Class__ BS&L Book VVl^_ Copyright N° .,o ' IP ^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. NOTES —ON— PHARMACOGNOSY. SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. BY Otto A. Wall, Ph. G., M. D., Professor of Materia Medica, Botany and Pharmacognosy in the St I,ouis College of Pharmacy; Second Vice-President of the Com- mittee for the Revision of the Pharmocopoeia of the United States; author of The Prescription; one of the authors of the Companion to the United States Pharmacopoeia; author of System of Pharmacognosy, E)tc. ■ * ; PUBLISHED BY THE AUG. GAST BANK NOTE AND UTHO. CO., St. L/Ouis, Mo. 1902. THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, Two Copies Received FEB 1 1903 Copyright CLASS Ou Entry « XXc. No. 14- it W- C\ 1 COPY / 8. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year ltt>2, by OTTO A. WALL, M. D., Ph. G., In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. PREFACE. The object of this book is mainly to serve as notes on pharmacognosy (Waaren-Kunde) for the students in colleges of pharmacy. No student can listen to a course of lectures and derive full benefit therefrom un- less he makes memoranda of the most salient features of the lectures. On the other hand, many teachers main- tain that while the student is making note of some fact or other, he will give superficial attention or miss alto- gether something else about which the lecturer is meanwhile speaking, so that the advantage of "taking notes'* is offset by the information lost while taking them. These Notes are intended to take the place of notes which a diligent student might possibly write down for himself, so that during the lectures he can give undivided attention to the words of the lecturer, and to the illustrations and specimens shown. These Notes serve as a skeleton of the science of pharmacognosy, presenting only those main facts which a student should make an effort to remember, and around which he can later on gather and arrange further knowledge that may be acquired in post- graduate study; irrelevant descriptions and illustra- tions of plants from which drugs are derived, etc., are therefore omitted, and the illustrations represent the drugs themselves, as far as possible in natural size, and are intended to take the place of a collection of drugs as near as may be. Histological details that are not necessary in recognizing (crude) drugs are not made prominent, and many of the sections represent the appearance that can be observed with the naked eye or by aid of a simple lens. For instance: In the case of barks the examination is readily made by a smooth cut across the bark, moistening the cut end and examining with the unaided eye, or with a lens magnifying from three to ten diameters; the structure which can thus be seen is sufficient to enable us to identify the barks, and this is, therefore, all that is necessary or of direct practical use in pharmacognosy. The system adopted is based on the general prin- ciples of modern pharmacognosy as established and first published in Kurope by Schleiden and Berg, and in this country by Maisch; but in many details the arrangement is original. The numbering of the groups has been found of great practical value and conven- ience in the actual work done with the aid of this system by the students in the author's own classes. The author realizes that these rather compendious Notes on Pharmacognosy are an introduction to the study of systematic pharmacognosy rather than a "work" on the subject, yet he submits the book to the kind consideration of the pharmaceutical public with the hope that it may contribute towards popularizing this study and lead many to become interested in this useful branch of knowledge. Respectfully, the author, O. A. WALIv. November, 1902. t! Notes on Pharmacognosy. INTRODUCTION. The medical profession is divided into two branches: physicians who prescribe for the sick, and pharmacists who dispense the medicines. This division of labor has existed for thousands of years, probably because experience has taught that this arrangement is better and safer than when the same person prescribes and dispenses also. To heal the sick has always been the aim of the medi- cal profession. Healing the sick presupposes an organism which is endowed with life, and the physician must study both the organism and its environments in order that he may intelligently treat any departure from health. Certain rudimentary studies are necessary for all learned men, whatever their professions maybe. These studies are comprised in the phrase, " good, common school education " (better still, " collegiate education''), and include the "three R's," grammar, history, geography (including physical geography), physics or natural philosophy and the rudiments of the Latin language. The studies of special interest to the medical profession are: — Physics — Chemistry — Microscopy. Organism < structure: Anatomy . j ^- oplcal(IIl8tology , Health. (Action: Physiology. Organism [Structure: Path oiegical Anatomy, j ^croscopicr.!. in < Action: Pathology. Disease. [ Treatment: pharmacology. (5) NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. FUNDAMENTAL STUDIES. Physics or Natural Philosophy treats of the mechanical laws and molecular forces. There is no absolute line of distinction between this study and Chemistry, which treats of the atomic constitution of matter and explains the composition of all material things and tke changes that may take place in the atomic combina- tions. Microscopy is not, strictly speaking, a science but rather an art, because it teaches the use of the microscope and its various accessories, but the knowledge it imparts is not of use only to the medical profession, but is of equal value to every scientist and of interest to every educated person. These three studies maybe called the foundation on which is to be built up the superstructure of a thorough scientific education in any department of physical sciences. SPECIAL STUDIES. Anatomy teaches the structure of living organisms; human anatomy treats of the organs and structure of the human body. There is no sharp limit between " coarse anatomy " (structures that can be seen with the unaided eye) and "microscopical anatomy" (requiring the use of the microscope) and this division is one mainly of conve- nience. Histology treats of the microscopical or cellular structure of living organisms. Human histology, therefore, treats of the cellular elements and tissues of the human body. Physiology treats of the processes of life — healthy organ- isms; in health the various cells, tissues and organs act har- moniously together. In youth assimilation of food exceeds waste and the organism grows until it reaches maturity ; then for a time assimilation and waste balance each other, until age approaches, when waste gradually gains over assimilation, the tissues lose their vigor and a gradual decay sets in which finally results in death from old age. This is the healthy, normal destiny of the living organism. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. / Histology and physiology are so intimately related to each other that it is impossible to treat of one without speaking of the other, and the two branches of study are therefore usually taught together. When the normal harmony of action in the body is dis- turbed, we call the resulting condition " disease. " Pathological Anatomy is the study of the changes that are produced in the normal anatomy by the processes of disease; some of these changes are macroscopic and can be seen with the unaided eye, while the changes in the minuter structures, as in cells or tissues, require the aid of the microscope for recognition. Pathological anatomy is the anatomy of the body in disease. Pathology bears the same relation to pathological anatomy that physiology has to normal anatomy. It describes the actions of the organs or tissues in disease. Any or all of these branches of study may be subdivided or specialized according to the needs of the physician. The physician must know the human body in health so that he may recognize those departures from the normal that constitute sickness. He is thus enabled to make a diagnosis, i. e., he can say what is the nature of the abnormal or dis- eased condition. The prognosis is the foretelling of the probable course of the disease. But the o"b]ect of all study on the part of physicians and pharmacists is to cure the patient, and the treatment of dis- ease requires a knowledge of Pharmacology, the science of remedies and remedial measures. It is a comprehensive term and in its widest i-ense includes the study of everything that has, or is sup- posed to have, or that can have any influ- nee in curing dis- ease; an inquiry into the efficacy or inefficacy of prayers or laying on of hands is as legitimately within the scope of phar- macology as a study of the action of calomel or quinine. The term Materia Medica is often used as a synonym for pharmacology, but a fairer distinction of the term would limit its application to material things, to " medical materials. " 8 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Pharmacology demands a knowledge of several important subsidiary branches of knowledge. Pharma- cology. «■—«■* I sssssr 1 - S Zoology. Botany. Medica.) Pharmacy j g^SSST L [pharmaco- Dynamics | gp^-JJ 1, | Therapeutics. While anatomy, physiology, pathology, etc., are of more interest to the physician, a general knowledge of these studies is also necessary for the pharmacist so that he may more fully understand those branches of the medical science which more closely concern him. A student of pharmacy should acquire at least as much knowledge on these subjects as can be obtained from the careful study of some good college physiology, which treats of these subjects in a sim- ple, plain and compendious manner. The scheme of studies enumerated under Pharmacology is of direct and great importance to the pharmacist, even more so than to the physician, with the single exception of phar- macodynamics, which is of greater importance to the physi- cian and of subordinate use to the pharmacist. Chemistry and Microscopy we have already considered. In colleges of pharmacy these studies are not only of as general a nature as in technical schools, but are taught with additional special reference to the pharmacists' work. Medicines are material substances, which may either be taken into the system or applied locally, and which, when in contact with living tissues, can alter the action of cells or tissues in such a manner as to cure disease. What may at one time and in one dose be a medicine, may under other circumstances or in a different dose prove to be a, poison. Medicines are prepared from organic or inorganic ma- terials. We often read the sign " Drugs and Chemicals." Chemistry, as taught in colleges of pharmacy, treats of the general science, and of the individual inorganic and syn- thetic chemicals that are used as medicines. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 9 Pharmacognosy is the knowledge of drugs; drugs are the organic substances used in medicine and in the arts in the crude form in which they are brought into trade. Phar- macognosy teaches us how to identify drugs and how to determine their quality. Drugs are of either animal or vegetable origin. A study of animal drugs requires some knowledge of zoology, but as the animal drugs are of subordinate value or importance, zoology need not be studied to any great extent. Vegetable drugs are of vastly greater importance and therefore a knowledge of Botany is absolutely necessary to an understanding of pharmacognosy. The pharmacognocist must be able to recognize the part of plant which constitutes the drug, and he must not only be familiar with its coarse but also with its microscopical structure, and the value of a study of microscopy for the pharmacognocist cannot be exaggerated; in fact, pharmacognosy in the modern sense is an impos- sibility without a knowledge of microscopical technology and of the cellular constitution of plants, or structural botany. Pharmacy is the science, art and business of preparing, compounding and dispensing medicines. Pharmacists con- stitute a learned profession because they must study a wide scope of sciences or studies in order to qualify them- selves for their calliug; pharmacy as a profession is not inferior to medicine, and the medieval arrogant conceit of a pharmacist being «' ye hande-mayden," or " ye cooke " of 4< ye physician" ceased to have sense or meaning cen- turies ago. The tendency of modern times is specialization, and the pharmacist is a specialist in the medical profession in the same sense as the surgeon, the oculist, the gynecolo- gist or any other specialist; the specialist is not superior, neither is he inferior, to the general practitioner, but they all belong to the same profession, with equal honors, each working in his particular sphere, doing his special work for the amelioration and cure of pain and sickness. Pharmacy is an art because theoretical knowledge alone 10 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. will not make a man a good pharmacist but he must have acquired the necessary manipulative skill in laboratory work and in dispensing. We have therefore a branch of theoreti- cal pharmacy or of the Principles of Pharmacy, and another of Practical Pharmacy or Pharmaceutical Laboratory Work, Pharmacy in its dealings with the public is a business, sub- ject to the commercial laws that govern and control bus- iness in all other directions. Business tact and talent are therefore as necessary as theoretical and practical profes- sional training, to insure success. Pharmaco- Dynamics treats of the actions or effects of remedies, of the power or force or influence of all remedial measures. General pharmaco -dynamics treats of the actio-] of groups of medicines, as for instance of cathartics, anti- periodics, tonics, etc., while special pharmacodynamics treats of the actions of individual medicines, and enables us to choose the particular one remedy or combination of remedies that seems to be most appropriate in any given case. Pharmaco-dynamics investigates the action of rem- edies on the healthy as well as on the sick body, so that the action of a remedy may be understood in ail possible bearings. The application of all the knowledge of the physician for the purpose of giving relief or of curing disease in the case of the individual patient is Therapeutics, a branch of phar- maco-dynamics that treats of the use of remedies iu the concrete individual cases that a physician is called to attend. Therapeutics is the culmination, the end and aim of all medical studies, and in the widest and fullest sense such studies as Surgery, Obstetrics, Gynecology, or the use of medicines, baths, electricity, etc., are merely specialized branches of Therapeutics, of the Art of Curing or Healing. The pharmacist, then, must thoroughly study Chemistry, (theoretical and practical), Botany (structural and micro- scopical), Microscopy, Pharmacy and Pharmacognosy, and moderately thoroughly also Pharmacodynamics, includ- ing Posoiogy, or the doses of medicines, and in addition he should acquire rather more than a mere superficial knowl- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 11 edge of Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology; in other words, the educated, thoroughly qualified pharmacist must be a learned professional man. Classifications. In the prosecution of any study it is absolutely necessary to adopt some system. A haphazard random memorizing of isolated facts is of little value because the facts are not utiliz- able unless their relation to each other is fully understood. Therefore, in order to study drugs and medicines we must adopt some method of classification. We may adopt any of the following methods, or in fact, adopt several for different purposes : — Alphabetical. Rotanirnl i ^ atnra l orders alphabetically arranged. Duictmtai. j Natural orders according to natural system. Zoological. Chemical. Physiological. Therapeutical. Physiological and Therapeutical Combined. Physical Characteristics. The Alphabetical Classification is best adapted for works of reference and is used in the Pharmacopoeia and in the various commentaries, as in the Companion and the Dis- pensatories. The system has no scientific merit, but is the best and only one adapted for convenience and rapidity of reference. Botanical Classifications are of interest because they group drugs according to their family affinities, all the drugs derived from any one class of plants being enumerated together. While this system has some value in an abstract scientific sense it is of little or no practical value to the pharmacist or physician, as botanical affinities do not argue therapeutical affinities or pharmaceutical similarities. For instance : the Eubiacece furnish both cinchona and ipecac ; the Leguminosce yield a heterogeneous jumble of drugs dis- similar in physical nature as well as in medicinal activities, as gum arabic, sonua, catechu, balsam of tolu, logwood, Calabar bean, cassia fistula, red saunders, licorice root, 12 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. broom, tamarind and balsam of peru, representing the* thera- peutical groups of lenitives, laxatives, astringents, cathar- tics, blenorrhetics, narcotics, and coloring agents, and the physical groups of gums, extracts, balsams, fruits, roots, wood, leaves and flowering tops; from the Umbelliferce we derive anise, asafoetida, and conium, etc. This whole subject is of such subordinate value to the pharmacist, that students are advised not to devote much time to trying to memorize the classes of plants from which the various drugs are derived, if this must be done at the expense of practical and more important subjects of study. The Pharmacographia classifies the natural orders of plants according to a " natural system," while in some works on drugs based on botanical classification the orders of plants are arranged alphabetically. If the animal drugs were of more importance, we might be justified in adding a Zoological Classification; to the extent that these drugs are spoken of such a classification is in use, but it is of course of very inferior importance and of limited applicability. Chemical Classifications, more or less comprehensive, are used for special purposes, as for instance in pharmacy when the drugs are arranged in groups according to their con- stituents, with reference to the menstrua that are needed to exhaust them in making tinctures, fluid extracts, etc. Physiological Classifications are based on the actions of medicines as determined by experiments on lower animals or on healthy human beings. While the action as thus de- termined is not always the same as, or even similar to the action of the same drug when administered to a sick per- son, the facts found by physiological researches and exper- iments explain the manner of the action of medicines and suggest the rational and more scientific use of the remedies. Therapeutical Classifications are based on the actions of medicines in disease. The knowledge of the action of rem- edies has been obtained in the past, largely by accident or empiricism, and many absurdities were believed until modern systematic physiological research placed the study of thera- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 13 peutics on a more rational basis. Still, even now, the mode of action of many remedies and the valuable results obtained by the administration of these medicines to the sick, are but imperfectly or not at all understood, and the administration of these drugs and their preparations continues to be based on the accumulated empirical experiences of the past and present. But while a therapeutical classification is not as strictly scientific as some of the others, it is of great value to the physician, and is very valuable for the purpose of the ther- apeutist, and some therapeutical system of classification of medicines should be studied by every pharmacist as well. There are very many different systems of this kind, almost every author on therapeutics having modified previous sys- tems to suit his own theories. Perhaps the most valuable system of classification for the physician is one based on the Combined Physiological and Therapeutical consideration of medicines. In other words, a careful study of the empirical knowledge and experience of the ages by the light of modern scientific methods, gives us the best and most practical systems of classification of medicines for clinical use. A system of this kind, practically based on Headland's work on the action of drugs, is presented for study a little farther on. We have learned that Pharmacognosy is the knowledge of drugs and that it teaches us how to identify drugs and how to determine their quality. The systems of classifications already mentioned are of little or no assistance for this pur- pose and another method must be adopted. Physical Characteristics are made the basis of a system of classification whose introduction raised Pharmacognosy to be a methodical and accurate science. When we see a drug that is not known to us, we examine it carefully to find what it is; ^suppose it is a root this determination at once elimi- nates from the consideration of what it possibly can be all the drugs that are not roots and narrows us to a choice among a comparatively small number of drugs. This is what the physician would call " diagnosis by exclusion." We make a transverse section of the drug and examine 14 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. the smooth cut surface with a lens, or we may make a micro- scopical section and examine that, to determine whether it is a mono-cotyledonous or di-cotyledonous root. If it is one of the latter, we determine next whether it is a fleshy or woody root, and if the latter, whether it has a thick or thin bark; if it is either a woody root with a thick bark, or a fleshy root, we look for oil, resin or latex ducts, because we subdivide into groups with or without such ducts. Now we have probably reduced the number of drugs which the one under examination can be to a half dozen or less, and we can soon determine which one of this small number it really is. Or if we find the drug to be a leaf or flower, a bark or wood, or anything else, we proceed in a similar manner to narrow the choice to a very few names, from which it is easy to select the correct one. This is what is meant by a system of Pharmacognosy based on physical characteristics. Therapeutical Classification. Innumerable systems of therapeutical classification have been proposed ; it is impossible to devise a system of any kind of classification which shall be open to no objection; we see a weak place in one system and we attempt to better it only to find that it necessitates changes elsewhere that are more objectionable than the faults we attempted to cor- rect. The best system, therefore, remains a compromise, and it differs from other systems mainly because one author places more stress on one feature of the subject, another author more on some other feature. The following therapeutical system of classifications is given merely for the purpose of giving a general idea of the subject, and not because it is better than dozens of others, any one of which might have been used as well as an illustration : — CLASS I. HAEMATICS OR BLOOD REMEDIES. DIVISION I. RESTORATIVES. Order 1. Aliments or Foods. •• 2. Acids. " 3. Alkalies. " 4. Tonics. " 5. Chalybeates (Iron). " 6. Solvents. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 15 DIVISION II. CATALYTICS, OE ALTERATIVES Order 1. Antiphlogistics. " 2. Antisyphilitics. " 3. Antiscrofulosa. " 4. Antiarthritics. " 5. Antiscorbutics. " 6. Antiperiodics. " 7. Anticonvulsives. " 8. Antisquamosa. CLASS II. NEUROTICS OR NERVE REMEDIES. DIVISION I. STIMULANTS. Order 1. General Stimulants. " 2. Specific Stimulants. DIVISION II. NARCOTICS. Order 1. Iuebriants. " 2. Somniferants. " 3. Deliriants. DIVISION III. ASTRINGENTS. Order 1. Mineral Astringents. " 2. Vegetable Astringents. CLASS III. ELIMINANTS OR EVACUANTS. Order 1. Sialagogues. " 2. Expectorants. " 3. Emetics. " 4. Cathartics. " 5. Cholagogues. " 6. Diaphoretics. " 7. Diuretics. CLASS IV. TOPICAL OR LOCAL REMEDIES. It is outside of the purpose of these notes to go into any farther detail in regard to this subject. The meaning of the words, as far as they are not self-explanatory, can be learned from any medical dictionary, or the student may study these and other therapeutical terms in the list of therapeutical terms on page 685 of this book. Classification According to Physical Characteristics. This method of classification deals only with drugs, which are the organic substances used in medicine and the arts in the crude form in which they are brought into trade. They are grouped according to their derivation from animals or 16 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. plants, and secondarily according to whether they show organic or cell structure or not. j Animal. Drugs. { Vegetable. j Showing cell -structure. I Showing no cell structure. { Showing cell-structure. } Showing no cell -structure. Showing cell- structure. Animal Drugs. s. $ Mature - J Injects.' (Immature; Eggs. I Parts of j Soluble in alcohol or water. L animals, f Insoluble in alcohol or water. t Solid. Showing no cell -structure. < Semi-solid. (Liquid. Vegetable Drugs. f Whole plants or flowering tops, suffici- ently complete for botanical determination. Cryptogams.* Roots. Rhizomes. Tubers or Corms. Bulbs. Twigs or Branches. Piths. Woods. Barks. Leafbuds. Leaves. Flowers. Fruits. Seeds. Parts of plants not easily recognizable. Showing definite granules under micro- scope. Showing cell- structure^ Parts of Plants. Showing no cell-structure. < Amorphous.! < "Acids. Juices. Extracts. Sugars. Gums. Gum -resins. Resins. Oleo -resins. Balsams. Volatile oils. Fixed oils. Peculiar concrete stances. Coloring matters. sub- * The Cryptogams, many of which are really whole plants, are placed here on account of the difficulty of classifying them botani- cally. f A few of these amorphous substances contain mechanically incor- porated debris of cellular elements. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 17 The cellular vegetable drugs are grouped as follows : — Whole Plants or Flowering Tops. f c Algae. I Thallogens < Lichens. Cryptogams ] Lyclpodiace*. | Acrogens. < Equisetacece. [ ( Ferns. f Mono-cotyledonous. Roots Sliced. ( Leafy. Scaly. Naked. Twigs or Branches. < Scaly. Piths. Woods. White. Colored. f f Bast with isolated bast-cells. I Bast radially striated. p , I Whole. { Bast tangentially striated. " dr,t8 } I Bast quadratically striated. (.Bast without striation. t Rasped. Leaf -buds Leav rCorikceousS|3^ OQnd . S -|He rb aceous|^ m P- und . Flowers. r Racemose or cymose. Whole Inflorescences ] Compound flower- j Tnopened. ( heads. j Expanded, ''whole i Unopened. Single nower Si ' Wh ° le * Ex P and ^ | Parts of flowers jCorolUs. * Oil, resin or latex ducts. 18 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. f i Spurious. Fresh ] Fleshy. ( Stone Fruits. Fruits. . Angular grains, about 5 mm. cochineal, long; oval, flit below, convex above, .trans- 26 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. versely wrinkled ; easily pulverizable ; grayish-white to pur- plish-black ; almost odorless ; faint or bitterish taste. In the illustration the larger round one shows a grain after having been swelled in water. — c. Carminic acid, soluble in water, alcohol, water of ammonia, etc. — u. Coloring agent; some- times used as an anti-spasmodic in whooping cough, etc. Dose: 0.03 to 0.2 gram. Cantharis. N. Cantharides, Spanish Flies, Blister- ing Flies. — O. The whole insect Cantharis vesicatoria; class Insecta; order Cole- optera. — H. Southern Europe. — D. Quite uniform in size, about 25 mm. long and 6 mm. wide; cylindrical, slightly flattened above and below; when wing cases are cantharis. closed all external parts are of greenish metallic luster, the Russian variety having a coppery tint; large membranous, brownish wings under the long, slender, shining wing cases; the powder is brownish with fine shining particles, the frag- ments of the external structures ; odor disagreeable; taste acrid. — C. Cantharidin, soluble in alcohol, ether, chloro- form, fats, fatty -oils, etc. — u. Externally as a vesicant; in- ternally, stimulant and diuretic. Dose: Tincture, 0.2 to 0,5 cc, largely diluted. Cantharis Vittata. N. Potato bug. — O. The entire insect Cantharis Vittata; class Insecta; order Coleoptera. — H. United States. — d. Shape and size similar to those of Spanish flies; the insect is black with two longitudinal yellow stripes on each wingcase, one along the middle and one along the inner margin. Is not found in the trade but is a powerful vesi- cating agent. — c. and U. like those of Cantharis. Mylabris. N. Chinese Blistering Flies. — o. mylabris. The entire insect Mylabris Cichorii; NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 27 class Insecta; order Coleoptera. — H. Indigenous in Eastern and Southern Asia, but brought into trade from China. — D. Long, cylindrical body, rounded over back, flat below; variable in size, from 15 to 30 mm. long; the black wing cases marked with a spot at their insertion to the thorax, and two broad bands, spot and bands of a yellowish-brown color. Odor, taste, C. and u. as of cantharis. In several lots of Chinese blistering flies I have found a large proportion of a short thick beetle figured beside the Mylabris insect; this insect has a metallic luster and if powdered with the Mylabris would give the powder of the latter the appearance of the powder of true Cantharides. It is an adulteration. Blatta. N. Cockroach. — o. The whole insect Blatta orientalis; class Insecta) order Orthoptera. — H. Everywhere in houses, about sinks, etc. — D. Too familiar to need much description. Flattish, about 25 to 40 mm. long; rudimentary wing cases and wings, nearly reaching j the tail end in the male but quite short in the female; brownish-black; nauseating odor and taste.— C. Active principle not isolated. — u. Internally cockroach. as a diuretic. Dose: 0.3 to 0.5 gram. A recently introduced article of commerce is Flies, dried,- and sold as food for birds. GROUP 11/ EGGS. N. Egg, chicken egg — o. Egg of Gallus Bankira, var. domestica; class Aves; order Gallinae. — H. Domesticated everywhere.- - D. Too familiar to need description In the pharmacopoeia only the yolk is official under the titl*» "Vitellus." — c. The white of the egg consists of about 85% water, 12% albumen, 2.7% mucus and some saline sub- stances: the yolk is more complex, about 50% water, 28 NOTE J ON PHARMACOGNOSY. vitellin about 16%, palmitin, stearin and olein, about 20%, etc. — U. Nutritive. In pharmacy the yolk is u^ed in making emulsions; the albumen for clarifying liquids. The eggs of other domestic fowls, as of ducks or geese, have a more pronounced flavor than those of chickens, but they may be used instead, if necessary. GROUP IV. PARTS OF ANIMALS WHOLLY OR PARTLY SOLUBLE IN ALCOHOL OR WATER. Rolls or flat pieces of tough fibrous structure., ichthyocoiia. Long, thin, membranous ribbons American isinglass. Round sacs, hairy on one side, smooth on the other, Moscnus. Long grayish-brown sacs Castoreum. Ichthyocoiia N. Isinglass; Russian Isinglass; Fishglue. — o. The dried swimming bladders or sounds of the sturgeon, Acipenser Huso, and other varieties of Acipenser; class Pisces; order Sturiones. — H. Rivers of Russia. — D. In flat sheets, "more rarely in rolls; tough, horny appearance, with a grayish pearly or sometimes iridescent luster; whitish or yellow- ish; translucent; no odor; insipid taste. — c. Almost pure gelatin, nearly completely soluble in boiling water or boii ing diluted alcohol. Dissolved in twenty-four times its weight of boiling water it forms a jelly on cooling. — u. Jelly of isinglass is used as a nutriment; in pharmacy it is also used for clarifying liquids and for making court-plaster. Book or Leaf isinglass is Russian isinglass in single sheets, or each sheet folded once. staple isinglass is Russian isinglass rolled. Scrap isinglass is the trimmings and small pieces of Rus- sian isinglass. Cake isinglass is made by dissolving the scraps of Russian isinglass and drying the jelly in cakes. Shred isinglass is made by cutting Russian isinglass into very find shreds; used by gilders and glass sign paiuters. Should not be confounded with shred gelatin which looks NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 29 similar, but the shreds of which are less tough and more transparent. American Isinglass is said by some to be the dried intestines of the cod and of other fishes ; others say it is the swimming bladders or sounds of hake, roiled between cylinders under great pressure until quite thin, when it is cut into bauds. It is in long thin membranous bands of a tough fibrous structure; nearly transparent; of pale yellowish color; fishy odor; insipid taste. Inferior to Russian isinglass mainly on account of its disagreeable odor. Pipe or Purse isinglass is an inferior isinglass made by drying the whole sounds of fishes, without splitting them open. Gelatin in various forms is also sold under the name of "isinglass," but should not be confounded with isinglass. Mica in sheets, as used in stoves, lamp chimneys, etc., is commonly but erroneously called "isinglass " by the public. Moschus. N. Musk. — O. The dried secretion from the preputial follicles of Mo schu s moschiferus ; class Mammalia; order Ruminantia. The gland containing musk is sit- uated between the navel and prepuce of the 'male, immediately un- der the skin, opening by a small hairy orifice a little in front of the prepuce. — H. Central Asia. — D. Musk comes in sacs about 50 to 60 mm. long; the convex side is covered with an ad- herent portion of the skin with short, stiff, brownish-yellow or grayish hairs that point to a center at the orifice of the gland; the flat side is membranous, flat and without hairs. MUSK. 30 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Each sac contains from 5 to 8 grams of a peculiar unctuous substance, which constitutes the Moschus of the Pharmacopoeia. — C. Its composition is very complex, none of its constituents, however, being in the nature of an " active principle." Its solubility is variable, from 50 to 90 per cent being soluble in water and from 10 to 60 per cent in alcohol. — U. Stimulant and antispasmodic; also in perfumery. Dose : 0.5 gram or more. There are two varieties ; the Chinese smaller and round sacs being the better; the Russian is in pearshaped sacs and has a more offensive odor. Even in the sacs musk is often adulterated by the intro- duction of shot or small pieces of lead or gravel; or the sacs are opened and the musk replaced by a mixture of powdered meat, dried blood, musk, etc., the opening being closed again by sewing or glueing. Even entirely artificial sacs have been made from portions of skin and scrotum of the animal and filled with such spurious mixtures. Care will demonstrate the genuineness and integrity of the 11 musk pods," and musk should not be bought except in genuine and intact sacs, or from reliable dealers. See also Moschus, under Group VI. Castoreum. N. Castoreum; Castor. — o. The preputial glands of the beaver, Castor fiber, with their contents; class Mam- malia; order Bodentia. — H. Northern parts of both hem- ispheres. — D. In both male and female beavers there are two sacs or glands on each side between the anus and ex- ternal genitals; the two glands of each pair empty their contents through a common duct, but they are usually unequal in size. In commerce they are usually united in pairs, dark-brown, wrinkled, tough, and when broken have a fatty resinous appearance. Odor peculiar, nauseating and strong, and taste bitter and pungent. — c. Volatile oil and resin; not soluble in water, but alcohol dissolves over 50 per cent. — u. Stimulant, antispasmodic and antihysteric. Dose: 0.5 gram or more. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 31 There are two varieties ; the Rus- sian is in larger sacs and richer in resin and is es- teemed more highly than the American which is less odor- ous, glossier and darker colored. They may be dis- tinguished from each other by vari- ous properties. Russian castoreum frequently is in single, round or pearshaped glands, tapering towards the duct.; dark brown or al- most black on the outside and light- brown within ; on fracture it shows a dull surface, never a resinous fracture. The two external mem- branes can be peeled off easily, one after the other, except in old and hard specimens. The sacs vary in weight from 50 to 250 grams. American castoreum sacs occur more frequently in pairs. The sacs are smaller, elongated, deeply wrinkled ; 30 to 125 grams in weight; break with a resinous fracture; the color is lighter; the membranes adhere closely to the contents and cannot be peeled off. The illustration shows the shape of American castoreum. CASTOREUM. 32 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. GROUP V. PARTS OF ANIMALS NOT SOLUBLE IN ALCOHOL OR WATER. Anastomosing fibers ,. Spongia. Flattish, oval, white " bones." .... ... Os Sepiae. Spongia. N, Sponge. — o. The fibrous skeleton of Spongia officinalis; Class Spongioe; order Ceratosa; family Spongidce. — H, The marketed varieties are from the Mediterranean Sea and from the Bahama Islands and the northern coast of Cuba, but they grow all over the tropical and subtropical parts of the world. -^-D. A net work of elastic horny fibers, closely interwoven to form light, porous, flexible masses of various sizes and shapes; yellowish-brown to dark-brown color; peculiar faint odor and no taste. — c. Traces of iodine, bromine, phosphorus, etc, have been detected in sponges. — U. Sponge is used mainly for mechanical purposes, for cleansing and washing; or in the form of spougetents for dilating sinuses, the neck of the womb, etc. " Sponge- grafting,'' consists in introducing carefully cleansed and sterilized sponge into a deep wouud which must heal up by granulations, and has been practiced in cases in which the granulations appeared weak and flabby with a tendency to break down. The meshes of the sponge afford support to the forming granulations, the substance of the sponge being later on absorbed in the same manner in which carbolized catgut ligatures are absorbed. " Burnt sponge," or char- coal made from sponge, was formerly used for the same purposes for which iodine and its preparations are now used. There are several varieties of sponges. The best are the Turkey or Levant sponges (from Euspongia officinalis) which are soft, velvety, and usually cup-shaped. Bahama sponges or u horse sponges " (from Hippospongia equina), are coarser, although the best varieties, " lamb's wool" and " velvet," are but little inferior to the Turkey sponges. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 33 Sand, gravel and calcareous con- cretions, corals, shells, etc., must be removed from sponges by beating, washing, or macerating in very dilute hydrochloric acid (1:30). Bleached sponges are usually injured by the bleaching agents employed, such as chlorinated soda', chlorinated lime, chlorine water or sulphurous acid. Os Sepiae. n. Cuttle-fish Bone. — o. A calcare- ous body situated under the skin and constituting the internal skeleton of Sepia officinalis; Mollasca; class Ce- phalopoda; order Dibranchiatae. — H. Found washed up on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. — D. Oblong- ovate pieces, 10 to 20 cm. long; 2.5 to 7.5 cm. broad. Convex on both sides, hard on the upper side, soft and fri- able below; light and porous. White. Odor resembling sea weeds; no taste. On section the friable portion is seen to be made up of numerous layers of plates curved in the op- posite directiun to the hard upper plate and united to each other by minute spicules or pillars. — C. Mainly carbonate of lime. — u. Formerly as an antacid; now mainly as an ingredient of dentifrices, and to put in birdcages for birds to whet their bills upon. Various parts of other animals are sometimes mentioned as drugs. Bone or Os. The solid bones of various domestic animals. Burnt Bone, or Os Usta. Bone burnt in an open fire ; in porous, fragile, white pieces retaining the shapes of the bones. Consists mainly of phosphate and carbonate of lime. Used to make phosphorus, phosphoric acid, and solution of phosphates. CUTTLE-BONE. 34 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Bone Black or Carbo Animaiis. Animal charcoal is made by heating bones in closed retorts. Usually found in the trade as powdered animal charcoal. (See group VI.) Oyster shells, egg shells, crabs' shells and crabs' claws, red and white coral, rasped harts' horns, etc., were also formerly used as medicines but are now practically obsolete. GROUP VI. SOLID NON-CELLULAR ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. Round, white, calcareous stones L,apim Cancrorum. Yellow waxy cakes or lumps Cera flava. Thin, round or square cakes, waxy, white. . Cera alba. White, semi-transparent, unctuous masses of a crystalline, foliaceous texture Cetaceuni. Hard, white, somewhat glossy masses... Acidum stearicum. White, solid, fatty masses Sevum. Black, gritty powder Carbo Animaiis. Brown, unctuous, very odorous powder Moscims. Cylindrical crystalline masses Saccharum Lactis. Irregular, flat, hard, brown, transparent pieces Coiia. Irregular, flat, semi-opaque, yellowish- white pieces Colla alba. Colorless, transparent, rectangular, flexible sheets.. Geiatina. Opaque, rectangular sheets of frothy texture Gelatin. Clear, colorless, flexible shreds Shred Gelatin. Grajish, brownish or blackish odorous masses.. Ambergris. Small, hard, tenacious, odorous masses Hyraceum. Lapilli Cancrorum. N. Calculi Cancrorum, Oculi Cancrorum, Crabstones, Crabs' Eyes. — o. Calcareous concretions found in the stomach, one on each side, of the European crawfish, Astacus fluviatUis; class Crustacea; order Decapoda. The crawfish are bruised and left in heaps to putrify, after which the remains are washed crabstones. and the stones picked out. — H. Europe, especially European Russia. — r>. Hemispherical hard stones, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 35 often with a depression on ODe side, varying from 3 or 4 to 15 or more millimeters in diameter, or 0.1 to 0.75 gram in weight, grayish-white or reddish-white color, hard or stony consistence and without odor or taste. — c. They consist of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate cemented together with organic matter, in a laminated structure; they effervesce with acids, the calcium salts being dissolved, leaving the animal substance in the shape of the original stones, but soft and flexible. Spurious crabstones, nude from chalk or whiting and glue, and shaped to resemble the genuioe, will not retain their shape when treated with acids. — u. Antacid. The putting a crabstone under the eyelid to remove a foreign body from the eye is a relic of barbarism and should be dis- countenanced. Cera Flava. N. Beeswax, yellow beeswax, ye' low wax. — o. Prepared by the bee, Apis mellifica; class Insecta; order II 'ymenopter 'a. The honeycomb, after the honey is obtained, is melted in boiling water, in which the impurities either settle or are dissolved; the wax, which floats on top of the water, cools into a solid cake which is then remelted in fresh boiling water, strained, poured into suitable round vessels and allowed to cool. The cakes of wax thus formed are the beeswax of commerce. — H. Everywhere in temperate and tropical lands. — D. In round flat cakes weighing from one to five or more kilos or in irregular lumps ; specific gravity from 0.955 to 0.967 at 15° C. ; yellowish or yellowish-brown, brittle when cold, breaking with a peculiar granular or u waxy " fracture; becomes plastic on slightly warming it; it has a sweet honeylike odor and a faint balsamic taste; it is soluble in ether, chloroform, fixed and volatile oils; nearly com- pletely soluble in boiling alcohol; sparingly soluble in cold alcohol and insoluble in water. — U. Formerly used internally as a demulcent. Now used only for ointments, cerates, plasters, etc. Adulterations. — Insoluble substances, like meal, earth, 36 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. etc., are detected by melting and straining the wax. If the fracture is resinous instead of waxy, resin has probably been added and may be dissolved out by cold alcohol, which does not affect wax. Fatty substances, like tallow, suet, etc., cause wax to break with a smooth, somewhat greasy fracture. Paraffin or ceresin (a native paraffin) is detected by treating wax with ether, and if this dissolves more than fifty per cent paraffin is present; or by heating the suspected acid with fuming Nordhausen sulphuric acid which destroys the wax and allows the paraffin to float on top unchanged. The specific gravity is taken ; additions of rosin, stearin or Japan wax make it heavier, while ceresin, paraffin, suet, tallow, spermaceti or lard, make it lighter. Cera Alba. N. White wax. — o. Bleached yellow beeswax. The wax is melted and allowed to fall in thin streams on a revolving cylinder, which is constantly kept wet. The wax congeals in thin ribbon- like strips, which are bleached by exposing to air, sunshine and moisture. An inferior method of bleach- ing is with chlorine, etc. — d. When sufficiently bleached, white wax is melted and formed into thin circular discs of about ten centimeters in diameter, or sometimes into small square cakes. It is white, shining, translucent in thin layers, harder than yellow wax, and without taste or odor. Its specific gravity is from 0.965 to 0.975 at 15° C, or somewhat higher than that of yellow wax. — U. Same as of yellow wax. Adulterations. — Melt a small piece of white wax in boiling water ; if white lead or other insoluble matter was added it will sink to the bottom ; if starch or flour was added it can be detected by testing the water with iodine for dissolved starch; or a piece of white wax may be dissolved in oil of turpentine or benzin, when the above mentioned substances will sink to the bottom. Chloroform dissolves about twenty- five per cent of white wax; if white wax is treated with eight times its weight of chloroform and more than twenty- * five per cent is dissolved, it is impure. Paraffin is detected NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 87 as in yellow wax. The specific gravity should also be ascertained. (See Dispensatories for further tests and for descriptions of Japan wax, vegetable wax, ceresin, ozokerite, etc.) Cetaceum. N. Spermaceti. — o. A peculiar, concrete, fatty substance obtained from the sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus ; class Mammalia; order Cetacea. — D, White, pearly, semi- transparent, soft, unctuous masses of a crystalline foliace- ous structure ; faint odor and no taste; insoluble in water, soluble in ether, chloroform, fixed and volatile oils, etc. Specific gravity 0.943. — U. Seldom used internally as a de- mulcent. Its main use is in ointments and cerates. Acidum Stearicum. N. Stearic acid. — o. From various solid fats, especially tallow. — D. Hard, white, glossy masses without taste or odor. — u. An ingredient of glycerin suppositories ; other- wise of no use in pharmacy. Sevum. N. Suet, mutton suet. — o. The purified internal abdom- inal fat of the sheep, Ovis Aries; class Mammalia; order Buminantia. It is purified by melting and straining; should be kept in well closed, glazed or tin vessels, and should not be used after becoming rancid. — r>. Firm, hard, somewhat brittle, white, fatty masses, without taste or odor. Specific gravity 0.937 to 0.952. — c. Stearin, palmitin and olein. — U. Emollient in ointments, etc. Beef Suet or Tallow is used for similar purposes; it is softer than mutton suet. Carbo Animalis. N. Bone-black, animal charcoal, — O. Bones of domestic animals are subjected to destructive distillation by heating to red heat in closed retorts without access of air. The residue in the retort is animal charcoal. — d. Dull black 38 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. gritty powder, or small lumps, without taste or odor. In- soluble in alcohol or water. — c. Charcoal together with phosphate and carbonate of lime. Animal charcoal can be distinguished from vegetable charcoal by incineration, when it leaves about eighty-five per cent of ash, while vege- table charcoal leaves only two or three per cent of ash. — u. For decolorizing solutions of vegetable principles, such as alkaloids, etc. Purified Animal Charcoal is not a drug but a prepara- tion. It is made by removing the earthy salts from animal charcoal by dilute hydrochloric acid. Moschus. N. Musk. — o. It comes into the trade in the sacs, glands, or " pods " already described in Group IV. The Pharma- copoeia recognizes only the contents of these glands, and the retail druggist probably rarely buys musk in pods, but buys the official drug which is described as (i the dried secretion from the preputial follicles of lloschus moschi- ferus." — i). Musk occurs in small, irregular, somewhat unctuous, dark reddibh-brown granules, which have a bitterish taste and peculiar penetrating and persistent odor. Musk is hygroscopic and contains about ten per cent of moisture; when completely dried it loses its odor, but recovers it on re-absorbing moisture. C. and u. were described under " Moschus," Group IV, which see. Adulterations. — Musk is frequently adulterated, especially in this, its official, form; dried blood, muscular tissue, hair, etc., are mixed with genuine musk, and may be detected by i he aid of the microscope. Saccharum Lactis. N. Sugar of Milk. — o. From the milk of the cow, Bos Taurus; class Mammalia; order Buminantia. — H. Domes- ticated.— r>. The whey left after cheese-making is boiled down, when the sugar crystallizes out; this is then redis- solved, decolorized and crystallized on strings or sticks. It U8ually comes in yellowish -white, hard, cylindrical, crystal- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 39 line masses, from ten to thirty or more centimeters long, three to five centimeters in diameter. The powder is gritty, white, inodorous and but faintly sweetish. MLk sugar is soluble in six times its weight of water at 15° C, and in an equal weight of boiling water; not soluble in alcohol. — U. Said to be an active diuretic; has been recommended as an article of diet in certain diseases; but in pharmacy it is mainly used as a diluent in making powders, its grittiness and hardness helping to thoroughly triturate the active ingredients of the powders. Colla. N. Glue.— o. An impure form of gelatin obtained by boiling various animal substances with water; the solution of gelatin so prepared is evaporated until it forms a jelly on cooling, when the mass is cut into slices which are dried in the air. — d. Glue or Brown Glue comes into the trade in irregular, hard, flat pieces; sometimes of a somewhat horny consistence. It breaks with an abrupt, often splin- tery, fracture; the better grades are brownish or yellowish- brown, and transparent; the poorer grades are darker, often almost brownish black and opaque. White glue (Colla Alba) is in similar pieces, but thinner and often flexible, and usually semi-opaque; it is considered an inferior glue for gluing wood, etc. — u. In solution as a u size " before paint- ing or varnishing paper or other porous substances and for gluing wood, etc. It is an ingredient of various cements. Gelatina. N. Gelatin. — o. Made like glue, but from choicer and cleaner materials, tendons, sinews, ligaments, bones, etc., free from putrefaction. — r>. The solution is thorough';/ clarified, allowed to gelatinize, the mass is cut into sheets which are laid on frames covered with knotted nets which leave their impress on the dried sheets of gelatin ; the sheets are about twenty to twenty-five centimeters long and 7.5 to 8 centimeters wide, and very thin; they are flexible, perfectly transparent, without odor or taste. — u. An ingre- 40 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. dient in articles of diet. In pharmacy it is used in making capsules, glycerin suppositories, for coating pills, etc. Shred Gelatin is sheet gelatin cut into very thin shreds by means of a cutting machine. It may be distinguished from shred isinglass by its transparency and by dissolving in water, while shred isinglass merely swells and becomes opaque in cold water. Another form of gelatin is sometimes met with in the trade which appears to be made by beating the hot solution into froth, which is then allowed to gelatinize, when it is cut into sheets and dried; the sheets are two or three mm. thick and of a frothy texture, not flexible and not transparent. Ambergris is found floating in the sea; it is a morbid secretion formed in the intestines of the sperm-whale ; it is described as occurring in friable, grayish, brownish or blackish masses, sometimes striated or clotted. It has a peculiar odor, but no taste. It is only used ia perfumery. Hyraceum is supposed to be the dried excrement of Hyrax capensis, a South African animal of about the size of a rabbit. It is In small, hard, tenaceous masses, resembling castoreum in taste and odor. It is practically obsolete, but was formerly used as an anti-spasmodic in the dose of 0.5 to 1 gram. Pepsin, Pancreatin, Ingluvin, Fibrin, etc., are preparations and not drugs, therefore they are not considered in pharma- cognosy. GROUP VII. SEMI-SOLID AMORPHOUS ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. Soft, white, unctuous fatty substance Adeps. Soft, yellowish-white fatty substance Adeps Lanae. Adeps . N. Lard. — o. The prepared internal or abdominal fat of the hog (Sus scrofa; class Mammalia; order Pachyder- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 41 matci), purified by washing with water, melting and strain- ing. — H. Domesticated. — D. White, unctuous, fatty sub- stance, soft enough to require being kept in containers which should be impervious to fats and should be kept well closed; odor peculiar but faint, and free from rancidity; taste, insipid. Specific gravity, about 0.932 at 15° C. Not soluble in water and but very slightly so in alcohol; soluble in ether, beozin, chloroform, etc. — u. Mainly as a base for ointments, etc. Adulterations. Lard is extensively adulterated with cottonseed oil-, for the detection of which the official tests should be made. It should also be tested for alkalies, starch and salt (chlorides), and it should be rejected for pharma- ceutical uses if it has become rancid. Adeps Lanae Hydrosus, N. Hydrous wool-fat, wool-fat. — o. The purified fat of the wool of sheep (Ovis Aries; class Mammalia; order Buminantid), mixed with not more than thirty per cent of water. — H. Domesticated. — d. Yellowish-whiie or nearly white, ointment-like substance, having only a faint odor; insoluble in water but can be mixed with twice its weight of water without losing its ointment-like consistence. Pure wool-fat is more tenacious than the hydrous article of the Pharmacopoeia.— C. A mixture of ethers of cholesterin with the ordinary constituents of fat.— u. It is claimed that wool-fat is more readily absorbed by the frkin than other fats for which reason it is popular as an ointment base. It is also employed for softening the skin and rendering it smooth, as in cosmetic preparations for removing wrinkles from the face and neck, or for improving the form and in- creasing the plumpness of women's bosoms, etc. Civet is a semi-solid, unctuous, yellowish or brownish substance obtained from a pouch situated between the ex- ternal genitals and the anus of the Civet cat of Africa, or of East India. It is obtained from animals confined for the purpose. It is often put up in horns. It possesses an odor 42 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. resembling that of musk and is used in perfumery for sim- ilar purposes as musk, but is obsolete as a remedy. Butter is sometimes enumerated among animal drugs. GROUP VIII. LIQUID AMORPHOUS ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. Syrupy, sweet, aromatic, sometimes granular liquid.... Mel- Viscid, greenish-brown liquid Fei Bovis. Yellowish to brownish fixed oil with fishy odor, Oleum Morrhuse. Pale yellowish or colorless fixed oil oieum Adipis. Pale yellow to yellowish- brown oil Oleum Bubuium. Mel. N. Honey. — o. A saccharine fluid prepared by the honev-bee, Apis melliflca; class Insecta; order Hymenop- tera.— 'BL. Temperate and tropical countries. — r>. u Virgin honey" is a light-colored pale yellow, syrupy liquid, ob- tained by merely draining the honey-comb; "Clarified honey" is darker colored and is obtained by pressing the honey-comb, or by melting it and then expressing. Honey varies from a thin syrupy fluid to a lard-like consistence, and in color from a pale yellow to a yellowish-brown ; its taste and odor depend largely on the flowers from which it was gathered by the bees, but it always has a peculiar aro- matic odor and a sweet, peculiar flavor that sometimes leaves an acrid after-taste. On keeping for some time the sugar which it contains becomes granular. — c. It is prac- tically a solution of glucose in water flavored with the flavor of flowers modified and added to by the flavor of the gastric juice of the bee. — u. As a flavoring agent. Its use in mouth- washes should be discouraged, and glycerin be used instead, as the latter is antiseptic, while honey favors the fermentations on which some of the diseases of the mouth depend. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 43 Fel Bovis. N. Oxgall; ox-bile. — o. The fresh bile of beeves; Bos Taurus; class Mammalia; order Buminantia. — 1>. When bought from the butcher it is contained in the gall-bladder; it is a greenish or greenish-brown viscid liquid, having a peculiar, unpleasant odor and an intensely bitter taste. Neutral or faintly alkaline. — u. In medicine only the puri- fied oxgall is employed as a tonic and laxitive, supposed to be beneficial in cases with deficient secretion of bile. The dose of purified oxgall is about 0.5 gram. Oleum Morrhuae. N. Oleum Jecoris Aselli ; Cod Liver Oil. — o. A fixed oil obtained from the livers of the cod fish ; Gadus Morrhua and other varieties of Gadus, Class Pisces; order Teleostia. — H. Seas of Northern Europe and America.— r>. There are three kinds of cod-liver oil, differing according to the mode of preparation; white or pale yellow, yellowish-brown and dark-brown. The pale-yellow oil is the kind demanded by the Pharmacopoeia, as it is made from the freshest livers, while the dark-brown is maie from partially decomposed livers. The taste and odor are characteristic, and are the best criterions for recognizing as well as judging of the quality of the oil. An oil that deposits a large quantity of solid granular fat at about 0° C. (freezing point) is of inferior quality; the best cod liver oil congeals at a con- siderably lower temperature. Specific gravity about 0.920 to 0.925 at 15° C. — U. As a nutritive ; it is supposed also to possess some alterative properties. Dose: Tablespoonful three times a day. Adulterations. Cod liver oil is sometimes adulterated, and the official tests should be applied to determine its purity. Oleum Adipis. N. Lard Oil. — o. A fixed oil expressed from lard. — D. A colorless or pale yellow, oily liquid, having a peculiar odor and a bland taste; it has a specific gravity of 0.910 to 44 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 0.920 at 15° C. At the freezing temperature (0° C.) it con- geals to a semi-solid white mass resembling lard in appear- ance. Official only because it is used in making the oint- ment of mercuric nitrate. Neat»s-Foot Oil (Oleum bubulum) is obtained by boiling the fatty tissue of cattle with water and skimming off and straining the oil. Pale yellow oil with little or no odor or taste. At freezing temperature (0° C.) it becomes opaque. Its specific gravity is about 0.916. Not used in pharmacy. Blood, Milk, White of Egg, and Yolk of Egg are sometimes described as drugs; the latter is the official part of the egg, but is always taken from fresh eggs and is described in Group III. Glycerin, Lactic Acid, Koumys, Kefir, etc., are prepara- tions and not drugs and therefore are not described in pharmacognosy. VEGETABLE DRUGS. We come now to the consideration of the more important group of vegetable drugs. To understand these drugs we must study several preliminary branches of knowledge, namely, Botany, structural and physiological, including the microscopical structure of plants; and Microscopy t) the extent at least of being able to make temporary preparations for examinations, and perhaps a few simple permanent mounts. BOTANY. Botany is of comparatively subordinate interest to the pharmacist and the study of a simple work on the subject, such as Gray's Lessons in Botany, will suffice for all practical purposes. There is a tendency in certain quarters to give botany an undue prominence as a study for pharma- cists, both as to the time devoted to it, and as to the amount of detail taught. This exaggeration of the importance of botany at the expense of time that might be more profitably devoted to NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 45 pharmacognosy, reminds one of the old gentleman who said that the Germans, in speaking English, often put the " em-pha'-sis " on the wrong syllable. The study of botany is no doubt a fascinating one, calcu- lated to give much enjoyment to au enthusiastic student, but it should be taught in colleges of pharmacy with direct reference to the needs of the pharmacist, aiming merely to make him a good pharmncognosist and with no aim to make the druggist au accomplished and thorough botanist. If a student likes the study and wishes to perfect himself in it, he should do so under no mistaken idea that it is essential to his becoming either a good v harmacist or a good pharma- cognosist; this being kept in mind the student may devote as much time and study to botany as he pleases, but the essentials, as taught in the book referred to, are sufficient for practical pharmaceutical purposes. It is not the object of these notes to even present an out- line of botany, but every one who desires to follow these pages for stuiy, should carefully read one of the following books,: gray's lessons in botany; bastin's college botany; ov culbreth's BOTANY. From these hs can learn to know the different parts of plants when he sees them, which is practically all that he needs of structural botany now. The general facts in regard to the microscopical structure of plants will be studied a little farther on in these notes, and the details particularly relating to the different parts of plants forming separate groups of drugs will be considered when describing those groups. Recognizing the minor value of a botanical classi- fication of drugs, no stress is placed on this subject which may be of interest to the professional botanist, but is of little or no practical use to the pharmacognosist or phar- macist. Systematic modern pharmacognosy being based to a great extent on a knowledge of the microscopical structure of plants we must study this branch of knowledge rather 46 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. thoroughly, and as a preliminary study we must devote a little time to a consideration of MICROSCOPY. This study, as taught in the St. Louis College of Phar- macy, includes not only the study of the microscopical structure of drugs, which is also taught in the lectures on pharmacognosy, but also the technology of the microscope; commencing with a study of the principles of optics it leads the student to a knowledge Of the structure and uses of the microscope and its accessories; it explains all the methods of preparing both temporary and permanent vege- table histological specimens; it teaches all methods of cutting, bleaching and staining sections, and all methods of mounting them, dry and in all the different media that are employed; all methods of measuring, drawing and photo- graphing microscopical preparations, for book illustration or lantern slides; and in fact gives such a knowledge of all matters pertaining to the microscope that the student becomes able to intelligently judge of the value of any microscope he may wish to buy and fitted to use the instru- ment for any branch of science whatever. In these notes we cannot dwell so extensively on the use of the microscope but must content ourselves with the general principles and simplest manipulations only. The student of these notes who is not a student attending col- lege, where the necessary microscopes are provided for use in the laboratory, need not imagine that it is necessary to spend much money to follow the notes ; in fact, a Codding- ton lens magnifying about ten diameters, or a quite simple and cheap " dissecting microscope," will be sufficient for most of the work to be described, and the cost need not exceed two or three dollars. With even such simple appliances the earnest student can follow the notes and examine the structure of drugs and become quite an expert pharma- cognosist, but if money is no object a good compound microscope may be bought and the investment will amply pay in knowledge and in pleasure. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 47 A Luminous Body is one that emits light, such as the sun, stars, lamps, electric lights, etc. All our sources of artificial light are incandescent, or glowing from heat. Light is a wave-motion in the u ether " of space which per- meates our atmosphere as well ; it is emitted in every direction by a luminous body, and an undulation or wave of light once started proceeds in an absolutely straight line as long as it traverses a substance of the same density, as for instance, celestial space. A "ray of light" is an imaginary isolated wave or undulation going in a given straight direction and of prac- tically no width or thickness; really a " ray of light" does not exist, because light is not a substance but merely a motion. Opaque Bodies permit no light to pass through them. Transparent Bodies or Substances permit rays of light or light-waves to pass through them, so that we can see the form of objects beyond (as for example: air, water, glass, etc.) ; sometimes, however, a transparent body may inter- cept some waves of light, permitting only a portion of certain wave-length to pass through, the effect being that the transparent body appears not colorless but colored (as for example: red, blue, green or yellow glass, etc.). Opalescent, Translucent or Diaphanous substances permit light to pass through more or less perfectly, but their structure interferes with the course of the light waves, so that the form of an object cannot be seen through them (as for example: ground glass, white wax, etc.). This is due to irregular and interfering reflections and refractions which may take place on account of surface roughness, as in ground glass, or to the inner arrangement of the texture of the substance, as in tissue paper or white wax. Many translucent or semi-opaque substances may be made clearer or even transparent by filling the interstices in their texture with a substance having a refractive power similar to that of their fibers or particles, or by covering bheir surfaces with a varnish. A few simple experiments will prove instructive. Powder 48 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. some clear glass and put it into a test-tube; it will appear as an opaque white powder; pour on it some turpentine and it becomes transparent. Drop a little balsam of fir on the rough surface of ground glass and press on it a piece of clear transparent glass; the ground glass becomes trans- parent by the abolition of irregular surface refractions. Take white tissue paper and fill its pores with olive or cas- tor oil; it becomes translucent by the abolition of interfer- ing refractions and reflections within its textures or fibers ; or compare ordinary tissue paper with paraffin paper, in which latter the interfibrous spaces have been filled with paraffin. Opaqueness is often only relative ; a single sheet of white paper is translucent, but a dozen or a hundred sheets together will probably be as opaque as a brick wall. A gold coin is opaque ; moisten a piece of glass and attach a bit of gold-leaf and by holding it up to the light the gold will be found to transmit a greenish, bluish or purplish light, the color depending on the thinness of the gold-leaf. That the gold itself is transparent in thin enough sheets is proved by examining the film with a microscope or lens ; any holes in the leaf will transmit white light, while the greenish or bluish light passes through the gold where the microscope shows no break of continuity. It is beyond the scope of these notes to enter at length into a consideration of the structure of the microscope. A simple microscope is a single lens, or an achromatic combi- nation of lenses acting as a single lens. Such lenses are of low power but will enable the student to do a great deal of really good work and to acquire much valuable information. A Coddington lens, or a so-called linen- tester, should be obtained. Still better, because more convenient, is a " dis- secting microscope " of the simplest kind, because this is provided with an upright rod for supporting the lens, leaving both hands free for manipulating the specimen or slide which is being examined. For the more thorough examination of the mounted specimen a compound microscope may be employed. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 49 A few dozen slides (glasses three by one inches in size), and half an ounce of cover glasses of about five-eighths inches diameter may be purchased from the optician. If we wish to examine a drug in a hurry, with no intention of keeping the specimen, we require little more apparatus. If it is a powder, as for instance lupulin, kamaia, lyccpodium, or any other powdered drug, a little of the powder is placed on a slide and moistened with a drop of water or glycerin. A cover glass is then carefully dropped on it, first lowering one edge and then dropping the cover glass so that the air is driven out but not with enough force to drive out the liquid and the specimen. A little practice will enable one to judge how much liquid to take. Such a preparation requires a rather high power, however, and cannot satisfactorily be examined unless one has a compound microscope. If water or glycerin does not make the object transparent, we may have to treat it as we did the tissue paper in our little pre- liminary experiment; we use turpentine or oil to make the drug more transparent; if that will not make it clear, we take a drop of liquor potassa or of labarraque solution instead of water or glycerin. This will dissolve the cell contents and render the cell transparant, but the specimen will soon swell and be spoiled. This method will therefore answer only for temporary and immediate examination. A little soaking in alcohol is often of use in removing too dense color. Seeds, surfaces of leaves, fruits like anise, fennel, cara- way, etc., may be examined without any preparation, and with the single lens. Many objects of great interest and beauty will be found among these drugs. Roots, rhizomes, barks, etc., should be cut with a sharp knife so as to pre- sent a smooth surface. This surface may be examined with- out farther preparation, but usually more detail can be seen by putting a drop of glycerin on the smooth surface, drop- ping a cover glass on it, and then examining. Some drugs of this kind, however, will not show much detail and sec- tions must be prepared. The drug is soaked in water to soften it, and then a thin transverse slice is cut from it with 4 50 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. a sharp knife or razor. A little practice will enable the student to cut fairly good sections in this way, but for making first-class mounts a mechanical device known as a microtome must be used, so that the sections may be of uniform thickness throughout. Sections should be cut as thin as possible. Such a s ction may then be laid in a drop of water, gly- cerin or alcohol on a slide and covered with a cover glass. It is then ready for examination. If it is not clear enough it may be soaked for a few moments in liquor potassa, then gently washed in water with a camel hair pencil, and exam- ined as just suggested. Or the freshly cut section may be dropped into alcohol, then changed to absolute alcohol, theu into oil of cloves, and then transferred to a slide, on which a drop of oil of cloves has been placed, covered with a cover glass and examined. Watch glasses or the lids of small glass or porcelain oint- ment jars are good receptacles in which to do any soaking that may be necessary. If the slide is to be examined with a microscope care must be taken to wipe away any surplus liquor that may be pressed out from under the cover glass, to avoid soiling the instrument. After the specimen has been examined it may be washed off in water, or in a little alcohol if neces- sary, and the glasses rubbed dry with a bit of tissue paper. But if we wish to preserve the specimen for future study, a permanent mount must be made. The same kind of glass slides, three by one inches, is used, but it would be well to have an assortment of sizes of cover glasses, some of one- half, five-eighths and three-fourth inches in diameter. A fuw dozen small brass curtain rings, five-eighths inch out- side diameter, should also be obtained. The appliances required for making permanent mounts are few and inexpensive ; the student should procure a few camel hair pencils ; a few watchglasses or one-half ounce or one ounce white porcelain ointment jars with covers; a deli- cate pair of scissors ; one or two small knives similar to the smallest knives in a student's dissecting case; a few NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 51 needles, the eye ends of which have been pushed into the ends of small wooden handles, for which cheap pen-hold- ers will answer very well. A few spring clips for holding on the cover glasses may be bought from the optician. A few one-ounce vials are provided with perforated corks in which ordinary pipette medicine droppers are inserted so that the end of the pipette will reach nearly to the bottom of the vial. A few small bell glasses to cover slides which are in pro- cess of preparation and protect them from dust may also be used, but placing such slides in the bottom of empty cigar boxes and closing the lid is just as good. In the vials with pipettes we put in one glycerin; in another creosote water; in a third a mixture of glycerin and water; and we add a few ordinary vials, one containing alcohol, one absolute alcohol and one oil of cloves. Evaporate a few ounces of clear, clean Canada balsam until it is thick and nearly solid on cooling. Pour one-half ounce of this thick balsam, while warm, into a vial and add one-half fluid ounce of chloroform; leave the balance of the balsam in its thick condition. Set all these vials in a closet or deep cigar box where they are protected from dust. Buy a small vial of each, Brunswick black, zinc-white, and picro-carmine. If economy does not forbid, a section-cutter and a self- centering turn-table may be added, but the latter are not necessary for serviceable work, but they add much to the mechanical perfection of the finished slides. There are practically three methods of mounting slides : dry; in a solid medium or in fluids. We will fir^t consider dry mounts. Of many drugs we need simply examine the surfaces, for instance, when com- paring digitalis leaves with mullein leaves which are said to be occasionally added or substituted for the first; or in exam- ining seeds and fruits like anise, etc. First: Prepare the slide by pasting in the center a disc of black needle paper, or of white paper, made by punching with a punch such as is used for miking gun-wads; then 52 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. punch similar discs from different thickness of paper, card- board and thin paste-board. In these discs punch holes one- half inch in diameter with a smaller punch, so that when completed we have rings of different thicknesses. When we want to make a dry mount we paste one of these rings on the paper disc on the slide, choosing black or white as it looks best for a particular object, so that we have a cell with a white or black bottom, and of a depth which is slightly greater than the thickness of the object to be mounted. A bit of the leaf, preferably cut with a cork borer on a piece of leather into a disc a little less than one-half inch ia d ameter, is then fastened to the bottom of the cell by means of a little shellac varnish or tragacanta paste and pressed flat by gently pressing into place wnh a cork having about the same diameter as the object. Clean a cover glass three-fourths inch ia diameter by gently rubbing between two pieces of moist filtering piper between the thumb and index finger, then in the same manner with a soft, well- worn silk handkerchief and after rendering the upper side of the paper ring adhesive with shell ic varnish or tragacanth paste put on the cover glas*. Finally punch a hole one -half inch in diameter from a strip of colored glazed paper and paste it over the upper surface of the slide so that the open- ing in the strip corresponds to the cell in which the prepara- tion is mounted ; the edges of the paper must then be cut with scissors along the edges of the slide and when dry a label may be pasted on one end of the slide on which the name of the object is written. Seeds and other dry opaque objects may be mounted in the same way, care being taken that the cover glass is as near as possible t > the upper surface of the object without actually touching it, and that the prepared cell and the object itself is thoroughly dry before the cover glass is put in place. Second: Paint a circle five-eighths inch in diameter on the slide with Brunswick black or with zinc-white, according to whether the object looks best on a dark or white background. Place one of the curtain rings on this painted circle and NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 53 allow it to dry. The bottom and sides of the cell thus formed must then be painted with the same cement and allowed to harden. Cells of this kind should be prepared some days or even weeks in advance, so that they are thor- oughly seasoned when wanted for use. The well-dried object to be mounted is to be fastened to the bottom of the cell by a little of the same cement of which the cell is made, and allowed to harden in place, always protecting the cells against dust in all stages of preparation. Finally paint a thin circle of the same cement on the upper edge of the curtain ring and place a clean, dry cover glass five-eighths inch in diameter on the ring. When fast, the outside of the cell is painted witti the same cement so that it overlays the glass cover, and if this work was all done on the self-center- ing turn-table, ornamental colored rings may be put on as a finishing touch. If the zinc- white cement becomes too thick to flow read- ily, thin by adding a little benzole. Use the bru:>h well filled with cement when putting in the bottom of the cell, so that when the cement dries it will be perfectly smooth like fine white porcelain. Instead of making dark cells with Brunswick black, the bottom of a zinc-white cell may be painted black with ivory black, such as is put up in col- lapsible tubes for artist's use. Such cells are harder and there is no danger of the cement softening in warm weather and allowing the objects to sink into it as sometimes occurs when we use Brunswick black. We come now to the consideration of balsam mounts but as this method is used mainly for sections of drugs we will first consider the making of the sections. The first requi- site is that the section be cut thin enough; if possible, not more than one cell thickness of the substance to be exam- ined or from V300 to V200 °* an i DCa thick. Practically, cut as thin as pos>ibie without tearing the sections. The knife should be very sharp and should be carried across the drug with one steady sweep and not by cutting backward and for- ward. Some drugs can be cut without preparation, but the majority of drugs require previous softening in water over 54 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. night, or if very resinous they may be soaked in alcohol to remove the resin and then in water to soften them. Woods and woody roots, rhizomes, hard barks, etc., may sometimes require boiling in water to make them soft and flexible enough to give good sections. If the sec- tions are to be cut without a microtome or section cutter, the substance is held in the left hand and the sections are cut by drawing the knife towards oneself, much in the manner in which lead pencils are sharp- ened. A little practice will enable one to do good work, although, of course, the serviceable portions of the sec- tions may be smaller than when cut by aid of a section cutter. If the student works with a section cutter in which an extra tube moves up and down in a well-tube, the object is wedged in this tube with cork or elder pith, or if it is hard like wood, by simply forcing a piece of it into the tube so that the end projects about one-third or one- fourth of an inch. This tube, with the object to be cut into sections, is then placed in the section-cutter and gradually raised by means of the screw until the knife carried over the top plate of the apparatus cuts off a por- tion of the object and leaves it with a smooth surface. While cutting, the surface of the object and the knife should be kept thoroughly wet to prevent tearing the sections. By means of the screw the object is raised a trifle and a section cut off with one steady sweep of the knife; if it tears, try a litte thicker section, until the proper thickness has been ascertained, when the balance of the sections are cut of that thickness. Of course the knife must be sharp and without notches on its cutting edge, and the proper thickness of section for each object is the thinnest that can be cut without tearing. When cut, the section is carefully floated off into a watch-glass or small porcelain saucer by means of a small quill camel-hair pencil. Section after section may be cut until the object no longer projects above the inner tube, and if we were at all careful we ought to have thirty or NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 00 forty sections from the one-third of an inch of object that protruded. Another method of cutting sections which is better adapted to soft or small objects, is to imbed them in paraffin ; make a paper tube of the thickness of the inner tube of the section -cutter, fit a cork in the end of this tube and then fix the object to be cut (which must first be properly softened by soaking in water, if necessary) to the cork in such a manner that it will stand upright in the tube when the cork is inserted in one end of it; then pour in melted paraffin, which, when it cools, will form a plug of paraffin in which the object is imbedded. This plug is then fastened in the section-cutter and sections are cut from it in the same manner as just described. These sections are then placed in benzin to dissolve the paraffin, the sections are then removed to alcohol and from that they may be transferred to such other mounting media as may be desired. We examine these sections with a lens, choose one of the thinnest and most perfect ones and mount it perma- nently in glycerin or glycerin jelly, as will be explained presently, so that we may study the cell-contents, starch, etc. The sections of many drugs, however, are unsatisfac- tory when examined and mounted in this way and we must first clear them; the simplest way being to place a section in a watch-glass with distilled water and then wash it gently by stippling with a camel hair pencil, so that much, if not most, of the cell contents may be washed out. If this simple washing sufficiently clears them, we mount such a section, but usually we must clear them with chemical solutions to remove all the cell- con- tents, which, by the way, are of little or no importance in the examination of most of the drugs. Add to a drachm or two of distilled water, six to eight drops of liquor potassae and one-half fluidrachm of labarraque solution, and place a few of the sections into this mixture. This removes starch, protoplasm, chloro- 56 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. phyl, etc., and leaves only the cell- walls, which are at the same time bleached white. To succeed well in this, the sections should be cut thinner than the length of the cells so that every cell in the section is opened from one side or the other; if the section is so thick that many cells remain whole, the cell-contents will swell and lose their shape, but will not wash out and the result will be disappointing. Allow the sections to remaia in this solution, from a few hours to a few days, as may be necessary; an occasional examination will show when the sections are clear, when this solution should be poured off and replaced by two or three changes of dis- tilled water, and when sufficiently washed, by a twenty or twenty-five percent mixture of alcohol with water, in which the sections can then be preserved for years until wanted for permanent mounting. Some prefer to use undiluted labarraque solution in- stead of the above diluted solution, but it requires more careful watching, and even in spite of this, many delicate sections go to pieces and are ruined; of course the un- diluted solution may clear and bleach a section in a few minutes, but it is usually safer and better to " make hast. 1 slowly," and the method recommended will give excellent results. Immersing the sections in chlorine water will also sometimes give excellent results; when sufficiently bleached, wash in several changes of distilled water and preserve in diluted alcohol of about twenty-five per cent strength. One of these sections may be stained by placing it in a watch-glass or small porcelain dish and covering it with a few drops of picro-carmine, which stains scler- enchyma or stone cells yellow and cellulose cell-walls red. After ten or fifteen minutes we may drain off the picrocarmine and pour on a few drops of alcohol (com- mercial ninety-five per cent) and gently wash out the excess of staining fluid with a soft camel-hair brush; then transfer to another watchglass and cover with a NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 57 little alcohol, drain off the alcohol and add a little abso- lute alcohol to remove all water from the section and finally transfer carefully from the absolute alcohol to a little vial containing oil of cloves, in which the section may remain until it is to be permanently mounted. Of course we may as well take a number of different sections aud treat them together as there will usually be little or no difficulty to correctly label them, as we can compare with the sections preserved in the diluted alcohol, but if the sections closely resemble each other we must keep them separated unless we are quite familiar with their appearance. In giving elementary intructions for the preparation of mounts, such as are intended to be here given, it is unnecessary to dwell on the different methods of stain- ing for the differentiation of different tissues. Much interesting information on this subject can be obtained from Professor Bastin's excellent work en vegetable histology, LABORATORY EXERCISES IN BOTANY, Which all who wish to do advanced work of this nature will do well to obtain. When we have accumulated a number of sections in oil of cloves we are ready to mount them in Canada balsam. For this purpose it is well to have a warm table, which can be cheaply made by a tinsmith in the shape of a tin box about ten inches square on top and from four to six inches deep; a screw-cap is soldered in one corner to allow water to be poured in, and near it a circular cup-shaped depression which will hold the bottle in which we keep the hardened Canada balsam. When the box is filled with hot water and the screw-cap is fastened down, the apparatus should be water-tight. This box may be fitted into a wooden tray for convenience of handling and to avoid too rapid radiation of heat from the box. When filled with hot water the top of the box becomes a hot table which will not become overheated and which will retain sufficient heat to allow us to work for several hours before it becomes too cool. 58 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. When we wish to mount sections in balsam, we first clean a few more glass slides and cover- glasses than we will probably require, to make allowance for accidental soiling. The tin box is then filled with water having a temperature of 65° to 80° C. (150° to 175° F.), the screw- cap fastened down and the bottle with hard balsam placed in the cup-shaped depression or well. When the balsam is melted a few slide glasses are laid on the warm surface of tin and a little of the balsam is then placed in the center of each slide by means of a small syringe or a glass rod, care being taken that no air bubbles are inclosed in the balsam. We next take a forceps and taking the stained sections from the oil of cloves, one by one, we thrust each deep into the liquid balsam on a slide. The adhering oil of cloves will remain on the top of the balsam. We then take another forceps and lifting a cover-glass by its edge warm it slightly over a lamp and hold it over the drop of balsam on thver-glass or the latter may be cracked and the slide spoiled. In such a case the whole slide must be warmed, the pieces of cover-glass slipped off to the side and the section, if uninjured, returned to the oil of cloves to be remounted later on in the same way. After the most of th o balsam is removed with the knife, the slide is cleaned with a soft toothbrush dipped in alcohol, then with another soft brush with soap and water, finally rinsed in clean water and dried, and then a label is affixed to one end of the slide. Or if a finish is desired, the slide may be put ou a turn-table and a ring of shellac varnish (shellac dis- solved in alcohol) run around the cover-glass, overlap- ping the edge of the cover-glass and a little beyo id it on the slide. Or we may mount our sections in a drop of the solution of the thickened balsam in chloroform or benzol, manip- ulating as explained above, but without warming. The section should be rinsed in chloroform or benzol, as the case may be, before placing it in the balsam on the slide, and when the spring clip is applied the slide must be laid away to harden. It takes a long time for it to do this, and this method of mounting is not recommended, except for very delicate sections. It has been suggested that a ring of the size of the cover-glass be painted on the back of the glass slide on the self-centering turn-table to enable the manipulator to center his object properly when mounting in either balsam or glycerin je^y; when the mount is ready this ring of color is of cjursj washed off in cleaning the Slide. 