard. At sunrise, or even
before, he rose from his couch, washed his face and hands, put
Business of on his scanty garments, and was soon ready for
the forenoon ^^ street. Before leaving the house, he broke
his fast with a meal as simple as the European "rolls and
coffee" — in this case merely a few mouthfuls of bread dipped
in wine. After breakfast he might call on his friends or perhaps
1 See the illustration, page 145.
The peristyle
The Home and Private Life
261
ride into the country and visit his estates. About ten o'clock
(which the Athenians called ''full market"), he would be
pretty sure to find his way to the Agora. The shops at this
time were crowded with purchasers, and every sociable citizen
of Athens was to be found in them or in the neighboring colon-
nades which lined the market place.
Peristyle of a Pompeian House
House of the Vettii, Pompeii
The peristyle, excavated in 1894-1895 a.d., has been carefully restored. The garden,
fountains, tables, and marble colonnades are all modem.
The public resorts were deserted at noon, when the Athenian
returned home to enjoy a light meal and a rest during the heat.
As the day grew cooler, men again went out and occupations
visited a gymnasium, such as the Lyceum or the of the after-
Academy, in the city suburbs.^ Here were grounds
for running, wresthng, discus-throwing, and other sports, as
well as rooms for bathing and anointing. While the younger
men busied themselves in such active exercises, those of
* See page 288.
262 Classical Civilization
maturer years might be content with less vigorous games or
with conversation on poUtical or philosophical themes.
The principal meal of the day came about sunset. The
master of the house, if he had no guests, shared the repast with
The evening his wife and children. For a man of moderate
meal means the ordinary fare was very much what it is
now in Greece — bread, olives, figs, cheese, and a Httle meat
as an occasional luxury. At the end of the meal the diners
A Greek Banquet
From a vase painting by Duris
refreshed themselves with wine mixed with water. The Greeks
appear to have been usually as temperate in their drink as they
were frugal in their food. The remainder of the evening would
be devoted to conversation and music and possibly a little
reading. As a rule the Athenian went early to bed.
A Roman of the higher class, who lived in late republican or
early imperial times, passed through much the same daily
Morning routine as an Athenian citizen in the days of Per-
roundofa icles. He rose at an early hour and after a light
Roman noble i^^eakfast dispatched his private business with the
help of his steward and manager. He then took his place in the
atrium to meet the crowd of poor dependents who came to pay
their respects to their patron and to receive their usual morn-
ing alms — either food or sufficient money to buy a modest
dinner. Having greeted his visitors and perhaps helped them
in legal or business matters, the noble entered his Utter and
was carried down to the Forum. Here he might attend the law
The Home and Private Life
263
noon exercise
and bath
courts to plead a case for himself or for his clients. If he were a
member of the Senate, he would take part in the deliberations
of that body. At eleven o'clock, when the ordinary duties of
the morning were over, he would return home to eat his
luncheon and enjoy the midday rest, or siesta. The practice of
having a nap in the heat
of the day became so gen-
eral that at noon the
streets of a Roman city
had the same deserted
appearance as at mid-
night.
After an hour of re-
freshing sleep it was time
fortheregu- xhe after-
lar exercise
out of doors
in the Campus Martins
or indoors at one of the
large city baths. Then
came one of the chief pleasures of a Roman's existence — the
daily bath. It was taken ordinarily in one of the public
bathing establishments, or thermce, to be found in every Ro-
man town.^ A Roman bath was a luxurious affair. After un-
dressing, the bathers entered a warm anteroom and sat for a
time on benches, in order to perspire freely. This was a pre-
caution against the danger of passing too suddenly into the hot
bath, which was taken in a large tank of water sunk in the mid-
dle of the floor. Then came an exhilarating cold plunge and
anointing with perfumed oil. Afterwards the bathers rested on
the couches with which the resort was supplied and passed the
time in reading or conversation until the hour for dinner.
The late dinner, with the Romans as with the Greeks, formed
the principal meal of the day. It was usually a The late
social function. The host and his guests reclined ^i^^r
on couches arranged about a table. The Romans borrowed
1 See page 285.
A Roman Litter
The litter consists of an ordinary couch with four
posts and a pair of poles. Curtains fastened to the
rod above the canopy shielded the occupant from
observation.
264
Classical Civilization
from the Greeks the custom of ending a banquet with a sym-
posium, or drinking-bout. The tables were cleared of dishes,
and the guests were anointed with perfumes and crowned with
garlands. During the banquet and the symposium it was
customary for professional performers to entertain the guests
with music, dancing, pantomimes, and feats of jugglery.
92. Amusements
The Athenians celebrated many religious festivals. One of
Athenian re- ^^^ most important was the Great Panathenaea,^
ligious fes- held every fourth year in the month of July.
*^^^ ^ Athletic contests and poetical recitations, sacri-
fices, feasts, and processions honored the goddess Athena, who
The theater of Dionysus, where dramatic exhibitions were held, lay close to the south-
eastern angle of the Acropolis. The audience at first sat upon wooden benches rising, tier
after tier, on the adjacent hillside. About the middle of the fourth century B.C. these were
replaced by the stone seats which are still to be seen. Sixteen thousand people could be
accommodated in this open-air theater.
presided over the Athenian city. Even more interesting, per-
haps, were the dramatic performances held in midwinter and in
spring, at the festivals of Dionysus. The tragedies and com-
1 Panathenaic means "belonging to all the Athenians." See page 292.
Amusements
26s
edies composed for these entertainments took their place among
the masterpieces of Greek Hterature.
There is very httle hkeness between the ancient and the
modern drama. Greek plays were performed out of doors in
the bright sunlight. Until late Roman times it Features of a
is unhkely that a raised stage existed. The three ^'^ek play
actors and the members of the chorus appeared together in the
dancing ring, or orchestra. The perform-
ers were all men. Each actor might play
several parts. There was no elaborate scen-
ery; the spectator had to rely chiefly on his
own imagination for the setting of the
piece. The actors indulged in few lively
movements or gestures. They must have
looked from a distance like a group of ma-
jestic statues. All wore elaborate costumes,
and tragic actors, in addition, were made
to appear larger than human with masks,
padding, and thick-soled boots, or buskins.
The performances occupied the three days
of the Dionysiac festivals, beginning early
in the morning and lasting till night.
All this time was necessary because they
formed contests for a prize which the
people awarded to the poet and chorus
whose presentation was judged of highest
excellence.
Pantomimes formed the staple amuse-
ment of the Roman theater, pantomime
In these performances a single and vaude-
dancer, by movements and ^ ® ^ °°^®
gestures, represented mythological scenes and love stories. The
actor took several characters in succession and a chorus accom-
panied him with songs. There were also "vaudeville" enter-
tainments, with all manner of jugglers, ropedancers, acrobats,
and clowns, to amuse a people who found no pleasure in the
refined productions of the Greek stage.
A Dancing Girl
A Greek bronze statu-
ette found in a sunken
galley off the coast of
Tunis. The galley had
been wrecked while on its
way to Rome carrying a
load of art objects to
decorate the villas of
wealthy nobles. This
statuette was doubtless a
life-like copy of some well-
known entertainer. The
dancer's pose suggests the
American " Cakewalk"
and her costume, the
modem " hobble skirt."
266
Classical Civilization
Far more popular than even pantomime and vaudeville were
the "games of the circus." At Rome these were held chiefly
in the Circus Maximus. Chariot races formed the
Chariot races , . , . r ^ .
prmcipal attraction of the circus. There were
usually four horses to a chariot, though sometimes the drivers
The Circus Maximus (Restoration)
showed their skill by handhng as many as six or seven horses.
The contestants whirled seven times around the low wall, or
spina, which divided the race course. The shortness of the
stretches and the sharp turns about the spina must have pre-
vented the attainment of great speed. A race, nevertheless,
was a most exciting sport. What we should call ''fouling" was
permitted and even encouraged. The driver rtiight turn his
team against another or might endeavor to upset a rival's car.
It was a very tame contest that did not have its accompani-
ment of broken chariots, fallen horses, and killed or injured
drivers.
The Circus Maximus was often used for a variety of animal
Animal- shows. Fierce wild beasts, brought from every
baitings quarter of the empire, were turned loose to slaugh-
ter one another, or to tear to pieces condemned criminals.^
1 See page 234.
Amusements
267
More popular still were the contests between savage animals
and men. Such amusements did something to satisfy the lust
for blood in the Roman populace — a lust which was more
completely satisfied by the gladiatorial combats.
Exhibitions of gladiators were known in Italy long before
they became popular at Rome. The combats probably started
from the savage practice of sacrificing prisoners Gladiatorial
or slaves at the funeral of their master. Then the shows
custom arose of allowing the victims a chance for their lives by
Gladiators
From a stucco relief on the tomb of Scaurus, Pompeii. Beginning at the left are two
fully armed horsemen fighting with lances. Behind them are two gladiators, one of whom is
appealing to the people. Then follows a combat in which the defeated party raises his hand
in supplication for mercy. The lower part of the relief represents fights with various wild
beasts.
having them fight one another, the conquerors being spared
for future battles. From this it was but a step to keeping
trained slaves as gladiators. During the imperial epoch the
number of such exhibitions increased greatly. The emperor
Trajan, for example, to celebrate his victories over the Dacians,^
exhibited no less than ten thousand men within the space of
four months. The gladiators belonged to various classes,
1 See page 200.
7\
268 Classical Civilization
according to the defensive armor they wore and the style of
fighting they employed. When a man was wounded and unable
to continue the struggle, he might appeal to the spectators.
He lifted his finger to plead for release; if he had fought well,
the people indicated their wilhngness to spare him by waving
their handkerchiefs. If the spectators were in a cruel mood, they
turned down their thumbs as the signal for his deathblow.
These hideous exhibitions continued in different parts of the
Roman Empire until the fifth century of our era.
Gladiatorial combats, chariot races, and dramatic shows were
free performances. For the lower classes in the Roman city
" Bread and ^^^^ became the chief pleasure of life. The days
the games of of their celebration were public hohdays, which
e circus. ^^ ^-^^ fourth century numbered no less than one
hundred and seventy-five. The once-sovereign people of Rome
became a lazy, worthless rabble, fed by the state and amused
with the games. It was well said by an ancient satirist that the
Romans wanted only two things to make them happy — "bread
and the games of the circus." ^
93. Slavery
The private life of the Greeks and Romans, as described in
the preceding pages, w^ould have been impossible without the
Place of Slav- existence of a large servile class. Slaves did much
ery in classi- of the heavy and disagreeable work in the ancient
world, thus allowing the free citizen to engage in
more honorable employment or to pass his days in dignified
leisure.
The Greeks seem sometimes to have thought that only bar-
barians should be degraded to the condition of servitude. Most
Sources of Greek slaves, as a matter of fact, were purchased
slaves irom foreign countries. But after the Romans
had subdued the Mediterranean world, their captives included
not only members of inferior races, but also the cultivated
inhabitants of Greece, Egypt, and Asia Minor. We hear of
slaves at Rome who served as clerks, secretaries, librarians,
1 Panem et cir censes (Juvenal, x, 80-81).
Slavery 269
actors, and musicians. Their education was often superior to
that of the coarse and brutal masters who owned them.
The number of slaves, though great enough in Athens and
other Greek cities, reached almost incredible figures during the
later period of Roman history. Every victorious dumber and
battle swelled the troops of captives sent to the cheapness of
slave markets at Rome. Ordinary slaves became
as cheap as beasts of burden are now. The Roman poet Horace
tells us that at least ten slaves were necessary for a gentleman
in even moderate circumstances. Wealthy individuals, given
to excessive luxury, might number their city slaves by the hun-
dreds, besides many more on their country estates.
Slaves engaged in a great variety of occupations. They were
domestic servants, farm laborers, miners, artisans, factory
hands, and even shopkeepers. Household slaves „,
Slaves tasks
at Rome were employed in every conceivable way.
Each part of a rich man's residence had its special staff of ser-
vants. The possession of a fine troop of slaves, dressed in hand-
some liveries, was a favorite method of showing one's wealth
and luxury.
It is difficult for us to realize the attitude of ancient peoples
toward their slaves. They were regarded as part of the chattels
of the house — as on a level with domestic animals Treatment of
rather than human beings. Though Athenian law slaves
forbade owners to kill their slaves or to treat them cruelly, it
permitted the corporal punishment of slaves for slight offenses.
At Rome, until the imperial epoch,^ no restraints whatever
existed upon the master's power. A slave was part of his prop-
erty with which he could do exactly as he pleased. The terrible
punishments, the beating with scourges which followed the
slightest misconduct or neglect of duty, the branding with a
hot iron which a runaway slave received, the fearful penalty
of crucifixion which followed an attempt upon the owner's
life — all these tortures show how hard was the lot of the bond-
man in pagan Rome.
A ijlave, under some circumstances, could gain his freedom.
I See page 215.
>
>
270
Classical Civilization
A Slave's Collar
A runaway slave, if recaptured, was sometimes com-
pelled to wear a metal collar riveted about his neck. One
of these collars, still preserved at Rome, bears the inscrip-
tion: Servus sum dom{i)ni met Scholastic! v{iri) sp{ectabilis).
Tene me nefugiam de domo. — "I am the slave of my mas-
ter Scholasticus, a gentleman of importance. Hold me,
lest I flee from home."
In Greece, where many little states constantly at war bordered
Possibilities one another, a slave could often run away to lib-
of freedom gj-^-y j^ a great empire like Rome, where no
boundary hnes existed, this was usually impossible. Freedom,
however, was sometimes voluntarily granted. A master in his
will might liberate
his favorite slave, as
a reward for the
faithful service of a
lifetime. A more
common practice per-
mitted the slave to
keep a part of his
earnings until he had
saved enough to
purchase his freedom.
Slavery in Greece
and Italy had existed from the earliest times. It never was
Permanence more flourishing than in the great age of classical
of slavery history. Nor did it pass away when the Roman
world became Christian. The spread of Christianity certainly
helped to improve the lot of the slave and to encourage his
liberation. The Church, nevertheless, recognized slavery from
the beginning. Not until long after ancient civilization had
perished did the curse of slavery finally disappear from Euro-
pean lands. ^
94. Greek Literature
The literature of Greece begins with epic poetry. An epic
may be defined as a long narrative in verse, dealing with some
large and noble theme. The earliest epic poetry of
the Greeks was inseparable from music. Wander-
ing minstrels sang at feasts in the palaces of kings and accom-
panied their lays with the music of the clear-toned lyre. In
time, as his verse reached a more artistic character, the singer
was able to give up the lyre and to depend for effect solely on
the poetic power of his narrative. Finally, the scattered lays
1 See pages 436, 463.
Epic poetry
Greek Literature
271
were combined into long poems. The most famous are the
Iliad and the Odyssey, works which the Greeks attributed to
Homer.^
Several centuries after Homer the Greeks began to create a
new form of poetic expression — lyric poetry. In short poems,
accompanied by the flute ^ .
.u 1 ^\. ( A Lyric poetry
or the lyre, they found a
medium for the expression of personal
feelings which was not furnished by
the long and cumbrous epic. The
greatest lyric poet was Pindar. We
still possess forty-four of his odes,
which were written in honor of victo-
rious athletes at the Olympian and
other national games.^ Pindar's
verses were so popular that he be-
came, as it were, the "poet laureate"
of Greece. When Alexander the
Great destroyed Thebes,^ the native
town of Pindar, he spared that poet's
birthplace from the general ruin.
The three great masters of the
tragic drama ^ lived and wrote in
Athens during the splen- Athenian
did half century between t^^^s^dy
the Persian and the Peloponnesian
wars. Such was the fertility of their
genius that they are said to have writ-
ten altogether nearly three hundred
plays. Only thirty-two have come
down to us. iEschylus, the first of the tragic poets, had fought
at Marathon and Salamis. One of his works, the Persians, is a
magnificent song of triumph for the victory of Hellas. Sopho-
cles, while yet a young man, gained the prize in a dramatic
contest with ^Eschylus. His plays mark the perfection of Greek
Sophocles
Lateran Museum, Rome
This marble statue is possibly
a copy of the bronze original
which the Athenians set up in
the theater of Dionysus. The
feet and the box of manuscript
rolls are modern restorations.
1 See page 73.
* See page 80.
3 See page 120.
^ See page 265.
272 Classical Civilization
tragedy. After the death of Sophocles the Athenians revered
him as a hero and honored his memory with yearly sacrifices.
Euripides was the third of the Athenian dramatists and the
most generally popular. His fame reached far beyond his
native city. We are told that the Sicilians were so fond of his
verses that they granted freedom to every one of the Athenian
prisoners captured at Syracuse who could recite the poet's lines.
Athenian comedy during the fifth century B.C. is represented
by the plays of Aristophanes. He was both a great poet and a
Athenian great satirist. "In one comedy Aristophanes
comedy attacks the demagogue Cleon, who was prominent
in Athenian politics after the death of Pericles. In other come-
dies he ridicules the philosophers, makes fun of the ordinary
citizen's delight in sitting on jury courts and trying cases, and
criticizes those responsible for the unfortunate expedition to
Sicily. The plays of Aristophanes were performed before ad-
miring audiences of thousands of citizens and hence must have
had much influence on pubUc opinion.
The "father of history," Herodotus, flourished about the
middle of the fifth century B.C. Though a native of Asia Minor,
„. Herodotus spent some of the best years of his life
History . , . ,. . . , .„.
at Athens, mmghng m its brilhant society and
coming under the influences, Hterary and artistic, of that city.
He traveled widely in the Greek world and in the East, as a
preparation for his great task of writing an account of the rise
of the Oriental nations and the struggle between Greece and
Persia. Herodotus was not a critical historian, diligently sift-
ing truth from fable. Where he can he gives us facts. Where
facts are lacking, he tells interesting stories in a most winning
style. A much more scientific writer was Thucydides, an
Athenian who lived during the epoch of the Peloponnesian War
and became the historian of that contest. An Athenian con-
temporary of Thucydides, Xenophon, is best known from his
Anabasis, which describes the famous expedition of the "Ten
Thousand" Greeks against Persia.^
Of the later prose writers of Greece it is sufficient to name
1 See page 121.
Greek Philosophy 273
only one — the immortal Plutarch. He was a native of Chse-
ronea in Boeotia and lived during the first century
of our era. Greece at that time was only a prov- ^ p ^
ince of the Roman Empire; the days of her greatness had long
since passed away. Plutarch thus had rather a melancholy
task in writing his Parallel Lives. In this work he relates, first
the life of an eminent Greek, then of a famous Roman who in
some way resembled him; and ends the account with a short
comparison of the two men. Plutarch had a wonderful gift of
sympathy for his heroes and a keen eye for what was dramatic
in their careers. It is not surprising, therefore, that Plutarch
has always been a favorite author. No other ancient writer
gives us so vivid and intimate a picture of the classical world.
From the foregoing survey it is clear that the Greeks were
pioneers in many forms of Uterature. They first composed
artistic epic poems. They invented lyric and dra- originality of
matic poetry. They were the first to write his- Greek litera-
tories and biographies. In oratory, as has been *"^®
seen, they also rose to eminence.^ We shall now find that the
Greek intellect was no less fertile and original in the study of
philosophy.
95. Greek Philosophy
The Greek philosophy took its rise in the seventh century
B.C., when a few bold students began to search out the myster-
ies of the universe. Their theories were so many
and so contradictory, however, that after a time
philosophers gave up the study of nature and proposed in turn
to study man himself. These later thinkers were called soph-
ists. They traveled throughout Greece, gathering the young
men about them and lecturing for pay on subjects of practical
interest. Among other things they taught the rhetoric and ora-
tory which were needed for success in a public career.
One of the founders of Greek philosophy and the greatest
teacher of his age was Socrates the Athenian.
He lived and taught during the period of the
Peloponnesian War. Socrates resembled the sophists in his
1 See page 117.
274
Classical Civilization
possession of an inquiring, skeptical mind which questioned
every common beUef and superstition. But he went beyond
the sophists in his emphasis on problems of every-day morality.
Though Socrates wrote nothing, his teaching and personality
made a deep impression on his
contemporaries. The Delphic
oracle declared that no one in
the world was wiser than Soc-
rates. Yet he lived through a
long life at Athens, a poor man
who would neither work at his
trade of sculptor, nor (as did
the sophists) accept money for
his instruction. He walked the
streets, barefoot and half-clad,
and engaged in animated con-
versation with anyone who was
willing to discuss intellectual
subjects with him. Socrates
must have been a familiar fig-
ure to the Athenians. His short
body, large, bald head, and
homely features hardly presented the ideal of a philosopher.
Even Aristophanes in a comedy laughs at him.
Late in life Socrates was accused of impiety and of corrupt-
ing the youth of Athens with his doctrines. As a matter of
Condemnation ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^ deeply religious man. If he objected
and death to the crude mythology of Homer, he often spoke
o ocrates ^^ ^^^ q^^^ ^^^ ruled the world, and of a divine
spirit or conscience within his own breast. A jury court found
him guilty, however, and condemned him to death. He refused
to escape from prison when opportunity offered and passed his
last days in eager conversation on the immortality of the soul.
When the hour of departure arrived, he bade his disciples
farewell and calmly drained the cup of hemlock, a poison that
caused a painless death. Although Socrates gave his life for
his philosophy, this did not perish with him.
Socrates
V^atican Gallery, Rome
Greek Philosophy 275
One of the members of the Socratic circle was Plato, a wealthy
noble who abandoned a pubHc career for the attractions of
philosophy. After the death of Socrates, Plato
traveled widely in the Greek world and even
visited Egypt, where he interviewed the learned priests. On
his return to Athens Plato began teaching in the garden and
gymnasium called the Academy.^ His writings, known as
Dialogues, are cast in the form of question and answer that
Socrates had used. In most of them Plato makes Socrates the
chief speaker. Plato's works are both profound in thought and
admirable in style. The Athenians used to say that if Zeus had
spoken Greek he would have spoken it as did Plato.
As great a philosopher as Plato, but a far less attractive
writer, was Aristotle. He was not an Athenian by birth, but
he passed many years in Athens, first as a pupil of
T.1 , 1 1 1 , . 1 ... 1,, r 1 V , Aristotle
Plato, who called him the mmd of the school,
and then as a teacher in the Athenian city. Aristotle seems to
have taken all knowledge for his province. He investigated the
ideas underlying the arts of rhetoric and poetry; he gathered
the constitutions of many Greek states and drew from them
some general principles of poHtics; he studied collections of
strange plants and animals to learn their structure and habits;
he examined the acts and beliefs of men in order to write books
on ethics. In all this investigation Aristotle was not content to
accept what previous men had written or to spin a pleasing
theory out of his own brain. Everywhere he sought for facts;
everything he tried to bring to the test of personal observation.
Aristotle, then, was as much a scientist as a philosopher. His
books were reverently studied for centuries after his death and
are still used in our universities.
The system of philosophy called Epicureanism was founded
by a Greek named Epicurus. He taught in Athens during the
earlier part of the third century B.C. Epicurus „ .
1 T , 1 1 . 1 1 1-1 Epicureanism
believed that pleasure is the sole good, pain, the
sole evil. He meant by pleasure not so much the passing enjoy-
ments of the hour as the permanent happiness of a hfetime. In
1 See page 261.
276 Classical Civilization
order to be happy men should not trouble themselves with use-
less luxuries, but should lead the "simple life." They must be
virtuous, for virtue will bring more real satisfaction than vice.
Above all, men ought to free themselves from idle hopes and
fears about a future existence. The belief in the immortality
of the soul, said Epicurus, is only a delusion, for both soul and
body are material things which death dissolves into the atoms
making up the universe. And if there are any gods, he
declared, they do not concern themselves with human affairs.
Some of the followers of Epicurus seemed to find in his philo-
sophic system justification for free indulgence in every appetite
and passion. Even to-day, when we call a person an ''Epicu-
rean," we think of him as a selfish pleasure seeker.
The noblest of all pagan philosophies was Stoicism, founded
by Zeno, a contemporary of Epicurus. Virtue, said the Stoic,
consists in living "according to nature," that is,
according to the Universal Reason or Divine Prov-
idence that rules the world. The followers of this philosophy
tried, therefore, to ignore the feelings and exalt the reason as a
guide to conduct. They practiced self-denial, despised the
pomps and vanities of the world, and sought to rise above such
emotions as grief, fear, hope, and joy. The doctrines of Stoi-
cism gained many adherents among the Romans ^ and through
them became a real moral force in the ancient world. Stoicism
is even now no outworn creed. Our very word "stoical" is a
synonym for calm indifference to pleasure or to pain.
96. Roman Literature
The beginnings of Roman literature go back to the third
century B.C., when some knowledge of the Greek language
Rise of Ro- became increasingly common in Rome. The
man litera- earlier writers — chiefly poets and dramatists —
"^® did little original work, and usually were content
to translate and adapt the productions of Greek authors for
Roman audiences. During this period the Romans gradually
discovered the capabiUties of their language for prose com^osi-
1 See page 226.
Roman Literature 277
tion. The republican institutions of Rome, like those of
Athens, were highly favorable to the art of public speaking.
It was the development of oratory which did most to mold the
Latin language into fitness for the varied forms of prose.
Cicero, the greatest of Roman orators, created a style for
Latin prose composition which has been admired and imitated
by men of letters even to our own day. Latin, in
. . Cicero
his hands, became a magnificent instrument for the
expression of human thought. Cicei-o's quahties as an author
are shown, not only by his Orations, but also by the numerous
Epistles which he wrote to friends and correspondents in all
parts of the Roman world. Besides their historical interest
Cicero's letters are models of what good letters ought to be —
the expression of the writer's real thoughts and feelings in sim-
ple, unstilted language. Cicero also composed a number of
Dialogues, chiefly on philosophical themes. If not very pro-
found, they are delightfully written, and long served as text-
books in the schools.
Another eminent statesman — Julius Caesar — won success
in literature. As an orator he was admitted by his contempo-
raries to stand second to Cicero. None of his ^
Caesar
speeches have survived. We possess, however,
his invaluable Commentaries on the Gallic and Civil wars.
These works, though brief and in most parts rather dull, are
highly praised for their simple, concise style and their mastery
of the* art of rapid narration.
The half century included within the Augustan Age marks
a real epoch in the history of Latin literature. The most fa-
mous poet of this period was Vergil. The Mneid, vergU and
which he undertook at the suggestion of Augustus, Horace
is his best-known work. In form the poem is a narrative of
the adventures of the Trojan hero, iEneas,^ but its real theme is
the growth of Rome under the fostering care of the gods. The
Mneid, though unfinished at the author's death, became at once
what it has always remained — the only ancient epic worthy
of comparison with the Iliad or with the Odyssey. Another
1 See page 142.
278 Classical Civilization
member of the Augustan circle was Vergil's friend and fellow-
worker, Horace. An imitative poet, Horace reproduced in
Latin verse the forms, and sometimes even the substance, of
his Greek models. But, like Vergil, what Horace borrowed he
made his own by the added beauty which he gave to it. His
Odes are perhaps the most admirable examples of literary art
to be found in any language.
The most famous prose writer of the Augustan Age was Livy.
His History of Rome, beginning with Romulus and extending
to Augustus, traced the rise and growth of the
Roman state during eight centuries of triumphal
progress. It did in prose what Vergil's Mneid had done in verse.
The period of the ''Good Emperors" saw the rise of several
important authors, of whom one, the historian Tacitus, was a
man of genius. The crowning labor of his life
was a history of Rome from Tiberius to Domitian.
Of this work, issued under the two titles of Histories and
Annals, only about one-half is extant.
Less than two hundred years separate Cicero and Tacitus.
During this period Latin authors, writing under the influence
Survival of ^^ ^^^ Greece, accomplished much valuable work.
Roman Some of their productions are scarcely inferior to
literature ^j^^ Greek masterpieces. In later centuries, when
Greek literature was either neglected or forgotten in the West,
the hterature of Rome was still read and enjoyed. Even to-day
a knowledge of it forms an essential part of a "classical"
education.
97. Greek Architecture
The existing monuments of Greek architecture — chiefly
ruined temples — afford some idea of its leading characteristics.
Characteris- ^^^ building materials were limestone and white
tics of Greek marble. The blocks of stone were not bound
architecture together by cement, but by metal clamps which
held them in a firm grip. It was usual to color the ornamental
parts of a temple and the open spaces that served as a back-
ground for sculpture. The Greeks did not employ the principle
of the arch, in order to cover large spaces with a vaulted ceil-
Greek Architecture
279
ing. Their temples and other public buildings had only flat
ceilings, resting on long rows of columns. The column probably
developed from the wooden post or tree trunk used in timber
construction. The capital at the top of the column originated
in the square wooden slab which supported the heavy beam of
the roof.
Architrave
Cornice
Stylohate
Stylohate
Corner of a Doric
FAgADE
Corner of an
Ionic Facade
The two Greek orders of architecture, Doric and lonic,^ are
distinguished mainly by differences in the treatment of the col-
umn. The Doric column has no base of its own. The Doric
The sturdy shaft is grooved lengthwise with some colu^^n
twenty flutings. The capital is a circular band of stone capped
1 The so-called Corinthian order differs from the Ionic only in its capital.
28o
Classical Civilization
by a square block, all without decoration. The mainland of
Greece was the especial home of the Doric order. This was
also the characteristic style of southern Italy and Sicily.
The Ionic column rests upon a base. Its shaft is tall and
slender. The beautifully carved capital swells outward into
The Ionic two spiral roUs, the ends of which are curled under
column iQ forjn the ''volutes." The Ionic order flourished
particularly in Asia Minor. It was well known, too, at Athens.
a. Corinthian
b. Composite
Capitals
c. Tuscan
The highly decorative Corinthian capital, modeled on acanthus leaves, came into fashion
in Alexandrian and Roman times. The Composite capital, as its name indicates, combined
details from the Ionic and Corinthian into one ornate whole. This and the plain Tuscan
capital were quite generally employed by the Romans.
The temple formed the chief structure in a Greek city. It
was very simple in outline — merely a rectangular building
Nature of the provided with doors, but without windows.
Greek temple Around it was a single or a double row of columns.
Above them rose the architrave, a plain band of massive stones
which reached from one column to another. Then came the
frieze, adorned with sculptured reliefs, then the horizontal
cornice, and at the ends of the building the triangular pedi-
ments formed by the sloping roof. The pediments were
sometimes decorated with statues. Since the temple was not
intended to hold a congregation of worshipers, but only to
contain the image of the god, the interior usually had little
ornamentation.
Greek temples were not very large, for hugeness was no
object to the builders. They were not even lavishly decorated.
ReSIOIvIATION
^S^J^^Sm. . 4 '"'
Present Condition
THE PARTHENON
After serving as a temple for about nine centuries, the Parthenon was turned into a Christian
church, and later into a Mohammedan mosque. In 1687 a.d. the Venetians bombarded Athens
and sent a shell into the center of the building, which the Turks had used as a powder maga-
zine. The result was an explosion that threw down the side walls and many of the columns.
Figures from the Pediment of the Parthenon
'^^'!^ Aft- «BF
Groups from the Parthenon Frieze
corjier of the parthenon
(Restored)
Caryatid Porch of the
Erechtheum
Greek Sculpture 281
Their beauty lies, most of all, in their harmonious proportions
and perfect symmetry. In the best examples of uniqueness
the Greek temple there are, for instance, no of the Greek
straight lines. The columns are not set at equal *®°^^ ®
intervals, but closer together near the corners of the building.
The shafts of the columns, instead of tapering upward at a
uniform rate, swell slightly toward the center. The artistic
eyes of the Greeks delighted in such subtle curves. These
characteristics make a classical temple unique of its kind.^
98. Greek Sculpture
The greatest achievement of the Greeks in art was their
sculpture. Roman artists surpassed them in the r^^ie Greek
creation of massive architectural works; modern genius in
artists have surpassed them in painting. In ^^" ^ "'®
sculpture the Greeks still remain unexcelled.
The existing remains of Greek sculpture are very scanty.
The statues of gold and ivory vanished long ago. The bronze
statues, formerly numbered by thousands, have Loss of the
nearly all gone into the melting pot. Sculptures inasterpieces
in marble were turned into mortar or used as building mate-
rials. Those which escaped such a fate were often ruined by
wanton mutilation and centuries of neglect. The statues
which we still possess are mainly marble copies, made in Roman
times from Greek originals. It is as if the paintings by the old
masters of Europe, four centuries ago, were now known only in
the reproductions by modern artists of inferior powers.
The Greek sculptor worked with a variety of materials.
Wood was in common use during primitive times. Terra cotta
was employed at all periods for statuettes a few
inches in height. Productions in gold and ivory,
from the costliness of these objects, were extremely rare. Bronze
was the favorite material of some of the most eminent artists.
The Greek sculptor especially relied on the beautiful marbles
in which his country abounded.
The methods employed by the ancient sculptor differed in
1 For illustrations of Greek temples, see pages 89, loi.
282 Classical Civilization
some respects from those followed by his modern successors. A
Technical Greek marble statue was usually built up out of
processes several parts. The joining was accomplished with
such skill as to escape ordinary observation. The preliminary
work of hewing out from the rough w^as done by means of
chisels. The surface of the marble afterwards received a careful
polishing with the file, and also with sand. Marble statues
were always more or less painted. The coloring seems to have
been done sparingly, being applied, as a rule, only to the
features and draperies. Still, it is worth while to remember
that the pure white statues of modern sculptors would not
have satisfied Greek artists of the classical age.
Greek sculpture existed in the two forms of bas-reliefs and
statuary in the round. Reliefs were chiefly used for temple
Varieties pediments and friezes, and also for the many
of Greek grave monuments. Statues consisted of the images
^^ ^ ^ of the gods set up in their shrines, the sculptures
dedicated as offerings to divinities, and the figures of statesmen,
generals, and victorious athletes raised in public places and
sanctuaries.
This list will show how many were the opportunities which
the ancient sculptor enjoyed. The service of religion created a
Importance Constant demand for his genius. The numerous
of the sculp- athletic contests and the daily sports of the gym-
°^ ^ ^^ nasium gave him a chance to study living models
in the handsome, finely-shaped bodies of the contestants.
With such inspiration it is not remarkable that sculpture
reached so high a development in ancient Greece.^
99. Roman Architecture and Sculpture
In architecture the Romans achieved preeminence. The
The arch and temples and Other public works of Greece seem
dome in Ro- almost insignificant beside the stupendous edifices
man u mgs j-^^jgg^^ ^y ;Roman genius in every province of the
empire. The ability of the Romans to build on so large a
1 For illustrations of Greek statues see pages 80, 81, 103, 117, 119, 129, 271,
and the plates facing pages 76, 77, 80, 130, 131.
Roman Architecture and Sculpture 283
scale arose from their use of vaulted constructions. Knowledge
of the round arch passed over from the Orient to the Etruscans
and from them to the Romans.^ At first the arch was employed
mainly for gates, drainage sewers, aqueducts, and bridges.
In imperial times this device was adopted to permit the con-
struction of vast buildings with overarching domes. The
principle of the dome has inspired some of the finest creations
of ancient and modern architecture.
The Romans for many of their buildings made much use of
concrete. Its chief ingredient was pozzolaita, a sand found in
great abundance near Rome and other sites. Roman use of
When mixed with lime, it formed a very strong concrete and
cement. This material was poured in a fluid state ^" ®
into timber casings, where it quickly set and hardened. Small
pieces of stone, called rubble, were also forced down into
the cement to give it additional stability. Buildings of this
sort were usually faced with brick, which in turn might be
covered with thin slabs of marble, thus producing an attractive
appearance.
The triumphs of Roman architecture were not confined
chiefly to sacred edifices. Roman temples, indeed, are mostly
copies from the Greek. In comparison with their
originals, they lack grace and refinement. There
is less accuracy in the masonry fitting and far less careful atten-
tion to details of construction. A frequent departure from
Greek models is found in the restriction of the rows of pillars to
the front'of the building, while the sides and rear are lined with
''engaged" columns to give the idea of a colonnade.^ More
characteristically Roman are vaulted temples, such as the
Pantheon,^ where the circular dome is faced with a Greek
portico.
Roman basilicas, of which only the ruins are now in exist-
ence, were once found in every city. These were
large, lofty buildings for the use of judges and
merchants. The chieT feature of a basihca was the spacious
^ See pages 6i, 138. ^ See the illustration, page 202.
'^ See the illustration, page 215.
284
Classical Civilization
central hall flanked by a single or double row of columns, form-
ing aisles and supporting the flat roof. At one end of the hall
was a semicircular recess
— the apse — where the
judges held court. This
arrangement of the inte-
rior bears a close resem-
blance to the plan of the
early Christian church
with its nave, choir (or
chancel) , and columned
aisles. The Christians, in
fact, seem to have taken the familiar basilicas as the models
for their places of worship.
QSaHQBQQHCaaQQCSQQEQ Q llO
BQBQQQEQQQQQQQQQQH B C Q
Q B
a Q ^
BQBBBBQSamCDSQQBBHQ B C B
Plan of the Ulpian Bashlica
The hall measured 360 feet in length and 180 feet
in width
Interior View of the Ulpian Basilica (Restoration)
Built by the Emperor Trajan in connection with his Forum at Rome
Aqueducts
Perhaps the most imposing, and certainly among the most
useful, of Roman structures were aqueducts.^
There were sixty-eight in Italy and the provinces.
No less than fourteen supplied the capital city with water.
1 See the illustrations, pages 157, 285.
Roman Architecture and Sculpture
285
The aqueducts usually ran under the surface of the ground, as
do our water pipes. They were carried on arches only across
depressions and valleys. The Claudian aqueduct ran for
thirty-six miles underground and for nine and a half miles on
arches. Though these monuments were intended simply as en-
gineering works, their heavy masses of rough masonry produce
an inspiring sense of power.
A Roman Aqueduct
The Pont du Gard near Nimes (ancient Nemausus) in southern France. Built by the
emperor Antoninus Pius. The bridge spans two hilltops nearly a thousand feet apart. It
carries an aqueduct with three tiers of massive stone arches at a height of 160 feet above the
stream. This is the finest and best -preserved aqueduct in existence.
The abundant water supply furnished by the aqueducts was
connected with a system of great public baths, or thermce}
Scarcely a town or village throughout the empire
lacked one or more such buildings. Those at
Rome were constructed on a scale of magnificence of which we
can form but a slight conception from the ruins now in exist-
ence. In addition to many elaborate arrangements for the
bathers, the thermce. included lounging and reading rooms,
libraries, gymnasia, and even museums and galleries of art.
1 See page 263.
Thermae
286
Classical Civilization
^1
? ? r
iff!
-iillllMf®J^^
Exterior
•P7 ^/
^ r r r , 1 1 -'
-=-;.rf^'
The Colosseum
The baths, indeed, were splendid clubhouses, open at little or
no expense to every citizen of the metropolis.
A very characteristic example of Roman building is found in
the triumphal arches.^ Their sides were adorned
Triumphal ^ , . , . , , • • i
arches and with bas-reUefs, which pictured the principal scenes
columns ^£ ^ successful campaign. Memorial structures,
called columns of victory ,2 were also set up in Rome and other
I See the illustration, page 236. ^ See the illustrations, pages 163, 201.
Roman Architecture and Sculpture 287
cities. Both arch and column have been frequently imitated
by modern architects.
The palaces of Roman emperors and nobles, together with their
luxurious country houses, or villas, have all disappeared. A like
fate has befallen the enor- circuses
mous circuses, such as the theaters, and
Circus Maximusi at Rome ^^^P^^heaters
and the Hippodrome ^ at Constantino-
ple. The Roman theaters that still
survive reproduce, in most respects, the
familiar outlines of the Greek struc-
tures. In the amphitheaters, where
animal shows and gladiatorial combats
were exhibited, we have a genuinely
Roman invention. The gigantic edi-
fice, called the Colosseum, in its way
as truly typifies Roman architectural
genius as the Parthenon represents at
its best that of the Greeks.
Roman sculpture owed much to
Greek models. However, the portrait
statues and bas-reliefs show originality and illustrate the ten-
dency of the Romans toward realism in art. The Roman
sculptor tried to represent an historic person as he sculpture
really looked or an historic event, for example, a battle or a
triumphal procession, as it actually happened. The portrait
statues of Roman emperors and the bas-reliefs from the arch
of Titus impress us at once with a sense of their reality.
Our knowledge of Roman painting is almost wholly confined
to the wall paintings found at Rome, Herculaneum, and Pom-
peii. What has survived is apparently the work Wailpaint-
of ordinary craftsmen, who, if not Greeks, were "^^s
deeply affected by the Greek spirit. Most of the scenes they
depict are taken from classical mythology. The coloring is
very rich; and the peculiar shade of red used is known to-day by
the name of ''Pompeian red." The practice of mural painting
1 See the illustration, page 266. 2 See the illustration, page 339.
A Roman Cameo
Portrait of a youth cut in
sardonyx. Probably of the first
century a.d.
288 Classical Civilization
passed over from the Romans to European artists, who
have employed it in the frescoes of medieval and modern
churches.
100. Artistic Athens
Athens and Rome were the artistic centers of the classical
world. Architects, sculptors, and painters lavished their finest
Art centers of efforts on the adornment of these two capitals.
antiquity Here there are still to be seen some of the most
beautiful and impressive monumments of antiquity.
Athens lies in the center of the Attic plain, about four miles
from the sea.^ The city commands a magnificent view^ of
R ads and purple-hued mountains and the shining waters
suburbs of of the ^Egean. Roads approached the ancient
Athens ^-^^ irom all parts of Attica. Among these were
the highway from Piraeus, running between the Long Walls,^
and the Sacred Way from Eleusis, where the famous mysteries
were yearly celebrated.^ The suburbs of Athens included the
Outer Ceramicus, part of which was used as a national ceme-
tery, and a pleasure ground and gymnasium on the banks of
the Cephissus, called the Academy. Another resort, known as
the Lyceum, bordered the httle stream of the Ihssus.
The traveler who passed through these suburbs came at
length to the great wall, nearly five miles in circumference,
Walls of raised by Themistocles to surround the settle-
Athens jnent at the foot of the AcropoHs.^ The area
included within this wall made up Old Athens. About sLx cen-
turies after Themistocles the Roman emperor Hadrian, by
building additional fortifications on the east, brought an exten-
sive quarter, called New Athens, inside the city limits.
The region within the walls was broken up by a number of
rocky eminences which have a prominent place in the topogra-
Hiiis of phy oi Athens. Near the center the Acropolis
Athens j-^ggg more than two hundred feet above the plain, its
summit crowned with monuments of the Periclean Age. Not
far away is the hill called the Areopagus. Here the Council of
1 See the map, page 107. ^ See page 227.
2 See page 108. ■* See page 100.
Artistic Athens
289
290 Classical Civilization
the Areopagus, a court of justice in trials for murder, held its
deliberations in the open air. Beyond this height is the hill of
the Pnyx. This was the meeting place of the Athenian Assembly
until the fourth century B.C., when the sessions were transferred
to the theater of Dionysus.
The business and social center of an ancient city was the
agora or market place. The Athenian Agora lay in the hollow
north of the Areopagus and Acropolis. The
square was shaded by rows of plane trees and lined
with covered colonnades. In the great days of the city, when
the Agora was filled with countless altars and shrines, it pre-
sented a most varied and attractive scene.
Not all the splendid structures in Athens were confined to the
Agora and the Acropolis. On a slight eminence not far from
Public the Agora, rose the so-called ''Theseum," ^ a marble
buildings temple in the Doric order. Another famous tem-
ple, the colossal edifice known as the Olympieum, lay at some
distance from the Acropolis on the southeast. Fifteen of the lofty
columns wdth their Corinthian capitals are still standing. The
theater of Dionysus ^ is in a fair state of preservation. Beyond
this are the remains of the Odeum, or "Hall of Song," used for
musical contests and declamations. The original building was
raised by Pericles, in imitation, it is said, of the tent of Xerxes.
The present ruins are those of the structure erected in the second
century a.d. by a public-spirited benefactor of Athens.
The adornment of the Acropolis formed perhaps the most
memorable achievement of Pericles.^ This rocky mount was
The approached on the western side by a flight of sixty
Acropolis marble steps. To the right of the stairway rose
a small but very beautiful Ionic temple dedicated to Athena.
Having mounted the steps, the visitor passed through the su-
perb entrance gate, or Propylaea, which was constructed to
resemble the front of a temple with columns and pediment.
Just beyond the Propylaea stood a great bronze statue of the
Guardian Athena, a masterpiece of the sculptor Phidias.
» See the illustration, page loi. » See page 108.
2 See the illustration, page 264.
Artistic Athens
291
Architecture
of the
Parthenon
Plan of the Parthenon
The larger room (cella) measured exactly one
hundred feet in length.
The Erechtheum, a temple which occupies part of the Acrop-
oHs, is in the Ionic style. It may be regarded as the best exist-
ing example of this light and graceful order. The Erech-
Perhaps the most interesting feature is the porch tlieum
of the Caryatides, with a marble roof supported by six pillars
carved in the semblance of maidens.^ This curious but strik-
ing device has been often copied by modern architects.
The other temple on the Acropolis is the world-famed edifice
known as the Parthenon,
the shrine of
the Virgin
Athena.^
The Parthenon illustrates
the extreme simpHcity of
a Greek temple. It had
no great size or height and
included only two cham-
bers. The rear room
stored sacred vessels and furniture used in worship, state treas-
ure, and the more valuable offerings intrusted to the goddess for
safekeeping. The second and larger room confairied a colossal
gold and ivory statue of Athena, the work of Phidias. It faced
the eastern entrance so that it might be bathed in the rays of
the rising sun. Apart from the large doors a certain amount of
light reached the interior through the semi-transparent marble
tiles of the roof. The Doric columns surrounding the building
are marvels of fine workmanship. The Parthenon, because of
its perfection of construction and admirable proportions, is
justly regarded as a masterpiece of architecture.
The Parthenon was also remarkable for its sculptures ^
executed under the superintendence of Phidias. The subjects
of the pediment sculptures are taken from the sculptures of
mythic history of Athena. The frieze of the Par- the Parthe-
thenon consists of a series of sculptured slabs, °°^
over five hundred feet in length. The subject was the proces-
1 See the plate facing page 281.
2 See the plate facing page 280.
^ See the plate facing page 281.
292 Classical Civilization
sion of the Great Panathenaea/ the principal festival in honor
of Athena. At this time the sacred robe of the goddess, woven
anew for each occasion, was brought to adorn her statue. The
procession is thought of as starting from the western front,
where Athenian youths dash forward on their spirited steeds.
Then comes a brilUant array of maidens, matrons, soldiers, and
luteplayers. Near the center of the eastern front they meet a
group of divinities, who are represented as spectators of the
imposing scene. This part of the frieze is still in excellent con-
dition.
It was, indeed, a splendid group of buildings that rose on the
Acropolis height. If to-day they have lost much of their glory,
The glory we can Still understand how they were the precious
of Athens possession of the Athenians and the wonder of
all the ancient world. ''O shining, violet-crowned city of song,
great Athens, bulwark of Hellas, walls divine! " The words are
those of an old Greek poet,^ but they are reechoed by all who
have come under the magic spell of the literature and art of the
Athenian city.
101. Artistic Rome
The monuments of Rome, unlike those of Athens, cannot lay
claim to great antiquity. The destruction wrought by the
Destruction Gauls in 390 B.C. and the great fire under Nero in
of ancient 64 A.D. removed nearly all traces of the regal and
°™® republican city. Many buildings erected in the
imperial age have also disappeared, because in medieval and
modern times the inhabitants of Rome used the ancient edi-
fices as quarries. The existing monuments give only a faint
idea of the former magnificence of the capital city.
The city of Rome lies on the Tiber. Where the river ap-
proaches Rome it makes two sharp turns, first to the west and
HUls of then to the east. On the western, or Etruscan,
Rome bank stood the two hills called Vatican and Janic-
ulum. They were higher than the famous seven which rose
on the eastern side, where the ancient city was built. Two of
^ See page 264. 2 Pindar, Fragments, 76.
Artistic Rome
293
294 Classical Civilization
these seven hills possess particular interest. The earliest settle-
ment, as we have seen,^ probably occupied the Palatine. It
became in later days the favorite site for the town houses of
Roman nobles. In the imperial age the splendid palaces of the
Caesars were located here. The Capitoline, steepest of the
seven hills, was divided into two peaks. On one of these rose
the most famous of all Roman temples, dedicated to Jupiter and
his companion deities, Juno and Minerva. The other peak was
occupied by a large temple of Juno Moneta ("the Adviser"),
which served as the mint. The altars, shrines, and statues which
once covered this height were so numerous that the Capitoline,
like the Athenian Acropohs, became a museum of art.
Rome in early times was surrounded by a wall which bore the
name of its legendary builder, Servius Tullius. The present
Walls and fortifications were not constructed until the reign
open spaces Qf ^j^g emperor Aurelian.^ The ancient city was
closely built up, with only two great open spaces, in addition
to the Forum. These were the Circus Maximus, in the hollow
between the Palatine Mount and the Aventine, and the Campus
Martins, stretching along the Tiber to the northwest of the
Capitoline Hill.
Following the map of ancient Rome under the empire we
may note the more important monuments which still exist in
Public something like their original condition. Across
buUdings ^-jig Tiber and beyond the Campus Martins stands
the mausoleum of Hadrian.^ The most notable structure in the
Campus Martins is the Pantheon.^ It is the one ancient build-
ing in the entire Roman world which still survives, inside and
out, in a fair state of preservation. The depression between the
Caelian and Esquiline hills contains the Flavian Amphitheater,
better known as the Colosseum.^ It was begun by Vespasian
and probably completed by Titus. No less than eighty
entrances admitted the forty-five thousand spectators who
could be accommodated in this huge structure. Despite the
1 See page 140. * See the illustration, page 202.
2 See the illustration, page 220. ^ See the illustration, page 286.
3 See the illustration, page 203.
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Artistic Rome 295
enormous mass of the present ruins probably two-thirds of the
original materials have been carried away to be used in other
buildings. Close to the Colosseum stands the arch ^ erected by
the Senate in honor of the victory of Constantine over his rival
Maxentius. From this event is dated the triumph of Chris-
tianity in the Roman state. The ruins of the huge baths of
Caracalla lie about half a mile from the Colosseum. N"ear the
center of the city are the remains of the Forum added by Tra-
jan to the accommodations of the original Forum. It contains
the column of Trajan ^ under which that emperor was buried.
The Forum lies in the valley north of the Palatine Hill. It
was the business and social center of the Roman city. During
the Middle Asres the site was buried in ruins ^, „
The Forum
and rubbish, in some places to a depth of forty
feet or more. Recent excavations have restored the ancient
level and uncovered the remains of the ancient structures.
The Forum could be approached from the east by one of the
most famous streets in the world, the Roman Sacred Way.
The illustration of the Forum at the present Approach to •
time gives a view, looking eastward from the Cap- *^® Forum
itoline Mount, and shows several of the buildings on or near
the Sacred Way. At the left are seen the ruins of the basilica
of Constantine. Farther in the distance the Colosseum looms
up. Directly ahead is the arch of Titus, which commemorates
the capture of Jerusalem in 70 a.d.^ The ruins of the palaces
of the Caesars occupy the slopes of the Palatine.
The only well-preserved monument in the Forum is the beau-
tiful arch erected by the emperor Septimius Severus. Beyond
it are three columns which once formed part of The Forum
the temple of Castor. They date from the time of to-day
Tiberius. In front are the foundations of the Basilica Julia,
built by Augustus. Next come eight Ionic columns, all that
remain of the temple of Saturn. Near it and in the foreground
are several columns in the Corinthian style, belonging to a
temple built by Vespasian.
^ See the illustration, page 236. ^ See the plate facing page 198.
* See the illustration, page 201.
296 Classical Civilization
These ruined monuments, these empty foundations and
lonely pillars, afford little idea of all the wealth of architecture
The Forum that once adorned this spot. Here stood the
m antiquity circular shrine of Vesta,^ guarding the altar and
its ever-blazing fire. Here was the temple of Concord, famous
in Roman history .2 The Senate-house was here, and just be-
fore it, the Rostra, a platform adorned with the beaks (rostra)
of captured ships. From this place Roman orators addressed
their assembled fellow-citizens.
How splendid a scene must have greeted an observer in an-
cient times who, from the height of the Capitol, gazed at the
The grandeur city before him. The Forum w^as then one radiant
of Rome avenue of temples, triumphal arches, columns, and
shrines. And beyond the Forum stretched a magnificent array
of theaters and amphitheaters, enormous baths, colossal sepul-
chers, and statues in stone and bronze. So prodigious an
accumulation of objects beautiful, costly, and rare has never
before or since been found on earth.
Studies
I. What is the origin of our words pedagogue, symposium, circus, and
academy? 2. Make a Ustof such Roman names as you have met in your reading.
3. Write a letter describing an imaginary visit to the theater of Dionysus during
the performance of a tragedy. 4. What did civic patriotism mean to the Greek and
to the Roman? 5. Have we anything to learn from the Greeks about the im-
portance of training in music? 6. What were the schoolbooks of Greek boys?
7. What features of Athenian education are noted in the illustration, page 254?
8. How did the position of women at Athens differ from their position in Homeric
Greece? 9. Why does classical literature contain almost no "love stories," or
novels? 10. What contrasts exist between the ancient and the modern house?
II. Describe a Roman Utter (illustration, page 263). 12. What differences exist
between an ancient and a modern theatre? 13. What features of our "circus"
recall the proceedings at the Roman games? 14. How many holidays (including
Sundays) are there in your state? How do they compare in number with those
at Rome in the reign of Marcus Aurelius? 15. Describe the theater of Diony-
sus (illustration, page 264). 16. What is the "Socratic method" of teaching?
17. How did the Greeks manage to build solidly without the use of mortar? 18.
Discuss the appropriateness of the terms: severe Doric; graceful Ionic; ornate Corin-
thian. 19. Can you find examples of any of the Greek orders in public buildings
famihar to you? 20. How do you explain the almost total loss of original Greek
sculptures? 21. By reference to the illustrations, page 279, explain the following
1 See page 146. 2 See page 177.
Artistic Rome 297
terms: shaft; capital; architraive; frieze; and cornice. 22. Explain the "Greek
profile" seen in the Aphrodite of Cnidus and the Apollo of the Belvedere (plate
facing page 76). 23. Name five famous works of Greek sculpture which exist to-
day only in Roman copies. 24. What is your favorite Greek statue? Why do you
like it? 25. "The dome, with the round arch out of which it sprang, is the most
fertile conception in the whole history of building." Justify this statement. 26.
What famous examples of domed churches and public buildings are familiar to you?
27. What artistic objections to the use of "engaged columns" can you mention?
28. Discuss the revival of cement construction in modern times. What are its
special advantages? 29. What examples of triumphal arches in the United States
and France are known to you? 30. Do you know of any modern columns of vic-
tory? 31. Why is it likely that the bust of Nerva (illustration, page 200) is a more
faithful likeness than that of Pericles (illustration, page 103)? 32. Write a brief
essay describing an imaginary walk on the Athenian Acropolis in the Age of Pericles.
S3>- Enumerate the most important contributions to civilization made in classical
antiquity.
CHAPTER XIII
WESTERN EUROPE DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES,
476-962 A.D.i
102. The Ostrogoths in Italy, 488-553 A.D.
We are not to suppose that the settlement of Germans
within the Roman Empire ended with the deposition of Romm-
Transition to ^^^ Augustulus, near the close of the fifth century,
the Middle The foUowing centuries witnessed fresh invasions
^^^ and the establishment of new' Germanic states.
The study of these troubled times leads us from the classical
world to the world of medieval Europe, from the history of
antiquity to the history of the Middle Ages.
The kingdom which Odoacer established on Italian soil did
not long endure. It was soon overthrown by the Ostrogoths.
The Ostro- ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ "fall" of Rome in 476 a.d.
goths under they occupied a district south of the middle
one Danube, which the government at Constantinople
had hired them to defend. The Ostrogoths proved to be expen-
sive and dangerous allies. When, therefore, their chieftain,
Theodoric, offered to lead his people into Italy and against
Odoacer, the Roman emperor gladly sanctioned the undertaking.
Theodoric led the Ostrogoths — women and children as well
as warriors — across the Alps and came down to meet Odoacer
^ , . and his soldiers in battle. After suffering several
Ostrogothic
invasion of defeats, Odoacer shut himself up m the strong
4.q^q^Al?^~ fortress of Ravenna. Theodoric could not capture
the place and at last agreed to share with Odoacer
the government of Italy, if the latter would surrender. The
agreement was never carried into effect. When Theodoric
entered Ravenna, he invited Odoacer to a great feast and at
1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter i, "Stories of the
Lombard Kings"; chapter ii, "Charlemagne."
298
The Ostrogoths in Italy 299
its conclusion slew him in cold blood. Theodoric had now
no rival in Italy.
Though Theodoric gained the throne by violence and treach-
ery, he soon showed himself to be, as a ruler, wise, broad-minded,
and humane. He had lived as a youth in the xheodoric
imperial court at Constantinople and there had king of Italy,
become well acquainted with Roman ideas of law
and order. Roman civilization impressed him; and he wished
Tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna
A two-storied marble building erected by Theodoric in imitation of a Roman tomb.
The roof is a single block of marble, 33 feet in diameter and weighing more than 300 tons.
Theodoric's body was subsequently removed from its resting place, and the mausoleum was
converted into a church.
not to destroy but to preserve it. Theodoric reigned in Italy for
thirty-three years, and during this time the country enjoyed
unbroken peace and prosperity.
The enlightened policy of Theodoric was exhibited in many
ways. He governed Ostrogoths and Romans with equal con-
sideration. He kept all the old offices, such as Theodoric's
the senatorship and the consulate, and by pref- ^"^® "^ ^*^^y
erence filled them with men of Roman birth. His chief
counselors were Romans. A legal code, which he drew up for
the use of Ostrogoths and Romans ahke, contained only selec-
tions from Roman law. He was remarkably tolerant and, in
300 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages
spite of the fact that the Ostrogoths were Arians/ was always
ready to extend protection to Catholic Christians. Theod-
oric patronized Hterature and gave high positions to Roman
writers. He restored the cities of Italy, had the roads and
aqueducts repaired, and so improved the condition of agri-
culture that Italy, from a wheat-importing, became a wheat-
exporting, country. At Ravenna, the Ostrogothic capital,
Theodoric erected many notable buildings, including a palace,
a mausoleum, and several churches. The remains of these
structures are still to be seen.
The influence of Theodoric reached far beyond Italy. He
allied himself by marriage with most pi the Germanic rulers
Theodoric's ^^ ^^^ West. His second wife was a Frankish
foreign princess, his sister was the wife of a Vandal chief-
^^^^^ tain, one of his daughters married a king of the
Visigoths, and another daughter wedded a Burgundian king.
Theodoric by these alHances brought about friendly relations
between the various barbarian peoples. It seemed, in fact, as
if the Roman dominions in the West might again be united
under a single ruler; as if the Ostrogoths might be the Ger-
manic people to carry on the civilizing work of Rome. But
no such good fortune was in store for Europe.
Theodoric died in 526 a.d. The year after his death, a great
emperor, Justinian, came to the throne at Constantinople,
■r, J , , Justinian had no intention of abandoning to the
End of the *' r ^ ^ ^
Ostrogothic Germans the rich provmces of Sicily and Italy,
kingdom, 553 Although the Ostrogoths made a stubborn resist-
ance to his armies, in the end they were so com-
pletely overcome that they agreed to withdraw from the Italian
peninsula. The feeble remnant of their nation filed sadly
through the passes of the Alps and, mingling with other bar-
barian tribes, disappeared from history.
103. The Lombards in Italy, 568-774 A.D.
The destruction of the Ostrogothic kingdom did not free
Italy of the Germans. Soon after Justinian's death the country
1 See page 236.
The Lombards in Italy
301
/ EUROPE
at the death of Justinian 565 A.D.
^ JJ^ Scale of Miles
V 100 200 300 400 500 600
Europe in the Sixth Century
302 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages
was again overrun, this time by the Lombards. The name of
these invaders (in Latin, Langobardi) may have been derived
Invasion of from the long beards that gave them such a fero-
Italy by the cious aspect. The Lombards were the last of the
cm ar s Germanic peoples to quit their northern wilder-
ness and seek new homes in sunny Italy. They seized the
territory north of the river Po — a region ever since known
as Lombardy — and estabUshed their capital at Pavia. The
Lombards afterwards made many settlements in central and
southern Italy, but never succeeded in subduing the entire
peninsula.
The rule of the Lombards at first bore hardly on Italy, which
they treated as a conquered land. In character they seem to
Lombard have been far less attractive than their predeces-
rule in Italy g^j-g^ ^j^g Visigoths and Ostrogoths. Many of
them were still heathen when they entered Italy and others
were converts to the Arian ^ form of Christianity. In course
of time, however, the Lombards accepted Roman Catholi-
cism and adopted the customs of their subjects. They even
forgot their Germanic language and learned to speak Latin. '
The Lombard kingdom lasted over two centuries, until it
was overthrown by the Franks.^
The failure of the Lombards to conquer all Italy had im-
portant results in later history. Sicily and the extreme southern
Results of P^^^ ^^ ^^^ Itahan peninsula, besides large dis-
the Lorn- tricts containing the cities of Naples, Rome,
Genoa, Venice, and Ravenna, continued to belong
to the Roman Empire in the East. The rulers at Constanti-
nople could not exercise effective control over their Italian
possessions, now that these were separated from one another
by the Lombard territories. The consequence was that Italy
broke up into a number of small and practically independent
states, which never combined into one kingdom until our own
time. The ideal of a united Italy waited thirteen hundred
years for its realization.^
1 See page 236. 2 See page 309.
3 The modern kingdom of Italy dates from 1 861-1870 a.d.
The Franks under Clovis and his Successors 303
104. The Franks under Clovis and His Successors
We have already met the Franks in their home on the lower
Rhine, from which they pushed gradually into Roman terri-
tory.^ In 486 A.D., just ten years after the deposi- Clovis, king
tion of Romulus Augustulus, the Franks went Franks, 481-
forth to conquer under Clovis,^ one of their chief- 511 A.D.
tains. By overcoming the governor of Roman Gaul, in a
battle near Soissons, Clovis destroyed the last vestige of impe-
rial rule in the West and extended the Frankish dominions to
the river Loire. Clovis then turned against his German neigh-
bors. East of the Franks, in the region now known as Alsace,
lived the Alamanni, a people whose name still survives in the
French name of Germany.^ The Alamanni were defeated in a
great battle near Strassburg (496 a.d.), and much of their
territory was added to that of the Franks. Clovis subsequently
conquered the Visigothic possessions between the Loire and
the Pyrenees, and compelled the Burgundians to pay tribute.
Thus Clovis made himself supreme over nearly the whole of
Gaul and even extended his authority to the other side of the
Rhine. This great work entitles him to be called the founder
of the French nation.
Clovis reigned in western Europe as an independent king,
but he acknowledged a sort of allegiance to the Roman emperor
by accepting the title of honorary consul. Hence- .^1^ p 1,
forth to the Gallo-Romans he represented the and the
distant ruler at Constantinople. The Roman in- Galio-
^ ... Romans
habitants of Gaul were not oppressed; their cities
were preserved; and their language and laws were undis-
turbed. Clovis, as a statesman, may be compared with his
eminent contemporary, Theodoric the Ostrogoth.
The Franks were still a heathen people, when they began
1 See page 245.
2 His name is properly spelled Chlodweg, which later became Ludwig, and in
French, Louis.
3 Allemagne. On the other hand, the inhabitants of Gaul came to call their
country France and themselves Franqais after their conquerors, the Germanic
Franks.
304 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages
their career of conquest. Clovis, however, had married a
Burgundian princess, Clotilda, who was a devout CathoHc and
^, . . . an ardent advocate of Christianity. The story is
Chnstianiza- 1 i •
tion of the told how, w^hen Clovis was hard-pressed by the
Alamanni at the battle of Strassburg, he vowed that
if Clotilda's God gave him victory he would be-
come a Christian. The Franks won, and Clovis, faithful to his
Franks, 496
A.D.
I I Territory of the Franks 481 A.D.
I I Conquests of Clovis 486-511 A.D.
I I Conquests of successors 511-768 A.D.
Scale of Miles
■^iNGLO-SAXON
^Kl^GDOMS
aio Me//£,S\Cologne
Uo^
'TTANy f H
E U S^T R
-', . k? 486,-a,Orlea
Loire '^ "^
'NantesT^OMs
JBa
^tf/hc^ r ' r- N E^ w/Tm1
'fi
^sca-.
■4 Ci_
,ns .,
\[ Sajxo
J
!__ ^k A u s j ^ ^ '^^^/iS k^kM,^:^^
USK.Soissons ° Lon -ritude West 6° Longitude East 5'
Growth of the Prankish Dominions, 481-768 a.d.
vow, had himself baptized by St. Remi, bishop of Reims.
*'Bow down thy he'ad," spoke the bishop, as the Frankish
king approached the font, ''adore what thou hast burned,
burn what thou has adored." ^ With Clovis were baptized on
that same day three thousand of his warriors.
The conversion of Clovis was an event of the first importance.
He and his Franks naturally embraced the orthodox CathoHc
faith, which was that of his wife, instead of the Arian form
of Christianity, w^hich had been accepted by almost all the
1 Gregory of Tours, Historia Franconnn, ii, 31.
The Franks under Charles Martel 305
other Germanic invaders. Thus, by what seems the merest
accident, Catholicism, instead of Arianism, became the religion
of a large part of western Europe. More than significance
this, the conversion of Clovis gained for the of Clovis's
Frankish king and his successors the support of
the Roman Church. The friendship between the popes and
the Franks afterwards ripened into a close alliance which
greatly influenced European history.
The descendants of Clovis are called Merovingians.^ They
occupied the throne of the Franks for nearly two hundred and
fifty years. The annals of their reigns form an ^j^^ earlier
unpleasant catalogue of bloody wars, horrible Merovingian
murders, and deeds of treachery without number. ^^
Nevertheless, the earlier Merovingians were strong men, under
whose direction the Frankish territory continued to expand,
until it included nearly all of what is now France, Belgium, and
Holland, besides a considerable part of Germany.
The Frankish conquests differed in two important respects
from those of the other Germanic peoples. In the first place,
the Franks did not cut themselves off completely character of
from their original homes. They kept permanently the Frankish
their territory in Germany, drawing from it con-
tinual reinforcements of fresh German blood. In the second
place, the Franks steadily added new German lands to their
possessions. They built up in this way what was the largest
and the most permanent of all the barbarian states founded on
the ruins of the Roman Empire.
105. The Franks under Charles Martel and Pepin the Short
After the middle of the seventh century the Frankish rulers,
worn out by violence and excesses, degenerated into weakUngs,
who reigned but did not rule. The actual manage- jYie later
ment of the state passed into the hands of officers, Merovingian
called ''mayors of the palace." They left to the *°^^
kings httle more than their title, their long hair, — the badge
of royalty among the Franks, — and a scanty allowance for their
1 From Merovech, grandfather of Clovis.
3o6 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages
support. The later Merovingians, accordingly, are often known
as the "do-nothing kings."
The most illustrious of these mayors was Charles, surnamed
Martel, "the Hammer," from the terrible defeat which he
Charles administered to the Mohammedans near Tours,
Martel [^ central France. ^ Charles Martel was virtually
a king, but he never ventured to set aside the Merovingian ruler
and himself ascend the throne. This step was taken, however,
by Charles's son, Pepin the Short.
Before dethroning the last feeble "do-nothing," Pepin sought
the approval of the bishop of Rome. The pope, without hesi-
Peoin the tation, declared that it was only right that the
Short be- man who had the real authority in the state
oMhe *^^ should have the royal title also. Pepin, accord-
Franks, ingly, caused himself to be crowned king of the
751 A.D. Franks, thus founding the Carolingian ^ dynasty
(751 A.D.). Three years later Pope Stephen II came to Pepin's
court and solemnly anointed the new ruler with holy oil, in
accordance with ancient Jewish custom. The rite of anointing,
something unknown to the Germans, gave to Pepin's coronation
the sanction of the Roman Church. Henceforth the Prankish
sovereigns called themselves "kings by the grace of God."
Pepin was soon able to repay his great obligation to the Roman
Church by becoming its protector against the Lombards.
"Donation of These barbarians, who were trying to extend their
Pepin," rule in Italy, threatened to capture Rome and
756 A.D. ^-^^ territory in the vicinity of that city, then
under the control of the pope. Pepin twice entered Italy with
his army, defeated the Lombards, and forced them to cede to
Pope Stephen an extensive district lying between Rome and
Ravenna. Pepin might have returned this district to the
emperor at Constantinople, to whom it had belonged, but the
Prankish king declared that he had not fought for the advantage
of any man but for the welfare of his own soul. He decided,
1 See page 379.
2 So called from Pepin's son, Charles the Great (in Latin, Carolus Magnus).
The French form of his name is Charlemagne.
The Reigri of Charlemagne
307
Charle-
magne, the
man
therefore, to bestow his conquests on St. Peter's representative,
the pope. Before this time the bishops of Rome had owned
much land in Italy and had acted as virtual sovereigns in
Rome and its neighborhood. Pepin's gift, known as the " Dona-
tion of Pepin," greatly increased their possessions, which came
to be called the States of the Church. They remained in the
hands of the popes until late in the nineteenth century.^
106. The Reign of Charlemagne, 768-814 A.D.
Pepin was succeeded in 768 a.d. by his two sons, one of whom,
Charlemagne, three years later became sole king of the Franks.
Charlemagne reigned for nearly
half a century,
and during this
time he set his
stamp on all later European
history. His character and
personality are familiar to us
from a brief biography, writ-
ten by his secretary, Einhard.
Charlemagne, we learn, was
a tall, square-shouldered,
strongly built man, with bright,
keen eyes, and an expression
at once cheerful and dignified.
Riding, hunting, and swim-
ming were his favorite sports.
He was simple in his tastes and
very temperate in both food
and drink. Except wlien in
Rome, he wore the old Prank-
ish costume, with high-laced
boots, linen tunic, blue cloak,
and sword girt at his side. He was a clear, fluent speaker,
used Latin as readily as his native tongue, and understood Greek
1 In 1870 A.D. the States of the Church were added to the newly formed king-
dom of Italy.
Charlemagne
Lateran Museum, Rome
A mosaic picture, made during the lifetime
of Charlemagne, and probably a fair likeness
of him.
3o8 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages
and con-
version of
the Saxons,
772-804 A.D.
when it was spoken. "He also tried to learn to write and
often kept his tablets and writing book under the piUow of
his couch, that, when he had leisure, he might practice his
hand in forming letters; but he made little progress in this
task, too long deferred and begun too late in life." ^ For the
times, however, Charlemagne was a well-educated man — by
no means a barbarian.
Much of Charlemagne's long life, almost to its close, was
filled with warfare. He fought chiefly against the still-heathen
Conquest peoples on the fron-
tiers of the Prankish
realm. The subjuga-
tion of the Saxons,
who lived in the forests and marshes
of northwestern Germany, took
many years. Charlemagne at the
head of a great army would invade
their territory, beat them in battle,
and receive their submission, only
to find his work undone by a sudden
rising of the hberty-loving natives,
after the withdrawal of the Franks.
Once when Charlemagne was exas-
perated by a fresh revolt, he ordered
forty-five hundred prisoners to be
executed. This savage massacre
was followed by equally severe laws,
which threatened with death all Saxons who refused baptism or
observed the old heathen rites. By such harsh means Charle-
magne at length broke down the spirit of resistance among the
people. All Saxony, fromi the Rhine to the Elbe, became a
Christian land and a permanent part of the Frankish realm.
Shortly after the beginning of the Saxon wars the king of the
Franks received an urgent summons from the pope, who was
again being threatened by his old enemies, the Lombards.
Charlemagne led a mighty host across the Alps, captured
1 Einhard, Vita Caroli Magni, 25.
The Iron Crown of
lombardy
A fillet of iron, which, according to
pious legend, had been beaten out of
one of the nails of the True Cross. It
came to the Lombards as a gift from
Pope Gregor>' I, as a reward for their
conversion to Roman Catholicism. Dur-
ing the Middle Ages it was used to
crown the German emperors kings of
Italy. This precious relic is now kept
in a church at Monza in northern Italy.
The Reign of Charlemagne 309
Pavia, where the Lombard ruler had taken refuge, and added
his possessions to those of the Franks. Thus passed away one
more of the Germanic states which had arisen on ^
Conquest
the ruins of the Roman Empire. Charlemagne of the
now placed on his own head the famous 'Tron Iff^^^^'
Crown," and assumed the title of "King of the
Franks and Lombards, and Patrician of the Romans."
Charlemagne's conquests were not confined to Germanic
peoples. He forced the wild Avars, who had advanced from
the Caspian into the Danube valley, to acknowl-
edge his supremacy. He compelled various Slavic magne's
tribes, including the Bohemians, to pay tribute. °*^®'"
' ^ -' conquests
He also invaded Spain and wrested from the Mos-
lems the district between the Ebro River and the Pyrenees.
By this last conquest Charlemagne may be said to have begun
the recovery of the Spanish peninsula from Mohafnmedan rule.^
Charlemagne was a statesman, as well as a warrior. He
divided his wide dominions into counties, each one ruled by a
count, w^ho was expected to keep order and admin- charle-
ister justice. The border districts, which lay magne's
exposed to invasion, were organized into ''marks," sovernmen
under the mihtary supervision of counts of the mark, or mar-
graves (marquises). These officials had so much power and
lived so far from the royal court that it was necessary for
Charlemagne to appoint special agents, called missi dominici
("the lord's messengers"), to maintain control over them.
The missi w^re usually sent out in pairs, a layman and a bishop
or abbot, in order that the one might serve as a check upon
the other. They traveled from county to county, bearing the
orders of their royal master and making sure that these orders
were promptly obeyed. In this way Charlemagne kept well
informed as to the condition of affairs throughout his kingdom.
Charlemagne made a serious effort to revive classical culture
in the West from the low state into which it had fallen dur-
1 The rearguard of Charlemagne's army, when returning from Spain, was attacked
and overwhelmed by the mountaineers of the Pyrenees. The incident gave rise
to the famous French epic known as the Song of Roland.
