Pass f£/466 
 Rnnk ' VIGS 
 
ARISTARCHUS; 
 
 OR, THE 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 A METHODICAL ARRANGEMENT 
 
 Impt*opriette0 fr^o^ueut in Wivitinq anU iiJDukjer^ation; 
 
 WITH 
 
 SELECT RULES 
 
 FOR ATTAINING TO 
 
 PURITY AND ELEGANCE OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 Culpabit quascunque parum Spiendoris habebuut,— 
 
 i\rguet ambigue dictum, inutanda notabit, 
 
 Fiet ARIS^rARCHUS. Nee dicet, cur ego amicum 
 
 Offendam iu Nugis ? Hee Nugee seria ducunt 
 
 In mala. Horaci::. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED FOR J. HEARNE, 81, STRAND ; W. GOSSLING, 69, NEW 
 BOND STREET ; AND C. BROWN, DUKE STREET, 
 LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS. 
 
 1822. 
 

 Prinled by J. V. Dove, St. John's Square. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 
 
 AUTHOR. 
 
 Philip W.thers, D. D. was a writer of consi- 
 derable distinction in the last century; he was a 
 native of Westbury, in the county of Wilts, at 
 which place his father carried on the business of a 
 clothier. The period of his birth is not men- 
 tioned, but we find that he received the rudi- 
 ments of education at a school near Westbury^ 
 Being designed for business, he was sent up to 
 London (his father having died when he was only 
 twelve years of age) : this plan, however, proving 
 disagreeable to him, he went some time after to the 
 grammar-school at Hull, of which the late Rev. 
 Mr. Milner was the master : he made such rapid 
 progress in his studies, that he was admitted a 
 member of Trinity College at Cambridge in the 
 year 1777. Here he cofttinued about one year 
 and a half, when he removed to Queen's College 
 (where Mr. Milner's brother was tutor), and 
 he is said to have attained great proficiency in the 
 Greek and Latin languages. 
 
 About this time proposals appeared for a 
 splendid edition of the Table of' Ceres, with 
 plates and notes, to be published by some gen,- 
 
IV BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 
 
 tlemen of the university of Cambridge, for the 
 benefit of the sons of the clergy. Withers, who 
 was one of the editors, or perhaps sole editor (for 
 he never made known any coadjutors), waited upon 
 Archbishop Cornwallis with the prospectus of the 
 work, to solicit his patronage. The dignified pre- 
 late received him with great civility, but is said 
 to have declined giving any answer, until he had 
 made some inquiries respecting the talents and 
 character of Withers. The author subsequently 
 published new proposals, with the Archbishop's 
 name affixed as the patron of the intended work; 
 but from some misunderstanding among the parties 
 concerned, the work never made its appearance. 
 Shortly after the failure of this undertaking, 
 our Author left Cambridge, and repaired to 
 London, in which city (viz. in St. Mary Axe), 
 he received a few young gentlemen upon liberal 
 terms of remuneration to prepare them for the 
 University, and in the ensuing year he obtained 
 the Lectureship of St. Clement, Eastcheap. In 
 1783 he resided at Paddington, and rented Ben- 
 tinck Chapel. About the same time he began 
 his literary career, by publishing a letter to the 
 Rev. Samuel Dennis, D. D. Vice Chancellor of 
 Oxford, in reply to one signed Vindex. Con- 
 ceiving that letter to have been directed against 
 his own character, he endeavoured to vindicate 
 himself from the charge of ignorance and method - 
 ism, which it contained ; and, like Ajax of old, 
 boldly confident in himself, he stepped forward 
 and threw the intellectual gauntlet, by challen- 
 
OP THE AUTHOR. 
 
 ging any member of the university of Oxford to a 
 trial of critical skill in the Greek language. This 
 pamphlet is thus characterized in the Monthly 
 Review for that year:—** We have not lately 
 perused a better written performance. The lan- 
 guage is spirited and elegant ; the sentiments are 
 candid, liberal, and modestly advanced, and 
 the whole bespeaks the writer a gentleman and 
 a scholar." In 1787 he published a pamphlet 
 under the title of Cassandra ; and in 1 789 pro- 
 duced his Aristarchus, or the Principles of Com- 
 position, which is beyond question the most valu- 
 able of all his productions, and may justly entitle 
 him to rank among the first of the philosophical 
 philologists in this or any other country. Mr. 
 Home Tooke having published in 1786 his learn- 
 ed work, entitled Winged Words, or the Dir 
 versions of Purley, it is highly probable that this 
 circumstance induced Withers to write his 
 Aristarchus, which is every way worthy to be- 
 come its Vade-mecum : in this work, he has 
 every claim to originality; his style is elegant, 
 perspicuous, and powerful ; his explanations of the 
 alphabet, description of symbols, and of the circle, 
 are beyond all praise. The same year, he signalized 
 himself by writing several pamphlets on the sub- 
 ject of the King's indisposition, the Regency, and 
 the supposed matrimonial connexion between the 
 Prince of Wales and Mrs. Fitzherbert. He also 
 published a work entitled Nemesis, but of which 
 he was not the author : he received the manu- 
 script from a person unknown, at the time he was 
 
VI BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH, &C. 
 
 writing against the supposed marriage of Mrs. 
 Fitzherbert and the Prince of Wales. For pub- 
 lishing Nemesis he was prosecuted and convicted. 
 When brought up to receive judgment, his con- 
 duct was indiscreet in the extreme, and tended 
 in no small degree to exaggerate his punishment, 
 which was, that he should pay a fine of fifty pounds, 
 and be imprisoned in Newgate for the space of 
 twelve calendar months : during this term of his 
 confinement, he died in consequence of a fever 
 occasioned by overheating himself at a game of 
 fives. This event took place in July, 1790, when 
 he was buried at Chelsea> near London. 
 
 P. S. His widow, and a son and daughters, are 
 still living, but they are wholly unconcerned in the 
 publication of this work (although it was, upon the 
 death of the Author in 1790, published for their 
 benefit) : indeed, we were not aware of their exist- 
 ence until after it came from the press. — We insert 
 these remarks at the request of Mr. Withers. 
 
ARISTARCHUS 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Before I enter upon the Subject of my 
 Essay, I must solicit the Attention of my 
 Reader to a few Remarks on the Dignity 
 and Importance of a cultivated Mind. And 
 I begin with observing, that infinite Wisdom 
 has been pleased to create a Series of sub- 
 ordinate Being, which commences with 
 MATTER and terminates in MIND. 
 
 In this Order of Existence, Man enjoys 
 a glorious Pre-eminence. Not from any Ex- 
 cellence in his material Frame ; for he is ob- 
 viously surpassed in Vegetation, and Instinct, 
 and animal Energy. His supreme Distinction 
 is MIND — an immortal Principle, cherished 
 and adorned by SCIENCE. 
 
 Of the Perceptions which constitute in- 
 tellectual Life, irrational Creatures appear to 
 be destitute : it is therefore physically im- 
 
 A 2 
 
4 AKlSTARCilUS. 
 
 possible for them to ascend to intellectual 
 Pursuits. By acting under the immediate 
 Influence of animal Appetite, they complete 
 the Purposes of their Existence, and they are 
 blameless. But if Man acquiesce in sensual 
 Satisfactions, regardless of the Cultivation of 
 Intellect, he is highly culpable. Nor do I 
 know by what Law of Analogy he can vin- 
 dicate his Claim to human Nature. He may 
 plead external Appearances, but, in the Judg- 
 ment of Plato and Reason, he is only a 
 BRUTE. 
 
 The present is an Age of Letters and 
 liberal Inquiry. The Importance of intel- 
 lectual Improvement is seldom controverted. 
 Some sordid Individual, perhaps, may con- 
 descend to inform us, that Learning is useless 
 because we can do without it, " I knows 
 *' enough to write out an Account for Goods, 
 " and how to indite a Letter, and every 
 " Thing of that Sort, as one may say ; and 
 " as to any more than that, I don't care one 
 *' Farthing about it, not I. As to your Learn- 
 " ing, and your Grammar, and all that, what 
 " Good will it do to me? I have often heard 
 " Alderman Leatherhead say as how Riches 
 " is the main Chance; and it is true enough 
 " for the Matter of that, for what is a Man 
 
ARISTARCHUS. D 
 
 " without Money ? AVhen I goes upon 
 '* Change to do my Business, I see plainly 
 " enough that it is Money that carries the 
 ** Day, and therefore, do you see, give me 
 " the Cash, and let whose will take your 
 *' Learning/' 
 
 Such is the usual Tone of Argument 
 with those, who have no Ideas but what arise 
 from the Purchase and Sale, the Weight and 
 Admeasurement, of the various Articles of 
 Trade. Their Reasoning is not entitled to 
 an elaborate Confutation. I will only ob- 
 serve, if our Pursuits are to be limited to that 
 which is absolutely necessary^ we ought to 
 resign not only the Elegances of Life, but 
 even its Conveniences. Our Citizen ought 
 to retire to the Solitude of a Desert, or the 
 Recesses of a Forest. A Den will answer 
 the Purposes of a House ; and Acorns and 
 Water prove an excellent Succedaneum for 
 Roast-Beef and Porter. The Skins of his 
 four-footed Brethren wijl furnish him with 
 Clothing ; and like a true Son of Nature — - 
 if you please, a Natural — he may live un- 
 envied, and die unknown. 
 
 But, perhaps, this worthy Advocate for 
 Ignorance is not disposed to resign the Com- 
 
O ARISTARCnUS. 
 
 forts of the City, for the Amusements of a 
 sylvan Life. And he is certainly at Liberty 
 to act as he pleases. I have only to request 
 
 him to remember as the Soul, from its 
 
 Immortality and Excellence, is infinitely 
 more valuable than the perishable Materials 
 of animal Nature, every Argument in Sup- 
 port of Attention to the Body, is infinitely 
 more cogent and conclusive in Application 
 to the Mind. 
 
 Man is formed for Intercourse with Man ; 
 and it is criminal to withdraw from the Claims 
 of Society. Cultivation of Mind, and a Pre- 
 paration for eternal Scenes, would be a suffi- 
 cient Apology, were it impossible, in active 
 Life, to worship God and improve our Rea- 
 son. But if the momentous Concerns of our 
 intelligent Nature will not countenance a 
 Disregard to the Duties of Societ}^ be as- 
 sured no attention to the Duties of Society 
 will justify Neglect of Mind. The Man, 
 therefore, who discharges all the Claims of 
 civil and domestic Life, with the utmost Ten- 
 derness and Integrity, is only an amiable 
 Brute^ if his Mind be a barren, uncultivated 
 Wild. That divine Personage, who was best 
 qualified to give us a just Estimate of our 
 mortal and immortal Natures, expressly de- 
 
ARISTARCHUS. 7 
 
 clared, that the Body and its Concerns, rela- 
 tively considered, are not worthy an anxious 
 Thought.* 
 
 The Brevity of Life and the Vanity of 
 all created Good afford another argument to 
 repress the Ardour of ingenuous Minds, and 
 to sink them into Inactivity and Stupefac- 
 tion. But the Brevity of Life ought to be 
 a powerful Incentive to Activity and Enter- 
 prise. 
 
 On the Vanity of sensual Pursuits, Solo- 
 mon is full and convincing. Of the Impiety 
 of reproaching Jehovah as the vain Author 
 of a vain Creation, he is innocent. " Every 
 " Creature of God is good,'''^ and a tempe- 
 rate Use is the Privilege of Man. But if we 
 expect permanent Delight from transient Gysl- 
 tification, our Hope is vain indeed. There is 
 a Degree of animal Pleasure, beyond which 
 no Art can extend Enjoyment. It is the 
 Measure of Nature; and when that is full, 
 it is in vain to solicit Appetite by delicious 
 Viands, or to court Repose on Beds of Down. 
 The tedious Interval must be passed in Lan- 
 guor and Discontent, or in Pursuit of vision- 
 ary Joys. 
 
 * Luke xii. 22. f 1 Tim. iv. 4. 
 
8 ARISTARCHUS. 
 
 There is no Impropriet}^ in amassing 
 Wealth by honourable Means; nor any Sin, 
 that I know, in a splendid Equipage or 
 a magnificent Habitation ; but he, who pro- 
 mises himself HAPPINESS from such Dis- 
 tinctions, most assuredly dreams of that 
 which will never be realized. He may, if 
 he please, add House to House, and Field to 
 Field. He may aggrandize his Family, and 
 possess the first Honours and Emoluments of 
 the State, but genuine Happiness is not his 
 Destiny. A distempered Imagination will 
 be ever on the Wing, chasing some gay Illu- 
 sion from Bath to Brighton, from Dan to- 
 
 Beersheba, till Death # # * 
 
 Hit ^ * * ¥k * * 
 
 * * * * * # ♦ 
 
 « # # * ^* * # 
 
 and this, Solomon might well pronounce 
 Vanity y and Vexation of Spirit, 
 
 I have been speaking of those on whom 
 Heaven, in its high Displeasure, has be- 
 stowed Affluence, but denied the Love of 
 Wisdom. As to the Man who has a Taste 
 for mental Improvement, he is in little Dan- 
 ger of passing his Life in Indolence and Dis- 
 gust; for such is the transcendent Excellency 
 of Mind, that its Sensibilities are rendered ex- 
 
ARISTARCHUS. 9 
 
 quisite by Use; and its Powers strengthened 
 by Enjoyment. A Succession of brighter. 
 Prospects affords it a perpetual Feast, and 
 contributes to render it serene and undaunted 
 under the Afflictions of Life. From the Ex- 
 perience of this important Truth, the enrap- 
 tured Solomon exclaims, 
 
 If your Delight be in Thrones and Scep- 
 tres, O ye Kings of the People^ honour Wisdom, 
 thai ye may live for evermore. 
 
 Wisdom is more beautiful than the 
 Sun, and above all the Orders of the Stars* 
 Great Pleasure it is to enjoy her Friendship, 
 and in the Works of her Hands are infinite 
 Riches, 
 
 I preferred Wisdom before Thrones and 
 Sceptres, before Health and Beauty ; for her 
 Ways are Ways of Pleasantness, and all her 
 Paths are Peace. 
 
 The Superiority of Science as to DIG- 
 NITY and PLEASURE, being thus esta- 
 blished on the Authority of Inspiration, I 
 desire to be informed with whom rilay a 
 virtuous Philosopher be compared even as 
 to PUBLIC UTILITY? 
 
10 ARISTARCHUS. 
 
 With the Sordid or the Abandoned? I do 
 not condescend to the Comparison. 
 
 With an Industrious Peasantry? They 
 are, I acknowledge, a valuable Order of 
 Society ; destined to the Enjoyment of far 
 greater Happiness than luxurious Lords; for 
 they are not at Leisure to be so supremely 
 wretched. But as they minister only to the 
 Wants of our inferior Nature, we must be 
 content with placing them above their indo- 
 lent Masters. 
 
 With Politicians and Statesmen ? If we 
 may credit one who knew them well, even 
 " the Peasant, whose Skill in Agriculture 
 " causes two Grains of Wheat to grow, 
 " where only one grew before, is of more 
 " Value to his Country than all the Poli- 
 " ticians and Statesmen who ever lived.'^ * 
 
 With Heroes and Warriors? A Patriot 
 is a sacred Name. To die in Defence of 
 Freedom is truly magnanimous. But those 
 illustrious Savages, who pollute their Laurels 
 in the Blood of the Innocent, who traverse 
 the Globe to invade the Rights of their 
 
 * Dean Swift. 
 
ARISTARCHUS. 11 
 
 Fellow-Men, and gratify Ambition, Ava- 
 rice, and Lust, merit the deepest Abhorrence. 
 From those Scenes of Violence and Desola- 
 tion which mark the Progress of their Victo- 
 ries, turn to the mild and beneficent Pur- 
 suits of a NEWTON. On one Hand you 
 hear the Lamentations of Widows, and Or- 
 phans, and ruined Innocence : on the other, 
 the Song of Angels, Glory to God on High ; 
 on Earthy Peace and good Will towards Man. 
 
 With Kings ? If a King be a Philo- 
 sopher, said Plato, he is a Blessing to his 
 People : if he be not, said Henry the First,* 
 he is only an — Ass crowned. And hence the 
 Propriety of Dr. Johnson's Remark, " the 
 " truest Ornament^ and the greatest Bene- 
 " factors of a Nation are its learned and 
 " virtuous Authors.'" 
 
 A Writer of Dictinction has delivered his 
 Sentiments on this Subject as follows : " A 
 " young Man, said his Lordship, just enter- 
 " ing upon Life, with an opulent Fortune, and 
 " high Taste of Pleasure, thinks that he has 
 " in his Hands the Means of being perfectly 
 " happy, and reckons it his peculiar good 
 " Fortune, that he is not obliged to labour 
 
 * William of Malmsbury, p. 87. 
 
12 ARISTARCHUS. 
 
 " and drudge in any Business or Profession, 
 
 " but has Leisure to be happy. But he does 
 
 " not consider that Leisure, though the Wish 
 
 '* of all Men, is the Source of the greatest 
 
 *' Misery to our Species, if not rightly em- 
 
 " ployed ; nor do I know any Vice or Folly 
 
 " that is not to be derived from it. The 
 
 " Arts and Sciences are necessary to fill up 
 
 " the Time of the Rich and Idle, who must 
 
 " otherwise lead a miserable and contempti- 
 
 " ble Life. Such Men would be much af- 
 
 " fronted, if they were compared with Sa- 
 
 " vages, whom they will hardly allow to be 
 
 " of the same Species ; and yet it is certain 
 
 " that it is only by Science that we have 
 
 " any Advantages over them. I do not know 
 
 " that there is upon the Face of the Earth a 
 
 " more useless, more contemptible, and more 
 
 " miserable Animal, than a weal thy, illiterate, 
 
 " luxurious Man.'' Or, and Pro, of Lang, 
 vol, 3. 
 
ARISTARCHUS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 Indulging the Hope that my Reader 
 is fully convinced of the Dignity and Import- 
 ance of Science, I proceed to demonstrate 
 its Union with LANGUAGE. 
 
 The Soul of Man* must be considered 
 either as endowed with unequal and dissi- 
 milar Powers, or as furnished with unequal 
 and dissimilar Media of Perception; for it is 
 a Position, which cannot be controverted, 
 that the intellectual Energies of a Milton are 
 stronger, and more exquisite, than those of 
 an Idiot, to whose fleeting Ideas could you 
 give Stability, and thus prevent Forgetfulness 
 of one Part of a Proposition till you had ex- 
 plained the other, you could not enrich him 
 with a briUiant Imagination, nor a correct 
 and solid Judgment. 
 
 * Comparatively speaking. 
 
14 ARISTARCHUS. 
 
 But to whatever Cause you ascribe the 
 Difference between Milton and an Idiot, it 
 must be admitted that Men in general are 
 susceptible of Ideas ; and, as Ideas are the 
 Materials of Science, they are susceptible of 
 mental Improvement. It is not within the 
 Limits of m}^ Design to inquire whether Ideas 
 are connate with the Soul, or imparted by 
 incidental Causes. A Detail of my Experi- 
 ence, in this Respect, may be found in 
 Mr. Locke, the admirable Historian of the 
 human Mind. It is sufficient for our present 
 Purpose to observe, that a Consciousness of 
 Ideas is obtained by INSPIRATION, CON- 
 TEMPLATION, and HUMAN INTER- 
 COURSE. 
 
 Consistently with the purest Dictates of 
 Reason we may believe, that a reciprocal 
 Communication exists between the Deity and 
 his intelligent Creation. We have many 
 Proofs on holy Record of an immediate Inti- 
 mation of the divine Pleasure ; and believing 
 Men are, in every Page, encouraged to make 
 known their Requests to God. At the same 
 Time it is to be lamented, that Inspiration is 
 frequently pleaded in Support of Insanity 
 and Fraud. 
 
ARISTARCHUS. 15 
 
 By Ideas of Contemplation^ I mean such 
 as might be obtained by the unassisted 
 Efforts of a Man of a common Understand- 
 ing, in Solitude. Now it is impossible to 
 prove, by Argument a priori^ that in such 
 a State he would acquire any valuable Ideas. 
 On the contrary we have Fact to assure us, 
 that the Impressions of natural Phenomena, 
 and the consequent Operations of Intellect, 
 would not elevate him above a Brute; for 
 several of our Species have been discovered 
 in Forests, on the Continent, most deplorable 
 Instances of the Wretchedness of uncultivated 
 Mind. The human Form was complete, but 
 no Speech, no Intelligence ! 
 
 HUMAN COMMUNICATION, there- 
 
 fore, is the grand Source of Ideas. To the 
 vast Multitude it is the only Source. To 
 combine and diversify the accumulated Wis- 
 dom of Ages is easy : to instruct the World 
 by Felicity of Invention is the Lot of few. 
 But if Science be so valuable, and Genius 
 so rare, we can never be sufficiently grateful 
 to Almighty God for SPEECH, that divine 
 Scheme for the Conveyance of Sentiment, 
 and the Establishment of general Intercourse 
 — the Parent, or the Friend of all that adorns, 
 and of all that delights, the Soul of Man. 
 
16 ARISTARCHUS. 
 
 And hence the Utility of the Essay to which 
 I have the Honour of soliciting public In- 
 dulgence. For without Precision of Language, 
 there can be no Precision of Idea. Law 
 would appear unintelligible Jargon, and the 
 subliniest Conceptions of the Philosopher a 
 Mass of Absurdities : Science would be de- 
 throned ; and brutal Sensuality and Appetite 
 would rage without Control. So various, 
 indeed, and so convincing are the Argu- 
 ments, which naturally arise from the present 
 View of the Subject, that the candid Reader 
 might be justly displeased, if I questioned 
 his Conviction of the Excellence and Use of 
 verbal Criticism. That I may not, however, 
 be suspected, by any One, of interested At- 
 tachment, I request Leave to adduce the 
 Testimony of some Authors of Name and 
 Integrity. 
 
AllISTARCnUS. 17 
 
 CICERO, 
 
 Magni interest quomodo quisque loqua- 
 tur a Puero.* 
 
 QUINTILIAN. 
 
 Primus in eo, qui dicendi, scribendique 
 adeptus erit facultatem, Grammaticis est 
 locus. ** Neque sunt ferendi, quihanc Artem, 
 ut tenuem ac jejunam, cavillantur: quae nisi 
 Oratori futuro fundamenta fideliter jecerit, 
 quicquid superstruxeris, corruet. Necessaria 
 pueris, jucunda senibus, dulcis secretorum 
 Comes, et quae vel sola omni studiorum genere 
 plus habet operis quam ostentationis. ** In- 
 teriora velut sacri hujus adeuntibus apparebit 
 multa rerum Subtilitas, quae non modo acuere 
 ingenia puerilia, sed exercere altissimam quo- 
 que Eruditionem ac Scientiam possit.-f* 
 
 * It is of the highest Importance to speak with Propriety 
 from early Youth. 
 
 t AH Excellence in Writing and Speaking is founded on 
 Grammatical Knowledge. They, who treat this Knowledge 
 
 B . 
 
18 ARISTARCHUS. 
 
 LOCKE. 
 
 Many are the Disorders and Incon- 
 veniences which follow from an ill Use of 
 Words in Conversation, Discourse, and Argu- 
 ings with others; for Language being the 
 Means whereby Men convey their Disco- 
 veries, Reasonings, and Knowledge from one 
 to another, he that uses Words without any 
 clear and steady Meaning, leads himself and 
 others into Error. Most of the Disputes in 
 the World would end of themselves, and 
 immediately vanish, if the Words that are 
 used in them were defined and reduced to a 
 certain Signification. And when I see any 
 one of those Combatants strip all his Terms 
 of Ambiguity and Obscurity I shall think 
 him a Champion for Knowledge, Truth, and 
 Peace. 
 
 as either trifling or unpleasant, merit Contempt; for the Fabric, 
 that is raised on any other Foundation, soon falls. It is ne- 
 cessary in Youth, plea,sing in Age, and a delightful Compa- 
 iiionMn Retirement ; and, contrary to all other Studies, it has 
 more Utility than Ostentation. They, who engage in this im- 
 portant Pursuit, will find it not only adapted to expand and in- 
 vigorate the Powers of Youth, but to exercise the profoundest 
 Erudition and the most exquisite Taste, 
 
ARISTARCHUS. 19 
 
 Grammatical Learning, which is now 
 almost confined to Boys, well deserves to be 
 the Study of Men. For we have some reason 
 to doubt, whether Language, as it has been 
 hitherto employed, has contributed more to 
 the Improvement, or, to the Hindrance of 
 Knowledge amongst Mankind. 
 
 LORD CHESTERFIELD 
 
 Now if it be necessary to attend so par- 
 ticularly to our Manner of speaking, it is 
 much more so with Respect to the Matter. 
 Fine Turns of Expression, a genteel and cor- 
 rect Style are Ornaments as requisite to com- 
 mon Sense, as a polite Behaviour, and an 
 elegant Address are to common good Man- 
 ners. Even Trifles elegantly expressed will be 
 better received than the best of Arguments, 
 homespun and unadorned. Be careful then 
 of your Style upon all Occasions, whether 
 you write or speak, study for the best Words 
 and the best Expressions ; and, if you are in 
 Doubt concerning the Propriety or Elegance 
 of any Word, have Recourse to some good 
 Author on the Subject immediately ; if you 
 be not sparing of your Trouble, to write and 
 speak well will soon become habitual 
 
 B 2 
 
20 ARISTARCHUS. 
 
 There is a certain distinguishing Diction 
 that marks the Man of Fashion, a certain 
 Language that ever}^ Man of Education pos- 
 sesses : aim at that, for Nothing is more en- 
 gaging. Without it, a genteel Dress will only 
 expose you to Contempt.* 
 
 DR. PRIESTLEY. 
 
 The Propriety of introducing the Eng- 
 lish Grammar into Schools cannot be dis- 
 puted : a competent Knowledge of our own 
 Language being both useftil and ornamental 
 in all ; and a critical Knowledge of it abso- 
 lutely necessary to all Persons of a liberal 
 Education. 
 
 With Respect to our own Language, 
 there seems to be a Kind of Claim upon all, 
 who make Use of it, to do Something for its 
 Improvement, and the best Thing we can do 
 for this Purpose is to exhibit its actual Struc- 
 ture, and the Varieties with which it is used. 
 When these are once distinctly pointed out, 
 
 ♦ I entreat such of our Youth of Fortune, as are diligent in 
 selecting the Deformities of Chesterfield, to attend also to his 
 Beauties, His Lordship was no Pedant, yet a great and sin- 
 cere Advocate for Learning. 
 
ARISTARCIIUS. 21 
 
 the best Forms of Speech, and those which 
 are most agreeable to the Analogy of the 
 Language, will soon recommend themselves, 
 and come into general Use ; and when by 
 this Means, the Language shall be written 
 with sufficient Uniformity, we may hope to 
 see a complete Grammar of it. At present, 
 it is by no Means ripe for such a Work ; but 
 we may approximate to it very fast, if all 
 Persons, who are qualified for it, will make 
 Remarks upon it. 
 
 TheProgress of every Branch of real Sci- 
 ence seems to have been prodigiously accele- 
 rated of late. The present Age may hope to 
 see a new and capital ^ra in the History of 
 every Branch of useful Knowledge, and I hope 
 that the English Language will come in for 
 its Share of Improvement, and acquire a more 
 fixed and established Character than it can 
 boast at present. 
 
 DR. BLAIR. 
 
 The Study of Composition, important 
 in itself at all Times, has acquired additional 
 Importance from the Taste and Manners of 
 the present Age. It is an Age wherein Im- 
 provements, in every Part of Science, have 
 
22 ARISTARCHUS. 
 
 been prosecuted with Ardour. To all the 
 liberal Arts much Attention has been paid ; 
 and to none more than to the Beauty of 
 Language, and the Grace and Elegance of 
 every Kind of Writing. The public Ear is 
 become refined. It will not easily bear what 
 is slovenly and incorrect. Every Author 
 must aspire to some Merit in Expression, as 
 well as in Sentiment, if he would not incur 
 the Danger of being neglected and despised. 
 
 But I should be sorry if we could not 
 rest the Merit of such Studies on Somewhat 
 of solid and intrinsical Use, independent of 
 Appearance and Show. The exercise of Taste, 
 and of sound Criticism is in Truth, one of the 
 most improving Employments of the Under- 
 standing. 
 
 The Structure of Language is extremely 
 artificial ; and there are few Sciences in 
 which a deeper, or more refined Logic is em- 
 ployed, than in Grammar. It is apt to be 
 slighted by superficial Thinkers, as belonging 
 to those Rudiments of Knowledge, which 
 were inculcated upon us in our earliest 
 Youth. But what was then inculcated before 
 we could comprehend its Principles, would 
 abundantly repay our Study in maturer Years, 
 
ARISTARCHUS. 23 
 
 and to the Ignorance of it, must be attributed 
 many of those fundamental Defects which 
 appear in Writing. 
 
 Few Authors have written with philo- 
 sophical Accuracy on the Principles of Gene- 
 ral Grammar, and what is more to be re- 
 gretted, fewer still have thought of applying 
 those Principles to the English Language. 
 While the French Tongue has been an Ob- 
 ject of Attention to many very able Writers 
 of that Nation, who have considered its Con- 
 struction, and determined its Propriety with 
 great Accuracy^ the Genius and Grammar of 
 the EngUsh, to the REPROACH OF THE 
 COUNTRY, have not been studied with 
 equal Care, or ascertained with the same 
 Precision. Attempts have been made in- 
 deed of late, towards supplying this De- 
 fect; and some able Writers have entered 
 on the Subject; but much remains yet to 
 be done. 
 
 Whatever the Advantages or Defects 
 of the English Language be, as it is our 
 own Language, it deserves a high Degree 
 of our Study and Attention, both with Regard 
 to the Choice of Words which we employ, 
 and with Regard to the Syntax, or the Ar- 
 
24 ARISTARCIIUS. 
 
 rangement of these AVords in a Sentence. We 
 know how much Study both the French and 
 the Itahans have bestowed upon theirs. What- 
 ever Knowledge may be acquired by the 
 Study of other Languages, it can never be 
 communicated with Advantage, unless by 
 such as can write and speak their own Lan- 
 guage well. Let the Matter of an Author be 
 ever so good and useful, his Compositions 
 will always suffer in the public Esteem, if his 
 Expression be deficient in Purity and Pro- 
 priety. At the same Time, the Attainment 
 of a correct and elegant Style, is an Object 
 which demands Application and Labour. If 
 any imagine they can catch it merely by the 
 Ear, or acquire it by a slight Perusal of 
 some of our good Authors, they will find 
 themselves much disappointed. The many 
 Errors, even in Point of Grammar, the many 
 Offences against Purity of Language, which 
 are committed by Writers, who are far from 
 being contemptible, demonstrate, that a care- 
 ful Study of the Language is previously requi- 
 site in all who aim at writing it properly. 
 He who is learning to arrange his Sentences 
 with Accuracy and Order is learning, at the 
 same Time, to think with Accuracy and 
 Order; and this alone will justify all the 
 Care and Attention we can bestow. 
 
ARISTARCHUS. 25 
 
 We cannot reflect on the wonderful 
 Power of Language without the highest Ad- 
 miration, What a fine Vehicle is it now be- 
 come for all the Conceptions of the human 
 Mind, even for the most subtile and delicate 
 Workings of the Imagination ! From being 
 a rude and imperfect Interpreter of Men^s 
 Wants and Necessities, it has now passed into 
 an Instrument of the most delicate and re- 
 fined Luxury. We admire several of the In- 
 ventions of Art, we plume ourselves on some 
 Discoveries, which have been made in latter 
 Ages to advance Knowledge, and to render 
 Life comfortable. We speak of them as the 
 Boast of human Reason; but certainly no 
 Invention is entitled to any such Degree of 
 Admiration as LANGUAGE. 
 
 HORNE TOOKE. 
 
 Language is an Art and a glorious one, 
 whose Influence extends over all the others, 
 and in which finally all Science must centre. 
 
 Perhaps it was for Mankind a lucky 
 Mistake (for it was a Mistake) which Mr. 
 Locke made when he called his Book, an 
 Essay on Human Understanding. For some 
 
26 AllISTAKCIlUS. 
 
 Part of the inestimable Benefit of that Book 
 has, merely on account of its Title, reached 
 to many Thousands more than, I fear, it 
 would have done, had he called it (what it is 
 merely) A Graminatical Essay, or a Treatise 
 on JVords^ or on Language. The human 
 Mind, or the human Understanding, appears 
 to be a grand and noble Theme; and all Men, 
 even the most insufficient, conceive it to be 
 a proper Object for their Contemplation ; 
 whilst Inquiries into the Nature of Language 
 (through which alone they can obtain any 
 Knowledge beyond the Beasts) are in less 
 Repute ; so that those, who, neither have the 
 Accent of Christian, Pagan, nor Man, nor 
 can speak so many Words together with as 
 much Propriety as Balaam's Ass did, do yet 
 imagine Words to be infinitely beneath the 
 Concern of their exalted Understandings.* 
 
 * 1 beg Leave to remind Mr. Tooke of the excellent 
 Adage ignoti nulla Cupido. Without a Medium of Percep- 
 tion, every Species of Evidence and Persuasion is vain. 
 The Beauties, which the Deity has exhibited in such Profu- 
 sion in the Face of Nature, are no Beauties to Blind, nor 
 any Argument of a First Cause with an Idiot. Irrational 
 Animals have no Desire to enjoy the Intellectual Powers of 
 Man; nor to irrational Animals do we ever attempt to dis- 
 play their Excellence and Use. It is beneath the Dignity of 
 Science to reproach an Ass, of any Form, for his Stupidity. 
 Neglected Reason is amply avenged. No One ever despised 
 Beauty, who possessed it. 
 
ARISTARCIIUS. 27 
 
 CONCLUSION, 
 
 It might have been deemed dishonour- 
 able had I appealed to the Passions before 
 the Understanding became the Convert of 
 Argument; but after such ample and con- 
 vincing Evidence of the Dignity and Utility 
 of cultivated Speech, I hope I may have 
 Leave to ask, what Parent, however poor, if 
 his Heart be animated b}^ a proper Solicitude 
 for his Offspring, will deny it Instruction so 
 cheaply purchased? The finest Parts and 
 the most noble Endowments may be buried 
 in Obscurity, and like unpolished Gems have 
 Value without Lustre, and Excellence with- 
 out Use. In a Country, therefore, where the 
 Industrious may become affluent, and the 
 Affluent ascend to the chief Employments of 
 the State, it is an indispensable Duty to be- 
 stow on Children the best Education that 
 Circumstances will admit. 
 
 ^ The Importance of a correct Mode of 
 Expression in BUSINESS is sufficiently ob- 
 vious. SHOPMEN, CLERKS, APPREN- 
 TICES, and all who are engaged in the 
 
28 ARISTARCIIUS. 
 
 Transactions of commercial Life, may be as- 
 sured, that the Acquisition will procure them 
 Respect, and be highly conducive to their 
 Advancement in Life. 
 
 % In the PULPIT, the SENATE, at 
 
 the BAR, and in all public Assemblies, it is 
 necessary to speak with Purity and Elegance. 
 And though some Instances may occur of 
 insurmountable Timidity, it may be advanced 
 as a general Truth, that a Promethean Fire, 
 such as inflamed the Eloquence of Greece, 
 arises from CONFIDENCE. Hence grace- 
 ful Action, splendid Diction, and irresistible 
 Argument. The accomplished Orator, sa- 
 tisfied that Nothing will escape him contrary 
 to the Rules of good Speaking, gives the 
 Reins to Eloquence; and, calm amidst the 
 Storm, reviews the Debate, and selects new 
 Arguments of Opposition and Defence. But 
 neither a luminous Arrangement of Matter, 
 nor a masterly System of Reasoning, nor cap- 
 tivating Diction, must be expected from him, 
 who, in the Moment of Contest, is employed 
 about Words, He may deliver a premeditated 
 Speech with tolerable Grace and Propriety, 
 but a Man is of no Estimation, as a Speaker, 
 unless he be able to reply. Some of the most 
 upright of our Senators are frequently silent, 
 
ARISTARCHUS. 29 
 
 when Questions are before the House of the 
 last Consequence to the Interests of the Em- 
 pire. They doubt if they shall speak well, 
 and they are therefore afraid to speak at all. 
 
 % Permit me to add a few Words on 
 the Advantages that may be derived from 
 this Essay by the younger Part of the Com- 
 munity. And in the first Place, I hope I 
 have performed an acceptable Service for the 
 Ladies, by assisting them in the Acquisition 
 of their native Language, and by rendering 
 the Access to Italian and French easy and 
 delightful ; for when universal Principles are 
 comprehended, particular Application is ra- 
 ther Amusement than Labour. For which 
 Reason it will be eminently useful to young 
 Gentlemen, who are in a Course of Classical 
 Studies. 
 
 The Strictures are methodically arranged 
 under the several Parts of Speech, and every 
 Precept is delivered in so plain and familiar 
 a Manner, that Parents themselves may easily 
 instruct their Children, if their Situation in 
 Life deny them the Assistance of a Master. 
 
 It being a general Complaint, that 
 young People are frequently unable to dis- 
 
30 ARISTARCHUS. 
 
 course on Topics of popular Utility, I have 
 selected a Variety of valuable Observations, 
 in the Arts and Sciences, that the Student 
 may be furnished with a Fund for Conversa- 
 tion and Amusement. And with this im- 
 portant Object in View, I have sometimes 
 illustrated a grammatical Precept by a Pas- 
 sage of considerable Length, but I hope it 
 needs no Apology.* 
 
 * Having thus anticipated, and, I trust, refuted every Ob- 
 jection which the Sordid, the Abandoned, and the Indolent 
 may make to the Study of Language in general, and of the 
 English Language in particular, I have only to request my 
 Reader to do me the Justice to believe, that 1 have written 
 from Motives as pure and disinterested as the present State 
 of Mortality will admit. And if any Author conceive, that 
 my Strictures are sometimes severe, I entreat him to consider, 
 that great Indulgence is due to a Treatise of this Nature ; for 
 without Freedom of Disquisition and Censure, its End could 
 not be accomplished. I have in no Instance designedly vio- 
 lated the Laws of Candour and Politeness ; for it is foreign 
 to the Desires of my Heart to give a Moment's Uneasiness to 
 a worthy Man. 
 
ARISTARCHUS 
 
 ON VERBS. 
 
VERBS. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 As I purpose, before the Conclusion of 
 the Treatise, to solicit Attention to a new 
 Theory of Language, I will not detain my 
 Reader by an elaborate Definition of its 
 constituent Parts. 
 
 In publishing my Remarks in distinct 
 Sections, I consult the convenience of those 
 who may not clearly comprehend the Whole 
 on a first Reading. They may recur, as 
 often as they please, to any difficult or fa- 
 vourite Section without Embarrassment of 
 Ideas, or needless Repetition of Passages 
 already understood. The Mind of Man, as 
 Dr. Johnson judiciously observes, by such 
 short, but vigorous Flights, soon reaches the 
 Summits of human Intelligence. 
 
34 VERBS. 
 
 OF CONCORD, 
 
 OR THE AGREEMENT BETWEEN VERBS 
 AND NOUNS. 
 
 The Force of habitual Expression is the 
 only Apology which can be admitted for the 
 Violation of the Laws of Concord. But this. 
 Apology is to be restricted to familiar Con- 
 versation. In Letters, in public Orations, 
 and in Compositions from the Press, the 
 Transgression is highly disgraceful. And 
 the Presumption, that the Public will par- 
 don our Negligence on the Plea of " Atten- 
 " tion to Things rather than to Words^'' is at 
 once indecent and absurd. 
 
 SINGULAR FOR THE PLURAL. 
 
 1. In the British Army, in Time of Peace, 
 there IS seventy-two Regiments of Foot * 
 
 * Dr. Trusler's Compendium, p. 139. 
 
VERBS. 35 
 
 2. The PoziDers of Lightnings when accom- 
 panied with Thunder IS great and wonderful.* 
 
 3. The Battle of Fontenoy was one of the 
 bloodiest in the present Age.-jf The Prodigies 
 of Valour exhibited by the English Infantry 
 WAS the Astonishment of Mankind^X 
 
 4. Her Eyes WAS put out when a Child^ 
 and she was carried about^ by a Beggar Woman, 
 to excite Charity, 
 
 5. " The Streets IS so dirty, that my 
 " Shoes IS' NT fit to be seen/% 
 
 6. This Day IS published. Memoirs of 
 the King of Prussia, ^c.\\ 
 
 7. The monstrous Craws, or wild human 
 Beings, IS to be seen in the Haymarket.% 
 
 * Dr. Trusler's CompeDdiuni; p. 71. 
 
 t 1745. t Annual Register, vol. xvii. p. 7. 
 
 § The usual Language of the Vulgar. 
 
 II Advertisements of inferior Booksellers. 
 
 % The credulous Multitude believe that the three 
 " monstrous Craws" are sui Generis, without Language, and 
 without Example ! ! But the classical Scholar recollects the 
 Verse of Juvenal. 
 
 Quis tumidum Guttur miratur in Alpibus ? 
 C 2 
 
36 
 
 VERBS 
 
 In the above Instances it ought to be 
 ARE, not IS; for monstrous Craws, Memoirs, 
 Shoes, Streets, Eyes, Prodigies, and Regiments, 
 are plural. 
 
 8. When I told you, that sixteen Ounces 
 of Gold would gild a Quantity of Silver Wire 
 sufficient to circumscribe the Globe, you WAS 
 surprised, 
 
 9. You WAS in Earnest, and you sought 
 Attention* 
 
 This Use of the Word you is indefen- 
 sible. It requires a Verb plural. The 
 learned Professor might write with equal 
 Propriety, you IS in earnest, you SEEKS 
 Attention. It may be urged, that the 
 Phrase you was frequently occurs in some 
 good Authors, and may, on that Account, 
 be classed with English Idioms. To which I 
 reply, if those great and worthy Men, who 
 have contributed so much to the Refinement 
 of our Language, had regarded Authority 
 more than Reason and Analogy, we should 
 be, at this Moment, in the Situation of 
 Hottentots. '' How barbarously we yet 
 
 * Dr. Blair. Lectures, vol. ii. p. 219. 
 
VERBS. 37 
 
 " write and speak, your Lordship knows. I 
 " am often at a Loss to determine whether 
 " that which I write is the real Idiom of the 
 " Tongue, or false Grammar and Nonsense 
 " couched under that specious Name/'* The 
 late Bishop of London pronounced the 
 Phrase in Question " an enormous Sole- 
 cism :'' and Dr. Campbell very properly 
 observes, " that all those Phrases, which 
 " include a Solecism or Absurdity, when 
 " examined by the estabUshed Rules of 
 " Grammar, ought to be discarded. It is 
 '' this Sort of Phraseology which is sheltered 
 " under the Epithet Idiomatical^ originally 
 " the Spawn of Ignorance and AfFecta- 
 " tion.'4 
 
 10. When an East Wind and West Wind 
 RAGES, and MEETS each other with Fury, 
 they excite Whirlwinds, Tempests, and Hurri^ 
 canes, which sweep away all before them,X 
 
 11. The Zeal and Amity of his physical 
 Friends SEEMS to have rendered them very 
 careful of doing enough for him.% 
 
 * Dryden to the Earl of Sunderland, 
 t Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 400. 
 X Trusler. C. 67. 
 § Dr. Kirkpatrick's Tissot. 75. 
 
38 VERBS. 
 
 It is a received Opinion among some 
 Grammarians, that any two Nouns, which 
 express synonymous Ideas, may be used in 
 Construction with a Verb singular. But if 
 the Ideas are synonymous, one of them is 
 unnecessary ; if they are distinct, Reason 
 and Analogy demand a plural. In either 
 Casej it is a Blemish in Composition. It is 
 indisputably more correct and elegant to 
 associate a Verb plural with two Nouns; and 
 it has this Advantage — be the Words syno- 
 nymous or not, you cannot err. I am not 
 ignorant, that the Practice may be supported 
 by the Syntax of ancient Languages. But 
 what have we to do with foreign Idioms?* 
 It is Wisdom to enrich our Vocabulary with 
 Words from every quarter of the Globe ; but 
 an indignity to suffer any Nation to control 
 our Style. In Grecian Authors, an unrivalled 
 Felicity of Diction adorns every Page. With 
 
 this exception in Arts, in Arms, and in 
 
 Language, we need acknowledge no superior. 
 
 * Ta TTiQ ^vxrig KTr)fxaTa firidafiwg iTTto-^aXij larl.^ *AXXa 
 TravTavTTOTCKjaeTai Qei^y^ is good Greek ; but did the Romans 
 condescend to adopt the Idiom ? No. Nor am I able to see 
 the Propriety of regulating English Phraseology, by Roman 
 Construction. 
 
 '■" The Treasures of the Mind are the only Treasures not subject 
 to Adversity. '' But all things are subject to God- 
 
 S^^. 
 
VERBS. 39 
 
 We have, in Fact, a noble Language; most 
 admirably adapted to every Species of Com- 
 position, from the elegant Simplicity of 
 Addison, in Prose, to the Majesty of the 
 Muse of Paradise, in Verse. 
 
 It is a Law of Composition, not to 
 encumber your Sentences with superfluous 
 Words. If the Doctor mean the s?imehy Amity, 
 which he does by Zeal, he has broken this 
 Law. If he desire to convey distinct Ideas 
 by the Terms, the Expression is not EngUsn. 
 I should be exposed to infinite Contempt, 
 were I to write — The King and his Majesty 
 IS to reside this Summer at Windsor. If I 
 urge in my Defence, King and Majesty are 
 synonymous, the Reply would be, then one 
 must be superfluous. Were I to admit that 
 King refers to a foreign Sovereign on a visit 
 at the Court of London, any School-Boy 
 would inform me, that I had written false 
 Grammar.* Mark the Conclusion of the 
 subjoined Example. 
 
 12. Li Spain, the Man who cultivates the 
 Earth is despised. In China, the first Honours 
 
 * Yet it would certainly be as correct as — TWO 
 WINDS MEETS in the 10th Instance. 
 
40 VERBS. 
 
 of the Community are bestowed on enterprise 
 ing Husbandmen. Thus Wisdom and Folly 
 DIVIDE the World. 
 
 Here the Idea of a divided World is 
 expressed with Purity and Energy. But had 
 the Author written divides the World, they 
 who neglect a living Language to cultivate 
 a dead One, would attempt to justify the 
 Phrase by pronouncing it elliptical; for as 
 the Plea that the Words Wisdom and Folly are 
 synonymous must be rejected, the only Ex- 
 pedient to which they could resort is the 
 Ellipsis ; which they would thus supply. 
 Wisdom divides the Worlds and Folly divides 
 the World. But in strict Propriety, if Wis- 
 dom divide the World, Folly must subdivide 
 it. Not to insist, however, on an Instance, 
 which may admit Dispute, let us take a 
 Passage, that will detect at once the Fallacy 
 of this Doctrine. 
 
 13. One and One ARE two. 
 
 This Expression is proper. Let it also 
 be written in the vulgar Manner. — One and 
 one IS two. The Structure is now ellip- 
 tical. Let us see what Figure it will make, 
 when the Ellipsis is supplied — One is two, 
 
VERBS. . 41 
 
 and one is two. Consequently, one and one 
 are four ! ! ! 
 
 ^It is a very common Error, especially 
 in Speaking, to use there is, instead of there 
 are, and here is for here are. 
 
 14. There s your Shoes., Here's your Boots. 
 
 15. Whe7i their Vices forsake them, 
 there's many flatter themselves^ that they 
 have forsaken their Vices. 
 
 Such vulgarisms may be expected from 
 Domestics, and from the lower Orders of 
 Society ; but they are a Reproach to People 
 of Education. 
 
 16. SAYS HE, AND SAYS SHE. 
 
 To record important Revolutions is the 
 Province of the Historian ; to detail civil and 
 domestic Occurrences is the Lot of all. It is, 
 therefore, incumbent on all to aim at a clear, 
 agreeable Manner of relating the common 
 Incidents of Life. The Feelings of the Com- 
 pany, we may be assured, are exceedingly 
 
42 VERBS. 
 
 liurt, when two-thirds of the Words employed 
 on the Occasion, consist of says I ; and sai/s 
 he; and so says I; and so says she, &c. &c. &c. 
 It is the best Evidence of a happy Talent 
 in communicating Information, when you 
 make, by your Tones and Gestures, the Re- 
 petition of such Phrases unnecessary. And 
 permit me to remind you, that the Expres- 
 sion says J, not only has an unpleasant, hiss- 
 ing Sound, in common with says he and says 
 she, it is also a Solecism, e. g.^ 
 
 17. If there were no Tale-Bearers, SAYS 
 J, Contention would cease. 
 
 That is, were there no Tale-Bearers, I 
 says Contention would cease. You may easily 
 avoid both the Harshness and the Impro- 
 priety, by substituting said I ; and said he, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 The Historian may be indulged in the 
 Use of says he, if he suppose it will exhibit an 
 Event to greater Advantage, e. g. 
 
 18. Mr, Cole, our Consul at Algiers, com- 
 plained to the Dey of the Injuries which Bri- 
 
 * E. G. Exempli Gratia; for Example. 
 
VERBS. 43 
 
 tish Vessels received from his Cruisers. His 
 KEPLY was fair and ingenuous^ the Algerines, 
 SA YS he, are a Company of Rogues, and I am 
 their Captain,^ 
 
 It deserves Notice, that there is no Ele- 
 gance in using SAYS on this occasion. And 
 it is still more remarkable, that there is no 
 Necessity for using it at all. Were it omitted, 
 there would be far more Grace and Energy 
 in the Expression. It is now feeble Tauto- 
 logy — he replied, the Algerines, says he, are a 
 Company of Rogues. But if it be unneces- 
 sary in a written Narrative, it is insufferable 
 in an Anecdote delivered viva Voccf He 
 is a lifeless Speaker, for Instance, with no 
 Inflexion of Voice, no Variation of Tone, 
 who is under the Necessity of using the 
 Phrase says he, to inform his Audience, that 
 the Dey is the Personage who speaks. It 
 may also be remarked, that Answer would be 
 more proper here than Reply. I speak — 
 You answer. I reply — You rejoin. 1. The 
 Question. 2. The Answer. 3. The Reply. 
 4. The Rejoinder, &c. &c. 
 
 * Dr. Shaw's Travels. t By Word of Mouth. 
 
44 VERBS 
 
 PLURAL FOR THE SINGULAR. 
 
 1. No Officer DARE contradict ^ dispute, 
 or disobey, the Orders of his superior Officer.^ 
 
 2. The Camel eats little, and lives com- 
 monlyjifty Years, To make it go on, the Driver 
 NEED only whistle or sing.'t 
 
 As Officer is not a plural Noun, it ought 
 to be DARES. And for the same Reason 
 NEEDS, e.g. 
 
 3. I have seen an Ostrich swallow Bullets, 
 burning hot from the Mould, which no other 
 Animal DARES to do. J 
 
 I dare do all that does become a Man ; 
 Who DARES do more is none, 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 5. If Weevils infest the Corn, the Farmer 
 NEEDS only put a Lobster or two on the Heap, 
 
 * Dr. Trusler. Compendium J 40. 
 f Journey into Egypt. 
 J Dr. Shaw. 
 
VERBS. 45 
 
 and^ in less than four Hours^ the Weevils will 
 quit the Barn or perish,^ 
 
 6. Allow not Nature more than Nature 
 
 NEEDS. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 ^ The Expression WERE IT is very 
 proper. It is conditional, and may be varied 
 hy If. E.G. 
 
 7. WERE IT not for the fixed Stars, it 
 would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, 
 to prove the annual Motion of the Earth. '\ 
 
 8. IF IT WERE not for the fresh Air, 
 which is let into the Pond, Fishes would die, 
 when the Surface isfrozen.'\ 
 
 But the Expression IT WERE, without 
 any Hypothesis or Condition annexed, is in- 
 admissible. E. G. 
 
 9. IT WERE TO BE WISHED, that 
 Princes would lay aside their foolish Projects 
 of Conquest and Dominion, and consult the real 
 Happiness of them selvesand their Subjects. 
 
 * Letters on Agriculture. t Dr. Goldsmith. 
 
46 VERBS. 
 
 We shall be convinced of the Impropriety 
 of this Construction, by prefixing IF to the 
 Words li were to be wished. The Sense is not 
 complete; for it is a positive, unconditional 
 Proposition ; and it ought to be in the Mode 
 which Grammarians term the Indicative. It 
 is to he wished that Princes would lay aside 
 their silly Projects, is the proper Expres- 
 sion. 
 
 C^ The Phrase I could wish is equally 
 exceptionable, when the Sentence is uncon- 
 ditional. The Error is not in Point of Con- 
 cord, yet I ask Leave to notice it under the 
 present Section. 
 
 10. I COULD WISH the Merit and 
 Greatness of a Man were estimated according 
 to his Virtue and Abilities^ and not according to 
 his Fortune. 
 
 To the Wish I cordially assent. To the 
 Manner of expressing it, my Duty compels 
 me to object. The worthy Author should 
 have written, I wish the Merit, &c. &c. There 
 is no Hypothesis or Reserve to justify the 
 Admission of could. In the following In- 
 stance, indeed, and upon all similar occa- 
 sions, it is proper and necessary. 
 
VERBS. 47 
 
 11. He has so provoked me, I COULD 
 WISH him dead. — I COULD kill him^ were 
 he not my Child. 
 
 The Distinction is obvious. In the for- 
 mer Instance, if we reject could, the Expres- 
 sion will be full and nervous. If we dismiss 
 it from the latter Instance, it will indicate a 
 Wish that had no Existence in a Father's 
 Breast. Though he has so grievously pro- 
 voked me. I do not desire ; his Death — he 
 is my Child — paternal Feelings arrest my 
 Vengeance. 
 
 12. The Sun is in the Centre of our System, 
 the Planets which move round him are six in 
 Number, and their Names are as FOLLOW, 
 Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, 
 Saturn. 
 
 It ought to be follows. Their Names 
 are as it here follows — as the Account which 
 follows. On most occasions it is more elegant 
 to admit as follows. Were you asked the 
 Name of a Man of War, it would be ridicu- 
 lous to answer, it is as follows, the Alfred. If 
 the Question extended to several Ships, it 
 would be equally unnecessary to say, they 
 are as follows, the Ganges, the Triumph, the 
 
48 VERBS. 
 
 Irresistible. In justification of the Phrase it 
 may be urged, that the true Construction re- 
 quires jTo/Zosy. The Names are as they follow. 
 To which I reply, AS, is a Term of Simihtude. 
 And the Expression, as they follow^ implies 
 that the Names are like themselves! ! But the 
 Names are AS, or LIKE the Account — as, or 
 like Statement which follows. 
 
 13. The Cape of Good Hope, as well as 
 many Islands in the West Indies^ ARE famous 
 for Hurricanes,* 
 
 Unpardonable Neghgence ! The Cape of 
 Good Hope ARE!!! 
 
 14. It is praiseworthy to abstain from In- 
 jury ; but that A'NT enough ; you must also 
 
 learn to do Good, 
 
 A'nt ought to be avoided, even when the 
 Construction admits a Verb in the plural 
 Number. In the Phrase before us, it makes 
 a disgraceful Solecism. To abstain from 
 Injury is praiseworthy, but that are not 
 enough!!! 
 
 Let it be remembered by those Econo- 
 
 * Goldsmith. Hist. Earth, 1 vol. 359- 
 
A'' E R B S . 49 
 
 mists, who desire to save Ink and Breath by 
 a prudent Abbreviation of their Phrases, that 
 ant is the plural Contraction; and is'nt the 
 singular. 
 
 15. There A RE a great Variety of Wines^ 
 which differ in Colour^ Taste^ Quality^ and 
 'Duration.^ 
 
 Variety is not a plural Noun, any more 
 than Quality, or Duration, 
 
 * Dr. Trusler. C. 93. 
 
50 VERBS, 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 PARTICULAR REMARKS ON THE CONSTRUC- 
 TION OF VERBS WITH NOUNS. 
 
 I. 
 
 When the Word — ^TO — is prefixed to a 
 Verb, the Verb is said by Grammarians to be 
 in the Infinitive Mode, and to conform to the 
 same Rules of Government as the Noun. e. g. 
 
 1. TO ERR is human, to forgive divine. 
 
 To and err convey the same Idea as 
 Error, and, on that Account, the Verb which 
 follows must be in the singular. And the 
 same Construction is proper though the Infi- 
 nitive Mode be followed by several other 
 Words, e. g. 
 
 2. To be in a Passion IS to punish your- 
 
VERBS. 51 
 
 self for the Faults and Impertinencies of other 
 People* 
 
 Here are not fewer than five Words be- 
 fore IS, but as they include only a single 
 Idea — PASSION — the Sentence is correct. 
 
 3. To be a Benefactor to Mankind by pro- 
 pagating Knowledge requires some Qualities 
 not universally bestowed; but TO SPREAD 
 Suspicion, TO INVENT Calumnies, TO 
 PROPAGATE Scandal, REQUIRES nei- 
 ther Talents, nor Labour, nor Courage. -f 
 
 It is here most truly and properly affirmed, 
 that to spread Suspicion requires no Talents; 
 to invent Calumnies requires no Talents ; to 
 propagate Scandal requires no Talents. But 
 observe, the Admission of — AND — between 
 the Infinitive Modes renders the Construction 
 ungrammatical. e. g. 
 