60 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. For most purposes it is best to mount in one of the fluids already mentioned; but as the mounts in glycerin jelly present nearly all the advantages of the fluid mounts, combined with the simplicity of balsam mounts, we will first consider this method of working before pro- ceeding to the more difficult mounting in cells. Glycerin jelly may be purchased from the dealer in microscopical sundries. It is practically a jelly made by dissolving gelatin in glycerin with some antiseptic to prevent moulding. The mass is similar to that of the hectograph pad, or to gelatin suppositories, special care being taken to have the materials absolutely clean and free from dirt. It is more satisfactory to buy the small quantity needed, than to attempt to make it. For mounting in glycerin jelly proceed as for balsam mounts; use the warm table, but at a lower temperature than for bal>am, only just enough heat being used to liquefy the jelly, the bottle in which it is contained being placed in the depression in the table. A watch glass with a small quantity of jelly is placed on the table and the sections to be mounted are transferred from the preserving fluids to this glass and immersed in the fluid glycerin jelly, where they are left for a few minutes until they are thoroughly permeated by the mounting medium, the watch glass being mean- while covered to prevent dust from falling into it. Of course it will be understood that sections or objects pre- served in oil of cloves cannot bo mounted in this medium, only tho-e in the watery fluids being available; those kept in alcohol may be rinsed in distilled water and then transferred to the jelly. If objects are mounted direct from the preserving fluids it may prevent the set- ting or gelatinizing of the medium and the mount may prove a failure. The mounting is proceeded with exactly as in the case of balsam, using the liquefied jelly instead of the liquefied balsam. The dropper should be filled by emptying of air, then inserting the end in the NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 61 liquid and filling gently and slowly to avoid air bubbles, and it should never be emptied of its air while the point is immersed in the jelly, as this would blow the jelly into a froth from which it would be almost impossible to remove air-bubbles. After the cover glass is applied the slide is put away to cool, but the spring clips should not exert more pressure than is absolutely necessary to keep the cover in place and the object fiat. Upon cooliug the glycerin jelly " sets, " or becomes solid, and when thoroughly set the slide must be washed in very cold water to remove the excess of glycerin jelly outside of the cover glass; it is then rinsed in clean cold water, dried with a \rt of blotting paper or filter paper and laid away to thoroughly dry, when it is finished by painting the edge of the cover glass with a ring of cement, such as white-zinc cement, Brunswick Black, dammar varnish, or balsam in chloroform. This ring of cement is painted so as to be about one-eighth of an inch- wide, overlapping the edge of the cover-glass so as to fasten the cover-glass to the slide. For mounting in fluids a turn-table (self-centering preferred) is almost indispensable, and the needles in handles and one or a few cements complete the necessary materials and appliances. Brunswick Black is the most generally useful cement but shellac dissolved In alcohol, decanted after settling, is also good. The cement is kept in a vial stopped with a very fine velvety cork to avoid particles of cork from falling into the vial; in the under end of the cork a small camel-hair pencil is inserted, which is left in the cement when not in use, so that it is always soft and ready for use. The cells should be prepared in advance by painting a circle on a slide; the inside of this circle must be smaller than the cover-glass to be used, and the outside must be somewhat larger than the cover-glass. The slide is laid away in dust-proof boxes until this cement-ring is thoroughly hardened. If the cell is not deep enough, a second or even third or fourth ring is painted over the 62 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. first, allowing each to harden before adding the next. An assortment of such cells should be kept ready for use. The objects to be mounted should be soaked in the fluid in which they are to be preserved for some time so that they may be thorougly permeated with the fluid. When ready to mount the preparation place a slide with a suitable cell on the turn-table and center it; then paint a ring on the cement cell so that it will not touch the inner margin of the cell at any point. With a shellac cell this ring may be painted with benzole solution of balsam; with a Brunswick Black cell Brunswick Black is used. When this fresh ring becomes "tacky" or sticky, the cell is carefully filled with the fluid (glycerin, creosote or chloroform water, etc.), and the object is placed as near as possible in the center of the cell; this is best done by laying a thick piece of plate-glass on a black paper or velveteen, and using this as a table upon which to work, because a delicate object is thus best seen. The object is carefully arranged in the cell by aid of the mounted needles; after which a clean cover-glass is taken up with a delicate pair of tweezers or forceps in the right hand. A needle is held against the cement cell on the left side, the edge of the cover-glass is rested against it and then the cover is allowed slowly to settle down on the cell. By fir^t breathing on the under side of the cover-glass, the fluid wiil more readily come into contact with it, and there will be less liability to imprison air-bubbles in the cell. When the cover- glass is in place, press it down gent y until it is cemented in place by being in close contact with the sticky cement, which can readily be seen by reflected light. As long as any part of the circle of cement is not in contact with the cover-glass, a fault exists which will probably result in destroying the mount. In pressing the cover into contact with the cement,' the pressure must not be applied to the center of the cover-glass, as this will yield to the pressure, a portion of the fluid will be forced out, and when the pressure is removed an air-bubble is apt NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 63 to be drawn under the cover- glass; then the slide is spoiled. If the cover-glass has been successfully brought into place, the slide is laid aside for a little while to allow the cement to become sufficiently hard to permit tue slide to be washed under a gentle stream of flowing water from a sponge ; then lay aside to dry. When dry, paint a circle of the same cement over the edge of the cover-glass, overlaying the latter and fastening it to the slide. If the glycerin was not completely washed away before adding this last ring, the cover-glass will finally crack off and the mount will be ruined, while, if the ring of cement painted on the hardened cell was allowed to touch the glass within the cell, the cement will probably run in and eventually replace the fluid and thus also ruin the mount. If care was exercised, the cell so made is practically per- manent, although it may be well to paint a thin ring of cement over the outside ring every few years to make sure of the integrity of the cell. I have hundreds of mounts in glycerin, or glycerin and water, which were made over fifteen years ago and which have never been repainted, but which are perfect in all respects to this day. In the watery mounts fungoid growths sometimes appear, ruining the original slides; but sometimes these slides are very valuable on account of the interesting growths that have obscured the original object. Espe- cially interesting is the study of the conjugation of some of these low forms of vegetable growth, and until we are sure that this adventitious objeet is valueless we should not be in a hurry to reject the slides as ruined. The following precautions should be con>tantly held in mind when mounting in fluids: — Glycerin, or glycerin and icater in equal parts, make the best and most permanent mounts. Pure glycerin in the course of time renders delicate objects very transparent and the glycerin and water is perhaps preferable for that reason. The glycerin protects against fungoid growths. 64 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. When putting on the ring of cement just before mounting, be sure that it is not put on the inner third of the cement cell, for when the cover-glass drops into place the fresh cement will be drawn by capillary attraction, to the inner edge, but not down the inner edge. If it touches the glass at the inner edge of the cement cell, the cement will run in and ultimately ruin the slide. Exert no pressure on the cover-glass, except at its margin, when putting it in place. Be sure to have enough but yet not too much fluid in the cell, so that the cell may be completely full when the cover- gliss is in its place; as glass is elastic, pressure on the cover-glass, except at its margin, will force out too much fluid and the strain of the glass to regain its shape will draw in air or cement, to the great injury of the mount. Finally, be absolutely sure that all traces of glycerin are washed off from the slide and that the slide is perfectly dry t before putting on the finishing circle of cement; careless- ness in this respect will incur the risk that the cover- glass may crack off from the slide. Of course this applies as well to the circles of cement that constitute the cell itself. Even if only a minute crack appears at any point, the water of the mounting fluid will eventually evaporate and the cell become valueless. Only a few words need be added in regard to objects other than sections of stems, roots, fruits, etc. The epidermis of leaves may be separated by macerating the leaf in water for some days when the epidermis can be peeled or torn off in large shreds, — the epidermis is best mounted in fluids. Powdered drugs are best examined by mounting in water or glycerin, after having been first macerated in dilute alcohol to remove too dense color if this is necessary. Or the powdered drug may be mounted in balsam after treating in the same way as has been described for sections. But powdered drugs should not be treated with Labarraque solution, nor with potassa solution, because these would destroy starch and other characteristic parts of the object to be ex- NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 65 amined. It is advisable to mount slides of what are known to be pure powdered drugs, for comparison with suspected specimens, but the latter must not be con- sidered to be willfully or intentionally adulterated, unless foreign histological elements constitute an appreciable proportion of the specimen, as accidental foreign matter may remain, due to imperfect garbling before grinding. Particles of dust, bits of cotton or jute fibre from the original package, insect or vegetable scales or hair, etc., are often and unavoidably present. Many writers recommend that drawings of the objects be made by the aid of the camera lucida, but this is a useless waste of time, as the specimen itself may be re- examined whenever one wishes to do so. All slides should be kept in trays, lying flat, and be protected from frost in winter and from too great heat in summer. If pictures are desired, it is preferable to photograph the object, and a few words in regard to sketching and photographing the microscopical preparation will there- fore be of value. The alumni of a college, for instance, could do a great work for the furtherance of pharmaceutical education, if they became interested in such work, by photographing preparations of official and officinal drugs, and makiug lantern slides of the same; then the alumni association, gathering these from its various members, could from time to time, donate such collections to the college, enabling it year after year to illustrate more and more fully the subject of pharmacognosy. Many of the alumni are no doubt amateur photographers; why could they not occasionally photograph a nook in the fields or woods, a verdure-clothed bank by the road or stream- side, a corner of the fence, etc., showing our indigenous medicinal plants as they grow. A "photograph of a flowering branch, or a twig with fruit, showing the botanical features of these wild-growing plants in detail, would all be valuable and welcome additions to the illus- trative material and appliances of any college of phar- 5 66 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. macy, and eacli contributor to such a collection would not only have pleasure in the work itself, but would feel gratification in the thought that he had contributed to the success of the college of his choice, and the name on the label of his contribution would keep his name in grateful remembrance in the college. i i i i f i i i It may interest some to know how to photograph microscopical preparations in an easy manner and with- out expensive apparatus. I therefore describe my own apparatus, which is figured herewith. It consists of a wooden box, about five feet in length; one end is a closed box (a) with door and Russian iron roof and chimney, made perfectly light-tight, even the holes for ventilation or draught being covered on the inside in such a man- ner that no ray of light can escape. The other part of the box is open on one side and the inside of this part of the box is stained a dull black. In this part a stand or frame (d) slides backward and forward, in which a hole 3£ x 4£ inches in size has been cut with its center exactly opposite the center of the lens, which will presently be described. The front of this hole is covered by a thin sheet zinc plate in which has been cut very accurately a hole three and one-eighth inches in diameter, and in such a manner that when a photographic plate is put in the frame behind the zinc the hole will be centered over the plate, leaving about one-sixteenth of an inch of the plate above and below this margin of the zinc. The plate is held tightly in place by a spring clip. In the partition between the short closed and long open part of the box a hole is also cut and either within this wooden partition or on the side towards the open part of the box a sliding NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 67 shutter is attached which can be pulled out and pushed in by a knob on the outside (6), and on the side towards the closed part of the box a brass plate with screw-thread to carry a microscope objective is firmly fastened. This is shown in the figure below. The stage is movable, sliding in a groove, and may be moved back or forward by a milled wheel attached to a long screw, the focusing wheel being shown at c in figure of the box. The upright stage is like a plain mi- croscope stage and holds the slide or object to be pho- tographed by means of two spring clips. Any method of illumination can be used;* an electric incandescent light, a microscope lamp with condenser, or a plain coal oil lamp with bull's eye condenser, or the whole apparatus may be open at the end opposite the stage and fitted into the shutter of a dark room so that a heliostat mirror may be made to throw direct sunlight on the object to be photographed. In this case, however, a dark room is necessary and the apparatus must fit into the shutter closely so that no rays of light are admitted. I prefer a coal oil or a Welsbach gas light. To photograph with the latter light no dark room is necessary, any room answering the purpose on a dark 68 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. night. Any dark room lantern with ruby light is used. To photograph, place the object on the stage, adjust the illumination and close the door to the closed part of the apparatus. The room should now be absolutely dark, but for the rays of light from the safety ruby lantern. In the carrier a porcelain plate, three and one-fourth by four and one-fourth inches in size, has been placed so that the matt surface shows a white disc three and one-eighth inches in diameter through the hole in the zinc plate, and towards the lens. Open the shutter and move the carrier forward or backward with the right hand, at the same time working the focusing wheel with the left hand until the projected image is a little less in size than the focus- ing disc of porcelain; then use a focusing lens and adjust the focus accurately; this can be done much better in this manner than by light transmitted through ground glass at the back of a camera. If necessary, readjust the illumination so that the disc is evenly illuminated, and then close the shutter slide. Remove the porce- lain plate and insert a three and one-fourth inches by four and one -fourth inches dry plate without moving the carrier. Then open the shutter and make the exposure, the length of time varying with the plates used, the objective employed and the distance of the carrier from the lens. A little experience will teach this very soon. The plate may then be placed in an envelope and marked with the name of the object and the number on the grad- uated part of the box. These graduations are arbitrary but equal distances apart; say one or two inches, and we prepare a table showing the rate of enlargement for every objective we use and all the marks on the graduated box. Of course we make these tables by pro- jecting a stage micrometer on the , porcelain plate and measuring the projected image and calculating the degree of enlargement. The envelopes containing exposed plates may be put in a dark box until we have exposed a number; or we may develop each plate as soon as it is exposed, so that if it is over or undertimed, we can NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 69 expose another without the trouble of readjusting and refocusing. Such plates, when finished, are intended for making standard size lantern slides by contact printing, but, of course, different sized carriers can be made for larger dry-plates. The apparatus should be made large enuugh for any sized plate it may be desirable to use. My own preference for photographing whole sections, etc., is to use a low objective, a four-inch, for instance, and move the carrier to a greater distance. A better result is obtained than by using a higher power at a shorter distance. When the focusing is done, I take a little strip of opaque gummed paper, previously cut and kept assorted in boxes, according to the rate of enlargement, and paste it on a part of the unexposed plate, but within the circle of the zinc disc, outside of the image of the object, if possible ; when the plate is developed, this strip comes off and leaves a transparent space, on which I draw with a fine pen and photo-engravers' ink a scale representing one millimeter divided into fifths of a millime- ter, at the rate of enlargement indicated by the position of the plate carrier and the objective, as previously ascer- tained and already described. This scale is drawn as in the accompanying figure (111 — n , and when a lantern slide is made it appears on the latter as a white scale on a black space. It is far more impressive in teaching the relative sizes of objects than any verbal statements of the rate of enlargement. As to the photographing itself, i. e., the exposing, devel- oping, etc., it does not differ from any other photographic work, but of course each one will probably have some preference for a certain make of dry-plates or a certain developer. I have obtained my best results with the "Hammer" dry-plates and the Eikonogen and Hydro- chinon developer as recommended by Carbutt for his lantern slide transparency plates, which latter are good 70 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. for making the lantern slides. But for a good negative, with full delicate detail, I use only the " Hammer " plates. This work is instructive, and I hope some of the alumni of the various colleges of pharmacy will become interested in it, and let the colleges benefit by contrib- uting lantern slides to the collections of their alma mater. Some authors place much stress on drawing the objects examined. To me it always appeared to be a waste of time, but if drawings are wanted they may be made with the camera lucida, but preferably by arrang- ing the microscope as shown in the following figure, and then projecting the image downwards on a piece of paper by means of a plane mirror or a rectangular re- flecting prism. If the work is done at night no box is needed, a book or sheet of pasteboard between the paper and the lamp or source of light beinsj sufficient. This is the easiest method of making a drawing. A little more difficult and at the same time expensive method, is to rule a piece of paper lightly with lead pencil into sixty-four squares, by drawing nine parallel lines NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 71 each way at right angles to each other at equal distances apart, and then drawing a circle with one arm of the di- vider or compass at the point of crossing of lines in the center, and the circumference of the circle touching the four sides so that the entire circle is contained in the square. An optician can furnish an eye-piece to the mi- croscope, with a glass disc ruled in the same manner, so that the field of the microscope, as determined by the diaphragm of the eye-piece, is divided exactly as the cir- cle on the paper. The drawing may then be made by copying the image in the field of the microscope off-hand. Still, but few who use the microscope are expert at making drawings, and except as memoranda or notes, these drawings have little value and photographs are preferable. Further details of the work necessary for a proper use of the microscope should be obtained by every student in a college of pharmacy, by taking the instruction in the microscopical laboratories, and by those who are not students at colleges of pharmacy by studying some of the special works on microscopical technology. But for the purpose of following these notes on pharmacognosy, the foregoing essentials may suffice. It is not the object to enter on any lengthy consideration of the minute structures of plants from the stand-point of the botanist or the biologist but from the stand-point of the pharmacognocist or druggist, and the notes will treat therefore mainly of the elementary facts of vege- table histology. It is presumed that the student is familiar with general structural botany, as it is explained in Gray's Lessons in Botany; or if he is not, he should read that book carefully before proceeding with a study of these notes. If he has studied that little work he will have learned that notwithstanding the multiplicity of plants and the apparently infinite variety of forms, the structure is yet very simple when compared with the complex organisms of the animal kingdom. In the flo wer- ing plants, for instance, there are but three different parts, 72 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. root, stem and leaf, which are metamorphosed or modi- fied to answer all the varied requirements demanded of them by the growing plant, and all organs not at first sight recognizable as one of these three parts, may be shown to be such by a careful examination of the structure and function. As we recognize the same limb in the pectoral fin of the fish, the wing of a bird or bat, the paddle of the whale, the foreleg of a quadruped and the arms of quadrumana or bimana, so we see the stem in branch or tendril, rhizome, tuber or bulb, or even in the pulpy mass of the fig or strawberry. But while the external appearance of the organs of a plant may be very diversified, undergoing various modi- fications for many different purposes, we find little difference in the minute structure. The student will therefore have comparatively little difficulty in under- standing this subject, especially as in pharmacognosy we have little or nothing to do with the living processes in the plant cells or with the phenomena to be observed in living protoplasm, but only with the " formed " materials, cellwalls, starches, oils, resin, etc. If we examine a small portion of any part of a plant under the microscope we will find it made up of small structures which are called cells. In the lower orders of plants, the Algce, etc., we may find plants consisting of single cells, or of rows of cells of the thickness of only one cell, and in some of these we can study the pheno- mena of plant life and cell-structure to good advantage. But we can also study the plant-cells as we find them in the higher plants, and especially in the more succulent or growing parts of the stem, leaf or root, or in the pulpy portion of fruits, such as apples, cranberry, strawberry, etc. The cell consists of a cell- wall com- posed of cellulose, enveloping a sub- stance which is called protoplasm, and within this is a small body termed a nucleus, within which in turn may be NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 73 one or more smaller bodies called nucleolus or ww- cleoli (pi.). The cell-wall may be absent in some of the lowest forms of vegetable life, when the cells are called naked or free protoplasm, etc., as in the amoeba, and some young algae; or the nucleus is not seen, although this is often due to the fact that protoplasm and nucleus are of the same density and transparency, in which case the nu- cleus can, however, be demonstrated by staining it by soaking the preparation in some staining solution, as in a solution of Hematoxylin or in a solution of carmine in water made slightly alkaline by the addition of ammonia and afterwards washing in a weak solution of acetic acid. Still, this is not necessary to be done in the study of pharmacognosy. The figure shows the essential structure of a cell, in the primordial cell of Stephanosphcera pluvialis, after Sachs, and as the cell is single, not pressed upon by other cells, it is round, which may be said to be the normal and typical shape of a cell. Many druggists have an aquarium in which a small plant with long grass-like blades is cultivated. This plant is the Vallisneria spiralis and it offers an oppor- tunity of examining the cell which should not be neglected. Take out a large leaf, those turning slightly yellow being best for the purpose. With a sharp knife or razor cut it into thin longitudinal sections and place one of these.on a slide under a coverslass and keep moist with water, taking care that the water does not wet the upper surface of the cover glass. Examine with an objective of comparatively high power, say a one-fourth or one-fifth inch objective. As there are many cells pressing each other, the cells are compressed and will appear in such a section to be quadrangular. The proto- plasm flows around the interior of the cell in a steady current, carrying with it the green chlorophyll bodies and the large transparent colorless nucleus, which is, however, readily seen because its refractive power differs 74 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. from that of the protoplasm and the cell-fluids ; the cell- walls are also plainly seen. In ordinary language we often speak of the vegetable cell when we really mean the empty cell-wall, as in the microscopical preparations from which we have removed the cell-contents as already explained, but we shouid not forget that this use of the word " cell " in describing the structure of a drug is conventional and not scien- tifically correct. The cell-wall is formed from and by the protoplasm, and once formed is not re-absorbed. It is alive only in the sense in which hair or fingernails are alive; it is called "formed" material, and once formed remains even after all life has ceased in the cell and the protoplasm has all been absorbed from the cell. The size of vegetable cells is extremely variable, for while the average cell is stated by Carpenter to be about 0.085 millimeter (3^ inch) in diameter, there are cells fully 0.85 millimeter (£$ inch) in size and others less than 0.0085 millimeter (^nr inca ) m diameter. a A R r 9 on a, As already stated, the typical shape of a single cell is round, but it may also occasionally be oval (a and b in the NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 75 figure). When cells are joined together, mutual pres- sure at the points of contact is apt to modify the shape, as in the long thread-like filaments of many algae, when the cells become cylindrical, as in c; and this shape is also found in the soft interiors of many plants in which the aggregations of cells is not a mere thread, as in the soft parts of sarsaparilla. If only a few cells are joined to form a vegetable hair, the individual cell may assume the conical shape sh^wn in d. But in the interior parts of plants it is more common that the cells are compressed from all directions, and the shape becomes more or less regularly twelve-sided, as in /, which in section will appear as six-sided j and if the growth is more rapid in one direction than in others the cells will be elongated in that direction as in g and h, but they will still appear six-sided on section. Occasionally the cells may be more or less prismatic in shape, as in i, j t or k, but this is not common. All such cells abutting on each other with broad surfaces are parenchymatous cells; they are usually not much longer than they are broad, and are usually soft-walled, and therefore they do not give much strength to the plant. An important modification of the shape of cells is that figured at e, where the cell is shown as elongated and pointed at the ends, the fusiform or spindle-shaped cell; in the tissues of the plant the ends of these cells inter- lace and as they are usually hardened, or lignified (woody), they give strength to plants. The wood of our trees, for example, is made up of such fusiform cells which often are ten or even a hundred times as long as they are broad, and these cells are called prosenchym- atous cells. When the cell is young it is completely filled with protoplasm, a portion of which may be differentiated from the remainder so as to form the nucleus. The cell-wall may be scarcely more than a delicate layer on the out- side of the cell in its earlier stages, but this soon becomes surrounded with a denser wall of cellulose. When a cell 76 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. of this kind is subjected to the action of any medium capable of attracting water from the protoplasm the latter will shrink away from the cell-wall and will then appear to be surrounded by a delicate membrane which is called the *' primordial utricle; "but this membrane is pos- sibly only a product of the chemical action of the medium on the protoplasm, and is probably no more a membrane than is seen when we carefully open an egg into boiling water, when the white of egg on the outside at once coagulates and appears to be a white membrane around the still transparent albumen within. This contraction of the protoplasm by the action of reagents, such as glycerin, alcohol, etc., is seen in the accompanying figure, which represents cells from rhubarb root, taken from the soft mass left after mak- ing an infusion and then placing in alcohol; two of the cells are shown empty, the others show contracted pro- toplasm. The angular mass represents the stellate crystals of oxalate of lime which are plentiful in rhubarb root. As the cell grows older and larger, spaces occur in the protoplasm which are filled with a watery fluid; feuch spaces are called vacuoles^ and the fluid which they contain is called the cell-sap, which increases in volume until the protoplasm occupies but a small part of the cell contiguous to the cell-wall and finally dis- appears altogether. The cell then ceases to take active part in the life of the plant and serves mechani- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 77 cally by osmosis through its cell-walls, or by capillary attraction, to carry moi-ture from the rootlets to the growing and living cells of the plant. At last this too may cease and the dry cell, empty or filled with mineral or other deposits, as in the inner or heartwood of trees, serves only as mechanical support to the living tissues. From the protoplasm may be elaborated various organic substances which are of importance in the economy of the plant; and the moisture taken from the soil holds in solu- tion more or less inorganic material which is carried up into the tissues of the plant, where it is finally deposited without, however, necessarily taking part in the life pro- cesses of the plant. As evaporation of moisture from the plant takes place mainly from the leaves it is here that much of this inor- ganic material is deposited, and upon burning different parts of plants and weighing the residue it is found that leaves leave the largest percentage of ash. In the tissues of the plant inorganic substances are de- posited in various forms, often in combination with or- ganic acids constituting some of the proximate principles of the plant; sometimes they are deposited in the cell- walls, in the form of small crystals, or the whole cell-wall may be so loaded with inorganic material that it will re- tain its shape even when the organic materials have been destroyed, as in diatoms, or in the epidermis of Equise- tum, in which silica is deposited. Or lime-salts are deposited in the interior of the cell, in the protoplasm; either in single crystals, as in the epidermal cells of onion peel, or in bundles of long slen- der crystals, as in the stem of lilies or of fuchsia, or in skunk-cabbage, when they are called raphides, a Latin word meaning needles ; or the crystals may be in stellate aggregations, as in the oxalate of lime crystals in rhubarb, shown in the last illustration. Protoplasm is an indispensable part of the cell-contents of every liviug cell, but it is of little interest to the student of pharmacognosy, who is mainly concerned with 78 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. those substances which have definite form when seen under the microscope. Of the almost innumerable organic substances that are found in plants starch is of most interest in the study of drugs, because its various forms may help to distinguish one drug from another, although in examining powdered drugs it may occasion- ally be necessary to afrply chemical tests to determine some of the formless constituents of the cells. Starch is found in most plants and consists of more or less regular grains with a structure that is often char- acteristic of the plant or drug. ^Typical grains of starch may be ob- tained for study by slicing a potato and pressing the cut surface against a glass slide, plac- ing a drop of water on this and covering with a thin cover-glass and examining with a high power objective. In the illustration we see several large grains of potato starch, the oval form being most common, although quite a number are irregular from mutual compression in the cells, and a few are compound by the adhesion of two or more. By making a section of the potato at right angles to the surface and mounting in water or glycerin the ex- tent to which starch grains are crowded in the cells may be seen. In potato starch the size varies considerably, large, intermediate and small grains being plentifully found; in wheat starch there are large numbers of large round grains and of quite small grains and few of inter- mediate size ; while in corn starch nearly all grains are of uniform size. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 79 Most kinds of starch show peculiar layers or concen- tric markings around a dot or "hilum," which is gen- erally excentric. If examined with the polariscope starch is seen to polarize light with a cross radiating from the hilum 5 as shown in the figure. Starch is to the plant what fat is to an animal — surplus food material stored up for future use. If, in examining a drug, we are I in doubt about the nature of any I grains we see, we may test for starch by soaking the substance under examination in watery sol- ution containing free iodine, as for instance, a few drops of tincture of iodine in water, to which a grain or two of iodide of potassium may be added; this will stain the starch grains blue. In some plants, especially Compositae, no starch is found, and the food material is not deposited in solid form but remains in solution. This substance is inulin, but it is of little interest to the pharmacognist. If a drug containing inulin is soaked for some days in alcohol the inulin is precipitated and becomes aggregated in spherical masses of an apparently radiating crystalline structure, forming ,€ sphsero- crystals; n these sometimes occupy several adjacent cells, the cell- walls apparently not inter- fering with their arrangement. Iodine stains inulin yellowish-brown by the mechanical deposit of iodine in the fissures of the sphsero -crystals, and not by any real staining effect. Aleurone grains are found exclusively in seeds, espe- cially oily ones. They are food reserve in the form of rounded or oval grains resembling starch grains, but are not colored blue by iodine. They appear to be homo- geneous until they are cleared by soaking in glycerin, when they are seen to contain a crystalloid or globoid body in the interior. Aleurone grains consist of albu- 80 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. minoid or protein substances, the crystalloids of calcium oxalate and the globoids of calcium and magnesium phosphate. Aleurone is generally soluble in water, and sections intended to show these grains must be exam- ined in glycerin. Aleurone is of little importance to the pharmacognocist, although when peas or beans are added as adulterations to powdered drugs, the presence of aleurone grains may establish the fact of adulteration. Other protein grains, etc., are sometimes produced by precipitating the protein substances that are held in solution in the protoplasm and cell-sap; they do not naturally assume regular forms recognizable under the microscope, and while they are of interest to the student of vegetable histology and physiology they are of little or no interest to the pharmacognocist. The same is true of most other organic compounds, as sugars, tannin, extract- ives, alkaloids, glucosides, etc. Fixed oils are often visible in the form of highly refractive drops or globules. Resin masses, which are often deposited in special ducts or cells, may be identified by soaking the section in tincture of alkanna diluted with water, when the resin becomes colored brilliantly red; or by soaking in a watery solution of acetate of copper, when it becomes emerald green, but the staining in the latter solution requires several days. The simplest and primary cell-wall is cellulose. As we see the cell-walls in a section of a drug, the partition between any two cells is composed of the cell-walls of the two cells united by an interposed cell-cement, and under low powers and without differential staining it looks like one cell-wall. Ordinarily we speak of the empty cells consisting merely of sections of cell- walls, as in sections from which the cell-contents have been re- moved by the treatment spoken of when telling about the making of sections, as " cells," and a pharmacogno- cist is not much interested in any other cells; so that pharmacognosy is mainly concerned with the empty cell- walls. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 81 Parenchymatous cells usually have cellulose walls. As plants grow older various changes occur in the cell- walls ; for instance, the thin epidermal cells of leaves change by a development of cuticle, a peculiar layer of cells the outer part of which is thickened and impervious to water; still later, on the branches and roots this cuticle becomes replaced by suber or cork, a more or less thick deposit of a different kind of cell, which is even more impermeable to water than the cuticle. Prosenchymatous cells often become lignified — that is, the cell-wall is changed to lignin, a hard and tough material forming wood. The wood of plants is com- posed of this modification of cell-wall, and it serves for mechanical support of the plant. A similar modification of the cell-wall is that by depo- sition of sclerogen (lignin?) within the original cellulose wall. This substance is deposited in layers, one within another, until the cell is often nearly filled with this material. But there are little pores which remain open, making communication from one cell to another by osmosis through the cellulose wall possible. In the illus- tration we see sclerenchym- atous cells from the carpel of star anise, all but one having these small pores filled with Canada balsam, so that they cannot be seen, while in one they are filled with air, which ren ders them plainly perceptible. The stones of fruits and the gritty particles in pears fur- nish interesting cells of this kind, but when they are found scattered among parenchymatous cells, as when they occur in the middle part of a bark, or scattered in the fleshy part of the pear, they are called "stone cells". Such cells are usually nearly round, while the sclerenchymatous cells which are found in the bast portion of the bark are also prosenchymatous or 82 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. spindle- shaped. The stony parts of nuts furnish fine examples of stone cells. In the accompanying figure we see a transverse section of the bast-cells of cinchona bark, showing plainly how the small canals that run through the layers of sclerogen communicate with those in an adjacent cell. If we look down on the end of one of these small canals it will appear as a dot, and when the deposit is very thin the cell will look as if it was dotted, and it is then called a " dotted cell; " of this, beauriful examples can be found in Areca nut. Dotted cells may, how- ever, be of lignin as well. Sclerenchyma cells po- larize light, and a cross section of such a cell will show a polarization cross, as shown in this illustration of three Cinchona bast-cells un- der the polariscope. The distribution of sclerenchyma cells among the other cells of a plant or drug often gives such a character- istic appearance, that it becomes a valuable feature for the recognition of the drug. We have already learned that the words " parenchyma " and u prosenchyma " refer to the shapes of cells; the word " sclerenchyma " refers to the peculiar thickening of the cell-wall, and sclerenchyma cells may be either parenchymatous or pro- senchymatous in shape. Peculiar round dots or pores are found in the wood- cells of conifers, which are characteristic of that class of plants, and which are shown in the drawing of the wood cells of Pinus sylvestris ; the thickening of the cell-wall NCTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 83 at first leaves a larger circular space, but this gradually becomes narrowed until we see the appearance as in a> a section of the cell-wall also being shown ; at b we see an older formation, the original cellulose cell-wall having been absorbed, thus allowing direct communication from cell to cell. Cells of this kind are called " pitted cells. " In many plants we find ducts or tracheids, consisting of large cylindrical ceils joined at their ends, the parti- tion walls afterwards being absorbed, thus producing long continuous tubes or vessels. Thickening by the deposit of lignin or sclerogen may take place in these ducts, as in simple cells, giving rise to variations in appearance, which are designated by distinguishing names. When the thickening is interrupted by small and circular pores, 84 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. whether in the cell or in a duct, we say these structures are dotted; a dotted duct is seen in i, in the illustration. In reticulated ducts the pores are a little longer in a trans- verse than in a longitudinal direction, thus making the cell walls look like the meshes of a net as in a. When these meshes are regularly arranged in rows, the appear- ance may be similar to that of the rounds of a ladder; such ducts are called scalar If orm^ of which fine examples may be seen in ferns, and such a duct is shown in e. This resemblance to a ladder may be a little less evi- dent, as in y of the next figure, but it is still a scalari- form duct, but already indicating variations which lead to a deposit of sclerogen in spiral bands, as in w, which forms the spiral ducts. Other ducts have spirals interrupted with circular bands, as in o, while still others have the thickening only in circular NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 85 bands, forming the annular ducts. All possible gradations or combinations between these different methods of thickening may, however, be found in the same duct. These ducts are found in the wood portion of plants. Still another form of duct which is of great importance in the life-economy of the plant, but of little impor- tance from a pharmacognosy point of view, is the sieve duct which is found in the bast of plants, and in which the thickening takes place only in the partitions between the different cells constituting the duct, which partitions are permanent and thickened like dotted ducts so as to resemble sieves placed between the cells. Latex ducts, or laticiferous ducts or vessels may be formed by the coalescence of cells, so that they form anastomosing vessels; they contain latex, a peculiar sub- stance containing oil, resin, caoutchouc, gum, etc., with water,in an emulsion, sometimes limpid, sometimes milky. Intercellular spaces, with no walls of their own, but 86 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. formed by the surrounding cells, as flues in chimneys are bounded by the bricks, may serve as ducts, some- times containing air, as in many water plants, sometimes latex, oil, etc., as in the oil ducts of anise or fennel; when such spaces are nearly spherical they are sometimes called glands, although not properly such, as in orange- peel, cloves, etc. All these different forms of cells and duct formations unite to form tissues. A tissue may be described as a union of many cells for the performance of a common function. The different systems of tissues are : — Epidermal System. — In its simplest form merely a thick- ening of the outer wall of the outer cells, as in some thallogens ; in higher plants, a layer of cells, forming the epidermis, in and on which we find stomata or breathing- pores, hairs, glands, etc. On roots and stems this epider- mis is later on replaced by the formation of cork. The epidermal structures protect the more delicate structures within, and also prevent too rapid or excessive evapo- ration. Mechanical System. — This serves to give mechanical strength to the plant. It includes wood-cells, bast-cells, stone-cells, etc. The wood or xylem portion of fibro- vascular bundles belongs here. Absorbing System. — Structures by which food is obtained from the soil, or in parasitic plants from their hosts; of little importance in pharmacognosy. The root- hairs belong to this system. Assimilating System. — Consists of cells containing chlor- ophyll, therefore in the higher plants mainly the leaves. Conducting System. — The fibro-vascular bundles; ducts, sieve-ducts, etc. This system permits the passage of food materials, water, etc., from one part of a plant to another. Storing System. — Keceptacles for storing surplus food, Such as seeds, fruits, rhizomes, bulbs, roots, etc.* * These " Systems of Tissues " are quoted from Fluec^iger's Elements of Pharmacognosy. Strictly speaking seeds, fruits, eto*, are not *' tissues " but " organs." NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 87 Aerating System. — Stomata and intercellular spaces to effect the interchange of gases in the interior of the plant. Secretion Storage. — To receive and store the secre- tions of the plant, as oil, resin, mucilage, etc. It includes intercellular spaces, cells, latex ducts, glands, etc. While a study of these systems of tissues is important from the botanical stand-point and even essential to a proper understanding of physiological botany, it must yet be remembered that the pharmacist has no more use for botany as such than has the physician, lawyer or preacher, or than has an architect, civil engineer or stonemason for geology or mineralogy, and it is only in so far as a knowledge of botany is of use in pharmacognosy that it is necessary to a pharmacist's education. Pharmacognosy deals with the anatomical facts alone, and it is a divergence and misapplication of time to study botany Cas the ten- dency seems now to be) from the botanist's stand-point. For instance, in studying physiological botany, we should want to study chlorophyll grains with reference to their functions as assimilating organs, and how they produce starch grains, which in turn we would study from their first inception in the chlorophyll bodies to the final perfect shapes in the cell. In pharmacognosy we only need to know chlorophyll bodies and starch grains when we see them, and only want to know whether certain struc- tures are present or not, and if present, what they look like. We will therefore study the tissues from a purely ana- tomical stand-point and in connection with the parts of plants in which they occur, and will next proceed to the consideration of the pharmacognosy of vegetable drugs. Adulterations . Drugs may be debased or tampered with in various ways. We meet with adulterations, sophistications, admixtures and substitutions. An adulteration is an addition of foreign substances to any article with the intention to defraud. When extract of poppy leaves is added to opium, or when leaden 88 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. bullets or shot are inclosed in lumps of opium to increase the weight, these are adulterations. Bat it is also adul- teration when cheaper drugs of similar appearance or inferior or spoiled drugs of the same kind are added with intent to defraud. Sophistication is an addition of a spurious article closely resembling the true, as paraffin to white wax. A sophistication is, therefore, always an adulteration; but as an adulteration is not necessarily aa imitation of the genuine, an adulteration is not necessarily a sophistica- tion. Adulterations and sophistications always imply inten- tional fraud, and the nature of the adulterant is usually such that its use cannot exert any immediately injurious effects, however deleterious the ultimate effects may be, for no one is depraved or foolish enough to risk an immediately fatal effect for the sake of pecuniary gain. An admixture is the addition of one drug to another, and may be intentional, when it constitutes an adulter- ation ; but the term is usually restricted to those cases when the admixture is due to accident or ignorance, and with no intention to defraud ; the circumstances of the case generally show whether the admixture is due to one or the other of these causes, as when the added article is more expensive than the drug, or when it is dangerous to health or life, when it is evidently unintentional and not in any sense an adulteration. A substitution is when an entirely different substance is sold instead of the one asked for. Such substitution may, of course, be intentional, and, therefore, for fraud- ulent purposes, as when ceresin is sold instead of bees- wax, cottonseed oil for. olive oil, or Mexican sarsaparilla for Rio Negro sarsaparilla ; but such fraudulent substi- tution would not be an adulteration because the latter presupposes an intentional cheapening of the genuine article, and in cases of substitution none of the genuine article is present at all. A substitution may also be un- intentional, as when through ignorance one drug is sold NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 89 for another resembling it, or when labels are accidentally interchanged, or when the similarity of names leads to the sale of a wrong article, as in a case where apocynum cannabinum was sold instead of cannabis Indica which had been ordered; but the label was " Cannabis Indica." Here the use of the English name u Iudian Hemp " for both drugs led to the mistake. Substitutions may fur- thermore result from carelessness, as when morphine is dispensed instead of quinine. It will therefore be seen that each of these terms — adulteration, sophistication, admixture and substitu- tion — has a distinct meaning, and that they should not be indiscriminately use 1, one for another. The first two terms always imply fraud; the other two sometimes imply fraud, but frequently imply ignorance or careless- ness. Adulterations and sophistications, therefore, sel- dom directly lead to dangerous results, while admixtures and especially substitutions, frequently give rise to serious or even fatal accidents. Formerly much attention was given to a study of adulterants, these being described with the same minute- ness as the drugs themselves, but now we generally restrict our study to the drugs, counting all that does not auswer the description of the drug under consideration to be foreign substance, and therefore one of the above forms of debasement. Adulterations that are of common occurrence or of characteristic nature will be described in these notes. We proceed now to the consideration of the pharmacognosy of the individual vegetable drugs. GROUP IX. HERBS — WHOLE PLANTS BOTANICALLY RECOGNIZABLE. While herbs or flowering tops are usually sufficiently complete to be recognized by their botanical character- istics, yet as a matter of fact works like Maisch's Organic Materia Medica do not classify them systematically as 90 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. fresh plants are classified, for instance, in Gray's Manual. Moreover, by looking over the group-list, it will be seen that there are comparatively few whole flowering plants used as drugs, and even these are of subordinate importance, so that to study taxonomy for the sake of recognizing these few, reminds one of the mountain heaving in labor to produce a mouse. A large number of herbs and other " botanical drugs " are sold in compressed packages, and the retailer sells these as labeled and without opening the packages to determine the identity of the drugs, which, moreover, are often cut up before compression so as to be unrecog- nizable by their botanical features, when, of course, other characteristics, such as odor or taste, must be relied on for identification. In any case, however, these drugs must be softened by dipping in hot water, or by holding in the steam escaping from a tea kettle, so that they may be properly handled for examination. The flowers of most of these plants are very minute and must be examined with a lens; in the following drawings they are represented much enlarged. In pharmacognosy, while it is theoretically assumed that herbs are classified botanically, yet the books give such other methods of identifying these drugs as to make a knowledge of taxonomy practically superfluous, as will be appreciated by reference to this group in Maisch. It is true that at present, in some quarters, pharmacog- nosy is taught by botanists as if botany were the impor- tant study, and pharmacognosy but an incident to it, while in reality botany is and should be but a subordi- nate incident to the study of pharmacognosy. As a matter of fact, the best and easiest way to learn to recognize the drugs of this group is to get a sample of each drug and become familiar with its appearance, taste and odor, and in this way the same result may be reached in a few days that would require a year or two of practice in recognizing plants botanically, especially as many of the drugs of this group are not always in a condition for NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 91 botanical determination, while the other characteristics are always present. The following is an enumeration of the more important drugs of this class, arranged alphabetically according to the orders to which they belong, although no great stress is intended to be placed on the classes. COMPOSITE. Leaves and tops Absinth inn) . Leaves and flowering tops Achillea. Flowering tops Enpatoriiim. Leaves and flowering tops Grindelia. Leaves and flowering tops Solidago. Leaves and tops Tanacetnm. GENTIANE^. Entire plant Cnirata. LABIATE. Leaves and tops Cataria. Leaves and tops Hecleotna. Leaves and tops Lycopns. Leaves and tops Majorana. Leaves and tops Marrnbi u in. Leaves and tops Melissa. Leaves and tops Mentha piperita Leaves and tops Mentha viriclis. Leaves and tops Monarda. Herb Scutellaria. LEGUMINOS.E. Tops Scoparins. LOBELTACE.E. Leaves and tops Lobelia, PAPAVERACE^J. Entire plant Chelidoniam. RANUNCULACE^}. Entire plant Coptis. Herb Pulsatilla. SOLANACE.E. Leaves and flowering tops Hyoscyamns. TTRTICACE^J. Flowering tops of female plant. Cannabis Indica. It must be remembered that drugs which should con- sist of only leaves, as belladonna, aconite,' eucalyptus or chimaphila leaves, or only ot flowers, as matricana, etc., often come into the trade in the shape of twigs or 92 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. tops and may then also appear to belong to this group. Such drugs are described under the proper groups to which they belong. Composite.— Flowers in a close head, on a common receptacle, surrounded with an involucre, with five {rarely four) stamens inserted on the corolla, their anthers united in a tube (syngenesious) . Yellowish florets; leaves petiolate, pinnatifid Absinthium. White florets ; leaves thrice pinnatifid Achillea. White florets ; leaves connate -perfoliate Eupalorium. Yellow ray florets; leaves sessile, spatulate to lan- ceolate Grind; lia. Yellow florets; leaves linear-lanceolate Solidag'o. Yellow tubular florets; leaves alternate, pinnat- ifid Taiiacetnni. Absinthium. N. Wormwood. — o. Leaves and tops of Artemisia Absinthium; Gompositw* — h. Northern temperate zone; NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 93 cultivated. — 1>. Leaves about five cm. long, hoary, silky pubescent, petiolate, roundish-triangular in out- line; pinnately two or three cleft with lanceolate seg- ments, the terminal one spatulate; bracts three cleft or entire; heads numerous, about three mm. long, subglo- bose; numerous small, pale yellow florets, all tubular and without pappus; odor aromatic; taste persistently bitter. — c. Volatile oil, bitter glucoside, etc. — u. Bitter tonic and stimulant. Dose: One to five grams in infu- sion, tincture or fluid extract. Achillea. N. Yarrow, Milfoil. — o. Flowering tops and leaves of Achillea Millefolium; Compositce. — H. Northern temper- ate zone. — D. Leaves from five to twenty-five cm. long, three pinnatifid, the divisions linear, three to five cleft, crowded; corymb compound, flat-topped; involucre oblong with imbricate scales; rays four to five, short, white (sometimes rose-color); disc-florets greenish- white, perfect; achenes flat and without pappus; odor aromatic, reminding somewhat of chamomile ; taste bit- ter. Should be free from coarse stems. — C. Volatile oil and a glucoside, achillein; etc. — u. Aromatic, stomachic, bitter tonic; similar to chamomile. Also supposed to act as an emmenagogue. Dose: One to five grams, in infusion or fluid extract. Enpatorium. N. Boneset, Thoroughwort. — o. Flowering tops of Eupatorium perfoliatum; Compositce. — H. North Amer- 94 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. ica. — d. Stem hairy ; leaves lanceolate, united at the base around the stem (eonnate-perfoliate), tapering to a slender point, serrate, very veiny, wrinkled, downy beneath, ten to twenty cm. long; flower-heads with ten to thirty white florets; corymbs compound and large; scales of involucre linear-lanceolate. — c. A bitter neu- tral principle, eupatorin. — u. Bitter tonic, useful in intermittent fever, dyspepsia, general debility, etc. — The warm infusion is an excellent emetic and diapho- retic. Dose: One to five grams, best given in infusion or fluid extract. Grindelia. N. Grindelia. — o. Leaves and flowering tops of Grin- delia robusta and G. squarrosa; Compositce. — H. G. rob. west of the Rocky Mountains ; G . squarr. from the Missis- sippi westward to the coast. — 1>. Leaves about five cm. or less long, varying from broadly spatulate or oblong to lanceolate, sessile or clasping, obtuse, more or less sharply serrate, often spinosely toothed, or even lacini- ate-pinnatifid, pale green, smooth, finely dotted, thick- ish, brittle, most of them broken off from the stems and loose in the packages; heads many-flowered, sub- globular or somewhat conical; the involucre hemis- pherical, about ten mm. broad, composed of numerous NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 95 imbricated spreading scales; ray florets yellow, ligulate, pistillate; disc -florets yellow, tubular, perfect; pappus consisting of two or three awns of the length of the disc-florets; odor, balsamic; taste pungently aromatic and bitter. In the cut, representing G. rob., a shows a dry flower- head, as in trade; b, same soaked in water; c, section of receptacle; d, disc-floret, enlarged; e, ray-floret; /, stigma, enlarged; g, fruit, enlarged. G. squarr., re- sembles G. rob., but is smaller and the ray-florets are sometimes wanting. The name "squarrosa" refers to the recurved points of the scales covering the flower- heads, but this peculiarity is present in both varieties. — C. Resin and volatile oil. — u. Employed in various affections of the organs of respiration, asthma, pertussis, bronchitis, etc.; it also is said to be diuretic and useful in catarrh of the bladder. Dose: One to five grams in fluid extract. 96 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Solidago. N. Golden Rod. — o. Leaves and flowering tops of Soli- dago odora; Compositce. — H. North America. — D. Leaves three to five cm. long, entire, sessile, smooth, lanceolate, acute, pellucid -punctate ; flowerheads numerous, small, in one-sided curved racemes ; florets yellow, with bristly pappus; odor and taste aromatic, sweet, reminding of anise. — C. Volatile oil. — U. Slightly stimulant and car- minative; copious draughts of warm infusion produce diaphoresis, on account of the warm water taken. Dose : Two to five grams, best given in the form of fluid extract. Tanacetnm. N. Tansy. — o. Leaves and tops of Tanacetum vulgare; Compositce. Several pharmacopoeias prescribe the use of the flowers only. — h. Northern hemisphere; cul- tivated. — D. Leaves about fifteen cm. long; bipin- natifid, the segments oblong, obtuse, serrate or incised, smooth, dark-green and glandular; flower- heads corymbose, with an imbricated involucre, a convex, naked receptacle and numerous yellow tubular florets; odor, strong, camphoraceous ; taste, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY, 97 acrid, bitter. — c. Volatile oil and a bitter principle, tanacetin. — U. Emmenagogue, to restore suppressed menstruation, and sometimes for the purpose of procur- ing abortion. It is seldom, if ever, successful in produc- ing the latter effect, unless the dose is so large that it produces fatal intestinal inflammations. It also possesses anthelmintic properties. Dose: Two to five grams, best as fluid extract; of the oil, one to three drops. Gentiane^. — Smooth herbs, with a colorless bitter juice; opposite, sessile, entire and simple leaves without stipules; solitary or cymose flowers, regular; calyx per- sistent; corolla mostly withering -persistent; lobes of cor- olla convolute in bud; stamens as many as the lobes of the corolla and inserted on Us tube: one -celled ovary with two parietal placentas or nearly the whole inner face of the ovary ovuliferous ; the fruit usually a tico-valved septicidal and many-seeded capsule; seed anatropous with a minute embryo in fleshy albumen. Two nectaries on each petal Chirata. Ctiirata. N. Chirata, Chiretta. — o. The entire plant, Swertia Chirata; Gentianece. — H. East India. — r>. Chirata comes in bundles about seventy-five cm. in length, of the shape shown in drawing. The root is nearly simple, about seven cm. long; stem branched, nearly one meter long, slightly quadrangular above, containing a narrow wood 7 98 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. circle and a large yellowish pith; leaves opposite, ses- sile, ovate, entire, five-nerved; flowers, numerous, small, With four-lobed calyx and corolla; with two nectaries on each petal. The whole plant smooth, pale brown, inodorous and intensely bitter. — c. Ophelic acid, chir- atin, etc. — u. Bitter tonic and febrifuge. Dose: Two to five grams, best given in the form of fluid extract. Chirata should be freed from the coarser woody stems, which contain little of the bitter constituents. Labiat2E. — Chiefly herbs, with square stems; opposite aromatic leaves, mostly dotted with small glands which con- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 99 tain a volatile oil upon which depends the warmth and aroma of these plants; flowers axillary , chiefly in cymose clusters, these often aggregated in terminal spikes or racemes; more or less two-lipped corolla, upper lip of corolla two-lobed or sometimes entire, lower lip three-lobed; stamens inserted on tube of corolla, didynamous or diandrous ; ovary deeply four^ lobed, forming in fruit four little seed- like nuts or achenes, surrounding the base of the single style in the bottom of the persistent calyx and each filled with a single erect seed. Upper lip arched ; stamens 4 Cataria. Corolla small, 2-lipped ; stamens 2 Hedeoma. Flowers in axillary whorls ; stamens 2 Lycopus. Flowers in corymbose clusters; stamens 4. .Majorana. Flowers In dense, woolly, axillary whorls; Stamens 4 Marrubium. Flowers in small cymes ; stamens 4. Melissa. Flowers in obtuse spikes; stamens 4, short.. Mentha ppt. Flowers in slender spikes ; stamens 2. Mentha virid Corolla long, with narrow lip; stamens 2. . .Monarda. Flowers in axillary 1-sided racemes; sta- mens 4 Scutellaria. Cataria. N. Catnep, Catnip.— o. Leaves and tops of Nepeta Cataria; Labiatae. — H. Northern hemisphere. — D. Stem branched, downy gray; with petiolate, heart-shaped, oblong, deeply crenate leaves, with the under side whitish-downy. Cymose axillary clusters, dense and L.ofC. 100 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. many-flowered, forming interrupted spikes or racemes; flowers with whitish corolla, with four stamens ascend- ing under the upper lip, the two lower stamens being shorter. Odor mint-like, taste bitterish and aromatic— C. Volatile oil, bitter extractive, etc. — u. Stimulant and tonic; stomachic; but most frequently used as a remedy for flatulent colic of infants. Dose: Two to five grams in infusion or fluid extract. Hedeoma. N. Pennyroyal.— o. Leaves and tops of Hedeoma Put- egioides; Labiatae. — H. North America.— D. Branching, hairy, roundish-quadrangular stem;leaves opposite, short petioled, oblong-ovate, somewhat serrate, about twelve mm. long; flowers in small axillary cy mules, with a tubu- lar, bilabiate five-toothed calyx, and a pale blue, spotted, bilabiate corolla, containing two fertile and two sterile stamens. Odor strong and mint-like; taste pungent, aromatic— C. Volatile oil. — u. Stimulant, carminative and emmenagogue. Dose : One to five grams in infusion. The fresh herb hung in rooms is much used to drive away mosquitos, and a spirit made by dissolving the oil in alcohol is used for the same purpose. Lycopus. N. Bugle, Bugleweed. — o. Tops of Lycopus Virgin- icws; Labiatce. — H. North America. — 1>. Stem obtusely NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 101 quadrangular, with slender runners; leaves about five cm. long, short-petioled, elliptic-lanceolate, toothed above, smooth; flowers in axillary clusters, small; calyx bluntly four-toothed; corolla purplish and four- lobed; the right hand figure shows the mouth of the corolla with the stigma and two fertile stamens; the odor resembles that of mint ; the taste is bitter. — C. Volatile oil, a bitter principle and tannin. — u. Said to be astringent and sedative, and has been recommended to reduce the force of the pulse and allay cough, and to arrest hemorrhage from the lungs. Dose: Five to ten grams, preferably in the form of fluid extract. Majorana. N. Marjoram, — o. Tops of Origanum Majorana and O. vulgare; Labiatce. — H. Asia Minor and Southern Europe; cultivated. — D. 0. Majorana has the stem branched; leaves about fifteen mm. long, sessile, spatu- late or obovate, entire, grayish-green and hairy; flowers in clusters; calyx two-lipped ; corolla whitish, obscurely two-lipped; stamens, four, exserted and didynamous; taste pungent, odor aromatic. — C. Volatile oil. — U. 102 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Stimulant, carminative and emmenagogue. Dose; One to five grams in infusion or fluid extract. O. vulg., a flower of which is figured, is also called Wild Marjoram, or Origanum,while 0. marj. is known as Sweet Marjoram, The latter is the better known because it is used by cooks as a condiment. Marrubium. N. Hoarhound. — o. Leaves and tops of Marrubium vulgare; Labiatce. — H. Northern hemisphere; culti- vated. — r>. Branches quadrangular; white, densely downy stems; leaves opposite, petiolate, roundish-ovate, about twenty-five mm. long, obtuse, coarsely crenate, strongly wrinkled, downy above, white hairy beneath, flowers in dense, axillary, woolly whorls ; with a stiffly ten-toothed calyx, whitish, bilabiate corolla and four included sta- mens; odor aromatic and taste bitter. — C. A bitter principle. — u. Bitter tonic and stomachic, in dyspepsia and in atonic conditions of the alimentary tract. Dose : Five to ten grams in infusion or in fluid extract . Melissa. N. Melissa, Balm. — o. Leaves and tops of Melissa officinalis; Labiatce. — H. Asia Minor, Southern Europe; natural- ized in U. S. — D. Stem branched, quadrangular, pubescent; leaves about five cm. long, petiolate, ovate, obtuse, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 103 somewhat hairy and glandular, rounded or subcordate at the base, with margin crenate; flowers in about four- flowered cymules; calyx tubular, bell-shaped, five toothed; corolla whitish or purplish; bilabiate; stamens four, didynamous; odor fragrant and aromatic; taste astringent and bitterish. — c. Volatile oil, tannin and a bitter principle. — U. Carminative, diaphoretic and em- menagogue. Dose: One to five grams in infusion. Mentha Piperita. N. Peppermint. — o. Leaves and tops of Mentha piperita; Labiatce. — H. Asia, Europe and North America. — D. Stems and branches quadrangular, often purplish; leaves about five cm. long, petio- late, ovate-lanceolate, acute, glandular and nearly smooth, with margin sharply serrate ; flowers in terminal conical obtuse spikes; calyx tubular, five- toothed, often purplish; corolla four-lobed, purplish, stamens four, short, inserted on corolla ; odor aromatic and taste pungent and cooling. — c. Vola- tile oil, which contains menthol. — U. Carminative and nervine. Dose : One to five grams in infu- sion. Mentha Viridis. N. Spearmint. — o. Leaves and tops of Mentha viridis; Labiatce. — H. Europe and North America. — D. Stems and branches quadran- gular and usually light-green; leaves about five cm. long, sub- 104 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. sessile, oblong or ovate -lanceolate, acute, glandular and nearly smooth, with margin unequally serrate; flowers in slender acute terminal spikes ; calyx tubular, sharply five-toothed; corolla four-lobed, light purplish; stamens four, rather long; odor aromatic and taste pungent. — C. Volatile oil. — u. Carminative and nervine. Dose: One to five grams in infusion. Monarda. N. Horsemint. — o. Leaves and tops of Monarda punctata; Labi- ates. — H. United States, New York to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas. — 1>. Stem nearly simple, minutely downy; leaves about five cm. long, pet- ioled, lanceolate, acute, gland- ular, nearly smooth with margin sparsely serrate ; flowers in whorls, with sessile, yellow and purplish bracts; calyx tubular, downy, flve- toothed ; corollatwo-lipped, yellow- ish with purplish spots on upper lip ; stamens two ; odor aromatic and taste pungent and bitterish. — c. Volatile oil. — u. Carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue. Dose: One to five grams in infusion. Scutellaria. N. Scullcap, Skullcap. — o. Leaves and tops of Scutellaria lateriflora^ Labiatce, — h. North America, west to Alabama and New Mexico. — d. Stem and branches quadrangular, smooth ; leaves about five cm. long, petiolate, ovate-lanceolate or ovate- oblong, with margin serrate ; flow- ers in axillary, one-sided racemes ; calyx two-lipped; corolla two- lipped, pale-blue; stamens four, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 105 didynamous; odor slight and taste bitterish.— c. Bitter principle. — U. Tonic. Dose : One to five grams in infusion. Leguminos^e. — Plants with papilionaceous or sometimes regular flowers; stamens ten {rarely five, and sometimes many) y monadelphous, diadelphous, rarely distinct; pistil free, single and simple, becoming a legume in fruit; seeds mostly without albumen; leaves alternate, with stipules, usually compound. Leaves usually absent; stamens monadelphous.. Scoparius Scoparius. N. Broom. — o. Tops of Cy- tisus Scoparius; Leguminosce. — H. Western As i a, Western and Southern Europe and nat- uralized in parts of America. — 1>. Stems thin, flexible, pentangular, smooth, tough, dark green and usually free of leaves; leaves, if present, small, trifoliate, leaf- lets obovate -oblong and entire; inflorescence racemose; corolla showy, yellow; stamens ten, monadelphous; odor peculiar and taste disagreeably bitter. — c. Volatile oil, sparteine, scoparin. — u. Diuretic and hydragogue cathartic, of value for removal of effusions in chronic drop- sies. Dose : Two to five grams in fluid extract or infusion. 