3IO Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages
ing the period of the invasions. We stiU possess a number of
laws issued by this Prankish king for the promotion of educa-
_ . , , tion. He founded schools in the monasteries and
Revival of
learning cathedrals, where not only the clergy but also the
under Charle- common people might receive some training,
magne
He formed his whole court into a palace school,
in which learned men from Italy, Spain, and England gave
Cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle
Ak-la-Chapelle (Aachen) was the capital city and favorite residence of Charlemagne. The
church which he built here was almost entirely destroyed by the Northmen in the tenth
century. The octagonal building surmounted by a dome, which forms the central part of
the present cathedral, is a restoration of the -original structure. The marble columns,
pavements, and mosaics of Charlemagne's church were brought by him from Ravenna.
instruction to his own children and those of his nobles. The
king himself often studied with them, under the direction of
his good friend, Alcuin, an EngUshman and the foremost scholar
in western Europe. He had the manuscripts of Latin authors
collected and copied, so that the knowledge preserved in
Charlemagne 311
books should not be forgotten. All this civilizing work, to-
gether with the peace and order which he maintained through-
out a wide territory, made his reign the most brilHant period
of the early Middle Ages.
107. Charlemagne and the Revival of the
Roman Empire, 800 A.D.
Charlemagne, the champion of Christendom and the fore-
most ruler in Europe, seemed to the men of his day the rightful
successor of the Roman emperors. He had their ^
^ . Coronation
power, and now he was to have their name. In of Charie-
the year 800 a.d. the Prankish king visited Rome ^^^".®'
to investigate certain accusations made against
the pope, Leo III, by his enemies in the city. Charlemagne
absolved Leo of all wrong-doing and restored him to his office.
Afterwards, on Christmas Day Charlemagne went to old St.
Peter's Church, where the pope was sa3dng Mass. As the
king, dressed in the rich robes of a Roman patrician, knelt in
prayer before the high altar, the pope suddenly placed on his
head a golden crown, while aU the people cried out with one
voice, ''Long Hfe and victory to Charles Augustus, the great
and pacific emperor of the Romans, crowned by God!"
Although Charlemagne appears to have been surprised by
the pope's act, we know that he wished to become emperor.
The imperial title would confer upon him greater Reasons for
dignity and honor, though not greater power, than the
he possessed as king of the Franks and of the
Lombards. The pope, in turn, was glad to reward the man
who had protected the Church and had done so much to
spread the Catholic faith among the heathen. The Roman
people also welcomed the coronation, because they felt that
the time had come for Rome to assume her old place as the
capital of the world. To reject the eastern ruler, in favor of
the great Prankish king, was an emphatic method of asserting
Rome's independence of Constantinople.
The coronation of Charlemagne was one of the most impor-
tant events in medieval history. It might be thought a small
312 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages
matter that he should take the imperial title, when he already
exercised imperial sway throughout western Europe. But
Significance Charlemagne's contemporaries beheved that the
of the old Roman Empire had now been revived, and
coronation ^^^^ ^ German king now sat on the throne once
occupied by Augustus and Constantine. Henceforth there was
estabhshed in the West a line of Roman emperors which lasted
until the opening of the nineteenth century.^
Charlemagne's empire was not in any true sense a continua-
tion of the Roman Empire. It did not include the dominions
Charle- ^^ ^^^ East, over which the emperors at Constan-
magne's tinople were to reign for centuries. Moreover,
empire Charlemagne and his successors on the throne had
Httle in common with the old rulers of Rome, w^ho spoke Latin,
administered Roman law, and regarded the Germans as among
their most dangerous enemies. Charlemagne's empire was, in
fact, largely a new creation.
108. Disruption of Charlemagne's Empire, 814-870 A.D.
The empire of Charlemagne did not long remain intact.
So vast was its extent and so unlike were its inhabitants in
After Charle- race, language, and customs that it could be
magne managed only by a ruler of the greatest energy
and strength of will. Unfortunately, the successors of Charle-
magne proved to be too weak for the task of maintaining peace
and order. Western Europe now entered on a long period of
confusion and violence, during which Charlemagne's posses-
sions broke up into separate and warring kingdoms.
Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious, who became emperor in
814 A.D., was a well-meaning but feeble ruler, better fitted for
Treaty of ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ monastery than for the throne.
Verdun, He could not control his rebeUious sons, who,
843 A.D. ^^^^ during his lifetime, fought bitterly over their
inheritance. The unnatural strife, which continued after his
death, was temporarily settled by a treaty concluded at the
1 The title of "Holy Roman Emperor," assumed by the later successors of
Charlemagne, was kept by them till 1806 a.d.
Disruption of Charlemagne's Empire 313
city of Verdun. According to its terms Lothair, the eldest
brother, received Italy and the imperial title, together with a
narrow stretch of land along the valleys of the Rhine and the
Rhone, between the North Sea and the Mediterranean. Louis
and Charles, the other brothers, received kingdoms lying to the
east and west, respectively, of Lothair's territory. The Treaty
I 1 West Frankish Kingdc
' of Charles
I I Lothair's Kingdom
.,»«->-^ The Boundaries in 870 A.D,
according to the Treaty
of Mersen
Scale of Miles ,
Longitude West 0'' Lopgitude East
Greenwich 10°
The Frankish Dominions as divided by the Treaties
OF Verdun (843 A.D.) and Mersen (870 A.D.)
of Verdun may be said to mark the first stage in the dissolution
of the Carolingian Empire.
A second treaty, made at Mersen in Holland, was entered
into by Louis and Charles, after the death of their brother
Lothair. They divided between themselves Lo- jj-eaty of
thair's kingdom north of the Alps, leaving to his Mersen,
young son the possession of Italy and the empty ^"^^ ^'^'
title of "emperor." The Treaty of Mersen may be said to
mark the second stage in the dissolution of the Carolingian
Empire. That empire, as such, had now ceased to exist.
314 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages
The territorial arrangements made by the treaties of Verdun
and Mersen foreshadowed the future map of western Europe.
Importance ^^^ ^^^^ Frankish kingdom of Louis, inhabited
of the two almost entirely by Germanic peoples, was to
develop into modern Germany. The West Frank-
ish kingdom of Charles, inhabited mainly by descendants of
Romanized Gauls, was to become modern France. Lothair's
kingdom, separated into two parts by the Alps, never became
a national state. Italy, indeed, might be united under one
government, but the long, narrow strip north of the Alps had
no unity of race, no common language, and no national bound-
aries. It was fated to be broken into fragments and to be
fought over for centuries by its stronger neighbors. Part of
this territory now forms the small countries of Belgium, Hol-
land, and Switzerland, and another part, known as Alsace and
Lorraine,^ still remains a bone of contention between France
and Germany.
Even had Charlemagne been followed by strong and able
rulers, it w^ould have been a difficult matter to hold the empire
Renewed together in the face of the fresh series of barbarian
barbarian inroads w^hich began immediately after his death,
mv sions ^j^^ Mohammedans, though checked by the Franks
at the battle of Tours,^ continued to be dangerous enemies.
They ravaged southern France, Sicily, and parts of Italy. The
piratical Northmen from Denmark and Noi-way harried the
coast of France and made inroads far beyond Paris. They also
penetrated into western Germany, sailing up the Rhine in their
black ships and destroying such important tow^ns as Cologne
and Aix-la-Chapelle. Meanwhile, eastern Germany lay exposed
to the attacks of the Slavs, whom Charlemagne had defeated
but not subdued. The Magyars, or Hungarians, were 'also
dreaded foes. Their wild horsemen entered Europe from the
plains of Asia and, like the Huns and Avars to whom they were
probably related, spread devastation far and wide. A great
1 The French name Lorraine and the German name Lothringen are both derived
from the Latin title of Lothair's kingdom — Lotharii regnum.
2 See page 306.
Germany under Saxon Kings 315
part of Europe thus suffered from invasions almost as destruc-
tive as those which had brought ruin to the old Roman
world.
109. Germany under Saxon Kings, 919-973 A.D.
The tenth century saw another movement toward the resto-
ration of law and order. The civilizing work of Charlemagne
was taken up by German kings, not of the old ^j^^ German
Prankish stock, but belonging to that Saxon people stem-
which had opposed Charlemagne so long and
bitterly. Saxony was one of the five great territorial states,
or stem-duchies, as they are usually called, into which Germany
was then divided.^ Germany at that time extended only as
far east as the river Elbe, beyond which lay the territory occu-
pied by half-civilized Slavic tribes.
The rulers of the stem-duchies enjoyed practical independ-
ence, though they had recognized some king of Germany ever
since the Treaty of Verdun. Early in the tenth Elective
century the Carolingian dynasty died out in Ger- kingship of
many, and the German nobles then proceeded to ^^^^^y
elect their own kings. Their choice fell first upon Conrad,
duke of Franconia, but he had little authority outside his own
duchy. A stronger man was required to keep the peace among
the turbulent nobles and to repel the invaders of Germany.
Such a man appeared in the person of Henry, duke of Saxony,
who, after Conrad's death, was chosen king.
Henry I, called the Fowler, because he was fond of hunting
birds, spent the greater part of his reign in wars against the
Slavs, Magyars, and other invaders. He con- ,
quered from the Slavs the territory afterwards Henry the
known as Brandenburg. This country was to Jff*2^^f '' ^^^
furnish Germany, in later centuries, with its pres-
ent dynasty — the Hohenzollerns.^ He occupied the southern
part of Denmark (Schleswig) and Christianized it. He also
1 The others were Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria, and Lorraine.
2 The HohenzoUerns became electors of Brandenburg in 1415 a.d., kings of
Prussia in 1701, and emperors of Germany in 1871.
3i6 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages
recovered for Germany Lorraine, a district which remained in
German hands until the eighteenth century.
Henry the Fowler was succeeded by his son, Otto I, whom
history knows as Otto the Great. He well deserved the title.
Like Charlemagne, Otto presented the aspect of
Otto the a born ruler. He is described as being tall and
^^^^AT?^^" commanding in presence, strong and vigorous of
body, and gifted with great charm of manner. In
his bronzed face shone clear and sparkhng eyes, and down his
breast hung a long, thick beard. Though subject to violent
outbursts of temper, he was liberal to his
friends and just to his foes. Otto was a
man of immense energy and ambition,
with a high conception of his duties as a
sovereign. His reign forms one of the
most notable epochs in German history.
Otto continued Henry's work of de-
fending Germany from the foes which
Otto and threatened to overrun that
Ring Seal of Otto
THE Great
The inscription reads
Oddo Rex.
the Magyars country. He won his most
conspicuous success against the Magyars,
who suffered a crushing defeat on the
banks of the river Lech in Bavaria (955
A.D.). These barbarians now ceased their raids and retired to
the lands on the middle Danube which they had seized from
the Slavs. Here they settled down, accepted Christianity from
the Roman Church, and laid the foundations of the kingdom
of Hungary.^ As a protection against future Magyar inroads
Otto estabhshed the East Mark. This region afterwards rose
to great importance under the name of Austria.
Otto was an excellent ruler of Germany. He made it his
business to strengthen the royal authority by weakening that
of the stem-dukes. He had to fight against them on more than
1 The Magyar settlement in central Europe had the important result of divid-
ing the Slavic peoples into three groups. Those who remained south of the Danube
(Serbians, Croatians, etc.) were henceforth separated from the northwestern Slavs
(Bohemians, Moravians, and Poles) and from the eastern Slavs (Russians). See
the map facing page 326.
Otto the Great 317
one occasion, for they regarded themselves almost as independ-
ent kings. Otto was able to keep them in check, but the rulers
who followed him were less successful in this re- otto and the
spect. The struggle between the kings and their stem-dukes
powerful nobles formed a constant feature of the medieval
history of Germany.
110. Otto the Great and the Restoration of the
Roman Empire, 962 A.D.
Otto the Great is not to be remembered only as a German
king. His reign was also noteworthy in the history of Italy.
The country at this time was hopelessly divided Condition of
between rival and contending peoples. The ^^^^^
emperor at Constantinople controlled the southern extremity of
the peninsula. The Mohammedans held Sicily and some cities
on the mainland. The pope ruled at Rome and in the States
of the Church. A so-called king of Italy still reigned in Lom-
bardy, but he could not manage the powerful counts, dukes, and
marquises, who were virtually independent within their own
domains. Even the imperial title died out, and now there was
no longer a Roman emperor in the West.
The deplorable condition of Italy invited interference from
abroad. Following in the footsteps of Charlemagne, Otto the
Great led two expeditions across the Alps, assumed
Coronation
the ''Iron Crown" ^ of Lonibardy, and then pro- of Otto the
ceeded to Rome, where he secured the pope (John ^I^^l'
962 A. 13.
XII) against the latter's enemies in that city.
Otto's reward was the same as Charlemagne's. On Candlemas
Day ,2 962 A.D., the grateful pope crowned him Roman emperor.
The coronation of Otto the Great seemed to his contem-
poraries a necessary and beneficial act. They still believed
that the Roman Empire was suspended, not leaning
extinct; and that now, one hundred and fifty of the
years after Charlemagne, the occasion was oppor- ^°^o"^*^o^
tune to revive the name and power associated with the golden
age of the first Frankish emperor. Otto's ardent spirit, one
1 See the illustration, page 308. 2 Februarj^ 2d.
3i8 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages
may well believe, was fired with this vision of imperial sway
and the renew^al of a title around which clustered so many
memories of success and glory.
But the outcome of Otto's restoration of the Roman Empire
was good neither for Italy nor for Germany. It became the
-'/y/Long /^ est^^/0°Lpng:. East/frg m-G ieen y, ich JO""
Europe in the Age of Otto the Great, 962 A.D.
rule, henceforth, that the man whom the German nobles chose
as their king had a claim, also, to the Italian crown and the
„ . imperial title. The efforts of the German kings
Ultimate ^ , ,,.1.11 i • •
results of to make good this claim led to their constant in-
terference in the affairs of Italy. They treated
that country as a conquered province which had
no right to a national Hfe and an independent government
under its own rulers. At the same time they neglected Germany
the
coronation
The Anglo-Saxons in Britain 319
and failed to keep their powerful territorial lords in subjection.
Neither Italy nor Germany, in consequence, could become a
unified, centralized state, such as was formed in France and
England during the later Middle Ages.
The empire of Charlemagne, restored by Otto the Great,
came to be caUed in later centuries the ''Holy Roman Empire."
The title points to the idea of a w^orld monarchy j^^ g^j
— the Roman Empire — and a world reHgion — Roman
Roman Christianity — united in one institution. °^^*^®
This magnificent idea was never fully reahzed. The popes and
emperors, instead of being bound to each other by the closest
ties, were more generally enemies than friends. A large part
of medieval history was to turn on this confhct between the
Empire and the Papacy.^
111. The Anglo-Saxons in Britain, 449-839 A.D.
From the history of Continental Europe we now turn to
the history of Britain. That island had been overrun by the
Germanic barbarians after the middle of the fifth Anglo-Saxon
century.^ They are commonly known as Anglo- conquest of
Saxons, from the names of their two principal
peoples, the Angles and Saxons. The Anglo-Saxon conquest of
Britain was a slow process, which lasted at least one hundred
and fifty years. The invaders followed the rivers into the
interior and gradually subdued more than a half of what is
now England, comprising the fertile plain district in the southern
and eastern parts of the island.
Though the Anglo-Saxons probably destroyed many flourish-
ing cities and towns of the Romanized Britons, it seems Hkely
that the conquerors spared the women, with whom Nature of
they intermarried, and the agricultural laborers, *^® conquest
whom they made slaves. Other natives took refuge in the hill
regions of western and northern Britain, and here their de-
scendants still keep up the Celtic language and traditions. The
Anglo-Saxons regarded the Britons with contempt, naming
them Welsh, a word which means one who talks gibberish.
1 See pages 455-462. * See page 246.
320 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages
The antagonism between the two peoples died out in the course
of centuries; conquerors and conquered intermingled; and
an Enghsh nation, partly Celtic and partly Germanic, came
into being.
The Anglo-Saxons started to fight one another before they
ceased fighting their common enemy, the Britons. Throughout
Anglo-S.\xon Drinking Horn
Horn of Ulphus (Wulf) in the cathedral of York. The old English were heavy drinkers,
chiefly of ale and mead. The evening meal usually ended with a drinking bout.
the seventh and eighth centuries, the Anglo-Saxon states were
engaged in almost constant struggles, either for increase of
The seven territory or for supremacy. The kingdoms farthest
kingdoms in east — Kent, Sussex, Essex, and East Angha —
n am found their expansion checked by other kingdoms
— Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex — which grew up in the
interior of the island. Each of these three stronger states
gained in turn the leading place.
The beginning of the supremacy of Wessex dates from the
reign of Egbert. He had hved for some years as an exile at the
Egbert and court of Charlemagne, from whom he must have
the suprem- learned valuable lessons of war and statesmanship.
acy of
Wessex, 802- After returning from the Continent, Egbert became
839 A.D. yj^g Qf Wessex and gradually forced the rulers of
the other states to acknowledge him as overlord. Though
Egbert was never directly king of all England, he began the
work of uniting the Anglo-Saxons under one government. His
descendants have occupied the EngHsh throne to the present day.
When the Germans along the Rhine and the Danube crossed
the frontiers and entered the western provinces, they had
The Anglo-Saxons in Britain
321
ANGLO-SAXON
BRITAIN
Scale of English Miles
322 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages
already been partially Romanized. They understood enough of
Roman civilization to appreciate it and to desire to preserve
Anglo-Saxon it. The situation was quite different with the
Britain Anglo-Saxons. Their original home lay in a part
of Germany far beyond the borders of the Roman Empire
and remote from the cultural influences of Rome. Coming to
Britain as barbarians, they naturally introduced their own
language, laws, and customs wherever they settled. Much of
what the Anglo-Saxons brought with them still Hves in England,
and from that country has spread to the United States and the
vast EngHsh colonies beyond the seas. The EngUsh language is
less indebted to Latin than any of the Romance languages, ^
and the Common law of England owes much less to Roman
law than do the legal systems of Continental Europe. England,
indeed, looks to the Anglo-Saxons for some of the most charac-
teristic and important elements of her civiHzation.
112. Christianity in the British Isles
The Anglo-Saxons also brought to Britain their heathen
faith. Christianity did not come to them until the close
Preparation ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ century. At this time more or less
for intercourse had sprung up between the people of
ns am y ;g;ent, lying nearest to the Continent, and the
Franks in Gaul. Ethelbert, the king of Kent, had even married
the Prankish princess, Bertha. He allowed his Christian wife
to bring a bishop to her new home and gave her the deserted
church of St. Martin at Canterbury as a place of worship.
Queen Bertha's fervent desire for the conversion of her husband
and his people prepared the way for an event of first impor-
tance in English history — the mission of Augustine.
The pope at this time was Gregory I, better known, from his
services to the Roman Church, as Gregory the Great.'^ The
Mission of kingdom of Kent, with its Christian queen, must
Augustine, have seemed to him a promising field for mission-
ary enterprise. Gregory, accordingly, sent out the
monk Augustine with forty companions to carry the Gospel to
1 See page 208. * See page 350.
Christianity in the British Isles
323
the heathen English. The king of Kent, already well disposed
toward the Christian faith, greeted the missionaries kindly and
told them that they were free to convert whom they would.
Before long he and his court embraced Christianity, and the
people of Kent soon followed the royal example. The monks
were assigned a residence in Canterbury, a city which has ever
since remained the rehgious capital of England. From Kent
Christianity in its Ro-
man form gradually
spread into the other
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
Augustine and his
monks were not the
first mis- Celtic
Sionaries Christianity
to Britain. Roman
soldiers, merchants, and
officials had introduced
Christianity among the
Britons as early as the
second century. Dur-
ing the fifth century
the famous St. Patrick had carried Christianity to the
heathen Irish. The Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain drove
many Christians to Ireland, and that island in the sixth and
seventh centuries became a center from which devoted monks
went forth to labor in western Scotland and northern Britain.^
Here they came in contact with the Roman missionaries.
The Celtic Christians followed some customs which differed
from those observed by Roman Christians. They computed
the date on which Easter fell according to a Differences
system unlike that of the Romans. They per-
mitted their priests to marry; the Romans for-
bade the practice. Their monks shaved the front
of the head from ear to ear as a tonsure, while Roman monks
St. Martin's Church, Canterbury
The present church, dating from the thirteenth cen-
tury, occupies the site of a chapel built before the arrival
of Augustine. The walls still contain some of the Roman
bricks used in the original structure. St. Martin's
Church was the scene of the earliest work of Augustine
in Canterbury.
between
Celtic and
Roman
Christianity
1 The enthusiasm of the Celtic Christians reached such proportions that it
swept back upon the Continent. In the seventh and eighth centuries Irish mission-
324 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages
shaved the top of the head, leaving a "crown of thorns." These
differences may not seem very important, but they were enough
to prevent the cooperation of Celtic and Roman missionaries
for the conversion of the heathen.
Canterbury Cathedral
The choir dates from the twelfth century, the nave, transepts, and central tower, from
the fifteenth century. One of the two towers at the west front was built in 1834-1840 a.d.
The beautiful stained glass in the windows of the choir belongs to the thirteenth century.
The rivalry between Celtic and Roman Christians was
finally settled at a church gathering, or synod, called by the
Synod of ^^^S ^f Northumbria at Whitby. The main con-
Whitby,
664 A.D.
troversy at this synod concerned the proper date
for Easter. In the course of the debate it was
asserted that the Roman custom had the sanction of St. Peter,
to whom Christ had intrusted the keys of heaven. This state-
ment was enough for the Northumbrian king, who thereupon
decided in favor of the Roman claim, declaring that he would
aries worked among the heathen Germans and founded monasteries in Burgundy,
Lombardy, and southern Germany (now Switzerland).
The Fusion of Germans and Romans 325
not oppose St. Peter, ''lest when I come before the gates of the
kingdom of heaven, he who holds the keys should not open to
me." ^ The representatives of the Celtic Church then withdrew
from England, leaving the field clear for Roman missionaries.
The decision of the Synod of Whitby in favor of Rome meant
that all England henceforth would recognize the pope's author-
ity in religious matters. It remained a Roman ^, „ . . ,
^11. Ml. r ^ T. r • ^hc British
Catholic country until the time of the Reformation, isles become
nearly nine hundred years later.^ The Celtic 5°^^
Christians in Ireland and Scotland also in the
course of time became the devoted children of the Roman
Church.
113. The Fusion of Germans and Romans
We have now followed the fortunes of the Germans for five
centuries from the end of the Roman Empire in the West.
Most of their kingdoms, it has been seen, were not ^j^^
permanent. The Visigothic and Burgundian do- Germanic
minions in Gaul yielded to the Franks, and those "^ °°^^
of the Visigoths in Spain, to the Mohammedan Arabs.^ The
Vandal possessions in North Africa were regained by the em-
perors at Constantinople.^ The rule of the Ostrogoths in Italy
endured for only sixty years and that of the Lombards passed
away after two centuries. The kingdoms estabhshed by the
Franks and the Anglo-Saxons alone developed into lasting
states.
But even where the Germans did not found permanent king-
doms, they mingled with the subject provincials and adopted
much of the old Roman civilization. The fusion
of the two peoples naturally required a long time, J^^^^e*"*^^^
being scarcely completed before the middle of the fusion of
tenth century. It was hindered, in the first place, ^nd°^Romans
by the desire of the Germans to secure the lands
of the Romans. Wherever the barbarians settled, they appropri-
1 Bede, Historia ecclesiastica, iii, 25.
2 The separation from Rome occurred in 1534 a.d., during the reign of Henry
VIII.
» See page 37S. « See page 330.
326 Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages
ated a large part of the agricultural soil. How much they took
varied in different countries. The Ostrogoths seem to have
seized one- third of the land in Italy; the Visigoths, two-thirds
of that in Gaul and Spain; the Anglo-Saxons, perhaps all the
tillable soil of Britain. It could not but be galling to the Romans
to surrender their farms to the barbarians. In the second
place, the Germans often assessed heavy taxes on the Romans,
which they themselves refused to pay. Tax-paying seemed to
the Germans a mark of servitude. In the third place, a barrier
between the two peoples arose from the circumstance that
each had its particular law. For several centuries following the
invasions there was one law for the Romans — that which they
had enjoyed under the empire — and another law for the Ger-
mans — their old tribal customs. After the Germans had
lived for some time in contact with the Romans they wrote out
their laws in the Latin language. These ''Laws of the Bar-
barians" still survive and throw much light on their early
beUefs and manners.
In spite of the hindrances to fusion, it seems true that the
Germans and the Romans felt no great dislike for each other
and that, as a rule, they freely intermingled.
Conditions Certain conditions directly favored this result.
favoring . "^
fusion First, many Germans had found their way within
the empire as hired soldiers, colonists, and
slaves, long before the invasions began. Second, the Ger-
manic invaders came in relatively small numbers. Third,
the Germans entered the Roman world not as destroyers,
but as homeseekers. They felt a real reverence for Roman
civiHzation. And fourth, some of the principal Germanic
nations, including the Visigoths, Burgundians, and Vandals,
were already Christians at the time of their invasions, while
other nations, such as the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, wxre
afterwards converted to Christianity. As long, however, as
most of the Germans remained Arian Christians ^ their belief
stood in the way of friendly intercourse with the Roman
provincials, who had accepted the Catholic faith.
^ See page 236.
The Fusion of Germans and Romans 327
If western Europe during the early Middle Ages presented
a scene of violence and confusion while the Germans were set-
tlinsj in their new homes, a different picture was ^
Contrast
afforded by eastern Europe. Here the Roman between
Empire still survived and continued to uphold ?^^* ^°^
for centuries the Roman tradition of law and
order. The history of that empire forms the theme of the
following chapter.
Studies
I. On an outline map indicate the boundaries of the empire of Charlemagne,
distinguishing his hereditary possessions from those which he acquired by conquest.
2. On an outline map indicate the boundaries of the empire of Otto the Great.
3. What events are connected with the following places: Soissons; Mersen;
Whitby; Reims; Verdun; Canterbury; and Strassburg? 4. What is the historical
importance of Augustine, Henry the Fowler, Pepin the Short, Charles Martel,
Egbert, and Ethelbert? 5. Give dates for the following events: battle of Tours;
crowning of Charlemagne as emperor; crowning of Otto the Great as emperor;
deposition of Romulus Augustulus; Augustine's mission to England; and the
Treaty of Verdun. 6. Explain the foUov.'ing expressions: "do-nothing kings";
missi dominici; Holy Roman Empire; and "Donation of Pepin." 7. Why was
the extinction of the Ostrogothic kingdom a misfortune for Italy? 8. Why did
Italy remain for so many centuries after the Lombard invasion merely "a geograph-
ical expression"? 9. WTiat diflference did it make whether Clovis became an Arian
or a Catholic? 10. What events in the Uves of Clovis and Pepin the Short contrib-
uted to the alliance between the Franks and the popes? 11. What provinces of
the Roman Empire in the West were not included within the limits of Charle-
magne's empire? 12. What countries of modern Europe are included within the
limits of Charlemagne's empire? 13. Compare the missi dominici with the "eyes
and ears" of Persian kings. 14. What is the origin of the word "emperor"?
As a title distinguish it from that of "king." 15. Why has Lothair's kingdom
north of the Alps been called the "strip of trouble"? 16. In what parts of the
British Isles are Celtic languages still spoken? 17. How did the four English
counties, Sussex, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, receive their names? 18. What
was the importance of the Synod of Whitby? 19. Set forth the conditions which
hindered, and those which favored, the fusion of Germans and Romans.
CHAPTER XIV
EASTERN EUROPE DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES,
395-1095 A.D.
114. The Roman Empire in the East
The Roman Empire in the West moved rapidly to its "fall"
in 476 A.D,, at the hands of the Germanic invaders. The Roman
Empire in the East, though threatened by enemies
the Roman from without and weakened by civil conflicts
Empire in irom within, endured for more than a thousand
the East
years. Until the middle of the eleventh century
it was the strongest state in Europe, except during the reign
of Charlemagne, when the Prankish kingdom ecHpsed it. Until
the middle of the fifteenth century it preserved the name, the
civilization, and some part of the dominions, of ancient Rome.^
The long life of the Roman Empire in the East is one of the
marvels of history. Its great and constant vitaUty appears
the more remarkable, when one considers that
its"s^i^vival ^^ ^^^ ^^ easily defensible frontiers, contained
many different races with Httle in common, and
on all sides faced hostile states. The empire survived so
long, because of its vast wealth and resources, its despotic,
centralized government, the strength of its army, and the
almost impregnable position occupied by Constantinople, the
capital city.
The changing fortunes of the empire during the Middle Ages
are reflected in some of the names by which it is often known.
The term ''Greek Empire" expresses the fact that
Character ^j^g g^g^^-g became more and more Greek in char-
of the . 1 1 /- r 1
empire acter, owmg to the loss, first of the western
provinces in the fifth century, and then of Syria
and Egypt in the seventh century. Another term — ''Byzan-
1 The fall of the empire came in 1453 a.d., when Constantinople was captured
by the Ottoman Turks.
328
The Roman Empire in the East 329
tine Empire" — appropriately describes the condition of the
state in still later times, when its possessions were reduced to
Constantinople (ancient Byzantium) and the territory in the
neighborhood of that city. But through all this period the
rulers at Constantinople regarded themselves as the true suc-
cessors of Augustus, Diocletian, and Constantine. They never
admitted the right of Charlemagne and Otto the Great to
estabHsh a rival Roman Empire in western Europe.^ They
claimed to be the only legitimate heirs of Old Rome.
115. The Reign of Justinian, 527-565 A.D.
The history of the Roman Empire in the East, for more than
one hundred years after the death of Theodosius, is unevent-
ful. His successors, though unable to prevent
the Germans from seizing Italy and the other of Theodo-
western provinces, managed to keep their own ^^"^' ^^^~
.... '. ^ . ,527 A.D.
dommions mtact. Ihe eastern provinces escaped
the fate of those in the West, because they were more populous
and offered greater obstacles to the barbarian invaders, who
followed the Hne of least resistance. The gradual recovery
of the empire in strength and warlike energy prepared the
way for a really eminent ruler — Justinian.
Justinian is described as a man of noble bearing, simple in
his habits, affable in speech, and easy of approach to all his
subjects. Historians have often drawn attention justinian
to his wonderful activity of mind and power of and
steady industry. So great was his zeal for work ®° °^*
that one of his courtiers called him ''the emperor who never
sleeps." Possessed of large ideas and inspired by the majesty
of Rome, Justinian aimed to be a great conqueror, a great
lawgiver, and a great restorer of civilization. His success
in whatever he undertook must be ascribed in part to his
wife, Theodora, whom he associated with himself on the throne.
Theodora, strong of mind and wise in counsel, made a worthy
helpmate for Justinian, who more than once declared that in
affairs of state he had consulted his "revered wife."
1 See pages 311-312, 317-318.
330 Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages
It was the ambition of Justinian to conquer the Germanic
kingdoms which had been formed out of the Mediterranean
Conquests of provinces. In this task he relied chiefly on the
Justinian military genius of Belisarius, one of the world's,
foremost commanders. Belisarius was able in one short cam-
paign to destroy the Vandal kingdom in North Africa.^ The
Vandals by this time had lost their early vigor; they made but a
feeble resistance; and their Roman subjects welcomed Beli-
A Mosaic op Justinian
A mosaic dating from 547 a.d., in the church of San Vitale, Ravenna.
It shows the emperor (in the center) with a bishop, his suite, and im-
perial guards. The picture probably gives us a fair idea of Justinian's
appearance, though it represents him as somewhat younger than he was
at the time.
sarius as a deliverer. Justinian awarded a triumph to his
victorious general, an honor which for five centuries emperors
alone had enjoyed. The conquest of North Africa, together
with the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, was followed by the
overthrow of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Sicily and Italy .^ Jus-
tinian also recovered from the Visigoths ^ the southeastern
part of Spain. He could now say with truth that the Medi-
terranean was once more a Roman sea.^
1 See page 245. 2 See page 300. ' See page 244. * See the map, page 301.
The Reign of Justinian 331
The conquests of Justinian proved to be less enduring than
his work as a lawgiver. Until his reign the sources of Roman
law, including the legislation of the popular assem- codification
bHes, the decrees of the Senate, the edicts of the of Roman
praetors and emperors, and the decisions of learned
lawyers, had never been completely collected and arranged in
scientific form. Justinian appointed a commission of legal
scholars to perform this task. The result of their labors, in
which the emperor himself assisted, was the pubhcation of the
Corpus Juris Civilis, the ''Body of Civil Law." Under this
form the Roman principles of jurisprudence have become the
foundation of the legal systems of modern Italy, Spain, France,
Germany, and other European countries. These principles
even influenced the Common law of England, which has been
adopted by the United States.^ The Corpus Juris Civilis,
because of this widespread influence, is justly regarded as one
of Rome's most important gifts to the world.
Justinian's claim to the title of ''Great" rests also on his civi-
lizing work. He wished to restore the prosperity, as well as
the provinces, of the empire. During his reign civilizing
roads, bridges, and aqueducts were repaired, and work of
commerce and agriculture were encouraged. It
was at this time that two Christian missionaries brought from
China the eggs of the silkworm, and introduced the manu-
facture of silk in Europe. As a builder Justinian gained special
fame. The edifices which he caused to be raised throughout
his dominions included massive fortifications on the exposed
frontiers, splendid palaces, and many monasteries and churches.
The most noteworthy monument to his piety is the church
of Sancta Sophia ^ at Constantinople, now used as a Moham-
medan mosque. By his conquests, his laws, and his buildings,
Justinian revived for a time the waning glory of imperial
Rome.
1 Roman law still prevails in the province of Quebec and the state of Louis-
iana, territories formerly under French control, and in all the Spanish-American
countries.
2 In Greek, Hagia Sophia, "Holy Wisdom."
332 Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages
116. The Empire and its Asiatic Foes
The Roman Empire in the East did not long remain at the
pinnacle of greatness to which Justinian had raised it. His
After conquests, indeed, weakened rather than strength-
Justinian ened the empire, since now there were much more
extensive frontiers to defend. Within half a century after his
death it was attacked both in Europe and in Asia. The Lom-
I j Lands of the Eastern emperors
1 1 before 960 A.D.
I 1 The lands conquered between
I ^ 960 A.D. and 1045 A.D.
20° Longitude 25° East from 30° Greenwich 35°
The Roman Empire in the East
DURING THE TeNTH AND ELEVENTH CENTURIES
bards ^ soon seized Italy, and in the East the Persians renewed
their contest against the Roman power.
The struggle with the Persians was an inheritance from earher
times.2 Under an ambitious king, Chosroes II, the Persians
overran all the Asiatic provinces of the empire.
A savior arose, however, in the person of the
Roman emperor, HeracHus (610-641 a.d.). His briUiant
campaigns against Chosroes partook of the nature of a crusade,
or "holy war," for the Persians had violated the Holy Sepulcher
at Jerusalem and had stolen away the True Cross, the most
Persians
1 See page 302.
2 See page 219.
The Empire and its Asiatic Foes 333
sacred relic of Christendom. Heraclius recovered all his prov-
inces, but only at the cost of a bloody struggle which drained
them of men and money and helped to make them fall easy
victims to foes still more terrible than the Persians. These were
the Arabs.
Heraclius had not closed his reign before he saw all his vic-
tories undone by the advance of the Arabs. The first wave of
invasion tore away Syria and Egypt from the
empire, penetrated Asia Minor, and reached the
shores of the Bosporus. Repulsed before the walls of Con-
stantinople, the Arabs carried their arms to the West and seized
North Africa, Spain, part of southern Italy, and the Mediter-
ranean islands. Asia Minor and the Balkan peninsula still
held out, however, and during the tenth century a hne of able
rulers at Constantinople succeeded in winning back some of
their lost provinces.
During the eleventh century the empire had to face new
enemies. These were the Seljuk Turks,^ fierce nomads from
the steppes beyond the Caspian. After their g i- u t
conversion to Mohammedanism, they swept with
irresistible force through the East and conquered nearly
all Asia Minor. The ruin of this country, in earher ages one
of the most populous and flourishing regions of the world, dates
from its occupation by the Seljuks. To resist their further
advance the Roman emperor sought in 1095 a.d. the help of
the Christians of Europe. His appeals for aid resulted in the
First Crusade, with which a new chapter of medieval history
began.2
Thus, for more than five centuries after Justinian, the Roman
Empire in the East was engaged in a long struggle with the
foes — Persians, Arabs, and Seljuk Turks — which ■^^j.j^ ^^ ^j^^
successively attacked its dominions. By its stub- empire in
born resistance of the advance of the invaders
the old empire protected the young states of Europe from attack,
until they grew strong enough to meet and repulse the hordes
of Asia. This service to civilization was not less important
1 So named from one of their leaders. ^ See chapter xx.
334 Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages
than that which had been performed by Greece and Rome in
their contests with the Persians and the Carthaginians.
117. The Empire and its Foes in Europe
The troubled years after Justinian's death also witnessed
the beginning of the Slavic ^ settlements in southeastern
Europe. The Slavs belonged to the Indo-European
Slavs 111 ^ ,...,. . ^ ,
race, but had not progressed m civinzation as tar
as the Germans. Their cradle land seems to have been in
western Russia, whence they slowly spread to the Baltic, the
Elbe, and the Danube. We have already mentioned the cam-
paigns which Charlemagne and Henry the Fowler waged against
them.^ The emperors at Constantinople were less successful in
resisting that branch of the Slavs which tried to occupy the
Balkan peninsula. After crossing the Danube, the Slavs pressed
on farther and farther, until they reached the southern extremity
of ancient Greece. They avoided the cities, but formed peasant
communities in the open country, where they readily mingled
with the inhabitants. Their descendants have remained in
the Balkan peninsula to this day. The inhabitants of modern
Serbia ^ are Slavs, and even in the Greeks there is a considerable
strain of Slavic blood.
The Bulgarians, a people akin to the Huns and Avars, made
their appearance south of the lower Danube in the seventh
century. For more than three hundred years
Bulgarians
these barbarians, brutal, fierce, and cruel, were a
menace to the empire. At one time they threatened Constan-
tinople and even killed a Roman emperor, whose skull was
converted into a drinking cup to grace their feasts. The Bul-
garians settled in the region which now bears their name and
gradually adopted the speech and customs of the Slavs. Modern
Bulgaria is essentially a Slavic state.
1 The word slova means "speech" ; the Slavs are those who speak the same
language.
2 See pages 309, 315.
' A more accurate designation than Servia. Originally, all Slavic peoples
called themselves Serbs.
The Empire and its Foes in Europe 335
The empire was attacked in southeastern Europe by still
other barbarians, among whom were the Russians. This
Slavic people, led by chieftains from Sweden,
descended the Dnieper and Dniester rivers and,
crossing the Black Sea, appeared before the walls of Con-
stantinople. Already, in the tenth century, that city formed
the goal of Russian ambitions. The invaders are said to have
made four attempts to plunder its treasures. Though unsuc-
cessful, they compelled the emperors from time to time to pay
them tribute.
Christianity reached the invaders of the Balkan peninsula
from Constantinople. The Serbians, Bulgarians, and Russians
were converted in the ninth and tenth centuries, ^^j.^^ ^^ ^j^^
With Christianity they received the use of letters empire in
and some knowledge of Roman lav/ and methods "^°p®
of government. Constantinople was to them, henceforth, such
a center of religion and culture as Rome was to the Germans.
By becoming the teacher of the vast Slavic peoples of the
Balkan peninsula and European Russia, the empire performed
another important service to civiHzation.
118. Byzantine Civilization
The Roman Empire in the East, though often menaced by
barbarian foes, long continued to be the leading European power.
Its highest degree of prosperity was reached be- strength
tween the middle of the ninth and the middle of and wealth
the eleventh century. The provinces in Asia ° ^ empire
Minor and the Balkan peninsula produced a vast annual
revenue, much of which went for defense. It was necessary to
maintain a large, well-disciplined army, great fleets and engines
of war, and the extensive fortifications of Constantinople and
the frontier cities. Confronted by so many dangers, the empire '
could hope to survive only by making itself a strong military
state.
The merchant ships of Constantinople, during the earHer part
of the Middle Ages, carried on most of the commerce of the
336 Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages
Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The products of Byzantine
industry, including silks, embroideries, mosaics, enamels, and
Commerce nietal work, were exchanged at that city for the
and spices, drugs, and precious stones of the East,
m ustry Byzantine wares also found their way into Italy
and France and, by way of the Russian rivers, reached the
heart of eastern Europe. Russia, in turn, furnished Con-
stantinople with large quantities of honey, wax, fur, wool,
grain, and slaves. A traveler of the twelfth century well
described the city as a metropolis ''common to all the world,
without distinction of country or religion."
Many of the Roman emperors from Justinian onward were
great builders. Byzantine architecture, seen especially in the
Character of churches, became a leading form of art. Its most
Byzantine striking feature is the dome, which replaces the
" flat, wooden roof used in the basilican^ churches
of Italy. The exterior of a Byzantine church is plain and unim-
posing, but the interior is adorned on a magnificent scale. The
eyes of the worshiper are dazzled by the walls faced with marble
slabs of variegated colors, by the columns of pohshed marble,
jasper, and porphyry, and by the brilliant mosaic pictures of
gilded glass. The entire impression is one of richness and
splendor. Byzantine artists, though mediocre painters and
sculptors, excelled, in all kinds of decorative work. Their
carvings in wood, ivory, and metal, together with their em-
broideries, enamels, and miniatures, enjoyed a high reputation
throughout medieval Europe.
Byzantine art, from the sLxth century to the present time,
has exerted a wide influence. Sicily, southern Italy, Rome,
Influence of Ravenna, and Venice contain many examples of
Byzantine Byzantine churches. ItaHan painting in the
*^ Middle Ages seems to have been derived directly
from the mosaic pictures of the artists of Constantinople. Russia
received not only its rehgion but also its art from Constantinople.
The great Russian churches of Moscow and Petrograd follow
Byzantine models. Even the Arabs, in spite of their hostihty
I See page 284.
Byzantine Civilization 337
to Christianity, borrowed Byzantine artists and profited by
their services. The Mohammedan mosques of Damascus,
Cairo, and Cordova, both in methods of construction and
in details of ornamentation, reproduce Byzantine styles.
The Hbraries and museums of Constantinople preserved
classical learning. In the flourishing schools of that city the
wisest men of the day taught philosophy, law. Literature
medicine, and science to thousands of students, and
The professors figured among the important ®^""^s
persons of the court: official documents mention the "prince
of the rhetoricians" and the "consul of the philosophers."
Many of the emperors showed a taste for scholarship; one of
them was said to have been so devoted to study that he almost
forgot to reign. When kings in western Europe were so
ignorant that they could with difficulty scrawl their names,
eastern emperors wrote books and composed poetry. It is
true that Byzantine scholars were erudite rather than original.
Impressed by the great treasures of knowledge about them,
they found it difficult to strike out into new, unbeaten paths.
Most students were content to make huge collections of
extracts and notes from the books which antiquity had
bequeathed to them. Even this task was useful, however,
for their encyclopedias preserved much information which
otherwise would have been lost. During the Middle Ages the
East cherished the productions of classical learning, until the
time came when the West was ready to receive them and to
profit by them,
119. Constantinople
The heart of Byzantine civilization was Constantinople.
The city lies on a peninsula between the Sea of Marmora and
the spacious harbor called the Golden Horn, position of
Washed on three sides by the water and, like Constanti-
Rome, enthroned upon seven hills, Constantinople °^^ ®
occupies a site justly celebrated as the noblest in the world. It
stands in Europe, looks on Asia, and commands 'the entrance
to both the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. As a sixteenth
33^ Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages
century writer pointed out, Constantinople "is a city which
Nature herself has designed to be the mistress of the world."
Vicinity of Constantinople
The position of Constantinople made it difficult to attack
but easy to defend. To surround the city an enemy would
Constanti- ^^^^ ^^ ^^ Strong upon both land and sea. A
nople as a hostile army, advancing through Asia Minor,
found its further advance arrested by the long,
winding channel which the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmora,
and the Dardanelles combine to form. A hostile fleet, coming
by way of the Mediterranean or the Black Sea, faced grave
difficulties in attempting to penetrate the narrow strait into
which this waterway contracts at each extremity. On the
landward side the line of defense was so short — about four
miles in width — that it could be strongly fortified and held
by a small force against large numbers. During the Middle
Ages the rear of the city was protected by two huge walls, the
remains of which are still visible. Constantinople, in fact,
was all but impregnable. Though each new century brought a
fresh horde of enemies, it resisted siege after siege and long
Exterior
Interior
SANCTA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE
Built by Justinian and dedicated on Christmas Day, 538 a.d The main buMing is
roofed over by a great central dome, 107 feet in diameter and 179 feet m height. After the
Ottoman Turks turned the church into a mosque, a minaret was erected at each of the four
exterior angles. The outside of Sancta Sophia is somewhat disappomtmg, but the interior,
with its walls and columns of polished marble, granite, and porphyry is magnificent. The
mosaic figures on the walls have been covered up, but not destroyed, by the Turks.
Constantinople
339
continued to be the capital of what was left of the Roman
Empire.^
Constantine had laid out his new city on an imposing scale
and adorned it with the choicest treasures of art from Greece,
Italy, and the Orient. Fourteen churches, four- Monuments
teen palaces, eight pubhc baths, and several of Con-
triumphal arches are assigned to the founder of ^*^"*^"°P®
the city. His most
stately building was
the Hippodrome, an
immense structure
devoted to chariot
races and all sorts
of popular gather-
ings. There new
emperors, after their
consecration in
Sancta Sophia, were
greeted by their sub-
jects; there civic |iiii|Tif
festivals were held; W[ "^^
and there the last .^fel
Roman triumphs
were celebrated.
Theodosius the
Great built the
principal gate of
■. jS^P
The Three Existing Monuments of the
Hippodrome, Constantinople
These three monuments preserve for us the exact line of
• 1 1 ^^^ ^°^^ wall, or spina, which divided the race course and
V^OnStantmople, tne around which the charioteers drove their furious steeds. The
<'QQj(^gj^ Gate " as obelisk was transported from Egypt by Constantine. Be-
tween it and the crumbling tower beyond is a pillar of three
It was CaileQ, Oy brazen serpents, originally set up at Delphi by the Greeks,
which the emperors ^^^^^ ^^^ battle of Plataea. On this trophy were engraved
. . the names of the various states that sent soldiers to fight the
made their solemn Persians.
entry into the city.
But it was Justinian who, after Constantine, did most to adorn
1 Of the eight sieges to which Constantinople was subjected in medieval times,
only two succeeded. In 1204 a.d. it was captured by the Venetians and in 1453
A.D., by the Ottoman Turks. See pages 477 and 492.
340 Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages
the new capital by the Bosporus. He is said to have erected
more than twenty-five churches in Constantinople and its
suburbs. Of these, the most beautiful is the world-famed
cathedral dedicated by Justinian to ''Holy Wisdom." On
its completion the emperor declared that he had surpassed
Valley of
Mosgj
■^ Eyouby
CosniiJion
(Ey^^ub)
Palace ofBlacherijae
\ Palace \of the'
N Hebdonion
( Tekf our Seraj.")"iirerA-o
Gate or}JPorta?'i
Charisiu^ Phanariot
\v Quarter
■ ■.mm Wall of old{Greek)Byzantium.(?)
I Wall of ConatarUine(^30)
jyj^.iv Double Wall of Theodosius II(i08-^0)
-l-l-i-i Wall of HeracUii8(626-6l,l)
Wall of mediaeval Galata
innnn fVail ^f t/^g jy^w Seraglio
4^ ,. ^^ .u A .^^^tt^Aj^JiK. * 'Christ Tower >>
fXZnMTcn of the Apostles xsque of Mohammed <^^l^tnrk^ «^'"
M
Dolma X^j-./*-^ Palace
fn^-^/lieshicktash
Fundouki
(Aianteion) -fi
Tophane j, f / |
calU^ SCUTARI >,
-„ ,^ 'roi^}^^ (CHRYSOPOLIS)
fl^i^'Tri's'^'' of I^eandn
ew Seraglio
'Seragll6-V5 rj-' Cl^AcjopcIis of Greek
lim^f Constantin%;„ >4:i^ Byzantium
Hippodrome,./2 ^f'Bucoleon Palace
^an) '/Irpperial
Palace
SEA OF MAE MORA
GolHen Castle of the Seven Towers
Gatp ./(Yedi Kouleb)
""^ CONSTANTINOPLE
Scale 1:125000
U 1 lUMile?
KADIKEUI
(CHALCEDON,
Solomon's Temple. Though nearly fourteen hundred years
old and now defaced by vandal hands, it remains perhaps the
supreme achievement of Christian architecture.
Excepting Athens and Rome, no other European city can
lay claim to so long and so important a history as Constantinople.
. Her day came after theirs was done. Throughout
significance the Middle Ages Constantinople remained the
most important city in Europe. When London,
Paris, and Vienna were small and mean towns,
Constantinople was a large and flourishing metropolis. The
renown of the city penetrated even into barbarian lands. The
of Con-
stantinople
Constantinople 341
Scandinavians called it Micklegarth, the ''Great City"; the
Russians knew of it as Tsarigrad, the ''City of the Caesars."
But its own people best described it as the "City guarded
by God." Here, for more than eleven centuries, was the
capital of the Roman Empire and the center of Eastern
Christendom.
Studies
I. Compare the area of the Roman Empire in the East in 395 a.d. with its
area in 800 A. D. (maps between pages 222-223 and facing page 306) . 2. Compare
the respective areas in 800 a.d. of the Roman Empire in the East and Charlemagne's
empire. 3. On the map, page 338, locate Adrianople, Gallipoli, Nicaea, the Bos-
porus, Sea of Marmora, and Dardanelles. 4. Who were Belisarius Chosroes II,
and Heraclius? 5. In your opinion which of the two rival imperial Unes after
800 A.D. had the better title to represent ancient Rome? 6. Why has Justinian
been called the "lawgiver of civilization"? 7. Why was it necessary to codify
Roman law? Is the EngUsh Common law codified? 8. Compare the work of
Alexandrian and Byzantine scholars in preserving learning. 9. "The Byzantines
were the teachers of the Slavs, as the Romans were of the Germans." Comment
on this statement. 10. The Byzantine Empire was once called "a gigantic mass
of mould, a thousand years old." Does this seem a fair description? 11. "The
history of medieval civilization is, in large measure, the history of the Roman
Empire in the East." Comment on this statement. 12. Show that Constanti-
nople formed "a natural citadel." 13. On the map, page 340, trace the successive
walls of Constantinople.
CHAPTER XV
THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH IN THE EAST AND IN THE
WEST TO 1054 A.D.^
120. Development of the Christian Church
A preceding chapter has traced the early history of Chris-
tianity. We there saw how the new reUgion appeared in the
The Catholic Orient, how it spread rapidly over the Roman
Church Empire, how it engaged with the imperial govern-
ment in the long confhct called the Persecutions, how the
emperor Constantine, after his conversion, placed it on an
equality with paganism, and how at the end of the fourth cen-
tury the emperor Theodosius made it the state rehgion. By
this time the Church had become a great and powerful organiza-
tion, with fixed laws, with a graded system of officers, and with
councils attended by clergy from all parts of the Roman world.
To this organization the word Catholic, that is, '^universal,"
came to be appUed. Membership in the Cathohc Church,
secured only by baptism, was believed to be essential to salva-
tion. As St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, had said, ''He can
no longer have God for his Father who has not the Church for
his Mother."
The first three centuries of Christianity witnessed the devel-
opment of the episcopal system in the Church. Each pro-
The vincial city had its bishop, assisted by priests
episcopate g^j^^j deacons. An archbishop (sometimes called a
metropoHtan) presided over the bishops of each province, and
a patriarch had jurisdiction, in turn, over metropoUtans. This
graded arrangement of ecclesiastical officers, from the lowest to
the highest, helped to make the Church centrahzed and strong.
1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter iii, "The Benedic-
tine Rule"; chapter iv, "The ReestabUshment of Christianity m Britain"; chapter
V, "St. Boniface, Apostle to the Germans."
342
Development of the Christian -Church 343
It appears to have been modeled, almost unconsciously, on the
government of the Roman Empire.^
The development of the patriarchate calls for special notice.
At the time of the Council of Nicaea^ there were three patri-
archs, namely, the bishops of Rome, Antioch, and The
Alexandria. These cities ranked among the most Patriarchs
important in the Roman world. It was only natural, therefore,
that the churches estabHshed in them should be singled out for
preeminence. Some years after the removal of the capital to
Constantinople, the bishop of that imperial city was recognized
as a patriarch at a general council of the Church. In the fifth
century the bishop of Jerusalem received the same dignity.
Henceforth there were five patriarchs — four in the East but
only one in the West.
The Christian Church was a very democratic organization.
Patriarchs, archbishops, bishops, priests, and deacons were
drawn from all ranks of life. No special training ciergy and
at first was considered necessary to fit them for ^^^*y
their duties, though the more celebrated ministers were often
highly educated. To eke out their salaries the clergy sometimes
carried on business as farmers and shopkeepers. Where, how-
ever, a church had sufficient funds to support its bishop, his
engagement in secular affairs was discouraged and finally
prohibited. In the fourth century, as earlier, priests and bishops
were generally married men. The sentiment in favor of celibacy
for the clergy became very pronounced during the early Middle
Ages, especially in the West, and led at length to the general
abandonment of priestly marriage in those parts of Europe
where papal influence prevailed. Distinctive garments for
clergymen did not begin to come into use until the fifth century,
when some of them began to don clothing of a more sober hue
1 The correspondence may be indicated as follows:
The Roman Empire The Christian Church
City — Municipal officials. Bishop.
Province — Governor. Archbishop, or Metropolitan.
Diocese — Vicar. Patriarch.
Prefecture — Prefect. (No corresponding division.)
2 See page 235.
344 The Christian Church in the East and West
than was fashionable at the time. Clerical vestments were
developed from two pieces of ancient Roman dress — the tunic
and the toga.^ Thus the clergy were gradually separated from
the people, or laity, by differences in dress, by their celibate
lives, and by their abstention from worldly occupations.
While the Church was perfecting her organization, she was
also elaborating her doctrines. Theologians engaged in many
„ . controversies upon such subjects as the connection
Heresies
of Christ with God and the nature of the Trinity.
In order to obtain an authoritative expression of Christian
opinion, councils of the higher clergy were held, at which the
opposing views were debated and a decision was reached. The
Council of Nicaea, which condemned Arianism, formed the first,
and one of the most important, of these general gatherings of
the Church. After the Church had once expressed itself on
any matter of Christian belief, it was regarded as unlawful to
maintain a contrary opinion. Those who did so were called
heretics, and their teachings, heresies. The emperor Theodosius,
whose severe laws finally shattered the ancient paganism,^ de-
voted even more attention to stamping out heresies among his
Christian subjects. He prohibited meetings of heretics, burned
their books, and threatened them with death if they persisted
in their pecuHar doctrines. During his reign a Spanish bishop
and six of his partisans were executed for holding unorthodox
beliefs. This was the beginning of the persecutions for heresy.
As soon as Christianity had triumphed in the Roman Empire,
thus becoming the religion of the rich and powerful as well as
the religion of the poor and lowly, more attention
was devoted to the conduct of worship. Magnif-
icent church buildings were often erected. Their architects
seem to have followed as models the basilicas, or pubHc halls,
which formed so familiar a sight in Roman cities.^ Church
interiors were adorned with paintings, mosaic pictures, images
of saints and martyrs, and the figure of the cross. Lighted
candles on the altars and the burning of fragrant incense lent
an additional impressiveness to worship. Beautiful prayers
1 See page 258. 2 See page 236. » See page 284.
Development of the Christian Church 345
Sunday
Religious Music
and hymns were composed. Some of the early Christian hymns,
such as the Gloria in Excelsis and the Te Deum Laudamus, are
still sung in our churches. Organs did not come into use until
the seventh century, and
then only in the West,
but church bells, summon-
ing the worshiper to divine
service, early became
attached to Christian edi-
fices.
The Christians from the
start appear to have ob-
served ''the first day of
the week"^ in memory
of Christ's resurrection.
They attended
pubHc worship
on the Lord's Day, but From a window of the cathedral of Bourges,
Otherwise did not rigidly iJ^^^"^"^ ^'^''""- ^^°^' ' ^^^^ "'""''
abstain from worldly
business and amusements. The Jewish element in some
churches, and especially in the East, was strong enough to
secure an additional observance of Saturday as a w^eekly festival.
Saturday long continued to be marked by religious assemblies
and feasting, though not by any compulsory cessation of the
ordinary occupations. During the fourth century Sunday, as
the Lord's Day was now generally called, came more and more
to be kept as a day of obligatory rest. Constantine's Sunday
law 2 formed the first of a long series of imperial edicts im-
posing the observance of that day as a legal duty. In this
manner Sunday, like the Jewish Sabbath on the seventh
day of the week, was dedicated wholly to the exercises of
religion.
The great yearly festivals of the Church gradually took shape
during the early Christian centuries. The most important
1 John, XX, I, 19; compare i Corinthians, xvi, 2.
2 See page 235 and note i.
346 The Christian Church in the East and West
anniversary to be observed was Easter, in memory of the resur-
rection of Christ. A period of fasting (Lent),
which finally lasted forty days, preceded the
festival. Whitsunday, or Pentecost, was celebrated on the
fiftieth day after Easter.^ Two other festivals of later adoption
were Christmas, the celebration of which was finally assigned
to the 25th of December," and Epiphany (January 6), com-
memorating the baptism of Christ. In course of time many
other feasts and fasts, together with numerous saints' days,
were added to the calendar of the " Christian Year."
121. Eastern Christianity
By the time of Constantine, Christianity had spread widely
throughout the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Asia Minor
Expansion of ^^^^ ^^^^ largely Christian. Thrace, Macedonia,
Christianity Epirus, and Greece were all ecclesiastical prov-
inces with their own metropolitans. Many
Christians were found in Syria and Egypt. Churches also ex-
isted in Mesopotamia and Arabia, and even beyond the bound-
aries of the empire in Armenia and Persia. Between the time
of Constantine and that of Justinian, Christianity continued
to expand in the East, until the gospel had been carried to
such distant regions as Abyssinia and India.
Most of the Christian communities in the Orient owed alle-
giance to the patriarchs of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch,
Union of ^^^ Alexandria. The Roman emperor, however,
Church and was the supreme religious authority in the East.
He felt it as much his duty to maintain the doc-
trines and organization of Christianity as to preserve the im-
perial dominions against foreign foes. Since he presided over
the Church, there could be no real independence for its officers.
Bishops, metropolitans, and patriarchs were in every respect
subordinate to his will. This union of Church and State
formed one of the most characteristic features of Christianity
in the East.
1 See Acts, ii, 1-4. « See page 22g, note i.
Eastern Christianity
347
Nestorianism
Eastern Christians, far more than those in the West, devoted
themselves to theological speculations. Constantinople and
the great HeUenistic Theological
cities of Antioch and disputes;
Alexandria contained
many learned scholars who had pro-
longed and heated arguments over
subtle questions of belief. After
the Arian controversy had been
settled in the fourth century, other
disputes concerning the true nature
of Christ broke out. These gave
rise to many heresies.
The heresy known as Nestorian-
ism, from Nestorius, a patriarch of
Constantinople, spread
w^idely in the East.
Nestorian missionaries even pene-
trated to India, China, and
Mongolia. The churches which
they established were numerous m
and influential during the Middle
Ages, but since then most of them
have been destroyed by the Moham-
medans. Members of this sect are
still to be found, however, in east-
ern lands. ^
After the formation of the Nes-
torian and other heretical sects, the
orthodox faith was preserved in the
East only by the Greeks
of Asia Minor and
Europe. The Greek Church, which
calls itself the "Holy Orthodox
Church," for a time remained in unity with the Roman Church
1 In modem India (Malabar) there are no less than 400,000 Syrian Christians
who owe their reUgion to Nestorian missionaries.
The Nestorian Monument
Orthodoxy
Evidence of Nestorian missions in
China is afforded by the famous
monument at Chang'an, province of
Shensi. The stone, which was set
up in 781 A.D., commemorates by an
inscription in Chinese characters and
the figure of a cross the introduction
of Christianity into northwestern
China. A replica of the Nestorian
monument was taken to the United
States in 1908 a.d. and was de-
posited in the Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York.
34^ The Christian Church in the East and West
The Papacy
in the West. The final separation of these two churches
occurred in the eleventh century.^
122. Western Christianity: Rise of the Papacy
Christianity in the West presented two sharp contrasts to
eastern Christianity. In the first place, the great heresies
which divided the East scarcely affected the West.
In the second place, no union of Church and State
existed among western Christians. Instead of acknowledging
the religious supremacy of the
emperor at Constantinople, they
yielded obedience to the bishop of
Rome, the head of the Roman
Church. He is known to us as
the pope, and his office is called
the Papacy. We shall now in-
quire how the popes secured their
unchallenged authority over west-
ern Christendom.
A church in Rome must have
been estabhshed at an early date,
for it was to Roman
Papal Arms
According to the well-known pas-
sage in Matthew (xvi, 19), Christ
gave to St. Peter the "keys of the
kingdom of heaven," with the power
"to bind and to loose." These keys
are always represented in the papal
arms, together with the tiara or head-
dress, worn by the popes on certain
occasions.
Rome an
apostolic Christians that St.
church
Paul addressed one of
the Epistles now preserved in the
New Testament. St. Paul visited
Rome, as we know from the Acts
of the Apostles, and there he is
said to have suffered martyrdom.
Christian tradition, very ancient and very generally received,
declares that St. Peter also labored in Rome, where he met a
martyr's death, perhaps during the reign of the emperor
Nero. To the early Christians, therefore, the Roman Church
must have seemed in the highest degree sacred, for it had
been founded by the two greatest apostles and had been
nourished by their blood.
1 See page 362.
Western Christianity: Rise of 'Papacy 349
Another circumstance helped to give the Roman Church a
superior position in the West. It was a vigorous missionary
church. Rome, the largest and most flourishing ^^^^ ^
city in the empire and the seat of the imperial "Mother-
government, naturally became the center from ^ ^^^
which Christianity spread over the western provinces. Many of
the early Christian communities planted in Spain, Gaul,
and Africa owed their start to the missionary zeal of the
Roman Church. To Rome, as the great "Mother-church,"
her daughters in western Europe would turn henceforth with
reverence and affection; they would readily acknowledge her
leading place among the churches; and they would seek her
advice on disputed points of Christian belief or worship.
The independence of the Roman Church also furthered its
development. The bishop of Rome was the sole patriarch
in the West, while in the East there were two, and ^j^^ Ro^an
later four patriarchs, each exercising authority Church in-
in religious matters. Furthermore, the removal ®^®" ®^*
of the capital from Rome to Constantinople helped to free the
Roman bishop from the close oversight of the imperial govern-
ment. He was able, henceforth, to promote the interests of
the church under his control without much interference on the
part of the eastern emperor.
Finally, it must be noted how much the development of the
Roman Church was aided by its attitude on disputed questions
of belief. While eastern Christendom was torn ^^^ Roman
by theological controversies, the Church of Rome Church
stood firmly by the Nicene Creed. ^ After the °^*^°d°^
Arian, Nestorian, and other heresies were finally condemned,
orthodox Christians felt indebted to the Roman Church for
its unwavering championship *of ''the faith once delivered to
the saints." They were all the more ready, therefore, to
defer to that church in matters of doctrine and to accept without
question its spiritual authority.
The claim of the Roman bishops to supremacy over the
Christian world had a double basis. Certain passages in the
1 See page 236.
350 The Christian Church in the East and West
New Testament, where St. Peter is represented as the rock
on which the Church is buih, the pastor of the sheep and
lambs of the Lord, and the doorkeeper of the kingdom of
The Petrine heaven, appear to indicate that he was regarded
supremacy by Christ as the chief of the Apostles. Further-
more, a well-established tradition made St. Peter the founder
of the Roman Church and its first bishop. It was then
argued that he passed to his successors, the popes, all his
rights and dignity. As St. Peter was the first among the
Apostles, so the popes were to be the first among bishops.
Such was the doctrine of the Petrine supremacy, expressed as
far back as the second century, strongly asserted by many
popes during the Middle Ages, and maintained to-day by the
Roman Church.
123. Growth of the Papacy
Up to the middle of the fifth century about forty-five bishops
had occupied St. Peter's chair at Rome. The most eminent
Pontificate ^^ these was Leo the Great. When he became
of Leo I, bishop, the Germans were overrunning the western
' * provinces of the empire. The invaders professed
the Arian faith, as we have seen, and often persecuted the
orthodox Christians among whom they settled. At such a
time, when the imperial power was growing weaker, faithful
CathoUcs in the West naturally turned for support to the bishop
of Rome. Leo became their champion against the barbarians.
Tradition declares that he succeeded in diverting Attila from
an attack on Rome, and when the Vandals sacked the city
Leo also intervened to prevent its destruction. ^
After Leo, no important name occurs in the list of popes
until we come to Gregory the Great. Gregory, as the son of
Pontificate of ^ ^^^^ ^^^ distinguished Roman senator, enjoyed
Gregory I, a good education in all the learning of the time.
590-604 A.D. jj^ entered pubhc hfe and at an early age became
prefect of Rome. But now, almost at the outset of his
career, Gregory laid aside earthly ambition. He gave up his
1 See pages 248-249.
Growth of the Papacy 351
honorable position and spent the fortune, inherited from his
father, in the foundation of monasteries and the reUef of
the poor. He himself became a monk, turned his palace
at Rome into a monastery, and almost ruined his health
by too great devotion to fasts and midnight vigils. Gregory's
conspicuous talents, however, soon called him from retirement
and led to his election as pope.
The work of Gregory lay principally in two directions. As a
statesman he did much to make the popes virtual sovereigns
at Rome and in Italy. At this time the Italian Temporal
peninsula, overrun by the Lombards and neglected power of
by the eastern emperor, was in a deplorable con- ^^sory
dition. The bishop of Rome seemed to be the only man who
could protect the people and maintain order. Gregory had
very great success in this task. He appointed governors of
cities, issued orders to generals, drilled the Romans for military
defense, and sent ambassadors to treat with the king of the
Lombards. It was largely owing to Gregory's efforts that these
barbarians were prevented from conquering central Italy.
Gregory was no less eminent as a churchman. His writings
and his personal influence greatly furthered the advancement
of the Roman Church in the West. We find him Gregory's
sternly repressing heresies wherever they arose, spiritual
aiding the conversion of Arian Visigoths in Spain ^^ °" ^
and Arian Lombards in Italy, and sending out monks as
missionaries to distant Britain. ^ He well deserved by these
labors the title "Servant of the servants of God,"^ which he
assumed, and which the popes after him have retained. The
admiration felt for his character and abilities raised him, in
later ages, to the rank of a saint.
When Gregory the Great closed his remarkable career, the
Papacy had reached a commanding place in western Christen-
dom. To their spiritual authority the popes had Position of
now begun to add some measure of temporal *^® Papacy
power as rulers at Rome and in Italy. During the eighth
century, as we have already learned,^ the alliance of the popes
1 See page 322. 2 Serous seroorum Dei. s See pages 305-307.
352 The Christian Church in the East and West
and the Franks helped further to establish the Papacy as an
ecclesiastical monarchy, ruling over both the souls and bodies
of men. Henceforth it was to go forward from strength to
strength.
124. Monasticism
The Papacy during the Middle Ages found its strongest
supporters among the monks. By the time of Gregory the Great
ipjjg monasticism ^ was well established in the Christian
monastic Church. Its origin must be sought in the need,
®^^"* often felt by spiritually-minded men, of withdraw-
ing from the world — from its temptations and its transitory
pleasures — to a life of sohtude, prayer, and religious contem-
plation. Joined to this feeling has been the conviction that the
soul may be purified by subduing the desires and passions of
the body. Men, influenced by the monastic spirit, sought a
closer approach to God.
The monastic spirit in Christianity owed much to the example
of its founder, who was himself unmarried, poor, and without a
j.^j.j place ''where to lay his head." Some of Christ's
Christian teachings, taken literally, also helped to exalt the
monasticism ^qj-^j^ ^f ^-j^g monastic Kfe. At a very early period
there were Christian men and women who abstained from
marriage, flesh meat, and the use of wine, and gave themselves
up to prayer, religious exercises, and works of charity. This
they did in their homes, without abandoning their families and
human society.
Another monastic movement began about the middle of the
third century, when many Christians in Egypt withdrew into
„, , . the desert to live as hermits. St. Anthony, who
The hermits , , ,, ■, , r ^i • • i • i
has been called the first Christian hermit, passed
twenty years in a deserted fort on the east bank of the Nile.
During all this tittie he never saw a human face. Some of the
hermits, believing that pain and suffering had a spiritual value,
went to extremes of self-mortification. They dwelt in wells,
tombs, and on the summits of pillars, deprived themselves of
1 From a Greek word which means "living alone."
Monasticism
353
necessary food and sleep, wore no clothing, and neglected to
bathe or to care for the body in any way. Other hermits, who
did not practice such austerities, spent all day or all night in
prayer. The examples of these recluses found many imitators
in Syria and other eastern lands. ^
A Hfe shut off from all contact with one's fellows is difficult
and beyond the strength of ordinary men. The mere human
need for social intercourse gradually brought the Rule of
hermits together, at first in small groups and then ^*- ^^^^
in larger communities, or monasteries. The next step was to
St. Daniel the Stylite on his Column
From a Byzantine miniature in the Vatican.
give the scattered monasteries a common organization and
government. Those in the East gradually adopted the regu-
lations which St. Basil, a leading churchman of the fourth cen-
tury, drew up for the guidance of the monks under his direction.
St. Basil's Rule, as it is called, has remained to the present
time the basis of monasticism in the Greek Church.
The monastic system, which early gained an entrance into
1 See Tennyson's poem, St. Simeon Stylites.
354
The Christian Church in the East and West
St. Benedict
r-M
western Christendom, looked to St. Benedict as its organizer.
While yet a young man, St. Benedict had sought to
escape from the vice about him by retiring to a cave
in the Sabine hills near Rome. Here he lived for three years
as a hermit, shutting himself off from all human intercourse,
wearing a hair
shirt, and rolling
in beds of thistles
to subdue "the
flesh." St. Bene-
dict's experience
of the hermit's
life convinced
him that there
was a surer and
better road to
religious peace of
mind. His fame as
a holy man had
attracted to him
many disciples,
and these he now
began to group in
monastic communities under his own supervision. St. Bene-
dict's most important monastery was at Monte Cassino, midway
between Rome and Naples. It became the capital of monasti-
cism in the West.
To control the monks of Monte Cassino St. Benedict framed
a Rule, or constitution, which was modeled in some respects
Rule of St. upon the earlier Rule of St. Basil. The monks
formed a sort of corporation, presided over by an
abbot,^ who held office for life. To the abbot
every candidate for admission took the vow of obedience.
Any man, rich or poor, noble or peasant, might enter the mon-
astery, after a year's probation; having once joined, however,
Plan of Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire
Benedict,
529 (?) A.D
1 From a Syrian word, abba, meaning
called an abbey.
■father." Hence a monastery was often
I
Life and Work of the Monks 355
he must remain a monk for the rest of his days. The monks
were to hve under strict discipline. They could not own any
property; they could not go beyond the monastery walls with-
out the abbot's consent; they could not even receive letters
from home; and they were sent to bed early. A violation
of the regulations brought punishment in the shape of private
admonitions, exclusion from common prayer, and, in extreme
cases, expulsion.
The Rule of St. Benedict came to have the same wide influ-
ence in the West which that of St. Basil exerted in the East.
Gregory the Great established it in many places spread of
in Italy, Sicily, and England. During Charle- the Bene-
, . ., J iT. 1 r r dictine Rule
magne s reign it was made the only lorm of monas-
ticism throughout his dominions. By the tenth century the
Rule prevailed everywhere in western Europe.^
125. Life and Work of the Monks
St. Benedict sought to draw a sharp line between the monastic
life and that of the outside world. Hence he required that,
as far as possible, each monastery should form an a monastic
independent, self-supporting community whose community
members had no need of going beyond its limits for anything.
In course of time, as a monastery increased in wealth and number
of inmates, it might come to form an enormous establishment,
covering many acres and presenting within its massive walls
the appearance of a fortified town.
The principal buildings of a Benedictine monastery of the
larger sort were grouped around an inner court, called a cloister.
These included a church, a refectory, or dining jj^^ monas-
room, with the kitchen and buttery near it, a tery buUd-
dormitory, where the monks slept, and a chapter *^^^
house, where they transacted business. There was also a
library, a school, a hospital, and a guest house for the reception
of strangers, besides barns, bakeries, laundries, workshops,
1 Other monastic orders arose during the later Middle Ages (see pages 44Q, 452),
but the Benedictines still exist, chiefly in Austria and Italy. Their order was intro-
duced into the United States during the nineteenth century.
356 The Christian Church in the East and West
and storerooms for provisions. Beyond these buildings lay
vegetable gardens, orchards, grain fields, and often a mill, if'
the monastery was built on a stream. The high wall and ditch,
usually surrounding a monastery, shut it off from outsiders
and in time of danger protected it against attack.
Abbey of Saint-Germain des Pres, Paris
This celebrated monastery was founded in the sixth century. Of the orig-
inal buDdings only the abbey church remains. The illustration shows the
monastery as it was in 1361 a.d., with walls, towers, drawbridge, and moat.
Adjoining the church were the cloister, the refectory, and the dormitory.
St. Benedict defined a monastery as "a school for the service
of the Lord." The monks under his Rule occupied themselves
Monastic with a regular round of worship, reading, and
occupations manual labor. Each day was divided into seven
sacred offices, beginning and ending with services in the mon-
astery church. The first service came usually about two
o'clock in the morning; the last, just as evening set in, before
Life and Work of the Monks
357
the monks retired to rest. In addition to their attendance at
church, the monks spent several hours in reading from the
Bible, private prayer, and meditation. For most of the day,
however, they worked
hard with their hands,
doing the necessary wash-
ing and cooking for the
monastery, raising the
necessary supplies of
vegetables and grain, and
performing all the other
tasks required to main-
tain a large establish-
ment. This emphasis on
labor, as a religious duty,
was a characteristic feat-
ure of western monasti-
cism. "To labor is to
pray" became a favorite
motto of the Benedictines.^
It is clear that life in
a Benedictine monastery appealed to many different kinds
of people in the Middle Ages. Those of a spiritual turn
of mind found in the monastic life the op- Attractive-
portunity of giving themselves wholly to God. ness of the
Studious and thoughtful persons, with no dispo- °^°°^^*^<^ ^^^®
sition for an active career in the world, naturally turned
to the monastery as a secure retreat. The friendless and
the disgraced often took refuge within its walls. Many a
troubled soul, to whom the trials of this world seemed unen-
durable, sought to escape from them by seeking the peaceful
shelter of the cloister.
The civilizing influence of the Benedictine monks during the
early Middle Ages can scarcely be over-emphasized. A monas-
tery was often at once a model farm, an inn, a hospital, a
school, and a library. By the careful cultivation of their lands.
1 Lahorare est orare.
A Moi^K Copyist
From a manuscript in the British Museum
London.