 4. To be rich AND to be ennobled IS not 
 sufficient to procure the Esteem of worthy Men, 
 
 If — AND — were omitted the Passage 
 
 * Stanislaus, King of Poland, Translation, 
 t Dr. Johnson. 
 D 2 
 
52 VERBS. 
 
 would be accurate. AFFLUENCE is not 
 sufficient to procure the Esteem of worthy 
 Men; NOBILITY is not sufficient to pro- 
 cure the Esteem of worthy Men ; for a Man 
 may be affluent without Nobility ; or enno- 
 bled without Affluence, and, in either Case, 
 be denied the Esteem of worthy Men. But 
 it is obviously the Author's Opinion, that 
 Nobility and Affluence t^mVed are insufficient 
 to procure Esteem, and therefore Reason and 
 the Idiom of our Language demanded a Verb 
 plural. 
 
 On Subjects of Importance, it is better 
 to be diffusive than defective. Permit me, 
 therefore, to repeat my former Remark, when- 
 ever — AND — occurs between two Nouns, or 
 two Infinitive Modes, the Verb must be in the 
 plural. Even when the Attribute may be 
 affirmed of each Noun separately, and on 
 that Account if the — AND — be omitted, it 
 is always more safe^ and frequently more 
 elegant to insert it. e. g. 
 
 5. Temperance^ Justice^ Fortitude^ IS a 
 Virtue. 
 
 The full Construction is — Temperance is 
 a Virtue, Justice is a Virtue, Fortitude is 
 
VERBS. 53 
 
 3L Virtue. In the Abbreviated Construction, 
 the Attribute and Affirmation are omitted 
 after Temperance and Justice, and, as there is 
 no — AND — in the Sentence, the Verb con- 
 tinues in the singular, after no fewer than 
 three Nouns. The Author might have writ- 
 ten — Temperance, Justice, and Fortitude 
 ARE Virtues. The — AND — is never omitted 
 to Advantage, except after Infinitive Modes : 
 because Verbs singular are never elegantly 
 used after several Nouns, though they are fre- 
 quently graceful after several Infinitives. The 
 Reason of which will be given in the Sequel 
 of this Essay. 
 
 But take particular Notice, if one of the 
 Nouns be plural, it is indispensably necessary 
 to use a Verb plural, though there be no — 
 AND — in the Sentence, and though the 
 Noun which immediately precedes the Verb 
 be singular, e. g. 
 
 6. The Stars, the Sun PROCLAIMS his 
 Praise. 
 
 How much more easy and natural it is 
 to say — The Sun and Stars proclaim his 
 Praise! When we depart from established 
 
54 VERBS. 
 
 Modes of Expression, it is incumbent on us 
 to prove, that we have Reason and Analogy 
 to countenance our Dissent. This Gentleman 
 has neither ; for admitting that the Sun PRO- 
 CLAIMS the Praise of Almighty God, it 
 may be demanded, what are the Stars doing? 
 Hecannotanswer,rHEFalso PROCLAIMS 
 his Praise, for that is an Error in Concord. 
 Nor can he plead, that PROCLAIM is un- 
 derstood ; because it is a Rule founded on 
 the Nature of Things, that a Verb plural can- 
 not be understood of a former Noun, if a 
 Verb singular be expressed with the latter. 
 The Author might have written, the Sun, the 
 Stars PROCLAIM his Praise : for an Indi- 
 vidual may be included in a Multitude, but 
 not a Multitude in an Individual. Proclaims 
 relates to one ; proclaim to many. 
 
 H As it is of the utmost Consequence to 
 ascertain the Nominative Case in a Sentence, 
 I request Leave to add some Instances for 
 the Exercise of my younger Reader, and to 
 subjoin a few Strictures to facilitate the In- 
 vestigation. And I entreat him not to be 
 discouraged, if he find a little Difficulty on a 
 first Reading. Let him persevere. The Whole 
 will soon become familiar, and he will be 
 
VERBS. 65 
 
 amply rewarded for his Assiduity ; for instead 
 of being perpetually at a Loss to know 
 whether the Verb ought to be singular or 
 plural, he will be able, in this Respect, to 
 communicate his Sentiments without Hesita- 
 tion, and without Error. 
 
56 VERBS. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SENTENCES 
 
 FOR EXERCISE. 
 
 1. To dread no Eye, and to suspect no 
 Tongue, IS the great Prerogative of Virtue.^ 
 
 2. The Wages of Sin IS Death, f 
 
 3. In a Universe IS contained all Parti- 
 culars.X 
 
 4. In nine Miles at Sea there IS six Feet 
 of the Earth's Swell. % 
 
 5. Of the amazing Variety in Nature, 
 Red, Orange, Yellow — Green — Blue, Indigo, 
 Violet, ARE the only original Colours. 
 
 6. What the Heart, or the Imagination 
 DICTATE, always flows readily.^ 
 
 * Dr. Johnson. f Romans, vi. 23. 
 
 J Alexander Ross against Hobbs. 86. 
 
 § Dr. Goldsmith. 
 
 II Dr. Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric^ vol. ii. 229. 
 
VERBS. 57 
 
 T . An ostentatiouSy a feeble, a harsh^ or an 
 obscure Style ARE always Faults^ and Perspi- 
 cuityy Strength, Neatness, and Simplicity ARE 
 Beauties* 
 
 8. There was much Genius in the World, 
 before there WERE Learning, or ARTS to 
 refine it.'f 
 
 9. Not to believe rashly IS the Sinews of 
 Wisdo7n.X 
 
 10. The greater PART of MANKIND 
 
 ARE corrupt in every Condition, and differ in 
 high and in low Stations only as THEY have 
 more, or fewer Opportunities of gratifying their 
 Desires, 
 
 11. The OPPOSITION RESEMBLE 
 
 Cerberus^ barking for a Sop, and the silent 
 Instruments of the Ministry resemble him, when, 
 after he has received it, he wraps himself up in 
 
 * Dr. Blair, vol. i. 401. 
 
 t Dr. Blair, vol. ii. 343. 
 
 X Mr. Turner's Latin Exercises. 102. 
 
 § A Dog with three Necks and three Heads. Accord- 
 ing to the Fiction of Heathen Poets, it was the Keeper of 
 Pluto's Palace in Hell. 
 
58 VERBS. 
 
 his own warm Skin, and enjoys a comfortable 
 Doze.* 
 
 (tir It is impossible to dismiss the eleventh 
 Example without asking — are we really re- 
 duced to so low, so abject a State, that we 
 can submit to be represented by MON- 
 STERS ? Genius of Albion defend us ! The 
 Simile, I hope, is indecent. With those, whom 
 he presumes to be yelping for a Sop, as well 
 as with those, whom he conceives Mr. Pitt 
 and his Whipper-in have pacified, there are 
 Men as inflexible, I trust, in political Inte- 
 grity as Cato himself. That we have not 
 more of this noble Description, I attribute 
 to unprincipled Electors, who sell their Coun- 
 try to the highest Bidder. 
 
 The Simile is certainly unhappy. In 
 the divine Ode addressed to Macaenas, on 
 Contempt of Fortune, Horace speaks of in- 
 volving himself — not in his Skin, for that is a 
 Mode of Involution which he had not the 
 Sagacity to discover — but in his Virtue, in 
 his Integrity. 
 
 si celeres quatit 
 
 Pennas, resigno quce dedit, et mea 
 Virtute me involvo. 
 
 * Knox's Essays, vol. i. 
 
VERBS. 59 
 
 In Return for so polite a Compliment 
 to Gentlemen on both Sides of the House, 
 they would cheerfully concur, I dare say, in 
 voting Mr. Knox to the snowy Regions of 
 Siberia, there to enjoy a comfortable Doze 
 with Nothing but his own warm Skin to wrap 
 around him. 
 
60 
 
 TERBS, 
 
 STRICTURES 
 
 ON THE PRECEDING SENTENCES. 
 
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 An OBJECT is an Existence discerned 
 by the Mind. 
 
 Every Existence is either spiritual, or 
 ideal, or corporeal. 
 
 With spiritual Existences we are, at 
 present, incapable of Intercourse by actual 
 Vision, unless God, with whom all Things 
 are possible, suspend the established Laws of 
 Nature by a Miracle. 
 
 \.\\ 
 
VERBS. 61 
 
 From the original Constitution of 
 Things, and from Habits of Education, we 
 behold some Objects with Apathy or Indif- 
 ference. But other Objects excite in us im- 
 mediate Desire, or Aversion. 
 
 When the Object is imperfectly com- 
 prehended, and the Mind is, in Consequence, 
 engaged in the Investigation of its Properties, 
 it becomes a SUBJECT ; and the Re- 
 sult of the Examination is termed JUDG- 
 MENT. 
 
 When the IDEAS, of which a Judg- 
 ment is composed, are clothed in Words, 
 they form a PROPOSITION. 
 
 In LOGIC these Ideas are distinguished 
 by the Terms, SUBJECT, PREDICATE, 
 COPULA. 
 
 Of the Subject I have already spoken. 
 The Predicate is any Property, Quality, or 
 Attribute, affirmed or denied of the Sub- 
 
62 VERBS. 
 
 ject. The Copula unites the Subject and Pre- 
 dicate. 
 
 In GRAMMAR, the Term NOMINA- 
 TIVE CASE corresponds to Subject ; 
 ADJECTIVE is the same as Predicate; 
 and VERB is equivalent to Copula. Pre- 
 cisely the same Ideas expressed in other 
 Words. 
 
 Hence the Truth of that original Re- 
 mark made by Mr. Tooke, Locke's Essay 
 on Human Understanding is a Treatise on 
 Words or Language. Hence also the Pro- 
 priety of Dr. Blair's Assertion. He, who 
 is learning to arrange his Sentences with 
 Accuracy and Order, is learning, at the 
 same Time, to think with Accuracy and 
 Order, which alone will justify all the Care 
 and Attention we can bestow. And hence, 
 finally, the Force of Quintihan's Decla- 
 ration — They who engage in this impor- 
 tant Pursuit — will find it not only adapt- 
 ed to expand and invigorate the Powers 
 of YOUTH, but to exercise the PRO- 
 FOUNDEST ERUDITION, and the most 
 exquisite Taste. 
 
 :k 
 
VERBS. 63 
 
 To illustrate these Remarks, let us 
 suppose a Case in which a wise Man con-' 
 templates the Beauties of Virtue, contrasts 
 them with the Deformities of Vice, and con- 
 cludes that Virtue is amiable, and Vice de- 
 testable. 
 
 If this Decision be confined in the 
 Breast, it is correctly termed a JUDG- 
 MENT. If revealed, it is denominated a 
 PROPOSITION : for the Man— in good old 
 English — has spoken his Mind* and proposed 
 it to the Consideration of others. 
 
 In the Language of the LOGICIAN, 
 Virtue is the Subject; Is — the Copula; ami- 
 able the Predicate. 
 
 In the Language of the GRAMMA- 
 RIAN, Virtue is the Nominative Case;*!* Is 
 — the Verb ;J amiable the Adjective. 
 
 The same Terms of Distinction are ap- 
 
 * Or, pronounced his Judgment. 
 + That is — Virtue is a Noun in the Nominative Case. 
 X Verb and Affirmation are equivalent Terms. 
 
64 VERBS. 
 
 plicable in the Judgment and Proposition — 
 Vice is detestable. In both Instances, there 
 is a proper Correspondence between the No- 
 minative Case and the Verb; for they are 
 both singular. 
 
 f When we pronounce Judgment on 
 a Plurality of Objects, the Affirmation 
 ought to be plural, in Conformity to the 
 Plurality of Ideas in the Mind. The Ana- 
 logy is natural and elegant. And by this 
 Mode of Diction, People of Education 
 are distinguished from the illiterate Mul- 
 titude. 
 
 The only Difficulty consists in ascer- 
 taining the Nominative Case of a Sentence; 
 for it is one of the easiest Things in the World 
 to use a Verb of a corresponding Termina- 
 tion. 
 
 A great Ornament of poUte Literature* 
 informs us, that in Greek the Subject is al- 
 
 * James Harris, Esq. Hermes, 230. 
 
VERBS. 65 
 
 ways distinguished by an Article ; and that 
 in English it precedes its Attribute. But this 
 is contrary to Fact in both Languages. In 
 the Definitions of his favourite Grecian^* 
 the Subject is frequently divested of this 
 " essential" Appendage ; for, in Truth, there 
 is no more Necessity for using a Demon- 
 strative Article in a Definition, than for 
 pointing to a Person with your Fifiger, when 
 you make him the Subject of Conversation. 
 
 In English, the Predicate and Subject 
 are frequently transposed. 
 
 Mr. Harris inadvertently concluded that 
 the Predicate is converted into the Subject 
 by such Transposition. But from this Doc- 
 trine I ask Leave to dissent, because it is not 
 true in a Definition by GENUS. E. G. 
 Every Horse is an Animal. But the Converse 
 of the Proposition — every Animal is a Horse 
 — -is inadmissible^ 
 
 It is not true in a Definition by Species. 
 E. G. Every Eagle is a Bird. But the Terms 
 are not convertible ; for every Bird is not an 
 Eagle. 
 
 * Aristotle. 
 
66 VERBS. 
 
 It is not true in a Definition of INDI- 
 VIDUALS, E. G. St. Paul's Cathedral is 
 a magnificent Structure, But a magnificent 
 Structure is not, by a necessity of Nature, 
 St. Paul's Cathedral. 
 
 It is not true in a Definition by JVO- 
 MINAL ESSENCE. 
 
 In Proof of which, I need only mention 
 Plato's Definition of a Man — viz. " An Ajii- 
 *' maly with two Legs, and without Feathers.'* 
 Every Animal, then, said Diogenes, his 
 sagacious Opponent, with two Legs, and 
 without Feathers, is a Man : and immediately 
 plucking a Game Cock, ironically exclaimed, 
 behold Plato's M^JV// 
 
 That my younger Readers may clearly 
 understand what has been said, permit me to 
 add, that the Converse of the first Definition 
 is improper, for the Genus (Animal) is in- 
 cluded in the Horse, and therefore Horse is 
 of greater force than Animal. The Terms of 
 the second Proposition are not convertible, 
 for the Species (Bird) is included in the 
 Eagle, and therefore Eagle is of greater 
 Force — that is, contains more Ideas — than 
 
X 
 
 V 
 
 VER^S. 67 
 
 Birds.* In a Definition, finally by nominal 
 Essence, the Converse is not true, because 
 it is impossible to enumerate every Particu- 
 lar with such Precision as will justify a 
 Transposition of Terms.-j^ 
 
 ^ in a venerable old Grammar, " put 
 " forth by Order of our Sovereign Lord the 
 " King,'' it is said, " when thou hast an Eng- 
 *' lish to turn into Latin, find out the prin- 
 " cipal Verb, and then ask this Question, 
 " Who, or What? And the Word that an- 
 " swereth thereunto shall be the Nominative 
 " Case to the Verb/' But unfortunately the 
 Attribute, on many Occasions, is more prompt 
 in Answer, and plausible in Argument, than 
 the Subject himself. We must, therefore, 
 endeavour to establish a plain, infallible 
 
 * I have chosen Animal for the Genus, of which Bird 
 is a Species ; but it may be useful to remark, that the highest 
 and most comprehensive Genus is BEING, of which Ani- 
 mal itself is only a Species. In a Dissertation on Birds, 
 Fishes, or Beasts, it is usual to make each of them a Genus, 
 and then class them into Species. Thus, a Bird is a Genus, 
 in this View, and an Eagle a Species. If it be a Dissertation 
 on Eagles, then Eagle becomes a Genus, the Pondicherry 
 Eagle a Species, and this or that Eagle an Individual, 
 
 t The Nature of the third Proposition is sufficiently 
 obvious. The Novelty of this Language will be adjusted in 
 the fourth Number. 
 
 e2 
 
6S 
 
 VERBS 
 
 Criterion to reach every possible Mode of 
 Construction. 
 
 SENTENCE I.* 
 
 As the Object is prior in Existence to 
 the Contemplation of its Properties, the 
 Subject naturally precedes the Attribute in 
 the Order of Elocution. But in all Lan- 
 guages, the best Authors frequently depart 
 from this Arrangement, to diversify and ele- 
 vate their Style. 
 
 This Sentence, now under Consideration, 
 indisputably proves Mr. Harris mistaken in 
 his Opinion, " the Subject, in English, pre- 
 " cedes the Predicate;" for the Prerogative 
 of Virtue is the Subject ; to dread no Eye^ and 
 to suspect no Tongue^ are the Predicate. 
 
 It is Evidence, also, that Interroga- 
 tories are inadequate to the Purpose of as- 
 certaining the Nominative Case. Had Dr. 
 Johnson asked this Question, " Who, or 
 " What is the great Prerogative of Virtue?'' 
 
 * The Sentences are detached from the Remarks, that 
 the Student's Progress may be the more easily ascertained. 
 
VERBS. 69 
 
 he had been seduced by the Answer into a 
 Violation of the Laws of Definition. 
 
 ^ An Attribute, as I have already re- 
 marked, resides in its Subject. It is a Part 
 of its Character. But an Attribute does not 
 contain its Subject; for it is contrary to the 
 Nature of things for a Part to measure and 
 embrace the Whole. 
 
 We may therefore say^ Omnipresence is 
 an Attribute of Deity — God is omnipresent — - 
 God exists an omnipresent Being — The Na- 
 ture of the Deity includes Omnipresence. 
 But the Converse of the Proposition — Omm- 
 presence is God^ is inadmissible; for the 
 Deity is in Possession of other great and 
 glorious Attributes. 
 
 Were it even possible to enumerate all 
 the Parts of a Subject, such Parts would be 
 only equivalent to the Whole. No one will 
 deny, that TWO SHILLINGS and SIX- 
 FENCE are equivalent to A HALF 
 CROWN FIECE. But who will assert, 
 that two Shillings and Sixpence ARE a half 
 Crown Piece ? 
 
 Permit me to remark, in passing, that 
 
70 VERBS. 
 
 the preceding Example will corroborate what 
 has been already said concerning elliptical 
 Construction, For suppose you were to cen- 
 sure a Person for saying, 
 
 Two Shillings and Sixpence IS half a 
 Crown.* 
 
 And suppose he were to urge in Defence 
 of the Construction, it is elliptical. Request 
 him to supply the Ellipsis, and you will in-r 
 stantly perceive him reduced to a Dilemma; 
 to an absolute Necessity of admitting an 
 Imputation o? false Grammar^ or of Nonsense; 
 for will it not be a gross Absurdity to com-r 
 plete the Sentence thus. 
 
 Two Shillings ARE a half Crown, and 
 Sixpence-^ IS a half Crown? 
 
 And if he insert — IS — after TWO 
 SHILLINGS, the Sentence will include at 
 once a Solecism in Grammar, and a Solecism 
 in Sense. 
 
 * I here understand Sixpence to mean the Silver Coin 5 
 which requires the Singular after it. 
 
 t It is merely for the Sake of Argument, I admit the 
 Ellipsis to be supplied with ARE, after IS has been ex- 
 pressed. pr See the Remarks on the Stars^ the Sun pro- 
 claims his Praise. 
 
VERBS. 71 
 
 S The Subject is that Part of a Propo- 
 sition which we intend to illustrate, or con- 
 cerning which we desire to communicate In^ 
 formation. There are Propositions, indeed, 
 in which this important End is not obtained. 
 Such are identical Propositions, those silly, 
 unmeaning Modes of Expression, in which 
 the Subject is affirmed of itself ; A Horse ^ for 
 Example, is a Horse. And, such are those 
 sophistical Propositions, in which an ignotum 
 is explained by an ig/zo^ms— Twilight illus- 
 trated by Darkness — The Reverse of a liberal 
 Definition, in which an Idea, supposed to be 
 imperfectly comprehended, is compared with 
 an Idea obvious and familiar. 
 
 To dfead no Eye, and to suspect no 
 Tongue, are Ideas intelligible and manifest ; 
 but the great Prerogative of Virtue demand- 
 ed Illustration. It was the OBJECT which 
 engaged Johnson's Attention; and he de- 
 scribes it as superior to Fear, superior to Sus- 
 picion, Blessed Prerogative! Compared with 
 which, the Sceptre of a Prince is a con- 
 temptible Bauble.* 
 
 * Ml/ Crozm is in my Hearty not on my Head: 
 A Crown^t is that seldom Kings enjoy. 
 
 Shakspeare's Henry VI. 
 
72 VERBS. 
 
 SENTENCE II. 
 
 The Wages of Sin IS Death. This Pas^ 
 sage is exceptionable in every View. It is an 
 Infraction of the Laws of English Concord ; 
 a Departure fi'om an established Maxim in 
 Greek ; and aDiminution of the awful Beauty 
 of the OriginaL 
 
 Were Death the Subject, the Expression 
 would be correct. But the Wages of Siii are 
 the Subject, consequently it ought to be 
 ARE, Death is universally known to be a 
 Deprivation of Life. But what the Wages 
 of Sin are cannot be known but from Reve- 
 lation. 
 
 The Rule laid down by Mr. Harris* is 
 often contradicted in the Writings of the best 
 Authors. But I believe it to be a Rule with- 
 out an Exception, if only one of the Terms 
 be attended with the Article, that Term is 
 the Subject of the Proposition, 
 
 The Apostle's Denunciation is remark- 
 able for its Energy and Precision. To, o^cavia. 
 
 * Respecting the Article in Greek. 
 
 I 
 
VERBS. 73 
 
 T?f afiu^Tiocg ^dvocTog, It is also attended by the 
 Article, and under those Circumstances which 
 I have stated to be infalUble Evidence of the 
 Subject. I am therefore surprised at the 
 Inattention of the pious and learned Trans- 
 lator. 
 
 SENTENCE III. 
 
 It is astonishing that any Gentleman, 
 in the Use of his Reason, should write so 
 inaccurately. Even the School-Boy's Inter- 
 rogatory, Who, or What is contained in a Uni- 
 verse? is sufficient to ascertain the Subject 
 on the present Occasion. Eor the Answer is 
 — All Particulars — All Particulars ARE con- 
 tained in a Universe. 
 
 SENTENCE IV. 
 
 I know not what Apology can be of- 
 fered for this Blunder. In Conformity, per- 
 haps, to the Doctrine, " the Subject precedes 
 " the Affirmation,'* the , Doctor concluded, 
 SEA is the Subject, and the Verb must bq 
 singular. But I enjoin the Student to repose 
 no Confidence in the Arrangement of the 
 
74 vj:iiBs. 
 
 Words; but to investigate the Nominative 
 Case on the unerring Principles of Reason 
 and Nature. 
 
 C^ If a subject be placed after an Affir- 
 mation, which does not correspond with it in 
 Number, you may make the Error more ob- 
 vious by Transposition. E. G. 
 
 SIX FEET of the Earth^s Swell IS in 
 every nine Miles at Sea. Six Feet is!!! 
 
 SENTENCE V. 
 
 Of the amazing Variety in Nature, Red, 
 Orange, Yellow — Green — Blue, Indigo, Vio- 
 let, ARE the only original Colours. 
 
 I have already remarked,* that a Verb 
 singular may follow several Nouns, if — AND 
 — be omitted. But this Mode of Expression 
 is at all Times inelegant^ and on some Occa- 
 sions incorrect. In the Sentence before us. 
 
 * Page 52. 
 
VERBS. 75 
 
 there is no — And — yet we must not substitute 
 IS for ARE ; for the Predicate is under such 
 Restriction as renders it inapphcable to In- 
 dividuals. 
 
 I do not say it would be incorrect merely 
 because of the plural Term Colours ; for if we 
 change it to a Singular, there will still be a 
 Solecism in the Sense. E. G. 
 
 Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, In^ 
 digo, Violet, IS the only original Colour. 
 
 Now let us supply the Ellipsis, and affirm 
 the Predicate of each Individual. 
 
 Red is the ONLY original Colour. 
 Orange is the ONLY original Colour ! ! 
 
 We may as well stop here, because fur- 
 ther Progress, in the Language of our de- 
 parted Lexicographer, will be only a propa- 
 gation of Falsehood. If Red be the ONLY 
 original Colour, there can be no other original 
 Colour, 
 
 If any Person be disposed to make the 
 only original Colours — the Subject of the Pro- 
 position, I desire Leave to inform him, it is 
 
16 VERBS. 
 
 impossible. He may sa}', if he please, the 
 only original Colours are /za/wed Red, Orange, 
 &:c. But he cannot assert, consistently with 
 Truth, that the only original Colours ARE 
 Red, Blue, Green, &c. as it must inevitably 
 follow, that every original Colour is at once 
 Red, and Blue, and Green, which is absurd.* 
 
 * And here I entreat Permission to observe, that I have 
 selected such Passages for grammatical Purposes, as may 
 conduce to other great and noble Ends. I have furnished the 
 benevolent Tutor with innumerable Opportunities of incul- 
 cating Principles of Prudence, Temperance, Fortitude, Pa? 
 triotism, &c. From the Sentence before us, he may take Oc- 
 casion to comment on the Wisdom and Power of the Deity ; 
 for by Means of a Prism (which may be purchased at a trifling 
 Expense) he may exhibit to his Pupils an Assemblage of 
 Colours, rising in such beautiful Gradation from a common 
 Medium — Green — as cannot fail of delighting even Dulness 
 itself. As for generous Minds, they must be filled with Rap- 
 ture and Astonishment, when those splendid Mysteries of 
 Nature are properly unfolded to their View. 
 
 ^ I have also inserted various Remarks in the Arts and 
 Sciences, that the Master, by his Comments, may gradually 
 enlarge his Pupil's Mind, and excite him to deeper Inquiries. 
 
 ^ The Ladies are not expected to go through a regular 
 Course of Science, but it is highly expedient to give them 
 such an Insight into particular Departments, as may qualify 
 them for solid Reading and hberal Conversation. 
 
 ^ Nothing will so effectually expand and invigorate the 
 Powers of the Mind as CLOSE THINKING. Hence it 
 is of the greatest Consequence to form, in both Sexes, an earli/ 
 Habit of Reasoning. It was an excess of Modesty, perhaps, 
 in Sir Isaac Newton to attribute his glorious Discoveries to 
 
VERBS. 77 
 
 SENTENCE VI. 
 
 What the Heart, OR the Imagination 
 dictate, always flows readily. .1 beg Leave to 
 remind this polite and amiable Author, that 
 we never use — Oft — in the Sense in which it 
 is here employed. Dr. Johnson, indeed, in- 
 forms us, that or is a Conjunction, and he 
 adds, it is disjunctive. Monstrous Associa- 
 
 patient Attention ; but certainly Attention, without Genius, 
 is preferable to Genius, without Attention. It is not the Time 
 which a Student spends at his Books, but the Art of confining 
 his Attention, of concentring the Powers of his Mind to the 
 Business before him, which conduces to his real Progress. I 
 have, therefore, diversified the Subject of my Essay, and with 
 that which floats on the Surface and may be comprehended 
 by a Glance, I have occasionally blended profounder Disqui- 
 sitions, that the Pupil may be taught at once to SPEAK and 
 to THI^K. Nor have I omitted any Opportunity of teach- 
 ing him how to ACT. And if they, whom Providence hath 
 appointed to the honourable and important Office of Instruc- 
 tion, exert themselves as they ought, they will justify, perhaps, 
 the bold Assertion of Goldsmith. — Of all Professions in So- 
 ciety, J do not know a more useful, nor a more honourable 
 one, than that of a School-Master^ at the same Time, T do not 
 see any, where Talents are so ill rewarded. Every Member 
 of Society should be paid in proportion as he is necessary ; 
 and I will be bold to say, that School-Masters in a State, are 
 more necessary than Clergymen, as Children stand more in 
 need of Instruction than their Parents. Essay 7th. 
 
78 VERBS. 
 
 tion of Ideas ! Can mortal Imagination con- 
 ceive what is meant by a DISJUNCTIVE 
 CONJUNCTION? 
 
 I am not competent to determine what 
 
 Impressions are made by AND and 
 
 by OR on our Friends North of the 
 
 Tweed, but I assure Dr. Blair, that, with us, 
 the most illiterate Rustics perceive the Diflfer- 
 ence in a Moment. A homely Example will 
 abundantly answer our Purpose. In a Coun- 
 try Fair, if you say to a Peasant intrusted 
 with the Sale of some Horses, I will give you 
 Twenty Guineas for this Horse AND that ; 
 the Terms of Purchase will be instantly com- 
 prehended, and the Man will properly con- 
 clude, that he must deliver TWO Horses, on 
 Receipt of the Twenty Guineas. If you say 
 — I will give you Twenty Guineas for this 
 Horse OR that^ he will immediately under- 
 stand, that he is to receive Twenty Guineas 
 on Delivery of EITHER of the Horses. 
 
 In England, a Scholar expresses himself 
 in this Manner — What the Heart AND the 
 Imagination DICTATE^ always flows readily. 
 What the Heart, OR the Imagination DIC- 
 TATES, always flows readily. That is — what 
 either the Heart dictates, or the Imagination 
 
VERBS. 79 
 
 dictates, always flows readily. There is pre- 
 cisely the same Impropriety (as to the Ana- 
 logy of Language) in demanding a Verb plu- 
 ral after — OR — on the present Occasion, as 
 there would be in demanding two Horses of 
 the Countryman instead of one. 
 
 SENTENCE VIL 
 
 The first Clause of this Sentence, viz. 
 All ostentatious^ a feeble^ a harsh, OR an ob- 
 scure STYLE ARE always FAULTS— m^y 
 be pronounced inelegant, and indefensible in 
 every View. Its only Merit consists in being 
 a happy Illustration of that Harshness and 
 Imbecility which the learned Professor justly 
 condemns. 
 
 STYLE is the Nominative Case ; and if 
 ten thousand Adjectives were before it, either 
 connected, or unconnected, a Verb plural 
 would be absurd ; for the Words — an osten- 
 tatious, and a feeble, and a harsh, and an ob- 
 scure STYLE — are only equivalent to a 
 STYLE ostentatious, and feeble, and obscure* 
 
 <^ If you affirm innumerable Attributes 
 
80 VERBS 
 
 of an Individual Subject, it preserves its 
 Unity, and requires a Verb singular. 
 
 SENTENCE VIII. 
 
 There was much Genius in the Worlds he- 
 fore there WERE LEARNING, OR Arts 
 to refine it. 
 
 It is far from my Intention to give Of- 
 fence, when I speak of the Diction of Eng^ 
 lishmen, I am fully convinced of the Uni- 
 versality of Truth, and the illimitable Nature 
 of Reason. I disdain to countenance na- 
 tional Distinctions in the Republic of Let- 
 ters, that glorious Republic, where Tyranny, 
 and Faction, and Prejudice, ought equally 
 to be despised. Yet, — Dr. Blair will pardon 
 the Remark — no Englishman of liberal Edu- 
 cation would ask, ARE Milton OR Virgil 
 good Poets? Nor say— In the World WERE 
 Homer OR Hesiod, before the Laws of 
 Poetry were formed into a System. 
 
VEKBS. 81 
 
 SENTENCE IX. 
 
 Not to believe rashly, IS the SINEWS 
 of Wisdom. 
 
 I have the Concurrence of the late pious 
 and learned Bishop of London, when I cen- 
 sure those who attempt to make us speak 
 the Language of the Ancients ; and the Con- 
 currence of Dr. Johnson, when I censure our 
 modern Translators, " whose Idleness and 
 " Ignorance, if suffered to proceed, will re- 
 " duce us to babble a Dialect of France^' But 
 it has been hitherto unnoticed, I believe, that 
 many of those Passages which are cited from 
 ancient Authors, with a View to persuade us 
 to depart from Nature and Analogy, are 
 either imperfectly understood, or corruptly 
 translated. 
 
 The Student will readily perceive, that 
 — not to believe rashly — convey an Idea which 
 needs no Definition, and that the Expression, 
 Sinews of Wisdom^ is, in its Nature, metapho- 
 rical and obscure. He will, therefore, make 
 
 * Preface to his Dictionary. 
 
82 VERBS. 
 
 Sifiews of Wisdom the Subject of the Propo- 
 sition, and exchange — IS — for — ARE. 
 
 If the Author designed to instruct us in 
 the Nature of Incredulity^ he certainly 
 adopted a very extraordinary Mode of im- 
 parting Information ; for he has compared 
 this Idea, of which every Man has a full, 
 complete Conception, to an Idea which has 
 no Existence but in his own Imagination ; 
 and if this be not a retrogade Progress in 
 Science, — a passing out of Light into Dark- 
 nessy I am unable to determine what merits 
 the Name. 
 
 But as the Words of Cicero justify no 
 such Construction, I am surprised Mr. Tur- 
 ner should translate it — IS. It ought to be 
 — ARE — the Sinews of Wisdom ARE not to 
 believe i^ashly. Non temere credere Nervi 
 SUNT Sapient ice. 
 
 The same Gentleman* translates another 
 Sentence of Cicero in the same Manner. 
 
 To be content with what one has, IS the 
 greatest, and the most certain Riches. 
 
 * J02. 
 
VERBS. 83 
 
 This makes Contentment the Subject. 
 But the Philosopher's Design was to speak of 
 Riches^ durable Riches, in Contradistinction 
 to such as make themselves JVings and flee 
 away. Hence, he says, with great Propriety, 
 co7itentum esse Rebus suis, maximce SUNT 
 certissimceque Divitice, 
 
 The Man, who is incapiable of distin- 
 guishing the Subject of a Proposition, is 
 poorly qualified to instruct the Public ; for 
 he knoweth not what he saith, nor whereof he 
 affirmeth* 
 
 SENTENCE X. 
 
 Grammarians inform us, that certain 
 Nouns, which they denominate collective 
 NounSy may be construed with a Verb either 
 singular^ or plural. But this is speaking at 
 Random, and contrary to the Order and Pre- 
 cision of Nature. Give me Leave to bring 
 this Opinion to the Test of Common Sense. 
 
 I begin with observing, that the PLU- 
 RAL Form of the Verb is improper when 
 
 * 1 Tim. i. 7. 
 r 2 
 
81 VERBS. 
 
 the Attribute is affirmed of the Subject in a 
 COLLECTIVE Sen^e. E.G, 
 
 There ARE a MULTITUDE of Men. 
 There ARE a FLIGHT of Birds. The AS- 
 SEMBLY ARE numerous. The MULTI- 
 TUDE ARE great. 
 
 As it is impossible to affirm of each 
 liian, that he is a MULTITUDE; of each 
 Bird, that it is a FLIGHT; of each Member 
 of the Assembly that he is NUMEROUS ; 
 of each Individual that he is a GREAT 
 MULTITUDE, the Verb ought to be sin- 
 gular, to correspond with the Unity of the 
 Terms, Flight, Multitude, Assemble/. 
 
 2dly. The SINGULAR is frequently 
 inelegant and unnatural. E. G. 
 
 I have Compassion on the Multitude, said 
 the adorable Redeemer, for THEY HAVE 
 Nothing to eat.. 
 
 It is here affirmed of each Individual of 
 the Multitude, that he has nothing to eat ; 
 and there being MANY Individuals, the 
 Verb and Pronoun would be incorrect if used 
 in the singular. 
 
verbs: 85 
 
 3dly. A Verb in the SINGULAR Form 
 is improper when the Word — PART — pre- 
 cedes a COLLECTIVE Term. 
 
 To elucidate this Remark, it will be use- 
 ful to state the Difference between COM- 
 MON and COLLECTIVE Nouns. And in 
 Order to obtain a perfect Conception of this 
 Difference, it is necessary to define the Tei;^ 
 INDIVIDUAL. 
 
 A Genus may be Q- .^i.. o; 
 
 Animal^ for Example, into Man. Bird. And 
 a Species into Individual Ma7i, for In- 
 stance, into Alexander and Julius Ccesar. 
 But Individuals, in the Language of Philoso- 
 ^r)hers, are not susceptible of Division. 
 
 In the popular Acceptance of the Word, 
 even Individuals are capable of being divided. 
 But they lose their obvious Essence in the 
 Process, and pass into other Orders of Being. 
 Thus the Statue of the illustrious Chatham 
 may be divided into Limbs, and those Limbs 
 reduced to Powder, but the Name or nominal 
 Essence would be destroyed by the Operation. 
 
 A COMMON Noun, therefore, is the 
 Symbol of an Existence incapable of being 
 
86 VERBS. 
 
 divided, without losing its nominal Essence, 
 as a CIRCLE, a SWAN, an ORANGE. 
 
 A COLLECTIVE Noun is the Symbol 
 of a Plurality of such Individuals either en- 
 dued with a common Nature, as MAN- 
 KIND ; or accidentally existing in a com- 
 mon Point of View, as a FLIGHT of Birds ; 
 a I/lOCK of Sheep ; or a MULTITUDE 
 
 or M. n 
 
 If a Multitude be separated into Parts, 
 every Part will contain perfect Individuals. 
 But a Segment io uot equal to a Circle, nor 
 does a Wing constitute a Swan. — Hence it is 
 manifest, if the Word — PART — precede a 
 COMMON Noun, the Verb must be singu- 
 lar. E. G. The greater PART of that Orange 
 IS decayed. If it precede a COLLECTIVE 
 Noun, the Verb ought to be plural. E. G. 
 The greater Part of Mankind A RE corrupt in 
 every Condition. It is a distressing Truth, 
 but expressed with Precision and Elegance. 
 
 A COLLECTIVE Noun is the Bond 
 which keeps many Individuals in a State of 
 Union. 
 
 In this aggregate View, you may affirm 
 
VEKBS. 87 
 
 any Action, Passion, or Property, of such In- 
 dividuals as though they were numerically 
 ONE, But Reason and the Analogy of our 
 Language demand a plural Affirmation, when- 
 ever this Bond of Union is broken. 
 
 In the Use of collective Terms, you will 
 experience no Sort of Difficulty, if you con- 
 sider for a Moment whether the Predicate of 
 your Proposition* refers to the Subject in its 
 collective State, or to its several Individuals. 
 E.G. 
 
 The Multitude of the Disaffected TER- 
 RIFIES the Prince, and he retreats instantly 
 zdth his Forces into Camp. 
 
 It was not any Individual of the Multi- 
 tude which terrified the Prince, and induced 
 him to sound a Retreat, but the vast Number 
 of the Insurgents ; the combined Energy of 
 innumerable Individuals. The Diction is 
 correct and elegant. 
 
 But when the Predicate is complete in 
 every Individual, the Verb must indisputably 
 be plural. And I request those, who judge 
 
 * These Terms, I presume, are now familial" to the Student. 
 
88 VERBS. 
 
 of Phrases by the Sounds to consult the Ear 
 on the relative Excellence of the following 
 Passages. I have Compassion on the Multitude, 
 for it is hungry, and HAS Nothiiig to eat, I 
 have Compassion on the Multitude, for THEY 
 AKE hungry, and HAVE Nothing to eat. 
 
 As to Nature and grammatical Propriety, 
 the Difference is too great to admit Compa- 
 rison. For in the former Expression, Hun- 
 ger is predicated of an Idea, of a simple Mode 
 of Existence; in the latter, it is predicated of 
 Men. The former absurdly imphes that they 
 hungered in a collective Sense; the latter truly 
 affirms, that Hunger was experienced by every 
 Individual; for it was not a Contribution of 
 a little Appetite from this Man, and a little 
 Appetite from that Man, which created the 
 Sensation, but a complete and perfect Ap- 
 petite in every Man. 
 
 SENTENCE XI. 
 
 If we say, the Opposition to Lord North's 
 Ministry WAS ultimately irresistible; we 
 speak of the Opposition m^de to his Lord- 
 ship's Measures, by the Lords and Common- 
 ers of the adverse Party. But when Mr. 
 
VERBS. 89 
 
 Knox informs the World, that the OPPOSI- 
 TION RESEMBLE Cerberus barking for a 
 Sop, he alludes to the Peers and Commoners 
 themselves ; to every Member who opposes 
 Administration; and, therefore, he uses, with 
 Propriety, a Verb plural.* 
 
 ADDITIONAL REMARKS. 
 
 I am too sincere an Advocate for the Independency of 
 my Country to allow Foreigners to control our Speech. At 
 the same Time, an Author, who desires to establish such 
 Modes of Diction as are natural and elegant, may avail 
 himself of coincident Expressions in ancient and modern 
 Tongues. 
 
 Thus in HEBREW, we have Instances of a Verb plu- 
 ral in the Construction with a collective noun, &c. b'D) 
 HDnsfD IKl X''\i<n' Et omnis Terra VENERUNT in 
 Mgyptum^ &c. And all the Earth came to -^gypt to buy 
 Corn, for the Famine was sore in all Lands.*"- That is, All 
 the Nations of the Earth came into Mgypt : or, All Countries 
 (as our Translators have rendered the Passage) came into 
 ^^gypt to buy Corn.** 
 
 In GREEK, 6 ttoXvc x^'p^^^^-* Multitudo GAU- 
 DENT. The Multitude REJOICE. Every Individual 
 of the Multitude rejoices; therefore, ilf^JVF rejoice, 
 
 * Young People may pass over the ADDITIONAL 
 REMARKS the first Reading. 
 
 ^ Genesis xli. 
 ^ Wc have no Distinction in ihe jyast Tense lor the Singular. 
 
90 VERBS. 
 
 In LATIN the Instances are Innumerable. Thus 
 Virgil in the 12th iEneid : 
 
 PJRS Gladios STRING UNT Manibus, Pars missile 
 
 Ferrum 
 Corripiunt, CJECIQUE ruunt. 
 
 The Swords were drawn by Individuals ; and ever]/ In- 
 dividual rushed into Battle. The Poet, therefore, made his 
 Affirmation PLURAL. 
 
 (3^ It deserves Notice, that Virgil has disregarded an 
 important Rule in Roman Syntax, for the Sake of being 
 natural and elegant PARS CMCI //-—Our Lan- 
 guage is happily under no such Restraint. We can copy 
 the Beauties of Nature, without violating the Laws of Art. 
 
 In FRENCH — La plupart, iin grand Nombre, un 
 Nombie itijini^ and 7ine Infinite^ require a Verb plural^ if they 
 precede a Genitive Case of a plural Termination. La plu- 
 part des Hommes ONT^ comme les Plantes, des Proprietes 
 cachees que le Hasard fait decouvrir. The gieater Part of 
 Men, like Plants, have hidden Properties which Accident 
 unveils. Were a Frenchman to adopt a Verb singular on 
 such Occasions, and to plead the Usage of the Ancients, he 
 would be justly ridiculed for Pedantry and Affectation. 
 But this Rule does not extend to other collective Terms. 
 E. G. 
 
 La MO IT IE des Ennemis FVT taillee en Pieces. 
 
 And this proves, that the Language has not yet arrived 
 to that Degree of Perfection, which Frenchmen fondly boast 
 it has attained. Half of the Enemies WAS cut to Pieces!! 
 If any Reason can be assigned for using a Verb plural after 
 La Plupart, des Ennemis, 1 am confident the same Ar- 
 
VERBS. 91 
 
 gument must be in Force, with Respect to La Moitit des 
 Ennemis. ^ 
 
 ^ The following Verse illustrates what has been said on 
 this Subject. Mais la MULTITUDE de la ViUe FUT 
 partagee en deux, et les UNS ESTOIENT du Coste des 
 Juifs, et les JUT RES du Coste des Jpostres. — The Mul- 
 titude WAS divided into two Parts. The Verb is correctly 
 used in the singular^ because the Predicate divided into two 
 Parts cannot be affirmed of every Individual. But every 
 Individual was susceptive of Prejudice; and *' this Part 
 *' WERE for the Jews ; and that Part for the Jpostles.'' 
 The same Precision of Idea distinguishes the Original. 
 ^E(TXi(^Oi} Se to TrXrjOog. Kal 01 fxlv ^(rav crvv ToXg ^lovdatoig, 
 01 dl (Tvv toXq aTTOiJToXoig. 
 
 ^ Mr. Dryden saw and lamented the imperfect State of 
 the English Language. But instead of consulting his excel- 
 lent Understanding when a suspected Phrase occurred, he 
 translated it into Latin. But I v»ould as soon appeal to 
 modern Rome for the Truth of my Creed, as to ancient Rome 
 for the Propriety of my Diction. From a System of Syntax 
 so essentially different, it is absurd to expect Information as 
 to Concord and Government. And as to the Arrangement of 
 the Words, it is well known, that elegant Latin, when trans- 
 lated into English verbatim, makes an uncouth, ridiculous 
 Appearance. Read this Extract, gentle Reader, from MIL- 
 TON's Translation of Quis multa gracilis te Puer in Rosa,^ 
 and analyze it, if you can, on any Principles of English Con- 
 struction. 
 
 PVho noz0 enjoys thee credulous^ all Goldy 
 Who always vacant, always amiable, 
 
 Hopes thee, of flattering Gales 
 
 Unmindful !'^ 
 
 * Horace, Ode 5. 
 
92 VERBS. 
 
 The Elegance of the Original is universally allowed ; 
 but I see neither Beauty nor Elegance in the Translation. 
 On the Plea of Poetical Prerogative, the Arrangement may, 
 perhaps, be justified; in every other View, it is Mystery and 
 Confusion. 
 
 ^ Let no one infer, that I am an enemy to ancient Learn- 
 ing. I rank an intimacy with the Classics among the best 
 Blessings of Life ; for in them, the human Intellect shines in 
 the Plenitude of its Glory. They are sublime in Sentiment, 
 and melodious in Diction. And it is no small Part of my 
 Happiness, that I can resort to them for a manly and dignified 
 Relaxation of Mind ; for rational Improvement and substan- 
 tial Delight. 
 
 But I complain that the most important Season of Life 
 is frequently sacrificed to little Purpose. How many are in- 
 capable of speaking, incapable even of translating the learned 
 Languages, after an Application of ten or twelve Years ! ! ! 
 Mean Time, the Parent Tongue is most scandalously ne- 
 glected. " My Contempt for the ancient Languages," said 
 an Author of excellent Sense, " is perhaps somewhat unrea- 
 '* sonable ; but when I see the English which many learned 
 '* Men publish, I cannot help thinking that I am no Loser by 
 ** my Ignorance of Latin and Greek,'* 
 
 As far as it respects the Government, Correspondence, 
 and Arrangement of Words in a Sentence, the Inference is 
 just. But, this Reproach of being Strangers to their own 
 Language is not so general in the learned World as it was in 
 former Times. If an unlucky Boy had written Mores 
 FACIT Hominem — William of Wyckham, I doubt not, 
 would have flogged him as severely as if he had broken 
 the ten Commandments, yet the learned Blockhead saw no 
 Impropriety in his own Adage — Manners MAKES the 
 Man, 
 
VERBS. 93 
 
 Were it impossible to acquire a competent Knowledge 
 of the dead Languages, without neglecting a living one ; and 
 were it a Question, which ought to be preferred ? I should 
 not scruple to affirm, that an enlightened People ought to 
 abandon the Study of Latin and Greek, and cultivate their 
 native Language; that Language in which they enact their 
 Laws, celebrate religious Rites, and manage their social and 
 domestic Interests. 
 
 But, in Fact, we are not reduced to this painful Alter- 
 native. We need only lay a solid Foundation in Etiglisk, 
 and the Mind will soon embrace whatever is valuable in 
 Greek and Latin. It is an Improvement recommended by 
 the late Bishop of London ; and it does Credit to his Lord- 
 ship's Discernment. I am sensible that ancient Methods 
 of Instruction are not easily superceded. But without the 
 Aid of a prophetic Spirit, I predict a Revolution in our pre- 
 sent System. 
 
 At the Revival of Literature, our Ancestors taught the 
 Latin Grammar in the Latin Language. A pleasant Me- 
 thod, no Doubt, both for Master and Scholar. In Process of 
 Time, this was discovered to be a dark " round about way of 
 " coming to the Point^^' and as absurd as climbing to the Top 
 of a House, and then tumbling down the Chimney, instead of 
 entering at the Door. The Grammar was therefore translated 
 into English. 
 
 One Step more, and Reason will be triumphant. Let 
 Youth be taught UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES before 
 they enter upon the Study of the learned Languages, and their 
 Progress will be greater in two Years, than it usually is in 
 the whole Period of their Education. For the Advantages 
 attending a competent Knowledge of what they are doing are 
 incredibly great ; and it will be demonstrated in the Sequel of 
 
94 VERBS. 
 
 this Essay, that the Impracticability of the Measure is ima- 
 ginary. 
 
 ^ Disregarding, therefore, the Laws of foreign Languages, 
 and proceeding entirely on Principles of Common Sense and 
 the Usage of our best Authors, it will be profitable, I conceive, 
 to subjoin a concise Statement of all that relates to the SUB- 
 JECT OF A PROPOSITION, and the GRAMMATI- 
 CAL CORRESPONDENCE OF THE VERB. And 
 I venture to affirm, that a Boarding- School Miss of ten Years 
 of Age will perfectly understand what I advance, provided 
 the same Attention be given to those important Distinctions, 
 which are bestowed upon a Minuet, or a Song. And for the 
 Encouragement of such Ladies I add, that in their intellectual 
 Accomplishments, there is no Danger of being excelled by 
 the Brute Creation. 
 
 Under the first Article of the Inquiry now proposed, viz. 
 the Subject of a Propositioiiy I design to controvert the No- 
 tion that the GENUS INCLUDES THE SPECIES; and 
 as the Author of the Origin and Progress of Language is an 
 eminent Advocate for the Opinion, I will take the Liberty of 
 introducing his Lordship on the Occasion. 
 
 ON THE 
 SUBJECr OF A PROPOSITION, 
 
 ARISTA RCHUS. Perfectly agreeable 1 will im- 
 mediately avail myself of your Lordship's Politeness and Lei- 
 sure. And in the first Place do me the Favour to inform 
 
VERBS. 95 
 
 me whether the Genus inchides the Species, or the Species 
 the Genus. 
 
 LORD M. Are you serious in your Request? Read 
 Harris, the great Restorer of ancient Philosophy. In the 
 
 Arrangements, he affirms expressly the Genus includes the 
 
 Species, 
 
 A. And with equal Precision of Language he affirms, in 
 his Vermes, The Species includes the Genus* 
 
 LORD M. Impossible I 
 
 A. Give me Leave, my Lord, to shew you the Passage. 
 It may be reconciled, perhaps, to the Arrangements, on the 
 Principles of ancient Philosophy. For my Part, I have not 
 the Honour of being sufficiently versed in those sublime Mys- 
 teries to remove the Contradiction. 
 
 LORD M. Reconciled! Oh no ! Harris was not in 
 the Use of his Reason when he wrote that Passage of his 
 Hermes. A Pearl does not include the Shell. A Part does 
 not measure its Whole. The Species include the Genus? 
 Preposterous Idea! Sed aliquando dormitat etiam ipse Ho- 
 merus. 
 
 A. A Pearl, I am fully satisfied, does not contain the 
 Shell, nor a Part embrace the Whole. And I have now to 
 request Your Lordship to instruct me in the Nature of an 
 AFFIRMATION. 
 
 LORD M. Do you mean the Copula of a Propo- 
 sition ? 
 
 A. I do. And I desire to know the genuine Import of 
 the universal Copula— IS. 
 
96 VERBS. 
 
 LORD M. I conceive it implies EXISTENCE and 
 POSSESSION. The Subject exists, or possesses the Pre- 
 dicate of the Proposition. 
 
 A. I perfectly coincide with Your Lordship's Opinion, 
 The affirmative Term of a Proposition indicates that the Sub- 
 ject HAS or POSSESSES the Attribute. 
 
 LORD M. In many Instances, a Verb importing Pos- 
 session is used instead of the Term of Existence. E. G. 
 
 In English, I HAVE an Appetite, or I AM hungry. 
 
 In French, F Alfaim, I have Hunger. 
 
 In Italian, HO fame, I have Hunger. 
 
 In English, J ^MftoL 
 
 In French, F AI chaud, I have Heat. 
 
 Again. In English, we may either say, three and two 
 ARE five, or three and two MAKE five. 
 
 In French, II FAIT f void, it MAKES cold; and // 
 FAIT Nuit, it MAKES Night, are. equivalent to—J^ IS 
 cold. It IS Night, 
 
 From which I make this Induction — the SUBJECT 
 CONTAINS ITS ATTRIBUTE. 
 
 A. Granted. And from the Data^ before us, I entreat 
 Your Lordship will demonstrate the Fallacy of the Notion, 
 which I read this Moment in Hermes. 
 
 • Principles assumed as true. 
 
VERBS. 97 
 
 LORD M. Si.? 
 
 A. I am not so liappy, perhaps, as to convey my Re- 
 quest in Terms sufficiently intelligible. Unable to conjecture 
 how you can confute the Assertion — the Genus is included in 
 its Species — I entreat you to 'favour me with a Demonstration 
 of the Absurdity. For I suspect, my Lord, that the Passage, 
 which you condemn, must be admitted, and that which you 
 approve rejected. 
 
 LORD M. Pray state your Reasons. 
 
 A. Your Lordship affirms, that the Genus is contained 
 in the Species. 
 
 LORD M. Undoubtedly. 
 
 A. And you admit that the affirmative Term implies 
 POSSESSION. 
 
 LORD M. I do. 
 
 A. Then give me Leave to observe, that Your Lord- 
 ship's Theory is at Variance with Fact. 
 
 LORD M. In what Respect? 
 
 A. Is the Expression — a Horse is an Animal — proper ? 
 
 LORD M. Beyond Controversy — in Nature and in 
 Grammar, 
 
 A. Then, my Lord, you have before you a very curious 
 Alternative. If the Species be INCLUDED in the Genus, 
 on what Law of Analogy do you affirm, that the Horse con- 
 tains the Animal .'' 
 
 G 
 
98 VERBS. 
 
 And if it be true, that the Horse contains the Animal, by 
 what Argument will Your Lordship prove, that the Genus in- 
 dudes the Species ? 
 
 It is so entirely repugnant to the Dictates of Common 
 Sense, for a Vessel to be contained in a Vessel less than it- 
 self ; or a Circle to surround a Circle of greater Circum- 
 ference than itself, that I hope Your Lordship will indulge me 
 with an intelligible Solution of the Mystery. 
 
 LORD M. If the Expression — a Horse is an Animal — 
 be incompatible with the received Ideas of Genus and Spe- 
 cies, they must be erroneous. But it is a Rule in Locke, that 
 a Man ought to understand the Terms of a Proposition which 
 he uses, otherwise he will talk like a Parrot, and not like a 
 rational Being, I will therefore propose a Question concern- 
 ing the Genus — ANIMAL — is it the Symbol of one Idea^or 
 of many ? 
 
 A. Of many. 
 
 LORD M. I suspected that your Views of the Genera 
 of ancient Philosophy were superficial. Animal, Sir, is the 
 Symbol of ONE, ABSTRACT Idea, which ''runs 
 *' through " the whole Species. 
 
 A. I am not so happy as to have any Conception of this 
 abstract Idea. But I perceive it does not affect the System 
 which I defend, for Your Lordship informs me that it runs 
 through the whole Species. Does ^he Water which passes 
 through a Pipe contain the Pipe? 
 
 LORD M. You do not deny abstract Ideas? You cer- 
 tainly have an abstract Idea of an Eagle, of Gratitude, of 
 Patriotism ? 
 
VERBS. 99 
 
 A. If it be grnnted that I am competent to determine 
 what passes in my own Mind, the Question will be instantly 
 decided — I have no such Ideas. 
 
 LORD M. You have made a Confession that gives me 
 no very exalted Ideas of your Understanding. I hope you are 
 prepared to vindicate your Creed by cogent and conclusive 
 Argument, 
 
 A. Your Lordship will be pleased to remember, that I 
 do not deny ^oiir Experience of abstract Ideas, I speak only 
 of my own Experience. And I am as confident as I am of 
 my Existence, if an abstract Idea — that of an Horse for In- 
 stance — resided in my Mind, I could have Recourse to it at 
 Pleasure ; the Appearance would be always uniform, and 
 capable of being delineated with the utmost Exactness. But 
 this is not ra y Experience. 
 
 Again. If an origuial abstract Idea of a Horse pervaded 
 the human Species, a Copy executed by an Artist at Vienna, 
 would be afac simile, a Counterpart of a Copy executed by 
 an Artist at London. But it is well known, if a thousand 
 eminent Painters were to draw from the Imagination, that a 
 perfect Resemblance would be deemed miraculous. 
 
 Finally. An Artist may delineate a living Horse with 
 perfect Precision; he may also copy his REMEMBRANCE 
 of that Horse, or of that Picture, with all imaginable Pionip- 
 titude and Success. But let him solely contemplate the ab- 
 stract Original, and I do not hesitate to declare, that he will 
 never produce two Copies of tolerable Resemblance. 
 
 What is your Opinion of the Tessadillo — a Native of 
 Numidia ? 
 
 LORD M. I have no Idea of the Animal to which you 
 allude. 
 
 G 2 
 
100 VERBS. 
 
 A. Survey your abstract Originals, my Lord; if your 
 Mind be a Compendium of the Universe, the Tessadiilo must 
 reside in it. 
 
 LORD M. I do not pretend to have an Idea of an 
 Animal, before I have either seen it, or heard it described. 
 
 A. And when the dormant Original is roused by Dc' 
 scription, or Vision, is it an Impression, or is it an abstract 
 Idea which dwells in your Remembrance ? 
 
 LORD M. The Idea to be sure. 
 
 A. Whence comes it, then, that you see no more of the 
 Image than you recollect of the Impression ? Suppose I were 
 now to awaken every Limb of your Lordship's abstract Idea 
 of the Tessadillo, by a Description of its specific Form ; and 
 suppose Your Lordship, on a distant Day, were desirous of 
 recording the Animal in your curious History of human So- 
 ciety — to what would you attribute the Defect, if you retained 
 only Part of the Idea — the Body, for Example, without an 
 accurate Recollection of the Head ? 
 
 LORD M. To Forgetfulness. 
 