106 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Lobbliace^e. — Herbs with acrid milky juice; leaves alternate ; flowers scattered; corolla irregular, monopetalous, five-lobed; stamens five, free from the corolla, united into tube commonly by their filaments and always by their an- thers. Leaves alternate ; stamens united into a tube.. Lobelia. Lobelia. N. Lobelia, In- dian Tobacco. — o. Leaves and tops of Lobelia inflata col- lected after a por- tion of the capsules have become inflat- ed ; Lobeliacece. — , H. North Ameri- ca. — D. Stem erect, with hairy branches terminating in long NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 107 racemes of pale-blue flowers; leaves about Ave cm. long, petiolate, ovate or oblong, pubescent, pale-green, with margin irregularly toothed, gradually diminishing into leaf-like sessile bracts; calyx adherent, five-toothed, becoming inflated in fruit ; corolla split down on upper side, bilabiate, the upper lip consisting of two rather erect lobes, the other lip spreading and 3-cleft; stamens five, united into a tube; fruit an inflated pod, inferior; odor slight, irritating, and taste at first mild, after- wards acrid and burning.— c. Lobeline, lobelic acid, etc. — tr. Sialagogue, expectorant, emetic, narcotic and purgative; in large doses powerfully depressant. Valu- able in asthma. Dose: As an emetic, 0.5 to 1.5 grams; as an expectorant in much smaller doses. Papaverace^e. — Herbs loith milky or colored juice ; flowers regular, with the parts in twos or fours; sepals two (rarely three) , fugacious, falling ojfwhen the flower expands ; petals four to twelve; stamens polyandrous, rarely as few as sixteen, distinct, hypogenous; ovary one- celled, with two or more parietal placentae ; fruit a dry one-celled pod or capsule. Flowers in long-peduncled umbels; capsule linear Chelidonium Ciieiicloiiiimi. N. Chelidonium, Celandine. — o. The entire plant Chelidonium majus; Papaveracece. — H. Europe; natur- 108 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. alized In North America. — 1>. Root, several-headed, branching, reddish-brown; stem about fifty cm. high, hairy, light-green; leaves about fifteen cm. long, thin, petiolate, the upper oues smaller and sessile, obtuse, with margin coarsely crenate or incised and the terminal ones of ten three-lobed; flowers in small, long- peduncled umbels; sepals two; petals four, yellow; capsule linear, one-celled and many-seeded ; odor, when fresh, disagreeable and taste acrid. — c. The fresh plant contains a saffron- colored milk-juice. Chelidonine, chelerythrine, chelidonic acid, etc.— u. Diuretic and cathartic. Dose : One to five grams in fluid extract. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 109 Ranunculace^. — Herbs, or some woody plants, xcith a colorless and usually acrid juice; flowers regular or irreg- ular, polypetalous or apetalousAoith the calyx often colored like a co- rolla, hypogenous; sep- als three to fifteen; petals three to fifteen or wanting; stamens num- erous, indefinite, rarely few; pistils many or few, rarely single, sep- als, petals, stamens and pistils all distinct and unconnected ; fruits, dry pods,achenes or berries. Rhizomes filiform, gol- den-yellow . . .Coptis. Cluster of leaves form- ing an involucre some distance below the flower Pulsatilla. Coptis. N. Goldthread. — o. Entire plant Coptis trifolia; Banuncula- 110 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. cece. — H. Northern continents. — d. Rhizome filiform or threadlike, bright golden-yellow, with very thin rootlets ; leaves radical, from a scaly base, petiolate, trifoliate, the leaflets about one to two cm. long ; obovate-cuneate, ob- scurely three-lobed, sharply toothed; scape slender, naked, one-flowered; calyx petal-like, deciduous; petals small; stamens fifteen to twenty-five; pistils, three to seven, on slender stalks, maturing into divergent mem- branaceous pods containing from four to eight seeds; inodorous and taste very bitter. The drawing shows a flower with sepals and petals removed. — c. Berberine and coptine. — u. Powerful pure bitter tonic, used as a stomachic and appetizer in dyspepsia, apepsia, want of appetite during convalescence, etc. Dose : Two to five grams in fluid extract. Pulsatilla. N. Pulsatilla, Pasque flower. — o. The herb of Anemone Pulsatilla (Pasque flower) and of Anemone pratensis; Ra- nunculacece. — H. Europe ; Anemone patens, indige- nous to Western North America, is used for the same purpose. — d. Leaves radical, petiolate, silky-villous, twice or thrice deeply three-parted or pinnately cleft, with linear acute lobes, ap- pearing after the flowers; flowers large, purple, bell- shaped, the flowerstalk having a cluster of linear-divided leaves forming an involucre at some distance from the N NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Ill flower and often recurved so that the flower hangs down- wards; sepals petaloid; petals none; pistils numerous, forming achenes terminated by a bearded feathery style. The illustration shows the scape and flower of the Pasque flower, Anemone Pulsatilla. The herb should be collected soon after flowering, carefully preserved, and not kept longer than one year. The dried herb is inodorous, but has a very acrid taste. — C. Anemonin and anemonic acid, etc. — U. Diuretic, alterative, dia- phoretic, expectorant; little used. Dose: 0.3 gram. Solanace^e. — Herbs (or rarely shrubs) with colorless juice; leaves alternate; flowers regular, pentamerous, on bractless pedicels; stamens five ; corolla imbricate or valvate in the bud and mostly plaited; fruit a two-celled (rarely three to five- celled) many -seeded capsule or berry. Gray-green hairy leaves, irregularly lobed; flowers, or capsules within persistent calyx, often present Hyogcyamus. Hyoscyamns. N. Hyoscyamus, Henbane. — o. Leaves and flowering tops of Hyoscyamus niger; Solanacece. Only leaves and tops of the second year's growth should be collected; formerly only the leaves were official, and the twigs, flowers and fruits were rejected. — H. Europe and Asia; 112 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. naturalized in North America. D. Long stems cylin- drical, hairy; leaf to twenty-five cm. long, ten cm. broad, with prominent midrib, grayish-green, hairy, especially on the under side; ovate or ovate-oblong, acute, sinuate- toothed, teeth large, oblong or triangular; flowers nearly sessile ; calyx urn-shaped, five-toothed, persistent ; corolla five-lobed, yellowish with purplish veins ; occasionally the capsule, inclosed in the persistent calyx, is present, as shown in the right-hand figure; odor heavy, narcotic, and taste bitter and somewhat acrid. — c. Hyoscyamine, etc. — U. Anodyne, narcotic and hypnotic ; used to allay cough, spasm, asthma, etc., and often added to purgatives to prevent griping ; used as a hypnotic when opium is not well tolerated. Poisonous in large doses. Dose: 0.1 to 1 gram; average dose about 0.3 gram. Urticace^e. — Plants ivilh stipules, and monoecious or dioecious, or rarely perfect flowers', calyx regular and free; stamens as many as the lobes of calyx and op- posite them, ^ or sometimes if£ fewer; ovary one-celled (rarely two -celled); free from calyx; fruit one- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 113 seeded; embryo in the albumen, when there is any, its radicle pointing upward. Flowers consisting of single sepal inclosing pistil or capsule Cannabis Cannabis. n. Cannabis, Indian Hemp. — o. Flowering tops of the f emal e plant of Cannabis sativa; TJrti- cacece. — H. Asia; collected in In- dia.— D. Only the flowering tops of the female plant should be used. Branches about five to seven cm. long, with a few digitate leaves with linear- lanceolate leaflets and numerous sheathing pointed bracts, each con- taining two small pistillate flowers, sometimes with the nearly ripe fruit, the whole more or less agglutinated with a resinous adhesive exudation; color, brownish-green; odor peculiar, narcotic and taste slightly acrid. This is the only variety of the drug recognized by the Pharmacopoeia. It should consist only of the short branches of the flowering tops of the female plants grown in East India, and from which the resin has not been removed; this article is known in the trade as gunjah, ganja or guaza. The variety of hemp grown in Russia and other parts of Europe, and in America, is almost destitute of resin and is medicinally worthless. — - c. 114 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Resin. — U. Anodyne, nervine, in large doses narcotic. In Oriental countries it has been used as an intoxicant and exhilarant from times immemorial, being the "hasheesh" of those countries, and is sometimes swal- lowed, sometimes smoked. Its effects are indicated by its East Indian names, u Increaser of Pleasure," " Ex- citer of Desire," etc. Used in tetanus, insanity, de- lirium tremens, etc. Dose: 0.1 to 0.3 gram, best in extract or fluid extract. Bhang consists of the dried leaves and small stalks of Cannabis; it is an inferior article, excluded from use by the official description. In the Orient it is used for smoking, for making a sweetmeat called majoon, or an intoxicating drink by infusing bhang in water. Ghurrus is the resin which exudes spontaneously in minute drops from the stems, leaves and tops. It is gathered by rubbing the tops with leather gloves, to which the resin adheres and from which it is afterwards scraped. It is used only in the Orient, for smoking. Hasheesh is the Arabic name for hemp, and consists of the tops gathered some time before the seeds are ripe. Bhang and Hasheesh or a drug much crumbled or dis- colored, or consisting mainly of long barren stems, should not be employed in medicine. The bare stems, without leaves or tops, are sometimes sold as Cannabis Indica; they are probably the refuse obtained when larger quan- tities are garbled. To sell these as Cannabis must be due to ignorance or fraud. Cryptogamous Drugs. Cryptogamous plants are flowerless plants, that is, they have no stamens or pistils, but produce instead of seeds minute one-celled germinating bodies called spores, in which there is no embryo or rudimentary plantlet. They are divided into two classes, Thallogens or Thallophytes, and Acrogens. Thallogens comprise the lower orders of flowerless plants in which there is no marked distinction into root, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 115 stem and leaves, the entire thallus consisting of simple cell-elements without regular epidermis or fibrovascular bundles. The thallus may have any kind of form, leaf- like, stem-like, branched, flattened or gathered into com- pact or globular forms, or drawn out into threads, or to single rows of cells, or even reduced to single cells. The axis of growth is indefinite and indeterminate, growth taking place chiefly peripherically and horizontally. Of the subdivisions of this group of plants the algce, lichenes and fungi furnish drugs. Acrogens are the higher class of flowerless plants and are characterized by having a distinct and determinate axis of growth, with frequently distinct foliage. They are subdivided into two sub-classes, Vascular Acrogens, or Pteridophytes, which have wood-cells and vessels (flbro- vascular bundles), and Cellular Acrogens , or Bryophytes, composed of simple cellular tissue only, without wood or vessels. Of the vascular acrogens, lycopodiacece, equis- etacece and filices furnish drugs, while the cellular acrogens (mosses, etc.,) furnish no drugs. Many of the cryptogamous drugs are really sufficiently complete to be determined botanically, and would there- fore belong under Group IX, which we have just con- sidered; but owing to the fact that but few pharmacists ever study the cryptogams thoroughly, we place these drugs under parts of plants not complete enough for botanical determination, and group them as follows: — f r Algae Group 10 | Thallogens . ■! Lichenes " 11 I Fungi " 12 rLycopodiaceae lt 13 Acrogens. -1 Equisetaceae " 14 iFilices " 15 Cryptogams. - GROUP X. Alg,e. — Usually highly colored plants, aquatic or natives of damp rocks, walls, etc.; sometimes frondose, sometimes reduced to a few cells or a single cell. Fruc- 116 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. tification monoecious or dioecious, sometimes consisting of special cells of two sexes, sometimes of simple mobile spores, sometimes of antheridia and sporangia, which are free or inclosed in capsules. Thallus filiform, much branched, horny, trans- lucent • Chondrus. Thallus with large air vesicles Fucus. Thallus round, long, stemlike Laminaiia. Mixture of several small seaweeds Corsican Moss. Chondrus. N. Irish Moss, Carrageen. — o. The drug consists (f the two sea-algae, Chondrus crispus and Gigartina NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 117 mamiUosa, bleached and dried by exposure to the sun. — H. Atlantic ocean. Both algae are gathered on the coasts of Ireland and New England.— d. From five to fifteen cm. long, many times two-forked, the segments varying somewhat in width, the ends either two forked or emarginate; yellowish-white, horny and translucent; slight seaweed odor and saline mucilaginous taste. In Ch. c?\ the spore-vessels are imbedded in the frond, as in the large figure, a showing a sporocarp in section and b showing the small bodies contained in the sporocarp: G.m. has the sporocarps raised on short stalks, as in c, or in section in d. The dried drug swells in water, re- suming its original shape and is so represented in the drawing. Boiled with thirty times its own weight of water it yields a mucilage which gelatinizes on cooling and does not turn blue with iodine T.S. (absence of starch). — C. Mucilage and traces of iodine and bro- mine. — r. Demulcent and nutrient, but without the medicinal virtues usually ascribed to it. Dose: Five to ten grams in decoction or jelly. Fncns. N. Bladderwrack. — o. The whole sea-alga Fucus ves- iculosus, generally mixed with Fucus nodosus; Algce. — H. Atlantic ocean. Gathered on the shores, especially after storms, and much used as fertilizer or to make kelp, the ash from which iodine is prepared. — D. The figures show both algae, reduced to about two-thirds of the natural size; the broad frond with two air-vesicles side by side is F. ves. y and the narrow frond with single vesicles is F. nod. Fucus vesiculosus, which forms the bulk of the drug, is often up to a meter long, averaging about fifteen mm. in width; flattened, branched, and with a ridge or "midrib," the air-vesicles usually in pairs, and some of the frond-ends enlarged and nodulated by the organs of fructification; dark-brown or blackish; odor like sea- weeds and taste saline mucilaginous. Fucus nodosus is narrow, rounded, without "midrib," and with single 118 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. air-vesicles; otherwise similar to F. ves. — c. Mucilage and traces of iodine and bromine; also a bitter substance or principle (?).— u. Alterative and tonic; supposed to reduce obesity. Dose : About two grams, in decoction. Laminaria. N. Sea-tangle. — o. The stem-like frond of Laminaria digitata; Algce. — H. Atlantic ocean; about the coasts of Scotland. — D. Stemlike, one-half to two meters long, without joints or branches, about ten to fifteen mm. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 119 thick, somewhat flattened; elastic and horny; usually covered with a thin film of salt. The figure shows a small piece with a view of the section at a; when soaked in water it swells to about four times its previous diameter, as shown at b. — U. Sea-tangle tents and bougies are made by trimming down pieces of this plant to the desired sizes and diameters ; these are used like sponge- tents, to dilate sinuses, etc., but mainly in gynecological practice to dilate the mouth of the womb. Corsican Moss is a mixture of small seaweeds, of which Gigartina Helminthocorton is the principal one ; it con- sists of different, delicate, filiform, repeatedly forked and intertangled algae, varying in color from pale yellow- ish-brown to blue- black. Helminthocorton is pale-brown, filiform, horny, round, branched, and striped transversely and has a salty, mucilaginous taste and seaweed odor. It is supposed to have anthelmintic properties, but Cor- sican Moss is mainly used by the inhabitants of the countries adjoining the Mediterranean Sea for the same purposes as Irish or Iceland moss is used further north. In this country it is seldom kept in drug stores, except in neighborhoods containing French or Italian people. The drug is also known as Helminthocorton, GROUP XI. Lichenes. — These are cellular perennial acotyledons, growing on the ground, stones, barks, etc.; a perfeciT lichen usually consists of a thallus or vegetative appar- atus; apothecia or organs of fructification, and sperma- gonia or organs of fertilization. The thallus is very 120 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. variable in shape as well as in color and texture; it never has stomata and it is usually dry and leathery. It may be filamentous, crustaceous, erect, etc., and gray, white, yellow, red, brown or black in color. It is beyond the scope of these notes to refer to the fantastic theory that lichens are not a distinct group of plants, but a colony of fungi which holds a large number of algae in captivity; practically, master fungi with slave algae. We prefer to believe that lichens are lichens. Irregularly lobed lichens, brownish -gray above and grayish-white below Cetraria. Flat lichen, brownish, with oval prominences on one side and corresponding depressions on . the other side Sticta. Cetraria. N, Iceland moss. — o. The whole lichen Cetraria Is- landica; Lichmes. — H. Northern Hemisphere, — D. Irregularly lobed, folia- ceous lichen, about five to ten cm. long, reddish to brownish-gray above and grayish-white be- neath, with small faintly marked white depressions and the margins of the lobes, which are often re- curved, beset with minute teeth; little or no odor and a bitterish and muci- laginous taste. It should be freed of pine leaves, mosses and other lichens, by careful garbling. When soaked in water, it becomes soft, cartilagi- nous and translucent, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 121 and when boiled with twenty-five times its own weight of water it yields a decoction which gelatinizes on cool- ing. — C. Lichenin and lichenoid, both closely analogous to starch. — u. Demulcent and nutrient, supposed to ex- ert a soothing effect on irritated bronchial membranes. Dose: Five to ten grams in decoction or jelly. Sticta. N. Lichen pulmonarius; Lungmoss. — o. The whole lichen Sticta pulmonacea; Lichenes. — H.Europe. — D. Grows on the stems of oaks, beeches, etc., often hanging down in long shreds. Broad leathery sheets, smooth on the upper surface with oval depressions and correspond- ing elevations on the other side which is rough or felted 122 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. from thin rootlike fibers; odor slightly mouldy and taste bitter and mucilaginous. — C. It contains mucilag- inous and bitter constituents, similar to those found in Iceland moss, and is used for the same purposes and in the same manner. GROUP XII. Fungi. — Cellular acotyledons, generally parasitic on decaying, and sometimes on living animal and vegetable substances. They are sometimes perennial, more often ephemeral, grow best in the shade, and have no fronds, stomata or green parts. The organ of vegetation is called the mycelium; the organs of fructification are borne on the mycelium, and are very variable in form, and bear spores either on the exterior or interior. Fusiform, purplish-black grains Ergota. Irregular, brown-black masses, partly mem- - ^ branous, partly pulverulent Ustiiago. White, tough, light masses Agaric. Thin, brown, pliable, velvety sheets Spunk. Semifluid, viscid, frothy substance Yeast. White or yellowish grains Kefir-seed. Round dark brown masses, pulverulent w ithin.Puff-balis. Ergota. N. Ergot; Ergot of Rye; Secede cor- nutum. — o. The sclerotium of Claviceps purpurea (Fungi), replacing the grain of rye, Secale cereale ( Graminece) . — H. On the inflorescence of rye, in Southern Europe. The same fungus also grows on various other grasses in all parts of the world, but the variety growing on rye is the only kind officially recog- nized. — D. Ergot consists of grain -like bodies about two to five cm. long and three to four mm. thick; the ordinary average size of fair ergot is about 2.5 cm. by 3 mm. The grains are obtusely tri- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 123 angular, somewhat curved, marked lengthwise by a groove on each of the three sides, the groove on the inner side of the curve being most marked and often more or less deeply fissured ; the grains are thickest in the middle and taper toward the blunt ends; color externally dark purplish, with a slight coating of bluish bloom, whiter within; the grains break with an abrupt fracture, old and dry grains being brittle and fresh, good ergot somewhat elastic before breaking; odor is peculiar, heavy and offensive, and taste is mawkish, fatty or dis- agreeable ; the strong odor developed by treating ergot with liquor potassce is due to decomposition resulting in the production of trimethylamine, and when present in the fluid extract, renders the latter nauseating and less active. — c. No isolated substance constitutes the active principle of ergot; the ergotine of the trade is merely a solid extract; fixed oil, ecboline, ergotine, sclererythrin, cornutine, sclerotic and ergotic acids, etc., have been isolated, but some of these substances probably were the products of the processes employed and do not exist in the drug. — u. Excito-motor, causing contraction of the unstriped muscular fibers of the arterioles, sphincter muscles, uterus, etc. Parturient, ecbolic, emmenagogne, hemostatic. Dose : One to two grams up to thirty grams in urgent cases of hemorrhages, etc., to be given in powder, infusion or best in fluid extract. Cases of pois- oning are reported to have been produced by ergot, and stimulants advised to be given as antidotes; such poison- ing, if it does occur, is probably due to decomposition or rancidity of the drug or its preparation. The drug is liable to be attacked by mites; to prevent this it should be carefully dried at not above fifty degrees C, and not to perfect dryness, so that it may still retain some of the elasticity of fresh ergot, then kept in closed tins or bottles in which a few drops of chloroform have been poured; the drug should be obtained fresh each season, and the old thrown away. In the trade there are two varieties, the u German " and 124 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. the " Spanish." They are not really different varieties, for ergot is often sifted or garbled after importation and the large, bold grains sold as " Spanish " and the smaller, less developed grains as " German" ergot. Spanish ergot, being the better article, is therefore to be pre- ferred for medicinal uses; or the ergot, as imported, garbled merely to remove foreign seeds and substances, should be used without separating the large from the small grains. Much broken, small, lean, unclean, worm- eaten, mouldy or too hard and dry ergot is totally unfit for use; the same is true of a drug having an ammoniacal odor, which is due to decomposition, or one having no smell at all. Ustilago. N. Cornsmut. — o. The whole plant Ustilago May- dis; Fungi. — H. Grows on all parts of Indian corn, Zea Mays (Gram- inece), but especially on the ear. — D. Occurs in irregular globose masses, sometimes twelve to fif- teen cm. thick, consisting of a tough external mem- brane, Brownish-black in color, and containing a friable pulverulent mass of innumerable brownish- black spores; odor and taste peculiar and unpleasant. The drug often contains pieces of corn-cob or of corn-shucks, and is mostly a NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 125 fine powder. — C. No active principle ; some fixed oil, a substance resembling sclerotic acid, etc. — U. Same as ergot ; supposed by some to be preferable in midwifery practice, because it strengthens the "pains" without lengthening them ; the drug is very rarely used and while official in the United States Pharmacopoeia 1880, was dropped from the United States Pharmacopeia in 1890. Dose : One to five grams ; average dose about two grams, best in fluid extract. Agaricus. N. Agaric; Agaricus albus ; White agaric. — o. It con- sists of fragments of the fungus Polyporus officinalis. — H. Europe; grows on the trunks of old larch trees. — 1>. As found in the shops it is broken up into irregular pieces, the outer rind having been removed, and is of a dirty white color, light in weight, of a close, fibrous texture, mealy on the outer surface, easily rubbed to a powder through a sieve but pulverizable only with great difficulty in a mortar; odor resembles fresh flour, and if the powder is inhaled it produces violent sneezing; taste sweetish, afterwards acrid and bitter. Agaric is liable to be attacked by an insect, and worm-eaten or dense, hard, yellowish pieces, or pieces without bitter taste, should be rejected. — c. Agaricin and resins. — u. For- merly much used as a purgative, especially as an ingredi- ent of mixtures like the elixir ad long am vitam, etc. ; now agaricin is highly esteemed as a remedy to check night- sweats. Dose of agaric as a drastic purgative, two to four grams; in night-sweats, 0.10 to 0.20 grams. Spunk, or Agaricus Chirurgorum, Surgeons' Agaric, is obtained from the fungi Polyporus igniarius and Polyporus fomentarius, collected from beech-trees in Sweden, Bohemia, Hungary and Switzerland; those growing on birches or oaks yield an inferior article. The outer sur- face of the fungus having been removed, the interior is cut into slices, which are then soaked in hot weak lye, boiled, washed, and beaten with mallets. As found in the 126 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. trade it occurs in light, thin, dull yellowish-brown, soft velvety and pliable pieces ; without odor or taste. Hard, uneven surgeons' agaric is useless. It is used as a mechanical hemostatic. When used as tinder it is called fungus igniarius, which is the same as above, but soaked in a solution of potas- sium nitrate and then dried. Yeast, or Fermentum, Brewers' Yeast, is the fungus Saccharomyces cerevisioe, obtained from beer and other fer- menting malt liquors. Only the fresh yeast is used in medicine ; a whitish or pale yellowish-brown viscid liquid or frothy semi-fluid containing innumerable oval cells, single and in chains. Yeast has a disagreeable, peculiar odor and a bitter taste. It has been used internally as an antiseptic and stimulant, in typhoid conditions, vari- ous forms of dyspepsia, in diabetes, etc., and externally as a stimulant dressing to indolent ulcers. Dose : Fifteen to fifty cm. before meals. Kefir is a preparation made by placing a peculiar fungus mass into milk which then ferments and produces a drink which is similar to koumyss. The fungus used for the purpose is obtained from the mountainous regions of the Caucasus and consists of white or yellowish grains which are called " Kefir-seeds." The exact origin and nature of these grains are not known, but the grains contain several lower organisms or fungi of which the Saccha- romyces cerevisioe which constitutes brewers' yeast is one. The Kefir-seeds constitute the drug. Puff-Bail, the whole fungus Boletus or Lycoperdon cervinus, is occasionally found in drug stores. Round pieces about the size of walnuts, consisting of an exter- nal dark-brown membrane which does not open spon- taneously when ripe, and filled with a dust-like powder of dark-brown spores. Formerly employed in nervous diseases; now nearly obsolete. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 127 GROUP XIII. Lycopodiace^e. — Low moss-like plants, with elongated and often much branched stems covered with small lanceolate, or subulate, rarely oblong or rounded, per- sistent entire leaves; the one to three-celled sporangia, solitary in the axils or on the upper surfaces of the leaves along the entire stem or in terminal catkins, open when ripe into two or three valves and discharge the numerous yellow spores. Light-yellow, very mobile powder Lycopodium. Lycopodium. N. Lycopodium. — o. The spores of Lycopodium clavatum and other species of club-mosses; Lycopodiacece. — H. Europe. — D. A fine, very mobile, pale yellowish powder, without odor or taste, burning with a flash when thrown in a flame ; swims on water and is not wetted by it, unless boiled, when it sinks in the water. Under the microscope it is seen to be of the shape in the upper figure, rounded on one side, tetrahedral on the other; in the sporangia several spores adhere in a globular shape and the angular surfaces are formed by their breaking apart. Adulterations with pine-pollen, which consists of a central body with globular lobes at the two ends, or with other pollens, starch, fine sand, etc., are easily detected with the microscope. When burned it should not leave more than five per cent of ash. — C. About forty- seven per cent fixed oil. — U. As a protective by dusting on excoriated or chafed surfaces; in pharmacy, as a con- spergative for pills, troches, plasters, suppositories, etc., to prevent adhesion. 128 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. GROUP XIV. Equisetace^e. — Rashlike, often branching plants, with jointed and mostly hollow stems, rising from run- ning rootstocks, having denticulated sheaths at the joints and when fertile terminated by a conical or spike- like fructification composed of shield-shaped stalked scales bear- ing the spore-cases beneath; the spores are provided with elaters or processes which are coiled around the spores while moist and expand when dry, often suddenly so that the spore may jump some distance. Jointed, slender stems, about 60 cm. long. . .Equisetum. Eqnisetum. N. Horse-tail ; Scouring Rush. — O. The stems of Equisetum arvense and Equisetum hyemale; Equiseta- cece. — h. Europe and North Amer- ica. — x>. Simple, hollow, jointed, bright green, slender stems, about fifty to sixty cm. long and four to eight mm. thick; the illustration shows the end of a stem of E. hye- male, about natural size, and the fructification and spores enlarged. — C. A resin, which is the only medicinal constituent; the plant also contains large quantities of silica which renders the stem rough, and useful for scouring and polishing metallic objects. — U. Diuretic; in renal affections, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 129 dropsies, etc. Dose : Five grams, in infusion, during the day. GROUP XV. Filices. — Cryptogamous plants, generally perennial, stemless, caulescent or arborescent; fronds, borne on petioles called stipes, springing from the upper surface of the creeping rhizomes, or forming regular crowns which terminate erect stems; blades leafy, circinate in the bud, simple or pinnatifid, bearing on the under surface or along the margin groups (sort) of sporangia which break open and discharge spores, when mature. Large rhizome beset with the bases of stipes. Aspidium. Frond of fern with triangular leaflets and thin glossy brown stipes Adiantum. Hard, dark-brown rhizome beset with short remnants of stipes Poiypodium. Fine, silky, glossy hairs Penghawar. Aspidium. N. Aspidium; Filix mas; Malefern.— o. The rhizome of Dryopteris Filix-mas and of Dryopteris marginalia; Filices. — H. Northern temperate zone. — D. Malefern is a thick fleshy rhizome to which a number of the frond-bases or stipes remain attached, as shown in the illustration. It is cylindrical, varying in length from ten to thirty cm. and in thickness about thirty to fifty mm. ; but in the drug it is often cut into several pieces, and sometimes 9 130 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. split longitudinally. The transverse section of the rhizome without the stipes is from twelve to twenty- five mm. thick, as is shown in the middle figure, and shows about six to ten fibrovascular bundles in an interrupted circle, outside of which a few scattered bundles ate also found. In the trade this drug occurs frequently in small pieces, the stipes being broken from the rhizome and the latter broken into short pieces; such a frond-base is about forty to fifty mm. long and six to ten mm. thick, as shown in the left-hand figure, but sometimes these fronds are peeled as illustrated in the right-hand figure. The unpeeled rhizome and fronds are covered with a brown, scaly, glossy epidermis, but the interiors of both rhizomes and stipes are grass-green when fresh, and they should be rejected if they have turned brown from age; when about to use the drug all the brown and chaffy parts must be cut away and only the green parts used. Malefern consists mainly of par- enchyma cells, with occasional short-stalked oil-glands projecting from the walls of the cells into the inter- cellular spaces, and the bundles consist mainly of scalari- form vessels or ducts. The odor is disagreeable, the taste sweetish, astringent, nauseous and acrid. — c. Vola- tile oil, fixed oil, resin, etc., which are contained in the NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 131 oleo-resin. — U. TsBnicide. Dose of the oleo-resin : 0.5 to 1 gram. The rhizomes of several other ferns which are used as substitutes or adulterations, may be known by the much smaller diameter of the rhizome proper, even when the attached stipes make them appear as thick as the genuine malefern. Adiantum. N. Maidenhair fern.— o. The fronds of Adiantum Cap- illus Veneris and Adiantum pedatum; Filices.—H.. The first named is a native of Europe, the last named is indig- 132 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. enous. — D. The drug consists of the fronds of these ferns with the leaflets, as seen in natural size in the figure ; the edges of the leaflets are recurved, and the sporangia are attached under this edge, as shown at a where the leaflet is straightened out, and at b where it is shojvn in section. The leaflets are green while the stipes or stalks are glossy dark-brown and filamentous, wherefore they give the name of " maiden-hair " (German: Frauenhaar, Venus- haar) to the drug. The odor is slightly aromatic and the taste mucilaginous, sweetish-bitter and astringent. — c. Mucilage, tannin and bitter principle. — U. Demulcent and expectorant. Dose : Three to five grams in infusion or syrup. Polypodium, N. Polypo- dium; Rock- brake; Brake - root. — o. The rhizome of Poly podium vulgare; Filices. H. Europe and America. — jd. The illustration shows the shape well. The somewhat contorted rhizome is of the thickness of a large quill and is beset with rather scattered short tubercles or stipe-remains; externally reddish-brown and internally green when fresh and cinnamon-colored when old. On section about ten small fibro-vascular bundles are seen arranged in a loose circle, the predominant tissue being an amylaceous parenchyma. The taste is at first sweet, afterwards disagreeably acrid and bitter; odor like ran- cid oil. — C. Not analyzed. — u. Expectorant in asthma and catarrh; also said to be purgative and anthelmintic. Dose: One to five grams in infusion or syrup. Pengtaawar. N. Penghawar-Djambi; Paku-Kidang; Pulu; Cibo- tium. — o. The chaffy hairs of several tree-ferns, varie- ties of Cibotium, especially C.Baromez and C . djambianum ; Filices; also of some other ferns. — H. Java, Sumatra and NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 133 other tropical islands and countries.— d. Formerly the stipes, beset with hairs, came into trade, but now only the hairs are used. The drug consists of fine silky, some- what curly hairs, about one and one-half to three cm. in length, the individual cells or joints flattened and often placed cross-wise to each other owing to torsion in the partition-walls, thus also producing the curling. These hairs have been used to make pillows and mat- tresses, but in medical practice they are employed as a powerful local haemostatic and styptic drug. Structure of Roots and Stems. Since a large number of drugs are roots, rhizomes, stems or parts of stems, as woods, barks, etc., it is nec- essary that we study the minute structure of the various modifications of the descending and ascending axes of plants. In the lower orders of cryptogams, which we have just considered, there is little or no cell differentiation and these thallogens are without root, stem and leaf struc- ture; in the higher cryptogams, the acrogens, such structures are apparent, but in the cellular acrogens they are still made up of simple cell-elements only, while in the vascular acrogens cell-differentiation into various tissues takes place. Comparatively few plants are unicellular, and these only of the lowest orders of cryptogams, the thallogens; but even most of the thallogens, and all plants higher than these, are made up of many or innumerable cells and in the vascular acrogens and the phanerogams these cells are differentiated by changes in their shapes and in their cell-walls, as already explained in the remarks de- voted to the consideration of cell-structure. These various cells unite to form " tissues. " A tissue may be defined as an aggregation of many similar cells united to perform a common function, but the word ought not to be misunderstood to mean plant- organs which also may have definite functions to per- 134 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. form, but may be composed of several tissues; thus, when we speak of seeds, roots, etc., as belonging to the te storing system of tissue," it does not mean that these organs are single tissues but that they are made up of systems of different tissues which together form the organs that act as food reservoirs. We have already considered the nature of parenchyma and prosenchyma cells, the characteristics of which must be firmly fixed in the mind; aggregations of parenchyma cells form parenchymatous tissue or parenchyma y while aggregations of prosenchyma cells constitute prosenchy- matous tissue or prosenchyma. Similarly, aggregations of collenchyma or sclerenchyma cells form collenchyma or sclerenchyma respectively, these names referring to the nature of the cell-walls, while the words parenchyma and prosenchyma refer to the shapes of the cells. In a general way all cells and tissues are either parenchy- matous or prosenchymatous, although in some of the thallogens the thallus consists of felted threads {hyphce), which do not strictly belong to either of these groups but which form a distinct and peculiar kind of tissue {pseudo-parenchyma) , which is, however, of minor interest to the pharmacognocist. In parenchyma the cells abut against each other by broad surfaces, and as the ends of the cells are not inter- laced and the cell-walls are usually soft, this tissue is easily torn or broken; the cells in parenchyma are often so loosely aggregated that the cell-walls are not compressed and many of the cells retain a spherical form with many minute intercellular spaces, as in the pulpy part of some fruits, but if such cells are brought into complete contact with the adjacent cells by pressure during growth they will become more or less regularly dodecahedral or twelve- sided. In rapidly growing parts in which the growth is more rapid in one .direction, as for instance, in the longitudinal direction of many roots and stems, the individual cells also may be elongated in the direc- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 135 tion of most rapid growth, becoming cylindrical if lateral pressure is small, as in sarsapariila, when small tri- angular or irregular intercellular spaces will be seen on transverse section, or these spaces may be obliterated by lateral pressure when the cells assume prismatic shapes, the hexagonally prismatic form being most common, as seen in the transverse section of the parenchyma of couch-grass, dandelion root, etc. As so large a portion of all pith and other fundamental paren- chyma tissue consists of cells which are compressed so as to obliterate the small intercellular spaces, so that the polyhedral forms preponderate, it is advis- able to make a simple experiment to show the shapes of these cells. Fill a pint or quart bottle completely with any fluid that will readily foam, as for instance with an infusion of quillaja, or a solution of soap in water to which a little glycerin is added, and then empty it by turning it upside down so that the fluid gurgles as it runs out and the air bubbles rise up through it ; a narrow necked bottle is best for the experiment, and when the liquid has all run out the bottle will be filled with a foam consisting of bubbles, which, by mutual pressure, will assume the dodecahedral or polyhedral form of the parenchyma cells we are considering, especially in the interior of the bottle, and it is instructive to watch the various shapes assumed by the adjacent bubbles, as one afUr another of these bubbles burst and alter the pres- sure. The bubbles adjacent to the glass show the shapes of sections of these cells. Larger intercellular spaces than those just mentioned may be seen in calamus in which the cells are arranged as shown in the drawing, the shaded cells containing 136 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. starch, the uodotted contain- ing oleo-resin; examples of similar intercellular spaces may be found in most aquatic plants, as in the stems and leaf-stalks of calla, water- lilies, etc., and drugs having such structure usually break with a corky or spongy fracture. In aquatic plants such large intercellular spaces are filled with air, which is also often the case in ter- restrial plants having such spaces, but in the latter kind of plants these spaces sometimes contain oil or latex (milk- juice) when, if they are nearly spherical, they are called " glands " (as in orange and lemon peels, etc.), while if they are long or tube-like, they are called '' ducts; " but it must be remembered that such glands and ducts may also be formed by the absorption of cell-partitions, in which case they are not intercellular spaces but true ducts. Whatever the nature or method of formation of such oil, resin, or latex ducts or spaces may be, the presence or absence of such ducts, spaces, or even large special cells, serves as a basis for group-divisions, as in groups 18, 19, 20, 21, 23 and 24, while in any case, whether filled with air or any thing else, they usually impart a characteristic appear- ance to the section and are therefore fre- quently of diagnostic value. In prosenchyma the ends of the long cells, which are often hardened by a de- posit of lignin or sclerogen, are interlaced or spliced, as in the drawing of wood-cells NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 137 from sassafras root, so that this tissue is not readily torn apart or broken and it serves for mechanical support and strength. Wood-cells, bast-cell« and most of the ducts belong to this system of tissues, and prosenchyma is found mainly in the fibro- vascular bundles. Parts of plants which consist mainly of parenchyma are called " fleshy," while those containing mainly lig- nifled prosenchyma are " woody." When we break the base of the petiole of a plantain leaf (from the common plantain weed, Plantago major) we find that while we can readily break through most of the leaf-stalk, the broken ends are held together by a number of threads in the interior of the stalk; and if we pull the lower end with the threads towards the apex along the under side of the leaf, we can pull out these threads from the parallel veins of the leaf. These thread- like strands are the fibro -vascular bundles, consisting of fibers or prosenchyma cells and vessels, as the name implies. It is rarely the case that these fibro-vascuiar bundles can be pulled out as threads, for in most plants they are intimately grown together with or adherent to the sur- rounding tissues, so that we must make sections of the plant-organ which contains them to trace them and to study their characteristics. These sections can be made in four different directions, of which two at least are essential to a correct understanding of stem-structure; a third is often of value but the fourth is seldom required. The figure shows in what direction these sections are to be made; the transverse section (tr.) is at right angles across the axis of growth, and is by far the most useful and instructive; the radial section (i\) is often also called the longitudinal section and it passes along the axis of growth and along the line of a radius or a line from the center to the circumference, and it is next to the transverse section in importance, as it shows the nature of the elements of the fibro-vascular bundles, the ducts, wood-fibers, etc. ; the tangential section {tang.) 138 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. also passes along the axis of growth, but at right angles across a radius, and it is useful mainly for the study of the medullary rays ; finally, we may have occasion to make an o&- lique section (o.) although but little is to be learned from it and it is very rarely intentionally made, but quite frequently accidentally made of fibro- vascular bundles, espe- cially in monocotyls, when we make sections just below the point where one of the bundles is bent outwards to go to a leaf or rootlet, and which then appears as an oval section of a bundle differing in ap- pearance from both the transverse and longitudinal sections of the same kind of bundle. In a transverse section of the stem or root of a vascular crypto- gam or of a phanerogam it will be seen that the outer layer or layers of cells differ from the cells within. Perhaps the first and simplest change or differentiation of cells is the formation of an epidermis or cuticle, and even in thallogens in which there is no true cell-differ- entiation the outer cells are usually smaller and with thicker walls although otherwise like the larger interior cells. In leaves, young twigs, flowers, fruits, etc., the outer layer of cells have their outer cell -wall thickened by a deposit of cutin, thus forming a true cuticle or epidermis, while in older stems, roots, etc., cork or suber is formed under the epidermis which finally disappears entirely, so thatiu older parts cork then forms the outer- most layer. Cutin is chemically identical with cork but differs in being deposited in the cell-walls of the epider- mal layer only, while cork is deposited in layers which are sometimes many hundreds of cells thick. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 139 If we make a transverse section from the young stalk of Indian corn (Zea Mays) which is easily obtained by planting a few grains of corn and then taking the stalk for examination when it is of about the thickness of a lead pencil, we will see that it appears circular, or nearly so, and is surrounded by the epidermis and that the interior consists mainly of parenchyma tissue with irregularly scattered circular clusters of cells appearing like dots, which latter are the sections of the fibro-vascular bundles, as diagrammatically represented in the lef i-haud figure. These dots are distributed throughout the entire thickness of the stem, as is seen in the section, but so that the outer dots are somewhat smaller than those nearer the center of the section. This section show3 the most common struc- ture of monocotyls, and the structure is called endogenous (or inward growing) because as the plant becomes older it increases in thickness by a formation of new fibro-vascular bundles among and between the others, and as these are formed when the plant is larger the bundles also become larger, so that the newer and larger bundles are found mainly in the interior of the plant. In the right-hand figure we see a simple modification of this structure, for a layer of cells forming in the section a ring concentric with and some distance within the cuticle separates the parenchyma int) two portions, and this ring of cells which, in the stem, forms a cylinder or tube, is called the nucleus sheath; within this sheath the fibro-vascular bundles are 140 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. disposed, just as in the left-hand figure they are disposed throughout the entire thickness of the stem. This type of structure, dia- gramm a t i c a 1 1 y shown in the right-hand figure, can be seen in orris root. In a drug of this kind the part out- side of the nu- cleus sheath is sometimes spok- en of as " bark " or " cortex," but this is wrong, be- cause monocotyls have no bark. In monocotyls the cells which do not belong to the cuticle, nu- cleus sheath or the fibro-vascular bundles, belong to the parenchyma, which is called the fundamental tissue. Many students seem to fail to associate the drawings of transverse sec- tions with the idea of contin- uity throughout Suppose that some the length of the axis of the plant. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 141 experimenter like Roentgen would discover a new kind of X-rays which would render all the parenchyma of the fundamental tissue of plants transparent or invisible while the cuticle or outer bark and fibro-vascular bundles remained visible as concrete objects, a monocotyledon- ous stem, as that of Indian corn, would then appear like a tube within which a number of threads or thin rods were arranged lengthwise, the space betwee 1 being filled with the transparent medium, the fundamental tissue. Since we have no such convenient X-rays, let us substi- tute our imagination and fancy the f unclamen- al tissue to be invisible; let us imagine a portion of the cuticle on the side nearest us to have been cut away so that we can look into the inside of the stem, and on looking through a suitable magnifying lens we would see the structures as shown in the lower part of the figure. If we cut across such a structure the appearance of the surface would be as is shown in the map of the section projected above the stem, in the circle in the upper part of the figure. If we were to cub off a thin slice this would be a transverse section and such a sec- tion is therefore prac- tically a map showing the manner of distrib- ution of the different tissues in the stem; but the relation of this transverse section (or map) to the real con- tinuity of the tissues themselves, as shown in the figure, should always be mentally as- sociated with the ex- amination of every section. The fibro-vascular bundles do not always 142 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. run so parallel to each other in monocotyls, but only in long internodes devoid of branches or rootlets. When rootlets are attached along the entire length of a rhizome, for instance, or when growth in length is accomplished by the continual and successive formation of new leaves at the apex, as in palms, some of the fibro-vascular bundles from the interior of the plant are bent outwards to enter these rootlets or leaves, as is diagrammatically represented in the accompanying drawing of a longitud- inal section of a palm stem. Drugs are recognized by the manner of the distribution and relation of the bundles to each other and to the other tissues rather than by the cellular elements of the bundles themselves, just as we recognize a friend by the relation of eyes, nose and mouth to each other and to the rest of the face, rather than by a conscious recognition of the exact color of eyes or hair, or by an observance of any minute peculiarities of the several features. Besides the two methods of arrangement of stems with and without a nucleus sheath, as already figured, there are several other types of endogenous arrangement, which are of importance. One of these types may be seen in sarsaparilla, the peculiarity of which is that all the fibro-vascular bundles are closely aggregated just NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 143 within the nucleus sheath, leaving a large pith-like paren- chyma in the interior, as in the left-hand figure; the other type may be seen in calamus, galanga, ginger, etc., where a nucleus sheath is present, but the bundles are scattered both within and without this sheath, as in the right-hand figure. In some cases, as in the sarsaparillas, the cells of the nucleus sheath are characteristic of certain varieties, so that they may be of diagnostic value. Still other arrangements are found in the hollow stems of monocotyls, as in the culms of grasses, etc. Cut a section of straw and the bundles are found arranged within the cuticle as in the left-hand figure, while in the rhizome of couch-grass we find a nucleus sheath and the bundles within this, as in the right-hand figure, while in both we see the large central cavity. These figures, it should be remembered, illustrate dia- grammatically the types of arrangement and not sections of individual drugs which may, and generally do, vary from the circular form, being quite frequently flattened or oval in section. We will postpone a consideration of the nature of the fibro-vascular bundles of monocotyls until we have considered the structure of dicotyls and polycotyls (conifers), the exogenous structure. 144 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. To understand the structure of exogenous stems, let us examine the following three drawings, after Sachs. If we make a section at the extreme tip of the growing radicle or root of the castor oil plant (Ricinus communis) we would find only one kind of parenchyma cells, the fundamental tissue, but a section from near the end of this radicle soon after it makes its ap- pearance beyond the seedcoats shows a circle of cells somewhat different from the cells of the fundamental tissue, as indicated by the shaded circle marked x in the drawing; this layer of cells is called meristem or primary meristem, and from it the fibro-vascular bundles are pro- duced. The fundamental tissue within this circle forms the medulla or pith (m), while the fundamental tissue with- out this circle forms the middle bark (r) , the epidermis, or in older roots and stems the cork, forming the outer bark. It will be noticed that at some points the meris- tem layer is thicker than at others, and a section made from a root which is a little older, when the radicle has reached a length of about two cm. below the cotyle- dons, shows that each of the four thicker portions of meristem has developed into two clusters of cells (fv) which are cross-sec- tions of fibro-vascular bundles, thus making a circle of eight fibro- vascular bundles (/v) shown in the shaded part of the drawing, which are separated from each other by cells which resemble those of the pith (m) and the middle bark and which are the medullary rays NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 145 Qst). The pith or medulla, the middle bark and the medullary rays together are all fundamental tissue. In the next draw- ing we see the development of the fibro-vascu- lar bundles still farther advanc- ed; fv shows the bundles, m is the pith from which the me- dullary rays ra- diate, r is the middle bark, but this drawing shows in addi- tion some bands of meristem crossing the meduhary lays, at cb, con- necting the fibro-va-cular bundles. Such connecting bands when present are called secondary meristem % and it will be noticed that they are continuous with similarly shaded parts passing through the fibro-vascular bundles, and that" these fibro-vascular bundles are arranged in a circle with the larger por- tion of each bundle within the meristem layer, and a smaller portion without the meristem layer, as is shown by the different shading of these parts in the last drawing. To examine the nature of these fibro-vascular bundles we may make a transverse section of the rhizome of black cohosh {Cimicifuga) in which we find a large num- ber of bundles of various sizes. Choosing one of the larger ones for examination we see that it is made up of three parts, an outer part called bast or phloem {a), an inner part called wood or xylem (c) and between them a part composed of very soft parenchyma cells constituting 10 146 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. the cambium (b) ; surrounding the whole bundle we see the parenchyma cells of the fundamental tissue (d). As the bundle grows the cam- bium cells form new wood on the inner side and new bast on the outer side. The wood (xy- lem) consists mainly of pro- senchymatous woodcells, with cell-walls which have become hard by a de- posit of lignin, together with (usually) ducts and (some- times) wood- parenchyma, the latter being cells of paren- chyma shape? but with thick, ened walls. The bast (phloem) consists mainly of some soft-walled parenchyma cells, some sieve-ducts and, in many plants, thickened prosenchyma bast-cells, which latter aid in giving strength to the stem or root. The relation of the fibro-vascular bundles to each other and to the other tissues is seen in this diagram of the structure of yellow par ilia (Menispermum Canadense) ; as is always the case in dicotyledonous or exogenous growth, the fibro-vascular bundles are arranged in a circle ; the central portion is the pith from which radiate the NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 147 medullary rays (a) which separate the bundles from each other and connect the pith with the middle bark (/ ) ; the xylem or inner portion of the buudles (c) is separated from the phloem or outer portion (e) by the cambium (d) ; the cambium of the various bundles is conuected by bands of secondary meristem (p) , the two together forming the cambium zone. In woody plants all that lies within this cambium zone is called xoood or wood- cylinder and all without this zone is called bark. The bark will be seen to be made up of three layers; the outer bark (A), con- sists of epidermis in young stems or roots and of cork in older structures; if the outer edges of all the bast por- tions of the fibro-vascular bundles are united by aline this 148 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. line will mark the division between the middle bark (/) which consists of parenchyma or fundamental tissue, and the inner bark, which consists of alternate portions of bast (e) and the continuation of the medullary r ays (g). It will be seen that bark cannot exist in an endogenous stem or root, because there is no cam- bium zone that separates the wood from the bast; in fact, the bundles are not divided into these three parts as here shown in dicotyledonous structure. Let us now sup- pose in regard to this exogenous structure^ as we did in regard to the endogenous stem, that an X- ray might be found that would render ail funda- mental tissue in plants transpar- ent or invisible while it left the NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 149 fibro-vascular bundles and outer bark opaque and vis- ible; removing a portion of the latter, and examining the interior we would see that the structure is as in this figure, all the fibro-vascular bundles in a circle, with a pith space in the interior, medullary rays between and middle bark around them, the last three parts being transparent or invisible under the influence of our imaginary X-ray, but the space which they should oc- cupy being plainly shown. Here also the projection of the section into the circle above shows the relation of such a section or map to the continuity of the tissues within the stem, and shows how such a transverse sec- tion, or a drawing of one, constitutes in reality merely a map, with which the idea of length or continuity must always be mentally associated The fibro-vascular bundles are represented as being separate throughout the length of the stem, but this is the case only in one type of fleshy dicotyledonous stems, rhizomes, roots, etc., in which the fundamental paren- chyma tisbue preponderates and the fibro-vascular bundles are few and arranged in a loose circle, as in the left-hand figure. Another type of fleshy root or stem is when the bundles form a central wood-cylinder as in the right-hand figure, but are not much lignified; the first 150 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. plan is seen in master- wort and podophyl- lum, and the second plan is seen in dande - lion. A modification of the latter plan is seen in senega, as* in these figures, where the wood-cylinder is not continuous, but is irregularly interrupted by wide medullary rays. But the most characteristic exogenous structure is not seen in the fieshy plant axes, but in the woody roots and stems, in which there is but little funda- mental parenchyma, the bun- dles are close together, and interwoven, and the woodcells are strongly lignifitd and therefore tough. In such a stem the fibro-vascular bun- dles are separated only for short distances by the medul- lary rays and are united with each other sideways, with their prosenchyma cells interlacing. In some woods, as in white pine, this interlacing is not very intricate and this wood splits easily along the grajn, but in other woods, as in lignum vitae, this interlacing is so intricate that even the hard usage given to tenpins and tenpin balls does not split the wood. The drawing represents diagrammatically a young twig of maple with the bark and cambium removed. It is readily seen that while a section a little farther up or down the stem will not show us the same bundles and the same medullary rays, yet one section must be practically identical with NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 151 every other section, so that a drawing of a section will serve as a map of the structure equally as well as in the other examples illustrated, only with the additional proviso that we must bear in mind this joining of the bundles to form a solid and connected wood cylinder. The pith consists of parenchyma and is often continuous throughout the length of the stem; in some cases, however, it is interrupted by wood, the fibro-vascular bundles anastomos- ing at the nodes, as for instance in the grape-vine, of which a longitudinal section is shown, and in which it is supposed that the fibro-vascular bun- dles from the side of the stem on which a leaf is placed by this means convey nourishment direct to the other side, on which a bunch of fruit is growing. Some- times the pith is present in young stems but ceases to grow as the stem enlarges so that the mature stem becomes hollow with only shreds of pith adhering to the inner surface of the wood-cylinder, as in bittersweet. To the pharmacognocist it is of interest to know that stems contain more pith than the roots of the same plants, the roots often containing little or no pith when the stem contains a thick pith; this is often of diagnostic value in recognizing stems which have been added with fraudulent intent to drugs which should con- sist of roots only, as in belladonna root, bitter root, etc. The medullary rays are seen as radiating lines in the transverse section, and in fleshy stems or roots they may extend for some distance up and down the stem, but in woody stems or roots, as we have just learned, they are of short length and often only one or a few cells in thick- ness. If we make a radial section in such a manner as to cut through a medullary ray we will see that it con- sists of cells stretched radially across the fibro-vascular 152 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. m b. p> bundles and uniting the pith (p.) with the middle bark (m. &.), as is shown in the drawing. Here we see a transverse section of a young rose-twig NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 153 with the large-celled pith in the center, three medullary rays separating the four flbro-vascular bundles shown, and the whole surrounded by the middle bark and epidermis. The three parts of the flbro-vascular bundles, xylem, cambium and phloem are plainly seen, and in the phloem or bast of the second bundle from the right a notch is seen, indicating the beginning of a division into two bundles as will be more fully illustrated presently. If we examine a somewhat older twig from the same rose-bush we will find the following to have taken place during growth : The cells of cambium next to the xylem produced new wood-cells, thus adding much to the radial dimensions of the fibro-vascular bundles, so that the latter became larger, and the wood became thicker and stronger. Meanwhile, also, more bast is produced from the cambium, but much more slowly than the wood. This change of cambium into wood and bast continues 154 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. as long as the leaves assimilate food, or, in other words, as long as the vegetative process keeps up, which varies with the plants, and depends on the seasons in their habitat, being uninterrupted in many tropical and sub- tropical regions where trees are found in which this process has probably gone on without intermission from a time previous to the building of the Egyptian pyramids, while in subarctic regions the process may be limited to a few weeks duration; in many plants the process extends only through a single season. When the plant grows during a part of the year only, as in the perennial woody plants of the temperate zones, growth is suspended during wiater, although roots may form below the frost-line even in winter, as in trees transplanted in the fall of the year, for which reason fall transplanting is usually more successful than spring transplanting, the plant becoming in a degree established before overground vegetation starts up. In spring the NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 155 earliest signs of returning activity of vegetation is mani- fested by a great turgescence of the cambium and of the adjacent cells, to such an extent, that, if wounded, enormous quantities of sap may flow out, as seen in tap- ping sugar maples for their sap, or in the " bleeding" of vines when these are trimmed too late. Then the buds expand, the leaves unfold, and the life of the plant actively goes on. The inner layer of cambium produces large ducts and large wood-cells, and the new wood is added in a ring around the wood of the previous season's growth ; the process continues until, as the season goes on, the leaves harden, the stomata may be clogged with dust, the soil becomes parched by the heat of summer, and cell-formation gradually becomes slower and the cells smaller, while ducts may entirely cease to be formed, until, when the leaves have fallen, the year's work is completed and another ring of wood has been added around the former wood-cylinder, as is shown in the two rings of a section of a two years old rose-twig. These rings are generally easily distinguished, because in the earlier part of the season, while growth is very 156 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. active, a larger number of ducts and larger wood-cells are formed, while towards fall the ducts are either smaller or entirely wanting and the wood-cells also become smaller, so that the inner portion of each ring is more porous than the outer portion, as is shown in this section of the wood of sassafras root; even in woods which have no ducts the difference in the sizes of the wood-cells makes the rings quite distinct. In perennial stems a new ring of wood is thus added each year, and we call these rings annual rings or layers and as the newer rings are formed on the outside of the older rings, growth in thickness takes place by the addition of new wood around the old, wherefore this is called exogenous (or outward grow- ing) struc- ture. By counting these rings from the pith outward, we can ascertain the age of the stem, as in the drawing, where we see segments of three annual rings between the two asterisks, the upper of which marks the cambium zone or margin between wood and bark, while the lower marks the boundary between the pith and wood. The three medullary rays crossing the ring of the first year are seen to continue outward to the middle bark; if no new medullary rays were formed it is evident that the fibro-vascular bundles would become very wide in a few years, but when they have attained a certain width, the bast divides, as seen in the first NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 157 section shown of the rose-twig, and after that this notch continues outward 1 as a new medullary ray, so that the fibro-vascular bundles are divided year after year and the same tangential dimensions of the bundles are main- tained. In the last drawing, for instance, eleven rays cross the segment of the third year's ring corresponding to the segment of the first year's growth with only three rays; and the division is seen to have occurred in early spring at the commencement of each year's growth, and after new rays are started they continue outward through the successive layers, so that while we can trace an original ray from the pith to the middle bark, we cannot trace back all rays from the bark to the pith. In some cases the fibro-vascuiar bundles divide during the year's growth, as seen in the section of a rootlet of black cohosh, here shown. 158 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Of course it will be understood that annual rings are not found in fleshy or annual dicotyls, nor in the annual stems of perennial plants, but only in perennial woody stems and roots. In tropical climates vegetation continues more' or less actively throughout the year and in many plants the rings are not con- centrically con- tinuous; they are then called spuri- ous rings, as in falfce pareira brava, here illus- trated, in which some layers only go part of the way around, while, in this particular section, one layer is in the form of a spiral which commences at sp. and makes three turns. v In vascular aero- gens we also find fibro-vascular bun- dles, usually ar- ranged in circles, and often of pecu- liar shapes on trans- verse sections as seen in this drawing of a segment of a stem of tree fern; the fibro-vascular bundles of ferns consist almost alto- gether of scalari- form ducts. When the stipes or NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 159 bases of fronds are broken from the stem or rhizome of a fern, they often leave peculiar reticulated markings on the outside of the stem. This acrogenous structure is of little importance to the pharmacognocist, as only two drugs of this kind are used, of which only one, malefern, is important. We are now prepared to understand one more feature concerning fibro-vascular bundles, namely, the difference between open and closed bundles. In exogenous struc- ture, as we have just learned, a bundle may continue to grow by additional development of wood from the cambium for an indefinite number of years, and such a bundle is said to be " open; " in endogenous structure, however, the cambium is finally all changed to wood, ducts or wood parenchyma and the growth of the bundle ceases, and such bundles are said to be " closed," To distinguish the cam- bium of the closed bundle from that of the open bun- dle, the former is sometimes called " procambium." The accompanying drawing shows a section of the fibro- vascular bundle of ginger. The transition from the young and still growing fibro- vascular bundles of a monocotyledonous stem to the fully formed and closed bundles, may be studied in a transverse section of bamboo cane, of which a photomi- crograph follows, in which the interior bundles are seen to have many soft- walled cell3, while those of the exter- ior portions are all or nearly all lignified; as the cut is shown, the upper part is the cuticle and the lower part shows some of the interior bundles. The bundles of the interior are not yet closed, but in the outer bundles cell- formation and cell-activity have ceased, and the latter are therefore "closed," and between these two extremes there are all degrees of gradation between the youngest 160 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. bundles still nearly all procambium, and the oldest in which procambium has been entirely replaced by formed material. . Thick, branched rhizomes and roots, cut into short lengths and irregular pieces, which are sometimes split, mostly from five to fif- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 175 teen millimeters thick, but occasionally to three centi- meters thick ; the rhizomes are thicker than the roots, but being cut they are not readily recognizable as rhizomes and the drug i3 for this reason classed under Roots; externally light yellowish-brown, with purplish longitud- inal lines and furrows a:id occasional trans- verse fissures; inter- nally pale yellowish; bark closely adherent to the wood, thin, with silky bast fibers; wood por- ous, tough, breaking with a splintery fract- ure, and showing lighter colored radiating medul- lary rays; the rhizome has a thin pith, the roots have none; odor feeble, somewhat narcotic ; taste bitterish. The drawing shows a large piece of root in natural size, and the section is that of a small root ex- amined by reflected light after soaking, and mag- nified five diameters. The furrows in the dry roots are caused by a shrinkage of the bark, determined by the bundles within, and the purplish color is due to the color of the external layers of cork which have that 176 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. color, and which remain in the depression of the furrows but are apt to be rubbed off elsewhere. — C. An alkaloid, gelsemia. — u. Mainly in nerve affections of a neuralgic character; also as a depressant and sedative. Dose: 0.1 to 0.5 gram, in tincture or fluid extract. In over-doses gelsemium is poisonous ; antidotal treat- ment consists in prompt evacuation of the stomach, the administration of diffusible stimulants, application of artificial warmth, electricity and artificial respiration. Digitalis and belladonna are physiological antidotes. Methysticum. N. Kava,Ava Kava,Kava , Kava. — o. Roots of Piper Methysticum; Piperaceae- — H. Sandwich and other Pacific Islands. — D. Large, massive roots, sometimes cut in pieces, generally with branches, the latter often braided and sometimes separate from the large roots; grayish-brown externally, internally pale-yellowish ; bark thin, often chipped off in flakes showing a characteristic net-work of yellowish-white bun- dles underneath, as shown in the drawing to the right; porous, frequently hollow, sometimes worm-eaten; odor somewhat fragrant; taste pungent, slightly aromatic, astringent and bitter. The drawing shows a root about one-fourth linear size. — c. About two per cent resin, some volatile oil, kavahin, etc. — u. Stimulant, diuretic, diaphoretic, sialogogue, etc. Dose : Two to five grams, best in fluid extract. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 177 Hydrangea N. Hydrangea. — O. Roots of Hydrangea arborescens; Saxifrageae. — H. United States, from the lakes south- ward. — D. Irregular, knotty head, two or more centi- meters thick, root branches finger-thick or less, much bent and somewhat tuberculous; usually cut into short pieces; thin pale-brown bark which occasionally peels off in spots, exposing the wood ; wood white and tough, breaking with a splintery fracture; odor none; taste insipid and sweetish, afterwards somewhat pungent. Hydrangea is shown in natural size in the drawings. — C. A crystalline glucoside, resin, etc. — r. Lithontriptic. Dose : 2 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract. 12 1/8 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. GROUP XVIII. woody roots; thick bark with ducts. In dicotyledonous or exogenous roots with thick bark the bark is often nearly as thick as the wood from the center outwards, or sometimes even as thick as the whole wood-cylinder. Such roots sometimes have oil, resin or latex ducts, spaces, or large cells in the middle bark, and when this is the case they belong to this group. Only three are of any importance ; the wood in these is not very firm, but it often is tough and breaks separately from the bark; Maisch calls them fleshy roots. Long roots, gray bark about one- fourth of diameter of the dry root Apocynum Cannabinum Similar to above, but thinner, brown, arid bark about one- sixth of entire thickness Apocynum Androsaemi- folium. Short brownish-gray sections, wood spongy and bark easily separable and flaring at cut ends Stillingia. Apocynum Cannabinum. N. Apocynum, Canadian Hemp, Black Indian Hemp. — o. Apocynum cannabinum; Apocynaceae. — H. United States. — D. Long, cylindrical, sometimes branched roots, three to twelve millimeters thick, average thick- ness being about seven millimeters; bark thick, about one-fourth of the diameter of the dried root, or one- third of the diameter of a root after soaking in water; ex- ternally gray, sometimes with a faint brownish tint, with blunt longitudinal wrinkles and deep transverse fissures extending through the bark to the wood ; in NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 179 section the bark of small pieces of root is white or lighter in color than the wood, but in old pieces it is darker, even brown and some- times resinous; wood yellowish, porous, breaking with an abrupt fracture when the drug is thor- oughly dry or bending before breaking when not dry; neither pith nor central cavity; inodor- ous; taste bitter and disagree- able, — c. An amorphous resin and a glucoside. — u. Emetico- cathartic; useful for removal of dropsical fluids. Dose 0.5, even to two grams as an emetic, best given in fluid extract. The drawings show two pieces {a and c) of root and a piece (b) of the stem, all natural size; the stem, which is often present, is brown, has a pith or central cav- ity, and often shows buds; it has no transverse fissures, the bark is thin, wood tough; sometimes it is split lengthwise; the taste is slight. b. a c. The drawings of sections show the dry root in section (a) in natural size, the root after soaking in water and 180 NOTES OK PHARMACOGNOSY. examined by reflected light, enlarged (5), and a section of the latter after clearing with liquor potassae (c), also enlarged, which shows the resin ducts. Apocynum Androsaemifolium. H. Bitter Root, Dogs-bane. — o. The root of Apocynum androsaemifo • Hum; Apocynaceae. — H. United States. — r>. Rarely exceeding ten centimeters loug, and from three to twelve millimeters thick, the average thickness being about four or five millimeters; externally rusty reddish- brown, the thick bark deeply and sharply wrinkled longitudinally, and with transverse fissures that extend through the bark to the wood; bark about one-sixth the total diameter iu the dry root, or nearly one-third the diameter in the soaked root; wood white, porous and brittle, breaking with an abrupt fracture; inodorous; taste very bitter. — c. Probably similar to those of A, cannabinam. — tr. Eme- tico-cathartic, used in hepatic derange- ments; action probably like that of Dose: 0.5, even to two grams as an emetic, best in fluid extract. The stem, which is generally present, is recognized by its large pith or central cavity, its tough wood which is often split lengthwise, and the buds attached; some of the buds are marked with asterisks in the drawing. The drawings show stem (a) and root (b) in natural size. In the drawings of sections a represents that of the dry root; b that of a root after being soaked in water, examined with a lens by reflected light; and c is a section A. cannabinum. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 181 of stem, also after being soaked and by reflected light, enlarged. a. c. The two varieties of Apocynum are frequently mixed; the differences are here noted side by side. ^4. cannabinum. Diameter averages about seven millimeters. A. androsaemifolium. Diameter averages about four to five millimeters, although as large and as small pieces as any of A, cannabinum can be found. Thickness of bark about one- sixth of the entire diameter of the dry drug. Externally reddish-brown. Vessels less numerous and nearly all in one circle near the outer edge of the wood cylinder, only a few being scattered farther within. It is probable that the actions of the two drugs are identical, so that a careful differential diagnosis between them is of importance only because of the absolute neces- sity in medicine of calling each drug by its own proper Thickness of bark about one-fourth of the entire diameter of the dry drug. Externally gray. Vessels in woody portion more or less concentri- cally arranged. 182 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. name, without which no reliable knowledge of pharmaco- dynamics could exist. Stillingi a. N. Stillingia, Queen's Root. — o. The root of Stillingia sylvatica; Euphorbiaceae. — H. Southern United States. — D. The fresh root is large, thick, tapering, little branched, tough and fibrous. The drug con- sists of the root chopped into pieces about two to five centimeters long, wrinkled, brownish-gray externally and somewhat lighter colored within ; bark thick, with numerous yellowish- brown resin-cells and but few bast fibers, and a soft, porous, although fibrous wood; in drying the bark shrinks lengthwise so that it flares at the cut ends and often separates partly or completely from the slightly projecting wood, although the latter usually remains inclosed; taste bitter, acrid and pungent, and odor peculiar and disagreeable. — c. Resin and probably a glucoside; no full analysis has been made. — U. Alterative. Dose : One to two grams. GROUP XIX. Differs from the last group in the roots having no oil, resin or latex ducts, spaces or large cells. Purplish-brown, wood tough, bark thick . . ..Krameria. Small roots, blackish-brown, with thick annular bark ipecacuanha. Krameria. The bark of Krameria Ixina belongs in this group, but it has already been described in connection with Peruvian Rhatany, under Group XVII, to which the reader is referred. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 183 Ipecacuanha. N. Ipecacuanha, Ipecac. — o. The roots of Cephaelis Ipecacuanha; Bubiaceae. — H. Brazil. — D. The roots come into trade in pieces up to ten centimeters long, and from four to five millimeters thick; seldom branched, often contorted; externally grayish- brown or blackish ; bark thick, closely and ir- regularly annuiated and often transvers^-y fis- sured, giving the drug the appearance as in the drawing, which is natural size; burk easily sep- arable from the thin, tough, whitish wood cylinder; odor peculiar, nauseous, but slight, and taste bitterish, acrid and nauseating. — c. Emetine. — U. In large doses emetic, in small doses expectorant and diaphoretic: Dose: 0.03 to 0.05 gram; as an emetic one to two grains. Stems, which are sometimes admixed, may be recog- nized by the thin and smooth bark which is not annuiated. Good ipecac consists of about eighty per cent of bark by weight. " When Ipecac is sound and free from mouldiness, its quality is proportionate to the thickness of the bark and the thinness of the ligneous portion" 1£4 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. (United States Pharmacopoeia). The illustrations show good ipecac, whole, and a section of same magnified at the rate shown by the scale which is one millimeter di- vided into fifths. It is difficult to clear the cells of their contents, so that most of them remain filled with starch. The books mention various spurious ipecacs, but as they are not found in our markets, it is not necessary to mention them here. Fleshy Roots. In fleshy roots the fibro-vascular bundles are either small and widely separated so that there is no wood- cylinder, or the prosenchyma of the bundles is little or not at all lignified, so that although there may appear to be a wood-cylinder and cambium zone, all the tissues are of nearly the same degree of softness, and so inti- mately united that the bark will not separate from the wood on drying or in the fresh condition; there is, how- ever, no rigid demarcation between woody and fleshy roots, so that roots which are classed as fleshy by some authors are classed as woody by others. Besides, just as in radishes a younger root may be succulent and tender, and an older root be hard and woody and unfit for eating, so, in drugs, the age of the gathered root may also determine its degree of woodiness. However, there is one characteristic which we can use as a distinguish- ing feature, that in woody roots the bark sometimes sep- arates from the wood while in fleshy roots it does not. Owing to the fact that fleshy roots are made up mainly of succulent parenchyma, which decreases very much in bulk on drying and the further fact that the longitudinal bundles offer more resistance to contraction during dry- ing than is offered to contraction in the transverse direc- tion, most fleshy roots show deep longitudinal wrinkles, although some also show less marked transverse wrin- kles. The cambium zone, consisting of more delicate cells, often oxidizes readily and becomes brown, espe- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 185 cially in fleshy roots that are cut into sections before drying, and thus it forms a dark line which sometimes becomes a diagnostic feature. Similarly, drying may cause a marked contrast between the colors of the wood rays and medullary rays, sometimes the one, sometimes the other being the darker colored, and this, too, is of value in recognizing the individual drugs. We divide fleshy roots into two groups. Group XX, consisting of fleshy roots with latex, oil or resin ducts, cells or spaces, and Group XXT, fleshy roots without such ducts. GROUP XX. FLESHY ROOTS WITH DUCTS. The oil, resin or latex ducts, spaces or large cells referred to are mainly found in the parenchyma of the inner and middle bark; sometimes also in the inner parts of the root, or in the bast portion of the fibro-vascular bundles, or in the medullary rays and pith. Hard, tuberous, irregularly round or pear- shaped, dark brown * Jaiapa. With caudex, branched, section marked With concentric lines Taraxacum. With caudex, branched, section marked with radiating lines Cicnorium. Hard, yellowish -brown or gray, bark closely tu berculated Asciepias Tough, porous sections with irregular bundles Sumbui. Light grayish-brown, branched root, deeply Wrinkled Angelica Fusiform, yellowish, annulate, often bifid.. Panax. Fusiform, dark grayish-brown, annulate above, deeply wrinkled. Pyrethrum. Thick, round root with long branches, or sometimes in transverse or longitudinal Sections Inula. 186 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Long, spongy or flexible, light -colored, usually split lengthwise L.evisticum . Dark-brown, knotty, flattened, with root- scars and transverse rings imperatoria. Long, slender, yellowish-white, flexible, usually Split lengthwise . Petroselinum. Long, yellowish -brown, annulate above, wrinkled and warty below Pimpineiia. Jalapa. n. Jalap. — o. The tuberous root of Ipomcea Jalapa; Convolvulacece. — H. Mexico. — D. Irreg- ularly rounded, ovate or pear-shaped, as ia the drawing, more are less deeply wrinkled and the larger roots incised, darkbrown with lighter- colored transverse warts or ridges, very hard and compact, breaking with an abrupt, horny and somewhat resinous frac- ture ; internally pale grayish-brown ; consists mainly of starchy paren- chyma with large resin- cells arranged in a dense layer under the thin bark and in wavy concentric circles which -are darker than the starch-containing portions, as shown in the drawing of a section; taste sweetish, acrid and disagreeable and odor sweetish and nauseous. — C. From ten to twenty per cent of resin; good jalap should not contain less than twelve per cent, of which not over one-tenth should be soluble In ether. — NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 187 U. Hydragogue cathartic. Dose: 0.5 to 1.5 grams. Jalap is said to occasionally come into the market in longitudinal or transverse slices, but this is certainly quite rarely the case. Jalap must be sound, heavy and hard; soft and sticky, or mealy and light-colored, or woody tubers must be re- jected. False jalaps are excluded by the description just given. Tampico Jalap resembles true jalap, but is of more irregular form without the transverse ridges or warts, light in weight, shriveled, and contains a resin which is almost entirely soluble in ether. Male Jalap is spindle-shaped, light and woody, with a resin that is wholly soluble in ether. Mechoaccan Jalap usually comes cut into slices or cubes, and is light-colored or almost whitish, mealy and with very little resin. Genuine jalap is sometimes deprived of its resin by maceration in a solvent, and then dried; such jalap is darker-colored throughout, more wrinkled, and glossy externally. Worm-eaten jalap is unfit for all purposes 188 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. but making resin of jalap, for which latter purpose it is still valuable, because the insects which attack it destroy only the cells containing starch, so that the more worm- eaten the drug, the greater will be the proportionate yield of resin. Taraxacum. N. Dandelion. — o. Root of Taraxacum officinale gath- ered in autumn; Compositce.— H. Europe and United States. — r>. The drug consists of a several-headed caudex with a cylindrical or somewhat tapering and slightly branched root, ten to fifteen centimeters long and up to ten millimeters thick and with the caudex sometimes up to twenty-five millimeters in diameter; usually much shrunken and with deep longitudinal wrinkles; externally dark-brown and internally light gray or whitish; fracture abrupt, brittle, and somewhat resinous, showing a thin yellowish central wood-cylinder consisting of reticulated and dotted ducts, non-lignified prosenchyma and paren- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 189 chyma, and a thick whitish bark marked with numerous grayish-brown circles of latex ducts; little or no odor, and a sweetish-bitter and mucilaginous taste. — c. Ta- raxacin, inulin, etc. — u. Bitter tonic and cholagogue. Dose: Two to ten grams. Dandelion is frequently much discolored, damaged by insects, mouldy or otherwise worthless. It should be perfectly sound and recently dried to be of best value. Many lots of dandelion consist of small and apparently immature roots, having but little resemblance to dande- lion as it should appear, but even in those roots the con- centric markings are very plain; the section is drawn from a small root, the scale being one millimeter divided into fifths. Chicory (Cichoriuin, from Cichorium Intybus; Composite) is sometimes substituted for or added to dandelion, which it very closely resembles in its outward appearance; the transverse section, however, offers a ready means for dis- tinguishing between the two drugs, chicory having the latex vessels arranged in ra- diating lines in the bark, instead of in concentric circles, as in dandelion. Only the wild-grown chicory is used as a substitute for dandelion, and it is generally lighter- colored than dandelion; the cultivated chicory, which is used as an adulterant for coffee, etc., is shorter and more plump than dandelion and not easily mistaken for it. The scale is the same as in dandelion. Asclepias. N. Asclepias; Pleurisy Root. — o. The root of Asclepias tuberosa; Asclepiadece. — H. United States, near Atlan- tic Coast. — d. Large, cylindrical, sometimes spindle- 190 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY* shaped roots, usual- ly cut into lengths of from 5 to 15 centi- meters, and 2 or more centimeters thick; ex- ternally orange-brown when fresh, gray when old, internally whitish; breaks with a tough and uneven fracture show- ing the bark in two lay- ers; the external bark nodulated in a peculiar manner, as shown in the drawing, affording a diagnostic feature, the inner bark thin, whitish and with but few ducts, and the wood porous, yellowish, and with wide medullary rays ; taste bitterish and somewhat acrid, odor none. — c. Two resins, fixed and volatile oils, etc. — tl. Diaphoretic, expecto- rant and carminative. Dose: Two to five grams, several times a day. Sumbul. N. Musk Root.— o. The root of Ferula Sum- bul; Umbelliferce. — H. Central and Northeast- ern Asia. — p. Trans- verse segments of a light, spongy root, from two to NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 191 ten centimeters thick and two to three centimeters long; externally dark-brown, annulate and sometimes deeply wrinkled longitudinally, and internally whitish, with yellowish-brown dots and tangled fibers; taste bitter and balsamic, and odor musk-like. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc. — u. Stimulant, blennorrhetic, and nervine tonic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. The dark markings on the cut ends are due mainly to adhering dirt rubbed off from the outer parts; the illus- tration shows a portion broken away, exposing the clean, whitish tissue within. False Musk Root consists of the roots of Ammonia- cum; it is not light and spongy, and is yellowish-red in color. When added as an adulteration it becomes flavored with the musk-like odor, and therefore resembles the genuine in odor. Angelica. N. Angelica Root. — o. The root of Archangelica offici- nalis, collected in the spring of the second year; 192 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Umbelliferce. — h. Central and Northern Europe and Asia.— p. Root five to ten centimeters long and two to five centimeters thick; the upper end somewhat annulate and with leaf remnants at- tached; below divided into a number of almost cylindrical deeply wrin- kled branches ; externally grayish - brown ; breaks with a short, spongy frac- ture, showing a thick whitish bark with radiat- ing lines of large resin ducts in the bast por- tions of the bundles, and a yellowish porous wood. The illustration shows a root in natural size. The drug should not be so dry as to be brittle. — c. Volatile oil, and resin. — u. Aromatic, stimulant and carminative. Dose: One to five grams. Panax. N. Ginseng. — O. The root of Panax quinque- folius; Araliacece. — H. North America south to the mountains of Tennes- see and Georgia. — r>. Spindle-shaped, five to ten centimeters long, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 193 often bifid or with three branches, annulate and longi- tudinally wrinkled; pale yellowish-brown externally, white and mealy within; breaks with a short fracture, show- ing thick bark which contains numerous resin cells; taste sweetish and aromatic and odor faint. Ow- ing to the high price of gin- seng, it is often gathered before fully grown, and small specimens like those figured are therefore most common. — c. A sweet amorphous substance which has been named panaquilon, resin, etc. — U. Stimulant tonic; gathered mainly for ex- port to China, where it is highly prized as an aphrodisiac. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. Pyretlirum. N. Pellitory, Roman Pellitory. — o. The root of Ana- cyclus Pyrethrum; Composite. — H. Africa, adjacent to Mediterranean Sea; comes into trade mainly from Tunis through Italy. — D. Fleshy, simple, fusiform root, from five to ten cm. long and from five to twenty mm. thick, the upper end annulate and sometimes with frayed remnants of leaves and stem; deeply wrinkled and dark-brown externally and grayish-white internally ; with abrupt fracture showing 13 194 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. comparatively thin bark, the outer layer of the middle bark containing comparatively few but large resin ducts, narrow yellowish wood-bundles and wider and darker-colored medullary rays, as shown in the drawing of a section of a dry root, magnified three diam- eters; odorless, but with an acrid and pungent taste. — C. Acrid resin and fixed oil, etc. — u. Irritant, siala- gogue, etc. Dose: Two to five grams. German Pellitory consists of the roots of Anacyclus officinarum, which are simple, nearly straight and filiform, up to fifteen cm. long and two to three mm. thick, with frayed leaf and stem remnants, deeply wrinkled, dark-brown externally, lighter brown within, with abrupt fracture, showing two layers separated by a darker- colored cambium zone and with numerous resin ducts in the bast portion; taste, odor, constituents and uses similar to those of Roman Pellitory. The drawings of the sections are after Berg, the smaller showing German Pellitory, also magnified three diameters. Inula. N. Inula, Elecampane. — o. The root of Inula Helen- ium; Compositce. — H. Central and Southern Europe; naturalized and cultivated in the United States. — l>. It is usually described as being in transverse or longitudi- nal sections, the latter with overlapping bark, as shown in the crescent-shaped section (after Maisch) ; I have more frequently found it whole, or at most, cut into two or three pieces and rarely longitudinally sliced, so that the " overlapping bark " is seldom to be seen. The drug, as I have seen it in trade, is shown in natural size in the drawing; it is a fleshy root, about two to three cm. thick at the upper end and from five to twenty-five cm. long, sometimes whole but often cut into two or three pieces, the figure showing the upper end which is most charac- teristic; this end is marked with a cup or funnel-shaped stem-scar and with several more or less fusiform heads, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 195 each having a similar depression. The root either tapers gradually to a thin ead or it may end rather abruptly in several branches, which are gen- erally cut off and come as separate pieces ; the lower root-ends or branches taper from about ten mm. to a point and are from five to fifteen cm. long, either simple or slightly branched, deeply wrinkled longi- tudinally, flexible in damp weather, but hard when dry when they break with an ab- rupt fracture; the cut and dried ends of larger pieces show projecting concentric and radial lines, while the smaller roots have the structure as shown enlarged in the figure of a whole section; very rarely a piece may show a tendency to separate at the cam- bium zone, which, if more frequent, would make this a woody root; externally all parts of the drug, including the cut sui faces, are of a grayish-brown color, but, when broken, the interior appears grayish-white with the resin ducts showing as bright yellow, glistening points under a lens in the middle bark and inner bark, in the medullary rays and pith; the odor is faintly aro- matic and the taste is bitter and pungent. — C. Resin, extractive, etc., but no starch. — u. Stimulant, expec- 196 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. torant, diaphoretic and diuretic. Dose: Two to ten grams. !Levisticum. N. Lovage. — o. The root of Levisticum officinale: Um- belliferce. — H. S mthern and Central Europe ; cultivated in Germany. — ». A fleshy root, eight to twenty cm. long and three to four cm. thick, several-headed, annulated at the upper end and divided below into several nearly cylindrical flexible branches which are about three to six mm. thick but usually split longitudinally into halves or quar- ters; deeply wrinkled longitudinally; yellowish-brown to dark-brown ^externally and pale-yellowish inter- nally; fracture spongy, showing a thick bark with many resin ducts and with radiating fissures, and the yellow wood-bundles alternating with narrow white medullary rays which also contain resin ducts; the main root has a pith; odor strong and penetrating and taste sweetish, mucilaginous and acrid. The draw- ing is after Berg and shows a section of a dry root enlarged three diameters. — C. Resin, volatile oil, bitter extractive, etc. — U. Stimulant carminative and emmena- goguc. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Itnperatoria . N. Masterwort. — o. The root of Imperatoria (or Peucedanum) Ostruthium; Umbelliferce. — H. Southern and Central Europe. — d. Masterwort is sometimes classed as a root, sometimes as a rhizome; the upper end is a root stock from which branches proceed in the living plant at the ends of which buds and new plants are formed, but usually this is but a small part of the pieces while much the larger part is root; but the rhi- zome portion may constitute so large a proportion of some pieces that they would be pronounced to be rhi- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 197 zomes and this drug is therefore also enumerated among rhizomes (Group XXIX) . The illustration gives a good idea of the appearance and size of the drug; it is knotty, somewhat conical, crowned with leaf remnants, flattened as seen in the out- line of its section (natural size), marked with trans- verse rings and longitudinal wrin- kles and tubercul- o u s root-s cars; from five to seven cm. long and about fifteen to thirty mm. wide; the en- larged section shows a circle of numerous small wood-bundles in- closing a large pith, and with numerous large resin ducts in the bark and pith; the color is grayish-brown to blackish-gray externally and brownish- yellow to whitish within; odor aromatic and taste pun- gent and bitter. — c. Volatile oil, resin, imperatorin, etc. — U. Aromatic stimulant and carminative; seldom used. Dose: One to two grams. Masterwort bears a slight resemblance to aconite and has been found mixed with the latter; it was probably an accidental admixture, or a substitution through igno- rance, as masterwort is worth more than aconite and therefore would not be intentionally added as an adulter- ant. 198 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Petroselinum . N. Parsley Root. — o. The root of Petroselinum sativum; Umbelliferce. — H. Southern Europe; cultivated in this country.—r). A tapering fleshy root, about fifteen cm. long and about twelve mm. thick; annulate and transversely wrinkled above and deeply wrinkled longitudinally below; wood light-yellow and por- ous, and radiate from the white medullary rays, the bark whitish and dotted with resin ducts; color externally brownish - yellow and whitish within; odor aromatic and taste peculiar and sweetish. The drug usually consists of the root cut into longitudinal strips, which are pale yellowish- white and flexible. The drawing is after Maisch, and shows a section of a root enlarged three diameters. — c. Volatile oil, e f c. — H. Carminative and diuretic. Dose: Two to five grams. Pimpinella. N. Pimpernel. — o. The root of Pimpinella Saxifraga; Umbelliferce. — H. Central Europe. — d. A simple fleshy root, sometimes several-headed, the heads with remains of hollow stems; from ten to fif- teen cm. long and five to fif- teen mm. thick; the upper end of the root annulate, the lower part tuberculate or warty, and the whole deeply furrowed longitudi- nally; yellowish-brown or ocbre- colored externally ; fracture short, abrupt, showing a thick white bark with radiating lines of yellowish or reddish resin ducts, separated by a darker-colored cambium zone from the faintly radiate yellowish wood; in old pieces the bark is often torn and fissured within on drying, so that it feels spongy; NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 199 odor peculiar, aromatic and somewhat nauseous, and taste pungent and acrid. The drawing of the section is after Berg, and shows a section of a dry root enlarged three diameters. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc. — u. Stimu- lant and sialagogue. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. GROUP XXI. This group consists of fleshy roots with structure similar to those of the last group, but without the ducts. Conical, blackish-brown, tuberous roots, single or joined in pairs Aconitum. Slender, light grayish-brown roots, little branched Belladonna? Radix. Large, round or plano-convex orange- yellow pieces of roots, peeled Rheum. Whole, or longitudinally split, dark- brown roots, transversely annulate above Gentiana. Several-headed caudex, root branched and keeled, yellowish-gray, wood not cylindrical ..Senega. Transverse sections, greenish-gray bark, yellowish on cut surfaces Caiumba. Grayish -white transverse sections, hard, with prominent radiating and concentric lines Bryonia. White roots with cork removed, ex- ternally white, mealy and fibrous. . . Althaea. Longitudinal and transverse sections, with projecting white wood-bundles alternating with yellowish- gray pa- renchyma Phytolacca? Radix. Long, simple, fusiform root, usually partially broken and doubled up lengthwise Rumex. Brown-black, horny, somewhat con- torted roots, often split lengthwise. Symphytum. 200 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Long, thin roots, externally rust- brown, internally whitish Saponaria. Cylindrical, simple, fleshy root, gray- ish-brown and wrinkled Lappa. Crowned with leaf bases and covered with a dark purplish foliaceous bark easily separable from the yellowish WOOd • Alkanna. Longitudinal or transverse slices, pale orange-brown Frasera. Aconitum. N. Aconite Root, Monkshood. — o. The root of Aconi- tum Napellus; Banunculacece. — H. Mountainous parts of Europe and Asia. — D. Aconite root is sometimes classed as a tuber, because a small portion at the top is a root stock which produces a short lateral branch, at the end of which anew root and stem is formed; the old root (" mother tuber'') has a portion of stem adhering while the younger root (" daughter tuber ") is crowned with a bud, which would form the next season's stem ; the two are often attached to each other in the drug, but also occur separately. The bulk of drug is root and the drug is therefore described under this group. The illustration shows the appearance of the root (A. N.) in natural size; conical or tapering, ten to twenty mm. thick at the top and three to six cm. long, with either a bud or the remains of a stem at the apex, seldom branched, dark brown, the root with bud plump, little wrinkled, and whitish within, the one with stem remnant more deeply wrinkled and darker, even brown- ish within and sometimes hollow; fracture abrupt, mealy or horny, showing five to eight-rayed star (usually seven-rayed) caused by the darker- colored cambium zone which separates the thick bark from the pith; odorless, taste at first sweetish, then acrid and followed by a tingling numbness, which is persistent NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 201 and disagreeable, and the intensity of which has been suggested as a good empirical test for the quality of the drug. — C. Aconitine, pseudaconitin, aconine, pseuda- conine, picraconitine, etc., which together constitute the commercial article which is sold as " aconitine." — u. A.N. 1 Sedative and depressant; very poisonous. Dose: 0.05 to 0.10 gram in tincture. Antidotes. — Stomach pump or emetics (sulphate of zinc, mustard, apomorphine") ; friction of extremities; heart stimulants, as digitalis, atropine, or amyl nitrite inhalations; heat applied externally, etc. 202 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Aconitum Cammarum (A. C.) is also gathered in Europe; it is only about two cm. long and sub-globular and the cambium star seldom more than five-rayed, and less marked than in A. Napellus. Aconitum Stoerckianum, is characterized by the " mother tuber" developing two " daughter tubers," so that it comes in triplets ; the cambium zone is not stellate. These two varieties are sometimes mixed with the roots of A. Napellusy and have the same action. Indian Aconite, from A. ferox (A. F.), called bikh or bishi is from five to ten cm. long and about twenty-five mm. thick above, conical, brown externally and reddish- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 203 brown or brownish-black internally and breaks with a resinoid fracture. Japanese or Chinese Aconite ( J. A. ), from A. Fischeri, is napiform, tapering, with a circular or ellip- tical (rarely stellate) pith. All of these roots are used for the manufacture of the commercial " aconitine," Belladonnas Radix. N. Belladonna Root. — o. The root of Atropa Bella- donna; Solanacece. — H. Central or Southern Europe. — r>. The illustration shows an old and thick root, with the base of the hollow stem attached; the drug consists mainly of the more slender, tapering and often nearly cylindrical roots, up to twenty-five cm. long and from ten to twenty-five mm. thick, exter- nally pale brownish- gray with few and shallow longitudinal wrinkles; breaks with an abrupt mealy fracture, the thinner pieces uniformly white within, the thicker and older pieces showing a radiating structure inside of and near the cambium zone, as shown in the drawing of a section ; odor little or none, and taste at first sweetish, then bitterish and acrid, and followed by dry- ness of the mouth and fauces. — c. Atropine. — u. Ano- dyne, narcotic; dilates the pupils of the eyes; suppresses the secretions of the salivary and sweat glands; in medi- cinal doses it is a valuable heart-stimulant, but in over- doses it is a narcotic poison and paralyzes the heart; externally, as an ingredient of plasters, it is a valuable ano- 204 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. dyne and anti-neuralgic and the ointment of belladonna is applied to the breasts to suppress the secretion of milk. Dose: About 0.05 gram. " Roots .which are tough and woody, breaking with a splintery fracture, should be rejected; likewise the hollow stem-bases which are sometimes present " (U. S. F.) ; but this empiri- cal rule will sometimes lead to the rejection of a good drug, because a drug as here described occasionally assays as high as the drug described above, and which usually is the better; no I large lot of roots should be rejected on its appear - fance alone; but a quanti- tative assay should be made to determine the quality of the drug. Antidotes. — The poi- sonous effect shows itself by extreme dilatation of the pupils, dryness of the fauces, headache, delirium, stupor, paralysis, weak pulse and respiration, and finally death. Treatment consists in the use of the stomach pump or emetics, opium internally and stim- ulants when heart failure is threatened. Opium is a physiological antidote. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 205 Rheum. N. Rhubarb. — o. The root of Bheum officinale, Baillon, and probably some other varieties of Bheum; Polygons cece. — H. Western and Central China. — r>. Cylindrical, conical or irregular, or flatfish, often plano-convex pieces of root, deprived of the corky layer and often of the middle bark, covered externally with an orange- yellow powder (from attrition), which when rubbed off shows meshes of white, spongy tissue and short, red- dish-brown or brownish-yellow striae; compact and hard, breaking with an uneven fracture, the broken surface being whitish and marbled or mottled with yellowish- red striae which are sometimes arranged in star-shaped spots or clusters; the parenchyma cells are filled with starch or stellate clusters of oxalate of calcium which feel gritty between the teeth, and the cells of the me- dullary rays are rilled with a reddish coloring matter which colors the saliva yellow; the odor is peculiar and the taste is bitter, disagreeable and slightly astringent. — C. Chrysophan, chrysophanic acid, emodin, tannin, etc. — u. Rhubarb is at first purgative, followed afterwards by an astringent action; it is therefore especially adapted for use in cases of diarrhoeas caused by irritating sub- stances in the intestines, such as indigestible food, etc. Dose: 0.3 to 1.5 grams. The rhubarb described above is called Chinese, Shensi or East Indian Rhubarb. Russian Rhubarb is no longer found in the trade and is only of historical interest. It therefore needs no description here. Rhapontjc Rhubarb, also called Crimean Rhubarb, is the root of Bheum rhaponticum, which is a native of Western Asia, but is now also cultivated in Europe and in the United States, being known here as "pie plant." When the root is found in the trade it is usually in slender cylindrical pieces of an orange-red color, about ten to twelve cm. long and two cm. thick, resembling the official rhubarb in color, odor and taste, but being more astringent and mucilaginous, and less gritty. 206 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. . European Rhubarb, from Bheum palmatum, B. rha- ponticum, B. compaction, R. undulatum, B. Emodi and other species of Bheum, is sometimes trimmed to re- semble Chinese rhubarb, but the taste is more mucilag- inous and less gritty. Seldom used. The leaf-stalks are used in Europe as we use them here, for cooking. Senega. N. Senega, Senega Snake-root. — o. The root of Polygala Senega; Polygalece. — H. Southern United States. — d. A fleshy, tapering, somewhat tortuous and slightly branched root, with a many-headed caudex often having the remains of numerous stems attached, of the size shown in the illustration, or frequently much smaller; deeply wrinkled and with a " keel " or promi- nent ridge in the concave parts of the bends of the roots, which constitutes a diagnostic feature ; externally yel- lowish-gray to yellowish-brown, internally pale yellow- ish-white; bark thick and wood-cylinder incomplete and irregularly excentric as shown in the drawings of sec- tions which were enlarged from actual specimens; odor slight but disagreeable and taste at first insipidly NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 207 sweetish, afterwards acrid. — c. About five per cent polygalic acid, etc. — u. Stimulant and alterative blen- norrhetic and expectorant, acting especially on the bronchial mucous membranes. Dose: 0.5 to 1.5 grams. The above describes Southern Senega. Northern Senega, although from the same plant, is inferior; it is thicker, lighter col- ored, with- out keel and con- tains only three per cent of polygalic acid. Other (so - called " spurious") senegas are excluded by the official description. Gentiana. x. Gentian. — o. The root of Gentiana lutea; Gentianacece. — H. The mountainous regions of Central and Southern Europe. — D. A fleshy root, sometimes with a sev- eral-headed caudex, cylindrical, little branched, of various lengths up to 20 cm. long, about 25 milli- meters thick, annulate at the upper end, deeply wrinkled longitud- inally, occasionally split length- wise, dark brown ex- ternally and cinna- mon - col- 1 ored in- ternally, 208 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. breaking with abrupt brittle fracture in dry weather but somewhat flexible in damp weather, with a rather thick bark and a soft fleshy wood, without pith, and free from starch; odor faint and taste intensely and persistently bitter. — c. The amorphous glucoside gentiopicrin, gen- tisic acid, gentianose, pectin, etc. — u. A bitter tonic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Sometimes the roots of G. purpurea, G. punctata and G. pannonica are also gathered and mixed with the official drug. These roots are similar in action and in appearance to that of G. lutea and this admixture is not objectionable. Calumba. N. Calumba, Colombo. — o. The root of Jateorhiza palmata; Menispermaceoe. — h. Eastern Africa, especially Mozambique, where the plant grows wild; it is also cultivated in some of the East Indian Islands.— r>. The fresh large fleshy root is cut into transverse sec- tions which are circular or broad- ly elliptical, from three to six cm. in diameter and from eight to twelve m.m. thick, often depressed around the center which latter may however project as a nipple- like elevation ; the exterior surface is brownish-green, while the cut surfaces are yellowish-gray with a brighter yellow color in the bark under the epidermis, and with the cambium zone often distinctly marked by a brownish- gray line which is crossed by numerous more or less distinctly marked radiating lines; breaks with an abrupt brittle and mealy fracture ; odor slight and taste muci* NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 209 laginous and bitter. Sometimes longer cylindrical or tapering pieces are found which are the branches or ends of the roots without being cut into transverse slices, but they are readiiy recognized as calumba by the resem- blance to the sections. — C. Columbin, berberine, etc. — U. Bitter tonic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Calumba must have a good bright color. Worm-eaten and dark or dirty-colored calumba is more common than the sound drug, and such inferior drug should be rejected. This drug is said to be occasionally adulterated with transverse slices of other roots, such as bryonia, etc., but it is doubtful whether such additions are practicable as they are too easily recognized by even a novice. Bryonia. N. Bryonia, Bryony. — o. The roots of Bryonia alba and of Bryonia dioica; Cucurbitacece. — H. Central and Southern Europe. — r>. Transverse sections, 3 to 6 cm. diameter, about 6 mm. thick, grayish-brown ex- ternally and the gray- ish-white cut surfaces marked with rough con- centric and radiating lines due to projecting fibro-vascular bundles; hard, breaking with abrupt, brittle and mealy fracture ; no odor but taste bitter and nauseous. — C. A bitter glucoside, bryonin, etc. — U. Hydragogue cathartic. Dose: 0.5 to I grams. The drug obtained from B. dioica is smoother and more mealy on its cut surfaces than that derived from B. alba. u 210 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Althaea. N. Marshraallow Root. — o. The root of Alt hcea officinalis ; Malvaceae, — H. Europe, Western and Northern Asia; culti- vated in Europe; naturalized in United States. — d. Irregularly cylindrical or tapering pieces, 10 to 20 cm. long and about 10 to 15 ram. thick; deprived of the external bark; without rootlets, but with numerous round spots or root-scars; deeply wrinkled longitudinally; ex- ternally and Internally white, mealy and fibrous; fracture abrupt and mealy ; odor faintly aromatic and taste sweetish mucilaginous. —C. Asparagin, pectin, mucilage (35 per cent) and starch (35 per cent). — u. Demulcent. Dose: Ad libitum. As usually bought and sold by the retail pharmacist it is cut into small cubes (of about 3 or 4 mm. on each side) which are white, and readily recognized by the peculiar odor of the drug. A discolored or mouldy root, or one hav- ing a disagreeable or sourish odor or taste, must be rejected. " Young uncoated belladonna root resembles marshmallow; but is exter- nally not fibrous, and has yellow- ish wood-bundles or wood-wedges " (Maisch); but "uncoated " belladonna is not found in the trade and while the roots are somewhat similar, they are readily distinguished by their physical characteristics. Phytolaccae Radix. N. Poke Root. — o. The root of Phytolacca decandra; Phytolaccaceae. — n. Indigenous; naturalized in S. Europe NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 211 and West Indies. — d. The root is a large fleshy, conical root, grayish- brown ex- ternally, whitish within, some- times as much as twenty cm. thick at the upper end and up to one-half meter long, with many heads to which remnants of hollow stems containing transverse shreds of pith are attached. A transverse section shows the fibro-vascular bundles to be arranged in irregu- larly concentric circles, as shown in the drawing of a microscopical section of a small piece; this arrangement of the bundles ex- plains the appearance of the drug as found in the trade, for when dry the parenchyma shrinks more than the bundles and becomes light brownish-gray while the bundles remain white, and project above the shrunken paren- chyma. In the trade the root is found in transverse or 1 ongitudinal slices to some of which por- tions of t h e hollow stems remain at- tached ; one of these draw- ings is of a small transverse slice as it appeared in the evening with the light falling on it obliquely, thus illuminating the projecting lines of fibro-vascular bundles, deepening the tints of the parenchyma by the strong shadows, thus exaggerating the contrast in color but showing the relief more clearly; the right hand figure illustrates a small frag- 212 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. ment of a longitudinal slice; the drug is hard and breaks with a fibrous fracture; odor, none; taste sweetish acrid. — c. No active principle has been isolated but the action probably depends on an undetermined glucoside. — u. Has been highly recommended as an alterative ant- arthritic in rheumatism, and as a solvent in inflamma- tion and threatened abscess of the breast. Dose: 0.05 to 1 gram; in overdoses it is poisonous. N. Yellow Rum ex. Dock, Radix Lapathi. —o. The root of Bumex crispus and of other varieties of Bu- mex ; Polygo- n a c e cz . — H . Europe; na- turalized in North America. — D. Along, ta- pering, simple fleshy root with but few root- fibers, some- times somewhat fusiform, an- nulate above, deeply wrinkled below; gener- ally broken as in the drawing which is about five-sixths natu- ral size, the tough fibrous wood bundles, especially in the larger and older NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 21c roots, holding the broken parts together; ten to thirty em. long and twelve to fifteen mm. thick; externally brown or reddish-brown, internally somewhat horny and dingy brownish-yellow; stains the saliva yellow; little or no odor and a bitter astringent taste. — C. Tannin, chrysophanicacid, etc. — u. Alterative, astringent, tonic. Dose : 2 to 5 grams. Symphytum. N. Symphytum, Comfrey. — o The root of Symphytum officinale; Boraginece. — H. Europe and United States. — D. The nearly simple root is up to fifteen cm. long and from eight to twenty mm. thick, the larger pieces often split lengthwise, very hard, wrinkled, somewhat twisted, blackish-brown exter- nally and whitish within; breaks with an abrupt, somewhat brittle fracture, the broken end appearing whitish and horny : odorless, and taste sweetish, mucilagi- nous and slightly astringent. — C. Muci- lage, asparagin, tannic acid, etc. — U. Demul- cent and slightly astringent. Dose : 5 to 15 grams per day Saponaria. N. Saponaria, Soapwort. — o. The root of Saponaria officinalis; Caryophyllece. — H. Europe and America. — 214 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. D. Cylindrical, about twenty-five cm. long but usually broken into shorter lengths, the older roots up to twelve mm. or more in thickness ; formerly the roots from older plants were more common than at pres- ent, and these were marked with distinct annual layers, but now the thin roots from one-year-old plants are preferred and these appear as in the draw- ings, from two or three to twelve mm. thick, rusty or reddish brown externally, hard, with abrupt fracture, the section showing a thick whit- ish bark and a delicate brownish cambium zone surrounding a pale yellowish w 7 ood w i t h o u t radiating markings; no odor and a somewhat bitter and afterwards acrid taste. The smaller roots are to be pre- ferred and large and woody roots should be rejected. — C. Saponin, etc. — U. Alterative diaphoretic; used similarly to Sarsaparilla in chronic skin diseases, etc. Dose : 25 to 50 grams during the day, in infusion. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 215 Lappa. N. Burdock, Radix Bar- danae. — o. The root of Arctium Lappa and of some other species of Arctium; Compositae. — H. Europe and Northern t Asia; naturalized in North America. — l>. A simple, fleshy, fusifoini root about thirty cm. long to three cm. thick; crowned with a tuft of whitish, soft, hairy leaf-stalks; ex- ternally grayish-brown and internally paler brown; frac- ture somewhat horny; bark thick and with occasional spaces containing a whitish felt-like mass of broken- down tissue, the cambium zone dark-colored, wood ra- diate and the center having spurious pith or cavities filled with a similar white tissue-debris as is found in the spaces in the bark; odor faint but disagreeable, and taste sweetish-bitter and mucilaginous. The root usually comes into trade split lengthwise, so that the glistening wmite spurious pith becomes a characteristic and diag- nostic feature. — c. Inulin (no starch), mucilage, bitter extractive, etc. — u. Diaphoretic, diuretic and alterative. Dose: One to five grams. Alkarina. N. Alkanet. — o. The root of Alkanna tincioria; Bora- gineae. — H. Southeast Europe and Western Asia. — d. A long, fleshy, cylindrical, slightly branched root with a sev- eral or many-headed caudex to which tufts of leaf-bases remain attached, usually broken in pieces about ten cm. long and finger-thick, most of the thickness consisting in the dry drug of a thick bark, the outer layers of which are foliaceous or torn into many shreds, which are but loosely adherent to each other and to the inner bark and wood, 216 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. which latter is also often torn into its separate bundles during drying; the bark and medullary rays are dark pur- plish-violet in color, while the wood-bundles are yellowish, all parts being readily friable ; little or no taste or odor. — c. Alkannin, a deep red coloring matter which is soluble in alcohol, oils, fats, etc., but insoluble in water. — u. For coloring hair- oils, pomades and other fatty preparations. As the coloring matter is mainly found in the bark, the value of the drug depends on the proportion of bark pres- ent, and as this is sometimes sold separately, a drug con- sisting to any undue extent of the wood-bundles should be rejected. Frasera. n. Frasera, American Colombo, American Gentian. — o. The root of Frasera Walteri; Gentianacece. — h. United States, AUeghanies and westward. — D. A large NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 217 fleshy root which formerly was sometimes cut into trans- verse slices resembling Calumba (whence the name American Colombo), but is now usually split in longi- tudinal slices, as shown in the illustration in natural size, annulate above, wrinkled longitudinally below, brown externally, light yellowish-brown within, odor reminding of gentian, taste sweetish and afterwards bitter. — c. Similar to those of gentian, gentiopicrin, etc. — U. Bitter tonic. Dose : One to five grams. RHIZOMES. Rhizomes are underground stems, distinguished from roots by having nodes and internodes which are absent in roots; they may vary in length, some being creeping and often quite long, others being short and compact; some come into trade with the roots (usually simple "rootlets") attached, some without the roots; these rootlets are in some attached all around and along the full length, in some only on the under side, and in others only at the nodes, and when they are broken off the resulting scars are often characteristic and aid in the recognition of the drug. The remains of leaves or stems are often attached to the upper or growing end of rhizomes. We group the commercial drugs of this class, first, according to their most striking peculiarity, the presence or absence of rootlets, then according to struc- ture (acrogenous, endogenous, exogenous, or with or without ducts, as the case may be) and to some extent according to shape (long or short). Rhizomes are generally spoken of in the trade as "roots," but while there may be no serious objection to the continuance of this practice, yet the difference be- tween roots and rhizomes must of course be always remembered by the student of pharmacognosy, as other- wise the confusion of terms may seriously interfere with the ready recognition of the respective drugs. When grouping according to presence or absence of rootlets we must remember that when drugs are gathered 218 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. by savage or barbarous people, these people do things in a routine manner and do not deviate from the methods of their ancestors, and such drugs are gathered, cut, dried and put up for the trade as they have been for genera- tions or perhaps for centuries; thus calumba always was and still is cut into transverse slices. On the other hand, civilized people vary the methods of trimming, often in an arbitrary or capricious manner, as when veratrum viride is sometimes whole with rootlets, sometimes without rootlets, or sometimes cut longitudinally into halves or quarters or sliced transversely into sections. So it hap- pens that while a diug may be classed as a rhizome with rootlets, it may occasionally be found without rootlets, or vice versa; yet in most cases the drugs are as is here- with explained and deviations are exceptional. / Monocotyledonous 22 fWith rootlets I ( With ducts*. .. .23 (Dicotyledonous I _„.. , . J f Without ducts*.24 Cryptogamous 25 Monocotyledonous } s " 6 Without rootlets . The drug consists of a tangled or matted mass of pale straw- colored or yellowish, but not glossy, rhizomes and rootlets; the rhizomes sometimes branched, but usually simple, often with the growing'end thickened and annular and crowned with a mass of soft, , whitish, threadlike hairs (the remnants of leaf bases) ; this thicker end con- tracts either abruptly or tapers to a thin rhizome, which is lighter- colored than the thick end and slightly wrinkled longitudinally; from five to ten cm. long and two to three mm. thick, with internodes from 222 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. two to five cm. long, and with a few thin, almost threadlike rootlets attached at the slightly thickened nodes or joints; the fracture is tough and fibrous and the interior is white ; the drug has no odor, and the taste is bitter and slightly acrid. — c. Convallarin, convalla- marin, etc. — u. Heart tonic, especially useful in cardiac dropsies; in overdoses poisonous. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams daily. Iris Versicolor. N. Blue Flag.-— o. The rhizome of Iris versicolor; Iridece. — H. In swampy locali- ties in North America. — D. In pieces of various lengths, sometimes branched, but usually simple; internodes five to ten cm. long, cylindrical at the older end and flattish at the growing end, where the numerous long, simple rootlets are attached when present; the upper (growing) end is marked with a circular stem-scar, the nodes with small circular root-scars when the roots are absent, and the whole length is marked by alternate lighter and darker- colored annular markings due to the leaf- scars, as shown in the illustration which shows a piece of the drug without rootlets ; the fracture is somewhat spongy or abrupt, the section showing a nucleus sheath wlrch surrounds most of the wood-bundles ; nearly inodorous, and taste acrid and nauseous. — C. Acrid resin, etc. — U. Emetico- cathartic in large doses; in medicinal doses hydra- gogue cathartic, cholagogue, diuretic and alterative, Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. This drug is often found in the trade without rootlets, and it is therefore also mentioned under Group X^XVI. A lot of well-cleaned NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 223 rootless blue-flag looks more attractive, although there is probably no preference from a therapeutical standpoint. Trillium . jn". Beth-root, Birth-root. — o. The rhizome of Trillium erectum and other varieties of Trillium; Liliacece. — H. United States. — ». Obconical to subglobuiar, often somewhat flattened, from two to five cm. long, shaped as shown in the drawing; annulate, with the few and short rootlets attached near the upper end, which is sometimes tufted with kaf- remnants; externally light yellowish-brown, internally whitish, inodorous and taste somewhat astringent, after- wards bitter and acrid. — C. Acrid glucoside, etc. — u. Used in genito-urinary troubles, as menorrhagia, leu- corrhcea, etc.; emmenagogue and emetic. Dose: Two to five grams. Dracontium. N. Skunk Cabbage.— O. The rhizome of Dracontium fcetidum (Symplocarpus fetidus); Aroidece.— H. North 224 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. America. — r>. From five to ten cm. long and half as wide, obconical, shaped as shown in the drawing; the upper end usually has concentrically arranged leaf- remnants and numerous long, shriveled and deeply wrinkled rootlets attached, but these roots are often cut from the rhizomes and either come loose and separate in the bales or are absent; the drug is grayish-brown ex- ternally and whitish within, but when it comes cut into slices or into longitudinal quarters, which is frequently the case, the cut surfaces on drying also appear grayish; the odor reminds one of a polecat, whence the name of the drug, and the taste is pungent and acrid. — C. Resin, an acrid volatile principle (the latter not isolated), etc. — U. Stimulant and antispasmodic; used in hysteria, etc. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Cypripedium. N. American Valerian, Lady's Slipper; commonly, but erroneously, called Ladies' Slipper. — o. Rhizome and roots of Cypripedium pubescens and C. parviflorum; Orchidece. — H. United States. — d. The rhizome is usu- ally curved or bent, beset with numerous long wavy rootlets which become entangled so that the drug is a matted mass; in the illustration most of the rootlets are represented as removed, to show the nature of the rhizome, which is marked on its upper side with numer- ous circular cup-shaped but very shallow stem-scars, which are about as far apart from the edge of one to the edge of the other, as the diameter of such a scar; the NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 225 rhizome is from five to ten cm. long and about three mm. thick, and the rootlets are up to twenty cm. long and about 1.5 mm. thick; dark-brown to light orange-brown; frac- ture brittle, showing yellowish-white within; a faint but sickening odor and a sweetish-bitter and slightly pungent taste. — C. No active principle has been isolated; fixed oils, resins, etc. — u. Diaphoretic, antispasmodic and nervine. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. According to Maisch the rhizome of C. pubescens is the longer of the two rhizomes and is usually bent with a shallow curve, depressed in the middle so as to make a U-shaped curve; this may be remembered by thinking of the first letters which diSier in the names of the two drugs, Cypripedium pubescens having a u where Cypripe- dium parviflorum has an a. The rhizome of the latter plant is contorted, often bent at right angles, or with an upward curve. In both the rootlets spring from all sides of the rhizome but bend abruptly downward, hiding the rhizome, so that to examine the latter the rootlets must be removed as was done prior to making the illustration. Polygon atum . N. Solomon's Seal.— o. The rhizomes of several va- rieties of Polygonatum, Polygonatum gigantewn, P. 15 226 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. biflorum, P. multiflorum, and P. uniflorum; Li- Itaceae.—n. The first two are indigenous, the third grows in Europe and America, and the last men- tioned is a European plant. — d. The drug varies in size as it comes from one or -another of these plants, but is always a rhizome with nodes, on the upper side of which are de- pressed stem-scars which resemble the impressions of a seal, wherefore the drug is called "Solomon's Seal." A common form of the drug is as in the drawing, the upper figure of which shows the shape of the fresh rhizome re- duced, but which is in reality about fifteen cm. long and up to four or five cm. broad, but in the drug is usually sliced longitudinally as shown in the low r er figures ; each joint is marked with a stem-scar ; the outer sur- face is yellowish-brown, the interior is whitish; the fracture is abrupt and somewhat spongy, showing the wood- bundles mostly i n the center, but with- out the nucle us DlOSCOREA. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 227 sheath; odor none and taste mucilaginous, bitter and slightly acrid. Another much smaller form is one in which the rhizome is also about fifteen cm. long, but only about five mm. thick, not sliced, but in other regards similar to the above described varie- ty. — c. Convallarin, asparagin, mucilage, etc. — u. Said to exert a special action on relaxed mucous membranes, as in leucorrhcea, etc. Dose: One to two grams, preferably in the form of fluid extract. Dioscorea. N. Wild Yam. — o. The rhizome of Dioscorea vil~ losa; Dioscoracece. — h. United States. — d. The shape and size of the drug are well represented in the drawing; crooked, branched, somewhat flattened, with few rootlets; very hard and tough, but breaks with an abrupt, somewhat fibrous fracture; pale- brown externally and white within, with yellowish wood-bundles; odorless, and taste insipidly mucil- aginous, but developing a slight acridity after chew- ing for a little while. — c. An acrid principle re- sembling saponin, resin, etc. — u. Said to be anti- spasmodic, useful in bilious colic, cholera morbus, etc. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. (See cut on page 226). Helonias. N. False Unicorn Root. — o. The rhizome of Chamcelirium lut eum {Helonias dioica) ; Lilia- \ceae.—n. North America. — D. Cylindrical, curved, with stem-scars on upper surface and occasionally with leaf - remnants at growing end, closely an- nulate in small pieces and more coarsely an- nulate in larger speci- 228 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. mens, beset with long, wiry rootlets, which, how- ever, are sometimes wanting in the drug ; from two to seven cm. long and five to twenty mm. thick; externally dark grayish-brown, internally whitish and horny; fracture abrupt, showing numerous wood-bundles near center; odor peculiar, though weak, but readily perceived when the drug is bruised, and the taste bitter and acrid. — c. Chamaelirin, etc . — U. Tonic, diuretic and anthelmintic. Dose: One to four grams. Aletris. n. Aletris, Uni- corn Eoot. — o. The rhizome of Aletris farinosa; Hcemo- do ra ce a e . — H. United States. — d. The rhizome is about two to three cm. long and three to ten mm. thick, indistinctly joiut- ed, with loose tufts of leaves and be- set with numerous light grayish-yel- low fibrous root- lets; externally grayish-brown, in- ternally white , breaking with a mealy, somewhat fibrous fracture ; odor none, and taste bitter. — c. A bitter principle.— u. Bitter tonic and stomachic; reputed to be a tonic to the uterus, counteracting a tendency to miscarriage. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 229 Calamus. Calamus, which usually comes into trade with the rootlets removed, is occasionally found with the root- lets attached, and would then be looked for in this group of drugs. The student is referred to Group XXYI for a description of this drug. GROUP XXIII. DICOTYLEDONOUS RHIZOMES WITH ROOTLETS; WITH DUCTS OR OIL CELLS. Dicotyledonous or exogenous rhizomes are recog- nizable by the arrangement of their fibro-vascular bundles; the word "duct" is used in this book to include oil, resin or latex ducts, spaces or large (special) cells. Of the three drugs mentioned in this group, one, Arnica Root, has large ducts, which are very readily recognizable, but in Serpentaria and Valerian the oil-cells are not very markedly larger than the other parenchyma cells, and although readily seen while still containing the oil, are not easily dis- tinguished after the cell-contents have been removed, as is usually the case in finished slides, and therefore Valerian and Serpentaria are also mentioned in the next group. Small, hard, dark-brown, curved rhiz- ome; rootlets all on lower side; a ring Of ductS in the Section Arnica. Short, thick, upright rhizome, with many rootlets ; with characteristic odor Valeriana. Thin, small rhizome, with remains of stems on upper side, and many rootlets On lower side Serpentaria. Arnicae Radix. N. Arnica Eoot. — o. The rhizome and rootlets of Arnica montana; Composites. — h. Europe, Asia and 230 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. North America. — d. The drug consists of a tangled mass of rhizomes and rootlets ; the rhizome is curved or contorted, up to five cm. long and two to three mm. thick, usually crowned with a tuft of leaf remnants, hard, ^?T^. brittle, wrinkled, i| annulate and nodulate with stem- remnants and leaf-scars, and the under side beset with numerous hard, brittle rootlets, which are up to eight cm. long, and less than one mm. thick ; the color of the rhizome is dark brown externally, with whitish bark and yellowish wood within, and with a large whitish pith; in the inner layer of the bark, surrounding the cambium, there is a circle of large resin-ducts and a similar circle of resin- ducts occurs in the rootlets; the odor is peculiar, aromatic, and the taste is acrid, aromatic and somewhat bitter. The illustration shows the rhiz- ome in natural size, sections of the rhizome in natural size and enlarged in the upper part and a section of a rootlet in the lower part of the drawing. — C. Resins, volatile oil, etc. — u. Stimulant and vul- nerary. Dose : 0.5 to 2 scrams. Valeriana. N. Valerian. — o. The rhizome and rootlets of Va- leriana officinalis; Valerianece. — h. Europe and North Asia ; cultivated in New England, especially in Vermont. — d. The rhizome is short, thick, upright, two to four cm. long, and one to two cm. thick, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 231 crowded with stem and leaf remnants, dark brown externally, brownish or grayish-brown, and some- what horny within; beset with numerous deeply- wrinkled, brownish rootlets, five to ten cm. long and about two mm. thick, which are often twisted or sometimes braided into a conical or tapering compact cluster; the parenchyma cells of the bark and pith contain mainly starch, but some of them contain oil ; in the bark and in the medullary rays are also larger oil-cells or glands, but in the sections from which the cell-contents have been removed these oil-cells are not readily to be distinguished from the starch-cells, and the drug is therefore also enumerated in the next group ; the odor is peculiar, exerting aphrodisiac ef- fects on cats, and the taste is bitterish camphoraceous. — C. Volatile oil, valerianic acid, etc.— u. Stimulant, nervine, antispasmodic. Dose : One to five grams. A smaller variety of this drug which grows in dry mountainous regions is considered to be best ; a larger variety, which grows in moist lowlands, is often 232 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. cut into longitudinal halves, the inner surface then appearing concave on drying; this is considered to be inferior. Serpentaria. N. Serpentaria, Virginia Snake Eoot. — o. The rhi- zome and rootlets of Aristolochia Serpentaria and A, reticulata; Aristolochiacece. — h. United States. — D. A thin horizontal rhizome, one to two cm. long and two mm. thick, curved, with the upper side closely beset with short stem-remnants and the under side with many pale-brown, brittle rootlets, five to ten cm. long and less than one mm. thick ; externally pale-brown and whitish within ; fracture abrupt, smooth, showing excentric wood with small pith; the fundamental tissue consists of parenchyma containing starch and in the bark are large oil-cells, but these cells are not NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 233 sufficiently different from the adjoining starch-cells to be readily recognized when the sections have been cleared by removal of cell-contents, and this drug is therefore also mentioned in the next group ; the odor reminds of a mixture of camphor and turpentine and the taste is bitterish camphoraceous. — c. Aristolo- chine, volatile oil, etc.— u. Stimulant, useful in ty- phoid conditions. Dose : 0.5 to 4 grams. The illustrations show the rhizome, whole and longitudinal section, after soaking in w T ater, and the transverse sections of rhizome (above) and of a rootlet (below). The rootlets of A, reticulata are said to be coarser, longer and less interlaced than those of A. serpen- taria. Spigelia resembles Serpentaria, but is nearly black and has circular stem-scars instead of stem- remnants. Other admixtures are readily excluded by the description of the drug. GROUP XXIV. DICOTYLEDONOUS RHIZOMES WITH ROOTLETS; WITHOUT DUCTS OR OIL CELLS. The drugs of this group resemble those of the last group, except that they have no latex, oil or resin ducts, spaces or large cells. Short, thick, upright rhizome with many rootlets ; with character- istic odor Valeriana. Thin, small rhizome with remains of stems on upper side, and many rootlets on lower side . . . Serpentaria. Small, thin, knotty rhizomes, with many brittle rootlets, bright yellow within Hydrastis. Irregular, knotty, brownish-black rhizomes, w T ith many rootlets which have from 3 to 6 radiat- ing bundles Cimicifuga. 234 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Small, knotty rhizome, with sev- eral stem-scars and numerous long rootlets ; grayish-brown. . . Spigelia. Hard, irregular, bent and knotty rhizome, with broad stem-scars and numerous rootlets ; yellow- ish-brown Caulophyllum. Rhizome a meter or more long, with small rootlets ; brown or yellowish-brown Menispermum. Knotty, many-headed caudex with many rootlets ; grayish or yellowish-brown externally and with white wood Asclepias Incarnata. Blackish-brown, branched and flattened rhizome, with many and long nearly black rootlets . Leptandra. Thin, long, more or less contorted rhizomes; purplish-brown ex- ternally and whitish within. . .Asarum. Much contorted, tough, knotty rhizomes, with several stems and more or less contorted roots; light-brown externally and white within Gillenia. Knotty, scaly and wrinkled rhi- zome, with rootlets on under side ; brownish externally and whitish within Geum. Very hard, knotty and irregularly branched rhizomes, with thin and brittle rootlets; grayish- brown Collinsonia. Valeriana. This drug has already been described in Group 23, and the reasons were there stated why it is also men- tioned here. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 235 Serpentaria. See Group 23 for a description of this drug. Hydrastis. X. Hydrastis, Golden Seal. — O. The rhizome and rootlets of Hydrastis Ca?iade?isis; Ranun- culacecz. — H. ]Sorth America. — D. Short, thin rhizomes, with many brittle rootlets, a large portion of the drug often con- sisting of broken rootlets mixed with dust or dirt ; the rhizome is usually of the shape and size as shown in the illustration, or even thinner, but is officially described as being much larger, but pieces of the size described in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia are very seldom found, if they occur at all ; the rhizome is wrinkled longitudinally and beset with stem- remnants ending with a cup-shaped scar and with many very thin rootlets which may be up to 10 cm. long, but are usually much shorter on account of being broken; the color is brownish externally; fracture abrupt, waxy, gamboge-colored or reddish- yellow; the section of the rhizome is as shown in the drawing, all the fundamental tissue being of a yellow color; odor is slight but characteristic and the taste is bitter and slightly astringent. — C. Berberine, hydrastine, etc. — u. Bitter tonic and al- terative. Much used as an alterative local application for relaxed mucous membranes. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. Ciniicifuga. N. Cimicifuga, Black Cohosh, Black Snakeroot. — O. The rhizome and rootlets of Cimicifuga racemosa; Ranunculacecz. — ©. The rhizome is a rough, irregular, knobby, hard, many -headed caudex, up to 2 or 2.5 cm. thick and of various lengths, with several stem- 236 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. remnants with cup-shaped scars and numerous brittle NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 237 rootlets ; externally blackish-brown and grayish with- in, the rootlets being darker colored or almost black ; the rootlets break with an abrupt fracture, showing a dark bark and a woody 3 to 6-rayed cord, as shown in the small sections and in the larger drawing of a microscopical section ; odor none, and taste acrid and bitter. — C. The active principle is probably an amor- phous resin. — TJ* Alterative, anti-neuralgic, sedative; useful in painful disturbances of the menstrual func- tions. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. Spigelia. N. Spigelia. Pinkroot. — o. The rhizome and rootlets of Spigelia Marilandica; Logani- acecz. — h. United States. — d. The rhizome is small, knotty, bent, somewhat flattened from the sides, about 3 to 5 cm. long, 4 mm. thick and 3 mm. wide, at the growing end sometimes branched or many-headed, with round scars on the upper side and closely beset below with numerous, thin and brittle root- lets which are about 10 cm. long ; the rhizome is purplish-brown or blackish-gray externallv and the rootlets are somewhat lighter-col- ored ; fracture of the rhizome is abrupt, showing brown bark and whitish wood, the latter being horse-shoe shaped, or thicker below, and with a brown, horny pith, while the rootlets have a central wood-cylinder and a brown, horny bark ; the odor is slightly aro- matic and the taste is sweetish-bitter and pungent. — C. Volatile oil, resin, bitter substance, etc. — U- Am- thelmintic ; to avoid toxic effects it is safe to combine it with a cathartic, as in the popular combination of Pinkroot and Senna. Dose : 2 to 5 grams. 238 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia adds a caution: "Spigelia should not be confounded with the underground por- tion of Phlox Carolina, the roots of which are brown- yellow, rather coarse, straight, and contain a straw- colored wood underneath a readily removable bark." Caulophyllum. n. Blue Cohosh, Squaw Root. — o. The rhizome and rootlets of Caulophyllum tha- lidroides; Berberi- decz. — h. N.United States and Canada. — D. The drug consists of a matted and tan- gled mass of rhizomes and rootlets ; the rhi- zome is hard, irregu- lar, bent and knotty, up to 10 cm. long and 6 to 10 mm. thick, with short, knotty branches marked with broad saucer-shaped stem-scars, the terminal joint sometimes enclosed in a yellowish-white net- work of remains of fibrovascular bundles; the root- lets, of which but a few are shown in the drawing, are very numerous, abo,ut 10 to 12 cm. long and 1 mm. thick, tough, fibrous, and tangled or matted ; rhizome grayish-brown externally, fracture abrupt, showing a whitish interior, the bark thin, the medullary rays and pith large, and the wood-bundles thin, in a cir- cle ; the rootlets have a central wood-cylinder and a relatively thick bark ; odor slight or none, and taste sweetish with slightly acrid after-taste. — c. Leontin (a glucoside?), resins, etc. — u. Antispasmodic, diu- retic, emmenagogue and parturient. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 239 Menispermum. N. Yellow Parilla.— o. The rhizomes and rootlets of Menispermum Canadense; Menispermacece. — h. 240 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Canada and E. United States. — b. Nearly cylindrical rhizomes, often a meter or more in length and usually rolled into bundles, as shown in the drawing, such bundles being of variable size, up to 10 or 15 cm. thick, or, more rarely, wound in balls ; the rhizome is about 5 mm. thick, brown or yellowish-brown, longitudinally finely w T rinkled and with numerous thin and brittle rootlets ; the fracture is tough and woody ; the interior is yellowish, and a section shows about fourteen or fifteen porous wood-bundles, ar- ranged slightly excentrically with the longer bundles on the under side, distinct pith and medullary rays ; odor none and taste bitter. — c. Berberine, an amor- phous alkaloid, etc. — u. Supposed to resemble sarsa- parilla in medicinal properties, alterative and tonic. Dose: 1 to 4 grams. Occasionally the stem is found in the trade, in similar bundles ; the stem is much thicker than the rhizome, and gray, not brown. Asclepias Incarnata. N. White Indian Hemp, Swamp Milkweed. — o. The rhizome and rootlets of Asclepias incarnata; Asclepiadacece, — h. North America. — x>. The rhi- zome is many-headed, with remains of hollow stems, NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 241 about 1 to 2 cm. thick, knotty, with a thin yellowish- brown bark and hard, white wood, and a brownish pith and beset with many light-grayish-brown root- lets ; the rootlets are about 10 to 12 cm. long, some- what more than 1 mm. thick and with the bark and central wood-cylinder of about equal thickness ; the first illustration shows the whoxe drug with the root- lets, reduced to about two-thirds natural size (linear), and the second illustration shows a piece of rhizome, with most of the rootlets broken off ; no odor, taste sweetish-bitter and acrid. — c. Acrid resins, a gluco- side, etc. — u. Alterative, diuretic, diaphoretic; in large doses, emetic and cathartic. Dose : 0.5 to 2.5 grams. Leptandra. X. Culver's Eoot, Cul- ver's Physic. — o. The rhizome and rootlets o^ Leptandra Vi rg i nica; S crophul arinece. — h. North America. — r>. The rhizome is from 10 to 15 cm. long, about 5 mm. thick, slightly flattened, bent and branched, deep blackish-brown, with cup-shaped scars on the upper side, hard and woody, the section show- ing a thin blackish bark, hard yellowish wood, 242 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. and a large purplish-brown pith, and about six medullary rays, which are wide at the pith and become narrow toward the bark, giving the pith the appearance of a six-rayed star; the thin and wrinkled rootlets are brittle, and have a thick black- ish bark and a thin wood-cylinder ; odor faint or none, and taste bitter and slightly acrid. — c. Leptandrin, resin, etc. — u. Laxative, alterative tonic and chola- gogue. Dose: 1 to 4 grams. Asarum. x. Canada Snake Root, Wild Ginger. — o. The rhizome and rootlets of Asa- rum Canadense ; Aristolochiacece \ — n« North America. — d. From 7.5 to 15 cm* long, often broken into shorter lengths, about 3 mm. thick, somewhat contorted or bent, slightly angular or quadrangu- lar, finely wrinkled, with nodes about] 1.5 cm. apart and with thin nearly sim- ple rootlets at the nodes ; grayish-brown or purplish-brown externally and whit- ish within ; hard, with woody fracture ; odor peculiar, aromatic, and taste aro- matic, pungent and somewhat nauseous. — c. Volatile oil, resin, etc. — u. Spicy stimulant and carminative. Dose : 2 to 5 grams. Gillenia. N. Gillenia, Indian Physic, American Ipecac. — o. The rhizomes and rootlets of Gillenia stipulacea and G. trifoliata; Rosacea. — h, United States. — d. The illustration shows the drug about two-thirds (linear) natural size ; the horizontal knotty rhizome is from 1 to 2 cm. thick, much branched and often with stem- remnants attached, with numerous tortuous roots; both rhizome and roots have a thin brownish-red NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 243 bark and a tough, whitish wood ; in the roots the brittle bark is often cracked off, exposing the wood, as shown in the drawing; in G. stipulacea the bark of the roots is irregularly thickened, causing them to resemble ipecac in the annulate appearance of the roots, but in G. trifoliata the roots are less contorted and smoother, as in the accompanying figure ; odor faint and taste bitter. — c. Gillenin, resin, etc. — u. Mild emetic. Dose : 1 to 2 grams. Geum. ;n\ Avens, "Water Avens. — o. The rhizome and root- lets of Geum rivale; Rosacecz. — h. North America. — D. About 5 to 8 cm. long and about 6 mm. thick, knotty, scaly, wrinkled, with rootlets on under side, brownish or brownish-red externally as well as in the thin bark and the large pith, with a few small 244 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. and widely separated whitish wood-bundles; odor slightly aromatic and taste astringent and bitter. — C. Volatile oil, tannin, etc. — u. Astringent tonic. Dose : 1 to 2 grams. European averts, the rhizome and rootlets of Geum urbanum, is used like the American variety of this drug ; its rhizome is thicker and shorter, about finger- thick and 2 to 5 cm. long, with a truncated head, and with rootlets about 12 cm. long and less than 1 mm. thick; tortuous, wrinkled, scaly, brittle, blackish- brown or reddish-brown externally and flesh-colored or yellowish-white within ; bark thin, wood usually in an interrupted circle and the large pith purplish brown ; odor aromatic and clove-like (from which it derives its European name, "Radix caryophyllatce"), and the taste astringent and bitter. — c. and u. like those of the American drug. Collinsonia. N.Stone Root. — o. The rhizome and rootlets of Collinsonia Canadensis ; Labiatce.— h. North America. — D, A knotty, tubercular, irregular branched rhi- zome, 7 to 10 cm. long, marked with numerous shal- low stem-scars, and many thin, brittle rootlets; ex- ternally grayish-brown and internally grayish-white ; very hard and tough; a section shows thin bark and irregular wood-bundles ; no odor, taste disagreeable and nauseous. — c. No analysis, but contains resinous NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 245 matter, etc. — u. Stimulant and alterative diuretic. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. The drawing shows the upper surface of the rhizome, reduced to about four-fifths linear size ; also a trans- verse section. GROUP XXV. CRYPTOGAMOUS RHIZOMES WITHOUT ROOTLETS. The rhizomes of ferns have already been described in Group xv, with the other drugs which are derived from this order of plants. The acrogenous structure is so characteristic that these drugs are readily recog- nized. Only two drugs are of sufficient importance to de- serve mention here : Large rhizome, beset with the bases of Stipes Aspidium. Hard, dark-brown rhizome, beset with short remnants of stipes Polypodium. 246 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. GROUP XXVI. MONOCOTYLEDONOUS RHIZOMES WITHOUT ROOTLETS; ELONGATED. The endogenous structure of the drugs of this group is readily recognized by examining sections. The grouping into "elongated" and "short or compact' ' is rather empirical, but is practical; this group in- cludes those in which the length is many times greater than the thickness. One of these drugs, Couch Grass, so often comes into trade cut, that it will usually be looked for in Group 70, where it is also mentioned. Jointed, deeply-wrinkled, flattish, grayish-brown, annulate with darker colored markings Iris Versicolor. Flattish-cylindrical, reddish-brown, with root-scars in wavy lines on the Under Side Calamus. Very long, thin, straw-colored, hol- low ; usually cut into pieces about 1 cm. long Triticum. Iris Versicolor. Blue Flag has alieady been mentioned under Group xxii ; as it comes into trade of tener with the rootlets attached than without them, the student is referred to that group for illustration and description. Calamus. N". Calamus, Sweet Flag. — o. The rhizome of Acorns Calamus; Aracece. — h. Europe and North America. — r>. The unpeeled rhizome, which is the only kind that should be used, comes into trade usually in pieces 15 to 20 cm. long ; it is somewhat flattened, about 2 cm. broad and 1.5 cm. thick, wrin- kled longitudinally, and marked, especially on the NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 247 upper surface, into wedge-shaped or obscurely trian- gular segments, by the darker-colored leaf-scars, and on the under side with more or less dis- tinctly zig-zag or wavy lines of round dots or root-scars ; externally reddish brown or yellow- ish-brown, andred- dish-white within ; breaks with an ab- rupt corky frac- ture, showing an oval section with the thickness of the portion on the outer side of the nucleus sheath (often erroneously called the "bark") over one-half the shortest diameter of the portion in- cluded within the nucleus sheath, with numerous brownish spots (fibr o-v ascular bundles)within the nucleus sheath and some also scattered outside the latter ; the microscope shows the entire parenchyma or fundamental tissue 248 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. to be porous on account of the large intercellular spaces, the cells in the drawing which are dotted containing starch, those which are white containing oleo-resin ; odor aromatic and taste bitter aromatic. — C. Oleo-resin, volatile oil, etc. — tj. Stimulant, stomachic, carminative and tonic. Dose : 1 to 5 grams. Peeled Calamus is also found in the trade, but as the oil and resin- cells are especially plentiful in the sub-cuticular par- enchyma, and as, moreover, the thick and tough cuticle prevents both access of air and evaporation of volatile oil, the unpeeled drug is decidedly to be pre- ferred. Peeled calamus is without the characteristic segments, although it shows traces of root-scars on the lower side ; it is deeply wrinkled and sometimes sliced longitudinally, dirty or brownish- white ; when fresh it looks very handsome, especially when bleached, but if bleached (with chlorinated lime or sulphurous acid) it is utterly unfit for medicinal use. Triticum. N. Rhizoma Graminis; Couch Grass, Dog Grass, Quick Grass. — o. The rhizome of Agropyrum repens; Graminece. — h. Europe and North America. — D. A long and branched rhizome, about two mm. thick, the internodes about seven cm. long and the nodes usually bare, but sometimes with frayed leaf -remnants, or, more rarely, with a few hair-like rootlets ; smooth, but wrinkled longitudinally so as to be almost angular, hollow, of a pale straw-color, no odor, taste sweetish NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 249 mucilaginous. As the drug reaches the retail phar- macist it is cut into short pieces, about one cm. long, looking much like straw chopped for fodder, and it would therefore be looked for in Group LXX, where it is also mentioned. A transverse section shows the central cavity, the diam- eter of which is about one-third of the diameter of the rhizome; the tis- sues consist mainly of parenchyma, hexagon- ally compressed, a nu- cleus sheath dividing a narrow interior layer from the wider outer part ; just within the nu- cleus sheath numerous bundles are closely aggregated, forming a cylinder, while near the outer circumference there are about half a dozen small bundles at equal distances apart. — C. Glucose, triticin (resembles inuliu), mucilage, etc. — u. Demulcent diuretic. Dose: 5 to 10 grams in infusion or fluid extract. The rhizomes should be gathered in the fall of tne year, after vegetation ceases for the season, or in spring before it again commences, and the rootlets should be removed. GROUP XXVIL MONOCOTYLEDONOL'S RHIZOMES WITHOUT ROOTLETS; SHORT AND COMPACT. , An examination of the sections shows the endogen- ous structure of these drugs. The group includes those endogenous rhizomes in which the length is not much more than two or three times the thickness of the drug. 250 ' NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Flattish, lobed, peeled or unpeeled, brownish, gray or white rhizomes, .zingiber. Cylindrical, branched, reddish-brown rhizomes, annulate with lighter- colored wavy leaf-sheaths Gaianga. Cylindrical or oval yellowish-gray rhizomes, deep orange-yellow within Curcuma. Flat, somewhat ham-shaped, grayish or white rhizomes, often with similarly shaped smaller lobes at- tached Iris Florentina. Very hard, irregular, massive tuber- ous rhizomes, reddish-brown, with funnel-shaped stem-scars chinae Riiizoma. Sub-cylindrical, curved, grayish- brown rhizome without rootlets. . .Heionias. Light-reddish or brownish-gray cir- cular disks, or in longitudinal halves or quarters zedoaria. Zingiber. N. Ginger. — o. The rhizome of Zingiber officinale; Scitaminece. — h. Cultivated in tropical countries. — D. There are several kinds of "ginger in the trade, but they resemble each other in form. The rhizome is from 5 to 10 cm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad and 5 to 8 mm. -thick, flattish, clavately lobed on one side (such lobed pieces are called " race " ginger) ; with or without epidermis, varying in color according to variety from dark grayish-brown to white ; breaking with a somewhat fibrous mealy fracture, showing a nucleus sheath within which most but not all of the fibovascular bundles are found; odor aromatic and taste pungently spicy. — c. Volatile oil, resin, etc. — u. Carminative stimulant, used for flavoring. Dose: About one gram. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 251 Cochin Ginger is the variety that best answers the description of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia; pale-buff- colored or yellowish, with short lobes and somewhat striate ; it makes a beautiful light-yellow powder and has a strong but agreeable flavor and taste. Jamaica Ginger is whitish externally and inter- nally and has long lobes; the epidermis is removed and it is often coated with a white powder of car- bonate of lime from having been immersed in milk of lime. The smaller figure shows this variety, but while the lobes are usually small, due to loss of substance by peeling, the specimens may sometimes be as large 252 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. as the Cochin ginger. This variety has the most pleasant flavor and is therefore preferred for culinary purposes. African Ginger is an unpeeled ginger ; it is illus- trated in the lower figure ; it has short lobes and the epidermis is dark-grayish-brown with peculiar darker patches as if torn on one side. It has a stronger though less agreeable taste than the other gingers. A preserved ginger, made by boiling the fresh rhizomes in a concentrated syrup and then packing in jars, is to be found in the grocery trade. Green ginger is ginger sent into trade in a fresh condition. Black ginger is a ginger which has been boiled in water and then dried ; it is dark-colored and horny within. The term is also sometimes applied to " un- peeled " ginger. Coated ginger is ginger retaining its epidermis, in other words, unpeeled ginger. Peeled ginger retains no epidermis. Natural or unbleached ginger has no lime attached; bleached ginger is whitened by im- mersing in milk of lime or chlorinated lime and re- tains a coating of powder of carbonate of lime. The word "race" as applied to ginger refers to the palmately lobed shape of the whole rhizome. Galanga. n. Galangal. — o. The rhizome of Alpinia offici- 11 arum; Scitami- nece. — h. China. -D. Knotty, oft- en branched, cyl- indrical, about 5 to 6 cm. long and about finger-thick, frequently curved, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 253 truncated at the ends, externally light red-brown, finely wrinkled lengthwise, marked by wavy trans- verse rings from remnants of leaf-scales or sheaths, hard, brittle with short fracture, cinnamon-brown and showing structure as in illustration ; under the microscope numerous brownish-yellow resin-cells are to be seen; odor aromatic, especially when freshly ground, and taste pungently spicy. — c. Volatile oil and resin. — u. Similar to those of ginger. Often sold by street fakirs as a secret catarrh cure, to be grated and used as a snuff ; thus used it is sternutatory. Curcuma. N. Curcuma, Tur- meric. — o. The rhizome of Curcuma lo nga ; Scita m in ecz . — H. Southern Asia. — n. Oblong or oval, from 3 to 5 cm. long and about half as thick, being then called " round tur- meric, " or only about 1 cm. thick, when it is called 1 'long turmeric, ' ' but many pieces are much smaller; sometimes cut longitudinally or trans- versely, somewhat annulate and with large scars ; ex- ternally yellowish-gray and internally deep orange- yellow or brownish-yellow, resembling the color of whole gamboge ; fracture abrupt, resinous and glossy, showing a nucleus sheath with bundles both within and without the sheath; odor slight and ginger- like, taste warm, bitter, aromatic. The powder is rich deep yellow and turns brown with alka- lies and borax. — c. Volatile oil, resin, and an 254 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. orange-yellow, resinous coloring matter called curcumin, which in solu- tion has a greenish fluorescence. — u. Stimu- lant carminative, but rarely employed inter- nally; used mainly as a coloring agent. In the trade distinc- tion is made between light and dark turmeric (or yellow and red turmeric), and between long and round turmeric. Of the varieties in our markets Madras Turmeric is best ; it is generally large and orange-yellow, and somewhat rough externally. Bengal Turmeric is gray externally and smoother than the Madras variety, and has a darker red color within. It is also smaller and more slender. Chinese Turmeric is the best, but is not often found in our markets. Java Turmeric "is rather small and usually cut transversely and longitudinally ; also rare in our trade. Powdered turmeric is occasionally used as an adulterant to spices, drugs, etc., to impart afresh color. The shapes of its cells, starch and ducts there- fore deserve special study. Iris Florentina. n. Orris Root, Florentine Orris ; its German name is Veilchen-wurzel (violet root) on account of its violet-like odor which is utilized in the manufacture of perfumeries. — o. The rhizomes of Iris Florentina; /. pallida and I.Germanica; Iridece. — H. Northern Italy ; cultivated. — d. Simple or branched, flattened, jointed, 5 to 10 cm. long and about 2.5 cm. broad ; with a circular scar at the upper end and with numerous round brownish root-scars on the lower NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 255 side, and small marks of bundles on the upper side ; wrinkled length- wise, or smooth and somewhat angular from being peeled ; externally whitish or yellowish-white; heavy, hard, with fracture short and mealy ; section long oval, with nucleus sheath near the outer surface and most marked on lower half, and fibro vascular bun- dles within the sheath; odor violet- like and taste insipid, afterward bitter and slightly, acrid. — c. Volatile oil, acrid re- sin, etc. — u. Seldom employed internally. It is said to be an alterative cathartic iris florextina. and diuretic. Used mainly in the preparation of perfumery, flavoring extracts, etc. Florentine Orris is mainly from Iris pallida, and /. Germanica, but is named "Florentine" because it is cultivated near the city of Florence in Italy. It is considered better than the Veronese varieties, although the latter are obtained from the same plants. Verona Orris is of a more yellowish color. Finger Orris consists of picked, slender, nearly straight pieces, smoothly trimmed to uniform size and shape and usually whitened with chalk, magnesia 256 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. or starch. Usually with a hole drilled through one end. Used for teething infants. Orris Root is frequently worm-eaten ; only sound pieces of good odor and light color should be used. Ciiinae Rliizoma. N. China Root. — O. The rhizome of Smilax China ; L ilia ce ce. — h. China and Japan. — D. Stout fibrous tubers, 5 to 20 cm. long and 2 to 6 cm. thick, knotty, dense, tough, ex- ternally reddish- brown, with sev- eral deep, circular, funnel-shaped stem-scars on the upper 'surface ; in- ternally pale- pinkish or pale brown ish- white, darker towards the center on account of num- erous dark-brown resin cells; inodor- ous; taste at first insipid, afterwards bitterish; slightly astringent and acrid. — c. Similar or identical with those contained in sarsaparilla. — u. Same as those of sarsaparilla ; alter- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 257 ative. Dose : 2 to 5 grams several times a day, best given in form of fluid extract. Zedoaria. Bf. Zedoary. — o. The tuberous rhizome of Cur- cuma Zedoaria; Scitaminece. — h. India, Bengal and Madagascar. — d. The whole rhizome is ovoid, about 4cm. long and 3 cm. thick, orange- brown; but the drug usually comes into trade in circular slices or disks, with the cut surfaces pale grayish-brown with a somewhat waxy ap- pearance, and showing a nucleus sheath near the outer circumference; odor and taste similar to those of ginger. — c. Kesin, 4 to 1% volatile oil, etc. — u. and dose similar to those of ginger. Heionias, or False Unicorn Root, usually has root- lets attached, and was described on page 227; occas- ionally it is without rootlets, and then belongs here. GROUP XXVIII. EXOGENOUS RHIZOMES WITHOUT ROOTLETS; LONG. Drugs of this group are many times longer than they are thick ; some of them occasionally, though rarely, come into trade with rootlets attached. Rhizomes with thickened nodes, with stem-scars above and root- scars below; glossy brown, whit- ish within Podophyllum. Cylindrical, annulate, light, pithy, grayish-brown; bark exfoliating.Aralia Nudicaulis. 258 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Podophyllum. N. Mandrake, May Apple. — o. The rhizome of Podophyllum pel- latum; B e r~ beridecz.—TL. North America. — d. Somewhat variable in size, consisting of joints about 5 to 8 cm. long, the nodes thickened, with a well-marked stem-scar on the upper surface and white root-scars on the lower surface; the inter- nodes from 5 to 10 mm. thick, the thinner predomi- nating, and with- out root-scars ; the end terminates in a scar and often is branched, and it is also somewhat larger than the other parts of the rhizome, as is shown in the draw- ings; smooth, or longitudinally wrinkled; orange- brown externally and white within ; breaks with an abrupt, usually white, mealy fracture, so that a section is required to show the fibro-vascular bundles, of which there are about sixteen arranged in a circle ; no odor ; taste at first sweetish, then bitter and acrid. u NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 259 — c. Kesin, called ' 'podo- phyllum" in the trade. The drug is very variable in quality, and its value de- pends directly on the amount of "podophyliin" which it yields; there should not be less than from four to five per cent of this substance, which, however, is not a pure resin, but a mixture of several compounds, such as podophyllinic acid, podophyllotoxin, picropod ophyllin , etc. — u. Emetico-cathartic in large doses ; in medicinal doses it is a reliable cathartic, supposed also to possess alterative and cholagogue properties. Dose: 0.3 to 2 grams. Aralia Nudicaulis. N. American Sarsaparilla, False Sar- saparilla. — o. The rhizome of Aralia nudicaulis; Araliacece. — H. North America. — Cylindrical, 30 cm. or more in length, but usually broken into shorter pieces, about 6 mm. thick, longitudinally wrinkled, annulate above, with cup-shaped scars from stems ; rootlets usually altogether absent ; bark grayish-brown, exfoliating ; internally | white or pale yellowish, with a large spongy pith ; odor slightly aromatic and taste insipid, somewhat disagreeable. — c. A little volatile oil, resin, etc. — u. Alterative. Dose : 2 to 5 grams. 260 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. GROUP XXIX. DICOTYLEDONOUS RHIZOMES WITHOUT ROOTLETS; SHORT AND COMPACT. The length of these drugs is only three or four times greater than their diameters; the exogenous struc- ture is easily recognized in a prepared section, or even in the end of a piece of the drug soaked in water and cut through smoothly with a sharp knife. Flattened, bent upon itself, or broken, dark-brown, hard Bistorta. Dark reddish-brown rhizome, somewhat flattened, much wriukled and twisted. . Sanguinaria. Hard, compact, contorted and tubercu- lated, umber-brown Geranium. Simple, cylindrical or flattened, exter- nally rough and grayish-brown Tormentilla. Dark-brown, knotty, flattened, with root- scars and transverse rings imperatoria. Bistorta. N. Bistort. — o. The rhizome of Polygonum Bis- torta; Polygonacecz. — h. Asia a Europe and Amer- ica. — d. The whole rhizome is about 15 cm. long, 16 to 18 mm. broad and 1 cm. thick; firm, hard, S- shaped or bent twice upon itself, as shown in the drawing (whence the name, bis, twice, and torta, twisted or bent), flattened on one side, plump and NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 261 rounded on the other; marked by transverse striae on the upper surface, and with root-scars on the lower side ; externally dark-brown or almost black ; breaks with abrupt fracture, and in fact usually comes into trade broken at the places where it is bent, so that it appears to consist of short straight pieces; internally brownish-red; thick bark, small bundles in a circle, and very large pith; no odor, but taste very astringent. — c. About. 20 per cent tannin. — U. Simple astringent. Dose : 1 to 2 grams. Sanguinaria. N. Blood Root. — o. Rhizome of Sangni- naria Canadensis; Pap av erac e cz . It should be collected in autumn. — h. North America. — d. The rhizome is in pieces about 5 to 7.5 cm. long, 1 to 2 cm. thick, some- what flattened, slight- ly annulate, much wrinkled and twisted, or broken, often with abrupt offsets or branches, and some- times with very brit- 262 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. tie rootlets ; dark reddish-brown externally ; fracture abrupt, somewhat waxy, in fresh pieces whitish, with red dots, in older pieces, brownish-red ; odor slight and taste bitter and acrid. — c. The alkaloid sangui- narine, one or two other unimportant alkaloids, resin, etc. — u. In large doses, emetic; in smaller doses, stimulant and tonic. The powder is sometimes used as an errhine and sternutatory. Dose: 0.1 to 1 gram. The illustration shows the whole drug, natural size ; a, transverse section of soaked rhizome, and b, the same after clearing with dilute lye. Geranium. N. Geranium, Cranesbill. — o. Ehizome of Geran- ium maculatum; Geraniacece. — h. North America. — d. Cylindrical, sometimes branched, 5 to 7 cm. long and about 1 cm. thick, contorted and tubercu- lated, hard and compact; longitudinally wrinkled; externally dark umber-brown ; fracture short, show- ing pale red-brown broken surface ; inodorous ; taste pure astringent without disagreeable other taste. c. From 15 to 25 percent tannin, etc. — u. Astrin- gent tonic. Dose : 1 to 4 grams. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 263 Tormentilla. N. Tormentil. — o. Rhizome of Poten- tilla Tormentilla; Rosacece. — h. Eu- rope. — d. Simple or sometimes branched, cylindrical or flattened, taper- ing; 5 to 8 cm. long and about 15 mm. thick, but often broken into shorter lengths; roughly marked by roundish elevations and ridges and with the scars of stems and rootlets ; externally dark grayish-brown; very hard and compact, but breaks with abrupt and slightly fibrous fracture, showing light brownish-red interior ; bark thick ; wood-bundles small; pith about same thickness as the bark ; no odor ; taste astringent. — c. About 25 per cent tannin. — u. Astringent, tonic. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. Imperatoria. Masterwort is sometimes classed among the rhiz- omes, but belongs more properly among the roots, where it has already been described and figured. The student is referred to Group XX for a consid- eration of this drug. TUBERS OR CORMS. While tubers and corms resemble each other, a distinction may be made between them botanically, although it is not of much consequence as far as pharmacognosy is concerned. A tuber is a thickened and short rhizome or root- stock ; it usually has several internodes and there- fore may have a number of lateral buds, as well as a terminal bud, as for instance in the potato. A corm is a very short, thickened, compact, fleshy, generally leafless underground stem or branch, often 264 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. much thicker than it is long, which also produces buds, terminal or lateral or both ; it sometimes con- sists only of one internode, in which case it produces only the terminal bud; when it consists of several internodes it may have lateral buds, occurring in the axils of leaves, which sometimes surround the corm as a membranous envelope. Sometimes the corm is the dilated base of the annual stem, as in Turkey Corn. The tuberous roots, as of aconite and jalap, are by some authors classed as tubers, but as they are really roots and not enlarged stems, and do not produce buds, although a small portion of adhering stem may have buds and may therefore permit of growth, as in aconite, the tuberous roots belong with the fleshy roots and not with tubers or corms. Both corms and tubers may have traces of scaly leaves or leaf-scars on the sides or above and either rootlets or root-scars below. Some authors class corms and tubers with bulbs, considering that the presence or absence of fleshy leaf-bases is of insufficient importance to make a division. Other authors class corms and tubers, as well as bulbs, with the " gemmce " or leaf -buds, con- sidering the corms solid buds, the bulbs to be fleshy buds, while the leaf -buds are scaly buds. But corms and tubers are sufficiently distinct from the other structures mentioned, that they may readily be dis- tinguished from them, as well as from short rhizomes, which they also somewhat resemble, and they are therefore separately grouped here. Both tubers and corms are commonly called " roots " in the trade, yet for the purposes of the pharmacognocist a distinction must be made and their real nature must be borne in mind. Corms and tubers may be divided : — Corms and Tubers.. {™e. ;; . .............. ....JO NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 265 GROUP XXX. WHOLE TUBERS AND CORMS. Hard, tuberous, irregularly round or pear- shaped, dark-brown Jalapa. Conical, blackish-brown, tuberous roots, single or joined in pairs Aconituin. Ovoid, brownish, wrinkled corms, with a groove on one side Coichicum. Single, round, small, hard, semi-translucent or opaque, yellow or brown tubers ; some- times two tubers joined with a smaller third one between Corydaiis. Oval, slightly flattened or shrunken, semi- translucent and very hard Saiep. Jalapa. On account of the general habit of calling the pieces of jalap " tubers/' many students would natur- ally look here for this drug, and might be puzzled if they found no mention of it. Jalap consists of tuber- ous roots and is therefore described with the fleshy roots. (See Group XX.) Aconitum. The remarks just made in reference to jalap apply also to this drug. (See Group XX.) Coichicum. Occasionally the whole tubers of Coichicum occur in the trade or an occasional whole tuber may be found in the sliced corms as ordinarily sold. But Coichicum is usually sliced and is therefore described in the following group. (See Group XXXI.) 266 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Corydalis. n. Turkey Corn, Turkey Pea, Squirrel Corn. — o. The tubers of Dicentra Canadensis ; Fu- mariacece. — h. North Amer- ica, north of Kentucky. — d. Eound, from 3 to 12 mm. in diameter, resembling tears of inferior acacia gum; of a tawny yellowish color, internally yellowish- white, semi-translucent; some tubers are dark -brownish, opaque, and vary in size from 12 mm. diameter down to the size of barley grains ; still other tubers consist of two irregular concavo- convex tubers, be- tween which a smaller rounded or flattened third tuber is found; all forms are hard and horny, inodorous and persistently bitter. — c. An alkaloid called corydaline, which in the drug is combined with fumaric acid, an acrid resin, bitter extractive, etc. — U. Tonic, diuretic and alterative. Dose : 1 to 2 grams. Salep. n. Salep. — o. The prepared tubers of Or- chis mascula, O. m Hit avis, O. morio, and other deter- mined and un- deter mi ne d varieties of Orchis; Orchi- dacecz, sub- order Ophry- NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 267 dece. — h. Germany and France. — d. Irregularly oval, globular or flattened roundish tubers; sometimes deeply wrinkled or shrunken; about 2 cm. long; hard, heavy, yellowish or yellowish-gray, translucent ; fracture homogeneous, horny, shining; inodorous; taste insipid mucilaginous. — c. Bassorin, starch, etc, — U. Nutritive and demulcent, A mucilage made from salep is occasionally employed as a vehicle for acrid or irritating remedies. The tubers of salep are of gelatinous fleshy con- sistence when fresh and contain starch grains. They are prepared for trade by scalding in boiling watei and then rapidly drying in ovens; the starch is swelled and altered to a paste in the cells and to this is due the horny appearance of the drug. A larger and darker-colored variety than that above described was formerly brought from Oriental coun- tries. A variety which is palmately lobed is obtained from O. latifolia, O. maculata, etc., and was formerly gathered separately and sold as Radix palmce Christi. Tubers of this kind are sometimes, although rarely, found mixed with the ordinary trade variety described above. One part of powdered salep boiled with forty parts of water forms a thick jelly on cooling, GROUP XXXI . SUCED TUBERS. Kidney-shaped grayish-white slices Colchicum. Transverse slices with dark-gray epidermis and mealy-white surfaces Arum. Colcliici Tuber. x. Commonly, though erroneously, called Colchicum Root. — o. The tuber of Colchicum autumnale; Lili- acece. — h. Europe. — d. The whole tuber is rarely 268 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. found in the trade. The whole corm is about 3 cm. high, ovoid, with a groove on one side in which, in the fresh state, the lateral bud rests, which forms the next season's corm. But usually the drug consists of the corm cut into slices and then dried ; these slices are generally transverse, but longitudinal slices also occur. The transverse slices are kidney-shaped, about 25 mm. in the longest diameter and about 2 mm. thick ; one surface of the upper and under slices and the edges of the intermediate slices are covered with a brownish epidermis, while the cut surfaces are grayish or grayish-white and speckled with slightly darker dots (the sections of fibro-vascular bundles, endogenous arrangement) ; breaks with abrupt mealy fracture; inodorous and with sweetish-bitter and somewhat acrid taste. — c. Colchicine, alkaloid. — u. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 269 Cathartic and diuretic, mainly used as antarthritic in gout and rheumatism. Dose : 0.1 to 0.5 grams. Colchicum root which is dark-colored or horny should be rejected. In the illustration the central figure is an upper transverse slice, the four corner figures are of inner transverse slices, the upper mid- dle and left-hand middle figures show longitudinal outer slices and incidentally give an idea of the appearance of the whole corms, while the middle figure in the lower row shows the groove in a longitu- dinal slice ; the right-hand middle figure is an inner longitudinal slice ; all natural size. Arum. N. Indian Turnip. — o. The tubers or corms of Arum triphyllum; Aroidecz. — h. North America. — d. Oc- curs in transverse slices, from 2 to 5 cm. in diameter and 3 to 6 mm. thick; the outer edge covered with epidermis is dark-gray and beset with rootlets ; the cut surfaces are white; the drug breaks with an abrupt mealy fracture; no odor; taste acrid. — c. A volatile acrid principle, which is exceedingly pungent in the fresh corm, but gradually is lost on keeping, until the drug becomes almost or entirely inert. — u, 270 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Stimulant expectorant, diaphoretic and carminative. Dose : 1 to 2 grams three or four times daily. The illustration shows three slices, natural size, and a few starch grains, enlarged. European Arum, from Arum maculatum, is similar to the American drug. BULBS. A bulb is a form of stem resembling the corm as to its solid part, but the bulk of it consists of thick or fleshy leaf-scales surrounding the buds which are found at the apex of growth within. These leafy envelopes may be narrow and arranged like shingles on a roof, overlapping each other (scaly bulb) or they are wide and each one is wrapped more or less nearly completely around all the others within (tunicated or coated bulb) ; the latter arrangement is seen in the onion, and it is the arrangement found in all medi- cinal bulbs. N Bulbs may be grouped, for purposes of pharma- cognosy, as whole bulbs and as sliced bulbs. B-»-{Ei e :::::::::.:::::::::::::::::::::::::il GROUP XXXII. WHOLE) BUL.BS. Only one bulb always comes into trade whole — Gar- lic. The most important bulb from a medicinal point of view is Squill, and this can sometimes be had fresh and w r hole, especially from florists for cultivation as a pot-plant, but in the drug trade this drug usually comes sliced and dried, and therefore belongs in the next group. The onion is sometimes mentioned in works of pharmacognosy, but is seldom used medi- cinally. Large, juicy, greenish or pinkish-white bulbs, the external scales, when present, pinkish- brown Scilla. White bulbs, with stem, coated with a few dry, membranous, white scales enclosing about eight bulblets Allium. NOTES ON PHAKMACOGNOSY. 271 Scilla. In some pharmacopoeias the fresn bulb is demanded as the drug. It is a large, pear-shaped, tunicated bulb, resembling a large onion in appearance, but without the odor; up to 15 cm. long and 10 to 15 cm. broad; the external scales are pinkish-brown, the inner scales are greenish or pinkish- white, juicy and translucent. The whole bulb is rarely found in the drug trade in our country and the reader will find this drug described in the next group. Allium. N. Garlic. — o. The fresh bulb of Allium sativum; LiliacecB. — h. Cultivated everywhere. — d. The illus- tration shows the bulb in natural size, except that the stems are usually 10 to 15 cm. long so that the bulbs can be tied in bundles and hung up in a dry, cool 272 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. place, in which manner they can be kept fresh through the year. The middle figure shows the stem with its dry corm-like disk and with one of its bulb- lets attached. On this disk there are about eight bulblets (called " cloves of garlic"), arranged as in the left-hand figure, and surrounded with a few mem- branous scales which extend around the stem above. "When wanted for use the scales and stem are rejected and only the "cloves" are used. Garlic has a peculiarly pungent, penetrating and persistent odor, resembling asafcetida, and a pungent acrid taste. — c. Volatile oil. — u. Carminative and stomachic; whole- some and appetizing and used as an ingredient in most table sauces. Used in larger quantities it is ob- jectionable on account of the odor it imparts to the breath and the flatulence it produces. Dose: About 2 grams. GROUP XXXIII. SUCED BUI.BS. S cilia. N. Squill. — o. The bulb of Scilla maritima\ Lilia- cecz. — h. Mediterranean countries. — d. After the outer partially dry and brownish scales have been re- moved the bulb is sliced in the same manner as onions are sliced for culinary purposes. The small inner scales are rejected and the intermediate scales are dried ; these latter then constitute the drug. Nar- row slices up to 5 cm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad and about 3 mm. thick in the thickest part; often con- torted or broken ; whitish with a yellowish or pinkish tint; slightly diaphanous; brittle and pulverizable NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 273 when dry, but often somewhat flexible and horny on account of its hygroscopic character which causes it to absorb water with great avidity ; if exposed to moisture it becomes darker-colored and less valuable ; no odor; taste mucilaginous, bitter and acrid. — c. Scillipicrin, scillitoxin and scillin. — u. In small doses, diuretic and expectorant ; in large doses, emetic and cathartic. Dose : 0.05 to 1 gram, accord- ing to the effect it is desired to obtain. TWIGS OR BRANCHES. Twigs or branches are parts of the ascending axes of plants, and therefore have the structure of stems, that is, they have nodes and internodes and if leaves are not present they show leaf -scars or occasionally leaf-scars with undeveloped leaf-buds. All the medi- cinal twigs are from exogenous plants and therefore show the characteristic structure of that class of stems. Some drugs consist of twigs with leaves attached ; these leaves may be ordinary foliage leaves, or the peculiar scaly leaves of some conifers. Some twigs come into trade without any leaves attached. These twigs are not always the drugs as recognized by the pharmacopoeias or other authoritative works, but may be simply gathered as twigs, when in reality only the leaves are wanted. Leafy twigs should not be con- founded with the drugs of Group IX, flowering tops, which are branches with flowers, or with both leaves and flowers. The narcotic herbs as found in bales usually are the smaller branches with leaves and sometimes flowers, although these drugs are officially described as the " leaves " of the respective plants. GROUP XXXIV. I. The heart-wood, without the bark and sap-wood, is imported in large logs, external] y dark reddish-brown, internally lighter in color; texture fine-grained ; surfaces resinous ; hard and susceptible of a fine polish. The drug consists of raspings, with a slightly sweetish taste, but scarcely any odor. — €. A coloring principle, brasilin, which is soluble in water, alcohol and ether, coloring them yellowish; by neutralizing all acids with which it is combined in its solutions, these assume a beautiful red color, while by adding alkalies in excess, they become yiolet or blue. — u. Fernambuco is sometimes used as a test- solution, but is mainly used as a red dye-stuff. The figure shows a transverse section of the wood. Haematoxylon. N. Logwood, Campeachy Wood. — o. The heart- wood of Hcematoxylon Campechianum; Leguminosce, H. Campeachy, Honduras and other parts of tropi- cal America. — ». Imported in logs which have been 296 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. deprived of the bark and the yellowish sap-wood; these logs are very heavy and hard, externally bluish- black, internally reddish-brown, coarse-grained, but susceptible of a good polish. The drug consists of chips or coarse raspings of a brownish-red color, the different particles sometimes showing a greenish sheen or luster ; taste sweetish, astringent, and odor faint, agreeable. — c. Tannic acid and haematoxylin, a coloring principle much used as a stain in micro- scopical work. — u. Logwood is used as an astringent, mainly in the form of extract, of which the dose is about one gram. It is also used in the arts as a dye- stuff. The figure shows a radial section of the wood. Lignum Citrinum. jr. Fustic. — o. A yellow dye-wood obtained from Morus tinctoria; Urticacecz. — h. West Indies and South America. — 1>. The stems deprived of bark and most of the sap-wood are imported in large, heavy logs, which are brown externally and yellowish-brown internally. In the trade it occurs in shavings or rasp- ings of a deep yellowish color. — c. Fisetin (f ustin ? morin ?), yellow pigments used to dye fabrics yellow. Not used as medicine. barks. Botanically, bark is that part of an exogenous plant-axis (stem or root) which is outside of the cambium zone. From the standpoint of the pharmacognocist, how- ever, we must modify and limit the meaning of the word " bark," and we define it as that part of a woody, exogenous plant-axis (stem or root) which grows outside of the cambium zone, and which is de- tached from the wood-cylinder at the cambium zone, so that it is an article of trade by itself. The Latin word cortex (icis y 3, m.) means "bark" as well as "rind" or "peel" and is NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 297 applied as a title to the class of drugs now under consideration, as well as to the rinds of fruits, as when we speak of cortex aurantii> cortex granatin etc. In English we make a distinction between these widely different structures, calling them by different names, but the use of the same word in the Latin titles leads to confusion, and the student should fix in his mind the conception of "bark" as being only that part of an exogenous plant-axis just described. "We have already studied the structure of stems and roots in the earlier part of these notes, but we must now again consider some facts already mentioned, with especial reference to this class of drugs. The accompanying figure represents somewhat diagram- atically the structure of an exogenous plant-axis; 298 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. the cambium layer (d) separates the wood-cylinder, which consists of the pith, xylem (c) and medullary rays (a), from the bark. The latter consists of an outer epidermis in the young plant, or a corky layer (h) in older plants; next within this is a layer of parenchyma cells {/) and then a circle of alternate bast portions of fibrovascular bundles (e) and outer parts of medullary rays (g). The barks of commerce are rarely obtained from first year's twigs with a structure as represented in section in the drawing. In perennial exogenous stems a new ring of wood is formed each year from the inner part of the cambium, the annual rings be- ing thus added one after another ; the fibrovascular bundles divide and subdivide laterally, so that even after many years the width of each bundle is no more, and perhaps even less, than at the end of the first year. At the same time the cambium cells are forming new bark, and if we examine a section of an endogenous stem of several years' growth we find it to appear similar to the section represented on next page, in which the asterisk indicates the cambium zone, all within which is conventionally spoken of as " wood " while all without it is " bark". If we cut a willow twig in spring, during the time of rapid growth when the tissues are fresh and soft, choosing a straight, smooth piece and preferably a single internode for the experiment, and then beat the surface gently with the side of the knife-handle, we bruise and loosen the cambium cells so that we may slip a tubular outer piece from the solid cylinder of wood; the tube thus separated is the bark. If we make transverse sections, first, of the whole thick- ness of a willow twig, then of a piece of the bark and another of the wood-cylinder from which the bark was removed, as explained, and compare them with each other, we obtain a good conception of the relation of the bark to the other parts of the NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 299 plant-axis. We see that the wood-cylinder consists of the pith, the xylem or wood portions of the fibro- vascular bundles and the medullary rays, as far out- ward as the cambium lay- er, and on the outside we find portions of the camb- ium tissue which was u torn in re- moving the bark ; we also see that the bark consists of the phloem or bast por- tions of the fibrovascular bundles alternating with the prolonga- tions of the medullary rays, of a layer of parenchyma surrounding them, and an outer corky layer, while on the inner side we find also remnants of torn cambium tissues. After this description it is almost superfluous to add that the arrangement of the endogenous plant-axis is Be,... such that there can be no bark in the proper sense of the word in monocotyls. Let us now examine this diagram of a section of 300 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. bark. A typical bark consists of three layers. The outer layer is epidermis in young branches (a), under which a layer of cork or suber (b) soon forms, and in somewhat older barks the epidermis disappears and cork alone remains; this layer is called the "outer bark" (exophlceum*). Next within this corky layer or outer bark is a layer of parenchyma cells (c) formed by the apparent extension, broadening and merging into each other of the medullary rays; in reality these cells, together with the medullary rays and pith, are fundamental tissue. This layer extends from the cork inward to an imaginary line drawn to connect the outer points of the bast portions of all the fibro-vascular bundles in the transverse section, and this parenchyma con- stitutes the "middle bark" (mesophloeum). The third layer {d) consists of the bast-portions of the fibrovascular bundles (ph) and the intermediate medullary rays (m) from the imaginary line just described inward to the cambium layer ; it is called the "inner bark" (endophloeum or liber) and con- sists of alternating wedges of bast and parenchyma, the wedges of bast having their base or broader ends inward and the points outwards, and the fundamental parenchyma wedges vice versa. The bast consists of bast-parenchyma (bp), which differs in the shape and size of its cells from the fundamental parenchyma and bast-cells ( be ) ; it also contains sieve-ducts, which, however, are of little or no practical im- portance to the pharmacognocist. The arrangement of the bast-parenchyma, bast-cells and medullary rays or fundamental tissue and their relations to each other give the peculiar appearances to the transverse sections of barks by which we group them. The outer surfaces of barks offer several points of *The Latin technical names are quoted, because some authors use them in preference to the plain and easily-under- stood English names; in these notes the simpler terms are pre- ferred and used. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 301 interest which may be of diagnostic value. Formerly much attention was given to the study of the parasitic cryptogams, lichens and mosses, which grow on the surfaces of trees, and which were supposed to be characteristic features of certain barks. At the present time we give but little heed to these forms of vegetation, although some of them are peculiar in shape and possibly of some diagnostic value ; the accompany- ing illustration figures a lichen, the " graphis elegans," so-called from its resemblance to (Chinese) writing, which occurs on Saigon cinnamon; the little black spots on the white corky layer of Cascarilla are also cryptogamic plants. While it is possible that a closer study of this subject, not only in connection with barks, but also with other plant-parts, might furnish some data of value for the identification of powdered drugs, yet the former plan to use these lower plant-forms to identify whole barks is about as if some one would suggest that because the thumb- marks of no two persons agree in shape, therefore the lines and figures of the thumb might be used in recognizing our friends. A finger-mark in blood on the wall of a room in which a murder was committed might lead to the conviction of a murderer, but we recognize our friends by face and features other than thumb-marks ; so we use other coarser and equally characteristic features to identify drugs, rather than by a study of the cryptogamic parasites. The mere presence or absence of such growths may, however, sometimes be useful in distinguishing between the barks of stems (with) and the barks of roots (without) of the same plant. Cork proper consists of true cork-cells (suber) which may be from a few to a few hundred or thousand cells in thickness. These cells are practically impervious 302 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. to moisture and serve to prevent evaporation of mois- ture from the stem while en route from the roots to the leaves. As the stem grows in thickness this corky layer becomes fissured in a manner which enables the wood-man to recognize the varieties of trees in the forests or fields by their barks, and often enables pharmacognocists to recognize barks by these same characteristics. In some barks this corky layer cracks off after awhile, but a thin protecting layer re- mains, from which thicker layers soon are reproduced ; meanwhile the middle bark forms new cells to adapt the bark to the growing circumference of the plant, so that while the bark grows in all directions it yet retains the structure of a typical bark with the three layers, the outer > middle and inner barks. In other plants, however, the bark continues to grow only or mainly at the cambium zone and in this case, as the circumference enlarges and fissures form, these extend into the middle bark or even into the inner bark, until large pieces of bark finally fall off. This would leave the stem in a denuded condition, somewhat like an open ulcer on an animal surface, if nature had not provided a plan to prevent this. A layer, or layers, of secondary cork (rhytidoma) dips down from the surface of the bark through the mid- dle and later on through the inner bark and emerges NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 303 again at some little distance; such secondary cork layers are shown in this section of cornus florida bark. When formed, nourishment or sap is cut off from the tissues outside, and the latter are sphacelated or necrosed, i. e., cut off from the living tree, much like a sphacelus in a spontaneous amputation or slough in an animal, or in the same manner as deciduous leaves are shed in fall. As far as external appearances go, these masses of fissured and necrosed bark tissue resemble the fissured masses of true cork previously described, and both formations are called " Borke " by German botanists ; no better term hav- ing been suggested, it has also been adopted by English writers and the term is frequently met with ; but care should be taken that no confusion be per- mitted by the similarity of the English terms " bork " and "bark." The " bork " of plants sometimes peels off in sheets or leaves when it is called "liber," from a Latin word for book. Liber is seen in the grape-vine, for example. " Liber " usually means inner bark. 304 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. The falling off of the bork frequently leaves peculiar markings or depressions, the latter sometimes de- cidedly conchoidal in shape, or the bork itself may appear in nodules or warts, or it may peel off in more or less extended patches or flakes, any of which con- ditions may serve as aids for recognition* of the ident- ity of the several barks. In distinguishing between the barks of stems and roots we may also be aided by peculiar markings, traces of former leaf-scars or more rarely by the presence of buds on stem barks. The middle bark consists mainly of soft-walled parenchyma cells, which appear tangentially stretched in a transverse section. When cells which are not prosenchymatous in shape, that is, which are not long or fusiform, but of nearly equal diameters in all directions, become thickened by sclerogen layers, whether aggregated in large numbers as in the stones of fruits or scattered among surrounding parenchyma, these sclerenchyma cells are called " stone cells " ; a few such cells from a gritty particle in the flesh of the pear are figured on the preceding page, and the typical appearance of sclerenchyma cells will be readily recognized. Stone cells of similar character are found in the middle bark of various plants, either singly, scattered as in the Cinchonas or in large clusters or even in almost solid layers, as in the stone cells (so-called " star-cells") from Ceylon cinnamon, here shown. When present such stone cells afford means for identifying the drug both in its whole and in its powdered condition, and of course in differentiating between dif- ferent barks the absence of stone cells in the middle bark may be just as good a characteristic in some cases as the presence of them is in other cases. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 305 Another feature of the middle bark consists in the presence (or absence , as the case may be) of larger ducts, cells or spaces, latex-ducts, resin or oil cells or ducts, or air-spaces, etc. In fact cinchonas may be grouped on structural grounds into divisions based upon the presence or absence of both stone-cells and latex-ducts or air-spaces. The inner bark consists of alternate wedges of medullary rays which are narrow at the cambium zone and gradually widen and merge with the middle bark and of bast portions of fibro-vascular bundles which are widest at the cambium zone and gradually grow smaller and cease at the margin of the middle bark; in fact the demarcation between middle and inner bark is an imaginary line uniting the outer points of the bast bundles, as seen in a transverse section of bark. The medullary rays consist of cells similar to or identical with those of the middle bark (both being fundamental tissue), but they are frequently elongated in a radial direction near the cambium zone, gradu- ally becoming shorter in the radial direction until at or near the confluence with the middle bark the radial diameter is less than the tangential diameter and the cells are tangentially stretched as in the middle bark itself. The most characteristic features of the inner bark are found in the bast or phloem portions. In the living plant this part is actively concerned in the cir- culation of the fluids and special ducts, the so-called sieve-ducts, are here found. These ducts are formed of elongated cells, which are separated by partitions of thickened material deposited in a sieve-like man- ner, the thinner parts, or meshes, consisting of soft cell-wall through which osmosis can take place readily. To the pharmacognocist these ducts are of little or no importance, except that in the examination of powdered barks the appearance of fragments of the 306 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. sieve-like plates might possibly be characteristic in some few instances. Most of the bast consists of parenchyma cells which are usually much smaller in diameter on transverse section, but elongated in the direction of the plant axis, therefore in a longitudinal direc- tion. Some barks, however, contain also a large proportion of prosenchymatous cells or strings of cells in the bast, which render the bark very tough, as in simaruba or mezereon. In still other cases the phloem may be more or less lignified, in which case the appearance of the anastomosing bast bundles, as seen on the inner surface of the bark of wild cherry, for ex- ample, may closely re- semble the outer appear- ance of the wood-cylin- der as figured under woods ; in fact the struc- tures o f phloem and xylem, correspond and fit each other accurately in the growing plant. In such cases the paren- chyma of the medullary rays often shrinks and forms fissures or depres- sions on the inner sur- face of the bark, especially if the bark is too rigid to curl or quill inwards. (Drawing enlarged 4 x.) Still another and perhaps the most characteristic structures when present are the bast-cells, which are found in the phloem or bast. On transverse section these appear to be similar to the stone cells of the NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 307 .middle bark, as seen in this figure of bast-cells from calisaya bark, but on making a longitudinal section of the bark these bast-cells are seen to be pro- senchymatous in form, and they belong to the mechanical tissue-system, giving strength and sup- port. This is shown in the longitudinal section from calisaya bark, shown on the following page. The form, as well as the arrangement of the bast- cells, singly, in clusters, etc., may give peculiar appearance to the section of a bark ; in the transverse section of calisaya bark, just shown, we see the bast- cells irregularly scattered, either singly or in quite small clusters; while in the section of cotton-root bark the bast-ceils and bast-parenchyma are arranged in alternating layers, as shown on page 309. Bast- cells, therefore, are important diagnostic features in the determination of the identity of barks. Most of the parenchyma cells of the middle and inner bark contain starch, as well as the various 308 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. medicinally valuable ingredients like alkaloids, etc. Some barks contain special mucilage cells, which are usually larger than the other parenchyma cells, or special oil cells, which are sometimes smaller than the other parenchyma cells. Alkaloids are contained in all the various cells, but probably mostly in the parenchyma of the inner bark. The outer bark, even when formed of necrosed tissues of inner bark, con- tains comparatively little of medicinal value and is therefore generally to be rejected if present in the form of " bork " ; but if not present as bork, it consti- tutes part of the drug and the whole bark is to be used. We are now prepared to study some facts in regard to the coarse appearances of bark, after which the principles of classifying them will be considered. It is of course well known that soft tissues of fruits, etc., become darkened when exposed to the oxidizing influence of air; a piece of peeled apple becomes yellowish and eventually brownish in a very short NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 309 time after the protecting epidermis has been removed and dried fruits of almost all kinds are darker-colored than the fresh pulp or flesh of the corresponding fruits. So also the cambium tissue, which is made up of very delicate cells and which is usually white or colorless, is readily oxidized and becomes darkened by exposure to air. Nearly all barks, when first removed from the stems, branches or roots, are white on their interior surfaces, but the oxidation after removal changes their colors to those which are character- istic of the commercial barks; thus, canella alba remains nearly white, slippery elm becomes pale brownish-white, sassafras changes to reddish or bright rust-brown, cinnamon brownish and old buckthorn bark almost blackish or purplish-brown, so that the tints or colors of the interior sur- faces of barks become of diagnostic value. 310 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. The appearance of the outer surfaces is hot greatly altered except when the natural outer portions are removed and only the inner bark sent into trade when the outer surface differs from the natural ap- pearance in the ungathered bark; this is the case, for instance, in Cassia and Ceylon cinnamons, in slippery elm, etc., which are described as "inner barks." As soon as a bark is separated from the stem or root it commences to lose moisture, and in drying out it necessarily shrinks. The shrinkage will be great- est in that part of the bark which contains the softest cells, therefore more in the inner than in the outer portions. If the outer portions are removed, the shrinkage will be even or nearly even from both sur- faces and the pieces of bark will remain more or less flat, as in slippery elm, but in some barks the flat pieces are so in consequence of pressure applied, as in the larger pieces of yellow or red cinchona, espe- cially as formerly brought from South America. As the softer and more succulent inner parts of this bark lose their moisture, this generally causes the bark to curl inward and according to the degree of curvature, different descriptive names are given to the barks. When the curvature is slight, as in a of the accompanying figures, the pieces are usually de- scribed as "curved' ' pieces, but as curvature may be and often is irregular, it is better to restrict the term "curved' ' to pieces of bark of irregular shapes and to use the word "troughs" (first proposed in this con- nection by the author of these notes in the Com- XOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 311 paxion to thk TJ. S. P., in 1884) as a more con- venient, expressive and descriptive word to describe the pieces of bark curved in the regular manner shown in the figure mentioned. If the bark is rolled from one side into a tube or cylinder, this is called a "quill" or "simple quill' ' as in b, while if it is rolled inward from both sides it is called a "double quill" as in c. An unequal shrinking of bast and medullary rays will cause longitudinal wrinkles on the inner sur- faces, or, if the external layers will not yield readily, so as to form quills on drying, fissures will occur on the inner surface of the bark as already shown in a drawing of the inner surface of wild cherry bark ; or ridges may be formed, as in alnus rubra, the reason for which will be readily understood from an ex- amination of the following illustration. In some cases, as in cas- carilla, the bark does not separate readily from the wood, and must be chipped or cut from the'latter; in such cases some pieces may consist only of a portion of the bark, while other pieces may consist of more than the bark, having splinters of wood adherent on the inner surface, while yet i other pieces may have both conditions present in differ- ent parts. In some other kinds of barks the suber or epidermis may be very thin or even soft, while the bast is rigid, or as just explained, bits of wood may adhere ; the shrinkage in all these cases will take place probably most in the middle 312 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. bark and irregular torsion will be exerted on both inner and outer surface tissues, the result being pieces of bark which are irregularly bent and twisted, and it is to this kind of pieces that we would limit the term "curved pieces/' already referred to. It will be readily seen that the main characteristics of structure, which determine color and shape of the pieces of commercial barks are inherent attributes of the plant from which each particular bark is ob- tained, and that while the size of the branch or stem or root from which the bark is obtained must in a limited way have influence on the shape (owing to more or less heavy layers of outer bark mainly) or the rapidity of drying may to some extent modify the tint of the color, or the season of the year at which the bark is gathered may influence the bark in vari- ous ways and especially as regards its constituents, yet the essential characteristics which are of phar- macognostic diagnostic value will necessarily be present in each bark, no matter when or how gath- ered. Various methods of classification have been used, of which those based on structural features are of course most desirable and exact ; but other classifica- tions have also been used and it is well to use them all in combination, as the barks present many diffi- culties in this regard. Schleiden, one of the founders of the modern study of pharmacognosy, in his work published in 1857, classified barks as follows : Ord. I. Aromatic Barks. Cinnamon, canella, etc. Ord. II. Bitter and Astringent Barks. A. Thin barks. — Willow, oak, horse chestnut, buckthorn, etc. B. Thick barks. — Simaruba, angostura, quassia, pomegranate, etc. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 313 Ord. III. Acrid Barks. Mezereon. Ord. IV. Cinchona Barks. (Recognizable by the peculiar bast-cells ; this group is therefore based on structural characteristics.) Prof. Maisch, in his valuable work on Organic Materia Medica, classifies barks thus : Sect. I. Taste Bitter and Astringent. Cinchona, dogwood, magnolia, black alder, wild cherry, barberry, willow, witch hazel, cramp bark, black haw, etc. Sect. II. Taste Astringent. White oak, black oak, blackberry and pomegra- nate. Sect. III. Taste Bitter, Not Aromatic. White ash, simaruba, quassia, condurango, buck- thorn, cascara, Jamaica dogwood, butternut, quebracho, etc. Sect. IV. Taste Acrid and Pungent. Prickly ash, mezereon, cotton-root, coto, wahoo, quillaja, etc. Sect. V. Mucilaginous. Slippery elm. Sect. VI. Aromatic (Some Also Bitter) With Resin-Cells. Cinnamon, sassafras, canella, angostura, cas- carilla, etc. (This is the only group of barks which is based, in part at least, on structural characteristics.) Prof. Culbreth, in his work on Materia Medica, adopts Prof. Maisch's system, but the system is not applied in the book itself, A. Bitter and Astringent. B. Astringent. C. Bitter, Not Aromatic. 314 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. D. Acrid or Pungent. K. Mucilaginous. F. Aromatic, With Oil or Resin-cells. Prof. Sayre proposes the following system, but does not apply it in his work on Materia Medica : Class I. Aromatic. A. Deprived of corky layer. B. With periderm. Class II. Acrid. Class III. Bitter. Class Iv. Bitter and Astringent. Class V. Astringent. Class VI. Mucilaginous. Unclassified. Prof. Berg (1851) furnished the first system of classi- fying barks strictly according to anatomical or struc- tural characteristics. To examine the barks accord- ing to his method, transverse sections must be made for microscopical examination. I. Bast with Scattered or Isolated Bast- cells, Sometimes in Radial Rows, Less Often in Small Groups. II. Bast Radially Striated. A. Bast indistinctly striated. B. Bast distinctly striated. C. Bast rays regularly wedge-shaped. D. Bast with horny bast fibers. III. Bast Quadratically Marked by Paren- chyma and Bast Rays which Cross Each Other. A. With horny bast fibers. B. Evenly marked without any distinct bast fibers. IV. Bast Tangenti ally Striated. A. Bast firm and dense, moderately thick, brown. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 315 B. Bast thin or thick, white, mealy, finely striated. C. Bark thin, flexible, reddish-brown. V. Bast Nearly Even, Without Distinct Striatiox. A. With faint brownish wedges. B. Without wedges. VI. Bark Rasped, pale-brown. VII. Cork (" bork ") thick, pale-brown. In this system some of the subdivisions were made to accommodate the placing of single barks, and even the last group or class (vii) is thus created for only one article, cork, which, however, is not a drug in the proper sense of the word. In these Notes we adopt in the main the classifica- tion by Prof. Berg as follows : Bast with isolated bast cells. .40 Bast radially striated 41 Whole.. . Gen- erally in quills from the thickness of a goose- Cinchona ovata. quill to that of a finger, rarely larger; epidermis or cork grayish-brown, sometimes wrinkled, or with small and shallow fissures, the inner surface brown or grayish-brown; frac- ture fibrous; taste bitter and odor faint, but pecu- liar. — c. This bark is poor in the peculiar alkaloids, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 323 and especially so in quinine ; it is therefore seldom used except in the manufacture of alkaloids. — XJ. Used as an antiseptic astringent. It contains more cinchotannic acid than the other varieties of Cinchona and has been used as an ingredient of antiseptic poultices; also, internally as a bitter tonic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best in the form of fluid extract. Cnprea Bark:. In the same forests in which the Cinchona trees are found in South America, there are also found allied trees (Remijia pedunculata; Rubiacec?} which yield Cinchona alkaloids, and which are sometimes even quite rich in quinine. The barks of these trees are brought into the trade as " Cuprea bark," but are not used lor pharmaceutical purposes, but only for the manufacture of the alkaloids. They are therefore of little or no importance to the pharmacist and need not be further described. GROUP XLI . In barks of this group the bast wedges and medul- larv rays alternate more or less regu- larly, as shown in the accompanying dia- grammatic illustra- tion. As the cells of the medullary rays (fun- damental tissue) usually contain starch, they are therefore lighter colored than the bast portions, so that this radial striatum can readily be seen with a low magnify iug power, or even with the unaided eye. A transverse section should be made and examined with a higher power, so that the cellular elements of the bark can be studied, some of which may be char- acteristic and diagnostic. 324 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Thin, papery, compound quills, without cork, externally and in- ternally pale cinnamon-colored; pungently aromatic Cinnamom. Zeyl. Troughs or simple quills, without cork, both surfaces cinnamon- brown; pungently aromatic Cinnamom.Cassla. Large troughs or quills, externally with grayish-brown cork, inter- nally cinnamon-b r o w n ; pun- gently aromatic Cinnamom. Saig. Quills or irregular pieces, dull brownish, with peculiar trans- verse cracks and with white lichens with black spots on outer surface; taste bitter aromatic — Cascariiia. Irregularly curved pieces of vari- ous sizes, cork removed, both surfaces reddish- brown with a shade of carmine ; longitudinally striate, fracture short and] pale- pink or whitish; bitter astrin- gent Cornus Florida. Quills or broken pieces, externally whitish or pale-reddish with white scars, internally whitish; odor cinnamon-like and taste pungently bitterish Canella. Irregular pieces, outer surfaces often marbled, fragile, soft, rust- brown, with characteristic taste and odor {Sassafras. Quills or flat pieces, externally NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 325 purplish-brown, showing small transverse scars, or rough; in- ternally longitudinally fissured; developing bitter almond taste on chewing '. Primus Virg. Long, coarsely fibrous, pale yellow- ish-brown pieces, often partially broken and folded upon them- selves; bitter Simaruba. Quills or troughs, externally dark brownish-gray with corky warts, internally orange-brown with narrow short longitudinal ridges; bitter astringent Alnus Rubra. Shallow troughs and irregular frag- ments, cojrk removed, toughly fibrous internally ; both surfaces yellowish-brown Magnolia. Troughs or quills, purplish-brown externally, internally yellowish- white, fibrous in inner layer ; bitter astringent . l Lirioclendron. Thin, tough, flexible bands, flattish or quilled, outer surface black- ish, inner pale-brown; mixed with small roots Rnbus, Thin fragments, outer surface brownish, inner surface yellow; bitter, stains saliva yellow Berberis. Irregular pieces, outer surface pale yellowish- brown with lighter spots, inner surface smooth and brownish-yellow; fracture abrupt, almost waxy Ptelea. 326 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Quills or troughs, brownish-gray with whitish patches, marked with minute black dots and small spines ; striation rather obscure . xantboxyiuui, sr. Cinnamomnm. There are three varieties of cinnamon in common use and as they differ materially in appearance, all three will be sep- arately described. N". Cinnamomnm Cassia, Cassia Cin- namon or Cassia, Chinese Cin- namon. — o. T h e bark of the shoots of one or more un- determined spe- cies of Cinnamo- mnm; Laurinece. — H. This variety is a native of China. — 1>. In sin- gle and simple quills of various lengths of the size shown in the left- hand figure ; the bark is from 1 to 2 mm. or more in thickness; the corky layer has been removed by scraping, leaving the outer surface somewhat rough ; both surfaces are characteristically brown (cinnamon-colored); the fracture is abrupt, nearly smooth and the transverse section shows transverse striation dictinctly, as well as many stone- NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 327 cells (the so-called "stellate" cells of cinnamon) in the middle bark which forms the outer layer of the drug. x. Cmiiamomiim Zeyiaiiicum. Ceylon Cinnamon. — o. The inner bark from the shoots of Cinnamomum Zeylanicum ; Lanrinece. h. Ceylon. — 1>. This variety occurs in long quills consisting of several pieces rolled together, with ends stuck into each other so that the total length is nearly a meter; each com- pound quill has six or more barks of a thickness not much exceeding that of ordinary wrapping paper; the outer surface of the bark is marked with wavy lines of bast bundles, and both surfaces are pale-yellowish- brown; both surfaces are smooth and the fracture is short and somewhat splintery. The coarse appearance of this variety of cinnamon is shown in the right-hand figure above, and an enlarged appearance of a prepared transverse sec- tion is shown here ; the outer layer, or middle 328 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. bark of this variety also contains many stone- cells, enough in iact, to constitute a continuous layer; the large white cells in the bast portion of the bark are mucilage cells, and the small darker round cells are bast-cells ; before clearing the section numerous oil-cells may be seen, but as these do not differ in size or otherwise from the ordinary paren- chyma cells, they cannot be distinguished in a cleared section. Bf. Cinnamomiim Saigonicum? Saigon Cinnamon.— O. The whole bark of an undetermined species of Cinnamomum ; Laurinece. H . China. — i>. In quills of various widely differing sizes, as seen in the draw- ings, which are natural size; the average thick- ness of the quills is about 10 to 15 mm., but some- times more than twice that thickness ; the drawings of sections of two pieces of bark, also natural size, show the variation in the thickness of the individual pieces of bark ; in this variety the cork is present, the outer surface being gray or light grayish-brown with white- ish patches, more or less rough and warty, the inner surface granular, slightly striate and dark-brown; the ends of the pieces of drug show a shortening of the outer parts due to shrinking in the freshly broken pieces; fracture in the drug is abrupt, showing a large number of yellowish-white cell clusters near the outer part, just within the cork. All the cinnamon barks have a peculiar, very pleasant fragrant odor and a sweetish, warm and aromatic taste. Ceylon cinnamon "has both a finer and stronger aroma than Cassia cinnamon, the latter drug being the least valuable variety of cinnamon. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 329 Saigon cinnamon, however, has both the strongest and best aroma, and is the variety that should be preferred for medicinal purposes. — c. Volatile oil, some cinnamic acid, sugar, etc. — u. Mainly for culi- nary purposes. It was formerly supposed to control uterine hemorrhages, but as it was always combined with other more active remedies, it is doubtful whether it itself had any such action. Dose: 1 to 2 grams, or ad libitum. Cascarilla. W. Cascarilla. — O. The bark of Croton Eluteria; Euphorbiacece. — be. The Bahamas. — i>. The drug consists of quills or troughs, from 2.5 to 10 cm. long and about 10 to 15 mm. thick, or broken into smaller pieces; the bark itself is about 2 mm. thick; the cascarilla imported into the United States consists mainly of young bark which has a dull brown color, both on the outer and inner surfaces; the outer 330 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. surface is usually much fissured transversely and partly or entirely covered with a white lichenous growth with black spots; the inner surface is smooth; the fracture is abrupt, resinous, and shows distinctly the transverse striation of the bast bundles and medullary rays; among the parenchyma cells of the bark which contain starch there are scattered numerous brown oil or resin cells; bast fibers are few; odor is slightly aromatic, but on burning becomes strongly fragrant; the taste is strongly bitter and aromatic. — c. About 1 per cent volatile oil, cas- carillin (a bitter neutral principle), and about 15 per cent of resin. — u. Stimulant stomachic. It is also often used, either alone or in combination with other substances, as a tobacco flavor. Dose: About 2 grams. Cornus. jr. Dogwood Bark, Boxwood Bark. — o. The inner bark of the root of Cornus florida; Cornacece. — h. North America. — 1>. In irregularly curved pieces or troughs from which the coarse gray layer has been removed ; about 2 to 3 mm. thick ; both outer and in- ner surfaces striated and reddish or reddish-brown, with often a decided tint of rose color or crimson ; the fracture, longitudinal and transverse, is abrupt, showing yellowish clusters of stone-cells ; a prepared transverse section has numerous radiating lines of NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 331 medullary rays, the clusters of stone- cells being ir- regularly dispersed in the parenchyma of the phloem, and frequently adhering portions of "bork" show tangential lines of secondary suber or cork; the taste is bitter and astringent, odor none. — c. Cornin (or cornic acid), tannin, etc. — u. Astringent bitter tonic ; slightly febrifuge. Dose : 1 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract. The barks of Comus sericea (Swamp Dogwood) and Comics circinata (round-leaved Dogwood) resemble dogwood bark, but are thinner and usually quilled; they are of little importance, as they are very seldom used medicinally. Canella. X. Canella. — o. The bark of the stem of Canella alba ; Canellacea'. h. West Indies. — ». Hard, white quills, troughs, or i rregul a r fragments, about 2 to 4 mm. thick ; the outer surface is freed from the outer bark, and pale brownish-red or rownish-yellow, smooth except that it is marked with Ions:, white, oval scars; barks from older branches are rough on the 332 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. outside, but constitute only a small proportion of the drug; the inner surface is white, smooth and finely striate ; it breaks with an even granular white fracture, showing numerous yellowish resin cells in the middle bark ; a prepared section shows the mid- dle bark to be bounded outwardly by a layer of cubical, lemon-yellow stone-cells, with a parenchyma consisting mainly of starch-cells with numerous in- terspersed large, round or oval, yellow resin-cells, while the inner bark is radiately striated with medul- lary rays, and shows bast fibers ; the odor is spicy, resembling cassia (it is called " white cinnamon" in German) and the taste is bitter and pungently aro- matic. — c. Contains about 1 per cent volatile oil and about 20 per cent of acrid aromatic resin. — u. Stimu- lant tonic similar in action to other aromatics ; used mainly to prevent griping of purgative remedies. Dose: 0.5 to 2.5 grams. Sassafras. . jr. Sassafras, Sassafras Bark. — o. The inner bark of the root of Sassafras varii- folium; Laurinece. — H. North America, especially United i States. — ». In irregular frag- ments deprived of the corky layer or bork; about 3 mm. thick; the outer surface from which the bork has been re- mo ved is sometimes quite prettily marbled or grained in light and dark gray and rust- brown, owing to the different colors of the parenchyma and the secondary suber of the bork, as shown in a drawing of a piece of the drug; the inner surface is smooth and rust-brown; fragile, soft with short corky fracture, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 333 not fibrous ; a transverse section of the soaked bark examined by reflected light shows no structure, except when the bork is still present, when the outer part of the bark is distinctly striated in a tangential direc- tion by the light-colored bands of secondary suber, and the drug is apt to be mistaken for one be- longing to Group 42 ; in a thin transverse section the radiating lines of the medullary rays are very distinct, especially if the section is examined while it is immersed in the solution of caustic potassa before the color has all been removed, because it is dis- charged first from the medullary rays, which then are light-colored among the deep-red parenchyma; the prepared section shows many medullary rays and some bands of secondary suber, and numerous reddish or yellowish oil-cells and isolated pale yellow bast cells ; fragrant, sweetish aromatic. — c. About 3 per cent of volatile oil, traces of tannin, etc. — u. Sassafras is popularly much esteemed as a "blood purifier, " or alterative; it is a stimulant diaphoretic, especially when administered in the form of copious draughts of hot infusion, the hot water no doubt deserving some of the credit for the action. More commonly used merely as a flavor- ing agent. Dose: Usually ad libitum, of the tea. Primus Yirsiiiiiaiia. o. Wild Cherry, Wild Cherry Bark.— w. The bark of Prunus Virginiana; Rosacece. The drug should be collected in autumn. — h. North America, especially United States. — ». The bark of medium sized branches should be used, that of the large stems and roots or of small twigs being inferior. Wild Cherry bark occurs in troughs or irregular pieces of various sizes, but should be at least 2 mm. thick; if from large stems or roots the corky layer is usually removed and the pieces are flat, with the outer surface rough, uneven, only obscurely marked with 334 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. the peculiar transverse scars, and rust-brown; if from medium-sized or small branches the bark is smooth, greenish, yel- lowish or reddish-brown and marked with numer- ous elevated, transverse, light-colored, peculiar and characteristic scars or warts, the thin cork or epidermis showing a strong tendency to peel off and curl up; the inner surface is pale cin- namon-colored, striated or more frequently longi- tudinally fissured, a s shown in the figure, showing the inner sur- face enlarged ; the other illustration shows the outer surface, natural size ; the drug has little or no odor when dry, but after macerating with water or chewing, it gives a strong bitter almond odor; the taste is bitter and astringent with the aroma of bitter almonds, — €. Two principles resembling the amygdalin and emulsin of bitter almonds, bu^ not identical with them, which react on each other in the presence of water and yield hydrocyanic acid and oil of bitter almonds; a bitter glucoside, tannin, etc. — u. Bitter stomachic and tonic, with slight sedative effect, the latter making it a popular remedy for colds and NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 335 coughs. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best in form of syrup or fluid extract. Simaruba. N. Simaruba. — o. The bark of the roots of Sima- ruba officinalis and ,S. medicinalis; Simarubece . — h. South America and West Indies. — 1>. Flat pieces, troughs or rarely quills, often up to a meter long, from 3 to 6 mm. thick; exter- nally rough, wrinkled, with whitish suber, or the latter more generally mmmm^^L^ __^a rU bbed off, m which case the outer surface is pale fawn-colored, rough with coarse stone-cells and tough fibers; in- ner surface lighter-colored and striate or fibrous ; bast toughly fibrous, arranged in somewhat ob- liquely radiating lines, separated by rather broad medullary rays, as shown in the drawing of a trans- verse section by reflected light, enlarged; odorless and intensely and persistently bitter. — c. Volatile oil and resin in very small proportion, a bitter prin- ciple (probably quassin) , etc. — u. A bitter tonic. Often used in diarrhoeas and dysenteries, in which diseases it is often of marked value, especially when they are due to an atonic condition of the alimentary tract. Dose : 2 to 5 grams. Alims Rubra. W. Tag Alder. — o. The bark of Alnus serrulata; BetidacecE. — h. North America, — 1>. In quills or troughs, externally dark brownish-gray, marked by corky warts which tend to run together transversely ; the inner surface is orange-brown and marked by scattered, coarse, narrow, short, longitudinal ridges, or striate, as shown in the illustration of the inner 336 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. surface; the drawings of the whole bark are of natural size, that of the section is enlarged 5 times ; odor feeble, taste bitter and astringent. — c. Tannin, etc. ; no exact analysis has been made. — u. Astrin- gent. Also reputed to be alterative and emetic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best given as fluid extract. Magnolia. N. Magnolia. — o. The barks of Magnolia glauca, M. acuminata and M. tripe- tala. — h. Southern 'United States. — i>. The bark from young branches is in quills or troughs, thin, orange- brown and glossy or light- gray, with scattered warts or somewhat fissured ; in- ternally pale yellowish- NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 337 white or pale brownish and smooth; fracture abrupt, slightly fibrous in the inner layers; in bark from older branches or stems, the bork, if present, is dark-gray and deeply fissured, but as found in the trade the outer layer of the bark is generally removed and the drug consists only of the inner bark, which is often from 5 to 6 mm. thick ; both inner and outer surfaces are of a pale yellowish- brown color, the outer surface ap- pearing to be some- what granular, while the inner is more fibrous ; the illustrations show the transverse sections of Magnolia glauca, that on page 336 be- ing the entire bark with bork, the other the inner bark alone as most generally seen in the trade, both showing a smooth cut section examined by reflected light with a Coddington lens ; the drug has no odor ; the taste is bitter, astringent and pungent, — c. Tasteless glucoside, tannin, resin, etc.; analysis not complete. Judging by the taste, the bark from small twigs is better than that of the larger stems, for it is more pungent and bitter. — u. Tonic, febrifuge and diaphoretic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, in decoction or fluid extract. Iiiriodendron. Bf. Tulip-tree Bark. — o. The bark of the branches of Liriondendro?i tulipifera ; Magnoliacece. — h. United States. — ». The bark of smaller branches comes in thin quills or troughs, the bark being about 2 mm. thick ; the outer surface is grayish or blackish- brown with often a purplish shade, longitudinally wrinkled so that the wrinkles sometimes resemble 338 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. elongated meshes ; internally yellowish-white, smooth, or somewhat fibrous; pieces of bark from larger branches are up to 6 mm. thick, with a deeply fissured bork of a grayish- brown color often with a greenish tint due to lichenoid growths ; a smooth transverse cut shows nearly one-half of the thickness of the bark to be corky layer, of a light-brown color on section, and the inner part, rather more than half the thickness, to be pale-yellowish or white; the bark of older stems or branches is usually deprived of its corky layer and is white on both outer and inner surfaces; by aid of a lens the inner bark shows fibrovascular bundles alternating with medullary rays so as to give a plainly radially striated appearance, and the in- dividual bast-bundles appear beaded; this is shown in the larger drawing, showing a section of the bark by reflected light, enlarged; the other il- lustration is a section of a bundle, much enlarged, showing minute struc- ture to which this beaded appearance is due, and a small fragment of one of the bast-bundles is also shown in longitudi- nal section; no odor, taste bitter and slightly NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 339 astringent. — c. Various resins, a glucoside, tannin, etc. — u. Tonic, febrifuge and vermifuge ; seldom used. Dose : 5 to 10 grams, in infusion or fluid extract. Ratals. X. Blackberry Root Bark. — o. The bark of the roots of Rubus villosus (blackberry), R. Canadensis (dew- berry), and R. trivialis; Rosacea. — h. United States. — ». Thin, tough, flexible bands, sometimes flattish, more often quilled; the outer surface blackish or blackish-gray, inner surface pale-brown, often with strips of white wood adhering ; fracture rather tough and fibrous, whitish ; a large proportion of the drug consists of the smaller rootlets entire ; a section of the bark shows the bast in rather broad, obliquely radiate wedges, some of which are made up of the bast of two or more bundles; the drug is odorless, with astrin- gent and Slightly bitter taste. — c. 10 to 12 p. c. tan- nin, the bitter glucoside villosin, etc. — u. Astringent tonic. Dose: 5 to 10 grams, best as fluid extract. Berberis. N. Barberry Bark. — o. The bark of Berberis vul- garis; Berberidacece.— h. Europe and Asia; natural- ized in America. — ». Thin fragments, outer surface brown or brownish-gray, inner surface yellow, separ- ating in thin shreds or sheets; a clean-cut section of a soaked piece shows an outer dark- brown corky layer, a middle bark of light yellow color, abruptly marked off from darker-yellow or brownish inner bark, which is plainly radiate with dark-brown or almost 340 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. black bast bundles, so arranged that two of them often join in almost O-shape. The drug in bulk has a slightly herbaceous odor and a pure, bitter N. Wafer Ash Bark, taste, and stains the saliva yellow. — c. Alkaloids berberidine and oxyacanthin, etc. — u. Bitter tonic and stomachic; in large doses laxative with supposed cholagogue effect. Dose: 2 to or 8 grams. Ptelea. Shrubby Trefoil Bark, Hop- tree Bark. — o. The bark of Ptelea trifoliata; Rutacece. — H. North America. — j>. In irregular pieces, troughs or quills of various sizes, the bark itself up to 4 mm. thick ; the outer surface pale yel- lowish-brown with grayish- white markings, with trans- verse ridges and grooves and occasional transversely ellip- tical patches or depressions, the inner surface smooth and brownish-yellow ; fracture ab- rupt, cutting with a waxy feel ; on smooth cut section the corky layer i.3 not well marked, being of same pale- NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 341 yellowish color as the middle bark, the inner bark is striated with ir- regularly radiating bast bundles of a slightly darker color than the parenchyma of the middle bark and the medullary rays ; faint, not characteristic odor, and a mucilaginous, slightly acrid and bitter taste. — c. No analysis. — u. Stomachic tonic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams, best in fluid extract. Northern Prickly Ash Bark, the bark of Xanthoxy- lum Americanum, shows radiating striation of bast, but as the Southern Prickly Ash Bark has no well marked striation, and it is not very plain even in the Northern variety, this bark will be more fully de- scribed under Group 45. GROU P XLII . The barks of this group show on a smooth-cut transverse section, especially if moistened with diluted liquor potassa, either continuous or inter- rupted rows which are at right angles to the medul- lary rays, or parallel with the corky layer, giving the appearance as in the diagrammatic illustration ; the medullary rays are not well marked, although traces of tli cm can be seen, and in some in- stances even quite plainly, but when the medullary rays make quite distinct radial lines the bark would belong in the next group ; thus the stem bark of Juglans, which generally shows only the tangential lines distinctly, in some pieces shows quad- ratically striated, although the checkered appearance 342 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. is very plain in the root bark. Nearly all barks show their characteristic markings when a piece is freshly broken across, then cut smooth with a sharp knife and examined with a Coddington lens, but some barks require soaking before cutting, and sometimes even moistening with dilute solution of potassa to in- crease the contrast in color between the medullary and bast rays. It is advisable, also, to cut as thin a section as possible from the end of a piece of bark previously soaked in water or diluted alcohol, place this section in a drop of liquor potassa on a slide and cover with a cover-glass, and examine, while clear- ing, with a lens of rather low power ; the markings often appear plainer while clearing, than when the section has been completely cleared. Making such a slide need not take more than one or two minutes of time. Nearly flat massive bark, with thick corky layer deeply fissured; gray or grayish- brown on outer and reddish on inner surfaces Aspidosperma. Thin flexible bands or quilled pieces; brownish on outer and whitish on inner sur- faces ; separable into, thin layers Gossypii Radicis Cortex. Long, thin flexible bands, rolled into bundles, yellow- ish on outer and silky-white on inner surfaces. . . '. Mezereum. Quilled pieces or troughs ; ash-gray outer and whitish or pale tawny inner sur- faces. Euonyimis. Flattish pieces or troughs; ash-gray outer and pale- NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 343 brown or whitish inner Surfaces Viburnum Opuliis. Thin quills or troughs, gray- brown outer and pale-brown and striated inner surfaces . Cimciurango. Coarse quills, troughs or ir- regular pieces, toughly fib- rous ; outer surface gray or blackish-brown with many transverse ridges, inner sur- face smooth or fibrous. . . . Piscidia. Thick quills or troughs with coarsely fissured grayish- brown corky layer, or with- out bork ; yellowish-brown and striated inner surface . Aistonia Constricta. Small contorted quills or troughs, usually irregularly broken ; occasionally whole pieces of root ; their brown- ish corky layer usually par- tially detached and adher- ent in Shreds Rhois Glabrae Cort. Large troughs or flat pieces, smooth, dark -brown and mottled on outer surface; bork generally absent Jugians (tree) . Aspidosperma . K. Quebracho, Quebracho-bianco, white Quebracho. O. The bark of Aspidosperma Quebracho-bianco; Apocynacecz. — h. Brazil and Argentine Republic. — ». Large pieces slightly curved or nearly flat, from 1 to 3 cm. thick, the rough bork and the inner bark being of about equal thickness, The corky portion of the bark is deeply fissured, both longitudinally and transversely, the fissures being quite wide and of grayish color from lichenous growths, while the ele- vated parts of bark are grayish -brown to rust-brown. 