358 The Christian Church in the East and West
the monks set an example of good farming wherever they
The monks settled. They entertained pilgrims and travelers,
as civilizers g^|- ^ period when western Europe was almost
destitute of inns. They performed many works of charity,
feeding the hungry, healing the sick who were brought to their
doors, and distributing their medicines freely to those who
needed them. In their schools they trained both boys who
wished to become priests and those who intended to lead active
lives in the world. The rnonks, too, were the only scholars
of the age. By copying the manuscripts of classical authors,
they preserved valuable books that would otherwise have been
lost. By keeping records of the most striking events of their
time, they acted as chroniclers of medieval history. To all
these services must be added the work of the monks as mis-
sionaries to the heathen peoples of Europe.
126. Spread of Christianity over Europe
Almost all Europe had been won to Christianity by the end
of the eleventh century. In the direction of this great mis-
sionary campaign the Roman Church took the
Church and leading part.^ The officers of her armies were
the bar- zealous popes, bishops, and abbots; her private
soldiers were equally zealous monks, priests, and
laymen. Pagan Rome had never succeeded in making a com-
plete and permanent conquest of the barbarians. Christian
Rome, however, was able to bring them all under her spiritual
sway.
Christianity first reached the Germanic invaders in its Arian^
form. Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians, and Lom-
Recon version ^ards were all Arians. The Roman Church
of the Arian regarded them as heretics and labored with success
ermans ^^ reconvert them. This work was at last com-
pleted when the Lombards, in the seventh century, accepted the
CathoHc faith.
The Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, whose kingdoms were to
1 For the missionary work of Celtic Christians see page 323 and note i.
2 See page 236,
GROWTH OF CHRISTIANITY
FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
I Extent of Christianity about 400 A. D, C
Z] Area Christianized 400-800 A. D.
U Area Christianized 800-1100 A. D
] Mohammedanism is
shown by white bands
i Division between the
Greek and Roman Churches
J Area Christianized 1100-1300 A. D.
Boundaries (in 622 A.D.)of the patriarchates of Rome, Constantinople,
Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria
Spread of Christianity over Europe 359
develop into the chief states of medieval Europe, adopted
from the outset the Catholic form of Christianity.
The conversion of the Franks provided the Roman Anglo-Saxons
Church with its strongest and most faithful converted to
adherents among the Germanic tribes.^ The con- Catholicism
version of Anglo-Saxon Britain by Augustine and
his monks, followed later by the spread of Roman Catholicism
in Ireland and Scotland, firmly united the British Isles to the
Papacy.^ Thus Rome during the Middle Ages came to be
the one center of church life for the peoples of western
Europe.
An Anglo-Saxon monk, St. Boniface, did more than any
other missionary to carry Christianity to the remote tribes
of Germany. Like Augustine in England, St.
Boniface was sent by the pope, w^ho created him and the con-
a missionary bishop and ordered him to "carry T^^^^^^ °^
the word of God to unbelievers." St. Boniface
also enjoyed the support of the Prankish rulers, Charles Martel
and Pepin the Short. Thanks to their assistance this intrepid
monk w^as able to penetrate into the heart of Germany. Here
he labored for nearly forty years, preaching, baptizing, and
founding numerous churches, monasteries, and schools. His
boldness in attacking heathenism is illustrated by the story
of how he cut down with his own hands a certain oak tree, much
reverenced by the natives of Hesse as sacred to the god Woden,
and out of its wood built a chapel dedicated to St. Peter.
St. Boniface crowned a lifetime of missionary labor with a
martyr's death, probably in 754 a.d. His work was continued
by Charlemagne, who forced the Saxons to accept Christianity
at the point of the sword.^ All Germany at length became
a Christian land, devoted to the Papacy.
Roman Catholicism not only spread to Celtic and Germanic
peoples, but it also gained a foothold among the Slavs. Both
Henry the Fowler and Otto the Great attempted Conversion
to Christianize the Slavic tribes between the Elbe °^ *^® ^^^^^
and the Vistula, by locating bishoprics in their territory. The
1 See pages 304-305. « See pages 322-325. 3 See page 308.
360 The Christian Church in the East and West
work of conversion encountered many setbacks and did not
reach completion until the middle of the twelfth century.
The most eminent missionaries to the Slavs were Cyril and
Methodius. These brother-monks were sent from Constan-
tinople in 863 A.D. to convert the Moravians, who formed
a kingdom on the eastern boundary of Germany. Seeing
their great success as missionaries, the pope invited them to
Rome and secured their consent to an arrangement which
brought the Moravian Christians under the control of the
Papacy.^ From Moravia Christianity penetrated into Bohemia
and Poland. These countries still remain strongholds of the
Roman Church. The Serbians and Russians, as we have
learned,^ received Christianity by way of Constantinople and
so became adherents of the Greek Church.
Roman Catholicism gradually spread to most of the remaining
peoples of Europe. The conversion of the Norwegians and
„. , Swedes was well advanced by the middle of the
Final exten- n^^ sr tt •
sion of eleventh century. The Magyars, or Hungarians,
Roman accepted Christianity at about the same date.
Catholicism _,, , .
The kmg of Hungary was such a devout
Catholic that in the year 1000 a.d. the pope sent to him a
golden crown and saluted him as ''His Apostolic Majesty."
The last parts of heathen Europe to receive the message of
the gospel were the districts south and east of the Baltic,
occupied by the Prussians, Lithuanians, and Finns. Their con-
version took place between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries.
127. Separation of Eastern and Western Christianity
Before the Christian conquest of Europe was finished, Chris-
tianity had divided into two great communions — the Greek
Church and the Roman Church. Their separation was a long,
slow process, arising from the deep-seated differences between
East and West. Though Rome had carried her conquering
1 Cyril and Methodius were canonized by Pope Leo XIII in 1881 a.d. A millen-
ial celebration of the two apostles was held in 1863 a.d. by the people of Moravia
and Bohemia.
2 See page 335. The Bulgarians also got their Christianity from Constantinople
in the ninth century.
Eastern and Western Christianity 361
arms throughout the Mediterranean basin, all the region east
of the Adriatic was imperfectly Romanized.^ It Divergence
remained Greek in language and culture, and of East and
tended, as time went on, to grow more and more
unlike the West, which was truly Roman. The founding of
Constantinople and the transference of the capital from the
banks of the Tiber to the shores of the Bosporus still further
widened the breach between the two halves of the Roman
world. After the Germans established their kingdoms in Italy,
Spain, Gaul, and Britain, western Europe was practically
independent of the rulers at Constantinople. The coronation
of Charlemagne in 800 a.d. marked the final severance of East
and West.
The division of the Roman Empire led naturally to a grouping
of the Christian Church about Rome and Constantinople, the
two chief centers of government. The popes, it
has been seen, had always enjoyed spiritual leader- and the
ship in the West. In temporal matters they ac- eastern
T 1 1 1 1 1 • r 1 emperors
Knowledged the authority of the eastern emperors,
until the failure of the latter to protect Rome and Italy from
the barbarians showed clearly that the popes must rely on their
own efforts to defend Christian civilization. We have already
learned how well such men as Leo the Great and Gregory the
Great performed this task. Then in the eighth century came
the alliance with the Frankish king, Pepin the Short, which
gave the Papacy a powerful and generous protector beyond the
Alps. Finally, by crowning Charlemagne, the pope definitely
broke with the emperor at Constantinople and transferred
his allegiance to the newly created western emperor.
The patriarch of Constantinople, as bishop of the capital
city, enjoyed an excellent position from which to assert his
preeminence over the bishops of the other churches ^.
. ^1 X- ^ . . . r ^ Rise of the
m the East. Justmian m 550 a.d. conferred on patriarchate
him the privilege of receiving appeals from the ®^ ^°^"
, . , , ^ ^ ^\ , ,. stantinople
Other patriarchs, and a few years later that dig-
nitary assumed the high-sounding title of ''Universal Arch-
1 See pages 217, 223.
362 The Christian Church in the East and West
bishop." The authority of the patriarch of Constantinople
was immensely strengthened when the Mohammedans, having
conquered Syria and Egypt, practically extinguished the three
patriarchates of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria.^ The
Church in the East now had a single patriarch, just as that in
the West had the one bishop of Rome. Rivalry between them
was inevitable.
One source of strife between pope and patriarch was the
controversy, arising in the eighth century, over the use of
images in the churches. These images seem to
Rivalry , ^ , 1 . /. \ r
between have been, not statues, but pictures (icons) of
pope and ^j^g apostles, saints, and martyrs. Many eastern
patriarch ^, . . ,-111 r •
Christians sought to strip the churches 01 icons, on
the ground that by the ignorant they were venerated almost as
idols. The Iconoclasts ("image-breakers") gained no support
in the West. The Papacy took the view that images were a
help to true devotion and might, therefore, be allowed. When
a Roman emperor issued a decree for the destruction of all"
images, the pope refused to obey the order in the churches
under his direction, and went so far as to exclude the Icono-
clasts from Christian fellowship. Although the iconoclastic
movement failed in the East, after a violent controversy, it
helped still further to sharpen the antagonism between the
two branches of Christendom. Other causes of dispute arose
in later times, chiefly concerning fine points of doctrine on
which neither side would yield.
The final rupture of Christendom was delayed until the
middle of the eleventh century. In 1054 a.d. the pope sent
The final ^^^ legates to Constantinople to demand obedi-
nipture, ence to the Papacy. This being refused, they
laid upon the high altar of Sancta Sophia the
pope's bill of excommunication. Against the patriarch and
his followers they pronounced a solemn curse, or anathema,
devoting them "to the eternal society of the Devil and his
angels." Then, we are told, they strode out of Sancta Sophia,
shaking the dust from their feet and crying, ''Let God see and
1 See page 376.
The Greek Church 363
judge." The two branches of the Christian Church, thus torn
apart, were never afterward reunited.^
128. The Greek Church
The Greek and Roman churches, in some respects, are nearer
together than Roman Cathohcism and Protestantism. Both
recognize three orders for the ministry, namely,
bishops, priests, and deacons. Priests of the and Roman
Greek Church may marry, but this privilege is churches
not extended to bishops, who, therefore, are chosen
from the monks. Baptism, by both churches, is administered to
infants, but by the Greek Church under the form of total immer-
sion. Confirmation in the Greek Church follows immediately
after baptism; in the Roman Church it is postponed to the
age of reason. In the communion service the Greek Church
gives leavened bread, dipped in wine. The Roman Church with-
holds wine from the laity and uses only a dry, unleavened wafer.
While the services of the Roman Church are conducted in Latin,
for those of the Greek Church the national languages (Greek,
Russian, etc.) of the communicants are used. Its festivals do
not coincide in time of celebration with those of the Roman
Church, since the "Julian Calendar" followed in the East is
now thirteen days behind the "Gregorian Calendar." ^
The Greek Church has not lacked missionary zeal. Through
her agency the barbarians who entered southeastern Europe
during the early Middle Ages were converted to spread of
Christianity. At the present time nearly all the the Greek
peoples of the Balkan peninsula, including Greeks, "^^
Montenegrins, Serbians, Bulgarians, and Rumanians, belong
to the Greek Church.^ Its greatest victory w^as won toward
the close of the tenth century, when the Russians were induced
to accept the Greek form of Christianity. Outlying branches of
1 Unsuccessful attempts to heal the schism between the two churches took place
in the Middle Ages. The latest movement in this direction was made by Pope Leo
XIII in 1894 A.D., but his efforts were not crowned with success.
2 See page i86, note 2.
3 Many Roman CathoUcs are found in Croatia-Slavonia, Bosnia, Dalmati^, and
Albania.
364 The Christian Church in the East and West
the Greek Church are found also in the Turkish Empire. It
now includes about one hundred and thirty-five milUon adher-
ents in European lands.
The patriarch of Constantinople is the spiritual head of the
Greek Church. He enjoys, however, no such wide authority
^ over eastern Christians as that exercised by the
Present or- ,, t^ .-. i t rr^i
ganization of pope over all Roman Catholics. There are as
the Greek many as sixteen branches of the Greek Church,
each self-governmg and under its own omcers.
Despite the local independence of its branches, the Greek Church
remains unified in doctrine. It claims to be the only ''Ortho-
dox " church and clings with almost Oriental conservatism to the
traditions of earlier ages. Nevertheless, as the official church
of Russia, the largest and most swiftly growing of European
countries, the Greek Church has before it a future of great
importance.
129. The Roman Church
The separation of eastern and western Christianity naturally
increased the importance of the Papacy. The popes hence-
The Roman forth had a free hand to guide the destinies of
Church the Roman Church. That church under their
progressive direction was to show itseh vigorous and pro-
gressive, with a wonderful power of adaptation to new and
changed conditions.
The Roman Empire in the West had gone down before the
assaults of the Germanic barbarians, but in its place had arisen
„, „ a new creation — the Roman Church. The chief
The Roman . r i i 1 • i i • ^ r -i
Church sur- City of the old empire became the capital of the
vives the Papacy. The pope took, and has since retained,
the title of Supreme Pontiff {Pontifex Maximus),
once given to the head of the Roman state religion. ^ Latin
has continued to be the official language of Roman Catholicism.
The Roman genius for law and government found a new expres-
sion in the creation of the papal power. The true successors
of the ancient Roman statesmen were the popes of the Middle
1 See page 148, note 2.
I
The Roman Church 365
Ages. The idea of Rome, of her universaUty and of her eter-
nity, Uved on in the Roman Church.
The Roman Church, as the successor of the Roman Empire
in the West, formed the chief center of civiHzation during the
earher part of the Middle Ages. She stood between ^f^QJ.^ ^f
the conquering Germans and the Romanized the Roman
provincials and helped to join them both in lasting ^^
union. To the heathen she sent out her missionaries, preach-
ing a religion of love and charity and introducing a higher
morality than the barbarians had ever known before. She
multiplied hospitals, orphanages, and asylums. Her bishops
were the only protectors of the weak and the oppressed. She
fostered education, art, and learning within the walls of churches
and monasteries. Her priests and monks were the only teachers
in an ignorant age. In an age of bloodshed and violence, when
might made right, she proclaimed the superiority of the spirit
to mere brute force. To sum up: the Roman Church was an
indispensable agent in the making of medieval Europe.
Christianity in its Greek and Roman forms was not the only
great rehgion of the Middle Ages. In the seventh century,
before the separation of the two churches had -j-j^^ menace
been completed and before all Europe had become to Christen-
Christian, another religion arose. It grew with °°^
marvelous rapidity, stripped the Church of much territory in
western Asia, northern Africa, and Spain, and promised for a
time to become the dominant faith of the world. This was
Islam, or Mohammedanism, the religion of the Arabs.
Studies
I. In what different senses is the word "church" often used? 2. "The eastern
patriarch was the shadow of the emperor, cast on the spiritual world." Explain
this statement. 3. Why did heresies develop in the East rather than in the West?
4. Look up in the New Testament the following texts relating to the primacy of
St. Peter: Matthew, xvi, 18-19; Luke, xxii, 31-32; and John, xxi, 15-17. 5. What
is "the power of the keys" which the popes claim to possess? 6. What reasons for
the growth of the Papacy have been set forth in this chapter? 7. In what non-
Christian religions is monasticism an established institution? 8. Look up in the
New Testament the following texts quoted as favorable to monasticism: Matthew,
xix, 21; Mark, x, 29-30; and Luke, xiv, 26. 9. What is the origin of the words
•"monk," "hermit," "anchorite," and "abbot"? 10. Summarize the principal
366 The Christian Church in the East and West
benefits which the monastic system conferred on Europe. 11. Give reasons for
the rapid conversion of the Germans to Christianity. 12. In what sense is it true
that "half Europe owes its Christianity to women"? 13. Who was the "Apostle
to the Germans"? 14. Who were the "Apostles to the Slavs"? 15. Comment on
the significance to European civihzation of the missionary activity of the Christian
Church in the Middle Ages. 16. Why has the separation of the Greek and Roman
churches been described as "the most momentous fact in the history of Christen-
dom during the Middle Ages"? 17. Why could not such an institution as the
Papacy develop in the East?
CHAPTER XVI
THE ORIENT AGAINST THE OCCIDENT: RISE AND
SPREAD OF ISLAM, 622-1058 A.D.^
130. Arabia and the Arabs
Arabia, a vast peninsula between the Persian Gulf, the
Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea, forms the hnk between Asia
and Africa. It is connected with Asia by the The Arabian
arid plains extending northward to the Euphrates; peninsula
with Africa, by the equally arid isthmus of Suez. Though the
country is more than one- third the size of the United States
(excluding Alaska), it has never supported a large population.
The interior, except for occasional oases, is a desert, inhabited
only by wandering tribes. Along the southern and western
coasts, between the mountains and the sea, the soil is generally
fertile, the cUmate temperate, and the rainfall sufficient. Here
the chief cities and towns are located.
The original home of the Semites is believed to have been
Arabia. Some Semitic peoples appear to have migrated
northward to Babylonia and Syria, while others inhabitants
crossed the Red Sea to Abyssinia. Physically, ®^ Arabia
the Arabs are an attractive people, with well-shaped, muscular
figures, handsome, bronzed faces, brilliant, black eyes, and all
the organs of sense exquisitely acute. Simple and abstemious
in their habits, they lead healthy lives and often reach an ex-
treme yet vigorous old age.
The Bedouin Arabs, by which name the nomadic inhabitants
of the desert are known, claim Ishmael, the son of Abraham
and half-brother of Isaac, as their ancestor. The -pj^g Bedou-
life which they lead in the Arabian wilderness ins of the
closely resembles that of the Hebrew patriarchs,
as described in the Old Testament. The Bedouins are shep-
1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter vi, "The Teachings
of Mohammed."
367
368
Rise and Spread of Islam
Arabia and the Arabs 369
herds and herdsmen, continually moving with their sheep and
camels from one pasturage and water-hole to another. Their
virtues — hospitaUty to the stranger, generosity, faithfulness
to the ties of kinship — are those of a nomadic, barbarian people.
Such also are their vices — love of fighting and plunder, re-
vengefulness, and impatience of restraint. Nothing like a
settled government is known to them. The only tribal author-
ity is that of the chief, or ''sheik," who, because of his
birth, courage, or wealth, has been chosen to the leader-
ship. This description of the Bedouins to-day applies equally
well to them in the age of Mohammed, during the sixth
century.
The Arabs who settled along the southern and western
coasts of the peninsula had reached in the sixth century a
considerable degree of civilization. They prac-
ticed agriculture and carried on a flourishing trade ^^y Arabs'
across the Red Sea and even to distant India.
Between these sedentary Arabs and the Bedouins raged con-
stant feuds, leading to much petty warfare. Nevertheless
the hundreds of tribes throughout the peninsula preserved
a feehng of national unity, which was greatly strengthened
by Mohammed's appearance on the scene.
The city of Mecca, located about fifty miles from the Red
Sea, was a commercial metropohs and the center of Arabian
heathenism. Every year the Arab tribes ceased Arabian
fighting for four months, and went up to Mecca heathenism
to buy and sell and visit the famous sanctuary called the Kaaba.
Here were three hundred and sixty idols and a small, black
stone (probably a meteorite), which legend declared had been
brought from heaven. The stone was originally white, but
the sins of the people who touched it had blackened it. Al-
though most of the Arabs were idolaters, yet some of them
recognized the "Unknown God" of the Semites, Allah, the
Creator of all things. Arabia at this time contained many
Jews, Zoroastrians, and Christians, who helped to spread
abroad the conception of one God and thus to prepare the way
for a prophet of a new religion.
370
Rise and Spread of Islam
->^
i^^^ ,c ^i^yi j^i^y-
li/L
^ ^
^u
^1^'- ii. /J fliu/
\
,if"'
^f^
131. Mohammed: Prophet and Statesman, 622-632 A.D.
Mohammed,^ born at Mecca about 570 a.d., belonged to
the tribe of the Koreish, who had long been guardians of the
Early life of sacred Kaaba. Left an orphan at an early age,
Mohammed ^-j^g future prophet was obliged to earn his own
living. He served first as a shepherd on the hillsides of Mecca.
This occupation, though lowly, gave him the love of solitude,
and helped to nourish
in his soul that ap-
preciation of nature
which later found ex-
pression in so many
of his utterances.
While still a youth he
became a camel-driver
and twice crossed the
deserts with caravans
to Syria. Doubtless
he made many ac-
quaintances on these
journeys and picked
up much useful infor-
mation. Mohammed,
however, did not re-
ceive a regular education; it is doubtful whether he could
read or write. His marriage, when about twenty-five years of
age, to a rich widow, named Khadija, brought him wealth
and consideration. For some time, henceforth, he led the life
of a prosperous merchant of Mecca.
Mohammed seems always to have been a deeply religious
man. As he grew older, his thoughts more and more centered
Mohammed's on spiritual themes. He could not reconcile the
visions gj-^gg idolatry of the Arabs with that belief in the
unity of God which he himself had reached. In his distress he
would withdraw into the wilderness, where he spent much time
in fasting and solitary vigils, practices perhaps suggested to
1 The earUer spelling was Mahomet.
A Letter of Mohammed
A letter, probably in the handwriting of Mohammed's
secretary, addressed to the governor of Alexandria. The
seal is inscribed " Mohammed, the prophet of God."
Mohammed: Prophet and Statesman 371
Mm by the example of Christian hermits.^ During these lonely
hours in the desert strange scenes passed before his eyes and
strange voices sounded in his ears. At first Mohammed thought
that evil spirits possessed him, but Khadija encouraged him to
believe that his visions were a revelation from another world.
One day, so he declared, God's messenger, the archangel Gabriel,
appeared to him and bade him preach a new religion to the
Arabs. It was very simple, but in its simphcity lay its strength:
*' There is no god but God, and Mohammed is the prophet of
God."
The prophet made his first converts in his wife, his children,
and the friends who knew him best. Then, becoming bolder,
he began to preach pubhcly in Mecca. In spite The Hegira,
of Mohammed's eloquence, obvious sincerity, and ^^^ ^•^•
attractive personaUty, he met a discouraging reception. A
few slaves and poor freemen became his followers, but most of
the citizens of Mecca regarded him as a madman. Moham-
med's disciples, called Moslems,^ were bitterly persecuted by
the Koreish, who resented the prophet's attacks on idolatry
and feared the loss of their privileges at the Kaaba. Finally
Mohammed and his converts took refuge in Medina, where
some of the inhabitants had already accepted his teachings.
This was the famous Hegira (FHght of the prophet) .^
At Medina Mohammed occupied a position of high honor and
influence. The people welcomed him gladly and made him their
chief magistrate. As his adherents increased in Later life of
number, Mohammed began to combine fighting Mohammed
with preaching. His mihtary expeditions against the Arab
tribes proved to be very successful. Many of the conquered
Bedouins enlisted under his banner and in 630 a.d. captured
Mecca for the prophet. He treated its inhabitants leniently,
1 See page 352.
2 From the Arabic tnuslim, "one who surrenders himself" (to God's will). Dur-
ing the Middle Ages the Moslems to their Christian enemies were commonly
known as Saracens, a term which is still in use.
3 The year 622 a.d., in which the Hegira occurred, marks the beginning of the
Mohammedan era. The Christian year 191 7 a.d. nearly corresponds to the Mo-
hammedan year 1336 a.h. (Anno Hegira).
372 Rise and Spread of Islam
but threw down all the idols in the Kaaba. After the submis-
sion of Mecca most of the Arabs abandoned idolatry and ac-
cepted the new rehgion.
Mohammed did not long enjoy his position as uncrowned
king of Arabia. He died in 632 a.d., at Medina, where he
Death of ^^^ buried and where his tomb is still visited by
Mohammed, pious Moslems. His followers could scarcely
believe that their great prophet had gone away
from them forever. They were ready to worship him as a god,
until old Abu Bekr, Mohammed's father-in-law, rebuked them
with the memorable words: ''Whoso worshipeth Mohammed,
let him know that Mohammed is dead; but whoso worshipeth
God, let him know that God liveth and dieth not."
The character of Mohammed has been variously estimated.
Moslem writers make him a saint; Christian writers, until
Mohammed's recent times, have called him an "impostor."
character ^^Q know that he was a man of simple habits,
who, even in the days of his prosperity, lived on dates, barley
bread, and water, mended his woolen garments, and attended
to his own wants. He was mild and gentle, a lover of children,
devoted to his friends, and forgiving toward his foes. He seems
to have won the admiration of all with whom he came in con-
tact. We know, too, that Mohammed was so deeply impressed
with the consciousness of his religious mission that he was
ready to give up wealth and an honorable position and face for
years the ridicule and hatred of the people of Mecca. His
faults — deceitfulness, superstitiousness, sensuahty — were those
of the Arabs of his time. Their existence in Mohammed's
character should not prevent our recognition of his real great-
ness as a prophet and as a statesman.
132. Islam and the Koran
The rehgion which Mohammed preached is called Islam,
an Arabic word meaning "surrender," or "resignation." This
Formation of religion has its sacred book, the Koran ("thing
the Koran read" or "thing recited"). It contains the
speeches, prayers, and other utterances of Mohammed at
i
Islam and the Koran
373
various times during his career. Some parts of the Koran
were dictated by the prophet to his disciples and by them
were written out on skins, leaves of palm trees, bones, and
bits of parchment. Many other parts remained at first
only in the memory of Mohammed's followers. Soon after
his death all the scattered passages were collected into one
^ X AJ^L ■ .r II A Wi^
J.
i C JlJ L^ J, iJ L U I
A Passage from the Koran
From a manuscript in the Bodleian Library, Oxford.
book. Since the middle of the seventh century the Koran,
every word of which the Moslems consider holy, has remained
unchanged.
The doctrines found in the Koran show many adaptations from
the Jewish and Christian religions. Like them Islam empha-
sizes the unity of God. The Moslem cry — Religious
"Allah Akharf' "God is Great !"— forms its teachings of
cardinal principle. Like them, also, Islam recog- ^ °^^
nizes the existence of prophets, including Abraham, Moses,
and Jesus, but insists that Mohammed was the last and great-
est of the prophets. The existence of angels and demons is
recognized. The chief of the demons, Iblis, bears some resem-
blance to the Jewish Satan and the Christian Devil. The
account of the creation and fall of man is taken, with varia-
tions, from the Old Testament. The description of the resur-
374 Rise and Spread of Islam
rection of the dead, the last judgment, and the division of the
future world into paradise and hell, the former for believers in
Islam, the latter for those who have refused to accept it, seems
to have been based on Persian and Jewish ideas. These borrow-
ings from other religions facilitated the spread of Islam among
eastern peoples.
The Koran imposes on the faithful Moslem five great obli-
gations. First, he must recite, at least once in his life, aloud,
Observances correctly, and with full understanding, the short
of Islam creed: ''There is no god but God, and Mohammed
is the prophet of God." Second, he must pray five times a
day: at dawn, just after noon, before sunset, just after sunset,
and at the end of the day. In every Mohammedan city the
hour of prayer is announced from the tall minaret of the mosque
by a crier (muezzin). Before engaging in prayer the worshiper
washes face, hands, and feet; during the prayer he turns toward
Mecca and bows his head to the ground. Third, he must ob-
serve a strict fast, from morning to night, during every day of
Ramadan, the ninth month of the Mohammedan year.^ In
this month God presented the Koran to Gabriel for revelation
to the prophet. Fourth, he must give alms to the poor. Fifth,
he must, "if he is able," undertake at least one pilgrimage to
Mecca. The annual visit of thousands of pilgrims to the holy
city helps to preserve the feeling of brotherhood among Mos-
lems all over the w^orld. These five obligations are the "pillars"
of Islam.
As a religious system Islam is exceedingly simple. It does
not provide any elaborate ceremonies of worship and permits
Organization no altars, pictures, or images in the mosque.
of Islam Islam even lacks a priesthood. Every Moslem
acts as his own priest. There is, however, an ofiicial, who on
Friday, the Mohammedan Sabbath, offers up public prayers
in the mosque and delivers a sermon to the assembled worshipers.
All work is suspended during this service, but at its close secular
activities are resumed.
The Koran furnishes a moral code for the adherents of Islam.
1 Feasting during the nights of this month is allowable.
I
Expansion of Islam in Asia and Egypt 375
It contains a few important prohibitions. The Moslem is
not to make images, to engage in games of chance, j^oj-al teach-
to eat pork, or to drink wine. This last prohibi- ings of the
tion has saved the Mohammedan world from the
degradation and misery which alcohol has introduced into
Christian lands. To Mohammed strong drink was ''the
mother of all evil," and drunkenness, a sin. The Koran also
inculcates many active virtues, including reverence toward
parents, protection of widows and orphans, charity toward
the poor, kindness to slaves, and gentle treatment of the lower
animals. On the whole it must be admitted that the laws of
the Koran did much to restrain the vices of the Arabs and to
provide them with higher standards of right and wrong. Islam
marked a great advance over Arabian heathenism.
133. Expansion of Islam in Asia and Egypt
Mohammed, as we have learned, did not scruple to use the
sword as a means of spreading his new rehgion among the
idolatrous Arab tribes. By thus following up islam spread
preaching with force, he subdued the greater ^^ *^® sword
part of Arabia. The prophet's methods were adopted by his
successors. Within a century after Mohammed's death, they
carried the doctrines of Islam over a large part of the civilized
world and founded an Arabian Empire.
Islam was a religion of conquest. It proclaimed the right-
eousness of a "holy war," or jihad, against unbelievers. It
promised rich booty for those who fought and jsiam as a
won, and paradise for those who fell. The Arab religion of
soldier, dying on the battlefield, expected to be *^°°^"®^
carried away by bright-eyed maidens to a garden of delight,
where, reclining on soft cushions and rugs, he was to enjoy
forever an existence of sensual ease. "Whosoever falls in
battle," so runs a passage in the Koran, "his sins are forgiven,
and at the day of judgment his limbs shall be supplied by the
wings of angels and cherubim."
The sudden creation of the Arabian power must not be under-
stood, however, as solely a religious movement. Pride and
37^ Rise and Spread of Islam
greed, as well as fanaticism, drove the Arabs forward on their
Islam as a conquering career. Long before Mohammed's
political time Arabia had been in a state of unrest. Its
warlike tribes, feehng a sense of their superiority
to other peoples, were eager to overrun the rich districts of
western Asia, much as the Germans had overrun western
Europe. Islam strengthened the racial pride of the Arabs,
united them into one nation, and gave them an effective
organization for world-wide rule.
The most extensive conquests of the Arabs were made within
ten years after Mohammed's death. During this time the
. , Moslem warriors, though poorly armed, ill-dis-
Arab con- . ,. , , . , , ^
quests in the ciphned, and m every battle greatly outnumbered,
East, 632-642 attacked with success the two strongest mihtary
powers then in the world — Rome and Persia.
From the Roman Empire in the East they seized the provinces
of Syria and Palestine, with the famous cities of Damascus,
Antioch, and Jerusalem. ^ They took Mesopotamia from the
Persians and then, invading Iran, overthrew the Persian power.^
Egypt also was subjugated by these irresistible soldiers of the
Crescent.
According to the strict teaching of the Koran, those who
refused to accept Islam were either to be killed or to be reduced
„ , to slavery. As a matter of fact, the Arabs treated
Treatment of ^ . ■' ^ . . ^ , i t,
the con- their new subjects with marked liberanty. JNo
quered massacres ftnd no persecutions occurred. The
peoples
conquered peoples were allowed to retain their
own religions, on condition of paying ample tribute. In course
of time, however, many of the Christians in Syria and Egypt
and most of the Zoroastrians ^ in Persia adopted Islam, in
order that they might acquire the rights and privileges of
Moslem citizens.
The sweeping conquests of the decade 632-642 a.d. were fol-
Later Arab lowed in later years by a further extension of the
conquests boundaries of the Arabian Empire. In the re-
mote East the Arabs sent their victorious armies beyond the
1 See page 333. 2 See pages 219, 332. 3 See page 54, note i.
Expansion of Islam in Asia and Eg3^t 377
Oxus and Indus rivers to central Asia and India. They cap-
tured the island of Cyprus, annexed parts of Armenia and
Asia Minor, and at length threatened to take Constantinople.
Had that city fallen, all eastern Europe would have been laid
open to invasion.
The first attempts on Constantinople were made by sea and
were repulsed, but during the years 716-717 a.d. the city had
to face a combined attack by a Moslem navy and
army. The eastern emperor, Leo the Isaurian, Constanti-
conducted a heroic defense, using with much !J°J^®; J}^~
effectiveness the celebrated mixture known as
'' Greek fire." This combustible, probably composed of sulphur,
Naval Battle Showing Use of "Greek Fire"
From a Byzantine manuscript of the fourteenth century at Madrid. "Greek fire" in
marine warfare was most commonly propelled through long tubes of copper, which were placed
on the prow of a ship and managed by a gunner. Conbustibles might also be kept in tubes
flung by hand and exploded on board the enemy's vessel.
naphtha, and quicklime, was poured or hurled on the enemy's
ships in order to burn them. "Greek fire," the rigors of an
uncommonly severe winter, and timely aid from the Bulgarians
at length compelled the Arabs to beat a retreat. Their failure
to take Constantinople gave the Roman Empire in the East
another long lease of life.
378 Rise and Spread of Islam
134. Expansion of Islam in North Africa and Spain
Though repulsed before the impregnable walls of Constanti-
nople, the Arabs continued to win new dominions in other
North Africa parts of the Christian world. After their occupa-
subdued j^jqj^ Qf Egypt, they began to overrun North
Africa, which Justinian, little more than a century earlier,
had reconquered from the Vandals.^ The Romanized provin-
cials, groaning under the burdensome taxes imposed on them
by the eastern emperors, made only a slight resistance to the
Moslem armies. A few of the great cities held out for a time,
but after the capture and destruction of Carthage ^ in 698 a.d.,
Arab rule was sooif established over the whole extent of the
Mediterranean coast from Egypt to the Atlantic.
Islam made in North Africa one of its most permanent con-
quests. After the coming of the Arabs many of the Christian
Arabs and inhabitants appear to have withdrawn to Spain
Berbers q^^^^ Sicily, leaving the field clear for the introduc-
tion of Arabian civilization. The Arabs who settled in North
Africa gave their religion and government to the Berbers,
as the natives of the country were called, and to some
extent intermingled with them. Arabs and Berbers still
comprise the population of North Africa, though their once
independent states have now been absorbed by European
powers.^
With North Africa in their hands the Moslems did not long
delay the invasion of Spain. In 711 a.d. an army of Arabs
and Berbers, under their leader Tarik, crossed the
Subjugation . 1 r .1
of Spain strait which still bears his name ^ and tor the
^^sun, £^j.g|- |.jj^g confronted the Germans. The Visi-
gothic kingdom,^ already much enfeebled, proved
to be an easy prey. A single battle made the invaders masters
of half of Spain. Within a few years their hosts swept northward
1 See page 330. 2 See page 245.
3 Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis belong to France; Tripoli, to Italy.
* Gibraltar = Gibal al Tarik, "the mountain of Tarik."
6 See pages 244-245.
The Caliphate and its Disruption 379
to the Pyrenees. Only small districts in the northern part of
the Spanish peninsula remained unconquered.
The Moslems were not stopped by the Pyrenees. Crossing
these mountains, they captured many of the old Roman cities
in the south of Gaul and then advanced to the ^j^g Moslem
north, attracted, apparently, by the booty to be advance in
found in Christian monasteries and churches.
In the vicinity of Tours they encountered the great army which
Charles Martel, the chief minister of the Frankish king,^ had
collected to oppose their advance.
The battle of Tours seems to have continued for several
days. Of its details we know nothing, though a Spanish chron-
icler tells us that the heavy infantry of the Franks ^g^i^i^ of
stood "immovable as a wall, inflexible as a block Tours,
732 A D
of ice" against the desperate assaults of the
Moslem horsemen. When the Franks, after the last day's
fighting, wished to renew the struggle, they found that the
enemy had fled, leaving a camp filled with the spoils of war.
This engagement, though famous in history, was scarcely
decisive. For some time afterward the Moslems maintained
themselves in southern Gaul. It was the Frankish ruler,
Pepin the Short, who annexed their possessions there and drove
them back across the Pyrenees to Spain.^
135. The CaUphate and its Disruption, 632-1058 A.D.
Only eighteen years after the battle of Tours, the Arabian
Empire was divided into two rival and more or less hostfle parts,
which came to be called the Eastern and Western _^ ,
The four
caliphates. The title of caliph, meaning "sue- "Orthodox"
cessor " or " representative," had first been assumed gto^gh . j.
by Mohammed's father-in-law, Abu Bekr, who
was chosen to succeed the prophet as the civil and religious
head of the Moslem world. After him followed Omar, who had
been one of Mohammed's most faithful adherents, and then
Othman and Ali, both sons-in-law of Mohammed. These
1 See page 306. ^ por Charlemagne's Spanish conquests, see page 309.
380 Rise and Spread of Islam
four rulers are sometimes known as the ''Orthodox" caliphs,
because their right to the succession was universally acknowl-
edged by Moslems.
After All's death the governor of Syria, Moawiya by name,
succeeded in making himself caliph of the Moslem world.
. This usurper converted the caliphate into a hered-
caliphs at itary, instead of an elective, ofhce, and established
STi^tso^ad ^^^ dynasty of the Ommiads.^ Their capital
was no longer Medina in Arabia, but the Syrian
city of Damascus. The descendants of Mohammed's family
refused, however, to recognize the Ommiads as legitimate
caliphs. In 750 a.d. a sudden revolt, headed by the party of
the Abbasids,^ estabHshed a new dynasty. The Abbasids
treacherously murdered nearly all the members of the Ommiad
family, but one survivor escaped to Spain, where he founded
at Cordova an independent Ommiad dynasty.^ North Africa,
also, before long separated itself from Abbasid rule. Thus
the once united caliphate, like the old Roman Empire, split
in twain.
The Abbasids continued to reign over the Moslems in Asia
for more than three hundred years. The most celebrated of
The Abbasid Abbasid caliphs was Harun-al-Rashid (Aaron
caliphs, the Just), a contemporary of Charlemagne, to
whom the Arab ruler sent several presents, includ-
ing an elephant and a water-clock which struck the hours.
The tales of Harun-al-Rashid 's magnificence, his gold and
silver, his silks and gems, his rugs and tapestries, reflect the
luxurious life of the Abbasid rulers. Gradually, however,
their power declined, and in 1058 a.d. the Seljuk Turks,^ recent
converts to Islam, deprived them of their power. A Turkish
chieftain, with the title of "King of the East and West," then
took the place of the Arabian caliph, though the latter remained
the religious head of Islam. He lost even this spiritual author-
1 So called from a leading family of Mecca, to which Moawiya belonged.
2 So called from Abbas, an uncle of Mohammed.
3 This was at first known as the emirate of Cordova, but in 929 a.d. it became
the caliphate of Cordova. See the map facing page 306.
4 See page 333.
Arabian Civilization 381
ity, just two centuries later, when the Mongols from central
Asia bverran the Turkish dominions. ^
The Abbasids removed their capital from Damascus to
Bagdad on the banks of the middle Euphrates. The new city,
under the fostering care of the caHphs, grew with ^ ^ ^
great rapidity. Its population in the ninth cen-
tury is said to have reached two millions. For a time it was
the largest and richest city in the Moslem world. How its
splendor impressed the imagination may be seen from the
stories of the Thousand and One Nights? After the extinction
of the Abbasid caliphate, its importance as the religious and
pohtical center of Islam declined. But memories of the former
grandeur of Bagdad still cUng to it, and even to-day it is re-
ferred to in Turkish official documents as the "glorious city."
It was a very great misfortune for the eastern world when
the Arabian Empire passed under the control of rude Asiatic
peoples. The Turks accepted Islam, but they Extinction
did httle to preserve and extend Arabian civiliza- °^ *^®
tion. The stagnant, non-progressive condition of Empire a
the East at the present time is largely due to the misfortune
misgovernment of its Turkish conquerors.
136. Arabian Civilization
The great Moslem cities of Bagdad, Damascus, Cairo, and
Cordova were not only seats of government for the different
divisions of the Arabian Empire; they were also r^^^ Arabs
the centers of Arabian civiHzation. The conquests as absorbers
of the Arabs had brought them into contact with
highly developed peoples whose culture they absorbed and
to some extent improved. They owed most to Persia and,
1 See page 485. Descendants of the Abbasids subsequently took up their
abode in Egypt. Through them the claim to the caliphate passed in 1538 a.d.
to the Ottoman Turks. The Sultan at Constantinople still calls himself caliph
of the Moslem world. However, in 1916 a.d. the Grand Sherif of Mecca, a
descendant of Mohammed, led a revolt against the Turks, captured Mecca and
Medina, and proclaimed Arab independence. Should the European war end in
favor of the Allies, the caliphate will undoubtedly go back to the Arabs.
2 Popularly called the Arabian Nights.
382 Rise and Spread of Islam
after Persia, to Greece, through the empire at Constantinople.
In their hands there was somewhat the same fusion of East
and West as Alexander the Great had sought to accomphsh.^
Greek science and philosophy mingled with the arts of Persia
and other Oriental lands. Arabian civilization, for about four
centuries under the Ommiad and Abbasid caliphs, far surpassed
anything to be found in western Europe.
Many improvements in agriculture were due to the Arabs.
They had a good system of irrigation, practiced rotation of
. . , crops, employed fertilizers, and understood how
Agriculture r ^ ^ • ' ri 1
to graft and produce new varieties of plants and
fruits. From the Arabs we have received cotton, flax, hemp,
buckwheat, rice, sugar cane, and coffee, various vegetables,
including asparagus, artichokes, and beans, and such fruits as
melons, oranges, lemons, apricots, and plums.
The Arabs excelled in various manufactures. Damascus
was famous for its brocades, tapestries, and blades of tempered
Manufac- steel. The Moorish cities in Spain had also their
tunng special productions: Cordova, leather; Toledo,
armor; and Granada, rich silks. Arab craftsmen taught the
Venetians to make crystal and plate glass. The work of Arab
potters and weavers was at once the admiration and despair
of its imitators in western Europe. The Arabs knew the
secrets of dyeing and they made a kind of paper. Their textile
fabrics and articles of metal were distinguished for beauty of
design and perfection of workmanship. European peoples
during the early Middle Ages received the greater part of their
manufactured articles of luxury through the Arabs.^
The products of Arab farms and workshops were carried far
and wide throughout medieval lands. The Arabs were keen
merchants, and Mohammed had expressly encour-
Commerce . .
aged commerce by declaring it agreeable to God.
The Arabs traded with India, China, the East Indies (Java
1 See page 126.
2 The European names of some common articles reveal the Arabic sources
from which they were first derived. Thus, damask comes from Damascus, muslin
from Mosul, gauze from Gaza, cordovan (a kind of leather) from Cordova, and
morocco leather from North Africa.
Arabian Civilization 383
and Sumatra), the interior of Africa, Russia, and even with
the Baltic lands. Bagdad, which commanded both land and
water routes, was the chief center of this commerce, but
other cities of western Asia, North Africa, and Spain shared
in its advantages. The bazaar, or merchants' quarter, was
found in every Moslem city.
The trade of the Arabs, their wide conquests, and their
religious pilgrimages to Mecca vastly increased their knowledge
of the world. They were the best geographers of Geographical
the Middle Ages. An Abbasid caliph, the son of knowledge
Harun-al-Rashid, had the Greek Geography of Ptolemy ^ trans-
lated into Arabic and enriched the work with illuminated maps.
Arab scholars compiled encyclopedias describing foreign coun-
tries and peoples, constructed celestial spheres, and measured
closely the arc of the meridian in order to calculate the size of
the earth. There is some reason to believe that the mariner's
compass was first introduced into Europe by the Arabs.
The geographical knowledge of Christian peoples during the
Middle Ages owed much, indeed, to their Moslem fore-
runners.
Schools and universities flourished in Moslem lands when
Christian Europe was still in the "Dark Ages." The largest
institution of learning was at Cairo, where the ^^
^ Education
lectures of the professors were attended by thou-
sands of students. Famous universities also existed in Bag-
dad and Cordova. Moslem scholars especially delighted in
the study of philosophy. Arabic translations of Aristotle's ^
writings made the ideas of that great thinker famihar to the
students of western Europe, where the knowledge of Greek had
all but died out. The Arabs also formed extensive libraries
of many thousands of manuscripts, all carefully arranged and
catalogued. Their libraries and universities, especially in
Spain, were visited by many Christians, who thus became ac-
quainted with Moslem learning and helped to introduce it
into Europe.
The Arabs have been considered to be the founders of modern
1 See page 133. 2 See page 275.
3^4
Rise and Spread of Islam
experimental science. They were relatively skillful chemists,
Chemistry for they discovered a number of new compounds
and medicine (guch as alcohol, aqua regia, nitric acid, and cor-
rosive sublimate) and understood the preparation of mercury
and of various oxides of metals. In medicine the Arabs based
their investigations on those of the Greeks/ but made many
additional contributions to the art of healing. They studied
Interior of the Mosque of Cordova
The great mosque of Cordova, begun in the eighth century, was gradually enlarged during
the following centuries to its present dimensions, 570 by 425 feet. The building, one of the
largest in the world, has now been turned into a cathedral. The most striking feature of the
interior is the forest of porphyry, jasper, and marble pillars supporting open Moorish arches.
Originally there were 1200 of these pillars, but many have been destroyed.
physiology and hygiene, dissected the human body, per-
formed difficult surgical operations, used anaesthetics, and
wrote treatises on such diseases as measles and smallpox.
Arab medicine and surgery were studied by the Christian
peoples of Europe throughout the later period of the Middle
Ages.
The Arabs had a strong taste for mathematics. Here again
they carried further the old Greek investigations. In arith-
1 See page 131.
Arabian Civilization 385
metic they used the so-called "Arabic" figures, which were
probably borrowed from India. The Arabic nu- Mathematics
merals gradually supplanted in western Europe and astron-
the awkward Roman numerals. In geometry the
Arabs added little to EucHd, but algebra is practically their
creation. An Arabic treatise on algebra long formed the text-
book of the subject in the universities of Christian Europe.
Spherical trigonometry and conic sections are Arabic inventions.
This mathematical knowledge enabled the Arabs to make con-
siderable progress in astronomy. Observatories at Bagdad and
Damascus were erected as early as the ninth century. Some of
the astronomical instruments which they constructed, includ-
ing the sextant and the gnomon, are still in use.^
In prose and verse there are two Moslem productions which
have attained wide popularity in European lands. The first
work is the Thousand and One Nights, a collection Romance
of tales written in Arabic and describing life and ^^^ poetry
manners at the court of the Abbasids. The book, as we now
have it, seems to have been composed as late as the fifteenth
century, but it borrows much from earlier Arabic sources.
Many of the tales are of Indian or Persian origin, but all have
a thoroughly Moslem coloring. The second work is the Ru-
bdiydt of the astronomer-poet of Persia, Omar Khayyam, who
wrote about the beginning of the twelfth century. His Rubdiydt
is a little volume of quatrains, about five hundred in all, dis-
tinguished for wit, satirical power, and a vein of melancholy,
sometimes pensive, sometimes passionate. These character-
istics of Omar's poetry have made it widely known in the
western w^orld.^
Painting and sculpture owe little to the Arabs, but their
architecture, based in part on Byzantine and Persian models,
reached a high level of excellence. Swelling domes, vaulted
1 Many words in European languages beginning with the prefix al (the definite
article in Arabic) show how indebted was Europe to the Arabs for scientific knowl-
edge. In EngHsh these words include alchemy (whence chemistry), alcohol, alembic,
algebra, alkali, almanac, Aldebaran (the star), etc.
2 The translation of the Rubdiydt by Edward Fitzgerald is almost an English
classic.
386
Rise and Spread of Islam
Architecture
roofs, arched porches, tall and graceful minarets, and the exqui-
site decorative patterns known as ''arabesques" make many
Arab buildings miracles
of beauty. Glazed tiles,
mosaics, and jeweled glass were ex-
tensively used for ornamentation.
From the first the Arab builders
adopted the pointed arch; they in-
troduced it into western Europe; and
it became a characteristic feature of
Gothic cathedrals.^ Among the best-
known of Arab buildings are the
so-called ''Mosque of Omar" at
Jerusalem, 2 the Great Mosque of
Cordova, and that architectural gem,
the Alhambra at Granada. Many
features of Moorish art were taken
over by the Spaniards, who repro-
duced them in the cathedrals and
missions of Mexico and California.
Capitals and Arabesques
FROM THE Alhambra
One of Mohammed's laws for-
bidding the use of idols was sub-
sequently expanded by religious
teachers into a prohibition of all
imitations of human or animal
forms in art. Sculptors who ob-
served this prohibition relied for
ornamentation on intricate geo-
metrical designs known as ara-
besques. These were carved in
stone or molded in plaster.
137. The Influence of Islam
The division of the Arabian Em-
pire into rival caliphates did not check
Growth of the spread of Islam.
Islam 'phe Turks and Mongols
during the Middle Ages carried it to the uttermost regions of
Asia and throughout southeastern Europe. Some parts of the
territory thus gained by it have since been lost. Spain and
the Balkan peninsula are once more Christian lands. In other
parts of the world, and notably in Africa and India, the rehgion
of Mohammed is spreading faster than any other creed. Islam
to-day claims about two hundred million adherents.
The growth of Islam is evidence that it meets the needs of
Asiatic and African peoples. Its simple creed — the unity of
God, man's immortal soul, and material rewards and penal-
1 See page 564. 2 See the illustration, page 471.
FOUNTAIN OF THE LIONS IN THE ALHAMBRA
The most remarkable feature of the Alhambra is the Court of the Lions. It measures ii6
feet in length by 66 feet in breadth. A gallery supported on marble columns surrounds the
court. In the center is the Fountain of Lions, an alabaster basin resting on the backs of 12
marble lions.
The Influence of Islam 387
ties in a future life — adapt it to the understanding of half-
civilized peoples. As a religion it is immeasurably The benefits
superior to the rude nature worship and idolatry ^^ ^^^^^
which it has supplanted. The same is true of Islam as a system
of morality. The practice of the virtues recommended by the
Koran and the avoidance of the vices which that book condemns
tend to raise its adherents in the moral scale.
From the moral standpoint one of the least satisfactory fea-
tures of Islam is its attitude toward women. The ancient
Arabs, like many other peoples, seem to have set Treatment
no limit to the number of wives a man might °^ women
possess. Women were regarded by them as mere chattels, and
female infants were frequently put to death. Mohammed
recognized polygamy, but limited the . number of legitimate
wives to four. At the same time Mohammed sought to improve
the condition of women by forbidding female infanticide, by .
restricting the faciUties for divorce, and by insisting on kind
treatment of wives by their husbands. ''The best of you,"
he said, "is he who behaves best to his wives." According to
eastern custom Moslem women are secluded in a separate part
of the house, called the harejn.^ They never appear in public,
except when closely veiled from the eyes of strangers. Their
education is also much neglected.
Slavery, like polygamy, was a custom w^hich Mohammed
found fully established among the Arabs. He disliked slavery
and tried in several w^ays to lessen its evils. He y
declared that the emancipation of Moslem slaves ^
was an act of special merit, and ordered that in a war between
Moslems the prisoners were not to be enslaved. Mohammed
also insisted on kind treatment of slaves by their masters.
"Feed your slaves," he directed, "with food of that which you
eat and clothe them with such clothing as you wear, and com-
mand them not to do that which they are unable to do."
The condition of Moslem slaves does not appear to be in-
tolerable, though the slave traffic which still exists in some
parts of Africa is a disgrace to Islam.
1 The Athenians had a similar practice. See page 257.
388 Rise and Spread of Islam
studies
I. On an outline map indicate the Arabian Empire at its widest extent. Lo-
cate the more important cities, including Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus,
Bagdad, Cairo, Alexandria, Granada, Cordova, and Seville. 2. Define the follow-
ing: Kaaba; Islam; Koran; and caliph. 3. How did the geographical situation
of Arabia preserve it from being conquered by Persians, Macedonians, or Romans?
4. Why had the Arabs, until the time of Mohammed, played so inconspicuous
a part in the history of the world? 5. ^Moharrtaied "began as a mule driver and
ended as both a pope and a king." Explain this statement. 6. How does Moham-
med's career in Mecca illustrate the saying that "a prophet is not without honor
save in his own country"? 7. What resemblances may be traced between Islam on
the one side and Judaism and Christianity on the other side? 8. Did religion have
anything to do with the migrations of the Germans? How was it with the Arabs?
9. Contrast the methods of propagating Christianity in Europe with those of spread-
ing Islam in Asia. 10. Why is the defeat of the Moslems before Constantinople re-
garded as more significant than their defeat at the battle of Tours? 11. Compare
the eastern limits of the Arabian Empire with those of Alexander's empire (maps
facing pages 1 24, 376) . 12. Show that the Arabian Empire, because of its geographi-
cal position, was less easily defended than the Roman Empire. 13. Locate on
the map facing page 376 the following commercial cities in the Arabian Empire:
Samarkand; Cabul; Bokhara; Mosul; Kairwan; Fez; Seville; and Toledo. 14. Can
you suggest any reason why the Arabs did little in painting and sculpture? 15.
What are some of the best-knowTi stories in the Thousand and One Nights? 16. Dis-
cuss the justice of this statement: "If our ideas and our arts go back to antiquity,
all the inventions which make life easy and agreeable come to us from the Arabs."
17. "From the eighth to the twelfth century the world knew but two civilizations,
that of Byzantium and that of the Arabs." Comment on this statement. 18. Show
that Islam was an heir to the Graeco-Oriental civilization. 19. Can you suggest
any reasons why Islam to-day spreads among the African negroes more rapidly than
Christianity? 20. How does Islam, by sanctioning polygamy and slavery, hinder
the rise of women and of the working classes?
CHAPTER XVII
THE NORTHMEN AND THE NORMANS TO 1066 A.D/
138. Scandinavia and the Northmen
From the East we return once more to the West, from Asia
to Europe, from Arabia to Scandinavia. We have now to deal
with the raids and settlements of the Norsemen a new series
or Northmen. Like the Arabs the Northmen °^ migrations
quitted a sterile peninsula and went forth to find better homes
in distant lands. Their invasions, beginning toward the close
of the eighth century, lasted about three hundred years.
The Northmen belonged to the Teutonic family of peoples.
They were kinsmen of the Germans, the Anglo-Saxons, and
the Dutch. Their migrations may be regarded, a Teutonic
therefore, as the last wave of that great Teutonic movement
movement which in earlier times had inundated western Europe
and overwhelmed the Roman Empire.
The Northmen lived, as their descendants still live, in Den-
mark, Sweden, and Norway.
The name Scandinavia is some-
times applied to „
^^ . Scandinavia
all three countries,
but more commonly it is re-
stricted to the peninsula com-
prising Sweden and Norway.
Sweden, with the exception
of the northern highlands, is mostly a level region, watered
by copious streams, dotted with many lakes, and
sinking down gradually to the Baltic Sea and
the Gulf of Bothnia. The fact that Sweden faces these inland
waters determined the course of her development as a nation.
1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter vii, "The Saga
of a Viking"; chapter viii, "Alfred the Great"; chapter ix, "William the Conqueror
and the Normans in England."
389
Swedish Rock Carving
Shows a man plowing.
390
The Northmen and the Normans
She never has had any aspirations to become a great oceanic
power. Her whole historic life has centered about the Baltic.
Norway, in contrast to Sweden, faces the Atlantic. The
country is little more than a strip of rugged seacoast reach-
ing northward to well within the Arctic Circle.
Were it not for the influence of the " Gulf Stream
drift," much of Norway w^ould be a frozen waste for the
greater part of the year. Vast forests of fir, pine, and birch
still cover the greater part of
the country, and the land
which can be used for farming
and grazing does not exceed
eleven per cent of the entire
area. But Norway, like
Greece,^ has an extent of
shore-line out of all propor-
tion to its superficial area.
So numerous are the fiords,
or inlets of the sea, that the
total length of the coast
approximates twelve thousand
miles. Slight wonder that the
Vikings,^ as they called them-
selves, should feel the lure of
the ocean and should put forth
in their frail barks upon the
"pathway of the sw^ans" in
search of booty and adventure.
The Swedes and Norwegians, together with their kinsmen,
the Danes, probably settled in Scandinavia long before the
Prehistoric beginning of the Christian era. During the
times in earlier part of the prehistoric period the inhab-
Scandinavia .^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^-^ .^^ ^^^ g^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^
bronze, and then of iron, was gradually introduced. Excava-
A Runic Stone
A stone, twelve feet high and six feet wide,
in the churchyard of Rok, Ostergotland, Swe-
den. The runic inscription, which contains
more than 760 letters, is the longest known.
1 See page 67.
2 The word perhaps comes from the old Norse vik, a bay, and means "one who
dwells by a bay or fiord." Another meaning assigned to Viking is "warrior."
Scandinavia and the Northmen 391
tions in ancient grave mounds have revealed implements of the
finest polished stone, beautiful bronze swords, and coats of
iron ring mail, besides gold and silver ornaments which may-
have been imported from southern Europe. The ancient
Scandinavians have left to us curious records of the past in
their picture writing chiseled on the flat surface of rocks. The
objects represented include boats with as many as thirty men
in them, horses drawing two-wheeled carts, spans of oxen,
farmers engaged in ploughing, and warriors on horseback.
By the close of the prehistoric period the northern peoples were
also familiar with a form of the Greek alphabet (the " runes "^)
and with the art of writing.
139. The Viking Age
The Viking Age, with which historic times begin in northern
Europe, extends from about 800 a.d. to the introduction of
Christianity in the tenth and eleventh centuries, j^awn of his-
This was the period when the Northmen, or tory in
Vikings, realizing that the sea offered the quickest ^^^
road to wealth and conquest, began to make long voyages to
foreign lands. In part they went as traders and exchanged
the furs, wool, and fish of Scandinavia for the clothing, orna-
ments, and other articles of luxury found in neighboring coun-
tries. But it was no far cry from merchant to freebooter, and,
in fact, expeditions for the sake of plunder seem to have been
even more popular with the Northmen than peaceful commerce.
Whether the Northmen engaged in trade or in warfare, good
ships and good seamanship were indispensable to them. They
became the boldest sailors of the early Middle jj^^ jnQrth-
Ages. No longer hugging the coast, as timid men as
mariners had always done before them, the North-
men pushed out into the uncharted main and steered their course
only by observation of the sun and stars. In this way the
Northmen were led to make those remarkable explorations in
the Atlantic Ocean and the polar seas which added so greatly
to geographical knowledge.
1 See the illustration, page 240.
392 The Northmen and the Normans
It was not uncommon for a Viking chieftain, after his days
of sea-roving had ended, to be buried in his ship, over which
Ships of the a grave chamber, covered with earth, would be
Northmen erected. The discovery of several of these burial
ships enables us to form a good idea of Viking vessels. The
largest of them might reach a length of seventy feet and hold as
A Viking Shiip
The Gokstad vessel is of oak, twenty-eight feet long and six-
teen feet broad in the center. It has seats for sixteen pairs of
rowers, a mast for a single sail, and a rudder on the right or
starboard side. The gunwale was decorated with a series of
shields, painted alternately black and gold. TJiis ship, which
probably dates from about goo a.d., was found on the shore of
Christiania Fiord. A still larger ship, of about the same date, was
taken in 1904 a.d. from the grave of a Norwegian queen at Ose-
berg. With the queen had been buried a four-wheeled wagon,
three sleighs, three beds, two chests, a chair, a large loom, and va-
rious kitchen utensils, in fact everything needed for her comfort
in the other world.
many as one hundred and twenty men. A fleet of the North-
men, carrying several thousand warriors, mail-clad and armed
with spears, swords, and battle-axes, was indeed formidable.
During this period the Northmen were the masters of the sea,
as far as western Europe was concerned. This fact largely
explains their successful campaigns.
A very important source of information for the Viking Age
consists of the writings called sagas. ^ These naratives are in
prose, but they were based, in many instances,
on the songs which the minstrels (skalds) sang to
appreciative audiences assembled at the banqueting board of a
Viking chieftain. It was not until the twelfth and thirteenth
1 The word is derived from old Norse segya, "to say"; compare German sagen.
The Viking Age 393
centuries that the sagas were committed to writing. This
was done chiefly in Iceland, and so it happens that we must
look to that distant island for the beginnings of Scandinavian
literature.
The sagas belong to different classes. The oldest of them
relate the deeds of Viking heroes and their families. Others
deal with the lives of Norwegian kings. Some of subject
the most important sagas describe the explora- matter of the
tions and settlements of the Northmen and hence ^^^^^
possess considerable value as historical records.
The sagas throw much light on the character of the Northmen.
Love of adventure and contempt for the quiet joys of home
comes out in the description of Viking chiefs, ^j^^ ^oj-th-
who "never sought refuge under a roof nor emptied men as seen
their drinking-horns by a hearth." An immense "^ ^ ^^^^^
love of fighting breathes in the accounts of Viking w^arriors,
"who are glad when they have hopes of a battle; they will
leap up in hot haste and ply the oars, snapping the oar-thongs
and cracking the tholes." The undaunted spirit of Viking
sailors, braving the storms of the northern ocean, expresses
itself in their sea songs: "The force of the tempest assists the
arms of our oarsmen; the hurricane is our servant, it drives
us whithersoever wx wish to go." The sagas also reveal other
characteristics of the Northmen: a cruelty and faithlessness
which made them a terror to their foes; an almost barbaric
love of gay clothing and ornament; a strong sense of public
order, giving rise to an elaborate legal system; and even a
feehng for the romantic beauty of their northern home, with
its snow-clad mountains, dark forests of pine, sparkling w^ater-
falls, and deep, blue fiords.
It is to the Viking Age also that w^e owe the composition of
the poems going by the name of the Elder Edda. These poems,
as well as the prose sagas, were collected and Eddaic
arranged in Iceland during the later Middle Ages, po^ms
The Elder Edda is a storehouse of old Norse mythology. It
forms our chief source of knowledge concerning Scandinavian
heathenism before the introduction of Christianity.
394 The Northmen and the Normans
140. Scandinavian Heathenism
The religion of the Northmen bore a close resemblance to
that of the other Teutonic peoples. The leading deity was
The god Odin (German Woden), whose exploits are cele-
^^^ brated in many of the songs of the Elder Edda.
Odin was represented as a tall, gray-bearded chieftain, carrying
a shield and a spear which never missed its mark. Though a
god of battle, Odin was also a lover of wisdom. He discovered
the runes which gave him secret knowledge of all things. Legend
told how Odin killed a mighty giant, whose body was cut into
pieces to form the world: the earth was his flesh, the water
his blood, the rocks his bones, and the heavens his skull. Having
created the world and peopled it with human beings, Odin
retired to the sacred city of Asgard, where he reigned in company
with his children.
Enthroned beside Odin sat his oldest son, Thor (German
Thunor), god of thunder and lightning. His weapon, the
The god thunderbolt, was imagined as a hammer, and was
"^^0^ especially used by him to protect gods and men
against the giants. The hammer, when thrown, returned to
his hand of its own accord. Thor also possessed a belt
of strength, which, when girded about him, doubled his
power.
Many stories were told of Thor's adventures, when visiting
Jotunheim, the abode of the giants. In a drinking-match he
Thor's deeds tried to drain a horn of liquor, not knowing that
of strength ^^^ ^^^ Qf ^j^^ hoYU reached the sea, which w^as
appreciably lowered by the god's huge draughts. He sought
to lift from the ground a large, gray cat, but struggle as he might,
could raise only one of the animal's feet. What Thor took for
a cat, however, was really the Midgard serpent, which, with
its tail in its mouth, encircled the earth. In the last trial of
strength Thor wrestled with an old woman, and after a vio-
lent contest was thrown down upon one knee. But the hag
was in truth relentless old age, who sooner or later lays
low all men.
Scandinavian Heathenism 395
Most beautiful and best beloved of the Scandinavian divinities
was Odin's son, Balder. He was represented as a gentle deity
of innocence and righteousness. As long as he Myth of
lived, evil could gain no real control in the world balder
and the power of the gods would remain unshaken. To pre-
serve Balder from all danger his mother Frigga required every-
thing on earth to swear never to harm her son. Only a single
plant, the mistletoe, did not take the oath. Then the traitor
Loki gathered the mistletoe and came to an assembly where
the gods were hurling all kinds of missiles at Balder, to show that
nothing could hurt him. Loki asked the blind Hoder to throw
the plant at Balder. Hoder did so, and Balder fell dead. The
gods tried to recover him from Hel, the gloomy underworld,
but Hel demanded as his ransom a tear from every living
creature. Gods, men, and even things inanimate wept for
Balder, except one cruel giantess — Loki in disguise — who
would not give a single tear. She said, "Neither living nor
dead was Balder of any use to me. Let Hel keep what
it has."
Disasters followed Balder's death. An immense fire burned
up the world and the human race. The giants invaded Asgard
and slaughtered its inhabitants. Odin fell a "Twilight of
victim to the mighty wolf Fenris. Thor, having *^® Gods"
killed the Midgard serpent, was suffocated with the venom
which the dying monster cast over him. The end of all things
arrived. This was the catastrophe which had been predicted
of old — the "Twilight of the Gods."
Besides the conception of Hel, the Northmen also framed
the idea of Valhalla,^ the abode to which Odin received the
souls of those who had died, not ingloriously in
their beds, but on the field of battle. A troop
of divine maidens, the Valkyries,^ rode through the air on Odin's
service to determine the issue of battles and to select brave
warriors for Valhalla. There on the broad plains they fought
with one another by day, but at evening the slayer and the
1 "Hall of the slain."
2 "Choosers of the slain."
39<^
The Northmen and the Normans
slain returned to Odin's hall to feast mightily on boar's flesh
and drink deep draughts of mead.
As with most heathen religions that of the Northmen was
full of terrors. Their lively imagination peopled the world
with many strange figures; Fiends
Supernatural and monsters inhab-
beings ii-e^ ti^g marshes,
giants lived in the dark forest,
evil spirits haunted all solitary
places, and ghosts stalked over
the land by night. The use of
charms and spells to guard against
such creatures passed over into
Christian times. Their memory
also survives in folk tales, which
are full of allusions to giants,
dwarfs, goblins, and other super-
natural beings.
Christianity first gained a foot-
hold in Denmark through the work
of Roman Catholic missionaries
sent out by Charle-
magne's son, Louis
the ?ious.^ Two cen-
turies elapsed before the Danes
were completely converted. From
A door from a church in Iceland; Denmark the ncw faith Spread to
date, tenth or eleventh century. The o j tvt i 'j.
iron knob is inlaid with silver. The SwcdcU. Norway OWCd itS COU-
slaying of a dragon is represented above versioU largely tO the CrUSadiug
and below is shown the Midgard ser- i r t^- rM r / /:
^^ work of Kmg Olaf (1010-1029
A.D.), whose zeal for Christianity
won him the title of Olaf the Saint. The Norwegians carried
Christianity to Iceland, where it supplanted the old heathenism
in the year 1000 a.d. With the general adoption of the
Christian religion in Scandinavian lands, the Viking Age
drew to an end.
1 See page 312.
Christianiza-
tion of the
Northmen
Norse Metal Work
Museum, Copenhagen
The Northmen in the West 397
141. The Northmen in the West
The Northmen were still heathen when they set forth on their
expeditions of plunder and conquest. Doubtless the principal
cause of this Viking movement is to be sought in causes of
the same hunger for land which prompted the the Viking
Germanic invasions and, in fact, has led to colonial °^°'^®°^®^
expansion in all ages. By the ninth century Scandinavia could
no longer support its rapidly growing population, and enforced
emigration was the natural consequence. The political con-
dition of Scandinavia at this time also helps to explain the
Viking expansion. Denmark and Norway had now become
strong kingdoms, whose rulers forced all who would not sub-
mit to their sway to leave the country. Thus it resulted
that the numbers of the emigrants were swelled by exiles,
outlaws, and other adventurers who* turned to the sea in
hope of gain.
The Northmen started out as pirates and fell on the coasts
of England, France, and Germany. In their shallow boats
they also found it easy to ascend the rivers and Raids of the
reach places lying far inland. The Northmen Northmen
directed their attacks especially against the churches and
monasteries, which were full of treasure and less easily defended
than fortified towns. Their raids inspired such great terror
that a special prayer was inserted in the church services:
''From the fury of the Northmen, good Lord, deliver us."
At first the incursions of the Northmen took place only in
summer, but before long they began to winter in the lands which
they visited. Year by year their fleets became ^^^ North-
larger, and their attacks changed from mere forays men in
of pirates to well-organized expeditions of conquest S(?oUand
and colonization. Early in the ninth century and the
we find them making permanent settlements in *^^ ^
Ireland, and for a time bringing a considerable part of that
country under their control. The first cities on Irish soil,
including Dublin and Limerick, were founded by the Northmen.
Almost simultaneously with the attacks on Ireland came those
398
The Northmen and the Normans
on the western coast of Scotland. In the course of their
westward expeditions the Northmen had aheady discovered
the Faroe Islands, the Orkneys, the Shetlands and the Hebrides.
These barren and inhospitable islands received large numbers
of Norse immigrants and long remained under Scandinavian
control.
men in
Iceland
Discoveries of the Northmen in the West
The Northmen soon discovered Iceland, where Irish monks
had previously settled. Colonization began in 874 a.d.^ One
The North- ^^ ^^^ most valuable of the sagas — the "Book of
the Land-taking" — describes the emigration to
the island and enumerates the Viking chiefs who
took part in the movement. Iceland soon became almost a
second Norway in language, literature, and customs. It
remains to-day an outpost of Scandinavian civilization.
The first settlement of Greenland was the work of an Ice-
1 The Icelanders in 1874 a.d. celebrated the thousandth anniversary of the
Scandinavian settlement of their island.
I
The Northmen in the West 399
lander, Eric the Red, who reached the island toward the end
of the tenth century. He called the country ^j^^ North-
Greenland, not because it was green, but because, men in
as he said, "there is nothing like a good name to
attract settlers." Intercourse between Greenland and Iceland
was often dangerous, and at times was entirely interrupted by
ice. Leif Ericsson, the son of Eric the Red, estabhshed a new
route of commerce and travel by sailing from Greenland to
Norway by way of the Hebrides. This was the first voyage
made directly across the Atlantic. Norway and Greenland
continued to enjoy a flourishing trade for several centuries.
After the connection with Norway had been severed, the Green-
landers joined the Eskimos and mingled with that primitive
people.
Two of the sagas give accounts of a voyage which Leif Erics-
son about 1000 A.D. made to regions lying southward from
Greenland. In the sagas they are called Hellu- j^e North-
land (stone-land), Markland (wood-land), and men in
Vinland. Just what part of the coast of North
America these countries occupied is an unsolved problem, Leif
Ericsson and the Greenlanders who followed him seem to have
reached at least the shores of Labrador, Newfoundland, and
Nova Scotia. They may have gone even farther southward,
for the sagas describe regions where the climate was mild enough
for wild vines and wild wheat to grow. The Northmen, how-
ever, did not follow up their explorations by lasting settlements.
Before long all memory of the far western lands faded from the
minds of men. The curtain fell on the New World, not again
to rise until the time of Columbus and Cabot.
142. The Northmen in the East
In the Viking movement westward across the Atlantic the
Norwegians took the leading part. They also sailed far north-
ward, rounding the North Cape and reaching the Arctic ex-
mouth of the Dwina River in the White Sea. oMhe^'North-
Viking sailors, therefore, have the credit for under- men
taking the first voyages of exploration into the Arctic.
400 The Northmen and the Normans
The Swedes, on account of their geographical position,
were naturally the most active in expeditions to eastern lands.
The North- ^^ ^ ^^^^ early date they crossed the Gulf of
men in Bothnia and paid frequent visits to Finland. Its
*° rude inhabitants, the Finns, were related in lan-
guage, and doubtless in blood also, to the Huns, Magyars, and
other Asiatic peoples. Sweden ruled Finland throughout the
Middle Ages. Russia obtained control of the country during
the eighteenth century, but Swedish influence has made it
largely Scandinavian in civilization.
The activities of the Swedes also led them to establish settle-
ments on the southern shore of the Baltic and far inland along
The North- ^^^ waterways leading into Russia. An old
men in Russian chronicler declares that in 862 a.d. the
Slavs sent an embassy to the Swedes, whom they
called ''Rus," saying, "Our country is large and rich, but there
is no order in it ; come and rule over us." The Swedes were not
slow to accept the invitation. Their leader, Ruric, estabHshed
a dynasty which reigned in Russia for more than seven hundred
years. ^
The first Russian state centered in the city of Novgorod,
near Lake Ilmen, where Ruric built a strong fortress.^ Nov-
Novgorod gorod during the Middle Ages was an important
and Kiev station on the trade route between Constantinople
and the Baltic. Some of Ruric's followers, passing southward
along the Dnieper River, took possession of the small town of
Kiev. It subsequently became the capital of the Scandinavian
possessions in Russia.
The Northmen in Russia maintained close intercourse with
their mother country for about two centuries. During this
Scandinavian pe^*iod they did much to open up northeastern
influence in Europe to the forces of civilization and progress.
ussia Colonies were founded, -cities were built, commerce
was fostered, and a stable government was established. Russia
1 Russia in 1862 a.d. celebrated the millenary of her foundation by Ruric.
2 The Norse word for "fort" is preserved in the gorod of Novgorod.
The Northmen in the East 401
under the sway of the Northmen became for the first time a
truly European state.
Having penetrated the wilds of Russia, it was comparatively
easy for the Northmen to sail down the Russian rivers to the
Black Sea and thence to Constantinople. Some The North-
of them went as raiders and several times devas- nien and
. the Roman
tated the neighborhood of Constantmople, until Empire in
bought off by the payment of tribute.^ Many *^® ^^^*
Northmen also joined the bodyguard of the eastern emperor
and saw service under his standard in different parts of the
Mediterranean.
During the reign of Vladimir, a descendant of Ruric, the
Christian religion gained its first foothold in Russia. We are
told that Vladimir, having made up his mind to Christianity
embrace a new faith, sent commissioners to Rome in Russia,
988 A D
and Constantinople, and also to the adherents
of Islam and Judaism. His envoys reported in favor of the
Greek Church, for their barbarian imagination had been so
impressed by the majesty of the ceremonies performed in
Sancta Sophia that "they did not know whether they were on
earth or in heaven." Vladimir accepted their report, ordered
the idols of Kiev to be thrown into the Dnieper, and had him-
self and his people baptized according to the rites of the
Greek Church. At the same time he married a sister of the
reigning emperor at Constantinople.
Vladimir's decision to adopt the Greek form of Christianity
is justly regarded as one of the formative influences in Russian
history. It meant that the Slavs were to come ^
•^ . Importance
under the religious influence of Constantinople, of the con-
instead of under that of Rome. Furthermore, version of
.... . Russia
it meant that Byzantine civilization, then in-
comparably superior to the rude culture of the western
peoples, would henceforth gain an entrance into Russia.