 A. But that entirely subverts your Lordship's Fabric of 
 abstract Ideas. An Image in the Mind has not its Essence 
 in Recollection. The Bust of Shakspeare, on yonder Man- 
 tel Piece, retains its Features, independent of your Powers of 
 Reminiscence. The abstract Idea, which resides, as Your 
 Lordship supposes, in the Mind, is truly dependant on your* 
 Memory. And if your Lordship survey it when you are in 
 the Country, you will see precisely as much of the abstract 
 Original, as you are able to recollect of the Lineaments before 
 us. But, the Moment in which you enter 4his Room, you 
 bav€ agam a perfect Perception of every Feature. Which 
 
VERBS. 101 
 
 demonstrates, this imaginary abstract Idea to be neither more 
 nor less than a Remembrance of the Impressions made on the 
 Mind on a View of the Bust. 
 
 LORD M. I am greatly mistaken, or you go beyond 
 JLocke himself; for though he denies the Existence of ab* 
 stract Ideas, he allows them to be Creatures of the Imagiita- 
 iion, whereas you place their Essence solely in Recollection. 
 
 A. In giving a History of what passes in my own Mind, 
 1 am not to yield to the Influence of another Man's Opinion, 
 nor to be governed by another Man's Experience. It is for 
 Your Lordship to judge whether I speak the Language of 
 Fiction, or of Truth. 
 
 In the Art of Poetry, Horace asks his Friends whether 
 they could forbear smiling, if a Painter, to a Body covered 
 with Feathers and supported by Limbs of different Animals, 
 were to join the Neck of a Horse united to a human Head, so 
 that what appeared above to be a beautiful Woman should 
 terminate in a frightful Fish. 
 
 Now such a Portrait may be truly styled a Creature of 
 the Imagination—as far as it respects the COMPOSITION 
 of the Parts. 
 
 LORD M. Undoubtedly — for no such Creature exists 
 in Nature. 
 
 A. But even this Creature of the Imagination, when 
 embodied by the Artist, makes a real Impression on the Mind 
 of the Beholder ; and it may be named, if Your Lordship 
 please, INCONGRIO. 
 
 LORD M. Certainly. 
 
102 VERBS. 
 
 A. Has Your Lordship an abstract Idea of this Monster ? 
 
 LORD M. That is impossible. Can I have an ab- 
 stract Idea of that which has no Existence ? 
 
 A. It is a Subject on which I ought to sit at Your 
 Lordship's Feet for Instruction. Such Refinements are not 
 within the Province of Common Sense, and I pretend to no 
 more. I conckide, however^ that no such abstract Idea is 
 experienced by any Man, since Your Lordship, from your own 
 Experience and Discernment, has pronounced it impossible. 
 
 But if you have no abstract idea of the Monster, what is 
 that which resides in your Mind after you have seen the Por- 
 trait, and which you name Incongrio ? 
 
 LORD M. The Idea of the Portrait. 
 
 A. You mean, I presume, that a distinct View of the 
 Woman's Head — the Horse's Neck, &c. resides in your Mind, 
 and that you name the dissimilar Association — Incongrio? 
 
 LORD M. Yes. 
 
 A. But would your Conception of the Portrait be clear 
 and distinct, if you did not recollect its several Limbs ? 
 
 LORD M. Certainly not. 
 
 ^A. Permit me to add — An Idea of a real Existence 
 is dependant on the Memory — A Creature of the Imagina- 
 tion is under the Dominion of Fancy. 
 
 To preserve an adequate Idea of St. Paul's, my Memory 
 must retain all that I experienced on surveying the Structure 
 itself. I must neither multiply nor diminish the Impressions 
 
VERBS. 103 
 
 which 1 then received. Consequently such an Idea cannot 
 be a Creature of the Imagination, any more than the Struc- 
 ture. 
 
 By the Omnipotence of Fancy, I can soon amplify the 
 Cathedral to a thousand Times its present Size, and as easily 
 reduce its Dimensions, and inclose it in a Nut Shell* 
 
 But it is worthy Notice, that the Imagination is omnipo- 
 tent only as it regards the Impressions antecedently made on 
 the Mind. The Cathedral in the Nut Shell is effected by a 
 Diminution of the original Impression, and the Cathedral as 
 large as a Mountain by an Amplification of the same Mate- 
 rials. The human Head, and Horse's Neck, were not the 
 Painter's Creation, but the Composition of such heteroge- 
 neous Ideas was truly his own. 
 
 And as all this is so consonant with the Dictates of eter- 
 nal Truth, and universal Experience, I am surprised it should 
 be questioned merely because it is plain and intelligible. How 
 absurd to penetrate into Regions of Mystery and Darkness, in 
 quest of that which is palpable and obvious to COMMON 
 SENSE!! 
 
 LORD M. Admitting, then, by a dato non concesso* 
 that what you have said on the Subject of abstract Ideas is un- 
 exceptionable, let us hem your System of Definition. 
 
 A. 1. To define a SUBJECT is to enumerate the 
 Ideas which constitute its nominal Essence. 
 
 2. As the Ideas which constitute the nominal Essence of 
 many Subjects are too numerous to admit particular Detail, 
 Men have contrived to Abbreviate the Description by com- 
 
 * For the Sake of Argument. 
 
104 VERBS. 
 
 prehendiiig a Multitude of Ideas under GliNERAL and 
 SPECIFIC Terms. 
 
 3. As the Force of a Term is proportional to the Num- 
 ber of Ideas for which it is the constituted Symbol, it is 
 obvious that the Progression of Power is from the GENUS 
 to the INDIVIDUAL. In other words, there are fewer 
 Ideas contained in the Genus than in the Species, and fewer 
 in the Species than in the Individual. 
 
 4. A Creature possessed of Blood, Veins, Heart, Lungs, 
 and locomotive Powers, with such other Particulars as may be 
 thought necessary to animal Life, is denominated an ANI- 
 MAL, which Philosophers make a GENUS or general 
 Term in their Definitions. 
 
 5. An Animal clothed in Feathers, and capable of exer- 
 cising its locomotive Powers above the Surface of the Earth, 
 is termed a BIRD, which Philosophers make a SPECIES 
 or SPECIFIC Term in their Definitions. 
 
 6. A Bird of Superior Magnitude, variegated Plumage, 
 and fond of Solitude, is denominated an EAGLE. 
 
 7. Finally. The Eagle in the Tower of London is 
 named (we may suppose) ALCIDES. 
 
 Now it is obvious that Alcides, besides his Name and 
 other individual Distinctions, POSSESSES all the Ideas 
 affixed to EAGLE. An Eagle, besides its superior Size, 
 variegated Plumage, and Fondness for Solitude, POSSES- 
 SES all the Ideas affixed to BIRD. Finally, a Bird, inde- 
 pendent of Ability to move in the Air, a Covering of Feathers, 
 and other Circumstances of nominal Essence, POSSESSES 
 all the Ideas affixed to ANIMJL; and therefore the Indi- 
 vidual ALCIDES POSSESSES, CO^TJINS, or 
 
VERBS. 105 
 
 COMPREHENDS more Ideas than the Genus A^U 
 M'AL — which was to be proved. 
 
 As it cannot be said, consistently with your Lordship's 
 System, that a Horse in an Animal, nor consistently with my 
 Views, an Animal is a Horse, on what Authority does Mr, 
 Harris assure us, that the Subject and Predicate are con- 
 vertible? As there can be no intermediate Opinion in the 
 Case, and as the Assertion is obviously erroneous in Ap- 
 plication to each of the Extremes, it nmst be erroneous in 
 itself. 
 
 I am not ignorant that a Transposition of Terms is fre- 
 quent, but the Verb, on such Occasions, must correspond in 
 Nmnber with the Subject.* Mr. Harris positively declares, 
 that the Predicate becomes the Subject by the Transposition^ 
 which I deny. 
 
 LORD M. He only meant, that a Man MIGHT 
 place the Predicate of any given Proposition first, and then, 
 by a corresponding Termination in the Verb, convert it into 
 the Subject. 
 
 A. If that be all, it is perfectly harmless, and by no 
 Means an Object of Criticism. 1 do not presume to ques- 
 tion either the Power or Privilege of an Author to write 
 Nonsense. 
 
 Before I withdraw, Your Lordship will permit me to 
 illustrate, by Example, the Remark of John Locke, on the 
 Subject of Definitions by Genera and Differentia^ by Genus 
 and specific Difference — " they convey (said be) only verbal 
 " Instruction." 
 
 Suppose a Grecian Stranger were to hear Your Lordship 
 
 * See the first Sentence fur Exercise. 
 
106 
 
 V E II B S . 
 
 say — The Alcides in the Tower is a noble Figure — And sup- 
 pose he fancy, from his imperfect Knowledge of the Language, 
 that you are speaking of some Statue of Hercules. But not 
 quite satisfied as to the Truth of his Conjecture, he asks your 
 Lordship, 
 
 What is Alcides ? — You reply^ An Eagle, 
 
 And what is an Eagle ? A Bird. 
 
 And what is a Bird? An AnimaL 
 
 But the Stranger is yet in total Darkness. He knows 
 Nothing of Eagle, Bird, nor Animal. Your Lordship will 
 therefore condescend to instruct him in the Meaning of the 
 Terms. 
 
 An Animal — Zwov. 
 
 A Bird—^Ogvig. 
 
 An Eagle — 'Atroc. 
 
 And 
 Alcides — an Eagle. 
 
 But this Information is purely verbal. Your Lordship 
 has taught him Nothing but Sounds, Were you to detail the 
 natural History of Alcides, you might impart solid and pleas- 
 ing Information. 
 
 A man, subject to improper Warmth of Temper, will re- 
 ceive little Benefit from being told, that rjx means 6p7?7, and 
 opyrj Ira, and Ira Anger, and that Anger is a Commotion of 
 the Mind. But if he read Seneca, or any experienced Au- 
 thor, on the Cause, Cure, and Consequences of Anger, he will 
 find a Fund of inestimable Instruction. 
 
VERBS. 107 
 
 Turn your Attention, my Lord, to Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge at the Revival of Literature — What were the most 
 subtile Definitions — the most celebrated Syllogisms of that 
 Period of Contention ? An elaborate Parade of synonymous 
 Words — A magnificent Method of saying — Nothing, 
 
 LORD M Do you wish, then, to banish Definitions 
 by Genus and Species, and the Art of Reasoning by Syllo- 
 gism, out of the Republic of Letters ? 
 
 A. By no means. I only wish to make a Distinction 
 between Words and Things — between Sense and Sounds. 
 For whether you enumerate the Ideas which constitute the 
 nominal Essence of a Subject separately, or whether you de- 
 fine it by the Assistance of Comprehensive Symbols, such as 
 Animal, Bird, Eagle, &c. the Knowledge, I contend, is mere- 
 ly VERBAL; not the Employment of REASON, but of 
 MEMORY. 
 
 RULES OF CONCORD. 
 
 CORRESPONDENCE OF THE SUBJECT AND 
 AFFIRMATION. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 When the Subject of a Proposition is 
 numerically ONE, the Verb must be in the 
 singular.'* E. G. 
 
 * I mean, the Termination must be singular as to Num- 
 ber. Of collective Nouns, I have already spoken sufficiently. 
 
lOB VERBS. 
 
 GOD is Love. 
 
 LEARNING EXCELS Riches, 
 
 or 
 Learning IS more excellent than Riches. 
 
 TO OBEY God IS Liberty.^ 
 
 TO BE GOVERNED by Passion IS 
 Slavery. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 When the Subject is plural, or, in other 
 Words, when the Term which is the Nomina- 
 tive Case to the Verb is the Representative of 
 two, or more Individuals, the Verb Affirma- 
 tion must be PLURAL. E. G. 
 
 Good MEN HATE Sin from the Love 
 of Virtue.-f 
 
 (h^ It may be useful to repeat my Remarks on an 
 INDIVIDUAL TERM. By an Individual Term, I do 
 
 * Seneca, Deo parere Libertas est. 
 
 -f Horace, Oderunt peccare Boni yirtulis amore. 
 
VERBS. 109 
 
 not mean a Word expressive of ONE, SIMPLE IDEA; 
 for there are few such Words in human Speech ; but I mean 
 a Word significant of as many simple Ideas, as accidentally 
 constitute the nominal Essence of the Thing. E. G. Flavour 
 is an Idea affixed to ORANGE; yet many other Ideas are 
 essential to the Name. But for Dispatch, they are all com- 
 prehended under one Word, which is denominated a Term, 
 because it limits a certain Combination of Ideas to one Sub- 
 stance. 
 
 The several Ideas thus combined are considered as ONE, 
 because they are all necessary to constitute one Individual. 
 And in this, common Terms differ from collective Terms, 
 (such as Flock, Array, &c.) which are composed of many per- 
 fect Individuals. 
 
 Many Things are necessary to form a CHARIOT ; but 
 they are not Chariots separately considered. The Term is 
 bestowed on the whole Assemblage, to prevent a tedious Enu- 
 meration of Particulars. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 When TWO Nouns,* or TWO Infinitive 
 Modes, connected by — AND — are the Sub- 
 ject of a Proposition, the AfHrmation must 
 be PLURAL. E. G. 
 
 * I mean, TWO or more. 
 
110 VERBS. 
 
 Soft Words and hard Aro^uments ARE 
 the best Weapons in Controversy. 
 
 This Mode of Construction is natural and elegant. Dr. 
 Priestley's Apology for a Verb singular, when the Terms 
 contain '^ Kindred Ideas" is inadmissible. Kindred Terms 
 enfeeble the Style. They are avoided by all, who speak with 
 Elegance and Precision. If used, they ought to conform to 
 the general Laws of Syntax. They are not ONE WORD, 
 because they contain Kindred Ideas. The Doctor might as 
 well contend, that the Prince of Wales and the Prince of 
 Denmark IS one Man, because they are COUSINS. 
 
 I do not know that any Terms are more synonymous 
 than ONE and ONE. Are they, on that Account, only 
 ONE ? 
 
 I recommend an Invariable Observance of this Rule. 
 It is hazardous to deviate from it, and, in my Opinion, absurd. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 When TWO or more Nouns, of the sin- 
 gular Number, unconnected bj — AND — - 
 are the Subject of a Proposition, the Affir- 
 mation may be either singular, or plural. 
 E. G. 
 
 Omnipotence, Justice, Mercy, IS an 
 Attribute of God. 
 
VERBS. Ill 
 
 Omnipotence, Justice, Mercy, ARE 
 Attributes of God. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 But if the Nouns unite in the Production 
 of the Attributes, the Affirmation must be 
 plural. E. G. 
 
 Faith, Practice, Perseverance FORM 
 the Christian. 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 If either of the Nouns be PLURAL, 
 the Verb must absolutely be PLURAL, 
 though unconnected by — AND— and though 
 the Attribute may be affirmed of each Noun 
 separately. E. G. 
 
 Power, RICHES, Fame, ARE of uncer- 
 tain Duration. 
 
112 VERBS. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 When TWO Infinitive Modes, uncon- 
 nected by — AND — are the Subject of a Pro- 
 position, the Verb is more elegant in the 
 SINGULAR, than in the plural. E. G.* 
 
 To oppress the Defenceless, to insult 
 the Afflicted, BETRAYS a mean and cruel 
 Mind. 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 When TWO or MORE Nouns, either 
 singular, or plural, or both — whether the At- 
 tribute can be affirmed of each of them 
 separately considered, or whether they unite 
 in the Production of the Attribute— it adds 
 Strength and Elegance to the Expression, to 
 connect them by — AND. E. G. 
 
 Omnipotence, Justice, and Mercy, are 
 Attributes of God. 
 
 Faith, Practice, and Perseverance, form 
 the Christian. 
 
 * Except they unite in producing the Attribute, or Effect 
 
VERBS. 113 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 It is my Duty to assign my Reasons for giving the Pre- 
 ference to the seventh and eighth Rules of Construction. 
 
 If we supply the Ellipsis in the fourth Example, it will 
 appear thus — Omnipotence is an Attribute of God, Justice is 
 an Attribute of God, Mercy is an Attribute of God. 
 
 In abbreviated Construction, OmnipotencCj Justice^ 
 Mercy, IS an Attribute of God. 
 
 By thus suppressing the Predicate and Affirmation, there 
 remains but ONE Proposition out of THREE — Mercy is 
 an Attribute of God. There is no Word to express or im- 
 ply a Union of the Attribute with Omnipotence and Justice; 
 the Sentence is like a Rope of Sand, without Strength and 
 without Cohesion. 
 
 In Fact, by such Abbreviations, the Sentence is subject 
 to other Laws of Syntax. The Attributes are SUP- 
 PRESSED, and the Subjects are ENUMERATED. 
 Omnipotence, Justice, Mercy (all these) ARE Attributes of 
 God. Or, in the nervous and unsophisticated Diction of our 
 Ancestors — Omnipotence, Justice, AND Mercy, are Attri- 
 butes of God. 
 
 The Word— AND— signifies— ac?c?—E. G. One And 
 One are two. One add One are two. I have already de- 
 monstrated the Absurdity of saying, One and One IS two. 
 But it is equally absurd to say Owe, One IS two. 
 
 The Impropriety of diis foreign Construction will be ap- 
 
H4 VERBS. 
 
 parent, if yo'» substitute Letters for Omnipotence, Justice, 
 and Mercy. Thus A. B. and C. amount to three. But 
 what Master would suffer his Pupil to say A. B. and C. IS 
 three ? 
 
 Omit ihe—JND—A, B. C. IS three! Equally absurd. 
 But you may contend, that it is not fair to put THREE 
 after IS, because it is not said Omnipotence, Justice, Mercy^ 
 IS ATTRIBUTES of God, but AN ATTRIBUTE of 
 God. Let us adopt your Amendment — A. B C. IS ONE!! 
 In your Anxiety to avoid Charybdis, you are lost on ScylJa. 
 
 % But whence comes it that — AND — may be omitted, 
 and the Verb gracefully used in the singular Number after 
 TWO or more INFINITIVES, if a similar Construction 
 with NOUNS be inelegant and absurd? From Nature, the 
 Source of real Elegance. For several Actions, perfectly 
 distinct, may be resolved into the Energy of ONE Agent, and 
 considered as ONE Effect. E.G. To penetrate Buildings — 
 to consume Furniture — to deprive People of Life — TO DO 
 all this, or the EN ERGY necessary to effect all this, IS pe- 
 culiar to Lightning. To oppress the Defenceless, to insult 
 the Afflicted, to do all this, BETRAYS a mean and cruel 
 Mind. The Energy necessary to effect all this, FLOWS 
 from a mean and cruel Mind. <S^= Action is measured by 
 Quantity, as well as enumerated in its Effects. 
 
 But to resolve distinct PERSONS into ONE Person, 
 or to blend distinct IDEAS into ONE Idea, is unnatural 
 and Absurd. E. G. It is improper to say — Faith, Hope, 
 Charity— all THIS—IS the Fruit of the Spirit. But 
 Faith, Hope, Charity— all THESE— ARE the Fruits 
 of the Spiiit. For they are distinct Ideas, <i^' If the Ideas 
 specified unite in constituting the Attribute or Effect, the 
 Verb in the SINGULAR is highly improper. E.G. Faith, 
 Practice, Perseverance, FORMS the Christian. This is 
 
VERBS. 11.5 
 
 false in Fact, as well as inelegant in Diction. I'aith does not 
 form the Christian; for Faith without Practice is empty 
 Parade. Nor do present Faith, and present Practice united, 
 form the Christian, for they only are entitled to the glorious 
 Distinction, who persevere in Faith and Practice to the End,* 
 
 With Respect to Infinitive Modes, the Verb may be SIN- 
 GULAR even in the Case now Stated. E. G. To believe, 
 to act, to persevere— to do all this— CONSTITUTES a 
 Christian. But I recommend a Verb plural, with — AND — 
 whenever the Attribute is not wholly contained in every Infi- 
 intive. For then the Verb SINGULAR without— AN D— 
 will cause a pleasing and elegant Variation of Style. 
 
 ADVICE 
 
 CONCERNING THE SUBJECT OF A 
 PROPOSITION. 
 
 It is a great Freedom, I confess, to suppose that any of 
 my Readers are imable to ascertain the real Subject of a Pro- 
 position. But my Solicitude to render this Essay extensively 
 useful, will be, I hope, a sufficient Apology. 
 
 On the Supposition that a Doubt may sometimes occur, 
 let me prevail on the Inexperienced to regulate the Construc- 
 tion, in such Cases, by the subsequent Rules. 
 
 1. Tf one of the Tei-ms be singular^ and 
 the other plural, place the plural Term before 
 
 * Revelation. 
 
 H 2 
 
116 
 
 VERBS 
 
 the Verb, and make the Verb correspond with it 
 m Number, E. G. 
 
 The Wages of Sin are Death, 
 
 The Sinez^s of Wisdom are not to believe 
 rashly. 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 By the above Rule of Arrangement and Correspondence, 
 you are certain of being protected from grammatical Censure. 
 
 As to the real Subject of the Proposition, Truth and 
 Error are equally contingent. You may be accidentally 
 right, as well as accidentally wrong. 
 
 The first Example speaks the Language of Inspiration. 
 Death is indisputably a PART of the Reward. But Death 
 IS not the WHOLE Reward. It does not CONTAIN, 
 POSSESS, or COMPREHEND, all the Ideas affixed to- 
 Wages of Sin. We read of Punishment, of the Worm that 
 never dies, of the Fire that is never quenched. 
 
 For my Part, I am conscious that I merit Something 
 more than Death, and I believe I shall experience Something 
 more, unless I obtain Mercy in God's appointed Way. 
 
 Men of a more enlightened Philosophy may smile at my 
 Infirmities, and congratulate themselves on superior Discern- 
 
VERBS. 117 
 
 raent. I have only to entreat them to believe me sincere, and 
 to indulge me in the peaceable Enjoyment of my Creed. 
 
 hanc Feniam petimusquej DAMUSQUE VI- 
 
 CISSIM* 
 
 The second Example is also correct. 
 
 2. When two, or many Infinitives connected 
 by — AND — are one Part of the Proposition, 
 and a Noun singular the other Part, place — IT 
 — before the Verb, and make the Verb singular. 
 E G. 
 
 It is the Prerogative of Virtue to dread 
 no Eye, and to suspect no Tongue. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 A judicious Transposition of Terms unquestionably pro- 
 duces a pleasing and elegant Variation of Style. But Variety 
 and Splendour are only the Ornaments of Diction. It ought 
 to be our first Care to express our Sentiments with gramma- 
 tical Precision . 1 counsel the Student, therefore, to perse- 
 vere in the Practice of this Rule of Syntax, till he can trans- 
 pose his Terms without Hazard. 
 
 * Horace. If any Man be disposed to affix other Ideas to the Word — Death 
 — than natural Dissolution, I have no Objection, though such Ideas are im- 
 proper in the Passage before us. I can scarcely speak with becoming Candour 
 of those, who avow a Belief, -that the Threat of Punishment is a mere Contri- 
 vance of the Deity, to terrify us into Obedience to his Precepts. On their own 
 Greed — how dare they attempt to destroy its Influence 1 
 
118 VERBS. 
 
 That an Attribute may be transposed without becoming 
 the Subject of the Proposition, is evident from the best Com- 
 positions in the Language. 
 
 God is omnipotent, and worthy the prof oundest Adora- 
 tion* The Subject of the Proposition is God, Let us now 
 transpose the Subject. Omnipotent is God, and worthy the 
 profoundest Adoration. Is the Deity become an Attribute 
 by the Transposition ? 
 
 But, perhaps, you question whether this be a Transposi- 
 tion in Point, because omnipresent is an Adjective? To give 
 you the fullest Satisfaction in my Power, I will make Use of 
 that most delightful and glorious Definition of our present 
 
 Subject GOD IS LOVE* Now invert the Order— 
 
 liOve is God, — 
 
 Is the Attribute become the Subject by the Transposi- 
 tion ? Certainly not, for many distinct Perfections are essen- 
 tial to an adequate Conception of the Father of the Universe. 
 What would infinite Love avail without Omnipresence ? Or 
 Omnipresence without Power ? 
 
 ^ When the Subject is of the singular 
 Number, and the Predicate an Infinitive 
 Mode, or a Noun singular, you cannot in- 
 fringe the Laws of Concord by the Order in 
 which you place them. E. G. 
 
 To obey God IS Liberty, 
 
 Liberty IS to obey God. 
 
 * 1 John iv. 
 
VERBS. 119 
 
 Dissipation IS the Destruction of Fa- 
 milies, 
 
 The Destruction of Families IS Dissipa- 
 tion, ♦ 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 As tlie Transposition of Terms, in the preceding Sen- 
 tences, is admissible on the Rules of Concord only, and as an 
 inverted Arrangement, in many Instances, betrays a vulgar, 
 illiterate Mind, I request leave to subjoin some Directions 
 for the Use of my young Readers. 
 
 1st. You may unquestionably transpose 
 the Subject in silly, identical Propositions. 
 E.G. 
 
 Ccesar is Ccesar, 
 
 To move is to be in Motion. 
 
 To be in Motion is to move, 
 
 2dly. In all Relations of Similitude, 
 Proportion, and Equality. 
 
 3dly. In the INTERPRETATION of 
 Words. E.G. 
 
120 VERBS. 
 
 Fire is Ignis. 
 
 Ignis is Fire. 
 
 4thly. In the EXPLANATION of 
 Words. E. G. 
 
 Disorder means Confusion. 
 
 Confusion means Disorder. 
 
 Variation means Variety. 
 
 Variety means Variation. 
 
 We are now arrived at the Limit of 
 this Privilege of Transposition. In strict 
 Propriety, we have passed it; for Variation 
 relates to one, Variety to man3^ War causes 
 a Variation in the Value of Stocks, and a 
 Variety of Plans and Enterprises. 
 
 But you cannot transpose your Terms 
 with Propriety and Elegance, when they are 
 not of equal Power.'^ E. G. 
 
 ♦ The Student will remember, that the Power or Force 
 of a Word depends upon the Number of Ideas which it repre- 
 sents. 
 
VERBS. 121 
 
 His Name is Theodore, 
 
 Theodore is his Name. 
 
 In this Transposition, there is no In- 
 fringement of the Laws of Concord, nor any 
 Obscurity. But the first Mode of arranging 
 the Terms is the most natural and easy, and 
 at the same Time logically exact. A NAME 
 is a Term in Use for all the nominal Distinc- 
 tions by which a Man is known in Society. 
 Any one of those nominal Distinctions may 
 be predicated of NAME, but in no Pro- 
 priety of Speech can it be said to contain, 
 measure, or comprehend the Name. But 
 ^AM.^ contains, measures, comprehends all 
 discriminative Appellations, though as nu- 
 merous as a Spaniard's. 
 
 % To obey God is Liberty,* 
 
 Liberty is to obey God. 
 
 The latter Arrangement is defective 'in 
 Ease and Propriety. In the Essence of Li- 
 berty, pure Liberty, there is no Idea of Sub- 
 mission. To define it— OBEDIENCE, is 
 
 * Seneca. 
 
122 VKRBS. 
 
 to commit a Solecism in Words and in 
 Sense. 
 
 His Knowledge of human Nature, and 
 his Experience in the Courts of Princes, au- 
 thorized our Philosopher to declare, that a 
 Person, under the Dominion of Passion, and 
 the Control of sensual Appetite, is in a State 
 of SLAVERY. 
 
 And by the Light of Reason he saw, 
 that OBEDIENCE TO THE DEITY is 
 
 effectual Deliverance from this abject and 
 degrading Bondage. =^ 
 
 How admirably do his Ideas correspond 
 with the Language of the Holy Scriptures ! 
 Men may differ in the Non-essentials of 
 Christianity, but all must acknowledge, that 
 sincere Obedicnce-f* to the Precepts of eter- 
 nal Truth, strikes off the inglorious Fetters 
 of Sin, and leaves us at LIBERTY to be 
 happy. E.G. 
 
 Love thy Neighbour as thyself. 
 
 * As the efficient Cause, it contains its bflfect. 
 f Produced by the Agency of the Divine Spirit, 
 
VERBS. 1S3 
 
 Delightful Experience! Obedience to 
 this Precept will chase a Host of Tyrants 
 from the Breast; and destroy ENVY — that 
 mean and sordid Passion — whose hateful 
 Power compels us to repine, amidst all the 
 Blessings of indulgent Providence. 
 
 In a Word, no One has any Reason to 
 expect a happy Life, a triumphant Death, 
 and a Resurrection to Glory, who lives 
 and dies a Stranger to GODLIKE Li- 
 berty. 
 
 ^ Dissipation is Destruction. 
 
 Destruction is Dissipation, 
 
 I will close my Remarks on the Trans- 
 position of Terms with the Instance before 
 us. 
 
 That Dissipation is the Parent of 
 Destruction is a Truth in Theory and 
 Fact. But who will defend the Propo- 
 sition in its inverted Form ? Who will 
 assert that Poverty is the efficient Cause 
 of Extravagance and Dissipation? When 
 Property and Credit are gone, a BED- 
 FORD is excluded the Peerage, and a 
 
124 VERBS 
 
 BUCKINGHAM expires on a Bed of 
 
 Straw. 
 
 * 
 
 You are at Liberty, I acknowledge, to 
 consider Dissipation as the grammatical Sub- 
 ject, as it is in Truth, the natural Subject of 
 the Proposition, in the same Manner as you 
 may write God is Love, or Love is God, with- 
 out altering the Nature of the Deity. But 
 I cannot approve the arrangement ; the Illi- 
 terate will suppose Destruction to be your 
 Subject, and the Sentiment, in Consequence, 
 will appear to be a Paradox. 
 
 To conclude. The Difference between 
 the Subject and Attribute of a Proposition f 
 is the same as between the Cause and the 
 
 * A Duke of Bedford was depiived of his Peerage on 
 Account of Poverty. Of the dissipated Duke of Bucking- 
 ham, Pope sings thus : 
 
 In the worst Inn's worst Room, with Mat half-hung. 
 
 The Floors of Plaister, and the Walls of Dung, 
 
 On once a Flock- Bed, now repaired with Straw, 
 
 With Tape-ty'd Curtains, never meant to draw, 
 
 The GEORGE and GARTER dangling from that Bed 
 
 Where tawdry yellow strove with dirty red. 
 
 Great VTLLERS lies — alas! how changed from him. 
 
 Who, &c. &c. 
 
 f Except the Case of Identity, &c. as before stated. 
 
VERBS. 125 
 
 Effect— the Whole and Part. And when- 
 ever there is Danger of Obscurity or Error, 
 the Subject ought to PRECEDE the Verb. 
 In other Cases, a judicious Transposition 
 will give Dignity and Elevation to solemn 
 Themes, and Vivacity and Elegance to lighter 
 Compositions.* 
 
 * On closing this Section, permit me to observe, that 
 I have not regarded the Beauty of my Page in Point of Uni- 
 formity of Types. I have used small and great Letters, as I 
 judged it to be most conducive to the Student's Instruction. 
 
126 VERBS. 
 
 SECTION III 
 
 OF WORDS AND PHRASES, ELEGJNT AND 
 rULGAR. 
 
 GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION* 
 
 constitutes the first Excellence of Style 
 
 A HAPPY SELECTION of WORDSt 
 is the Foundation of the second Excellence. 
 
 " Take Care, therefore, that your Dis- 
 " course be neither deformed by SOLE- 
 " CISMS, nor disgraced by low and vulgar 
 " WORDS ; for Nothing is so distinguish- 
 " ing a Characteristic of low Company, and 
 *' bad Education, as VULGARISMS." + 
 
 " It is glorious to excel other Men in 
 " that very Article, in which Men excel 
 '' Brutes, I mean SPEECH." 
 
 * Proper Words in proper Places. Dean Szcift. 
 -f Et Horatii cnriosa Felicitas. 
 ;J: Lord Chesterfield to his Son. 
 
VERBS. 127 
 
 I hope the Student is sufficiently in- 
 formed as to the CONSTRUCTION of 
 Verbs. I now proceed to enumerate a few- 
 Verbs which merit Preference in Point of 
 Elegance and Precision. 
 
 CUT A FIGURE, &c. 
 
 To MAKE a Figure, to MAKE an Ap- 
 pearance — handsome, or mean — are polite 
 Expressions. 
 
 f You are not angry with me for those 
 JOKES which I CUT upon you Yesterday, 
 are you.^ No my Lord.* 
 
 In figurative Language, a Person may be 
 said to CUT A FIGURE, in Allusion to the 
 Business of a CARVER. But if this be con- 
 demned as unpolite,-^- I am confident TO 
 CUT A JOKE ought to be cashiered as an 
 execrable Vulgarism. To PASS a Joke— to 
 pass Censure — to pass Compliments on a Ferson^ 
 are proper. 
 
 * Maxims and Characters. 1 756. Page 54. 
 •\ Lord Chesterfield condemns this Phrase, as one of the 
 lowest Vulgarisms in the English Language. 
 
128 VERBS. 
 
 If rO CRACK a Joke, This Phrase is 
 equally vulgar. It is used, I admit, by 
 Pope — He takes his chirping Pint and cracks 
 his Joke — But I must observe, once for all, 
 that Poets often adapt their Language to the 
 State of the Person introduced. Hence the 
 most poUte, and the most vulgar Diction may 
 be found in the same Play or Poem. 
 
 In noticing the jocose Propensity of a. 
 Person, do not say — He is fond of CRACK- 
 ING his Jokes— but he is JOCOSE— he 
 likes to JOKE— he is fond of SPORTING a 
 Joke; for this is descriptive of a Propensity to 
 enliven Discourse, by a witty and unexpected 
 Combination of Ideas. But if his Plea- 
 sure consist in personal Attack^ do not say — 
 he loves to CUT a Joke upon a Friend — but, 
 he loves to PASS a Joke on a Friend — he 
 takes Pleasure in POINTING a Jest at a 
 Friend. 
 
 To PASS Sentence and to PRO- 
 NOUNCE Sentence are synonymous. To 
 ADDRESS a Sentiment to a Person and to 
 POINT a Sentiment to a Person are also 
 synonymous and proper. But how a Ke- 
 mark is to be CUT and CRACKT I know 
 not. 
 
VERBS. 12y 
 
 DO YOU SEE. 
 
 Sounds are conveyed through Water — 
 DO YOU SEE — with almost the same Fact- 
 lity with which they move through Air. 
 
 It is by no Means unpolite to request a 
 Person to inform you, whether he perfectly 
 COMPREHENDS the Terms of a Ques- 
 tion, or has a perfect CONCEPTION of the 
 Subject in Debate, but it is exceeding unpo- 
 lite to reiterate— DO ,YOU SEE— in the 
 Sequel of your Narrative, or the Progress of 
 your Arguments. 
 
 Had I the Honour of explaining to 
 my Reader the Circumstances of the Death 
 of General Wolfe, as they are represented 
 on his Monument in Westminster Abbey, 
 would it not be somewhat extraordinary, if 
 I asked him at every third Word — ARE 
 YOU BLIND? E.G. 
 
 The expiring Hero is attended by his 
 Aid-de-Camp. Before him— ARE YOU 
 BLIND— is an Indian Chief. That Soldier 
 —ARE YOU BLIND— is shouting Victory ! 
 
130 VERBS, 
 
 And yet you are perpetually interro- 
 gated by the Vulgar, whether you are not 
 MENTALLY* Wind. 
 
 If Distance, or the Shades of Night, in- 
 volve the Object in Obscurity to which you 
 desire the Attention of a Companion, and if 
 you requestto know whether his external Eye 
 is adequate to distant and difficult Discrimi- 
 nation, in other Words, whether he can SEE 
 the Object, it is no Proof that you are defi- 
 cient in Breeding. But it is insufferable 
 Rudeness to question, every Moment, the 
 Vigour and Penetration of his Mind. 
 
 Permit me, therefore, to observe, that 
 Says I and says she — So says I and 50 says he 
 — You see and don't you see — You know and 
 dont you know — A7id so as I was saying, &c. 
 &c. &c. are to be most religiously avoided by 
 all who aim at Dignity and Decency of Ex- 
 pression. 
 
 I HAVE GOT. 
 
 «* I GOT on Horseback within ten Minutes after I re- 
 " ceived your Letter. When 1 GOT to Canterbury, I GOT a 
 
 * To understand is to SEE the Agreement, or Disagree- 
 ment of the Ideas of a Proposition. 
 
VERBS. 131 
 
 <' Chaise for Town. But I GOT wet through before I GOT 
 « to Canterbury, and I HAVE GOT such a Cold as 1 shall 
 " not be able to GET rid of in a Hurry. I GOT to the Trea- 
 " sury about Noon, but first of all I GOT shaved and drest. 
 " I soon GOT into the Secret of GETTING a Memorial 
 " before the Board, but I could not GET an Answer then, 
 *' however I GOT Intelligence from the Messenger that I 
 " should most likely GET one the next Morning. As soon as 
 «' I GOT back to my Inn, I GOT my Supper, and GOT to 
 " Bed, it was not long before I GOT to Sleep. When I GOT 
 '« up in the Morning, I GOT my Breakfast, and then GOT 
 " myself drest, that I might GET out in Time to GET an 
 " Answer to my Memorial. As soon as I GOT it, I GOT 
 *' into the Chaise, and GOT to Canterbury by three : and 
 " about Tea Time, I GOT Home. I HAVE GOT No- 
 ^' thing particular for you, and so Adieu." 
 
 Every Phrase in this Extract is in po- 
 pular and perpetual Use ; and it is far from 
 my Wish to deprive the Vulgar, and the 
 wealthy Illiterate, of so convenient an Abridg- 
 ment of Terms. On the Contrary, I recom- 
 mend it to the pious Care of Dr. • to 
 
 compose a History of the World on this ele- 
 gant Plan of Abbreviation. AH the Events, 
 from the Birth of Time to his Majesty's Jour- 
 ney to Cheltenham, may be detailed without 
 the Aid of a single Verb in the English Lan- 
 guage, the omnipotent — GET — excepted. 
 
 This Verb is of Saxon Origin ; ARRI- 
 VAL at the Place of Destination, the primi- 
 
 I 2 
 
132 VERBS. 
 
 tive Idea; hence ACQUISITION; and 
 hence POSSESSION. With the latter Idea, 
 the Illiterate use it in Construction with — 
 HAVE— I have GOT; in other Words, I have 
 HAVE. E.G. 
 
 I HAVE GOT a Father ninety Years 
 old. 
 
 For obvious Reasons, I have got a Father 
 must be restricted to— I POSSESS; con- 
 sequently, it is absurd to prefix — HAVE— 
 I have POSSESS a 
 
 It may, therefore, be advanced as a ge- 
 neral Rule,— when POSSESSION is im- 
 plied, it is vulgar to use — HAVE — in Con- 
 struction with GOT. 
 
 Permit me to add, our Ancestors have 
 furnished us with innumerable Terms to 
 express all the Ideas which the Vulgar affix 
 to their J'^C TOTUM^—GOT. 
 
 Are you in Quest of any Thing? Do not 
 exclaim with the Illiterate— I HAVE GOT 
 it. But say— I have FOUND it, or I 
 HAVE it— HERE IT IS, &c. 
 
 * Jack of all Work. 
 
VERBS. 133 
 
 AGAIN. "I MOUNTED my Horse, or I WAS ON 
 " HORSEBACK within ten Minutes after I RECEIVED 
 " your letter: as soon as I ARRIVED at Canterbury, I 
 « ENGAGED (or HIRED) (or STEPT INTO) a 
 " Post Chaise for Town. I WAS wet through before I 
 '* REACHED Canterbury, and I HAVE (or I HAVE 
 « TAKEN) such a Cold as I shall not easily REMOVE 
 *' (or CURE). 
 
 *' I ARRIVED at the Treasury about Noon, being 
 " previously shaved and drest. I soon DISCOVERED 
 " the Secret of INTRODUCING a Memorial to the 
 ''Board; 1 could not, however, OBTAIN an immediate 
 ** Answer; but the Messenger told me, that I probably 
 " should RECEIVE one next Morning. I RETURNED 
 " to my Inn, SUPT, WENT to Bed, and SLEPT well. I 
 " ROSE early, and DREST immediately after BREAK- 
 *' FAST that I might be in Time for the Answer to my 
 " Memorial. As soon as 1 RECEIVED it, I TOOK Post 
 " Chaise, REACHED Canterbury by three, and my Home 
 " about Tea Time. 1 HAVE Nothing particular to add. 
 " Adieu.*' 
 
 It was not my Design to paraphrase the 
 Extract in Terms of Elegance, I only wished 
 to prove, that Men of common Education 
 might express the usual Occurrences of Life, 
 
 without the Aid of GET and GOT 
 
 and I HAVE GOT, &c. 
 
15i VERBS. 
 
 1. THIS HOUSE TO LET. 
 
 2. THIS HOUSE TO BE LET. 
 
 3. THIS HOUSE TO LETT. 
 
 4. THIS HOUSE TO BE LETT. 
 
 Concise Forms of Expression are very 
 proper in familiar Intercourse,* provided they 
 neither cause OBSCURITY, nor infringe any 
 RULE of GRAMMAR. 
 
 The full Construction of this Example 
 is— This House IS to be LETED. No Ob- 
 scurity arises from the Omission of — IS — nor 
 from the Abbreviation of — LETED — Leted 
 being the same to lett, as dressed to drest. 
 But the — T — is no less essential in LETT, 
 
 than the T in DREST, or the— D— 
 
 in SOLD. The Reason of which will be 
 given in its proper Place. 
 
 The House is PASSIVE on this Occa- 
 sion ; and therefore the Presence of — -BE — 
 after — TO — is indispensable. There is no 
 Instance in our Language to countenance the 
 Omission. 
 
 * By the Term Intercourse^ I mean both Writing and 
 Conversation. 
 
VERBS. 135 
 
 The first Example is improper, because 
 it makes the House ACTIVE. This House 
 to let— to let what? The Proprietor? The 
 House, I presume,, is to BE LETT, BY the 
 Proprietor. 
 
 The second Example is improper, be- 
 cause it has the Verb active — LET — after 
 the passive Sign * — BE. 
 
 The Third Example is incorrect, in Con- 
 sequence of omitting — BE. 
 
 The Fourth Example is proper. <^ You 
 may omit — This House — , and write — TO 
 BE LETT—. But take Care that you never 
 
 prefix THESE PREMISES These 
 
 Premises to be lett. When Houses or Estates 
 have been described (in an Advertisement 
 suppose), you may subjoin — The Premises 
 may he viewed — The Premises are to be lett — 
 The Premises are to be sold, Sec, — instead of 
 saying — The above House and Gardens — The 
 above Estate — may be viewed — lett — or sold, Sec. 
 
 The ABOVE House to be sold may be 
 affixed to a Habitation with as much pro- 
 priety ?LS— These PREMISES to be sold. 
 
 * 1 use the Language of Grammarians. 
 
136 VERBS. 
 
 Foreigners of Condition are taught our 
 Language grammatically^ and I confess my 
 Pride as an Englishman is wounded, when I 
 reflect on the contemptuous Opinion which 
 they form of our national Literature, from the 
 Specimens of Ignorance and Solecism ex- 
 hibited in this Metropolis. From the Ca- 
 naille, they look for Nothing but Vulgarisms ; 
 but from a Citizen of Affluence, and still 
 more from a Person of Rank, they expect 
 correct and elegant Diction, 
 
 PROPOSE. 
 
 I PROPOSE to give a general View of 
 the chief Principles relating to this Subject.^ 
 
 We PROPOSE Doubts, Questions, and 
 Projects to Others. But PURPOSE is not 
 dependant on external Will. 
 
 Does a Common Councilman know better 
 than to say— I PURPOSE that the Thanks 
 of this Court be given to Mr. Alderman 
 Leatherhead ? 
 
 * Dr. Blair, vol. i. 138. Dr. Blair, do. 373. 
 
VERBS. 137 
 
 Does even a Liveryman know better than 
 to say — Well, Neighbour, do as you please; 
 for my Part, I PROPOSE to give my Vote 
 to ***? 
 
 Dr, Blair proposed — to himself— to give 
 the World a general View of some of the 
 Principles of Rhetoric ; and I am happy that 
 the harmed Frofessor did not put a Negative 
 on ihe Doctor s benevolent Proposal. 
 
 CATCH. 
 
 Whe7i the whole Meaning must be CATCH- 
 ED from the Mouth of the Speaker^ great 
 Conciseness is to be avoided. 
 * 
 
 In London, well bred People never use 
 
 the Word CATCH. It is nearly obsolete 
 
 even among the Vulgar. If a Man be in 
 
 Pursuit of another, they often say he will 
 
 OVERTAKE him, instead of CATCH him. 
 And I have CAUGHT or TAKEN Cold, 
 
 instead of I have CATCHED Cold 
 
 You will be CAUGHT, or DETECTED, 
 instead of you will be CATCHED— Thief- 
 TAKER instead of Thicf-C ATCHER, &c. 
 
138 VERBS. 
 
 I add, with Reluctance TO CATCH 
 
 the MEANING from the MOUTH— is a 
 Style of Speaking not sufficiently dignified 
 and refined to be admitted into Lectures on 
 Eloquence. I do not deny that we have 
 similar Phrases in England; for our Vulgar 
 frequently exclaim — Let us have none of your 
 JAW — I know your MEANING by your 
 GAPING. 
 
 persecute-prosecute. 
 
 " he was persecuted for 
 " forgery:' 
 
 I can assign no Reason but Custom for 
 the Appropriation of PROsecute — to judicial 
 Proceedings, and — PERsecute — to extra- 
 judicial. 
 
 The words are of Roman Origin. PRO- 
 sequi aliquem Benefciis — Judicio PERsequi 
 aliquem — Viam PERsequi. Hence it is evi- 
 dent that we have reversed the ancient Ap- 
 plication of the Terms. 
 
 Legal PROsecution is founded on a 
 Complaint of civil Injustice. The OF- 
 
VERBS. 139 
 
 FENCE is the Object of Pursuit, not the 
 OFFENDER. 
 
 PERsecution is personal ; it arises from 
 Enmity and Revenge. But the poor, un- 
 happy Slave of Malevolence, ashamed of his 
 Conduct, often veils it with the specious 
 Name of PROsecution. An Appeal is made 
 to the Laws, that the Object of Resentment 
 may appear to be the Victim of Justice. 
 
 As no Judge on the Bench, no Gentle- 
 man at the Bar, ever talks of PERsecution 
 for Murder, Forgery, or any Offence against 
 the Laws, it is absolutely necessary to con- 
 form to the established Distinction. 
 
 TO LEARN— TO TEACH. 
 
 The Master teaches. The Scholar }J^ ^^""S^^' 
 
 (.Learns. 
 
 READ NOR WRITE. 
 
 Literature was so little known from the 
 ninth to the fourteenth Century ^ that few Men 
 could either READ or WRITER 
 
 * Dr. Trusler's Chronology, 
 
140 VERBS. 
 
 " It is unnecessary to add, that a Person 
 " cannot WRITE, after you have informed 
 *' us, that he cannot READ. A Person may 
 " be able lo READ, though not to WRITE, 
 " and therefore it should be thus expressed — 
 « he can neither WRITE, nor READ/' 
 
 BRED AND BORN. 
 
 Some Author, I do not recollect his 
 Name, has condemned this Arrangement with 
 great Severit3^ It is unquestionably more 
 proper to name the Place of Birth prior to 
 that of Education. 
 
 IT CANT BE HOPED. 
 
 HOPED, in this Phrase, is a Corruption 
 of the ancient Word HOLPED, HOLPEN. 
 It is a common Exclamation after an Acci- 
 dent — it can't be hoped — that is — no Aid, no 
 Effort, can PREVENT the Loss sustained. 
 Give me Leave to recommend — it is unavoid- 
 able^ irretrievable^ inevitable, according to the 
 Exigency.* 
 
 * III Writing especially. 
 
VERBS. 141 
 
 CALLED. 
 
 We CALL to a Person when we desire 
 to engage his Attention, and we usually 
 CALL him by his Name. Hence, in popular 
 Phraseology — he is CALLED— %o and so. 
 
 With Respect to Animals to whom we 
 CALL, and who are capable of obeying our 
 Call, this Mode of Expression may be 
 admitted in familiar Conversation. But I 
 prefer — NAME D — to — CALLED — even 
 under this Limitation. 
 
 In the Arts and Sciences, it is scandalous 
 to make a common Prostitute of — CALL — 
 as the Vulgar do of— GET — especially as w^e 
 have Terms well adapted to every possible 
 Occurrence. E. G. 
 
 DISTINGUISHED. Arguments ^pn. 
 ori are from the Cause to the Effect: Argu- 
 ments d posteriori from the Effect to the Cause : 
 they are DISTINGUISHED by the Terms 
 SYNTHESIS and ANALYSIS. 
 
 DENOMINATED, In Optics, every 
 transparent Body is DENOMINATED a 
 MEDIUM. 
 
142 VERBS. 
 
 TERMED. When aRay of Light passes 
 out of one Medium into another, and is bent 
 out of its Course at the common Surface, this 
 Bending is TERMED REFRACTION;* 
 and when a Ray of Light proceeds to the 
 common Surface of two Mediums, and, in- 
 stead of passing from one into the other, is 
 turned back into the first, this Turning is 
 termed REFLECTION.f 
 
 DEFINED. Probity, Justice, and Be- 
 nevolence, comprehend the principal Objects 
 of moral Approbation. Probity may be DE- 
 FINED a Disposition to acknowledge the 
 Rights of Mankind; Justice to maintain 
 them ; Benevolence to improve them. 
 
 IS. In all the Cases specified in the 
 preceding Section — IS — may be used alone, 
 with the utmost Propriety. 
 
 STYLE. It is an abuse of Words to 
 STYLE a mere Profession of Goodness — 
 VIRTUE. 
 
 * This may be explained by putting a Walking»Stick 
 into Water. 
 
 t By a Prism, the Rays of Light are REFRACTED; 
 by a Looking-Glass REFLECTED. 
 
 I 
 
VERBS. 143 
 
 IN THE OPINION of Mr. Locke, a 
 Fool makes false Conclusions from true Prin- 
 ciples, and a Madman just Conclusions from 
 false Principles. This is much better than 
 —Mr. Locke CALLS the Man a Fool, who 
 makes false Conclusions from true Principles ; 
 or the Man, who makes false Conclusions 
 from true Principles is CALLED by Mr. 
 Locke 2i Fool. 
 
 CONSTRUE. 
 
 « The Word CONSTRUCTION— 
 
 " serves as the verbal Noun of two different 
 " Verbs, to— CONSTRUE and to CON- 
 " STRUCT. The first is a grammatical 
 " Term, relating solely to the Disposition of 
 " Words in a Sentence ; the second signifies 
 '* to fabricate or build. The common Rela- 
 " tion in which the two V^rbs stand to the 
 " same Appellative, hath misled some Writers 
 " to confound them ; so far at least as to use 
 *' improperly the Word construct, and speak 
 " oi constructing, m^i^didi of construing a Sen- 
 " tence; for I have not observed the like Mis- 
 " application of the other Verb. We never 
 " hear of construing a Fabric or Machine.'^* 
 
 * Dr. Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric. 
 
144 VERBS. 
 
 I WONDER. 
 
 The Populace are accustomed to use — 
 / WONDER — on very improper occasions. 
 E.G. 
 
 I wonder what's a Clock ! I wonder whether 
 it will rain to Bay! With equal Proprietji 
 
 you may say 1 ADMIRE what's a Clock I 
 
 I am ASTONISHED whether it will rain 
 to Day! 
 
 A Person of Education inquires — JVhafs 
 a Clock ? Or more properly — Whafs the 
 Hour?^ Will it rain to Day ? 
 
 " / wonder that the Emperor is so inactive/' 
 A proper Expression, and equivalent to, I 
 am surprised the Emperor is so inactive, 
 
 " I wonder whether he will conquer the 
 " Turks,'' Improper, and equivalent to — I am 
 surprised whether he will conquer the Turks, 
 
 * To the first Question, you may justly reply — An In- 
 strument to inform us of the Hour of the Day or Night, 
 The latter Question relates to the Hour of the Day or 
 Night. 
 
VERBS. 145 
 
 On such Occasions it is more correct to say 
 — I am unable to determine — I am at a Loss 
 to conjecture — I am in Doubt — I wish to knou\ 
 
 V^ If you can substitute — I am sur- 
 prised — or I am astonished — for — I wonder — 
 the Phrase is English; if you cannot, it is a 
 Barbarism, 
 
 OUGHT— AUGHT. 
 
 The late Mr. Shaftoe^ rode fifty Miles in 
 one Hour 9 and forty -nine Minutes, the greatest 
 Feat of the Kind, for OUGHT I know 9 ever 
 performed. 
 
 The fore Wheels of all Carriages OUGHT 
 to be so high that their A Ties may be even with the 
 Breast of the Horses, t 
 
 OUGHT is improper in the former Pas- 
 sage : it should be— AUGHT.t 
 
 * 1759. He used ten Horses. 
 
 t Annual Register. This is proper, for OUGHT is a 
 Verb. X Aught isar=Anything. 
 
 K 
 
146 VERBS. 
 
 STRUCK ALL OF A HEAP. 
 
 It is no Part of my Plan to notice all 
 the Phrases current in Covent Garden and 
 the Purlieus of St. Giles. They are below 
 rational Criticism. My Animadversions will 
 extend to such Phrases only as People in de- 
 cent Life inadvertently adopt. 
 
 In former Ages, a Gentleman was easily 
 distinguished from the Multitude by his 
 DRESS. In the present Period, all external 
 Evidence of Rank among Men is destroyed. 
 Every outward Distinction is also lost in the 
 Female World. The same Gaiety of Appa- 
 rel, and the same System of Education, pre- 
 vail in all Orders of the Community. The 
 Daughters of Publicans and of Coblers are 
 taught dancing, and Music, and French.* 
 
 * Some at a DAY-School, and some at a BOARDING- 
 School — not a School of Reputation, but a paltry Boarding- 
 House, kept by a Lady's Maid, or a " Governess" of the 
 Daughters of some wealthy Cit, who, in Return for her being 
 a Slave in his Nursery for twenty Years, kindly recommends 
 her to his Neighbours, as a good motherly Sort of a Woman. 
 Which she certainly may be, and yet be very untitfor the Pro- 
 vince of Instruction. 
 
VERBS. 147 
 
 Every Novelty in Dress is purchased with 
 Avidity, and all Remonstrance silenced by 
 an Appeal, not to PROPRIETY, but to 
 PROPERTY. " If so be as how I pay for 
 " it, what's that to you ? Marry come up — 
 " my Money is my own, and I have a Right to 
 *' do as I think proper with it; my Daughter is 
 " as good Flesh and Blood as other People; 
 " and if so be that I can buy her handsome 
 " Things, she has a Right to wear them; 'and 
 ** they as don't like it, may look off of it.'' 
 
 It is utterly impossible, on a fifst View, 
 to determine the Rank of this Boardings 
 School Miss, But the Moment the unhappy* 
 Girl attempts to speak, her Origin is dis- 
 closed, and her Finery and affected Airs ex- 
 cite Sentiments of Pity and Contempt. 
 Hence the Importance of early Attention to 
 Purity and Politeness of Expression : it is 
 the only external distinction which remains 
 between a Gentleman and a Valet; a Lady 
 and a Mantua-maker. 
 
 IT The Phrase — —struck all of a Heap 
 must imply either WONDER, or SUR- 
 PRISE, or ASTONISHMENT. 
 
 * r consider her as unhappi/f for many Reasoiii. 
 K 2 
 
148 VERBS. 
 
 WONDER and Admiration are nearly 
 synonymous ; they have their Source in 
 Power, Magnificence, Infinitude. 
 
 SURPRISE results from unexpected 
 Appearances. 
 
 The Incident which Causes ASTO- 
 NISHMENT not only creates Surprise, 
 but so powerfully affects the Senses, that a 
 Deprivation of Speech is sometimes the Con- 
 sequence. 
 # 
 
 The Peasants, who assembled at Chel- 
 tenham to obtain a Sight of their Majesties, 
 were SURPRISED to see the Sovereign 
 dressed like a private Gentleman. Their fond 
 Imaginations had clothed him in Robes of 
 State, with a Diadem on his Head, and a 
 Sceptre in his Hand*; and had the royal 
 Appearance answered Expectation, they had 
 gazed with WONDER and Admiration. 
 On the contrary, they were not easily con- 
 vinced it was the king whom they saw\ An 
 old woman, in Particular, was greatly SUR- 
 PRISED. Good Lord ! said the Dame, whi/ 
 he is like other Men ! 
 
 * As the King is represented in coloured Prints. 
 
VERBS. 149 
 
 But if his Majesty, in one of his rural 
 Excursions, were to meet this old Woman, 
 and condescend to ask her a Question, I dare 
 say that her ASTONISHMENT would 
 nearly deprive her of the Powers of Utter- 
 ance. And I conceive the Vulgar of the 
 Metropolis would express the Sensation thus : 
 She was struck all of a Heap ; and the Pea- 
 santry — She was deadly frightened ; or scared 
 out of her Senses. 
 
 LEAVE IN THE LURCH. 
 SWALLOW CONTRADICTIONS. 
 
 An elegant Speaker studiously avoids 
 the Proverbs,* and trite Phraseology of the 
 Vulgar; for it evinces extreme Poverty of 
 Genius, and Ignorance of Language, when a 
 Man is unable to express popular Sentiments 
 in correct and elegant Diction. 
 
 Some Apology, perhaps, may be ad- 
 mitted for the prevalent Influence of early 
 
 * *' A Vulgar Man," said Lord Chesterfield, *' is perpetu- 
 " ally using vulgar Proverbs — whafs one Man's Meat is an- 
 " other Man's Poison, &c. &c." 
 
150 VERBS. 
 
 Imitation, for many People are indebted 
 to Nurses and Domestics for those Opi- 
 nions and Phrases, which disgrace maturer 
 Life. 
 