314 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. On section the corky layer is yellowish-brown to rust- brown, with dark tangential lines of secondary suber and rows of whitish clusters of sclerenchyma cells showing that the outer layer is bork. The inner bark is fawn-colored and marked with fine longitudi- nal lines on the inner surface, which is otherwise nearly smooth; on section the inner bark shows NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 345 numerous whitish groups of aclerenchyma cells arranged in tangential rows. The fracture is fibrous, irregular. No odor and taste intensely bitter. — c. Six alkaloids, of which aspiJospermine and que- brachineare the most important. — r. Used to relieve dyspnoea, from whatever cause it may arise. Tonic and antispasmodic in asthma. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. The bark figured herewith is sometimes found in trade as a substitute for true quebracho. It is Que- 346 NOTES ON PHABMACOGNOSY. bracho Colorado, dark quebracho or false quebracho, obtained from Loxopterygium Lorentzii; Terebinth- acecz. It is heavy, outer surface dark-brown and fissured, light-brown on inner surface, which is marked by a great number of prominent longitudinal ridges. It is about 12 mm. thick. The transverse section appears tangentially striated from secondary suber and rows of bast-cells, and sometimes the light- colored medullary rays are distinct enough to give a quadratically checkered appearance. In the specimen I have seen, the fissures in the bork contained many tangled fibers, probably the rootlets of some climbers. Odorless, taste slightly resinous and astringent, not bitter. Valueless. Oossypii Radicis Cortex. N. Cotton Eoot Bark. — o. The bark of the root of Gossypium herbaceuin ; Malvacece. h. The cotton plant is indigenous to subtropical Asia and Africa and NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY, 347 is cultivated in America. The drug is gathered in the United States, south of the Ohio Eiver. — ». The drug consists of thin, flexible, flat or quilled bands; the outer surface is brownish-yellow, with slight longitudinal ridges or meshes, sparsely scattered small, round, black dots, or short transverse lines, and dull orange-brownish patches where the thin outer bark is abraded; the inner surface is tawny or whitish, finely striate and of silky luster ; quite a large proportion of the drug consists of the smaller roots entire. The transverse section shows the bast-fibers in clusters forming tangential lines ; these bast-fibers are long and tough and the bast can be separated into thin shreds or layers; no odor; taste very slightly acrid and faintly astringent. — c. Resin, fixed oil, tannin and a deep-red coloring matter. — u. Employed as an emmenagogue. It acts on the uterus similarly to ergot, and is used in cases of suppressed or scanty menstruation. In large doses it may produce abor- tion, and in fact is often administered with the inten- tion of bringing about this effect. Dose : 2 to 5 grams, best as fluid extract. 3Iezerenm. M. Mezereum, Mezereon Bark. — o. The bark of Daphne Mezereum and other species of Daphne; Thymelacecz. — h. Northern Europe and Asia, also Canada and New England. — 1>. Mezereum occurs in long thin bands, very flexible and tough, usually rolled into discs or bundles ; the outer surface consists of red- dish-brown cork, which is easily separable in shreds, show- ing the greenish middle bark underneath; the cork is marked with 348 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. many round or slightly transverse scars which are dark-colored, but often abraded and then yellowish- brown and lighter-colored than the cork ; the inner surface of the bark is whitish and silky fibrous ; on transverse section the cork and thin middle bark usually tear, the inner bark or bast separating from them ; in the latter the bast bundles are arranged in somewhat irregular tangential lines, as indicated in the illustration; the bast-cells are very long and tough ; the drug has no odor, but a very acrid taste, and the powder is an extremely irritating sternutatory. — €. A soft, brown, acrid resin, an acrid volatile oil, the glucoside daphnin, etc. — u. Mezereum is esteemed as an alterative stimulant in chronic syphilitic, scrof- ulous, rheumatic and cutaneous affections; generally in combination with sarsaparilla and other so-called blood purifiers. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram, best as fluid ex- tract. Enonymns. ST. Wahoo. — o. The bark of the root of Euonymus atropurpureus ; Colastrinece. — h. United States. — 1>. Quills or troughs and irregular pieces, the bark itself being about 2 mm. thick ; the outer surface is gray, with dark ridges or patches; the inner surface is whitish or tawny, and smooth ; the fracture is abrupt through the outer part of the bark, but the bast is slightly fibrous from silky fibers, which are quite deli- cate and not at all tough ; the smooth-cut transverse surface is whitish and mottled with brown, with t ange n tial brownish lines in the inner bark, as shown in the drawing; the odor is faint, taste sweetish - bitter and acrid.— C. A bitter amorphous substance called euonymin, extractive, etc. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 349 The "euonymin" of trade is merely a powdered ex- tract. — u. Said to be tonic, laxative, alterative, diu- retic and expectorant. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. A bark occurs in the trade under the name of "Southern Wahoo," which comes in chips evidently removed from the branches by knives, so that it has thin edges; small, thin troughs bent longitudinally outwardly, occasionally with bits of wood adhering ; grayish-brown, lighter-colored on inner surface, wood whitish; corky layer reticulately or longitudinally wrinkled, with occasional small warts ; the transverse smooth-cut section shows numerous clusters of scler- enchyma stone-cells arranged in irregularly tangen- tial rows. This bark may be the bark of Ulmus alata (winged elm) which is called " wahoo" in the Southern part of the United States, although the statement of the National Dispensatory that this bark is used to make ropes does not agree with the brittle aud abrupt fracture of the bark under consideration. At all events, it is not the " wahoo " of the Pharma- copoeia, and should not be used as " wahoo." Viburnum Opulus. N. Cramp Bark. — o. The bark of Viburnum opu- lus; CaprifoliacecB . — h. Northern temperate zone, in America, Europe and Asia. — ». In quills or troughs, 10 to 25 cm. long, the bark itself being about 1 to 2 mm. thick ; the outer layer is greenish or brownish- gray but peels off easily and shows the reddish-brown inner bark underneath ; the inner surface is grayish or slightly brownish; fracture of young bark brittle, of older pieces tough, the bast separating into layers ; on transverse section the bast is seen to be tangen- tially striated with rows of almost rectangular clusters of cells which are dark by reflected light, but transpa- rent in thin sections by transmitted light ; the drug is inodorous, with pungent and bitter taste. The illus- trations show both old and young barks entire, and a 350 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. smooth-cut section by reflected light.— c. A bitter principle, pungent resin, etc.— c. Antispasmodic, use- ful especially in uterine colic, cramps in hysteri- cal women, etc. Dose : 1 to 5 grams in infusion or in fluid extract. Cundiirango. K. Condurango. o. The bark of Gon- olobus Cunduran- go; Asclepiadacece. — H. Ecuador and Peru. Said to be often mixed with the barks of other varieties of Asclep- iadacese, etc. — ». In quills and troughs about 5 to 10 cm. long, the bark itself from 2 to 6 mm. thick ; the outer surface is [grayish-brown, I with here and there Iremains of silvery [gray epidermis, and occasional whitish or ash-gray patches of lichens, and with occasional small, black lichenous dots ; the corky layer with shorter or longer transverse ridges or warts, but more commonly longitudinally wrinkled and fissured; the cork chips off in places, showing the tawny middle bark underneath ; the inner surface is NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 351 lighter-colored, tawny or yellowish-white, and longi- tudinally striated with elevated lines, and occa- sionally irregularly dot- 1 ted with dirty grayish- brown spots ; the fracture is granular, with a few projecting fibers nearer the outer surface; a smooth-cut section, espe- cially of a soaked piece, shows as in the illustration, the outer part brownish, gradually shading to grayish- white within, and showing comparatively large and few clusters of stone-cells arranged in more or less well-marked tangential rows ; the parenchyma con- tains starch and crystals of oxalate of calcium. Nearly odorless and but faintly bitter. — c. A peculiar gluco- side, some tannin, etc. — u. When first introduced it was heralded to be a sure cure for cancer, but unfor- tunately it has proved worthless as a remedy for this disease. It has probably merely slightly tonic effects and is medicinally of very inferior value. Dose; About 2 grams. Rhois Giabrse Cortex. If. Sumach Bark. — o. The bark of Rhus glabra; Anacardiacece . The root bark is preferred. — H. North America. — ». Quills or troughs, o r irregular some- what twisted or con- torted fragments, sometimes enclosing pieces of wood; the corky layer, which often hangs in shreds, i s chocolate - brown with scattered red- 352 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. dish-brown warts ; the gray wherever the corky layer is abrad- ed ; the inner surface is smooth and of a light cinnamon- brown color ; fracture abrupt and grayish- white, the smooth-cut section showing by I middle bark appears yellowish- JUGLANS. reflected light the structure shown in the illustration, the corky layer thin, the mid- dle bark rather thick, light-yel- lowish-white with yellowish- brown spots, and the inner bark with dis- tinct tangential al ternati n g brownish and whitish lines; odor none, taste bitter astrin- gent. — c. Tan- nin, etc. — u. Astringent ton- ic, useful for both internal and local use. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 353 Juglans. N. Butternut Bark. — o. The bark of Juglans titt- ered; Juglandacece. The inner bark of the root should be preferred, but bark of the stem also is found in the trade; usually the two barks are sold separately. The bark should be collected in autumn. — H\ North America. — b. In flat, coarsely fibrous pieces or troughs, up to 20 cm. long and from 3 to 5 mm. thick, but occasional pieces with bork may be much thicker ; the drug is usually deprived of all bork and is grayish-brown, mottled with darker-colored markings and lighter-colored patches, as shown in the drawing ; the inner surface is dark-brown, smooth or striate and fibrous, but the fibers are not tough, so that the fracture is short and cutting with a knife shows all parts to be quite soft; a smooth-cut section of a thick piece (about 6 mm.) is shown in the illustration, with a bit of bork (secon- dary cork and sphace- lated inner bark) attached, and the balance of thickness is made up of alternate layers of parenchyma and rows of bast-cells which form practically continuous lines ; in a section of thinner pieces the outer portion is middle bark of a light- brown color and the inner bark, somewhat separately marked off from the middle bark, shows the character- istic tangential lines ; occasionally in the smooth-cut end it is possible to find checkered or quadratically marked parts, but this usually requires a finished sec- tion, which has been cleared and is examined by 354 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. transmitted light, when it appears almost always checkered, and would be referred to group 43 ; odor faint and taste slightly acrid and bitter. — c. Nucin (juglandic acid), 14% of fixed oil, a little tannin, etc. — U. Laxative and tonic. Dose: 5 to 10 grams, best in infusion or fluid extract. Piscidia. Iff, Jamaica Dogwood Bark. — o. The bark of Pis- cidia Erythrina; Leguminosce. — h. West Indies. — ». In coarse quills or troughs, or irregular pieces, about 15 to 20 cm. long, very fibrous and torn, the bark itself being from 4 to 6 mm. thick; the outer surface is marked with transverse ridges or warts, the edges of which are somewhat raised so that they look like oval or elongated grooves with elevated margins ; the corky layer, when present, is of chocolate-brown color with orange-brown spots, but more commonly the corky layer is absent; where the corky layer is broken away the surface ap- pears brownish -gray, with the wrinkles or warts show- ing distinctly ; the inner sur- face is of a dirty-gray color, longitudinally fissured, smooth or fibrous ; the fract- ure is very tough and fibrous, the freshly-broken surfaces appearing yellowish-white; a smooth-cut transverse section shows the bast-bundles in short tangentially elongated clusters, closely packed in such a manner as to give a somewhat irregularly serrate demarkation between the inner and middle barks ; the illustration shows a section seen by re- flected light, when the middle bark appears yellowish- white and the inner bark brownish ; the odor is very faint, sometimes described as narcotic or opium-like, and the taste is slightly bitter. — c. Eesin, piscidin NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 355 and a bitter glucoside. — u. Soporific, narcotic, ano- dyne and sudorific. Dose : 1 to 3 grams. Alstonia Constrieta. N. Australian Fever Bark. — o. The bark of Al- stonia constrieta; Apocynacece. — h\ Australia. — ». In quills or troughs of various lengths, usually about 15 to 20 cm. long, the bark itself being up to 6 mm. thick ; the outer surface usually is covered with a rough, fissured, spongy and friable corky layer, which is grayish-brown with ash-gray patches or occasionally almost the entire surface is whitish-gray ; some- times the corky layer is covered with li- chens and in a small proportion of the pieces it is altogether wanting ; the inner surface is superficially dark-brown, often splintery or coarsely fibrous and torn, showing light orange-brown in the interior parts of the bark ; the fracture is fibrous and splintery ; a smooth-cut transverse section of a piece previously soaked in water is, as in the illustration, with rather dark-brown mottled cork, bright-yellow middle bark and the inner bark with numerous dark- colored short tangentially stretched clusters arranged in longer tangential rows ; odor faint and taste in- tensely bitter. — c. Bitter taste is probably due to an alkaloid, alstonine. — u. Used for similar purposes as Cinchona, as a bitter tonic and anti-periodic. Dose : 5 to 10 grams, best in fluid extract. A Similar Drug is IMta Bark, the bark of Alstonia scholaris; Apocynacece. This drug is obtained in the 356 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Philippine Islands. In thick troughs quills or partial of various lengths from 5 to 20 cm. long; the corky layer is rough, fissured, leather-brown, fre- quently marked with black spots; the inner surface is brownish - gray and striated lengthwise ; the fracture is short and hard, yellow- ish- brown or leather-colored, the inner bark being obscurely tangential] y stri- ated on section; no odor, bitter taste« — c. A peculiar bitter principle ditain, an alkaloid ditamine, etc. — u. Used for similar purposes as Alsto- nia constricta, but probably less active. GROU P XLS I i The barks of this group are characterized by a more or less distinctly checkered or quadratically marked striation. This marking is due to an arrangement of bast cells similar to that which gives the barks of the previous group the tangential marking, but in addi- NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY, 357 tion to this, the medullary rays and bast portions of the fibrovascular bundles which give barks of Group XLI the radial striation are also well marked, and these two features together result in a distinctly quadratically checkered striation. Thin, tough quills, glossy greenish or yel- lowish-brown outer surface ; bitter astrin- gent taste Saiix. Flat, pale brownish-white pieces with corky layer removed ; mucilaginous taste. mums. Large, flat pieces or troughs, reddish- brown externally; fibrous fracture; acrid taste Quillaja. Brittle pieces or small quills, externally yellowish-gray, inner surface somewhat darker; often with conchoidal depres- sions externally Granatnm. Quills or troughs, cork warty, ash-gray, or wanting; fracture splintery, coarsely fibrous Fraxiiiiis. Large troughs or flat pieces, smooth, dark- brown and mottled on outer surface; bork generally absent. (Page 353) Jugians. Salix. N. Willow Bark. — o. The bark of Salix alba and other varieties of \\,t: &BB Salix; Salicacece.— H.Europe and Isorth America. — 1>. Thin, tough, flexible quills, - or irregular pieces " m || varying in thickness from J to 2 mm., the bark from the trunk *mw X n t n co ° sider f ly JUi :. ESS thicker ; outer surf ace glossy greenish-gray to grayish or yellowish-brown, 358 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. with a greenish layer under the thin outer bark; the corky ]ayer sometimes slightly warty, in older barks occasionally silver-gray from lichenous patches ; the inner surface smooth and pale cinnamon-brown, or sometimes slightly reddish, peeling off in thin, finely fibrous liber sheets; fracture tough and fibrous; on transverse section the striation appears quadratically checkered; no odor; astringent and bitter taste. — c» Salicin, 1 to 3 per cent; tannin 10 to 12 per cent. — u. Tonic, astringent, slightly febrifuge. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. Ulmns. N.Elm Bark, Slippery Elm Bark. — o. The inner bark of Ulmusfulva; Urticaced, — h. United States. — 1>. In flat, flexible pieces or troughs of various sizes up to J meter or more in length and up to 1 or 2 decimeters in width, but usually smaller; about 3 mm. thick ; the outer bark is removed so that both outer and inner surfaces are of the same color, pale brownish-white, the inner sur- face slightly ridged longitudinally; fracture tough and very fibrous, mealy; a smooth-cut transverse section shows delicate quadratic markings due to tangential liber and radiating medullary rays ; odor faint and taste insipidly mucilaginous. — c. Mucilage.— u. Dem- ulcent and emollient. Dose, ad libitum, of the mucil- age. Powdered slippery elm bark is said to be some- times adulterated with corn meal, which can be detected by aid of a microscope. Quillaja. BT. Soap Bark, Quillaja. — o. The inner bark of Quillaja Saponaria; Rosacece. — h. Chili and Peru. — NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 359 B. In large, flat pieces or shallow troughs, the bark itself about 4 to 8 mm. thick; the outer surface, de- prived of its bork, is brownish- white, with occasional patches of reddish- brown corky layer, the inner surface is pale brownish-white, ||J: - ; iJt^Sjff and the interior of the bark on fresh fracture is nearly^ white. The structure is woody and fibrous, fracture coarsely splintery, with pale brownish bast fibers with adherent white tissue and glistening from oxalate of calcium crystals; a smooth- cut transverse section is delicately quadratically striated or checkered; odor none, taste persistently acrid. — c« About 9 per cent saponin. — ij c The powder is sternutatory. Internally administered it is stimu- lant and diuretic. Dose : 1 to 2 grams in infusion. Fraxinng . X, White Ash Bark. — o. The bark of Fraxinus Americana; Fraxinece. — h. North America. — ed. Quills or troughs, the bark itself up to 5 mm. thick ; outer bark or corky layer ash-gray and warty, but often removed; inner surface smooth and yellowish- white; fracture coarsely fibrous and splintery, a smooth-cut section showing quadratically checkered appearance ; odor aromatic, weak ; taste acrid bitter. — €. Glucoside, bitter principle, etc. ; analysis incom- plete. — tu. Diuretic, uterine tonic and emmenagogue. Dose : 0.5 to 1 gram. Jugians. — Stem bark is usually tangentially striated with the radiating markings obscure, but the bark of the root, which in its coarse appearance closely re- sembles that of the stem, except that it is often much 360 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. thicker, is usually quadratically checkered, with both tangential and radial striae very plain, especially if a thin section is examined while being cleared in solu- tion of potassa under the microscope, less so when totally cleared. Oranatnm. — While most pieces of this bark show no striation, a few may be met with in which quadratic markings are delicately but distinctly shown. The bark may, therefore, sometimes be looked for in this group. For full description, however, see the next group. GROUP XLIV. While a finished and cleared section of a bark of this group will show the same general structure that is observed in barks in general, yet in a smooth-cut section examined by reflected light the appearance is rather uniform, both in color and texture, and even in the few barks in which there are clusters of pecu- liar cells these are not arranged in any manner to suggest striation. Heavy, long, flattish pieces or troughs, the bark up to 15 mm. thick, reddish-brown Coto. Similar to above, rust-brown, outer surface fissured and shrunken Paracoto. Narrow, brittle fragments, shaved from twigs, about 1 mm. thick, whitish wood ad- hering to inner surface. Prinos. Irregular pieces or troughs, outer surface grayish-brown with transverse warts, or reddish- brown patches where grayish- brown cork is detached Hamamelidis Cortex. Troughs or quills, up to 30 cm. long, younger bark mottled, older with rough cork .Cascara. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 361 Thin bark in rolled quills, exter- nally grayish-brown to black- ish-brown with small trans- verse whitish cork-warts, in- ner surface brownish-yellow . . Franguia. Thin quills or troughs, glossy purplish-brown with scattered WartS and blackish dots Viburnum Prunif . Quills or troughs, brownish-gray with whitish patches, marked with minute black dots and scattered small spines Xanthoxyinm. k. Quills or flattish pieces, brown- ish-gray with many large con- ical projections Xanthoxylum. S. Irregular pieces or troughs, ex- ternally brown and rough from warts; inner surface pale brownish-yellow Chionanthus. Brittle pieces or small quills, ex- ternally yellowish-gray, inner surface somewhat darker; often with conchoidal depres- sions externally Granatum. Irregular pieces, outer surface marbled or grained, fragile, soft, rust-brown; character- istic taste and odor Sassafras. Irregular pieces, outer surface pale yellowish-brown with lighter spots, inner surface smooth and brownish-yellow ; fracture abrupt, almost waxy.pteiea. Cot©. Hi. Coto Bark. — o. The bark of some unknown South American tree. — h. Bolivia. — ». In flattish pieces or troughs 0.2 to 0.3 meters long, the bark it- self being from 5 to 15 mm. thick ; or in irregular 362 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. pieces; outer surface reddish-brown, inner surface somewhat darker colored ; fracture granular in outer layer, coarsely fibrous in bast portion of bark; a transverse section shows numerous golden-yellow clusters of sclerenchyma cells, but no striation ; the odor is aromatic, reminding of cardamom, camphor, cajeput-oil with a faint trace of cinnamon ; taste pun- gent aromatic and slightly bitter. — c. A bitter acrid p rinciple called co- toin, several resins, vola- tile oil, etc. — u. Highly recommend- ed as a rem- edy for acute and chronic diarrhoeas, dysentery, etc. Dose : 0.06 t o 1 gram. A spurious coto bark, called Para- cot© Bark, is also used. Its origin is also un- known, but it is proba- bly the bark of a variety COTO - of Nectan- dra. — h. Bolivia. — s>. In flat pieces of uniform rust-brown color on all surfaces, up to 15 or rarely 20 mm. thick, the bast being about two-thirds of the NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 363 entire thickness; the outer surface is transversely fissured and shrunken in length so that the bast pro- jects somewhat in the manner shown in Saigon cin- namon ; the bast is coarsely fibrous, striate on the inner surface ; a smooth transverse section shows a continuous tangential line of light-yellow scleren- chyma cells under the cork, and numerous irregu- larly scattered clusters of similar cells throughout the bast portion, giving the latter a speckled or dotted appearance, but without any distinct arrangement in rows ; a smooth longitudinal cut shows these clusters as short longitudinal lines; the odor is nutmeg-like. — r. In action this bark is similar to, but weaker than the genuine coto bark, although it is maintained by some writers that most, if not all, of the coto bark now in the trade is in reality paracoto bark. Prinos. K. Black Alder Bark. — o. The bark of Prinos ver~ ticillatus; Aquifoliacecz. — h. United States and Canada. — ». In thin, narrow^ brittle fragments, about 1 mm. thick, seldom more than 10 or 12 mm. wide and about 5 to 6 cm. long ; the pieces of bark show 7 that they w T ere shaved from the twigs with knives, the edges being thin and the middle of the pieces thick- est, with often shreds of whitish wood adhering ; the outer surface is brownish-gray or ash-gray, with lighter-colored irregular patches and darker-colored 364 NOTE)S ON PHARMACOGNOSY. dots and lines and often with patches of light-gray lichens ; the inner surface is pale-green, except where the whitish shreds of wood are attached; fracture abrupt, showing no striation in bast, but usually showing a fissure between the outer and inner bark, the corky layer separating readily even in the whole bark, with a tendency to curl the edges outward ; a section when partly cleared, shows distinct radial lines or medullary rays, but when completely cleared these are indistinct; in a section cleared with liquor potassse the corky layer is brownish with a narrow layer of yellow cells underneath, then some paren- chyma of the middle bark, often torn, then the inner bark radially striate, with large clusters of yellow bast-cells in its outer portion ; nearly inodorous, taste bitter and astringent. — c. An unnamed amorphous bitter principle, resin, tannin, etc. — u. Astringent, bitter tonic. Dose : 2 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract. Hamamelidis Cortex. X. Hamamelis Bark, Witchhazel Bark. — o. The bark of young branches of Hamamelis Virginiana; Hamamelidece \ — h. North America. — j>. In irregu- larly quilled and bent pieces, or troughs, about 8 to 10 mm. wide and 1 to 1.5 mm. thick; outer surface smooth grayish-brown, with transverse warts, or red- dish-brown with detached patches of darker-colored grayish-brown cork, dotted with scattered blackish NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 365 mm mm il i warts ; or occasionally the cork is rub- bed off from the warts, when they ap- pear lighter than the general surface ; inner surface paler brown, slightly striate and with small elevated dots ; the fracture abrupt or faintly tough in the bast of older pieces of bark ; a section examined under the micro- scope shows faint tangential striation which is not seen with the naked eye ; the odor is faint but peculiar, and CASCARA ROOT BARK. taste astringent. — c. About 8 p. c. tannin. — u. Tonic astringent. Has been recommended as a remedy to prevent miscarriage, and locally as an application to wounds, bruises, hemorrhoids, etc. Dose : 2 to 4 grams. Rhamnns Piirsliiana. N. Cascara, Cascara Sagrada, Chit- tem Bark. — o. The bark of Rhamnus Purshiana; Rhatnnacecz. — H. West- 366 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. ern parts of United States, especially the region of the "Rocky Mountains. — ». Thin, brittle troughs or quills, from 2 to 20 cm. long, the bark itself about 2 mm. thick ; in quite young bark the outer surface is mottled as shown in one of the drawings, the dark parts being nearly black, the light parts whitish or ash-colored, with intermediate shades of brown; in older barks the contrast is not so marked, the entire surface appearing brownish-gray, although the pecu- liar figuring is often present ; the inner surface is yel- lowish-brown to orange-brown when fresh, but dark- ening to a uniform brown with age. The root bark is thicker, darker, irregularly twisted or bent, and with a thick rough external bark, as shown in the smaller drawing. All thicker pieces are somewhat fibrous in fracture in the bast portion. Odorless, taste bitter, and the bark stains the saliva yellow upon being chewed. — c. Three different resins, tannin, etc. No isolated active principle. — u. Valuable tonic laxative in chronic constipation. Dose : 5 to 10 grams, best in fluid extract or other fluid form. Frangnla. N. Buckthorn Bark. — o. The bark of Rhamnus Frangula; Rhamnacece. — h. Europe. — jd. Quills or ' -.V; V troughs, about the thickness of a little finger, consist- ing of bark from J to 1 mm. thick ; outer surface dull NOTES OX PHARMACOGOSY, 367 grayish or blackish-brown, with many small whitish, sometimes transversely elongated cork -warts; the external layer or epidermis can be easily detached and shows a purplish color on its inner surface; the inner surface of the bark is smooth, orange or reddish-brown, or dark-brown in older bark; frac- ture brittle, showing short fibers in the inner or bast- portion; odor weak, but peculiar, and the taste sweetish-bitter. — c. Frangulin, which is a yellow, odorless and tasteless glucoside; emodin, etc.; on chewing the bark it colors the saliva yellow. — u. Mild purgative ; when fresh, it is very violent in its action and therefore it must be kept for at least a year before it is used. Dose : 2 to 10 grams, best as fluid extract. Viburnum Frunif oliimi. M". Black Haw. — ©. The bark of Viburnum pruni- folium; Caprifoliacecz. — h. United States. — ». Thin fragments or quills, externally glossy purplish-brown, with scattered warts and minute black dots ; bark from older branches is grayi3h-brown ; the thin outer bark separates easily from the greenish middle bark; the inner surface is smooth and of grayish-white color; fracture abrupt; odor slight or none, and taste bitter and somewhat astringent. — c. Valerianic acid, bitter principle viburnin, resin, tannin, etc. — v. 368 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Used to prevent abortion or miscarriage ; it is also used in uterine derangements, as dysmenorrhcea, etc. Dose : 5 to 10 grams, best as fluid extract. Xanthoxylum . N. Prickly Ash Bark. — o. The barks of Xanthoxy- lurn Americanum and X, Clava-Hercujiis ; Rutacecz. -— H. United States; X. Amer., in Northern and Cen- tral States, and X. Cl.-H. y in Southern States. — ». Northern variety: Quills or troughs or irregular pieces, the bark itself about 1 mm. thick; the outer surface is brownish-gray with whitish patches and minute black dots, and some few glossy brown two-edged spines up to 5 mm. long; the inner surface smooth and whitish; fracture abrupt, the broken surface appar- ently of uniform texture, but greenish in the outer and yellowish in the inner layers ; no odor ; taste bit- terish and very pungent. — ». Southern variety: Re- sembles the former in general appearance and taste, but is up to 2 mm. thick and on the outer surface NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 369 there are many large conical corky projections, some- Jragrruud entcuytcL Z/$~ yC times up to 2 cm. high, and some stout spines rising from a corky base. Northern Prickly Ash Bark has already been mentioned in Group XLI, because its section shows distinct radial striation, but it is described here with the fre- quently used Southern bark. The figures illustrate the crude appearance of Southern Prickly Ash Bark, and transverse section of the same. — c. An acrid green oil, acrid soft resin, bitter principle, tannin, etc. — u. Stimulant, sialagogue, alterative and emmenagogue. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. The bark of Aralia spinosa may be mistaken for that of Xanthoxylum (especially for the Northern variety), but it is nearly smooth externally, with transverse rows of slender prickles. C tiioiianthus. N. Fringe Tree Bark. — o. The bark of the root of Chionanthus Vir- ginica; Olcacecz. — h. United States. — ». Irregular, either tortuous or nearly straight troughs and pieces averaging from 2.5 to 10 cm. in length and 1 to 2.5 cm. in width, the bark 370 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. itself being 2 to 5 mm. thick; the external sur- face is of a brown color, rough, marked by warts, trans- verse ridges and irregular scars; the inner surface is pale brownish-yellow and finely striate; fracture brittle, the broken surface nearly white, the trans- verse section showing scattered brownish spots of bast-cell bundles, but no distinct striation; the odor is faint, reminding of rancid cacao butter ; the taste is bitter. — c. No accurate analysis has been made, but saponin has been found. — u. Said to be alterative, aperient and diuretic. Dose : 2 to 8 grams, best as fluid extract. Granatum. N. Pomegranate, Pomegranate Bark. — o. The bark of the stem and root of Punica Granatum; Grana- tacece' — h. Grows wild in Northern Africa and Southern Asia and Europe; cultivated in all sub-tropical coun- tries. — ». The root bark occurs in troughs, more rarely in quills, up to 10 cm, long, the bark itself being about 1 mm. thick ; externally it is grayish-yellow or brownish-gray , fine- ly wrinkled (when young) or fissured and warty or scaly (when from older roots), but free from lichenous growths; the corky layer is com- paratively thick and frequently marked with conchoidal depressions due to sphacelation from secondary suber, or if these sphacelated por- tions have not yet become detached the external surface appears scaly; the inner surface is smooth, finely striate, grayish-yellow ; fracture abrupt, brownish-yellow, generally of uniform finely NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 371 granular texture, more rarely showing indistinct check- ered or even radial markings; no odor, taste bitter. The bark of the stem is similar to that of the root, except that it occurs more frequently in quills, and has a less abundant cork-formation ; it is moreover often marked, and often nearly covered on its exter- nal surface with lichenous patches. — c. Its action is supposed to be due mainly to an oily liquid alkaloid, pelletierine ; it contains also three other allied alka- loids, about 20 per cent of punico-tannic acid, etc. — U. Anthelmintic and taenicide. Dose: 5 to 15 grains in decoction. Sassafras has already been aescribed, but the bast portion of many of the pieces, especially when the dry bark is broken, appear on transverse section to be of a uniform texture, so that the bark might also be looked for here. For description see Group XLI. Ptelea or Wafer Ash has already been described in Group XLI; many pieces, however, break or cut with a peculiar almost waxy fracture and show uniform texture on the broken surfaces, so that the drug may sometimes be looked for here. GROUP XLV. This group comprises only one bark, that of White Oak, which rarely or never comes into the drug-trade except coarsely ground or rasped. An irregularly coarse, grayish-brown powder mixed with many tough coarse fibers Qnereiis Alba. Querous Alba. M. White Oak Bark. — o. The bark of Quercus alba; Cupuliferce. — h. United States. — i>. The barks of various kinds of oaks are gathered and used in the . tanning industry. As brought into trade for this pur- pose they are massive pieces, often a meter or two in 372 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. length and with the coarse bork attached. White oak bark when prepared for the drug trade, is freed from the bork, and is then in coarse flat pieces, the bark itself about 5 mm. thick, pale brown, the inner surface with sharp projecting longitudinal ridges; fracture tough and coarsely fibrous; a smooth-cut section shows quadratically checkered markings. As found in the drug trade, however, this bark is always coarsely ground, torn or rasped, so that it appears as an irregular powder, mixed with a mass of tough, coarse fibers, or vice versa, as coarse fibers with some coarse powder intermixed ; the odor is faintly tan- like, taste strongly astringent. — c. From 5 to 15 per cent of a peculiar variety of tannic acid, quercitannic acid ; younger bark contains proportionally more of this principle than does the older bark. — u. Astrin- gent; the infusion is mainly employed externally as an injection in leucorrhcea, etc. ; as a gargle in pha- ryngitis, and as a mouth-wash for spongy and bleed- ing gums. Black Oak Bark (from Quercus tinctoria) colors the saliva yellow, which the official bark does not. This bark should not be employed, as its decoction or in- fusion, when used for instance as an injection in leucorrhcea, would stain the clothing. GROUP XLVI. LEAF BUDS. We have already learned that some authors include under the group of leaf buds such structures as bulbs, corms and even tubers ; these structures are better separated from leaf buds, and have already been de- scribed under their appropriate groups, XXX to XXXIII, inclusive. We speak here only of true leaf buds, to which no part of the stem is attached, or of which at least the stem does not form a part. In Latin these structures are called "Gemmae." NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 373 Long, tapering, scaly leaf buds, brown and covered externally with Sticky resin Popnli Gemmae. Popiili Gemmae. Poplar Buds. — o. The buds of Populus nigra; Salicacecz. — h. Europe. — i>. The draw- ing shows the appearance and size of these buds better than words could do ; they are dark-brown, wrinkled, and covered with a sticky resinous exudation ; odor balsamic and terebinthinate, taste bitterish, bal- samic and somewhat pungent. — c. Resin, volatile oil, with probably small quantities of the balsamic acids. — u. Poplar buds are used in combination with other substances for making some of the popular cough preparations, in which they probably act similar to tolu, etc. ; used also in preparing ointments, to which the buds im- part some ingredient which prevents the fats from be- coming rancid. The buds of the North American plant, Populus balsamifera, are used in a similar manner as those from the black poplar. leaves. The student is supposed to have acquired a knowl- edge of the nature of leaves and of their forms and structure from his reading some work on botany, or from the lectures on that subject. There are some characteristics, however, which are of especial im- portance to pharmacognocists and which must be mentioned here. Leaves are covered by an epider- mis, which usually has more stomata on the under side than on the upper side ; it is also often thicker, as well as smoother, on the upper side than on the under; on section it is seen that cells are crowded closely against the upper epidermis, while they are separated by large intercellular spaces in the lower 374 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. part of the leaf, these intercellular spaces communi- cating with the outer air by means of the breathing pores (stomata). As the "palisade" cells of the upper layer of the leaf also contain more clorophyll bodies, the upper surface shows a deeper green color, while the under side is often made to look still paler by the innumerable small hairs, which grow by prefer- ence on the under side of leaves. The illustration shows diagramatically a section of a part of a leaf, as well as a portion of epidermis. When ground or broken leaves are to be examined, the epidermis and its cells, the shapes and distribu- tion of the stomata, the presence or absence, as the case may be, of trichomes (outgrowths of the epider- mis, as glands, hairs, scales, etc.), and the appear- ance of the latter constitute the characteristics by which a determination is made, but when whole leaves are examined their shapes are described as in works of botany. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 375 Leaves may be divided into coriaceous and herba- ceous leaves, and while this division is not always dis- tinct, nevertheless it will be found to be of practical convenience; in a few drugs, however, some lots will appear to be of one kind, and other lots resemble more the other kind, as is the case occasionally in coca, chestnut leaves, etc. Leaves are coriaceous or leathery when the epider- mis is thickened and hardened and the skeleton or frame-work of fibro-vascular bundles is more or less lignified, so that the leaf retains its shape and size on drying. Herbaceous leaves, on the other hand, are those in which the epidermis and skeleton both are soft and succulent, so that the leaf shrinks in every direction on drying, in length, width and thickness, so that it becomes much crumpled, often much broken and torn, and sometimes considerably reduced in size ; such leaves may be softened by steaming, when they are to be examined, as they can then be flattened out easily and their forms shown. Some leaves are pellucid-punctate from numerous glands (really intercellular spaces in their interior) filled with volatile oil, which appear as translucent dots on looking through the leaf at some bright light, or at the sun. Most leaves become brownish on drying, so that the color is rarely a pure green in the drugs ; moreover the extractive matters in the parenchyma of the leaves are usually dark-brown, so that even in green- ish leaves this brown coloring material preponderates over the green chlorophyll, and extracts or tinctures from leaves are usually brown. Leaves may be grouped as follows : f Coriaceous < X Compound . . .48. Leaves < p . Herbaceous i „ _ [Compound . . 50. 376 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. It must be remembered, however, that flowering tops consist mainly of leaves, and some drugs which are supposed to consist of leaves alone are often ter- minal twigs with leaves and occasionally flowers or even immature fruits ; especially is this the case with the narcotic herbs, as belladonna, aconite leaves, etc., and so commonly and regularly was it the case with hyoscyamus that now the Pharmacopoeia defines this drug to be "the leaves and flowering tops." Some leaves are sometimes found in the trade as leaves alone, but more frequently as leafy twigs, and a few of these have been already described as "leafy branches" in Group XXXIV; mention of these is, however, also made under the appropriate groups of leaves. GROUP XLYII. SIMPLE CORIACEOUS LEAVES. Scythe-shaped, 15 to 30 cm. long, mar- gin entire ; grayish-green Eucalyptus Koundish-obovate, about 15 mm. long, margin crenate or serrate ; yellowish- green; pellucid-punctate, with a gland at each serration Bnchu (short) . Slender linear-lanceolate leaves, about 3 to 4 cm. long, margin serrate; otherwise like the preceding Bucim (long). Obovate or oblong spatulate, 15 to 20 mm. long, margin entire; lower sur- face reticulate ; brownish-green .... uva Ursi. Variable in size and shape, ovate, obovate-oblong to lanceolate, 2 to 7 cm. long, margin entire; green to brownish; with a curved line on each side of the midrib . Coca. Obovate to oblong, 10 to 25 mm. long, margin with 2 to 6 dentations on each side ; light-green Damiana, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 377 Ovate-oblong, to 5 cm. long, with long petiole, margin finely crenulate; whitish to grayish-green, downy. . . .salvia, Eolled into small balls or cylinders ; grayish-green, bluish-green to black- ish Thea. Oblong or oblong-lanceolate, acute at both ends, 5 to 10 cm. long, margin en- tire, somewhat wavy ; pellucid-punc- tate; brownish or brownish-green.. .Lauras. Broadly oval, about 5 cm. long, mar- gin entire; rough on both sides, glossy on upper and hairy on under surface ; brownish-green Boidus. Linear, about 25 mm. long, margin revolute; dark-green above, whitish woolly, glandular, with promineut midrib underneath Rosmarinus. Lanceolate, short-petiolate, 7 to 10 cm. long, to 25 mm. broad, margin entire and somewhat wavy; thin, smooth, and often with scars from insects. Dnboisia. Ovate, petiolate, about 5 cm. long, mar- ginentire; thick, glaucous, pale-green, Manzanita. Koundish-oval or obovate, about 4 cm. long, 2 or more cm. broad, margin slightly serrate with appressed spic- ular teeth; smooth, glossy, green or brownish-green Gauitheria. Oblanceolate, about 5 cm. long, mar- gin serrate at apex and nearly en- tire near base ; smooth, dark- green. cmmaphiia. Oblong-lanceolate, 5 to 10 cm. long, margin irregularly dentate ; green- ish or brown; upper surface smooth and covered with brownish resin, lower surface white-hairy Eriodyction. 378 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Eucalyptus. Br. Eucalyptus. — ©. The leaves of Eucalyptus glob- ulus; Myrtace<%. Only the leaves from the older parts of the tree should be used, as those from the younger branches are comparatively worthless. — NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 379 H. Indigenous to Australia, but now cultivated in all subtropical countries. — ». This drug has already been mentioned under Group XXXIV, leafy twigs, as it comes into trade in that shape in the bales ; but as it is usually garbled before reaching the retail dealer, the latter obtains it as leaves alone, and therefore its description has been postponed to this place. The leaves are petiolate, lanceolate scythe- shaped, from 15 to 30 cm. long, more or less rounded at the base, tapering at apex, margin entire, coriace- ous, pellucid-punctate or glandular, grayish-green; a leaf from the older parts of the tree is represented in half natural size in the illustration; odor strongly camphoraceous and the taste pungently aromatic, bitter and astringent, leaving a cooling taste in the mouth. A leaf from the younger branches is repre- sented in figure (£), also half natural size ; such leaves are ovate, faintly cordate at base, rounded or only slightly pointed at apex, bluish-green, thinner and less glandular than the scythe-shaped leaves, but otherwise similar except that they are far less active medicinally, for which reason they should not be used. In the bales twigs and unopened buds, of which latter one is figured (c), are generally present, though absent in the garbled drug as it reaches the retail pharmacist. — c. About 6 per cent volatile oil, some tannin, resin, etc. — u. Stimulant tonic, stom- achic, blennorrhetic, diaphoretic and diuretic; by some esteemed to be febrifuge. Dose: 1 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract. The volatile oil is used as an antiseptic. Bacilli. K. Buchu. — o. The leaves of Barosma betulina and B. crenulata; Rutace. There are two trade varieties of this drug, short and long, of which the former is the best and the kind recognized in the Pharmacopoeia, although the long is the higher-priced variety. Short buchu is 380 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. composed of leaves about 15 mm. long, roundish- obovate with somewhat wedge-shaped base, or vary- ing between oval and obovate, obtuse at apex, mar- gin crenate or serrate, leaves rather thick, dull yellowish-green, pellucid-punctate, with a gland at each indentation ; odor and taste strongly mintlike, aromatic, pungent and bitterish. — c. One to 1 J per cent volatile oil, etc.; the oil is the active constituent. — u. Stimulant diuretic. Dose : 1 to 2 grams, best in fluid extract. Long Buclui is obtained from B. serratifolia; the leaves are 3 to 4 cm. long, thin, slender, lanceolate, green, less leathery but otherwise similar to short buchu. Long buchu is often mixed with the leaves of Empleururn serruiatum, which are narrower and without oil-glands at the extreme apex. The illustrations are as follows: A, leaf of Barosma crenulata, natural size, and a, the same enlarged ; B, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY, 381 leaf of B. betulina, natural size, and b, the same en- larged; (7, leaf of B. serratifolia, natural size; £>, leaf of Empleurum serrulatum, natural size, and d, apex of same, enlarged; E, leaf of Barosma crenata, which sometimes constitutes part of the drug. Uva Ursi. jr. Uva Ursi, Bearberry Leaves. — ©. The leaves of Arctostaphylos Uva Ursi; Ericacece. — h. Northern Europe and America. — ». Short-petioled, obovate or oblong-spatulate, 15 to 20 mm. long and 5 to 8 mm. broad,, apex obtuse, margin entire and slightly revolute, upper surface with veins depressed, lower surface distinctly reticu- late, brownish-green to brown; odor faint and taste strongly astringent and some- what bitter. — c. About 6 per cent tannin, arbutin, etc. — u. Astringent, diuretic and nephritic; especially esteemed in kidney and bladder troubles. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, in infusion or fluid extract. Coca, N. Coca Leaves, Cucha Leaves. — O. The leaves of Erythroxylon Coca; ErythroxylecB. — H. Peru and Bolivia; cultivated.— ». From 2.5 to 7.5 cm. long, short-petioled, closely net-veined on both sides, with a thick midrib on both sides of which there is a more or less distinctly marked curved line (not connected with the venation) run- ning from the base to the apex, margin entire, greenish to green- ish-brown or even brown in color, with faint tea-like odor and bitterish aromatic taste. The leaves of the Bolivian variety are smaller than the 382 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Peruvian, but are said to be richer in cocaine. — c. Cocaine, etc. — u. Stimulant, resembling coffee in action. Said to be a general excitant. Dose : 1 to 5 grams, chewed, or in infusion or fluid extract. Cocaine is a local anaesthetic also ; used as a stim- ulant and intoxicant by so-called "cocaine-fiends," to whom the habitual use of this drug proves as de- structive as the opium or hashish habits do to their respective votaries. Damiana. jr. Damiana. — o. The leaves of Turnera aphro- disiaca, T. microphilla, and perhaps other varieties of Turnera; Turneracece. — h. Mexico and lower California. — ». The form and size of the leaves are well shown in the drawings. Variable, short-peti- oled, obovate or oblong, apex somewhat obtuse, base wedge-shaped and margin with three to six teeth on each side, veins prominent beneath, light-green, nearly smooth, often much broken and crumbled; odor agreeably aromatic and taste slightly aromatic. Mexican Damiana consists of small smooth leaves (#, b and c, in the illustrations), and California Damiana consists of larger and broader leaves with redundant margin (fig. d). — c. Volatile oil and resin. — U. Generally reported to be a valuable aphrodisiac. Stimulant, tonic and diuretic. Dose : 5 to 10 grams in fluid extract. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY, 383 False Damiana consists of the leaves of Aplopap- pus (or Haplopappus) discoideus (Composite), which are frequently sold as Damiana. Figure e, shows ap- pearance and size. About 2 to 3 cm. long, oblance- olate, with from one to three dentations on each side, rough, and minutely dotted; frequently mixed with the flower-heads (or with parts of same, involucre, florets and hairy pappus) of the same plant. The odor and taste of False Damiana differs from that of the genuine drug, and resemble more those of Grin- delia. These leaves contain resin, but lack the aroma of true Damiana, and when present must be consid- ered as adulteration Salvia. M. Sage. — o. The leaves of Salvia officinalis ; La- biates. — h:. Culti- vated. — 1>. With long petiole, ovate- oblong, about 5 cm. long, base rounded, apex obtuse or sub- acute, margin deli- cately crenulate, thick, somewhat wrinkled, grayish- green, soft-hairy and gl an dulous on under side; odor aromatic, taste aromatic, bitter, somewhat astringent. Wild, gray, thick sage is considered the best ("Italian Sage"). — c. Volatile oil, some resin, tannin, etc. — u. Stimulant, astrin- gent and vulnerary. Dose : 2 to 5 grams in infusion. The infusion is a popular gargle for sore throat, etc. Thea. X. Tea. — o. The leaves of Thea Chinensis {Sinen- sis); Ternstroemiacecz. According to Hayne there 384 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. are three distinct varieties of this plant : Thea Bokea, T. viridis and T. stricta, distinguished by shape of - leaves and fruits. — ». In the trade these leaves are found rolled into little balls or cylinders, varying in size, and in color from bluish-green to blackish. The leaves themselves, when unfolded after steaming or infusing, are found to be short-petiolate, oval to oblong-lanceolate, 25 to 75 mm. long, about half as broad, acute at both ends, margin serrate, smooth or slightly hairy and glandular along the veins on the under side ; odor peculiar and taste astringent and bitterish. The drawing of a whole leaf shows size, shape and venation of a large leaf and the other drawings show a portion of the epidermis of the under side (a) and a section of the leaf (b) with the peculiar sclerenchyma cells in its interior. — c. Vola- NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 385 tile oil, up to 3 or 4 per cent of theine (identical with caffeine), up to 20 per cent tannin, etc. — u. Stimu- lant, nervine and astringent. Mainly used in infusion as a drink, the habitual and excessive use of which may produce nervous and digestive derangements. Tea is commercially divided into a number of varieties, which may, however, be broadly grouped as black and green teas. These varieties are ob- tained from the same plant, the differences depending on size and age of leaves, time of gath- ering, mode of preparing, as well as on peculiarities of soil and climate. In the following lists the names of these vari- eties are given in the order of quality, beginning with the finest, made from the tender leaf-buds, down to the coarsest, from the hard and woody ex- panded leaves. Black Teas ; with leaves usually merely rolled into cyl- inders; var.: Flowery pekoe, orange pekoe, pekoe, pekoe souchong, souchong, congon, bohea. Green Teas; with leaves usu- ally rolled into balls or twisted cylinders, and generally colored green artificially; var.: Gun- powder, imperial, hyson, young hyson, hyson skin, caper. Green teas are considered better or more fragrant, but they contain more tannin and are therefore more astringent. Adulteration with other leaves i 386 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. can be determined by infusing the leaves and then spreading out and comparing the suspected leaves with the known shape and structure of the genuine leaves. Laurus. US'. Laurel Leaves, Bay Leaves. — o. Leaves of Laurus nobilis; Lauracecz. — H.Europe. — i>.The figure shows size and venation ; short petiole, oblong or ob- long-lanceolate, acute at both ends, about 7 to 10 cm. long, margin entire and somewhat wavy, finely veined on under side, pellucid-punctate, green- ish-brown to brownish, odor agreeably aromatic and taste bitterish. — c. Volatile oil, some bitter substance, tannin, etc. — U. Employed as a flavor- ing in cooking. Boldus. I*. Boldo, Boldo Leaves. — o.The leaves of Peumus Boldus; Mo- nimiacecz. — h. Chili, cul- tivated. — d. Broadly boldus. oval, about 5 cm. long, margin entire, rough on both sides from raised glands, glossy on upper and hairy on under surfaces, brownish-green to reddish-brown; disagreeably fra- grant and pungently aromatic and bitter. — c. About 2 per cent volatile oil, tV per cent of the alkaloid bol- dine, some aromatic resin, tannin, etc. — u. Stimulant nervine, excitant; also useful in inflammations of genito-urinary organs, in hepatic affections, etc. Dose: 0.1 to 0.5 gram, best in fluid extract. Rosmarinus. N. Rosemary Leaves. Rosemary. — o. The leaves NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 387 of Rosmarinus officinalis ; Labiatce. — h. Cultivated — ». Linear, nearly- sessile, about 2 to 3 cm. long, 1.5 to 3 rum. broad, margin entire and slightly revolute, dark-green above, whitish wool- ly, glandular and with prominent mid- rib underneath; odor cam: phoraceous, taste strongly aromatic. — c. Volatile oil and bitter extractive. — u. Stimulant, diuretic, diapho- retic, carminative and em- menagogue. Dose : 1 gram or more in infusion. Duboisia. X. Duboisia Leaves. — o. The leaves of Duboisia my- oporoides; Solanacece. — h. Australia. — ». Short-petio- late, broadly lanceolate, about 7 to 10 cm. long, 20 to 30 mm. broad, rather thin, smooth, apex acute, base long and tapering, margin entire and somewhat wavy, midrib coarse and promi- nent, odor slight, but disa- greeable if any, and taste bitter acrid. — c. Duboisine (similar to hyoscyamine or atropine), resin, etc. — u. duboisia. Rarely used except for the manufacture of duboisine. The action is similar to 388 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. that of belladonna, like which it is used. Excito - motor, in large doses narcotic poison, anodyne ; dilates the pupil of the eye. Dose : 0.05 to 0.3 gram in fluid extract. Manzanita. N. Manzanita. — o. The leaves of Arctostaphylos glauca; Ericacece. — H. California. — 1>. Ovate-oblong, or elliptical, petiolate, about 5 cm. long, apex acute, base obtuse, margin entire, thick, hairy, pale-green; without odor, taste astringent and somewhat bitter. — C. Arbutin, about 10 per cent tannin, etc. — u. Used like uva ursi; astringent, diuretic, tonic. Dose: 2 to 8 grams in fluid extract. Oaultberia and China aphila are rarely met with in trade as leaves alone, and for this reason they have already been fully described under Group XXXIV, Leafy Twigs. As garbled lots, consisting of leaves alone may, however, be met with occasionally, they are also mentioned here. Eriodyction is officially and gen- erally described as "leaves" and manzanita. would therefore be looked for here, but as a matter o f fact this drug always consists of twigs with leaves attached, belonging therefore under Group XXXIV, where it has been described and figured. See also the next group. GROUP XLVI II. COMPOUND CORIACEOUS LEAVES. A compound leaf consists of a number of leaflets attached to a midrib ; the drugs mentioned under this group are easily recognized as compound leaves when they come into the trade in bales, but they are some- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 3S9 times carefully garbled and may then be mistaken for simple leaves ; this is especially true of India or Tin- nevelly Senna. Care must be taken not to mistake compound leaves for leafy branches. Whole leaf with 8 to 10 leaflets; leaflets various sizes, 2 to 4 cm. long, lanceo- late, uneven at base, entire, grayish- green Senna. Whole leaf with 5 to 11 leaflets ; leaflets about 10 to 15 cm. long, oval or ovate- oblong, emarginate, uneven at base, margin entire, pellucid-punctate, dull grayish-green Pilocarpus. Senna. H. Senna, Senna Leaves. — o. The leaflets of Cassia acuiifolia (Al- exandria Sen- na) and C. a?i- gustifolia (In- dia Senna); Leguminosce . — H. Africa ; the India Senna is cultivated in In- dia. — i>. There are two trade varieties, known as " Alexandria Senna'' and "India Senna," which must be separately de- scribed : Alex- andria Senna in bales some- times consists of the whole leaf, a midrib with four to five pairs of leaflets, mixed 390 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. with a short and broad legume, and occasionally with other ot foreign leaves. Before using it should be carefully garbled and all foreign substances rejected ; when thus garbled Alexandria senna consists of broadly lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, almost sessile, subcoriaceous leaflets, about 15 to 25 mm. long and up to 10 mm. broad, apex tapering or pointed, base unequally oblique, margin entire, grayish-green and slightly pubescent; odor peculiar, taste nauseous bitter. India Senna generally occurs in trade well garbled, as leaflets alone, lanceolate, from 3 to 5 cm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad, apex acute, base unequally oblique, margin entire, smooth, yellowish-green or dull green; odor peculiar, somewhat tea-like, and taste nauseous bitter and somewhat mucilaginous. C. Cathartic acid, chrysophan, etc. — u. Active, but not acrid cathartic. Dose : 2 to 10 grams in infusion or fluid extract. Alexandria senna (b) is usually considerably broken, mixed with pods, midribs, coarse stems, and with more or less of the leaves of Solenostemma Argel (/) or "Argel leaves ;" it also frequently con- tains leaves from Cassia obovata (c) and sometimes of Tephrosia {d) and Coriaria (e). India senna is much less broken than Alexandria senna. The senna cultivated at Tinnevelly, in East India, is the best kind of India senna ; it consists almost entirely of whole leaflets of good fresh color, and is free from stems, midribs and other admixtures. Alexandria senna leaves, entirely free from admixt- ures, are said to be about 50 per cent more active than India senna, and this is therefore the better variety. But for retail trade, the Tinnevelly senna is preferred on account of its clean and unbroken and therefore more sightly condition (#). Pilocarpus. NT. Pilocarpus, Jaborandi. — o. The leaflets of Pilo- carpus SelLoanus and P. Jaborandi (and also of P. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 391 pinnatifolius); Rutacecz. H. Brazil. — d. In the trade the entire leaf, consisting of midrib with from five to eleven leaf- lets, is often found, often even with a piece of twig attached, as shown in one of the drawings. The JABORANDI. JABOKANDI. leaflets (a) are short-stalked, broadly oval or ovate- oblong, apex obtuse or slightly emarginate or notched, unequal at the base, margin entire and slightly revolute or rolled back on the under surface of the leaflet, smooth, pellucid-punctate, grayish or dull green color ; odor slightly aromatic when bruised and taste somewhat pungent and bitter. — c. The 392 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. alkaloid pilocarpine, volatile oil, etc. — u. Sialagogue JABORANDI. and diaphoretic. Dose : 1 to 5 grams, in infusion or fluid extract. The illustrations show a whole leaf, as it occurs in the drug ; a leaflet (a) natural size, showing vena- tion ; a portion of epidermis of under surface, slightly enlarged, showing gland dots (b); the same more highly enlarged, by reflected light (d) and by trans- mitted light (e). GROUP XLIX. Simple Herbaceous Leaves. An herbaceous leaf has delicate and soit epidermis and the vessels and prosenchyma cells of the skele- ton are but slightly or not at all lignified, so that on NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY, 393 drying it shrinks in every direction, becoming thin- ner and smaller than the growing leaf before gather- ing. In the drugs of this group many leaves are much shrunken and crumpled, so that they must be softened by steaming or infusing before they can be flattened out for examination, and most of them are so much broken that perfectly shaped leaves are not always easily obtained. Hyoscyamns, Maidenhair Fern, Tea, the drugs of Group IX, Flowering Tops, and the Inflorescence of Tilia may easily be mistaken for simple herbaceous leaves, and attention is therefore called to them here. See also introductory remarks to group IX. Broadly ovate, thin, smooth, 5 to 15 cm. long, petiolate, apex taper- ing, margin entire; usually as "tops' ' with two unequal leaves at nodes Belladonna? Folia. Ovate, 10 to 30 cm. long, petiolate, margin crenate, reticulate on under surface, densely hairy Digitalis. Lanceolate, about 10 to 15 cm. long, apex acute, base unequally cordate, margin finely crenulate, under surface with prominent ve- nation and deeply reticulate Matico. Obliquely ovate or oval, about 10 cm. long, short petiolate, margin irregularly sinuate or wavy - toothed, uamamelis. Ovate to oblong lanceolate, acu- minate, petiolate, 15 to 25 cm. long, from 5 to 8 cm. broad, evenly feather-veined, margin serrate Castanea. Ovate, petiolate, about 15 to 25 cm. long, margin irregularly sinu- ously lobed or toothed, much wrinkled and broken stramomi Folia. 394 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Oblong or oval-lanceolate, 10 to 30 cm. long, petiole broadly winged, apex acute, margin crenate, gray- felty or hairy Verbasci Folia. Large peltate leaf, about 9-lobed, up to 50 cm. or more across, lobes acuminate, margin serrate, much wrinkled and broken Ricini Folia. Oval or ovate, lanceolate, up to 50 cm. long, apex acute, margin entire, brown . . . , , Tabaciun. Rolled into small balls or cylin- ders; grayish-green, bluish-green, to blackish Tbea. Ovate, irregularly lobed leaves, up to 25 cm. long, gray-green, hairy ; usually as leafy tops ; flowers or capsules within persistent calyces Often present. Hyoscyamus. Frond of fern with triangular leaflets, with sporangia under re- curved edges of lobes, and thin glossy-brown stripes Adiantum. Belladonna? Folia. jr. Belladonna Leaves, Deadly Night-Shade. — o. The leaves of Atropa Belladonna', Solanecece. — h. Europe and Asia; cultivated. in Europe and America. l>. Broadly ovate, up to 15 cm. long, half as broad, apex acuminate, base tapering, petiolate, margin en- tire, thin and wrinkled, smooth, brownish-green on upper and grayish-green on under surfaces, both sur- faces with minute whitish dots when examined with a lens; odor, if any, somewhat narcotic, taste dis- agreeable and bitter. — c. The alkaloid atropine is the most important principle; there are besides this belladonnine, hyoscyamine, etc. — u. Narcotic, my- driatic (dilating the pupil of the eye), checks exces- sive sweats and suppresses secretion of milk; also NOTES ON PHAKMACOGNOSY. 395 physiological antidote to opium. Dose : 0.05 to 0.25 gram, best in tincture or fluid extract This drug very often consists of the tops, the twigs forming obtuse angles at the nodes, with two leaves of very uneven size at each node ; frequently wdtli either flowers or fruits (blackish-red berries with per- sistent calyx) also present. The leaves, flowers and fruits are shown in the illustrations in natural size. Antidotes : If a poisonous dose has been taken, the stomach should be promptly evacuated, either with an emetic or stomach tube, and opium or physo- 396 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. stigma given to counteract the narcotic effects of the belladonna on the nervous system. Digitalis N. Digitalis, Foxglove. — - o. The leaves of Digitalis purpurea; Scrophularinecz. Only the leaves of the plants of second year's growth should be gathered. — H. Europe. — ». Ovate-oblong, 10 to 20 cm. long, 5 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 397 to 10 cm. broad, apex acute, margin irregularly crenate, much wrinkled and broken, downy, the larger leaves with petiole winged, the smaller leaves nearly sessile ; under surface deeply reticulate with prominent midrib and venation, pale-green on upper surface and whitish-felty underneath; hair two or three-celled, simple or club-shaped, nodulated, not branched; odor faint, taste bitter, nauseous and some- what acrid. — c. The alkaloid digitalin, etc. — u. Ex- cito-motor, heart stimulant; diuretic. Dose : 0.03 to 0.3 gfam. The shaded drawing shows the under side of a leaf of second year, while the outline drawing shows the more slender shape of the first year's leaf, both natural size. Leaves from cultivated plants are less hairy than those from wild-grown plants; they are also less active. Digitalis, matico and mullein leaves have been con- founded with each other. By comparing the figures of digitalis and matico the differences between these two drugs will become sufficiently obvious. Mullein leaf resembles digitalis more nearly in shape and general appearance, but it can readily be distin- guished from digitalis by its characteristic branched hairs which are easily seen with a lens of even quite low power. Digitalis does not keep well, and it should be kept in well-closed containers, away from the light, and a new supply should be procured each season when the fresh crop arrives. Matico. N. Matico. — o. The leaves of Piper angustifolium ; PiperacecE. — h. South America. — ». Oblong-lanceo- late, up to 15 cm. long, apex pointed, base unevenly heart-shaped, short-petiolate, margin obscurely crenulate, the upper surface tesselated (see smaller drawing, enlarged 5 diameters), the under surface with very prominent hairy midrib and vena- 398 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. tion, and deeply reticulate (drawing two-thirds natural liN size), wrinkled, brittle and very much broken, brownish- green; odor peculiar, taste aromatic, spicy and bitter. — C. 14 to 2J per cent volatile oil, a soft, green, pungent resin, artanthic acid, tannin, etc. — U. Stimulant blennorrhetic, useful in chronic affections of the urinary organs. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best as fluid extract. Hamramelidis Folia. K. Hamamelis, Witch-Hazel Leaves. — o. The leaves of Hamamelis Virginica; Hamamelacece. — h. North America. — ». Obliquely ovate or oval, 10 or more cm. long, short-petiolate, apex obtuse, margin NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. • 399 irregularly sinuate or wavy-toothed, base uneven, slightly cordate, feather-veined, Dearly smooth, much HAMAMELIDIS FOLIA. crumpled and broken, green ; no odor, taste bitter, astringent. — c. Tannin, bitter principle, etc. — u. 400 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Tonic, astringent; vulnerary. Dose : About 5 grams in infusion or fluid extract. Castanea. n. Chestnut Leaves. — o.The leaves of Cas- tanea dentata; Cupull- ferce.—VL. Europe and America. — i>. Ovate to oblong-lanceolate, up to 25 cm. long, 5 to 8 cm. broad, petio- late, apex pointed, margin sinuate-ser- rate, feather-veined, smooth, green to pale brownish-green; odor slight, taste astrin- gent. — c. About 9 per cent tannin, etc.; no complete analysis has been made. — u. Tonic, astringent and sedative ; has been highly spoken of as a remedy for whooping cough. Dose : 2 to 5 grams, best in in- fusion or fluid ex- tract. The illustration shows the leaf one- half natural size. Stramonii Folia. jr. Stramonium Leaves, Thornapple, Stinkweed, Jimson Weed. — o. The leaves of Datura Stramo- nium; Solanacece . The leaves of D. tatula are gath- ered and used like those of D. Stramonium, and sold under the same name ; there is no difference between NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 401 the leaves of the two plants. — h. Native of Asia, bat naturalized everywhere. — d. Ovate, petiolate, up to 25 cm. long, apex pointed, margin irregularly sin- uously toothed or lobed, the sides often unsymmet- rical in lobes and venation, lateral veins leaving mid- rib at a sharp angle instead of first running parallel with it, thin, much shrunken, crumpled and broken, slightly hairy on the veins, green or brownish-green ; nearly inodorous, but developing a disagreeable nar- cotic odor on rubbing and crushing in the hands, taste nauseous bitter. — c. Daturine (closely related to if not identical with atropine, hyoscyamine, etc.) 402 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. — U. Anodyne, narcotic and hypnotic ; often smoked as a remedy against asthma. Dose: 0.05 to 0.2 gram; average dose about 0.1 gram. The illustration shows the leaf about one-third natural size. Verfoasci Folia. jr. Mullein Leaves. — o. The leaves of Verbascum thapsus and other varieties of Verbascum; Scrophul- arinecz. — h. Europe and America. — ». Ovate, ellip- tic or oblong-lanceolate, the smaller (upper) leaves sessile, the larger (lower) leaves tapering to a more or less winged petiole, to 30 cm. long, apex acute, mar- gin crenate, densely felty or hairy on both surfaces, (the hairs branched ; see illustration), grayish-green; inodorous, taste mucilag- inous. — €. Mucilage, etc. — U. Demulcent; used as an ingredient of pectoral teas, mainly to increase the bulk of the package when sold. Dose : Ad libitum in infu- sion. The leaf resembles that of Digitalis, but the shapes of the hairs will differentiate them. Ricini Folia. K. Castor-oil Leaves. — o. The leaves of Ricinus communis ; Euphorbiacece. — h. Native of India ; cul- tivated in sub-tropical and warm temperate regions in Europe and America. — ». Large peltate or shield- shaped leaves, about 9-lobed, up to 50 cm. or more across, lobes acuminate with serrate margins and prominent coarse central veins, much shrunken, wrinkled and broken, dark-green ; little odor, taste somewhat acrid and disagreeable. — c. An undeter- mined acrid cathartic principle. — v. Castor-oil leaves NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY, 403 are said to increase the secretion of milk when taken internally by, or when applied as cataplasms to the breasts of nursing women. Best used in the form of strong infusion. Dose : 5 to 15 grams. Tabaenm. jr. Tobacco. — o. The leaves of Nicotiana Taba- cum; Solanacece . — h. Cultivated; especially in sub- tropical and warm temperate regions. — i>. The well- known dried commercial leaves as used by tobacco- nists are also used as the drug. Broadly oval or ovate, up to 50 cm. long, apex acute, margin entire, short petiolate or sessile, brown, brittle, glandular-hairy ; odor peculiar, heavy and oppressive, taste acrid bitter and nauseous. — c. Two to 10 per cent of the ex- tremely acrid and poisonous alkaloid nicotine, nico- tianin, resin, extractive, etc. — u. Much employed for smoking, chewing, and as a sternutatory as snuff. A powerful depressant and poison ; sedative, emetic and narcotic. Dose : 0.01 to 0.05 gram ; to be used with great care ! For Hyoscyamn§ see Group IX. For Adiantum see Group XV. 404 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Thea, which is really a coriaceous leaf, but arti- ficially crumpled and broken, might be mistaken for a herbaceous leaf and be sought for in this group ; it is fully described under Group XLVIL GROUP L. COMPOUND HERBACEOUS LEAVES. This group comprises the herbaceous compound leaves, which are like the simple herbaceous leaves in their structure, only differing in shape, so that the methods of examining them are the same as for leaves of Group XLIX. Some of the flowering tops of Group IX, as for in- stance Chelidonium, Millefolium, Absinthium, Cop- tis, Cannabis, etc., may be taken to belong in this group ; on the other hand, Aconite Leaves often come into trade as flowering tops, although only the leaves are supposed to be wanted. Adiantum might also be mistaken for a compound leaf. These facts must therefore be kept in mind. Trifoliate, with long petiole, side-leaflets nearly sessile, leaflets entire or irregularly lobed Rhus Toxicodendron. Outline round or subcordate, petiolate, 5 to 10 cm. in diam- eter, 3 to 5 parted, the lobes deeply incised and wedge- shaped Aconiti Folia. Large, broad leaves, with hol- low petiole, twice or thrice decompound Conii Folia. Long-petioled, bi- or tri-pin- nately decompound ; lobelets entire, spatulate, somewhat fleshy Ruta NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 405 Rhus Toxicodendron. M, Poison Ivy, Poison Oak. — o. The leaves of Rhus Toxicodendron; Anacardiacece. — H. North Amer- ica. — ». The figure shows the shape, but is much re- duced in size ; with long petiole, trifoliate, the end- leaflet stalked, the side-leaflets sessile or nearly so, leaflets 7 to 12 cm. long and up to 10 cm. broad, ovate or oval, apex pointed; base rounded or wedge- shaped, margin entire or with a few coarse teeth or lobes, the upper surface smooth, the lower hairy; no odor, taste acrid and astringent. — c. Toxicodendric acid (volatile), tannin, etc. — u. Irritant and nar- 406 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. cotic; said to have been of benefit in paralysis, chronic rheumatism, etc. Dose: 0.05 to 0.25 gram, best in form of tincture. Caution : The fresh leaves contain an acrid juice, so that when the leaves are touched intense irritation, blisters, or even suppuration may result. The dried leaves, as generally used for medicinal purposes, are considered inert by many. Aconiti Folia. N. Aconite Leaves, Monkshood Leaves. — o. The leaves of Aconitum Napellus; Ranunculacece. — h. Northern temperate zone. — d. The illustration gives a good idea of the shape of this leaf ; it is one-half natural size. In outline the leaf is round or broadly subcordate, with petiole, palmately three to five- lobed (when three-lobed, the lateral lobes are usually so deeply incised as to make the leaf appear five- lobed), the lobes deeply incised, with the segments lanceolate to wedge-shaped; brownish-green; odor faint, taste acrid, bitter, producing tingling sensation in mouth. — c. Aconitine. — - u. Sedative and motor depressant, in larger doses narcotic poison. Similar NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 407 to Aconite root, but weaker and more variable in strength, so that the preparations of the root ought to be preferred. Dose: 0.05 to 0.20 gram, best in tinc- ture or fluid extract. Conii Folia* X. Conium Leaves, Hemlock Leaves. — o. The leaves of Conium maculatum ; Umbelliferce. — H. Northern temperate zone. — 1>. The shape is well shown in the drawing ; the petioles are hollo v and sheathing around the stem; the leaves are up to 30 cm. long, in outline round, ovate or triangularly ovate acuminate, ternately decompound, the pinnae deeply incised, with the teeth ending in whitish points, smooth, upper surface dull bluish-green, lower surface lighter-colored and somewhat glossy ; odor and taste disagreeably nauseous. The illustra- . tion shows the leaf one-third natural size and a lobe- 408 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY . let natural size. — c. Coniine, volatile oil, etc. — u. Sed- ative narcotic, especially of use in the wakefulness of the insane; also frequently added to purgatives to prevent griping. Dose: 0.2 to 0.5 gram, best in form of fluid extract. This drug is very hygroscopic, and therefore liable to become mouldy. It should be kept in a thor- oughly dry place ; the fresh color is apt to change to yellowish-brown or dirty brown when exposed to moist atmosphere. RUT A. The leaves are so variable in strength that the NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 409 preparations of the fruit should always be preferred ; even the latter are very variable in action in different lots, so that great caution should be exercised when prescribing this drug. In over-doses coniurn is a narcotic poison, killing by paralysis of the respiratory muscles; antidotal treatment, therefore, resembles that for opium poison- ing, emetics, stimulants (alcohol, coffee, nux vomica), enforced exercise, hot applications and electricity. Rata. nr. Kue, Garden Rue. — o. The leaves of Ruta graveolens; Rutacecz. — H. Southern Europe. — d. The illustration shows the shape of the leaf in natural size; the leaves are somewhat fleshy, twice or thrice pinnatified, the lobelets about 6 to 12 mm. long, somewhat spatulate or obovate, slightly crenate near the apex, smooth, grayish-green, pellucid-punc- tate; odor aromatic, balsamic ; taste bitter and acrid. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc. — u. Stimulant, carmi- native and anthelmintic. Iu large doses emmena- gogue, for which purpose this drug is probably most frequently employed. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams in infusion. FLOWERS. The flower is an altered leaf bud and contains the sexual organs which are necessary to produce seed. In pharmacognosy, however, the term "flower" has a wider meaning, since.it includes whole inflorescences, flower-buds, flowers, and parts of flowers. Inflorescence signifies the mode of the arrangement of flowers on the plant axis, and in pharmacognosy is used especially in the sense of signifying the pecul- iar flower-clusters, as racemes, heads, umbels, cj^mes, etc. ; the meaning of these terms is supposed to have been learned from some book on botany. By the words simple or single flower, any flower is meant that is not a compound flower; it is therefore 410 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. not meant in the sense of a solitary or axillary flower, but one, a single one, whether it grew singly or solitary, or whether it was gathered from a cluster ; in the trade it occurs separate from all other flowers or from any peduncle or axis on which it may have grown. A compound flower is a cluster of flowers, the in- florescence of a plant of the class Composites; such an inflorescence consists of numerous small flowers gathered into a head which is surrounded by an encir- cling cluster of leaves which resemble a calyx and which constitute the involucre ; the end of the stem is broadened into the receptacle or disc on which are situated the individual flowers, the whole cluster looking like one flower, wherefore it is called a com- pound flower. Flowers are divided into the following groups: \^,^^^....