The country profited by this rich civilization and during
the early part of the Middle Ages took a foremost place
in Europe.
1 See page 335.
402 The Northmen and the Normans
143. Normandy and the Normans
No part of western Europe suffered more severely from the
Northmen than France. They first appeared on the French
Charlemagne ^oast toward the end of Charlemagne's reign. A
and the well-known legend relates that the emperor, from
the window of his palace, once saw the dark
sails of the Vikings and wept at the thought of the misery
which these daring pirates would some day inflict upon
his realm.
After Charlemagne's death the wars of his grandsons left
the empire defenseless, and the Northmen in consequence
The North- redoubled their attacks. They sailed far up the
men in Seine, the Loire, and the Garonne to plunder and
ranee murder. Paris, then a small but important city,
lay in the path of the invaders and more than once suffered at
their hands. The destruction by the Northmen of many
monasteries was a loss to civilization, for the monastic estab-
lishments at this time were the chief centers of learning and
culture.^
The heavy hand of the Northmen also descended on Germany.
The rivers Scheldt, Meuse, Rhine, and Elbe enabled them to
The North- proceed at will into the heart of the country,
men in Liege, Cologne, Strassburg, Hamburg, and other
ermany great Frankish cities fell before them. Viking
raiders even plundered Aachen and stabled their horses in the
church which Charlemagne had built there.^ Thus the ancient
homeland of the Franks was laid completely waste.
The history of the Northmen in France began in 911 a.d.,
when the Carolingian king granted to a Viking
the grant of chieftain, Rollo, dominion over the region about
9ii^^D^^' ^^^ lower Seine. Rollo on his part agreed to
accept Christianity and to acknowledge the French
ruler as his lord. It is said, however, that he would not kneel
and kiss the king's foot as a mark of homage, and that the
follower who performed the unwelcome duty did it so awk-
1 See page 358. 2 See the illustration, page 310.
Normandy and the Normans 403
wardly as to overturn the king, to the great amusement of the
assembled Northmen. The story illustrates the Viking sense
of independence.
The district ceded to Rollo developed into what in later
times was known as the duchy of Normandy. Its Scandinavian
settlers, henceforth called Normans,^ soon became Duchy of
French in language and culture. It was amazing Normandy
to see how quickly the descendants of wild sea-rovers put off
their heathen ways and made their new home a Christian land,
noted for its churches, monasteries, and schools. Normandy
remained practically independent till the beginning of the
thirteenth century, when a French king added it to his
possessions.^
The Normans helped to found the medieval French monarchy.
During the tenth century the old Carolingian hne of rulers,
which had already died out in Germany and Italy, ^
1 • T. A 1 -^ The Nor-
came also to an end in France. A new dynasty mans and
was then founded by a nobleman named Hugh Hugh Capet,
987 A.D.
Capet, who secured the aid of the powerful Norman
dukes in his efforts to gain the throne. The accession of Hugh
Capet took place in 987 a.d. His descendants reigned over
France for almost exactly eight hundred years.^
144. Conquest of England by the Danes; Alfred
the Great
Even before Egbert of Wessex succeeded in uniting all the
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms,^ bands of Vikings, chiefly from Den-
mark, had made occasional forays on the English England
coast. Egbert kept the Danes at bay, but he died overrun by
in 839 A.D., and from that time the real invasion * ^ ^^^^
of England began. The Danes came over in large numbers,
1 "Norman" is a softened form of "Northman."
2 In 191 1 A.D. Normandy celebrated in the ancient capital of Rouen the thou-
sandth anniversary of its existence.
3 See pages 315, 317.
* The abolition of the French monarchy dates from 1792 a.d., when Louis XVI
was deposed from the throne.
B See page 320.
404
The Northmen and the Normans
Alfred the Great
A lofty, bronze statue by H. Thor-
neycraft set up at Winchester, Alfred's
ancient capital. It was dedicated in
igoi A.D. on the thousandth anniver-
sary of his death. The inscription
reads:
"Alfred found learning dead,
And he restored it;
Education neglected.
And he revived it;
The laws powerless,
And he gave them force;
The Church debased.
And he raised it;
The land ravaged by a fear-
ful enemy,
From which he delivered it."
made permanent setUements, and
soon controlled all England north
of the Thames.
Wessex before long experienced
the full force of the Danish attack.
The country at this time was
King Alfred ^^^^d by Alfred, the
and the grandson of Egbert.
^^""^^ Alfred came to the
throne in 871 a.d., when he was
only about twenty-three years old.
In spite of his youth, he showed
himself the right sort of leader
for the hard-pressed West Saxons.
For several years fortune favored
the Danes. Then the tide turned.
Issuing from the marshes of Som-
ersetshire, where he had ralUed
his dispirited troops, Alfred sud-
denly fell on the enemy and
gained a signal success. The
beaten Danes agreed to make
peace and to accept the religion
of their conquerors.
Alfred's victory did not end
the war. Indeed, almost to the
end of his reign, the heroic king
had to face the Vik-
ings, but he always
drove them off and even recovered
some of the territory north of the
Thames. The EngHsh and Danes
finally agreed to a treaty dividing
the country between them. The
eastern part of England, where
the invaders were firmly estab-
lished, came to be called the Dane-
The Danelaw
Conquest of England by the Danes 405
ENGLAND UNDER
ALFRED THE GREAT
Scale of English Miles
OLY ISLE
disfarne)
6 10 20^ 30 60
EXPLANATION
English ^^
Dane. ^
Welsh I 1
Longitude West 2 from Greenwich
4o6
The Northmen and the Normans
Civilizing
activities of
Alfred
law, because here the Danish, and not the Anglo-Saxon, 'law
prevailed. In the Danelaw the Danes have left memorials
of themselves in local names ^ and in the bold, adventurous
character of the inhabitants.
It was a well-nigh ruined country which Alfred had now to
rule over and build up again. His work of restoration invites
comparison with that of Charlemagne.
Alfred's first care was to
organize a fighting force
always ready at his call
to repel invasion. He also created an
efficient fleet, which patrolled the
coast and engaged the Vikings on
their own element. He had the laws
of the Anglo-Saxons collected and re-
duced to writing, taking pains at the
same time to see that justice was
done between man and man. He did
much to rebuild the ruined churches
and monasteries. Alfred labored with
especial diligence to revive education
among the English folk. His court
at Winchester became a literary
center where learned men wrote and
taught. The king himself mastered
Latin, in order that he might translate Latin books " into
the English tongue. So great were Alfred's services in this
direction that he has been called "the father of Enghsh
prose."
Alfred alone of Enghsh rulers bears the title of ''the Great."
He well deserves it, not only for what he did but for what he
Alfred's was. Through the mists of ten centuries his
character figure still looms large. It is the figure of a brave,
patient, and modest man, who wore himself out in the service
of his people. The oft-quoted words which he added to one of
1 The east of England contains more than six hvindred names of towns ending
in hy (Danish "town"); compare by-law, originally a law for a special town.
Alfred's Jewel
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford
A jewel of blue enamel inclosed
in a setting of gold, with the
words around it " Alfred had me
wrought." Found at Athelney in
the seventeenth century.
Conquest of England by the Danes 407
his translations form a fitting epitaph to this noble king: ''My
wish was to live worthily as long as I lived, and after my life
to leave to them that should come after, my memory in good
works." His wish has been fulfilled.
About seventy-five years after Alfred's death the Danes
renewed their invasions. It then became necessary to buy
them off with an annual tribute called the Dane- From Alfred
geld. Early in the eleventh century Canute, the *® *^® ^°^"
son of a Danish king, succeeded in establishing quest, 90i-
himself on the English throne (10 16-103 5 a.d.). ^^^^ '^•^•
His dynasty did not last long, however, and at length the old
West-Saxon line was restored in the person of Edward the
Confessor (or "the Saint"). Edward had spent most of his
early hfe in Normandy, and on coming to England brought
with him a large following of Normans, whom he placed in
high positions. During his reign (1042-1066 a.d.) Norman
nobles and churchmen gained a foothold in England, thus
preparing the way for the Norman conquest of the country.
145. Norman Conquest of England; William
the Conqueror
Edward the Confessor having left no direct heirs, the choice
of his successor fell lawfully upon the Witenagemot,^ as the
national assembly of noblemen and higher clergy Harold and
was called. This body chose as king, Harold, William
earl of Wessex, the leading man in England. Harold's right
to the succession was disputed by William, duke of Normandy,
who declared that the crown had been promised to him by his
cousin, the Confessor. William also asserted that Harold had
once sworn a solemn oath, over a chest of sacred relics, to sup-
port his claim to the throne on Edward's death. When word
came of Harold's election, William wrathfully denounced him
as a usurper and began to prepare a fleet and an army for the
invasion of England.
1 "Meeting of wise men." The word gemot or moot was used for any kind of
formal meeting.
4o8
The Northmen and the Normans
Normandy under Duke William had become a powerful,
well-organized state. Norman knights, attracted by promises
■William's of wide lands and rich booty, if they should con-
preparations quer, formed the core of WiUiam's forces. Adven-
turers from every part of France, and even from Spain and
Italy, also entered his service. The pope blessed the enter-
prise and sent to William a ring containing a hair from St.
Peter's head and a consecrated banner. When all was ready
in the late fall of 1066 a.d., a large fleet, bearing five or six
thousand archers, foot soldiers, and horsemen, crossed the Chan-
nel and landed in England.
A Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry
Museum of Bayeux, Normandy
The Bayeux Tapestry, which almost certainly belongs to the time of the Norman Con-
quest, is a strip of coarse linen cloth, about 230 feet long by 20 inches wide, embroidered in
worsted thread of eight different colors. There are seventy-two scenes picturing various
events in the history of the Norman Conquest. The illustration given above represents an
attack of Norman cavalry on the English shield wall at the battle of Hastings.
WiUiam at first met no resistance. Harold was far away in
the north fighting against the Norwegians, who had seized the
Battle of opportunity to make another descent on the English
Hastings, coast. Harold defeated them decisively and then
' • hurried southward to face his new foe. The two
armies met near Hastings on the road to London. All day they
fought. The stout English infantry, behind their wall of shields,
threw back one charge after another of the Norman knights.
Again and again the duke rallied his men and led them where
the foe was thickest. A cry arose that he was slain. 'T Uve,"
Norman Conquest of England
409
4IO The Northmen and the Normans
shouted William, tearing off his helmet that all might see his
face, "and by God's help will conquer yet." At last, with the
approach of evening, Harold was killed by an arrow; his
household guard died about him; and the rest of the Enghsh
took to flight. William pitched his camp on the field of victory,
and "sat down to eat and drink among the dead."
The battle of Hastings settled the fate of England. Fol-
lowing up his victory with relentless energy, William pressed
William be- on to London. That city, now practically the
comes king capital of the country, opened its gates to him.
The Witenagemot, meeting in London offered the throne to
WilHam. On Christmas Day, 1066 a.d., in Westminster Ab-
bey the duke of Normandy was crowned king of England.
What manner of man was William the Conqueror? Tall of
stature, endowed with tremendous strength, and brave even
William's to desperation, he seemed an embodiment of the
personality q[(^ Viking spirit. "No knight under heaven,"
men said truly, "was William's peer." A savage temper and a
harsh, forbidding countenance made him a terror even to his
closest followers. "So stern and wrathful was he," wrote an
Enghsh chronicler, "that none durst do anything against his
will." Though Wilham never shrank from force or fraud,
from bloodshed or oppression, to carry out his ends, he yet
showed himself throughout his reign a patron of learning, a
sincere supporter of the Church, and a statesman of remarkable
insight. He has left a lasting impress on English history.
146. Results of the Norman Conquest
The coming of the Normans to England formed the third
and last installment of the Teutonic invasion,
ment in the Norman merchants and artisans followed Norman
English soldiers and settled particularly in the southern
^^°^ ^ and eastern parts of the island. They seem to
have emigrated in considerable numbers and doubtless added
an important element to the English population. The Nor-
mans thus completed the work of the Anglo-Saxons and Danes
in making England a Teutonic country.
Results of the Norman Conquest 411
It must be remembered, however, that the Normans in
Normandy had received a considerable intermixture of French
blood and had learned to speak a form of the French „
Norman ele-
language (Norman-French). In England Norman- ment in the
French naturally was used by the upper and ruhng English
classes — by the court, the nobihty, and the
clergy. The English held fast to their own homely language,
but could not fail to pick up many French expressions, as they
mingled with their conquerors in churches, markets, and other
places of public resort. It took about three hundred years for
French words and phrases to soak thoroughly into their speech.
The result was a very large addition to the vocabulary of
English. 1
Until the Norman Conquest England, because of its insular
position, had remained out of touch wdth Continental Europe.
William the Conqueror and his immediate sue- xjnion of
cessors were, however, not only rulers of England, England and
but also dukes of Normandy and subjects of the ^^^^^ y
French kings. Hence the union of England with Normandy
brought it at once into the full current of European affairs.
The country became for a time almost a part of France and
profited by the more advanced civilization which had arisen
on French soil. The nobility, the higher clergy, and the officers
of government were Normans. The architects of the castles
and churches, the lawyers, and the men of letters came from
Normandy. Even the commercial and industrial classes were
largely recruited from across the Channel.
The Norman Conquest much increased the pope's authority
over England. The English Church, as has been shown,^
was the child of Rome, but during the Anglo- England
Saxon period it had become more independent and the
of the Papacy than the churches on the Con- ^^^^^
tinent. William the Conqueror, whose invasion of Eng-
land took place with the pope's approval, repaid his
obligation by bringing the country into closer dependence
on the Roman pontiff.
1 See page 556. 2 See page 325.
412 The Northmen and the Normans
Although the Normans settled in England as conquerors,
yet after all they were near kinsmen of the English and did not
Fusion of ^^^S keep separate from them. In Normandy a
English and century and a half had been enough to turn the
Northmen into Frenchmen. So in England, at
the end of a Hke period, the Normans became Englishmen.
Some of the qualities that have helped to make the modern
English a great people — their love of the sea and fondness for
adventure, their vigor, self-reliance, and unconquerable spirit —
are doubtless derived in good part from the Normans.
147. Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily
The conquest of England, judged by its results, proved to
be the most important undertaking of the Normans. But
Norman during this same eleventh century they found
expansion another field in which to display their energy
southward ^^^ daring. They turned southward to the
Mediterranean and created a Norman state in Italy and
Sicily.
The unsettled condition of Italy ^ gave the Normans an
opportunity for interference in the affairs of the country. The
Conquests founding of Norman power there was largely the
of Robert work of a noble named Robert Guiscard (''the
uiscar Crafty"), a man almost as celebrated as William
the Conqueror. He had set out from his home in Normandy
with only a single follower, but his valor and shrewdness soon
brought him to the front. Robert united the scattered bands
of Normans in Italy, who w^ere fighting for pay or plunder,
and wrested from the Roman Empire in the East its last ter-
ritories in the peninsula. Before his death (1085 a.d.) most
of southern Italy had passed under Norman rule.
Robert's brother, Roger,, crossed the strait of Messina and
Roger began the subjugation of Sicily, then a Moslem
Guiscard's possession. Its recovery from the hands of "infi-
conquests ^els" was considered by the Normans a work
both pleasing to God and profitable to themselves. By the
1 See page 317.
Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily 413
close of the eleventh century they had finally established their
rule in the island.
The conquests of the Normans in southern Italy and Sicily
were united into a single state, which came to be known as
the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The Normans Kingdom
governed it for only about one hundred and fifty of the
years, but under other rulers it lasted until the ^^ ^^ ®^
middle of the nineteenth century, when the present kingdom of
Italy came into existence.
The kingdom of the Two Sicilies was well-governed, rich,
and strong. Art and learning flourished in the cities of Naples,
Salerno, and Palermo. Southern Italy and Sicily Gorman
under the Normans became a meeting-point of culture in
Byzantine and Arabic civilization. The Norman * ® °^*
kingdom formed an important channel through which the
wisdom of the East flowed to the North and to the West.
148. The Normans in European History
The conquests of the Normans in England, Italy, and Sicily
were effected after they had become a Christian and a French-
speaking people. In these lands they were the Norman
armed missionaries of a civilization not their faculty of
own. The Normans, indeed, invented httle and * *Pt*tio^
borrowed much. But, like the Arabs, they were more than
simple imitators. In language, literature, art, religion, and
law what they took from others they improved and then spread
abroad throughout their settlements.
It seems at first sight remarkable that a people who occu-
pied so much of western Europe should have passed away.
Normans as Normans no longer exist. They Assimilation
lost themselves in the kingdoms which they of the
founded and among the peoples whom they sub-
dued. Their rapid assimilation was chiefly the consequence
of their small numbers: outside of Normandy they were too
few long to maintain their identity.
If the Normans themselves soon disappeared, their influence
was more lasting. Their mission, it has been well said, was
414. The Northmen and the Normans
to be leaders and energizers of society — ''the little leaven
Norman that leaveneth the whole lump." The peoples of
influence medieval Europe owed much to the courage and
martial spirit, the genius for government, and the reverence
for law, of the Normans. In one of the most significant move-
ments of the Middle Ages — the crusades — they took a prom-
inent part. Hence we shall meet them again.
Studies
I. What events are associated with the following dates: 988 A.D.; 862 a.d.;
1066 A.D.; 1000 A.D.; and 987 a.d.? 2. What was the origin of the geographical
names Russia, Greenland, Finland, and Normandy? 3. Mention some of the
striking physical contrasts between the Arabian and Scandinavian peninsulas.
4. Why has the Baltic Sea been called a "secondary Mediterranean"? 5. How
does it happen that the gulf of Finland is often frozen over in winter, while
even the northernmost of the Norse fiords remain open? 6. Why is an acquaint-
ance with Scandinavian mythology, literature, and history especially desirable
for EngUsh-speaking peoples? 7. What is meant by the "berserker's rage"?
8. What names of our weekdays are derived from the names of Scandinavian
deities? 9. Compare the Arab and Scandinavian conceptions of the future state
of departed warriors. 10. What is meant by "sea-power"? What people possessed
it during the ninth and tenth centuries? 1 1 . Compare the invasions of the North-
men with those of the Germans as to (a) causes, (b) area covered, and (c) results.
12. What was the significance of the fact that the Northmen were not Christians
at the time when they began their expeditions? 13. Show how the voyages of the
Northmen vastly increased geographical knowledge. 14. Show that the Russian
people have received from Constantinople their writing, rehgion, and art. 15.
Mention three conquests of England by foreign peoples before 1066 a.d. Give for
each conquest the results and the approximate date. 16. On the map, page 405,
trace the boundary Kne between Alfred's possessions and those of the Danes. 17.
Compare Alfred and Charlemagne as civilizing kings. 18. Compare Alfred's
cession of the Danelaw with the cession of Normandy to RoUo. 19. Why is Hast-
ings included among "decisive"" battles? 20. "We English are not ourselves but
somebody else." Comment on this statement. 21. What is meant by the "Nor-
man graft upon the sturdy Saxon tree"? 22. What settlements of the Northmen
most influenced European history? 23. Compare the Norman faculty of adapta-
tion with that of the Arabs.
CHAPTER XVIII
FEUDALISM
149. Rise of Feudalism
The ninth century in western Europe was, as we have learned,^
a period of violence, disorder, and even anarchy. Charlemagne
for a time had arrested the disintegration of society
which resulted from the invasions of the Germans,
and had united their warring tribes under something like a cen-
tralized government. But his work, it has been well said, was
only a desperate rally in the midst of confusion. After his death
the CaroKngian Empire, attacked by the Northmen and other
invaders and weakened by civil conflicts, broke up into separate
kingdoms.
Charlemagne's successors in France, Germany, and Italy
enjoyed httle real authority. They reigned, but did not rule.
Under the conditions of the age, it was impossible Decline of
for a king to govern with a strong hand. The the royal
absence of good roads or of other easy means of
communication made it difficult for him to move troops quickly
from one district to another, in order to quell revolts. Even
had good roads existed, the lack of ready money would have
prevented him from maintaining a strong army devoted to his
interests. Moreover, the king's subjects, as yet not welded
into a nation, felt toward him no sentiments of loyalty and
affection. They cared far less for their king, of whom they
knew little, than for their own local lords who dwelt near
them.
'^ The decline of the royal authority, from the ninth century
onward, meant that the chief functions of govern- increased
ment would be more and more performed by the power of the
nobles, who were the great landowners of the king-
dom. Under Charlemagne these men had been the king's ofii- ,
1 See page 312.
415
^
416 Feudalism
cials, appointed by him and holding office at his pleasure.
Under his successors they tended to become almost independent
princes. In proportion as this change was accomplished during
the Middle Ages, European society entered upon the stage of
feudalism.^
Feudalism in medieval Europe was not a unique develop-
ment. Parallels to it may be found in other parts of the world.
Parallels to Whenever the state becomes incapable of protect-
European ing Hfe and property, powerful men in each locahty
will themselves undertake this duty; they will
assume the burden of their own defense and of those weaker
men who seek their aid. Such was the situation in ancient
Egypt for several hundred years, in medieval Persia, and in
modern Japan until about two generations ago.
European feudalism arose and flourished in the three coun-
tries which had formed the Carohngian Empire, that is, in
Extent of France, Germany, and northern Italy. It also
European spread to Bohemia, Hungary, and the Christian
states of Spain. Toward the close of the eleventh
century the Normans transplanted it into England, southern
Italy, and Sicily. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
the crusaders introduced it into the kingdoms which they
founded in the East.^ Still later, in the fourteenth century,
the Scandinavian countries became acquainted with feudalism.
Throughout this wide area the institution, though varying end-
lessly in details, presented certain common features.
150. Feudalism as a System of Local Government
The basis of feudal society was usually the landed estate.
Here lived the feudal noble, surrounded by dependents over
Feudal whom he exercised the rights of a petty sovereign,
sovereignty jjg could tax them; he could require them to give
him military assistance; he could try them in his courts. A
1 The word has nothing to do with "feuds," though these were common enough
in feudal times. It comes from the medieval Latin Jeudum, from which are derived
the French fief and the EngUsh fee.
2 See pages 472, 478.
Feudalism as a System of Local Government 417
great noble, the possessor of many estates, even enjoyed
the privilege of declaring war, making treaties, and coining
money. How, it will be asked, did these rights and privileges
arise?
Owing to the decay of commerce and industry, land had be-
come practically the only form of wealth in the early Middle
Ages. The king, who in theory was absolute feudal
owner of the soil, would pay his officials for their tenure of
services by giving them the use of a certain amount
of land. In the same way one who had received large estates
would parcel them out among his followers, in return for their
support. Sometimes an unscrupulous noble might seize the
lands of his neighbors and compel them to become his tenants.
Sometimes, too, those who owned land in their own right might
surrender the title to it in favor of a noble, who then became
their protector.
An estate in land which a person held of a superior lord,
on condition of performing some ''honorable" service, was
called a fief. At first the tenant received the fief ^^ ^ ^
Tne fief
only for a specified term of years or for his life-
time; but in the end it became inheritable. On the death
of the tenant his eldest son succeeded him in possession.
This right of the first-born son to the whole of the father's
estate was known as primogeniture.^ If a man had no legal
heir, the fief went back to its lord.
The tie which bound the tenant who accepted a fief to the
lord who granted it was called vassalage. Every holder of
land was the vassal of some lord. At the apex of __ ,
^ Vassalage
the feudal pyramid stood the king, the supreme
landlord, who was supposed to hold his land from God; below
the king stood the greater lords (dukes, marquises, counts, and
barons), with large estates; and below them stood the lesser
lords, or knights, whose possessions were too small for further
subdivision.
1 The practice of primogeniture has now been abolished by the laws of the
various European countries and is not recognized in the United States. It still
prevails, however, in England.
41 8 Feudalism
The vassal, first of all, owed various services to the lord. In
time of war he did garrison duty at the lord's castle and joined
Personal ^^^ ^^ military expeditions. In time of- peace
services of the vassal attended the lord on ceremonial occa-
sions, gave him the benefit of his advice, when
required, and helped him as a judge in trying cases.
Under certain circumstances the vassal was also compelled to
make money payments. When a new heir succeeded to the
The vassal's ^^^' ^^^ ^^^^ received from him a sum usually
money equivalent to one year's revenue of the estate.
paymens ^j^.^ payment was called a "relief." Again, if a
man sold his fief, the lord demanded another large sum from the
purchaser, before giving his consent to the transaction. Vassals
were also expected to raise money for the lord's ransom, in case
he was made prisoner of war, to meet the expenses connected
with the knighting of his eldest son, and to provide a dowry for
his eldest daughter. Such exceptional payments went by the
name of "aids."
The vassal, in return for his services and payments, looked to
the lord for the protection of life and property. The lord agreed
The lord's ^^ secure him in the enjoyment of his fief, to guard
duty to the him against his enemies, and to see that in all
matters he received just treatment. This w^as no
slight undertaking.
The ceremony of homage ^ symbolized the whole feudal rela-
tionship. One who proposed to become a vassal and hold a
fief came into the lord's presence, bareheaded
Homage
and unarmed, knelt dow^n, placed his hands between
those of the lord, and promised henceforth to become his "man."
The lord then kissed him and raised him to his feet. After the
ceremony the vassal placed his hand upon the Bible or upon
sacred relics and swore to remain faithful to his lord. This
was the oath of '* fealty." The lord then gave the vassal
some object — a stick, a clod of earth, a lance, or a glove —
in token of the fief with the possession of which he was now
"invested."
1 Latin homo, "man,"
I
Feudal Justice 419
It is clear that the feudal method of land tenure, coupled
with the custom of vassalage, made in some degree for security
and order. Each noble was attached to the lord ^ , ,
Feudal
above him by the bond of personal service and the government a
oath of fidelity. To his vassals beneath him he ^^^^y*^ ^""^
was at once protector, benefactor, and friend.
Unfortunately, feudal obligations were far less strictly observed
in practice than in theory. Both lords and vassals often broke
their engagements, when it seemed profitable to do so. Hence
they had many quarrels and indulged in constant warfare.
But feudahsm, despite its defects, was better than anarchy.
The feudal lords drove back the pirates and hanged the brigands
and enforced the laws, as no feeble king could do. They pro-
vided a rude form of local government for a rude society.
151. Feudal Justice
Feudahsm was not only a system of local government; it
was also a system of local justice. Knights, barons, counts,
and dukes had their separate courts, and the king peudaHsm as
had his court above all. Cases arising on the a system of
lord's estate were tried before him and the vassals
whom he called to his assistance in giving justice. Since most
wrongs could be atoned for by the payment of a fine, the con-
duct of justice on a large fief produced a considerable income.
The nobles, accordingly, regarded their judicial rights as a
valuable -property, which they were loath to surrender to the
state.
The law followed in a feudal court was largely based on old
Germanic customs. The court did not act in the public interest,
as with us, but waited until the plaintiff requested judicial ad-
its service. Moreover, until the case had been ministration
decided, the accuser and the accused received the same treat-
ment. Both were imprisoned; and the plaintiff who lost his
case suffered the same penalty which the defendant, had he
been found guilty, would have undergone.
Unlike a modern court, again, the feudal court did not require
the accuser to prove his case by calling witnesses and having
420 Feudalism
them give testimony. The burden of proof lay on the accused,
„, , who had to clear himself of the charge, if he
The oath , , ^ ^ ^ , . , . ^ '
could do so. In one form of trial it was enough
for him to declare his innocence under oath, and then to bring
in several ''oath-helpers," sometimes relatives, but more often
neighbors, who swore that they believed him to be telling the
truth. The number of these ^'oath-helpers" varied according
to the seriousness of the crime and the rank of the accused.
This method w^as hardly as unsatisfactory as it seems to be, for
a person of evil reputation might not be able to secure the
required number of friends who would commit perjury on his
behalf. To take an oath was a very soliemn proceeding; it
was an appeal to God, by which a man called down on himself
divine punishment if he swore falsely.
The consequences of a fal§e oath were not apparent at once.
Ordeals, however, formed a method of appealing to God, the
results of which could be immediately observed.
A common form of ordeal was by fire. The
accused walked barefoot over live brands, or stuck his hand into
a flame, or carried a piece of red-hot iron for a certain distance.
In the ordeal by hot water he plunged his arm into boiling water.
A man established his innocence through one of these tests, if
the wound healed properly after three days. The ordeal by cold
water rested on the belief that pure water would reject the crim-
inal. Hence the accused was thrown bound into a stream: if
he floated he was guilty; if he sank he was innocent and had to
be rescued. Though a crude method of securing justice, ordeals
were doubtless useful in many instances. The real culprit
would often prefer to confess, rather than incur the anger of
God by submitting to the test.
A form of trial which especially appealed to the warlike nobles
was the judicial duel.^ The accuser and the accused fought
The judicial with each other; and the conqueror w^on the case.
^^^^ God, it w^as believed, would give victory to the
innocent party, because he had right on his side. When one
1 Sir Walter Scott's novel, Ivanhoe (chapter xliii), contains an account of a
judicial duel.
Feudal Justice
421
of the adversaries could not fight, he secured a champion to
take his place. Though the judicial duel finally went out of
use in the law courts, it still continued to be employed pri-
vately, as a means
of settling disputes
which involved a
man's honor. The
practice of dueling is
only now dying out
in civilized communi-
ties.
Oaths, ordeals, and
duels formed an in-
heritance from Ger-
manic
antiqui-
ty.^ They offered a
sharp contrast to
Roman law, which
acted in the public
interest, balanced evi-
dence, and sought only
to get at the truth.
After the middle of the twelfth century the revival of the study
of Roman law, as embodied in Justinian's code,^ led gradually
to the abandonment of most forms of appeal to the judgment
of God. At the same time the kings grew powerful enough
to take into their own hands the administration of justice.
Feudal and
Roman law
Trial by Combat
From a manuscript of the fifteenth century.
The
152. Feudal Warfare
Feudalism, once more, was a system of local defense,
knight must guard his small estate, the baron his
barony, the count his county, the duke his duchy.
At the lord's bidding the vassal had to follow
him to war, either alone or with a certain num-
ber of men, according to the size of the fief. But this assist
1 See page 326. . * See page 331.
Feudalism
as a system
of local
defense
422
Feudalism
The feudal
army
ance was limited. A vassal served only for a definite period
(varying from one month to three in the year), and then only
within a reasonable distance from the lands for which he did
homage. These restrictions made it difficult to conduct a
lengthy campaign, or one far removed from the vassal's fief,
unless mercenary soldiers were employed.
The feudal army, as a rule, consisted entirely of cavalry.
Such swiftly moving assailants as the Northmen and the Mag-
yars could best be dealt
with by mounted men
who could
bring them to
bay, compel them to fight,
and overwhelm them by
the shock of the charge.
In this way the foot sol-
diers of Charlemagne's
time came to be replaced
by the mailed horsemen
who for four centuries or
more dominated European
battlefields.
The armor used in the
Middle Ages was grad-
ually perfected, until at length the knight became a Hving
fortress.^ In the early feudal period he wore a cloth or leather
Arms and tunic covered with iron rings or scales, and an
armor jj-qj^ ^.g^p ^j^-jj ^ose guard. About the beginning
of the twelfth century he adopted chain mail, with a hood of
the same material for the head. During the fourteenth century
the knight began to wear heavy plate armor, weighing fifty
pounds or more, and a helmet with a visor which could be
raised or lowered. Thus completely incased in metal, pro-
vided with shield, lance, straight sword or battle-ax, and
mounted on a powerful horse, the knight could ride down
almost any number of poorly armed peasants. Not till the
1 See the illustrations, pages 408, 421, 422, 473.
Mounted Knight
Seal of Robert Fitzwalter, showing a mounted
knight in complete mail armor; date about 1265 a.d.
Feudal Warfare 423
development of missile weapons — the longbow, and later
the musket — did the foot soldier resume his importance
in warfare. The feudal age by this time was drawing to
a close.
The nobles regarded the right of waging w^ar on one another
as their most cherished privilege. Fighting became almost a
form of business enterprise, which enriched the prevalence
lords and their retainers through the sack of castles, of private
the plunder of villages, and the ransom of prisoners.
Every hill became a stronghold and every plain a battlefield.
Such neighborhood warfare, though rarely very bloody, spread
terrible havoc throughout the land.
The Church, to its great honor, Hfted a protesting voice
against this evil. It proclaimed a "Peace of God" and forbade
attacks on all defenseless people, including priests, j^ie Peace
monks, pilgrims, merchants, peasants, and women, and Truce
But it was found impossible to prevent the feudal
lords from warring with each other, even though they w^ere
threatened with the eternal torments of Hell; and so the Church
tried to restrict what it could not altogether aboHsh. A "Truce
of God" was established. All men were to cease fighting from
Wednesday evening to Monday morning of each week, during
Lent, and on various holy days. The truce w^ould have given
Christendom peace for about tw^o hunded and forty days each
year; but it seems never to have been strictly observed except
in limited areas.
As the power of the kings increased in western Europe, they
naturally sought to put an end to the constant fighting between
their subjects. The Norman rulers of Normandy, Abolition
England, and Sicily restrained their turbulent of private
nobles with a strong hand. Peace came later ^^
in most parts of the Continent; in Germany, "fist right"
(the rule of the strongest) prevailed until the end of the
fifteenth century. The abolition of private war was the
first step in Europe toward universal peace. The second
step — the abolition of pubHc war between nations — is yet
to be taken.
424
Feudalism
153. The Castle and Life of the Nobles
The outward mark of feudalism was the castle,^ where the lord
resided and from which he ruled his fief. In its earliest form
A High Angle To wen 'KSntrance Gale S. Gate /rom Escarpm ent
^^ Smaller SideTov^er "L.Counterscarpe "V.T. Flanking Towers
C.CD.D. Corner Tower "N.Aee/) V. Outer Towers,
^.Outer Enceiplefirlower Court N. Escarpment ^.Connecting Wal/
F- WW/ O. Poste.rn Tower ^ Stockade in River
Cj.li,Bui/dmg% in LowerCouri P. Postern Gate ZZ GreatDitches.
1. Moat KiR-ParapetWa/is
Plan of Chateau Gaillard
The plan is intended to represent that of a typical castle, as
the plan of Kirkstall Abbey represents that of a typical monastery.
the castle was simply a wooden blockhouse placed on a mound
Develop- ^^^ surrounded by a stockade. About the begin-
mentofthe ning of the twelfth century the nobles began to
castle h\i\\d in stone, which would better resist fire and the
assaults of besiegers. A stone castle consisted at first of a single
tower, square or round, with thick walls, few windows, and often
iThe French form of the word is chateau.
The Castle and Life of the Nobles
425
with only one room to each story.^ As engineering skill in-
creased, several towers were built and were then connected
by outer and inner walls. The castle thus became a group of
fortifications, which might cover a wide area.
MW^\^i
PlEKREFONDS
^^'^ mk
A castle near Paris, built about 1400 a.d. by a brother of the king of
France. It was dismantled in 1632 a.d., but was carefully restored in the
nineteenth century by order of Napoleon III. The exterior faithfully re-
produces the appearance of a medieval fortress.
Defense formed the primary purpose of the castle. Until
the introduction of gunpowder and cannon, the only siege
engines employed were those known in ancient The castle
times. They included machines for hurling heavy as a fortress
stones and iron bolts, battering rams, and movable towers,
from which the besiegers crossed over to the walls. Such
engines could best be used on firm, level ground. Consequently,
a castle would often be erected on a high cliff or hill, or on an
island, or in the center of a swamp. A castle without such nat-
ural defenses would be surrounded by a deep ditch (the "moat"),
usually filled with water. If the besiegers could not batter
down or undermine the massive walls, they adopted the slower
method of a blockade and tried to starve the garrison into
1 A good example is the "White Tower," which forms a part of the Tower of
London. It was built by William the Conqueror. See the illustration, page 498.
Chateau Gaillard (Restored)
The finest of all medieval castles. Located on a high hill overlooking the Seine, about
twenty miles from Rouen. Built by Richard the Lion-hearted within a twelvemonth
(1197-1198 A.D.) and by him called " Saucy Castle." It was captured a few years later
by the French king, Philip Augustus, and was dismantled early in the seventeenth century.
The castle consisted of three distinct series of fortifications, besides the keep, which in
this case was merely a strong tower.
The Castle and Life of the Nobles
427
surrendering. But ordinarily a well-built, well-provisioned
castle was impregnable. Behind its frowning battlements even
a petty lord could defy a royal army.
A visitor to a medieval castle crossed the drawbridge over
the moat and approached the narrow doorway, which was pro-
tected by a tower on each side. If he was admitted, a castle
the iron grating ("portcuUis") rose slowly on its described
creaking pulleys, the heavy, wooden doors swung open, and he
found himself in the courtyard commanded by the great central
tower ("keep"), where the
lord and his family Hved,
especially in time of war.
At the summit of the keep
rose a platform whence the
sentinel surveyed the coun-
try far and wide; below,
two stories underground,
lay the prison, dark, damp,
and dirty. As the visitor
walked about the court-
yard, he came upon the
hall, used as the lord's
King and Jester
From a manuscript of the early fifteenth century.
residence in time of peace, the armory, the chapel, the kitchens,
and the stables. A spacious castle might contain, in fact, all
the buildings necessary for the support of the lord's servants
and soldiers.
The medieval castle formed a good fortress, but a poor home.
Its small rooms, Hghted only by narrow windows, heated only
by fireplaces, badly ventilated, and provided with ^^^ ^^g^j^
little furniture, must have been indeed cheerless, as a
Toward the close of the feudal period, when life
became more luxurious, the castle began to look less like a dun-
geon. Windows were widened and provided with panes of
painted glass, walls were hung with costly tapestries, and floors
were covered with thick Oriental rugs. The nobles became
attached to their castle homes and often took their names from
those of their estates.
residence
428 Feudalism
Life within the castle was very dull. There were some games,
especially chess, which the nobles learned from the Moslems.
Amusements Banqueting, however, formed the chief indoor
of the nobles amusement. The lord and his retainers sat down
to a gluttonous feast and, as they ate and drank, watched the
pranks of a professional jester or hstened to the songs and music
of ministrels or, it may be, heard with wonder the tales of far-
off countries brought by some returning traveler. Outside
castle walls a common sport was hunting in the forests and game
preserves attached to every estate. Deer, bears, and wild
boars were hunted with hounds; for smaller animals trained
hawks, or falcons, were employed. But the nobles, as we have
just seen, found in fighting their chief outdoor occupation and
pastime. "To play a great game" was their description of a
battle.
154. Knighthood and Chivalry
The prevalence of warfare in feudal times made the use of
arms a profession requiring special training. A nobleman's
A rentice- ^^^ served for a number of years, first as a page,
ship of the then as a squire, in his father's castle or in that of
^^^^* some other lord. He learned to manage a horse,
to climb a scaUng ladder, to wield sword, battle-ax, and lance.
He also waited on the lord's table, assisted him at his toilet,
followed him in the chase, and attended him in battle. This
apprenticeship usually lasted from five to seven years.
When the young noble became of age, he might be made a
knight, if he deserved the honor and could afford the expense.
Conferring of The ceremony of conferring knighthood was often
knighthood most elaborate. The candidate fasted, took a
bath — the symbol of purification — and passed the eve of his
admission in prayer. Next morning he confessed his sins, went
to Mass, and listened to a sermon on the duties of knighthood.
This ended, his father, or the noble who had brought him up,
girded him with a sword and gave him the "accolade," that is,
a blow on the neck or shoulder, at the same time saying, "Be
thou a good knight." Then the youth, clad in shining armor
Knighthood and Chivalry
429
and wearing golden spurs, mounted his horse and exhibited his
skill in warlike exercises. If a squire for valorous conduct
received knighthood on the battlefield, the accolade by stroke
of the sword formed the only ceremony.
Falconry
From a manuscript of the thirteenth century in the Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris.
In course of time, as manners softened and Christian teach-
ings began to affect feudal society, knighthood developed into
chivalry. The Church, which opposed the warlike
excesses of feudalism, took the knight under her
wing and bade him be always a true soldier of Christ. To the
rude virtues of fidehty to one's lord and bravery in battle, the
Church added others. The "good knight" was he who re-
spected his sworn word, who never took an unfair advantage of
another, who defended women, widows, and orphans against
their oppressors, and who sought to make justice and right
prevail in the world. Chivahy thus marked the union of
pagan and Christian virtues, of Christianity and the profession
of arms.
Needless to say, the " good knight " appears rather in romance
than in sober history. Such a one was Sir Lancelot, in the
stories of King Arthur and the Round Table.^ As The Chival-
Sir Lancelot Hes in death, a former companion ^^^ ^°^®
addresses him in words which sum up the best in the chivalric
1 See page 560.
430
Feudalism
code: '"Thou wert the courdiest knight that ever bare shield;
and thou wert the truest friend to thy lover that ever bestrode
horse; and thou wert the truest lover among sinful men that
ever loved woman; and thou wert the kindest man that ever
struck with sword; and thou wert the goodliest person that
ever came among press of knights; and thou wert the meekest
man, and the gentlest, that ever ate in hall among ladies; and
thou wert the sternest knight to thy mortal foe that ever put
spear in the rest.'" ^
The all-absorbing passion for fighting led to the invention of
mimic warfare in the shape of jousts and tournaments.^ These
Jousts and exercises formed the medieval equivalent of the
tournaments Greek athletic games and the Roman gladiatorial
shows. The joust was a contest between two knights; the tour-
nament, between two bands of knights. The contests took
place in a railed-off space, called the "lists," about which the
spectators gathered. Each knight wore upon his helmet the
scarf or color of his lady and fought with her eyes upon him.
Victory went to the one who unhorsed his opponent or
broke in the proper manner the greatest number of lances.
The beaten knight forfeited horse and armor and had to pay
a ransom to the conqueror. Sometimes he lost his life, espe-
cially when the participants fought with real weapons and not
with blunted lances and pointless swords. The Church now
and then tried to stop these performances, but they remained
universally popular until the close of the Middle Ages.
Chivalry arose with feudalism, formed, in fact, the religion of
Influence of feudaHsm, and passed away only when the changed
chivalry conditions of society made feudalism an anachro-
nism.^ While chivalry lasted, it produced some improvement in
1 Malory, Morte d'Arthur, xxi, 13. See also Tennyson's poem, Sir Galahad,
for a beautiful presentation of the ideal knight.
2 Sir Walter Scott's novel, Ivanhoe (chapter xii), contains a description of a
tournament.
« Don Quixote, by the Spanish writer, Cervantes (1547-1616 a.d.), is a famous
satire on chivalry. Our American "Mark Twain" also stripped off the gilt and
tinsel of chivalry in his amusing story entitled A Connecticut Yankee at the Court of
King Arthur.
I
Feudalism as a System of Local Industry 431
manners, particularly by insisting on the notion of personal
honor and by fostering greater regard for women (though only
for those of the upper class). Our modern notion of the con-
duct befitting a ''gentleman" goes back to the old chivalric
code. Chivalry expressed, however, simply the sentiments of
the warlike nobles. It was an aristocratic ideal. The knight
despised and did his best to keep in subjection the toiling
peasantry, upon whose backs rested the real burden of feudal
society.
155. Feudalism as a System of Local Industry
Under the Roman Empire western Europe had been filled
with flourishing cities.^ The Germanic invasions led to a gradual
decay of trade and manufacturing, and hence of DecUne of
the cities in which these activities centered. As urban life
urban hfe declined, the mass of the population came to live more
and more in isolated rural communities. This was the great
economic feature of the early Middle Ages.
The introduction of feudalism fostered the movement from
town to country, for feudahsm, as has been shown, rested on
the soil as its basis. The lord, his family, his ser- FeudaUsm
vants, and his retainers were supported by the ^^ "^^ ^^®
income from landed property. The country estate of a lord
was known as a manor.
A manor naturally varied in size, according to the wealth of
its lord. In England perhaps six hundred acres represented the
extent of an average estate. Every noble had at ^^
^ ■' The manor
least one manor; great nobles might have several
manors, usually scattered throughout the country; and even
the king depended on his many manors for the food supply of
the court. England, during the period following the Norman
Conquest, contained more than nine thousand of these manorial
estates.^
1 See page 208.
2 According to Domesday Book (see page 499) there were 9250 manors, of
which William the Conqueror possessed 1422. His manors lay in about thirty
counties.
X
[|(lli]ii!ilillJiM^
Farm Work in the Fourteenth Century
Plowing. Harrowing. Cutting Weeds. Reaping.
Feudalism as a System of Local Industry 433
Of the arable land of the manor the lord reserved as much
as needful for his own use. The lord's land was called his '
"demesne," or domain. The rest of the land he „
' Common
allotted to the peasants who were ms tenants, cultivation of
They cultivated their holdings in common. A the arable y
farmer, instead of having his land in one compact
mass, had it split up into a large number of small strips (usually
about half an acre each) scattered over the manor, and separated,
not by fences or hedges, but by banks of unplowed turf. The
appearance of a manor, when under cultivation, has been likened
to a vast checkerboard or a patchwork quilt. ^ The reason for
the intermixture of strips seems to have been to make sure that
each farmer had a portion both of the good land and of the bad.
It is obvious that this arrangement compelled all the peasants
to labor according to a common plan. A man had to sow the
same kinds of crops as his neighbors, and to till and reap them
at the same time. Agriculture, under such circumstances,
could not fail to be unprogressive.
In other ways, too, agriculture was very backward. Farmers
did not know how to enrich the soil by the use of fertilizers
or how to provide for a proper rotation of crops. Farming
Hence each year they cultivated only two-thirds methods
of the land, letting the other third lie "fallow" (uncultivated),
that it might recover its fertihty. It is said that eight or nine
bushels of grain represented the average yield of an acre. Farm
animals were small, for scientific breeding had not yet begun.
A full-grown ox reached a size scarcely larger than a calf of
to-day, and the fleece of a sheep often weighed less than two
ounces. Farm implements were few and clumsy. The wooden
ploughs only scratched the ground. Harrowing was done with
a hand implement little better than a large rake. Grain was
cut with a sickle, and grass was mown with a scythe. It took
five men a day to reap and bind the harvest of two acres.
Besides his holding of farm land, which in England averaged
about thirty acres, each peasant had certain rights over the
^ This "open field" system of agriculture, as it is usually called, still survives in
some parts of Europe. See the plan of Hitchin Manor, page 435.
434 Feudalism
non-arable land of the manor. He could cut a limited amount
Common use ^^ ^^^ from the meadow. He could turn so many
of the non- farm animals — cattle, geese, swine — on the waste.
arable an jj^ ^^^^ enjoyed the privilege of taking so much
wood from the forest for fuel and building purposes. A
peasant's holding, which also included a house in the vil-
lage, thus formed a complete outfit.
156. The Village and Life of the Peasants
The peasants on a manor lived close together in one or more
villages. Their small, thatch-roofed, and one-roomed houses
A village would be grouped about an open space (the
described ''green"), or on both sides of a single, narrow
street. The only important buildings were the parish church,
the parsonage, a mill, if a stream ran through the manor, and
possibly a blacksmith's shop. The population of one of these
villages often did not exceed one hundred souls.
Perhaps the most striking feature of a medieval village was
its self-sufficiency. The inhabitants tried to produce at home
A village as everything they required, in order to avoid the
self-sufficing uncertainty and expense of trade. The land gave
them their food; the forest provided them with wood for houses
and furniture. They made their own clothes of flax, wool, and
leather. Their meal and flour were ground at the village mill,
and at the village smithy their farm implements were manu-
factured. The chief articles which needed to be brought from
some distant market were salt, used to salt down farm animals
killed in autumn, iron for various tools, and millstones. Cattle,
horses, and surplus grain also formed common objects of ex-
change between manors.
Life in a medieval village was rude and rough. The peasants
labored from sunrise to sunset, ate coarse fare, lived in huts.
Hard lot of and suffered from frequent pestilences. They
the peasantry ^^^e often the helpless prey of the feudal nobles.
If their lord happened to be a quarrelsome man, given to fight-
ing with his neighbors, they might see their lands ravaged, their
cattle driven off, their village burned, and might themselves
The Village and Life of the Peasants 435
be slain. Even under peaceful conditions the narrow, shut-in
Ufe of the manor could not be otherwise than degrading.
Yet there is another side to the picture. If the peasants had
a just and generous lord, they probably led a fairly comfortable
existence. Except when crops failed, they had an Alleviations
abundance of food, and possibly wine or cider to of the
drink. They shared a common life in the work of ^^^^^ ^ ^
the fields, in the sports of the village green, and in the services
iijMfj^M
Scale of a Mile
(ea^h. division being an Acre)
Furlong
Plan of Hitchin Manor, Hertfordshire
Lord's demesne, diagonal lines.
Meadow and pasture lands, dotted areas.
Normal holding of a peasant, black strips.
of the parish church. They enjoyed many holidays; it has been
estimated that, besides Sundays, about eight weeks in every
year were free from work. Festivities at Christmas, Easter,
and May Day, at the end of ploughing and the completion of
harvest, reUeved the monotony of the daily round of labor.^
1 See pages 581-582.
436 Feudalism
Perhaps these medieval peasants were not much worse off than
the agricultural laborers in most countries of modern Europe.
157. Serfdom
A medieval village usually contained several classes of labor-
ers. There might be a number of freemen, who paid a fixed
Freemen rent, either in money or produce, for the use of
slaves, and their land. Then there might also be a few slaves
^®^ ^ in the lord's household or at work on his domain.
y^ By this time, however, slavery had about died out in western
Europe. Most of the peasants were serfs.
Serfdom represented a stage between slavery and freedom.
A slave belonged to his master; he was bought and sold like
Nature of Other chattels. A serf had a higher position, for
serfdom Yie could not be sold apart from the land nor could
his holding be taken from him. He was fLxed to the soil. On
the other hand a serf ranked lower than a freeman, because he
X could not change his abode, nor marry outside the manor, nor
bequeath his goods, without the permission of his lord.
The serf did not receive his land as a free gift; for the use of
it he owed certain duties to his master. These took chiefly the
Obligations form of personal services. He must labor on the
of the serf lord's domain for two or three days each week,
and at specially busy seasons, such as ploughing and harvesting,
he must do extra work. At least half his time was usually de-
manded by the lord. The serf had also to make certain pay-
ments, either in money or more often in grain, honey, eggs,
or other produce. When he ground the wheat or pressed the
grapes which grew on his land, he must use the lord's mill,
the lord's wine-press, and pay the customary charge. In
theory the lord could tax his serfs as heavily and make them
work as hard as he pleased, but the fear of losing his tenants
doubtless in most cases prevented him from imposing too
great burdens on them.
Serfdom developed during the later centuries of the Roman
Empire and in the early Middle Ages. It was well established
by the time of Charlemagne. Most serfs seem to have been
Decline of Feudalism 437
the descendants, or at least the successors, of Roman slaves,
whose condition had gradually improved. The origin of
serf class was also recruited from the ranks of serfdom
freemen, who by conquest or because of the desire to gain the
protection of a lord, became subject to him. Serfdom, how-
ever, was destined to be merely a transitory condition. By
the close of medieval times, the serfs in most parts of western
Europe had secured their freedom.^
158. Decline of Feudalism
Feudalism had a vigorous hfe for about five hundred years.
Taking definite form early in the ninth century, it flourished
throughout the later Middle Ages, but became Duration of
decadent by the opening of the fourteenth century. ^eudaUsm
As a system of local government, feudahsm tended to pass
av/ay when the rulers in England, France, and Spain, and later
in Germany and Italy, became powerful enough
to put down private warfare, execute justice, and opposed to
maintain order everywhere in their dominions. feudaUsm:
•^ the kings
The kings were always anti-feudal. We shall
study in a later chapter ^ the rise of strong governments and
centralized states in western Europe.
As a system of local industry, feudalism could not survive the
great changes of the later Middle Ages, when reviving trade,
commerce, and manufactures had begun to lead
Forces
to the increase of wealth, the growth of markets, opposed to
and the substitution of money payments for those feudalism:
_ tne cities
in produce or services. Flourishing cities arose,
as in the days of the Roman Empire, freed themselves from the
control of the nobles, and became the homes of Hberty and
democracy. The cities, like the kings, were always anti-feudal.
We shall deal with their development in a subsequent chapter.^
There was still another anti-feudal force, namely, the Roman
Church. It is true that many of the higher clergy The Church
were feudal lords, and that even the monasteries *^^ feudaUsm
owned vast estates which were parceled out among tenants.
1 See page 612. 2 See chapter xxii. 3 See chapter xxiii.
X
438 Feudalism
Nevertheless, the Roman Church as a universal organization,
including men of all ranks and classes, was necessarily opposed
to feudalism, a local and an aristocratic system. The work
and influence of this Church will now engage our attention.
Studies
I. Write a brief essay on feudal society, using the following words: lord;
vassal; castle; keep; dungeon; chivalry; tournament; manor; and serf. 2. Ex-
plain the following terms: vassal; fief; serf; "aid "; homage; squire; investiture;
and "rehef." 3. Look up the origin of the words homage, castle, dungeon,
and chivalry. 4. "The real heirs of Charlemagne were from the first neither
the kings of France nor those of Italy or Germany; but the feudal lords."
Comment on this statement. 5. Why was the feudal system not found in
the Roman Empire in the East during the Middle Ages? 6. Why has feudalism
been called "confusion roughly organized"? 7. Contrast feudaUsm as a poUtical
system with (c) the classical city-states, (b) the Roman Empire, and (c) modern
national states. 8. What was the effect of feudaUsm on the sentiment of patriot-
ism? 9. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of primogeniture
as the rule of inheritance? 10. Explaia these phrases: "to be in hot water;" "to
go through fire and water;" and "to haul over the coals." 11. Compare the oaths
administered to witnesses in modem courts with medieval oaths. 12. Why was
war the usual condition of feudal society? 13. Compare the "Peace of God"
with the earlier "Roman Peace" {Pax Romano). 14. Mention some modern
comforts and luxuries which were unknown in feudal castles. 15. What is the
present meaning of the word "chivalrous"? How did it get that meaning?
16. Why has chivalry been called "the blossom of feudalism"? 17. Contrast
the ideal of a chivalry with that of monasticism. 18. Show that the serf was
not a slave or a "hired man" or a tenant-farmer paying rent.
CHAPTER XIX
THE PAPACY AND THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, 962-1273 A.D.i
159. Characteristics of the Medieval Church
A PRECEDING chapter dealt with the Christian Church in
the East and West during the early Middle Ages. We learned
something about its organization, belief, and wor- .The Roman
ship, about the rise and growth of the Papacy, Church
about monasticism, and about that missionary campaign which
won all Europe to Christianity. Our narrative extended to the
middle of the eleventh century, w^hen the quarrel between pope
and patriarch led at length to the disruption of Christendom.
We have now to consider the work and influence of the Roman
Church during later centuries of the Middle Ages.
The Church at the height of its power held spiritual sway
over all western Europe. Italy and Sicily, the larger part of
Spain, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, the Territorial
British Isles, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Ice- extent of the
land yielded obedience to the pope of Rome. ^^
Membership in the Church was not a matter of free choice.
All people, except Jews, were required to belong to it. A person
joined the Church by baptism, a rite usually per- The Church
formed in infancy, and remained in it as long as *^ universal
he lived. Every one was expected to conform, at least out-
wardly, to the doctrines and practices of the Church, and any-
one attacking its authority was Hable to punishment by the
state.
The presence of one Church throughout the western world fur-
nished a bond of union between European peoples ^^^ church
during the age of feudahsm. The Church took as inter-
no heed of political boundaries, for men of all ^***°^^
nationalities entered the ranks of the priesthood and joined
1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter x, "Monastic
Life in the Twelfth Century"; chapter xi, "St. Francis and the Franciscans."
439
440 The Papacy and the Empire
the monastic orders. Priests and monks were subjects of no
country, but were "citizens of heaven," as they sometimes
called themselves. Even difference of language counted for
little in the Church, since Latin was the universal speech of
the educated classes. One must think, then, of the Church
as a great international state, in form a monarchy, presided
over by the pope, and with its capital at Rome.
The Church in the Middle Ages performed a double task.
On the one hand it gave the people religious instruction and
Twofold watched over their morals; on the other hand it
duties of the played an important part in European politics and
provided a means of government. Because the
Church thus combined ecclesiastical and civil functions, it was
quite unlike all modern churches, whether Greek, Roman, or
Protestant. Both sides of its activities deserve, therefore, to
be considered.
160. Church Doctrine and Worship
In medieval times every loyal member of the Church accepted
without question its authority in religious matters. The
" The gate Church taught a belief in a personal God, all-wise,
of Heaven " all-good, all-powerful, to know whom was the high-
est goal of life. The avenue to this knowledge lay through faith
in the revelation of God, as found in the Scriptures. Since
the unaided human reason could not properly interpret the
Scriptures, it was necessary for the Church, through her
officers, to declare their meaning and set forth what doctrines
were essential to salvation. The Church thus appeared as
the sole repository of religious knowledge, as ''the gate of
heaven."
Salvation did not depend only on the acceptance of certain
beliefs. There were also certain acts, called "sacraments," in
The which the faithful Christian must participate, if
sacramental he was not to be cut off eternally from God. These
sys em ^^^^ formed channels of heavenly grace; they
saved man from the consequences of his sinful nature and filled
him with "the fullness of divine Hfe." Since priests alone
Church Doctrine and Worship 441
could administer the sacraments/ the Church presented itself
as the necessary mediator between God and man.
By the thirteenth century seven sacraments were generally
recognized. Four of these marked critical stages in human Ufe,
from the cradle to the grave. Baptism cleansed Baptism,
the child from the taint of original sin and admitted Confirmation,
, ^, . . . r^ r Matrimony,
him into the Christian community. Connrma- and Extreme
tion gave him full Church fellowship. Matrimony Unction
united husband and wife in holy bonds which might never be
broken. Extreme Unction, the anointing with oil of one mor-
tally ill, purified the soul and endowed it with strength to meet
death.
Penance held an especially important place in the sacra-
mental system. At least once a year the Christian must confess
his sins to a priest. If he seemed to be truly ^
1 • 111 1 Penance
repentant, the priest pronounced the solemn words
of absolution and then required him to accept some punishment,
which varied according to the nature of the offense. There was
a regular code of penalties for such sins as drunkenness, avarice,
perjury, murder, and heresy. Penances often consisted in
fasting, reciting prayers, abstaining from one's ordinary amuse-
ments, or beating oneself with bundles of rods. A man who
had sinned grievously might be ordered to engage in charitable
work, to make a contribution in money for the support of the
Church, or to go on a pilgrimage to a sacred shrine. The more
distant and difficult a pilgrimage, the more meritorious it was,
especially if it led to some very holy place, such as Rome or Jeru-
salem. People might also become monks in order to atone
for evil-doing. This system of penitential punishment referred
only to the earthly life; it was not supposed to cleanse the
soul for eternity.
The sacrament of the Holy Eucharist, generally known as the
Mass, formed the central feature of worship. It Holy
was more than a common meal in commemoration Eucharist
of the Last Supper of Christ with the Apostles. It was a
^ In case of necessity baptism might be performed by any lay person of adult
years and sound mind.
442
The Papacy and the Empire
solemn ceremony, by which the Christian beUeved himself to
receive the body and blood of Christ, under the form of bread
and wine.^ The right of the priest to withhold the Eucharist
from any person, for good cause, gave the Church great power,
because the failure to partake of this sacrament imperiled one's
chances of future salvation. It was also supposed that the
benefits of the ceremony in purifying from sin might be enjoyed
by the dead in Pur-
gatory; hence masses
were often said for the
repose of their souls.
The seventh and
last sacramxcnt, that of
Ordination, or "Holy
^ ,. . Orders,"
Ordination .
admitted
persons to the priest-
hood. According to
the view of the
Church the rite had
been instituted by
Christ, when He chose
the Apostles and sent
them forth to preach
the Gospel. From the
Apostles, who or-
dained their succes-
sors, the clergy in
all later times re-
ceived their exalted
authority. ^ Ordina-
tion conferred spiritual power and set such an indelible mark
on the character that one who had been ordained could never
become a simple layman again.
Pilgrims to Canterbury
From a medieval manuscript
Canterbury with its cathedral appears in the background.
The shrine of Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury,
formed a celebrated resort for medieval pilgrims. The
archbishop had been murdered in the church (irSo a.d.),
if not at the instigation, at any rate without the opposi-
tion of King Henry 11, whose policies he opposed. Becket,
who was regarded as a martyr, soon received canonization.
Miracles were said to be worked at his grave and at the
well in which his bloody garments had been washed. He
remained the most popular saint in England until the
Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century, when
his shrine was destroyed.
1 This doctrine is known as transubstantiation. In the Roman Church,
been noted (page 363), wine is not administered to the laity.
2 Hence the term "Apostohcal Succession."
has
Church Doctrine and Worship 443
The Church did not rely solely on the sacramental system as
a means to salvation. It was believed that holy persons, called
saints/ who had died and gone to Heaven, offered Reverence
to God their prayers for men. Hence the practice ^°^ samts
arose of invoking the aid of the saints in all the concerns of life.
The earliest saints were Christian martyrs,^ who had sealed their
faith with their blood. In course of time many other persons,
renowned for pious deeds, were exalted to sainthood. The
making of a new saint, after a rigid inquiry into the merits of
the person whom it is proposed to honor, is now a privilege
reserved to the pope.
High above all the saints stood the Virgin Mary, the Mother
of God. Devotion to her as the "Queen of Heaven" increased
rapidly in the Church after the time of Gregory Devotion to
the Great. The popularity of her cult owed not *^® Virgin
a little to the influence of chivalry,^ for the knight, who vowed
to cherish womanhood, saw in the Virgin the ideal woman.
Everywhere churches arose in her honor, and no cathedral or
abbey lacked a chapel dedicated to Our Lady.
The growing reverence for saints led to an increased interest
in relics. These included the bones of a saint and shreds of his
garments, besides such objects as the wood or nails
of the cross on which Christ suffered. Relics were
not simply mementos; they were supposed to possess miraculous
power which passed into them through contact with holy persons.
This belief explains the use of relics to heal diseases, to ward off
danger, and, in general, to bring good fortune. An oath taken
upon relics was especially sacred.^ Every church building
contained a collection of relics, sometimes amounting to thou-
sands in number, and even private persons often owned them.
The Church also taught a belief in Purgatory as a state or
place of probation.^ Here dwelt the souls of those who were
1 Latin sanctus, ''holy."
2 See page 234.
3 See page 431.
< See pages 407, 418.
5 The belief in Purgatory is not held by Protestants or by members of the Greek
Church.
444 The Papacy and the Empire
guilty of no mortal sins which would condemn them to Hell,
but yet were burdened with imperfections which
prevented them from entering Heaven. Such
imperfections, it was held, might be removed by the prayers
of the Hving, and hence the practice arose of praying for the
dead.
161. Church Jurisdiction
The Church had regular courts and a special system of law ^
for the trial of offenders against its regulations. Many cases,
Church which to-day would be decided according to the
courts civil or criminal law of the state, in the Middle
Ages came before the ecclesiastical courts. Since marriage
was considered a sacrament, the Church took upon itself to
decide what marriages were lawful. It forbade the union of
first cousins, of second cousins, and of godparents and god-
children. It refused to sanction divorce, for whatever cause,
if both parties at the time of marriage had been baptized Chris-
tians. The Church dealt with inheritance under wills, for a
man could not make a legal will until he had confessed, and con-
fession formed part of the sacrament of Penance. All contracts
made binding by oaths came under Church jurisdiction, because
an oath was an appeal to God.^ The Church tried those who
were charged with any sin against rehgion, including heresy,
blasphemy, the taking of interest (usury), and the practice of
witchcraft. Widows, orphans, and the famiUes of pilgrims or
crusaders also enjoyed the special protection of Church courts.
The Church claimed the privilege of judging all cases which
involved clergymen. No layman, it was declared, ought to
" Benefit of interfere with one who, by the sacrament of
clergy" Ordination, had been dedicated to God. This
demand of the Church to try its own officers, according to its
own mild and intelligent laws, seems not unreasonable, when
we remember how rude were the methods of feudal justice.
But "benefit of clergy," as the privilege was called, might be
1 The so-called "canon law." See page 568.
2 See page 420.
Church Jurisdiction 445
abused. Many persons who had no intention of acting as
priests or monks became clergymen, in order to shield them-
selves behind the Church in case their misdeeds were exposed.
An interesting illustration of the power of the Church is
afforded by the right of ''sanctuary." Any lawbreaker w^ho
fled to a church building enjoyed, for a limited Right of
time, the privilege of safe refuge. It was consid- "sanctuary"
ered a sin against God to drag even the most wicked criminal
from the altar. The most that could be done was to deny the
refugee food, so that he might come forth voluntarily. This
privilege of seeking sanctuary was not without social usefulness,
for it gave time for angry passions to cool, thus permitting an
investigation of the charges against an offender.
Disobedence to the regulations of the Church might be
followed by excommunication. It was a punishment which cut
off the offender from all Christian fellowship. He Excommuni-
could not attend religious services nor enjoy the c^t^o^
sacraments so necessary to salvation. If he died excommuni-
cate, his body could not be buried in consecrated ground. By
the law of the state he lost all civil rights and forfeited all his
property. No one might speak to him, feed him, or shelter
him. This terrible penalty, it is well to point out, was usually
imposed only after the sinner had received a fair trial and had
spurned all entreaties to repent.^
The interdict, another form of punishment, was directed
against a particular locality, for the fault of some of the inhab-
itants who could not be reached directly. In ^
Interdict
time of interdict the priests closed the churches
and neither married the living nor buried the dead. Of the
sacraments only Baptism, Confirmation, and Penance were
permitted. All the inhabitants of the afflicted district were
ordered to fast, as in Lent, and to let their hair grow long in
sign of mourning. The interdict also stopped the wheels of
government, for courts of justice were shut, wills could not be
made, and public officials were forbidden to perform their duties.
In some cases the Church went so far as to lay an interdict upon
1 For two instances of the use of excommunication see pages 459 and 461.
446 The Papacy and the Empire
an entire kingdom, whose ruler had refused to obey her man-
date.^ The interdict has now passed out of use, but excom-
munication still retains its place among the spiritual weapons
of the Church.
162. The Secular Clergy
Some one has said that in the Middle Ages there were just
three classes of society: the nobles who fought; the peasants
The secular "^^^ worked; and the clergy who prayed. The
and regular latter class was divided into the secular ^ clergy,
cergy including deacons, priests, and bishops, who lived
active Hves in the world, and the regular^ clergy, or monks,
who passed their days in seclusion behind monastery walls.
It has been already pointed out how early both secular and
regular clergy came to be distinguished from the laity by
Position of abstention from money-making activities, differ-
the clergy ences in dress, and the obligation of celibacy.^
Being unmarried, the clergy had no family cares; being free
from the necessity of earning their own living, they could devote
all their time and energy to the service of the Church. The
sacrament of Ordination, which was beheved to endow the
clergy with divine power, also helped to strengthen their in-
fluence. They appeared as a distinct order, in whose charge
was the care of souls and in whose hands were the keys of heaven.
An account of the secular clergy naturally begins with the
parish priest, who had charge of a parish, the smallest division
Parish of Christendom. No one could act as a priest
priests without the approval of the bishop, but the noble-
man who supported the parish had the privilege of nominating
candidates for the position. The priest derived his income
from lands belonging to the parish, from tithes,^ and from
voluntary contributions, but as a rule he received little more
1 For two instances of this sort see page 461.
2 Latin sceculum, used in the sense of "the world."
3 Latin regida, a "rule," referring to the rule or constitution of a monastic order.
4 See page 344.
5 The tithe was a tenth part of the yearly income from land, stock, and personal
industry.
The Secular Clergy
447
than a bare living. The parish priest was the only Church
officer who came continually into touch with the common
people. He baptized, married, and buried his parishioners.
For them he celebrated Mass at least once a week, heard
confessions, and granted absolution. He watched over all their
deeds on earth and prepared them for the life to come. And if
he preached little, he seldom failed to set in his own person an
example of right living.
The church, with its spire which could be seen afar off and
its bells which called the faithful to worship, formed the social
center of the parish.
Here on Sun- The parish
days and holy ^^^^^
days the people assem-
bled for the morning and
evening services. During
the interval between relig-
ious exercises they often
enjoyed games and other •
amusements in the adjoin-
ing churchyard. As a
place of public gathering
the parish church held
an important place in
the life of the Middle
Ages.
A group of parishes
formed a diocese, over which a bishop presided. It was his
A Bishop ordaining a Priest
From an English manuscript of the twelfth cen-
tury. The bishop wears a miter and holds in his
left hand the pastoral staff, or crosier. His right
hand is extended in blessing over the priest's head.
business to look after the property belonging to
Bishops
the diocese, to hold the ecclesiastical courts, to
visit the clergy, and to see that they did their duty. The
bishop alone could administer the sacraments of Confirmation
and Ordination. He also performed the ceremonies at the
consecration of a new church edifice or shrine. Since the
Church held vast estates on feudal tenure, the bishop was
usually a territorial lord, owning a vassal's obligations to the
king or to some powerful noble for his land and himself
448 The Papacy and the Empire
ruling over vassals in different parts of the country. As sym-
bols of his power and digni4:y the bishop wore on his head the
miter and carried the pastoral staff, or crosier.^
Above the bishop in rank stood the archbishop. In Eng-
. , , . , land, for example, there were two archbishops, one
Archbishops .' ,r i i i i ^ /
residmg at York and the other at Canterbury.
The latter, as ''primate of all England," was the highest
ecclesiastical dignitary in the land. An archbishop's distinc-
tive vestment consisted of the pallium, a narrow band of white
wool, worn around the neck. The pope alone could confer the
right to wear the pallium.
The church which contained the official seat or throne ^ of
The a bishop or archbishop was called a cathedral,
cathedral j^- -^g^g ordinarily the largest and most magnifi-
cent church in the diocese.^
163. The Regular Clergy
The regular clergy, or monks, during the early Middle Ages
belonged to the Benedictine order. By the tenth century,
Decline of however, St. Benedict's Rule had lost much of its
monasticism force. As the monasteries increased in wealth
through gifts of land and goods, they sometimes became centers
of idleness, luxury, and corruption. The monks forgot their vows
of poverty; and, instead of themselves laboring as farmers,
craftsmen, and students, they employed laymen to work for
them. At the same time powerful feudal lords frequently
obtained control of the monastic estates by appointing as
abbots their children or their retainers. Grave danger existed
that the monasteries would pass out of Church control and
decline into mere fiefs ruled by worldly men.
A great revival of monasticism began in 910 a.d., with the
foundation of the monastery of Cluny in eastern France. The
The Cluniac monks of Cluny led lives of the utmost self-denial
revival ^^^ followed the Benedictine Rule in all its strict-
ness. Their enthusiasm and devotion were contagious; before
1 See the illustration, page 447. 2 Latin cathedra.
3 For the architecture of a medieval cathedral see pages 562-565.
I
The Regular Clergy 449
long Cluny became a center from which a reformatory move-
ment spread over France and then over all western Europe.
By the middle of the twelfth century more than three hundred
monasteries looked to Cluny for inspiration and guidance.
Each of the earher Benedictine monasteries had been an
isolated community, independent and self-governing. Conse-
quently, when discipline grew lax or when the abbot -pjjg <« Con-
proved to be an incapable ruler, it was difficult gregation of
. Clunv "
to correct the evils which arose. In the Cluniac
system, however, all the monasteries formed parts of one organ-
ization, the "Congregation of Cluny." The abbot of Cluny
appointed their "priors," or heads, and required every monk
to pass several years of his monastic life at Cluny itself. This
monarchical arrangement helps to explain why for two hundred
years the abbot of Cluny was, next to the pope, the most impor-
tant churchman in western Europe.
Other monastic orders arose in the eleventh and twelfth
centuries. Of these, the most important was the Cistercian,
founded in 1098 a.d. at Citeaux, nbt far from Cluny. ^j^^
The keynote of Cistercian Hfe was the return to a Cistercian
literal obedience of St. Benedict's Rule. Hence
the members of the order lived in the utmost simphcity, cooking
their own meager repasts and wearing coarse woolen garments
woven from the fleeces of their own sheep. The Cistercians
especially emphasized the need for manual labor. They wxre
the best farmers and cattle breeders of the Middle Ages. West-
ern Europe owes even more to them than to the Benedictines
for their work as pioneers in the wilderness. "The Cistercians,"
declared a medieval wTiter, "are a model to all monks, a mirror
for the diligent, a spur to the indolent."
The whole spirit of medieval monasticism found expression
in St. Bernard, a Burgundian of noble birth. While still a
young man he resolved to leave the world and seek g^_ Bernard
the repose of the monastic life. He entered 1090-1153
Citeaux, carrying with him thirty companions.
Mothers are said to have hid their sons from him, and wives
their husbands, lest they should be converted to monasticism
450 The Papacy and the Empire
by his persuasive words. After a few years at Citeaux St.
Bernard established the monastery of Clairvaux, over which he
ruled as abbot till his death. His ascetic life, piety, eloquence,
and ability as an executive soon brought him into prominence.
People visited Clairvaux from far and near to listen to his
preaching and to receive his counsels. The monastery flourished
under his direction and became the parent of no less than sixty-
five Cistercian houses which were planted in the wilderness.
St. Bernard's activities widened, till he came to be the most
influential man in western Christendom. It was St. Bernard
who acted as an adviser of the popes, at one time deciding
between two rival candidates for the Papacy, who combated
most vigorously the heresies of the day, and who by his fiery
appeals set in motion one of the crusades.^ The charm of his
character is revealed to us in his sermons and letters, while
some of the Latin hymns commonly attributed to him are still
sung in many churches, both Roman Catholic and Protestant.
164. The Friars
The history of Christian monasticism exhibits an ever-widen-
ing social outlook. The early hermits - had devoted themselves,
Coming of as they believed, to the service of God by retiring
the fnars ^q |-]^g desert for prayer, meditation, and bodily
mortification. St. Benedict's wise Rule, as followed by the
medieval monastic orders, marked a change for the better. It
did away with extreme forms of self-denial, brought the monks
together in a common house, and required them to engage in
daily manual labor. Yet even the Benedictine system had its
limitations. The monks lived apart from the world and sought
chiefly the salvation of their own souls. A new conception of
the monastic life arose early in the thirteenth century, with the
coming of the friars.^ The aim of the friars was social service.
They lived active lives in the world and devoted themselves
entirely to the salvation of others. The foundation of the
orders of friars was the work of two men, St. Francis in Italy
and St. Dominic in Spain.