 In Satire and low Comedy, where vul- 
 gar Manners are ridiculed, the Picture must 
 express the Features of the Original, in a 
 Style bordering on Caricature. But it ought 
 to be remembered, that the Picture is not 
 held up for Imitation^ but for Ridicule and 
 Contempt. 
 
 Hence it is justly remarked by Dr. 
 Campbell, that good Use, or the Authority 
 of a good Author, will not sanction a So- 
 lecism, nor give Dignity to a vulgar Ex- 
 pression. 
 
 To leave in the Lurch -and to swallow 
 
 Contradictions are Ideas, which may be 
 
 elegantly expressed by a thousand Modes of 
 Circumlocution, and to Circumlocution I 
 counsel the Student to have Recourse on all 
 similar Occasions. The Caution may be 
 thought unnecessary, but I assure my Reader 
 that a Lady of Name in the Republic of Let- 
 ters has used the above Phrases, in a serious 
 and vtry important History. 
 
 -. 
 
VERBS. 151 
 
 O^THE NATURE AND USE OF 
 
 SHALL AND WILL. 
 
 SHALL and WILL had anciently the 
 same Diversity of Termination as other Verbs. 
 
 SHALLS is obsolete. WILLS is yet 
 in Use before a Noun : he wills thy Happi- 
 ness. When an Infinitive follows, it is cus- 
 tomary to omit the — S — and the — TO — : he 
 wills to kill thee — he WILL kill thee. 
 
 From this abbreviated Construction, 
 our Grammarians have been induced to con- 
 sider them as VERBAL AUXILIARIES* 
 
 WILL is the same as the Saxon 
 lUlLLe the present Tense of the Verb 
 UjILLAN, velle, to DESIRE.f 
 
 * A barbarous Appellation, and hostile to common 
 Sense. 
 
 *f* As the Saxon Language begins to engage much of the 
 Attention of the Learned, and as it is probable that it will be 
 in still greater Repute, I have caused a Saxon and a Gothic 
 Alphabet to be engraven for the last Chapter of this Essay : 
 and I advise the Student to learn the Characters at least, of 
 
152 VERBS. 
 
 WILL indicates PRESENT Volition. 
 It is entirely the Effect of Habit that we 
 annex to it an Idea of FUTURITY. E. G. 
 
 » 
 
 In moral Agents, I WILL TO GO to 
 Italy ; or — in abbreviated Construction — I 
 WILL GO to Italy : I DESIRE, I IN- 
 TEND, I AM DETERMINED, to go to 
 
 Italy. 
 
 But when? If the FUfURITY annexed 
 to — WILL — had any Existence except in 
 the Metaphysical Imagination of a Gram- 
 marian, the Question would be easily an- 
 swered. In Fact, the Designation of FU- 
 TURITY is not in the Province of VERBS. 
 It is allotted to Nouns and Adverbs of Time. 
 
 In Things, When we speak of inanimate 
 
 Subjects WILL means PROPEN- 
 
 SIT Y, either natural, or accidental. E. G. 
 
 At Peruy in South America, Air DIS- 
 SOLVES Lead entirely. Gold is the only Me- 
 tal that it WILL not consume^ nor rust,* 
 
 both Languages. The Application requisite is trifling ; and 
 the Acquisition will be always amusing, and sometimes use- 
 ful, though he never learn the Structure of the Languages. 
 * Dr. Goldsinitb. 
 
VERBS. 153 
 
 It is affirmed that Peruvian x\ir — though 
 it DISSOLVES Lead— HAS no Power or 
 Tendency to consume Gold, nor even to rust 
 it. Let us vary the Expression. The Pe- 
 ruvian Air AVILL dissolve Lead entirely, 
 though it neither CONSUMES Gold, nor 
 RUSTS it. The TIME specified is the 
 PRESENT ; but extended by the Imagina- 
 tion to the PAST, and to the FUTURE. 
 
 SHALL is derived from the Saxon 
 Sce^L the present Tense ot* the Verb 
 SceOLDSN, icpslXBiv, debere, to OWE. It in- 
 dicates NECESSITY, moral, or natural. 
 
 Our Friends, North of the Tweed, do 
 not always observe the radical Distinction 
 between— SHALL and WILL. E. G. 
 
 Without having attended to this, we WILL be at a Loss 
 in understanding several Passages of the Classics.* 
 
 Who, for Instance, would call Virgil's Description of a 
 Tempest, in the first iEneid, an Imitation of a Storm ? If 
 we heard of the Imitation of a Battle, we might naturally 
 think of some mock Tight, or Representation of a Battle on 
 the Stage, but we WOULD never apprehend, that it meant 
 one of Homer's Description in the Iliad.+ 
 
 * Dr. Blair. Rhetoric, vol. i. 109. t Do. 95. 
 
154 VERBS. 
 
 I WOULD oflTeiid impardonably against Unity if L 
 should mingle in one Discourse, Arguments for the Love of 
 God, and for the Love of our Neighbour.* 
 
 As, besides the general Fault of Prolixity and Indistinct- 
 ness, this Sentence contains several Inaccuracies, I WILL be 
 obliged to enter into a minute Discussion of its Structure and 
 
 Parts, f 
 
 The following Extract, from a public Jour- 
 nal, proves beyond Controversy, that — 
 SHALL and WILL — convey dissimilar 
 Ideas to an English Ear. 
 
 " Yesterday Morning a Boat was over- 
 " set in the Thames, and a Foreigner unfor- 
 " tunately drowned. A^Vaterman, who saw 
 " the Accident, put off from Shore to his As- 
 " sistance, but when he heard the unhappy 
 
 " Gentleman vociferate me WILL he 
 
 ** drowned — me WILL be drowned — he re- 
 " turned instantly, muttering in a surly Tone 
 " — then be drowned, and be **** for what 
 " I care.'' 
 
 The Waterman, on being reproached 
 for Inhumanity, answered — why he said he 
 WOULD be drowned, 
 
 * Dr. Blair. Rhetoric, vol. fi. 109. t Vol. i. 447. 
 
VEKBS. 155 
 
 DIRECTIONS CONCERNING THE USE OF 
 
 SHALL AND WILL. 
 
 When you speak of yourself, or of a 
 Company of which you are a Part, never use 
 — WILL — unless it can be resolved into its 
 primitive Idea— DESIRE. If Dr. Blair 
 had appealed to this unerring Standard of 
 Propriety, he had never written, " We WILL 
 " be at a Loss in Understanding* several Pas- 
 " sages of the Classics," for it implies, we 
 DESIRE to be at a Loss. 
 
 I am equally certain that he never had 
 written, I WOULD offend unpardonably. 
 
 If a moral Agent impart his DESIRE, 
 you may adopt the same Language as you 
 use when you indicate the Determinations of 
 your own Will. HE WILL go to Italy. 
 THEY WILL go to Italy. 
 
 * Dr. Blair seems to have mistaken the meaning of in 
 understanding. We may be at a Loss TO understand an 
 abstruse Discourse ; but we cannot be at any Loss when we 
 DO understand it ; which is the real Meaning of — in under- 
 standing. 
 
1 o6 V E UBS. 
 
 Irrational and inanimate Creatures are 
 governed by certain Laws. And it is pre- 
 sumed they will act in Conformity to those 
 Laws. Hence it is said, in figurative Expres- 
 sion, they WILIi. E. G. Swallows WILL 
 return — in the Spring, That is, Swallows are 
 desirous of returning — in the Spring. Trees 
 Will blossom — in the Sprijig. That is, Trees 
 desire. Trees makes an Effort, to unfold the 
 Bud — in the Spring, ^c^^ Observe, in pass- 
 ing, the Designation of FUTURITY, if there 
 be any Futurity in the Case, devolves entirely 
 on SPRING. 
 
 ^ When you are under externa] Obliga- 
 tion — in other Words — when the Necessity 
 by which you act is independent on your 
 WILL, it is proper to use — SHALL. 
 
 Therefore never use — SHALL — unless 
 you can resolve it into NECESSITY, arising 
 from foreign Influence. 
 
 Foreign Influence results either from 
 the Laws of Nature, or from moral Obhga- 
 tion. In either Case, the WILL may acqui- 
 esce in the Influence, or it may be abhorrent, 
 according to the Circumstances of the Occa- 
 sion. E. G. The human Frame is mortal ; I 
 
VERBS. 157 
 
 SHALL die. In this natural Necessity — 
 Blessed be God — I perfectly acquiesce. But 
 the Person above noticed departed out of 
 Life with great Reluctance. And though, 
 from Ignorance of the Language, he avowed 
 a DESIRE to be drowned, yet he resisted 
 his Destiny to the last Moment. 
 
 If the Speaker be not the Subject of the 
 Proposition, he may use SHALL, whenever 
 NECESSITY is implied. Thus the Deity 
 proclaims his Holy Laws — Thou SHALT do 
 no Murder. Inferior Legislators assume a si- 
 milar Language. But in social Life, polite 
 People soften a Precept or indicate a Neces- 
 sity of Compliance in milder Terms, by sup- 
 posing the Concurrence of the WILL. E. G. 
 You WILL do — so and so. 
 
 Dr. Priestley observes, that some Au- 
 thors improperly use WILL instead of 
 SHALL in the Beginning of Chapters and 
 Sections. E. G. I WILL now demonstrate, 
 instead of, I SHALL now demonstrate. The 
 Doctor condemns without a56%7M7ig a Reason, 
 I add, with Reluctance, he condemns, on the 
 present Occasion, in Contradiction to Reason. 
 The Phrase, I WILL now demonstrate^ is ge- 
 nuine English : it means, I now PURPOSE, 
 
158 VERBS. 
 
 I now DESIRE, 1 now INTEND, to de- 
 
 monstrate. 
 
 SHALL has no essential Futurity. The 
 Laws of God and Man control our PRE- 
 SENT Conduct. We OUGHT* to obey 
 them NOW. 
 
 If any Advocate for the prevailing 
 Opinions concerning — SHALL and WILL 
 — be disposed to controvert my Positions, I 
 request him to inform me whether — NEED 
 and DARE— are AUXILIARIES; and 
 whether they indicate Time PRESENT, or 
 Time FUTURE. E. G. 
 
 I NEED ) recruit my Strength. 
 They NEED) take Care. 
 
 I DARE ) provoke his Vengeance. 
 They DARE) infringe his Laws. 
 
 It may be said, there is a Medium be- 
 tween WILLING and BEING, between 
 DUTY and PERFORMANCE, that con- 
 stitutes the FUTURITY of SHALL and 
 WILL. 
 
 * Which is the primitive Meaning of SHALL. IT IS 
 our Duty. 
 
VERBS. 159 
 
 Admitting the Medium, I urge the same 
 Plea for the FUTURITY of NEED and 
 DARE; for certainly there is a Difference 
 between the NEED of recruited Strength, 
 and the POSSESSION of it. But who will 
 have the Temerity to assert, that I NEED 
 is the future Tense ? Who will publicly avow 
 that NEED and DARE are Auxiliaries? 
 
 But I contend they are Auxiliaries, as 
 much as SHALL, or WILL. E. G. I DARE 
 (to) provoke his Vengeance. — I WILL (to) 
 provoke his Vengeance. I NEED take 
 Care— I SHALL take Care. 
 
 SHOULD, WOULD, COULD. 
 
 Our Grammarians, in general, admit that 
 — should — would and could, are not strictly 
 limited to a future Signification. In Fact, 
 they NEVER indicate Futurity. They are 
 regular Verbs of the PAST Tense. 
 
 It is lamented that the late Bishop of 
 London,* whose Name is deservedly enrolled 
 
 ♦ My Veneration for Truth will not allow me to repeat, 
 
160 VKIIBS. 
 
 in the Annals of Learning and Virtue, did 
 not emancipate British Literature from arbi- 
 trary Impositions. It is scarcely to be ex- 
 
 in their full Extent, the Encomiimis so lavishly bestowed on 
 the late Bishop of London. 
 
 On the other Hand, I do not entirely coincide in 
 Opinion with Mr. Tooke. " Dr. Lowth, amongst some false 
 " English which he has recommended, and much good English 
 " which he has reprobated, says, that Universal Grammar ex- 
 •' plains the Principles which are common to all Languages. 
 " The Grammar of any particular Language applies those 
 '* common Principles to that particular Language, and yet, with 
 ** this clear Truth before his Eyes, he boldly proceeds to give 
 *' a particular Grammar, without being himself possessed of 
 " ONE SINGLE PRINCIPLE of Umrersa/ Grammar, 
 " and without having the MOST DISTANT NOTION 
 " OF THE MEANING of the Words whose Employ- 
 " ment he undertakes to settle ; and, consequently, has con- 
 " demned and approved without Truth or Reason,^ 
 
 With equal Ereedom, this Gentleman censures Dr. 
 Johnson. " His Merit ought not to be denied him, but his 
 ** Dictionary is the most imperfect, and the least valuable, 
 " of his Productions; and that Share of Merit which it 
 " possesses, makes it by so much the more nurtful. 1 rejoice, 
 " however, that though the least valuable, he found it the 
 ** most profitable ; for I could never read his Preface without 
 " shedding a Tear. And yet it must be confessed that his 
 '* Grammar, and History, and Dictionary of what HE calls 
 " the English Language, are, in all Respects, (except the 
 « Bulk of the latter) most truly CONTEMPTIBLE Per- 
 *' formances, and a iReproach to the Learning and Industry 
 " of a Nation which could receive them with the slightest 
 " Approbation. Nearly one-third of this Dictionary is as 
 
 • AmuseiBcnts of Purley. 286. 
 
\2 
 
 VERBS. I6l 
 
 pected from an Author without Name, and 
 without Authority; but what is wanting in 
 Authority, I must endeavour to supply by 
 Argument. 
 
 " much the Language of the Hottentots as of the English; 
 " and it would be no difficult Matter so to translate any 
 "one of the plainest and most popular Numbers of the 
 " Spectator into the Language of that Dictionary, that no 
 " Englishman, though well read in his own Language, would 
 " be able to comprehend one Sentence of it." 
 
 *' It appears to be a Work of Labour, and yet it is, in 
 " Truth, one of the most idle Performances ever oflfered to 
 '•' the Public; compiled by an Author who possessed not one 
 *' single Requisite for the Undertaking, and (being a Publica- 
 *' tion of a Set of Booksellers) owing its success to that very 
 " Circumstance which alone must make it impossible that it 
 '* should deserve Success.^ 
 
 This is bold Language, and an Instance of unusual For- 
 titude in an Individual to appeal from the Judgment of a 
 whole Nation. But Mrs. Piozzi has taught me, that Dr. 
 Johnson praised the Style of Addison, though he did not 
 approve it. Now Dr. Johnson's political Sentiments are 
 well known : and so are Mr. Tooke's, et hinc forsan ill(R 
 Lachrymae. Hence, perhaps, this Asperity of Censure; 
 for, under the Influence of pohtical Aversion, a Man may 
 condemn what he approves, as well as applaud what he 
 condemns. 
 
 I have little Authority for forming this Conjecture, and 
 none for publishing it ; I am sensible I ought to ask. Mr. 
 Tooke's Pardon for my Freedom. 
 
 It is Justice to acknowledge, that Mr. Tooke's public 
 Life appears to be governed by the ancient Maxim — FIAT 
 
 » 268. 
 L 
 
162 VERBS. 
 
 Terms implying Power, Daty, Desire, 
 and Possession, being in continual Use, 
 Grammarians inadvertently pronounce them 
 mere Auxiliaries in the Communication of 
 Ideas. Hence shalU will, should, zvould, may^ 
 might, can, could, &c. are supposed to be 
 " certain little Words by the Help of which 
 " we form Modes and Tenses.''* But, in 
 Truth, there are no Words in Dr. Johnson's 
 Dictionary more deservedly termed princi- 
 pal Words than those above mentioned. A 
 few Remarks on the Nature and Use of — 
 WOULD and SHOULD— will be sufficient 
 to confirm my Position. 
 
 But in Order to aflford the Student a 
 comprehensive View of the Nature and Use 
 of the Words under present Investigation, I 
 
 JUSTITIA RUAT CiELUM. Consequences are out of 
 the Question. At this Moment he is industriously courtmg 
 the Resentments of a great and powerful Party/ 
 
 As Mr. Tooke's Abilities in verbal Criticism are well 
 known, I humbly think he would consult his own Honour, if 
 he favoured the Public with a particular Account of the Errors 
 which he has discovered in the Doctor*s Dictionaiy. Indis- 
 criminate Censure lessens Confidence without Benefit to the 
 Understanding. 
 
 * Bishop of London, and other Grammarians. 
 
 a Wcstiubster Election. 
 
A^ERBS. 163 
 
 must anticipate a few Rem:irks en &^ origi- 
 nal Structure of Speech. 
 
 Man is a finite Creature. His Powers of Action are 
 limited to the PRESENT Moment. 
 
 Let the followuig Lines represent Time, past, present, 
 
 and future — Name them, if you 
 
 please, A. B. and C. In A. the Energy is past, the Action 
 is completed. In C. the Energy has ho Existence. I speak 
 with Respect to Man ; for the supreme Being is illimitable. 
 
 As Time is definite in Extent, you may circumscribe 
 the above Lines by a Circle. That Circle you may conceive 
 to be Eternity. 
 
 By a Necessity of Nature the supreme Being inhabits 
 Eternity. His Energy therefore may be supposed to proceed 
 from every point of this Circumference, without Limitation to 
 past, or present, or future. 
 
 But as Man does not EXIST in the future, he cannot 
 ACT in the future ; for he cannot act where he is not prese 
 Hence I am persuaded, that FUTURE TENSES, I mean 
 Verbs with a FUTURE TERMINATION, have no Ex- 
 istence in any Language in the World. I have examined no 
 fewer than sixteen, and I constantly found their Futures com- 
 pounded of some Verb of DESIRE, DUTY, or MOTION, 
 and an Affirmation in the PRESENT Tense. Instances of 
 which will be given in the proper Place. 
 
 It cannot have escaped the Notice of the most negligent 
 Observer, that innumerable Verbs vary considerably in the 
 past and present Tenses. E. G. Bear^ bore. Buy, bought. 
 Think, thought. iSell, sold. Windy wound. 
 
 l2 
 
164 VERBS. 
 
 Many of them vary in the same Tense. E. G. Digged, 
 dug. Hanged, hung. Heaved, hove. Awaked, awoke. 
 
 Thus WILLED and WOULLED, by Contraction 
 WOULD, are from the present— WILL * And SHOUL- 
 LED, by Contraction SHOULD, from the present — 
 SHALL.* If any One suppose that such Contractions are 
 without Example, permit me to remark, that the perpetual 
 Use which we make of SHOULD and WOULD is suffi- 
 cient to justify an accidental Anomaly in Form. But in Fact, 
 similar Contractions are not infrequent. E. G. Bended, bent. 
 Spilled, spilt. Girded, girt.f Nor are WOULD and 
 SHOULD any more connected with Futurity, than spilled, 
 or bought, or hanged. 
 
 Foreigners are greatly perplexed by — SHALL and 
 WILL. They are authorized by Grammarians to use them 
 indiscriminately ; but they soon perceive that a most impor- 
 tant Distinction prevails in popular Use. And they con- 
 sider it as a NATIONAL DISGRACE, that two of 
 the most familiar Words in the Language are so little under- 
 stood. 
 
 I do not affirm that Grammarians authorize, in direct 
 Terms, an indiscriminate Use of— SHALL and WILL ; 
 but I contend, that we may use them indiscriminately, and 
 plead the Authorities which they cite and approve. 
 
 Thus an ingenious Gentleman, who latelyj published a 
 Dissertation on SHALL and WILL, has deduced so many 
 Examples of contradictory Application, that no Sort of In- 
 
 * Or from the Saxon Infinitive. 
 
 t D and T are letters of the same Power. 
 
 t 1784. 
 
VERBS. 165 
 
 ference can be made of the real and distinct Import of the 
 Words. And I remark with Satisfaction, that I have the Conr 
 currence of the most respectable Authority* in rejecting many 
 of his Examples as erroneous and absurd. 
 
 Of the improper Use of — WILL, I have given an In- 
 stance in the preceding Section. Let it now be supposed 
 
 that some Gentleman from Scotland I will name Dr. 
 
 Blair, — since, from his benevolent manners, I am secure of 
 Pardon for my Freedom. Had Dr. Blair been standing on 
 the Margin of the Thames, when the Accident, to which I 
 allude, took Place, w'ould it not have created great Surprise 
 in all who heard him, had he exclaimed — he SHALL be 
 drowned — he SHALL he drowned — ? 
 
 Again, had Dr. Blair been present in Moorfields, when 
 the House of the Catholic Priest was in Flames,* and had he 
 said, from serious Apprehensions of Danger — the Chapel 
 also SHALL be reduced to Ashes — would it not have been 
 sufficient Ground for an Indictment ? Would not the Grand 
 Jury have found the Bill — goodf And what Apology could 
 have been offered at the Old Bailey for the Doctor's Conduct? 
 What Plea could have been urged in Arrest of Judgment ? 
 Simply this — the Prisoner at the Bar, my Lord, does not 
 understand English, 
 
 IT SHOULD and WOULD indicate Time past, 
 indefinitely. In other Words, they refer to the preter im- 
 perfect Tense, with an Hypothesis expressed, or implied. 
 E. G. 
 
 WERE our secret Offences zeritten on the Forehead, 
 some People WOULD not he so censorious, 
 
 ♦ Either the Critical or the Monthly, but which I do not recolI«ct. 
 t 1780. 
 
166 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 WERE I prime Minister, I would prefer the Happiness 
 of my Country to the Interests of a Party. 
 
 *^ If I WAS" prime Minister^ I would prefer the Hap- 
 piness of my Country to the Interests of a Tarty. 
 
 No Grammarian, I presume, will assert, that WERE 
 and WAS are in the FUTURE Tense, or even in the 
 PRESENT. 
 
 If I AM prime Minister, that is, I AM prime Mi- 
 nister (suppose that*) and I WILL prefer — or I AM 
 WILLING to prefer the Happiness of my Country to the 
 Interests of a Party, This is an Hypothesis of the PRE- 
 SENT Tense. 
 
 HAD I BEEN prime Minister, at that Time, I 
 HAD PREFERRED the Happiness of my Country to 
 the Interests of a Party, An Hopothesis of the PAST 
 Tense, definite. 
 
 Q^' HAD and WERE are used imperatively,t when 
 placed before the Noun, or Pronoun ; and they have the same 
 Force as— SUPPOSE— IF— GRANT, &c. Hence the 
 Hypothesis— WERE I, is more elegant than IF I WERE, 
 and more proper than IF I WAS. And HAD I BEEN 
 more elegant than IF I HAD BEEN. 
 
 WERE I prime Minister, I JVOVLD promote the 
 Happiness of mv Country — that is, I JVAS Prime Minister 
 (suppose that) and I WILLED to promote the Happiness 
 of my Country; I TVOULLED, I WOULD promote the 
 
 • If niean?, GIVE, GRAI:T, ZIIjT'ZZE-. ztA rf quires after it a Verb in 
 the subjunrtive Elode. If I BZ. p.iir.e Minister, 
 t E. 5. Be it 50. V/ERE 1; so. HAD 12 le?." so. 
 
VERBS. 16*7 
 
 Happiness of my Country, This is an Hypothesis of the 
 PAST Tense, indefinite. 
 
 1[ RECAPITULATION. We have seen an essen- 
 tial Difference between WILL and SHALL— WOULD 
 and SHOULD. 
 
 To preserve this Difference in Writing and Conversation, 
 I ask Leave to subjoin a few miscellaneous Remarks. 
 
 1 . To determine whether WOULD is propier for the 
 Occasion, have Recourse to the PRESENT Tense, and then 
 convert— WlLL-into DESIRE. 
 
 2. When you speak of yourself, or of a Company of 
 which you are Part, always use WILL, if it be morally de- 
 pendant on YOUR DETERMINATION, or DESIRE 
 to obtain the Object. 
 
 S. If the predicted Event be INDEPENDENT on 
 your Will, use — SHALL — whether you acquiesce in the ex- 
 ternal Influence, by which you are controlled, or whether you 
 are totally abhorrent. 
 
 Thus, / SHALL die is the proper Language of a Man 
 resigned to the divine WILL; as well as I SHALL be 
 drowned of the reluctant Foreigner in the Tliames. 
 
 Again. Of the Quotations from Dr. Blair's Lectures,* 
 the first is exceedingly inaccurate ; for the learned Professor 
 informs us, that — in understanding — which in England means, 
 when we understand — several Passages of the Classics, we 
 WILL be at a Loss. That a Man should be AT A LOSS 
 for the Meaning of a Passage when he understands it, is sur- 
 
 * Page 153 of thij Essay. 
 
J6S VERBS. 
 
 prising. Tliat he should DESIRE to be AT A LOSS is 
 still more so. ' 
 
 In the third Quotation there is also an obvious Impro- 
 priety; for the Doctor reasons from NECESSITY to 
 VOLITION. E. G. If I SHOULD, that is, zvere I 
 constrained — to mingle Arguments in one Discourse for 
 the Love of God and our Neighbour, I WOULD offend un- 
 pardonably. 
 
 Let us make the Hypothesis in the PRESENT Tense.* 
 If I (SHALL) mingle — I WILL offend unpardonably. No, 
 Sir, I am persuaded you do NOT DESIRE to commit an 
 unpardonable Offence. And, as a moral Agent, you CAN- 
 NOT commit an unpardonable Offence, if you act from an 
 Influence foreign to your WILL. 
 
 I am not ignorant that some suppose the Gothic SK,^\ 
 to be synonymous with — WILL. They attempted to sup- 
 port the Opinion by an Extract from the Version of St. Mat- 
 thew. To which I answer. I have clearly demonstrated an 
 important Difference, in PRESENT Use, between — 
 SHALL and WILL, so that the Argument would be of little 
 Force were it founded on Fact. But in Truth the Words — - 
 A Virgin SHALL conceive and hear a Son corroborate 
 what I have advanced. 
 
 1st. The Expression — a VIRGIN WILL conceive is 
 a Paradox— an IMPOSSIBILITY, in Reference to the 
 established Course of Nature. 
 
 2d. It is a Quotation from the Prophecy of Isaiah, the 
 express Language of the Spirit of God, on whose WILL 
 alone the predicted Event depended. 
 
 * For the Sake of Demonstration. 
 
VERBS. 169 
 
 If I say the Man WILL be drowned, I speak either in 
 Reference to his WILL as a Suicide, or to the DESIRE of 
 his Body as influenced by the Laws of Gravity ; for, by a 
 remote Analogy, the irrational Creation are supposed to DE- 
 SIRE to follow the Laws of Nature. 
 
 But with Respect to the Virgin Mary — WILL — is im- 
 proper in every Application of the Word. It depended upon 
 the FIAT of Omnipotence — a Virgin SHALL conceive 
 and bear a Son, 
 
 Allow me a moment to repel the Insolence, and, if it be 
 possible, confound the Assurance of those, who presume to 
 ridicule what they do not comprehend. 
 
 The immaculate Conception, they triumphantly allege, is 
 contrary to the Laws of Nature, and incapable of Proof. But 
 what are the Laws of Nature but the Operations of the 
 Deity ^^ By what Law of NATURE were our common An- 
 cestors brought into Life ? 
 
 Adam either existed from Eternity, or he was created in 
 Time. But that which exists from Eternity exists by a Ne- 
 cessity of Nature ; it cannot perish. But men are mortal ; 
 Adam, therefore, did not Exist from Eternity. 
 
 But if Adam did not exist from Eternity, did he create 
 himself? Could he act prior to Existence ? But if he did not 
 create himself, who was his Father ? 
 
 Give me Leave to ask — who was his Mother ? Here is 
 a Phenomenon far surpassing the immaculate Conception. 
 
 If I think proper to add— the Laws of NATURE are 
 SUSPENDED by the presewi^ Mode of continuing the Spe- 
 
170 VERBS. 
 
 cies, by what Argument will unhappy Infidels subvert my Po- 
 sition? Had the OPERATIONS of NATURE been the 
 Rule of the divine Conduct, it is Demonstration that the hu- 
 man Race had been continued in the Manner in which our 
 original Fa ants were created. But the human Race are not 
 contiriU*?d by the Mode of Creation which produced our ori- 
 ginal Parents, therefore the eternal Counsels of the Deity are 
 the Rule of the divine Conduct, and not the accustomed Ope- 
 rations of Nature, which are suspended, or controlled at 
 Pleasure. 
 
 If it be asked — why do you introduce Religion in an 
 Essay on Language ? Because I am not quite sure that the 
 rising Generation will be benefited, if I tacitly encourage the 
 Attempts of Individuals to abolish Christianity. I am inclined 
 to believe that the Bible may do us Service, as Citizens of this 
 World, and as Travellers to a better. 
 
 I estimate Learning far, far beyond all that Wealth can 
 purchase, or the Prerogative of a Prince bestow. It is, in 
 Fact, the first and greatest of all earthly Blessings. But in 
 Contrast with FAITH, and VIRTUE, and a BLESSED 
 IMMORTALITY, its Glories fade, and totally disappear. 
 
 Faith, Virtue, and a blessed Immortality form the first 
 Desire that animates my Heart. Learning claims my next 
 Regard, then Liberty, then Health, then Competency. And 
 this I conceive to be the Scale of human Excellence, the Con- 
 summation of human Felicity. Beyond this, there is no real 
 Good. Under the Influence of a Delirium, perhaps, a Chris- 
 tian Philosopher may sigh to be Stuck o*erwith Titles^ and 
 
 hung round with Strings *T-But in his lucid Intervals, he will 
 despise such vain and imaginary Distinctions. 
 
 • Pope. 
 
VERBS. 171 
 
 Who nohk Ends^ by noble Means obtains, 
 Or, failing smiks f.n E.zile, or in Chains , 
 Ldke good AuicFi^s let him reign, or bleed 
 Like Socrates, that Man is GRK AT iodeed.* 
 
 If under serious ConvicUon of its final Importance, I 
 thus consecrate a Page of my Essay to Religion, 1 hope to ob- 
 tain Forgiveness ; especially as 1 do not presume to dictate, 
 nor even to offer an Opinion on Doctrines controverted by the 
 Professors of Christianity. I speak only of the FRUITS of 
 Faith. And if any of my Readers think, that the WILL of 
 Man is FREE, I entreat them to manifest that Freedom by 
 the Dignity of their Choice, and the Integrity of their Morals. 
 On the other Hand, if any conceive that ELECTION is of 
 Ood, I hope their Calling and Election will be made obvious, 
 by the Innocence of their Manners, and the Purity of their 
 Zeal. These are the VISIBLE Fruits of every Tree planted 
 in the Vineyard of God. If there be no such Fruit, the Cal- 
 vinisC must infer that there is no Tree of Life in the Heart ; 
 and the Armenian, that the Tree is exposed to the solemn 
 Denunciation of St. John, ever now the Axe is laid to the 
 Root, and every Tree that bringeth not forth good Fruity 
 shall be hezvn down and cast into the Fire, 
 
 ^ Innumerable Instances of the improper Use of — 
 SHALL and SHOULD — are to be found in the Composi- 
 tions of our Northern Friends ; which I attribute to the pre- 
 vailing f Notion that — SHALL and WILL are Signs of 
 Tenses. If they consider them for the future as VERBS, and 
 do me the Honour, at the same Time, to attend to the Re- 
 marks of this Section, they will speak the Language of Eng- 
 land, and be heard with additional Satisfaction^ 
 
 ^ If it SHALL NOW be inquired, what are the pro- 
 
 * Pope. 
 
 t In the Treatise 1784. The Author stales thera Signs o/" Temes !! 
 
172 VERBS. 
 
 per Sources of the Sublime ?* This Interrogation may be 
 elegant in the Opinion of its Author. But the Ideas, which 
 tlie Words convey, are so confounded, that the Phrase is in- 
 capable of being analyzed on any established Principles of 
 English Construction. The learned Professor uses SHALL 
 either as the SIGN of a Tense, or as the SYMBOL of an 
 IDEA. As the Sign of a Tense, it refers either to the PRE- 
 SENT or to the FUTURE. But the Phrase is determined 
 to the PRESENT, by the Word— NOW. And if the 
 Doctor refer SHALL to the FUTURE, he commits a So- 
 lecism indeed— the FUTURE NOW ! 
 
 Let us admit, then, in Candour, that the Doctor affixes an 
 IDEA to— SHALL. But what Idea? Necessity/— a Ne- 
 cessity arising from the Speaker. And therefore SHALL in 
 Construction with IF — is highly improper. The meaning 
 is — it is now inquired (suppose that) what are the Sources of 
 the Sublime ? And my Answer is (saith the Doctor), they are 
 to be found every where in Nature. ^t^" Observe, in pass- 
 ing, the Question (to correspond with the Answer) ought to 
 be — WHERE — not what — are the Sources of the Sublime? 
 
 Dr. Blair might have written — should it be inquired — or 
 if it should be inquired, what are the Sources of the Sub- 
 lime ? for the Meaning is — it was fiecessary to inquire (sup- 
 pose that) what are the Sources of the Sublime ? And my An- 
 swer is, they are to be found every where in Nature. 
 
 IF — in Construction with WILL — is admissible, on cer- 
 tain Occasions. But — IF — before — SHALL — is aflagrant 
 Barbarism. You first assert that the Event is totally dependant 
 on your Will — it SHALL be done, and then absurdly make 
 an Hypothesis, as though the Event were totally independent 
 on your Will. 
 
 * Dr. Blair. Rhetoric. 75. vol. i. 
 
VERBS. 173 
 
 I must not omit to censure the Judgment of an Author 
 already noticed.* " When future Events, limited in their 
 *^ Extent, are spoken of without any direct Reference to par- 
 *' ticular Persons, SHALL is more proper than WILL; 
 " thus. Whosoever shall fall on that Stone, shall be broken ; 
 '* but on whomsoever it shall fall, him will it grind to 
 " powder." t 
 
 If the Elucidation of this ingenious Gentleman, like the 
 Meteor which " plays on the Skirts of Night" only makes 
 the surrounding Darkness visible, it is no more than the com- 
 mon Infelicity of Men determined to travel in Via tritd,% 
 and to preserve an ancient miimpsimus,^ in Defiance of Con- 
 viction. In the first Place, let us translate the Passage into 
 genuine English. WhosoEVER FALLS on that Stone 
 WILL be broken, but on whomsoever it FALLS, him WILL 
 it grind to Powder. 
 
 2dly. Observe the palpable inconsistency of the Bible 
 
 Translation. The Stone on whomsoever it SHALL 
 
 fall, it WILL grind to Powder ! By every Law' of Analogy, 
 Reason, and correct Expression, it ought to be — shall — or 
 will — in both Cases. 
 
 3dly. Observe, there is no Sort of Necessity for — 
 SHALL or WILL— after— IT— and— W^/fOSOEr£JR. 
 Whosoever means — A Person, indefinitely, and Time, indefi- 
 nitely. Who, in like Manner, Hiver. That is, zohoSOever. 
 Who EVER FALLS on that Stone, will be broken ; but on 
 whom the Stone EVER falls, him it will grind to Powder, 
 Thus Quicunque, in Latin, means — qui, who, any One, in^ 
 definitely — que — in like Manner — cum, when, any Time, in- 
 definitely. Indefinite TIME, and indefinite PERSONS. 
 
 * Treatise. 1784. p. 165. t Lu|ie. 
 
 $ The good old Waj. § An Error. 
 
174 VERBS. 
 
 4thly. It is not an Interdiction ; for wl.osoever SHALL 
 comniit a Trespass, and whosoevei* IS OCI vi.l''ELLED to 
 commit a Trespass, are synonymous Proposirions. Neither 
 the Laws of God, nor of Man, take any Cognizance of a 
 Trespass by Compulsion ; consequently all Denunciations of 
 Punishment are tyrannical and absurd. The Concurrence of 
 the WILL is necessary to constitute the moral Turpitude of 
 the Offence. 
 
 5thly. The Redeemer positively declares — no Man 
 cometh unto me, except my Father draw him — not by Com- 
 pulsion, but Love, for it is said, they shall be WILLING in 
 the Day of my Power. Admitting, therefore, that Divines 
 are right in their Conjectures concerning the Words — he WILL 
 be broken — and admitting that it alludes to Distress of Mind 
 on Account of Sin — it is beyond Controversy that all who fall 
 are WILLING to fall on this Corner Stone, which the Pha- 
 risees rejected. If any Word be necessary to complete the 
 
 Prediction WILL is the Word — Whosoever WILL 
 
 fall. Whosoever is WILLING to fall on this Corner Stone, 
 as the appointed Sacrifice for Sin, will experience genuine 
 Contrition,* genuine Repentance. 
 
 CONCLUSION. As a perfect Knowledge of SHALL 
 
 and WILl SHOULD and WOULD is so essential to a 
 
 correct Communication of Ideas, I repeat my Request — let 
 the Student reduce the groundless and perplexing Distinctions 
 of Grammarians to two radical Ideas, NECESSITY and 
 DESIRE. E.G. 
 
 In particular, I entreat the Gentlemen of Scotland ta 
 correct an habitual Error of using — WILL and WOULD — 
 in Construction with — I and WE — when the predicted con- 
 tingency is not only independent on their WILL, but, very 
 
 * Contrition; antecedent and concomitant Contrition. 
 
VERBS. 175 
 
 frequently, repugnant to their DESIRE. E. G. " I WILL 
 *' exert all my Influence to serve you^ h*J.t if I do not ;:ui:ceed, 
 " I WILL greatly disappoint you, I FEAR." A thousand 
 Passages might be produced from ihe best Coaspositions of 
 that Nation exactly on this P]aa of Construction. Such for 
 Example is Dr. Blair's I WILL offend Uiipardon; bly. 
 
 In the above Quotation, the Author assures his Friend, 
 in todidem Verbis, in plain English, that Le DESIRES to do 
 his utmost TO disappoint him, and he DESIRES to do his 
 utmost NOT TO disappoint him— and that the Twilight of 
 bis Intention may be turned into impenetrable Darkness, he 
 adds, I FEAR I desire. That is, his Heart informs him 
 that he has an Intention to oppose his Friend, though in 
 Language he ARDENTLY DESIRES to promote his 
 Cause. Twenty Years ago, I might have secured a rapid 
 Sale for my Essay by a popular Exclamation, Behold a Pic- 
 ture of SCOTCH SINCERITY! But in 1768, the fierce 
 Contentions of the political World had nearly banished Candour 
 and Humanity from the Realm. It is a Picture of MAN — 
 with a few Exceptions in Favour of Virtue and Religion. 
 
 Not that I accuse Authors of Duplicity who use this 
 Style of Expression. They merely affix improper Ideas to 
 the Terms. I only mean, that the distempered Zeal of a 
 Partisan delights in Obloquy, though groundless and absurd; 
 and allows to Trifles, lighter than Air, the Weight of Argu- 
 ment and Fact. 
 
 1 ask Leave of the same Author to point to another Im- 
 propriety. They are accustomed to use — SHALL, in Con- 
 struction with a SECOND or THIRD Person, when the 
 Speaker has no Authority over the predicted Contingency. 
 E. G^ If an Englishman say — You SHALL repent of your 
 Conduct — we immediately conclude it to be in the POWER 
 of the Speaker to cause, by direct or indirect Means, the 
 
176 VERBS. 
 
 SORROW predicted. If an Englishman say— You WILL 
 repent of your Conduct, we immediately conclude, that the 
 Offender has done Something which, from the established 
 Laws of Nature, or Society, WILL ultimately cause Re- 
 pentance. And whether the Speaker has POWER to cause 
 such Repentance or not, we are convincedj that he has no 
 Desire to appear as an Agent in the Production of the Effect. 
 
 But it would frequently puzzle CEdipus himself to ascer- 
 tain the Meaning of a Scotchman's — it SHALL, it WILL — 
 he WILL— he SHALL, he WILL— you SHALL, you 
 WILL— they SHALL, they W'ILL— it SHOULD, it 
 WOULD, &c. &c. 
 
 I HAD RA.THER, 
 
 I WOULD RATHER. 
 
 A Gentleman of Learning, in a Trea- 
 tise* on the Phrases under Consideration, 
 pronounced J HAD RATHER a Barbarism. 
 
 That subordinate Grammarians, who 
 have no Opinion of their own, should be in 
 Love with the Novelty is not surprising. 
 That the Bishop of London — Dr. Campbell 
 — and Dr. Priestley, should become Converts 
 to the Notion is not onl}^ surprising, but suffi- 
 cient perhaps to forbid all Attempts to restore 
 
 * In 1768. If I am not mistaken. 
 
VEUBS. 177 
 
 this ancient Phrase to its original Dignity and 
 Use. And yet, such is my Rehanceon pub- 
 lic Candour and Discernment, I am willing to 
 yield to the Dictates of Duty, and to combat 
 Error though sanctioned by Names of the 
 highest Eminence in the Republic of Letters. 
 
 Dr. Campbell* has been pleased to cen- 
 sure the Expression in Terms of unusual Se- 
 verity. " I had rather is a gross Violation of 
 *' the Rules of Conjugation in our Language, 
 " by joining the Auxiliary — ^HAD — to the 
 '' Infinitive active.-f-'' 
 
 I have remarked, on a former Occasion, 
 that an Auxiliary Verb is a Solecism in Na- 
 ture, and a Disgrace to Philosophy. But I 
 admit its Existence, for a Moment, that I 
 may have the Honour of meeting the Pro- 
 fessor on his own Ground. And I begin with 
 observing, that — HAD — may be legitimately 
 construed with an INFINITIVE ACTIVE. 
 E. G. 
 
 In opposing established Tenets, we HA VE 
 TO strive with Prejudices deeply rooted in the 
 Hearts of Men.% 
 
 * Principal of the Marashall College, Aberdeen. 
 t Philos. Lect. 400. J Hooker, in Johnson. 
 
 M 
 
178 VERBS. 
 
 Now if Hooker had alluded to the Op- 
 position to estabhshed Tenets which arose in 
 the Days of Luther, no Englishman would 
 have controverted the Construction which 
 follows. 
 
 Li opposing established Tenets^ Luther 
 HAD TO strive with Prejudices deeply rooted 
 in the Hearts of Men, 
 
 A Reader, unaccustomed to Controversy, 
 may be surprised that the learned Professor 
 should commit his Reputation, as a Critic, on 
 a Position so easily subverted. But it is too 
 frequent a Practice to adopt Opinions on the 
 Credit of a Name, and then support them by 
 fortuitous and desultory Remarks, without 
 once investigating the Principles in which 
 the Opinions originate. 
 
 I have stated the Objection as I find it. 
 But I will not avail myself of the Privilege of 
 resting on this Ground, if Dr. Campbell think 
 the Objection acquires additional Force from 
 the Admission of any RATHER. " I had 
 " rather^ with an Infinitive active is a gross 
 " Violation of the Laws of Conjugation." 
 E.G. 
 
VERBS. 179 
 
 Luther HAD to oppose Prejudices KA- 
 THER than to confute Arguments. 
 
 Luther HAD RATHER TO oppose 
 Prejudices than TO confute Arguments. 
 
 I HAD RATHER oppose Prejudices 
 than to contend against Facts. 
 
 The first and second Instances refer to a 
 specified Time. The last Instance is the past 
 INDEFINITE. 
 
 I have proved that — WOULD — is in 
 the past Tense. I HAD is also in the past 
 Tense. Consequently, we are now at Issue 
 on this Point, Of the two Preterites — HAD 
 and WOULD — which ought to be used in 
 Construction with— RATHER and an INFI- 
 NITIVE MODE? I answer— ^0C7ZD ra- 
 ther can NEVER be used with Elegance and 
 Precision, unless an HYPOTHESIS be ex- 
 pressed, or implied. E. G. 
 
 WERE a Patriot reduced to the Alternative 
 of Death or political Slavery^ I am confident he 
 WOULD RATHER (to) DIE than live. 
 
 I am apprized of the Consequences of 
 presuming to contradict the Opinions of Men 
 
 M 2 
 
180 VERBS. 
 
 of established Reputation. But, in Fact, my 
 only Opponent, on this Occasion, is Dr. John- 
 son. The Phrase — Have rather — was con- 
 demned in his Dictionary, long before the 
 Appearance of the Essay to which Messrs. 
 Lowth, Campbell , and Priestley, became Con- 
 verts. And as to the Doctor, 1 have only to 
 place an Opinion taken from one Part of his 
 Dictionary, against an Opinion from another 
 Part, and like equal but opposite Qualities in 
 Algebra, they will destroy each other. E. G. 
 
 ''HAVE. 17th Meaning. To wish; 
 " to desire ; in a lax Sense, Example. I had 
 " rather be a Door-keeper in the House of 
 " my God, than to dwell in the Tents of 
 " Wickedness.'' 
 
 '\RATHER. To have rather, that is, 
 " to desire in Preference. This, I think, is a 
 " Barbarism, It is better to say I will rather." 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Dr. Johnson is not celebrated for the Tenderness of his 
 Criticisms. Were he living, Retaliation would be more me- 
 ritorious. But he is <iead, and 1 desire to bury his Infirmities 
 in Oblivion. 
 
VERBS. 181 
 
 Permit me, however, to observe, that of twenty Mean- 
 ings assigned to — HAVE — nineteen are synonymous! 
 
 And I hope I may add, without infringing the Forms of 
 Decorum, that the seventeenth Meaning is absurd. We may 
 desire the Continuance of what we enjoy, but it is solecistical 
 in the highest Degree to affirm, ih?A present Possession is the 
 Object of our Wishes. 
 
 But it means *' to wish or desire in a LAX Sensed' 
 Then the Heart of David was not positively determined in its 
 Choice ! It vibrated between Holiness and Sin ; the Deity 
 and the Tents of Wickedness ! It preponderated at Length in 
 Favour of God; and the Psalmist indicated in a loose and 
 languid Sense, that his Attachments to Devotion were RA- 
 THER stronger than his Love of Riot and Iniquity ! 
 
 Observe, finally, that the above Propositions are contra- 
 dictory. The illustrious Author obviously wrote them when 
 his Judgment slumbered. E. G. 
 
 I HAVE=I DESIRE. Doctor Johnson. 
 
 I WILL=I DESIRE. Do. 
 
 I WILL rather. Elegant. Do. 
 
 I HAVE rather. Barbarism. Do. 
 
 IT I HAD rather may be used without 
 any Hypothesis expressed, or impHed. E. G. 
 
 « 
 Q. You are nominated Sheriffs I am in- 
 formed^ do you intend to serve ? 
 
 A. JVo. I HAD rather pay the Fine, 
 
182 VERBS. 
 
 That the Reader may not consider this 
 Instance of a PAST Tense to indicate a PRE- 
 SENT Inclination as unprecedented, I en- 
 treat him to recollect that the most prevalent 
 Mode of making an Hypothesis in English is 
 by Verbs of the PAST Tense— that in He- 
 brew, they have no PRESENT Tense for 
 their Verbs — that in many other Languages, 
 the}^ express PRESENT Perception by a 
 Verb in the PAST Tense, as in LATIN, 
 
 NOVI, I know. And that finally were 
 
 the* Want of Precedent a valid Objection, it 
 would be equally conclusive against the 
 Phrase— I WOULD rather. 
 
 % If this Use of a PAST TENSE to 
 indicate PRESENT Inclination mihtated 
 against reason, I should despise the silly Pre- 
 text, that Foreigners used a similar Construc- 
 tion. But I aver with Confidence that the 
 Phrase — I HAD rather — originates in the 
 truest Principles of Politeness and social Re- 
 finement. E. G. 
 
 You accept an Invitation — let us sup- 
 pose — to pass a Day in the Country with a 
 Gentleman, whom you wish to treat with 
 Deference and Respect. In the Evening, 
 
 * n Equal, or similar. 
 
VERBS. 183 
 
 he desires you to take a Bed. You thank 
 him for his poUte Attention, but indispensa- 
 ble Business, you add, requires my Presence 
 in Town. He repeats his Request, and you 
 reply — I HAD rather not — I beg to be ex^ 
 cused. Now the Phrase — I HAD rather not, 
 is an elegant Mode of softening the Denial. 
 But— I WONT, I SHAN'T— NO I WON'T, 
 NO I SHAN'T— are Terms of Refusal which 
 would create much Surprise. 
 
 The Latin Aafeeo, and theEnghshif^FE, 
 are from the same Source as the Chaldee 
 N2^^, a Father,* and hence the radical Ideas 
 of— HAVE-are to POSSESS, and to PA- 
 TRONISE. 
 
 RATHER is of the same Origin as the 
 Saxon pa's,* and the Celtic Rat, implying 
 Motion, Celerity. RATH in English, means 
 early, soon. RATHER earlier, sooner, A 
 Patriot would SOONER die than live in po- 
 litical Bondage. A Patriot would RATHER 
 die than live in political Bondage. 
 
 I HAVE — means, I patronise; I HAVE 
 
 * Whence also the Saxon, Gothic, Dutch, Italian, French, 
 and other Nations, derive their correspondent Word. 
 
184 VERBS. 
 
 RATHER 1 patronise in Preference, or, 
 
 in one Word, I prefer. 
 
 Hence the Expression 1 HAD ra- 
 ther not — in Answer to your Friend's Invita- 
 tion to sleep in the Country, means — I was 
 preferring to return to Town — I was preferring 
 not to sleep in the Country. 
 
 HAD — is the past Tense, indefinite. It 
 has an immediate Connexion with the PRE- 
 SENT Moment : it requires some Noun or 
 Adverb of Time to remove the Event to a 
 distant Period. Nothing is more proper, or 
 more frequent than the Phrase — I WAS 
 thinking — when you intend to communicate 
 a PRESENT Opinion with Diffidence and 
 Respect. And the Expression — I HAD ra- 
 ther — that is — I WAS giving the Preference 
 — is not inferior, in Point of Politeness and 
 Analogy, to any Phrase in the English Lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Conclusion. Communication of Senti^ 
 ment is the final Cause of Speech ; for the 
 Language of the Brute Creation is sufficient 
 for all the Purposes of animal Appetite. 
 
 To communicate Sentiment with ELE- 
 
VERBS. 185 
 
 GANCE and DISPATCH, is the great and 
 glorious End of verbal Criticism. But Dis- 
 patch requires Precision of Idea, and Con- 
 ciseness in Diction. Consequently, if no 
 Obscurity be introduced, nor any Law of 
 Syntax infringed, our Discourse will receive 
 much Grace and Energy from a judicious 
 ABBREVIATION. 
 
 RATHER implies a Comparison with 
 some ACTION, PASSION, or ATTRI- 
 BUTE; and, in the full Construction of the 
 Sentence, such x^ction, Passion, or Attribute, 
 makes its Appearance, with a numerous Train 
 of correspondent Terms. But how very 
 laughable it would be to hear a Pedant thus 
 address a Lady doing the Honours of a Ta- 
 ble — I will RATHER not to have any more 
 of the Turtle, Madam, which you were so 
 obliging as to offer me, THAN to have any 
 more of it ! ! How much more easy and con- 
 venient are the abbreviated Forms — I had ra- 
 ther not^ Madam — / have dined ^ Madam, &c. 
 &c. &c.!* 
 
 * But take particular Notice that such Abbreviations as 
 Rep : for Reputation — Plenipo : for Plenipotentiary, are vul- 
 gar. Thus Dr. Blair is very justly censured, in a public Re- 
 view, for writing Penult: for Penultimo. 
 
186 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 PITCHED UPON* 
 
 Innumerable Words and Phrases are im- 
 properly introduced by this Author into a 
 serious and elaborate Performance. 
 
 A Porter PITCHES his Load upon a 
 Block, and hence, by a natural Metaphor, 
 the Mind is said to PITCH upon its Object. 
 But this Application of the Word is confined 
 to the lower Orders of Society. We never 
 read that his Majesty has PITCHED upon 
 this or that Nobleman to be the Lord-Lieu- 
 tenant of a County. That the Electors of a 
 Borough have PITCHED upon this or that 
 Gentleman to be their Representative in Par- 
 liament. Nominated — appointed — elected 
 — are polite and proper Terms. On other 
 Occasions — we choose, — we select, — we pre- 
 fer, &c. 
 
 Again. The Phrase cast about for Orna- 
 ments is improper as well as inelegant. The 
 Imagination may be employed in Quest of 
 Ornaments — may contrive — investigate — in- 
 vent, &c. but what the Imagination is to cast 
 about is inconceivable, co When Passion 
 
 * Dt. Blair, vol. i. 364. 
 
VERBS. 187 
 
 FLAGS, Page 364, more properly, when 
 Passion ABATES.* 
 
 DEPRECATE. 
 
 " When Dr. Johnson was taken ill, he 
 *' began to compose a Prayer in Latin to DE- 
 " PRECATE God^s MERCY.^^t It ought 
 to be either—to IMPLORE God's Mercy, 
 or DEPRECATE God's VENGEANCE. 
 
 The constitutional Infelicity of Dr. 
 Johnson's Temper, and his habitual Severity 
 of Reproof, are beyond Dispute. But I trust, 
 in Charity, that the Historians of his domes- 
 tic Life have written from Imagination more 
 than from Fact. 
 
 I am sensible that Mrs. Piozzi was 
 qualified by her situation to communicate 
 authentic Anecdotes; but as Mr. Boswell has 
 publicly charged her with contradictory De- 
 clarations,:!: I am induced to hope th^t Recol- 
 
 * Dr. Blair. f Do. Mrs. Piozzi. 
 
 f Concerning Dr. Johnson's Opinion of Mrs. Montague's 
 Essay on Shakspeare. 
 
188 VERBS. 
 
 lection has failed both the Lady and Gentle- 
 man in many important Instances.* 
 
 The Passage before us has every Ap- 
 pearance of Truth; and yet it is to be la- 
 mented that Dr. Johnson employed his last 
 Moments in a Manner so puerile and absurd. 
 Does the Deity understand Latin better than 
 English? Or any Language better than the 
 Language of the Heart? 
 
 " SUBSTRACT, better SUBTRACT.'' 
 
 DEMEAN HIMSELF. 
 
 When the Illiterate are desirous of 
 " talking fine/' they use demean himself^ in- 
 stead of their accustomed Phrase, " let him- 
 " self down/' 
 
 The French — demener — means to con- 
 duct or behave. It relates to Deportment^ 
 and never indicates Disgrace or Dishonour. 
 
 The Vulgar use also bemean " He be- 
 
 " means himself by such Conduct.' 
 
 * I make this Remark from my great Regard for Dr. 
 Johnson. 
 
VERBS. ]89 
 
 ■vf^ 
 
 ENJOY BAD HEALTH. 
 
 " The Country is flat, the iiir foggy, 
 *' and the Natives, in general, ENJOY a 
 " bad state of Health.'' 
 
 Resignation in a bad State of Health is 
 the Lot of few. Enjoyment of Pain is a Con- 
 tradiction in Terms. {^ The Natives, in 
 general, ARE in a bad State of Health^ — ■ — 
 ARE afflicted with Disease, &c. 
 
 SHOULD HAVE WENT. 
 
 " The Contor is a Bird of Peru, and the 
 " largest in the World ; it measures from 
 " Wing to Wing thirty Feet, when extended : 
 " I should HAVE WENT to see it, but we 
 " had not Time."* 
 
 THE DEWS DESCEND IMPER- 
 CEPTIBLY .f 
 
 Dr. Goldsmith speaks in Conformity to 
 the erroneous though popular Notion, Dews 
 
 * Should have GONE is more usual, but not more 
 proper. t D*". Goldsmith. I. No. 374. 
 
190 VERBS. 
 
 DESCEND. But it is confirmed, by re- 
 peated Experiment, that they ASCEND, 
 and incorporate with the Clouds.* 
 
 FLY, FLEW; FLED. 
 LIE, LAY; LAID. 
 RAISE; RISE; RISEN. 
 
 FLY and FLEE are used to express 
 Celerity of Motion in Air, or on Earth. In 
 the Opinion of Dr. Johnson, a Distinction 
 was formerly observed by restricting Motion 
 with Wings to — FLY — and Motion with 
 Feet to— FLEE. But, in Fact, this Dis- 
 tinction never prevailed. E. G. 
 
 Then Samuel said unto Saul, why didst 
 thou FLY upon the Spoil, and do Evil in the 
 Sight of the Lord?— And the People FLEW 
 upon the Spoil, and took Sheep, and Oxen, and 
 dew them,'t 
 
 * If a Bason be inverted and put on the Ground, the In- 
 side will be wet with Dew, and the Bottom on the Outside 
 remain dry. f 1 Sam. xiv. 32. 
 
VERBS. • 191 
 
 Give WINGS to Moab that it may 
 FLEE''. Their Glory shall FLEE away like 
 
 aBird^ ALL the BIRDS of the Heavens 
 
 FLED.X 
 
 Both Words imply MOTION, but the 
 Modes of Motion differ as an Attack differs 
 from a Retreat. The People FLEW upon the 
 Spoil; the People FLED from the Enemy. 
 Doth the Hawk FLY by thy Wisdom ?^ The 
 FOWL and the BEAST are FLED, and I 
 will make Jerusalem a Den of Dragons, saith 
 the Lord.\\ 
 
 This Distinction ought always to be 
 observed in FLEW and FLED. As to 
 FLEE, it will not be noticed if you use — 
 FLY — for both Purposes ; and yet I advise 
 the Student to write FLEE whenever 
 FLEW is improper. In a preceding 
 Number, I have printed a Text thus — 
 Riches Make themselves Wings, and FLEE 
 away ; that is, Riches make themselves Wings, 
 and ESCAPE. 
 
 IT Lie, lain. From the same Source as 
 
 * Jer. xlviii. Q. f Hos. ix. 11. J Jer. iv. 25. 
 § Job. II Jer. ix. 10. 
 
192 « vkrbs. 
 
 the Greek Xfiyu, Xeyofj^ui^ I rest, I stop, are de- 
 rived the Islandic ^(BiB* Cuhatio, and 
 
 3l3il©® cubo ia^iB(B(B. Vono the 
 
 Saxon LIGGT^N cubare,jacere, and the English 
 —LAY and LIE. 
 
 That the Student may not be surprised 
 at the Omission of the — G — in the English 
 Words, permit me to remark, that it is a 
 common Practice to omit — G — in Words of 
 Northern Derivation, as HAIL, which is 
 the same as the Islandic S^^^tt. Some- 
 times the — G — is retained in Writing, but 
 suppressed in Pronunciation, as Might, 
 Islandic ^fUM^Wy Saxon cc'ReVD and CDlpT. 
 
 To the primitive Idea — RESTf — may 
 be reduced the ninety-nine Significations in 
 Dr. Johnson's Dictionary. The Student 
 cannot err in the Use of the Words, if he re- 
 member that — LIE— LAY J —and LAIN 
 have no accusative Case expressed. But 
 LA Y§ and LAID |1 have an Accusative Case 
 expressed. E. G. 
 
 * I use old English Types instead of Islandic. 
 t Either neuter or active — rest yourself, or rest awoMer, 
 in, upon, &c. &c. 
 
 J Lai/. 1 mean the past Tense of Lie. 
 
 § Lay, the present Tense. || Laid prefer Active. 
 
VERBS. 393 
 
 i LIE on the Sofa. 
 I LAY on the Sofa. 
 I have lain on the Sofa. 
 
 I lay HIM on the Sofa, 
 
 I laid HIM on the Sofa. 
 
 I have laid HIM on the Sofa, 
 
 I was LAINonthe— ' "' ' "'"'^^ ^^'"''- 
 
 / am LAIN on the 
 I was LAIN on the 
 
 He is LAIN on the ^ , , 
 He was LA IN on 
 
 Sofa.^ 
 
 \he Sofa.l 
 the Sofa. \ 
 
 I am LAID on the Sofa.l 
 IwasLAIDonthe ^o/a.j ^" " P"''^"" ^""'"• 
 
 He is LAID on the Sofa. ) . ., 
 
 TT T ATT^ ^i c> ^ r I" a passive bense. 
 He was LAID on the Sof a. \ '^ 
 
 ^Rise; rose; risen. Raise; raised. Arise 
 arisen, ' 
 
 The Word — RISE — is the same as the Greek piZa, a 
 Root. 
 
 ARISE signifies to ascend. , 
 
 The greater Part of human Ills have their RISE in the 
 "Imagination — that is — have their ROOT in the Imagination ; 
 have their ORIGIN in the Imagination. 
 
 The greater Part of human Ills ARISE FROM the 
 Imagination. 
 
194 VERBS. 
 
 In Process of Time the Difference was forgotten, and 
 the-~A— omitted. E. G. 
 
 And Christ JIROSE, and rebuked the Winds, and there 
 was a great Calm,* Most Authors would now translate the 
 Passage — and Christ ROSE and rebuked the Winds. 
 
 To those who are studious of Accuracy and Elegance on 
 all Occasions, I recommend the following Distinctions. 
 
 In what did the Dispute take its RISE ? That is — In 
 what did the Dispute take ROOT— In what did the Dispute 
 originate r 
 
 FROM what did the Dispute ARISEi 
 
 WHENCE AROSE the Disputed 
 
 ♦ Mark iv. 30. 
 
 (^. 
 
PARTICIPLES. 
 
 To S. B. LEWES. Sussex, 
 
 SIR, ^ 
 
 I HAVE this Moment received your Let- 
 ter of the 18th Instant. The Terms in which 
 you are pleased to express your Approbation 
 of my Essay are very encouraging ; but I 
 dare not anticipate that Extent of Success 
 which your Benevolence prompted you to 
 predict. To oppose Maxims of established 
 Reputation is so perilous, that I shall be 
 satisfied with the negative Recompense of 
 escaping Reproach. 
 
 But Authors in general are Male Co- 
 quets. They solicit popular Applause by all 
 the Arts of Intrigue in their Power, and 
 under Disappointment affect to treat popular 
 Applause with Contempt. And I am not 
 
 N 2 
 
196 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 sure tliat you will believe me, if I tell you 
 that I am an Exception. 
 
 To have an adequate Idea of the Eng- 
 lish Language, we must take an ample 
 Prospect of the Origin and Progress of 
 Speech. 
 
 For the Convenience of future Refer- 
 ence, I will arrange my Observations in a 
 numerical Series. 
 
 1. I insist on the Truth of this Passage 
 of Scripture— ALL THE EARTH was of 
 ONE SPEECH and their WORDS WERE 
 FEW.* 
 
 2. It is a Consequence deducible from 
 the Premises, that all the Researches of the 
 Learned after a PARENT LANGUAGE 
 are not only Fruitless, but absurd. The Sub- 
 stance is the same; the Variations are acci- 
 dental. Infant Colonies speak the Language 
 of the Country whence they migrate. They 
 do not dwell in perpetual Silence for Ages, 
 and then send an Embassy to foreign Realms 
 for a Language. And even if they did, they 
 
 * Genesis, after the Deluge. 
 
ARISTARCUUS TO S. B. 197 
 
 could only borrow a pre-established Diction. 
 I am sensible that the Force of this Argument 
 may be evaded. A DEIST may contend, 
 that Men are not from the same common Pa- 
 rent, and that, consequently. Languages are 
 of different Origin. It is a Credit to an Hy- 
 pothesis when the Evasion of its Force sub- 
 verts the Authority of Scripture. But to this 
 Argument of the Imagination, I could oppose 
 the Evidence of FACT.* Characters and 
 Sounds are more easily analyzed than People 
 suppose. 
 
 Under the ridiculous Notion that the 
 World has subsisted from Eternity, I do 
 not hesitate to admit, that Nations and 
 Languages — innumerable Nations and Lan- 
 guages are lost in Oblivion. But it is surely 
 astonishing that ENGLISH should be radi- 
 cally the same with the Language of every 
 Nation, in all the RECORDED Ages of the 
 World. 
 
 3. Speech was not given by INSPIRA- 
 TION. When natural Phenomena can be 
 explained by practical Proof and acknow- 
 
 * It is not admissible within the Limits of mj present 
 
 Eissav. 
 
n 
 
 198 ARISTAIICHUS TO S. B. 
 
 ledged Experience, it is absurd to have Re- 
 course to occult Causes. 
 
 The Properties of the material Creation 
 are sufficiently OBVIOUS, even to US, to 
 suggest the Necessity of proper Terms of 
 Discrimination ; and we have the Testimony 
 of daily Fact to convince us, that a modern 
 Philosopher, or even a modern Mechanic, can 
 name a new Invention with the utmost Pre- 
 cision and Propriety. 
 
 It is not impossible y that Adam received 
 a System of Sounds correspondent with the 
 HIDDEN Essences of Things; but I leave 
 it to Gentlemen who are so fond of taking Re- 
 fuge in the Possibihties of divine Power to 
 ascertain the BENEFIT which Adam and 
 his Posterity received from this Origin of 
 Words ; for it is beneath the Dignity of Eea- 
 son to inquire, why the Deity should impart 
 to a Creature of limited Intelligence, a Lan- 
 guage adapted to his own eternal Perfections, 
 When I have taught my Son that a CART 
 is a Vehicle for CARRYING Goods, it 
 Avould not be very Godlike, were I to 
 name its TESSOPTARTAMOLOGOST to 
 express the incomprehensible Essence of 
 Motion, 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 199 
 
 Adam certainly lived, arid moved, and 
 had his Being in God; but if it be thence de- 
 ducible, that he spoke by INSPIRATION, 
 I answer, by the same Argument, the Coran 
 of Mahomet was written by Inspiration, and 
 St. Paul's Cathedral built by Inspiration ; and 
 how far the Interests of Religion and Virtue 
 will be promoted by this curious Sorites, I 
 must also leave to others to determine. 
 
 4. According to Dr. Adam Smith, the 
 Invention of an ADJECTIVE was Proof of 
 great Sagacity of Mind — the Formation of a 
 VERB demanded still greater Powers— and 
 Discovery of Prepositions not only exhibited 
 human Intelfigence in the Climax of its 
 Glory, but made even INSPIRATION ne- 
 cessary to comprehend their Force. I do 
 not say that the Doctor has thus expressed 
 himself. But I aver that he continually 
 speaks of the " metaphysical Abstraction, and 
 ^'profound Discernment of the Inventors of 
 " Speech."' And he remarks in particular of 
 the Word — OF — that it expresses a Relation 
 so mysterious and abstruse *' that you may 
 ** safely allow a Man of good Understanding 
 " a WEEK to give a tolerable Account of 
 " its real Import.'' Degrading Idea ! Did 
 
200 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 "SAVAGES"* invent what PHILOSO- 
 PHERS cannot investigate? Had Dr. Smith 
 consulted common Sense on the Occasion, he 
 must have been convinced that the Hypo- 
 thesis is ****** visionary, 
 
 5. Lord Monboddo, in his Origin and 
 Progress of Speech, pays a CompHment to 
 the Hebrew Language. " It must have taken 
 " many Ages to bring it to its present State 
 " of Perfection.'' 
 
 What his Lordship means by " many 
 " Ages'' I can only conjecture; et timeo Da- 
 naos etiam Donaferentes, I am happy, how- 
 ever, in knowing that his Lordship's Argu- 
 ments for the NECESSITY of Ages are ab- 
 surd a priori^ and contradicted by UNI- 
 VERSAL FACT. 
 
 When an Error-f- originates in religious 
 Zeal, it ought to be treated with the utmost 
 Tenderness. But Lord Monboddo never 
 suffers his Judgment to be biassed by an un- 
 reasonable Partiality for the Christian Reli- 
 
 * Dr. Smith treats of the Origin of Speech without any 
 Reference to Adam. But substitute J dam for Savages, if 
 you please, 
 
 f Such as that of Speech by Inspiration. 
 
ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B. 201 
 
 gion. His Lordship is superior to vulgar 
 Prejudices, and would be exceedingly hurt, 
 were I to suppress Animadversion on the 
 Plea that Zeal for Christianity had induced 
 him to compliment the Language of the Bible. 
 
 Lord Monboddo contends that PRIMI- 
 TIVE Words '' are astonishingly LONG" 
 and " composed of VOWELS/' And in 
 Proof of this Hypothesis, His Lordship quotes 
 the following Curiosity. 
 
 Tawautottenaugaloughtoungga. 
 
 Genius of Eloquence defend us! If this 
 be a PRIMITIVE Word, let us be thankful 
 that our Language is grown OLD. 
 
 And in this Language, my Lord, the 
 Sons of Nature recite the Achievements of 
 the Chace, and breathe out the tender Tales 
 of Love!! Well — I must acknowledge that it 
 is a Language admirabl}^ adapted to a Life 
 of Leisure!! But there is a Difficulty which 
 I am unable to surmount. If this be a 
 PRIMITIVE Word, it destroys that Part of 
 Your Lordship's Hypothesis which affirms, 
 that primitive Words are composed of 
 VOWELS. And if it be not a piimitive 
 
202 ARISTAUCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 Word, Your Lordship has failed in Proof of 
 BOTH your favourite Notions. 
 
 IT Lord Monboddo is credulous to a cri- 
 minal Excess. He is fond of hearing of 
 Nations of Men with one Leg^ and with Tails 
 like Cows"* And if you desire to conciliate 
 His Lordship's Esteem, you have only to as- 
 sure him that yoii know a Person of the 
 greatest Veracity, who heard a Captain of a 
 Ship declare that he dined with an old Lady 
 at a Sea-Port Town in foreign Parts, whose 
 Grandmother heard some Gentleman say, 
 that in an Eastern Island, either in North 
 or South Latitude, the Natives TALK by 
 HOLDING their Breath. His Lordship 
 will be infinitely delighted, and record your 
 Name in the next Edition of the Origin and 
 Progress of Speech as a " Benefactor to 
 " Science^ and an Enemy to Superstition.*' 
 And when such Honour can be obtained by 
 a long JVord^ or a Tale of a Tub, who would 
 be without it? 
 
 On the Eastern borders of Persia, Ad- 
 jectives follow the Noun. E. G. A tallblack-f 
 
 * This, and more than this, you may find seriously asserted 
 in his Lordship's Origin and Progress of Speech, 
 t The Adverbs also. 
 
^m 
 
 ARISTAliCIlUS TO S. B. 203 
 
 Horse^ would be thus arranged Horse- 
 
 tallblack. Now the rapid Pronunciation of 
 the Natives* might induce a Traveller to con- 
 clude, that the THREE Words conveyed 
 only ONE Idea. And in this Manner Lord 
 Monboddo has been deceived. 
 
 6. Mr. HORNE TOOKE is also an 
 Advocate for the Length of original Words. 
 Now as Hebrew Words are principally com- 
 posed of THREE Letters, the Application 
 of the Hypothesis has a dangerous Tendency. 
 And I hope the Importance of the Subject 
 will justify my calling upon Lord Monboddo, 
 and Mr. Tooke, to produce an Instance of a 
 Word — ONE Instance — in any Language — 
 ANCIENT or MODERN— which originally 
 consisted of more than ONE SYLLABLEt- 
 
 7. It is an erroneous Opinion that cer- 
 tain WordsJ have no SIGNIFICATION. 
 
 On this Subject, the Arguments of Mr. 
 Tooke command the full Assent of all who 
 comprehend them. They prove beyond 
 
 * i\nd the compact Appearance of the Words in Writing, 
 t I desire Mr. Tooke to be informed, that i am apprized 
 of his favourite Word— ALMS from eXirmoavvr}, 
 
 J Prepositions, &c. 
 
20A ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B» 
 
 Controversy that " there is not, nor is it pos- 
 " sible there should be, in any Language^ a 
 " Word which has not a complete Meaning and 
 " Signification even when taken by itself,'' 
 
 On this Passage in Hermes — " The 
 " Greeks supply the Place of an indefinite 
 " Article by a NEGATION of the definite 
 *' one/' Mr. Tooke has indulged his Propen- 
 sity to Satire. 
 
 But as Victory sometimes deserts a Hero 
 in the Moment of Exultation and Triumph, 
 so the intuitive Sagacity of Mr. Tooke failed 
 him when he principally required its Aid. 
 " The Article^'' said he, " supplies the place of 
 
 '' Words that are not in our Language ! 
 
 f>* 
 
 This Passage is so exceedingly myste- 
 rious, that I am unable to see its Affinity with 
 Common Sense: and as I entertain a very 
 great and sincere Respect for Mr. Tooke's 
 critical Abilities, I am under painful Appre- 
 hension lest the Battery of Ridicule pointed 
 against Mr. Harris should be turned against 
 himself. 
 
 Mr. Tooke admits that all Words have 
 
 * Page 96. 
 
ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B. 205 
 
 a Meaning, and then adds, " Articles supply 
 '' the Place of Words which are not in the 
 '' Language r Can NONENTITY occupy 
 Place? Can that which has no Existence 
 have a Meaning ? If an Article be the SUB- 
 STITUTE of a NONENTITY, it must be 
 devoid of Signification ; and that mihtates 
 against the Position — all Words have a Mean- 
 ing. And if it be not void of Signification, 
 the Idea of its being the SUBSTITUTE of 
 a NONENTITY is a Refinement on the 
 Paradox in Hermes. 
 
 The Passage serves, however, to shew us 
 the Limits of Mr. Tooke's Inquiries. Unable 
 to assign a Meaning to the Articles, he re- 
 sorted to the very Expedient which he con- 
 demned to others. He placed them trans 
 Mcenia flammantia Miindi — and gave them 
 that METAPHYSICAL Existence, which 
 he professes to abhor. 
 
 f I must now pursue my Researches in 
 Sohtude. But I cannot take Leave of Mr. 
 Tooke without thanking him for his spirited 
 Opposition to a gross Absurdity.* 
 
 From conscious Pre-eminence, Mr. 
 
 * Cerlaiii Words have no Meaning. 
 
206 aristaIichus to s. b. 
 
 Tooke transgresses the Forms of Decorum ; 
 triumphs in the Obligations which Fhilosophers 
 and Grammanans are under to his Labours;^ 
 and hopes they will follow with Gratitude 
 " the Light which he carries before them." — I 
 am not accustomed to indulge Arrogance. 
 But after a Reserve on Account of Vanity, 
 Mr. Tooke has sufficient Merit to entitle him 
 to this pubic Acknowledgement. 
 
 8. As every Word in a Dictionary has 
 a distinct Meaning, so to EVERY PRIMI- 
 TIVE LETTER in the Alphabet a distinct 
 Idea was originally annexed ; nor can mortal 
 Ingenuity assign any valid Reason for the 
 Invention of a Letter without a Meaning, any 
 more than for the Invention of a Word with- 
 out a Meaning. 
 
 9. The Acquisition of Languages is 
 greatly impeded by the erroneous Arrange- 
 ment of Words in the Accidence; and by 
 the UNIVERSAL IGNORANCE of Scho- 
 lars! in COMMON TERMINATIONS. I 
 ask the Question on the Authority of Com- 
 mon Sense — What Connexion has EST with 
 
 * Amusements of Purley, passim, 
 
 t 1 mention Scholars, Euphonise Gratia. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO^S. B. 20? 
 
 FUI? Or SUM with ERO? Why are not 
 Terminations made a Part of scholastic In- 
 struction ? They are distinct and important 
 Words; and had they been properly under- 
 stood, many serious Disputes had been 
 avoided. 
 
 To the first Question, a genuine Etymo- 
 logist will answer — FUI is derived from EST. 
 How so? By removing FUI, and putting 
 EST in its Room. Eugenoster! Admirable, 
 indeed ! 
 
 10. That Attention which ought to have 
 been devoted to the Substance, has been 
 unprofitably employed on the Shadow. In 
 other Words, Grammarians have bestowed 
 more Time on TERMS of DISTINCTION 
 than on SPEECH. 
 
 As the Name which is given to a Ship 
 of Commerce is seldom expressive of the 
 Nature and Destination of the Vessel, so the 
 Terms of Distinction imposed on Speech 
 have no essential Connexion with the Ope- 
 rations of Words. The Names of the Muses 
 would have answered the Purpose as well as 
 Noiin^ Pronoun^ Verb^ Participle^ and with 
 this Advantage, no One would have been so 
 
208 arUstarciius to s. b. 
 
 silly as to contend that CLIO means an 
 Agent, and MELPOMENE an Action. 
 
 A. What do you mean, Sir, by the Term— ADVERB? 
 
 S. B. An Adverb is a Word which- — — 
 
 A. Pardon the Interruption 1 desire to know the 
 
 Meaning of the Word AD-VERB. 
 
 S. B. To— a Verb, 
 
 A. By — Verb — do you mean, the Part of Speech usually 
 denominated a Verb ? 
 
 S. B. Yes. 
 
 A. What Part of Speech is— VERY. 
 
 S. B. An Adverb. 
 
 A, SAGACIOUS? 
 
 S. B. An Adjective ? 
 
 A. VERY SAGACIOUS?— I will not press you for 
 an Answer. 
 
 S. B. It must signify then, indefinitely, To — a Word. 
 
 A. Excellent Information! An Adverb is a Part of 
 Speech used with other Parts of Speech ! 
 
 Chambaud, a Frenchman, expected Nothing less than 
 Immortality for changing ADJECTIVE into ADNOUN. 
 Is it an Improvement ? 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 209 
 
 S. B. Certainly. ADJECTIVE means to lay along 
 Side, indefinitely ; but AD NOUN very properly restricts the 
 Attribute to its Noun. 
 
 A. What Part of Speech is— H E ? 
 
 S. B. A Pronoun. 
 
 A. HE is SAGACIOUS! 
 
 S. B. But Chambaud, perhaps, considered the Noun as 
 virtually present in the Pronoun. 
 
 A. Be it so. What Part of Speech is ABSURD ? 
 
 S. B. An Adjective ? 
 
 A. TO MAKE ? 
 
 S. B. A Verb, in the Infinitive Mode. 
 
 A. TO MAKE Distinctions without a Difference is 
 ABSURD ! 
 
 S. B. I am convinced. But do you desire the Parts of 
 Speech to be nameless ? 
 
 A. . Rather than give them absurd Names. But what do 
 you mean by Parts of Speech'? 
 
 S. B. The Eight Parts of Speech. How many Parts 
 are there, according to your System ? 
 
 A. Be pleased to name some Language. 
 
 S. B. Some Language ! Why theParts arethe same in 
 all Languages. 
 
 O 
 
210 ARTSTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 A. Pardon me — they are not. In Hebrew, the Parts of 
 Speech are few. In French, about twenty-nine thousand. 
 In English, 39000. Latin, 30000. Greek, 40000. 
 
 S. B. You are disposed to be merry. 
 
 A. I am serious, I assure you. As every Letter is a 
 Part of an Alphabet, every Word is a Part of a Language. 
 
 S. B. You certainly admit Divisions ? 
 
 A. I admit the Felicity of making Distinctions. It 
 would be the easiest Thing in the World to multiply EIGHT 
 Parts of Speech into EIGHT HUNDRED, were you de- 
 sirous of increasing the present Confusion, But Distinctions 
 without a Difference always create Confusion. 
 
 I am no Enemy to an Accidence. I am convinced that 
 a judicious Arrangement of common Terminations,* with 
 proper Rules of Syntax, would do Honour to the Nation, and 
 confer an inestimable Benefit on Individuals. 
 
 % Antecedently to my Illustration of the 
 preceding Remarks, it is proper to inform 
 you that I am a decided Enemy to CON- 
 JECTURE; for if we listen to the Possi- 
 bilities suggested by a warm, prohfic Imagi- 
 nation, we may be induced to believe — Any- 
 thing. In that fascinating Department of 
 Literature which relates to the Formation of 
 Letters, and the Etymology of Words, 
 
 * Greek, Latin, or English ; bat very different from what we have at present. 
 A few Pages would be sufficient. 
 
mm 
 
 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 211 
 
 FANCY is particularly to be dreaded ; for 
 as all Characters are formed from a Point ex- 
 tended into Lines in various Directions, you 
 may, with the Aid of DEFALCATION, 
 EXTENSION, and SUPERADDITION, 
 deduce any Letter in the Enghsh Alphabet 
 from any Letter in any Alphabet in the 
 World. And as all Words consist of Letters, 
 an Etymologist, of a lively Imagination, 
 may, with the Assistance of PROSTHESIS, 
 EPENTHESIS, METATHESIS, SYN- 
 COPE, and a few more of his ancient Allies, 
 derive TOM THUMB from any two, or 
 any twenty Words in the World. 
 
 I do not deny that there are fixed Prin- 
 ciples of Etymology. I only request Leave 
 to protest against that learned and laborious 
 Trifling which has filled so many Folios with 
 Nonsense ; and tempted Swift to derive, in 
 Ridicule, ancient Greek from modern English. 
 
 In Evidenrce that Men of the first Abi- 
 lities have been seduced by FANCY, I need 
 only cihn^' Instance of the symbolical Skill 
 of the iate Dr. Sharpe, Master of the Tem- 
 ple, anci Fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian 
 Societies. " The first Letter of the Hebrew 
 " Alphabet (^) resembles the Head of an OX.'' 
 
 o 2 
 
212 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 But with all due Submission to such profound 
 Discernment, I think it resembles the Head 
 of an ASS, with one Ear open to DeloSy and 
 the other to Arcadia, And in this there is a 
 
 Mystery. 
 
 That very important Instruction is veiled 
 under this Symbol I am fully persuaded; for 
 it is well known to the Learned, that on a 
 Trial of Skill between PAN and APOLLO,* 
 a specialJury of Sylvan Deities adjudged the 
 Laurel to Apollo; but Mr. Justice MIDAS 
 refusing to record the Verdict, Apollo imme- 
 diately affixed a Pair of long Ears to his 
 Worship's Head ; not to intimate that he 
 was qualified to be a Justice of the Peace, as 
 some Commentators profanely imagine, but 
 as a tacit yet elegant Reproach of his Par- 
 tiality. Q. D. The Ears of a Judge should be 
 open to all Parties — to the Inhabitants of 
 Delos, as well as to the Inhabitants of Ar- 
 cadia. 
 
 I am confirmed in this Solution of the 
 Mystery, by the Custom which still prevails 
 of painting a Magistrate suspected of Par- 
 tiahty in Office with long Ears,t importing 
 
 * Ovid*s Metamorphoses. "^ 
 
 f See 3n Instance in the Oxford Magazine, 1768. Sup- 
 plement. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 213 
 
 that he is not a JUST-ASS. And it must for 
 ever subvert Dr. Sharpens Hypothesis, and 
 corroborate my own, when we consider, that 
 over one of the Seats of Judgment in Guild- 
 hall is this ancient Inscription — audi alteram 
 Partem, which Antiquarians interpret — Please 
 your JVorship, turn one of your Ears to the 
 Plaintiffs and the other to the Defendant, 
 
 With equal Ease (were I disposed to in- 
 sult Common Sense, and trifle with every 
 Thing sacred) I could unfold the Mysteries 
 of all the Letters in the Alphabet, and all the 
 Constellations in the Heavens, and demon- 
 strate the Correspondence and Sympathy of 
 Nouns, Pronouns, and Participles, with Fire, 
 Air, and Water, to the great Edification of 
 my Reader, and my own immortal Fame. 
 
 1[ The ART of SPEAKING I conceive 
 to be coeval with Man. 
 
 The ART of WRITING, I mean the 
 present Mode of Writing, originated in the 
 Symbols of the Chaldean Priesthood. 
 
 It is not an unreasonable Postulate that 
 Noah himself possessed the Art of recording 
 Events, and of communicating Instruction, by 
 
214 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 Symbols. But we have no satisfactory Evi- 
 dence of the Fact; and it is inconsistent with 
 my System of Reasoning to deduce Argu- 
 ments from gratuitous Assumptions. 
 
 It is also probable, ci priori that religious 
 Disputes soon arose among Noah's Descen- 
 dants. 
 
 This Probability is realized by the sa- 
 cred Historian ; for in the Days of Nimrod,* 
 that powerful Enemy to the transmitted Creed 
 of the Faithful, the People were distracted 
 with Heresies ; and the ancient Symbols 
 CONFOUNDED. 
 
 By the intolerant Spirit of Nimrod, 
 Multitudes were dispersed in every Direc- 
 tion. They carried with them such Symbols 
 as they approved, and superadded such as 
 were necessary to complete the Credendat of 
 the Sect. 
 
 If It is painful, it is invidious, to contra- 
 dict established Tenets. But I have passed 
 the Rubicon, and must proceed. 
 
 * I am surprised at our Translation — NIMROD was a 
 mighty Hunter BEFORE the Lord. The Original implies, 
 that he was a great Opposer of the Worship of the true God. 
 
 t Religious Opinions. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 215 
 
 The Idea which universally prevails con- 
 cerning the Identity of ALPHABETS, must 
 be classed with the pernicious Absurdities 
 which obstruct the Progress of Science. 
 
 Examine the Hebrew Alphabet, and 
 after a careful Collation with Saxon and Eng- 
 lish, tell me how many of our Letters are to 
 be ranked with its Posterity. Consult an 
 Etymologist, and he will tell you, without 
 Hesitation, that the Hebrew ^ is the Parent 
 of the Saxon co. 
 
 S. B. And, perhaps, he may assign very 
 satisfactory Reasons for his Opinion. 
 
 A. Satisfactory to himself, no Doubt. 
 A plastic Imagination is seldom at a Loss for 
 Reasons. 
 
 S. B. I am far from being an Adept in 
 typical Dissection ; permit me however to try 
 what can be done. In the first Place, the 
 Hebrew Letter ought to be turned after the 
 European Manner. 
 
 A. Reasonable enough. Come, face 
 about Mr. d. 
 
 And now, Sir, for your Apparatus to 
 
216 ARISTAKCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 amputate Excrescences, and reduce Disloca- 
 tions. 
 
 S. B. In the next Place 
 
 A. What stopt already ! I am sur- 
 prised you find any Difficulty. Ask that 
 
 CHILD how a Ginger-bread D may be 
 
 turned into an 0. By cutting off the Top. 
 
 And how, my Dear, can the be turned 
 
 into a y / By putting the Top of the 
 
 O to the Bottom of the 0. And when the 
 
 Top of the O is removed to the Bottom, is it 
 still a SIX ? La, Sir, how can you ask ! It is 
 a NINE, to be sure. 
 
 II Thus you, Sir, by Abstraction and 
 Superaddition, may prove the Identity of the 
 Hebrew d and the Saxon co. But let it be re- 
 membered that Symbols have an ESSEN- 
 TIAL Form. If you remove that essential 
 Form you destroy the Symbol. 
 
 It is erroneous to say, the Greeks BOR- 
 ROWED their Alphabet from the Pheni- 
 dans; for it is supposing them to be a Na- 
 tion before they had any Knowledge of 
 Symbols.* 
 
 * Which is certainly contrary to FACT. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 21? 
 
 But it is absurd even to a Degree of 
 being eminently ridiculous to imagine, that 
 they metamorphosed this BORROWED Al- 
 phabet till its original Forms were destroyed. 
 It does Violence to Man's Experience ; it is 
 an Indignity to Common Sense. 
 
 A Letter was "BORROWED" either 
 as a Mark WITHOUT SIGNIFICATION,* 
 or as a SIGNIFICANT Symbol ; now it is 
 laughable enough ^0 suppose that People sent to 
 distant Realms for a MARK without a MEAN- 
 ING. But gravely to assert that they adopted 
 the MEANING and then destroyed the MA RK 
 is an Hypothesis for which our Language 
 wants a Name. 
 
 IT SYMBOLICAL SPEECH, though 
 the most glorious and important of human 
 Discoveries, is founded on COMMON 
 SENSE. 
 
 Suppose some Infants separated from 
 the World, and fed by a dumb Nurse. In 
 Process of Time, they pursue the Sports of 
 Childhood and entertain each other in the 
 best Manner that Circumstances admit. 
 
 * The very Terms in which 1 am constrained to express 
 myself are contradictory. 
 
218 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 Though secluded from Mankind, they have 
 the same System of Organs, the same Powers 
 of Discernment, as Children in public Life. 
 Consequently they will know the Difference 
 between the Inside of a House and the Out- 
 side* And as soon as the oldest, or the 
 acutest of them distinguishes the PERCEP- 
 TIONS by arbitrary Sounds, the others will 
 adopt the Sounds, and apply them on every 
 proper Occasion. E. G. If they invent Sports 
 in which it may be necessary to use a RING 
 or CIRCLE, they will use these Sounds to ex- 
 press the Relations IN and OUT ; and from 
 articulate Sounds applied first to local Ap- 
 pearances, they will have Words or Sounds 
 to express all the Relations of Mind. 
 
 After a Child has appropriated a distinct 
 Sound to an Object, Imitation is easy. I 
 know a Boy who has a vocal Impediment ; 
 yet his imperfect Sounds are not only under- 
 stood^ but imitated by a younger Brother. 
 When the elder Brother gives a Name to an 
 Object, the Sound or Word is retained by the 
 younger with the utmost Ease and Exactness. 
 
 Dr. Adam Smith supposes that IN and 
 OUT— TO and FROM— OF and ON, &c. 
 were the Work of AGES " because they sig- 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 219 
 
 " nify very profound^ abstract delations." I 
 must deny myself the Honour of following 
 the Doctor in this Supposition, for one Mode 
 of Relation is expressed with as much Ease 
 as another. It is in our Power indeed to in- 
 volve Relations in such metaphysical Ob- 
 scurity, that it must appear miraculous that 
 any Words were ever invented to express 
 them. 
 
 In Relation to Matter, Heat may be de- 
 fined a State of Force. Now as Action and 
 Reaction are Correlatives ; Heat and Cold 
 must be Correlatives; and, no Doubt, it re- 
 quired " AGES " to invent terms expressive 
 of these Relations, because they are so "pro- 
 "foundy metaphysical, and abstruse J' 
 
 But I believe a young Secluse would 
 soon apply a Sound or Word to the Sensation 
 of Heat and Cold ; and when a Sound was 
 appropriated to this "profound Relation^'* 
 the other Children would adopt it. 
 
 ^ To converse with the Absent, to re- 
 cord Events, and to perpetuate Instruction, 
 SYMBOLS were invented. And for the in- 
 estimable Blessing we are indebted to Men of 
 Argument and Study. 
 
220 ARISTAIICIIUS TO S. B. 
 
 The WORDS of the Populace were 
 FEW, in every Age of the World, and among 
 every Complexion of Men. They make a 
 very small Part of a Language. But though 
 FEW as to Terms, their Phraseology is 
 exuherantl 
 
 Now a Philosophical Priesthood, such as 
 the Chaldean and the Egyptian Priesthood, 
 stood in Need of a Language more precise 
 and refined. Their Ideas of GOD and MAN 
 —of CAUSE and EFFECT, of Life and 
 
 Death, &c. were expressed in tacit but 
 
 nervous DICTION. 
 
 I am unable to speak with Certainty as 
 to the Origin of the Characters on the Oppo- 
 site Page. I am FULLY PERSUADED, 
 from strong collateral Proof, that the four- 
 teen plain Letters were in Use before the 
 Deluge; but as I have no direct Evidence of 
 the Fact, I cannot, in Reason, desire you to 
 credit my Opinion. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B 
 
 221 
 
 PRIMITIVES 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 s 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 r 
 
 Q 
 
 E 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 E 
 
 6 
 
 e 
 
 E 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 L 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 L 
 
 L 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 CD 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 N 
 
 N 
 
 N 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 XO- 
 
 
 
 
 
 R 
 
 P 
 
 K 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 £ 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 S 
 
 u 
 
 U 
 
 n. u. 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 u 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 u 
 
 :h 
 
 o 
 
 G-^ 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 ac 
 
 c 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 l« 
 
 DERIVATIVES. 
 
 From 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 S 
 
 Y 
 
 Greek. 
 
 n. «>. 
 
 r.K. x.|. 
 
 T.e. 
 
 H 
 
 z 
 
 Y 
 
 Gothic. 
 Saxon. 
 
 P.F. 
 
 r. K. X- 
 
 n. K. X. 
 
 T 
 
 T 
 
 h 
 
 z 
 
 V 
 
 uj. Y. 
 
 English 
 
 and 
 Roman. 
 
 P.F.V. 
 
 G.K.Q.X. 
 
 T 
 
 H 
 
 z 
 
 Y 
 
m 
 
 222 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 It is beyond Controversy that they were 
 in Use before the Departure of the Israelites 
 out of Egypt. They are now to be seen in 
 perfect Preservation on the Sigean Monu- 
 ment. This Monument was erected five 
 hundred Years before Life and Immortahty 
 were brought to Light by the Gospel of 
 JESUS. 
 
 Pausanias saw an Inscription in these 
 Characters on the Tomb of Coroebus, who 
 lived in the Days of Deucalion. — The Chro- 
 nology of the Arundelian Marbles commences 
 ten Years before the Birth of Moses ; and as 
 it is reasonable to suppose that they were en- 
 graven from a Series of recorded Events, I 
 am justified in referring the Origin of these 
 venerable Symbols to prediluvian Antiquity.* 
 
 Such of the Gothic Symbols as are es* 
 dentially diflFerent, are to be found on the 
 Monuments of Egypt. In ^*^^* you may 
 see a curious Fragment. The learned Tra- 
 veller informs us that it is " written all over 
 
 * Aristarchus presents his Compliments to the very in- 
 genious Author of the Remarks on the Parian Chronicle, and 
 assures him that his Book shall be answered. But Aristar- 
 chus hopes the University of Oxford (as in Honour and Duty 
 bound) will render a Refutation from him unnecessary. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 223 
 
 « with STRANGE Characters." On Exa- 
 mination, two Thirds of these strange Cha- 
 racters prove to be Gothic. 
 
 It is remarkable that of all the Symbols 
 used by the Ancients, not one is to be disco- 
 vered in its original State, in the Hebrew Al- 
 phabet. There is indeed an ancient Tradi- 
 tion, that ABRAHAM, on crossing the Eu- 
 phrates to go into Canaan, received a new 
 Alphabet from an Angel. The Letter of the 
 Tradition ought to be rejected as fabulous. 
 But I am satisfied it alludes Something 
 authentic and important. For it is a Fact 
 on Record, that the Chaldeans and Egyp- 
 tians inscribed on Pillars and Pyramids a 
 Variety of Symbols — Animals^ Circles, Letters, 
 &c. — all of them expressive of the Attributes 
 of the Deity, or other sacred Ideas. From 
 Contemplation, the Multitude proceeded to 
 Adoration. And degenerate Priests sold 
 them domestic Idols fashioned after public 
 Symbols. Hence Circles and Numbers be- 
 came as sacred among the Chaldeans, as a 
 Crucifix and Relics among Christians, 
 
 Abraham, at his Evocation out of the 
 Land of UR, was commanded to put away 
 false Gods, and to worship the Deity in SPI- 
 
224 arisIarchus to s. b. 
 
 RIT and in TRUTH. And hence, perhaps, 
 the Tradition. 
 
 But though they retained no Symbol in 
 its original Form in their Alphabet, yet 
 Moses erected a brazen Serpent in the Wil- 
 derness. Now a CIRCLE, or a Serpent 
 CIRCULAR, was the Symbol oi Eternity, in 
 the Form of an S, oi finite Existence, The 
 wounded Israelites were directed to look on 
 this Symbol, and such as did were healed. 
 " And as Moses lifted up the Serpent in the 
 " Wilderness, even so was the Son of Man 
 " lifted up; that whosoever believeth in him may 
 " not PERISH, but have EVERLASTING 
 LifeJ' The System of Mosaic Ceremonies re- 
 lated to the BODY, but they were typical of 
 a Dispensation which relates to the SOUL. 
 The Fact is before you, — act as you think 
 proper. It is inconsistent with the Dignity 
 of a Christian to make an Apology for 
 naming CHRIST. Whosoever denieth me be- 
 fore MeUy shall be denied before the Angels of 
 God.'' 
 
 * Luke xii. 9. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 225 
 
 Of a circle or CIPHER. 
 
 " We have very little Intelligence about 
 " the Origin and Invention of Arithmetic, 
 " History neither fixes the Author nor the 
 " Time — In all Probability, however, it must 
 " have taken its Rise from the Introduction 
 "of Commerce, and must, consequently, be 
 " of Tyrian Invention/' 
 
 " From Asia it passed into Egypt (Jo- 
 " sephus says by Means of ABRAHAM). 
 "Here it was greatly cultivated and im- 
 " proved ; insomuch that a large Part of the 
 ^' Egyptian Philosophy and Theology seems 
 " to have turned altogether upon Numbers. 
 " In Effect, Kircker, in his CEdip. Mgypt. 
 " Tom. 2. p. 2. shews, that the Egyptians ex- 
 " plained every Thing by Numbers. Pytha- 
 " goras himself affirming, that the Knowledge 
 " of Numbers is the Knowledge of the Deity." 
 —Mr, Chambers's Cyclopcedia, Edition^ Dr. 
 Rees, 
 
 The Origin of Arithmetic is unknown. 
 I believe we are indebted for the Invention 
 to the Chaldeans. It is not of great Mo- 
 
 p 
 
226 
 
 ARISTARCnUS TO S. B. 
 
 ment; and I will only remark, in passing, 
 that Mr. Chambers has not expressed him- 
 self with his accustomed Accuracy. It ap- 
 pears on the Face of this History, that the 
 Art, invented by the Tyrians, was carried by 
 Abraham into Egypt. But Abraham went 
 to Egypt seven hundred Years before the 
 Tyrians were a People. 
 
 According to Dr. Johnson, a Cipher is^ 
 " an arithmetical Mark, which, standing for 
 " NOTHING, INCREASES the Value of 
 ^' the other Figures.^' 
 
 When the Terms of a Definition involve 
 a SOLECISM, the Student may be assured 
 of some latent Error in his Conceptions of 
 the Subject. And the best Mode of detect- 
 ing the Fallacy is to bring the Definition to 
 the Test of Common Sense. 
 
 If a Cipher be of no Value in itself, by 
 what Rule of Estimation does it increase the 
 Value of other Figures ? Can a Being com- 
 municate that which it does not possess ? Let 
 SOMETHING be added to NOTHING— 
 and what have you but NONsense in the 
 Terms, and NONentity of Increase in the 
 Conclusion ? 
 
mmn 
 
 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 227 
 
 f A Cipher is a Character in Value 
 TEN. 
 
 It is not my Intention to pass a gratui- 
 tous Definition upon you for Fact. I am 
 prepared to establish my Thesis on the solid 
 Basis of Demonstration. 
 
 As the Existence of the Cipher is un- 
 questionable, it will not affect the Inference 
 whether we use the Word — Arabian — Tyrian 
 — or Chaldean, in our Researches after its 
 Value. I ask Leave, therefore, to indulge 
 private Opinion, and to ascribe the Invention 
 to prediluvian Patriarchs. 
 
 A Record of Property is one of the first 
 Dictates of human Prudence. To guard 
 against Impositions, as well as to gratify a 
 reasonable Curiosity, the Patriarchs num- 
 bered their Flocks and Herds. A Series of 
 Points, or Strokes, would naturally be the 
 first in Use. 
 
 With no greater Sagacity of Mind than 
 was necessary in a Milkman to contrive an 
 abbreviated Mark for twelve Quarts of Milk,* 
 
 * A Circle and a Cross within it. 
 P 2 
 
228 
 
 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 the Patriarch substituted a Cipher for TEN 
 Individuals. 
 
 S. B. I shall not acknowledge that your 
 Theory is established on Fact, unless you 
 prove that the Circle was formerly considered 
 as equivalent to TEN. 
 
 A. It is very easy to prove that the 
 Circle is NOW in Use as the Substitute of 
 Ten. 
 
 Individuals. 
 
 7 is an Abbreviation for seven 
 
 9 for nine Individuals. 
 for ten Individuals. 
 
 ^ It makes no Difference in the Con- 
 clusion how you eaumerate Individuals- 
 E. G. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 c 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 20 
 30 
 
 20 
 30 
 
 11 
 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 109 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 170 
 
 170 
 
 170 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 229 
 
 Be pleased to observe, that the common 
 Figures 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8, 9. indicate the 
 Number of Ciphers. 
 
 Thus the 7 at C, indicates that the Ci- 
 phers are SEVEN in Number. And as 
 every Cipher is in Value ten, we have before 
 us an elegant and very curious Abbreviation 
 of SEVENTY Individuals. 
 
 If you enumerate the Figures at E, you 
 will find that the two Ciphers must be esti- 
 mated as Twenty to make good the Total 
 170. 
 
 But as DISPATCH and SAFETY are 
 particularly necessary in Arithmetic, the 
 Mode at F, was universally adopted ; be- 
 cause the Enumeration is completed, by 
 counting the Number of Ciphers as indicated 
 by the other Figures ; but at E, you must 
 count not only the indicative Figures, but 
 the solitary Ciphers. 
 
 ^ When the subordinate Abbreviations 
 stand alone, as at A, B, and G, they are to 
 be considered as Parts of tlie Circle or Whole ; 
 
>230 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 and then the Laws of Common Sense will 
 suffer no Infraction from any possible Varia- 
 tion in the Process of numbering. 
 
 But how complicated are the Absurdi- 
 ties of common Enumeration ! Express 
 TEN, if you please, in Figures. 
 
 S. B. 10. 
 
 A. Do you mean one NOTHING? 
 
 S.B. No. 
 
 A. One added to NOTHING ? 
 
 S.B. No. 
 
 A. One multiplied by NOTHING ? 
 
 S. B. No. 
 
 A . One subtracted from NOTHING ? 
 
 S. B. No. 
 
 A. Then, I pray, Sir, favour me with a 
 speedy Solution of the Mystery. I am at a 
 Loss for further Questions. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B, 231 
 
 S. B. I mean that the 1 stands in the 
 Place of TEN. 
 
 A. Let us weigh this Notion in the 
 Balance of Common Sense. The 1 stands in 
 the place of TEN. Will you have the Good- 
 ness to tell me in whose Place the Cipher 
 stands ? But I perceive your Embarrass- 
 ment, and I forbear to press the Question — 
 Let us pass on- 
 
 Whatis the Valueofp? 
 
 S* B. Nine Individuals. 
 
 A. Of 9 and 0? 
 
 S. B. Ninety. The 9 occupies the 
 
 Place of nine Tens. 
 
 A. Curious indeed ! The unhappy 9 
 is destroyed by the Power of a Nonentity, 
 and at the SAME TIME made the SUB- 
 STITUTE of a Number of Individuals TEN 
 Times greater than it represented before its 
 Annihilation ! 
 
 S. B. Annihilated ? 
 
 A. Yes, Sir, annihilated. Nine TENS 
 
232 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 and a NINE are equivalent to NINETY- 
 
 NINE. 
 
 But give me Leave to ask — Is it not the 
 Quintessence of Absurdity to imagine that 
 our Ancestors employed NOTHING and a 
 NINE to express fourscore and ten ? 
 
 On the right Hand* you have a Charac- 
 ter in Value NOTHING. On the left 
 
 Hand, you have a Character less innocently 
 employed, for it means one Thing in Form, 
 and another Thing by Implication. 
 
 IT The Subject is curious and interest- 
 ing, permit me therefore to recapitulate. 
 
 1 . The Patriarchs found it impracticable 
 to transact Business and keep Records of 
 Property by UNITS. 
 
 2. A Series of Characters were there- 
 fore invented, which comprehended all ante- 
 cedent Characters.*!- 
 
 3. This was an excellent Improvement, 
 
 * Of 90. t As I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 233 
 
 but not adequate to the Purposes of Science, 
 and the Concerns of increasing Commerce. 
 
 4. The Abbreviation of Powers was 
 therefore hmited to TEN, and all the subor- 
 dinate Characters were considered as Parts, 
 and used as an Index to the CIRCLE or 
 WHOLE. 
 
 5. The Circle, it is probable, was placed 
 over the second Figure, as we now place 
 £. S, D. over Pounds, Shillings, and Pence. 
 E. G. 2^7. Two Circles and seven. But as it is 
 impossible to err, it would be soon disregarded . 
 
 6. I do not know that the Ancients had 
 any particular Reason for stopping at TEN. 
 But suppose, by national Consent, we were 
 to stop at SEVEN. One Circle would then 
 mean ONE SEVEN, and no Person, I pre- 
 sume, would imagine that it signified ONE 
 NOTHING, or that 1 answered any other 
 Purpose than an Index. 
 
 ^ I have yet to speak of that Use of 
 the Circle more immediately connected with 
 the Art of Writing. 
 
 In this Use, the Semicircle U, or as we 
 
234- ARISTARCUUS TO S. B. 
 
 now write it V, signifies FIVE. Two Semi- 
 circles X make TEN. IV are FOUR— but 
 VI are SIX. IX are NINE— but XI are 
 ELEVEN. 
 
 «3" Observe the Difference between IV 
 and VI. 
 
 In Writing, the same Letter — N for In- 
 stance — has a negative Force in one Position, 
 and an affirmative Force in another Position. 
 And hence I am persuaded, that symbohcal 
 Writing was originally conducted on the same 
 Principles of Simplicity and Precision as the 
 Art of Enumeration. 
 
 9. I will conclude my Remarks on the 
 Cipher, with a Passage from the immortal 
 John Locke, the Friend of Man, and the 
 Advocate of Common Sense. 
 
 " Many Words (Mr. Locke might have 
 
 " said all Words) which seem to express some 
 
 *' Action^ signify Nothing of the Action or 
 
 *' Modus Operandi; but barely the Effect^ 
 
 " with some Circumstances of the Subject 
 
 " wrought on, or Cause operating. E. G. 
 
 ^* Creation, Annihilation, contain in them no 
 
 " Idea of the Action or Manner whereby 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 235 
 
 66 
 
 they are produced, but barely of the 
 Cause, and the Thing done. And when a 
 Countryman says the Cold freezes Water, 
 though the Word Freezing seems to im- 
 port some Action^ yet truly it signifies No- 
 '* thing but the Effect^ viz. that Water, that 
 ** was before fluid, is become hard and con- 
 ^* sistent, without containing any Idea of the 
 " Action whereby it is done.'' 
 
 Mr. Locke has asserted the FACT, give 
 me Leave to assign the REASON. Action 
 has its Essence in MOTION. Words are in 
 a State of REST. It is therefore physically 
 IMPOSSIBLE to devise a Word expressive 
 of the obvious Essence of Action. To indi- 
 cate a Perception of Rest in an Object, you 
 say it STANDS : to signify a Perception of 
 Motion in an Object, you say it MOVES. 
 Now MOVES, is not expressive of the Es- 
 sence of Action any more than STANDS. It 
 is only the NAME of a certain Perception, 
 the Difference between Motion and Rest 
 must be made by the Mind. 
 
 Even in Symbols more immediately 
 adapted to a Resemblance of Action, the 
 Defect must be supplied in the same Man- 
 ner ; for the utmost Skill of the Painter is in- 
 
236 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 sufficient to express the Essence of Action. 
 There is no more Motion in a Horse repre- 
 sented at full Speed, than in a Horse in a Stall. 
 In both Instances we see an EFFECT only. 
 
 As a further Illustration of an important 
 Subject, let us suppose a Body of a globular 
 Form, obscurely painted in the back Ground 
 of a Landscape. To a Friend's Inquiry — 
 what is it ? If you answer, an Ornament to a 
 Pyramid shaded by Trees, your Friend will 
 immediately annex the Idea of Permanency 
 to the spherical Object before him; for 
 EXPERIENCE informs him that a Globe 
 on the Top of a Pyramid is in a State of 
 REST. If you tell him that it is a Stone 
 falling from an adjacent Tower, his Imagination 
 instantly adds the Ideas of Solidity and rapid 
 DEscent. And if you inform him that it is 
 an Air Balloon just liberated, his Imagination 
 adds the Ideas of Levity and Rapid AScent. 
 And were you to smile and tell him, it is only 
 a large Stilton Cheese, it would excite other 
 Ideas, according to the accidental Circum- 
 stances of Taste, Appetite, and EXPERI- 
 ENCE of the Subject. 
 
 Thus any Ideas might have been origin- 
 ally annexed to WORDS, and even now 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 237 
 
 they must be ANIMATED by the Omnipo- 
 tence of FANCY. 
 
 Of the alphabet. 
 
 It is not in human Power to determine 
 how many alphabetical Symbols were an- 
 ciently in Use.* But we can infallibly de- 
 termine what Letters have been added for | 
 the Distinction of SOUNDS. 
 
 A — SymholicaL ^ 
 
 B — SymholicaL 
 
 C^-SymholicaL 
 
 J)— SymholicaL 
 
 E — SymholicaL 
 
 F — Distinction of Sounds. 
 
 G — Distinction of Sounds. 
 
 * In mi/ Opinion we have them all in the several Alphabets 
 now extant. 
 
 
238 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B, 
 
 H.—-Distbictio?i of Sounds* 
 
 I — SymholicaL 
 
 K — Distinction of Sounds. 
 
 L — Symbolical. 
 
 M — Sym holicaL 
 
 N — SymholicaL 
 
 O — Symbolical. 
 
 V —Distinction of Sounds. 
 
 Q — Distinction of Sounds. 
 
 R — Symbolical. 
 
 S — Symbolical. 
 
 T — Distinction of Sounds. 
 
 U — Symbolical. 
 
 V — Distinction of Sounds. 
 
 W — Two Letters. 
 
 X.-—Two Letters. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B, 239 
 
 Y — Distinction of Sounds. 
 Z — Distinction of Sounds. 
 
 Every Country exhibits abundant Proof 
 of Diversity of Pronunciation. The Natives 
 in the North of England pronounce differ- 
 ently from the Inhabitants of the Metro- 
 polis. 
 
 In Process of Time, Characters* were 
 superadded to the Alphabets of ancient Lan 
 guages to facilitate Acquisition, and to ren- 
 der the Pronunciation permanent and uni- 
 form ; but with little Success. 
 
 I will begin with Evidence that V — W — 
 P — P — are accidental Distinctions of a Sound 
 originally appropriated to the Symbol B. 
 
 B — Symbolical. 
 V — W — F — P — Derivatives. 
 
 DE NIL IN NIL 
 
 QUI BIDIT BONI NIL. 
 
 Bixit. An. II. M. II. D. ^l.f 
 
 * The Irish Alphabet never exceeded eighteen Characters, 
 t Fab.p.6l. 
 
240 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 In this Specimen, Bidit and Bixit are 
 the same as Vidit and Viait, Thus in Italian 
 we write either serBare, or serVare: nerBo, 
 or nerVo : Boce or Voce. 
 
 H W. This character is a modern Combi- 
 nation. The ancient Islandic^^J^tis^^ritten 
 in English and modern^* Saxon WILL. 
 1^3?2r is written WIT. Genuine Cocknies 
 say Winegar instead of Vinegar. 
 
 % F. This Letter was once in the Gre- 
 cian Alphabet, but they soon banished it, 
 and appointed ph {(p) to discharge its Du- 
 ties.-)- 
 
 * I mean the Saxon Literature of this Country. 
 
 t Take particular Notice of the Order in which Words 
 are corrupted in Pronunciation. E. G. 
 
 There is no immediate Affinity between D and S. Yet 
 nothing is so common as to confound D and T. v. g. In 
 Participles the D is frequendy exchanged for T. Warped) 
 warpt ; creeped, crept. And sometimes T — before lO — is, 
 in SOUND, changed into S. I have seen Instances in which 
 S has been WRITTEN even by the Learned — and C — sub- 
 stituted for T — when — I — has followed. The Word anCient 
 is an Instance of the Practice in the Middle of a Word ; but 
 I aJlude to the Termination, CION. It is of little Conse- 
 quence in the present State of our Orthography, but of great 
 Moment in the Investigation of Words. Unless we know the 
 Changes to which diey are exposed, we shall commit great 
 Mistakes indeed. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 241 
 
 Its Affinity to V and P may be seen in 
 the following Words. 
 
 Latin PISCIS 
 
 Italian PESCE 
 
 Gothic, Saxoii, Islandic, Armo- 
 
 ric PESK 
 
 Danish FISK 
 
 German FISCH 
 
 Dutch VISCH 
 
 English FISH. 
 
 To Ph and B, in the following. 
 
 Latin. Fero ^ 
 
 H h VTo carry, bring forth, create. 
 
 English. Beary 
 
 IT P. So trifling is the Difference between 
 Pand B, that they are easily exchanged in 
 Writing. E. G. 
 
 n'lD for ni3. Pears. Fruit. Berries 
 
 Pasco for Boo-xw. 
 
 Obra, Spanish. Opera, English. 
 
 PARENTIBUS aPsTULIT ATRA DIES 
 ET ACErUo rUNERE MERSIT.* 
 
 * Fab. 120. 
 Q 
 
242 
 
 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 IT Permit me to subjoin some miscella- 
 neous Evidence of the Commutation of P. B. 
 F. V. The Printer has not Types for every 
 Language, I have therefore directed the 
 Words to be printed in English. 
 
 Greek. Pater. 
 Latin. Pater. 
 Italian. Pedre. 
 Spanish. Pedra. 
 Persian. Padar. 
 French. Pere. 
 
 Danish. Fader. 
 Swedish. Fader. 
 Saxon. Faeder. 
 German. Fater.''*' 
 Dutch. Vader. 
 English. Father. 
 
 Hebrew. Ab. 
 Chaldean. Abba. 
 Spanish. Aba. 
 Turkish. Baba. 
 Greek. Papas. 
 English. Papa. 
 
 Lati n . Ego habeo . 
 Saxon. Ic haebbe. 
 Gothic. Ik haba. 
 German . Ich habe. 
 Low Dutch. Ic hab, 
 
 I have. 
 
 Islandic. 
 English. 
 
 Eg hef. 
 I have. 
 
 Portuguese. HaVer. 
 Spanish. HaVer. 
 French aVoir. 
 
 To have. 
 
 C — SymboUcal. 
 G — K — Q— Deri vatives . 
 
 * Father and Vatter. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 243 
 
 Soon after the Trojan War, the Greeks 
 began to regulate their Alphabet by the pre- 
 vaiUng Distinctions in Sounds. K and r were 
 appointed to succeed C in the Beginning of 
 Words; and C, confined to the Middle, either 
 alone as in AHMOC0ENHC, or combined with 
 the Sigma, as in Ke^ea. 
 
 The Gothic and the Saxon Alphabets 
 have the essential Form of — C — in Perfection. 
 
 I proceed to demonstrate that C was an- 
 ciently used where we employ Gf. 
 
 leCio puCnandod EcfoClONT.* 
 Legio pugnando effugient. 
 
 CONIvCr ET FILIO VENE MERENTIBUS. 
 
 Conjugi et Filio bene merentibus. 
 
 In Spanish, digo for dico. Segundo for 
 Secundo.-f 
 
 * From the famous Duilian Pillar erected on Account 
 of the first Naval Victory obtained by the Romans over the 
 Carthaginians, 260 Years before Christ. On 4his Pillar we 
 
 also read CarthaCo and PuCna. 
 
 'I- • 
 
 t 1 must join Mr. Ainsworth in lamenting the Perseve- 
 rance of the Learned in pronouncing the Latin C and G so 
 differently from Foreigners. Were our Universities to concur 
 
 Q 2 
 
244 ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B. 
 
 1[As to K, it is even denied a Place in 
 many Alphabets, ancient and modern. La- 
 tin* Armoric, Irish^ Portuguese^ Italian^ 
 French. 
 
 It was seldom used by the Saxons; but 
 often by the Goths and Grecians; and the Ro- 
 mans copied the latter for a short Space. 
 
 If Q. Is not in Hebrew, Greek, Islandic, 
 Saxon, Runic, ancient Irish, nor Cornish. It 
 is compounded of C and a Vowel. 
 
 D — Symbolical. 
 T — Derivative. 
 