1 See page 474. - See page 352. 8 Latin Jrater, "brother."
The Friars
451
Twenty-eight years after the death of St. Bernard, St. Francis
was born at Assisi. As the son of a rich and prominent merchant
St. Francis had before him the prospect of a fine st. Francis,
career in the world. But he put away all thoughts iisi (?)-i226
A D
of fame and wealth, deserted his gay companions,
and, choosing "Lady Poverty" as his bride, started out to min-
ister to lepers and
social outcasts. One
day, while attend-
ing Mass, the call
came to him to
preach the Gospel,
as Christ had
preached it, among
the poor and lowly.
The man's earnest-
ness and charm of
manner soon drew
about him devoted
followers. After
some years St.
Francis went to
Rome and obtained
Pope Innocent Ill's
sanction of his work.
The Franciscan
order spread so
rapidly that even
in the founder's lifetime there were several thousand members
in Italy and other European countries.
St. Francis is one of the most attractive figures in all history.
Perhaps no other man has ever tried so seriously to imitate in
his own life the hfe of Christ. St. Francis went st. Francis,
about doing good. He resembled, in some re- the man
spects, the social workers and revivalist preachers of to-day.
In other respects he was a true child of the Middle Ages.
An ascetic, he fasted, wore a hair-cloth shirt, mixed ashes
St, Francis blessing the Birds
From a painting by the Italian artist Giotto.
452 The Papacy and the Empire
with his food to make it disagreeable, wept daily, so that his
eyesight was nearly destroyed, and every night flogged him-
self with iron chains. A mystic, he lived so close to God and
nature that he could include within the bonds of his love not
only men and women, but also animals, trees, and flowers.
He preached a sermon to the birds and once wrote a hymn
to praise God for his ''brothers," sun, wind, and fire, and for
his ''sisters," moon, water, and earth. When told that he had
but a short time to live, he exclaimed, "Welcome, Sister Death!"
He died at the age of forty-five, worn out by his exertions and
self-denial. Two years later the pope made him a saint.
St. Dominic, unlike St. Francis, was a clergyman and a
student of theology. After being ordained he went to southern
St Dominic France and labored there for ten years among a
1170-1221 heretical sect known as the Albigenses. The
^■^' order of Dominicans grew out of the little band
of volunteers who assisted him in the mission. St. Dominic
sent his followers — at first only sixteen in number — out into
the world to combat heresy. They met with great success^
and at the founder's death the Dominicans had as many as
sixty friaries in various European cities.
The Franciscans and Dominicans resembled each other in
many ways. They were "itinerant," going on foot from place
Character- ^^ place, and wearing coarse robes tied round the
istics of the waist with a rope. They were "mendicants," ^ who
^"^^ possessed no property but lived on the alms of
the charitable. They were also preachers, who spoke to the
people, not in Latin, but in the common language of each
country which they visited. The Franciscans worked especially
in the "slums" of the cities; the Dominicans addressed them-
selves rather to educated people and the upper classes. As time
went on, both orders relaxed the rule of poverty and became
very wealthy. They still survive, scattered all over the world
and employed in teaching and missionary activity. ^
1 Latin mendicare, "to beg."
2 In England the Franciscans, from the color of their robes, were called Gray-
Friars, the Dominicans, Black Friars.
Power of the Papacy 453
The friars by their preaching and ministrations did a great
deal to call forth a religious revival in Europe during the
thirteenth century. In particular they helped xhe friars
to strengthen the papal authority. Both orders and the
received the sanction of the pope; both enjoyed ^P^*^y
many privileges at his hands; and both looked to him for
direction. The pope employed them to raise money, to preach
crusades, and to impose excommunications and interdicts.
The Franciscans and Dominicans formed, in fact, the agents
of the Papacy.
165. Power of the Papacy
The name "pope"^ seems at first to have been apphed to all
priests as a title of respect and affection. The Greek Church
still continues this use of the word. In the West -j.j^g pope's
it gradually came to be reserved to the bishop of exalted
Rome as his official title. The pope was addressed p°^^*^°^
in speaking as "Your Holiness." His exalted position was
further indicated by the tiara, or headdress with triple crowns,
worn by him in processions. ^ He went to solemn ceremonies
sitting in a chair supported on the shoulders of his guard. He
gave audience from an elevated throne, and all who approached
him kissed his feet in reverence. As "Christ's Vicar" he
claimed to be the representative on earth of the Almighty.
The pope was the supreme lawgiver of the Church. His
decrees might not be set aside by any other person. He made
new laws in the form of "bulls" ^ and by his "dis-
,, 1 T . . , • 1 , , "^^6 pope as
pensations could m particular cases set aside old the head of
laws, such as those forbidding cousins to marry western
1 1-1 r 1 . rr./ Christendom
or monks to obtain release from their vows. The
pope was also the supreme judge of the Church, for all appeals
from the lower ecclesiastical courts came before him for decision.
Finally, the pope was the supreme administrator of the Church.
He confirmed the election of bishops, deposed them, when neces-
sary, or transferred them from one diocese to another. No
1 Latin papa, "father." 2 See the illustration, page 348.
3 So called from the lead seal (Latin bulla) attached to papal docimients.
454 The Papacy and the Empire
archbishop might perform the functions of his office until he
had received the pallium from the pope's hands. The pope
also exercised control over the monastic orders and called
general councils of the Church.
The authority of the pope was commonly exercised by the
"legates," ^ whom he sent out as his representatives at the vari-
The papal ous European courts. These officers kept the pope
legates jj^ close touch with the condition of the Church in
every part of western Europe. A similar function is performed
in modern times by the papal ambassadors known as "nuncios."
For assistance in government the pope made use of the cardi-
nals,2 who formed a board, or "college." At first they were
The chosen only from the clergy of Rome and the
cardinals vicinity, but in course of time the pope opened the
cardinalate to prominent churchmen in all countries. The
number of cardinals is now fixed at seventy, but the college is
never full, and there are always ten or more "vacant hats," as
the saying goes. The cardinals, in the eleventh century,
received the right of choosing a new pope. A cardinal ranks
above all other church officers. His dignity is indicated by
the red hat and scarlet robe which he wears and by the title of
"Eminence" applied to him.
To support the business of the Papacy and to maintain the
splendor of the papal court required a large annual income.
Income of This came partly from the States of the Church
the Papacy j^ Italy, partly from the gifts of the faithful, and
partly from the payments made by abbots, bishops, and arch-
bishops when the pope confirmed their election to office. Still
another source of revenue consisted of "Peter's Pence," a tax
of a penny on each hearth. It was collected every year in
England and in some Continental countries until the Reforma-
tion. The modern "Peter's Pence" is a voluntary contribution
made by Roman Cathohcs in all countries.
The Eternal City, from which in ancient times the known
world had been ruled, formed in the Middle Ages the capital
1 Latin legatus, "deputy."
* Latin cardinalis, "principal."
Popes and Emperors 455
of the Papacy. Hither every year came tens of thousands of
pilgrims to worship at the shrine of the Prince The capital
of the Apostles. Few traces now remain of the of the Papacy
medieval city. Old St. Peter's Church, where Charlemagne
was crowned emperor/ gave way in the sixteenth century to
the world-f amyous structure that now occupies its site.^ The
Lateran Palace, which for more than a thousand years served
as the residence of the popes, has also disappeared, its place
being taken by a new and smaller building. The popes now
live in the splendid palace of the Vatican, adjoining St.
Peter's.
The powers exercised by the popes during the later Middle
Ages were not secured without a struggle. As a matter of fact
the concentration of authority in papal hands jj^^ papacy
was a gradual development covering several hun- and the
dred years. The pope reached his exalted position °^P""®
only after a long contest with the Holy Roman Emperor. This
contest forms one of the most noteworthy episodes in medieval
history.
166. Popes and Emperors, 962-1122 A.D.
One might suppose that there could be no interference between
pope and emperor, since they seemed to have separate spheres
of action. It was said that God had made the „ , ^.
Relations
pope, as the successor of St. Peter, supreme in between pope
spiritual matters and the emperor, as heir of the f"^, emperor
_^ . , "^ theory
Roman Caesars, supreme in temporal matters.
The former ruled men's souls, the latter, men's bodies. The
two sovereigns thus divided on equal terms the government of
the world.
The difficulty with this theory was that it did not work. No
one could decide in advance where the authority Their rela-
of the pope ended and where that of the emperor tions in
began. When the pope claimed certain powers ^^^^
which were also claimed by the emperor, a conflict between
the two rulers became inevitable.
1 See page 311. 2 gee the plate facing page 591.
456
The Papacy and the Empire
In 962 A.D. Otto the Great, as we have learned/ restored
imperial rule in the West, thus founding what in later centuries
Otto the came to be known as the Holy Roman Empire,
Great and Otto as emperor possessed the rights of making the
the Papacy ^.^^ ^£ Rome the imperial capital, of approving
the election of the pope, and, in general, of exerting much
,,.^^P^. influence in papal
i g • ^ affairs. All these
rights had been exer-
cised by Charlemagne.
But Otto did what
Charlemagne had
never done when he
deposed a pope who
proved disobedient to
his wishes and on his
own authority ap-
pointed a successor.
At the same time
Otto exacted from the
people of Rome an
oath that they would
never recognize any
pope to whose elec-
tion the emperor had
not consented.
The emperors who
followed Otto repeat-
edly interfered in elections to the Papacy. One strong ruler.
The Papacy Henry III (1039-1056 A.D.), has been called the
"pope-maker." Early in his reign he set aside
three rival claimants to the Papacy, creating a
German bishop pope, and on three subsequent occasions filled
the papal throne by fresh appointments. It was clear that if
this situation continued much longer the Papacy would become
simply an imperial ofi&ce; it would be merged in the Empire.
1 See page 317.
The Spiritual and the Temporal Power
A tenth-century mosaic in the church of St. John, Rome.
It represents Christ giving to St. Peter the keys of heaven,
and to Constantine the banner symbolic of earthly
dominion.
and Otto's
successors
Popes and Emperors 457
The death of Henry III, which left the Empire in weak hands,
gave the Papacy a chance to escape the control of the secular
power. In 1059 a.d. a church council held at the p^p^ g^^^,
Lateran Palace decreed that henceforth the right tion by the
of choosing the supreme pontiff should belong
exclusively to the cardinals, who represented the clergy of
Rome. This arrangement has tended to prevent any inter-
ference with the election of popes, either by the Roman people
or by foreign sovereigns.
Now that the Papacy had become independent, it began to
deal with a grave problem which affected the Church at large.
According to ecclesiastical rule bishops ought to Feudalizing
be chosen by the clergy of their diocese and abbots °^ ^^ Church
by their monks. With the growth of feudalism, however,
many of these high dignitaries had become vassals, holding
their lands as fiefs of princes, kings, and emperors, and
owing the usual feudal dues. Their lords expected them to
perform the ceremony of homage,^ before "investing" them
with the lands attached to the bishopric or monastery. One
can readily see that in practice the lords really chose the bishops
and abbots, since they could always refuse to "invest" those
who were displeasing to them.
To the reformers in the Church lay investiture appeared
intolerable. How could the Church keep itself unspotted from
the world when its highest officers were chosen by , .
1 1 11 1 r . / L^y investi-
laymen and were compelled to perform unpriestly ture from
duties? In the act of investiture the reformers *^® Church
1 1 • r • o , 1 r 1 Standpoint
also saw the sm of simony ^ — the sale of sacred
powers — because there was such a temptation before the
candidate for a bishopric or abbacy to buy the position with
promises or with money.
The lords, on the other hand, believed that as long as bishops
and abbots held vast estates on feudal tenure they should con-
tinue to perform the obligations of vassalage. To forbid lay
1 See page 418.
2 A name derived from Simon Magus, who offered money to the Apostle Peter
for the power to confer the Holy Spirit. See Acts, viii, 18-20.
458 The Papacy and the Empire
investiture was to deprive the lords of all control over
Lay investi- Church dignitaries. The real difficulty of the
ture as situation existed, of course, in the fact that the
viewed by
the secular bishops and abbots were both spiritual officers
authority ^^(]^ temporal rulers, were servants of both the
Church and the State. They found it very difficult to serve
two masters.
In 1073 A.D. there came to the throne of St. Peter one of the
most remarkable of the popes. This was Hildebrand, who,
^ ^ , on becoming pope, took the name of Gregory VII.
Pontificate of ^^ , ° \.^ \ . , , • 1 1 • 1 •
Gregory VII, Of obscure Italian birth, he received his education
1073-1085 jj^ g^ Benedictine monastery at Rome and rose
rapidly to a position of great influence in papal
affairs. He is described as a small man, ungainly in appearance
and with a weak voice, but energetic, forceful, and of imperious
will.
Gregory devoted all his talents to the advancement of the
Papacy. A contemporary document,'^ which may have been
Gregory's of Gregory's own composition and at any rate
^^^ expresses his ideas, contains the following state-
ments: ''The Roman pontiff alone is properly called universal.
He alone may depose bishops and restore them to office. He is
the only person whose feet are kissed by all princes. He may
depose emperors. He may be judged by no one. He may
absolve from their allegiance the subjects of the wicked. The
Roman Church never has erred, and never can err, as the Scrip-
tures testify." Gregory did not originate these doctrines, but
he was the first pope who ventured to make a practical applica-
tion of them.
Two years after Gregory became pope he issued a decree
against lay investiture. It declared that no emperor, king, duke,
marquis, count, or any other lay person should
against lay presume to grant investiture, under pain of excom-
1075^A*D^' niunication. This decree was a general one,
applying to all states of western Europe, but
circumstances were such that it mainly affected Germany.
1 The so-called Dictatus papa.
Popes and Emperors
459
Gregory VII
Henry IV, the ruler of Germany at this time, did not refuse
the papal challenge. He wrote a famous letter to Gregory,
calling him ''no pope but false monk," telling him Henry IV
Christ had never called him to the priesthood, and
and bidding him "come down," "come down"
from St. Peter's throne. Gregory, in reply, deposed Henry as
emperor, excommunicated him, and freed^ his subjects from
their allegiance.
This severe sentence made a profound impression in Ger-
many. Henry's Canossa,
adherents fell 1077 A.D.
away, and it seemed probable
that the German nobles would
elect another ruler in his
stead. Henry then decided
on abject submission. He
hastened across the Alps and
found the pope at the castle
of Canossa, on the northern
slopes of the Apennines. It
was January, and the snow
lay deep on the ground. For
three days the emperor stood
shivering outside the castle
gate, barefoot and clad in a
coarse w^oolen shirt, the garb
of a penitent. At last, upon
the entreaties of the Countess
Matilda of Tuscany, Gregory
admitted Henry and granted absolution. It w^as a strange
and moving spectacle, one which well expressed the tremen-
dous power which the Church in the Middle Ages exercised
over the minds of men.
The dramatic scene at Canossa did not end the investiture
conflict. It dragged on for half a century, being concordat of
continued after Gregory's death by the popes who Worms, 1122
succeeded him. At last in 1122 a.d. the opposing
Henry IV, Countess Matilda,
AND Gregory VII
From a manuscript of the twelfth century,
now in the Vatican Library at Rome.
460 The Papacy and the Empire
parties agreed to what is known as the Concordat of Worms,
from the old German city where it was signed.
The concordat drew a distinction between spiritual and lay
investiture. The emperor renounced investiture by the ring
Terms of the and crosier — the emblems of spiritual authority
concordat — ^^^^ permitted bishops and abbots to be elected
by the clergy and confirmed in office by the pope. On the other
hand the pope recognized the emperor's right to be present at
all elections and to invest bishops and abbots by the scepter
for whatever lands they held within his domains. This reason-
able compromise worked well for a time. But it was a truce,
not a peace. It did not settle the more fundamental issue,
whether the Papacy or the Holy Roman Empire should be
supreme.
167. Popes and Emperors, 1122-1273 A,D.
Thirty years after the signing of the Concordat of Worms the
emperor Frederick I, called Barbarossa from his red beard,
_ , . , , succeeded to the throne. Frederick, the second
Frederick I,
emperor, of the Hohenstaufen dynasty,^ was capable,
A^T?~^^^^ imaginative, and ambitious. He took Charle-
magne and Otto the Great as his models and
aspired like them to rule Christian Europe and the Church.
His reign is the story of many attempts, ending at length
in failure, to unite all Italy into a single state under German
sway.
Frederick's Italian policy brought him at once into conflict
with two powerful enemies. The popes, who feared that his
Frederick success would imperil the independence of the
and the Papacy, opposed him at every step. The great
apacy cities of northern Italy, which were also threatened
by Frederick's soaring schemes, united in the Lombard League
to defend their freedom. The popes gave the league their sup-
port, and in 11 76 a.d. Frederick was badly beaten at the battle
of Legnano. The haughty emperor confessed himself conquered,
1 The name of this German family comes from that of their castle in south-
western Swabia.
Popes and Emperors 461
and sought reconciliation with the pope, Alexander III. In
the presence of a vast throng assembled before St. Mark's
Cathedral in Venice, Frederick knelt before the pope and
humbly kissed his feet. Just a century had passed since the
humiliation of Henry IV at Canossa.
The Papacy reached the height of its power under Innocent
III. The eighteen years of his pontificate were one long
effort, for the most part successful, to make the ^ .^
\ , . ^ Pontificate of
pope the arbiter of Europe. Innocent announced innocent ill,
the claims of the Papacy in the most uncompro- a'''??"^^^^
mising manner. ''As the moon," he declared,
''receives its light from the sun, and is inferior to the sun, so
do kings receive all their glory and dignity from the Holy See."
This meant, according to Innocent, that the pope has the right
to interfere in all secular matters and in the quarrels of rulers.
"God," he continued, "has set the Prince of the Apostles over
kings and kingdoms, with a mission to tear up, plant, destroy,
scatter, and rebuild."
That Innocent's claims were not idle boasts is shown by
what he accomplished. When Philip Augustus, king of France,
divorced his wife and made another marriage, innocent and
Innocent declared the divorce void and ordered King Philip
him to take back his discarded queen. Philip
refused, and Innocent, through his legate, put France under an
interdict. From that hour all religious rites ceased. The
church doors were barred; the church bells were silent, the
sick died unshriven, the dead lay unburied. Philip, deserted
by his retainers, was compelled to submit.
On another occasion Innocent ordered John, the Enghsh
king, to accept as archbishop of Canterbury a man of his own
choosing. When John declared that he would innocent and
never allow the pope's appointee to set foot on King John of
EngHsh soil, Innocent replied by excommunicat- ^^^
ing him and laying his kingdom under an interdict. John
also had to yield and went so far as to surrender England
and Ireland to the pope, receiving them back again as fiefs,
for which he promised to pay a yearly rent. This tribute
462 The Papacy and the Empire
money was actually paid, though irregularly, for about a
century and a half.
Innocent further exhibited his power by elevating to the
imperial throne Frederick II, grandson of Frederick Barbarossa.
« , . , XX The young man, after Innocent's death, proved
Frederick II, , , . , , ' J^
emperor, to be a most determmed opponent of the Papacy.
1212-1250 jjg passed much of his long reign in Italy, warring
vainly against the popes and the Lombard cities.
Frederick died in 1250 a.d., and with him the Holy Roman
Empire really ceased to exist. ^ None of the succeeding
holders of the imperial title exercised any authority outside
of Germany.
The death of Frederick II's son in 1254 a.d. ended the Hohen-
staufen dynasty. There now ensued what is called the Inter-
regnum, a period of nineteen years, during which
regnum, Germany was without a ruler. At length the
1254-1273 pope sent word to the German electors that if
A.D.
they did not choose an emperor, he would himself
do so. The electors then chose Rudolf of Hapsburg ^ (1273
A.D.). Rudolf gained papal support by resigning all claims on
Italy, but recompensed himself through the conquest of Austria.^
Ever since this time the Hapsburg dynasty has filled the Aus-
trian throne.
The conflict between popes and emperors was now ended.
Its results were momentous. Germany, so long neglected by
Outcome of its rightful rulers, who pursued the will-o'-the-
the conflict ^jgp [^ Italy, broke up into a mass of duchies,
counties, archbishoprics, and free cities. The map of the
country at this time shows how numerous were these small
feudal states. They did not combine into a strong govern-
ment till the nineteenth century.'* Italy likewise remained dis-
united and lacked even a common monarch. The real victor
1 It survived in name until 1806 a.d., when the Austrian ruler, Francis II, laid
down the imperial crown and the venerable title of "Holy Roman Emperor."
2 Hapsburg was the name of a castle in northern Switzerland.
3 See page 522.
4 The modem German Empire dates from 1871 a.d.
GERMANY AND
ITALY
Poring the Interregrnum
1254-1273 A.B.
6° Lon gitude East 10° from Greenwich 14
Significance of the Medieval Church 463
was the Papacy, which had crushed the Empire and had pre-
vented the union of Italy and Germany.
168. Significance of the Medieval Church
Medieval society, we have now learned, owed much to the
Church, both as a teacher of religion and morals and as an
agency of government. It remains to ask what The Church
was the attitude of the Church toward the great ^^ warfare
social problems of the Middle Ages. In regard to warfare, the
prevalence of which formed one of the worst evils of the time,
the Church, in general, cast its influence on the side of peace.
It deserves credit for establishing the Peace and the Truce of
God and for many efforts to heal strife between princes and
nobles. Yet, as will be shown, the Church did not carry the
advocacy of peace so far as to condemn warfare against heretics
and infidels. Christians believed that it was a religious duty
to exterminate these enemies of God.
The Church was distinguished for charitable work. The
clergy received large sums for distribution to the needy. From
the doors of the monasteries, the poor, the sick, The Church
and the infirm of every sort were never turned *^^ charity
away. Medieval charity, however, was very often injudicious.
The problem of removing the causes of poverty seems never to
have been raised; and the indiscriminate giving multiphed,
rather than reduced, the number of beggars.
Neither slavery nor serfdom, into which slavery gradually
passed,^ was ever pronounced unlawful by pope or Church
council. The Church condemned slavery only jj^^ church
when it was the servitude of a Christian in bondage and slavery ^
to a Jew or an infidel. Abbots, bishops, and popes *^ ^^ °°^
possessed slaves and serfs. The serfs of some wealthy monas-
teries were counted by thousands. The Church, however,
encouraged the freeing of bondmen as a meritorious act and
always preached the duty of kindness and forbearance toward
them.
The Church also helped to promote the cause of human
^ See pages 436-437.
464 The Papacy and the Empire
freedom oy insisting on the natural equality of all men in the
sight of God. "The Creator," wrote one of the popes, "dis-
tributes his gifts without regard to social classes. In his eyes
Democracy there are neither nobles nor serfs." It was not
of the necessary to be of noble birth to become a bishop,
a cardinal, or a pope. Even serfs succeeded to
the chair of St. Peter. Naturally enough, the Church attracted
the keenest minds of the age, a fact which largely explains
the influence exerted by the clergy.
The influence of the clergy in medieval Europe w^as also due
to the fact that they were almost the only persons of education.
The clergy as ^^^^ except churchmen were able to read or write,
the only edu- So generally was this the case that an offender
could prove himself a clergyman, thus securing
"benefit of clergy," ^ if he showed his ability to read a single
line. It is interesting, also, to note that the word "clerk,"
which comes from the Latin dericus, was originally limited to
churchmen, since they alone could keep accounts, write letters,
and perform other secretarial duties.
It is clear that priests and monks had much importance
quite aside from their religious duties. They controlled the
Importance schools, wrote the books, framed the laws, and,
of the clergy jj^ general, acted as leaders and m.olders of public
opinion. A most conspicuous instance of the authority wielded
by them is seen in the crusades. These holy wars of Christen-
dom against Islam must now be considered.
Studies
I. Explain the following tenns: abbot; prior; archbishop; parish; diocese;
regular clergy; secular clergy; friar; excommunication; simony; interdict; sac-
rament; "benefit of clergy"; right of "sanctuary"; crosier; miter; tiara; papal
indulgence; bull; dispensation; tithes; and "Peter's Pence." 2. Mention some
respects in which the Roman Church in the Middle Ages differed from any religious
society of the present day. 3. "Medieval Europe was a camp with a church in the
background." Comment on this statement. 4. Explain the statement that "the
Church, throughout the Middle Ages, was a government as well as an ecclesiastical
organization." 5. Distinguish between the faith of the Church, the organization
of the Church, and the Church as a force in history. 6. How did the belief in
Purgatory strengthen the hold of the Church upon men's minds? 7. Name several
1 See page 444.
Studies 465
historic characters who have been made saints. 8. Why has the Roman Church
always refused to sanction divorce? 9. Compare the social effects of excommunica-
tion with those of a modern "boycott." 10. What reasons have led the Church
to insist upon celibacy of the clergy? 1 1 . Name four famous monks and four famous
monasteries. 12. Could monks enter the secular clergy and thus become parish
priests and bishops? 13. Mention two famous popes who had been monks.
14. What justiiication was found in the New Testament {Matthew, x 8-10) for the
organization of the orders of friars? 15. How did the Franciscans and Dominicans
supplement each other's work? 16. "The monks and the friars were the militia
of the Church." Comment on this statement. 17. Who is the present Pope?
When and by whom was he elected? In what city does he reside? What is his
residence called? 18. Why has the medieval Papacy been called the "ghost" of
the Roman Empire? 19. In what sense is it true that the Holy Roman Empire
was "neither holy nor Roman, nor an empire"?
CHAPTER XX
THE OCCIDENT AGAINST THE ORIENT; THE
CRUSADES, 1095-1291 A.D.^
169. Causes of the Crusades
The series of military expeditions, undertaken by the Chris-
tians of Europe for the purpose of recovering the Holy Land
Place of the from the Moslems, have received the name of cru-
crusades in sades. In their widest aspect the crusades may
^^ °^^ be regarded as a renewal of the age-long contest
between East and West, in which the struggle of Greeks and
Persians and of Romans and Carthaginians formed the earlier
episodes. The contest assumed a new character when Europe
had become Christian and Asia Mohammedan. It w^as not
only two contrasting types of civilization but also two rival
world rehgions which in the eighth century faced each other
under the walls of Constantinople and on the battlefield of
Tours. Now, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, they
were to meet again.
Seven or eight chief crusades are usually enumerated. To
number them, however, obscures the fact that for nearly two
Number of hundred years Europe and Asia were engaged in
the crusades almost constant warfare. Throughout this period
there was a continuous movement of crusaders to and from the
Moslem possessions in Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt.
The crusades were first and foremost a spiritual enterprise.
They sprang from the pilgrimages which Christians had long
Pilgrimages ^^^^ accustomed to make to the scenes of Christ's
to the life on earth. Men considered it a wonderful
° ^ ^ privilege to see the cave in which He was born,
to kiss the spot where He died, and to kneel in prayer at His
1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xii, "Richard the
Lion-hearted and the Third Crusade"; chapter xiii, "The Fourth Crusade and the
Capture of Constantinople."
466
Causes of the Crusades
467
tomb. The eleventh century saw an increased zeal for pil-
grimages, and from this time travelers to the Holy Land were
very numerous. For greater security they often joined them-
selves in companies and marched under arms. It needed
little to transform such pilgrims into crusaders.
The Arab conquest
of the Holy Land had
not interrupted the
stream of Abuse of
pilgrims, pilgrims by
r ,1 the Turks
for the
early caliphs were
more tolerant of un-
believers than Chris-
tian emperors of here-
tics. But after the
coming of the Seljuk
Turks into the East,
pilgrimages became
more difficult and
dangerous. The Turks
were a ruder people
than the Arabs whom
they displaced, and
Combat between Crusaders and Moslems
A picture in an eleventh-century window, formerly
in the church of St. Denis, near Paris.
not inclined to treat
in their fanatic zeal for Islam were
the Christians with consideration.
Many tales floated back to Europe of the outrages committed
on the pilgrims and on the sacred shrines venerated by all
Christendom. Such stories, which lost nothing in the telling,
aroused a storm of indignation throughout Europe and awak-
ened the desire to rescue the Holy Land from the grasp of the
"infidel."
But the crusades were not simply an expression of the simple
faith of the Middle Ages. Something more than religious
enthusiasm sent an unending procession of crusad- ^j^^ crusades
ers along the highways of Europe and over the and the
trackless wastes of Asia Minor to Jerusalem. The
crusades, in fact, appealed strongly to the warlike instincts of
upper classes
468 The Crusades
the feudal nobles. They saw in an expedition against the East
an unequaled opportunity for acquiring fame, riches, lands, and
power. The Normans were especially stirred by the prospect
of adventure and plunder which the crusading movement
opened up. By the end of the eleventh century they had
established themselves in southern Italy and Sicily, from which
they now looked across the Mediterranean for further lands to
conquer.^ Norman knights formed a very large element in
several of the crusaders' armies.
The crusades also attracted the lower classes. So great
was the misery of the common people in medieval Europe that
The lower ^^^ them it seemed not a hardship, but rather a
classes and relief, to leave their homes in order to better them-
6 cnisa es ggjygg abroad. Famine and pestilence, poverty
and oppression, drove them to emigrate hopefully to the golden
East.
The Church, in order to foster the crusades, promised both
religious and secular benefits to those who took part in them.
Privileges of A warrior of the Cross was to enjoy forgiveness of
crusaders ^\\ j^jg p^gt sins. If he died fighting for the faith,
he was assured of an immediate entrance to the joys of Paradise.
The Church also freed him from paying interest on his debts
and threatened with excommunication anyone who molested
his wife, his children, or his property.
170. First Crusade, 1095-1099 A.D.
The signal for the First Crusade was given by the conquests
of the Seljuk Turks.^ These barbarians, at first the mercenaries
and then the masters of the Abbasid caliphs, in-
Occasion of fused fresh energy into Islam. They began a new
the First ^^^, ^^ . , \ . ,
Crusade era of Mohammedan expansion by wmning almost
the whole of Asia Minor from the Roman Empire
in the East. One of their leaders estabhshed himself at Nicaea,
the scene of the first Church Council,^ and founded the
sultanate of Rum (Rome).
1 See page 412. 2 See pages 333, 380. ^ See page 235.
First Crusade 469
The presence of the Turks so close to Constantinople was a
standing menace to all Europe. The able emperor, Alexius I,
on succeeding to the throne toward the close of ^ppe^i of
the eleventh century, took steps to expel the emperor to
invaders. He could not draw on the hardy tribes ^°^®
of Asia Minor for the soldiers he needed, but with reinforce-
ments from the West he hoped to recover the lost provinces of
the empire. Accordingly, in 1095 a.d., Alexius sent an embassy
to Pope Urban II, the successor of Gregory VII, requesting aid.
The fact that the emperor appealed to the pope, rather than to
any king, shows what a high place the Papacy then held in
the affairs of Europe.
To the appeal of Alexius, Urban lent a willing ear. He sum-
moned a great council of clergy and nobles to meet at Cler-
mont in France. Here, in an address which, council of
measured by its results, was the most momentous Clermont,
recorded in history. Pope Urban preached the
First Crusade. He said little about the dangers which threat-
ened the Roman Empire in the East from the Turks, but dwelt
chiefly on the wretched condition of the Holy Land, with its
churches polluted by unbelievers and its Christian inhabitants
tortured and enslaved. Then, turning to the proud knights who
stood by. Urban called upon them to abandon their wicked
practice of private warfare and take up arms, instead, against
the infidel. "Christ Himself," he cried, ''will be your leader,
when, like the Israehtes of old, you fight for Jerusalem. . . .
Start upon the way to the Holy Sepulcher; wrench the land
from the accursed race, and subdue it yourselves. Thus shall
you spoil your foes of their wealth and return home victorious,
or, purpled with your own blood, receive an everlasting
reward."
Urban's trumpet call to action met an instant response.
From the assembled host there went up, as it were, a single
shout: ''God wills it! God wills it!" "It is, in «« God wills
truth. His will," answered Urban, "and let these i*'"
words be your war cry when you unsheath your swords against
the enemy." Then man after man pressed forward to receive
470 The Crusades
the badge of a crusader, a cross of red cloth.^ It was to be worn
on the breast, when the crusader went forth, and on the back,
when he returned.
The months which followed the Council of Clermont were
marked by an epidemic of religious excitement in western
Prelude to Europe. Popular preachers everywhere took up
the First the cry ''God w^ills it!" and urged their hearers
to start for Jerusalem. A monk named Peter the
Hermit aroused large parts of France with his passionate elo-
quence, as he rode from town to town, carrying a huge cross
before him and preaching to vast crowds. Without waiting
for the main body of nobles, which w^as to assemble at Con-
stantinople in the summer of 1096 a.d., a horde of poor men,
women, and children set out, unorganized and almost unarmed,
on the road to the Holy Land. One' of these crusading bands,
led by Peter the Hermit, managed to reach Constantinople,
after suffering terrible hardships. The emperor Alexius sent
his ragged allies as quickly as possible to Asia Minor, where
most of them were slaughtered by the Turks.
Meanwhile real armies were gathering in the West. Recruits
came in greater numbers from France than from any other
The main country, a circumstance which resulted in the
crusade crusaders being generally called "Franks" by their
Moslem foes. They had no single commander, but each con-
tingent set out for Constantinople by its own route and at its
own time.^
The crusaders included among their leaders some of the most
distinguished representatives of European knighthood. Count
Leaders- of Raymond of Toulouse headed a band of volun-
the crusade teers from Provence in southern France. Godfrey
of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin commanded a force of
French and Germans from the Rhinelands. Normandy sent
Robert, William the Conqueror's eldest son. The Normans
from Italy and Sicily were led by Bohemond, a son of Robert
Guiscard,^ and his nephew Tancred.
1 Hence the name "crusades," from Latin crux, Old French crois, a "cross."
2 For the routes followed by the crusaders see the map between pages 478-479.
3 See page 412.
First Crusade
471
Though the crusaders probably did not number more than
fifty thousand fighting men, the disunion which prevailed
among the Turks favored the success of their
enterprise. With some assistance from the eastern
emperor they captured Nicsea, overran Asia
Minor, and at length reached Antioch, the key to
northern Syria. The city fell after a siege of seven months, but
The
crusaders in
Asia Minor
and Syria
;iQ|ri|]l*'R
"Mosque of Omar," Jerusalem
More correctly called the Dome of the Rock. It was erected in 691 a.d., but many
restorations have taken place since that date. The walls enclosing the entire structure
were built in the ninth century, and the dome is attributed to Saladin (1189 a.d.).
This building, with its brilliant tiles covering the walls and its beautiful stained glass,
is a fine example of Mohammedan architecture.
the crusaders were scarcely within the walls before they found
themselves besieged by a large Turkish army. The crusaders
were now in a desperate plight: famine wasted their ranks;
many soldiers deserted; and Alexius disappointed all hope of
rescue. But the news of the discovery in an Antioch church of
the Holy Lance which had pierced the Savior's side restored
their drooping spirits. The whole army issued forth from
the city, bearing the rehc as a standard, and drove the
Turks in headlong flight. This victory opened the road to
Jerusalem.
Reduced now to perhaps one-fourth of their original numbers,
472 The Crusades
the crusaders advanced slowly to the city which formed the
Capture of S^^^ ^^ ^^^ their efforts. Before attacking it they
Jerusalem, marched barefoot in religious procession around
1099 A.D. ^-^^ ^^^j^g^ ^^,.^j^ p^^^^ ^j^g Hermit at their head.
Then came the grand assault. Godfrey of Bouillon and Tancred
were among the first to mount the ramparts. Once inside the
city, the crusaders massacred their enemies without mercy.
Afterwards, we are told, they went ''rejoicing, nay for excess
of joy weeping, to the tomb of our Savior to adore and give
thanks."
171. Crusaders' States in Syria
After the capture of Jerusalem the crusaders met to elect
a king. Their choice fell upon Godfrey of Bouillon. He refused
Latin ^^ wear a crown of gold in the city where Christ
Kingdom of had wom a crown of thorns and accepted, instead,
Jerusalem ^^^ modest title of 'Trotector of the Holy Sepul-
cher." ^ Godfrey died the next year and his brother Baldwin,
who succeeded him, being less scrupulous, was crowned king
at Bethlehem. The new kingdom contained nearly a score of
fiefs, whose lords made war, administered justice, and coined
money, like independent rulers. The main features of European
feudalism were thus transplanted to Asiatic soil.
The winning of Jerusalem and the district about it formed
hardly more than a preliminary stage in the conquest of Syria.
Other Much fighting was still necessary before the cru-
crusaders' saders could establish themselves firmly in the
^ * ^^ country. Instead of founding one strong power in
Syria, they split up their possessions into the three principalities
of Tripoli, Antioch, and Edessa. These small states owed
allegiance to the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem.
The ability of the crusaders' states to maintain themselves
for many years in Syria was largely due to the foundation of
1 The emperor Constantine caused a stately church to be erected on the sup-
posed site of Christ's tomb. This church of the Holy Sepulcher was practically
destroyed by the Moslems, early in the eleventh century. The crusaders restored
and enlarged the structure, which still stands.
Crusaders' States in Syria
473
two military-religious orders. The members were both monks
and knights; that is, to the monastic vows of chas- Miiitary-
tity, poverty, and obedience they added a fourth religious
vow, which bound them to protect pilgrims and
fight the infidels. Such a combination of religion and warfare
made a strong appeal to the medieval
mind.
The Hospitalers, the first of these
orders, grew out of a brotherhood for
the care of sick pilgrims in a Hospitalers
hospital at Jerusalem. Many and Templars
knights joined the organization, which
soon proved to be very useful in defend-
ing the Holy Land. Even more impor-
tant were the Templars, so called because
their headquarters in Jerusalem lay near
the site of Solomon's Temple. Both
orders built many castles in Syria, the
remains of which still impress the
beholder. They established numerous
branches in Europe and, by presents
and legacies, acquired vast wealth. The
Templars were disbanded in the four-
teenth century, but the Hospitalers
continued to fight valiantly against the
Turks long after the close of the cru-
sading movement.^
The depleted ranks of the crusaders
were constantly filled by fresh christian and
bands of pilgrim knights who infidel in the
visited Palestine to pray at ^^ ^
the Holy Sepulcher and cross swords with the infidel. In
spite of constant border warfare much trade and friendly
intercourse prevailed between Christians and Moslems. They
learned to respect one another both as foes and neighbors.
1 The order of Hospitalers, now known as the ''Knights of Malta," still survives
in several European countries.
Effigy of a Knight
Templar
Temple Church, London
Shows the kind of armor
worn between 1190 and
1225 A.D.
474 The Crusades
The crusaders' states in Syria became, like Spain ^ and Sicily,^
a meeting-place of East and West.
172. Second Crusade, 1147-1149 A.D., and Third
Crusade, 1189-1192 A.D.
The success of the Christians in the First Crusade had been
largely due to the disunion among their enemies. But the
Origin of the Moslems learned in time the value of united action,
Second and in 1144 a.d. succeeded in capturing Edessa,
^^ ® one of the principal Christian outposts in the
East. The fall of the city, followed by the loss of the entire
county of Edessa, aroused western Europe to the danger which
threatened the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and led to another
crusading enterprise.
The apostle of the Second Crusade was the great abbot of
Clairvaux, St. Bernard.^ Scenes of the wildest enthusiasm
Preaching of marked his preaching. When the churches were
St. Bernard ^q^ large enough to hold the crowds which flocked
to hear him, he spoke from platforms erected in the fields. St.
Bernard's eloquence induced two monarchs, Louis VII of France
and Conrad III of Germany, to take the blood-red cross of a
crusader.
The Second Crusade, though begun under the most favorable
auspices, had an unhappy ending. Of the great host that set
Failxxre of ^^^ from Europe, only a few thousands escaped
the Second annihilation in Asia Minor at the hands of the
Crusade Turks. Louis and Conrad, with the remnants of
their armies, made a joint attack on Damascus, but had to
raise the siege after a few days. This closed the crusade. As a
chronicler of the expedition remarked, "having practically
accomplished nothing, the inglorious ones returned home."
Not many years after the Second Crusade, the Moslem world
found in the famous Saladin a leader for a holy war against the
„ , ,. Christians. Saladin in character was a typical
Saladin
Mohammedan, very devout in prayers and fast-
ing, fiercely hostile toward unbelievers, and full of the pride of
1 See page 383. 2 See page 413. ^ See pages 449-450.
The Second and Third Crusades 475
race. To these qualities he added a kindUness and humanity
not surpassed, if equaled, by any of his Christian foes. He
lives in eastern history and legend as the hero who stemmed
once for all the tide of European conquest in Asia.
Having made himself sultan of Egypt, Saladin united the
Moslems of Syria under his sway and then advanced against
the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Christians
met him in a great battle near the lake of Galilee. Jerusalem
It ended in the rout of their army and the capture ?7„?^^J"'
of their king. Even the Holy Cross, which they
had carried in the midst of the fight, became the spoil of
the conqueror. Saladin quickly reaped the fruits of victory.
The Christian cities of Syria opened their gates to him,
and at last Jerusalem itself surrendered after a short siege.
Little now remained of the possessions which the crusaders
had won in the East.
The news of the taking of Jerusalem spread consternation
throughout western Christendom. The cry for another crusade
arose on all sides. Once more thousands of men ^, . ,
Third
sewed the cross in gold, or silk, or cloth upon their Cmsade
garments and set out for the Holy Land. When Jj|^^*
the three greatest rulers of Europe — Philip
Augustus,^ king of France, Richard I, king of England, and
the German emperor, Frederick Barbarossa ^ — assumed the
cross,. it seemed that nothing could prevent the restoration of
Christian supremacy in Syria.
The Germans under Frederick Barbarossa were the first to
start. This great emperor was now nearly seventy years old, yet
age had not lessened his crusading zeal. He took y. , ,
the overland route and after much hard fighting Frederick
reached southern Asia Minor. Here, however, he Barbarossa,
Jill- 11 1190 A.D.
was drow^ned, while trymg to cross a swollen
stream. Many of his discouraged followers at once returned
to Germany; a few of them, however, pressed on and joined
the other crusaders before the walls of Acre.
» See page 513. 2 See page 460.
476
The Crusades
Acre cap-
tured by
Philip and
Richard,
1191 A.D.
mtmi,:
The expedition of the French and Enghsh achieved Kttle.
PhiHp and Richard, who came by
sea, captured Acre after a hard
siege, but their quarrels
prevented them from fol-
lowing up this initial suc-
cess. Philip soon went
home, leaving the further conduct
of the crusade in Richard's hands.
The English king remained for four-
teen months longer in the Holy Land.
His campaigns during this time gained
for him the title of ''Lion-
hearted," ^ by which he is
always known. He had
many adventures and per-
formed knightly exploits without num-
ber, but could not capture Jerusalem.
Tradition declares that when, during
a truce, some crusaders went up to
Jerusalem, Richard refused to accom-
RiCHAED I IN Prison pany them, saying that he would not
From an illuminated manuscript enter as a pilgrim the city which he
of the thirteenth century. King ^^^^^ ^^^ j.^^^^^ ^g ^ COnqUCror. He
Richard on his return from the ^
Holy Land was shipwrecked off and Saladlu finally concluded a treaty
the coast of the Adriatic. At- ^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^f ^^.j^j^^j^ Christians were
tempting to travel through Austria "^
in disguise, he was captured by permitted to visit Jerusalem without
the duke of Austria, whom he had paying tribute. Richard then set sail
offended at the siege of Acre. -"^ •' "
The king regained his Uberty only for England, and with his departure
by paying a ransom equivalent f j-om the Holy Land the Third Crusadc
to more than twice the annual
revenues of England. CamC tO an end.
Richard
in the
Holy Land,
1191-1192
A.D.
173. Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Con-
stantinople, 1202-1261 A.D.
The real author of the Fourth Crusade was the famous pope,
Innocent III.^ Young, enthusiastic, and ambitious for the
1 In French Caeur-de-Lion, 2 See page 461.
The Fourth Crusade 477
glory of the Papacy, he revived the plans of Urban II
and sought once more to unite the forces of innocent m
Christendom against Islam. No emperor or king and the
answered his summons, but a number of knights c^gade
(chiefly French) took the crusader's vow.
The leaders of the crusade decided to make Egypt their
objective point, since this country was then the center of
the Moslem power. Accordingly, the crusaders ^j^^ ^^_
proceeded to Venice, for the purpose of secur- saders and
ing transportation across the Mediterranean. The ® enetians
Venetians agreed to furnish the necessary ships only on condition
that the crusaders first seized Zara on the eastern coast of the
Adriatic. Zara was a Christian city, but it was also a naval
and commercial rival of Venice. In spite of the pope's protests
the crusaders besieged and captured the city. Even then they
did not proceed against the Moslems. The Venetians per-
suaded them to turn their arms against Constantinople. The
possession of that great capital would greatly increase Venetian
trade and influence in the East; for the crusading nobles it
held out endless opportunities of acquiring wealth and power.
Thus it happened that these soldiers of the Cross, pledged to
war with the Moslems, attacked a Christian city, which for
centuries had formed the chief bulwark of Europe against the
Arab and the Turk.
The crusaders — now better styled the invaders — took
Constantinople by storm. No "infidels" could have treated
in worse fashion this home of ancient civilization.
They burned down a great part of it ; they slaugh- ^^^^ ^^ ^o°~
•;,.,,. , , ; ^ , stantinople,
tered the mhabitants; they wantonly destroyed 1204 A.D.
monuments, statues, paintings, and manuscripts
— the accumulation of a thousand years. Much of the movable
wealth they carried away. Never, declared an eye-witness
of the scene, had there been such plunder since the world
began.
The victors hastened to divide between them the lands of
the Roman Empire in the East. Venice gained some districts
in Greece, together with nearly all the ^gean islands. The
478 The Crusades
chief crusaders formed part of the remaining territory into
the Latin Empire of Constantinople. It was
Empire of organized in fiefs, after the feudal manner. There
Constant!- was a prince of Achaia, a duke of Athens, a mar-
mi^AD ~ ^^^^ ^^ Corinth, and a count of Thebes. Large
districts, both in Europe and Asia, did not ac-
knowledge, however, these "Latin" rulers. The new empire
lived less than sixty years. At the end of this time the
Greeks returned to power.
Constantinople, after the Fourth Crusade, decKned in strength
and could no longer cope with the barbarians menacing it.
Two centuries later the city fell an easy victim
Disastrous
consequence to the Turks.^ The responsibility for the disas-
of the Fourth ^gj. ^hich gave the Turks a foothold in Europe
Crusade
rests on the heads of the Venetians and the
French nobles. Their greed and lust for power turned the
Fourth Crusade into a political adventure.
The so-called Children's Crusade illustrates at once the reli-
gious enthusiasm and misdirected zeal which marked the whole
^^ crusading movement. During the year 121 2 a.d.
The
Children's thousands of French children assembled in bands
^9^9^1% and marched through the towns and villages,
carrying banners, candles, and crosses and singing,
''Lord God, exalt Christianity. Lord God, restore to us the
true cross." The children could not be restrained at first, but
finally hunger compelled them to return home. In Germany,
during the same year, a lad named Nicholas really did succeed
in launching a crusade. He led a mixed multitude of men and
women, boys and girls over the Alps into Italy, where they
expected to take ship for Palestine. But many perished of
hardships, many were sold into slavery, and only a few ever
saw their homes again. ''These children," Pope Innocent III
declared, *'put us to shame; while we sleep they rush to recover
the Holy Land."
The crusading movement came to an end by the close of the
thirteenth century. The emperor Frederick II ^ for a short
1 See page 492. « gee page 462.
'"'''^'e^-ijzZ^i^L^ ^
r
Palermo
S M^ — -^ J, j \ Bona
1 T
C
. SICIL'
Tun
^ ^
^
^
%:
MEDITERRANEAN LANDS ^ "^^ =3^
AFTER THE EOURTH CRUSADE ^ X
^^ 1202-1204 A.D.
^
/-'.<'
rv
V
4
^ 4.
o
^^\
Second crusade 1147 - 1149 D. = Duchy
" ' Dom.= Dominion
^ . . > TViirH r-fiT^irln 1190 111''
^
Scale of Miles P.=Principality
50 100 200 300 400 500
Longitude West
East from, Greenwich
^lenna
1 o C
.Gran / ^^
f Ho-^o"*- tol/^ I/KINGDOM --,x -V
lit l\io\F HUNGARY h { '
^ Its } f""^ ) s^'" Xl^
^o\-^'
Cbersot^
C K^^S E ^
^ ^ ^>^^
^^,
Ng/aesal
A ^'y\ Philippopoli
r.RETE
Results of the Crusades 479
time recovered Jerusalem by a treaty, but in 1224 a.d. the
Holy City became again a possession of the End of the
Moslems. They have never since rehnquished crusades
it. Acre, the last Christian post in Syria, fell in 1291 a.d.,
and with this event the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem ceased
to exist. The Hospitalers, or Knights of St. John, still kept
possession of the important islands of Cyprus and Rhodes,
which long served as a barrier to Moslem expansion over the
Mediterranean.
174. Results of the Crusades
The crusades, judged by what they set out to accompHsh,
must be accounted an inglorious failure. After two hundred
years of conflict, after a vast expenditure of wealth FaUure of
and human lives, the Holy Land remained in the crusades
Moslem hands. It is true that the First Crusade did help, by
the conquest of Syria, to check the advance of the Turks toward
Constantinople. But even this benefit was more than undone
by the weakening of the Roman Empire in the East as a result
of the Fourth Crusade.
Of the many reasons for the failure of the crusades, three
require special consideration. In the first place, there was the
inability of eastern and western Europe to coop- -wTiythe
erate in supporting the holy wars. A united crusades
Christendom might well have been invincible.
But the bitter antagonism between the Greek and Roman
churches ^ effectually prevented all unity of action. The emper-
ors at Constantinople, after the First Crusade, rarely assisted
the crusaders and often secretly hindered them. In the second
place, the lack of sea-power, as seen in the earlier crusades,
worked against their success. Instead of being able to go by
water directly to Syria, it was necessary to follow the long, over-
land route from France or Germany through Hungary, Bul-
garia, the territory of the Roman Empire in the East, and the
deserts and mountains of Asia Minor. The armies that reached
their destination after this toilsome march were in no condition
1 See pages 362-363.
480 The Crusades
for effective campaigning. In the third place, the crusaders
were never numerous enough to colonize so large a country as
Syria and absorb its Moslem population. They conquered
part of Syria in the First Crusade, but could not hold it per-
manently in the face of determined resistance.
In spite of these and other reasons the Christians of Europe
might have continued much longer their efforts to recover the
Why the Holy Land, had they not lost faith in the move-
crusades ment. But after two centuries the old crusading
enthusiasm died out, the old ideal of the crusade
as "the way of God" lost its spell. Men had begun to think
less of winning future salvation by visits to distant shrines and
to think more of their present duties to the world about them.
They came to believe that Jerusalem could best be won as
Christ and the Apostles had won it — ''by love, by prayers,
and by the shedding of tears."
The crusades could not fail to affect in many ways the life
of western Europe. For instance, they helped to undermine
feudalism. Thousands of barons and knights mortgaged or
Influence of ^^^^ their lands in order to raise money for a cru-
the crusades sading expedition. Thousands more perished in
on eu sm gy^.-^^^ ^.nd their estates, through failure of heirs,
reverted to the crown. Moreover, private warfare, that curse
of the Middle Ages,^ also tended to die out with the departure
for the Holy Land of so many turbulent feudal lords. Their
decline in both numbers and influence, and the corresponding
growth of the royal authority, may best be traced in the
changes that came about in France, the original home of the
crusading movement.
One of the most important effects of the crusades was on
commerce. They created a constant demand for the trans-
The crusades portation of men and supplies, encouraged ship-
and building, and extended the market for eastern
commerce ^ares in Europe. The products of Damascus,
' Mosul, Alexandria, Cairo, and other great cities were carried
across the Mediterranean to the Italian seaports, whence they
1 See page 423.
Results of the Crusades 481
found their way into all European lands. The elegance of the
Orient, with its silks, tapestries, precious stones, perfumes,
spices, pearls, and ivory, was so enchanting that an enthusiastic
crusader called it '' the vestibule of Paradise."
Finally, it must be noted how much the crusades contributed
to intellectual and social progress. They brought the inhab-
itants of western Europe into close relations with ^^
. . The crusades
one another, with their fellow Christians of the and
Roman Empire in the East, and with the natives "Jteiiectual
of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. The intercourse
between Christians and Moslems was particularly stimulating,
because the East at this time surpassed the West in civiliza-
tion. The crusaders enjoyed the advantages which come from
travel in strange lands and among unfamiliar peoples. They
went out from their castles or villages to see great cities, marble
palaces, superb dresses, and elegant manners; they returned
with finer tastes, broader ideas, and wider sympathies. Like
the conquests of Alexander the Great, the crusades opened up a
new world.
When all is said, the crusades remain one of the most remark-
able movements in history. They exhibited the nations of
western Europe for the first time making a united significance
effort for a common end. The crusaders were not of the
hired soldiers, but volunteers, who, while the
religious fervor lasted, gladly abandoned their homes and faced
hardship and death in pursuit of a spiritual ideal. They failed
to accomplish their purpose, yet humanity is the richer for the
memory of their heroism and chivalry.
Studies
I . On an outline map indicate Europe and the Mediterranean lands bj'^ religions,
about 1095 A.D. 2. On an outline map indicate the routes of the First and the
Third Crusades. 3. Locate on the map the following places: Clermont; Acre;
Antioch; Zara; Edessa; and Damascus. 4. Identify the following dates: 1204
A.D.; 1095 A.D.; 1096 A.D.; 1291 a.d. 5. Write a short essay describing the imag-
inary experiences of a crusader to the Holy Land. 6. Mention some instances
which illustrate the reUgious enthusiasm of the crusaders. 7. Compare the Moham-
medan pilgrimage to Mecca with the pilgrimages of Christians to Jerusalem in the
Middle Ages. 8. Compare the Christian crusade with the Mohammedan jihad,
482
The Crusades
or holy war. 9. How did the expression, a "red-cross knight," arise? 10. Why
is the Second Crusade often called "St. Bernard's Crusade"? 11. Why has the
Third Crusade been called "the most interesting international expedition of the
Middle Ages"? 12. Would the crusaders in 1204 a.d. have attacked Constanti-
nople, if the schism of 1054 a.d. had not occurred? 13. "Mixture, or at least
contact of races, is essential to progress." How do the crusades illustrate the
truth of this statement? 14. Were the crusades the only means by which
western Europe was brought in contact with Moslem civiUzation?
CHAPTER XXI
THE MONGOLS AND THE OTTOMAN TURKS TO 1453 A.D.
175. The Mongols
The extensive steppes in the middle and north of Asia have
formed, for thousands of years, the abode of nomadic peoples
belonging to the Yellow race. In prehistoric The Asiatic
times they spread over northern Europe, but they counter-
were gradually supplanted by white-skinned Indo-
Europeans, until now only remnants of them exist, such as the
Finns and Lapps. In later ages history records how the Huns,
the Bulgarians, and the Magyars have poured into Europe,
spreading terror and destruction in their path.^ These invaders
were followed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by the
even more terrible Mongols and Ottoman Turks. Their inroads
might well be described as Asia's reply to the crusades, as an
Asiatic counter-attack upon Europe.
The Mongols, who have given their name to the entire race
of yellow-skinned peoples, now chiefly occupy the high plateau
bounded on the north by Siberia, on the south by „
Mongolia
China, on the east by Manchuria, and on the west
by Turkestan. 2 Although the greater part of this area consists
of the Gobi desert, there are many oases and pastures available
at different seasons of the year to the inhabitants. Hence the
principal occupation of the Mongols has always been cattle
breeding, and their horses, oxen, sheep, and camels have always
furnished them with food and clothing.
Like most nomads the Mongols dwell in tents, each family
often by itself. Severe simplicity is the rule of life, for property
consists of httle more than one's flocks and herds, clothes, and
weapons. The modern Mongols are a peaceable, kindly folk,
1 See pages 241, 247, 314, 316, 334.
2 Mongolia has long been a part of the Chinese Empire, but in 191 2 A.D., when
China became a republic, Mongolia declared its independence.
483
484 The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks
who have adopted from Tibet a debased form of Buddhism,
Mongol life but the Mongols of the thirteenth century in
and character rehgion and morals were scarcely above the level
of American Indians. To ruthless cruelty and passion for
Hut- WAGON of the Mongols (Reconstruction)
On the wagon was placed a sort of hut or pavilion made of wands bound together with
narrow thongs. The structure was then covered with felt or cloth and provided with
latticed windows. Hut-wagons, being verj' light, were sometimes of enormous size.
plunder they added an efficiency in warfare which enabled them,
within fifty years, to overrun much of Asia and the eastern part
of Europe.
The daily life of the Mongols was a training school for war.
Constant practice in riding, scouting, and the use of arms made
MiUtary every man a soldier. The words with which an
prowess of ancient Greek historian described the savage
the Mongols g^y^i^j^ns applied perfectly to the Mongols:
"Having neither cities nor forts, and carrying their dwellings
with them wherever they go; accustomed, moreover, one and
all, to shoot from horseback; and living not by husbandry but
on their cattle, their wagons the only houses that they possess,
how can they fail of being irresistible? " ^
176. Conquests of the Mongols, 1206-1405 A.D.
For ages the INIongols had dwelt in scattered tribes throughout
their Asiatic wilderness, engaged in petty struggles with one
1 Herodotus, iv, 46.
Conquests of the Mongols 485
another for cattle and pasture lands. It was the celebrated
Jenghiz Khan/ chief of one of the tribes, who jenghiz
brought them all under his authority and then led ^^^
them to the conquest of the world. Of him it may be said
with truth that he had the most victorious of military careers,
and that he constructed the most extensive empire known to
history. If Jenghiz had possessed the ability of a statesman,
he would have taken a place by the s-ide of Alexander the
Great and Julius Caesar.
Jenghiz first sent the Mongol armies, which contained many
Turkish allies, over the Great Wall ^ and into the fertile plains
of China. All the northern half of the country Mongol
was quickly overrun. Then Jenghiz turned west- Empire under
ward and invaded Turkestan and Persia. Seven 1206-1227
centuries have not sufficed to repair the damage ^'^'
which the Mongols wrought in this once-prosperous land. The
great cities of Bokhara, Samarkand, Merv, and Herat,^ long
centers of Moslem culture, were pillaged and burned, and their
inhabitants were put to the sword. Like the Huns the Mongols
seemed a scourge sent by God. Still further conquests enlarged
the empire, which at the death of Jenghiz in 1227 a.d. stretched
from the Dnieper River to the China Sea.
The Mongol dominions in the thirteenth century were in-
creased by the addition of Korea, southern China, and Meso-
potamia, as well as the greater part of Asia Minor Mongol
and Russia. Japan, indeed, repulsed the Mongol Empire
111 11 . r * . , under the
hordes, but at the other extremity of Asia they successors
captured Bagdad, sacked the city, and brought oUenghiz
the caliphate to an end.^ The Mongol realm was very loosely
organized, however, and during the fourteenth century it fell
apart into a number of independent states, or khanates.
It was reserved for another renowned Oriental monarch,
Timur the Lame,^ to restore the empire of Jenghiz Khan. His
1 "The Very Mighty King."
2 See page 20. *
• For the location of these cities see the map on page 486.
* See page 381.
6 Commonly known as Tamerlane.
486 The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks
The Mongols in China and India
487
Timur the
Lame, died
1405 A.D.
biographers traced his descent from that famous Mongol, but
Timur was a Turk and
an adherent
of Islam.
He has come
down to us as perhaps
the most terrible person-
ification in history of
the evil spirit of con-
quest. Such distant re-
gions as India, Syria,
Armenia, Asia Minor,
and Russia were trav-
ersed by Timur's sol-
diers, who left behind
them only the smoking
ruins of a thousand cities
and abominable trophies
in the shape of columns
or pyramids of human
heads. Timur died in
his seventieth year, while
leading his troops against
China, and the exten-
sive empire which he
had built up in Asia soon
crumbled to pieces.
Tomb of Timur at Samarkand
Samarkand in Russian Central Asia became
Timur's capital in 1369 a.d. The city was once a
center of Mohammedan wealth and culture, famous
for its beautiful mosques, palaces, and colleges. The
Gur-Amir, or tomb of Timur, consists of a chapel,
crowned by a dome and enclosed by a wall. Time
and earthquakes have greatly injured this fine build-
ing. The remains of Timur lie here under a huge
block of jade.
177. The Mongols in China and India
The Mongols ruled over China for about one hundred and
fifty years. During this period they became thoroughly imbued
with Chinese culture. " China," said an old writer, Mongol sway
''is a sea that salts all the rivers flowing into it." "i China
The most eminent of the Mongol emperors was Jenghiz Khan's
grandson, Kublai (12 59-1 294 a.d.). He built a new capital,
which in medieval times was known as Cambaluc and is now
called Peking. While Kublai was on the throne, the Venetian
488 The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks
traveler, Marco Polo/ visited China, and he describes in glowing
colors the virtues and glories of the "Great Khan." There
appears to have been considerable trade between Europe and
China at this time, and Franciscan missionaries and papal
legates penetrated to the remote East. After the downfall of
the Mongol dynasty in 1368 a.d. China again shut her doors to
foreign peoples. All intercourse with Europe ceased until
the arrival of the Portuguese in the sixteenth century. ^
Northern India, which in earlier ages had witnessed the coming
of Persian, Macedonian, and Arabian conquerors, did not escape
Timurand visitations by fresh Asiatic hordes. Timur the
Baber Lame, at the head of an innumerable host, rushed
down upon the banks of the Indus and the Ganges
and sacked Delhi, making there a full display of his unrivaled
ferocity. Timur's invasion left no permanent impress on the
history of India, but its memory fired the imagination of another
Turkish chieftain, Baber, a remote descendant of Timur. In
1525 A.D. he invaded India and speedily made himself master of
the northern part of the country.
The empire which Baber estabUshed in India is known as
that of the Moguls, an Arabic form of the word Mongol. The
Empire of Moguls, however, were Turkish in blood and
the Moguls Mohammedans in religion. The Mogul emperors
reigned in great splendor from their capitals at Delhi and Agra,
until the decline of their power in the eighteenth century opened
the way for the British conquest of India.
178. The Mongols in Eastern Europe
The location of Russia^ on the border of Asia exposed that
country to the full force of the Mongol attack. Jenghiz Kdian's
successors, entering Europe north of the Caspian,
conquest of swept resistlessly over the Russian plain. Mos-
Russia, 1237- ^^-^^ ^^^ j^jgy jq[\ j^ quick succession, and before
1240 A.D. , , ;^ . . 1 1 J r
long the greater part of Russia was m the hands 01
the Mongols. Wholesale massacres marked their progress.
*'No eye remained open to weep for the dead."
1 See page 616. 2 See page 622.
» For the early history of Russia see page 400.
^ "<
c« S,
The Mongols in Eastern Europe
489
Still the invaders pressed on. They devastated Hungary,
driving the Magyar king in panic flight from his realm. They
Russia at the end of the Middle Ages
overran Poland. At a great battle in Silesia they destroyed
the knighthood of Germany and filled nine sacks invasion of
with the right ears of slaughtered enemies. The Poland and
, 1111 • Hungary by
European peoples, taken completely by surprise, the Mongols,
could offer no effective resistance to these Asiatics, ^^^^ '^••^*
who combined superiority in numbers with surpassing general-
490 The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks
ship. Since the Arab attack in the eighth century Christen-
dom had never been in graver peril. But the wave of Mongol
invasion, which threatened to engulf Europe in barbarism,
receded as quickly as it came. The Mongols soon abandoned
Poland and Hungary and retired to their possessions in Russia.
The ruler of the ''Golden Horde," as the western section
of the Mongol Empire was called, continued to be the lord of
^YiQ Russia for about two hundred and fifty years.
"Golden Russia, throughout this period, was little more
°^ ® than a dependency of Asia. The conquered people
were obliged to pay a heavy tribute and to furnish soldiers for
the Mongol armies. Their princes, also, became vassals of the
Great Khan.
The Mongols, or ''Tartars" ^ are usually said to have Oriental-
ized Russia. It seems clear, however, that they did not inter-
Mongol ^^^^ "^^^^ ^^^ language, religion, and laws of their
influence subjects. The chief result of the Mongol suprem-
on ussia ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ Russia from western Europe,
just at the time when England, France, Germany, and Italy
were emerging from the darkness of the early Middle Ages.
The invasion of the Mongols proved to be, indirectly, the
making of the Russian state. Before they came the country
Rise of was a patchwork of rival, and often warring, prin-
Muscovy cipalities. The need of union against the common
enemy welded them together. The principality of Muscovy,
so named from the capital city of Moscow, conquered its neigh-
bors, annexed the important city of Novgorod, whose vast
possessions stretched from Lapland to the Urals, and finally
became powerful enough to shake off the Mongol yoke.
The final deliverance of Russia from the Mongols was accom-
Reign of plished by Ivan III, surnamed the Great. This
Ivan III, j-yjgj. jg g^igQ regarded as the founder of Russian
the Great, ^ . r , i i i i •
1462-1505 autocracy, that is, of a personal, absolute, and arbi-
^'^' trary government. With a view to strengthening
his claim to be the pohtical heir of the eastern emperors,
1 The name Tartar (more correctly, Tatar) was originally applied to both Mongol
and Turkish tribes that entered Russia. There are still over three millions of these
"Tartars" in the Russian Empire,
The Ottoman Turks and their Conquests 491
Ivan married a niece of the last ruler at Constantinople, who in
1453 A.D. had fallen in the defense of his capital against the
Ottoman Turks. Henceforth the Russian ruler described him- \
self as ''the new Tsar^ Constantine in the new city of Constan-
tine, Moscow."
179. The Ottoman Turks and their Conquests,
1227-1453 A.D.
The first appearance of the Ottoman Turks in history dates
from 1227 A.D., the year of Jenghiz Khan's death. In that
year a small Turkish horde, driven westward from Rise of the
their central Asian homes by the Mongol advance, Ottomans
settled in Asia Minor. There they enjoyed the protection of
their kinsmen, the Seljuk Turks, and from them accepted Islam.
As the Seljuk power declined, that of the Ottomans rose in its
stead. About 1300 a.d. their chieftain, Othman,^ declared his
independence and became the founder of the Ottoman Empire.
The growth of the Ottoman power was almost as rapid as that
of the Arabs or of the Mongols. During the first half of the
fourteenth century they firmly established them- Ottoman
selves in northwestern Asia Minor, along the expansion
beautiful shores washed by the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmora,
and the Dardanelles. The second half of the same century
found them in Europe, wresting province after province from
the feeble hands of the eastern emperors. First came the seizure
of Gallipoli on the Dardanelles, which long remained the prin-
cipal Turkish naval station. Then followed the capture of
Adrianople, where in earlier centuries the Visigoths had de-
stroyed a Roman army. ^ By 1400 a.d. all that remained of the
Roman Empire in the East w^as Constantinople and a small
district in the vicinity of that city.
The Turks owed much of their success to the famous body
of troops known as Janizaries.^ These w^ere recruited for the
1 The title Tsar, or Czar, is supposed to be a contraction of the word Caesar.
2 WTience the name Ottoman appUed to this branch of the Turks.
3 See page 242.
* A name derived from the Turkish yeni cheri, "new troops."
492 The Mongols and the Ottoman Turks
Constanti-
nople
besieged
most part from Christian children surrendered by their parents
The as tribute. The Janizaries received an education
Janizaries jj^ ^j^g Moslem faith and careful instruction in
the use of arms. Their discipline and fanatic zeal made
them irresistible on the field of battle.
Constantinople had never recovered from the blow inflicted
upon it by the free-
booters of
the Fourth
Crusade.^
It was isolated from
western Europe by the
advance of the Turks.
Frantic appeals for
help brought only a
few ships and men
from Genoa and
Venice. When in 1453
A.D. the sultan Moham-
med II, commanding
a large army amply
supplied with artillery,
appeared before the
walls, all men knew that Constantinople was doomed.
The defense of the city forms one of the most stirring episodes
in history. The Christians, not more than eight thousand in
Capture of number, were a mere handful compared to the
the city Ottoman hordes. Yet they held out for nearly
two months against every assault. When at length the end drew
near, the Roman emperor, Constantine Palasologus, a hero
worthy of the name he bore, went with his followers at midnight
to Sancta Sophia and there in that solemn fane received a last
communion. Before sunrise on the following day the Turks
were within the walls. The emperor, refusing to survive the
city which he could not save, fell in the onrush of the Janizaries.
Constantinople endured a sack of three days, during which
1 See page 478.
Mohammed II
A medal showing the strong face of the conqueror
of Constantinople.
The Ottoman Turks in Southeastern Europe 493
many works of art, previously spared by the crusaders, were
destroyed. Mohammed II then made a triumphal entry into
the city and in Sancta Sophia, now stripped of its crosses,
images, and other Christian emblems, proclaimed the faith of
the prophet. And so the ''Turkish night," as Slavic poets
named it, descended on this ancient home of civilization.
The capture of Constantinople is rightly regarded as an
epoch-making event. It meant the end, once for all, of the
empire which had served so long as the rearguard An epoch-
of Christian civilization, as the bulwark of the making event
West against the East. Europe stood aghast at a calamity
which she had done so httle to prevent. The Christian powers
of the West have been paying dearly, even to our own time, for
their failure to save New Rome from infidel hands.
180. The Ottoman Turks in Southeastern Europe
Turkey was now a European state. After the occupation of
Constantinople the Ottoman territories continued to expand,
and at the death of Mohammed II they included continued
what are now Bulgaria, Rumania, Serbia, Albania, Ottoman
and Greece. Of all the Balkan states only tiny ^^p^^^^^^
Montenegro, protected by mountain ramparts, preserved its
independence.
The Turks form a small minority among the inhabitants of
the Balkans. At the present time there are said to be less than
one milhon Turks in southeastern Europe. Even Nature of
about Constantinople the Greeks far outnumber Turkish rule
them. The Turks from the outset have been, not a nation in
the proper sense of the w^ord, but rather an army of occupation,
holding down by force their far more numerous Christian
subjects.
The people w^ho thus acquired dominion over all southeastern
Europe had become, even at the middle of the fifteenth century,
greatly mixed in blood. Their ancestors were The Turks a
natives of central Asia, but in Europe they inter- °^® <^ \ v .
'^^^
'J^e^
:^^o
„i^«'- >^
The Witches' Sabbath
bodies, thus causing sickness and death. At night they rode on
broomsticks through the air and assembled in some lonely place
for feasts, dances, and wild revels. At these ''Witches' Sab-
baths," as they were called, the Devil himself attended and
taught his followers their diabolic arts. There were various
tests for the discovery of witches and wizards, the most usual
being the ordeal by water.^
The numerous trials and executions for witchcraft form a dark
page in history. Thousands of harmless old men and women
1 See page 420.
Popular Amusements and Festivals
579
Unlucky days
were put to death on the charge of being leagued with the
Devil. Even the most intelligent and humane Witchcraft
people believed in the reality of witchcraft and persecutions
found a justification for its punishment in the Scriptural
command, ''Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live."^ The
witch epidemic which broke out in America during the seven-
teenth century, reaching its height at Salem, Massachusetts, was
simply a reflection of the European fear and hatred of witches.
The Middle Ages inherited from antiquity the observance of
unlucky days. They went under the name of "Egyptian
days," so called because it was held that on one
of them the plagues had been sent to devastate
the land of Egypt and on another Pharaoh and his host had
been swallowed up in the Red Sea. At least twenty-four days
in the year were regarded as very unlucky. At such times one
ought not to buy and sell, to build a house, to plant a field, to
travel or, in fact, to undertake anything at all important. After
the sixteenth century the belief in unlucky days declined, but
there still exists a prejudice against fishermen starting out to
fish, or seamen to take a voyage, or landsmen a journey, or do-
mestic servants to enter a new place, on a Friday.
207. Popular Amusements and Festivals
It is pleasant to turn from the superstitions of the Middle
Ages to the games,
sports, ^ ^
Indoor games
and fes-
tivals which helped
to make life agree-
able alike for rich
and poor, for nobles
and peasants. Some
indoor games are of
eastern origin.
Thus chess, with
which European peoples seem to have become acquainted as
1 Exodus, xxii, i8.
bur'g>-
Chess Pieces of Charlemagne
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris'
The figures are carved in ivory.
580 Medieval Civilization
early as the tenth century/ arose in India as a war game. On
each side a king and his general, with chariots, cavalry, ele-
phants, and infantry, met in battle array. These survive in
the rooks, knights, bishops, and pawns of the modern game.
Checkers is a sort of simplified chess, in which the pieces are
all pawns, till they get across the board and become kings.
Playing cards are another Oriental invention. They were
introduced into Europe in the fourteenth century, either by
the Arabs or the gypsies. Their first use seems to have been
for telUng fortunes.
Many outdoor games are derived from those played in medie-
val times. How one kind of game may become the parent of
Outdoor many others is seen in the case of the ball-play,
games j^g ancients tossed and caught balls as children
do now. They also had a game in which each side tried to secure
the ball and throw it over the adversary's goal Hne. This game
lasted on into the Middle Ages, and from it football has de-
scended. The ancients seem never to have used a stick or bat
in their ball-play. The Persians, however, began to play ball
on horseback, using a long mallet for the purpose, and intro-
duced their new sport throughout Asia. Under the Tibetan
name of pulu ("ball") it found its way into Europe. ^ When
once the mallet had been invented for use on horseback, it
could be easily used on foot, and so polo gave rise to the
various games in which balls are hit with bats, including
tennis, hockey, golf, cricket, and croquet.
The difference between our ideas of w^hat constitutes "sport"
and those of our ancestors is shown by the popularity of baiting.
^ . . In the twelfth century bulls, bears, and even horses
Baiting -^ '
were baited. Cock-fighting formed another com-
mon amusement. It was not till the nineteenth century that
an English society for the prevention of cruelty to animals
succeeded in getting a law passed which forbade these cruel
sports. Most other European countries have now followed
England's example.
No account of life in the Middle Ages can well omit some
» See page 428.
Popular Amusements and Festivals
581
Festivals
Bear Baiting
From the Luttrell Psalter,
reference to the celebration of festivals. For the peasant and
artisan they provided reHef from physical exertion,
and for all classes of society the pageants, pro-
cessions, sports, feasts, and merry-makings which accompanied
them furnished welcome diversion. Medieval festivals included
not only those
of the Christian
Year,^ but also
others which had
come down from
p r e-C hr istian
times.
Many festivals
not of Christian
origin were derived
from the ceremo-
nies with which the heathen peoples of Europe had been
accustomed to mark the changes of the seasons. Seasonal
Thus, April Fool's Day formed a relic of festivities festivals
held at the vernal equinox. May Day, another festival of
spring, honored the spirits of trees and of all budding vegetation.
The persons who acted as May kings and May queens repre-
sented these spirits. According to the original custom a new
May tree was cut down in the forest every year, but later a
permanent May pole was set up on the village common. On
Midsummer Eve (June 23), which marked the summer solstice,
came the fire festival, when people built bonfires and leaped
over them, walked in procession with torches r^ound the fields,
and rolled burning wheels down the hillsides. These curious
rites may have been once connected with sun worship. Hallow
Eve, so called from being the eve of All Saints' Day (November
i), also seems to have been a survival of a heathen celebration.
On this night witches and fairies were supposed to assemble.
Hallow Eve does not appear to have been a season for pranks
and jokes, as is its present degenerate form. Even the festival
of Christmas, coming at the winter solstice, kept some heathen
1 See page 346.
582
Medieval Civilization
features, such as the use of mistletoe with which Celtic priests
once decked the altars of their gods. The Christmas tree,
however, is not a rehc of heathenism. It seems to have come
into use as late as the seventeenth century.
Young and old took part in the dances which accompanied
village festivals. Very popular in medieval England was the
The Morris Morris dance. The name, a corruption of Moor-
dance jg]^^ refers to its origin in Spain. The Morris dance
was especially associated with May Day and was danced round
a May pole to a lively and capering step. The performers
represented Robin Hood, Maid Marian, his wife, Tom the
Piper, and other
traditional charac-
ters. On their
garments they
wore bells tuned
to different notes,
so as to sound in
harmony.
Mumming had
a particular asso-
ciation with Christ-
Mummers
were
bands
of men and women
who disguised
themselves in
mas
Mumming
Mummers
From a manuscript now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford.
It was written and illuminated in the reign of Edward III.
masks and skins of animals and then serenaded people outside
their houses. Oftentimes the mummers acted out little plays
in which Father Christmas, Old King Cole, and St. George
were famihar figures.
Besides these village amusements, many plays of a religious
character came into vogue during the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries. The earhest were the miracle plays.
They presented in dramatic form scenes from the
Bible and stories of the saints or martyrs. The actors at first
Miracle plays
Popular Amusements and Festivals
583
were priests, and the stage was the church itself or the church-
yard. This rehgious setting did not prevent the introduction
of clowns and buffoons. After a time the miracle play passed
from the clergy to the guilds. All the guilds of a town usually
A Miracle Play at Coventry, England
The rude platform on wheels, which served as a stage, was drawn by apprentices to the
market place. Each guild had its own stage.
gave an exhibition once a year. Each guild presented a single
scene in the story. An exhibition might last for several days
and have as many as fifty scenes, beginning at Creation and
ending with Doomsday.^
The miracle plays w^re followed by the ''moralities." They
dealt with the struggle between good and evil, rather than with
' The great Passion Play at Ober-Ammergau in Germany is the modern survival
and representative of this medieval religious drama.
584 Medieval Civilization
theology. Characters such as Charity, Faith, Prudence,
Morality Riches, Confession, and Death appeared and en-
plays acted a story intended to teach moral lessons.^
Out of the rude "morahty" and its predecessor, the miracle
play, has grown the drama of modern times.
208. Manners and Customs
A previous chapter ^ described some features of domestic
life in castle and village during the age of feudalism. In Eng-
_ „. land,
Dwellings
where
the Norman kings
discouraged castle
building, the man-
or house formed
the ordinary resi-
dence of the no-
j bility. Even in
^ Continental Eu-
rope many castles
were gradually
made over into
manor houses after
the cessation of feudal warfare. A manor house, however, was
only less bare and inconvenient than a castle. It was still
poorly lighted, ill- ventilated, and in winter scarcely warmed by
the open wood fires. Among the improvements of the four-
teenth century were the building of a fireplace at one or both
ends of the manor hall, instead of in the center, and the substi-
tution of glass windows for wooden shutters or oiled paper.
People in the Middle Ages, even the well-to-do, got along with
little furniture. The great hall of a manor house
contained a long dining table, with benches used
at meals, and a few stools. The family beds often occupied
Manor House in Shropshire, England
Built in the twelfth century.
Ftimiture
1 Everyman, one of the best of the morality plays, has recently been revived
before large audiences.
2 Chapter xviii.
Manners and Customs
585
curtained recesses in the walls, but guests might have to sleep
on the floor of the manor hall. Servants often slept in the
stables. Few persons could afford rugs to cover the floor; the
poor had to put up with rushes. Utensils were not numerous,
y yu >^.
Interior of an English Manor House
Shows the great hall of a manor house at Penshurst, Kent. The screen with the
minstrels' gallery over it is seen at the end of the hall, and in the center, the brazier
for fire. Built about 1340 a.d.
and articles of glass and silver were practically unknown, except
in the houses of the rich. Entries in wiUs show the high value
set upon a single spoon.
The pictures in old manuscripts give us a good idea of medieval
dress. Naturally it varied with time and place, and according
to the social position of the wearer. Sometimes ^
1-1 11 1 Costume
laws were passed, without much result, to regulate
the quahty, shape, and cost of the costumes to be worn by dif-
ferent orders of society. The moralists of the age were shocked,
then as now, when tightly fitting garments, which showed the
outlines of the body, became fashionable. The inconvenience
of putting them on led to the use of buttons and buttonholes.
Women's headdresses were often of extraordinary height and
586
Medieval Civilization
shape. Not less remarkable were the pointed shoes worn by-
men. The points finally got so long that they hindered walk-
ing, unless tied by a ribbon to the knees.
Beards
Costumes of Ladies during the Later Middle Ages
The medieval noble of the twelfth century as a rule went clean
shaven. To wear a beard was regarded as a sign of effeminacy
in a man. The Bayeux Tapestry/ for instance,
shows the Normans mostly clean-shaven, while the
English wear only moustaches. The introduction of long beards
seems to have been due to contact with the East during the
crusading period.
It is a common error that bathing was seldom practiced in
the Middle Ages. In the country districts river, lake, or pool
Baths and met the needs of people used to outdoor life. The
bathing ]^q^ ^^j. ^^^ vapor baths of the Byzantines were
adopted by the Moslems and later, through the Moors and cru-
saders, were made known to western Europe. After the begin-
ning of the thirteenth century few large cities lacked public
bathing places.
Medieval cookbooks show that people of means had all sorts
of elaborate and expensive dishes. Dinner at a nobleman's
house might include as many as ten or twelve courses, mostly
1 See the illustration, page 408.
Manners and Customs 587
meats and game. Such things as hedgehogs, peacocks, spar-
rows, and porpoises, which would hardly tempt
the modern palate, were rehshed. Much use
was made of spices in preparing meats and gravies, and also
for flavoring wines. Over-eating was a common vice in the
Middle Ages, but the open-air life and constant exercise en-
abled men and women to digest the huge quantities of food
they consumed.
People in medieval times had no knives or forks and conse-
quently ate with their fingers. Daggers also were employed to
convey food to the mouth. Forks date from the Table
end of the thirteenth century, but were adopted etiquette
only slowly. As late as the sixteenth century German preach-
ers condemned their use, for, said they, the Lord would not
have given us fingers if he had wanted us to rely on forks.
Napkins were another table convenience unknown in the Mid-
dle Ages.
In the absence of tea and coffee, ale and beer formed the
drink of the common people. The upper classes regaled them-
selves on costly wines. Drunkenness was as com- .
mon and as little reprobated as gluttony. The
monotony of life in medieval Europe, when the nobles had httle
to do but hunt and fight, may partly account for the prevaiHng
inebriety. But doubtless in large measure it was a Teutonic
characteristic. The Northmen were hard drinkers, and of the
ancient Germans a Roman writer states that "to pass an entire
day and night in drinking disgraces no one." ^ This habit
of intoxication survived in medieval Germany, and the Anglo-
Saxons and Danes introduced it into England.
Our survey of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries has now
shown us that these two hundred years deserve to be called the
central period of the Middle Ages. When the central
Arabs had brought the culture of the Orient to period of the
Spain and Sicily, when the Northmen after their ^'^^^^ ^^^^
wonderful expansion had settled down in Normandy, England,
and other countries, and when the peoples of western Europe,
1 Tacitus, Germania, 22.
588 Medieval Civilization
whether as peaceful pilgrims or as warhke crusaders, had visited
Constantinople and the Holy Land, men's minds received a
wonderful stimulus. The intellectual hfe of Europe ' was
'^ speeded up," and the way was prepared for the even more
rapid advance of knowledge in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, as the Middle Ages passed into modern times.
Studies
I. Look up on the map between pages 358-359 the following places where
Gothic cathedrals are found: Canterbury, York, Salisbury, Reims, Amiens, Char-
tres, Cologne, Strassburg, Burgos, Toledo, and Milan. 2. Look up on the map
facing page 636 the location of the following medieval universities: Oxford, Mont-
pellier, Paris, Orleans, Cologne, Leipzig, Prague, Padua, and Salamanca. 3. Ex-
plain the following terms: scholasticism; canon law; alchemy; troubadours;
Provencal language; transept; choir; flying buttress; werewolf; and miunming.
4. Who were St. Thomas Aquinas, Abelard, Gratian, Irnerius, and Roger Bacon?
5. Show how Latin served as an international language in the Middle Ages. Name
two artificial languages which have been invented as a substitute for Latin.
6. What is meant by saying that "French is a mere patois of Latin"? 7. In what
parts of the world is EngUsh now the prevaiUng speech? 8. Why has Siegfried,
the hero of the Nibelungenlied, been called the "Achilles of Tev tonic legend"?
9. What productions of medieval literature reflect aristocratic and democratic
ideals, respectively? 10. Distinguish between the Romanesque and Gothic styles
of architecture. What is the origin of each term? 11. Compare the ground plans
of a Greek temple (page 291), a Roman basiUca (page 284), and a Gothic cathedral
(page 562). 12. Contrast a Gothic cathedral with a Greek temple, particularly
in regard to size, height, support of the roof, windows, and decorative features.
13. Why is there some excuse for describing a Gothic building as "a wall of glass
with a roof of stone"? 14. Do you see any resemblance in structural features
between a Gothic cathedral and a modem "sky-scraper"? 15. Mention some
likenesses between medieval and modern universities. 16. Mention some im-
portant subjects of instruction in modem universities which were not treated in
those of the Middle Ages. 17. Why has scholasticism been called "a sort of Aris-
toteUan Christianity"? 18. Look up the original meaning of the words "jovial,"
"saturnine," "mercurial," "disastrous," "contemplate," and "consider."
19. Show the indebtedness of chemistry to alchemy and of astronomy to astrology.
20. Mention some common folk tales which illustrate medieval superstitions.
21. Why was Friday regarded as a specially unlucky day? 22. Enumerate the
most important contributions to civilization made during the Middle Ages.
CHAPTER XXV
THE RENAISSANCE 1
209. Meaning of the Renaissance
The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, covering the later
period of the Middle Ages, are commonly known as those of
the Renaissance. This French word means Re- Later period
birth or Revival. It is a convenient term for all of the
the changes in society, law, and government, in ^ ^ ^^^
science, philosophy, and religion, in literature and art which
gradually transformed medieval civilization into that of modern
times.
The Renaissance, just because of its transitional character,
cannot be exactly dated. Some Renaissance movements
started before 1300 a.d. For instance, the study Limits of the
of Roman law, as a substitute for Germanic cus- Renaissance
toms, began toward the close of the eleventh century. The
rise of European cities, with all that they meant for industry
and commerce, belonged to about the same time. Other
Renaissance movements, again, extended beyond 1500 a.d.
Among these w^ere the expansion of geographical knowledge,
resulting from the discovery of the New World, and the revolt
against the Papacy, known as the Protestant Reformation.
The Middle Ages, in fact, came to an end at different times in
different fields of human activity.
The name Renaissance applied, at first, only to the rebirth
or revival of men's interest in the hterature and art of classical
antiquity. Italy was the original home of this original
Renaissance. There it first appeared, there it home of the
found widest acceptance, and there it reached its ^^^^^sance
highest development. From Italy the Renaissance gradually
spread beyond the Alps, until it had made the round of western
Europe.
1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xix, "A Scholar of
the Renaissance"; chapter xx, "Renaissance Artists."
589
590 The Renaissance
Italy, at the beginning of the fourteenth century, was a land
particularly favorable to the growth of learning and the arts.
Italian cities ^^ northern Italy the great cities of Milan, Pisa,
of the Genoa, Florence, Venice, and many others had
enaissance gg^j-jy succeeded in throwing off their feudal bur-
dens and had become independent, self-governing communities.
Democracy flourished in them, as in the old Greek city-states.
Noble birth counted for little; a man of abihty and ambition
might rise to any place. The fierce party conflicts within their
walls stimulated mental activity and helped to make life full,
varied, and intense. Their widespread trade and thriving
manufactures made them prosperous. Wealth brought leisure,
bred a taste for luxury and the refinements of life, and gave
means for the gratification of that taste. People wanted to
have about them beautiful pictures, statuary, furniture,
palaces, and churches; and they rewarded richly the artists
who could produce such things. It is not without significance
that the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance was democratic,
industrial, and wealthy Florence.^
Italy enjoyed another advantage over the other European
countries in its nearness to Rome. Admiration for the ancient
Influence of Ro^ian civilization, as expressed in literature, art,
the classic and law, was felt by all Italians. Wherever they
a ition looked, they were reminded of the great past which
once had been theirs. Nor was the inheritance of Greece
wholly lost. Greek traders and the descendants of Greek
colonists in Italy still used their ancient language; all through
the medieval centuries there were Italians who studied
Greek. The classic tradition thus survived in Italy and
defied oblivion.
In the Middle Ages Italy formed a meeting place of several
. civilizations. Byzantine influence was felt both in
Arabic, and the north and in the south. The conquest of Sicily
Norman ^^y ^]^g Arabs made the Italians famihar with the
influence •^. .,.,., ,
science, art, and poetry of this cultivated people.
After the Normans had established themselves in south-
1 See page 545.
GHIBERTI'S BRONZE DOORS AT FLORENCE
The second or northern pair of bronze doors of the baptistery at Florence. Completed by
Lorenzo Ghiberti in 1452 a.d., after twenty-seven years of labor. The ten panels represent
scenes from Old Testament history. Michelangelo pronounced these magnificent creations
worthy to be the gates of paradise.
Exterior
Interior
ST. PETER'S, ROME
St. Peter's, begun in 1506 a.d., was completed in 1667, according to the designs of Bramante,
Raphael, Michelangelo, and other celebrated architects. It is the largest church in the world.
The central aisle, nave, and choir measure about 600 feet in length; the great dome, 1^0
feet in diameter, rises to a height of more than 400 feet. A double colonnade encircles the
piazza in front of the church. The Vatican is seen to the right of St. Peter's.
Revival of Learning in Italy
591
ern Italy and Sicily, they in turn developed a brilliant civi-
lization.^ From all these sources flowed streams of cultural
influence which united in the Renaissance.
210. Revival of Learning in Italy
The literature of Greece and Rome did not entirely disappear
in western Europe after the Germanic invasions. The monas-
tery and cathedral schools of the Middle Ages had ^j^^ classics
nourished devoted students of ancient books. The in the
Benedictine monks labored zealously in copying ^ ^ ^^^
the works of pagan as well as Christian authors. The rise of
universities made it possible for the student to pursue a fairly
extended course in Latin literature at
more than one institution of learning.
Greek Uterature, however, was httle
known in the West. The poems of
Homer were read only in a brief Latin
summary, and even Aristotle's writings
were studied in Latin translations.
Reverence for the classics finds con-
stant expression in the writings of the
Italian poet Dante. He ^ ^
. r T-i Dante
was a native of Florence, Aiighieri,
but passed most of his hfe 1205-1321
'■ A.D.
in exile. Dante's most fa-
, 1 -r.. . ^ J 1 ., Dante Alighieri
mous work, the Divine Comedy, describes
an imaginary visit to the other world.
Vergil guides him through the realms
of Hell and Purgatory until he meets
his lady Beatrice, the personification of love and purity, who
conducts him through Paradise. The Divine Comedy gives in
artistic verse an epitome of all that medieval men knew^ and
hoped and felt: it is a mirror of the Middle Ages. At the
same time it drew much of its inspiration from Graeco-
Roman sources. Athens, for Dante, is the ''hearth from which
From a fresco, somewhat re-
stored, ascribed to the contem-
porary artist, Giotto. In the
National Museum, Florence.
1 See page 413.
592
The Renaissance
all knowledge glows"; Homer is the ''loftiest of poets"; and
Aristotle is the "master of those who know." This feeling for
classical antiquity entitles Dante to rank as a prophet of the
Renaissance.
Dante exerted a noteworthy influence on the Italian language.
He wrote the Divine Comedy, not in Latin, but in the vernacular
Dante and ItaUan as spoken in Florence. The popularity
the Italian of this work helped to give currency to the Floren-
anguage ^-^^^ dialect, and in time it became the literary
language of Italy. Italian was the first of the Romance tongues
to assume a national character.
Petrarch, a younger contemporary of Dante, and like him a
native of Florence, has been called the first modern scholar and
man of letters. He devoted himself with
Petrarch tireless energy to classical
1304-1374
A.D.
Petrarch
studies. Writing to a friend,
Petrarch declares that he
has read Vergil, Horace, Livy, and
Cicero, "not once, but a thousand
times, not cursorily but studiously and
intently, bringing to them the best
powers of my mind. I tasted in the
morning and digested at night. I
quaffed as a boy, to ruminate as an
old man. These works have become
so familiar to me that they cling not
From a miniature in the Lau- to my mcmory merely, but to the very
rentian Library, Florence. <- i •>■)
marrow of my bones.
Petrarch himself composed many Latin works and did much
to spread a knowledge of Latin authors. He traveled widely
in Italy, France, and other countries, searching
everywhere for ancient manuscripts. When he
found in one place two lost orations of Cicero
and in another place a collection of Cicero's letters, he was
transported with delight. He kept copyists in his house, at
times as many as four, busily making transcripts of the man-
uscripts that he had discovered or borrowed. Petrarch knew
Petrarch
as a Latin
revivalist
Revival of Learning in Italy 593
almost no Greek. His copy of Homer, it is said, he often
kissed, though he could not read it.
Petrarch's friend and disciple, Boccaccio, was the first to
bring to Italy manuscripts of the Iliad and the Odyssey. Having
learned some Greek, he wrote out a translation Boccaccio,
of those epic poems. But Boccaccio's fame to-day 1313-1375
rests on the Decameron. It is a collection of one
hundred stories written in Itahan. They are supposed to be
told by a merry company of men and women, who, during a
plague at Florence, have retired to a villa in the country. The
Decameron is the first important work in Italian prose. Many
English writers, notably Chaucer in his Canterbury Tales,^
have gone to it for ideas and plots. The modern short story
may be said to date from Boccaccio.
The renewed interest in Latin Hterature, due to Petrarch,
Boccaccio, and others, was followed in the fifteenth century by
the revival of Greek literature. In 1396 a.d. study of
Chrysoloras, a scholar from Constantinople, began Greek in
to lecture on Greek in the university of Florence. ^
He afterwards taught in other Italian cities and further aided
the growth of Hellenic studies by preparing a Greek grammar
— the first book of its kind. From this time, and especially
after the fall of Constantinople in 1453 a.d., many learned
Greeks came to Italy, thus transplanting in the West the
culture of the East. '^Greece had not perished, but had
emigrated to Italy."
To the scholars of the fifteenth century the classics opened
up a new world of thought and fancy. They were dehghted
by the fresh, original, and human ideas which
they discovered in the pages of Homer, Plato,
Cicero, Horace, and Tacitus. Their new enthusiasm for the
classics came to be known as humanism,^ or culture. The
Greek and Latin languages and literatures were henceforth the
''humanities," as distinguished from the old scholastic phi-
losophy and theology.
1 See page 604.
2 Latin humanitas, from homo, "man."
594 The Renaissance
From Florence, as from a second Athens, humanism spread
throughout Italy. At Milan and Venice, at Rome and Naples,
Spread ^^^ ^^^ ^° poring over the classics. A special
of humanism feature of the age was the recovery of ancient
^ ^ manuscripts from monasteries and cathedrals,
where they had often lain neglected and blackened with the
dust of ages. Nearly all the Latin works now extant were
brought to light by the middle of the fifteenth century. But
it was not enough to recover the manuscripts: they had to be
safely stored and made accessible to students. So libraries
were established, professorships of the ancient languages were
endowed, and scholars were given opportunities to pursue their
researches. Even the popes shared in this zeal for humanism.
One of them founded the Vatican Library at Rome, which has
the most valuable collection of manuscripts in the world. At
Florence the wealthy family of the Medici vied with the popes
in the patronage of the new learning.
211. Paper and Printing
The revival of learning was greatly hastened when printed
books took the place of manuscripts laboriously copied by
Printed hand. Printing is a complicated process, and
books many centuries were required to bring it to
perfection. Both paper and movable type had to be
invented.
The Chinese at a remote period made paper from some fibrous
material. The Arabs seem to have been the first to make linen
Introduction paper out of flax and rags. The manufacture of
of paper paper in Europe was first established by the
Moors in Spain. The Arab occupation of Sicily introduced
the art into Italy. Paper found a ready sale in Europe, be-
cause papyrus and parchment, which the ancients had used as
writing materials, were both expensive and heavy. Men now
had a material moderate in price, durable, and one that would
easily receive the impression of movable type.
The first step in the development of printing was the use of
engraved blocks. Single letters, separate words, and some-
Paper and Printing
595
times entire pages of text were cut in hard wood or copper.
When inked and applied to writing material, Development
they left a clear impression. The second step of movable
was to cast the letters in separate pieces of ^^^
metal, all of the same height and thickness. These could
then be arranged in any desired w^ay for printing.
Movable type had been used for centuries by the
Chinese, Japanese, and
Gutenberg
Koreans in
the East,
and in Europe several
printers have been cred-
ited with their invention.
A German, Johann Guten-
berg of Mainz, set up the
first printing press with
movable type about 1450
A.D., and from it issued
the first printed book.
This was a Latin transla-
tion of the Bible.
The new art quickly
spread throughout Chris-
tian Europe. It met an
especially warm welcome
in Italy, where people felt
so keen a Aldus and
desire for C*^*°^
reading and instruction. By the end of the fifteenth century
Venice alone had more than two hundred printing presses.
Here Aldus Manutius maintained a famous establishment for
printing Greek and Latin classics. In 1476 a.d. the English
printer, Wilham Caxton, set up his wooden presses within the
precincts of Westminster Abbey. To him we owe editions of
Chaucer's poems. Sir Thomas Malory's Morte d' Arthur ^^ Msop^s
Fables, and many other works.
1 See page 560.
An Early Printing Press
Enlarged from the printer's mark of I. B.
Ascensius. Used on the title pages of books printed
by him, 1507-1535 a.d.
596 The Renaissance
The books printed in the fifteenth century go by the name of
incunabula} Of the seven or eight million volumes which
appeared before 1500 a.d., about thirty thousand
Incunabula , ,. , , .,, . . n*^ r
are beheved to be still m existence. Many of
these earliest books were printed in heavy, ''black letter"
type, an imitation of the characters used in monkish manu-
j iBtm im^m sg^gntf^ (afoeUc of O^t onepat
Ufr^^Mw^Jl ^Pjt fpsNe/C^tlittotbetbtlt
Thenne beganne agayne the bataylle of the one parte/ And of the
other Eneas ascryed to theym and sayd. Lordes why doo ye fyghte/
Ye knowe well that the couuenante ys deuysed and made/That Turnus
and I shall fyghte for you alle/
Facsimile of Part of Caxton's "^Eneid" (reduced)
With the same passage in modern type.
scripts. It is still retained for most books printed in Germany.
The clearer and neater "Roman" characters, resembling the
letters employed for ancient Roman inscriptions, came into
use in southern Europe and England. The Aldine press at
Venice also devised "itahc" type, said to be modeled after
Petrarch's handwriting, to enable the pubHsher to crowd more
words on a page.
The invention of printing has been called the greatest event
in history. The statement is hardly too strong. It is easy to
Importance See that printing immensely increased the supply
of printing ^f books. A hardworking copyist might produce,
at the most, only a few volumes a year; a printing press could
strike them off by the thousands. Not only more books, but
also more accurate books, could be produced by printing. The
old-time copyist, however skilful, was sure to make mistakes,
sometimes of a serious character. No two copies of any manu-
script were exactly alike. When, however, an entire edition
1 A Latin word meaning "cradle" or "birthplace," and so the beginning of
anything.
Revival of Art in Italy 597
was printed from the same type, mistakes in the different
copies might be entirely eHminated. Furthermore, the inven-
tion of printing destroyed the monopoly of learning possessed
by the universities and people of wealth. Books were now the
possession of the many, not the luxury of the few. Anyone
who could read had opened to him the gateway of knowledge;
he became a citizen, henceforth, of the republic of letters.
Printing, which made possible popular education, public libra-
ries, and ultimately cheap newspapers, ranks with gunpowder ^
as an emancipating force.
212. Revival of Art in Italy
Gothic architecture, with its pointed arches, flying buttresses,
and traceried windows, never struck deep roots in Italy.
The architects of the Renaissance went back to .
Architecture
Greek temples and Roman domed buildings for
their models, just as the humanists went back to Greek and
Latin Hterature. Long rows of Ionic or Corinthian columns,
spanned by round arches, became again the prevailing archi-
tectural style. Perhaps the most important accompHshment
of Renaissance builders was the adoption of the dome, instead
of the vault, for the roofs of churches. The majestic cupola of
St. Peter's at Rome,^ which is modeled after the Pantheon,^
has become the parent of many domed structures in the Old
and New World.'* Architects, however, did not limit them-
selves to churches. The magnificent palaces of Florence, as
well as some of those in Venice, are among the monuments of
the Renaissance era. Henceforth architecture became more
and more a secular art.
The development of architecture naturally stimulated the
other arts. Italian sculptors began to copy the ^ ,
1 1 . i Sculpture
ancient bas-reliefs and statues preserved m Rome
and other cities. At this time glazed terra cotta came to be
1 See page 574. 2 See the plate facing page 591.
3 See the illustration, page 202.
* For instance, the Invalides in Paris, St. Paul's in London, and the Capitol at
Washington.
598 The Renaissance
used by sculptors. Another Renaissance art was the casting
of bronze doors, with panels which represented scenes from
the Bible. The beautiful doors of the baptistery of Florence
were described as ''worthy of being placed at the entrance of
Paradise."
The greatest of Renaissance sculptors was Michelangelo.
Though a Florentine by birth, he lived in Rome and made
Michelangelo ^^^^ ^^^^ ^ center of Italian art. A colossal statue
1475-1564 of David, who looks like a Greek athlete, and an-
' ' other of Moses, seated and holding the table of the
law, are among his best-known works. Michelangelo also won
fame in architecture and painting. The dome of St. Peter's
was finished after his designs. Having been commissioned by
one of the popes to decorate the ceiling of the Sistine chapel ^
in the Vatican, he painted a series of scenes which presented
the Biblical story from the Creation to the Flood. These
frescoes are unequaled for subHmity and power. On the end
wall of the same chapel Michelangelo produced his fresco of the
"Last Judgment," one of the most famous paintings in the
world.
The early Italian painters contented themselves, at first,
with imitating Byzantine mosaics and enamels.^ Their work
Rise of exhibited little knowledge of human anatomy:
Italian faces might be lifelike, but bodies were too slender
painting ^^^ ^^^ ^£ proportion. The figures of men and
women were posed in stiff and conventional attitudes. The
perspective also was false: objects which the painter wished to
represent in the background were as near as those which he
wished to represent in the foreground. In the fourteenth cen-
tury, however, Italian painting abandoned the Byzantine style;
achieved beauty of form, design, and color to an extent hitherto
unknown; and became at length the supreme art of the
Renaissance.
Italian painting began in the service of the Church and
always remained religious in character. Artists usually chose
1 In this chapel the election of a new pope takes place.
2 See page 336.
Revival of Art in Italy 599
subjects from the Bible or the lives of the saints. They did
not trouble themselves to secure correctness of characteris-
costume, but represented ancient Jews, Greeks, tics of Italian
and Romans in the garb of ItaUan gentlemen. P*^*^s
Many of their pictures were frescoes, that is, the colors were
mixed with water and applied to the plaster walls of churches
and palaces. After the process of mixing oils with the colors
was discovered, pictures on wood or canvas (easel paintings)
became common. Renaissajice painters excelled in portraiture.
They were less successful with landscapes.
Among the ^'old masters" of Italian painting four, besides
Michelangelo, stand out with special prominence. Leonardo
da Vinci (1452-1519 a.d.) was architect, sculptor, The ''old
musician, and engineer, as well as painter. His masters"
finest work, the "Last Supper," a fresco painting at Milan, is
much damaged, but fortunately good copies of it exist. Paris
has the best of his easel pictures — the ''Monna Lisa." Leo-
nardo spent four years on it and then declared that he could
not finish it to his satisfaction. Leonardo's contemporary,
Raphael (1483-15 20 a.d.), died before he was forty, but not
before he had produced the ''Sistine Madonna," now at Dres-
den, the "Transfiguration," in the Vatican Gallery at Rome,
and many other famous compositions. In Raphael Italian
painting reached its zenith. All his works are masterpieces.
Another artist, the Venetian Titian (1477?-! 5 76 a.d.), painted
portraits unsurpassed for glowing color. His "Assumption
of the Virgin" ranks among the greatest pictures in the world.
Lastly must be noted the exquisite paintings of Correggio
(1494-1534 A.D.), among them the "Holy Night" and the
"Marriage of St. Catherine."
Another modern art, that of music, arose in Italy during the
Renaissance. In the sixteenth century the three-stringed
rebeck received a fourth string and became the ,, .
•1-1 . r ^^ • i • MuSlC
Violin, the most expressive of all musical instru-
ments. A forerunner of the pianoforte also appeared in the
harpsichord. A papal organist and choir-master, Palestrina
(i 526-1 594 A.D.), was the first of the great composers. He gave
6oo The Renaissance
music its fitting place in worship by composing melodious
h3mins and masses still sung in Roman Catholic churches.
The oratorio, a religious drama set to music but without action,
scenery, or costume, had its beginning at this time. The opera,
however, was little developed until the eighteenth century.
213. Revival of Learning and Art beyond Italy
About the middle of the fifteenth century fire from the Italian
altar was carried across the Alps, and a revival of learning
Spread of began in northern lands. Italy had led the way
humanism in by recovering the long-buried treasures of the
urope classics and by providing means for their study.
Scholars in Germany, France, and England, who now had the
aid of the printing press, continued the intellectual movement
and gave it widespread currency.
The foremost humanist of the age was Desiderius Erasmus.
Though a native of Rotterdam in Holland, he lived for a time
. in Germany, France, England, and Italy, and died
Erasmus, at Basel in Switzerland. His travels and exten-
1466(?)-1536 gjyg correspondence brought him in contact with
most of the leading scholars of the day. Eras-
mus wrote in Latin many works which were read and enjoyed
by educated men. He might be called the first really popular
author in Europe. Like Petrarch, he did much to encourage
the humanistic movement by his precepts and his example.
''When I have money," said this devotee of the classics, "1
will first buy Greek books and then clothes."
Erasmus performed his most important service as a Biblical
critic. In 1516 a.d. he published the New Testament in the
Greek Testa- original Greek, with a Latin translation and a dedi-
mentof cation to the pope. Up to this time the only
rasmus accessible edition of the New Testament was the
old Latin version known as the Vulgate, which St. Jerome had
made near the close of the fourth century. By preparing a new
and more accurate translation, Erasmus revealed the fact that
the Vulgate contained many errors. By printing the Greek
text, together with notes which helped to make the meaning
Assumption of the Virgin — Titian
SisTiNE Madonna — Raphael
rm; L\sr SirrER — Leonardo da Vinci
Marriage of St. Catherine
correggio
MoNNA Lisa Giocond;
Leonardo da Vinci
ITALIAN PAINTINGS OF THE RENAISSANCE
^ ; ^^ :^ ■
-##
1%
1
w^ ^ Stf^"
r^
■jj^ # *> ^^ ^
i '
L
1
The Night Watch — Rembrandt
Descent from the Cross — Rubens The Immaculate Conception — Murillo
FLEMISH. DUTCH, AND SPANISH PAINTINGS OF THE RENAISSANCE
Revival of Learning and Art beyond Italy 60 1
clear, Erasmus enabled scholars to discover for themselves
just what the New Testament writers had actually said.^
Erasmus as a student of the New Testament carried humanism
over into the rehgious field. His
friends and associates, espe-
cially in Germany, Humanism
continued his and the
work. "We are all l*«">™«ti<>»
learning Greek now," said
Luther, ''in order to under-
stand the Bible." Humanism,
by becoming the handmaid of
religion, thus passed insensibly
into the Reformation.
ItaHan architects found a
cordial reception in France,
Spain, the Netherlands, and
other countries. The artistic
where they intro- revival in
duced Renaissance "^°P®
styles of building and ornamen-
tation. The celebrated palace
of the Louvre in Paris, w^hich is used to-day as an art gallery
and museum, dates from the sixteenth century. At this time
the French nobles began to replace their somber feudal dwellings
by elegant country houses. Renaissance sculpture also spread
beyond Italy throughout Europe. Painters in northern coun-
tries at first followed Italian models, but afterwards produced
masterpieces of their own.^
^ The so-called Complutensian Polyglott, issued at Alcala in Spain by Cardi-
nal Jimenes, did even more for the advance of Biblical scholarship. This
was the first printed text of the Greek New Testament, but it was not actually
published till 1522 A.D., six years after the appearance of the edition by
Erasmus.
2 A list of the great European painters would include at least the following names:
Diirer (1471-1582 a. d.) and Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543 a.d.) in Ger-
many; Rubens (1577-1640 a.d.) and Van Dyck (1599-1641 a.d.) in Flanders;
Rembrandt (1606-1669 a.d.) in Holland; Claude Lorraine (1600-1682 a.d.) in
France; and Velasquez (1599-1660 a.d.) and Murillo (1617-1682 a.d.) in Spain.
Desiderius Erasmus
Louvre, Paris
A portrait by the German artist, Hans
Holbein the Younger (1497-1543 a.d.).
Probably an excellent likeness of Erasmus.
6o2 The Renaissance
214. The Renaissance in Literature
The renewed interest in classical studies for a time retarded
the development of national languages and literatures in Europe.
Humanism ^^ ^^^ humanists only Latin and Greek seemed
and the worthy of notice. Petrarch, for instance, com-
vernacular posed in Itahan beautiful sonnets which are still
much admired, but he himseh expected to gain hterary immor-
tality through his Latin works. Another Italian humanist
went so far as to call Dante "a poet for bakers and cobblers,"
and the Divine Comedy was indeed translated into Latin a few
years after the author's death.
But a return to the vernacular was bound to come. The
common people understood little Latin, and Greek not at all.
^j^g Yet they had learned to read and they now had
vernacular the printing press. Before long many books com-
revival posed in Italian, Spanish, French, English, and
other national languages made their appearance. This revival
of the vernacular meant that henceforth European literature
would be more creative and original than was possible when
writers merely imitated or translated the classics. The mod-
els provided by Greece and Rome still continued, however, to
furnish inspiration to men of letters.
The Florentine historian and diplomat, MachiaveUi, by his
book. The Prince, did much to found the modern science of
MachiaveUi poHtics. Machiavelli, as a patriotic Italian, felt
1469-1527 infinite distress at the divided condition of Italy,
^'^' where numerous petty states were constantly at
war. In The Prince he tried to show how a strong, despotic
ruler might set up a national state in the peninsula. He thought
that such a ruler ought not to be bound by the ordinary rules of
morality. He must often act "against faith, against charity,
against humanity, and against religion." The end would justify
the means. Success was everything; morahty, nothing. This
dangerous doctrine has received the name of ''Machiavellism";
it is not yet dead in European statecraft.
Spain during the sixteenth century gave to the world in
The Renaissance in Literature
603
Cervantes
Cervantes the only Spanish writer who has achieved a great
reputation outside his own country. Cervantes 's cervantes
masterpiece, Don Quixote, seems to have been 1547-1616
intended as a burlesque upon the romances of * *
chivalry once so popular in
Europe. The hero, Don
Quixote, attended by his
shrewd and faithful squire,
Sancho Panza, rides forth to
perform deeds of knight-
errantry, but meets, instead,
the most absurd adventures.
The work is a vivid picture
of Spanish life. Nobles,
priests, monks, traders, farm-
ers, innkeepers, muleteers,
barbers, beggars — all these
pass before our eyes as in
a panorama. Don Quixote
immediately became popular, and it is even more read to-day
than it was three centuries ago.
The Flemish writer, Froissart, deserves notice as a historian
and as one of the founders of French prose. His Chronicles
present an account of the fourteenth century, pj-oisgart
when the age of feudalism was fast drawing to an 1337 (?)-i4io
end. He admired chivalry and painted it in glow- * *
ing colors. He liked to describe tournaments, battles, sieges, and
feats of arms. Kings and nobles, knights and squires, are the
actors on his stage. Froissart traveled in many countries and got
much of his information at first hand from those who had made
history. Out of what he learned he composed a picturesque
and romantic story, which still captivates the imagination.
A very different sort of writer was the Frenchman, Montaigne.
He hves to-day as the author of one hundred and Montaigne
seven essays, very delightful in style and full of wit 1533-1592
and wisdom. Montaigne really invented the essay, ' '
a form of literature in which he has had many imitators.
6o4
The Renaissance
1340 (?)-
1400 A.D.
Geoffrey Chaucer, who has been called the "morning star" of
the English Renaissance, was a story-teller in verse. His
Chaucer Canterbury Tales are supposed to be told by a
company of pilgrims, as they journey from London
to the shrine of Thomas Becket at Canterbury. ^
Chaucer describes freshly and with unfailing good spirits the
life of the middle and upper classes. He does not reveal, any
more than his contemporary Froissart, the labor and sorrows
of the down-trodden peasantry.
But Chaucer was a true poet,
and his name stands high in
England's long roll of men of
letters.
This survey of the national
authors of the Renaissance may
fitly close with William Shake-
Shakespeare, speare, whose genius
1564-1616 transcended national
' * boundaries and
made him a citizen of all the
world. His life is known to us
only in barest outline. Born at
Stratford-on-Avon, of humble
From the copper-plate engraved by parCUtagC, he attended the vil-
Martin Droeshout as frontispiece to the lagC grammar SChool, wherC he
learned "small Latin and less
Greek," went to London as a
youth, and became an actor and
a playwright. He prospered,
made money both from his act-
ing and the sale of his plays, and at the age of forty-four
retired to Stratford for the rest of his life. Here he died eight
years later, and here his grave may still be seen in the village
church.2 During his residence in London he wrote, in whole
William SiiAKEsrEARE
First Foho edition of Shakespeare's works
in 1623 A.D. In this engraving the head
is far too large for the body and the dress
is out of perspective. The only other
authentic likeness of Shakespeare is the
bust over his grave in Holy Trinity
Church. Stratford-on-Avon.
1 See the illustration, page 442.
2 The three-hundredth anniversary of Shakespeare's death was appropriately
observed in 1916 a.d. throughout the world.
The Renaissance in Literature
605
or in part, thirty-six or thirty-seven dramas, both tragedies
and comedies. They were not collected and pubhshed until
several years after his death. Shakespeare's plays were read
and praised by his contemporaries, but it has remained for
modern men to see in him one who ranks with Homer, Vergil,
Dante, and Goethe among the great poets of the world.
Shakespeare's Birthplace, Stratford-on-Avon
The house in which Shakespeare was bom has been much altered in exterior appearance
since the poet's day. The timber framework, the floors, most of the interior walls, and the
cellars remain, however, substantially unchanged. The illustration shows the appearance of
the house before the restoration made in 1857 a.d.
Renaissance poets and prose writers revealed themselves in
their books. In the same way the sculptors and painters of
the Renaissance worked out their own ideas and personality in
emotions in their masterpieces. This personal Renaissance
note affords a sharp contrast to the anonymity of
the Middle Ages. We do not know the authors of the Song
of Roland, the Nihelungenlied, and Reynard the Fox, any more
than we know the builders of the Gothic cathedrals. Medieval
literature subordinated the individual; that of the Renaissance
expressed the sense of individuality and man's interest in him-
self. It was truly "humanistic."
6o6 The Renaissance
215. The Renaissance in Education
The universities of the Middle Ages emphasized scholastic
philosophy, though in some institutions law and medicine also
Humanism received much attention. Greek, of course, was
^and educa- not taught, the vernacular languages of Europe
were not studied, and neither science nor history
enjoyed the esteem of the learned. The Renaissance brought
about a partial change in this curriculum. The classical lan-
guages and literatures, after some opposition, gained an en-
trance into university courses and. displaced scholastic philosophy
as the chief subject of instruction. From the universities the
study of the ''humanities" descended to the lower schools, where
they still hold a leading place.
An Italian humanist, Vittorino da Feltre, was the pioneer of
Renaissance education. In his private school at Mantua, the
Vittorino da ''House of Dehght," as it was called, Vittorino
Feltre, 1378- aimed to develop at the same time the body,
mind, and character of his pupils, so as to fit them
to "serve God in Church and State." Accordingly, he gave
much attention to religious instruction and also set a high
value on athletics. The sixty or seventy young men under his
care were taught to hunt and fish, to run and jump, to wrestle
and fence, to walk gracefully, and above all things to be temper-
ate. For intellectual training he depended on the Latin classics
as the best means of introducing students to the literature,
art, and philosophy of ancient times. Vittorino's name is not
widely known to-day; he left no writings, preferring, as he
said, to live in the lives of his pupils; but there is scarcely a
modern teacher who does not consciously or unconsciously
follow his methods. More than anyone else, he is responsible
for the educational system which has prevailed in Europe almost
to the present day.
It cannot be said that the influence of humanism on educa-
A" classical tion was wholly good. Henceforth the Greek and
education" Latin languages and literatures became the chief
instruments of culture. Educators neglected the great world of
The Scientific Renaissance 607
nature and of human life which lay outside the writings of the
ancients. This ''bookishness" formed a real defect of Renais-
sance systems of training.
A Moravian bishop named Comenius, who gave his long life
almost wholly to teaching, stands for a reaction against human-
istic education. He proposed that the vernacular comenius
tongues, as well as the classics, should be made 1592-1671
subjects of study. For this purpose he prepared
a reading book, which was translated into a dozen European
languages, and even into Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. Come-
nius also believed that the curriculum should include the study
of geography, world history, and government, and the practice
of the manual arts. He was one of the first to advocate the
teaching of science. Perhaps his most notable idea was that of
a national system of education, reaching from primary grades
to the university. ^'Not only," he writes, "are the children of
the rich and noble to be drawn to school, but all ahke, rich and
poor, boys and girls, in great towns and small, down to the
country villages." The influence of this Slavic teacher is more
and more felt in modern systems of education.
216. The Scientific Renaissance
The Middle Ages were not by any means ignorant of science,^
but its study naturally received a great impetus when the
Renaissance brought before educated men all that Humanism
the Greeks and Romans had done in mathematics, and
physics, astronomy, medicine, and other subjects.
The invention of printing also fostered the scientific revival by
making it easy to spread knowledge abroad in every land. The
pioneers of Renaissance science were Italians, but students in
France, England, Germany, and other countries soon took up
the work of enlightenment.
The names of some Renaissance scientists stand as land-
marks in the history of thought. The first place must be given
to Copernicus, the founder of modern astronomy. He was a
1 See page 572.
6o8 . The Renaissance
Pole, but lived many years in Italy. Patient study and
n ^^-..c calculation led him to the conclusion that the
Copernicus,
1473-1543 earth turns upon its own axis, and, together with
' * the planets, revolves around the sun. The book
in which he announced this conclusion did not appear until
the very end of his hfe. A copy of it reached him on his
deathbed.
Medieval astronomers had generally accepted the Ptolemaic
system.^ Some students before Copernicus had indeed sug-
The Coper- gested that the earth and planets might rotate
nican theory about a central sun, but he first gave reasons for
such a belief. The new^ theory met much opposition, not only
in the universities, which clung to the time-honored Ptolemaic
system, but also among theologians, who thought that it con-
tradicted many statements in the Bible. Moreover, people
could not easily reconcile themselves to the idea that the earth,
instead of being the center of the universe, is only one member
of the solar system, that it is, in fact, only a mere speck of
cosmic dust.
An Italian scientist, Galileo, made one of the first telescopes
— it was about as powerful as an opera glass — and turned it on
Galileo ^^^ heavenly bodies with wonderful results. He
1564-1642 found the sun moving unmistakeably on its axis,
■ ' Venus showing phases according to her position in
relation to the sun, Jupiter accompanied by revolving moons,
or satellites, and the Milky Way composed of a multitude of
separate stars. Galileo rightly beheved that these discoveries
confirmed the theory of Copernicus.
Another man of genius, the German Kepler, worked out the
mathematical law^s which govern the movements of the planets.
Kepler, 1571- He made it clear that the planets revolve around
1630 A.D. ^i^Q c,un in elliptical instead of circular orbits.
Kepler's investigations afterwards led to the discovery of the
principle of gravitation.
Two other scientists did epochal work in a field far removed
from astronomy. Vesalius, a Fleming, who studied in Italian
1 See page 133.
The Economic Renaissance 609
medical schools, gave to the world the first careful description
of the human body based on actual dissection, vesalius
He was thus the founder of human anatomy. 1514-1564
Harvey, an Englishman, after observing living ani- Harvey,
mals, announced the discovery of the circulation of 1578-1657
the blood. He thereby founded human physiology.
Copernicus, Gahleo, Kepler, VesaUus, Harvey, and their
fellow workers built up the scientific method. In the Middle
Ages students had mostly been satisfied to accept ^j^^
what Aristotle and other philosophers had said, scientific
without trying to prove their statements.^ Kepler,
for instance, was the first to disprove the Aristotelian idea that,
as all perfect motion is circular, therefore the heavenly bodies
must move in circular orbits. Similarly, the world had to wait
many centuries before Harvey showed Aristotle's error in sup-
posing that the blood arose in the liver, went thence to the
heart, and by the veins was conducted over the body. The
nev/ scientific method rested on observation and experiment.
Students learned at length to take nothing for granted, to set
aside all authority, and to go straight to nature for their facts.
As Lord Bacon,2 one of Shakespeare's contemporaries and a
severe critic of the old scholasticism, declared, ''AH depends on
keeping the eye steadily fixed upon the facts of nature, and so
receiving their images simply as they are, for God forbid that
we should give out a dream of our own imagination for a pattern
of the world." Modern science, to which we owe so much, is
a product of the Renaissance.
217. The Economic Renaissance
Thus far the Renaissance has been studied as an intellectual
and artistic movement, which did much to hberate the human
mind and brought the Middle Ages to an end in An economic
Hterature, in art, and in science. It is necessary, change
however, to consider the Renaissance era from another point of
1 See page 571.
2 Not to be confused with his countryman, Roger Bacon, who lived in the thir-
teenth century. See page 573.
6io The Renaissance
view. During this time an economic change of vast significance
was taking place in rural Ufe all over western Europe. We
refer to the decline and ultimate extinction of medieval serfdom.
Serfdom imposed a burden only less heavy than the slavery
which it had displaced. The serf, as has been shown/ might
Decline of not leave the manor in which he was born, he
serfdom niight not Sell his holdings of land, and, finally,
he had to give up a large part of his time to work without pay
for the lord of the manor. This system of forced labor was at
once unprofitable to the lord and irksome to his serfs. After
the revival of trade and industry in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries had brought more money into circulation,^ the lord
discovered how much better it was to hire men to work for
him, as he needed them, instead of depending on serfs who
shirked their tasks as far as possible. The latter, in turn,
were glad to pay the lord a fixed sum for the use of land, since
now they could devote themselves entirely to its cultivation.
Both parties gained by an arrangement which converted the
manorial lord into a landlord and the serf into a free tenant-
farmer paying rent.
The emancipation of the peasantry was hastened, strangely
enough, as the result of perhaps the most terrible calamity that
The " Black has ever affiicted mankind. About the middle
Death" Qf ^j^g fourteenth century a pestilence of Asiatic
origin, now known' to have been the bubonic plague, reached
the West.^ The ''Black Death," so called because among its
symptoms were dark patches all over the body, moved steadily
across Europe. The w^ay for its ravages had been prepared by
the unhealthful conditions of ventilation and drainage in towns
and cities. After attacking Greece, Sicily, Italy, Spain,
France, and Germany, the plague entered England in 1349 a.d.
and within less than two years swept away probably half the
population of that country. The mortality elsewhere was
enormous, one estimate setting it as high as twenty-five milHons
for all Europe.
1 See page 436. « See page 541.
» A similar plague devastated the Roman world during the reign of Justinian.
The Economic Renaissance 6ii
The pestilence in England, as in other countries, caused a
great scarcity of labor. For want of hands to bring in the
harvest, crops rotted on the ground, while sheep Ejects of the
and cattle, with no one to care for them, strayed " Black
Death "
through the deserted fields. The free peasants
who survived demanded and received higher wages. Even
the serfs, whose labor was now more valued, found themselves
in a better position. The lord of a manor, in order to keep
his laborers, would often allow them to substitute money
payments for personal services. When the serfs got no con-
cessions, they frequently took to flight and hired themselves to
the highest bidder.
The governing classes of England, who at this time were
mainly landowners, believed that the workers were taking an
unfair advantage of the situation. So in 13 51 pj^.^^ statute
A.D. Parliament passed a law fixing the maximum of Laborers,
wage in different occupations and punishing with
imprisonment those who refused to accept work when it was
offered to them. The fact that Parliament had to reenact this
law thirteen times within the next century shows that it did not
succeed in preventing a general rise of wages. It only exasper-
ated the working classes.
A few years after the first Statute of Laborers the restlessness
and discontent among the masses led to a serious outbreak. It
was one of the few attempts at violent revolution
which the English working people have made. Peasants'
One of the inspirers of the rebellion was a wander- !\^j?/^a°^'
ing priest named John Ball. He went about
preaching that all goods should be held in common and the
distinction between lords and serfs wiped away. ''When
Adam delved and Eve span, who was then the gentleman?"
asked John Ball. Uprisings occurred in nearly every part
of England, but the one in Kent had most importance.
The rioters marched on London and presented their demands
to the youthful king, Richard 11. He promised to abolish
serfdom and to give them a free pardon. As soon, however,
as Richard had gathered an army, he put down the revolt
6l2
The Renaissance
The
Jacquerie,
1358 A.D.
Years'
by force and hanged John Ball and about a hundred of his
followers.
The rebellion in England may be compared with the far
more terrible Jacquerie ^ in France, a few years earlier. The
French peasants, who suf-
fered from feudal pppres-
sion and the
effects of the
Hundred
War, raged
through the land, burning
the castles and murdering
their feudal lords. The
movement had scarcely
any reasonable purpose ;
it w^as an outburst of
blind passion. The nobles
avenged themselves by
slaughtering the peasants
in great numbers.
Though these first great
struggles of labor against
Extinction capital were
of serfdom failures, the
emancipation of the peas-
antry wxnt steadily on
throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. By 1500
A.D. serfdom had virtually disappeared in Italy, in most parts
of France, and in England. Some less-favored countries re-
tained serfdom much longer. Prussian, Austrian, and Russian
serfs did not receive their freedom until the nineteenth century.
The extinction of serfdom was, of course, a forward step in
human freedom, but the lot of the English and Continental
Condition of peasantry long remained wretched. The poem
the peasantry ^f pi^r^ Plowman, wTitten in the time of Chaucer,
shows the misery of the age and reveals a very different picture
1 From Jacques, a common French name for a peasant.
Richard II
After an engraving based on the original in West-
minster Abbey. Probably the oldest authentic por
trait in England.
The Economic Renaissance 613
than that of the gay, hoHday-making, merry England seen in
the Canterbury Tales. One hundred and fifty years later, the
English humanist, Sir Thomas More, a friend of Erasmus,
published his Utopia as a protest against social abuses. Utopia,
or ''Nowhere," is an imaginary country whose inhabitants
choose their own rulers, hold all property in common, and work
only nine hours a day. In Utopia a pubHc system of education
prevails, cruel punishments are unknown, and every one enjoys
complete freedom to worship God. This remarkable book,
though it pictures an ideal commonwealth, really anticipates
many social reforms of the present time.
Studies
I. Prepare a chronological chart showing the leading men of letters, artists,
scientists, and educators mentioned in this chapter. 2. For what were the follow-
ing persons noted: Chrysoloras; Vittorino da Feltre; Gutenberg; Boccaccio;
Machiavelli; Harvey; and Galileo? 3. How did the words " machiaveUism "
and "Utopian" get their present meanings? 4. Distinguish and define the three
terms, "Renaissance," "Revival of Learning," and "Humanism." 5. "Next to
the discovery of the New World, the recovery of the ancient world is the second
landmark that divides us from the Middle Ages and marks the transition to modem
life." Comment on this statement. 6. Why did the Renaissance begin as "an
Italian event"? 7. " City-states have always proved favorable to culture." Illus-
trate this remark. 8. Why was the revival of Greek more important in the history
of civilization than the revival of Latin? 9. Show that printing was an "emanci-
pating force." 10. With what paintings by the "old masters" are you familiar?
II. How does the opera differ from the oratorio? 12. Why has Froissart been
styled the "French Herodotus"? 13. How many of Shakespeare's plays can you
name? How many have you read? 14. Can you mention any of Shakespeare's
plays which are founded on Itahan stories or whose scenes are laid in Italy?
15. Why did the classical scholar come to be regarded as the only educated man?
16. In what respects is the American system of education a realization of the ideals
of Coraenius? 17. Did the medieval interest in astrology retard or further astro-
nomical research? 18. How did the discoveries of Galileo and Kepler confirm the
Copernican theory? 19. What is meant by the "emancipation of the peasantry"?
CHAPTER XXVI
GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION ^
218. Medieval Geography
There was also a geographical Renaissance. The revival of
the exploring spirit led to the discovery of ocean routes to the
rpjjg Far East and the Americas. In consequence,
geographical commerce was vastly stimulated, and two con-
enaissance tinents, hitherto unknown, were opened up to
civilization. The geographical Renaissance, which gave man
a New World, thus cooperated with the other movements of
the age in bringing about' the transition from medieval to
modern times.
The Greeks and Romans had become famiUar with a large
part of Europe and Asia, but much of their learning was either
Medieval forgotten or perverted during the early Middle
ignorance of Ages. Even the wonderful discoveries of the
geography Northmen in the North Atlantic gradually faded
from memory. The Arabs, whose conquests and commerce
extended over so much of the Orient, far surpassed the Chris-
tian peoples of Europe in knowledge of the world.
The alliance of medieval geography with theology led to
curious results. Map makers, relying on a passage in the Old
Geographi- Testament,^ usually placed Jerusalem in the cen-
cai myths ^gj- gf |-]^g world. A Scriptural reference to the
''four corners of the earth" ^ was sometimes thought to imply
the existence of a rectangular world. From classical sources
came stories of monstrous men, one-eyed, headless, or dog-
headed, who were supposed to inhabit remote regions. Equally
1 Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xxi, "The Travels
of Marco Polo"; chapter xxii, "The Aborigines of the New World."
2 Ezekiel, \, $. ^ Isaiah, x, 12.
614
Medieval Geography
615
monstrous animals, such as the unicorn and dragon/ kept
them company. Sailors' "yarns" must have been responsible
for the belief that the ocean boiled at the equator and that in
the Atlantic — the "Sea of Darkness" — lurked serpents huge
enough to sink ships. To the real danger of travel by land
and water people thus added imaginary terrors.
Many maps prepared in the Middle Ages sum up the pre-
vailing knowledge, or
rather igno- The Cosmas
ranee, of the °^^p
world. One of the earliest
specimens that has come
down to us was made in
the sixth century, by
Cosmas, an Alexandrian
monk. It exhibits the
earth as a rectangle sur-
Geographical Monsters
From an early edition of Sir John Mandeville's
. , Travels. Shakespeare {Othello, I, iii, 144-145) re-
rounded by an ocean with fers to
" The Anthropophagi, and men whose heads
Do grow beneath their shoulders."
four deep gulfs. Beyond
this ocean lies another
world, the seat of Paradise and the place "where men dwelt
before the Flood." The rivers which flow from the lakes of
Paradise are also shown. Figures holding trumpets represent
the four winds.
A map made about seven hundred years later, and now pre-
served in Hereford Cathedral, shows the earth as a circular
disk with the ocean surrounding it. In the ex- The Hereford
treme east — that is, at the top — lies Paradise, ™^p
Jerusalem occupies the center, and below it comes the Medi-
terranean, liberally supplied with islands. The Black Sea ap-
pears as a narrow body of water, and even the British Isles
are strangely distorted to fit the circle. Such a map could
have been of little use to travelers; it simply satisfied a natural
curiosity about the wonders of the world.
The crusades, more than anything else, first extended geo-
graphical knowledge. As a religious movement they led to
1 See pages 574-575-
6i6 Geographical Discovery and Colonization
pilgrimages and missions in Oriental lands. With the pilgrims
opening up and missionaries went hard-headed traders, who
of Asia brought back to Europe the wealth of the East.
The result, by 1300 a.d., was to open up countries beyond
the Euphrates which had remained sealed to Europe for cen-
turies. This discovery of the interior of Asia had only less
importance than that of the New World two centuries later.
What specially drew explorers eastward was the belief that
somewhere in the center of Asia existed a great Christian
Legend of kingdom which, if allied to European Christen-
Prester John dom, might attack the Moslems from the rear.
According to one form of the story the kingdom consisted of
the Ten Tribes of Israel,^ who had been converted to Chris-
tianity by Nestorian missionaries. ^ Over them reigned a
priest-king named Prester (or Presbyter) John. The popes
made several attempts to communicate with this mythical
ruler. In the thirteenth century, however, Franciscan friars
did penetrate to the heart of Asia. They returned to Europe
with marvelous tales of the wealth and splendor of the East
under the Mongol emperors.
The most famous of all medieval travelers were Nicolo and
Maffeo Polo, and Nicolo's son, Marco. These Venetian mer-
chants set out for Asia in 1271 a.d., and after
the East, an adventurous journey reached the court of
1271-1295 Kublai Khan at Peking.^ The Mongol ruler, who
seems to have been anxious to introduce Chris-
tianity and European culture among his people, received them
in a friendly manner, and they amassed much wealth by trade.
Marco entered the khan's service and went on several expedi-
tions to distant parts of the Mongol realm. Many years passed
before Kublai would allow his useful guests to return to Europe.
They sailed at length from Zaitun, a Chinese seaport, skirted
the coast of southeastern Asia and India, and then made their
way overland to the Mediterranean. When the travelers
reached Venice after an absence of twenty-four years, their
relatives were slow to recognize in them the long-lost Polos.
1 See page 35. « See page 347. ^ See page 488.
Medieval Geography
617
The Earth beyond the Ocean where men dwelt before the Flood
The Earth beyond the Ocean.
The "World according to Cosmas Indicopxeustes, 535 A.D.
•■^EFoRD Map, ^"^^
Geographical Knowledge during the Middle Ages
6i8 Geographical Discovery and Colonization
The story of the Polos, as written down at Marco's dictation^
became one of the most popular works of the Middle Ages.
Marco In this book Europe read of far Cathay (China),
Polo's book ^[i\^ its wealth, its huge cities, and swarming
population, of mysterious and secluded Tibet, of Burma, Siam,
and Cochin-China, with their palaces and pagodas, of the East
Indies, famed for spices, of Ceylon, abounding in pearls, and
of India, little known since the days of Alexander the Great.
Even Cipango (Japan) Marco described from hearsay as an
island whose people were white, civilized, and so rich in gold
that the royal palace w^as roofed and paved with that metal.
The accounts of these countries naturally made Europeans more
eager than ever to reach the East.
219. Aids to Exploration
The new knowledge gained by European peoples about the
land routes of Asia was accompanied by much progress in the
The com- art of ocean navigation. First in importance came
P^ss the compass to guide explorers across the waters
of the world. The Chinese appear to have discovered that
a needle, when rubbed with a lodestone, has the mysterious
power of pointing to the north. The Arabs may have intro-
duced this rude form of the compass among Mediterranean
sailors. The instrument, improved by being balanced on a
pivot so that it would not be affected by choppy seas, seems to
have been generally used by European^ as early as the thir-
teenth century. It greatly aided sailors by enabling them to
find their bearings in murky w^eather and on starless nights.
The compass, though useful, was not indispensable; without
its help the Northmen had made their distant expeditions in
the Atlantic.
The astrolabe, which the Greeks had invented and used for
astronomical purposes, also came into Europe through the
Nautical in- Arabs. It was employed to calculate latitudes by
stniments observation of the height of the sun above the
horizon. Other instruments that found a place on shipboard
were the hour-glass, minute-glass, and sun-dial. A rude form
Aids to Exploration
619
An Astrolabe
of the log was used as a means of estimating the speed of a
vessel, and so of finding roughly the longitude.
During the last centuries of the Middle Ages the charting
of coasts became a science. A sailor might rely on the ''handy
maps" (portolani) other im-
which outlined with provements
1 , in navigation
some approach to ac-
curacy the bays, islands, and head-
lands of the Mediterranean and
adjacent waters. Manuals were
prepared telling the mariner about
the tides, currents, and other fea-
tures of the route he intended to
follow. The increase in size of
ships made navigation safer and
permitted the storage of bulky car-
goes. For long voyages the sailing
vessel replaced the medieval galley
rowed by oars. As the result of
all these improvements navigators no longer found it necessary
to keep close to the shore, but could push out dauntlessly into
the open sea.
Many motives prompted exploration. Scientific curiosity,
bred of the Renaissance spirit of free inquiry, led men to set
forth on voyages of discovery. The crusading Motives for
spirit, which had not died out in Europe, exploration
thrilled at the thought of spreading Christianity among heathen
peoples. And in this age, as in all epochs of exploration, ad-
venturers sought in distant lands opportunities to acquire
wealth and fame and power.
Commerce formed perhaps the most powerful motive for explo-
ration. Eastern spices — cinnamon, pepper, cloves, nutmeg, and
ginger — were used more freely in medieval times -j^j^^
than now, when people lived on salt meat during commercial
the winter and salt fish during Lent. Even wine,
ale, and medicines had a seasoning of spices. When John Ball ^
1 See page 611.
620 Geographical Discovery and Colonization
wished to contrast the easy life of the lords with the peasants'
hard lot, he said, ''They have wines, spices, and fine bread,
while we have only rye and the refuse of the straw." ^ Besides
spices, all kinds of precious stones, drugs, perfumes, gums, dyes,
and fragrant woods came from the East. Since the time of
the crusades these luxuries, after having been brought overland
by water to Mediterranean ports, had been distributed by Ve-
netian and Genoese merchants throughout Europe.^ But now
in the fifteenth century two other European peoples — the
Portuguese and Spaniards — appeared as competitors for this
Oriental trade. Their efforts to break through the mo-
nopoly enjoyed by the Italian cities led to the discovery of
the sea routes to the Indies. The Portuguese were first in
the field.
220. To the Indies Eastward: Prince Henry and
Da Gama
In the history of the fifteenth century few names rank higher
than that of Prince Henry, commonly called the Navigator,
Prince because of his services to the cause of exploration.
Henry the 'pj^^g gQj^ q{ ^ Portuguese king, he devoted himself
Navigator, . i p ...
1394-1460 during more than forty years to orgamzmg scien-
^•^* tific discovery. Under his direction better maps
were made, the astrolabe was improved, the compass was
placed on vessels, and seamen were instructed in all the nautical
learning of the time. The problem which Prince Henry studied
and which Portuguese sailors finally solved was the possibility
of a maritime route around Africa to the Indies.
The expeditions sent out by Prince Henry began by redis-
covering the Madeira and Azores Islands, first visited by
„ , , Europeans in the fourteenth century. Then the
Exploration ^ i i i i ,
of the Portuguese turned southward along the unchar-
African tered African coast. In 1445 a.d. they got as
far as Cape Verde, or "Green Cape," so called
because of its luxuriant vegetation. The discovery was im-
1 Froissart, Chronicles, ii, 73. ^ See page 540.
Prince Henry and Da Gama
621
portant, for it disposed of the idea that the Sahara desert
extended indefinitely to the south. Sierra Leone, which the
Carthaginian Hanno ^ had probably visited, was reached in
1462 A.D., two years after Prince Henry's death. Soon Portu-
guese sailors found the great bend of the African coast formed
by the gulf of Guinea. In 147 1 a.d. they crossed the equator,
without the scorching that some
had feared. In 1482 a.d. they
were at the mouth of the Congo.
Six years later Bartholomew Diaz
rounded the southern extremity
of Africa. The story goes that he
named it the Cape of Storms, and
that the king of Portugal, recog-
nizing its importance as a stage
on the route to the East, rechris-
tened it the Cape of Good Hope.
A daring mariner, Vasco da
Gama, opened the sea-gates to
the Indies. With ^ ^
Da Gama's
four tiny ships he voyage,
set sail from Lisbon
in July, 1497 A.D.,
and after leaving the Cape Verde Vasco da Gama
Islands made a wide sweep into From a manuscript in the British Museum.
the South Atlantic. Five months passed before Africa was
seen again. Having doubled the Cape of Good Hope in safety,
Da Gama skirted the eastern shores of Africa and at length
secured the services of a Moslem pilot to guide him across
the Indian Ocean. In May, 1498 a.d., he reached Calicut,^
an important commercial city on the southwest coast of
India. When Da Gama returned to Lisbon, after an absence
of over two years, he brought back a cargo which repaid
sixty times the cost of the expedition. The Portuguese king
received him with high honor and created him Admiral of the
Indies.
* See page 49, * Not Calcutta.
1497-1499
A.D.
622 Geographical Discovery and Colonization
The story of Da Gama's memorable voyage was sung by
the Portuguese poet, Camoens, in the Lusiads. It is the most
successful of all modern epics. The popularity
Camoens, r ^ ^ - i -i i ^ ^ i- i
1524-1580 of the Lusiads has done much to keep ahve the
A.D., and sense of nationality among the Portuguese, and
the Lusiads , . ^ i i r • i -
even to-day it forms a bond of union between
Portugal and her daughter-nation across the Atlantic —
Brazil.
The discovery of an ocean passage to the East came at the
right moment. Just at this time the Ottoman Turks were
Significance beginning to block up the old trade routes.^
of the mari- Their conquests in Asia Minor and southeastern
time route Europe, during the fifteenth century, shut out
the Italians from the northern route through the ^Egean and
the Black Sea. After Syria and Egypt were conquered, early
in the sixteenth century, the central and southern routes also
passed under Turkish control. The Ottoman advance struck
a mortal blow at the prosperity of the Italian cities, which had
so long monopolized Oriental trade. But the misfortune of
Venice and Genoa was the opportunity of Portugal.
221. The Portuguese Colonial Empire
After Da Gama's voyage the Portuguese made haste to
appropriate the wealth of the Indies. Fleet after fleet was
Portu ese ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ establish trading stations upon the
ascendancy coasts of Africa and Asia. The great viceroy,
in the East Albuquerque, captured the city of Goa and made
it the center of the Portuguese dominions in India. Goa still
belongs to Portugal. Albuquerque also seized Malacca, at
the end of the Malay Peninsula, and Ormuz, at the entrance
to the Persian Gulf. The possession of these strategic points
enabled the Portuguese to control the commerce of the Indian
Ocean. They also established trading relations with China,
through the port of Macao, and with Japan, which was
accidentally discovered in 1542 a.d. By the middle of the
1 See page 540.
The Portuguese Colonial Empire 623
sixteenth century they had acquired almost complete ascend-
ancy throughout southern Asia and the adjacent islands.^
The Portuguese came to the East as the successors of the
Arabs, who for centuries had carried on an extensive trade in
the Indian Ocean. Having dispossessed the Arabs, Portuguese
the Portuguese took care to shut out all European trade
competitors. Only their own merchants were al- ™°^°P°y
lowed to bring goods from the Indies to Europe by the Cape
route. For a time this poUcy made Portugal very prosperous.
Lisbon, the capital, formed the chief depot for spices and other
eastern commodities. The French, EngHsh, and Dutch came
there to buy them and took the place of Italian merchants
in distributing them throughout Europe.
But the triumph of Portugal was short-hved. This small
country, with a population of not more than a million, lacked
the strength to defend her claims to a monopoly
of the Oriental trade. During the seventeenth of the
century the French and English broke the power Portuguese
Empire
of the Portuguese in India, while the Dutch drove
them from Ceylon and the East Indies. Though the Portu-
guese lost most of their possessions so soon, they deserve a
tribute of admiration for the energy, enthusiasm, and real
heroism with which they built up the first of modern colonial
empires.
The new world in the East, thus entered by the Portuguese
and later by other European peoples, was really an old world — •
rich, populous, and civilized. It held out alluring Europe in
possibilities, not only for trade, but also as a field ^^**
for missionary enterprise. Da Gama and Albuquerque began
a movement, which still continues, to "westernize" Asia by
opening it up to European influence. It remains to be seen,
however, whether India, China, and Japan will allow their
ancient culture to be extinguished by that of Europe.
1 The Portuguese colonial ernpire included Ormuz, the west coast of India,
Ceylon, Malacca, and various possessions in the Malay Archipelago (Sumatra,
Java, Celebes, the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, and New Guinea). The Portu-
guese also had many trading posts on the African coast, besides Brazil, which
one of their mariners discovered in 1500 a*d. See the map between pages 628-629.
624 Geographical Discovery and Colonization
222. To the Indies Westward: Columbus and
Magellan
Six years before Vasco da Gama cast anchor in the harbor of
CaUcut, another intrepid sailor, seeking the Indies by a west-
^j^g ern route, accidentally discovered America. It
globular does not detract from the glory of Columbus to
®°^^ show that the way for his discovery had been
long in preparation. In the first place, the theory that the
earth was round had been familiar to the Greeks and Romans,,
and to some learned men even in the darkest period of the
Middle Ages. By the opening of the thirteenth century it
must have been commonly known, for Roger Bacon ^ refers
to it, and Dante, in the Divine Comedy,^ plans his Inferno on
the supposition of a spherical world. The awakening of in-
terest in Greek science, as a result of the Renaissance, naturally
called renewed attention to the statements by ancient geog-
raphers. Eratosthenes,^ for instance, had clearly recognized
the possibihty of reaching India by sailing westward on the
same parallel of latitude. Especially after the revival of
Ptolemy's^ works in the fifteenth century, scholars accepted
the globular theory; and they even went so far as to calculate
the circumference of the earth.
In the second place, men had long believed that west of
Europe, beyond the strait of Gibraltar, lay mysterious lands.
Myth of This notion first appears in the writings of the
Atlantis Greek philosopher, Plato,^ who repeats an old
tradition concerning Atlantis. According to Plato, Atlantis
had been an island continental in size, but more than nine
thousand years before his time it had sunk beneath the sea.
Medieval writers accepted this account as true and found
support for it in traditions of other western islands, such as
the Isles of the Blest, where Greek heroes went after death,
and the Welsh Avalon, whither King Arthur, ^ after his last
1 See page 573. ^ See page 591. ' ^ See page 133.
* A Latin translation of Ptolemy's Geography, accompanied by maps, was printed
for the first time probably in 1462 a.d.
^ See page 275. ^ See page 560.
Columbus and Magellan
625
battle, was borne to heal his wounds. A widespread legend
of the Middle Ages also described the visit made by St.
Brandan, an Irish monk, to the ''promised land of the Saints,"
an earthly paradise far out in the Atlantic. St. B randan's
Island was marked on early maps, and voyages in search of
it were sometimes undertaken.
Behaim's G.lobe
The outlines of North America and South America do not appear on the original globe.
The ideas of European geographers in the period just pre-
ceding the discovery of America are represented on a map,
or rather a globe, which dates from 1492 a.d. It Behaim's
was made by a German navigator, Martin Behaim, slobe
for his native city of Nuremberg, where it is still preserved.
Behaim shows the mythical island of St. Brandan, lying in
626 Geographical Discovery and Colonization
mid-ocean, and beyond it Japan (Cipango) and the East Indies.
It is clear that he greatly underestimated the distance westward
between Europe and Asia. The error was natural enough,
for Ptolemy had reckoned the earth's circumference to be about
one-sixth less than it is, and Marco Polo had given an exagger-
ated idea of the distance to
which Asia extended on the
east. When Columbus set out
on his voyage, he firmly be-
lieved that a journey of four
thousand miles would bring
him to Cipango.
Christopher Columbus was a
native of Genoa, where his
Columbus. father followed
1446 (?)- 1506 the humble trade
A. D. r TT
of a weaver. He
seems to have obtained some
knowledge of astronomy and
geography as a student in the
university of Pavia, but at an
early age he became a sailor.
Columbus knew the Mediter-
ranean by heart; he once went to the Guinea coast; and he may
have visited Iceland. He settled at Lisbon as a map-maker and
married a daughter of one of Prince Henry's sea-captains. As
Columbus pored over his maps and charts and talked with sea-
men about their voyages, the idea came to him that much of the
world remained undiscovered and that the distant East could
be reached by a shorter route than that which led around Africa.
Columbus was a w^ll-read man, and in Aristotle, Ptolemy,
and other ancient authorities he found apparent confirmation
Researches ^^ ^^^ grand idea. Columbus also owned a printed
copy of Marco Polo's book, and from his comments,
written on the margin, we know how interested
he was in Polo's statements referring to Cathay and Cipango.
Furthermore, Columbus brought together all the information
Christopher Columbus
Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid
The oldest known portrait of Columbus.
of
Columbus
Columbus and Magellan
627
he could get about the fabled islands of the Atlantic. If he
ever went to Iceland, some vague traditions may have reached
him there of Norse voyages to
Greenland and Vinland. Such
hints and rumors strengthened his
purpose to sail toward the setting
sun in quest of the Indies.
All know the story. How Co-
lumbus first laid his plans before
the king of Portugal, ^.^^^ ^^y^g^
only to meet with re- of Columbus,
buffs; how he then
went to Spain and after many dis-
couragements found a patron in
Queen Isabella; how with three
small ships he set out from Palos,
1492 A.D. ^
August 3, 1492 A.D.; how after
i&c^mm:^
Isabella
leaving the Canaries he
sailed week after week over an unknown sea; and how at last,
on the early morning of October 12, he sighted in the moon-
light the glittering coral strand of
one of the Bahama Islands.^ It
was the New World.
Columbus made three other
voyages to the New World, in the
course of which he explored the
Caribbean Sea, the subsequent
mouth of the Orinoco voyages of
River, and the eastern Columbus
coast of Central America. He
lived and died in the behef that
he had actually reached the
mainland of Asia and the realms
of the Great Khan of Cathay.
Ship of 1492 a.d. ^j^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^.^^ ^^.^^ ^^_
mains as a testimony to this error.
1 Named San Salvador by Columbus and usually identified with Watling
Island.