 I have mentioned the Practice of substi- 
 tuting T for D at the End of English Parti- 
 ciples. Give me Leave to quote an Instance 
 of its occupying the Place of D in Latin. 
 
 IlluT servabitur Fontanis quod obtinu- 
 erunt apuT suos ludices.f 
 
 in a few Improvements in Pronunciation, Schoolmasters 
 
 would immediately adopt them, and the Reform would be 
 
 general. We are at present ridiculed by learned Foreigners. 
 
 * One V^ord excepted. + Fab. 278. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 245 
 
 X — Compound. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to remark that 
 X is a compound Character — an Abbrevia- 
 tion of cc, cs, and ct. E. G. Reflect, Re- 
 flexion, &c. 
 
 Y is compounded of U and I. 
 
 Z — Derivative from S. 
 
 Z is merely for Distinction of Sounds. 
 
 ADDITIONAL REMARKS 
 
 ON 
 
 THE ALPHABET. 
 
 1 . I have selected the Characters on the 
 left Hand from Asiatic Monuments of great 
 
246 ARlSTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 Antiquity, and on that Account I have en- 
 titled them Original,* But I have Reason to 
 beHeve the Saxon e and co, and the Gothic 
 A? 6, 1, X, and n, are the most ancient Sym- 
 bols in the World. 
 
 The e is formed of <2 and a Line pro- 
 ceeding from its Centre; but as angular Sym- 
 bols are more easily cut in on Stone than 
 Semicircular Symbols, the Sculptors adopted 
 A for D. E for a M for ra. 2 fof» S. 
 
 2. The Saxon L is an angular C. 
 
 3. When Symbols were varied for dis- 
 tinctions in Sounds, Nations either increased 
 the original Character as G and c, from C 
 and E: or diminished it as r from E. and P 
 from B. 
 
 4. The Greek Character preceding the 
 2 was originally the same as the R of the first 
 Series. In subsequent Ages it was altered, 
 by removing Part of the — R to the Top, P?, 
 and in this Form it remains at this Day. 
 
 =* 1 intended to present my Reader with a Fac Simile. 
 But Time would not permit. 1 have preserved the ESSEN- 
 TIAL Form. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 24? 
 
 It has the appearance of the Roman P, but 
 the Sound is always the same as R. 
 
 5. When Symbols were first invented, 
 the Aspect of the Character made no Diffe- 
 rence in the Ideas annexed to the ESSEN- 
 TIAL Form. Hence the Greek Letters on 
 the venerable Sigean Monument have a two- 
 fold Aspect. E. G. 
 
 The hoary Head is a Crown of Glory, 
 ^•ssausnoa:^q§[)j jo ^'^J^ aq^ ui punoj aq ;i jj 
 
 Wisdom is despised by Fools. 
 4,*aaAjig puB piOQ o; ^i J9j9jd 9sr^ ^i\\ :>ng 
 
 6. The Chinese write perpendicularly. 
 The Greeks, in the Course of Ages, confine 
 themselves to the Method now in Use through- 
 out Europe. The Hebrews adopted the Con- 
 verse of modern Practice. 
 
 7. It deserves Notice, that several of the 
 
 * Proverbs. 
 
 t On the Monument the Letters are not inverted. Un- 
 less the Types be cast for the Purpose, we cannot set them 
 upright with a similar Aspect. 
 
248 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 Letters retain the ancient Aspect from Right 
 to Left. B R and D for Example ; except- 
 ing the Gothic A. 
 
 The Modern Delta has. a Front Aspect 
 A. The Gothic Symbol 5J has a perpendicu- 
 lar Aspect, exactly as it appears on the an- 
 cient Obelisks in Egypt. 
 
 A Comparison of the several Alphabets 
 will convince even a Sceptic, that Nations 
 derived some of their Symbols from a com- 
 mon Source, and invented others to express 
 particular Credenda. 
 
 What the Learned admit as Fact, is in 
 the highest Degree fabulous, namely, that a 
 Christian Bishop of the Goths invented their 
 Alphabet. Did he invent the Grecian a; 
 the Egyptian JJ. ©. with all those Letters 
 which were in Use in Greece and Rome be- 
 fore even the Redeemer made his Appearance 
 on Earth ? But if he did not INVENT the 
 Alphabet, from whom did he BORROW it? 
 Not from the Romans, nor Saxons, nor Gre- 
 cians, nor from any Nation in the habitable 
 "World. 
 
 8. Of the derivative Letters, Z— T— K— 
 
ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B. 249 
 
 X — Y are the same in Form in every Alpha- 
 bet. 
 
 H — h — h are Aspirates. The Sound 
 of — E — strengthened. 
 
 The Grecian | is a Compound of (^ and 
 ^5 equivalent in Power to our X : for the X 
 is formed of a C and C, with different As- 
 pects. X* are two Semicircles in another 
 Position, as I remarked when speaking of the 
 Cipher. The Grecians sound X before a 
 Vowel like K or C. 
 
 OF THE SIGNIFICATION OF THE SYMBOLS. 
 
 A. 
 MOTIVE.t 
 
 C. 
 INHABITATION. 
 
 CAUSE.J 
 
 * Ten. f Causing Motion, Ab, Ad. 
 
 % Cause^ instrumental. 
 
250 ARISTARCHCS TO S. B, 
 
 D. 
 COMPLETION* 
 
 E. 
 ENERGY.t 
 
 I. 
 
 EXTENT4 
 
 L. 
 
 EXTENT.^ 
 
 M. 
 MIGHT. 
 
 N. 
 PRODUCTION. 
 
 * Cause, total, 
 t Cause efficienL 6. Energy or Efect proceeding. 
 t Indefinite. % Longitudinal and indirect. 
 
IH 
 
 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 251 
 
 O. 
 
 INDIVIDUAL, OR WHOLE. 
 
 R. 
 MOTION 
 
 S. 
 EXISTENCE. 
 
 In our Researches after Truth, we must 
 studiously avoid MYSTERY. There is one 
 Mystery indeed in which Reason may ac- 
 quiesce without Loss of Dignity. God mani- 
 fested in the Flesh is a Mystery to which we 
 assent by divine Permission. 
 
 In all human Occurrences, COMMON 
 SENSE ought to be our only Guide. On 
 this Authority I affirm, 
 
 1. There is no necessary Connexion 
 between SOUNDS and PERCEPTIONS. 
 For on the Converse of the Proposition, all 
 determinate perceptions would be expressed 
 
252 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 universally by similar Sounds;* which is re- 
 pugnant to Fact. 
 
 2. There is no necessary Connexion be- 
 tween PERCEPTIONS and the NAMES 
 of alphabetical SYMBOLS. The Vulgar 
 and the Learned are equally ignorant of 
 the Ideas annexed to the Letters of our 
 Alphabet. But this could not be the Case, 
 if such Letters, from a Necessity of Na- 
 ture, presented determinate Ideas to the 
 Mind. 
 
 3. SOUNDS are prior to Alphabetical 
 SYMBOLS, because Speech is necessary 
 to estabhsh the MEANING of Symbols. 
 Hence it is deducible, that Letters are dis- 
 tinguished by Sounds to which Ideas have 
 been previously annexed. V. G.-f* When the 
 Inventors of the Alphabet, no Matter for 
 what Reason, resolved to annex the Idea of 
 INHABITATION to a Line and two Semi- 
 circlesjj they distinguished the Symbol by 
 the Sound antecedently annexed to Inhabit 
 in popular Speech. Be, therefore, is not the 
 
 * Two Children brought up in Solitude, one in Asia, 
 and the other in Europe, MUST give the same Name to all 
 determinate Ideas. To a Circle, for Example, or a Square. 
 
 t V. G. Ferbi Gratia, for Instance. J B. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 253 
 
 Name of a Letter only, but a Sound signifi- 
 cant of a certain Idea. 
 
 4. A Combination of Symbols is neces- 
 sary for a Combination of Sounds. Though 
 -~BE— indicates INHABITATION, some 
 other Symbol is requisite to indicate the 
 Thing inhabited. Hence 
 
 In HEBREW, no. B— ith is a House. 
 
 In CELTIC. B— ot is a Tent. 
 
 In ENGLISH. B— ooth is a Tent. 
 
 Many Words are compounded of this 
 Symbol in all Languages. But to discover 
 them, you must dismiss PREPOSITIONS 
 and COMMON TERMINATIONS— and 
 reduce DERIVATIVE SYMBOLS to 
 PRIMITIVES. 
 
^54 ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B. 
 
 APPLICATION 
 
 OP THE 
 
 PRECEDING PRINCIPLES 
 
 Give me Leave to add a desultory Ap- 
 plication of the preceding Remarks.* 
 
 ACT. INFECTED. 
 
 Of the first Word, the primitive Symbol 
 is C. The — ^T — originally — D — is a com- 
 mon Termination. 
 
 Of the second Word, IN is a '^ Preposi- 
 « tion:" and T— ED— originally D— ED 
 common Terminations. 
 
 INFECTED is of the same Origin as 
 INFECTION. Fection as FACIO ; and 
 facio as FAC. A Word now in Use in 
 Latin. 
 
 * The Subject is worthy of being treated in a more 
 ample Manner. But my Engagements with the Public will 
 not permit me to indulge my Inclination. Several Parts of 
 Speech are yet untouched. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 255 
 
 Act is derived from AGO, and Ago from 
 AC. Both in present Use. I mean, a Com- 
 bination or Juxtaposition of the identical 
 Letters is now in Use. As to DERIVA- 
 TIVES, the Pi\)geny is numerous in all the 
 Languages in Europe. 
 
 FaC is compounded of B and C. 
 
 The Distinction between DOING and 
 
 ACTING is modern. C and B C differ 
 
 no more than THINK and B-THINK. 
 GIRD and B-GIRD. GO and B-GONE. 
 
 Give me Leave to apprize you, that, in 
 very remote Antiquity, innumerable Words 
 began with B, which are now spelt with its 
 Derivatives F. P. V, especially when used 
 imperatively; for as B signifies INHABIT, 
 SEIZE, OCCUPY— it was prefixed to what 
 Grammarians are pleased to denominate 
 VERBS, in the same Manner as it is now 
 prefixed to other Parts of Speech. B — GONE 
 means be in Motion. B — GOOD means 
 be in Goodness. In the Revolution of Ages, 
 polite Writers declined its Services. The Po- 
 pulace indeed have so strong an Attachment 
 to this ancient Mode of Diction, that they 
 B — spatter and B — sprinkle all the Verbs in 
 
256 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 the Language. Dr. Johnson has retained 
 several in his Dictionary, which are obsolete 
 in elegant Life. 
 
 B — C. That is — Be the Cause. Abbre- 
 viated, B — Cause. E. G. FaC sciam Be 
 the Cause of my Knowing — JB — Cause my 
 Knowing — , or cause me to know. 
 
 The — A — is incidental : in the Preterite 
 it makes flci; in Compounds flcio — merely 
 for Distinction of Sounds. 
 
 II To all Symbols expressive of Energy 
 or Motion, the Ancients postfixed- — D — to 
 indicate the Completion of such Energy or 
 Motion. Hence we have — ^T — at the End 
 of Fact, Act, &c. 
 
 I leave it to the Learner to determine 
 whether this is a Consequence of the rude 
 Simplicity of primitive Diction, or of philo- 
 sophical Refinement. The Fact is indis- 
 putable. E. G. 
 
 Sei quis Hemonem leiberom sciens duiD, 
 ParricidaD estoD.* 
 
 * Twelve Tables, 450 Years before Christ. Observe, in 
 passing, Nemo is compounded of N — Negation, and Emo, a 
 Man. A Paricide is erroneously deduced from Pater and cado. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 25? 
 
 In altoD MariD pucnandoD. Duilian 
 Pillar. 
 
 Were I permitted to speak in the Terms 
 of the Schools, I might add — -C is a Cause 
 in Potentid; ACT is a Cause in Esse, 
 
 When you speak imperatively, you ex- 
 cite the dormant POWER; and the obedient 
 Person ACTS. When he has finished, he 
 has act — ED the Part allotted him. 
 
 Now the Symbol — D — indicates Action 
 completed. It is a — C — closed with a Line 
 — D. And in this it differs from — O — For 
 the Circle is essentially complete ; the Semi- 
 circle essentially imperfect. 
 
 ^ It is remarkable that in the Islandic 
 Tongue — -D — is named the Tyr: that is, 
 the CLOSER. In Armoric to TEI is to 
 close, thatch, or complete. 
 
 C — signifies that the Recipient is OPEN 
 to Action. OPEN to Inquiry. D — that 
 the Action is COMPLETED, the Inquiry 
 CLOSED. Literally the CONCLUSION 
 of the Energy — E — . How natural ! How 
 elegant ! 
 
 11 
 
258 ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B. 
 
 ^ Before we speak of the Preposition 
 — IN — it is expedient to ascertain the Im- 
 port of other Prepositions now in Use. 
 
 Etymologists are accustomed to rest 
 from their Labours, the Moment they dis- 
 cover a Preposition similar to our own in 
 some foreign Dictionary. But Dr. Johnson 
 judiciously observes, ^' such Derivations do 
 " not lead to any MEANING, which alone 
 " can justify etymological Inquiries/' What 
 m a Man the wiser for knowing that — IN — 
 means the same in seven or eight other Lan- 
 guages, which a Drayman is sensible it means^ 
 in our own? 
 
 But they are not wholly successful even 
 on this easy Scale of Investigation. For Mr, 
 Tooke quotes four Pages of Latin employed 
 in determining the Origin of — ABOUT — 
 and three Pages in tracing the Ancestry of 
 — DOWN — and then adds, in Despair, the 
 Origin of these Words is buried in deep Anti^ 
 quity. 
 
 Junius, Spelman, Menage, and Skinner ,^ 
 Men of Renown, have taken infinite Pains 
 to prove that, in other Languages, there are 
 Words which signify the same thing as — 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO ^.. B. ?o9 
 
 DOWN— and ABOUT. And, in my hum- 
 ble Opinion, they have composed the undique 
 cdlata with so much Skill that they really 
 appear like Cousin Germans. But with this 
 '^ Patching and Cobbling" Mr. Tooke is dis- 
 satisfied. And, after analysing several modem 
 Frenchmen to an impalpable Powder, he 
 puts a great lubberly Dutchman into his 
 critical Retort, but, deducing Nothing from 
 the Process, except a Caput mortiium, he 
 exclaims — They are not only dead^ but buried, 
 buried with their Ancestors. And then, 
 seizing the Light, which he does Plilqsophers 
 and Grammarians the Honour to carry be- 
 fore them, he descends into the Cemeteries 
 of the illustrious Dead — ^he searches— bu,t in 
 vain. They are not only buried, he adds, but 
 " buried in DEEP ANTIQUITY/' 
 
 In what Part of the World deep Anti- 
 quity is situated, Mr. Tooke does not inform 
 us. But from what he says concerning — IN 
 _OUT^ON— OFF— AT^— it may be 
 conjectured that it lies in the NORTH. So 
 
 * " The Explanation and Etymology of these Words 
 " require a Degree of Knowledge in all the ancient and 
 " NORTHERN Languages, and a Skill in the Application 
 " of that Knowledge v^iich I am very far from assuming." 
 Amusements of Pur ley. 
 
 R 2 
 
260 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 that, if you hope to acconipUsh what Mr. 
 Tooke has declined, you must, according to 
 this Doctrine, overturn the Mountains of 
 Lapland, or dive to the Bottomof the Baltic 
 Sea. But you ^leed not ascend to those 
 Regions of metaphysical Abstraction to 
 which Mr. Tooke exalts the Articles^ nor pene- 
 trate the profound Caverns of the North in 
 which he buries the Adverbs and Prepositions. 
 Common Sense is IMMORTALyand resides, 
 with Man on the SURFACE of the Globe. 
 
 H The Analogy between the local Power 
 of Figures and alphabetical Symbols is too 
 important to be passed without Notice. We 
 have seen that — I — before a Semicircle — IV 
 — has a negative Influence, or, more properly, 
 a Power of Abstraction. After it, VI, it is 
 affirmative. 
 
 Now it is Weakness to imagine that a 
 Letter has any ESSENTIAL Power more 
 than a Figure. Its Force, when alone, and 
 its Influence in Apposition depend on COM- 
 PACT. E. G: aBto; T>e from. No 7iega- 
 tive ; oN affirmative. 
 
 Nor must I omit to remark, that Vowels 
 seldom occur as Symbols in compound 
 
mmm 
 
 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 26l 
 
 Words.* They are inserted merely to con- 
 nect the other Symbols, and are regulated 
 by the prevaUing Pronunciation. E, G. The 
 capital Letter in audiEndo is symbolical. 
 In amAndo it is used for Distinction of 
 Sounds. 
 
 IN. EN. ENDO. 
 
 The Symbol — i — was so named in Ho- 
 nour of the Organ of Vision; and ornamented 
 by the Goths with two Pupils on the Sum- 
 mit. I selected the Term ALTITUDEt as 
 it expresses more fully than any other Word 
 the ample Range of SIGHT, the noblest of 
 our Senses. 
 
 * In Hebrew, the greater Part of the \Vords are com- 
 posed entirely of CONSONANTS. In the Course of Ages 
 — perhaps in the long Captivity — the important Knowledge 
 of Symbols was lost. Hence the Invention of Points ; by 
 which our Translators have been often led into gross Ab- 
 surdities. 
 
 f In Latin, Altitudo means Depth ; as well as Breadth and 
 Height. 
 
262 AKISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 The Use of this Letter before N* is a 
 modernt Innovation. The ancient Romans 
 used E. V. g. 
 
 Hominem mortuiim ENDO Urbe nei sepe- 
 leito, neive urito.X 
 
 ENDO Fonere, tribos Ricinieisy Rica por- 
 porea^ decemque Tibicinel^os vestier liceto, hoc 
 pious neifacito,% 
 
 Patri ENDO Filium qui ex se Matre- 
 que Familias natus est, Vitai Necisque Po- 
 testas estod.ll . 
 
 This Preposition was . not wholly obso- 
 lete in the Days of Lucretius. ENDOgredi, 
 and ENDOpedite, both occur in his Poetry. 
 It is used for absolute Rest and for Motion 
 
 * As a Preposition. The Grecians and French always 
 retained E. 
 
 t I use modern in Contradistinction to the first State of a 
 Language. 
 
 J Twelve Tables. Excellent Law! Let not the Dead 
 he buried nor burnt in the City. Pagans are not so fond of 
 Putrefaction as we are. 
 
 § As remarkable an Instance of Simplicity and Frugality. 
 
 Ij Over a Son horn in Wedlock, let the Father have Pozoer 
 of Life and Death. Twelve Tables. 
 
ARISTABCHUS TO S. B. 263 
 
 completed, exactly as the French use EN at 
 this Day. E. G. Eire EN Angleterre, to be 
 IN England ; aller EN France, to go TO 
 France. 
 
 This venerable Preposition is retained 
 at the End of Verbs in Latin, and in all the 
 Languages in Europe, ancient and modern. 
 E.G. 
 
 DocENDO means IN teaching. AmaN- 
 DO in loving. And in 
 
 Saxon. LupijENDE means Loving, or 
 IN Love. 
 
 Gothic. Sj^KQAKd^ Seeking, or IN 
 Search. 
 
 Islandic. ll$Ufi^0,^^, Praying, or 
 IN Prayer. 
 
 Portugiiese.y endI!j^DO^ SelUng, or IN 
 Sale. 
 
 Spanish. DormiENDO, Sleeping, or IN 
 Sleep. 
 
 German. "Jj^tXXtiW^^B, Departing, 
 or IN Departure. 
 
264 ARISTARCHUS TO S. 13. 
 
 Dutch. WerKENDE, Working, or IN 
 Work. 
 
 French. AgissAND(t), Acting, or IN 
 Act. 
 
 And thus we have conducted an impor- 
 tant Inquiry to a Conclusion. The Learned 
 have disputed for many hundred Years con- 
 cerning the NAME* of DORMIENDO. 
 What Name do you conceive ought to be 
 given to — IN Sleep ? 
 
 Give me Leave to entertain you a Mo- 
 ment with a Specimen of learned Trifling. 
 Have you Messieurs de Fort Royal on the 
 Latin Tongue? Turn, Sir, to Page 125. 
 Volume II : Nugenfs Translation. 
 
 " I. Remarks on what the ancient and modern Gram- 
 " marians thought of GERUNDS." 
 
 *' There is no one Article on which the Grammarians 
 " have started more Questions, and been more PUZZLED 
 " to answer them, than the Gerunds. Sanctius, Scioppius, 
 
 ^' and Vossius, will have it that they are VERBAL • 
 
 "NOUN- ADJECTIVES, or even PARTICL 
 
 " PLES." 
 
 After a long Dissertation *' about it, Goddess, and 
 '^ about it,*'* the Oracle pronounces Judgment. 
 
 * Pope. 
 
ARISTAIICHUS TO S. B. 265 
 
 II. " They are VERBAL NOUNS." 
 
 This was the Christening. At the Confirmation, 
 Messieurs de Port Royal had their Offspring registered with 
 additional Honours. 
 
 III. *' We say therefore the Gerund is a VERBAL 
 "NOUN SUBSTANTIVE."* 
 
 Then follows a very learned Vindication of the newly 
 assumed Title ; and finally, a serious Debate whether the 
 Youth is to be ACTIVE or' PASSIVE in the Republic of 
 Letters. 
 
 IV. " Is a Gerund to be taken actively or passively f* 
 
 After solemn Consultation, suitable to the Business, it 
 is resolved, when he does any Thing he will be active, and 
 when he does nothing he will be passive. 
 
 VI. " If the Gerund supply the Place of an active 
 '* Word it will be active also ; and if it supply the Place of a 
 *' Word that is passive^ it will be passive also.T 
 
 ^ It is owing to the Normans that we 
 have rejected the D — used by our Saxon An- 
 cestors. The French pronounce parlent 
 parlanG, Formerly they used — G — after N, 
 ev en in Writing. Ung je semrai.-f- 
 
 1[ We may assign NEGATION to— N 
 
 * Page 126. 
 
 f I lately met with some Words spelt in the ancient Man- 
 ner. BindEND, Binding. BIowEND, Blowing, &c. 
 
Q66 ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B. 
 
 — But when it follows G, it indicates PRO- 
 DUCTION. 
 
 Thus from G an efficient Cause and N — 
 Existence, we have EN the common Termi- 
 nation of a considerable Part of our passive 
 Verbs. 
 
 From e efficient Cause and — D — Com- 
 pletion^ we have the common Termination of 
 the Remainder of our passive Verbs. 
 
 From ENDO — corrupted by the Nor- 
 mans, we have the common Termination of 
 all our Participles* present. 
 
 ^ Though the Romans used ENDO 
 and IN, ENDOgredior and INgredior, in- 
 discriminately, and though the French em- 
 ploy EN to express Rest absolute, and Mo- 
 tion completed, there is a Difference, in 
 English, between — walking IN a House, and 
 walking INTO a House. 
 
 There is also a Difference between 
 SPOKE.£]V, and SPEAK-IiVG. Not sim- 
 ply because the former is a different Tense 
 
 * Permit me to use the popular Terms of Distinction. 
 
ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B. 267 
 
 from the latter. ENDO, or ING indicates 
 Existence of Action, without which the Verb 
 may be read in the Imperative Mode. But 
 SPOKE cannot be thus read ; it is the Indi- 
 cative PERFECT; and Nothing is neces- 
 sary but to subjoin EN, to signify that the 
 Subject exists in a State of Completion^ 
 
 It is obvious that ACTION was origi- 
 nally implied in ENDO, because it admits 
 IN before it; but EN does not. E. G. In 
 writING— is intelligible. IN writTEN — is 
 incomplete. 
 
 The Truth is, ENDO is compounded of 
 EN, and one of the most ancient Words in 
 the World — DO — which we still use as Sub- 
 stantive—A—Do. ENDO means— IN AC- 
 TION. 
 
 And here I must inform you, that the 
 Symbol A, as well as B, is often used impe- 
 ratively ; or as Grammarians term it inten- 
 sively. O means the Whole. D — used im- 
 peratively before it means complete Whole. 
 A — D — O — Be completing the Whole. 
 
 The same Spirit of Abbreviation which 
 
268 ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B. 
 
 rejected B-^before STIR— GIRD, &c. dis- 
 missed — A— from DO. 
 
 Tlie Symbols EN— DO~(endo) may 
 be read IN COMPLETING. Writing-^ 
 menus co??ipleti7ig the Action implied in — write. 
 IN JVritifig — 171 completing the Action. 
 
 The Preposition TO is the same as DO. 
 In some Countries they say — Arrive TO— I 
 arrived TO Exeter, This use is obsolete. I 
 go TO Exeter : that is, I GO — Extent of the 
 Action — Exeter. I go — DO — Exeter. I go 
 — TO— Exeter. I arrive AT Exeter; that 
 is, I arrive — Completion of my Journey — 
 Exeter. I arrive — AD — Exeter. I arrive 
 —AT— Exeter. 
 
 ENDO when subjoined to a Verb may 
 be translated, in completing. When placed 
 before a Word, as— INTO a House — it is 
 best to transpose the Words in Explanation. 
 E. G. Go INTO the House; Go— TO— 
 IN the House : that is, GO— Extent of the 
 Motion — IN the House. 
 
 ^ You perceive, Sir, that though our 
 Researches commence with the very Infancy 
 
ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B. 269 
 
 of Literature, we have not been so fortunate 
 as to discover any of Mr. Tooke's lo7ig TVords. 
 I am unhappily limited in the Numbers of 
 my Essay, or I could demonstrate that the 
 common Terminations of all the Verbs in the 
 Latin and Greek Languages are formed from 
 ONE Symbol. That Symbol was anciently 
 in Use in Greece; and with the common 
 Termination of Verbs in the present Tense^ 
 Jirst Person, amounted only to TWO Letters! 
 In Latin it is now in Use in the Imperative 
 Mode, and consists of ONE Letter only! 
 
 D E. 
 
 As e before D signifies progressive 
 Energy completed, so 6 afier D must be 
 interpreted by the Converse of this Significa- 
 tion. To DE — duce and to DE — stroy are 
 the RADICAL Ideas of D— e.* 
 
 * It is remarkable how universally this Interpretation is 
 justified in the Roman Classics. Not one of the Exceptions 
 adduced by Ainsworth is valid. 
 
270 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B, 
 
 A B. B A. 
 
 The Symbols B — A — may be read BE 
 AT— GO TO— ARRIVE AT— a Place or 
 Thing specified. 
 
 The Symbols A — B signify Departure 
 FROM — the Person, or Thing specified. 
 
 In HEBREW, N3, BA, signifies EN- 
 TRANCE. 
 
 In GREEK, Ba— «, I go TOWARDS. 
 I ASCEND. 
 
 And txw — ; Ab — o. Departure or Mo- 
 tion FROM. 
 
 E. EX. Greek. 
 
 These Prepositions may be used indis- 
 criminately; for E means EFFICIENT, and 
 E — C — issuing from the CAUSE. 
 
 I hope I shall close my Essay without 
 
ARISTARCnUS TO S. B. 271 
 
 departing from my natural Moderation, but 
 I am in Danger of using an intemperate 
 Asperity of Censure whenever I consult a 
 Lexicon on Prepositions. 
 
 It is greatly to the Credit of COMMON 
 SENSE, that all who act in Opposition to 
 its Dictates are inconsistent with themselves. 
 Deeply engaged in the Contemplation of 
 Parts in DETAIL, they are insensible to the 
 Discordance of the SYSTEM. Thus Philo- 
 sophers first determine that a single Letter is 
 without Signification ; and then, to two IN- 
 SIGNIFICANTS in Apposition, they assign 
 FORTY or FIFTY Ideas ! ! 
 
 E means NOTHING, and X means 
 NOTHING, but these two NOTHINGS in 
 Juxtaposition have seventeen Meanings^ ac- 
 cording to the ingenious Mr. Ainsworth. 
 And Dr. Johnson would have aggrandized 
 the illustrious Pair by assigning them seventy 
 or eighty Significations : which indeed might 
 be easily done on the Doctor's Principles of 
 verbal Interpretation. 
 
 Mr. Ainsworth is dead, and Dr. John- 
 son is dead. Give me Leave therefore to ask 
 you — and, through you, every Advocate for 
 
272 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 the prevailing Opinion concerning the Alpha- 
 bets — to which of the Letters, E and X, do 
 you assign Signification ? 
 
 If a Dilemma can be proposed to Man, 
 you have one. Sir, before you. 
 
 Whether you answer NEGATIVELY 
 or AFFIRMATIVELY— whether you speak 
 of the Letters as SEPARATED or CON- 
 JOINED, you are equally involved in Con- 
 tradictions. 
 
 Allow me to propose one Question 
 more — Whence came it that the Romans em- 
 ployed a single Letter, E for Instance, as a 
 significant Symbol? It was reduced by COM- 
 FACT to that State of Abbreviation. And by 
 COMPACT, Sir, Symbols might proceed 
 from that State of Abbreviation to Words of 
 accustomed Length. Your Argument there- 
 fore is either nugatory, or valid. If you ad- 
 mit it to be nugatory, I claim the Point in 
 Debate; for we have the Evidence of Sight 
 to assure us that the Romans used single 
 Letters as Symbols. If you insist on its 
 Validity, I must request Leave to employ its 
 Force in Defence of my own Hypothesis. 
 For unquestionably the same Powers of Mind, 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 273 
 
 the same popular Authority might COM- 
 BINE Symbols, which REDUCED them 
 when compounded to solitary Individuals.* 
 
 E R, R £}. 
 
 E — R denote incipient Motion. 
 
 E — S incipient Existence. 
 
 Hence ER — O, and ES — O in Latin ; 
 and 60- — in Greek. 
 
 ER, and ES, form a considerable Part 
 of the Common Terminations of Roman 
 Words. 
 
 In ancient, symbolical Diction, a Dif- 
 ference was made between MOTION and 
 EXISTENCE. But in Writing, the Ro- 
 mans used ERO and ESO indifferently. 
 E. G. 
 
 * 1 repeat my Declarations of Regret that the Limits of 
 Aristarchus will not permit me to expatiate. 1 would other- 
 wise give you ONE Idea for each Preposition ; by which you 
 might not only construe every uncorrupted Passage iu all an- 
 cient and modern Languages, but FEEL its Force. 
 
 S 
 
274 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 Present AG-0 (properly AC-0.) Fu- 
 ture AC-SO and EG-ERO. 
 AC-SIM and EG-ERIM. 
 FAC-SO and FEC-ERO. 
 FAC^SIM and FEC-ERIM. 
 
 (33- It is of no Consequence whether CS 
 are contracted into X — or not. On the 
 Tomb of old Ennius they were written in full. 
 
 Nemo me Lacrumis decoret^ nee Funera Fletu 
 FaC-Sit, quur? VoUtovivu per Ora Virum. 
 
 In Plautus, they are contracted, Ne 
 objeXis Manum,* Qui mihi in Cursu obstiterit, 
 faXo Vitce Is extemplo obstiterit suce.'t 
 
 ^ In Islandic, ER signifies am. I am. 
 
 In- but I have not Room to enume- 
 rate the Words which are derived from this 
 Source. They abound in ALL the Lan- 
 guages of the civiHzed World. J I defer the 
 delightful Task to a Season of Leisure and 
 Health. 
 
 * Casina. Act. 2. ^2. Seen. 6. V. 32. 
 
 t Capt. Act. 4. Seen. 2. V. 23. 
 
 % China excepted, for they cannot pronounce R, 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 275 
 
 IT When — R— precedes certain Symbols, 
 it denotes Increase of Energy. Thus s -w I 
 go: ^6-u I flow as a River. Ru-o, I rush^ 
 
 When it is followed by its own Symbol, 
 
 and used as a Prefix 1 mean the Converse 
 
 of ER prefixed to other words — it may be 
 translated RETREAT or REPETITION of 
 Motion; 
 
 ^ Be pleased to remember — I do not 
 undertake to demonstrate symbolical Signi- 
 fication in EVERY Word in Use. Some 
 are modern^ and spelt in a most arbitrary 
 Manner. Common Terminations^ and all AN- 
 CIENT Words, are within my Province. 
 
 PER. TTfiOi. PR^. PRO. TTUOOC. TTDOg. 
 
 INTER. Ctts^. super, ^o. SUB. 
 SUBTER,* 
 
 " No Medals or ancient Coins lead an 
 
 * The mere English Reader may pass this Section. The 
 Importance of the Subject is the best Apology which I am 
 able to make for its Length. 
 
 Could I prevail on him to read it with Attention, even the 
 English Scholar would be greatly benefited from a View of 
 the first Principles of Expression. 
 
 s^2 
 
276 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 ^* Antiquary more surely to the Beginning 
 *' of Things, than the Derivation of Words 
 " traced through their various Changes/' 
 Page 73 of an Essay entitled — The many 
 Advantages of a good Language to a Nation, 
 
 History is, in Fact, greatly interested in 
 the Origin of Words. 
 
 In the System, which I have the Honour 
 to defend, it is presumed that they are com- 
 pounded of Symbols separately significant. 
 Lord Monboddo imagines they were origi- 
 nally LONG and VOCAL. It is for you. 
 Sir, to determine whether my Arguments are 
 candid and convincing. It cannot be con- 
 troverted that all the Languages in Europe 
 confirm my Hypothesis; and in Asia it 
 amounts to Demonstration; for the CHI- 
 NESE have only THREE HUNDRED and 
 THIRTY Monosyllables for all the Purposes 
 of civil Intercourse. The Characters used 
 by the LEARNED are indeed innumerable. 
 Nor do I desire to suppress the Fact, that 
 the Commonality diversify their Monosylla- 
 bles by an unrivalled Delicacy of Accent. 
 To what Part of the World, therefore, his 
 Lordship will refer me for Evidence in Sup- 
 port of his System, I -am at a Loss to con- 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 277 
 
 ceive. Not to the Hottentots, I hope, for his 
 own Credit, for I have now before nie a Vo- 
 cabulary of their Language, and I aVer on my 
 Honour that it ABOUNDS in Monosylla- 
 bles. Not to the 
 
 Lord Monhoddo, I ask Leave to inter- 
 rupt you. Your Treatment of my System 
 is disingenuous beyond Example. You 
 hnow — you must know. Sir, that I have fre- 
 quently declared, that Man in his Origin is a 
 BRUTE. Long Words, of which you have 
 spoken with such unmerited Sarcasm, are 
 founded on Fact^ and known to many. They 
 are peculiar to the Animal when he quits the 
 Forest, to congregate in Caverns. The Hot- 
 tentots are civiHzed.* 
 
 Aristarchus. Your Lordship will have 
 the Goodness to pardon my Negligence. My 
 Researches, I confess, have been limited to 
 Man in a State of Society. I perceive my 
 Error. I have no Business with a Hottentot 
 Vocabulary. I have not done Justice to the 
 Subject. For though I cannot boast that inti- 
 mate Knowledge of Monkeys and Baboons 
 which Your Lordship displays, yet I know 
 
 * Origin and Progress of Speech. 
 
278 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 something of a JACK ASS. I have often 
 remarked the lengthened Tones in which he 
 sohcits Female Attention. If we accurately 
 attend to the harmonious Cadences of his 
 Voice, I am persuaded we may enumerate as 
 many Syllables as in any Word in Your 
 Lordship^s History ; it may be said, indeed, 
 that the Address contains many distinct 
 Phrases of Gallantry, in a Style of Syntax 
 peculiar to animal Courtship. But this Ob- 
 jection must be overruled ; for in the Nature 
 of things it can include only one soft Idea, at 
 most one tender Sentiment of Love. 
 
 I am now convinced that your Lord- 
 ship^s Hypothesis of" long and vocal Words^' 
 is highly rational ; for an ASS may be the 
 Primogenitor .of Man as well as an APE. 
 Many fine Gentlemen justify the Supposition. 
 They speak, they act from ORIGINAL 
 INSTINCT. 
 
 Yes, I am convinced— the Braying of 
 an ASS will ever bring your Lordship's Sys- 
 tem to Remembrance, and renew my Contri- 
 tion for opposing it — may the same powerful 
 Evidence produce the same genuine Repent- 
 ance in other wicked Infidels. Adieu, my 
 dear Lordj adieu. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 279 
 
 IT Antecedently to the Analysis of the 
 Proposition before us, it will be expedient to 
 take a View of the several Modes of com- 
 bining Symbols in Discourse. 
 
 I must request the utmost Indulgence, 
 with Respect to the Diction and Arrange- 
 ment of my present Materials. Were I to 
 take proper Time to review my Remarks, 
 and to reduce them to Order, the Compositor 
 at the Printing-Office would be in Want of 
 Copy. I should have closed the Letter and 
 put an End to the Exigency long since, 
 had I not been desirous of giving you every 
 Satisfaction in my Power. 
 
 ^ A Chinese Philosopher would view 
 Johnson's Dictionary with Surprise, perhaps 
 with Contempt : for the Characters of the 
 Chinese written Language fill NINETY 
 Volumes. 
 
 We have the Testimony of Fact to con- 
 vince us, that there is no Necessity for one 
 hundred and nineteen Volumes to contain the 
 primordial Symbols and compound Signifi- 
 cations of Speech. And I could name a 
 Country where their Language might be 
 fully and elegantly explained in a single 
 
280 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 Octavo, printed with the Types used in Dr. 
 Johnson's TWO Volumes Folio. 
 
 If we take the Chinese PRINTING into 
 Consideration, in Contrast with our own, it 
 will appear that the Train of Ideas pursued in 
 the Formation of their Language, influences 
 the Method of transmitting their Knowledge 
 to Posterity. E.G. 
 
 It is deemed highly honourable to write 
 in a correct, beautiful Manner. And such 
 Authors as are incapable of writing suffi- 
 ciently neat for the public Eye, employ Peo- 
 ple to transcribe their Works. 
 
 They write only on one Side of the 
 Paper. And the Engraver placing a Leaf of 
 Copy * on hard Wood, traces the Characters 
 with the utmost Exactness. Every page of 
 the Composition requires a separate Block. 
 
 The Advantages attending this Practice 
 are obvious. The Author is in no Danger of 
 having a large Edition on Hand. He can 
 proportion the Copies -f to the Demand: 
 and if his Work become popular, he cau 
 
 * I use the Printer's Terms 
 
 t I again use the Terms of the Art. 
 
ARISTAllCHUS TO S. B. ^81 
 
 publish new Impressions without the Ex- 
 pense of recomposing. Press Errors are 
 avoided, and the Correction of Proof unne- 
 cessary. 
 
 On the other Hand, the Composition of 
 a Page of Types is much cheaper than Block 
 Work. With this additional Advantage, 
 they may be distributed when a Sheet is 
 worked off, and be employed again by the 
 Compositor. 
 
 Single Types are in Use throughout 
 Europe. I do not know of more than one 
 Exception. I mean the Art of printing 
 Logographically.^ Accuracy and Dispatch 
 may be urged w^ith great Appearance of 
 Reason in Countenance of this Novelty. 
 But some Objections may be started which 
 militates against each of the Advantages 
 proposed. The Letters are inseparable, con- 
 sequently Words frequently extend beyond 
 the Limits of the Page. Such Words must 
 be returned into the Case, and single Types 
 substituted in their Room. Here is a Door 
 opened for Press Errors, and a Waste of 
 Time unknown in the common Method. I 
 
 * By Words. 
 
282 ARISTAllCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 was therefore soon convinced that the Plea 
 oi Accuracy and Dispatch ought to be admit- 
 ted with Caution, and I had the Curiosity to 
 ask a Printer how far my Opinion coincided 
 Avith actual Experience, He assured me that 
 the Loss of Time was very considerable.* I 
 think he specified three Hours in tzmlve. 
 
 I make no Comparison between casting, 
 clearing, and justifying^ WORDS and sin- 
 gle Types, nor do I dwell on the Necessity of 
 melting a whole Word for one injured Letter 
 — they are matters irrelative to my supreme 
 Design — but I insist on the Impracticability 
 of Logographical Printing from the immense 
 Capital necessary to be employed in the 
 Undertaking. I mean on a Plan sufficiently 
 extensive to entitle it to Notice. 
 
 Suppose the Cyclopedia employed a 
 Fount of five hundred Weight, Common 
 Types. Allow the same Weight of Metal 
 to complete an equal Number of Forms, 
 logographically — after the first Distribution, 
 the Weight of the logographical Metal must 
 
 * If this be not Fact, Mr. Walter can easily correct the 
 Error. 
 
 t Terms used in the Foundery. 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 283 
 
 begin to increase, and ultimately exceed 
 Computation. 
 
 If you wish to have a comparative View 
 of the three Methods, you may suppose, that 
 the Compositor has new types for every 
 Sheet, and that the old Forms are not dis^ 
 tributed but kept in Reserve for future Im- 
 pressions. 
 
 Now it is incontestable that no Fortune 
 in Europe is sufficient for carrying on an 
 extensive Business on the Plan last men- 
 tioned. And it is equally obvious, that the 
 Scheme of Printing logographically must 
 be ultimately ruinous, in Proportion as it 
 approximates the Method of keeping Types 
 in Reserve. 
 
 It is far from my intention to injure Mr. 
 Walter. I believe him to be a meritorious, 
 enterprising Citizen, and I sincerely wish him 
 Success. My Design in introducing his Art 
 is to illustrate a Subject involved in much 
 Obscurity. 
 
 The Chinese, as I have remarked already, 
 are supposed to have only three hundred and 
 thirty Words in Use for the Purposes of Con- 
 
284 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 versation. But in Fact they have upwards of 
 THREE THOUSAND. Every Variation 
 of the Tone is a Word, for it excites a new 
 Idea. According to the Elevation, Depres- 
 sion, and Extension of the Voice, the Word 
 PO conveys ELEVEN distinct, unconnected 
 Ideas. If Europeans had Characters to dis- 
 criminate those dehcate Distinctions, it would 
 be found that each Idea is clothed in a difFei- 
 rent Dress. 
 
 B D are principally heard in the follow- 
 ing Words, bad, Bed, bid, bide, bode. Bud 
 — and an ignorant Foreigner might conclude 
 that we use the same Word for SIX distinct 
 Ideas. 
 
 What exquisite Distinctions of Sound 
 are familiar to Musicians ! A cultivated Ear is 
 equally susceptible of Distinctions between 
 Vowels. 
 
 E is in Rank next to A. Proximus huic, 
 longo sed proximus Intervallo,^ But many 
 delicate Discriminations are admissible, either 
 to distinguish Words, or to express the Lan- 
 guage of the Passions. As an Instance of 
 
 * Vh-gil. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 285 
 
 impassioned Diction, take Notice of the 
 varied Tones of NO. Love, Aversion, Autho- 
 rity, Submission, Anger, Lidignation, Benevo- 
 lence, Joy, Remorse, are aM forcibly expressed 
 by the attendant Tone of a single Syllable. 
 Long Words are not to be found in the Vo- 
 cabulary of Nature. 
 
 The Chinese cultivate the Voice more 
 than any other People in the World. But let 
 us grant them only one Variation to every 
 European Vowel, and it follows they have 
 upwards of three thousand distinct Words for 
 the Purposes of Vocal Intercourse ; their 
 Monosyllables being multiplied by ten. 
 B — D, which we vary five Times, they diver- 
 sify ten. 
 
 I use the popular Terms VOWELS and 
 CONSONANTS, merely as verbal Fictions. 
 An Emission of Sound with the Organs of 
 Speech in a certain Situation is termed a 
 Vowel — I — for Instance. If the Current of 
 Sound be intercepted by closing the Lips, it 
 is denominated a Consonant — M — . And if 
 I consult Dr. Johnson, he informs me, b.Coji — 
 sonant is a Letter which cannot be sounded by 
 itself. It requires a Sound to express it. Per- 
 mit me to ask — What Letter is without 
 
286 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 Sound ? Does the Closing of the Lips supply 
 the Sound which is to render the other Sound 
 audible ? But in the Closing of the Lips there 
 is no Sound. The Names are indeed absurd ; 
 but they serve a Purpose as well as those au- 
 gust Personages of the Law, John Doe and 
 Richard Hoe, 
 
 It is an Opinion countenanced by the 
 Learned, that the Chinese have no ALPHA- 
 BET. If it be affirmed that they have not 
 our A, B, C, it is true. But if by ALPHA- 
 BET be understood the primordial Charac- 
 ters of a Language, the Assertion is erroneous. 
 They have radical Characters adapted to 
 those vocal Distinctions for which they are 
 so justly celebrated. 
 
 To comprehend this curious and interest- 
 ing Subject, I must request you to meditate 
 on the subsequent Positions. 
 
 1st. There are two Methods of composing 
 for the Press. One with single Types ; the 
 other with Types in Combination,^ 
 
 2d. The Western World pursued the 
 
 * Whole Words cast together. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 287 
 
 former Method in the Composition of SYM- 
 BOLS, the Chinese adopted the latter. 
 
 3d. Admitting (as of no Consequence) 
 that the Methods are equal as to DISPATCH, 
 it is evident the Accumulation of UNEM- 
 PLOYED Materials must be ultimately 
 ruinous, on the Plan of logographical Compo- 
 sition. E. G. 
 
 If the Founder join — H — to — A— that 
 — H — becomes instantly useless, with respect 
 to the other Vowels. The two Letters may 
 be used, indeed, in composing have^ had, hav- 
 ings &c. But if the Founder cast — H — and — 
 A — in Conjunction with — D — it immediately 
 lessens the Utility of— H — and— A, by re- 
 stricting their Application to ONE Word 
 only. If from Monosyllables he proceed to 
 Dissyllables, the Evil will be increased in a 
 compound Ratio, and when he arrives at 
 Words of Length, especially Words of infre- 
 quent Use, his Stock of Materials will exceed 
 Calculation. 
 
 4th. Thus the Chinese, seduced by first 
 Appearances, adopted a mode of symbolical 
 Composition, which absolutely defeats the 
 best Purposes of the Contrivance; for, by a 
 
288 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 gradual Accumulation, they have so prodi- 
 gious a Stock of compound Characters, that 
 thousands and tens of thousands are nei- 
 ther read nor comprehended by the most 
 celebrated Literati of the Empire. To be 
 famihar with a third Part of the Charac- 
 ters in their celebrated HAY-PYEN is suffi- 
 cient to obtain the first Rank of Nobility, 
 and the greatest Emoluments of the State. 
 
 5th. It is not because the Characters are 
 unintelligible; for they are all formed on 
 steady Principles of abbreviated Composition. 
 It is the Difficulty of retaining the Force of 
 the Combination that defeats every Attempt 
 to become familiar with the Whole. If a 
 new, complex Character occur, they are 
 obliged to ascend to the Meaning by the 
 Rules laid down for that Purpose in a Radi- 
 cal Dictionary, consisting of eight or ten 
 thousand Illustrations. 
 
 6th. I have seen it remarked, that the 
 Chinese Characters are so numerous, because 
 they have a distinctCharacter for every Word. 
 Extraordinary Reason ! If we had aCharacter 
 for each Word in Dr. Johnson's Dictionary, 
 we should have precisely as many Charac- 
 ters as we have Words ! As to the common 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 289 
 
 Terminations of inflected Words, they are 
 few. 
 
 7th. Were radical Characters composed as 
 Letters are composed, there would not be any 
 Difficulty in reading them. Suppose a Prin- 
 ter, for the Sake of Dispatch, were to com- 
 pose PhraseographicaUy^ that is, by Phrases 
 and Sentences, if he have Money enough to 
 pay his Founder he may soon fill half a Dozen 
 Houses with compound Types, but his Press 
 Work will be as legible as any on the accus- 
 tomed Plan. 
 
 8th. To what Cause then must we at- 
 tribute the Difficulty of reading the com- 
 plex Characters in the Chinese Haypyen? 
 To an Error in the first Principles of Compo- 
 sition. 
 
 9th. In the popular Language of the 
 Western World, DEE, or a Word of kindred 
 Sound, signified PERFECT, COMPLETE. 
 The Inventors of the Art of Writing employed 
 a Semicircle inclosed, as the Symbol of this 
 Idea, and named it DEE. 
 
 You may form a Conception of original 
 
290 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 Speech from Modern Diction, v. g. I HAVE, 
 I have GOT, I have got TO go, I have got 
 to go TO Town.* 
 
 The word before GO is a Common 
 Prefix. It may be joined with every Noun, 
 and every Verb in the Language, HAVE 
 and GOT are also Common Prefixes to 
 indicate Possession, and may likewise be 
 joined with any Noun or Verb in the Lan- 
 guage. 
 
 In Uke Manner— D — was anciently post- 
 fixed as a distinct Word to Verbs. Love — 
 Loved; Kill — Killed, &c. 
 
 In the Infancy of this divine Art, D was 
 subjoined to indicate the Completion of 
 Existence itself.t E. G. 
 
 Sei Vir aut Molier alter alterei Nontiom 
 miseit Devortium ESTOD; Molier Res souas 
 
 * I'VE, for I HAVE, is a Parallel of Roman and Gre- 
 cian Abbreviation ; and of the Manner in which ED coa- 
 lesces with the " present Tense, in English." 
 
 t The Reason will be given, when you are prepared for 
 its Reception. 
 
ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B. 291 
 
 sibei kabetod, Vir Molierei Claves adimitod 
 exicitoque.* 
 
 B — was a Common Prefix to Verbs in 
 all the Languages in Europe. 
 
 It has been gradually rejected as un- 
 necessary, in many Instances. 
 
 Now the Chinese also invented radical 
 Characters to represent the Sounds prefixed 
 and subjoined to Words in popular Use. 
 These radical Characters were distinguished 
 by the Sounds publicly appropriated to 
 CAUSE and EFFECT. AGENT and 
 RECIPIENT. COMMENCEMENT and 
 COMPLETION. MOTION and POSSES- 
 SION, &c. They constitute the Chinese 
 Alphabet in the same Manner, as Completion 
 (D) Cause (C) Motion (R), &c. constitute the 
 Alphabets of Europe. 
 
 10th. The inferior Orders in China use an 
 easy and natural Mode of Composition. E. G. 
 Suppose — R — the Character for Iron — they 
 add another Character, suppose T, and it 
 
 * 12 Tables. 
 T 2 
 
292 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 means Tongs. RP — Foker. RS — Stove, 
 we— Fender, &,c. 
 
 Thus Europeans place a Noun before — 
 ED, and it denotes the Completion of the 
 Attribute. 
 
 11th. But there was too much COMMON 
 SENSE in this Practice to be adopted by 
 the Chinese Literati. Mystery procures 
 Reverence. 
 
 By Design, therefore, and not by Acci- 
 dent, the Learned resolved to vary the Cha- 
 racters on stated Principles of compound 
 Abbreviation. E. G. Suppose — A — one of 
 their Characters. With B — it assumes one 
 Form, with C — another Form. With BC 
 — a Form different from the preceding. 
 With BED — a Form totally distinct from 
 all others.* 
 
 Now if we consider the unexampled 
 Duration of their Empire, it is surprising 
 that NINETY THOUSAND Volumes are 
 not required to contain their Characters ; for 
 
 * N. B. Each Character in the Combiuation also varies on 
 every new Accession. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 293 
 
 as every Learned Man is at Liberty to intro- 
 duce as many new Ideas and new Modes of 
 Diction as he pleases into his Writings, there 
 must be a continual Accession of Characters 
 in the Hay-pyen. 
 
 But in England, Books are multiphed 
 beyond all Example, yet the Vocabulary re- 
 mains immutable. A new Word indeed is 
 occasionally admitted, if it be deemed ele- 
 gant and expressive. 
 
 After the preceding Remarks, you will 
 not be surprised that the Words under Con- 
 sideration are employed on very different 
 Occasions. B and R, are the radical Sym- 
 bols of all of them. 
 
 There was Nothing in which Men could 
 be more early and deeply interested than 
 TREES. Hence it is rational to infer, that 
 a considerable Part of our Words are derived 
 from this Source. The Sounds appropriated 
 to BUDS, BLOSSOMS, and FRUIT are, 
 indeed, widely diflfused through all ancient 
 and modern Tongues. I will confine my 
 
294 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 Attention to such as relate to the Prepositions 
 before us.* 
 
 Latin VeR. B— e— R. The Spring. 
 
 FeRO. B — e— Ro. I bear, produce, 
 as a Woman in CHILD-BEARING. 
 
 Greek, ^e^u. B— e — Ro. I bear, I bring 
 forth. 
 
 IT In a Wilderness of Ideas, where no 
 human Footstep directs my Researches, and 
 accidentally prevented from giving a well 
 digested View of first Principles, I must 
 repeat my Hopes of particular Candour and 
 Indulgence. Unprepared for the Emergency, 
 I post a Cohort here, and a Legion there, 
 and then go in Quest of my other Troops to 
 form a System of Evidence sufficient to en- 
 force Conviction. In other Words, obliged 
 to compress into a few Sheets what ought to 
 occupy a Volume, I am constrained to pre- 
 sent you with a Series of Arguments, without 
 those intermediate Illustrations which are 
 
 * I put the Originals in their real Characters, and then add 
 the PRIMITIVE Characters. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 295 
 
 necessary to shew their Connexion. I 
 acknowledge that I combat Error under 
 manifold Disadvantages by this desultory 
 Mode of Attack ; but I repose my Confi- 
 dence in the ultimate Efficiency of the Whole. 
 Though scarcely perceptible in Detail, the 
 AGGREGATE of the Evidence will com- 
 mand, I trust, your full Assent. I request 
 your present Attention to a few negative 
 Propositions, antecedently to a Demonstra- 
 tion that BER and its Variations are real 
 NOUNS. It is absolutely necessary that 
 the Propositions either precede or follow. 
 If they precede, they will facilitate the De- 
 monstration; if they follow, they will corro- 
 borate it. 
 
 IN LANGUAGE THERE IS NO DISTINCTION 
 
 OF 
 
 GENDERS. 
 
 No Symbols were invented for the Dis- 
 crimination of Sex. To a common Appella- 
 
296 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 tive— MALE for Instance, or MAN — they 
 added an Attribute of Distinction. E. G. 
 MALE; FE— male. MAN; WO— Man.* 
 SEX; the FAIR Sex. 
 
 The Doctrine of verbal Sex offers Vio- 
 lence to Common Sense. 
 
 Give me leave to ask — where does the 
 Gender of DominUS reside? 
 
 S. B. In the US, undoubtedly. 
 Ar. Of Corpus? 
 
 ' in the same Manner, I might question 
 you concerning the local Residence of the 
 Sex of MusA and RegnA— of MuliER and 
 MagistER — of bonAf and bonA.„]: But your 
 Silence gives me no Encouragement to pro- 
 ceed. They are sublime Mysteries, I grant; 
 nor do I conceive it to be a Reproach, that 
 you cannot discfover the Difference of Sex 
 
 * Anciently, WIFE Man. 
 t Feminine Singular. J Neuter Plural. 
 
t 
 
 ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B. 297 
 
 between a Pipkin* and a Porridge Pot,| 
 since so many illustrious Scholars are unable 
 to ascertain the Sex of an OwLJ 
 
 With a benevolent View to appease the 
 domestic Commotions of the fifteenth Cen- 
 tury, and to determine who ought to submit 
 in Petticoats, and who to rule in Breeches, a 
 Jury of Matrons were directed to examine 
 the several Competitors, that their Claims 
 might be adjusted accordingly. I have 
 transcribed the Report from the original Re- 
 cord, which is as follows: 
 
 *' We find, my Lord Judge, that 
 
 Some are MALES.§ 
 
 Others are FEMALES. 
 
 Some have • TWO SEXES. 
 
 Others have THREE SEXES. 
 
 And some have .NO SEX. 
 
 Others are EPICENE. 
 
 And Some, my Lord, are .... . DOUBTFUL." 
 
 (SIGNED) Julia Scaliger, 
 
 For herself, and the Rest of the Jury. 
 
 In the Postea of the Verdict it is certi- 
 
 * OUula. t Coculum. % Bubo. 
 
 § In the Origmal the Parties are all named. 
 
298 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 fied, that the old Ladies, in Obedience to the 
 Charge delivered from the Bench, had ex- 
 amined HOMO, PUER, and ADOLES- 
 CENS, with particular Care, and found them 
 to be ^************ of " both Genders ;' so that 
 it is no Wonder the World was so rapidly 
 peopled. 
 
 ^ Absurdity is so strongly impressed 
 on the Face of the Idea, that I am asto- 
 nished that any Man, in the exercise of 
 Reason, should seriously contend that com^ 
 mon Appellatives have a sexual Discrimi- 
 nation, when Homo, Puer, and Adolescens 
 are without it. 
 
 S. B. But if Termination correspond 
 with Termination — BonA for Instance with 
 MusA — the Effect will be the same. 
 
 Ar. I admit it. And so reluctantly do 
 I oppose the Wisdom of Ages, that I would 
 acquiesce in the Absurdity of the Name 
 did the Effect exist. But in Truth, Sir, the 
 Concurrence of dissimilar Terminations is 
 more frequent than of correspondent Termina- 
 tions. Admitting, therefore, the Vahdity of 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 299 
 
 the Maxim Exceptio probat Regulam, it is 
 certainly ridiculous to establish a general 
 Rule when the Exceptions are prepollent. I 
 do not deny that the Female Termination — 
 A — of the " first Declension/' is in Concord 
 with the Female Terrjiination — A — of " Ad- 
 " jectives ;"" but I insist, at the same Time, 
 that Nouns of the Female Sex of the "third, 
 '' fourth, and fifth Declensions,'' ending in — 
 S — are in the Proportion of Fifty to One of 
 the '' first Declension/' Consequently, to 
 one Instance of the general Rule, there are 
 no fewer than FORTY-NINE Exceptions! 
 To say Nothing of the Diversity of Termina- 
 tions in the Adjectives themselves, such as 
 MusA optimA, the Muse of Homer — MusA 
 faeliX, the Muse of Virgil^ and MusA tristiS, 
 the Muse of Grammarians, 
 
 Words of Kindred Ideas are gradually 
 appropriated to distinct Purposes as Lan- 
 guages are cultivated and refined. And it is 
 by a Conformity to those Appropriations that 
 we speak the Languages of particular Coun- 
 tries. 
 