628 Geographical Discovery and Colonization
The New World was named for a Florentine navigator,
Amerigo Vespucci.^ While in the Spanish service he made
Naming of Several western voyages and printed an account .
America ^f }^is discovery of the mainland of America in
1497 A.D. Scholars now generally reject his statements, but
they found acceptance at the time, and it was soon suggested
Nunc vcro & heg partes Cintlatius luftratsc/ 8C
alia quarta pars per Amcricii Vcfputiumc vt iafe
^^g quentibus auclietur)inucnta eftrquanon video cut
AtSic^ quis iurc vetct ab Americo inucntore lagads inge
xico nfj viro Amcrigcn quafi Ameridierram/ilue Amc
licam dicendamtcum 8^ Europa 8C Afla a mulien^
bus fuafordtaiint nomina.Eius fitu 8c gentis mo^
les exBis1}inis.Aniendnauigationibus quf (eqaa
turliquideintelligiLdatur.
The Name "America"
Facsimile of the passage in the Cosmo graphics Introductio (1507). by Martin
Waldseemiiller, in which the name " America" is proposed for the New World.
that the new continent should be called America, "because
Americus discovered it." The name applied at first only to
South America. After it became certain that South America
joined another continent to the north, the name spread over
the whole New World.
Shortly after the return of Columbus from his first voyage,
Pope Alexander VI, in response to a request by Ferdinand and
The demar- Isabella, issued a bull granting these sovereigns ex-
cation line, elusive rights over the newly discovered lands. In
1493 A.D. ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ Spanish possessions should be clearly
marked off from the Portuguese, the pope laid down an imagi-
nary line of demarcation in the Atlantic, three hundred miles
west of the Azores. All new discoveries west of the line were
to belong to Spain; all those east of it, to Portugal.^ But this
1 In Latin, Americus Vespucius.
2 In 1494 A.D. the demarcation line was shifted about eight hundred miles
farther to the west. Six years later, when the Portuguese discovered Brazil, the
country was found to lie within their sphere of influence.
140° 120°
140°Longitude 120° West
0°Longitude 20° East 40° from 60°Greenwich 80°
Columbus and Magellan
629
Ferdinand
Magellan,
1480 (?) -
1521 A.D.
Ferdinand
arrangement, which excluded France, England, and other
European countries from the New World, could not be long
maintained.
The demarcation line had a good deal to do in bringing
about the first voyage around the globe. So far no one had
^et realized the
dream of Columbus
to reach the lands
of spice and silk by
sailing westward
Magellan, formerly one of Albu-
querque's lieutenants but now
in the service of Spain, believed
that the Spice Islands lay within
the Spanish sphere of influence
and that an all-Spanish route,
leading to them through some
strait at the southern end of
South America, could be dis-
covered.
The Spanish ruler, Charles V,
grandson of the Isabella who had supported Columbus, looked
with favor upon Magellan's ideas and gave him
a fleet of five vessels for the undertaking. After
exploring the east coast of South America, Ma-
gellan came at length to the strait which bears
his name. Through this channel he sailed boldly
and found himself upon an ocean which he called the Pacific,
because of its peaceful aspect. Magellan's sailors now begged
him to return, for food was getting scarce, but the navigator
rephed that he would go on, "if he had to eat the leather off
the rigging." He did go on, for ninety-eight days, untfl he
reached the Ladrone Islands.^ By a curious chance, in ah this
long trip across the Pacific, MageUan came upon only two
islands, both of them uninhabited. He then proceeded to
1 Also known as the Mariannes. Magellan called them the Ladrones (Spanish
ladrdn, a robber), because of the thievish habits of the natives.
Ferdinand Magellan
From a portrait formerly in the Ver-
sailles Gallery, Paris.
Circumnavi-
gation of
the globe,
1519-1522
A.D.
630 Geographical Discovery and Colonization
the Philippines, where he was killed in a fight with the natives.
His men, however, managed to reach the Spice Islands, the goal
of the journey. Afterwards a single ship, the Victoria, carried
back to Spain the few sailors who had survived the hardships
of a voyage lasting nearly three years.
Magellan's voyage forms a landmark in the history of geog-
raphy. It proved that America, at least on the south, had
Meaning of ^^ Connection with Asia; it showed the enormous
the circum- extent of the Pacific Ocean; and it led to the
naviga on discovery of many large islands in the East Indies.
Henceforth men knew of a certainty that the earth was round
and in the distance covered by Magellan they had a rough
estimate of its size. The circumnavigation of the globe ranks
with the discovery of America among the most significant
events in history. In the company of great explorers Magellan
stands beside Columbus.
223. The Indians
The first inhabitants of America probably came from the
Old World. At a remote epoch a land-bridge connected north-
Peopling of west Europe with Greenland, and Iceland still
America remains a witness to its former existence. Over
this bridge animals and men may have found their way into
the New World. Another prehistoric route may have led from
Asia. Only a narrow strait now separates Alaska from Siberia,
and the Aleutian Islands form an almost complete series of
stepping-stones across the most northerly part of the Pacific.
The natives of America, whom Columbus called Indians,
certainly resemble Asiatics in some physical features, such as
^jjg the reddish-brown complexion, the hair, uni-
American formly black and lank, the high cheek-bones, and
aborigines ^^^ ^-^^^^ stature of many tribes. On the other
hand, the large, aquihne nose, the straight eyes, never obhque,
and the tall stature of some tribes are European traits. It
seems safe to conclude that the American aborigines, whatever
their origin, became thoroughly fused into a composite race
during long centuries of isolation from the rest of mankind.
The Indians 631
Because of their isolation the Indians had to work out
by themselves many arts, inventions, and discoveries. They
spoke over a thousand languages and dialects; Indian
and not one has yet been traced outside of culture
America. Their implements consisted of pohshed stone, occa-
sionally of unsmelted copper, and in Mexico and Peru, of
bronze. They cultivated Indian corn, or maize, but lacked
the other great ^^^
cereals. They
domesticated the
dog and the llama
of the Andes.
They lived in Aztec Sal..!. .^..^l Knife
clans and tribes, British Museum, London.
ruled by headmen Length, twelve inches. The blade is of yellow, opalescent
1 • r rpi • chalcedony, beautifully chipped and polished. The handle is
or CnieiS. i neir ^^ hght-colored wood carved in the form of a man masked with
religion probably a bird skin. Brilliant mosaic settings of turquoise, malachite,
T 1 , . 1 and shell embellish the figure.
did not mvolve
a belief in a " Great Spirit," as is so often said, but rather
recognized in all nature the abode of spiritual powers, mys-
terious and wonderful, whom man ought to conciliate by
prayers and sacrifices. In short, most of the American
Indians were not savages, but barbarians well advanced in
culture.
Indian culture attained its highest development in Mexico
and Central America, especially among the Mayas of Yucatan,
Guatemala, and Honduras. The remains of their The
cities — the Ninevehs and Babylons of the New Mayas
World — lie buried in the tropical jungle, where Europeans
first saw them, four hundred years ago. The temples, shrines,
altars, and statues in these ancient cities show that the Mayas
had made much progress in the fine arts. They knew enough
astronomy to frame a solar calendar of three hundred and
sixty-five days, and enough mathematics to employ numbers
exceeding a million. The writing of the Mayas had reached
the rebus ^ stage and promised to become alphabetic. When
1 See page 9.
632 Geographical Discovery and Colonization
their hieroglyphics have been completely deciphered, we shall
learn much more about this gifted people.
Several centuries before the arrival of Europeans in America,
the so-called Aztecs came down from the north and established
The themselves on the Mexican plateau. Here they
Aztecs formed a confederacy of many tribes, ruled over
by a sort of king, whose capital was Tenochtitlan, on the site
of the present city of Mexico.
''iiibiiiumiiiiuiiiiiiiii(ii«iiiifliiiKWi«inM»»m»'»i'»'»>ii»»»'"»""
Aztec Sacrificial Stone
Now in the National Museum in the City of Mexico.
The Aztecs appear to have borrowed much of their art,
science, and knowledge of writing from their Maya neighbors.
Aztec They built houses and temples of stone or sun-
culture dried brick, constructed aqueducts, roads, and
bridges, excelled in the dyeing, weaving, and spinning of cotton,
and made most beautiful ornaments of silver and gold. They
worshiped many gods, to which the priests offered prisoners
of war as human sacrifices. In spite of these bloody rites,
the Aztecs were a kind-hearted, honest people, respectful of
the rights of property, brave in battle, and obedient to their
native rulers. Aztec culture in some ways was scarcely
inferior to that of the ancient Egyptians.
The lofty table-lands of the Andes were also the seat of an
advanced Indian culture. At the time of the
Spanish conquest the greater part of what is now
Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and northern Chile had come under
The Incas
Spanish Explorations and Conquests in America 633
the sway of the Incas, the ''people of the sun." The Inca
power centered in the Peruvian city of Cuzco and on the shores
of Lake Titicaca, which lies twelve thousand feet above sea-
level. In this region of magnificent scenery the traveler views
with astonishment the ruins of vast edifices, apparently never
completed, which were raised either by the Incas or the Indians
whom they conquered and displaced. Though the culture of
Gidf of ^^^
Mexico ^
WEST INDIES
SCALE OF MILES
the Incas resembled in many ways that of the Aztecs, the
two peoples probably never had any intercourse and hence
remained totally unaware of each other's existence.
224. Spanish Explorations and Conquests in America
The discoverers of the New World were naturally the pioneers
in its exploration. The first object of the Spaniards had been
trade with the Indies, and for a number of years, objects of
until Magellan's voyage, they sought vainly for *^® Spaniards
a passage through the mainland to the Spice Islands. When,
however, the Spaniards learned that America was rich in
deposits of gold and silver, these metals formed the prin-
cipal objects of their expeditions.
The Spaniards at first had confined their settlements to the
634 Geographical Discovery and Colonization
Greater Antilles in the West Indies,^ but after the gold of these
islands was exhausted, they began to penetrate the
mainland. In 15 13 a.d. Ponce de Leon, who had
been with Columbus on his second voyage, discov-
ered the country which he named Florida. It be-
came the first Spanish possession in North America. In the
Ponce de
Leon and
Balboa,
1513 A.D.
Ax Early IMap of the New World (1540 a.d.)
same year Vasco Nunez de Balboa, from the isthmus of Panama,
sighted the Pacific. He entered its waters, sword in hand, and
took formal possession in the name of the king of Spain.
The overthrow of the Aztec power was accomplished by
Conquest Hernando Cortes, with the aid of Indian allies.
Many large towns and half a thousand villages,
together with immense quantities of treasure, fell
into the hands of the conquerors. Henceforth
Mexico, or "New Spain," became the most im-
portant Spanish possession in America. Francisco Pizarro,
1 Cuba, Hispaniola (now divided between the republics of Haiti and Santo Do-
mingo), Porto Rico, and Jamaica.
of Mexico,
1519-1521
A.D., and
Peru, 1531
1537 A.D.
The Spanish Colonial Empire 635
who invaded Peru with a handful of soldiers, succeeded in
overthrowing the Incas. Pizarro founded in Peru the city of
Lima. It replaced Cuzco as the capital of the country and
formed the seat of the Spanish government in South America.
The Spaniards, during the earher part of the sixteenth cen-
tury, heard much of a fabled king whom they called El Dorado.^
This king, it was said, used to smear himself with
gold dust at an annual religious ceremony. In
time the idea arose that somewhere in South America existed
a fabled country marvelously rich in precious metals and gems.
These stories stirred the imagination of the Spaniards, who
fitted out many expeditions to find the gilded man and his
gilded realm. The quest for El Dorado opened up the valleys
of the Amazon and Orinoco and the extensive forest region
east of the Andes. Spanish explorers also tried to find El
Dorado in North America. De Soto's expedition led to the
discovery of the Mississippi in 1541 a.d., and Coronado's
search for the "Seven Cities of Cibola" not only added
greatly to geographical knowledge of the Southwest, but
also resulted in the extension of Spanish dominion over this
part of the American continent. About 1605 a.d. the
Spaniards founded Santa Fe and made it the capital of
their government in New Mexico.
225. The Spanish Colonial Empire
The wonderful exploits of the conquistador es (conquerors)
laid the foundations of the Spanish colonial empire. It in-
cluded Florida, New Mexico, California, Mexico, spain in
Central America, the West Indies, and all South the New
America except Brazil.^ The rule of Spain over °^
these dominions lasted nearly three hundred years. During
this time she gave her language, her government, and her
religion to half the New World.
^ Spanish for the "gilded one."
^ See the map between pages 628-629. The Phihppines, discovered by Magellan
in 1521 A.D., also belonged to Spain, though by the demarcation line these islands
lay within the Portuguese sphere of influence.
636 Geographical Discovery and Colonization
The Spaniards brought few women with them and hence
had to find their wives among the Indians. Intermarriage
Intennar- of the two peoples early became common. The
riage of result was the mixed race which one still finds
Spaniards
and throughout the greater part of Spanish America.
Indians jj^ ^j^jg ^ace the Indian strain predominates, be-
cause almost everywhere the aborigines were far more numer-
ous than the white settlers.
The Spaniards treated the Indians of the West Indies most
harshly and forced them to work in gold mines and on sugar
Treatment plantations. The hard labor, to which the In-
of the dians were unaccustomed, broke down their health,
and almost the entire native population disap-
peared within a few years after the coming of the whites.
This terrible tragedy w^as not repeated on the miainland, for
the Spanish government stepped in to preserve the aborigines
from destruction. It prohibited their enslavement and gave
them the protection of humane laws. Though these laws
were not always well enforced, the Indians of Mexico and
Peru increased in numbers under Spanish rule and often
became prosperous traders, farmers, and artisans.
The Spaniards succeeded in winning many of the Indians to
Christianity. Devoted monks penetrated deep into the wilder-
Conversion ^^^^ ^^^ brought to the aborigines, not only the
of the Christian religion, but also European civilization.
In many places the natives w^ere gathered into
permanent villages, or "missions," each one with its church and
school. Converts who learned to read and write often became
priests or entered the monastic orders. The monks also took
much interest in the material welfare of the Indians and taught
them how to farm, how to build houses, and how to spin and
weave and cook by better methods than their own.
The most familiar examples of the Spanish missions are those
The CaU- ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ California. During the last quar-
fornia ter of the eighteenth century Franciscan friars
erected no less than eighteen mission stations
along the Pacific coast from San Diego to San Francisco.
The Spanish Colonial Empire 637
The stations were connected by the "King's Road," ^ which
still remains the principal highway of the state. Some of the
mission buildings now lie in ruins and others have entirely
disappeared. But such a well-preserved structure as the mis-
sion of Santa Barbara recalls a Benedictine monastery,^ with
its shady cloisters, secluded courtyard, and timbered roof
covered with red tiles. It is a bit of the Old World trans-
planted to the New.
The civilizing work of Spain in the New World is sometimes
forgotten. Here were the earliest American hospitals and
asylums, for the use of Indians and negroes as gpanish-
well as of Spaniards. Here were the earliest American
American schools and colleges. Twelve institu-
tions of higher learning, all modeled upon the university of
Salamanca, arose in Spanish America during the colonial
period. Eight of these came into existence before the crea-
tion in 1636 A.D. of Harvard University, the oldest in the
United States. The pioneer printing press in the Western
Hemisphere was set up at Mexico City in 1535 a.d.; no print-
ing press reached the English colonies till more than one hun-
dred years later. To the valuable books by Spanish scholars
we owe much of our knowledge of the Mayas, Aztecs, and
other Indian tribes. The first American newspaper was pub-
lished at Mexico City in 1693 a.d. The fine arts also flour-
ished in the Spanish colonies, and architects of the United
States have now begun to copy the beautiful churches and
public buildings of Mexico and Peru.
The government of Spain administered its colonial dominions
in the spirit of monopoly. As far as possible it excluded French,
English, and other foreigners from trading with gpanish
Spanish America. It also discouraged ship-build- colonial
ing, manufacturing, and even the cultivation of ^° ^^
the vine and the olive, lest the colonists should compete with
home industries. The colonies were regarded only as a work-
shop for the production of the precious metals and raw materials.
This unwise poHcy very largely accounts for the economic
1 In Spanish El Camino Red. ^ See page 355.
6^,^ Geographical Discovery and Colonization
backwardness of Mexico, Peru, and other Spanish-American
countries at the present day. Their rich natural resources
have as yet scarcely begun to be utilized.
226. English and French Explorations in America
The English based their claim to the right to colonize North
America on the discoveries of John Cabot, an Italian mariner
the service of the
The Cabot
voyages,
1497-1498
A.D.
m
Tudor king, Henry VII. ^
In 1497 A.D. Cabot sailed
from Bristol across the
northern Atlantic and made land
somewhere between Labrador and
Nova Scotia. The follow^ing year he
seems to have undertaken a second
voyage and to have explored the coast
of North America nearly as far as
Florida. Cabot, like Columbus, be-
lieved he had reached Cathay and the
dominions of the Great Khan. Be-
cause Cabot found neither gold nor
opportunities for profitable trade, his
expeditions were considered a failure,
and for a long time the English took
no further interest in exploring the
New World.
The discovery by Magellan of a
strait leading into the Pacific aroused
hope that a similar pas-
sage, beyond the regions
controlled by Spain,
might exist in North
America. In 1534 a.d. the French
king, Francis I, sent Jacques Cartier to look for it. Cartier
found the gulf and river which he named after St. Lawrence,
and also tried to establish a settlement near where Quebec
1 See page 518.
Cabot ^Memorial Tower
Erected at ftristol, Englanl in
memory of John Cabot and his
sons. The foundation stone as
laid on June 24, 1897 a.d., the
four-hundredth anniversary of
John Cabot's first sight of the
contment of North America.
Cartier's
voyages,
1534-1542
A.D.
English and French Explorations 639
now stands. The venture was not successful, and the French
did not undertake the colonization of Canada till the first dec-
ade of the seventeenth century.
English sailors also sought a road to India by the so-called
Northwest Passage. It was soon found to be an impossible
route, for during half the year the seas were ^j^g
frozen and during the other half they were filled Northwest
with icebergs. However, the search for the ^^^^se
Northwest Passage added much to geographical knowledge.
The names Frobisher Bay, Davis Strait, and Baffin Land still
preserve the memory of the navigators who first explored the
channels leading into the Arctic Ocean.
When the English realized how little profit was to be gained
by voyages to the cold and desolate north, they turned south-
ward to warmer waters. Here, of course, they The English
came upon the Spaniards, who had no disposition "sea dogs"
to share with foreigners the profitable trade of the New World.
Though England and Spain were not at war, the Enghsh ''sea
dogs," as they called themselves, did not scruple to ravage
the Spanish colonies and to capture the huge, clumsy treasure-
ships carrying gold and silver to Spain. The most famous
of the "sea dogs," Sir Francis Drake, was the first English-
man to sail round the world (15 77-1 580 a.d.).
Four years after Drake had completed his voyage, another
Enghsh seaman. Sir Walter Raleigh, sent out an expedition
to find a erood site for a settlement in North
X,, , , , , , The Raleigh
America. The explorers reached the coast of colonies,
North Carolina and returned with glowing ac- 1584-1590
counts of the country, which was named Virginia,
in honor of Elizabeth, the "Virgin Queen." But Raleigh's
colonies in Virginia failed miserably, and the Enghsh made
no further attempt to settle there till the reign of James I,
early in the seventeenth century.
227. The Old World and the New
The New World contained two virgin continents, full of
natural resources and capable in a high degree of colonization.
640 Geographical Discovery and Colonization
The native peoples, comparatively few in number and bar-
Expansion barian in culture, could not offer much resistance
of Europe ^q i\^q explorers, missionaries, traders, and colo-
nists from the Old World. The Spanish and Portuguese in
the sixteenth century, followed by the French, English, and
Dutch in the seventeenth century, repeopled America and
brought to it European civilization. Europe expanded into a
Greater Europe beyond the ocean.
In the Middle Ages the Mediterranean and the Baltic had
been the principal highways of commerce. The discovery of
Shifting of America, followed immediately by the opening of
trade routes ^]-^g Cape route to the Indies, shifted commercial
activity from these enclosed seas to the Atlantic Ocean. Venice,
Genoa, Hamburg, Liibeck, and Bruges gradually gave way, as
trading centers, to Lisbon and Cadiz, Bordeaux and Cherbourg,
Antwerp and Amsterdam, London and Liverpool. One may
say, therefore, that the year 1492 a.d. inaugurated the Atlantic
period of European history. The time may come, perhaps even
now it is dawning, when the center of gravity of the commer-
cial world will shift still farther westward to the Pacific.
The discovery of America revealed to Europeans a new
source of the precious metals. The Spaniards soon secured
Increased large quantities of gold by plundering the In-
production ^[^^^ ^f Mexico and Peru of their stored-up
of the , , * r , 1 . • r ^
precious wealth. After the discovery m 1545 a.d. of the
metals wonderfully rich silver mines of Potosi in Bolivia,
the output of silver much exceeded that of gold. It is esti-
mated that by the end of the sixteenth century the American
mines had produced at least three times as much gold and
silver as had been current in Europe at the beginning of the
century.
The Spaniards could not keep this new treasure. Having
few industries themselves, they were obliged to
Cense- , . ^ , . , . .
quences of send it out, as fast as they received it, m pay-
the enlarged ment for their imports of European goods. Spain
money supply .
acted as a huge sieve through which the gold
and silver of America entered all the countries of Europe.
The Old World and the New 641
Money, now more plentiful, purchased far less than in former
times ; in other words, the prices of all commodities rose, wages
advanced, and manufacturers and traders had additional capital
to use in their undertakings. The Middle Ages had suffered
from the lack of sufficient money with which to do business; ^
from the beginning of modern times the world has been better
suppHed with the indispensable medium of exchange.
But America was much more than a treasury of the precious
metals. Many commodities, hitherto unknown, soon found
their way from the New World to the Old. Among j^^^
these were maize, the potato, which, when culti- commodities
vated in Europe, became the "bread of the poor," ^^p°^ ®
chocolate and cocoa made from the seeds of the cacao tree,
Peruvian bark, or quinine, so useful in malarial fevers, cochineal,
the dye-woods of Brazil, and the mahogany of the West Indies.
America also sent large supplies of cane-sugar, molasses, fish,
whale-oil, and furs. The use of tobacco, which Columbus first
observed among the Indians, spread rapidly over Europe and
thence extended to the rest of the world. All these new
American products became common articles of consumption
and so raised the standard of living in European countries.
To the economic effects of the discoveries must be added their
effects on politics. The Atlantic Ocean now formed, not only
the commercial, but also the political center of the _ , . ,
' . ^ . Political
world. The Atlantic-facing countries, first Portu- effects of
gal and Spain, then Holland, France, and England, *® ^!^"
became the great powers of Europe. Their trade
rivalries and contests for colonial possessions have been potent
causes of European wars for the last four hundred years.
The sudden disclosure of oceans, islands, and continents,
covering one-third of the globe, worked a revolution in geo-
graphical ideas. The earth was found to be far ^^
V 1 , , 1-1 1 , Effects of
larger than men had supposed it to be, and the the dis-
imagination was stirred by the thought of other eocenes
amazing discoveries which might be made. From
the sixteenth century to the twentieth the work of exploration
I See page 541.
642 Geographical Discovery and Colonization
has continued, till now few regions of the world yet remain
unmapped. At the same time came acquaintance with many
strange plants, animals, and peoples, and so scientific knowl-
edge replaced the quaint fancies of the Middle Ages.
The sixteenth century in Europe was the age of that revolt
against the Roman Church called the Protestant Reformation.
During this period, however, the Church won her
the discov- victories over the American aborigines. What she
eries upon j^g^ ^f territory, wealth, and influence in Europe was
more than offset by what she gained in America.
Furthermore, the region now occupied by the United States
furnished in the seventeenth century an asylum from religious
persecution, as was proved when Puritans settled in New
England, Roman Catholics in Maryland, and Quakers in Penn-
sylvania. The vacant spaces of America offered plenty of room
for all who would worship God in their own way. Thus the
New World became a refuge from the intolerance of the Old.
Studies
I. On an outline map indicate those parts of the world known in the time of
Columbus (before 1492 a.d.). 2. On an outline map indicate the voyages of
discovery of Vasco da Gama, Columbus (first voyage), John Cabot, and Magellan.
3. What particular discoveries were made by Cartier, Drake, Balboa, De Soto,
Ponce de Leon, and Coronado? 4. Compare the Cosmas map (page 617) with
the map of the world according to Homer (page 76). 5. Compare the Hereford
map (page 617) with the map of the world according to Ptolemy (page 132).
6. Why has Marco Polo been called the "Columbus of the East Indies"?
7. "Cape Verde not only juts out into the Atlantic, but stands forth as a promon-
tory in human history." Comment on this statement. 8. How did Vasco da Gama
complete the work of Prince Henry the Navigator? 9. Show that Lisbon in the
sixteenth century was the commercial successor of Venice. 10. "Had Columbus
perished in mid-ocean, it is doubtful whether America would have remained long
undiscovered." Comment on this statement. 11. Why did no one suggest that
the New World be called after Columbus? 12. Show that Magellan achieved
what Columbus planned. 13. Why did Balboa call the Pacific the "South Sea"?
14. Why is Roman law followed in all Spanish- American countries? 15. In what
parts of the world is Spanish still the common language? 16. Why did the Ger-
mans fail to take part in the work of discovery and colonization? 17. Show that
the three words "gospel, glory, and gold" sum up the principal motives of Euro-
pean colonization in the sixteenth century. 18. Compare the motives which led
to the colonization of the New World with those which led to Greek colonization.
19. "The opening of the Atlantic to continuous exploration is the most mo-
mentous step in the history of man's occupation of the earth." Does this state-
ment seem to be justified?
CHAPTER XXVII
THE REFORMATION AND THE RELIGIOUS WARS,
1517-1648 A.D.1
228. Decline of the Papacy
The Papacy, victorious in the long struggle with the Holy
Roman Empire, reached during the thirteenth century the
height of its temporal power. The popes at this
time were the greatest sovereigns in Europe. They in the
ruled a large part of Italy, had great influence in thirteenth
the affairs of France, England, Spain, and other
countries, and in Germany named and deposed emperors.
From their capital at Rome they sent forth their legates to
every European court and issued the laws binding on western
Christendom.
The universal dominion of the Church proved useful and
even necessary in feudal times, when kings were weak and
nobles were strong. The Church of the early
Middle Ages served as the chief unifying force in between
Europe. When, however, the kings had repressed Church and
feudalism, they took steps to extend their author-
ity over the Church as well. They tried, therefore, to restrict
the privileges of ecclesiastical courts, to impose taxes on the
clergy, as on their own subjects, and to dictate the appoint-
ment of bishops and abbots to office. This policy naturally
led to much friction between popes and kings, between Church
and State.
The Papacy put forth its most extensive claims under Boniface
VIII. The character of these claims is shown by two bulls
^ Webster, Readings in Medieval and Modern History, chapter xxiii, "Martin
Luther and the Beginning of the Reformation"; chapter xxiv, "England in the
Age of Elizabeth.''
643
644 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars
which he issued. The first forbade all laymen, under penalty
of excommunication, to collect taxes on Church
Pontificate ,,,,11 1 r^,
of Boniface lands, and all clergymen to pay them. The
VIII, I294r- second announced in unmistakeable terms both
1303 A.D. ,..111
the spiritual and the temporal supremacy of the
popes. '^ Submission to the Roman pontiff," declared Boni-
face, "is altogether necessary to salvation for every human
creature."
Boniface had employed the exalted language of Gregory VII
in dealing with Henry IV, but he found an opponent in a mon-
Boniface ^^^^ more resolute and resourceful than any Holy
and Philip Roman Emperor. This was Philip the Fair,^
^ ^^ king of France. Philip answ^ered the first bull by
refusing to allow any gold and silver to be exported from France
to Italy. The pope, thus deprived of valuable revenues, gave
w^ay and acknowledged that the French ruler had a limited
right to tax the clergy. Another dispute soon arose, however,
as the result of Philip's imprisonment and trial of an obnoxious
papal legate. Angered by this action, Boniface prepared to
excommunicate the king and depose him from the throne.
Philip retaliated by calling together the Estates-General
and asking their support for the preservation of the "ancient
liberty of France." The nobles, the clergy, and the ''third
estate" rallied around Philip, accused the pope of heresy
and tyranny, and declared that the French king w^as subject
to God alone.
The last act of the drama was soon played. Philip sent his
emissaries into Italy to arrest the pope and bring him to trial
Anagni, before a general council in France. At Anagni,
1303 A.D. -Qgg^j. Rome, a band of hireling soldiers stormed the
papal palace and made Boniface a prisoner. The citizens of
Anagni soon freed him, but the shock of the humiliation broke
the old man's spirit and he died spon afterwards. The poet
Dante, in the Divine Comedy,^ speaks with awe of the outrage:
"Christ had been again crucified among robbers; and the
vinegar and gall had been again pressed to his lips."^ The
1 See page 514. 2 See page 591. 3 Pur gator io, xx, 8S-90.
Decline of the Papacy 645
historian sees in this event the end of the temporal power of the
Papacy.
Soon after the death of Boniface, Philip succeeded in having
the archbishop of Bordeaux chosen as head of the Church.
The new pope removed the papal court to Avignon, The
a town just outside the French frontier of those "Babylonian
days. The popes Hved in Avignon for nearly 1309-1377
seventy years. This period is usually described ^•^•
as the "Babylonian Captivity" of the Church, a name
which recalls the exile of the Jews from their native land.^
The long absence of the popes from Rome lessened their
power, and the suspicion that they were the mere vassals of
the French crown seriously impaired the respect in which
they had been held.
Following the ''Babylonian Captivity" came the "Great
Schism." Shortly after the return of the papal court to Rome,
an Italian was elected pope as Urban VI. The ^, ,, ^
1. , . 1 X. 1 . r 1 Th® "Great
cardmals m the French mterest refused to accept Schism,"
him, declared his election void, and named Clement ^^l^~^^^^
VII as pope. Clement withdrew to Avignon,
while Urban remained in Rome. Western Christendom could
not decide which one to obey. Some countries declared for
Urban, while other countries accepted Clement. The spectacle
of two rival popes, each holding himself out as the only true
successor of St. Peter, continued for about forty years and
injured the Papacy more than anything else that had happened
to it.
The schism in western Christendom was finally healed at the
Council of Constance. There were three "phan- ^ ., ^
■^ Council of
tom popes" at this time, but they were all deposed Constance,
in favor of a new pontiff, Martin V. The Cath- ^^^^^^^
olic world now had a single head, but it was not
easy to revive the old, unquestioning loyalty to him as God's
vicar on earth.
From the time of Martin V the Papacy became more and
more an Italian power. The popes neglected European politics
1 See pages 36-37.
646 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars
and gave their chief attention to the States of the Church. A
^j^g number of the popes took much interest in the
Renaissance Renaissance movement and became its enthusiastic
^°^®^ patrons.^ They kept up splendid courts, col-
lected manuscripts, paintings, and statues, and erected magnifi-
The Great Schism, 1378-1417 a.d,
cent palaces and churches in Rome. Some European peoples,
especially in Germany, looked askance at such luxury and
begrudged the heavy taxes which were necessary to support
it. This feeling against the papacy also helped to provoke the
Reformation.
The worldliness of some of the popes was too often reflected
in the lives of the lesser clergy. Throughout the thirteenth,
fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries the Church encountered
1 See page 5g4.
Heresies and Heretics 647
much criticism from reformers. Thus, the famous humanist,
Erasmus/ wrote his Praise of Folly to expose the complaints
vices and temporal ambitions of bishops and against the
monks, the fooUsh speculations of theologians, and ^ ^^^^
the excessive reliance which common people had on pilgrimages,
festivals, rehcs, and other aids to devotion. So great was the
demand for this work that it went through twenty-seven large
editions during the author's lifetime. Erasmus and others like
him were loyal sons of the Church, but they believed they
could best serve her interests by effecting her reform. Some
men went further, however, and demanded wholesale changes
in Catholic belief and worship. These men were the heretics.
229. Heresies and Heretics
During the first centuries of our era, when the Christians
had formed a forbidden sect, they claimed toleration on the
ground that religious belief is voluntary and not Persecution
something which can be enforced by law. This °^ heretics
view changed after Christianity triumphed in the Roman
Empire and enjoyed the support, instead of the opposition, of
the government. The Church, backed by the State, no longer
advocated freedom of conscience, but began to persecute people
who held heretical beliefs.
It is difficult for those who live in an age of religious tolera-
tion to understand the horror which heresy inspired in the
Middle A^es. A heretic was a traitor to the „ ^. ,
Medieval
Church, for he denied the doctrines believed to be attitude
essential to salvation. It seemed a Christian Jo^ard
heresy
duty to compel the heretic to recant, lest he imperil
his eternal welfare. If he persisted in his impious course, then
the earth ought to be rid of one who was a source of danger to
the faithful and an enemy of the Almighty.
Although executions for heresy had occurred as early as the
fourth century ,2 for a long time milder penalties Punishment
were usually inflicted. The heretic might be ex- °^ heresy
iled, or imprisoned, or deprived of his property and his rights
1 See page 600. 2 See page 344.
648 The Reformation and the Religious Wars
as a citizen. The death penahy was seldom invoked by the
Church before the thirteenth century. Since ecclesiastical
law forbade the Church to shed blood, the State stepped in to
seize the heretic and put him to death, most often by fire. We
must remember that in medieval times cruel punishments were
imposed for even slight offenses, and hence men saw nothing
wrong in inflicting the worst of punishments for what was
believed to be the worst of crimes.
In spite of all measures of repression heretics were not un-
common during the later Middle Ages. Some heretical move-
The ments spread over entire communities. The most
Albigenses important was that of the Albigenses, so called
from the town of Albi in southern France, where many of
them lived. Their doctrines are not well known, but they
seem to have believed in the existence of two gods — one good
(whose son was Christ), the other evil (whose son was Satan).
The Albigenses even set up a rival church, with its priests,
bishops, and councils.
The failure of attempts to convert the Albigenses by peaceful
means led the pope. Innocent III,^ to preach a crusade against
Crusade them. Those who entered upon it were promised
against the ^]^g usual privileges of crusaders.^ A series of
Albigenses, ^ ^
1209-1229 bloody wars now followed, m the course of which
^'^' thousands of men, women, and children perished.
But the Albigensian sect did not entirely disappear for more
than a century, and then only after numberless trials and
executions for heresy.
The followers of Peter Waldo, who lived in the twelfth
century, made no effort to set up a new religion in Europe.
The They objected, however, to certain practices of
Waidenses ^j^g Church, such as masses for the dead and the
adoration of saints. They also condemned the luxury of the
clergy and urged that Christians should live like the Apostles,
charitable and poor. To the Waidenses the Bible was a suffi-
cient guide to the religious life, and so they translated parts of
the Scriptures and allowed everyone to preach, without distinc-
1 See page 461. « See page 468.
Heresies and Heretics
649
tion of age, or rank, or sex. The Waldenses spread through
many European countries, but being poor and lowly men they
did not exert much influence as reformers. The sect survived
severe persecution and now forms a branch of the Protestant
Church in Italy.
Beliefs very similar to those of the Waldenses w^re enter-
tained by John Wycliffe,^ master of an Oxford college and a
popular preacher. He,
from the
John
Wycliffe,
1320-1384
A.D.
too, appealed
authority of
the Church
to the au-
thority of
the Bible. With the
assistance of two friends
Wycliffe produced the
first English translation
of the Scriptures. Man-
uscript copies of the
work had a large circu-
lation, until the gov-
ernment suppressed it.
Wycliffe was not mo-
lested in life, but the
Council of Constance
denounced his teaching
and ordered that his bones
cast into a stream.
Wycliffe had organized bands of ''poor priests" to spread
the simple truths of the Bible through all England. They
went out, staff in hand and clad in long, russet The
gowns, and preached to the common people in the Lollards
English language, wherever an audience could be found. The
Lollards, as Wycliffe's followers were known, not only attacked
many beliefs and practices of the Church, but also demanded
social reforms. For instance, they declared that all wars
1 Or Wyclif .
John Wycliffe
After an old print
should be dug up, burned, and
650 The Reformation and the Religious Wars
were sinful and were but plundering and murdering the poor
to win glory for kings. The Lollards had to endure much
persecution for heresy. Nevertheless their work lived on
and sowed in England and Scotland the seeds of the
Reformation.
The doctrines of Wycliffe found favor with Anne of Bohemia,
wife of King Richard 11/ and through her they reached that
John Huss, country. Here they attracted the attention of
1373 (?)-l4l5 John Huss,^ a distinguished scholar in the uni-
versity of Prague. Wycliffe's writings confirmed
Huss in his criticism of many doctrines of the Church.
He attacked the clergy in sermons and pamphlets and also
objected to the supremacy of the pope. The sentence of
excommunication pronounced against him did not shake his
reforming zeal. Finally Huss was cited to appear before the
Council of Constance, then in session. Relying on the safe
conduct given him by the German emperor, Huss appeared
before the council, only to be declared guilty of teaching "many
things evil, scandalous, seditious, and dangerously heretical."
The emperor then violated the safe conduct — no promise
made to a heretic was considered binding — and allowed Huss
to be burnt outside the walls of Constance. Thus perished the
man who, more than all others, is regarded as the forerunner of
Luther and the Reformation.
The flames which burned Huss set all Bohemia afire. The
Bohemians, a Slavic people, regarded him as a national hero
The Hussite and made his martyrdom an excuse for rebelling
^^^^ against the Holy Roman Empire. The Hussite
wars, which followed, thus formed a political rather than a
rehgious struggle. The Bohemians did not gain freedom, and
their country still remains a Hapsburg possession. But the
sense of nationahsm is not extinct there, and Bohemia may
some day become an independent state.
1 See page 611. * Or Hus.
Luther and the Reformation in Germany 651
230. Martin Luther and the Beginning of the Reforma-
tion in Germany, 1517-1522 A.D.
Though there were many reformers before the Reformation,
the beginning of that movement is rightly associated with the
name of Martin Luther. He was the son of a Martin
German peasant, who, by industry and frugahty, 1483-1546
had won a small competence. Thanks to his A.D.
father's self-sacrifice, Luther enjoyed a good education in
scholastic philosophy at the uni-
versity of Erfurt. Having taken
the degrees of bachelor and master
of arts, Luther began to study law,
but an acute sense of his sinfulness
and a desire to save his soul soon
drove him into a monastery.
There he read the Bible and the
writings of the Church Fathers
and found at last the peace of
mind he sought. A few years later
Luther paid a visit to Rome,
which opened his eyes to the
worldliness and general laxity of
life in the capital of the Papacy.
He returned to Germany and became a professor of theology in
the university of Wittenberg, newly founded by Frederick the
Wise, elector of Saxony. Luther's sermons and lectures at-
tracted large audiences; students began to flock to Wittenberg;
and the elector grew proud of the rising young teacher who
was making his university famous.
But Luther was soon to emerge from his academic retirement
and to become, quite unintentionally, a reformer. In 1517
A.D. there came into the neighborhood of Witten- Xetzei and
berg a Dominican friar named Tetzel, selHng in- indulgences
dulgences for the erection of the new St. Peter's at Rome.^
Martin Luther
After a portrait by Hans Holbein
the Younger
1 See page 455.
652 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars
An indulgence, according to the teaching of the Church, formed
a remission of the temporal punishment, or penance,^ due to
sin, if the sinner had expressed his repentance and had promised
to atone for his misdeeds. It was also supposed to free the
person who received it from some or all of his punishment after
death in Purgatory.^ Indulgences were granted for participa-
tion in crusades, pilgrimages, and other good works. Later
on they were granted for money, which was expected to be
applied to some pious purpose. Many of the German princes
opposed this method of raising funds for the Church, because
it took so much money out of their dominions. Their sale
had also been condemned on religious grounds by Huss and
Erasmus.
Luther began his reforming career by an attack upon indul-
gences. He did not deny their usefulness altogether, but
Posting of pointed out that they lent themselves to grave
five ttieses abuses. Common people, who could not under-
1517 A.D. stand the Latin in which they were written, often
thought that they wiped away the penalties of sin, even
without true repentance. These criticisms Luther set forth in
ninety-five theses or propositions, which he offered to defend
against all opponents. In accordance with the custom of me-
dieval scholars, Luther posted his theses on the door of the
church at Wittenberg, where all might see them. They were
composed in Latin, but were at once translated into German,
printed, and spread broadcast over Germany. Their effect
was so great that before long the sale of indulgences in that
country almost ceased.
The scholarly critic of indulgences soon passed into an open
foe of the Papacy. Luther found that his theological views
Burning of bore a close resemblance to those of Wycliffe and
bun^l520 John Huss, yet he refused to give them up as
A.D. heretical. Instead, he wrote three bold pam-
phlets, in one of which he appealed to the ''Christian nobihty
of the German nation" to rally together against Rome. The
pope, at first, had paid little attention to the controversy about
1 See page 441. 2 See page 443.
Luther and the Reformation in Germany 653
indulgences, declaring it "a mere squabble of monks," but he
now issued a bull against Luther, ordering him to recant within
sixty days or be excommunicated. The papal bull did not
frighten Luther or withdraw from him popular support. He
burnt it in the market square of Wittenberg, in the presence of
a concourse of students and townsfolk. This dramatic answer
to the pope deeply stirred all Germany.
The next scene of the Reformation was staged at Worms, at
an important assembly, or Diet, of the Holy Roman Empire.
The Diet summoned Luther to appear before it j^^^^ ^^
for examination, and the emperor, Charles V, Worms,
gave him a safe conduct. Luther's friends, re- * *
membering the treatment of Huss, advised him not to accept
the summons, but he declared that he would enter Worms
''in the face of the gates of Hell and the princes of the
air." In the great hall of the Diet Luther bravely faced
the princes, nobles, and clergy of Germany. He refused to
retract anything he had written, unless his statements could
be shown to contradict the Bible. "It is neither right
nor safe to act against conscience," Luther said. ''God help
me. Amen."
Only one thing remained to do with Luther. He was ordered
to return to Wittenberg and there await the imperial edict
declaring him a heretic and outlaw. But the Luther at
elector of Saxony, who feared for Luther's safety, ^yuTe 1521-
had him carried off secretly to the castle of Wart- 1522 A.D.
burg. Here Luther remained for nearly a year, engaged in
translating the New Testament into German. There had been
many earlier translations into German, but Luther's was the
first from the Greek original. His version, simple, forcible, and
easy to understand, enjoyed wide popularity and helped to fix
for Germans the form of their literary language. Luther
afterwards completed a translation of the entire Bible, which
the printing press multiplied in thousands of copies throughout
Germany.
Though still under the ban of the empire, Luther left the
Wartburg in 1522 a.d. and returned to Wittenberg. He Hved
654 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars
here, unmolested, until his death/ twenty-four years later.
Luther's During this time he flooded the country with
leadership pamphlets, wrote innumerable letters, composed
many fine hymns,^ and prepared a catechism, ''a right Bible,"
said he, "for the laity." Thus Luther became the guide and
patron of the reformatory movement which he had started.
231. Charles V and the Spread of the German
Reformation, 1519-1556 A.D.
The young man who as Holy Roman Emperor presided at
the Diet of Worms had assumed the imperial crown only two
Charles V, years previously. A namesake of Charlemiagne,
m9-i556 Charles V held sway over dominions even more
A.D. extensive than those which had belonged to the
Frankish king. Through his mother, a daughter of Ferdinand
and Isabella,^ he inherited Spain, Naples, Sicily, and the Spanish
possessions in the New World. Through his father, a son of
the emperor Maximilian I, he became ruler of Burgund}^ and
the Netherlands and also succeeded to the Austrian territories
of the Hapsburgs. Charles was thus the most powerful
monarch in Europe.
Charles, as a devout Roman Catholic, had no sympathy for
the Reformation. At Worms, on the day following Luther's
Charles V refusal to recant, the emperor had expressed his
and the determination to stake ''all his dominions, his
friends, his body and blood, his life and soul" upon
the extinction of the Lutheran heresy. This might have been
an easy task, had Charles undertaken it at once. But a revolt
in Spain, wars with the French king, Francis I, and conflicts
with the Ottoman Turks led to his long absence from Germany
and kept him from proceeding effectively against the Lu-
therans, until it was too late.
The Reformation in Germany appealed to many classes.
To patriotic Germans it seemed a revolt against a foreign
1 His hymn Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott ("A mighty fortress is our God") has
been called "the Marseillaise of the Reformation."
2 See page 522.
Charles V and the Reformation
6SS
power — the Italian Papacy. To men of pious mind it offered
the attractions of a simple faith which took the ^j^^
Bible as the rule of Hfe. Wordly-minded princes "Reformed
saw in it an opportunity to despoil the Church ^^s^**^
of lands and revenues. For these reasons Luther's teachings
found ready acceptance.
Priests married, Luther
himself setting the ex-
ample, monks left their
monasteries, and the "Re-
formed Religion" took the
place of Roman Cathoh-
cism in most parts of
northern and central Ger-
many. South Germany,
however, did not fall away
from the pope and has
remained Roman CathoUc
to the present time.
Though Germany had
now divided into two re-
ligious parties, the legal
position of Lutheranism
remained for a long time
in doubt. A Diet held in
1526 A.D. tried to shelve
the question by allowing
Charles V
A portrait of the emperor at the age of
the Venetian painter Titian.
5, by
each German state to conduct its religious affairs as it saw
fit. But at the next Diet, three years later, a ^j^^
majority of the assembled princes decided that Protestants,
the Edict of Worms against Luther and his ^^^^ ^'^'
followers should be enforced. The Lutheran princes at once
issued a vigorous protest against such action. Because of
this protest those who separated from the Roman Church
came to be called Protestants.
It was not till 1546 a.d., the year of Luther's death, that
Charles V felt his hands free to suppress the rising tide
656 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars
of Protestantism. By this time the Lutheran princes had
Peace of formed a league for mutual protection. Charles
Augsburg, brought Spanish troops into Germany and tried
' ' to break up the league by force. Civil war raged
till 1555 A.D., when both sides agreed to the Peace of Augsburg.
It was a compromise. The ruler of each state — Germany
then contained over three hundred states — was to decide
whether his subjects should be Lutherans or Catholics. Thus
the peace by no means established rehgious toleration, since all
Germans had to believe as their prince believed. However, it
recognized Lutheranism as a legal religion and ended the
attempts to crush the German Reformation.
Meanwhile Luther's doctrines spread into Scandinavian
Lutheranism l^^nds. The rulers of Denmark, Norway, and
in Scandi- Sweden closed the monasteries and compelled
"^^^^ the Roman Catholic bishops to surrender eccle-
siastical property to the crown. Lutheranism became hence-
forth the official reliorion of these three countries.
232. The Reformation in Switzerland;
Zwingli and Calvin
The Reformation in Switzerland began with the work
of Zwingli. He was the contemporary but not the disciple
Huldreich of Luther. From his pulpit in the cathedral of
1484^1531 Zurich, Zwingli proclaimed the Scriptures as the
A.D. sole guide of faith and denied the supremacy of
the pope. Many of the Swiss cantons accepted his teaching
and broke away from obedience to Rome. Civil war soon
followed between Protestants and Roman Catholics, and
ZwingH fell in the struggle. After his death the two parties
made a peace which allowed each canton to determine its own
religion. Switzerland has continued to this day to be part
Roman Catholic and part Protestant.
The Protestants in Switzerland did not remain long without
a leader. To Geneva came in 1536 a.d. a young Frenchman
named Calvin. He had just published his Institutes of the
Zwingli and Calvin 657
Christian Religion, a work which set forth in an orderly,
logical manner the main principles of Protes- j^j^^^ Caivin,
tant theology. Calvin also translated the Bible 1509-1564
into French and wrote valuable commentaries on
nearly all the Scriptural books.
Calvin at Geneva was sometimes called the Protestant pope.
During his long residence there he governed the people with a
rod of iron. There were no
more festivals, no Calvin at
more theaters, no G-eneva
more dancing, music, and mas-
querades. All the citizens had
to attend two sermons on Sun-
day and to yield at least a
lip-assent to the reformer's doc-
trines. On a few occasions
Calvin proceeded to terrible ex-
tremities, as when he caused the
Spanish physician, Michael Ser-
vetus, to be burned to death,
, r 1- ^' 1 • John Calvin
because of heretical views con-
cerning the Trinity. Neverthe- ^^ ^° ° ^"°
less, Geneva prospered under Calvin's rule and became a
Christian commonwealth, sober and industrious. The city
still reveres the memory of the man who founded her
university and made her, as it were, the sanctuary of
the Reformation.
Calvin's influence was not confined to Geneva or even to
Switzerland. The men whom he trained and on whom he set
the stamp of his stern, earnest. God-fearing char- Diffusion of
acter spread Calvinism over a great part of Europe. Calvinism
In Holland and Scotland it became the prevailing type of
Protestantism, and in France and England it deeply affected
the national life. During the seventeenth century the Puritans
carried Calvinism across the sea to New England, where it
formed the dominant faith in colonial times.
658 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars
Henry VIH
king, 1509-
1547 A.D.
233. The English Reformation, 1533-1558 A.D.
The Reformation in Germany and Switzerland started as a
national and popular movement; in England it began as the
act of a despotic sov-
ereign, Henry VIII.
This
second
Tudor ^
was handsome, athle-
tic, finely educated,
and very able; but
he was also selfish,
sensual, and cruel.
His father had cre-
ated a strong mon-
archy in England by
humbling both Par-
liament and the
nobles. When Henry
VIII came to the
throne, the only seri-
ous obstacle in the
way of royal abso-
lutism was the Ro-
man Church.
Henry showed him-
self at first a devoted
Henry VIH
After a portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger
Catholic.
Henry's
early
loyalty to
the Papacy
He took an amateur's interest in theology and
WTote with his own royal pen a book attacking
Luther. The pope rewarded him with the title
of "Defender of the Faith," a title which English
sovereigns still bear. Henry at this time did not question the
authority of the Papacy. He even made his chief adviser
Cardinal Wolsey, the most conspicuous churchman in the
kingdom.
1 See page 518.
The English Reformation 659
At the beginning of Henry's reign the Church was still strong
in England. Probably most of the people were sincerely
attached to it. Still, the labors of WycHffe and Preparation
the Lollards had weakened the hold of the Church English
upon the masses, while Erasmus and the Oxford Reformation
scholars who worked with him, by their criticism of ecclesiasti-
cal abuses, had done much to undermine its influence with
the intellectual classes. In England, as on the Continent,
the worldliness of the Church prepared the way for the
Reformation.
The actual separation from Rome arose out of Henry's
rnatrimonial difficulties. He had married a Spanish princess,
Catherine of Aragon, the aunt of the emperor jjej^-y ^nd
Charles V and widow of Henry's older brother. Catherine
The marriage required a dispensation ^ from the ° ^^°^
pope, because canon law forbade a man to wed his brother's
widow. After living happily with Catherine for eighteen years,
Henry suddenly announced his conviction that the union was
sinful. This, of course, formed simply a pretext for the divorce
which Henry desired. Of his children by Catherine only a
daughter survived, but Henry wished to have a son succeed
him on the throne. Moreover, he had grown tired of Catherine
and had fallen in love w^ith Anne Boleyn, a pretty maid-in-
waiting at the court.
At first Henry tried to secure the pope's consent to the
divorce. The pope did not like to set aside the dispensation
granted by his predecessor, nor did he wish to jj^^
offend the mighty emperor Charles V. Failing to divorce,
get the papal sanction, Henry obtained his
divorce from an English court presided over by Thomas
Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury. Anne Boleyn was then
proclaimed queen, in defiance of the papal bull of excom-
munication.
Henry's next step was to procure from his subservient Parlia-
ment a series of laws which abolished the pope's authority in
England. Of these, the most important was the Act of
I See page 453.
66o The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars
Act of
Supremacy
1534 A.D.
Supremacy. It declared the English king to be "the only
supreme head on earth of the Church of Eng-
land." At the same time a new treason act
imposed the death penalty on anyone who called
the king a ''heretic, schismatic, tyrant, infidel, or usurper."
The great majority of the English people seem to have
accepted this new legislation without much objection; those
who refused to do so perished on the scaffold. The most
eminent victim w^as Sir Thomas More,^ formerly Henry's Lord
^^£3' '^^*JiUS-l': !
^^^.
Rums OF INIelrgse Abbey
The little town of Melrose in Scotland contains the ruins of a very beautiful
monastery church built about the middle of the fifteenth century. The princi-
pal part of the present remains is the choir, with slender shafts, richly-carved
capitals, and windows of exquisite stone-tracery. The beautiful sculptures
throughout the church were defaced at the time of the Reformation. The
heart of Robert Bruce is interred near the site of the high altar.
Chancellor and distinguished for eloquence and profound learn-
ing. His execution sent a thrill of horror through Christendom.
The suppression of the monasteries soon followed the separa-
tion from Rome. Henry declared to Parliament that they
deserved to be abolished, because of the ''slothful
and ungodly lives" led by the inmates. In some
instances this accusation may have been true, but
the real reason for Henry's action was his desire to crush the
monastic orders, which supported the pope, and to seize their
1 See page 613.
The
monasteries
suppressed
The English Reformation 66 1
extensive possessions. The beautiful monasteries were torn
down and the lands attached to them were sold for the benefit
of the crown or granted to Henry's favorites. The nobles who
accepted this monastic wealth naturally became zealous advo-
cates of Henry's anti-papal policy.
Though Henry VIII had broken with the Papacy, he re-
mained Roman Catholic in doctrine to the day of his death.
Under his successor, Edward VI, the Reformation ^
Progress
made rapid progress in England. The young of the
king's guardian allowed reformers from the Con- Reformation
tinent to come to England, and the doctrines of Edward VI,
Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin were freely preached i^i^~^^^^
there. At this time all paintings, statuary, wood
carvings, and stained glass were removed from church edifices.
The use of tapers, incense, and holy water was also discon-
tinued. In order that religious services might be conducted in
the language of the people, Archbishop Cranmer and his co-
workers prepared the Book of Common Prayer. It consisted
of translations into noble English of various parts of the old
Latin service books. With some changes, it is still used in the
Church of England and the Protestant Episcopal Church of the
United States.
The short reign of Mary Tudor, daughter of Catherine of
Aragon, was marked by a temporary setback to the Protestant
cause. The queen prevailed on Parliament to ^j^^ Catholic
secure a reconciliation with Rome. She also reaction
married her Roman Catholic cousin, Philip of x^dor ^^^
Spain, the son of Charles V. Mary now began a 1553-1558
severe persecution of the Protestants. It gained
for her the epithet of ''Bloody," but it did not succeed in
stamping out heresy. Many eminent reformers perished,
among them Cranmer, the former archbishop. Mary died
childless, after ruling about five years, and the crown passed to
Anne Boleyn's daughter, Elizabeth. Under Elizabeth Angli-
canism again replaced Roman Catholicism as the religion of
England.
662 The Reformation and the ReKgious Wars
234. The Protestant Sects
The Reformation was practically completed before the close
of the sixteenth century. In 1500 a.d. the Roman Church
Extent of embraced all Europe west of Russia and the
Protestantism Balkan peninsula. By 1575 a.d. nearly half of
its former subjects had renounced their allegiance. The
Extent of the Reformation, 1524-15 72, a.d.
greater part of Germany and Switzerland and all of Denmark,
Norway^ Sweden, Holland, England, and Scotland became
independent of the Papacy. The unity of western Christendom,
which had been preserved throughout the Middle Ages, thus
disappeared and has not since been revived.
The Protestant Sects
663
The reformers agreed in substituting for the authority of
popes and church councils the authority of the Bible. They
went back fifteen hundred years to the time of the common
Apostles and tried to restore what they believed features of
to be Apostohc Christianity. Hence they rejected ^° ^^ ^^ ^°^
such doctrines and practices as were supposed to have devel-
oped during the Middle Ages.
The Reformation also abol-
ished the monastic system
and priestly celibacy. The
sharp distinction between
clergy and laity disappeared;
for priests married, lived
among the people, and no
longer formed a separate
class. In general. Protestant-
ism affirmed the abihty of
every man to find salvation
without the aid of ecclesias-
tics. The Church was no
longer the only "gate of
heaven."
But the Protestant idea of
authority led inevitably to
differences of
Divisions
among
Protestants
Chained Bible
In the Church of St. Crux, York
opmion among
the reformers.
There were various ways of
interpreting that Bible to
which they appealed as the rule of faith and conduct. Con-
sequently, Protestantism split up into many sects or denomi-
nations, and these have gone on multiplying to the present
day. Nearly all, however, are offshoots from the three main
varieties of Protestantism which appeared in the sixteenth
century.
Lutheranism and Anglicanism presented some features in
common. Both were state churches, supported by the govern-
664 The Reformation and the Religious Wars
ment; both had a book of common prayer; and both recog-
Lutheranism i^i^ed the sacraments of baptism, the eucharist,
and and confirmation. The Church of England also
AngUcanism ^^^^ ^^^ sacrament of ordination. The Lutheran
churches in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, as well as the
Church of England, likewise retained the episcopate.
Calvinism departed much more widely from Roman Catholi-
cism. It did away with the episcopate and had only one order
of clergy — the presbyters.^ It provided for a
very simple form of worship. In a Calvinistic
church the service consisted of Bible reading, a sermon, ex-
temporaneous prayers, and hymns sung by the congregation.
The Calvinists kept only two sacraments, baptism and the
eucharist. They regarded the first, however, as a simple
undertaking to bring up the child in a Christian manner, and
the second as merely a commemoration of the Last Supper.
The break with Rome did not introduce religious liberty into
Europe. Nothing was further from the minds of Luther,
Calvin, and other reformers than the toleration of
The
Reformation bcHefs unlike their own. The early Protestant
and freedom gects punished dissenters as zealously as the
of thought _ ^, , . , 1 , . XI
Roman Church punished heretics. Lutherans
burned the followers of Zwingli in Germany, Calvin put Serve-
tus to death, and the EngHsh government, in the time of
Henry VIII and Elizabeth, executed many Roman Catholics.
Complete freedom of conscience and the right of private judg-
ment in reHgion have been secured in most European countries
only within the last hundred years.
The Reformation, however, did deepen the moral life of
European peoples. The faithful Protestant or Roman Catholic
,pjjg vied with his neighbor in trying to show that his
Reformation particular belief made for better living than any
and morals Q^^gj-^ The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
in consequence, were more earnest and serious, if also more
bigoted, than the centuries of the Renaissance.
1 Churches governed by assemblies of presbyters were called Presbyterian;
those which allowed each congregation to rule itself were called Congregational.
The Catholic Counter Reformation 665
235. The Catholic Counter Reformation
• The rapid spread of Protestantism soon brought about a
Catholic Counter Reformation in those parts of Europe which
remained faithful to Rome. The popes now jj^g
turned from the cultivation of Renaissance art reforming
and literature to the defense of their threatened ^°^^^
faith. They made needed changes in the papal court and
appointed to ecclesiastical offices men distinguished for virtue
and learning. This reform of the Papacy dates from the time
of Paul III, who became pope in 1534 a.d. He opened the
college of cardinals to Roman Catholic reformers, even offering
a seat in it to Erasmus. Still
more important was his support
of the famous Society of Jesus,
which had been established in
the year of his accession to the
papal throne.
The founder of the new so-
ciety was a Spanish nobleman,
Ignatius Loyola. He had seen
a good deal of ser- ^ ^
... St. Ignatius
vice m the wars of Loyola,
Charles V against ^^^'^^^^
the French. While
in a hospital recovering from a
wound Loyola read devotional
books, and these produced a profound change within him.
He now decided to abandon the career of arms and to become,
instead, the knight of Christ. So Loyola donned a beggar's
robe, practiced all the kinds of asceticism which his books
described, and went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The
turning-point of his career came with his visit to Paris to
study theology. Here Loyola met the six devout and tal-
ented men who became the first members of his society.
They intended to work as missionaries among the Moslems,
but, when this plan fell through, they visited Rome and
Ignatius de Loyola
666 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars
placed their energy and enthusiasm at the disposal of
the pope.
Loyola's military training deeply affected the character of
the new order. The Jesuits, as their Protestant opponents
The Society styled them, were to be an army of spiritual
of Jesus soldiers, living under the strictest obedience to
their head, or general. Like soldiers, again, they were to
remain in the world, and there fight manfully for the Church
and against heretics. The society grew rapidly; before Loyola's
death it included over a thousand members; and in the seven-
teenth century it became the most influential of aU the religious
orders.^ The activity of the Jesuits as preachers, confessors,
teachers, and missionaries did much to roll back the rising tide
of Protestantism in Europe.
The Jesuits gave special attention to education, for they
realized the importance of winning over the young people to
Jesuit the Church. Their schools were so good that
schools even Protestant children often attended them.
The popularity of Jesuit teachers arose partly from the fact
that they always tried to lead, not drive their pupils. Light
punishments, short lessons, many hoHdays, and a Hberal use
of prizes and other distinctions formed some of the attrac-
tive features of their system of training. It is not surprising
that the Jesuits became the instructors of the Roman Catholic
world. They called their colleges the ''fortresses of the faith."
The missions of the Jesuits were not less important than their
schools. The Jesuits worked in Poland, Hungary, Bohemia,
Jesuit and other countries where Protestantism threat-
missions gj^g(^ ^Q become dominant. Then they invaded
all the lands which the great maritime discoveries of the preced-
ing age had laid open to European enterprise. In India,
China, the East Indies, Japan, the Philippines, Africa, and the
two Americas their converts from heathenism were numbered
by hundreds of thousands.
1 In 1773 A.D. the pope suppressed the society, on the ground that it had out-
grown its usefulness. It was revived in many European countries during the nine-
teenth century.
The Catholic Counter Reformation 667
The most eminent of all Jesuit missionaries, St. Francis
Xavier, had belonged to Loyola's original band. He was a
little, blue-eyed man, an engaging preacher, an ^ ^
„ , 1 r .St. Francis
excellent organizer, and possessed of so attractive Xavier,
a personality that even the ruffians and pirates 1506-1552
with whom he had to associate on his voyages
became his friends. Xavier labored with such devotion and
success in the Portuguese colonies of the Far East as to gain
the title of ''Apostle to the Indies." He also- introduced
Christianity in Japan, where it flourished until a persecuting
emperor extinguished it with fire and sword.
Another agency in the Counter Reformation was the great
Church Council summoned by Pope Paul III. The council
met at Trent, on the borders of Germany and council of
Italy. It continued, with intermissions, for nearly Trent, 1545-
twenty years. The Protestants, though invited ' *
to participate, did not attend, and hence nothing could be done
to bring them back within the Roman Catholic fold. This
was the last general council of the Church for over three hundred
years.^
The Council of Trent made no essential changes in the
Roman Catholic doctrines, which remained as St. Thomas
Aquinas ^ and other theologians had set them work of
forth in the Middle Ages. In opposition to the *^® councU
Protestant view, it declared that the tradition of the Church
possessed equal authority with the Bible. It reaffirmed the
supremacy of the pope over Christendom. The council also
passed important decrees forbidding the sale of ecclesiastical
offices and requiring bishops and other prelates to attend
strictly to their duties. Since the Council of Trent the Roman
Church has been distinctly a religious organization, instead of
both a secular and religious body, as was the Church in the
Middle Ages.^
The council, before adjourning, authorized the pope to draw
up a hst, or Index, of works which Roman CathoHcs might not
» Until the Vatican Council, held at Rome in 1 869-1 870 a.d.
2 See page 572. 3 See page 440.
668 The Reformation and the Rehgious Wars
read. This action did not form an innovation. The Church
, , from an early day had condemned and destroyed
The Index ^ . . . . ^ ^^ , . . ^ ^
heretical writmgs. However, the mvention of
printing, by giving greater currency to new and dangerous
ideas, increased the necessity for the regulation of thought.
The "Index of Prohibited Books" still exists, and additions
to the list are made from time to time. It was matched by
the strict censorship of printing long maintained in Protestant
countries.
Still another agency of the Counter Reformation consisted
of the Inquisition. This was a system of church courts for the
The discovery and punishment of heretics. Such
Inquisition courts had been set up in the Middle Ages, for
instance, to suppress the Albigensian heresy. After the
Council of Trent they redoubled their activity, especially in
Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain.
The Inquisition probably contributed to the disappearance
of Protestantism in Italy. In the Netherlands, where it worked
Influence ^'^th. great severity, it only aroused exasperation
of the and hatred and helped to provoke a successful
Inquisition ^.^^^j^ ^^ ^^^ -Dwich people. The Spaniards, on
the other hand, approved of the methods of the Inquisition and
welcomed its extermination of Moors and Jews, as well as
Protestant heretics. The Spanish Inquisition was not abohshed
till the nineteenth century.
236. Spain under Philip II, 1556-1598 A.D.
In 1555 A.D., the year of the Peace of Augsburg,^ Charles V
determined to abdicate his many crowns and seek the repose of
. . . a monastery. The plan was duly carried into
Abdication tt- i i x^ i- it 11 ^
of Charles eiiect. His brother lerainand 1 succeeded to the
V, 1555- ^j^ig Qf Holy Roman Emperor and the Austrian
1556 A.D. . . , ., , . %,,.,. ^^^ . 1 ,
territories, while his son, Philip 11,^ received the
Spanish possessions in Italy, the Netherlands, and America.
There were now two branches of the Hapsburg family — one
in Austria and one in Spain.
1 See page 656. 2 See page 677.
Spain under Philip II
669
PhiUp II
The new king of Spain was a man of unflagging energy,
strong will, and deep attachment to the Roman Church. As
a ruler he had two great ideals: to make Spain
the foremost state in the world and to secure the
triumph of the Roman Catholic faith over Protestantism. His
efforts to realize these ideals
largely determined Euro-
pean history during the
second half of the sixteenth
century.
The Spanish monarch
won renown by becoming
the champion ^^^^^^ ^^
of Christen- Lepanto,
J . ^ 1571 A.D.
dom against
the Ottoman Turks. At
this time the Turks had a
strong navy, by means of
which they captured
Cyprus from the Venetians
and ravaged Sicily and
southern Italy. Grave
danger existed that they
would soon control all the
Mediterranean. To stay
their further progress one
of the popes preached what
was really the last crusade.
Philip II
After the portrait by Titian
The fleets of Genoa and Venice united with those of Spain
and under Don John of Austria, Philip's half-brother, totally
defeated the Turkish squadron in the gulf of Lepanto, off the
western coast of Greece. The battle gave a blow to the sea-
power of the Turks from which they never recovered and
ended their aggressive warfare in the Mediterranean. Lepanto
is one of the proud names in the history of Spain.
Philip had inherited an extensive realm. He further widened
it by the annexation of Portugal, thus completing the unification
670 The Reformation and the Religious Wars
of the Spanish peninsula. The Portuguese colonies
in Africa, Asia, and America, also passed into
Spanish hands. The union of Spain and Portugal
under one crown never commanded any affection among the
Portuguese, who were proud of their nationaUty and of their
Annexation of
Portugal,
1581 A.D.
/.-
The Escorial
This remarkable edifice, at once a convent, a church, a palace, and a royal mausoleum,
is situated in a sterile and gloomy wilderness about twenty-seven miles from Madrid. It
was begun by Philip II in 1563 A. D. and was completed twenty-one years later. The
Escorial is dedicated to St. Lawrence, that saint's day (August 10, 1557) being the day
when the Spanish king won a great victory over the French at the battle of St. Quentin.
The huge dimensions of the Escorial may be inferred from the fact that it includes eighty-
six staircases, eighty -nine fountains, fifteen cloisters, 1,200 doors. 2,600 windows, and miles
of corridors. The building material is a granite-like stone obtained in the neighborhood.
The Escorial contains a library of rare books and manuscripts and a collection of valuable
paintings. In the royal mausoleum under the altar of the church lie the remains of Charles
V, Philip II, and many of their successors.
achievements as explorers and empire-builders. Portugal
separated from Spain in 1640 a.d. and has since remained an
independent state.
But the successes of Philip were more than offset by his
failures. Though he had vast possessions, enormous revenues,
mighty fleets, and armies reputed the best of the
age, he could not dominate western Europe. His
attempt to conquer England, a stronghold of Protestantism
under Ehzabeth, resulted in disaster. Npt less disastrous was
his life-long struggle with the Netherlands.
Philip's
failures
Revolt of the Netherlands 671
237. Revolt of the Netherlands
The seventeen provinces of the Netherlands occupied the
flat, low country along the North Sea — the Holland, Belgium,
and northern France of the present day. During The
the fifteenth century they became Hapsburg Netherlands
possessions and thus belonged to the Holy Roman Empire.
As we have learned, Charles V received them as a part of his
inheritance, and he, in turn, transmitted them to Philip II.
The inhabitants of the Netherlands were not racially united.
In the southernmost provinces Celtic blood and Romance
speech prevailed, while farther north dwelt peoples condition
of Teutonic extraction, who spoke Flemish and of the
Dutch. Each province likewise kept its own ^* ^^^^ ^
government and customs. The prosperity which had marked
the Flemish cities during the Middle Ages ^ extended in the
sixteenth century to the Dutch cities also. Rotterdam, Leyden,
Utrecht, and Amsterdam profited by the geographical discov-
eries and became centers of extensive commerce with Asia and
America. The rise of the Dutch power, in a country so exposed
to destructive inundations of both sea and rivers, is a striking
instance of what can be accomplished by a frugal, industrious
population.
The Netherlands were too near Germany not to be affected
by the Reformation. Lutheranism soon appeared there, only
to encounter the hostiUty of Charles V, who intro- Protestantism
duced the terrors of the Inquisition. Many heretics in the
were burned at the stake, or beheaded, or buried ^^^^^ ^^^^
alive. But there is no seed like martyr's blood. The number
of Protestants swelled, rather than lessened, especially after
Calvinism entered the Netherlands. As a Jesuit historian re-
marked, " Nor did the Rhine from Germany or the Meuse from
France send more water into the Low Countries than by the
one the contagion of Luther, and by the other that of Calvin,
were imported into these provinces."
In spite of the cruel treatment of heretics by Charles V,
1 Seepages 550-SSi.
672 The Reformation and the Religious Wars
Alva sent
to the
Netherlands,
1567 A.D.
both Flemish and Dutch remained loyal to the emperor,
Policy of because he had been born and reared among
Phihp II them and always considered their country as his
own. But PhiUp II, a Spaniard by birth and sympathies,
seemed to them only a foreign master. The new ruler did
nothing to conciliate the people. He never visited the Nether-
lands after 1559 a.d., but governed them despotically through
Spanish officials supported by Spanish garrisons. Arbitrary
taxes were levied, cities and nobles were deprived of their
cherished privileges, and the activity of the Inquisition was
redoubled. Philip intended to exercise in the Netherlands the
same absolute power which he enjoyed in Spain.
The religious persecution which by Philip's orders raged
through the Netherlands everywhere aroused intense indigna-
tion. The result was rioting by
mobs of Protes-
tants, who wrecked
churches and mon-
asteries and carried
off the treasure they found in
them. Philip replied to these
acts by sending his best army,
under the duke of Alva, his best
general, to reduce the turbulent
provinces into submission.
Alva carried out with thorough-
ness the policy of his royal
master. A tribunal, popularly
known as the "Council of Blood," was set up for the pun-
Outbreak of ishment of treason and heresy. Hundreds, and
the revolt probably thousands, perished; tens of thousands
fled to Germany and England. Alva, as governor-general,
also raised enormous taxes, which threatened to destroy the
trade and manufactures of the Netherlands. Under these
circumstances Roman Catholics and Protestants, nobles and
townsfolk, united against their Spanish oppressors. A revolt
began which Spain could never queU.
William the Silent
Revolt of the Netherlands
673
The Netherlands found a leader in William, Prince of Orange,
later known as William the Silent, because of his customary-
discreetness. He was of German birth, a convert -wmiam the
to Protestantism, and the owner of large estates Silent, 1533-
in the Netherlands. William had fair ability as a ^^^* ^'^'
general, a statesmanlike grasp of the situation, and above all a
stout, courageous heart which never wavered in moments of
danger and defeat. To rescue the Netherlands from Spain he
sacrificed his high
position, his wealth,
and eventually his
life.
The ten southern
provinces of the
Netherlands, mainly
Roman Catholic in
POP^- Separation
lation, of the
Netherlands
soon
effected a reconcil-
iation with Philip
and returned to
their allegiance.
They remained in
Hapsburg hands for
over two centuries.
Modern Belgium
has grown out of
them. The seven
northern provinces,
where Dutch was
the language and Protestantism the religion, formed in 1579
A.D. the Union of Utrecht. Two years later they declared
their independence of Spain. Thus the republic of the United
Netherlands, often known as Holland, the most important of
the seven provinces, came into being.
The struggle of the Dutch for freedom forms one of the
The Netherlands in the Sixteenth
Century
674 The Reformation and the Religious Wars
most notable episodes in history. At first they were no match
Course of for the disciplined Spanish soldiery, but they
the revolt fought bravely behind the walls of their cities and
on more than one occasion repelled the enemy by cutting the
dikes and letting in the sea. Though William the Silent perished
in a dark hour by an assassin's bullet, the contest continued.
England now came to the aid of the hard-pressed republic
with money and a small army. Philip turned upon his new
antagonist and sent against England the great fleet called the
^'Invincible Armada." Its destruction interfered with further
attempts to subjugate the Dutch, but the Spanish monarch, stub-
born to the last, refused to acknowledge their independence. His
successor, in 1609 a.d., consented to a twelve years' truce with
the revolted provinces. Their freedom was recognized officially
by Spain at the close of the Thirty Years' War in 1648 a.d.
The long struggle bound the Dutch together and made them
one nation. During the seventeenth century they took a
The Dutch prominent part in European affairs. The republic
Repubhc which they founded ought to be of special interest
to Americans, for many features of our national government
are Dutch in origin. To Holland we owe the idea of a declara-
tion of independence, of a written constitution, of religious
toleration, and of a comprehensive school system supported by
taxation. In these and other matters the Dutch were pioneers
of modern democracy.
238. England under Elizabeth, 1558-1603 A.D.
Queen Elizabeth, who reigned over England during the
period of the Dutch revolt, came to the throne when about
„,. , , twenty-five years old. She was tall and com-
Elizabeth ,. . 11,-1
mandmg in presence and endowed with great
physical vigor and endurance. After hunting all day or
dancing all night she could still attend unremittingly to public
business. Elizabeth had received an excellent education; she
spoke Latin and several modern languages; knew a little
Greek; and displayed some skill in music. To her father,
Henry VIII, she doubtless owed her tactfulness and charm of
England under Elizabeth
675
manner, as well as her imperious will; she resembled her
mother, Anne Boleyn, in her vanity and love of display. As a
ruler Elizabeth was shrewd, far-sighted, a good judge of char-
acter, and willing to be guided by the able counselors who sur-
rounded her. Above all, Eliz-
abeth was an ardent patriot.
She understood and loved
her people, and they, in turn,
felt a chivalrous devotion to
the ''Virgin Queen," to
"Good Queen Bess."
The daughter of Anne
Boleyn had been born under
the ban of the pope, so that
opposition to Rome was the
natural course Protestantism
for her to pursue. ^° England
Two acts of Parliament now
separated England once more
from the Papacy and gave the
Enghsh Church practically
the form and doctrines w^hich
it retains to-day. The church
was intended to include every-
one in England, and hence
all persons were required to attend religious exercises on
Sundays and holy days. Refusal to do so exposed the
offender to a fine.
The great body of the people soon conformed to the state
church, but Roman Catholics could not conscientiously attend
its services. The laws against them do not seem xreatment
to have been strictly enforced at first, but in the of Roman
later years of Elizabeth's reign real or suspected
plots by Roman Catholics against her throne led to a pohcy
of repression. Those who said or heard mass were heavily
fined and imprisoned; those who brought papal bulls into
England or converted Protestants to Roman Catholicism were
Elizabeth
676 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars
executed as traitors. Several hundred priests, mostly Jesuits,
suffered death, and many more languished in jail. This per-
secution, however necessary it may have seemed to Elizabeth
and her advisers, is a blot on her reign.
The Reformation made little progress in Ireland. Henry
VIII, who had extended EngHsh sway over most of the island.
Protestantism suppressed the monasteries, demolished shrines,
in Ireland relics, and images, and placed English-speaking
priests in charge of the churches. The Irish people, who
remained loyal to Rome, regarded these measures as the tyran-
nical acts of a for-
eign government.
During Eliza-
beth's reign there
were several dan-
gerous revolts,
which her gen-
erals suppressed
with great cru-
elty. The result
was to widen the breach between England and Ireland.
Henceforth to most Irishmen patriotism became identified
with Roman Catholicism.
Many of the plots against Ehzabeth centered about Mary
Stuart, the ill-starred Queen of Scots. She was a grand-
Elizabeth daughter of Henry VII, and extreme Roman
Queen ^f Catholics claimed that she had a better right to
Scots the English throne than Elizabeth, because the
pope had declared the marriage of Henry VIII and Anne
Boleyn null and void. Mary, a fervent Roman CathoUc, did
not please her Scotch subjects, who had adopted Calvinistic
doctrines. She also discredited herself by marrying the man
who had murdered her former husband. An uprising of the
Scottish nobles compelled Mary to abdicate the throne in favor
of her infant son ^ and to take refuge in England. Elizabeth
1 James VI of Scotland. On Elizabeth's death he became king of England as
James I. See page 511, note i.
Silver Crown of Elizabeth's Reign
England under Elizabeth
677
kept her rival in captivity for nearly twenty years. In 1586
A.D., the former queen was found guilty of conspiring against
Elizabeth's life and was beheaded.
Philip II, the king of Spain, also threatened Elizabeth's
security. At the outset of her reign Philip had made her an
offer of marriage, but she refused to give herself, Elizabeth
or England, a Spanish master. As time went on, ^^^ Philip li
PhiHp turned into an open enemy of the Protestant queen and
London BRrocE in the Time of Elizabeth
The old structure was completed early in the thirteenth century. It measured 924
feet in length and had 20 narrow arches. Note the rows of houses and shops on the
bridge, the chapel in the center, and the gate above which the heads of traitors were
exhibited on pikes. The present London Bridge was completed in 183 1 a.d.
did his best to stir up sedition among her Roman Catholic
subjects. It must be admitted that Philip could plead
strong justification for his attitude. Elizabeth allowed the
English ''sea dogs" ^ to plunder Spanish colonies and seize
Spanish vessels laden with the treasure of the New World.
Moreover, she aided the rebellious Dutch, at first secretly and
at length openly, in their struggle against Spain. Philip put
up with these aggressions for many years, but finally came to
the conclusion that he could never subdue the Netherlands or
1 See page 639.
678 The Reformation and the Religious Wars
end the piracy and smuggHng in Spanish America without
first conquering England. The execution of Mary Stuart
removed his last doubts, for Mary had left him her claims to
the English throne. He at once made ready to invade England.
Philip seems to have believed that as soon as a Spanish army
landed in the island, the Roman Catholics would rally to his
cause. But the Spanish king never had a chance to verify his
behef ; the decisive battle took place on the sea.
The Spanish Armada in the English Channel
After an engraving by the Society of Antiquarians following a tapestry in the
House of Lords.
PhiKp had not completed his preparations before Sir Francis
Drake sailed into Cadiz harbor and destroyed a vast amount
The of naval stores and shipping. This exploit, which
ArSldT."^^ Drake called ^'singeing the king of Spain's beard,"
1588 A.D. delayed the expedition for a year. The " Invinci-
ble Armada" ^ set out at last in 1588 a.d. The Spanish vessels,
though somewhat larger than those of the English, were in-
ferior in number, speed, and gunnery to their adversaries,
while the Spanish officers, mostly unused to the sea, were no
1 Armada was a Spanish name for any armed fleet.
The Huguenot Wars in France 679
match for men Hke Drake, Frobisher, and Raleigh, the best
mariners of the age. The Armada suffered severely in a
nine-days' fight in the Channel, and many vessels which
escaped the English guns met shipwreck off the Scotch and
Irish coasts. Less than half of the Armada returned in
safety to Spain.
England in the later Middle Ages had been an important
naval power, as her abihty to carry on the Hundred Years'
War in France amply proved. But in the six- English
teenth century she was greatly over-matched by sea-power
Spain, especially after the annexation of Portugal added the
naval forces of that country to the Spanish fleets. The defeat
of the Armada not only did great harm to the navy and com-
merce of Spain; it also showed that a new people had arisen
to claim the supremacy of the ocean. Henceforth the English
began to build up what was to be a sea-power greater than any
other known to history.
239. The Huguenot Wars in France
By 1500 A.D. France had become a centralized state under a
strong monarchy.^ Francis I, who reigned in the first half of
the sixteenth century, still further exalted the France under
royal power. He had many wars with Charles V, i5i5"i547
whose extensive dominions nearly surrounded the A.D.
French kingdom. These wars prevented the emperor from
making France a mere dependency of Spain. As we have
learned,^ they also interfered with the efforts of Charles V to
crush the Protestants in Germany.
Protestantism in France dates from the time of Francis I.
The Huguenots,^ as the French Protestants were called, naturally
accepted the doctrines of Calvin, who was himself The
a Frenchman and whose books were written in the Huguenots
French language. Though bitterly persecuted by Francis I
and by his son Henry H (1547-15 59 a.d.),. the Huguenots
1 See page 519. 2 See page 654.
' The origin of the name is not known with certainty.
68o The Reformation and the Religious Wars
gained a large following, especially among the prosperous
middle class of the towns — the bourgeoisie. Many nobles
also became Huguenots, sometimes because of religious convic-
tion, but often because the new movement offered them an
opportunity to recover their feudal independence and to plunder
the estates of the Church. In France, as well as in Germany ,
the Reformation had its worldly side.
During most of the second half of the sixteenth century
fierce conflicts raged in France between the Roman Catholics
Civil war and the Huguenots. Philip II aided the former
in France g^j^^ Queen Elizabeth gave some assistance to the
latter. France suffered terribly in the struggle, not only from
the constant fighting, which cost the lives, it is said, of more
than a miUion people, but also from the pillage, burnings,
and other barbarities in which both sides indulged. The
wealth and prosperity of the country visibly declined, and
all patriotic feeling disappeared in the hatreds engendered
by a civil war.
The episode known as the massacre of St. Bartholomew's
Day illustrates the extremes to which political ambition and
Massacre religious bigotry could lead. The massacre was
of St. ^^ attempt to extirpate the Huguenots, root and
Bartholo- , , • , m i i
mew's Day, branch, at a time when peace prevailed between
1572 A.D. them and their opponents. The person primarily
responsible for it was Catherine de' Medici, mother of Charles
IX (1560-15 74 A.D.), the youthful king of France. Charles
had begun to cast off the sway of his mother and to come under
the influence of Admiral de Coligny, the most eminent of the
Huguenots. To regain her power Catherine first tried to have
Coligny murdered. When the plot failed, she invented the
story of a great Huguenot uprising and induced her weak-
minded son to authorize a wholesale butchery of Huguenots.
It began in Paris in the early morning of August 24, 1572
A.D.,^ and extended to the provinces, where it continued for
several weeks. Probably ten thousand Huguenots w^ere slain^
including Coligny himself. But the deed was a blunder as
1 St. Bartholomew's Day.
The Huguenot Wars in France 68 1
well as a crime. The Huguenots took up arms to defend
themselves, and France again experienced all the horrors of
internecine strife.
The death of CoHgny transferred the leadership of the Hugue-
nots to Henry Bourbon, king of Navarre.^ Seventeen years
after the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day, he „
^ Henry IV
inherited the French crown as Henry IV. The
Roman Catholics would not accept a Protestant ruler and
continued the conflict. Henry soon realized that only his con-
version to the faith of the majority of his subjects would bring
a lasting peace. Religious opinions had always sat lightly
upon him, and he found no great difficulty in becoming a
Roman CathoHc. ''Paris," said Henry, ''was well worth a
mass." Opposition to the king soon collapsed, and the
Huguenot wars came to an end.
Though now a Roman Catholic, Henry did not break with
the Huguenots. In 1598 a.d. he issued in their interest the
celebrated Edict of Nantes. By its terms the ^^^^^ ^^
Huguenots were to enjoy freedom of private wor- Nantes,
ship everyw^here in France, and freedom to worship
publicly in a large number of villages and towns. Only Roman
Catholic services, however, might be held in Paris and at the
royal court. Though the edict did not grant complete religious
liberty, it marked an important step in that direction. A
great European state now for the first time recognized the
principle that two rival faiths might exist side by side within
its borders. The edict was thus the most important act of
toleration since the age of Constantine.^
Having settled the religious difficulties, Henry could take up
the work of restoring prosperity to distracted France under
France. His interest in the welfare of his subjects issg^^ieio
gained for him the name of "Good King Henry." A.D.
With the help of Sully, his chief minister, the king reformed
1 Navarre originally formed a small kingdom on both sides of the Pyrenees.
The part south of these mountains was acquired by Spain in 15 13 a.d. See the
map on page 521.
» See page 235.
682 The Reformation and the ReHgious Wars
the finances and extinguished the pubhc debt. He opened
roads, buih bridges, and dug canals, thus aiding the restoration
of agriculture. He also encour-
aged commerce by means of
royal bounties for shipbuilding.
The French at this time began
to have a navy and to compete
with the Dutch and English
for trade on the high seas.
Henry's work of renovation was
cut short in 1610 a.d. by an
assassin's dagger. Under his
son Louis XIII (1610-1643 a.d.),
a long period of disorder fol-
lowed, until an able minister,
Cardinal Richelieu, assumed the
guidance of public affa.irs.
Richelieu for many years was
the real ruler of France. His
foreign policy led to the inter-
vention of that country in the
international conflict known as the Thirty Years' War.
Cardinal Richelieu
National Gallery, London
After the portrait by the Belgian artist,
Philippe de Champaigne.
240. The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648 A.D.
The Peace of Augsburg ^ gave repose to Germany for more
than sixty years, but it did not form a complete settlement of
Religious the religious question in that country. There
antagonisms ^^^ gj-jj^ room for bitter disputes, especially over
the ownership of Church property which had been secularized
in the course of the Reformation. Furthermore, the peace
recognized only Roman Catholics and Lutherans and gave no
rights whatever to the large body of Calvinists. The failure
of Lutherans and Calvinists to cooperate weakened German
Protestantism just at the period when the Counter Reformation
inspired Roman Catholicism with fresh energy and enthusiasm.
Politics, as well as rehgion, also helped to bring about the
1 See page 656.
The Thirty Years' War 683
great conflagration. The Roman Catholic party rehed for
support on the Hapsburg emperors, who wished Political
to unite the German states under their control, friction
thus restoring the Holy Roman Empire to its former proud
position in the affairs of Europe. The Protestant princes, on
the other hand, w^anted to become independent sovereigns.
Hence they resented all efforts to extend the imperial authority
over them.
The Thirty Years' War was not so much a single conflict as a
series of conflicts, which ultimately involved nearly all western
Europe. It began in Bohemia, where Protestant- ^j^^
ism had not been extinguished by the Hussite Bohemian
wars.^ The Bohemian nobles, many of whom ^^^°^*
were Calvinists, revolted against Hapsburg rule and proclaimed
the independence of Bohemia. The German Lutherans gave
them no aid, however, and the emperor, Ferdinand II, easily
put down the insurrection. Many thousands of Protestants
were now driven into exile. Those who remained in Bohemia
were obliged to accept Roman Cathohcism. Thus one more
country was lost to Protestantism.
The failure of the Bohemian revolt aroused the greatest alarm
in Germany. Ferdinand threatened to follow in the footsteps
of Charles V and to crush Protestantism in the land Danish
of its birth. When, therefore, the king of Den- intervention
mark, who as duke of Holstein had great interest in German
affairs, decided to intervene, both Lutherans and Calvinists
supported him. But Wallenstein, the emperor's able general,
proved more than a match for the Danish king, who at length
withdrew from the contest.
So far the Roman Catholic and imperial party had triumphed.
Ferdinand's success led him to issue the Edict of Restitution,
which compelled the Protestants to restore all ^^i^.^ of
the Church property .which they had taken since Restitution,
1629 A D
the Peace of Augsburg. The enforcement of the
edict brought about renewed resistance on the part of the
Protestants.
^ See page 650.
684 The Reformation and the Religious Wars
Adolphus
and the
intervention
of Sweden
There now appeared the single heroic figure on the stage of
the Thirty Years' War. This was Gustavus Adolphus, king of
Gustavus Sweden, and a man of mihtary genius. He had
the deepest sympathy for his fellow-Protestants
in Germany and regarded himself as their divinely
appointed deliverer. By taking part in the war
Gustavus also hoped to conquer the coast of northern Germany.
The Baltic would then become a
Swedish lake, for Sweden already
possessed Finland and what are
now the Russian provinces on the
Baltic.
Gustavus entered Germany with
a strong force of disciplined soldiers
Gustavus and tried to form alli-
Adoiphus in ances with the Prot-
Germany, .
1630-1632 estant prmces. iney
^•^- received him coolly at
first, for the Swedish king seemed to
them only a foreign invader. Just
at this time the imperialists captured
Magdeburg, the largest and most
prosperous city in northern Germany.
At least twenty thousand of the inhabitants perished miserably
amid the smoking ruins of their homes. This massacre turned
Protestant sentiment toward Gustavus as the ''Lion of the
North" who had come to preserve Germany from destruction.
With the help of his allies Gustavus reconquered most of
Germany for the Protestants, but he fell at the battle of
Liitzen in the moment of victory. His work, however, was
done. The Swedish king had saved the cause of Protestantism
in Germany.
After the death of Gustavus the war assumed more and
Richelieu more a political character. The German Protes-
fntervention tants found an ally, strangely enough, in Cardinal
of France Richelieu, the all-powerful minister of the French
king. Richelieu entered the struggle in order to humble the
Gustavus Adolphus
After the portrait by the Flemish
artist, Sir Anthony Van Dyck.
The Thirty Years' War 685
Austrian Hapsburgs and extend the boundaries of France
toward the Rhine, at the expense of the Holy Roman Empire.
Since the Spanish Hapsburgs were aiding their Austrian kins-
men, Richeheu naturally fought against Spain also. The war
thus became a great international conflict in which religion
played only a minor part. The Holy Roman Emperor had to
3deld at last and consented to the treaties of peace signed at
two cities in the province of Westphalia.
The Peace of Westphalia ended the long series of wars which
followed the Reformation. It practically settled the religious
question, for it allowed Calvinists in Germany to peace of
enjoy the same privileges as Lutherans and also Westphalia,
withdrew the Edict of Restitution. Nothing was
said in the treaties about liberty of conscience, but from this
time the idea that religious differences should be settled by
force gradually passed away from the minds of men.
The political clauses of the peace w^re numerous. France
received nearly all of Alsace along the Rhine. Sweden gained
possessions in North Germany. Brandenburg — Territorial
the future kingdom of Prussia — secured additional readjust-
territory on the Baltic Sea. The independence of ^^^ ^
Switzerland ^ and of the United Netherlands ^ was also recognized.
The Peace of Westphalia left Germany more divided than
ever. Each one of the larger states was free to coin money,
raise armies, make war, and negotiate treaties Disruption of
without consulting the emperor. In fact, the Germany
Holy Roman Empire had become a mere phantom. The
Hapsburgs from now on devoted themselves to their Austrian
dominions, which included more Magyars and Slavs than
Germans. The failure of the Hapsburgs in the Thirty Years'
War long postponed the unification of Germany.
During the Thirty Years' War Germany had seen most of
the fighting. She suffered from it to the point of exhaustion.
The population dwindled from about sixteen Exhaustion
million to one-half, or, as some believe, to one- ^^ Germany
third that number. The loss of life was partly due to the
1 See page 524, note i. 2 See page 673.
686 The Reformation and the Religious Wars
fearful epidemics, such as typhus fever and the bubonic plague,
which spread over the land in the wake of the invading armies.
Hundreds of villages were destroyed or were abandoned by
their inhabitants. Much of the soil went out of cultivation,
while trade and manufacturing nearly disappeared. Added to
all this was the decline of education, hterature, and art, and the
brutalizing of the people in mind and morals. It took Germany
at least one hundred years to recover from the injury inflicted
by the Thirty Years' War; complete recovery, indeed, came
only in the nineteenth century.
The savagery displayed by all participants in the Thirty
Years' War could not but impress thinking men with the
Rise of necessity of formulating rules to protect non-
international combatants, to care for prisoners, and to do away
with pillage and massacre. The worst horrors of
the war had not taken place, before a Dutch jurist, named
Hugo Grotius, 'published at Paris in 1625 a.d. a work On the
Laws of War and Peace. It may be said to have founded
international law. The success of the book was remarkable.
Gustavus Adolphus carried a copy about with him during
his campaigns, and its leading doctrines were recognized and
acted upon in the Peace of Westphalia.
The great principle on which Grotius based his recommenda-
tions was the independence of sovereign states. He gave up
The Euro- ^^^ medieval conception of a temporal and spiritual
pean state head of Christendom. The nations now recog-
sys em nized no common superior, whether emperor or
pope, but all were equal in the sight of international law. The
book of Grotius thus marked the profound change which had
come over Europe since the Middle Ages.
Studies
I. On an outline map indicate the European countries ruled by Charies V.
2. On an outline map indicate the principal territorial changes made by the Peace
of Westphalia. 3. Identify the following dates: 1648 a.d.; 1519 a.d.; 1517 a.d.;
1588 A.D.; 1598 A.D.; and 1555 a.d. 4. Locate the following places: Avignon;
Constance; Augsburg; Ziirich; Worms; Magdeburg; and Utrecht. 5. For what
were the following persons noted: Cardinal Wolsey; Admiral de Coligny; Duke of
Alva; Richelieu; St. Ignatius Loyola; Boniface VIII; Frederick the Wise; Gustavus
The Thirty Years' War 687
Adolphus; and Mary Queen of Scots? 6. Compare the scene at Anagni with the
scene at Canossa. 7. On the map, page 646, trace the geographical extent of the
"Great Schism." 8. Name three important reasons for the lessened influence of
the Roman Church at the opening of the sixteenth century. 9. Explain the differ-
ence between heresy and schism. 10. Why has Wycliffe been called the "morning
star of the Reformation"? 11. Compare Luther's work in fixing the form of the
German language with Dante's service to Italian through the Divine Comedy.
12. What is the origin of the name "Protestant"? 13. Whj^ was Mary naturally a
Catholic and Elizabeth naturally a Protestant? 14. On the map, page 662, trace
the geographical extent of the Reformation in the sixteenth century. 15. Why
did the reformers in each country take special pains to translate the Bible into the
vernacular? 16. What is the chief difference in mode of government between
Presbyterian and Congregational churches? 17. "The heroes of the Reformation,
judged by modern standards, were reactionaries." What does this statement
mean? 18. Why is the Council of Trent generally considered the most important
church coimcil since that of Nicaea? 19. Mention some differences between the
Society of Jesus and earlier monastic orders. 20. Compare the Edict of Nantes
with the Peace of Augsburg. 21. Show how political, as well as religious, motives
affected the revolt of the Netherlands, the Huguenot wars, and the Thirty Years'
War. 22. Compare the effects of the Thirty Years' War on Germany with the
effects 6f the Hundred Years' War on France. 23. What would you say of Hol-
bein's success as a portrait painter (illustrations, pages 651, 65S)?
APPENDIX
TABLE OF EVENTS AND DATES i
(Specially important dates are in italics)
B.C. ^^® Orient
3400 Menes, king of Egypt
3000-2500 The p3n:aniid kings
2000 Hammurabi, king of Babylonia
1 800-1 600 Rule of the Hyksos in Egypt
129 2- 1225 Rameses II, king of Egypt
io35~92S The undivided Hebrew monarchy
Saul, 1035-1015
David, 985-955
Solomon, 955^925
925-722 Kingdom of Israel
925-586 Kingdom of Judea
722-705 Sargon II, king of Assyria
705-681 Sennacherib, king of Assyria
606 Destruction of Nineveh
604-561 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylonia
553-465 Persian kings
Cyrus the Great, 553-529
Cambyses, 529-522
Darius I, 521-485
Xerxes I, 485-465
5JP Capture of Babylon by Cyrus the Great
B.C. Greece
1600-1100 The^EgeanAge
1100-750 Homeric Age
77(5 First recorded Olympiad
750-500 Period of colonial expansion
594-593 Reforms of Solon
560-527 Tyranny of Pisistratus
^ Before 1000 B.C., and in some instances even later, nearly all dates
must be regarded as merely approximate.
688
Appendix 689
508-507 Reforms of Clisthenes
499-493 Ionian Revolt
4go Battle of Marathon
480 Battles of Thermo pylm and Salamis
47 g Battles of Platcea and Mycale
477~454 Delian League
461-429 Age of Pericles
4JI-404 The Peloponnesian War
404-371 Spartan supremacy
401-400 Expedition of the "Ten Thousa}zd"
371-362 Supremacy of Thebes
j/i Battle of Leuctra
362 Battle of Mantinea
359-336 Philip II, king of Macedonia
jj8 Battle of Chccronea
336-323 Reign of Alexander the Great
335 Destruction of Thebes
334 Battle of the Granicus
333 Battle of Issus
332 Siege of Tyre; founding of Alexandria
jji Battle of Arbela
J2J Death of Alexander
The Roman Republic
753 (?) Founding of Rome
753 (?)-509 (?) Legendary Roman kings
509 (?) EstabKshment of the repubHc
449 Laws of the Twelve Tables
jgo (?) Battle of the Alii a; capture of Rome by the Gauls
340-338 Latin War; dissolution of the Latin League
327-290 Samnite Wars
281-272 War between Rome and Tarentum; invasion of Pyrrhus
264-241 First Punic War
218-201 Second Punic War
216 Battle of Cannas
202 Battle of Zama
201 Peace between Rome and Carthage
197 Macedonia becomes a dependent aUy of Rome
190 Syria becomes a dependent ally of Rome
149-146 Third Punic War
146 Destruction of Carthage and Corinth; Africa and Macedonia become
Roman provinces
133 Acquisition of the province of Asia; final subjugation of Spain
690 Appendix
133 Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus
123-122 Tribunate of Gaius Gracchus
1 1 2- 1 06 Jugurthine War
102-101 Invasion of the Germans
90-88 The Social War
88-84 War with Mithridates
83-82 Civil War between Marius and Sulla
82-79 Dictatorship of Sulla
70 Impeachment of Verres
67 Pompey and the war mth the pirates
6 J Conspiracy of Catiline
60-53 First Triumvirate: Pompey, Crassus, and Csesar
58-50 Conquest of Gaul by Caesar
53 Defeat of Crassus by the Parthians at Carrhae
48 Battle of Pharsalus
44 Assassination of CcEsar
43 Second Triumvirate: Lepidus, Antony, and Octavian
42 Battles of PhiHppi
31 Battle of Actium
The Roman Empire
31 B.C.-68 A.D. The Julian and Claudian Caesars
Augustus, 31 B.C.-14 A.D.
Tiberius, 14-37
Gaius (Caligula), 37-41
Claudius, 41-54
Nero 54-68
27 Octa\H[an receives the title Augustus
4 (?) Birth of Christ
A.D.
43-85 Conquest of Britain
64 The Great Fire in Rome; Nero's persecution of the Christians
68-69 The year of military revolution; Galba, Otho, and Vitellius emperors
69-96 The Flavian Caesars
Vespasian, 69-79
Titus, 79-81
Domitian, 81-96
70 Capture of Jerusalem by Titus
7P Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum
96-180 The " Good Emperors "
Nerva, 96-98
Trajan, 98-117
Hadrian, 11 7-138
Appendix 691
Antoninus Pius, 138-16 1
Marcus Aurelius, 161-180
10 1- 106 Conquest of Dacia by Trajan
180-284 The ' ' Soldier Emperors ' '
Commodus, 180-192
Septimius Severus, 193-21 1
Aurelian, 270-275
212 Edict of Caracalla
227 Rise of the Sassanian or New Persian Empire
284 Reorganization of the Roman Empire by Diocletian
284-395 The "Absolute Emperors"
J Diocletian, 284-305
\Maximian, 286-305
Constantine I, 306-337 (sole emperor, 324-337)
Julian, 361-363
Theodosius I (East), 379-395
311 Edict of Galerius
312 Battle of the MUvian Bridge
jij Edict of Milan
325 Council of Nicaa
326-330 Removal of the capital to Constantinople
376 The Visigoths cross the Danube
378 Battle of Adrianople
395 Death of Theodosius I
410 Capture of Rome by Alaric
415-711 Visigothic kingdom in Spain (in Gaul, 415-507)
429-534 Vandal kingdom in Africa
443~534 Kingdom of the Burgundians
449 Invasion of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons
451 Battle of Chalons
455 Sack of Rome by the Vandals
476 Deposition of Romulus Angustulus
The Middle Ages
486 Clovis defeats the Romans at Soissons
493~553 Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy
496 Clovis accepts Christianity
527-565 Justinian, Roman emperor in the East
529 (?) Rule of St. Benedict
568-774 Lombards in Italy
590-604 Pontificate of Gregory the Great
597 Augustine's mission to the Anglo-Saxons
610-641 Heraclius, Roman emperor in the East
692 Appendix
622 The Hegira
632-661 The ''Orthodox CaHphs"
661-750 The Ommiad Caliphs
711 Arabs and Berbers invade Spain
716-717 Siege of Constantinople by the Arabs I;
7J2 Battle of Tours |
750-1058 The Abbassid Caliphs
768-814 Reign of Charlemagne
800 Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the Romans
829 England united under Egbert
843 Treaty of Verdun
862 (?) Northmen under Ruric settle in Russia
870 Treaty of Mersen
871-901 (?) Reign of Alfred the Great
911 Northmen settle in northwestern France (Normandy)
Q62 Otto the Great crowned Holy Roman Emperor
982 Greenland discovered
987-996 Reign of Hugh Capet
988 Christianity introduced into Russia
1000 (?) Vinland discovered
10 1 6 England conquered by Canute
1054 Final rupture of Greek and Roman churches
1066 Battle of Hastings; Norman conquest of England
1066-108 7 William I, the Conqueror, king of England
1073-108 5 Pontificate of Gregory VII
1077 Humiliation of Henry IV at Canossa
1090-1153 St. Bernard
1095-1291 The Crusades
logs Council of Clermont
1099 Capture of Jerusalem
1147-1149 Second Crusade
1189-1192 Third Crusade
1 202-1 204 Fourth Crusade; sack of Constantinople
1204-1261 Latin Empire of Constantinople
I2gi Fall of Acre; end of the crusades
1 1 22 Concordat of Worms
1 15 2-1 190 Reign of Frederick I, Barbarossa
1 1 54-1 189 Henry II, king of England
1 180-12 23 Philip II, Augustus, king of France
1 18 1 (?)-i2 26 St. Francis of Assisi
1 198-12 16 Pontificate of Innocent III
1 206-1 2 27 Mongol conquests under Jenghiz Khan
12 1 s Magna Carta
Appendix 693
122 6- 1270 Louis IX, the Saint, king of France
1230 Union of Leon and Castile
1 237-1 240 Mongol conquest of Russia
1 254-1 2 73 The Interregnum
1 26 1 Fall of Latin Empire of Constantinople
1271-1295 Travels of Marco Polo
1 272-1307 Edward I, king of England
1273 Rudolf of Hapshiirg becomes Holy Roman Emperor
1 285-1314 Philip IV, the Fair, king of France
1 29 1 First Swiss Confederation
1295 "Model Parliament" of Edward I
1309-1377 "Babylonian Captivity" of the Papacy
13 14 Battle of Bannockburn
1337-1453 Hundred Years' War
1346 Battle of Crecy
1356 Battle of Poitiers
1429 Joan of Arc appears
1348-1349 Black Death in Europe
1378-14 1 7 The " Great Schism "
138 1 Peasants' Revolt in England
1396 Greek first taught at Florence
1405 Death of Timur the Lame
141 5 John Huss burned
Transition to Modern Times
1453 Constantinople captured hy the Ottoman Turks
1455-1485 War of the Roses
1461-1483 Louis XI, king of France
1462-1505 Ivan III, the Great, tsar of Russia
1476 Caxton's printing press set up in England
1479 Castile and Aragon united under Ferdinand and Isabella
1485-1509 Henry VII, king of England
1488 Cape of Good Hope rounded by Diaz
I4g2 America discovered hy Columbus
1497 North America rediscovered by John Cabot
I4g8 Vasco da Gama reaches India
1 5 13 Discovery of the Pacific by Balboa
151 7- 1555 Reformation in Germany
7517 The Ninety-five Theses
1520 Burning of the papal bull
152 1 Edict of Worms
1555 Peace of i\ugsburg
1519-1521 Mexico conquered by Cortes
694 Appendix
1 5 19-15 22 Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe
151 9- 1556 Reign of Charles V
1 531-153 7 Peru conquered by Pizarro
1 533-1 5 58 Reformation in England
1534 Jesuit order founded by Loyola
1545-1563 Council of Trent
1556-1598 Reign of Philip II
1 558-1603 Elizabeth, queen of England
1 568-1609 Revolt of the Netherlands
1 571 Battle of Lepanto
1572 Massacre of St. Bartholomew
1579 Union of Utrecht
J 588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada
1589-1610 Henry IV, king of France
i§g8 Edict of Nantes
1600 English East India Company chartered
1607 Colonization of Virginia; Jamestown founded
161 1 Authorized Version of the Bible
16 1 8-1648 Thirty Years' War
1648 Peace of Westphalia
INDEX AND PRONOUNCING
VOCABULARY
Note. — The pronunciation of most proper names is indicated either by a simplified
spelling or by their accentuation and division into syllables. The diacritical marks em-
ployed are those found in Webster's Neio International Dictionary and are the following :
a as in ale.
o as in old.
oi as in oil.
a " " senate.
6 " " obey.
ch " " chair.
a " " care.
6 " " orb.
g " " go.
a " " am.
6 " " odd.
ng" " sing.
a " " account.
o " " soft.
I] " " iqk.
a " " arm.
" " connect.
fli" " aen.
a " " ask.
ti " " use.
th " " thin.
a " " sofa.
ii " " unite.
tu " " nature.
e " " eve.
u " " urn.
du" " verdure.
e " " event.
11 " " up.
K for ch as in Ger. ich, ach
e " " end.
u " " circMS.
N as in Fr. bon.
e " " recent.
ti " " menti.
y " " yet.
e " " maker.
oo as in food.
zh for z as in azure.
i " '' Tee.
oo " " foot.
i " " ill.
ou " " out.
Aachen (ii'K.°"n). See Aix-la-Chapelle.
Ab-bas'ids. :3S0 and note 2, 381.
Abelard (Fr. pron. a-ba-liir'), Peter, 567,
571.
Abraham, Hebrew patriarch, 367, 374.
*' Absolute Emperors," the, 220-224.
Abu Bekr (ii'boo bek"r), 372, 379.
Abyssinia (ab-i-sin'i-rt), 346, 347.
Academy, the, at Athens, 261, 275, 288.
Achaea (d-kc'd), a district of southern Greece,
109.
Achilles (d-kil'ez), 78.
Acre (ii'ker), 475, 476, 479.
A-crop'o-lis, the Athenian, 108,288,290-292.
Actium (ak'shi-i/m), naval battle of, 190, 191,
223.
Act of Supremacy, the, 660.
Acts of the Apostles, the, 209.
A-dri-a-no'ple, 242, 243, 491.
A-dri-at'ic Sea, 157, 248.
-^gean (e-je'dn) Age, the, 68-72.
iEgean Sea, 66, 67, 72, 73, 88.
^-gos-pot'a-mi, battle of, 111.
.^neas (e-ne'ds), 142, 277.
^neiii (e-ne'id), Vergil's, 277.
^Eschuylus (es'ki-lus), Greek dramatist, 271.
^sop's Fables, 255.
Aetius (a-G'shi-ws), 247, 248.
J^^tna (et'n/c) Mount, 187.
Af-ghan-i-stan', 125.
Africa, Portuguese exploration of, 620, 621.
Africa, North, Phoenician colonists in, 162 ;
as a Roman province, 217 ; Vandal king-
dom in, 245, 330 ; conquered by the Arabs,
378.
Ag-a-mem'non, 74.
Ag'o-ra, the Athenian, 261, 290.
A'gra, 488.
Agrarian law of Tiberius Gracchus, 175, 176.
Agriculture, beginnings of, 8, 22 ; in ancient
Egypt and Babylonia, 44, 45 ; earlv Roman, ■
143 ; decline ofRoman, 173, 175, 177 ; Arab
improvements in, 382 ; medieval, 433, 434.
Ah'ri-man, 54.
696
696 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary
Ahuramazda (a-hoo-m-maz'da), 54, 228.
'•Aids," the feudal, 418.
Aix-la-ChapeUe (aks-la-sha-pel'), 310, 314,
402.
Al-a-man'ni, the, 303, 804,
Al'a-ric the Visigoth, 243, 244.
Alaska, 867, 630.
Al'ba Lon'ga. 140, 142, 143.
Al-ba'ni-a, 493.
Albi, 648.
Albigenses (al-bi-jen'sez), a heretical sect,
452, 648.
Albuquerque (al-bd&-ker'ke), 622, 623.
Alchemy, 574.
Al-ci-bi'a-des, 110.
Alculn (al'kwin), 810.
Aldine press, the, 595, 596.
Aldus Maiiutius (iiVdus ma-nii'shi-ws), 595.
Aleutian (a-lu'shan) Islands, 630.
Alexander the Great, 119-127, 165.
Alexander III, pope, 461 ; VI, 628.
Al-ex-an'dri-a, founded by Alexander the
Great, 123 ; as a commercial center, 128,
211 ; as a home of learning, 130, 131 ; popu-
lation of, 208.
Alexius (a-lek'si-?/s) I, Eoman emperor in
the East, 469, 470.
Alfred the Great, king of England, 404, 406,
407.
Algebra, 385.
Al-ham'bra, the, 386.
A'li, fourth caliph, 379.
Allah (al'a), 369.
Al'li-a River, battle of the, 153.
Alphabet, Egyptian, 10 ; Phoenician 10, 11 ;
Etruscan, 138, 140; Greek, 139; Eunic,
240,241,390,391.
Alps Mountains. 66, 136, 195.
Alsace (al-sas') 303, 314, 685.
Altai (al-ti') Mountains, 19.
Alva, duke of, 672.
Amazon River, 685.
Am-en-ho'tep IV, Egyptian king, 54.
America, the Northmen in, 399 ; discovered
by Columbus, 627 ; naming of, 628 ; peo-
pling of, in prehistoric times, 630 ; the In-
dians, 630-688; Spanish explorations and
conquests in, 688-635 ; the Spanish colonial
empire in, 635-68S; EngUsh and French
explorations in, 638-639.
A'mon, Egyptian deity, 124.
Am-phic'ty-ony. the Delphic, 91.
Amphitheaters, Roman, 216, 286, 287.
Amsterdam, 640, 671.
A-mu'li-nus, 142.
Amusements, Athenian, 264, 265; Eoman,
265-268 ; in the feudal castle, 428 ; medieval,
579, 580. See nUo Festivals.
An^ah'a-sis, Xenophon's, 121, 272.
Anagni (a-nan'ye), humiliation of Boniface
VIII at, 644.
Ancestor worship, Eoman, 145, 253.
Andes Mountains, 682.
An'ge-vin dynasty, the, 500. note.
Angles (aVg'ls). 'See Anglo-Saxons.
Anghcanism, establishment of, in England,
661, 663 ; its organization and doctrines, 664,
An'glo-Sax'uns, the, conquer Britain, 246,
319, 320; their kingdoms in Britain, 820;
their culture, 822 ; converted to Roman
Christianity, 822, 323, 858 ; language of the,
556.
Animals, domestication of, 6, 7 and note 2,
630 ; worship of, in Egypt, 53, 54 ; baiting
of, 266, 267, 580.
Anjou (iiN-zhoo'), 500, note 1, 519.
Anne of Bohemia, 650.
An-ta'ki-a. See Antioch.
An-til'les, the Greater, 634.
Antioch (an'ti-6k), 128, 129, 209, 211, 214,
230, 471, 540.
Antonine Caesars, the, 200, 201.
An-to-ni'nus Pi'us, Roman emperor, 200.
An-to'ni-us, Mar'cus. See Antony.
Antony, 187-190.
Antwerp, 552, 640.
Ap'en-nine Mountains, 136. 140, 153.
Aphrodite (af-ro-di'te), attributes of, 76.
A-pol'lo, 76, attributes of, 76 ; his oracle at
Delphi, 78, 79.
Apostles, the, 442.
A-pox-y-om'e-nus, the, 81,
Ap'pi-an Way, 157.
Apprentices in guilds, 586, 537.
April Fool's Day, 581.
A-pu'li-a, a district of southern Italy, 166.
Aqueducts, Roman, 157, 284, 285.
Aquinas (u-kwi'nas), St. Thomas, 572, 667.
Aquitaine (ak'wi-tan), 512.
" Arabesques," 886.
Arabia, physical features of, 21, 867.
Arabian Nights, the. See Thousand and
One Nights.
Ar'abs, the, as foes of the Roman Empire in
the East, 383, 876, 377 ; migratory and sed-
entary, 367, 369; under Mohammed, 871,
376; their conquests, 375-379; civilization
of, 381-386, 590, 594. See also Moslems.
Aragon (a-ra-gon'), 520.
Ar-be'la, battle of, 124.
Ar-ca'di-us, Eoman emperor in the East, 243,
Arch, the round, 61, 62. 139, 281, 282, 563,
564, 597 ; the pointed, 886, 564, 565.
Archbishop, church official, 448.
Arches, Eoman triumphal, 199, 236, 2S6, 295,
Ar-chi-me'des, 131.
Architecture, prehistoric, 13 ; Egyptian, Bab-
ylonian, and Assvrian, 58; Etruscan, 138,
139; Greek, 278-281 ; Eoman, 282-287; By-
zantine, 336, 337 ; Arab, 385, 386 ; medieval,
562-566; Eenaissance, 597, 601.
Arctic Ocean, 66, 899.
Ar-e-op'a-gus, hill, 288 ; Council of the, 288,
290. .
Ares (a'rez), 226,
Ar'go-lis, a district of southern Greece, 70.
Ar'gos, 82, 97, 109.
Arian heresy, the, nature of. 235, 236 ; ac-
cepted bv the Germanic invaders, 236, 237,
241, 300, 302, 304. 305, 826, 358.
Ar-is-ti'des, 96, 97, 101.
A-ris'ti-on, gravestone of, 95,
Aristocrac^^ See Nobility.
Ar-is-toph'a-nes, Athenian dramatist, 272.
Aristotle (ar'is-tot'l), Greek philosopher,
120, 275, 3S8,-571, 572. 578, 591, 592, 609, 626.
Arithmetic, 60, 885, 566.
A'ri-us, 285, 236.
Ark, sanctuary of Jehovah, 31,
Aries (arl), 216.
"Armada (ar-ma'da), the Invincible," 678,
note 1 ; 679.
Armenia, 21, 22, 121. 200, 377.
Armor, medieval, 422.
Army, Macedonian, under Phihp II, 116;
Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 697
Eoman, during the early republic, 158-160 ;
under the empire, 202, 203 ; the feudal, 422.
Ar'no River, 154, 544.
Ar'nus. See Arno.
Ar-pi'num, 181.
Art, primitive, 13-15 ; Oriental, 58-60 ;
yEg-ean, 71 : Greek, 278-2S2, 290-292 ;
Roman, 282-288, 294-296; Byzantine, 336,
337 ; Arab, 385, 386 ; Renaissance, 597-599,
601. See also Architecture, Painting-,
Sculpture.
Ar-ta-pher'nes, 95, 96.
Ar'te-mis, 84.
Arthur, King, myth of, 560, 561, 624, 625.
Artisans, Oriental, 44; Athenian, 106; Ro-
man, under the empire, 212, 213, 224 ; in
the Middle Ages, 535-537. See also Guilds.
Ar3'an (iir'yan), 16, note 1. See also Indo-
European.
As-Cca'ni-us. 142.
As'gard, 394.
Asia, grand divisions of, 19; physical con-
trasts between Europe and, 60 ; Roman
province of, 171 ; medieval explorations in,
616, 618; Europep,n influence on, 623.
Asia Minor, 21, 67, 322, 468.
Assembl)', of freemen, in early Greece, 82 ;
Spartan, 84; Athenian, 86, 87, 104, 105, 117,
151, 290; Roman assemblies, 149, 151, 176,
186, 194.
Assisi (as-se'ze), 451.
Assuan (as-swiin') dam, the, 24, note 1.
As-syr'i-a, rise of, 34; under Sargon II and
Sennacherib, 34, 35 ; downfall of and parti-
tion of, 36.
Astrolabe, the, 618.
Astrology, Babylonian, 53 ; in the Middle
Ages, 574.
Astronomy, Egyptian and Babylonian, 60,
61; Greek, 133; Arab, 385; Medieval, 574;
during the Renaissance, 607, 60S, 609.
Ath-a-na' si-US, 236.
A-the'na, her attributes, 76 ; the Panathenaic
festival, 264, 291, 292 ; statue of the Guard-
ian, 290; the Parthenon as the shrine of,
291, 292.
Athens, early history of, 85-87 ; aids the Io-
nian Greeks, 95 ; repulses the Persians at
Marathon, 95, 96 ; abandoned to Xerxes,
98 ; rebuilding and fortification of, 100, 2SS ;
under Themistocles, Aristides, and Cimon,
100-103 ; under Pericles, 103-108 ; the Pel-
oponnesian War, 108-111; unites with
Thebes against Philip, 113; under the
Roman Empire, 209 ; the ancient city as an
art center, 288-292.
Athletics, Greek, 79, 80, 254, 255, 261. See
also Gvmnastics.
A'thos, Mount, 95, 97.
Atlantic Ocean, 133, 624, 625, 628.
At-lan'tis, myth of, 624.
A'tri-um of a Roman house, 259, 260, 262.
At'ti-ca, 85, 98, 100.
At'ti-la the Hun. 247. 248, 350, 561.
Augsburg (ouks'b66rK), city, 548; Peace of,
656, 668, 682.
Au'gu-ry, Roman, 142, 148. See also Aus-
pices.
Au-gus'tine, missionary to the Anglo-Saxons,
322, 323, 359.
Au-gus'tus, character and personality, 193,
194; as emperor, 194, 195; the Augustan
Age, 195, 196 ; deification of, 196, 197.
Augustus, the title, 193, 221.
Au-re'li-an, Roman emperor, 220, 229, note 1,
241, 294.
Au-re'li-us, Marcus, Roman emperor, 193,
200, 201, 226.
Aus'pi-ces, Roman, 148 and note 1.
Australians, 4, note 1.
Austria, rise of, 316, 462, 522 ; growth of,
under the Hapsburgs, 522 ; Switzerland and,
523, 524.
Av'a-lon, 624, 625.
A'vars, the, 309, 314, 334.
Av'en-tine Hill, 294.
Avignon (a-ven-yoN'), residence of the popes
at, 645.
Azores («-zorz') Islands, 620, 628.
Aztec Indians, the, 632, 633.
Baalbec (biil-bek'), 217.
Ba'ber, 488.
Bab'y-lon, capital of Babylonia, 25, 33, 124,
125.
Bab-y-lo'ni-a, phj^sical features and produc-
tions of, 22 ; early inhabitants of, 24 ; under
Hammurabi, 25 ; under Nebuchadnezzar, 36,
37.
" Babylonian Captivity " of the Church, the,
645.
Bacchus (bak'/ts), 212.
Bacon, Roger, 573. 574, 624 ; Sir Francis, 609.
Bagdad ibag-diid'), capital of the Abbasid
caUphate, 381, 385; as a commercial center,
3S3, 540 ; sacked by the Mongols, 485.
Ba-ha'ma Islands, the, 627 and note 1.
Balboa (bal-bo'a), Vasco Nunez de, 634.
Balder, myth of, 395.
Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, 470.
Balkan (ba!-k;in') Mountains, 66.
Balkan peninsula, 66, 115. 195, 334, 335, 493.
Ball, John, 611, 612, 619, 620.
Baltic Sea, 66, 389, 390, 548, 549, 684, ^85.
Banking, in Babvlonia, 47 ; in the Middle
Ages, 542, 543, 545.
Ban'nock-burn, battle of, 511.
Banquets, Greek and Roman, 262-264.
" Barbarians." defined, 90 and note 2.
Basel (bii'zel), 600.
Ba-sil'i-cas, Roman, 283, 284, 295, 344, 562,
563.
Bas-reliefs, 34. 35, 38, 61, 256, 287.
Bath, city, 209.
Baths, Roman, 213, 263, 285, 286, 295 ; medi-
eval, 586.
Bavaria, 315. note 1, 316, 522.
Bayeux (ba-yu') Tapestry, 408, 586.
Beards, wearing of, in the Middle Ages,
586.
Beck'et, Thomas, 442.
Bed'ou-ins, the, 367, 369.
Behaim (ba'him), Martin, 625, 626.
Belgium, 305, 314, 549, 552, note 1, 671.
Bel-i-sa'ri-us, Roman general, 330.
" Benefit of clergy," 444, 445.
Benjamin, tribe, 33.
Ber'bers, the, 378.
Bergen (ber'gen), 548.
Bering Strait, 19.
Bertha, queen of Kent, 322.
Beth'le-hem, 197, 472.
Bible, Old Testament, 58 ; New Testament,
230, 600, 601 and note 1.
Bibhcal translations, 600, 601, 649, 653.
Bills of exchange, introduction of, 543.
69!
Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary
Bishop, church official, 232 and note 3, 447,
448.
Bishop of Rome. See Pope.
"Black. Death," the, 610, till.
" Black Prince," the, 517, 519 and note 2.
Black Sea, 4S, 65, 66, 75 and note 1, 88, 102,
241, 540.
Boccaccio (bok-ka'cho), 593.
Boeotia (be-6'shi-('0, a district of central
Greece, 98, 100, 273.
Bohemia, 309, 360, 522. 569, 650, 683.
Bo'he-mond, 470.
Bokhara (bo-Kii'rii), 485.
Boleyn ;,b^l'in), Anne, 659, 675.
Bolivia, 632.
Bologna (bo-lon'yii), university of, 567, 568,
570.
Bom-bay', 54, note 1.
Bon'i-face, missionary, 359 ; VIII, pope, 643.
Bookkeeping by double-entry, 543.
Book of Common Prayer, the, 661.
Book of the Dead, Egyptian, 55, 56.
Bordeaux (bor-dcV), 209, 645.
Bos'po-rus, the, 223, 322, 338.
Boston, English city, 538.
Both'ni-a, gulf of, 389, 400.
Bourgeoisie (boor-zhwa-ze'), the, 531 and
note 2, 680.
Brandenburg (bran'd^n-boorK), 315, 525,
526, 685.
Brazil, 622, 623, note 1, 628, note 2, 635.
Bremen (bra'men), 549.
"Bridge of Sighs," the, 547.
Bristol, 638.
Britain, visited by Pytheas, 131 ; Cfesar's ex-
peditions to, 183 ; becomes a lioman prov-
ince, 197 ; overrun by the Jutes, Angles, and
Saions, 246, 319 ; nature of the Anglo-Saxon
conquest of, 319, 322.
Bri-tan'ni-a, lioman province of, 197. See
also Britain.
British Isles, the, their geographical situation,
66 ; Christianity in the, 322-325, 359 ; unifica-
tion of, under English kings, 507-511.
Britons, the, 246 and note 1.
Brit'ta-ny, 246, note 1, 512, 519.
Bronze, 5, 71, 73, 390.
Bruce, Kobert, 511.
Bruges (Fr. pron. bruzh), as a commercial
center, 540, 548, 550, 551, 552, 640 ; belfry of,
550.
Brun-dis'i-um, 157.
Bru'tus, 187-189.
Bubonic plague, the, 610 and note 3, 686.
Buddhism (bood'iz'm), 484.
Bulgaria, 195, 493.
Bulgarians, the, 334, 335, 363, 377, 495.
" Bulls," papal, 453 and note 3.
Bur-gun'di-ans, the, found a kingdom in Gaul,
245 ; conquered by the Franks, 245, 803 ; be-
come Catholic Christians, 358.
Bur'gun-dy, 245, 513, 519, 654.
Burma, 618.
Buttress, the flying, 564.
" Byzantine Empire," the. 328, 829.
Byzantium (bi-zan'shi-?hn), 79, 88, 222, 829.
See also Constantinople.
Cabot, John, 637.
Cadiz (ka'dez), 50, 678.
Cffi'li-an Hill, 294.
Caesar (se'zor), Gains Julius, 182-187, 277.
CcBsar, the title, 197, note 2, 221.
Cairo (ki'ro). 23, 337, 381, 383.
Calais (Fr. pron. ka-le')i 518 and note 1, 549.
Calendar, beginnings of the, 12, 13 ; Egyptian
solar year, 60, 61 ; Caesar's reform of the,
186 and note 3 ; the Maya, 631.
Cal'i-cut, 621.
California, .635 ; Spanish missions in, 636.
Ca-lig'u-la, Roman emperor, 197.
Caliph (ka'lif), the title, 379.
CaFiph-ate, the, 379-381.
Calvin, John, 656, 657.
Calvinism, diffusion of, 657 ff. ; its organiza-
tion and doctrines, 664.
Cam'ba-luc. See Peking.
Cambridge, city, 538 ; university of, 569, 570.
Cam-by'ses, Persian king, 38.
Camoens (kam'o-ens), 622.
Camp, the Roman fortified, 159.
Cam-pa'ni-a, a district of Central Italy, 136,
138, 139, 153.
Cam'pus Mar'ti-us, 147, 263, 294.
Canaan (ka'nan), 29, 30.
Canada, French explorations in, 638.
Canary Islands, 627.
Can'nte, battle of, 166, 167,
Canon law. See Law.
Ca-nos'sa, humiliation of Henry IV at, 459,
461.
Can'ter-bury, city, 323 ; cathedral of, 324 ;
pilgrimages to, 442 ; archbishop of, 448, 461,
504, 659.
Canterbury Tales, Chaucer's, 557, 593, 604,
613.
Canute (k«-niit'), king of England, 407.
Capet (Fr. pron. ka-pe'), Hugh, king of
France, 403, 512.
Capetian (ka-pe' shdn) dynasty, the, 512 and
note 2.
Cap'i-to-line Hill, 141, 160, 190, 294, 296.
Cap'u-a, 157.
Car-a-cal'la, Edict of, 204 ; baths of, 295.
Carcassonne (kjir-ka-son'), 530.
Cardinals, College of, 451, 457, 665.
Caribbean Sea, 627.
Car-o-lin'gi-an dynasty, the, 306 and note 2,
315, 317, 403.
Car'thage, a Phoenician colony, 50 ; a rival of
the Greeks in the western Mediterranean,
89 ; the Carthaginians in Sicily, 154, 168; a
rival of Rome, 162 ; Carthaginian commer-
cial empire and civilization, 162, 163 ; First
Punic War, 163, 164; Second Punic War,
164-167; destroyed at close of the Third
Punic War, 168, 169; rebuilt, 169, note 1,
209 ; becomes capital of the Vandal kingdom,
245, 248 ; again destroyed by the Arabs, 378.
Cartier, Jacques (ktir-tya', zhak'), 638.
Car-y-at'i-des, porch of the, 291.
Caspian Sea, 65, 125, 134, 241, 309.
Cassius (kash'MS), 187-189.
Castile (kas-tel'), kingdom of, 520.
Castles, feudal, 424-428, 584.
Castor, temple of, 295.
Cat'a-combs, the, at Rome, 234.
Ca-thay'. See China.
Cathedrals, 310, 324, 448, 562-566.
Catherine of Aragon, 659.
Catherine de'Medici (da ma'de-che), 680.
CathoHc Church, conception of the, 342. See
also Celtic Church, Greek Church, Roman
Church.
Cat'i-line, conspiracy of, 182.
Caucasian (ko-ka'shrfn) race, the, 15, 16.
Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 699
Caucasus (ko'kci-sus) Mountains, 65.
. Caxton, William, 595.
Celebes (sel'e-bez), 623, note 1.
Celibacy, prevalence of, in Eoman imperial
times, 214, 225 ; of the clergy, 343, 446.
Celtiberians, the, 519.
Celtic Church, the, 323-325.
Celtic languages, 140, 508, 509, 512.
Celts (selts), the, an Indo-European people,
66 ; in Gaul and Britain, 195, 239, 246 ; in
Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, 508, 509, 511 ;
in France, 512 ; in Spain, 519.
Cen'sors, Itoman, 151, 152.
Central America, 635 ; prehistoric cities of,
631.
Ce-phis'sus, stream, 288.
Cer-a-mi'cus, the Outer, 288.
Cereals, domestication of the, 8, 22, 641.
Cervantes (ser-van'tez), 603.
Ceylon, 618, 623.
Chseronea (ker-6-ne'a), battle of, 118, 153.
Chalcidice (kal-sid'i-ce), peninsula of, 110.
Chaldea (kal-de'a). See Babylonia.
Chalons (shii-loN'), battle of, 248.
Channel Islands, 518 and note 1.
Chariot races, Roman, 266.
Charity, Eoman, 214, 215; early Christian,
232, 23T; the Medieval Church and, 463.
See also Doles.
Charlemagne (shiir'le-man), 306, note 2, 307-
312, 359, 415, 559, 560.
Charles the Bold' 313, 314.
Charles Martel, 306, 359, 379.
Charles V, Holy Eoman Emperor, G54-656,
671, 679.
Charles VIII, king of France, 519; IX, 680.
Charters, civic, 531.
Chateau Gaillard (sha-to' ga-yar'), 424,
426.
Chaucer, Geoffrey, 557, 604, 612.
Checkers, 580.
Chemistry, Arab, 884; alchemy and, 574.
Cheops (kO'ops), 27.
Cherbourg (shur-boOr'), 640.
Chess, 428, 579, 580.
Chester, 209, 532, note 1.
Children, condition of, in classical antiquity,
84, 145, 253.
Children's Crusade, the, 478.
Chile, 632.
China, beginnings of history in, 3, 19 ; civili-
zation of, 19, 20, 594, 595 ; Nestorians in,
347 ; conquered by the Mongols, 485, 487 ;
visited by the Polos, 488, 616; Portuguese
trade wth, 488. 622.
Chivalry. See Knighthood.
Chosroes (kos'ro-ez), II, .332.
Christ, 197, 229, 232, 236.
Christianity, preparation for, 226-229 ; rise
and spread of, 1229-232 ; organization of the
early Christian Church, 232 ; persecuted,
232-234 ; triumph of, in the Eoman empire,
234-237 ; the Germans converted to Arian,
236, 237, 241, 300, 302,304. 805, 326, 358;
intluence of, on ancient society, 237, 270 ;
spread of Catholic, over Europe. 802, 804,
305, 808, 316, 322-325, 335, 358-860, 396, 401,
526 ; Celtic and Roman, in the British Isles,
322-325; development of, during the first
three centuries a.d., 342-346; eastern, 846-
348 ; rise and growth of the Papacy, 848-351 ;
monasticism, 352-358 ; separation of eastern
and western, 360-363 ; the Papacy and the
Holy Eoman Empire, 439-463; the Reforma-
tion, 643-687. See also Celtic Church,
Greek Church, Protestants, Romaa
Church.
Christmas, 229, note 1, 346, 435, 581, 582.
Chrysoloras (kris-o-lo'ras), 593.
Church, Christian, organization of the early,
232 ; development of the episcopate, 342,
343 ; separation of clergy and laity, 343,
344 ; rise of heresies, 344 ; worship and holy
days, 844-346. See also Christianity.
Church of England. See AngUcanism.
Churches : Aix-la-Chapelie, 310 ; St. Martin's,
Canterbury, 232 ; Canterbury Cathedral, 324;
baptistery, cathedral and campanile of Pisa,
544.
Cibola (se'bo-lJi), the Seven Cities of, 635.
Cicero (sis'e-ro), Marcus Tullius, 181, 182,
184, 187, 188, 189, 277.
Cid (Sp. pron. theth). Poem of the, 520.
Cim-me'ri-ans, the, 75.
Cimon (si'mon), Athenian statesman, 102,
103.
Ci-pan'go. See Japan.
Circensian (ser-sen'shdn) games, 266-268.
Circuit judges, English, 500, 502.
Cir'cus Max'i-mus, 266, 2S7, 294.
Cistercian (sis-tiir'shan) order, the. 449.
Citeaux (se-to'), 449, 450.
Cities, Hellenistic, 127-180 ; in the Eoman
imperial age, 208-210; aspects of ancient,
252, 253 ; decline of, in the early Middle
Ages, 431 ; the civic revival, 437, 529 ; origin
of, in the Middle Ages, 529, 530 ; feudalism
and medieval, 530, 531 ; rise of the "third
estate," 531 ; city life, 531-584 ; civic trade
and industry, 534-539 ; commercial rela-
tions between, 540; Italian, 548-547, 590;
German, 547-549 ; Flemish, 549-552.
Citizenship, in the Greek city-state, 81 ;
in Athens, 85, 87,104; in early Rome, 150,
151 ; the Italians and Romans, 155, 177,
179, 207 ; extension of Roman, to the pro-
vincials, 187, 204, 215 ; privileges of Roman,
204, 206.
City-state, the Greek, 81-83, 113, 128; the
Roman, 149-152, 190, 191.
Civilization, Oriental, 42-63 ; ^gean, 71,
72; the Graico-Oriental world, 133-135;
Etruscan, 138, 139 ; Carthaginian, 163 ; the
Grfeco-Roman world, 215-218 ; classical,
252-296 ; Byzantine, 835-337 ; Arabian,
3S1-3S6 ; medieval, 554-588.
Civil War, between Marius and Sulla, 179 ;
between Pompey and C;esar, 184, 1S5 ; be-
tween Antony and Octavian, 189, 190.
Clairvaux (klar-v6'), 450.
Clau'di-an Cae'sars, the, 197.
Claudius, Roman emperor, 197, 213.
Clement VII, pope, 645.
Cleon, 272.
Cle-o-pa'tra, 185, 189, 190.
Clergy, secular, 446—448 ; regular, 448-450 ;
intluence of the, in medieval times, 464. See
also Friars, Monasticism, Priesthood.
Cler'mont, Council of, 469, 470.
Clis'the-nes, Athenian reformer, 87,
Clothing. See Costume.
Clo-til'da, 804.
Clovis, king of the Franks, 303-805.
Cluny (klii-ne'), monastery of, 448, 449.
Cochin-China (kcVchin chi'nd), 618.
Codes, legal. See Law.
700 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary-
coinage, a Lydian invention, 47 ; unknown
to Homeric Greeks, 74 ; beginning of, at
Kome, 144 ; Roman imperial, 210, 211 ; de-
basement of, in the Middle Ages, 541, 542.
See i-yat), the, of Omar Khay-
yam, 385 and note 2.
Ru'bi-con River, 154, 179, 185.
712 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary
Ku'dolf of Hapsburg, 462, 522, 523.
Eum (room), sultanate of, 468.
Kumania, 20U, 363. 493.
Kunes, the, 240, 390, 391.
liun'ni-mede, 505.
Kuric, 400.
Eussia, geography of, 65, 66 ; Swedish set-
tlements in, 400 feonquered by the Mongols,
483-490 ; rise of Muscovy, 490, 491.
Eussians, attack Constantinople, 335, 401 ;
converted to Christianity, 335, 360, 363, 401.
Sabbath, Hebrew, 52, 345.
Sa'bines, the, 140, 141, 143.
Sacraments, the, 440-442, 664.
Sacred Way, Eoman, 190, 295; Athenian,
288.
Sacrifice, Eoman, 147.
Sagas, the, 392 and note 1, 393.
St. Anthony (an'to-ni), 352.
St. Bartholomew's Dav, massacre of, 680.
St. Basil (baz'il), 853, 854.
St. Benedict, 354, 355.
St. Ber'nard, 449, 450, 474, 558, 565.
St. Brandan, 625.
St. Cyp'ri-an, 342.
St. Dom'i-nic, 452.
St. Francis, 451 452.
St. Ives, city, 538.
St. Jerome, '600.
St. Mark, Cathedral of, at Venice, 461, 547.
St. Martin, church of, at Canterbury, 323.
St. Patrick, 323.
St. Paul, 170, note 1, 206 and note 1, 230, 231,
348.
St. Peter, 230, 307, 324, 348, 350 ; church of,
at Eome, 811, 455, 543, 597, 598, 651.
St. Eemi (re-mG'), 304.
Saints, reverence for, 443, 648.
Sal'a-din, 474, 475, 476.
Salamanca, university of, 570, 637.
Sal'a-mis, naval battle of, 99.
Salem, witchcraft delusion at, 579.
Sa-ler'no, city, 413 ; university of, 570.
" Sal'ic law," the, 515 and note 1.
Sahsburv (s61z'ber-i). Oath of, 499; Cathe-
dral of," 562.
Sa-ma'ri-a, 33, 34, 230.
Samarkand (sam-ar-kanf), 485, 487.
Sam'nites, the, Italian highlanders, 140 ; con-
quered by the Romans, 153 ; revolt of, in
the Social War, 179.
Samson, 30.
Samuel, 30.
Sanc'ta So-phi'a, church of, 331 and note 2,
339, 340, 862. 401, 493.
" Sanctuary," right of, 445.
San Diego, 636.
San Francisco, 636.
San'skrit. 16, note 1.
Santa Barbara, mission of, 637.
Santa Fe (san'ta fa'). 635.
Sar'a-cens, 371, note 2. See also Moslems.
Sardinia, 89, 138. 162, 164, 330.
Sardis, capital of Lydia, 38, 98, 122.
Sargon II, Assyrian king, 34.
Satan, 373.
Satrapies, Persian, 39, 40.
Saturdav, 345.
Saturn. 53, 295.
Saul (sol). Hebrew king, 21 ; of Tarsus, 230.
Saxons. See Anglo-Saxons.
Saxony, 308, 315, 359, 651.
Scandinavia, geography of, 66, 389 ; Eeforma-
tion in, 656.
Scarab, the Egyptian, 53.
Scheldt (skelt) River, 402.
Schleswig (shlStz'viK), 315.
Schleswig-Holstein (hol'shtin), 246.
Schliemann (shle'miin), Heinrich, excava-
tions bv, 68-70.
Scholasticism, medieval, 570-572, 606, 609.
Schools. See Education.
Schwvz (shvets), canton of, 523.
Science, primitive, 11-13 ; Oriental, 60-62 ;
Greek, 131 ; Arab, 383, 384 ; Medieval, 572-
574 ; Eenaissance, 607-609.
Scip'i-o, Pub'li-us, 167; ^-mil-i-a'nus, 168,
169.
Scotland, partiallv conquered bv the Romans,
197; the Picts'of, 246; ( hristianity intro-
duced into, 323, 325 ; the Northmen"in. 398 ;
formation of the Scottish kingdom, 509, 510 ;
conquered by Edward I, 510, 511 ; becomes
independent of England, 511 ; the Reforma-
tion in, 657, 662.
Scots, the, 246, 509 ; Mary, Queen of, 676.
Scribes, Oriental, 63.
Sculpture, prehistoric, 13 ; Egyptian, 58, 59 ;
Babylonian and Assvrian, 59; ^gean, 71,
73 ; "Greek, 281, 282 ;" Roman, 287 ; Renais-
sance, 597, 598, 601. See also Statues.
Scvthians (sith'i-dns), 39.
" Sea dogs," the English, 639.
Sea-power, Persian, 94, 123 ; importance of,
Roman, in the Second Punic War, 165 ; in
the crusades, 497 ; Turkish, 491, 669 ; Vene-
tian, 547 ; English, 679.
Sects, the Protestant, 662-664.
Seine (san) River, 247, 402.
Se-leu'cus, one of Alexander's generals, 127.
Seljuk (sel-jook') Turks, 333, 380, 467, 468,
491.
Sem'ites, the, relation of, to Indo-European s,
16 ; principal divisions of, 17 ; original home
of, 367.
Sempach (zem'paK), battle of. 524.
Senate, Roman, in the regal age, 149 ; during
the early centuries of the republic, 152, 154,
167 ; during the last century of the republic,
175, 177, 179, ISO, 184, 186, 188, 190, 194 ;
under tne empire, 196, 198, 221.
Senate-house, the Roman, 187, 296.
Sen'e-ca, 213, 216.
Sennacherib (se-nak'er-ib). Assyrian king, 35.
Serbia, 195, 834,-885, 360, 808. 493.
Serfdom, of the Spartan helots, 83 ; in the
Middle Ages, 436, 4:37 ; attitude of the medi-
eval Church toward, 463 ; absence of, in
medieval cities, 531 ; decline and abolition
of, 610-612.
Ser-ve'tus, Michael, 657.
" Servian Wall," the, 141, 294.
Seven Hills of Rome, 142, 292, 294.
" Seven liberal arts," the, 570.
" Seven Wonders " of the ancient world, 128,
note 2.
Se-ville', cathedral of, 543.
Shakespeare. William, 604, 605.
She'ol, Hebrew underworld of the dead, 55.
Shet'land Islands, 898.
Ships : Ph(Bnician war galley. 32 ; Athenian
trireme, 99 ; Roman freighter, 211 ; Viking,
392 ; a ship of 1492 a.d., 627.
Siam (sT-am'), 618.
Siberia, 19, 483.
Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary 713
Sicily, colonized by the Greeks, 89 ; Athe-
nian invasion of, 110, 272 ; geographical situ-
ation of, 13T ; invaded by Pyrrhus, 154 ;
Carthaginians in, 154, 162, 163 ; conquered
by Kome, 164 ; Eomanization of, 169 ; a
province of the Eoman Empire in the East,
302; the Moslems in, 317, 413, 590; Nor-
man conquest of, 412, 413, 591.
Si'don, 28.
Siege engines, Macedonian, 116.
Sieges : Nineveh, 36 ; Jerusalem, 36, 199 and
note 1, 472 ; Rebatana, 37 ; Sardis, 38 ; Troy,
73 ; Syracuse, 110 ; Athens, 111 ; Tvre, 123 ;
Carthage, 168, 169 ; Corinth, 170 ; Eome,
244, 249; Eavenna, 298; Constantinople,
339, note 1, 377, 477, 492. 493 ; Antioch, 471 ;
Acre, 476 ; Zara, 477 ; Orleans, 517.
Sieg'fried, 560, 561. _
Sierra Leone (si-er'd le-o'ne), 49, 621.
Si-le'si-a, 489.
Sim'o-n}% 457 and note 2.
Sinai (si'ni), peninsula of, 4, 32.
Sistine Chapel, the, 598 and note 1.
,, Skalds, the, 292.
A Slavery, Oriental, 44; Greek, 74, 106, 107,
'^' 268: Roman, 207, 212, 215, 224, 237, 268-
270; Christianity and, 237, 270; Islam and,
387 ; decline of, in Medieval Europe, 436,
437 ; attitude of the Church toward, 463.
Slavs (slavs), the, an Indo-European people,
66 ; wars of Charlemagne and Kenry the
Fowler with, 300, 314, 315 ; how divided,
316, note 1 ; settle in southeastern Europe,
334, 335 ; converted to Christianitv, 335,
359, 360, 401 ; the Germans and the, 525,
526.
Smyrna (smur'nd), 309.
Social classes. See Society.
Social War. the, 178, 179, 207.
Society of Jesus. See Jesuits.
Societv, Oriental, 42-44, 63 ; in the Homeric
Age,'74; in the Hellenistic Age, 133, 134;
early Eoman, 143-145; effects of foreign
conquests on Roman, 172-174, 190, 191 ;
under the early Empire, 212-215; influence
of Christianity upon, 237 ; Germanic influ-
ence upon, 250, 251.
Soc'ra-tes, Athenian philosopher, 273, 274.
Soissons (swii-soN'), battle of, 303.
"Soldier Emperors," the, 219, 220.
Solomon, Hebrew king. 32, 49.
So'lon, legislation of, 86.
Som'er-set-shire, 404.
Soph'ists, the, 273.
Soph'o-cles, Athenian dramatist, 271, 272.
Soto, Hernando de, 635.
Spain, Phoenicians in, 49 ; Carthaginians in,
89, 163, 164 ; conquered by Eome, 167, 169 ;
Eomanization of, 169 ; Pompey in, ISO ;
Caesar in, 185 ; overrun by the Visigoths
and Vandals, 244, 245 ; the Arabs in, 878,
379 ; phj'sical and racial, 519 ; Christian
states of, 519, 520; recovery of, from the
Moors, 520, 521 ; under Ferdinand and
Isabella, 521, 522 ; under Philip II, 668-670,
677, 678.
Sparta, early history of, 83 ; Spartan govern-
ment and societv, 8:3-85 ; her part in the
Persian wars, 95, 97, 98, 100; rivalry of,
with Athens, 102, 103 ; the Peloponnesian
War, 108-111; supremacy of. 111, 112;
holds aloof during the struggle against
Philip, 118.
Sphinx (sfirjks), the Great, 20.
Spice Islands, 623, note 1, 629, 6.33.
Spices, use of, in the Middle Ages, 587, 619,
620.
Spi'na, the, 266.
Spirits, evil. See Demons.
Stained glass, medieval, 345, 559, 565.
States of the Church, 306, 307 and note 1,
317, 454, 646.
Statues, prehistoric, 16 ; Egyptian, 27, 30,
58, 63 ; Assyrian, 60 ; ^Egean, 73 ; Discob-
olus, 80 ; Apaxyomenus, 81 ; Demos-
thenes, 117 ; Dying Gaul, 129 ; Augustus,
193 ; The Good Shepherd, 232 ; Sophocles,
271; Alfred the Great, 404. See also
Sculpture.
Stem-duchies, German, 315 and note 1, 316,
817.
Stephen II, pope, 306.
Stil'i-cho, Vandal general, 243.
Sto'i-cism, philosophy of, 226, 230, 276.
Stone Age, the, 3, 4.
Stourbridge Fair, 588. 539.
Strassburg (shtras'bc^rk), 303, 304, 402, 548.
Stratford-on-Avon, 604, 605.
Suicide, in the ancient worl?l, 214, 237.
Sul'la, Lu'ci-us Cor-ne'h-us, 178-180, 191.
Sully (Fr. pron. sii-le'), 681.
Sumatra (soo-ma'tr«), 383, 623, note 1.
Su-me'ri-ans, the, 24.
Summa Theologioe., the, of Aquinas, 572.
Sun, the, worshiped in Oriental antiquity,
52 ; Mithra identified with, 228.
Sunday, 235 and note 1, 345.
Superstitions of the Middle Ages, 575-579.
Surgery, Arab, 384.
Su'sa, Persian capital, 40, 50, note 2, 125.
Sussex, 820.
Swa'bi-a, 815, note 1, 523.
Sweden, 389, 890, 896, 397, 656, 662, 684.
Swedes, converted to Christianity, 300, 39G ;
in Finland and Eussia, 400.
Swiss Confederation, the, 528-525.
Switzerland, rise of, 314, 523 ; struggle of,
with Austria, 523, 524 and note 1 ; the
Swiss Confederation, 523-525 ; the Eeforma-
tion in, 656, 657.
Syr-a-cuse', 89, 110, 208.
Syria, conquered by Egypt, 28 ; Alexander
the Great in, 123 ; annexed by Eome, 181 ;
kingdom of, 127, 171 ; crusaders' states in,
472, 473, 475, 479.
Tacitus (tas'i-t«s), Eoman historian, 289, 278.
Tam-er-lane'. See Timur the Lame.
Tancred (taij'kred), 470, 472.
Ta-ren'tum, city, 89 and note 3, 154 ; gulf,
189
Tarik (ta'rik), 378.
Tar'quin the Proud, 143.
Tar'shish, 50.
Tarsus, 230.
Tartars. See Tatars.
Ta'tars, the, 490 and note 1.
Taxation, Eoman, 172. 225 ; royal, in the
Middle Ages, 497, 499, 505, 506, 507, 514, 515.
Tell, William, legend of, 524.
Templars, order of, the, 473.
Temple, the, at Jerusalem, 32, 36, 38, 199
and note 1, 340.
Temples, Egyptian, 57, 58. Babylonian, .^8 ;
Greek and Eoman, 89, 101, 202, 215, 278-
281, 283, 295, 296.
714 Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary
Ten Generals, the Athenian, 105.
Teuochtitlan (ton-och-tet-lan'), 632.
"Ten Thousand," e.xpeditiou of the, 120-
122, 2T2.
Ten Tribes of Israel, 32, 33, 34, 35, 616.
Tex-tu'do, the, 168.
Tetzel, 651.
Teutonic Knigrhts, the. 526.
Teutonic languages, 242, 555, 556.
Teutons, the, 60. 389. See alxo Germans.
Thames (temz) Kiver, 404, 505.
Theaters, Greek, 264, 265 ; Koman, 287.
Thebes (thebz), in Egypt, 27, 28.
Thebes, in Greece, the kingship abolished
in, 82; neutral during the Persian wars,
97 ; becomes independent of Sparta, 111 ;
supremacy of, 112, 113 ; unites with Athens
against Philip, 118 ; destroyed by Alexander
the Great, 120, 271.
The-mis'to-cles, 96-101, 288.
The-o-do'ra, 329.
The-od'o-ric, king of the Ostrogoths, 298-
300, 303.
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