 If a Language have a " Verb" used in 
 Construction with an Individual Noun ; and 
 
300 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 another "Verb'' appropriated to a Plurality 
 of Individuals, it is both natural and elegant 
 to join such Nouns and " Verbs" in Con- 
 struction. But if a Language be defective 
 in Variety, it is equally elegant, as far as it 
 respects that Language, to employ the same 
 *' Verb'' in Construction with One and with 
 Many. E. G. 
 
 S — is a Symbol of Existence. R — of 
 Motion. But as that which moves must of 
 Necessity exist, R was employed as a Sym- 
 bol of Existence by all the Nations in 
 Europe. 
 
 But as modern — —I use modern in Con- 
 tradistinction to Symbolical — as modern Lan- 
 guages became Objects of Taste, the Learned 
 applied the Exuberance of popular Diction 
 to the Purposes of Elegance and Discrimi- 
 nation. Thus in England it is vulgar and 
 degrading to say I IS— he AM— they WAS— 
 I ARE, &c. 
 
 In Defence of this Construction, I might 
 appeal to foreign Languages, and urge that 
 in Islandic (^iSi is equivalent to AM. That 
 in ancient Scottish — IS — is the first Person 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 301 
 
 singular— in Hebrew, it is the third Person 
 plural,'^ &c, &c. 
 
 Again. To ask— ^THOMis at the Door? 
 and to answer — ME, are exceedingly impro- 
 per ; and it would be an Insult to my Coun- 
 try were I to vindicate the Phrases by con- 
 tending that the Portuguese say — QUEM 
 he? WHOM is it? And that— ME— in Ar- 
 moric, is the " Nominative Case/' 
 
 ME am, and WHOM is, are Phrases 
 unknown to an Englishman, though I readily 
 acknowledge, as far as Nature is concerned, 
 they are as correct as any Phrases, in any 
 Language, in the World. 
 
 It is very proper to say — which Man — 
 which Horse — But polite Authors begin to ap- 
 propriate WHOM — in the " oblique Cases'" 
 to the rational Creation, and WHICH 
 to the irrational Creation. I approve the 
 Distinction, and recommend the Observance 
 of it to the Student. But if any future 
 ***** should compose a metaphysical Gram- 
 mar, and inform the World that — WHOM — 
 
 '^ W> Is may be construed with a Noun singular, or 
 plural. 
 
302 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 is rational^ and — WHICH irrational, I hope 
 he will be chastised for his Insult to COM- 
 MON SENSE. 
 
 LANGUAGES ARE WITHOUT 
 
 CASES. 
 
 Will you favour me with a consistent 
 Theory of the Phenomena of CASES. 
 
 S. B. I am not prepared to give a satis- 
 factory Solution of the DifBculties which 
 obviously embarrass the Subject. 
 
 A. Then you will not answer my Purpose 
 — and yet, perhaps, to have a better Man, I 
 must raise one from the Dead. 
 
 Jule Ju, Jul. Numero Deus impare gaudet. 
 
 Ducite ah Oreo Terram, mea Carmina, ducite Julum, 
 
 Carmina vel Oreo possunt deducere Virum; 
 
 SCALIGER. En tibi adsum. Quid 
 vis, Domine. 
 
 A. As I have restored you to the En- 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 303 
 
 joyment of that Light which you quitted 
 with so much Reluctance, have the Gratitude 
 to instruct me in the Mysteries of metaphysi- 
 cal Grammar. I am on Terms of particular 
 Intimacy with the Devil, as you may per- 
 ceive by the Skill which I have shewn in 
 raising you from the Dead. He has initiated 
 me in Necromancy, and Astrology, and Ma- 
 gic, but as to METAPHYSICAL GRAM- 
 MAR it is above his Reach — he has studied 
 it for three Thousand Years without being 
 one Jot the wiser. He conjectures that 
 Something dimne is at the Bottom. 
 
 S. Fas est etiam ad Hoste doceri. Truth 
 from an unwilling Witness comes with pecu- 
 liar Force — they are Mysteries and empha- 
 tically divine. On what Part of Speech do 
 you desire Information? 
 
 A. The CASES. I desire to know, by 
 what Arts of Enchantment you make an Old 
 Woman gallop up and down FIVE Pair of 
 Stairs in iess Time than a WITCH on a 
 Broom Stick can mount to the Top of the 
 Chimney. 
 
 S. Bona Verba — Speak in Terms of greater 
 Reverence — the Subject is sacred. I suppose 
 
304 ARrSTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 you have been taught this pretty Language 
 by your infernal Master. 
 
 A. Indeed he always speaks of Gram- 
 marians with the utmost Respect. And No- 
 thing can be farther from my Intention than 
 to treat the Science with Obloquy and Re- 
 proach. I am a Grammarian myself — though 
 it would better become me to say in your 
 Presence, a Grammatista. Proceed, my dear 
 Scaliger, I am all attention. — arrectis Auribus 
 ausculto, 
 
 S. I had the Honour of teaching Philo- 
 sophers, y(2t;e/i^e Minerva, that in Rerum Na^ 
 tura all things are divided into permanentes^ 
 and fluentes — into Things which move, and 
 into Things which stand still. 
 
 A. Sublime Discovery indeed ! Thus a 
 Rock is at Rest, and the Water which, laves 
 its Summit is in Motion — the One stands stilly 
 and the Other moves » 
 
 S. A very proper Illustration, Sir, and 
 a happy Omen of your future Greatness. 
 
 The Felicity of this Discovery consisted 
 in the Analogy between the Res fluentes, in 
 
ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B. 305 
 
 Rerum Natura, and the Verbs of human Dis- 
 coi^rse. 
 
 A. The Res permanentes^ what are they ? 
 
 S. They are Nouns. 
 
 A. Did you reduce the Pronouns under 
 any Order of Existence? A modern Gram- 
 marian conceives that they were imparted 
 by Inspiration, to teach Mankind the Doc- 
 trine of the Trinity. J, Thou, and He — Fa- 
 ther , Son, and Spirit. What is your Opi- 
 nion ? 
 
 S. By Inspiration, no Doubt, or it had 
 not escaped my Researches. 
 
 A. What Part of Speech was Aqua in 
 your Time ? 
 
 S. Astonishing ! 1 am on the Point of 
 retracting my Presage of your future Glory. 
 Can you be ignorant, Sir, that Aqua is one of 
 the Res permanentes ? 
 
 A. The Doubt originated in Deference 
 to your own Judgment. My Simile was ho- 
 noured with Approbation, and I concluded, 
 
306 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 if WATER MOVE, it can not be a Noun. 
 Do you mean to ascribe the Attributes of 
 
 Deity to your Nouns Qui Tempus ab 
 
 ^vo Ire jubes, stabilisque manens das cuncta 
 moveri. Does the Water move the Ship, yet 
 revnajnitself immoveable? What does — MOVE 
 — indicate ? 
 
 S. MOTION, to be sure. 
 
 What part of Speech is MOTION ? 
 S. " ^ Verbal Noun Substantive/' 
 
 A. Il3]( Rest, and Half Motion? 
 
 S. No, Mr. Sophist — It means — it 
 means — 
 
 A. I shall rejoice when you tell me what 
 it means — for it is a Point on which the Devil 
 Himself is greatly perplexed. 
 
 S. Youare blessed with avery happy As- 
 surance — I have the Curiosity to inquire yoi/r 
 Sentiments on the Subject. 
 
 . A. The Truth is, my dear ScaUger, the 
 popular Notions concerning the Syntax of 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 307 
 
 Languages are visionary. Words are Com- 
 binations of Symbols. They have no more 
 Influence on each other than Figures ; and I 
 desire you will answer me ingenuously, was 
 it from Art or Accident that you assigned 
 CASES to Nouns instead of Verbs? Did 
 
 you- 
 
 S. Ne quid nimis, Domine — In Medio 
 tuiissimus ibis — Cases to Verbs? I cannot con- 
 descend to answer you. Do you take me to 
 be a Fool? 
 
 A. Look at me, dear Jul'e, and observe 
 the Sangfroid of Common Sense. Your me- 
 taphysical Nerves vibrate at the Touch of a 
 Feather. Is it not perfectly reasonable that 
 the Res fluent es should run up and down 
 Stairs ? Nouns, you know, are IMMOVE- 
 ABLE. 
 
 The Devil has Reason to treat you with 
 Reverence, you are far his Superior. To 
 carry off a Church Steeple in a Storm is the 
 Utmost that his Highness can accomplish. 
 But you have the happy Skill of making the 
 Church itself — with Men, Women, and Chil- 
 dren ; Kings, Bishops, and Blackguards; 
 Horses, Asses, and Arm Chairs dance up and 
 
 u 2 
 
308 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 down Stairs at Pleasure. And will you con- 
 ceal this divine ART from one who loves 
 you ? 
 
 S. Unless you treat the Subject with 
 greater Dignity and Decorum, I must 
 withdraw. 
 
 I cannot suppose you are serious in your 
 Opposition to CASES. 
 
 A. I deny their Rvistence. 
 
 S. You are insane. Naviga ad Ami- 
 cyram, 
 
 A. I am just returned. 
 
 S. And you seriously depose that the 
 Grecians and Romans had no Cases ? 
 
 A. Stair Cases^ do you mean? 
 
 S. Pergisnef You know what I mean, 
 " the several Changes which Nouns undergo in 
 " the Greek and Roman Tongues/' 
 
 A. If I demonstrate the Fallacy of the 
 Principle, will you admit the absurdity of the 
 Conclusion ? 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 309 
 
 S. Undoubtedly^ sublata Causa toUi- 
 
 tur Effectus. 
 
 A. Then I challenge you to produce 
 ONE Instance of the Variation of a Noun in 
 Latin, or Greek. 
 
 S. RegnUM, Regnl. 
 
 A. REG is the Noun ; and INVARI- 
 ABLE. In an Essay which I am preparing 
 for the Press, 1 will shew you a Series of Al- 
 phabetical Symbols by which REGN may 
 be analyzed to the Conviction of Pyrrho 
 himself. Meantime, dear Scaliger, as you 
 are fond of Arguments ^ priori let us inquire 
 how far your System of verbal* Variation is 
 consonant with the Practice of Nature, and 
 the Dictates of Common Sense. 
 
 The Insufficiency of the Plea founded 
 on NATURE is evident, v. g. The Deify 
 created the Air ; the Air agitates the Sea; the 
 Sea moves the Ship. 
 
 The Ship is moved by the Sea ; the Sea is 
 agitated by the Air; the Air was created by the 
 Deity, 
 
 * I include *' all the Parts of Speech." 
 
310 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 Does the Deity sustain any Change by 
 this Converse of " CASES'' from the " No- 
 " minative'* to the " Ablative?'' Is the Na- 
 ture of the Sea affected by " Going down" 
 two Pair of Stairs, from the " Accusative" to 
 the " Ablative?" or by '' Gomgt^p" five Pair 
 from the " Ablative" to the " Nominative?" 
 Does the Ship But I am afraid of in- 
 curring your Displeasure by this Mode of 
 illustrating my Ideas. 
 
 S. Neque temere. And not without Rea- 
 son. I never witnessed so much supercilious 
 Derision in so small a Space of Time in all 
 my Life. But I defy the threatening Aspect 
 of your Preparations. I prcBy sequar. Proceed, 
 Sir, to the '^ Dictates of Common Sense." 
 
 A. On that Ground, I present to your 
 Choice a FACT and a FALSEHOOD. Ad- 
 mit the Fact, and you subvert your System : 
 adopt the Falsehood, and you expose it to 
 Contempt, v. g. 
 
 The Sea MOVES the Ship; MOVES, you 
 have informed me, INDICATES Motion. Is 
 a Ship the Inde^: of a Ship? Does the Sea re- 
 present itself? 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 311 
 
 S. No. The Language is solecistical 
 and ridiculous. 
 
 A. But if it do not indicate the Motion 
 of Itself, which I grant is an Absurdity in 
 Terms, it must indicate the Motion of SEA 
 and SHIP — your 'Res permanentes. 
 
 By no Art, no Sophistry can you evade 
 the Conclusion. Your System disappears 
 like the baseless Fabric of a Vision. For you 
 will not be guilty of the Impiety of ascribing 
 to Water the divine Attribute of communi- 
 cating Motion, itself immoveable. And were 
 you so besotted, the Fact is against you; for, 
 on the unerring Testimony of universal Sense, 
 a Current of Water is in MOTION, 
 
 S. My System I perceive is vulnerable. 
 But I make no Pretensions to Infallibility. 
 Valeat quantum valere debet. 
 
 A. Candid and noble ! I am encouraged 
 by this Concession to afBrm that — MOVES 
 —is a Noun as much as MOTION, or HAP- 
 PINESS, or any other Word in the English 
 Language. 
 
 If it indicate Motion, it must equally re- 
 
312 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 fer to SEA and SHIP; which destroys the 
 Hypothesis of Agent and Recipient, v. g. The 
 Sea MOVES. What Ideas are presented to 
 your Mind by that Proposition? 
 
 S. That the Sea is in Motion. 
 
 A. The Sea MOVES the Ship? 
 
 S. That the Sea communicates Motion to 
 the Ship. 
 
 A. The Sea which is at Rest {Res per- 
 manens) is in MOTION; it MOVES IT- 
 SELF, and then transfers that Motion to the 
 SHIP. So that both Nouns are in a very 
 curious Predicament — running about and 
 standing still at the same Moment. This he- 
 terogeneous Association of Ideas is not adapt- 
 ed to my Common Sense Capacity : it is 
 either too minute to be perceptible, or too 
 bulky to gain Admittance. It is Mysticism 
 and Nonsense. 
 
 Give mt Leave to elucidate my Re- 
 marks. As it cannot be determined from the 
 Collocation of the Figures 45, whether we 
 intend the 4 to be multiplied or added, arbi- 
 trary Signs have been invented to indicate 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 313 
 
 the Process required. E. G. 4+5. 4x5. If in- 
 stead of X and + you write Addition and 
 Multiplication^ it will give you a Specimen of 
 Symbolical Composition. 
 
 Every Word in a Proposition is a distinct 
 NOUN. The Composition of Symbols, and 
 the Construction of Words depend on na- 
 tional Compact. A common Termination 
 in one Language is frequently a common 
 Prefix in another. That Mode of Arrange- 
 ment which constitutes the AGENT in one 
 Country, will cause the Noun to be the RE- 
 CIPIENT in other Countries ; and upon 
 all Occasions, the CONNEXION of GO- 
 VERNMENT must be supplied by the 
 MIND. V. g. 
 
 Sea, MOTION, Ship. Ship, MOTION, 
 Sea. 
 
 S. Excuse the Interruption your 
 
 Theory has a specious Appearance when 
 corroborated by Instances from a BARBA- 
 ROUS Tongue. But, do, good Sir, let us see 
 what Figure it will make in AppHcation to 
 the LEARNED Languages— Mare MO VET 
 Navem. NavEM MOVET Mare ! ! ! 
 
 A. In common Discretion, you ought 
 
314 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 to defer the Triumph till you have won the 
 Victory. I cheerfully join Issue with you on 
 this Point, nor am I under the least Solicitude 
 as to the Event. IS and EM are Words 
 equivalent to THE.* The Sea moves the 
 Ship. The Ship moves the Sea. Now if you 
 can demonstrate that Ship is diversified by 
 its Situation as RECIPIENT of the Motion, 
 I will admit a Difference between NAV — is, 
 and NAV — em. 
 
 Antecedently to the Proof of the IMMU- 
 TABILITY of Roman Words, permit me to 
 analyze the Common Terminations oi English 
 Words. When the Truth of an Event is very 
 remote from our present Conceptions, in- 
 dulgent Friends disclose the Fact by a pro- 
 gressive Detail of less affecting Particulars. 
 Whether it be a Subject of Joy or Grief, 
 Caution is absolutely necessary, lest the 
 Mind be hurried by a fatal Rapidity over the 
 intermediate Space of the Extremes. 
 
 And thus, by a gentle Progression, we 
 must emerge from the Darkness of Error to 
 the Light of Truth. Every Position of the 
 Series ought to be in the Neighbourhood of 
 
 * I request you to give me present Credit for the Proof of 
 this Proposition. 
 
mBmammmmm. 
 
 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 315 
 
 our present Ideas, and the Connexion tan- 
 gible by Common Sense. If the Extremities 
 be too distant, the Mind may be deterred by 
 Difficulties, or depressed with Doubts. 
 
 S. True. Festina lente is good Advice. 
 
 A. Were I to proceed synthetically in 
 the Essay, which I am preparing for the 
 Press, do you think, dear Scaliger, that there 
 are ten Men in Europe who would read it? 
 Were I to announce to the Public my Design 
 to demonstrate that every Primitive Letter in 
 the Alphabet is SIGNIFICANT, I question 
 whether One of a Hundred would purchase 
 the remaining Numbers. I, therefore, begin 
 where I ought to conclude. Popular TERMS 
 are adopted, and, on some Occasions, popu- 
 lar Prejudices countenanced. But as I am 
 confident no Friend to Science will renounce 
 his Convictions, I purpose to assume a more 
 decisive Language, and as I have already 
 called upon two celebrated Philologists* to 
 produce a Word that originally consisted of 
 more than one SYLLABLE, I now add — 
 one SYMBOL was anciently as significant as 
 a Word is at present. 
 
 * Lord Monboddo, and Mr. Home Tookc. 
 
316 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 _When the Egyptians made Choice of the 
 human Eye as a Symbol of Vision, do you 
 imagine they added another Symbol to indi- 
 cate its Meaning? 
 
 S. Certainly not. 
 
 A. And when the Circle and its Seg- 
 ments were employed, as a more commodious 
 and more elegant Mode of ideal Intercourse, 
 do ""you imagine that the Apposition of such 
 Characters was necessary to create Significa- 
 tion ? Do you place a Figure, 7 for Instance, 
 in Juxta Position with 6, or 8, or 9? to give 
 Meaning or Value to 6, 8, or 9? 
 
 I admit that Characters, in the Course 
 of Ages, were diversified for Distinction of 
 Sounds, and that in most Words there are 
 Letters which answer no other Purpose, but 
 they are easily discovered ; and while I pre- 
 pare a few Common Terminations, I desire 
 you will inspect this Table of Symbols. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. ^17 
 
 COMMON TERMINATIONS. 
 
 Sti— CK. 
 See— K. 
 
 Our Saxon Ancestors terminated those 
 Words with C. 
 
 C— may be translated ACT — impera- 
 tively speaking — or ACTION, v. g. 
 
 SEE— C. The Action of Sight, or— 
 imperatively — Act Sight. See. 
 
 Many modern Authors use only SEE, 
 See for it" instead oi Seek for it. 
 
 a 
 
 Give me Leave to remark that — EE — 
 or, in the venerable Gothic Form,—! — con- 
 stitutes the ESSENTIAL Symbol of the 
 Word ; for — S — is a common Prefix or Pre- 
 position, and — C — a Common Suffix or Ter- 
 mination. 
 
 Both may be rejected when you desire 
 to express a steady Observance. Clambering 
 the Walls to EYE him. Shakspear^, 
 
318 ARISTARCnUS TO S. B. 
 
 It is thus that a single Symbol in Appo- 
 sition with proper Symbols of IDENTITY, 
 MOTION, EXISTENCE,COMPLETION, 
 FINAL and EFFICIENT CAUSES, &c. 
 according to the Exigency, constitutes a 
 " WORD." 
 
 All Letters were anciently CAPITALS, 
 without any Stops between the Words. Punc- 
 tuation became necessary, as Men became ig- 
 norant of the Characters in Use. The Chinese 
 Literati read with the utmost Ease without 
 Stops. And as I have mentioned the Chinese, 
 suffer me to add — excepting — R— which they 
 cannot pronounce, they have the same Prefixes 
 to their Monosyllables, the same Common 
 Terminations, as the Languages in the 
 Western World. In other Words, the same 
 Combination of primitive Symbols which 
 expresses European Sounds of EXIST- 
 ENCE, COMPLETION, &c. will exhibit 
 the Chinese. This is the Fact, Scahger, let 
 Deists make the Application. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 319 
 
 Differ— ENCE. 
 
 CD* is compounded of two Circles. Its 
 radical Signification is UNION. From 
 Union we infer MIGHT, MULTITUDE, 
 LOVE. 
 
 In Islandic, jjl^^, is Might. In Latin, 
 AM — or, is Love. In Greek, ocf^x signifies 
 TOGETHER. 
 
 N, is the OFFSPRING of M ; it follows 
 it in alphabetical Series ; and it is obviously 
 formed from its Parent. In Hebrew, it is 
 named SON. In Latin, M— ater is a MUL- 
 TIPLIER, a PRODUCER; N— atus a 
 SON. 
 
 I need not inform 3'Ou that we write 
 ExpenSe, and ExpenCe, PretenSe and Pre- 
 tenCe, indifferently ; nor is it of any Conse- 
 quence in the present State of British Ortho- 
 graphy. It is unequally unnecessary to re- 
 mark, that Differentia and Difference are 
 Words of the same Import. Were I to add, 
 the latter is derived from the former, I should 
 have the Concurrence of every Etymologist 
 in Europe. DifferenDia, DifferenTia, Diffe- 
 
 * M 
 
320 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 renSe^ DifferenCe. But plausible and satis- 
 factory as this Derivation may appear to 
 others, it is inadmissible on my System of 
 Etymology. 
 
 — ENC is as ancient a Word as any in 
 the Universe. In symbolical Diction, it 
 differs from the — ENDIA — of the Grecians 
 and Romans, only as ACTING differs from 
 DOING ; a Difference founded solely on the 
 popular Application of the Terms. 
 
 It is by Habit, and the Agency of Mind, 
 that Words appear to indicate PROGRES- 
 SIVE Energy; for it is physically impossible 
 for the same Term to comprehend the Es- 
 sence of an INTERVAL and of two EX- 
 TREMES. 
 
 With a laudable Desire to discriminate 
 between the Commencement^ Progress, and 
 Conclusion of an ACTION, our Ancestors, I 
 mean the Posterity of Noah, employed — 
 ENCE to indicate Commencement, — ION 
 Progress to the Effect — END the Propaga^ 
 tion of the Energy — and ED the conclusion. 
 
 E. a 
 
 I, in Latin, means GO, Eo, I GO. ION, 
 in Greek, GOING, hence, 
 
ARISTARCIIUS TO S. B. 321 
 
 Cum and Gal,* Putting together. 
 
 complEO, I am going to put together. 
 
 COMPLED. Put together; compleTe.t 
 
 CompletlON, Going to the Effect. 
 
 Complet— ING (END) In the Act. 
 Continuance of the Energy. Again. 
 
 C—Reo, I am causing to RUSH forth. 
 
 CreaT, Create^ Production. 
 
 CreatlON, Going to the PRODUC 
 TION or Effect. 
 
 CreatING, In the Act of PRODUC- 
 ING.+ 
 
 But these " Terminations'" are more or 
 less confounded, in all the Languages of an- 
 cient and modern Times. 
 
 * Greek, BaXXw. 
 
 f In what Manner CompleTe, differs from Complete D, 
 will be demonstrated in its proper Place. 
 
 J God's Create, is not in Use. We say God*s CreatlON, 
 But CREATE is a Noun, as much as ESTATE, DE* 
 FEAT, &c. 
 
 X 
 
322 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 COMMON SENSE is in Unison with 
 NATURE, and that is the best Apology for 
 our Disobedience to the discriminating In- 
 stitutes of our Ancestors. ACTION and 
 EFFECT are Concomitants. Tho Beginning 
 of MOTION is its Completion. The Mo- 
 ment CREATION commences, Something 
 is CREATED. And to confess the Truth, I 
 do Violence to Conscience when I attribute 
 those subtle Discriminations to our Fore- 
 fathers. The Dehcacy of your Feelings 
 prevented a Disclosure of my real Senti- 
 ments. 
 
 S. I am surprised at your Modesty. 
 Loquere audacter, 
 
 A. Encouraged by your Condescen- 
 sion, I declare without Reserve, that GRAM- 
 MARIANS have fabricated Distinctions un- 
 known to our Ancestors. Will you forgive 
 me, dear Jule, if I indulge a Propensity to 
 Smile at a Difference discovered by the 
 learned Corps ? I allude to — " amANS Vir- 
 " tutem,aMan who ACTUALLY loves Vir- 
 " tue ; amANS VirtutIS, a Man who is a 
 "LOVER of Virtue; amATOR VirtutIS, a 
 " Man who is an HABITUAL Lover of 
 " Virtue.'' These Distinctions are impalpa- 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 323 
 
 ble by Common Sense; and I am happy that 
 I have an Opportunity of being instructed 
 by metaphysical Intelhgence. Will you in- 
 form me in what they consist? 
 
 S. No, 
 
 A. I proceed. END is a Noun, as 
 " regularly declined" as any in the Roman 
 Tongue; end US, end I, end O, end UM; 
 end I, end ORUM, end IS, end OS. And 
 being, moreover, a Noun of Action it asso- 
 ciates with Ladies, with Gentlemen, with — 
 Anything. 
 
 Give me Leave to ask you, in passing, 
 what Gender is AMANS ? Messrs. De Port 
 Royal translate the Word " the Man who 
 loves;" suppose a Lady were to love Virtue, 
 how must I express the Idea? 
 
 S. By the same Term. 
 
 A. I do not solicit Assent to the Evi- 
 dence in Proof that END signifies — Conti- 
 nuance of Action — that it is to be found in 
 Greek and Roman " Participles ;' in " Verbs 
 plural'' in French, Latin, &c. for it is Demon- 
 stration, and cannot be disputed; but I wish 
 
 X 2 
 
324 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 to know whether it is an Infringement of the 
 Laws of Derivation to reject an Aspirate 
 Prefix from the Beginning of Words? 
 
 S. By no Means. Nothing is more 
 usual. 
 
 A. If we reject — H — from HAND, we 
 have — END — in the full Extent of its sym- 
 bolical Signification, and with no other Va- 
 riation, through a long Course of Ages, than 
 what arises from a legitimate Discrimination 
 of Sounds, such as that between AmANT 
 and docENT. 
 
 It is in HAND, is a current Phrase, 
 intimating the Continuance of an Action or 
 Operation. Continuance, from contineo, con- 
 tineo from teneo, to HOLD. From the 
 Attribute of DETENTION, the Hands were 
 named in ancient Runic HEND — ur. De- 
 tainers. Gothic hANd.nS. 
 
 From this untortured Derivation, we 
 have the real Import of the *' Conjunction^' 
 AND. It means Continuation, 
 
 ^ I must withdraw, a Moment, in Con- 
 sequence of Indispensable Engagements. In 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 325 
 
 my Absence you may amuse yourself, Friend 
 Scaliger, with enumerating the Variations of 
 LeC* in the several Modes, Tenses-, Voices, 
 Cases, Genders, and Numbers, which Gram- 
 marians, in their Wisdom, have assigned it. 
 And if Business detain me beyond Expec- 
 tation, you may extend your Inquiries to 
 profounder Subjects, and endeavour to ascer- 
 tain the Force or Meaning of all the Common 
 Terminations annexed to Roman Words, 
 such as— ITOTE, leg—itote. UNTO leg— 
 unto. TATED, Liber — tated, Sec. Vale. 
 
 I am compelled to close abruptly the 
 Investigation of Common Endings. The 
 Importance of the Subject tempted me to 
 prolong the Inquiry beyond the Limits of 
 Prudence ; for I am now under the Necessity 
 of abridging the Remainder of the Essay in 
 two Particulars. 
 
 1st. I must be very concise in demon- 
 strating the superior Elegance of the Terms 
 and Phrases recommended to my Reader's 
 Attention. 
 
 * LEG. Lego, Latim \iyw, Greek, 
 
326 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 2d. Must suppress the Maxims, and 
 Historical Facts which I had selected for the 
 Purposes of Illustration, and for the Enter- 
 tainment and Improvement of the Youthful 
 Mind. 
 
 OF THE WORDS COMMONLY DENOMINATED 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 You desire to be informed " whether the 
 " Bishop of London, or Aristarchus, ought 
 " to be followed in the Use of the Word — 
 " MISTAKEN." 
 
 It is impossible. Sir, to specify in the 
 Compass of this Letter, the manifold Absur- 
 dities of the VERBAL SYNTAX of ancient 
 and modern Times. 
 
 I confidently aver, without Apology or 
 Reserve, that the System adopted by Gram- 
 marians respecting the ACTIVITY and 
 PASSIVITY of VERBS, and the MYSTI- 
 CAL Influence, SYMPATHY and AF- 
 FECTION of " other Parts of Speech,^' has 
 a direct Tendency to obstruct the Knowledge 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 327 
 
 of a native Tongue, and to render the 
 Acquisition of ancient Languages extremely 
 DIFFICULT to all, and to many—IMPOS- 
 SIBLE. Every Student in our Universities 
 — every Scholar in Europe — is intimately 
 conscious of the Truth of this Assertion. 
 
 At present be pleased to accept a plain, 
 unerring Rule resolving for Verbs, and Par- 
 ticiples PASSIVE. Prefix IN to the " pre- 
 *' sent Tense of the Verb,"' if the present 
 Tense be in Use as a Noun ; if not, prefix IN 
 to a synonymous Noun. E. G. 
 
 You hopED You were IN Hope. 
 
 You are tormentED— You are IN Tor- 
 ment. 
 
 You are utterly ruinED — You are IN 
 utter Ruin. 
 
 You are deludED — You are IN Delu- 
 sion. 
 
 The above Instances are perfect Propo- 
 sitions. If I desire to inform you whether 
 you are deluded by Yourself^ or by Another^ 
 
328 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 I add a Noun expressive of CAUSE, 
 AGENT, or INSTRUMENT. 
 
 Again. You are mistakEN, means sim- 
 ply — You are IN a Mistake. If I desire to 
 specify the CAUSE of your being in that 
 Situation, I subjoin— BY, FROM, IN, &c. 
 according to the Exigency, and then add the 
 proper Appellation. 
 
 WRITING undoubtedly originated in 
 Meditation and Art, but SPEECH is coeval 
 with' Man. By unfortunately supposing that 
 SPEECH originated in Meditation and Art, 
 Grammarians have invented a perplexed and 
 unnatural System of verbal Policy, to v^hich 
 COMMON SENSE is subordinate. Hence 
 it is uncandid to canvass the Bishop's gram- 
 matical Tenets, on Principles which he tacit- 
 ly disavows. I must vindicate the Phrase — 
 YOU ARE MISTAKEN— in a Language 
 more consonant to received Opinions, v. g. 
 
 E — in taKE — is a modern Appendage, 
 to indicate, I presume, the Quantity of the 
 Syllable. Thus the Learned write com- 
 pLETE, or compLEAT, though the Ortho- 
 graphy is compLET. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 329 
 
 It ought also to be written with an E — 
 in the Middle — TEK, according to the Is- 
 landic Mode. 
 
 When reduced to its primitive Symbols, 
 it appears thus — DEC ; and it is the same as 
 the Greek Aex—ofA^ui, I RECEIVE. 
 
 In symbolical Signification it signifies to 
 DERIVE from the CAUSE or SOURCE, 
 
 We receive, with a view either to 
 HOLD, or to REMOVE, hence a secondary 
 Use of the Word— to LEAD or CARRY. 
 
 Carry Sir John FalstafF to the Fleet, 
 TAKE all his Company along with him< 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 The Author being in the Country, at a Distance from 
 the Press, many Errors in Punctuation — Repetition of Words, 
 improper Spellings, &c. have unhappily escaped Correction; 
 such as flcis, for facis; Qualities in Algebra, for Quantities 
 in Algebra, &c. <D^ In Page 1 15, eleventh Line, read — 
 But when it ?s— instead of — For then. 
 
330 ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 
 
 S. B. But Dr. Johnson assigns ONE 
 HUNDRED and THIRTY-SIX Significa- 
 tions to the Word. 
 
 A. Yes, Sir, of which some are AB- 
 SURD, v.g. Were a Party of Foreigners 
 to go to the Tower and demand Admittance 
 in this Manner — We want to TAKE the Tower, 
 would it not cause much Surprise and Con- 
 sternation ? and yet our Learned Lexicogra- 
 pher has taught Foreigners, in the 25th Dis- 
 tinction of the Word — that it means to — GO 
 INTO. 
 
 The greater part are SYNONYMOUS. 
 Such as take NOTICE, take OATH, take 
 PHYSIC, take SNUFF, take IN, take 
 OUT, take UP, take DOWN, &c. The 
 Doctor might have " expanded the Word, in 
 " this Manner, into the wide Diffusion'"* of 
 one hundred and thirty-six Volumes. 
 
 S. B. But you must admit a Difference 
 between taking Snuff, and taking Physic. 
 
 A. Certainly. And there is a Difference 
 
 =* Dr. Johnson. 118th Meaning. 
 
ARISTARCHUS TO S. B. 331 
 
 between taking IN, and taking OUT. But 
 not in the Word—TAKE. 
 
 Were I to instruct a Foreigner in the 
 Use of the Word— PUT~and were I to ad- 
 dress him thus, it means to — put on your 
 Stockings; and to put on your Breeches; and 
 to put on your Shirt; and to put on your 
 Shoes ; and to put on your Hat ; — you would 
 admit a Difference between putting on Shoes^ 
 and putting on a Hat^ — — but I ask you, in 
 serious Solemnity, whether Foreigners, whe- 
 ther indulgent Natives, ought to be treated 
 with so httle Ceremony ? 
 
 The Doctor complains that the Word is 
 so prolific in Signification, that he " has not 
 ^' exemplified half/' Nor have I remarked, 
 that PUT means to put on your Wig, and to 
 put on your Waistcoat ; and to put on your 
 Coat; and also to put AWAY your Coat, 
 and to put your Wig INTO the Box, " with 
 " an endless Multiplicity of Relations,"*^ 
 
 * Dr. Johnson. 118th Meaning. 
 
OF " PARTICIPLES" in— EN, 
 
 Foreigners and even Natives are per- 
 plexed by Participles in — EN. 
 
 After employing his Thoughts " twenty 
 " Years" on the English Language, the 
 Bishop of London vindicates the Propriety 
 of the Termination by an Appeal to the 
 EAR ! When two Modes of Diction are 
 equally popular and analogical, an elegant 
 Speaker consults the Ear. But it is the 
 Duty of the Critic to gratify also the Under- 
 standing; especially when the Propriety of 
 either Mode of Expression is problematical; 
 for an Appeal to the Ear, on such Occasions, 
 is just as extravagant as an auricular Solution 
 of the Problems of Euclid. 
 
 Besides, if the Ear be the legitimate 
 Arbitrator of verbal Propriety, its Decisions 
 will often militate against the Prelate's Hy- 
 pothesis. V. g. Suppose me an Enemy to the 
 Termination in — EN, spoKEN. I adopt the 
 Bishop's Language, and contend that " the 
 " Absurdity of the Termination will be 
 " plainly perceived in the Example of some 
 
PARTICIPLES IN EN. 333 
 
 '* of those Verbs, which Custom has not so 
 " perverted'' knewEN, foundEN, werEN^ 
 Sec. " for the Ear is immediately shocked. 
 
 j»^# 
 
 But the Ears of our Forefathers were not 
 shocked at such Sounds. KnewEN^foundEN^ 
 werEN^ and a thousand such Words, occur 
 in the venerable WICKLIFFE'S Transla- 
 tion of the Gospel. Exactly as estOD, 
 LibertatED, PucnandOD, &c. occur in 
 Roman Antiquities. 
 
 But EXUBERANCE is not Barbarism, 
 On the contrary, it is the only Source of 
 Variety and verbal Distinction. Because, 
 when two or more Terms are synonymous. 
 Grammarians gradually restrict them to 
 distinct Ideas, and separate Services. We 
 allow no Dictator in the British Republic of 
 Letters, yet we are always willing to adopt an 
 Improvement suggested with Modesty and 
 good Sense. Hence Men of Education em- 
 ploy — IS — for an Individual, and — ARE — 
 for a Plurality. Analogy was not consulted 
 in the Choice of the Terms ; for as our 
 NOUNS plural end with — S — a correspon- 
 dent Termination was requisite, analogicalhj 
 
 * Lowth's Grammar. 
 
334 PARTICIPLES IN — EN. 
 
 speaking, in VERBS plural. HorseS loveS 
 Corn. But the Repetition of — S — is un- 
 pleasant. 
 
 Hence, again, polite Authors use — 
 WERE I — when thej speak hypothetically 
 — WAS I— interrogatively — and I WAS — 
 not I WERE, affirmatively; because WERE, 
 on affirmative Occasions, is considered as 
 PLURAL — Theif were slain. 
 
 Thus when there are two Words of 
 synonymous Signification — IS, for Example, 
 and ARE, it demonstrates a commendable 
 Spirit of Refinement, if Authors restrict their 
 Application. When there are SEVERAL 
 synonymous Terms, the Improvement may 
 be extended to PERSONS as well as to 
 NUMBER. V. g. Thou WERT chosen. 
 WERT was anciently written at Length — 
 werED ; and it differed from werEN^ Avhich 
 I have just quoted, only as engravED differs 
 from engravEN — It was engravED^ It was 
 engravEN. It itself, it is neither MALE 
 nor FEMALE; SINGULAR, nor PLU- 
 RAL. It is compounded of an ancient, very 
 ancient Noun of Motion — whence we infer 
 Existence — and the common Termination 
 ED, 
 
PARTICIPLES IN — EN. SS5 
 
 WerEN is dead, and buried — et requiescat 
 in Pace. 
 
 WasED, wast; and werED wert^ are 
 in a rapid Decline. They have been long 
 abandoned by the polite World. But our 
 Friends, the Quakers, charitably prolong 
 their Existence. 
 
 No other Reason can be assigned for 
 employing arED art, in the PRESENT 
 Tense, and werED wert, in the PAST, than 
 Custom,* 
 
 Nor can any Argument be deduced from 
 Analogy and Nature for employing — EN at 
 the End of — AR, in the second Person singu- 
 lar, or for rejecting it at the End of AR in 
 the plural. t But to this National Discrimi- 
 nation of Persons and Number, we MUST 
 conform, if we desire to express our Senti- 
 ments with Propriety and Elegance. And if 
 a Nation tacitly resign a Term to Oblivion, 
 it is Pedantry, it is FOLLY to attempt a 
 Restoration. 
 
 The Truth is — if you will pardon my 
 
 * Thou art; thou wert. 
 
 t ArED, art, singular: Are, plural. 
 
336 PARTICIPLES IN — EN. 
 
 Freedom — the illustrious Prelate proceeded on 
 very erroneous Principles of verbal Criticism, 
 At Variance with COMMON SENSE, and 
 a Stranger to the Genius of the Enghsh Lan- 
 guage, he condemns, as BARBARISMS, 
 Terms of the utmost Purity and Elegance. 
 Thus Addison and others, Ornaments of our 
 Country, are censured for I have WROTE^ 
 I have SPOKE, Sec. 
 
 I entreat you to beheve that I introduce 
 his Lordship's Name with extreme Reluc- 
 tance. I am the DEFENDER of Addison, 
 and not the ACCUSER of the Bishop of 
 London. 
 
 To enjoy a pleasing and profitable View 
 of human Speech, you must dismiss from 
 your Mind the Magic Terms, and subtile 
 Discriminations which abound in metaphy- 
 sical Grammars. You must recur, in imagi- 
 nation to the Infancy of the World, to the 
 primitive Diction of Man. 
 
 1. Languages are composed of Sounds 
 originally applied to external Objects. 
 
 2. As those Sounds are the Symbols of 
 our Ideas, they are, without Distinction, 
 
 NOUNS or NAMES. 
 
PARTICIPLES IN EN. 337 
 
 PRODUCTION and COMPLETION 
 
 are the radical Ideas of — N — D. But you 
 may, for the present, translate EN and ED 
 into plain English— IJV and AT.^ 
 
 The Roman AD — is of the same Origin 
 as the English AT. IN — ought to be written 
 
 —EN. 
 
 3. By a Collocation of Words accord- 
 ing to the National Idiom, we indicate the 
 AGENT and RECIPIENT with Simphcity 
 and Ease. ^, G. Brutus killed CcBsar, Every 
 Peasant knows that Brutus is the Agent. 
 He knows it from vernacular Instinct. 
 
 4. With equal Ease and Simplicity we 
 indicate the SUBJECT and the ATTRI^ 
 BUTE. V. g. The Deity is omnipresent. 
 
 5. Energy resides in the AGENT, The 
 Noun, which Grammarians in their Wisdom 
 denominate a VERB, names or specifies the 
 Energy. It is by HABIT only that we ex- 
 tend the Energy to the Recipient. But it is 
 a Habit so easily formed, that Children pos- 
 sess, it in Perfection. 
 
 * You will excuse Repetition, in an Essay of this 
 Nature. 
 
SS8 PARTICIPLES IN EIST. 
 
 6. END is a Noun that signifies Ter- 
 mination, Extremity, Gonclusion. 
 
 Place an Agent before it. They END. 
 
 Place a Recipient after it. They end 
 the DISPUTE. " On receiving this News 
 " the Company END the Dispute, and 
 " MARCH Home in Triumph/^ This is 
 denominated the PRESENT Tense, but, 
 in Fact, it is PAST, PRESENT, or FU- 
 TURE, at your Pleasure, v. g. On Re- 
 ceipt of the Letter^ we RETURN to Town. 
 This refers to a past Event, ^ To-morrow We 
 RETURN to Town. This indicates Fu- 
 turity. 
 
 7. But we have other Forms of Tem- 
 poral Reference, as remarkable for Simplicity 
 and Elegance as any in the World, v. g. 
 
 First. With the Termination ED and 
 and EN. You recollect the symbolical 
 Signification of these Words? On the pre- 
 sent Occasion, we may translate them— 
 AT and IN, in the Sense in which we 
 say— AT Bath, IN Bristol, v. g. The Work is 
 endED. That is, The Work is AT an END. 
 
 t Or io future Time, if you please thus to use it. 
 
PARTICIPLES IN — EN. 339 
 
 <& AD in Latin, and in Saxon, are of the 
 same Origin and Import as AT in English. 
 
 I endED the Work. That is, I am the 
 Agent or Cause that the Work is AT an 
 End. 
 
 Secondly, With a Noun of Possession 
 — -commonly but most absurdly termed an 
 " AUXILIARY VERB," v. g. I HAVE 
 endED the Work. That is, I POSSESS the 
 Work AT an End. 
 
 The Letter is WrittEN. That is, The 
 Letter is IN Writ. Writ is a Noun. v. g. 
 Holy Writ. I HAVE writtEN the Letter. 
 That is, I POSSESS the Letter in Writ.* 
 
 When you cannot conveniently resolve 
 the Passage by placing AT — or IN before 
 the " Verb"" you may consider ED and EN 
 as indicating the Situation of the Energy— 
 in other Words, that the Energy is trans- 
 ferred from the AGENT to the RECI- 
 PIENT: in the Sense in which the PRE- 
 positions which /b//ot^ other *' Verbs'" indi- 
 
 * I have it finished^ is the same as, 1 have finished it ; 
 but when there is any Danger of mistaking the AGENT, 
 the latter Form of Expression is prefei^ble. 
 
 Y 2 
 
340 PARTICIPLES IN EN. 
 
 cate the Point or Tendency of the Action, 
 such as throw iip^ throw domn^ tread on, put 
 under^ &c. E. G. 
 
 Energy originates in the AGENT. The 
 " Verb'' specifies the Energy. ED and EN 
 inform us to what Point or Object it is to be 
 transferred. You then lovED him. That is, 
 Your Love, your Affections, were AT, IN, 
 ON, or WITH him. 
 
 Thirdly. The Forms of Expression hi- 
 therto noticed are coeval with Speech. 
 Words indicating POSSESSION and COM- 
 PLETION were construed with Nouns of 
 Energy or Action, to signify the ORIGIN, 
 RESIDENCE, and COMPLETION of such 
 Energy or Action. Perfectly consistent with 
 the Simplicity of primitive Eloquence. 
 
 But we have another Method of indi- 
 cating the AGENT, the SPECIES of Ac- 
 tion, and the RECIPIENT. I mean, by a 
 Noun of Possession, and a "Verb'' of the 
 PAST Tense, v. g. I HAVE FOUND a 
 Treasure. I do not believe it possible for 
 human Ingenuity to contrive a Mode of 
 Diction more terse and perspicuous. I do 
 not approve it merely as the Phraseology of 
 
PARTIGIPLES IN EN. 341 
 
 Shakspeare and Milton^ Congreve and Dryden^ 
 Trior and Pope^ Addison and Swift, Thomp- 
 son and Young. I commend it for its intrin- 
 sic Elegance. 
 
 S. B. But the Bishop of London does 
 not condemn " I have FOUND.'' 
 
 A. But his Lordship condemns '* have 
 " WROTE, have SPOKE, &c." And with 
 equal Propriety he might include " have 
 " FOUND;" for " have foundEN" is the 
 ancient Style of Expression, as well as " have 
 " spokEN.^' 
 
 If it be good English, as it indispu- 
 tably is, to say— I FOUND a Letter, I 
 WROTE a Letter,— by Parity of Reason 
 and Analogy, it is good English to say — I 
 have WROTE a Letter, I have FOUND a 
 Letter. 
 
 e:rBe pleased to take particular No- 
 tice. — -1st. There is no NECESSITY for 
 using a Noun of Possession. I FOUND a 
 Treasure, and I HAVE found a Treasure, 
 mean precisely the same Thing, But it is 
 customary with correct Speakers to employ 
 the former Phrase in a DEFINITE Tense, 
 
342 PARTICIPLES IN— EN. 
 
 and the latter in an INDEFINITE Tense. 
 2d. As the AGENT and the " VERB'^— I 
 FOUND — are sufficiently connected, with- 
 out the Intervention of a Noun of Posses- 
 sion— HAVE— so the RECIPIENT of the 
 Energy is clearly and sufficiently indicated 
 by the Collocation of the Terms of the Pro- 
 position, without a Noun to indicate the 
 Point where the Energy is COMPLETED 
 or RESIDES— I have FOUND a TREA- 
 SURE, I have WROTE a LETTER. 
 
 The metaphysical Illusions which tri- 
 umphed over his Lordship^s Understanding, 
 prompted him to stigmatize as a BARBA- 
 RISM, that which merited his Commenda- 
 tion as an IMPROVEMENT. The Agent— 
 the Energy and the 'Recipient — are all that 
 NATURE demands. No intermediate Terms 
 are to be admitted but those which are 
 subservient to VARIETY, and DISCRI- 
 MINATION. 
 
 For the Sake of VARIETY, therefore 
 
 I commend" Participles^^'in— EN to the 
 
 Protection of the Learned. I WRITE, for 
 the present Tense. I WROTE, for the past 
 Definite, I have WROTE, and I have 
 WRITTEN, for ih^past indefinite. 
 
PARTICIPLES IN — EN. 343 
 
 It is Weakness to attempt the Restora- 
 tion of such "Participles'^ as are OBSO- 
 LETJE; but every Author ought to per- 
 petuate those which are in present Use. I 
 am very attentive to this Point, perhaps to a 
 blamable Excess. I have not once availed 
 myself of the Privilege of diversifying the 
 Style of my Essay by using the Preterite for 
 the " Participle/' that in opposing the Bishop 
 of London, I might not appear to be the 
 Defender of my own Errors. 
 
 As Variety is so graceful and pleasing, a 
 Student may be disposed to ask, why have 
 not the Learned rejected — ED from " Pas- 
 " sives'' or " Participles" as well as — EN? 
 For the best of Reasons — there is no Differ- 
 ence in Appearance, nor in Sound between 
 the PRESENT Tense, and the PAST. v. g. 
 PERFORM, PERFORM-ed. Consequently 
 I have perform, is inadmissible. But were a 
 Diversity established by National Authority, 
 ED might be added, or omitted at Pleasure- 
 This Argument is confirmed by the Fate of 
 those few Words which have been accident- 
 ally diversified, v. g. You SWEAT, present. 
 You SWET, past Tense. You have sweat- 
 ED, or, you have SWET. You SPEED, 
 You SPED; You have speed ED, or. You 
 
344 PARTICIPLES IN EN. 
 
 have SPED, His Lordship's Theory in- 
 deed of Verbs Passive and Neuter is erro- 
 neous ; were he living, I would add — AB- 
 SURD. 
 
 Let a Boy have a clear View of the 
 Ideas annexed to AGENT, ENERGY, and 
 RECIPIENT; to SUBJECT, ATTRI- 
 BUTE, and AFFIRMATION. The 
 
 Words are easily explained by Terms and 
 Ideas of which Youth have a perfect Com- 
 prehension. I will not specify the requisite 
 Time. Neither Tutors, nor Students are 
 exactly of the same intellectual Dimensions. 
 And, perhaps, it would have an Air of 
 Quackery, were I to avow my Belief that 
 ONE HOUR is sufficient, with a proper 
 Share of COMMON SENSE in the Teacher 
 and the Scholar. 
 
 After he comprehends the Terms, in- 
 struct him in the National Arrangement of 
 the Words, and then proceed to Practice. 
 ^.G. TYRANTS MURDER MEN. 
 
 Which Word is the AGENT in this 
 Proposition or Sentence? 
 
 Which specifies the ENERGY? 
 
PARTICIPLES IN — EN. 345 
 
 Which is the RECIPIENT ? 
 
 Is there a proper Correspondence in the 
 TERMINATIONS? 
 
 IT Lemming is inestimable. 
 
 Which is the ATTRIBUTE of the Pro- 
 position ? 
 
 Which is the SUBJECT or that Term 
 in which the Attribute RESIDES ? 
 
 Which is the AFFIRMATION? 
 
 Do the TERMINATIONS correspond? 
 
 You may then proceed to Propositions 
 containing the TIME, the PLACE, the IN- 
 STRUMENT, and the MANNER in which 
 the Energy was exerted. 
 
 ^ It is evident that a few Lessons, ana- 
 lyzed on rational Principles, are abundantly 
 sufficient to initiate a Boy of common In- 
 genuity in all Mysteries of human Speech. 
 
 On the other Hand, I have heard Men 
 of liberal Education confess that Grammar — 
 meaning metaphysical Grammar — has en- 
 
346 ^'ARTICIPLES IN — EN. 
 
 grossed much of their Attention for many 
 Years,* and, after all, they are deterred by 
 Difficulties and perplexed by Doubts. 
 
 ^ It is foreign to the Dignity of n>y De- 
 sign to annihilate the Reverence which unin- 
 telligible Terms inspire. When a Student, 
 therefore, completely understands the Sum 
 and Substance of verbal Construction, the 
 indulgent Tutor may ascend from the Affairs 
 of .Men and the Abode of COMMON 
 SENSE, to the sublime and enchanting Re- 
 gions of METAPHYSICS. He may descant 
 on TRANSITIVE Neuters, and INTRAN- 
 SITIVE Actives; on Cases UPRIGHT and 
 OBLIQUE; on the Nominative, the Geni- 
 tive, the Accusative, He may enlarge on 
 Tenses and Modes; on GERUNDS and GE> 
 RUNDIVES; he may class his Words into 
 MALES and FEMALES; may display his 
 Eloquence in the Mysteries of " ATTRAC- 
 "TIQN'tand REPULSION; on Nouns 
 which are " VERBAL,'' and on Verbs that 
 are at once NOUNS, PARTICIPLES, AD- 
 JECTIVES, and ADVERBS.J He may do 
 this, and a thousand Times as much, to excite 
 Admiration and procure Respect; but if he 
 
 * Port Ro}aL t Puit Koval. $ Poit Royal. 
 
PARTICIPLES IN — EN. 34? 
 
 assert that his Pupils are benefited by this 
 sublime and incomprehensible Jargon, if he 
 even declare seriously that he has clear and 
 convincing Impressions in his own Mind of 
 the Subject of his Dissertation, it will be 
 criminal to smile. A Sentiment of Pity or 
 Contempt will be more becoming an honest 
 Man. 
 
 I have frequently used the Word, ME- 
 TAPHYSICS, and with a Freedom, perhaps, 
 that needs Explanation. I do not, with Mr. 
 Tooke,* conceive the Term to be " Nonsense" 
 for it does not mean ANTIPHYSICAL, 
 HOSTILE to Nature, but METAPHY- 
 SICAL, with Nature; in Conjunction with 
 Nature, though POSTERIOR in the Order 
 of Inquiry. From Common Sense Princi- 
 ples, from PHYSICAL and OBVIOUS 
 Truth, we reason to that which is IMMA- 
 TERIAL and INVISIBLE. Thus the Per- 
 fections of the Deity, the Powers and Pas- 
 sions of the human Mind, are metaphysical 
 Subjects and worthy the serious Attention of 
 rational Beings. A judicious Treatise on 
 either of these Topics will not contain a sin- 
 gle Proposition which has not its Foundation 
 
 * Puilev. 
 
348 PARTICIPLES IN — EN". 
 
 on COMMON SENSE. Though too remote, 
 perhaps for vulgar Apprehension, its sublim- 
 est Ideas may be reduced to Principles which 
 a Peasant comprehends. 
 
 The Metaphysics, which I take the Li- 
 berty to censure, are founded on metaphysical 
 Data, the Offspring of the IMAGINATION, 
 and so repugnant to the Dictates of Com- 
 mon Sense, that INSANITY is the only 
 Apology that can be offered for its Ad- 
 vocates. 
 
 '' How many Angels can be seated on the 
 " Point of a Needle f This Question was very 
 gravely debated in the Schools of Oxford by 
 the metaphysical Doctors of the fourteenth 
 Century ! 
 
 The Terms in which they defined Mo- 
 tion are equally worthy Notice — ''The Act 
 ^' of a Being in Power, so far forth as it is in 
 '' Power/* What Nonsense ! Scarlet Gowns 
 and ihe'Yi\\e?> subtile, sublime, and irrefragable 
 for such Stuff as this ! I congratulate my 
 Country on the superior Systems now esta- 
 Wished at Oxford and Cambridge. May pro- 
 gressive Improvements increase their Glory, 
 and may they flourish, the brightest Orna- 
 
PARTICIPLES IN EX. 349 
 
 ■nients of the Kingdom, till all mortal Con- 
 cerns have their Dissolution in Eternity. 
 
 The latter Instance of metaphysical 
 Wisdom is too ridiculous to be honoured with 
 serious Censure. If definitions equally ab- 
 surd had not been employed by Gram- 
 marians, I had not used the Term META- 
 PHYSICS in this Essay. But as no One 
 ever formed a just Idea of MOTION from 
 this " Hocus Pocks'' Definition, I protest, on 
 the Authoritj^ of Common Sense, no One 
 ever obtained an adequate Conception of 
 SPEECH from metaphysical Distinctions. 
 
 ^ Music is perfectly comprehended; 
 Mathematics are conducted on Principles 
 obvious to Common Sense, but the divine 
 Art of communicating Sentiment — that no- 
 ble Endowment of intellectual Life — is in the 
 Infancy of Cultivation. The Learned are 
 continually disputing WHEN, WHERE, and 
 HOW it commenced. But we have yet no 
 satisfactory Intelhgence; nor is it surprising; 
 they seek the Living among the Dead, In 
 nietaphysical Abstractions and subtile Refine- 
 ments, they expect to discover the Principles 
 of an Art originating in popular Simplicity. 
 
 But, in Fact, there is a strong Attach- 
 
350 PARTICIPLES IN — EN. 
 
 ment in our Nature to profound and in^ 
 comprehensible Influence. Have not the 
 Learned calculated Nativities, ard from the 
 imaginary Emanations of distant Globes pre- 
 dicted the Fate of Man? Even in the present 
 Age, an Age of Letters and Information, 
 have not Multitudes been duped by Systems 
 of ANIMAL MAGNETISM, and by ME- 
 TAPHYSICAL Modes of healing the Sick, 
 and restoring Sight to the Bhnd? 
 
 And were not lately the Reveries of 
 an ingenious Madman in great Request? 
 Fottr-and-tweiity Guineas — will Posterity credit 
 the Fact ! — four-and-twenty Guineas for a 
 Treatise on Physiognomy! How dejected 
 Science might be comforted and encourag- 
 ed, by such munificent Patronage! But 
 this is not an Age in which Science is pa- 
 tronised. Madam Mara, or an Italian Eti- 
 nuch, would raise five thousand Pounds for a 
 SONG, more easily than Johnson himself 
 could raise fifty for a Dictionary, or an 
 Essay on human Speech. 
 
 Sint Mcecenates, non dSrunt, Flacce, Marones,^ 
 was the Opinion of Martial, and a very 
 
 * Lib. viii. 56» 
 
PARTICIPLES IN EN* 351 
 
 just OHC— if an AUGUSTUS be on the 
 Throne. 
 
 It is painful in a high Degree to censure 
 a worthy Man. But I feel it my Duty, as 
 an Advocate for Truth, to oppose every Spe- 
 cies of VISIONARY Imposition. It is ob- 
 vious as the Light of Day, that the pretended 
 Miracles of Mr. Loutherburgh have a Ten- 
 dency to lessen the Credibility of the REAL 
 Miracles recorded in the Bible. And what 
 can be expected from the Rules of Physiog- 
 nomy, but Conclusions pernicious to the 
 Happiness of Society, unmerited Confidence^ 
 and groundless Distrust ? 
 
 ONE PENNY will purchase a Book as 
 valuable as Lavater^s, for it " tells you as 
 " how you may know from Moles and Lines 
 " in the Body and the Face and the Hands 
 "what every One's Fortune is to be; and 
 " also moreover whether they are good or bad 
 " tempered; and likewise if they are prudent 
 " and wise, and whether you will be married 
 *' many Times or not, and also how many 
 
 ^^ The Subscribers to Aristarchus are respectfully in- 
 formed, that the Conclusion of this Essay, Price 9d. con- 
 taining a Variety of Remarks on the Bishop of London's 
 Grammar, will be published the 10th Instant. 
 
352 PARTICIPLES IN EN, 
 
 " Children you will have, with the Way to 
 " calculate Nativities, and how to find stolen 
 " Goods, and also to resolve an,y Question 
 " whatsoever/' 
 
 I do not recommend this elaborate Per^ 
 formance as INFALLIBLE. " A Mole on 
 " the right Side shews that a Person is wise 
 " and prudent^ and a Mole on the left Side 
 " that a Person is a Fool and a Spendthrift J' 
 Now it sometimes happens that the same 
 Person has a Mole on BOTH Sides ! 
 
 I prophesy, by the Inspiration of Com- 
 mon Sense, that every Attempt to assign a 
 Character to the accidental Differences of the 
 human Face will terminate in VANITY and 
 IMPOSITION. 
 
 Fronti mdla Fides^ is excellent Advice. 
 The Man, who is the Dupe of a Countenance, 
 is either a Novice, or a Fool. 
 
 As no two Faces are exactly alike, there 
 must be a Rule for every Individual. Conse- 
 quently the Exception comprehends th^ re- 
 maining World!! 
 
 * Virgil. 
 
PARTICIPLES IN EN. 353 
 
 Bring this boasted System of Physiog- 
 nomy to the Test of Experience. Where the 
 Prince of Diviners has taught you to expect 
 Courage, you will often find Cowardice — Ma- 
 lignity, Benevolence — Wisdom, Folly. If he 
 answer the—prominent Index of the predi- 
 cated Quality is counteracted by latent or 
 less obvious Lineaments, I reply— -to this 
 dishonourable Subterfuge every Impostor* 
 resorts, when confronted with Contradictions. 
 
 The Antediluvian Heart is thus described 
 by the divine Historian — And the Lord God 
 looked down on the Sons of Men, and behold 
 the Wickedness of Man was great in the 
 Earth, and every Imagination of his Heart was 
 evil, and evil continually. The Contagion of 
 Sin had pervaded the whole Man, tainted the 
 Seat of Principle, and corrupted the Source 
 of Action. 
 
 How far this Picture corresponds with 
 the present Features of the Heart, every Man 
 must determine from personal Experience. 
 
 In Relation to his Fellow Creatures, 
 
 ^ I am far from believing Lavater an Impostor : yet 
 take away the Engravings, and his Book is not worth a 
 Penny. 
 
354 PARTICIPLES IN EN. 
 
 Man is a Compound of FRAILTY and BE- 
 NEVOLENCE. My Heart informs me, 
 that I abhor Injustice — but God forbid I 
 should be so presumptuous as to imagine 
 that I am the only honest Man in the World. 
 I will rather believe every Man upright, and 
 every Woman virtuous, till Facts evince the 
 contrary. At the same Time, I will use such 
 legal Precautions, that neither my Honour, 
 nor my Property shall be materially injured 
 by Confidence in a Stranger. This is the 
 only Way to be happy. SUSPICION is a 
 sordid Passion — the Bane of social Felicity. 
 To suspect every Man to be a KNAVE, 
 and every Woman a WHORE, is infernal. 
 But to estimate a Man's Integrity by the 
 Dimensions of his NOSE, or a Lady's Virtue 
 from the Shape of her CHIN, is Insanity. 
 
 From this Propensity in the Soul of 
 Man to have Recourse to occult Causes, and 
 incomprehensible Influence, I attribute the 
 Ignorance which universally prevails concern- 
 ing the Origin and present Structure of 
 SPEECH. 
 
PREPOSITIONS 
 
 OF— OFF— TO. 
 
 Mr. Tooke conjectures that the Ances- 
 tor of — OFF — was slain by rude Barbarians 
 and buried in the North. Permit me, then, to 
 congratulate — OFF — on the Resurrection of 
 a venerable Parent from the Dead ; if with 
 any Propriety a Person can be said to be 
 DEAD who has never departed out of Life. 
 
 S. B, But the Spelling? 
 
 A. A just Remark. It is certainly in- 
 cumbent on me to give a rational Account of 
 the Difference. A PREposition, as the 
 Name impUes, ought to precede in English 
 the Object or its Representative, v. g. The 
 Man TO WHOM you spoke. But in careless 
 Expression it frequently FOLLOWS, v. g. 
 The Man WHOM you spoke TO ; or, the Man 
 you spoke TO* 
 
 Sometimes there is an Ellipsis of a 
 " Noun."' V. g. He was riding and fell off ; 
 that is, fell off the Horse. From Ignorance of 
 
 z 2 
 
356 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 the real Nature of the Word, it was corrupt- 
 ed in the SpelHng on those elliptical Occa- 
 sions, to distinguish it from the ^^ Preposition/^ 
 
 Be pleased to recollect the Affinity be- 
 tween P, B, F, and V. 
 
 What the Romans expressed by AB and 
 ago, abigere — and the Saxons by op-a&jiipan 
 we express by drive OFF. 
 
 The same learned Ignorance corrupted 
 — TO — on similar Occasions, v. g. TOO 
 latCj in- English, is properly expressed in 
 Saxon, to leer. 
 
 A— B— symbolically imply FROM the 
 RESIDENCE. In one Word— ORIGIN. 
 Hence nj^nn Father— -a-zg-o from, &c. The 
 Goths spelt the Word \\: and AKIl ; the 
 Saxons Oj:j of. The Fruit OF that Tree, and 
 the Fruit OFF that Tree, are precisely the 
 same Ideas, however Metaphysicians may 
 attempt to diversify Identity. 
 
 ^ A Stock of Goods ON Hand is pro- 
 perly contrasted by-- a Stock of Goods OFF 
 hand; hence f and fare proper after the 
 Word DISPOSE, if proper with any Word 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 357 
 
 in our Language — to dispose OFF — that is, 
 to put off. Yet Mr. Addison wrote, Our 
 great Modellers of Gardens have their Maga- 
 zines of Plants to dispose OF. And I call 
 upon Mr. Tooke to produce an Instance 
 where Oflf may be exchanged for — of-— with 
 equal Propriety. 
 
 IT It may be deemed Presumption to ar- 
 raign the Style of Addison, yet I must cau- 
 tion you against separating the " Prepo- 
 *' sition'" and its Object. Even when there is 
 an Ellipsis of a " Noun'' or whole Sentence 
 it may be frequently avoided, v. g. He was 
 thrown, when riding, is better than — he was 
 thrown OFF when riding. Modellers of Gar-- 
 dens must SELL their Magazines of Plants , or 
 DISPOSE of their Magazines of Plants ^ is as 
 much superior to Modellers have their Maga^ 
 zines of Plants to DISPOSE of-— as Analogy 
 and Nature are superior to DISTORTION. 
 
 It may be said, it is absolutely unavoid- 
 able on particular Occasions, v. g. The Stock 
 was disposed OF BY private Contract. It fell 
 off ON his Head. But an elegant Writer 
 would rather vary the Phrase, or exchange 
 the " Verb'' than admit so awkward a Con, 
 currence of " Prepositions'' v; g. The Stock 
 
358 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 was SOLD by private Contract; it fell ON 
 his Head, At all Events, never close a Sen- 
 tence with a "PREPOSITION," for it de- 
 stroys the Strength and Harmony of the 
 Period. 
 
 I also coincide in Opinion with the 
 Bishop of London, that " To split Preposi- 
 tions" is vulgar and inelegant, v. g. *' We 
 are surrounded B F, and immersed IN, a Fluid, 
 which we denominate the Atmosphere^ when we 
 consider the Effects which arise from its Form, 
 Magnitude, and Density. But when we con- 
 sider this Fluid, independent of the Bodies which 
 are immersed IN or mixed WITH it, it is 
 termed Air. 
 
 ^ As I have not Room to present yon 
 with a complete symbolical Analysis of 
 " Prepositions" you will do me the favour to 
 admit my Distinctions on Credit. You are 
 convinced, I hope, that I am not averse to 
 Evidence and Argument when Time permits. 
 
 BY, WITH, and FOR represent dis- 
 tinct Ideas, though frequently confounded 
 by Authors. FOR may at present be ren- 
 dered the CAUSE or MOTIVE—BY the 
 AGENT or Means— WITH the Instrument 
 
PREPOSITIONS, 359 
 
 or MANNER. On a certain Day, Caesar 
 was killed BY Brutus. Were you to sub- 
 stitute WITH — the Passage would be ob- 
 scure; and an ignorant Man might conceive 
 both Caesar and Brutus were killed. Brutus 
 AVITH a Dagger killed Caesar FOR having 
 enslaved his Country — BECAUSE he had 
 enslaved his Country. 
 
 Dr. Blair, speaking of the Words under 
 Consideration, remarks that " WITH'' ex- 
 presses a more close and immediate Con- 
 nexion between the Instrument and the Agent 
 who employs it, and BY a more remote one. 
 " This Distinction,'' he adds, " is elegantly 
 " marked in a Passage of Dr. Robertson's 
 ^' History of Scotland. When one of the old 
 *' Scottish Kings was making an Inquiry into 
 ^' the Tenure by which his Nobles held their 
 " Lands, they started up, and drew their 
 " Swords, BY these, said they, we acquired 
 *' our Lands, and WITH these we will defend 
 *' them." If there be any Elegance in this 
 Passage, it is METAPHYSICAL. A Man 
 holds a Sword in his Hand and exclaims — 
 BY this I obtained an Estate, and WITH this 
 I will defend it. Now it unfortunately hap- 
 pens " that the Connexion between the 
 "Agent and Instrument" is the same; the 
 
360 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 same Sword is held in the Hand from the 
 Beginning of the Speech to the End. 
 
 For the Satisfaction of those who are stu- 
 dious of Precision, permit me to illustrate my 
 Remark that — BY is properly restricted to 
 the CAUSE or AGENT, and— WITH to the 
 INSTRUMENT or MANNER. With Re- 
 spect to Dr. Blair's Distinction of remote 
 and immediate Connexion, it has no Founda- 
 tion in the ancient, or modern Application 
 of the Words, nor any Countenance from 
 their genuine Import. Both Terms imply 
 Connexion, but, in strict Propriety — WITH 
 follows " ACTIVE" and - NEUTER 
 " VERBS," and BY follows " PASSIVE 
 " VERBS." e. g. " On the 20th Instant His 
 " Majesty WENT JVITH the Queen to Ply 
 " mouth/' " The King WAS earnestly DE- 
 " SIRED BY her Majesty to grant the Re- 
 *' quest/' 
 
 BY. in the former Instance, and WITH, 
 in the latter, would destroy the Sense. The 
 MANNER in which His Majesty travelled 
 was in the Company of the Queen — WITH 
 the Queen. The AGENT in making the 
 Request was the Queen; BY whom His Ma- 
 jesty WAS ENTREATED, DESIRED, 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 361 
 
 IMPLORED to grant the Request. And 
 HOW? In what MANNER? WITH 
 
 Earnestness. 
 
 Hence it is also deducible that — BY — 
 is the proper Term, when we personify any 
 material or immaterial Existence ; or intend 
 it to express the CAUSE of an Effect, e. g. 
 " He was killed WITH Lightning/' This is 
 intelligible, but not strictly correct; for it 
 implies the Person was killed in Company 
 WITH Lightning. Ccesar was killed BY Bru- 
 tus and Others, in the Senate House, is correct 
 Language. But — Ccesar was killed WITH 
 Brutus and Others, in the Senate House, is not 
 only incorrect but ambiguous. 
 
 ^The Bishop of London, being more 
 conversant with the metaphysical Institutes 
 of Grammar than with the Origin of Lan- 
 guages, has made prodigious Havoc with the 
 "PARTICLES" of Speech. Even as a 
 Metaphysician his Lordship appears to be 
 forgetful that MOTIVES to Action are two-^ 
 fold— FINAL and EFFICIENT, v. g. l.It 
 was done FROM Hatred FOR TO ruin him. 
 
 2. It was done FROM Hatred TO ruin him, 
 
 3. It was done FROM Hatred with a View TO 
 ruin him; with a View TO his Ruin. 4. It 
 zms done FROM Hatred FOR his Ruin, 
 
362 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 1. The best Writers in our Language 
 omit FOR before TO. And with great Pro- 
 priety. The Phrase— FOR TO— is one of 
 the many inelegant Pleonasms in popular 
 Diction. 2. This Form of Expression is 
 correct. The EFFICIENT Cause was Ha- 
 tred; the FINAL Cause his Ruiii. The 
 Action COMMENCED in Hatred, and its 
 OBJECT was the Man's Ruin, 3. With a 
 View TO — is a Mode of Expression that fre- 
 quently occurs in the most elegant Authors. 
 But I request Leave to remark, it ought not 
 to be used but with Actions previous to the 
 ultimate Effect — to the connecting Media of 
 the Cause and its supreme'object. On such 
 Occasions with a View TO — in Order TO — 
 are admissible, and frequently elegant, e. g. 
 A Farmer takes his Corn to Market TO raise 
 Money. But he cultivates the Ground with 
 a Viez!) TO this supreme Object — he sows and 
 reaps in Order TO effect this ultimate Pur- 
 pose. 4. This Construction also is correct. 
 HATRED— the first Cause of the Action, 
 and the RUIN of an Enemy — the final 
 Cause— differ only as IMPULSE difiers from 
 ATTRACTION. Hence our Ancestors, with 
 great Propriety, used — FOR — in the Sense 
 in which we use MOTIVE. Hence also it 
 appears that his Lordship has condemned, 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 363 
 
 against Reason and the Usage of our best 
 Writers, the subsequent Sentences. 
 
 " He accused Ministers FOR betraying 
 " the Dutch'' Swift. 
 
 " Ovid^ whom you accuse FOR Luxuriancy 
 ' of Verse.'' Dryden. 
 
 He accused Ministers— the CAUSE or 
 MOTIVE of his accusing them was — they 
 had betrayed the Dutch. Ovid, the Luxuri- 
 ancy of whose Verse is the CAUSE of your 
 accusing hinit 
 
 His Lordship has condemned many 
 correct Expressions in Dryden^ Swifts Bacon^ 
 Addison, and others,^from a very erroneous 
 notion that the " Preposition" which follows 
 a Noun OUGHT to correspond with the 
 " Preposition"' that precedes it. Permit me 
 to answer the venerable Prelate in Terms 
 adapted to this idea- I have no AVersion 
 FROM this Practice ; I am w illing to mani- 
 fest my SUBmission UNDER your Lord- 
 ship's Judgment; for I have no PREdilec- 
 tion BEFORE any particular^Opinion. But 
 when I affirm that I make no OPposition 
 AGAINST your Lordship's Judgment, I 
 desire to be understood as speaking under 
 
S64 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 proper Restrictions, for as A-verse implies 
 turning FROM in Abhorrence, Ad-verse must 
 mean a turning TO in FriendsLip. Hence 
 Ad-verse Events, on this Scheme of Corre- 
 spondence, are FRIENDLY Events ; which 
 every Man is not prepared to beheve. I 
 must also take the Liberty to inform Students, 
 that Aversion TO this Correspondence, and 
 non SU Emission to this Opinion, are equally 
 correct in Point of Diction, and far more 
 eligible in Practice. 
 
OF WORDS DENOMINATED 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 I DO not notice Cotemporary Gramma- 
 rians. Their Criticisms are mere Counter- 
 parts of the Bishop of London's Institutes. 
 With Respect to his Lordship, I have to 
 remark that his strictures, in general, convey 
 no Information to an inquisitive Mind. If 
 the Language of our Ancestors, the Lan- 
 guage of the Augustan Age of England, 
 merit Reprobation, let it be reprobated. 
 But not on the ipse dixit of a Grammarian. 
 Before the Phrases, which have incurred his 
 Lordship's Displeasure, are banished the Re- 
 public of Letters, let them be fairly convicted 
 of hostihties against COMMON SENSE, of 
 Rebellion against the Genius of our Language. 
 And let their Guilt appear not from the 
 Codes of Foreign Lawgivers, but from na- 
 tive Laws and a native Jury. 
 
 The Termination — LY — according to 
 his Lordship, is an Abbreviation of LIKE — ■ 
 and being joined to Nouns, it transforms 
 
366 ADVERBS. 
 
 them into ADJECTIVES, and when joined 
 to Adjectives, it^makes^them ADVERBS. 
 
 Now be pleased to observe, the whole 
 Current of ouy Language is against this me- 
 taphysical Transmutation. Not an Instance 
 can be found of a Noun first converted into 
 an Adjective by the Termination — LY — and 
 then into an Adverb by the Addition of an- 
 other — LY. The learned Prelate was aware 
 of the Inconsistency of the Theory with 
 Fact, and therefore he cautiously adds* — It 
 OUGHT to be so, but the GENIUS of the 
 Language does not admit it.-f* I ask no 
 more. What the Genius of a Language does 
 not admit. Pedantry will never establish. 
 
 Permit me, also, to state the Difference 
 between LY and LIKE. 
 
 The Termination — LIKE — is com- 
 pounded of TWO Words, and each Word 
 of TWO Symbols. 
 
 C — was originally the Symbol of 
 CAUSE. 
 
 I — the Symbol of regular Extent. 
 
 * The Attempt, I allow, the Success I deny, 
 t In totidem Ferbis, 
 
ADVERBS. 367 
 
 Hence I— C — implied a Cause regularly 
 extended, or IDENTITY of Cause. The 
 Coincidence of this symbolical Diction with 
 popular Expression is remarkable. In a 
 Dictionary, I shall have room to enumerate 
 a Variety of Words derived from this Source; 
 at present, it is inconvenient to notice any 
 unconnected with the Subject. IC — on sig- 
 nifies an IMAGE, from EIK — cav which is 
 the same in Greek. In Saxon, EAC— 
 means Identity^ Similitude, Hence EKE in 
 English. 
 
 Again, L — was the Symbol of Indefinite 
 and multiform Extent. Large, Long, Lati- 
 tude, Sec. 
 
 O— was the Symbol of the WHOLE, 
 or a COMPLETE INDIVIDUAL. 
 
 Hence O— L were the Symbols of the 
 WHOLE EXTENT. Thus ox~o^ the 
 WHOLE, in Greek. Hence h-OL-e, a cir- 
 cular Aperture; anciently limited in its Use 
 to an Aperture Hke a Ring or Circle. Hence 
 also wh — OL — e,the Totality ; and ALL, or, 
 as anciently written, OLL, the WHOLE in 
 Weight, Number, and Extent. 
 
36s ADVERBS. 
 
 <iy In the Arnioric Language — ALL — is naw written— 
 OLL— and in Welsh, h— OLL. 
 
 IC — Image^ Likeness, Similitude, &c. may 
 be used alone, hero — IC ; or with ALL — after 
 it — hero— ICALL; or with — ALL — before 
 it—God— LIKE, ALL— LIKE God. 
 
 OL — IC, or, as it is now written, AL — 
 IKE, may be rendered AL— SO, or ALL the 
 SAME. 
 
 If The Termination — LY — is not de- 
 rived from — LIKE — as the Bishop of Lon- 
 don, Dr. Johnson, and other celebrated Men 
 imagine. Nor is it a Noun of Similitude. 
 Dai— ]y. Week— ly. Month— ly, Year— ly, 
 &c. do not mean, LIKE the Day, LIKE 
 the Week, &c. 
 
 LY— is a kindred Word to— LEAD. 
 It is a venerable Term for a ROAD, or a 
 WAY. Thus Westbury LY* means the West- 
 bury ROAD— the ROAD to Westbury. 
 
 It is an erroneous Opinion adopted by 
 Dr. Johnson that — LY — at the End of the 
 
 * In Wiltshire. 
 
ADVERBS. 369 
 
 Name of a Town means — FIELD ; for LY 
 is a considerable Distance from Westbury, 
 and separated by a Village and a ForcL It 
 was the Practice of our Ancestors, when they 
 made a Road or Communication between 
 Towns of Name, as Westbury was in the 
 Time of the Saxon Kings, to add — LY — in 
 the Sense in which we use ROAD — the City 
 Tload^ Uxbridge Road^ &c. 
 
 Hence, you acted wiseLY, you did it 
 badLY, &c. mean simply, you acted in a wise 
 WAY, you did it in a bad WAY. Wise 
 LED, bad LED. 
 
 The Saxon Leaj a Field or Meadow^ is 
 not LY— but LEE. 
 
 " You 11 forget the little Plough Boy, 
 " That whistled o'er the Lee/' 
 
 AVeekLY, WeekLY Servitude, &c. 
 mean, that WAY, that Mode of serving 
 your Employer. By the Week. 
 
 ^ Nothing can be more natural and 
 analogous to our national Diction than the 
 following Passages. We should live soberLY, 
 righteoiisLYyand godLY, in this present World, 
 
 2 A 
 
370 ADVERBS. 
 
 Yet the Bishop of London censures GODLY 
 as uugrammatical ! It ought to be " godLI- 
 " LY !" How great a Pity that so fine an Un- 
 derstanding should be perverted by a meta- 
 physical Imagination! GodLY means in 
 the WAY of God, the only Way in which 
 we can travel to a better World. It is most 
 beautifully described by a Prophet,* and by 
 One greater than a Prophet.-f 
 
 5r General Rule for the Use of LY. 
 When you desire to specify the WAY or 
 Manner in which an ACTION or ATTRI- 
 BUTE exists, it is more usual and elegant to 
 annex — LY — to the Word that Modifies the 
 Action or Attribute than to omit it. e. g. It 
 is wiseLY done^ beautiful LY painted — extreme- 
 LY rich, &c. 
 
 But take particular Notice — if the Word 
 which modifies the Action or Attribute can 
 be legitimately referred to the SUBJECT, or 
 to the OBJECT of the Proposition,— LY— 
 may be omitted, e, g. 
 
 PREVIOUS to my Inquiry into the Nature of Con- 
 junctions, I PRESENT you with some REMARKS on 
 
 * Isaiuh XXXV. f John iv. 6. 
 
ADVERBS. 371 
 
 mental Association. I have here a twofold Reference at my 
 Option. If I choose to refer— PREVIOUS— to— RE- 
 MARKS — then — LY — is unnecessary ; for the Construction 
 is — I present you with some Remarks (which are) previous to 
 my Inquiry into the Nature of Conjunctions. But if I refer 
 —PREVIOUS— to— PRESENT^the Genius of our Lan- 
 guage requires the Attendance of — LY. 
 
 This important Distinction obviously escaped the Bishop 
 of London ; and His Lordship has accordingly censured some 
 Expressions which are as correct as any in our Language. 
 
 The Omission of — which is, and which are, who is, and 
 who are — is very elegant on many Occasions, v. g. A Man 
 (who is) devoted to sensual Appetites, &c. 
 
 REMARKS ON THE USE OF OTHER 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 % But though the Barometer thus measures the Weight 
 of the Air with sufficient Exactness for the Common Pur- 
 poses of Life, it is subject to Irregularities which no Exact- 
 ness in the Instrument can remedy, NOR NO Theory 
 accountybr.* 
 
 1 am happy that the Learned now avoid DOUBLE 
 Negatives. It is a Mode of Expression that offers Violence 
 to COMMON SENSE. That it is used in Greek, I know 
 and lament. In modern Saxon also — I mean the Saxon 
 Version of the Bible — 1 have seen FOUR Negatives ! And 
 the Commonalty frequently say — *' I woN'T have NO- 
 
 • Dr. Goldsmith. 
 
 2 A 2 
 
372 
 
 ADVERBS, 
 
 '* THING to do with no Man that doesN'T do NO Harm to 
 *^ me/' Vulgar and detestable Stuff!! 
 
 ^ Though Air be exposed to the greatest Vicissitudes of 
 Heat or Cold, though it be pressed together with the utmost 
 Violence of human Force, assisted by Machinery, or kept 
 NEVER so long in the closest Vessel, it never loses its fluid 
 Quality.* Another Vulgarism, '^ It ought to be EVER 
 so long. 
 
 1[ The Rainbow is the only Meteor for which we can 
 clearly account; but NO Illustrations are better than FALSE 
 Illustrations. + Ambiguity ! ! TRUE Illustrations are un- 
 doubtedly better than FALSE illustrations. 
 
 If There are certainly Miseries in Idleness, which the 
 Idler can ONLY conceive.X I dare to say, he FEELS 
 them, <i^' ONLY ought tabe placed as nearly as possible 
 to the Word to which it is related. Which only the IDLER 
 can conceive. When there is no Danger of Obscurity, you 
 may venture to depart from the rigid Observance of this 
 Rule. 
 
 % When the renowned Captain Gam was told at the 
 Battle of A gincourt, that the French were six Times more 
 numerous than the English, he replied, then there are ENOW 
 to be killed, ENOW fo be taken Prisoners, and ENOW to 
 run away. This was the ancient Use of ENOW. Enoughy 
 singular. Enow, plural. Polite Authors no\y use — SUFFI- 
 CIENT— with the plural. Forces SUFFICIENT, instead 
 of Forces ENOW. 
 
 ^ Be so obliging as to consult Dr. Johnson on the De- 
 rivation and Use of— HENCE— , or THENCE. 
 
 * Dr. Goldsmith, vol. ii. 42 Survey, 
 t Ditto, vol. ii. 401. Dr. Johnson. 
 
ADVERBS. 
 
 373 
 
 S. B. As to the Etymology, he withhold* his own 
 Opinion. But he informs us that Minshew derives 
 THENCE from— THERE HENCE. 
 
 A. Happy Confusion of Ideas ! Life and Death are 
 not more heterogeneous. 
 
 S. B. It is not to be used, he adds, in *' Construction 
 '* with FROM — for it is a Barbarism" 
 
 A. Does he assign any Reason for pronouncing — 
 from thence — a Barbarism^^ 
 
 S. B. No. 
 
 A. Then shut the Book. What is tlie Meaning of— 
 INDE? 
 
 S. B. THENCE, 
 
 A. DE— INDE?* 
 
 S. B. FROM THENCE., 
 
 A. Was Tully a Barbarian? Not that I intend to jus- 
 tify-;^ro m thence — on foreign Authority. I disdain the 
 Practice. But if a Redundancy of local and ideal Reference 
 constitute Vi Barbarism, Dr. Johnson was a VANDAL in 
 Literature .i* 
 
 For the Purposes of Inference and local Departure, 
 I recommend WHENCE, HENCE, THENCE, as more 
 concise and more elegant than--^7om whence, from hence^ 
 from thence, 
 
 % THAN, It is a Question undecided by the Learned, 
 what Case is required after THAN ? Dr. Priestley is an 
 advocate for an " oblique Case;" perhaps, in the Doctor's 
 
 * Cicero, 
 t fc^ In his Life of Savage, the Doctor himself uses /rom heme. 
 
374 ADVERBS. 
 
 Judgment, it sounds better * But my Veiieiation for Truth 
 does not allow me to sacrifice it to Sound. In Fact, there is 
 no Concord of szceet Soutids half so melodious as STER- 
 LING SENSE. 
 
 The Bishop of London is the Patron of another Opinion 
 — " the Noun zvhich follows THAN is not governed hy it, 
 " hut agrees zioiththe Verh, or is governed bit/ the Verb, or the 
 " Preposition expressed,-\- or understood ; as thou art ztiser than 
 ** I (am)" But the Instance adduced to corroborate this Hy- 
 pothesis unfortunately subverts it — thou art zioiser than I am 
 WISER. 
 
 The late Dr. Salter, Master of the " Charter" House, 
 sent for the ingenious Mr. Baker, to rebuke him for his Cen- 
 sure of this Passage in Pope's Dunciad. 
 
 The King of Dikes, THAN WH03I no Sluice of MUD 
 
 With deeper Sahle blots the Silver Flood. 
 
 '* I heard what he had to say," said Baker, *' without 
 ** being at all convinced." 
 
 The Construction — THAN whom — is 
 indefensible. Propriety is sacrificed to 
 Sound. But let us advert to Fact. In the 
 first Place, the Word, thAn, is an '' Adverb'' 
 of Time.J Thus in Gothic § if/XN, tumy 
 
 * The Doctor's usual Criterion : he also supposes than 
 to be a Preposition. 
 
 + The French, with great Propriety, always omit the 
 "Verb." Son amant est plus beau, et plus riche QVELLE, 
 
 J In the last Century, and in the old Translation of the 
 JBible, it was spelt thEn. 
 
 § Greek Types for Gothic. 
 
ADVERBS. 375 
 
 tunc^ means thEn. In Saxon it also means 
 thEn. 
 
 The Saxon— ER or ERE— by which 
 Comparisons are made, means FIRST, or 
 PRIORITY of Motion. It is in Use even 
 in English. Our fruitful Nile flowed ERE 
 the wonted Season,^ that is, BEFORE the 
 wonted Season. Hence, you are wisER than 
 I, means, you are wise FIRST thEn I. You 
 are FIRST in Wisdom thEn I. This is the 
 Whole Mystery. Men had Occasion to make 
 Comparisons Ages before Metaphysicians 
 dreamed of " profound Relations.'' 
 
 Hence, also, a simple and infallible Rule 
 for the Construction of the Noun, or Pronoun 
 which follows — THAN. It must correspond 
 in " Case" or Termination with the other 
 Part of the Comparison, v. g. I love HIM 
 moRE than THEM— I love him the FIRST 
 BEST, as the Vulgar express it, and THEN 
 I love them, <i^ Were I to write THEY, on 
 the present Occasion, the Correspondence 
 would be completely deranged, and the Sense 
 be this — I love him better than they love 
 him. 
 
 And thus negatively. I am NOT wiser 
 
 * Djyden. 
 
576 ADVFiRBS. 
 
 than you. That is, I have not PRECE- 
 DENCE in Wisdom— You are notSECOND 
 to me in Wisdom. 
 
 Again. I do not speak best-ER than yoii^ 
 or, as it is now pronounced and written, I do 
 not speak bettER than you. That is, I am not 
 the FIRST Orator and you the SECOND. 
 Here we have Simplicity and Precision in the 
 highest Degree.* And hence the Impro- 
 priet}^ of the Bishop of London's censure of 
 Swift and Others for Phrases like the follow- 
 ing — " The Assertions of this Author are 
 " easiER detected; for easier signifies with su- 
 ^' perior Ease." His Lordship would have 
 written EASILIER, or more EASILY— 
 precisely the same idea in a different Dress; 
 for easilier and more easily mean — in a more 
 easy WAY. It is a general Rule in Compo- 
 sition, never to use two Words, if one be 
 equally expressive ; hence, in point of ele^ 
 gance, the Phrase censured by this celebrated 
 Critic deserves the Preference ; but his Lord- 
 ship rashly condemned it, as " improper and 
 contrary to the Genius of our Language /" f 
 
 «6 
 
 *For the true Signification of BEST, BETTER, and 
 innumerable other Words, I must refer the Reader to the 
 Dictionary proposed in the Conclusion of thi^ Essay. 
 t Page 159. 
 
ADVERBSi 377 
 
 NOR. OR. NEITHER. EITHER. 
 
 As many Persons, laudably studious of 
 Perspicuity and Elegance, are frequently 
 embarrassed with Respect to the Words be- 
 fore us, I am induced to add a clear and 
 comprehensive Rule for using them ; which 
 is the more necessary, as the Bishop of Lon- 
 don and the whole Corps of subordinate Cri- 
 tics do not appear to be familiar with the 
 Subject. His Lordship indeed seems to be a 
 Stranger to NOR and OR. For Instance, the 
 the following Passage is censured as ungram- 
 matical. " This is another Use of Medals, 
 " that, in my Opinion, is NEITHER capable 
 " of pleasing the Understanding, OR the Ima- 
 '' gination/' Addison. 
 
 I ask leave to remark — with great defer- 
 ence to a venerable Character, that his Lord- 
 ship's Censure is of little Service to Students. 
 It is not corroborated by satisfactory Evi- 
 dence; nor accompanied by such Directions 
 as may. guard them from similar Errors in 
 other Forms of Expression. 
 
 The Sentence imder Consideration is 
 
378 ADVERBS. 
 
 undoubtedly incorrect. But his Lordship's 
 Emendation still leaves it inelegant. 
 
 Definition of the Words. The Etymology 
 and Import of NOR and OR, NEITHER and 
 EITHER, I reserve for the Dictionary. But 
 the Definition, as given by the Bishop of Lon- 
 don and Dr. Johnson, deserves immediate 
 Notice. EITHER, is a " Distributive CON- 
 " junction," and OR, a " Disjunctive CON- 
 " junction ! ! \" This Distinction is too sub- 
 hme for a vulgar Understanding. 
 
 RULE 1. Nor and Or, Neither and Ei- 
 ther, may be referred to the OBJECT, or to 
 the ACTION. 
 
 RULE 2. In both Cases, place them 
 AFTER the "Verb." E.G. 
 
 Reference to the Object. It will please 
 NEITHER the Understanding NOR the 
 Imagination. It will please EITHER the 
 Understanding OR the Imagination. 
 
 Reference to the Action. It will PLEASE 
 neither the Understanding nor the Imagina- 
 tion. It will PLEASE either the Under- 
 standing OR the Imagination. 
 
ADVERBS. 379 
 
 N. B. If more than ONE " Verb" be 
 EXPRESSED, the Words, nor, neither; or, 
 ezVAer, must be placed BEFORE the " Verbs/' 
 E.G. 
 
 It will neither IMPROVE the Under- 
 standing, nor DELIGHT the Imagination. 
 
 This Construction is correct; but the 
 Observance is not to be exacted with Rigour. 
 It is indisputably more ELEGANT than a 
 POSTposition ; but as the latter violates no 
 Law of Grammar,* it is pardonable. That 
 I may not be accused of giving a Preference 
 without assigning a Reason, permit me to 
 subjoin Proof of its Superiority. E. G. 
 
 It will improve NEITHER the Under- 
 standing, NOR — delight the Imagination. The 
 Impropriety in the arrangement will be ob- 
 vious, if we pause at NOR, and inquire what 
 other OBJECT will not be improved, e. g. 
 It will improve neither the Understanding, nor, 
 nor what? nor the delight the Ima- 
 gination, which is Nonsense. 
 
 But if we transpose NEITHER, and ask 
 
 * Unless accurate arrangement be a Rule of Gram- 
 mar. 
 
380 ADVERBS. 
 
 the same Question, the Answer will be cor- 
 rect, e. g. It will neither improve the Under- 
 standing nor — the hnagination. But when you 
 intend to use TWO " Verbs/' the Question 
 
 may be stated thus It will NEITHER 
 
 improve the Understandings NOR— do what? 
 NOR delight the Imagination, 
 
 RULES. EITHER, may be elegantly 
 omitted, e. g. Any Method of wearing out the 
 Day is more eligible to the Sensual and the Indo^ 
 lejit, than the Use of such Books as may ( ) 
 rectify their Notions, OR enlarge their Com- 
 prehension. Dr. Johnson. 
 
 N. B. Instances of an Ellipsis of — 
 NEITHER — occur in ancient Authors. 
 " He declared that ***=**=* ^ all the Appli- 
 '* cation he could make, NOR the Kings Inter- 
 " position, could prevail with Her Majesty,''* 
 This abbreviated Form is obsolete. 
 
 Let us now return to the Quotation from 
 Addison, # 
 
 In the first Place, it is FAULTY. The 
 Word, neithER, claims PRIORITY in Ne- 
 
 ' * Lord Clarendon. B. L. G. 
 
ADVERBS. 381 
 
 gation, as eitliER does PRIORITY in Affir- 
 mation. They are both RELATIVE Terms, 
 and ought ever to be attended with their 
 proper Correspondents, OR and NOR. 
 
 The Correspondence between NEI- 
 THER and NOR is manifest, e. g. He is 
 NEITHER dead. Every One perceives a 
 Defect. But if we add-— NOR indisposed^ 
 the Sense is complete. 
 
 NOR follows NEITHER, and any other 
 Negatives, e. g. He is NEITHER dead, 
 NOR indisposed. He is NOT dead, NOR 
 indisposed. He is UNwell^ NOR have we 
 any Hopes of his Recovery. 
 
 NOT is an ABSOLUTE Negative. 
 We do not say— He is NEITHER dead. 
 He is NOR dead. But we say— He is NOT 
 
 dead. 
 
 NOR is the proper Word for TRANSI- 
 TIONS. Hence it may be preceded by 
 affirmative Propositions as well as by those 
 which are negative, e. g. He is in Prison. 
 NOR has he any Prospect of being liberated. 
 
 It is compounded of the Negative — 
 
382 ADVERBS. 
 
 NE — and — OR. He is in Prison — more than 
 that — over and above that — he has NO Prospect 
 of being liberated. He is in Prison — NOR 
 — moreover — has he any Prospect of being 
 liberated. 
 
 The Termination of— NEITHER-^ is 
 equivalent to FIRST. The Termination of 
 —NOR— is equivalent to MOREOVER. He 
 is neithER dead, NE-OR indisposed. That is 
 —FIRST, he is NOT dead— MOREOVER, 
 he is NOT indisposed. He is NOT — in the 
 FIRST Place — dead — he is NOT — moreover 
 — indisposed. *^^ I recommend a strict ob- 
 servance of this Rule to all who are studious 
 of Precision and Elegance. Many excellent 
 Authors, not being apprized of the true Sig- 
 nification of — NEITHER — have inadvert- 
 ently used it instead of — NOR — especially 
 in Transitions. 
 
 Mr. Addison's Sentence is, in the first 
 Place, incorrect, because — NEITHER — has 
 after it no Correspondent. It is NEITHER 
 capable of pleasing the Understanding, The 
 Sense is obviously incomplete, for the Word 
 — OR — must be considered as adding 
 
 0:1" For Abab, in the preceding Number, read Abba. 
 Hebrew. 
 
ADVERBS. 383 
 
 Imagination — to explain what is meant by 
 Understanding — as we say the summum bonum 
 OR chief Good. It is neither capable of im- 
 proving the Understandings NOR (capable) of 
 delighting the Imagination. Here the Sense 
 is complete. 
 
 Secondly, the Arrangement is inaccu- 
 rate. NEITHER— ought to be between the 
 *' Verb'' and its Object, according to Rule 2. 
 
 And hence the Bishop of London's 
 Emendation leaves the Passage reprehensible 
 as INELEGANT, e. g. It is NEITHER 
 capable of pleasing the Understanding NOR — 
 nor capable of what? 
 
 The Truth is, the real Error of the Pas- 
 sage escaped the Discernment of the worthy 
 Prelate. Addison used— NEITHER— in- 
 stead of— NOT.— 1^25 NOT capable of pleas- 
 ing (EITHER) the Understanding OR the 
 Imagination. According to Rule 3, EITHER 
 is elegantly omitted, and — NOT — being a 
 Negative ABSOLUTE^ is properly placed 
 before the Action which it denies, e. g. '' It 
 " is the great Excellence of Learning that it is 
 
 *" 1 mean, having no Relation to any antecedent or sub- 
 sequent Negative. 
 
o84 ADVERBS. 
 
 " NOT confined to Season, OR to Climate; 
 
 " to the Citij, or the Country, but may he cul- 
 
 " tivated and enjoyed where no other Pleasure 
 
 " can be obtained/' Dr. Johnson. 
 
 Even if Mr. Addison had written— NOT 
 — his Lordship's Correction is admissible only 
 on the Plea of adding Vehemence to the 
 Negation.* In strict Propriety, a Sentence 
 thus constructed involves a Solecism, e. g. It 
 is NOT capable of pleasing (NEITHER)f 
 the Understanding NOR the Imagination, We 
 have here TWO Negatives, which, in correct 
 English, make an Affirmative, e. g. It is 
 NOT capable of pleasing the Understanding, 
 NOR it is NOT capable of pleasing the Ima- 
 gination. X 
 
 Thus it appears, that — OR — preceded 
 by — NOT — is correct and elegant. And 
 
 * Or on the Supposition of an Ellipsis and Transpo- 
 sition. 
 
 t Authors frequentlyinsert— NEITHER— after NO 
 and NOT. e. g. He has NO Estate, NEITHER in Eng- 
 land NOR in Wales, He has NOT any Estate, NEI- 
 THER in England NOR in Wales, 
 
 J By a Transposition and a violent Ellipsis, we may 
 solve the Construction without a Solecism, e. g. It is NOT 
 capable of pleasing the Understanding, NOR {IS IT CA- 
 PABLE OF PLEASING) the Imagination. 
 
ADVERBS. 385 
 
 that— NOR— preceded by— NEITHER— 
 with the Bishop of London's Arrangement is 
 inaccurate and inelegant ; and if preceded 
 by — NOT — it involves a Solecism, pardon- 
 able on the Plea of affording an imaginary 
 Strength to the Negation.* 
 
 I add, for the Information of younger 
 Students, that — NOR is he — NOR is it, &c. 
 — are equivalent to — He is not moreover — It 
 is not moreover, &c. ; and when these equiva- 
 lent Forms of Expression destroy the Sense, 
 or obscure it, the Use of— NOR — ^is im- 
 proper. 
 
 And when the Phrase — in the first "Place 
 he is not — in the first Place it is not, &c.— 
 
 cannot be substituted for He is NEI-^ 
 
 THER—It is NEITHER, &c.— we may 
 rest assured that the Use of— NEITHER 
 — on that Occasion, is inelegant if not absurd* 
 
 * And under the Idea of an Ellipsis and Transposition. 
 
 2 B 
 
OF 
 
 ARTICLES, 
 
 The Origin and proper Use of AR- 
 TICLES are of the utmost Moment in the 
 Philosophy of Language. The Subject is, at 
 present, involved in the profoundest Ob- 
 scurity. But as it is too interesting to " he 
 *' left lagging lehind^ and adjected like a Tail to 
 " the End'* of a Treatise^ as Dr. Blair expres- 
 ses the Idea,* I must defer it to a future oc- 
 casion. 
 
 I desire Leave to make a transient Re- 
 mark on a Passage in the fifth Letter of a 
 Series pubHshed in the Oxford Magazine. f 
 " The Article — THE — before Superlatives, is 
 '' frequently omitted by the SCOTS (who 
 " have not contributed a little to corrupt our 
 " Language by the Multiplicity of their 
 " Works), and before Substantives, even when 
 
 * Lectures on Rhetoric, vol. i. p. 223. f 1768. 
 
ARTICLES. 387 
 
 *' they are used in an eminent or emphati- 
 " cal Sense, and require a Definitive the 
 " most/' 
 
 The Charge of corrupting our Language 
 by the Omission of the " ARTICLE"— THE 
 — is groundless. 
 
 In Fact, the Omission of '^ Articles" and 
 " Definitives'' of every Sort, affords Strength 
 and Elegance to Composition. But the fre- 
 quent Recurrence of WHAT, and THAT, and 
 WHICH, &c. is inelegant, and to be avoided. 
 Excepting on certain Occasions, which will 
 be particularized in the Dictionary under the 
 respective Words, it is not more necessary to 
 use them, than it is to hold a Person by the 
 Coat with one Hand and to point to his Face 
 with the other, in Order to inform him that he 
 is the Object of your Address, or the Subject 
 of your Discourse. Notwithstanding the fol- 
 lowing Passage is Part of a Speech in Parlia- 
 ment, I do not hesitate to pronounce it vulgar 
 and inelegant. '' The Hon, Gentleman mistakes 
 " what I said, I did not say THAT — I said 
 " THIS HERE, THAT THAT Hon. Mem- 
 " ber THERE had promised to move for a 
 " Repeal of THAT Act, and THAT he said 
 " THAT THAT was not his onhj Objection 
 
 2 B 2 
 
388 ARTICLES. 
 
 " to it THAT he made THERE at THAT 
 
 " Timer 
 
 Dr. Blair is of Opinion that the Omission 
 of — WHICH — is inelegant,* and accordingly 
 
 he censures this Passage The Dominions 
 
 we possessed^ and the Conquests we make, ^c. 
 and contends for the Insertion of WHICH 
 — The Dominions WHICH we possessed, and 
 the Conquests WHICH we made, ^c. They are 
 equally clear and intelHgible ; but, in point 
 of Strength and Elegance, the censured Pas- 
 sage is greatly superior. 
 
 In this Essay, I have often used a languid 
 Identity of expression, and countenanced 
 many Phrases which in Judgment I condemn,^ 
 that Metaphysical Grammarians may not 
 suppose me ignorant of imaginary Excel- 
 lences. But were I at a Loss for high Autho- 
 rity to defend the Omission of — WHICH — 
 I would resort to Dr, Blair himself, for our 
 learned Lawgiver is subject to the common 
 Fate of metaphysical Critics ; in the same 
 Page, in the very Sentence, in which he pre- 
 scribes a Rule, he violates it.f " It appears 
 ^^ from the authentic Documents ( ) he pro- 
 
 * Vol. i. p. 229. 
 + Remarkably so, in one Instance. 
 
ARTICLES. 389 
 
 " duces, that such is their genuine Style-" ^ 
 Again. " The Pleasure ( ) we receive from 
 *' Imitations, ''"^ " To this Point have tended all 
 " the Rules ( ) I have given, 
 
 
 I might multiply Instances, but it is not 
 necessary. In the Dictionary, I purpose to 
 give Directions when to insert, and when 
 to omit.— WHICH—THAT— and all the 
 " PARTICLES'^ in our Language. I find 
 it impossible to complete my original Design 
 in the Compass of an Octavo Volume ; nor 
 do I conceive that any Plan of verbal Criti- 
 cism can be perfect, unless it embrace ALL 
 the Words of the Language. 
 
 ♦ Dr. Blair, vol. i. p. 114. f 21. % 245. 
 
I shall be happy if the following Outlines of a 
 Dictionary^ on the Frinciples of this Essay ^ be 
 honoured with public Approbation, 
 
 PROPOSALS 
 
 NEW ENGLISH DICTIONARY 
 
 It has been publicly affirmed by a Gentleman already 
 named, that Dr. Johnson's Dictionary is a wretched Per- 
 formance, and a DISGRACE to the Nation which pa- 
 tronised it. 
 
 Other Gentlemen have published their Sentiments in 
 Terms equally severe. '^ I am surprised that all the Authors 
 *' of the Dictionaries of the English Language have copied 
 " Dr. Johnson's ridiculous Definitions. If Johnson's be 
 " reckoned the best, what must the other Dictionaries be ? 
 " And what must we think of those who mistake a Book, 
 " filled with such stupid Assemblages of Words, for a learned 
 " Composition ?" =^ 
 
 Another Gentleman delivers his Opinion with similar 
 Freedom. *' Dr. Johnson's Dictionary exhibits in every 
 " Page, perhaps without a single Exception, a Variety of 
 " Errors and Absurdities. The Doctor has repeatedly al- 
 ^' lowed, that his Book is deformed by a Profusion of 
 " Errors." t 
 
 * Mirror, abridged, No. 12. t Essay 1784. Stockdale. 
 
Proposals for a New English Dictionary. 39 1 
 
 Mr. Tooke, in his Essay, declares that Dr. Johnson was 
 so sensible of his Errors, that he intended to adopt the Defini- 
 tions suggested by him, in a Letter to Mr. Dunning. If this 
 be true, it proves that the Author's " wild Blunders^ and 
 " risible Absurdities' — I am now quoting the Language of 
 his Preface — served to bring Conviction Home to his own 
 Breast, as well as " to furnish Po% with Laughter, and to 
 *' harden Ignorance into Contempt " Does it add to the 
 Reputation of Dr. Johnson, that he published a Dictionary 
 with such Blunders and Absurdities as FOOLS might dis- 
 cover, and the ILLITERATE despise? 
 
 We are informed by Mr. Whitaker,* that upwards of 
 THREE THOUSAND Errors occur in Dr. Johnson's 
 Dictionary, in DERIVATIONS only! And I affirm, on a 
 very moderate Computation, that upwards of TWELVE 
 HUNDRED Words, inserted in this celebrated Work, are 
 not to be found in any Author, in any Language in the World. 
 But though called into Being by a Man of such transcendent 
 Fame, I dare affirm they will be speedily consigned to 
 Oblivion. 
 
 Consummate Skill in DERIVATION is the first Ex- 
 cellence of a Lexicographer. Precision in the DEFINI- 
 TION of Words is next in Value and Importance. 
 
 Thousands of Dr. Johnson's Definitions are CIR- 
 CUITOUS, and consequently they convey no Information, 
 e.g. LONG *' not short:' SHORT " not long.'' BLOT 
 '^aBlur." BLUR " a Blot." YOUNG *' not oW 
 OLD " not young." 
 
 Some of his Definitions have the appearance of ^^nigmas. 
 e.g. A WHIP, '' an Instrument of Correction^ tough and 
 *' pliant ! !" The Terms tough yet pliant verge on Non- 
 sense. 
 
 * History of Mancliesler. 
 
392 Proposals for a New English Dictionary. 
 
 COMMON SENSE might have apprized Dr. John- 
 son, that every Native in the Kingdom, of the i\ge of three 
 Years, has a much clearer Idea of a Whip, than his Defini- 
 tion is capable of conveying. And as to a Foreigner, it is im- 
 possible he should know what the Doctor means by a WHIP, 
 from the Definition here given. 
 
 NET-W^ORK " anything reticulated or decussated at 
 " equal Distances." 
 
 Not One Native in five hundred comprehends the Terms 
 of this curious Definition. Dr. Johnson's Dictionary abounds 
 with similar Absurdities. It was the usual Practice of this 
 celebrated Lexicographer to define Words by a rotular Pro- 
 cess, and to explain an IGN0TU3I per IGNOTJUS, It 
 ought to be considered, that the Import of many hundred 
 Words is so clearly understood by the NATIVES, that the 
 very Attempt to make them better known is ridiculous. It is 
 proper to notice the FIGURATIVE Use of a popular 
 Term for the Benefit even of Natives. But as to a FO- 
 REIGNER, the correspondent Word in his own Language 
 is the best Explanation. A Parisian will, in a Moment, 
 comprehend the Signification of Net-work, if you inform him 
 it is RESEAU. But he cannot comprehend Doctor John- 
 son's Explanation, unless he have a previous Knowledge of 
 the Thing defined, and then the Explanation is USELESS. 
 
 But the Doctor's Definitions and Derivations are not 
 merely useless ; they are sometimes erroneous^ and frequently 
 ABSURD, e. g. 
 
 MAN is a human Being. 2. Not a Woman. 3. Not 
 a Boy. 4. Not a Beast, 
 
 It is impossible for Language to convey a clearer Idea 
 of the nominal Essence of MAN, than what we obtain from 
 
Proposals for a New English Dictionary. 393 
 
 Experience. The Doctor informs us, that MAN is a 
 MANLY Being. And after thus sagaciously informing us 
 M'hat Man IS, it was absurd to a Degree of being eminently 
 ridiculous, to proceed to what Man IS NOT. And especi- 
 ally, after telhng us MAN is a HUMAN Being, to add — 
 not a BEAST, was a Step beyond being ridiculous. What 
 Mortal was ever in danger of supposing a BEAST to be a 
 MAN ? With equal Propriety, he might have extended his 
 negative Definitions to the End of the Volume. MAN, not 
 a Bird. Not a Fish. Not a Fossil. Not a Plant. Not 
 a House. Not a Mountain, &c. 
 
 OFF — not on. Had Dr. Johnson given us a just Et^/- 
 mology of the '' PARTICLES" of Speech, he had gratified 
 the Learned, and been a real Benefactor to his Country. But 
 the Doctor's Powers were exhausted in telling us, that OFF 
 is not on, and ON, 7iot o/'— that PUDDING-PIE is com- 
 pounded of Pudding and Pie, and PORRIDGE-POT, of 
 Porridge and Pot ! 
 
 NOTHING. No fewer than NINETEEN Defini- 
 tions are employed on — Nothing. 
 
 What Child needs a Definition of BUTTER? But 
 what MAN, Native or Foreigner, is the wiser when told, 
 that Butter is an unctuous Substance? Many other Sub- 
 stances are unctuous. 
 
 If it be advisable to give, occasionally, a philosophical 
 Definition, the best Authorities ought to be consulted. Sir 
 Isaac Newton, for Instance, has given a correct and expres- 
 sive Definition of a certain Production of Nature, which Dr. 
 Johnson has involved in profound obscurity. ^Wflf younger 
 Readers may amuse themselves with inquiring what it is that 
 consists of " Small, smooth, hard, porous, spherical Particles ?" 
 
39^ Proposals for a New English Dictionary. 
 
 Again, what is that which Dr. Johnson defines — Efflo- 
 resceiices, exanthematous Eruptions r 
 
 It would be too severe to ask them, what this Goliah in 
 the Republic of Literature understood by the Definition — a 
 BRIGHT FLAME, for I imagine they would never con- 
 ceive it to be THUNDER. They have never heard that 
 SOUNDS are either hotj or cold, light , or dark, 
 
 A CONDOLER, « one who COMPLIMENTS 
 another upon his MISFORTUNES T This is a Specimen 
 of Dr. Johnson's ludicrous Definitions. 
 
 RUST, " the red DESQUAMATION on OLD 
 Iron'^ NEW Iron will rust as soon as OLD. It would 
 have been ostentatious Pedantry to use Desquamation — had 
 it been correct ; but, on this Occasion, it is incorrect, 
 
 POKER. '' The Iron Bar with which MEN stir the 
 Fire." Every Child in the Kingdom has a satisfactory Idea 
 of a POKER, but of the Thing of which the Doctor speaks, 
 not either Natives or Foreigners have any Conception. A 
 Poker is not, in correct Speech, a Bar of Iron, anymore 
 than a Knife, or a Needle. But admitting it to be a Bar of 
 un7!)rought Iron, do WOMEN never use it? 
 
 I reverence Dr. Johnson as an able and elegant De- 
 fender of moral Virtue. But his Skill as an Historian of 
 Words was below Mediocrity. His Derivations are, in gene- 
 ral, borrowed. When he ventures, in his own Strength, to 
 draw the Bow of an Etymologist, he discovers the Imbecility 
 of his Powers, and betrays incredible IGNORANCE of 
 Languages, ancient and modern. Even in the easier De- 
 partments of his Duty, he confounds Agents with Objects, 
 «nd Causes with Effects. Thus he defines HOPE, " that 
 " \s\{ic\i gives HOPE." 
 
Proposals for a New English Dictionary, 395 
 
 ^ In the Dictionary, which 1 purpose to submit to pub- 
 lic Opinion, the subsequent Method will be pursued. 
 
 1. Will be given the Symbolical Signification of a Word, 
 whenever it can be ascertained with indisputable Precision. 
 
 2. Its natural Import. 
 
 3. lis figurative Application. 
 
 4. Its Difference from other Words, deemed synony- 
 mous.* 
 
 5. The Fulgarisms of which such Word may be a Part. 
 
 6. A proper Attention to PRONUNCIATlONf and 
 Orthography. 
 
 7. All the Errors in the Bishop of London's Grammar 
 will be noticed, under their respective Words.J 
 
 8. The Laws of elegant Composition, selected from the 
 best Authors, with a Detail of the Errors and Contradictions 
 in Dr. Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric, will be prefixed to the 
 Work. 
 
 * In French, Dr. Blair observes, in his first Volume on Rhetoric, " there is 
 *' a very useful Treatise on this Subject. The Abbe Girard has made a large 
 " Collection of apparent Synonymes in that Language, and shewn, with much 
 " Accuracy, the difference in their Signification. It were much to be wished, 
 *' that some such Work were undertaken for our Tongue. Nothing would con- 
 «* tribute more to precise and elegant Writing." 
 
 t On this Occasion, I purpose to adopt all the Excellences in Mr. Sheri- 
 dan's Plan, and to omit what has been determined, by the unanimous Suffrages 
 of the Learned, to be erroneous and Absurd. 
 
 t This is certainly the most concise Method that can be adopted. It would 
 require many Volumes, the Size ^ Arlstarchus, to notice all the Errors in our 
 English Grammars, and to ascertain the difference in the Signification of Words 
 deemed synonymous. It is, also, the most convenient Method ; as reference 
 may be easily made to every disputable Word, or Phrase. 
 
396 Proposals for a New English Dictionary. 
 
 9. To assist Foreigners in the Acquisition of our Lan- 
 guage, the correspondent Word in German, French y and Ita- 
 lian, will be inserted immediately after the English Term. 
 Which will also be of infinite Service to Natives who are 
 learning those Languages. 
 
 10. The Passages to illustrate the Laws of Grammar 
 and Composition, will be selected with the utmost Care, that 
 Dignity of Sentiment and Elegance of Diction may adorn 
 every Page of the Work. 
 
 ^ It will be published in two full Volumes, Quarto.* 
 
 The Price to Subscribers, ONE GUINEA each Vo- 
 lume ; to be paid on Delivery. 
 
 % A few Impressions on superfine Paper, handsomely 
 bound, at 1/. lis. 6d, Each. One Guinea to be paid at the 
 Time of Subscribing. 
 
 Subscriptions are received by all the Booksellers of Re- 
 putation in Great Britain; who are requested to send the 
 Names, 8cc. to Messrs. R. and T. TURNER, Booksellers, 
 Coruhill, or to Mr. BOURNE, Panton-street, Haymarket, 
 London ; by whom the Books will be forwarded on the usual 
 Terms of the Trade. 
 
 Subscribers' Names will be published. And it is re- 
 spectfully desired of the Nobility and Others, who intend to 
 favour the Undertaking, to send their Names and Address as 
 soon as convenient, that the Number to be printed may be 
 known with Certainty. 
 
 * In Boards. The first Volume in 1790. The Second, in 1791. 
 
 Printed by J. F. Dovb, St. Jdha's Square. 
 
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