\^^v^^^ Flowers.. *°* io U p n e n P ed ned . simple flowers ( ^ „ f< , j corallas. . . parts I stigmas . . compound. ] uuu p c " cu »52 p ( opened 53 54 55 56 57 GROUP LI . RACEMOSE OR CYMOSE INFLORESCENCES. The nature of racemose and cymose inflorescences is supposed to have been learned from some book on botany, but as far as pharmacognosy is concerned, or rather, as far as the method of pharmacognosy here employed is concerned, we might group inflores- cences merely as "compound" and "not compound" ; perhaps it might be better to say here, "inflorescences of simple flowers" and "inflorescences of compound flowers". This group comprises the "not compound" inflorescences. By inflorescence we mean those parts of plants which bear the flowers without leafy portions being attached; if leafy parts are included regularly NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY, 411 with a drug of this general character, it would be a "flowering top," and belong in Group IX. The umbels of dill,- anise, fennel, caraway, parsley, celery, etc., with fruits instead of flowers, are to be obtained in the markets as "sweet herbs," for culi- nary purposes; while at first glance they might be con- sidered to belong here, the fact that they are mature fruits places them elsewhere, and moreover, they do not occur thus in the wholesale drug trade. Large panicles in bundles, rolls or compressed clusters; red- dish-brown Cnsso. Bundles of one-sided racemes with about eight or nine bell- shaped flowers; scape about 15 cm. long Convallaria? Flores. Heads of small, reddish, papi- lionaceous flowers, with foli- age leaves at base Trifoiium. Pale yellowish-green bracts with cymes of three to nine flowers . Tilia. Large corymbose cymes of yel- lowish color Sambucus. Cnsso. K. Cusso, Cousso, Kousso, Brayera. — o. The female inflorescence of Hagenia Abysstnica; Rosacece. — h. Abyssinia, Africa. — i>. The illus- tration shows a bundle wrapped with the bast of some plant, but many of the bundles of the drug are not so wrapped; the illustration is about three- tenths natural size. The flowers are also figured: a, the section of a flower with fruit partly matured ; b, pistil; c, section of female flower; d, male flower, abortive pistils; e, female flower, abortive stamens and anthers;/, flower-bud of male flower ; all much enlarged. The bundles, rolls or compressed clus- ters consist of panicles about 25 cm. long, with a 412 NOTES ON PHAKMACOGNOSY. sheathing bract at the base of each branch; the drug should consist of tolerably well pre- served clusters without the coarse stems; not of crushed flowers with pieces of the stem; the two roundish bracts at the base of each (female) flower and the five outer, obovate sepals are reddish-brown and mem- branous; the calyx is cup-shaped and contains two carpels, free from each other, and often partly devel- oped into immature nut-like fruits; the odor, though faint, reminds of elder flowers, and the taste is slight at first, but afterwards becomes bitter and somewhat acrid. — c. Kosin about 3 per cent, tannin about 24 per cent, and resin about 6 per cent. — u. Anthelmintic, taenicide; not very reliable in action. Dose: 10 to 25 grams, in powder or electuary; or the powder may be made into an infusion with warm water and swal- lowed without straining. The female inflorescence is in bun- dles of distinctly reddish tint and is known in the trade as "red kousso;" NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 413 it is the best kind. The bundles of male inflorescence are of a greenish or green- ish-brown color and are called ' 'brown kousso" in the trade; they are inferior. Convallarise Flores. N. Lily of the Valley Flowers, Con- vallaria Flowers. — o. The inflorescence of Convallaria majalis; Liliacece. — H. Europe, Northern Asia and America; generally cultivated by florists. — ». The flowers occur in the drug trade tied up in bundles just as the gardeners sell the fresh flowers ; such bundles are about 2 cm. thick at the lower end, and rather loose or not much compressed at the flowering ends. The one-sided nodding raceme is about 15 cm. long and consists of an angular scape, beset with about eight or nine small bell-shaped flowers, white when fresh, but yellowish-brown in the dried drug. The illustration shows the withered raceme of a her- barium specimen in natural size, and one fresh flower, also natural size. — c. Con- vallarin and Convallamarin. — u. Similar to those of the rhizome, already de- scribed under Group XXII, and which is generally preferred as a drug ; heart stimulant. Dose: 1 to 2.5 grams, best in form of fluid extract. Trifolium. N. Red Clover, Red Clover Tops. — o. The flower-heads of Trifolium prat ens e ; Papilionacecz. — h. Cultivated. — i>. Heads of flowers, immediately below which there are two foliage leaves, the stipules of which are winged and enclose 414 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. the base of the head; the leaves are three-lobed, or fre- quently one or both of the lower lobes are absent in one or both of the leaves, so that they may appear to be two-lobed orsimple; the head contains from 50 to 150 flowers on a con- ical rhachis; the flowers are tubular, papilionace- ous, purplish-red when fresh, but often brown- ish-red in the dried drug; fragrant, sweetish. The illustration shows the inflo- rescence natural size. — c. Cumarin, etc. — u. Ked Clover has been recommended as a remedy for whoop- ing cough; proba- bly of little value. Dose: 5 to lOgrams, in infusion or fluid extract. Tilia. jr. Linden Flow- e r s . — o. and h. The whole inflo- rescence, with the bract properly be- longing to it, of several varieties of Tilia, of which T. Americana and T. heterophylla are American varieties and T. ulmifolia, T. Europea, T. vulgaris, T. par vi folia, and T. platy- phylla are European, although T. ulmifolia is also NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 415 cultivated in the United States ; Tiliacece. Most of the drug comes from Germany. — 1>. The inflorescence of T. ulmifolia is figured in natural size ; the inflores- cences of other varieties are similar except that the number of flowers may be different. Linden flowers occur in 3 to 9-flowered racemes, the common stem of which springs from the middle of a bract which is from 5 to 10 cm. long; the flowers are yellowish- white and the thin, membranous, netted-veined bracts are pale green ; in the dried state, as drug, the flowers are yellowish, but the bracts should remain greenish and not be brownish; odor pleasant but feeble; taste sweetish. — €. Traces of volatile oil and aromatic resin, mucilage, etc. — u. Diaphoretic, in copious draughts of hot infusion ; it is probable that the hot water has at least as much to do with the action of these draughts as the linden flowers. Dose : 2 to 5 grams, in infusion. Tiie whole inflorescence of Sanitmcns or Elder Flowers came into trade formerly, and does so occa- sionally now; large, corymbose cymes, much branched, often up to 25 cm. across the flattened top, but generally much broken; yellowish. Now the peduncles and pedicels of the inflorescence are usually separated from the flowers and rejected, so that the flowers alone constitute the drug, for which reason this drug will be described under Group LV, opened single flowers. GROUP LII. UNOPENED COMPOUND FLOWER-HEADS. Only one drug of this group occurs in our trade, namely, the so-called "Levant Wormseed" ; it resem- bles a seed, so that it is generally called "worrnseed", but a careful examination, especially if with a lens, will show the external scales of the involucre. Elongated, somewhat angular, scaly flower- heads, 2 to 3 mm. long, grayish-green; unopened Santonica. 416 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Santonica. N. Santonica, Levant Wormseed, Flores Cinse, Semen Contra. — o. The unexpanded flower-heads of Artemisia pauciflora; Composites, — h. Turkestan. — ». Oblong-ovoid, grayish-green, somewhat glossy flower-heads, about 2 to 3 mm. long, covered with 12 to 18 imbricated glandular scales which enclose 3 to 5 rudimentary or undeveloped florets; odor strong, peculiar, aromatic and slightly camphoraceous; taste bitter, aromatic, leaving a slightly cooling sensation in the mouth. — c. Santoninum, volatile oil, etc. — U. Anthelmintic, especially for round worms or lumbrici. Dose : 1 to 5 grams, best in form of pow- der made into an electuary. A brownish color indicates that the drug has been exposed tolight or is old, the probability being that in either case it has deteriorated. It should have a grayish-green color, not brownish-green, and the odor should be strong. In the illustrations a, b, c, d show the flower-heads of Artemisia Vahliana> whole, in longitudinal sec- tion, one scale and one floret; e and / show the flower-heads of A, pauciflora (A. maritima; A. Cind) whole, and one scale showing glands, which are orange-colored, all much enlarged. Authors differ in regard to the exact source of this drug, and it is probable that the plant may vary under various circumstances, so that the drug may NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 417 also vary somewhat according to soil, etc. Some authors claim that Santonica is derived from several varieties of Artemisia. GROUP LIU. EXPANDED COMPOUND FLOWER-HEADS. The nature of compound flower-heads was de- scribed under the last group ; the group we are now considering includes the expanded compound flower- heads. Occasionally, but rarely, the flowering tops of Matricaria are used instead of the flower-heads alone, and not infrequently the flower-heads alone of Tanacetum occur in the trade, instead of the flower- ing tops, which were already described in Group IX. In order to properly examine the drugs of this group, the flower-heads may be soaked in water when they will resume the shape and size of the freshly- flowering inflorescence, and the details of their structure can then be more readily compared with the descriptions and illustrations. Heads about 3 cm. broad, with scaly involucre, flat receptacle, about 15 to 20 yellow ray-florets and many disk-florets with pappus Arnica* Flores. Sub-globular heads, about 2 cm. broad, with imbricate involucre, conical solid receptacle, numerous white ligulate florets and few disk-florets. . Anthemis. Heads about 2 cm. broad, with imbri- cate involucre, conical hollow re- ceptacle, 12 to 18 white ray-florets and many deep-yellow disk-florets . . Matricaria. Heads depressed roundish, about 2.5 cm. broad, with imbricate invo- lucre, convex receptacle, about 20 to 30 pinkish ray -florets and numerous yellow disk-florets Pyrethri Flores. Heads sub-globular, about 4 to 8 mm. 418 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. broad, with imbricate involucre convex receptacle, and numerous yellow tubular florets Tanacetnm. Arnica? Flores. X. Arnica Flowers. — o. The flower-heads of Arnica montana; Composites. — h. Europe and Northern Asia. — b. The flower-heads are roundish, about 3 cm. broad, with double rows of scales in hairy in- volucre, receptacle nearly flat, small and hairy, with 15 to 20 bright yellow ray-florets and numerous disk- florets; the ray-florets are female, about 4 cm. long, with tubular part of corolla about 4 mm. long, from which the bifid stigma protrudes, the ligule about 4 to 5 mm. broad, 9-nerved and 3-toothed ; the disk-florets are perfect (hermaphrodite), about 2 cm. long, with 5-toothed tubular corolla from which the anther-tube and bifid stigma protrude; in both ray and disk florets, the 4 mm. long ovary (or partially formed fruit, an achene) is surmounted with a hairy pappus ; odor feebly aromatic and taste bitter and acrid. — c. Volatile oil, arnicin (nature not determined), resin, tannin, etc. — u. Mainly used externally as a vulnerary lotion or dressing ; sometimes used inter- nally as a stimulant. Dose : 0.5 to 1 gram, in tincture. The illustrations show the involucre, ray-floret, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 419 disk-floret and pappus hair all in natural size. The drug should be gathered before the fruit commences to develop, as the drug is apt afterwards to contain the larvae of an insect ( Try p eta) in the involucre and the more plentiful pappus. The ray-florets should therefore be bright-yellow, not withered and brown, and the drug should not have a gray and hairy ap- pearance from pappus. It is recommended by some authorities that the involucre should always be re- jected, because that part of the drug is most apt to contain the insects which are the probable cause of the irritation or urticaria sometimes produced by preparations of this drug. Aiithemis. N. Anthemis, Chamomile, Roman Chamomile, Eng- lish Chamomile. — o. The flower-heads of Anthemis nobilis; Composites, — h. Cultivated in Europe and in some localities of the United States. — 1>. Sub- globular heads about 2 cm. broad, with imbricate in- volucre, chaffy, conical, solid receptacle and numer- ous ray-florets with white strap-shaped, 3-toothed corolla, and but few yellow, tubular disk-florets ; odor rather agreeably aromatic, taste bitter aromatic. — C. Volatile oil, bitter principle, etc. — u. Stimu- lant tonic and carminative ; in large doses emetic and emmenagogue (?). Mostly used as a diaphoretic, in copious draughts of hot, but weak infusion, while the patient is covered up in bed ; the diaphoretic effect is mainly due to the hot water, though aided by the general relaxation produced by the nauseating effect of the chamomile. Dose : 1 to 5 grams, best in in- fusion as a tea. In the wild-growing variety of this plant the flower-heads have only about fifteen ray-florets and many disk-florets; through cultivation the flower- head has become "double", that is, most of the disk- florets have become changed to ray-florets ; the culti- 420 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. vated variety is less disagreeable to the taste than the wild-growing. The illustration shows a fresh flower-head of the cultivated variety in natural size, but in the drug the ligules are shrunken and doubled over the head so that it looks much smaller ; the vertical section of the single or wild flower-head, one ray and one disk floret, stigma and fruit are shown considerably enlarged. Cotula, the flower-heads or the flowering tops of Anthemis Cotula, Mayweed, Wild Chamomile or Dog Chamomile (a common weed), are used for the same purposes as Anthemis nobilis; the taste and odor of Cotula are so disagreeable, however, that it is not a popular drug and is used only when other chamomile cannot be had. The flower-heads of Anthemis Cotula are single, not double. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 421 Matricaria. N. Chamomile, German Chamomile; this is the drug that is wanted when Germans ask for "chamo- mile". — o. The flower-heads (or sometimes the flowering tops) of Matricaria Chamomilla; Com- posites. — h. Europe. — i>. Heads about 2 cm. broad, with flat imbricate involucre, conical, hollow, naked receptacle, 12 to 15 female ray-florets about 8 mm. long, with white ligulate, 3-toothed corolla, and nu- merous perfect (hermaphrodite) tubular disk-florets with yellow, 5-toothed corolla ; odor peculiar, some- what disagreeable and nauseous, taste bitter aro- matic. — c. Minute quantity of volatile oil, bitter extractive, tannin, etc. — u. Same as those of the previous drug, Anthemis. Owing to the hollow receptacle the flower-heads shrink much on drying and are easily crumbled ; a good drug should have whole flower-heads, with fresh, bright colors and strong characteristic odor 422 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. and taste. The hollow receptacle distinguishes this drug from any possible adulteration. The illustrations show a portion of the flowering top with three flower-heads in natural size (fresh) ; the involucre with receptacle (d), vertical section of same (e), ray-floret (b) and disk-floret (c) all en- larged. Tlie flower-heads of several varieties of Pyretbrum {Chrysanthemum) are imported, but they reach the retail pharmacist only in the shape of "Persian In- sect Powder". These flower-heads resemble in shape those of Anthemis, but the involucres are usually marked with red to brown markings, and the ray- florets are pinkish to reddish. The drug is of no particular interest in its whole condition to the pharmacist. Tanacetum, the flowering tops (or occasionally the flower-heads) of Tanacetum vulgare, has already been described and figured under Group IX, but as the drug sometimes consists of the flower-heads alone it is also mentioned here. GROUP LIV. UNOPENED SINGLE FLOWERS. Only two drugs consisting of unexpanded buds (Latin: Alabastri) of single flowers are of sufficient importance to need mention here : Subcylindrical calyx tube with four teeth, terminated by a corolla forming a globular head; about 15 mm. long ; brown Caryophyllus. Ovoid buds, about 12 to 15 mm. long, with 5-toothed calyx ; pale brownish-yellow Aurantii Flores. Caryophyllus. jr. Cloves. — o. The unopened flower-buds (un- expanded flowers) of Eugenia aromatica; Myrtacece. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 423 — H. Molucca Islands ; cultivated in tropical regions of the Eastern continent. — ». About 15 to 18 mm. long and 4 to 5 mm. thick through thickest part ; dark- brown, with a subcylindrical calyx tube which at its upper end is divided into four spreading notches or sepals supporting four petals which overlap each other and form a globular head (bud) covering nu- merous curved stamens and one style ; the calyx tube contains the ovaries in its upper part and throughout its entire length contains near its outer surface many small intercellular gland-spaces or oil-glands; the odor is strongly aromatic and the taste pungent and spicy. — c. The only constituent of value is the vola- tile oil, which is so abundant (15 to 20 #) that it ex- udes simply on pressure of the surface of the clove with the finger-nail. — u. Spice and condiment. Stimulant, carminative and stomachic. Dose : 1 to 2 grams in infusion. The illustrations show a whole clove (a) and a fruit (£) in natural size ; also a clove with petals removed (c) and a vertical section of a clove (d), both en- larged. The unripe fruits of the clove tree come into the trade under the name of "mother-cloves" or "antho- 424 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. phylli" ; they are much weaker than cloves, and are mainly used to adulterate the latter when powdered. Cloves, to be good, must be plump, heavy, of rich brown color, strong spicy odor and pungent aromatic taste; they should be kept in well-closed vessels. Occasionally cloves are mixed with some from which the volatile oil has been abstracted by distillation; such cloves are much shrunken, appear to be moist, are dark-colored or almost black and the heads formed by the petals are generally broken or miss- ing ; they are, of course, much weaker in odor and taste. Aurantii Flores. N. Orange Flowers, Flores Naphcz. — ©. The un- opened flower-buds (unexpanded flowers) of Citrus vulgaris and C. Aurantium; Rutacece. — h. Culti- vated in all subtropical countries. — i>. About 15 mm. long without the flower-stalk which is often present ; the calyx is cup-shaped, small and 5-notched and in- closes the base of the corolla which consists of five over-lapping pale brownish-yellow petals forming an ovoid head (bud) covering numerous polyadelphous stamens inserted on a disk around a pistil with a globular ovary and stigma; odor fragrant and taste aromatic bitter. — c. Volatile oil and bitter ex- tractive. — u. Slightly stimulant and antispasmodic (?), but not much used. The illustrations show the whole bud (a) and the NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 425 expanded flower (£) in natural size ; also the bud with petals removed, showing stamens surrounding the pistil (V), and the same with the stamens re- moved (d), the latter two illustrations enlarged. The fresh flowers are used for making the distilled water of orange flowers ; sometimes the fresh flowers are salted down in jars with about one-third of their weight of salt, and distilled water may be made from these. The dried flowers which constitute the drug described above are practically worthless; the dried flowers should be rejected if they are not strongly fragrant or if they are of a decided brown color. GROUP LV. OPENED SINGLE FLOWERS. Under this group we find single simple flowers as well as single florets from compound flowers ; the characteristic being that the flowers are entire. When a drug consists only of parts of flowers it be- longs in Group LVI or LVII. Flowers can best be examined by first soaking in water, by which they to a certain extent resume their fresh shape and allow dissecting, to demonstrate botanical details. Simple Flowers: Small shriveled, pale brownish-yel- low, roundish grains Sambncns. Small two-lipped flowers with bluish-gray calyx and violet-blue corolla Lavandula. Calyx grayish-green, felty, 5-parted; corolla 5-lobed, wheel-shaped , yellow Verbasei Flores. Light grayish-green, double calyx, felty with stellate hairs; petals purplish-black Althaea* Flores. Similar to last, somewhat smaller, and the corolla bluish-purple in dry drug Malvre Flores. 426 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Florets from Compound Flowers: Yellow, strap-shaped, fertile (female) ray-florets Calendula. Deep-red, thin tubular, 5-lobed corolla, with projecting anther tube and style Carthamns. Neuter (sexless) florets, with tubu- lar corolla ending in 7-parted blue limb . . B Cyani Flores. Sambucus. N. Elder Flowers. — o. The flowers of Sambucus Canadensis and 6 1 . nigra; Caprifoliacecz . — H. 6". nigra is preferred in Europe and England because it grows there, and 6*. Canadensis is preferred in Amer- ica because it is indigenous here; there is no need to distinguish between the two kinds as they are practi- cally alike in appearance and in medicinal value. — B. In the dried drug the flowers are shriveled into roundish grains or balls scarcely more than li to 2 mm. in diameter, pale brownish-yellow, with a peculiar fragrant odor and a sweetish, mucilaginous, aromatic and finally somewhat acrid taste. By soak- ing in w r ater the flowers may be recognized as such and can be more readily examined. The fresh flow- ers are about 5 mm. broad, calyx superior and minutely 5-toothed, corolla 5-lobed, wheel-shaped, cream-colored or white, with five extrorse stamens, pistil with three roundish stigmas ; the illustrations show upper surface of flower enlarged (a), under sur- face of flower enlarged (£), from side, corolla and stamens removed (c), and flower in natural size (d). — c. Very small quantity of volatile oil, resin, tannin, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 127 etc. — c. Stimulant diaphoretic. best in infusion. Dose: 2 to 4 grains, Lavandula. jr. Lavender, Lavender Flowers. — o. The flowers of Lavandula vera; Labi- ates. — h. Cultivated in Europe and America. — ». Small blue flowers, about 12 mm. long, calyx tubular, 5-toothed, the tooth on the* back of the flower larger than the others and round- ish, calyx bluish-gray, hairy, the corolla violet- blue, labiate, the upper lip obcordate, larger and 2-lobed, the lower lip smaller and 3-lobed, hairy- glandular on outer surface, four stamens on inside 3f tube; fragrant odor and aromatic, camphoraceous and bitterish taste. The illustrations show a flower in natural size (a), same enlarged, front (£) and back (c). — c. One to three per cent of volatile oil, resin, etc. — u. Stimulant carminative. Rarely used inter- nally, except as a flavoring agent ; the whole flowers are often used as sachet perfume. Verbasci Flores, Mullein Flowers, are sometimes gathered entire, but usually the drug consists of the corollas alone, wherefore the description of this drug is to be found in the next group. Althaeae Flores. N. Flores Malvae Arborese, Mallow Flowers, Holly- hock flowers. — o. The flowers of Althcza rosea; Malvacecz. — h. Cultivated ; in cultivation the flow- ers are often double. — i>. The flowers of this plant vary in color, white, yellow, rose, red, brown to pur- plish-red and purplish-black, but only the dark- colored flowers aie gathered for the trade. Holly- hock flowers are 7 to 10 cm. broad, calyx gray-felty 428 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. with stellate hairs, double, the outer layer of sepals (also called involucre) 9-cleft, the inner layer 5-cleft, corolla 5-lobed, the petals broadly obovate, notched at apex, united at base to the base of a column or tube formed by the union of the numerous filaments bearing many kidney-shaped anthers, and within which tube are the stigmas ; odor slight, taste sweet- ish mucilaginous and slightly astringent. The illus- tration shows the upper surface of a flower, natural size ; the column bearing anthers is shown. — c. Mucilage, tannin, etc. — u. Demulcent, emollient. Used as an ingredient of "species pectorales." The infusion of the petals is rendered red by acids, green by alkalies. The petals are also brought into trade alone, as corollas, and can be used as a rich and harmless coloring agent for artificial fruit syrups, etc. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 429 Malvse Fiores, Mallow Flowers, slightly smaller than those from Althcea rosea, are obtained from Malva sylvestris, M. rotundifolia , etc. The flowers of these plants are similar to the above, except that the petals have a blaish-purple color when dry, as in the drug. European writers (Schleiden, Berg, etc.) include under the title "Fiores Malvae Arboreae" the flowers of Althcea rosea, A, officinalis, Malva sylves- tris, M. rotundifolia, M. neglecta, etc., so that it is probable that no accurate distinctions need be made in the drugs known in the trade as "flores althaeae" or "flores malvae." These flowers vary in size and color, and to a limited extent in other regards, but resemble the illustration closely enough for identification; they all have the central column hollow stamen-tube with numerous anthers. They are all used for the same purposes as the Flores Althaeae described above. Calendula. N* Calendula Flowers, Marigold Flowers. — o. The ray -florets of Calendula officinalis; Composite?. — H. Cultivated every- where. — i>. Occasionally the flowering tops are used. The plant has a rough, angular stem, alternate, thick, hairy, spatulate leaves ; flower-heads about 5 cm. broad, with conspicuous bright orange-yellow florets. Generally, how- ever, only the ray-florets are gathered. The ray-florets are fertile (female), have a slightly curved ovary and a ligu- late corolla, bright orange-yellow, up to 2.5 cm. long and 3 mm. wide, 3-toothed and delicately striate longitudinally, the bifid style projecting from the short tube of the corolla ; there is no pappus, by which 430 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. characteristic calendula flowers may be readily dis- tinguished from arnica flowers or other similar flow- ers. The illustrations show a ray-floret in natural size, and enlarged. — c. An amorphous bitter prin- ciple, traces of volatile oil, yellow coloring principle, etc. — u. Reputed to possess tonic, antispasmodic, diaphoretic and emmenagogue properties. Used also as a vulnerary externally, for similar purposes as arnica, to which drug it is probably superior, because less apt to be infested with insects and therefore less likely to produce the trouble which is usually called "arnica urticaria." Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram in infusion. Cartbamus. N. Saftlower, American Saffron. — ©. The florets of Carthamus tinctorius ; Composite. — H. Cultivated in India, Asia, Europe and elsewhere. — i>. The illustration shows a floret in natural size ; the com- pound flower-heads are large and the florets are yellow, but after fertilization when the corollas commence to wither, the florets change to a deep orange-red color ; it is at this time that the florets are gathered by plucking from the flower-heads. The floret consists of a very thin cylindrical tube, about 2.5 cm. long, ending in a 5-cleft limb, each lobe of which is about 4 to 6 mm. long ; from this tube projects the syngenesious anther-tube, yellow, and also about 4 to 6 mm. long, and through the latter the stigma protrudes another 6 mm., so that the total length of the floret is about 40 mm., but that of the corolla alone only about 2.5 cm. ; odor feeble, peculiar, taste insipid, faintly bitterish. — C. Carthamin, about 40% yellow coloring principle, etc. — u. Diaphoretic in infusion. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. Mainly used as a coloring agent, or as a NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY, 431 cheap substitute for genuine saffron; tbi3 drug is sometimes called "false saffron." The Oriental or Indian varieties of this drug are most highly esteemed and in the best grades of this drug the corolla was picked from the ovary in the gathering, so that the ovary is missing; see next group. €yani Flores. W. Only used by German pharmacists, to whom it is knoAvn as "Korn-Blurue" or corn- flower. — o. The ray-floret of Centaur ea Cyanus; Composites. — h. A common weed in European grain ("Korn") fields. — ». The ray-florets are neuter or sexless, about 3 cm. long, corolla consisting of a thin tube expanding into a cup-shaped, irregularly 7-cleft limb, of a blue color. See illustration, natural size. The flowers must be dried quickly and kept in a dry and dark place as they otherwise bleach readily. — C. Mucilage, etc. — u. German pharmacists are fond of giving a peculiar mottled appearance to their preparations of "species pectorales" and they use for this purpose such inert substances as possess pro- nounced bright colors : Flores Cyani, flores malvce, flores verbasci, etc. Flores Cyani have no medicinal virtues. GROUP LVI. COROLLAS. This group includes only the corollas, either entire as in Verbasci Flores, or the separate petals (Latin : Petald) as in Rosa cenzifolia. Flores Cyani, consist- ing of neuter florets, have the appearance of corollas only, although they are really entire florets ; they may therefore be looked for here and are mentioned for this reason in this group. Safflower, already men- tioned in the last group, is sometimes gathered by 432 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. pinching off the corolla, leaving or rejecting the ovary, so that the drug does not consist of entire flowers but only of parts of flowers ; however, the corolla with the stamens and style projecting look so much like an entire flower, that the drug would still probably be looked for in the previous group. Mul- lein flowers usually consist only of the corolla with inclosed adherent stamens; they would therefore probably be looked for here, but because the whole flowers are sometimes found in the trade, they are also mentioned under Group LV. Roundish-obovate or obcordate petals of pinkish color and fra- grant odor Rosa Centlfolia. Deep purplish-red cones, about 2.5 cm. long, consisting of imbricated roundish petals Rosa Oallica. Five-lobed, wheel-shaped, hairy, yellow corolla, with five coherent anthers enclosed Verbascl Flores. Nearly round, thin, dark-red petals, about 5 cm. broad, with a blue- black Spot at the base Rhoeadis Flores. Five obovate-cuneate, deep-red to purplish-black petals, each about 2.5 to 4 cm. long, united at the base Althaeas Flores. Similar to last, but smaller and bluish-purple Malvse Flores. Deep-red, thin tubular, 5-lobed corolla, with projecting anther tube and style cartnamus. Neuter (sexless) florets, with tubu- lar corolla ending in 7-parted blue limb Cyan! Flores. Rosa Centlfolia. N. Pale Rose, Pale Rose Leaves, Rose Leaves. — o. The petals of Rosa centlfolia; Rosacea. — H. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 433 Western Asia, bat now cultivated everywhere. — ». Cultivated roses are double flowers having many petals; the pale- red petals of the variety under con- sideration are ovate, roundish, broader than long, notched at apex so as to appear al- most obcordate, the upper margin often recurved; the illustration shows one of the larger outer petals as it appears when fresh ; if carefully dried the petals retain their shapes and fresh color fairly well, but exposure to light is apt to change the delicate pink color to a pale brownish-yellow; odor fragrant, taste slightly astrin- gent. — c. Traces of volatile oil, tannin, etc. — u. For flavoring. Sometimes preserved undried with one- half of its weight of salt by packing tightly in jars; these leaves may then be used for making rose water by destination, but the latter can be bought so much better and more economically that probably very few pharmacists would take the trouble to make their rose water from salted leaves. Rosa Gallica. *f- Red Rose. — o. The petals of the unopened buds of Rosa Gallica; Rosacea. — H. Southern and middle Europe, east- ward to Caucasia; now cultivated everywhere. — b. The petals are re- moved from the bud without separat- ing them, and then quickly dried, so that the drug consists of small cones, varying somewhat in size, each cone consisting of numerous imbricated, roundish, notched, deep-purplish-red petals; the yellow claws or bases of the petals should be cut 434 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. away when the drag is gathered, but are frequently allowed to remain; odor fragrant, taste slightly astringent. — c. Traces of volatile oil, tannin, etc. — U. Mainly for flavoring. Verbasci Flores. ST. Mullein Flowers. — o. and h. The corollas (with stamens), or more rarely the entire flowers of several va- rieties of Ver- b as cum; the common mul- lein of Amer- ica is Verbas- cum thapsus; Scrophulari- acece. The two varieties V. thapsiforme and V. p hlo- moides are com- mon weeds in Europe, where V. thapsus also occurs. All three varieties furnish the drug, although V. thap- siforme has the largest flower and therefore furnishes the showiest drug. — 1>. The illustration shows the corolla of V. thapsiforme laid open to show the stamens. The hairy 5-lobed calyx is generally ab- sent in the drug; the corolla is rotate or wheel- shaped, 2 to 4 cm. broad, bright golden yellow, with five roundish lobes,- and with five stamens inserted in the tube of the corolla, three of which are shorter and woolly and two longer and naked ; odor faintly aro- matic and taste sweetish mucilaginous. The corollas of the American variety, V. thapsus , are similar but smaller, being only about 15 mm. in diameter. — c. Trace of volatile oil, a fatty substance, mucilage, etc NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 435 — U. Demulcent ; used mainly as a showily colored ingredient of pectoral teas. Flores Rhoeadis. N. Poppy Flowers. — o. The petals of Papaver Rhceas; Papaveracecz. — H. A European annual, but generally cultivated as a showy garden flower. — i>. The entire flower is shown in the drawing in natural size ; the petals are very thin and delicate, broadly oval, broader than long, dark-red, with a blue-black spot at the base where they are inserted on the receptacle (hidden in the flower by the stamens and pistil); odor faintly narcotic, taste bit- terish mucilaginous. In the drug the petals are much shrunken. — c. A deep-red coloring principle, rhce- adic acid, soluble in water and in dilute alcohol, etc. — U. Coloring agent ; used like Flores Malvae. For description of Flores Althaea?, Flores JIalva?, Carttaamns and Flores Cyani, see previous group. 436 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. GROUP LV! I . STIGMAS. This group includes two drugs only ; these drugs consist of the styles and stigmas of the plants from which they are derived, the stigmas being the im- portant part in Crocus and the styles in Zea. The group is called "Sexual Organs" by some authors, but this is evidently wrong because only parts, and not even the essential parts, of only the female organs are present ; and moreover, there would be just as much reason to call FJores Verbasci "Corollas with Sexual Parts" as to call these drugs "Sexual parts". The group has also been called "Styles with Stig- mas", but as in the Latin titles for these drug3, as used in different works, the word "Stigmata" has so long been used, it is deemed inadvisable to change the custom, and this word is therefore preferred as the most appropriate title for this group of drugs. Separate stigmas, or three attached to a style, linear tubular, about 3 cm. long, deep orange-brown with reddish tinge . . . Crocus. Tufts of soft, silky, thread-like, yellowish hairs, about 15 cm. long; the ends of the tufts often dried or shriveled together and dark-brown zea. Crocus. N. Saffron, Spanish Saffron, True Saffron. — ©. The stigmas of Crocus sativus; Iridecz.—Ti. Cultivated in Asia Minor and in Southern Europe; most of the saffron sold in this country is from Spain and France. — 1>. The illustration shows the stigmas i a natural size, with a short piece of the style attached, but in the drug they are crumpled and shrunken ; also, on the left, the end enlarged and on the right a portion of the margin, very much magnified. To examine the drug, drop a few shreds on warm water, when it will regain its. fresh form. The stigmas are usually gathered so NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 437 that a small portion of the style remains attached, and the three stigmas of a flower thereby remain attached as in the drawing; but occasionally they are pinched off shorter and are then single stigmas ; the drug should contain very little of the styles. The stigma is about 3 cm. long, flattish - tubular, almost thread-like where it joins the style, broader and split on the inner side of the free end, which is notched and shows papillose margin under a lens ; a good grade of saffron is of a rich orange- brown color with reddish tinge, somewhat deeper at the end and lighter toward the style, flexible and soft, not dry and hard, with a peculiar strong odor and an aromatic bitterish taste, and when chewed it stains the saliva a deep golden yellow. — c. Color- ing matter, gum, wax, etc. — u. Seldom employed otherwise than as a coloring agent. It is mildly dia- phoretic, slightly sedative and antispasmodic. Dose : 0.3 to 2 grams, in infusion or tincture. The genuine drug is necessarily very high-priced as the stigmas from 130,000 flowers must be picked to make one kilo of the drug ; owing to this high price the drug is often adulterated, or cheaper substances bearing more or less resemblance to it are used as substitutes or admixtures. The ray -florets of Calendula, flowers of Carthamus, petals of pomegranate or other deep-red flowers cut in shreds, shreds of smoked or dried beef, and other similar substances are readily distinguished when the suspected drug is placed on warm water, which 438 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. causes the different parts to spread out and show their shapes. The stigmas of some other varieties of Crocus are occasionally added; they are smaller, more flaring and more deeply notched at the upper ends, and have a yellowish color. A deceptive adulteration is the addition of true saffron from which the coloring matter has been ex- tracted by maceration; the exhausted stigmas have a pale and uniform yellowish color, and the whole drug has a less rich and bright appearance. It is sometimes loaded with mineral matters to in- crease the weight; when soaked in water this pul- verulent substance is deposited. Although saffron feels greasy to the touch, it does not contain fixed oil. It should not leave a greasy spot when pressed between two thicknesses of filter- paper. On drying saffron it should not lose more than fourteen per cent of moisture (showing absence of water fraudulently added) and when thus dried it should not leave more than 7.5 to eight per cent ash on burning (absence of foreign mineral substances). Saffron bleaches in the light and loses its odor when exposed to the air ; it should therefore be kept in well -closed opaque containers, or in a dark closet, in a cool place. Zea. N. Corn-silk. — o. The styles and stigmas of Zea Mays; Graminece. — h. Indigenous to the tropical parts of America, but now cultivated in all tropi- cal and sub-tropical parts of America and in some few places on the other continent. — ». Corn-silk con- sists of the threads projecting from the ears of corn, and is gathered when the corn is "shucked" or "husked"; the projecting ends of the styles are darker-colored, brownish to almost black, matted and tangled so that the threads are held together in tufts NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 439 or bundles, the threads of which, where they were cohered by the "shucks" are pale yellowish or yellowish- green, about 15 cm. long, fine silky hairy and delicately veined longi- tudinally; with- out odor, taste sweetish. — c. Sugar, muci- lage, etc. — u. Eeputed to be diuretic, neph- ritic and lithon- triptic. Dose: 2 to 10 grams, in infusion or fluid extract. The figure on the left shows the "ear" of corn, a spadix surrounded by spathes that form the "shucks" when mature, and from the ends of which the long styles with their stigmas project; the right hand fig- ure shows the spadix with its female flowers and the styles and stigmas, while the two small figures show single female flowers, one enlarged; both, the larger figures are much smaller than in nature. FRUITS. This group includes not only whole fruits, but parts of fruits as well. In the trade the terms "fruits" and "seeds" have not been sufficiently accurately differ- entiated, as many drugs are called "seeds" which in reality are fruits, as for instance, "anise seed", "caraway seed", etc. In pharmacognosy such in- accuracies are not permissible, and the student 440 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. should make an effort to learn as soon as possible to use scientific words only in their correct meaning. Strictly speaking, a fruit is the ripened ovary with all that it contains ; this may be thought of as a "true fruit" to distinguish it, for purposes of pharmacog- nosy, from "spurious fruits". It is common to call the matured ovary with all that is attached to it a fruit, although in some fruits of this kind the bulk of the fruit may thus be formed by a calyx tube that was adherent to the ovary, as in the apple, or of woody or leathery scales that were not part of the flower at all, as in cones and strobiles, or of the thickened end of the stem, or receptacle, as in the strawberry or 1ig; such a structure is a "spurious fruit' ' and the true fruits may be enclosed within, as in rose hips or figs, or they may be on the outside, as in the strawberry. Fruits are divided into three groups : Fleshy Fruits ', in which the seeds are inclosed in a more or less soft and juicy flesh ; Stone Fruits or Drupes, in which the outer part (under leaf surface) of the ovary becomes soft and fleshy and the inner part (upper leaf sur- face) of the ovary hardens into a stony shell which envelopes the seed, like a nut; and Dry Fruits, hav- ing no fleshy part at all, the entire ovary hardening into a stony, leathery, hard or tough structure which envelopes the seeds and in some kinds becomes per- manently united to the outer seed coat, while in other kinds the ovary opens or dehisces and allows the seeds to fall out. Fruits may be further divided into Simple Fruits, when a single pistil of a single flower develops into one fruit, and Compound Fruits (also called multiple or col- lective) when a large number of pistils of one flower produce a cluster of fruits, as in raspberry, or when a number of single flowers develop so that the fruits are united into apparently one fruit, as in mulberry. Some authors make a distinction between different NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 441 kinds of compound fruits, thus : An Aggregate Fruit is one in which the individual fruits were all devel- oped from the carpels of the same flower, while a compound fruit resulting from a consolidation of the carpels of several or many flowers is called a Col- lective or Compound Fruit. Fruits which are not used to make medicinal prep- arations, or which are not recognized in some phar- macopoeia or other, but which are only used for mak- ing ' 'crushed fruits" or "fruit syrups" for the soda water fountain, or for similar purposes, as strawberry, blackberry, cherry, grape, pineapple, etc., are not drugs and therefore are not described in these notes. C Spurious 58. f Fresh < Fleshy 59. I Stone Fruits.... 60. f Spurious 61. Fruits. ...i D r ied or prepared. . J Dry 62. * 1 Fleshy 63. t Stone Fruits.... 64. t Parts of Fruits 65. GROUP LVfi M. FRESH SPURIOUS FRUITS. The fruits of this group are seldom employed, partly perhaps because one of them is not easily ob- tainable, and the preparations made from them are not often prescribed. The pome is a fruit in which the fleshy mass, which constitutes the principal thickness, is«formed by devel- opment of the calyx, as in the apple, pear and quince. Pitcher-shaped or ovate berry-like fruit, about 2 cm. long, bright glossy red, bristly hairy within Rosa Canlna. Globular or subglobular pome ; green, russet, yellow, red or varicolored ; acidulous sweet Mainm. 442 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Rosa Canina. nr. Cynosbata, Rose Hips, Hips. — o. The spurious fruit of Rosa canina; Rosa- cea. — ii. Europe. — ». Pitcher-shaped or ovate re- ceptacle, about 2 cm. long, bright glossy red, fleshy, in- closing a number of brown dry fruits or akenes with bristly hairs; odor slight and taste sweetish acidulous. — C. Malic acid, citric acid, sugar, gum, etc. — *J. Mild re- frigerant; when used, the interior akenes and hairs are first removed. Malum. N. Fructus Maliy Pomurn, Apple. — o. The fruit of Pyrus Malus; Rosacea. — h. Cultivated in tem- perate zones. — ». The apple consists of five leathery carpels each enclosing several seeds, arranged in a stellate manner, forming the "core" of the apple, and surrounded by a large fleshy mass which is the de- veloped calyx ; there are many varieties of apple in cultivation, varying in color and flavor, green, russet, yellow, red, striated, varicolored, and from very sweet and mealy to sour and juicy ; for medicinal use NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 443 only a sour and juicy apple is available. — c. Fruit acids (malic, etc.), sugar, etc. — u. The only medi- cinal use made of the apple is in preparing Ex- tractum ferri pomatum (from which in turn Tine- tura ferri pomata is made ; the word pomatus, a, um being a Latin adjective meaning "made from ap- ples"); cider made from sour apples is poured over iron filings in a stone jar and after maceration the liquid is decanted and evaporated to solid extract consistence. This preparation is tolerated by the most sensitive stomachs, and is a chalybeate prepara- tion that deserves more consideration at the hands of American physicians than it is receiving. GROUP LIX. FRESH FLESHY FRUITS. Fleshy fruits are also called berries; this group therefore comprises the berries which are used in the fresh condition. Berries proper are fleshy through- out; the lemon and orange are berries with leathery rind; a gourd is a berry with a hard rind, and a pome is a fleshy fruit resembling a berry, but formed mainly of a fleshy calyx, as the apple, etc. ; therefore the pome is really a spurious fruit, but because the apple would likely be looked for in this group it is also mentioned here. (See previous group.) The raspberry is usually called a berry, but is really an aggregate or multiple fruit, each little fruit being a drupe, similar in structure to a plum, al- though of course much smaller. See next group for description. Oval, bright yellow fruits, with very acid juice Limon. Globular or subglobular, orange- colored fruits, with acidulous Sweet juice Aurantii Fructns. 444 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Globular green berry, about 2.5 cm. in diameter, with 4-lobed per- sistent calyx and about five seeds. Diospyros. Globular or subglobular pome; green, russet, yellow, red or vari- colored; acidulous sweet Malum. A collective or multiple fruit, com- posed of numerous small drupes ; red or black Rutras Idseus. Small round fruit resembling a berry, about 5 mm. in diameter, brownish-black with bluish bloom Juniperus. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 445 Iiimon. N. Fructus Citri; Lemon. — o. The fresh fruit of Citrus Limonum; Rutacecs (Aurantiacecz) . — h. Cultivated in sub-tropical countries. — i>. The illus- tration shows the fruit in natural size ; oval, with nipple-shaped apex, g 1 a u dulous bright-yellow ("lemon-yellow") rind; contains an agreeably acid juice. The section of the lemon closely resembles that of the orange (see next figure), but the rind is closely adherent so that it must be peeled off with a knife ; the rind is fragrant, bitter. The fruit must be fresh and sound. — c. The rind contains a volatile oil and the juice contains from 7 to 9% citric acid. — U. The juice, or the acid, is much used as an anti- scorbutic ; it is also used as a refrigerant drink in the form of lemonade. In the form of lemon juice it en- joys the popular reputation of curing and preventing "biliousness". The lime, the fruit of Citrus acris, is smaller than the lemon, with a thinner rind somewhat different in flavor from that of the lemon, pale yellowish-green, and with a very acid juice ; this variety of fruit is pre- ferred by many in the making of "mixed drinks". Fructus Aurantii. N. Orange. — o. The fresh fruit of Citrus Auran- tium; Rutacece (Aurantiacecz). — be. Cultivated in sub-tropical countries. — 1>. Similar in structure to the lemon, but globular or sub-giobular, without nipple-shaped apex, but with apex sometimes nodu- lated as in the "navel" oranges ; glandulous orange- colored rind. The illustration shows a section of an orange ; the rind of the orange separates readily from the edible portion within, which is in sections also easily separable from each other; the number of these sections is somewhat variable, as is also the number of seeds which vary in number from many, to none at all as in the "seedless" oranges. — c. Citric acid, 446 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. sugar, etc. The rind yields a volatile oil. — c. The orange is an agreeably acidulous sweet fruit, and is much used as a refrigerant and refreshing diet. N. Persimmon. IMospyros. o. The fresh and unripe fruit of Diospyros Vir- giniana; Eben- acece. — h. In the rich bottom lands of the rivers of the United States. — B. Form and size are shown in the figures; green, smooth, with persistent 4-lobed calyx and about NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY, 447 five smooth and dark-brown seeds ; odor pleasant fruit-like, taste intensely astringent. On ripening, the quantity of tannic acid decreases, and after frosts in autumn the astringent taste disappears altogether and the fruit becomes a pleasantly acidulous sweet article of diet. — c. The unripe fruit contains tannic acid. — u. Astringent. Dose : 1 to 5 grams. Malum, or apple, was described in the previous group, and the description of Rnbns idsens, or rasp- berry, will be found in the next group. Jimiperas, or Juniper Berries, are not really ber- ries nor are they fresh, but they have been prepared in a manner similar to that of drying grapes to make raisins, preserved in their own sugar by partially drying. Yet they look like fresh berries and some might look here for them and they are therefore mentioned, but the description is given in the proper place, under Group LXI. GROUP LX. FRESH STONE FRUITS. The only drug of this group is a collective or com- pound drupaceous fruit. Numerous red or black stone-fruits united into a small, round-conical cluster with hollow base; sweet, acidulous Rnbns Idsens. Rnbns Idsens. N. Raspberry. — o. The fruit of Rubus idczus; Rosacece. — h. Cultivated in Europe and America. — i>. The figure shows the fruit in natural size, whole and in longitudinal section; it consists of about thirty to forty diminutive drupes, each one with a withered style, as shown plainer in the two smaller drawings, which show the individual fruit enlarged, whole and in section. When plucked these small 448 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. fruits remain attached to each other, but separate from the white, pithy recep- tacle which re- mains on the stem; the clus- ter then forms a round-conical or hemispheri- cal, red, finely hairy "berry", of an agreeable odor and pleasant sweet acidulous taste. — c. Citric and malic acids, pectin, fruit sugar, coloring matter, etc. — u. For flavoring. The light-red fruit of Rubus strigosus (Wild Rasp- berry) and the purplish-black fruit of R. occidentalis (Black Raspberry) are often used instead of and for the same purposes as the above; a mixture of the red and black raspberries in about equal quantities makes an exceptionally rich-looking and well-fla- vored syrup. GROUP LXI. DRIED OR PREPARED SPURIOUS FRUITS. Of this group three drugs are dried, hops, long pep- per and chenopodium, and two are only partly dried, being prepared or preserved by their own inspissated juices, fig and juniper berries. The structure of each, and therefore the reasons why each must be consid- ered a spurious fruit, being peculiar, this will be ex- plained in connection with the individual drugs. Before proceeding to the consideration of these drugs it may be well to recall to memory the struct- ure of two kinds of spurious fruits, of the cone or strobile, and of the syconium. The cone is the pecul- iar compound fruit of the Conifer se, a class of plants to which the pines, cypresses, etc., belong; the female inflorescence is composed of an axis on which NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 449 are arranged a number of scales, which are consid- ered to be open ovaries by some, and on the inner side of each scale there may be found one or two naked or uncovered ovules ; when this matures, it forms a scaly spurious fruit with one or two naked seeds on the inner side of each scale. The word strobile is used by some as synonymous with cone, by others is applied to cones which do not be- come woody, but remain flexible or soft. The syconium is a fleshy receptacle or summit of the plant axis, hollowed out and lined within by a multitude of minute flowers which, when mature, are often supposed to be the seeds, whereas they are the real fruits, and the fleshy receptacle which is used, as in the fig or in rose hips (already considered) is not a fruit, but a spurious fruit. Strobile with flexible scales ; yellow- ish-green Hiimulus. Small round fruit resembling a berry, about 5 mm. in diameter, brownish- black with bluish bloom Jnniperus. Compressed, of irregular shape, fleshy, yellowish-brown; very sweet Ficns. Cylindrical, about 4 to 5 cm. long, 5 mm. thick, spirally nodulated, stalked, grayish-brown Piper ion gum. Dull greenish or greenish-brown fruit, about 1 mm. in diameter, depressed globular, obscurely lobed, contain- ing a glossy black seed, peculiar odor and pungent taste Ctaenopodinm. Hamulus. N. Hops. — o. The strobiles of Humulus Lupulus; Urticacece, — h. Cultivated. — i>. The illustration gives a correct idea of the shape and size of the drug. It is not correct, strictly speaking, to call this a stro- 450 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. bile, because the ovules on the inner side of the bracts or scales of the catkin are not naked, but are contained in ovaries, which are in turn contained in a sheathing calyx; the achenes are therefore real fruits (ripened ovary with its contents), but as the bulk of the struct- ure is made up of scales, part of which are the devel- oped bracts and others the developed calyces, it looks like a strobile and it may be considered to be "a sort of membranaceous strobile". These strobiles or fruit- cones are about 3 cm. long, oval, yellowish-green, and consist of many ovate, membranous, glandulous scales attached to a thin and hairy undulated axis. The fruit is an achene, and it, as well as its enveloping calyx scale, should be thickly beset with mi- nute brownish-red glands. The odor of hops is strongly aromatic and the taste is bitter, aromatic and slightly astringent. — c. About 1% volatile oil, 9 to 18% resin, 3 to 4% tannin, etc. The bitter and aromatic properties of this drug reside in the minute glands al- ready referred to, which, when separately sold, constitute the drug which is commonly but improperly called "Lu- pulin". — u. Bitter tonic, stomachic and anodyne. Dose.: 1 to 5 grams, in fluid extract or in infusion. Also used locally to allay pain, in the form of dry and hot "hop pillows", or moist as fomentations or poul- tices. Hops should be whole and unbroken; the lupulin has probably been at least partially removed from broken or much crumbled drug. Brown, spotted or discolored hops, or hops which is seen under a lens to be poor in lupulin glands, should be rejected for medicinal purpo&rs. Old hops sometimes has a dis- agreeable odor, from valerianic acid formed by the NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 451 oxidation of the volatile oil; the odor should be fresh, and strongly and pleasantly aromatic. Jnniperns. N. Juniper Berries. — o. The ripe fruit, a fleshy cone, oijuniperus communis ; Conifercz. — h. North- ern hemisphere. — ». The fertile catkin of common juniper consists of three fleshy coalescent scales, each with one naked ovule, which, when ripened at the end of the second year, form a fleshy cone or strobile resembling a berry. This fruit is therefore botani- cally a cone, a form of spurious fruit. The illustra- tions show a little twig with two fruits in natural size, a fruit enlarged, whole and in section, and seed in natural size and enlarged, and in transverse section to show the oil-vesicles on seeds. Juniper berries are globular or sub-globular, about 5 mm. in diameter, marked on top with three raphes meeting in the cen- ter, each triangular space between these being marked with a small wart ; externally covered with a bluish bloom, so that they look dark-blue, but where the bloom is rubbed off the color is brownish-black and glossy ; internally pithy-fleshy, brownish-green, containing three sub-triangular seeds, the seeds hav- ing oil-vesicles on their surfaces. Odor peculiar, aromatic and terebinthinate, and taste sweetish spicy. — c. From 1 to 2% volatile oil, about 30% sugar, some resin, etc.; they are partially dried, by which they are preserved by their own sugar in simi- lar manner as raisins and figs are preserved. — u. 452 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Stimulant, diuretic and emmenagogue. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in fluid extract, or a teaspoonful to table- spoonful of "roob juniperi ,, or syrup. Ficns. is. Fig. — o. The fruit, a syconium, of Ficus Carica; Urticacecz. — h. Cultivated in tropical and sub- tropical countries. — 1>. As found in the trade, figs are partly dried and then compressed into wooden boxes ; they are irregular in shape, mostly somewhat flattened, angular, yellowish-brown, fleshy, covered with an efflorescence of sugar, and contain many minute fruits which are commonly called "seeds"; odor fragrant, fruit-like, and taste very sweet and slightly mucilaginous. The illustrations show the hollow receptacle, whole and in longitudinal section, natural size ; it is pear-shaped, short-stalked, with the opening at apex protected by some scales ; in the section the part shaded in small dots is the recep- tacle and the interior shows the manner in which the many minute female flowers are arranged. The smaller drawings represent a few female flowers and one male flower, both much enlarged. The unripe fruit is green, changing on ripening to purplish-green or purplish-red to yellowish-red, according to variety. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 453 The male flowers are situated near the orifice while the interior contains only female flowers; fertilization depends largely on small insects which carry the pollen with them as they enter the receptacle on their way to gather nectar from the flowers within, and it is reported that the figs of California were much improved by the introduction of this insect from the fig-orchards of Smyrna in Asia Minor, from which we obtain the best figs of the trade. While the fruit is green it contains a milky juice, which disap- pears when the fruit ripens ; the matured fruit is up to 8 cm. long and to 5 cm. thick at the widest part, and the compressed commercial fruit resumes its natural shape and size on soaking in water. — c. About 62% of sugar, some gum, etc. — u. Demulcent and laxa- tive. Roasted figs are some- times applied to abscesses of the gums as poultice. Piper liongimi. ar. Long Pepper. — o. The fully grown but still immature fruits coalesced with all the other structures of the spike or inflorescence of Cha- vica officinarum; Piperacecz. — H. East Indian and Philip- pine Islands. — ». The rhachis, bracts and ovaries all develop and enlarge on fertilization and become consolidated into a cylindrical mass which is about 3.5 to 5 cm. long and about 5 mm. thick, with a stalk about 1 cm. long, and with the fruits arranged spi- rally around the rhachis, giv- ing the whole a nodulated appearance; blackish-gray, 454 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. dusty; odor and taste like those of black pepper. One of the drawings shows the tip (about one-fourth of total length) of the fresh female spike, a being the berries and b the bracts which accompany the ovaries and which develop as the fruit develops. The other drawing shows a section of the cylinder, with about 7 to 8 berries arranged around the rhachis of the spike. Both drawings are very much en- larged. All of these structures are present in the drug, but when dried and partially disfigured by at- trition (to which the dusty appearance of the drug is due) cannot be seen as distinctly in the drug as in the fresh spike or in the drawing. — c. Like those of black pepper; piperin, fatty oil, resin, volatile oil, etc. — it, Condiment, mainly; stimulant carminative. Dose: 0.3 to 1.5 grams. Chenopodiiim. N. Chenopodiura, Wormseed, American Worm- seed. — o.The fruit of Chenopodiuni ambro- sioides, var. anthel- minticum; Chenopo- diacecz. — h. Subtropi- cal America, but naturalized and a common weed in United States. — ». Small, depressed-globular, slightly lobed or ridged fruits, about 1 mm. in di- ameter, yellowish-gray to greenish-brown, very brittle and fragile; the minute seed is flattish, circular, glossy black, with the embryo curved around the edges of the seed; the fruit is a utricle, but it is so closely surrounded by and united with the five seg- ments of the calyx which form the bulk of the fruit, that it is more proper to consider this to be a spurious fruit. The drawings show a section of a seed, and the whole fruit, both much enlarged; the lobing is, however, often much less prominently marked. Odor offensively aromatic, peculiar, and NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 455 taste bitterish pungent. — c. Volatile oil. — u. An- thelmintic. Dose : 1 to 2 grams. GROUP LXI I . DRY FRUITS. There is a great diversity of forms of fruits of this kind and works on botany give separate and distinc- tive names to quite a number of varieties of these fruits. The main characteristic of fruits of this group is, that the ovary develops into a dry, membranous, or even stony or hard structure in which the seed or seeds are contained ; rarely does any part of such fruits remain fleshy, when fully ripe. It will facilitate the study of this group of drugs to review briefly the characteristics of important forms, although the different authors on pharmacognosy lay no particular stress on the correct botanical defini- tions of the names of fruits which they employ, so that what one author calls a carpel another may call a follicle, and still another may call it a capsule. A broad distinction may be based on the dehis- cence. Some dry fruits dehisce or open when ripe ; these usually contain several or many seeds and some authors call all such dehiscing dry fruits "pods" or "capsules". Other dry fruits are indehiscent, that is, they do not open, but the ovary forms an envelope for the seed which remains closed, and which is often so seed-like in appearance that such fruits may be mistaken for naked seeds. In fact, in the ordinary trade nomenclature fruits of this kind are usually spoken of as "seeds", as for instance "hemp seed", "anise seed", etc. Indehiscent dry fruits are usually one-seeded. The word "carpel" is used by many authors to designate certain dry fruits; the word, however, does not properly designate a fruit, for it means a simple pistil; each component leaf or pistil of a compound 456 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. pistil is also a carpel ; a flower may contain one or several or many separate or simple carpels. When a simple carpel matures into a fruit, or when each com- ponent carpel of what in the flower appeared to be a compound pistil matures into a separate fruit, such fruits may be akenes, follicles, legumes, pods, utri- cles, etc., but it is customary also to refer to such fruits as ' 'carpels", especially when it is a little diffi- cult to determine just what else to call them. For convenience we will group dry fruits as dehis- cent and indehiscent, and we will call the dehiscent fruits "pods" or "capsules" and will divide the inde- hiscent fruits into "akenes" and "cremocarps". These names and a few other names of fruits we will now briefly define. The pod is any dry dehiscent fruit ; it may be the product of a simple pistil, and it is then called a follicle if the carpel opens or dehisces on one side only, as in the fruit of star anise, or a legume or true pod when it opens on both sides, as in the pea or bean ; or it may be the product of a compound pistil, when it is properly called a capsule, as in poppy. Some few fruits have the structure of dehiscing fruits or pods, yet do not dehisce at maturity, as, for instance, the pods of purging cassia and of St. John's bread ; yet they must be placed among the pods, or dehiscing fruits, because they belong there on ac- count of their structure. It must be borne in mind, however, that some such fruits, if left ungathered, would probably dry out and decay so that dehiscence would take place at the beginning of the following season ; in other words, there are many pods that re- main unopened through the winter, but open and drop their seeds early next spring when it is the proper time to sow them. Such may possibly be the case also with these two "indehiscent pods". The akene is a small, dry, indehiscent, one-seeded fruit ; the fruits of composite flowers are also called NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 457 akenes ; the utricle is an akene in which the ovary forms a thin, bladdery sac surrounding the seed, which may either break open irregularly or can be broken and removed by rubbing; the caryopsis or grain is an akene in which the ovary forms a thin membranaceous coating which is intimately united with the seed, appearing therefore to be merely a seed-coat, as in wheat, corn, etc. ; in a nut the ovary is changed to a hard, stony shell (made up of stone- cells) as in the hazel nut; cremocarp is the name given to the fruit of the Umbelliferce or umbellifer- ous plants, in which two carpels are intimately at- tached in the blossom, both developing into akenes, which sometimes separate when ripe, as in fennel and caraway, and sometimes remain permanently at- tached to each other as in anise and coriander. We will consider the cremocarps (also called BACK. sc hiz o carps by some authors) a little more fully. In the illustrations e shows the mature fruit of fennel, the two carpels or akenes still attached to each other, and c shows the same en- larged; in b the fruits are seen separated but held together by the two-pronged prolongation of the recep- tacle, which is very brittle and easily broken so that the fruits are then entirely separated; d is a longi- tudinal section, showing the embryo imbedded in the upper part of the albumen of the seed ; a is a trans- verse section of the fruit, showing the wall formed by the ovary and the albumen of the seed within (3), while 1 points out an oil-duct, or oil-tube (Latin : vitta, pi., vittcz) which runs the length of the fruit, and 2 indicates a fibrovascular bundle ; the fibrovas- cular bundles are at the angles, and projecting out- 458 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. wardly where they are situated there are more or less distinctly marked ridges, giving characteristic ap- pearances to the cross-sections and enabling us to recognize the various fruits of this kind thereby ; be- tween the fibrovascular bundles are oil-ducts, vary- ing in number in different kinds of cremocarps, but fairly uniform in number in cremocarps of the same kind. With this explanation the drawings of the various cremocarps become self-explanatory. To ex- amine these fruits, soak in water and cut transversely about the middle of the fruit; then examine the cut ends ; or a thin section may be cut from one of these pieces and cleared with liquor potassce, and then examined under the microscope. The taste and odor of most of the cremocarps are very characteristic. Capsules or Pods : Small, obtusely triangular, 3- celled capsules, 10 to 15 mm. long; central placenta with many brown seeds; pale buff . Cardamomnm. Eight reddish-brown woody follicles, arranged star-shaped; often some of the carpels are aborted ; odor anise-like iiiicium. Large, round or elongated, pale brownish-yellow capsules, 1- celled, with many parietal pla- centas and containing many white or bluish seeds Papaver. Fleshy, linear, dark-brown pod, up to 25 cm. long by 8 mm. thick ; very fragrant Vanilla. Hard, rigid, cylindrical, dark- brown pod, up to 60 cm. long by 2.5 cm. thick Cassia Fistula. Flat, broad, glossy brownish NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 459 pod, about 10 to 20 cm. long, with up to 12 seeds; with sweetish pulp Ceratonia. From 2 to 5 small, somewhat thick and fleshy pods attached to a short stalk ; each about 5 mm. long and containing 1 or 2 glossy black seeds Xaiuboxyti Frnctns. Akenes: Obovate-oblong, brownish-gray, somewhat curved akene, about 6 mm. long Lappa? Frnctns. Sub-globular, brownish or green- ish-gray akene, about 4mm. in diameter, with a single oily seed Cannabis Frnctns. Elliptic grain, about 7 to 9 mm. long, enclosed in straw-col- ored paleae; taste farinaceous. Hordei Frnctns. Like preceding in appearance, but with sweet taste m altnm. Very small sub-globular utricle, about 2 mm. in diameter; dull greenish-brownish color; con- tains shining black seed Cneiiopoctiiim. Elliptic, flattened, glossy pale- yellowish grain, about 4 mm. long Pnalaridis Fructns. Cremocarps; usually remaining united; with oil- tubes: Oval ; each fruit with 5 obscure ridges and about 16 oil-tubes ; grayish, finely hairy Anisnm. Globular, hollow, some of the ridges wavy ; each fruit with 2 oil-tubes on inner face; brown- ish-yellow, smooth Coriandrnm. 460 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Elongated, compressed from sides ; each fruit with 5 ridges and 6 oil-tubes; yellowish- brown ; rough hairy Cumini Fructns. Elongated, nearly cylindrical, with 5-toothed calyx, ridges not prominent; each fruit with 6 oil-tubes ; brownish-green . . Pneilancirii Fructns. Often remaining united ; without oil-tubes: Oval, compressed from sides; each fruit with 5 nodulated ridges and 2 deep lateral grooves ; no oil-tubes; albumen crescent-shaped in transverse section ; brownish-green Coninm. Usually separating; with oil-tubes: Elongated, compressed from sides; each fruit with 5 ob- scure ridges and 6 oil-tubes; usually curved ; brown Carum, Elongated, nearly cylindrical; each fruit with 5 angular ridges and 6 oil-tubes; smooth; yellowish-brown Foenicnlum. Eoundish-ovate, compressed from sides ; each fruit with 5 obscure ridges and 6 oil-tubes ; grayish-green Petrosclini Fructns. Oval, compressed from back; each fruit with 3 sharp-keeled dorsal ridges and 2 long lat- eral ridges forming thin broad margins; 6 oil-tubes; brown. .AnetniFructus. Very small, roundish-ovate, compressed from sides, smooth; each fruit with 5 angular ridges and 12 to 15 oil-tubes ; brown Apii Fructns. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 461 Elliptic, compressed from back ; each fruit with 5 prominent ridges, the lateral ones larger, and 6 oil-tubes; yellowish- brown Levistiei Frnotus. Elliptic, compressed from back ; each fruit with 3 prominent dorsal ridges and 2 long, flat, lateral, ridges; numerous oil- tubes; yellow Angelica? Frncfns. Oval, compressed from back; each fruit with 7 ridges, 2 lateral and 2 dorsal spinous, and 3 dorsal short-hairy ; 6 oil- tubes; grayish-brown I>auci Fractus. Cardamomnm. W. Cardamom. — o! The fruit of Eleitaria repens; Scitaminece. — h. Malabar and India. — d. Ovoid or oblong 3-celled capsules, obtusely triangular, rounded 462 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. at base and beaked at apex, about 1 to 2 cm. long, with central placenta and numerous brown, aromatic seeds and a thin, tough, leathery, buff-colored, taste- less shell. — c. The seeds contain about 4 to 5% of an aromatic volatile oil. — u. As a spice, carminative and stomachic; mainly as a flavoring agent and cor- rective. Dose : About 1 gram. Malabar cardamom and Aleppy cardamom are the only varieties generally employed in the United States. There are several other varieties, and the seeds may be derived partly from some of these ; for instance, Madras cardamom, the round cardamom, and the Ceylon cardamom. All kinds of cardamoms are designated according to size by the terms, shorts, short-longs or mediums, and longs. Shorts are from 10 to 15 mm. long; mediums from 15 to 25 mm. long, and longs from 2.5 to 5 cm. long. Malabar cardamoms are best. They are either shorts or short-longs, bleached or un- bleached; the choicest are short, plump, heavy, aud have a pale straw color without any green tint, and they yield from | to -f of their weight of seeds. Madras cardamoms are pale and thin, not plump, short-longs. Aleppy cardamoms are shorts, of a somewhat green- ish tint, and are of inferior quality. Ceylon cardamoms are longs, dark grayish-brown, and differ in odor and taste from the above kinds. In the illustrations a and b are Malabar shorts; c, Malabar mediums, and d Malabar longs; e is a sec- tion of Malabar cardamom, slightly enlarged ; f is round cardamom, from Java, and g is a section of the same, slightly enlarged ; h shows Ceylon longs; ex- cept as otherwise noted, all are natural size. Carda- mom seeds come into the trade as such, and are therefore described in their proper place, under Group LXVI. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 463 Illicinm. If. Fructus Anisi Stellati, Star Anise. — o. The fruit of Illicium verum (I. anisatum); Magnoliacecz. — H. China, Siaru, Anain. — ©.A multiple fruit con- sisting of eight reddish-brown, woody follicles, ar- ranged in a star-shaped or radiate whorl around a short central receptacle or axis which is a continua- tion of the stalk ; often the follicles are unevenly- developed, or some are aborted, and generally the drug is much broken ; each follicle is from 10 to 15 mm. long, boat-shaped, somewhat wrinkled, with straight point or beak, open at the upper suture, ex- posing the flat oval, glossy brown seed; odor like that of anise, taste sweetish aromatic. In the illustrations are shown two large, well-developed fruits, one from the upper and the other from the lower side, two im- perfectly and irregularly developed fruits, one follicle and one seed. — c. The follicles yield upwards of 5% and the seeds about 2% of a volatile oil that is practi- 464 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. cally identical with that of anise; the total yield of the fruit is about 4 to 44% of this oil; there is also a fixed oil, etc. — u. Similar to those of anise; stimulant, carminative and stomachic, but mainly as a flavor ; it is also an ingredient of many of the ''pectoral teas". Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. Adulteration. — The fruits of lllicium religiosum, shown in these illustrations, are sometimes found mixed with the fruit of star anise, and in such case they were probably added as an adulteration. The follicles of this fruit are rougher, more wrinkled and shrivelled, and have a beak or point that is bent up-* wards. The odor is faintly aromatic, possi- bly from having been in contact with the star anise, somewhat clove- like, and the taste is dis- agreeable, somewhat saline, faintly reminding of cardamom. The fruits are smaller than those of star anise and in bulk have the appearance of being lighter in color, the follicles being more opened, so that the lighter-colored interior is more exposed. This v fruit is also called shi- kimi fruit, and it is said to be poisonous ; but if so, it cannot be very poisonous because no serious effects seem to have followed its admixture to star anise; the author once found a lot in trade which consisted of at least i of its weight of s/iikimi, and he chewed freely of this spurious star anise, without any effects what- ever, and the lot was disposed of most likely in small lots by the wholesaler from whom a small quantity NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 465 was obtained by the writer, and no bad effects were noted by anyone. Papaver. N. Poppy, Poppy Heads. — o. The fruit of Papaver somniferum; Papaveracece; gathered before they are quite ripe. — h. Asia Minor and India ; cultivated. — B. There are capsules of various shapes, from elongated, to round and compressed or flat, but the 466 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. illustrations give a good idea of the average size and shape ; the capsule is pale-brown or buff-colored ex- ternally, with a large persistent stigma, under the lobes of which are small valves which open at the time of dehiscence and allow the seeds to fall out the walls of the capsule are brittle, and many of the capsules are broken in the drug; one-celled, but with many (8-15) parietal placentas to which numerous seeds are attached ; most seeds are removed from the drug, but enough are always present to determine the kind ; there are two varieties of poppy, the so-called 1 'black" which has bluish seeds and the "white" which has white seeds. It is usually stated that the white is to be preferred, but more probably there is no difference between the two kinds. The drug has no odor, but a somewhat bitter taste. — c. As these capsules, when fresh, furnish an exudation which forms opium, and as this milky juice is retained in the unincised capsules that are gathered for this drug, its constituents are the same as those of opium (which see) but in very variable and uncertain proportions. — U. Slightly anodyne and sedative ; mainly used in decoction or syrup as a cough medicine. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Vanilla. N. Vanilla. — o. The fruit, a fleshy pod, of Vanilla planifolia; Orchidecz; gathered before it is quite ripe. — H.Mexico; cultivated in other tropical countries. — D. The fruit of Vanilla is a dark-brown, flexible pod, from 15 to 25 cm. in length, and from 4 to 8 mm. in thickness, linear, obtusely triangular, hooked at the base and obliquely narrowed at the apex; the walls of the pod are soft-leathery, and the interior is filled with a blackish-brown, oily pulp in which numerous minute black seeds are imbedded; odor and taste peculiarly aromatic and fragrant. The illustra- tions show a whole pod, cut in halves to allow of illus- tration in natural size, and i section enlarged, which NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 467 may be prepared by first cutting it, then extracting the oil, etc., with ether, then soaking in dilute alcohol, then in water, to remove the color, and finally clearing, as usual. The pod is one-celled, but has several placentas which bear the numerous seeds. — c. About 2% of vanillin, some of which sometimes forms a crystalline efflorescence on the outer surface of the drug; some fixed oil, sugar, etc. — u. For flavoring. When ripe, the pod opens along the two darker-colored lines seen in the section; but it is gathered while still unripe and is treated by a process of "sweating" or fermentation, by which its aroma is fully developed and dehiscence prevented. Mexican vanilla is the best kind; it sometimes is more than 25 cm. long. It comes into trade tied into bundles containing about 50 fruits each; these bundles are then wrapped in tin-foil and sev- eral of them are packed in a tin box. Bourbon vanilla is shorter, lighter-colored, and its 468 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. odor resembles somewhat that of tonka bean. Ven- ezuelan, Brazilian and other varieties of vanilla are not usually found in the trade. Vanilla is valued to a great extent by length ; it is assorted according to length, and the longer the bean the higher the price of any given weight of the drug. Cassia Fistula. N. Purging Cassia. — o. The pod of Cassia Fistula; Leguminoscz. — h. West Indies. — i>. An indehis- cent, hard, rigid, cylindrical pod with two rhaphes on opposite sides down the length of the fruit; up to 60 cm. long and 2 to 3 cm. in diameter, of a rich dark- brown color, and containing in separate transverse cells from 25 to 100 ovate, flattish, glossy red- dish-brown seeds imbedded in a thick, tough, blackish-brown, sweet pulp which has the odor of prunes. The illustration shows a small end of one of the fruits in natural size. — c. Good purging cassia contains about £ of its weight of pulp, which is the only valuable portion ; this pulp con- tains about 60% of sugar, some mucilage, pectin, etc. — u. Mild laxative, mainly employed in combination, as in confection of senna. Dose: As a laxative, 5 to 10 grams ; as a purgative, 25 to 50 grams. Ceratonia. N. Siliqua Dulcis; St. John's Bread. — o. The pod of Ceratonia Siliqua; Leguminoscz. — h. Southern Europe and the Orient. — ». An indehiscent, flat, broad, glossy brownish pod, about 10 to 20 cm. long, 2 to NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 469 3 cm. broad and 3 to 8 mm. thick, thicker at the edges than in the center, grooved at the edges; the external fruit-coat is leathery; the interior contains from 3 up to 12 or 13 transverse cells, each lined with a papery membrane and containing a flattish oval, glossy brown and very hard seed in a pulp, which in the dry condition, as in the drug, is tough and alveolar, and which has an agreeably pleasant odor and taste. — c. 40 to 50% of 470 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. sugar, some mucilage, pectin, etc. — u. Slightly laxative and demulcent; occasionally used in pectoral teas, etc. ; sometimes imported as food for cattle, but in the drug-stores used mainly as "laggniappe". Xanthoxyli Fructtis. N. Prickly Ash Fruit, Prickly Ash Berries. — o. The fruits of Xanthoxy- lum Americanum {X. fraxineurri) and X. Cla va-Hercu lis ( X . Carolinianuiri) ; Rut- acece. — h. United States. — ». Some- what thick and fleshy pods, some with, most without stalks, each about 4 to 5 mm. long, yellowish-brown, somewhat wrinkled and con- taining 1, more rarely 2, glossy black seeds. The pods of X. car. grow in clusters of 2 or 3, those of X.fr. in clusters of 3 to 5, but they rarely remain at- tached to each other in the drug, but are usually broken apart and partly opened from the separation of the two valves, and ofteu empty and mixed with the separated seeds. The seeds are subglobular when single, compressed and flattened when two in a pod, wrinkled, glossy black, and contain a white albumen and embryo. The drawings show three pods much enlarged, and several pods and a seed in natural size. Odor aromatic, taste pungent. — c. Volatile oil, resin, etc. — u. Nervine tonic, arterial stimulant, sialagogue, diaphoretic and alterative. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. JLappje Functus. N. Burdock Fruit, Burdock Seed. — o. The fruit (akene) of Lappa officinalis; Composite?. — h. Europe and America. — ».The akenes, shown in the drawings NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 471 in natural size and enlarged, are obovate-oblong, flat- tened, transversely wrinkled, sometimes somewhat curved, about 6 mm. long, to 3 mm. wide, brownish-gray, mottled ; pappus stiff hairy-bristly, but usually wanting in the drug. No odor, taste bitter. — c. Fixed oil, resin, some bitter principle, etc. — u. Bitter tonic; alterative in psoriasis, etc. Dose : 1 to 4 grams, best in fluid extract. Cannabis Frnctns. N. Hemp Seed. — o. The fruit (akene) of Cannabis sativa; Urticacece. — h. In- digenous to Asia, but culti- vated everywhere; see also Group IX. — D.The illustra- tion shows the fruit nat- ural size, and whole and in longitudinal and trans- verse sections, all much enlarged. An oval or sub- globular akene, about 4 mm. long by 2 mm. broad, the fruit-shell is greenish or grayish-brown exter- nally, with a whitish keel on the margin, netted- veined, smooth, internally dark olive-green or brown, brittle, one-celled, two-valved, but not dehiscent, and contains one white, oily seed consisting of a curved embryo without albumen ; no odor, taste nutty, sweet. — c. About 30% fixed oil, albuminoids, sugar, etc. — u. Sometimes used as a demulcent in the form of an emulsion, but most frequently used for bird-food. Hordei Frnctns. N. Barley. — o. The fruit (cary- opsis or grain) of Hordeum dis- II A \\ ' \ m tichum; Graminece. — h. Culti- I ii I'M \\ ! :'/ vated. — ». The drawing shows barley in natural size and en- larged, with the palese enclosing the fruit proper and closely united therewith. The 472 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. fruit is from 7 to 9 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. broad, taper- ing towards the ends, with a groove along the front, smooth on the back, straw-colored on account of the adhering paleae, brownish when the latter are re- moved; no odor, taste mealy. — c. About 60 to 70% starch, gluten, sugar, fat, etc. — u. Food. Maltnm. Maltum Hordei, or malt, is made by causing bar- ley to germinate until the sprout reaches about the length of the fruit, when further germination is stopped by quickly raising the temperature and dry- ing the fruit; barley loses about 10 to 20% of its weight when changed to malt, and much of the starch is changed to dextrin, sugar, etc. For Pearl Barley see Group LXX. Cbenopodiiim, or American Wormseed, is some- times considered to be a dry fruit. It is really a utricle, but is enclosed in the calyx, which consti- tutes the bulk of the fruit, for which reason it has been described in Group LXI, Spurious Fruits. Pbalariclis Frnetus. m. Semen Canariense y or Canary Seed. ■ — o. The fruit (caryopsis or grain) of Phalaris Can- ariensis; Graminecz. — h. Indigenous to the Canary Islands, but also cultivated elsewhere. — ». The drawings show Can- ary Seed in natural size and enlarged. An elliptic fruit, about 4 mm. long and 1$ mm. broad, flattish, enclosed in two hard paleae which are not united with the fruit ; the paleae are keeled, glossy yellowish-gray and finely hairy, and the enclosed fruit is smooth, brownish, with a small embryo and a mealy albumen. — u. One of the usual constituents of "mixed bird seeds". Anisi Friictus. N. Anisum, Anise. — o. The fruit of Pimpinella Anisum; Umbellifercz \ — h. Indigenous in the NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 473 Orient, but also cultivated in Europe. — d. Oval, about 2 to 3 mm. long, grayish or grayish-green, finely hairy ; the two mericarps usually remain ad- herent; each fruit has 5 obscure ridges and about 16 (but sometimes up to 30 or more) oil-tubes; odor pecul- iar, aromatic, taste spicy, sweet. •— c. About 1.5 to 3% volatile oil, some fixed oil, sugar, etc. — u. Car- minative, stimulant; mainly used for flavoring. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. Anise should be plump and sound, and free from dirt and small stones, with which it is often mixed. It is said to be sometimes mixed with Conium fruit which it somewhat resembles, but the writer has never seen any such admixture. Corianciri Fractns. jr. Coriandrum, Coriander. — o. The fruit of Cori- andrum sativum; Umbellifercz. — h. Asia and Europe ; cultivated. — ». Globular, about 3 to 4 mm. in diam- eter, light-brown; the two mericarps remain adherent, each fruit having 5 wavy and 4 straight ridges on the back; face concave, thus making the whole fruit hollow ; each fruit has 2 oil-tubes on the face; the fresh fruit has a nauseous odor, reminding of bed-bugs, but the dried fruit is agreeably aromatic, taste spicy. — c About 0.5% volatile oil, some fixed oil, etc. — u. Car- minative, stimulant; mainly used for flavoring. Pose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 474 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Cumini Fructus. ar. Cuminum, Cumin. — o. The fruit of Cuminum Cyminum; Umbellifercz. — h. Northeastern Africa. — B. Oblong or elongated, compressed from the sides, about 4 mm. long, yellow- ish-brown; the two meri- carps remain adherent, each fruit has 3 promi- nent ridges which are nar- row and beset with fine hairs, and 4 broad grooves down the middle of each of which there is a slight ridge with short, soft spines; each mericarp has 6 oil- tubes, 4 lying under the grooves and 2 on the face; odor and taste peculiar, resembling caraway. — c. Volatile oil, the yield of which is variously stated, from 0.25 to 3% (probably because the yield is very variable), some fixed oil, resin, etc. — u. Carmin- ative, stimulant. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. Pliellanclrii Frcctiis. K. Phellandrium, Water-Fennel, 5-leaved Water Hemlock. — o. The fruit of Oenanthe Phellandrium ; Umbellifercz. — h. Europe and Northern Asia. — 1>. Oblong or elongated, nearly cylindrical, but tapering toward upper end, about 4 mm. long, smooth, brown or blackish-brown; the two mericarps remain adherent ; each fruit has 5 obtuse ridges, 4 narrow grooves and 6 oil-tubes; taste and odor disagreeably aromatic. — c. A volatile alkaloid resembling coniine (?), about 1% volatile oil, some fixed oil, resin, etc. — u. Carminative, stimulant, diaphoretic, diuretic, and when fresh probably some- what narcotic. Dose: About 0.5 gram, or up to 2 grams during 24 hours. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY, 475 Conii Frnctus. N. Conium, Hemlock Fruit. — o. The full-grown but unripe fruits of Conium maculatum; Umbelliferce. — H. Europe and Asia; naturalized in North America. — ». Oval, compressed from sides, about 3 mm. long, grayish to brownish-green (brown or brownish-black when ripe) ; if gathered when ripe or nearly ripe the two mericarps generally separate, but if gathered while still green, the mericarps usually remain ad- herent, although they are deeply notched along the sides ; each fruit has rive undulated ridges, which are somewhat lighter-colored than the grooves; no oil- tubes; on transverse section the seed (albumen) ap- pears crescent-shaped, on account of being notched or grooved on the face side; little odor or taste, but the odor becomes offensively disagreeable on the addition of solution of potassa. — c. A volatile alkaloid, coniine, traces of volatile oil, some fixed oil, etc. — U. Narcotic, hypnotic, sedative. Dose: 0.1 to 0.3 gram. In over-doses conium is a narcotic poison ; the anti- dotal treatment consists in the use of the stomach pump or emetics, the internal use of stimulants and astringents, and the external use of friction, flagella- tion, etc. Cari Fractus. N. Carum > Caraway. — o. The fruits of Carum 476 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY Carvi (Carui) ; Umbellifercz. — h. Europe and North- ern Asia; wild and cultivated. — ©.Elon- gated or oblong, com- pressed from sides, about 3 to 4 mm. long, smooth, brown; the two mericarps usually separate when ripe, and each of the fruits then curves towards the face at the top and base ; each fruit has 5 obscure ridges, or rather angles, and 6 oil-tubes; odor pleasantly aro- matic and taste sweetish spicy. — c. About 4 to 6% volatile oil, some fixed oil, resin, etc. — u. Carmin- ative, stimulant, stomachic ; mainly used for flavor- ing. Dose : 1 to 2 grams. Foeniculi Friictus. N. Fceniculum, Fennel. — o. The fruits of Fcenicu- lum vulgare; Umbellifercz. — h. Western Asia and Europe. — i>. Elongated or oblong, nearly cylindrical, about 4 to 5 mm. long, smooth, brown; the two mericarps readily separate when ripe, but the separated fruits rarely curve inwards ; each fruit has a broad, flat, pale-brown face, with longitudinal striae, a curved back with 5 angular, pale-brown ridges be- tween which are dark-brown grooves under which lie the oil-tubes, of which each fruit has 4 on the back and 2 to 4 on the face; the odor is strongly aromatic and the taste sweetish aromatic. — c. ' About 2.5 to-4% volatile oil, some fixed oil, resin, etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant, stomachic; mainly used for flavoring. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. Eoman fennel, from Fceniculum dulce, is nearly NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 477 twice as long as the above-described Geiman fennel, and is lighter-colored, more or less curved, slender, with sharp ribs. It has a sweeter and finer aroma than the German variety, but contains less vola- tile oil. Petroselini Frnctns. Iff. Parsley Fruit. — o. The fruits of Petroselinum sativum; Apium Petroselinum; Um bell ife res . — H. Western Asia and Europe; cultivated gen- erally. — ». Roundish- ovate, compressed from the sides, about 2 mm. long, smooth, grayish- green ; the two mericarps readily separate when ripe and dried; each fruit has 5 thin, light-colored ridges on the back, and contains 6 oil-tubes ; odor and taste aromatic — c. About 1 to 3% volatile oil, apiin, apiol, some fixed oil, resin, etc. — u. Carminative, diuretic, stimulant, aromatic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Anellii Fruetns. N. Anethum, Dill. — o. The fruits of Anethum graveolens; Umbellifercz . — h. Western Asia and Europe; cultivated generally. — i>. Oval, compressed from back, about 3 to 4 mm. long, smooth, brown ; the two mericarps readily separate when ripe; each fruit has 6 oil-tubes and 5 ridges of which the two lateral ones are broad and thin, the I } ? I others sharply angular; odor and taste spicy, peculiar. — c. About 3 to 4% volatile oil, some fatty oil, etc. — u. Car- minative, stimulant, stomachic ; frequently used for flavoring pickles, etc. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. 478 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Apii Fructus. N. Apiunty Celery Seed. — o. The fruits of Apium graveolens; Umbellifercz : — h. Western Asia and Europe; cultivated generally. — l>. Koundish-ovate, com- pressed from sides, about 1 mm. in length, broader than long, smooth, brown; the two mericarps are usually separ- ated in the drug; each fruit has five ribs and from 12 to 16 oil- tubes; odor and taste aromatic, peculiar. — c. About 1£ to 3% volatile oil, apiol, some fixed oil, resin, etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant, stomachic ; used for flavoring. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. Levistici Fructus. N. Ligustici Fructus, Loveage Fruit, Loveage Seed. — o. The fruits of Levisticum offici- nale {Ligusticum Levisticum') ; Um- bellifercz. — H. Eu- rope ; cultivated in Germany. — d. Ovate-oblong or el- liptic, flattened or compressed from back, about 4 to 5 mm. long, yellowish-brown; in the drug the meri- carps are usually separated; each fruit has five promi- nent ridges, the lateral ones larger than the dorsal, and six oil-tubes ; aromatic odor and taste. — c. Volatile oil, etc. — u. Aromatic stimulant, carmin- ative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams, best in infusion. Angelicse Fructus. jr. Angelica Fruit, Angelica Seed. — o. and h. The NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 479 fruits of Ar change lica officinalis (Garden Angelica) ; Umb elliferce . This plant is a native of Northern Asia and Europe; cultivated. In America the similar | fruit of Archangelica atropurpurea, which is indigenous to the United States, is sometimes used as a substitute for the fruits of Garden Angelica. — ». Ovate or elliptic, flattened or compressed from back, about 4 to 5 mm. long, yellowish; in the drug the mericarps are usually- separated ; each fruit has three well-marked dorsal and two broad-winged lateral ridges and numerous oil-tubes ; odor and taste aromatic. — c. Volatile oil. — U. Carminative stimulant ; mainly used for flavor- ing. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. Danci Fruetus. Iff. Carota, Carotcz Fruetus, Carrot Fruit. — o. The fruits of Daucus Carota; UmbellifercB. — h. Native of Asia and Europe; naturalized in North America; cultivated. — i>. Oval, flattened or , compressed from back, about 4 mm. long, grayish- brown; fruits usually separated in the drug; each fruit has six oil-tubes and seven ridges, four of which are beset with bristly spines and the three interme- diate ones with fine hairs; odor slightly and taste pungently aromatic. — c. Some volatile oil, fixed oil, 480 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. etc. — u. Stimulant and diuretic. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams, best in infusion. GROUP LXIII. FLESHY FRUITS, OR BERRIES, DRIED OR PREPARED. Drugs of this group and of Group LXIV, while botanically quite distinct, are not always easily differentiated, so that both groups must be consid- ered together when trying to determine the identity of some unknown drug belonging here. A berry is a fleshy fruit in which the seed or seeds (usually more than one) are imbedded ; it is often the product of a compound pistil. The peculiarity of the berry is, that the hardness of the seeds (when they are hard) is due to the hardening of the seed- coats, as in the grape. The ovary in the berry has matured into a more or less fleshy mass, the rind of which usually remains thin and delicate, as in the currant or tomato, but may be tough and leathery as in the orange or lemon, or even hard as in the gourds; in the latter case the berry is designated as a pepo. A drupe may resemble a berry very closely, and in fact, there seem to be transitional forms which it is difficult to place in either group without careful microscopical examination. The drupe is a fleshy, berry-like fruit in which the seed or seeds (usually only one) are imbedded, but the characteristic which distinguishes the drupe from the berry ts, that while the outer and middle layers of the ovary develop into a more or less fleshy substance (sarcocarp) as in the berry, the inner layer of the ovary hardens into a "stone* ' (endocarp or putamen) in which the seed is contained, and commonly this stony layer is consid- ered as part of the seed, as in the peach or plum. If we carefully open or dissect the hard seed of a NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY, 481 berry by removing the hard outer part, we find a naked embryo, or albumen containing the embryo, within ; while, if we carefully examine the hard "seed" of a drupe, we find that after removal of the stony part, the seed within still has its seed-coats. For example : This illus- tration shows a microscop- ical section of a part of the fruit and seed of cubeb, the outer part of the fruit being above and the seed being below; in the draw- ing a shows a section of the fruit with the scleren- chyma cells or stone-cells of the inner layer of the fruit, and b shows the sec- ■ tion of the seed; the star shows the seed-coats of the seed. In black pepper, which is very closely re- lated, botanically, to cubeb, we find no such hardening of the inner layer of the fruit, although the inner layer is intimately blended or grown together with the seed-coats, and black pepper is therefore a berry while cubeb is a drupe. While it is perfectly easy to determine in the case of large fruits of pronounced structure, as between raisins and prunes, which is a berry and which a drupe, it is difficult to decide this matter in case of small fruits like black pepper and cubeb, pimento or buckthorn berries, etc. ; and in fact, the latter, while called "berries" in the trade, are really compound drupes. For practical purposes, therefore, no sharp distinc- tions need be made between drugs of these two groups, but both groups should be considered to- 482 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. gether, although, for abstract scientific reasons, a dis- tinction is here made. Juniperus, which is really a spurious fruit, or fleshy cone, belonging in Group LXI and there de- scribed, may be supposed to belong among the berries, and be looked for here ; it is therefore mentioned. See also drugs of Group LXIV. Small, wrinkled, black berries, 3 to 4 mm. in diameter ; pun- gently spicy Piper Nigrum. Oblong-conical, glossy red berry, about 2 cm. long ; taste very hot Capsicum. Very light, spongy, white or yellowis h-w h i t e, globular fruits, 5 to 10 cm. in diameter; very bitter Colocynthls. Soft, shriveled, flattened berries, brownish, translucent; very sweet Uvae Passse. Koughly granular, hard, gray- ish-brown berries with circu- lar scar at base Aurantii Fr. Immat. Small compound berries with 10 carpels, almost black; sticking together in lumps Phytolacca? Fructus. Oval-oblong fruits, with 4-cleft calyx ; odor clove-like Caryophylli Fructus. Small round fruit resembling a berry, about 5 mm. in diam- eter, brownish-black with blu- ish bloom < Juniperus. Piper Nigrum. N. Pepper, Black Pepper. — o. The unripe fruit of Piper nigrum; Piperacece. — h. Native of India (Malabar), but cultivated also in Sumatra, Borneo, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 483 matic, taste volatile oil, ( Siam, and other tropical countries. — D. A globular berry, without stalk, 3 to 4 mm. in diameter, wrin- kled, brown to brownish -black, grayish -black or black; odor aro- pungently spicy. — c. About 1 to 2% 3 to 8% piperin, some resin, fat, etc. — U. Stimulant, tonic, stomachic. Dose: 0.3 to 1.5 grams. Piperin is used as a febrifuge. Pepper is commonly used as a condiment or spice. For White Pepper see Group LXV. Capsicum. S. Capsicum, Cayenne Pepper, .African Pepper, Bird Pepper. — o. The fruit of Capsi- cum fastigiatum; Solanacecz.— h. Na- tive of tropical America ; cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries. — I>. Oblong-conical berry, about \\ to 2 cm. and up to 3 cm. long, broadest at base which has a persistent, cup- shaped, five-toothed calyx; the fruit has glossy red or reddish-brown, leathery, somewhat 484 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. translucent walls, and two cells containing numerous flat, kidney-shaped, yellowish seeds attached to a thick central placenta ; odor peculiar, taste intensely hot and spicy. — c. Capsaicin, fixed oil, resin, etc. — U. Stimulant stomachic condiment ; externally a pow- erful rubefacient and counter-irritant. Dose: 0.1 to 0.5 grams. Formerly the fruits of Capsicum annuum were used ; they are much larger and of various shapes, nearly cylindrical to subglobular or depressed ; they are the "red peppers' ' of our markets and are used extensively for pickling and as condiment. By culti- vation varieties have been produced which are quite mild in taste. Colocynthis. N. Colocynth, Bitter Apple. — o. The fruit of CiU rullus (Cucutnis) Colocynthis ; Cucurbit ace cz. — H. Southwestern Asia and Northeastern Africa; culti- vated especially in Greece and Spain.— ». The fruit is a gourd with a smooth, bright-yellow, leathery rind, which is removed when the fruit is gathered; NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 485 the drug consists of the light, spongy pulp with the enclosed seeds. Globular, about 5 to 7 or even occasion- ally 10 cm. in diameter, white or yellowish - white, light, : spongy, porous, tough-elastic, with a three-cleft cavity with- in; easily breaks into three wedge-shaped pieces, each of which contains a large number of flat, ovate, yellowish or pale-brownish seeds near the outer rounded surface; no odor, taste intensely bitter. — c About 0.6% colocynthin, 4% bitter fatty oil, 13% bitter resin, 14% bitter extractive, etc. — u. Drastic hydragogue cathartic. Dose: 0.1 to 0.5 gram. Should be used with caution, as it produces severe and almost poisonous effects when given in too large doses. The larger cut shows a transverse section of colo- cynth ; the small cut shows a section of the ovary of the flower, to give an idea of the real nature of the structure. Uvae Passse. N. Passulce majores, Eaisins. — o. The partially dried berry of Vitis vim- fera; Ampelidece. — h. The grapevine is a native of Western Asia; culti- vated generally, but raisins are mainly pro- duced in Southern Europe and California, from light-colored (red or amber-colored) and very sweet varieties of grapes. — ». Shriveled, flattened, soft berries, brownish or yellowish-brown, translucent; odor aromatic and taste agreeably sweet. — c. Grape-sugar, potassium tartrate, calcium tartrate, malic acid, etc. — u. Nutri- tive, demulcent, slightly laxative; sometimes added to purgatives as a corrective. 486 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Kaisins are not quite dried, but are preserved in their own sugar. The better kinds of raisins consist of the entire clusters of grapes. Inferior varieties consist of the berries separated from the stalks. A seedless variety of raisins is common in the trade. Passulcz minores, or Corinthian raisins (commonly, but erroneously called currants) are the fruits of Vitis minuta, native in Greece (and formerly plenti- ful near Corinth, whence the name) ; they are small, black, seedless, very sweet berries, which, when ripe, are gathered, dried, after which they are packed closely in magazines and preserved by a process re- sembling ensilage. They occur in the trade in ag- glutinated masses. Anrantii Fructus Immaturtis. N. Poma aurantii immatura, Aurantia immatura, Orange Berrie3. — o. The unripe fruits of Citrus vul- garis; Rutacecz (Au- rantiacecE), — h. Cul- tivated in subtropical countries. — 1>. Glob- I ular berries, averag- I ing about 5 to 10 mm. in diameter, although both smaller and larger ones occur, roughly granular on the surface from the dried-up oil-glands, grayish-brown to green- ish-black externally and pale-brown within, with a circular scar at the base, and containing 8 to 10 very small and hollow cells with undeveloped ovules along the central column; odor aromatic, taste bitter and aromatic. — c. The bitter glucoside hesperedin, vola- tile oil, etc. — u. Bitter tonic, stomachic and stimu- lant. Mainly employed in combination with other aromatics and bitters. Dose : 1 to 2 grams. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 487 Phytolacca? Fructns. BT. Poke Berry. — o. The fruit of Phytolacca de- candra; Phytolaccacecz. — H. A common, coarse, North American weed; natural- ized in Europe. — d. The fruit is a compound berry of 10 car- , pels, each of which contains a k (? c?J ^^W^M^ small, black seed. Flattened or compressed globular, about 6 to 8 mm. in diameter and 5 mm. high, nearly cir- cular, almost black, with thin skin and juicy dark- red pulp; in the drug the berries are partially dried and usually agglutinated in masses; no odor, taste sweet, slightly acrid. — c. Sugar, gum, coloring matter, etc. — u. Alterative and anti-rheumatic. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. The illustrations show the berry in natural size, whole and in vertical section, and in transverse section enlarged. Caryophylli Fructus. Anthophylli, or mother-cloves, are the partly developed berries of the clove-tree (see Clove, Group LIV). Oval, oblong, up to 3 cm. long and 6 to 8 mm. thick, with per- sistent four-toothed calyx, wrinkled, gen- erally 1-celled and 1-seeded, grayish-brown; odor and taste like those of cloves, but weaker. — c. and u. Similar to those of cloves; used to adulterate powdered cloves. Jnnipems has been described in Group LXI. GROUP LXIV. DRUPES, DRIED OR PREPARED. See the introductory remarks to Group LXIII, where the structure of the drupe has been explained. See also drugs of Group LXIII. 488 NOTES ON PHAKMACOGNOSY. Globular, wrinkled, stalked, brownish- black drupe, 3 to 5 mm. diameter; odor and taste spicy Cubeba. Oval, oblong or globular, bluish to blackish drupe, 3* to 4 cm. long; fruit-like odor and sweet taste Prunum. Roundish, wrinkled, blackish-brown drupe, about 6 mm. diameter; odor- less Cocculus. Obscurely lobed, wrinkled, black fruit with four brown seeds, 5 mm. diam- eter ; disagreeable odor, bitter taste . Rbamni Fr. Globular drupe, 5 mm. diameter, with 4-toothed calyx, reddish-brown ; spicy Piinenta. Oval or sub-globular drupe, 3 mm. diameter, densely hairy, crimson; taste acidulous Rims Glabra. Kidney-shaped drupe with grayish- brown rind and black acrid juicy pulp Anacardium, Similar to last, but heart-shaped and darker brown Semecarpus. , Cubeba. jr. Cubeb. — o. The fruit of Piper Cubeba; Piper- acece; gathered before it is quite ripe. — h. Java ; cultivated. — i>. A globular drupe about 3 to 5 mm. in diameter, contracted at the base into a stalk 4 to 6 mm. long, from which reticulate wrinkles extend over the surface, and which cannot be separated from NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 489 the fruit except by breaking it, gray, brown to blackish-brown externally, whitish within and with its one seed not united with the putamen; odor spicy, taste pungently aromatic. — c. Up to 15% volatile oil, some resin, etc. — u. Stimulant blennorhetic, diuretic, expectorant. Dose : 1 to 8 grams. Primtim. N. Prune. — o. The prepared and partially dried fruit of any one of several varieties of the common plum, Prunus domestica; Ro- sacea. — h. Na- tive of Western Asia, but culti- vated gener- ally; prunes are prepared in Southern Eu- rope and Cali- fornia . — D. Oval, oblong or globular, about 2.5 to 4 cm. long, shriveled and wrinkled, purplish-blue to black exter- nally, with soft brownish pulp surrounding an ovate flat stone which encloses the seed ; fruit-like odor and sweet acidulous taste. — c. Sugar, fruit acids, etc. — U. Nutritive, laxative, frequently used as a cor- rective with senna, but mainly as a food. Coccnliis. N. Cocculus IndictiSy Fish-berry. — o. The drupace- ous fruit of Anamirta Cocculus; Menispermacecz. — H. East India, Ceylon, Java, etc. — i>. Obscurely kidney-shaped, roundish, about 8 mm. in diameter, wrinkled, apex and base near together, blackish- brown externally, reddish-brown within, the skin and pulp brittle, the stone pale-brown; odorless, the fleshy part tasteless, but the seed bitter and poison- ous. — c. Picrotoxin, resin, etc. — u. Sedative. Dose: 0.1 to 0.2 gram. 490 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. It is called "fish-berry" because it is sometimes fed to fishes in bait to stupefy them, so that they may be more readily caught; fish so poisoned are said to be injurious when used as food. Riiamni Cathartics Fructus. N. Buckthorn Berries. — o. The drupaceous fruit of Rhamnus cathar- tic a; Rhamnecz. — H. Northern temper- ate zone; indig- enous to the Eastern hemisphere, natur- alized in America. — ». When fresh the fruit is round, sup- ported on a circular disc, the parchment- x ~$£0f ^^^ like endocarp 4- celled (more rarely 2, 3 or 5-celled) and 4-seeded, black externally, greenish within ; owing to the thin flesh this dries so that the whole fruit assumes the shape of the endocarp and appears lobed or fur- rowed; the dried fruit as it occurs in the drug is deeply wrinkled, about 5 mm. in diameter, with a fragile stalk, a brownish-green pulp, and with brown seeds that are triangular-rounded, with a deep fur- row on the back so that a section of one appears NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 491 horseshoe-shaped; faint bat disagreeable odor and taste bitter and acrid. When chewed the fruits color the saliva greenish. — c. Rhanmocathartin, sugar, gum, etc. — c. Brisk hydragogue cathartic. Dose : 2 to 5 grams, best as fluid extract. Pimento. N. Pimento, Allspice. — o. The nearly ripe fruit of Pimento, offi- cinalis (Euge- nia Pimenta'); My rta cecz. — H. Indigenous to West Indies ; cultivated in tropical America and in India. — D. A globular or obscurely quadrangular drupe, about 5 mm. in diameter, surmounted by a four-toothed calyx and the remains of the style, warty granular, grayish or reddish-brown, 1 or 2- celled, each ceil containing one seed which is plano- convex when there are two in a fruit; odor and taste pungently spicy, resembling cloves. — c. About 4% volatile oil, some resin, etc. — u. Aromatic stimulant, mainly employed as a spice. Sometimes used as fluid extract in doses 0.5 to 2 grams. Also used whole in "hot spiced wine" (German: "Glueh-wein"). A variety of Eugenia (Myrtus) is indigenous to Mexico, Myrtus Tabasco; this plant furnishes a variety of allspice which is larger than the more com- mon variety described above, but it is used for the same purposes as the latter. Rims Glabra. N. Rhois Glabrcz Fructus, Sumach Berries. — o. The drupaceous fruit of Rhus glabra; Anacardiacecz. — II. North America. — ». Oval or subglobular, about 3 mm. in diameter, bright crimson to brownish, densely hairy, containing an oblong-roundish, gray, hard stone surrounding the seed ; no odor, taste acid- ulous. — c. Tannin, potassium malate, etc. — u. Slightly 492 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. acidulous and refrigerant, and mildly astringent. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best given in the form of fluid extract. The infusion is also used as a gargle. The illustrations show a fruit in nat- ural size and two, one from the side and one from the edge, en- larged; also, on the left, some of the hairs and glands, much enlarged. Anacardiiim. Br. Anacardium occidentale, Cashew Nut. — o. The drupaceous fruit of Anacardium occidentale ; Ana- cardiacece. — h. Indigenous to tropical America; naturalized in Africa and the East Indies. — ». Shape and size are well shown in the drawings. A kidney- shaped, grayish-brown drupe, 2 to 3 cm. long, about 2 cm. broad and 6 to 8 mm. thick, glossy black, 1-celled and 1-seeded ; this drupe resembles a nut be- cause the outer part of the sareocarp or flesh is har- dened into a brittle rind (the exocarp) which is con- nected to the putamen or stone, but so that there are many cavities in this layer (the mesocarp) in which NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 493 there is a black, acrid juicy pulp ; the seed consists of two white cotyledons enveloped by brown seed-coats. — c. A yellowish, oily, acrid substance which is more vesicating than cantharides. The kernel con- tains a bland fixed oil. — u. The kernel, raw or roasted, is edible. The pulp or juice is a local irri- tant; it is sometimes employed to destroy warts and excessive granulation tissue. The oil has been used as a vermifuge in doses of 0.2 gram (3 drops). Anacardinm orientate, Seme car- | pus, or Oriental Cashew Nut (from Semecarpus A?iacardium; Anacar- diacecz), from East India, is heart- shaped, flattish, blackish-brown, but otherwise similar to the true cashew nut in its structure, constituents and properties. GROUP LXV. PARTS OF FRUITS. With three exceptions the drugs of this group con- sist mainly of the rinds of fruits. These exceptions are tamarinds, white pepper and pearled barley, the first being the inner pulp, fibers and seeds of a fruit with the hard external shell or rind removed, the second being a berry with the external pulpy flesh partly removed, but with some fibro-vascular bundles and dried pulp still adhering to the outer surface of the seed, and the third being a grain from which the hulls and outer portions were removed, the inner mealy part then polished. In regard to the rinds it is to be regretted that in Latin nomenclature no difference is made between "barks" and "rinds", but that the word "cortex" is used for both; while not likely to cause confusion, it is not as exact a use of words as is desirable in scien- tific work, and it would be desirable to use distinc- tive words whenever possible. Possibly some vari- 494 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. ant of the word tegmen (used to designate the inner seed-coat) might by common consent be used for "rind", for instance: Tegmentum or tegumentum; in that case tegmen might still mean ' 'seed-coat" and its meaning would not be interfered with by tegmen- turn meaning "fruit-coat". ■ Brownish-black pulp mixed with tough fibers and glossy brown seeds; acidulous vin- ous odor Tamarindns. Globular, about 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, grayish- white; peppery taste Piper Album. Rind of fruit, in quarters, dirty brownish-green on outer and dirty white on inner surfaces; fragrant. . Aurantii Amari Cortex. Rind of fruit in spiral bands, dirty brownish-green on outer surface, with little whitish parenchyma on in- ner surface ; fragrant Aurantii. Amari Cortex. Rind of fruit, in quarters, orange-colored on outer, white on inner surfaces; fragrant Aurantii Dulcis Cortex. Rind of fruit in spiral bands, lemon-yellow on outer, white on inner surfaces; fragrant liimonis Cortex. Irregular leathery fragments of reddish-brown rind, some pieces with hard, long, tubular calyx, and most pieces with oval de- pressions on inner surface ; no odor Oranati Fructns Cortex. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 495 Fragments of fruit, hard brownish-gray rind, to the inner side of which dried pulp with seeds adheres; no odor Belre Fructns. Hard, thick, deep-brown rind, without adhering pulp, with remains of six- rayed stigma and of hard calyx ; no odor ^langostana. Oval grains, about 3 to 4 mm. long, yellow is h-w h i t e, whiter at ends, yellowish- brown groove along one side Hordenm Perlatnm. Tamarindns. x. Tamarind. — o. The preserved pulp of the fruit of Tamarindiis Indica; Legicminoscz. — h. East India, North Africa, West Indies, etc. — i>. The fruit is an indehiscent legume, up to 10 or 12 cm. long, about 3 cm. broad and 1£ cm. thick, with a brownish pulp and 3 to 12 seeds. The drug consists of the brown- ish to brownish-black pulp composed of parenchyma cells mixed with strong, branching, fibrous bundles, and flattish, subquadrangular, glossy brown seeds, each of which is enclosed in a tough membrane ; fruity odor and sweetish acidulous taste. — c. About 9% citric acid, 14% tartaric acid, 3% bitartrate of potassium, some malic acid, 12% sugar, pectin, gum, etc. — u. Tamarind pulp dissolved in water makes a pleasant, acidulous, slightly laxative drink. Tama- rinds are occasionally added to other cathartics. Dose : 10 to 20 grams or more ; practically ad libitum. Piper Album. X. White Pepper. — o. The ripe seeds of Piper nigrum (See Piper nigrum. Group LXIII), with the inner portion of the fruit-pulp adhering, or "the 496 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. ripe fruit oi P. nigr. with the outer and middle layers of the fruit- pulp removed", The ripe berries of black pepper are soakedin water, af- ter which they are driedinthesunand then gently rubbed between the hands to re- move the dark outer portion, but so that the soft white flesh of the PIPER ALBUM. berry remains ad- herent to the seed. — ». White pepper is globular, 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, dirty white to yellowish -brown, smooth, with about 10 veins (fibro-vas- cular bundles of the fleshy pulp) running from base to apex; the seed itself, after removal of the whitish remains of the fruit parenchyma, is reddish-brown and containsalarge albumenin whichis imbedded thesmall embryo; odor, taste, constituents and uses like those of black pepper, except that it is less pungent and spicy. TAMARINDUS. NOTES ON" PHARMACOGNOSY. 497 The illustrations show one grain of white pepper in natural size, and one grain enlarged. Aurantii Aniari Cortex. N. Bitter Orange Peel. — o. The rind of the fresh fruit of Citrus vulgaris; Rutacece (Aurantiace . r- X ^>- >y-;k:^^22^^^ The rind of the fruit is usually removed in quarters and is glandular rough and orange yellow on the outer surface, whitish '■^W^^^^m^fm^W0' NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 499 on inner surface; a section shows intercellular oil- glands or spaces near the outer surface and a loose, spongy, white parenchyma (consisting of peculiar branched cells) within; odor fragrant, taste aromatic and slightly bitter.— c. Volatile oil, hesperidin (much less than in bitter orange peel), etc. — u. Stimulant carminative and stomachic, but employed mainly as an excipient and flavoring agent. Iiimonis Cortex. X. Lemon Peel. — o. The rind of the fruit of Citrus Limonum; Rutacece {Aurantiace of the seed-coats. There are i^^C^I'/W (i\® two varieties in the grocery ^ \^\Q \ly \&0@ trade; in one the ends are ^ ^ rounded off and* the seed- coats removed, so that the grains are ovate, whitish, mealy, with a groove on one side in which are rem- nants of the yellowish-brown seed-coats ; in the other the barley grain is probably cut in two and the frag- ments are then rounded, forming small, globular, white, mealy grains. Pearl Barley is used as an article of diet and to make demulcent drinks for the sick. Rarely used medicinally. The illustrations show both kinds of pearled barley in natural size, and one grain of each kind enlarged. SEEDS. To understand the structure of seeds we must first consider the structure of ovules. In the drawings we * ^ ^^ see, on the left, •\---c. //^^- ■'' ^\\ a sec ti° n of a ^ Ay ■'./. vuA straight ovule, much enlarged, in \Y\' a Hi '■'•■•■■ ■"'."'■ •'• Jill wn i cn ^ i 9 the nu- cleus, b the inner and c the outer ovule-coats, d the e. /: ( place of junction of nucleus, ovule- coats and stalk and which is called chalaza; f 504 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. is the orifice through which the end of the pollen- tube reaches the embryo sac; the ovule may be sessile or it may have a stalk; this stalk, e, is called the funiculus. The figure on the right shows an inverted ovule, in which the funiculus is bent and united to one side of the ovule, the ridge thus formed being called the rhaphe or seam. When the ovule matures, after fertilization, it forms a seed; the nucleus becomes developed either into an embryo alone, or into an embryo imbedded in and surrounded by the albumen, also called endosperm or perisperm; in the first case the nourishment needed by the germ- inating plantlet is stored in the embryo or young plant itself and the kernel of such seeds consists mainly of the cotyledons, with the radicle and sometimes a more or less developed plumule; in the second case the nourishment is in the albumen which surrounds the embryo. The ovule-coats develop into the seed- coats, which sometimes remain as separate coats, sometimes become united so as to apparently form only one coat. The growing seed obtains its nourishment from the placenta of the ovary (maternal organ) through the funiculus, and this funiculus of the plant is therefore analogous to the funiculus or umbilical cord of the human or animal embryo or foetus, which also unites the developing young to the tissues of the mother through the placenta. When the seed is ripe it sep- arates from the funiculus and thereby from the maternal tissues, and at the point where the funicu- lus was attached a scar or mark is left which is called the hilum, and which corresponds or is analogous to the navel of mammals. Under the epidermis of the cotyledons of many seeds, as well as under the epidermis of young twigs, petioles and midribs of leaves, etc., we sometimes find a peculiar kind of cells and of tissue, which we have not heretofore considered. To support the XGTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. o05 tender epidermis there may be developed from the fundamental tissue certain hardwalled cells, as for instance the scleren ch ymatons cells under the epi- dermis o f s a rs a pa- ri 11 a root, or the stone cells which constitute the outer layer of the middle bark of cinnamon, or the sclerenchy- matous cells under the epidermis of the fruit of cubeb. But in some cases, espce- in the positions referred to above, the walls of supporting cells for the epidermis become thickened very much in the angles of the cells and but little elsewhere; the'se cells are called collenchyma- tous cells and the tissue formed by them constitutes collenchyma or collenchyrnatous tissue. This kind of cells and tissue is, however, cf quite subordinate im- portance to the pharmacognocist, but may sometimes he-p to some trifling extent in recognizing powdered seeds, or powdered leaves from which the petioles, etc., have been imperfectly removed in garbling, and their nature is therefore briefly referred to here. ially such GROUP L X V I ■ WHOLE SEED?. The presence or absence of albumen in the seeds is made the basis for dividing seeds into groups by many of the authors on pharmacognosy; the first figure, on the left, shows a section of pumpkin seed, the second, the embryo of the same seed, both in natural size, showing that the embryo occupies all 506 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. basis of grouping seeds, stress on the subject; the space within the seed-coats; the figure on the right shows a section of colchicum seed, much en- larged, in which the small embryo, b, is seen in the large mass of albumen, a. We will make this a subordinate but without placing much we will base cur main division on the size of seeds, and while this may be considered less "scientific" by some, it will be found to be more practical because it makes the recognition of seeds more easy and certain ; and in a case of this kind mere abstractly scientific considerations should be subordinated to considerations of practical utility. We therefore divide seeds into sub-groups, as fol- lows : Large, more than about 15 mm. long; Medium- Sized, less than about 15 mm. and more than about 5 mm. long; and Small, less than about 5 mm. long. Each of these sub-groups is again divided: 1, with well-marked albumen, and 2, with little or no albu- men. [ ( Myristica, Nux well-marked albumen < vomica, [ignatia, Areca. Large . The illustrations show whole nutmeg, and transverse sec- tion of same, both in natural size. Round or oval, 2 to 2.5 cm. long, externally brownish, reticulately wrinkled, sometimes with the depressions of these wrinkles filled with white lime dust, with a circular depression at apex and a whitish nipple-like projec- tion at base, from which the depressed wrinkles radiate; internally fatty, pale yellowish-brown mar- bled with dark-brown markings due to folds or in- dentations of the inner seed-coat; consists mainly of albumen, with a small and often undeveloped em- bryo in a cavity near the base; odor fragrant, taste aromatic and somewhat bitter. — c. 2 to 8% volatile oil, 25 to 30% fixed oil, besides starch, etc. — U- A spicy and stimulant carminative and stomachic; mainly used merely as a flavor or spice. Dose: 0.5 to 1.5 grams. Prime nutmeg should be about 2 5 cm. long, heavy, sound, and strongly fragrant. Varieties: Limed or Dutch nutmegs are covered with a white powder, having been dipped into milk of lime, presumably to protect them against injury by insects. Penang and Singapore nutmegs are darker-look- ing, not having been treated with lime. A false or wild nutmeg is said sometimes to occur, but it may readily be distinguished from the genuine by its much greater length. The writer has never seen any mixed with the genuine. Xni Vomica. N . Nux vomica, Quaker Buttons. — o. The seeds of Strychnos Nnx-vomica; Loganiacecz. — h. East India and East Indian Islands. — 1>. The illustra- tions show a whole seed, with exceptionally promi- nent rhaphe, and transverse and flat sections, all natural size. Orbicular, flat, disk-like seeds, up to 512 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 2.5 cm. in diameter, depressed near the middle and thickened about the margin, with a rather obscurely marked rhaphe running from the center of one side to the margin, beneath which latter point the radicle of the embryo is situated ; grayish or greenish-gray with silky luster from minute soft hairs; the interior consists of a grayish-white, somewhat translucent, horny, exceedingly tough albumen with a large but very shallow central cavity into which the cotyledons of the embryo project; odor none, taste intensely and persistently bitter. — c. From 0.4 to 1% strychnine and about an equal proportion of brucine, some fixed oil, etc. — r. In small doses a bitter tonic, in some- what larger but still medicinal doses a motor excitant, useful in paralyses, especially when due to peri- pheral causes, from disuse of muscles, as in a frac- tured limb after the bandages are removed, or when following diphtheria, etc.; in paralyses due to central or brain lesions, nux vomica or its preparations are of less benefit. Dose: 0.05 to 0.3 gram, in tincture, extract or fluid extract. The drug is most frequently administered in the form of strychnine, of which the dose is from 1 to 3 milligrams (0.001 to 0.003 gram). Poisonous Effects : When given in excessive doses nux vomica (or strychnine) is a powerful poison, acting on the spinal cord and nerves and causing violent tetanoid contractions of the muscles. If death occurs it is due to asphyxia, owing to the in- ability of the patient to exhale, the muscles of res- piration remaining fixedly contracted. Antidotal treatment consists in prompt evacuation of the stom- NCTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 513 ach and the administration of chemical and physio- logical antidotes. The best chemical antidote is potassium permanganate, the solution of which should be freely given: tannic acid has also been recommended. As physiological antidotes, ether, chloroform, bromide of potassium, amyl nitrite, etc., have been recommended. Violent depressants, such as tobacco, etc., are also physiological antidotes, but if used at all must be given with great caution. Ignatia. N. Ignatia, St. Ignatius' Bean. — o. The seeds of Strychnos Ignatii; Loganiacece. — H. Philippine Islands. — 1>. The illustra- tions show a \ whole seed, [and longitudi- 'nal and trans- verse sections of same, all in natural size. The seeds are irregu- larly ovate and angular, 2.5 to 3 cm. long by about 2 cm. broad and 1.5 cm. thick, dull brownish-black, very hard, slightly translucent when fresh but be- coming more opaque with age ; hilum near one end along margin; the light-brownish albumen, which constitutes most of the contents of the seed, has a large but shallow cavity into which the cotyledons of the embryo project; odor none, taste intensely and persistently bitter. — c. Same as in nux vomica, but both strychnine and brucine are present in greater proportion, 1 to 1.5% of each; also some fixed oil, etc. — u. Same as of nux vomica, but the dose is only about half as large ; seldom used, except for the man- ufacture of strychnine. Areca. jr. Areca Nut, Betel Nut. — o. Tbe seed of Areca Catechu; Pahnece. — h. East India. — i>. The illus- 514 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. trations show a whole seed, a, and the base with hilum, etc., b, in natural size; transverse section somewhat enlarged. Areca nut consists mainly of albumen, the small embryo being imbedded within this just over the round spot on the base ; the seed has the shape of a short, rounded cone, about 2.5 to 3 cm. long, with a flattened base having a depressed center ; the outer coat is brownish, covered with a net-work of reddish veins which penetrate into the white albu- men of the seed, giving a section an appearance some- what like that of nutmeg ; the seed is heavy, hard, dense, and difficult to cut or break ; when freshly broken the fragments have a cheeselike odor, taste astringent. — c. About 15% tannin resembling that of catechu; about 14% fixed oil, etc.; the seed also contains some constituent which renders the fluid ex- tract liable to gelatinize. — u. Astringent and anthel- mintic or taenicide; dose: 15 to 20 grams, best as fluid extract. Amygdala Amara. ]S. Bitter Almond. — o. The seeds of Prunus Amyg- dalus (Amygdalus communis), var. amara; Rosacea. — H. Cultivated in Southern Europe. — ». Closely re- semble sweet almonds, which see for description and illustrations. Bitter almonds average a little shorter and a little thicker than sweet almonds ; taste bitter, with a flavor of peach kernels. — c. By expression bit- ter almonds yield from 30 to 50% of a sweet, bland, fixed oil, identical with that obtained in the same man- ner from sweet almonds; between 20 and 30 % of a pecu- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 515 liar albumen which is called emulsin, and which is capable of emulsifying the oil in the seeds when the latter are triturated with water; also from 1 to 3% of amygdalin, a substance which is peculiar to the bitter almonds and is not found in sweet almonds ; by the reaction of emulsin on amygdalin in the presence of water, oil of bitter almond and hydrocyanic acid are produced. — u. Bitter almonds are only used for flavoring, the sedative effects of the hydrocyanic acid being more reliably obtained from dilute hydrocyanic acid properly diluted. Bitter almonds are poisonous in large doses. Amygdala Dulcis. N. Sweet Almond. — o. The seeds of Prunus Amyg- dalus (Amygdalus communis) , var. dulcis; Rosacea. — H. Cultivated in Southern Europe. — ». The illus- trations show an almond in the shell, a seed removed from the shell, and a transverse section of the latter; sweet al- monds should be large, sound, clean, whole, and perfectly white within. The seeds are ovate or oblong-lanceolate, flat- tish, about 2.5 cm. long, covered with lines radiating from a scar at the thick end; the white and oily embryo consists of two plano-convex cotyledons with a short radicle at the pointed end, and usually a small plumule between the cotyledons; no odor, taste sweetish, bland, nut- like. — c. Same as of bitter almonds except that they contain no amygdalin. An emulsion of sweet al- mond does not have the odor of hydrocyanic acid ; any such odor would prove the admixture of bitter almonds. — v. Nutrient. By trituration with water 516 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. an emulsion is obtained which is an agreeable vehi- cle for the administration of other remedies. This emulsion is preferably made from blanched almonds. Blanched almonds are prepared by putting the al- monds in lukewarm water for a short time, when the seed-coats swell and separate from the embryo, so that they can then be readily removed; hot water will separate the seed-coats more rapidly, but it alters the emulsin, so that merely warm water should be pre- ferred for blanching almonds. Physostigma. jr. Physostigma, Calabar Bean. — o. The seeds of Physostigma venenosum; Leguminosce. — h. West- ern Africa, near the mouth of the river Niger. — ». The illustrations show the whole bean and a trans- verse section, all in natural size. Oblong, kidney-shaped, about 2.5 to 3 cm. long, hard, externally smooth, glossy chocolate-brown or grayish-brown, with a broad and deep red- dish-black groove, the hilum, along the con- vex edge; the embryo consists of two white concavo-convex cotyle- dons with a short radicle, so that the seed is hollow within ; odorless and nearly tasteless. — €. Physos- tigmine or eserine, calabarine, etc. — u. Motor de- pressant, sedative, in large doses poisonous ; mainly used locally in eye-troubles, to contract pupil. Dose : 0.06 to 0.25 gram of the powder, or corresponding doses of the fluid extract or tincture ; the dose of the solid extract is about 0.008 gram. The antidotal treatment in cases of poisoning by calabar bean consists in evacuating and washing the NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 517 stomach, and administering atropine in doses of about 0.001 gram. Some years ago mention was made of a somewhat different variety which had been found as an admix- ture with this drug ; it was called Physostigma cylin- drospermum and was said to differ mainly in being considerably longer and having a shorter hilum. In some of the more recent works all mention of this ad- mixture is omitted, so that it probably no longer occurs. Theobroma. N. Cacao, Cocoa, Chocolate Bean. — o. The seeds of Theobroma Cacao; Sterculiacecz. After gathering, the seeds are cured by a process of partial fermenta- tion by being laid in heaps on the ground, covered with leaves during the night but exposed to the sun by day, or by being packed in barrels or buried in pits in the ground for a few days, after which they are spread out and dried. By this process the bitter taste of the fresh seeds is removed. — h. Tropical America; cultivated in all tropical countries. — ».The illustrations show the seeds: a, side; b, edge; c, outer and d y inner surfaces of cotyledons ; e, transverse section. Oval, compressed, about 2 to 2.5 cm. long, reddish-brown or grayish-brown, with numerous veins ; hilum at the broad end, from which a line runs along the more convex border of the seed to the nar- row end, where the chalaza is situated; shell thin and fragile, embryo reddish-brown, the two cotyledons ir- regularly ribbed, or ridged, brittle and oily; taste 518 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. oily and aromatic. — c. About 1 to 1.5% theobrooiin, about 50% fixed oil (butter of cacao), starch, etc. — U. The whole seeds ground fine are used to make chocolate ; the seeds deprived of most of the fixed oil and ground fine are used to make "cacao" or "cocoa," a drink similar to chocolate, but less rich and consid- ered more digestible. IMpterix. X. Tonka, Tonco, Tonka Bean. — o. The seeds of Dipterix odorata and D. oppositifolia; Leguminosce. — BE. Guiana, in Northeastern part of South America. ». The illustrations show a large seed of "Dutch Ton- ka", whole, and with a part of one cotyledon cut away to show radicle and plumule, both natural size. Oblong, somewhat com- pressed or flattened, 4 to 5 cm. long and up to 15 mm. broad ; externally blackish- brown, wrinkled, sometimes covered with minute, white, acicular crystals of cou- marin ; internally pale- brown, oily ; odor fragrant, taste aromatic bitter. — c. The pleasant aroma, which reminds of vanilla, is due to coumarin, a neutral principle which is soluble in fats, alcohol, diluted alcohol, but only slightly in water; tonka also con- tains about 25% fixed oil, sugar, mucilage, etc. — U. Mainly used for flavoring, as a cheap substitute for vanilla. Dutch tonka beans (from D. odorata) are the best ; they are larger, plumper and more frequently cov- ered with coumarin crystals than English tonka beans (from D. oppositifolia). NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 519 Citrullus. N. Citrulli Semen, Watermelon Seed. — o. The seeds of Cucumis (Cucurbita) Citrullus; Cucurbit ace ce. — H. Cultivated generally. — ». The illustrations show seed whole, from side and edge, in transverse section, and embryo, all natural size. Ovate, fiat, about 12 mm. long, blackish, black- ish-brown or pale-brown with black edges; the em- bryo consists of two white plano-convex cotyledons and a small radicle; odorless, taste insipid. — c. No satisfactory analysis; about 30% fixed oil, etc. — U. Diuretic, demulcent and anthelmintic. Dose, in infusion, practically ad libitum. Pepo. jr. Pepo7iis Semen, Pumpkin Seed. — o. The seeds of Cucurbita Pepo; Cucurbitacece. — h. Cultivated. — ». The illustrations show seed, transverse section of same, and embryo, all natural size. Oval or ovate, flat, about 12 to 20 mm. long, whitish ; inodorous, taste insipid. — c. About 40 to 50% fixed oil, resin, proteids, starch, sugar, etc. — U. Taenifuge; best given by beating embryo to a pulp with sugar and mak- ing an emulsion which is to be taken without straining; or may be eaten raw like nuts. Dose : 25 to 75 grams. Stropliantlms. N. Strophanthus Seed. — o. The seeds of Strophan- tus Kombe; Apocynacece. — H. Tropical Africa. — ». The illustration shows a whole seed deprived of its awn, as it comes into the trade; also, the kernel con- sisting of a sac-like albumen which envelops the embryo, the embryo separate, and a transverse sec- tion of the seed, all natural size. The seeds grow in pods and each seed is provided with an awn up to 10 cm. long with a tuft of delicate white silky hair cov- 520 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. ering its upper half; this awn and tuft of hairs is not present in the drug. The oblong- lanceolate seeds vary in length and are from 19 to 20 mm. long, 3 to 5 mm. wide, and about 2 mm. thick, tapering towards both ends, usually flat, but sometimes rounded, brittle, easily broken, yellowish-brown with .occasionally a greenish tint, and covered with ap- pressed silky hairs; the white embryo consists of a rad- icle and two straight thin cotyledons and is enclosed in a white sac-like albumen; no odor, taste very bitter. — C Strophanthin. — u. Used in Africa to make an arrow poison; in medicine, as a heart sedative; in overdoses it is a powerful poison, paralyzing the respiratory muscles as well as the heart. The dose is uncertain, but may be stated to be from 5 to 10 minims of a 5% tincture. The seeds of Str. hispidus and Str.dichotomus are more chestnut-brown and less hairy ; the seeds of Kicksia Africana are pointed at both ends and the cotyledons are irregularly folded. If a thin section of the true Kombe seed is placed on a microscope slide and a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid is added, the albumen or endosperm (and if the seeds are rich in strophantin, the embryo also) will be colored in- tensely green, which can be easily seen with a Cod- dington lens. Caffea. N. Caffece Fabce, Coffees Semen, Coffee. — o. The seeds of Coffea Arabica; Rubiacece. — h. Cultivated in most tropical and sub-tropical countries. — ». The il- lustrations show the whole seeds or beans, face and back, in natural size, and a transverse section show- ing the infolding of the seed-coats, enlarged; also a more highly magnified section of the seed-coats. Coffee beans are plano-convex, oval, with a groove the entire length of the flat surface, 8 to 12 mm. long NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 521 greenish or bluish-brown; the bean consists mainly of a tough albumen, in one end (base) of which a small dicotyledonous embryo is situated; odor peculiar, faint before roast- ing, taste bitter and astringent. — C. About 0.8 to 1% caffeine, c a ff e o - tannic acid, etc. — U. Tonic and stini- u 1 a n t . Infusion of coffee is used as a daily drink by a large portion of the human race ; it moderates waste, improves diges- tion, produces mental exhilaration and physical activ- ity. No dose of this drug can be stated as it is habit- ually used in widely varying quantities by different persons. In opium poisoning large quantities of strong infusion of coffee should be given. Mocha Coffee, grown in Arabia, consists of very small beans of a dark color, very plump. It has a fine flavor and is much esteemed, and is often added to other kinds of coffee to improve the flavor of the infusion. Rio Coffee (South American or Rio Janeiro) is also comparatively small and dark-colored, but not so plump as Mocha, and has, when prepared for use, a stronger and less delicate flavor than other kinds of coffee. Java Coffee, with large, flattish, light-colored beans, has a fine, delicate flavor. Liberia (African) Coffee, which has the largest seeds of all, is also light-colored and has a fine flavor. These different varieties are seldom employed sep- arately, but are usually mixed in various proportions by the experts of the large coffee houses, to produce the so-called "blends" which are generally prefer- able to any one kind alone. For use, coffee must be 522 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. roasted or parched; this should be done as rapidly as possible without burning the coffee, until the seeds are fully brown but not black. The peculiar aroma is produced by this parching, so that if coffee is insuffi- ciently parched it will produce a disagreeable, insipid and somewhat bitter infusion, while if it is parched too much, it acquires an einpyreumatic and bitter flavor. StaplBisagria. Bf. Stavesacre. — o. The seeds of Delphinium Sta- phisagria; Ranunculacece . — M. Mediterranean countries. — ». The illustrations show a seed in natural size and en- 1 a r g e d . Irregularly tetrahe- dral, flattish, angular, 5 to 7 mm. long, externally brownish or brownish-gray, with reticulate ridges; the whitish oily albumen con- tains a small embryo at one end; odor slight, taste bitter and acrid. — c. Delphinine (delphisine), del- phinoidine, staphisain, fixed oil, etc. — u. Staphis- agria is said to possess diuretic, cathartic and emetic properties. Its principal use is local, to destroy para- sites and vermin. Sabadilla. jr. Cevadilla. — o. The ripe seeds of Schcenocaulon officinale (As ag- ree a officinalis}; Lilia c e ce. — h. Mexico and Cen- tral America. — ». The illustrations show a capsule and seed of cevadilla in natural size, and a capsule and trans- verse section of same, and a seed and longitudinal section of same, enlarged. The drug NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 523 consists of opened and unopened capsules or follicles mixed with the loose seeds, but when wanted for use the follicles should be rejected. The thin brown fol- licles adhere to each other at the base and each con- tains from 1 to 6 seeds ; the seeds are lanceolate, an- gular, about 6 mm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm. thick at the thickest end, glossy brownish-black, with thin and finely wrinkled seed-coat; the white oily albumen contains a small embryo near the base ; the seeds, which alone contain the active constituents, are in- odorous, but have an acrid, persistent, bitter taste. — €. The alkaloids veratrine, cevadine, cevadilline, etc. — u. The seeds are poisonous. The action de- pends on the veratrine which they contain. Mainly used for the manufacture of veratrine and externally in ointment as a parasiticide to destroy lice and other vermin, and as a cure for itch. When taken internally it is a powerful irritant de- pressant; its dose should not exceed 0.05 to 0.1 gram, but its value as a remedial agent is doubtful and the possibility of untoward results so great that it is bet- ter to choose other remedies. In case of poisoning, the antidotal treatment consists in. evacuating and washing the stomach, giving tannic acid and stimu- lants, such as coffee, alcohol, etc., and applying warmth externally. Cydonium. N. Quince Seed. — o. The seeds of Cydonia vul- garis {Pyrus Cydonia); Rosacecz. — H. Cultivated. — ». The seeds resemble apple seeds, but in the fruit they are agglutinated as represented in d, and they often remain so in the drug; a shows a seed in natural size, c the same enlarged, and d a section of the seed-coats showing the outer epidermal cells which contain the mucilage. The seeds are ovate or ovate-oblong, triangularly compressed, about 8 mm. long, grayish-brown; the white embryo consists of 524 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. two cotyledons and a radicle; the whole seeds are odorless, but when chewed the embryo develops the odor and taste of bitter almonds. — c. The only important constitu- ent is the mucilage in the epi- thelium of the seed-coats; when the whole seeds are placed in water they swell, forming an insipid, clear mucilage. — u. The mucilage is used as a de- mulcent vehicle for other remedies, for similar purposes as the mucilage of sassafras pith or of acacia. It must be freshly made when wanted. Quince seeds must be clean, whole, sound and odorless ; they are sometimes mixed with apple or pear seeds in the drug, but the latter adulterations can be recognized by their smooth oval form, their glossy brown color and by the fact that they do not produce a mucilage. Quince seeds are covered with a grayish epithelium which makes them look as if they were slightly mouldy. Cncnmis. j*. Cucumeris Semen, Cucumber Seed. — o. The of Cucumis sativus; Cucurbitacecz. — h. Cul- tivated everywhere. — ». The illustrations show the whole seed and sections, all natural size ; in structure it is similar to pumpkin seed. Oblong-lanceolate, flat, thin, sharply two-edged, about 8 to 12 mm. long, whitish; inodorous and insipid. — c. Fixed oil, pro- teids, etc. — u. Cucumber seed is similar to water- melon seed in action, diuretic, demulcent and anthel- mintic. Dose : 10 to 50 grams in infusion. A demul- cent ointment is made by boiling cucumber seeds (or cucumber) in lard and straining. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 525 Abrus. nr. Jequirity Bean, Prayer Beads. — o. The seed of Abrus precatorius; Leguminosce. — BE. East India. — i>. The illustrations show a whole seed, a transverse section of same, and an embryo, all in natural size. Nearly globular, about 6 to 8 mm. long, very hard, glossy scarlet-red with a black spot at the hilum ; em- bryo consists of two plano-convex cotyledons and a short curved radicle; no odor, taste insipid. — c. Abric acid, fixed oil, 2 proteids which are similar in action to snake venom although much weaker, fixed oil, etc. — u. A weak infusion is sometimes used as a stimulating irritant in chronic conjunctivitis or gran- ular eye-lids. Cardamomi Semen. N. Cardamom Seed. — o. The seeds of Elettaria repens; Scitaminecz. — h. Malabar, India; see also description of cardamom in Group LXII. — ». The seeds in each cell of the capsule of cardamom are mutually compressed into irregular angular shapes and adhere more or less firmly together, often re- maining so in the drug; the illustrations show the seeds, adhering as in the capsules and separated, in natural size and enlarged, and also longitudinal and trans- verse sections enlarged, show- ing the embryo in the large albumen. The seeds are ir- regularly angular, about 3 mm. long, with a grooved hilum, externally brownish-y e 1 1 o w r , deeply wrinkled and with fur- furaceous shreds of arillus ad- hering; odor fragrant, taste pungently spicy and aromatic. — c. Four to 5 % vola- tile oil, some fixed oil, etc. — u. Stimulant carmin- 526 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. ative and stomachic, but used mainly as a flavor or spice. The seeds of other varieties of cardamom, such as Madras, Ceylon, Java or round, etc., resemble those described above in appearance, but are less aromatic. On account of the difficulty of determining the ab- sence of a possible admixture of these inferior seeds, it is best to buy the whole cardamoms and shell them oneself. ColcMci Semen. BT. Colchicum Seed. — o. The seeds of Colchicam autumnale; Liliacecz. — m. Europe. — i>. The illustra- tions show whole seed, natural size and enlarged, and section, also en- larged. Sub-globu- lar, about 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, finely pitted, reddish-brown ; seed consists mainly of albu- men, enclosing a small embryo; very hard and tough ; no odor, taste bitter acrid. — c. Two-tenths to 0.3% colchicine, 6 to 8% fixed oil, etc. — u. Cathartic and diuretic, mainly used as an arthritic in gout and rheumatism. The seeds are about double the strength of the tubers. Dose : 0.05 to 0.3 gram. Stramonfi Semen. UT. Stramonium Seed. — o. The seeds of Datura Stramonium; Solanacece. — h. America, Europe, Asia; common weed nearly everywhere. — j>. The illustra- tions show the seed, whole in natural size and enlarged, and longitudinal and transverse sections, both en- larged. Kidney-shaped, flattened, about 3 mm. long, pitted and wrinkled, hard, brownish-black to almost NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 527 black ; a large whitish and oily albumen contains the curved embryo, as shown in the sections of the seed ; inodorous, bitter. — c. About 0.1% daturine, about 25% fixed oil, etc. — u. Anodyne, narcotic and hyp- notic. Dose : 0.05 to 0.2 gram. Poisonous in over-doses; antidotal treatment: evac- uation and washing of stomach, stimulants such as coffee, alcoholic liquors, alternately hot and cold douches, etc. Hyoseyaiiii Semen. N. Henbane seed. — o. The seeds of Hyoscyamus niger; Solanacece. — he. Europe and Asia; naturalized in North America. — ». The drawings show a whole seed and a longi- tudinal section of one, both much enlarged. Flattish, roundish or slightly kidney-shaped, 1 to 1.5 mm. long, reticulately wrinkled, gray or yel- lowish-gray ; internally whitish; the curved embryo is enclosed in an oily albumen; no odor, taste oily and bitter acrid. — c. Two alkaloids, hyoscyamine and hyoscine, a glucoside, about 25% fixed oil, etc. — U. Same as of the leaves, but from 4 to 10 times as active. Anodyne, narcotic and hypnotic. Poison- ous in large doses ; antidotal treatment same as for stramonium seeds. Dose : 0.1 to 0.2 gram. liObeHae Semen. N. Lobelia Seed. — o. The seeds of Lobelia infiata; Lobeliacecz. — h. North America. — ». The figures show a whole seed and a seed in longitudinal section, enlarged about H f % I (If ^ diameters. In bulk the drug looks like a reddish-brown to dark- brown powder, but with a Codding- ton lens the appearance of the indi- vidual seeds is readily discerned. The seed is very 528 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. small, oblong or elliptic, about 0.75 mm. long and 0.3 mm. broad, reticulated, the longitudinal ridges being united by rather regular transverse ridges, giving the seed the appearance as if enclosed in a delicate bas- ket or wicker-work ; the dicotyledonous embryo im- bedded in a copious albumen ; no odor, taste acrid. — C. Same as of lobelia, lobeline, lobelic acid, etc. — U. Same as of lobelia; sialagogue, expectorant, emetic, narcotic and purgative ; in large doses power- fully depressant. Dose: 0.05 to 0.5 gram. Papaveris Semen. w. Poppy Seed, Maw Seed. — o. The seeds of the white variety of Papaver somniferum; Papaveracecz. -iv'S'/cn — HC- Asia Minor and India ; cultivated. V» (lffll\ — **• -^ ne illustrations show seeds in natural size and one seed, whole and longitudinal section, much enlarged. Poppy seeds are kidney-shaped, about 1 mm. long, pitted, cream-colored or whitish ; the white, oily albumen contains the slightly curved embryo; no odor, taste nutty oily. — c. About 50% of fixed oil, traces of morphine, etc. — u. As food, mainly. As a demulcent in emulsion. Dose : 2 to 5 grams. Delphinium. N. Larkspur Seed. — o. The seeds of Delphinium Consolida; Ranunculacecz. — h. Europe ; cultivated. — », The illustrations show a whole seed, natural size and enlarged, and a longitudinal section, en- larged. Small, obscurely tetrahedral, about 1.5 to 2 mm. long, externally rough-warty, blackish; in- ternally whitish, the oily albumen enclosing a small embryo; no odor, taste bitter acrid. — c. An alkaloid, del- phinine, some fixed oil, resin, 9 ^HP' ^S^gfpT e f- c# — ^ Antispasmodic in asthma; diuretic, cathartic, in large doses emetico- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 529 cathartic and poisonous; externally rubefacient. Dose: 0.06 to 0.2 gram. Piper Alburn. White Pepper, while really more than a seed be- cause the outer portion merely of the pericarp was re- moved, so that the pulp and the fibrovascular bundles of the pericarp still enclose the seed proper, yet looks so much like a seed that it will probably be looked for here by many. It is therefore mentioned in the synopsis of the group, but it has been fully described and figured in Group LXV. Ianum. N. Linseed, Flax Seed. — o. The seed of Linum usitatissimum ; Linece. — h. Cultivated in most temperate countries. — ». The illustrations show the seeds in natural size and en- larged, and also in longitudinal and transverse sections, en- larged. The seeds are ovate, obliquely pointed at one end, flattened, about 4 to 5 mm. long, externally glossy brown, internally yel- lowish-white; the large embryo consists of two cotyl- edons and a radicle,- surrounded by a thin, almost membranous albumen that is more likely to be con- sidered as one of the seed-coats than as albumen ; no odor, taste mucilaginous, oily and disagreeable. — C. About 15% mucilage in the epithelium, from 30 to 40% fixed oil in the inner portion (embryo and albu- men) of the seed, proteids, some resin, etc. — u. The ground seeds are used for poultices; an infusion is sometimes made of the whole seeds. Demulcent. Dose: Ad libitum, as infusion. 530 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Sinapis Nigra. N. Black Mustard. — o. The seeds of Brassica (Sinapis) nigra; Crucifercz. — H. Cultivated. — ». The illustration shows a seed enlarged, with its circular hilum; also a transverse section and two views of the embryo, showing one cotyledon wrapped about the other. Almost globular, about 1 mm. in diameter, with circular hilum, externally reddish-black and finely pitted, internally oily and greenish-yellow; no odor when dry, but on moistening it develops an ex- tremely pungent and irritating odor; taste pungently acrid, aromatic. — t£. About 25% fixed oil; sinigrin or potassium myronate, myrosin, mucilage, etc. When moistened, black mustard emits a strong irri- tant odor due to tho volatile oil of mustard formed from the sinigrin by the action of myrosin in the presence of water. — u. Aromatic stimulant when eaten; in large doses (10 to 15 grams mixed with copious draughts of water) ground mustard is a prompt and efficacious emetic ; especially indicated in cases of poisoning because usually at hand every- where. Externally a poultice made of ground mus- tard and luke-warm (not hot) water is a valuable rubefacient and counter-irritant. Its main use is as a condiment. Sinapis Alba. X. White Mustard. — o. The seeds of Brassica (Sinapis) alba; Crucifercz. — H. Cultivated. — ». The illustrations show a seed in natural size and en- larged; the embryo is like that of black mustard, only larger and with a somewhat larger radicle proportionately ; in many of the seeds the seed- NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 531 coats appear as if tightly stretched around the embryo so that the shape of the latter gives shape to the seed. Oval, almost globular, slightly compressed, about 1.5 to 2 mm. long, finely pitted or almost smooth, with a small hilum at one end and a more or less distinctly marked ridge over the radicle the full length of the seed, pale yellowish to yellowish-brown externally and yellowish within; inodorous when dry, but with strong characteristic odor when moistened; the taste is pungently aromatic, similar to that of black mus- tard, but weaker. — c. Like those of black mustard. — U. Mainly as a condiment and spice. Semen Rapae. jr. Rape Seed. — o. The seeds of Brassica Napus; Cmciferce. — h\ Cultivated. — d. The shape of rape seed is like that of white mustard seed, the ridge over the curved radicle usually being very distinct. "German" rape seed averages about 1.5 mm. in diam- eter and is nearly smooth, though not glossy, and varies in color from deep red to nearly black. "Eng- lish" rape seed is similar in shape, a trifle larger than the German, and of more uniform color, reddish- black; the embryo is formed like that of black mus- tard. Odor, taste and constituents similar to those of mustard. — u. Used as one ingredient of "mixed bird seeds". Fcennm Graeoniii. N. Fenugreek. — o. The seeds of Trigonella Fcenum Grczcum; Leguminosce. — H. India; cultivated in Mediterranean countries. — D. The illustrations show the whole seed, in natural size and enlarged ; also transverse and longitudinal sections, en- larged. " Almost"~cubical, or oblong quadrangular, four-edged, about 3 to 4 mm. long and about 2 mm. broad, hard, with a projection on one side reaching 532 ' NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. from one end to a little more than half-way along the side of the seed ; yellowish-brown to brownish; the embryo consists of two cotyledons, and a large radi- cle which is contained in the projection on one side, and a horny albumen which is small in amount and considered by some to be seed-coat and not albumen at all; peculiar odor and bitter mucilaginous taste. — C. The important ingredients are fixed oil and mucil- age. — u. Powdered fenugreek is sometimes used to make emollient poultices, but is mainly employed in veterinary practice as a demulcent ; it is a common ingredient of "condition powders". GROUP LXVII. COTYLEDONS OR SEED-LEAVES. The embryos of dicotyledonous seeds without albu- men consist of two cotyledons or seed-leaves united at the base, and with a rudimentary nipple-like pro- jection at one end, the root or radicle; sometimes there may be found between the two seed-leaves a rudimentary leafy branch, the plumule. When seeds are opened and their seed-leaves are prepared for the trade by removing the seed-coats, they belong in this group; they are then occasionally called "semina decorticata" . Within the last few years kola, a drug, one variety of which consists of the cotyledons of a poly-cotyledonous seed, has also occurred in the trade. Ovate, fleshy, plano-convex cotyle- dons, about 2.5 to 3 cm. long and half as broad ; yellowish Qnercns Semen. Elongated, fleshy, plano-convex co- tyledons, up to 4 cm. long; brown- ish-black Piclmrlm majns. Similar to last, but only about 2 cm. long, ovate ; brownish-black. Picimrim minus. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 533 Round, nattish-ovate, plano-con- vex, or irregular, somewhat con- torted cotyledons; brownish or reddish-brown Cola. Qtiercits Semen. N. Glandes Quercus, Acorns. — o. The separated cotyledons of the seeds of Quercus Robur and Q. Sessiliflora; Cupulifercz. — m. Europe. — ». The illustrations show the whole fruit of Q. Robur, and the cotyledons, outer and inner surfaces and transverse section, all natural size. Only the co- tyledons occur in the trade; they are thick plano- convex, oblong or ovate, about 3 cm. long and 1J cm. broad, yellowish to yellowish-brown ; no odor, taste bitter and astrin- gent. — c e About 9% tannic acid, bitter extractive, resin, oil, starch, etc. — n. The drug is roasted or parched like coffee, and is used as a substitute for coffee, especially when the latter is contra-indicated in nervous affections, Glandes Quercus are quoted whole in the price- lists of European dealers in drugs, but are probably seldom imported into this country otherwise than roasted and ground. They are seldom used in this country, parched rye being more commonly used as a substitute for coffee. The parched and ground drug is commonly known as "glandules quercus tostce" . Pitfuirim. N. Pichury, Semen Pichurim, Fabce Pichurim, Pichurim Beans, Sassafras Nuts. — o. The cotyle- 534 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. dons of the seeds of Nectandra Puchury; Laurinece. P. H. Venezuela, Brazil, and other parts of South America. — ». There are two varieties of Pichurim beans, which are the product of the same variety of tree, the difference in size being due probably to differences in soil or climate or both, the "fabcz pichurim majores" and ' l fab ce pichurim minores" , or larger and smaller pichurim beans ; the illustrations give a good idea of shape and size, a showing the outer and b the inner surfaces of a cotyledon of the smaller kind, c a transverse section of the same, and d the outline of a cotyledon of the larger kind show- ing position of plumule; blackish-brown externally, lighter-colored internally ; odor and taste aromatic, reminding of nutmeg and saffron. — c. 2 to 3% volatile oil, about 30% fixed oil or fat, resin, coloring matter, etc. — u. In South America they are used like we use nutmegs, as a condiment or spice ; also as a stimulant aromatic in cases of bowel affections, diarrhoea, dysentery, etc. Seldom used in this coun- try. Dose: 0.5 to 1.5 grams, in powder. Cola. N. Kola, Nuces Cola, Semen Cola, Cola, or Kola Nuts, Guru Nuts. (The Guinea name Kola or Cola is indeclinable and neuter in Latin). — o. The cotyl- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 535 edons of several varieties of Cola, Sterculia (Cola) acuminata and St. vera; Autacola. — h. Native of Africa, but cultivated in tropical countries. — d. The seeds of Sterculia vera have two roundish, rather flattish, plano-convex cotyledons, the inner surface of one of which is figured in the smaller drawing; the seeds of St. acuminata have four cotyledons, which, when separated and dried as in the drug, are irregularly contorted or twisted, as shown in the larger figures ; all the figures are of nat- ural size ; when fresh, both varieties are carmine-red, but in the drug the color is brown to brownish-black, some pieces occasionally showing reddish, liver-col- ored or yellowish-brown patches; both kinds are very hard, and without odor or taste. — c. The only con- stituent of value is caffeine, of which the drug con- tains from 0.75 to 2%. — u. Similar to that of- coffee, tea, guarana, etc. Dose : About 10 grams during the day. GROUP LXVI II. ARILLI OR ADVENTITIOUS SEED-COATS. In the general remarks on seeds we studied the structure of seeds and learned that the two ovule- coats develop into seed-coats. Sometimes, in addi- 536 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. tion to these coats which fit snugly around the em- bryo or albumen, and which are usually closely adherent, although not always united, there may be adventitious growths of cell-proliferations from the funiculus, more rarely from the placenta, which form another, apparently a third, or adventitious seed- coat, but this coat rarely fits closely, but is easily separable. Such an adventitious seed-coat is called an arillus or aril. Fleshy, irregularly lobed and cleft bands, orange-brown; fragrant Macis. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 537 Mads. N. Mace. — o. The arillus of Myristica fragrans; Myristicacecs. — h. India, Philippines, Molucca and Banda Islands, West Indies, South America; culti- vated. — i>. The fruit of this tree resembles a small peach in appearance; the fleshy outer portion be- comes dry and coriaceous when ripe and separates into two valves, exposing to view a scarlet-red mem- branous arillus which surrounds the kernel or seed; the kernel, which is the nutmeg, is enclosed in a thin, glossy, brown shell, and the latter is sur- rounded by the arillus just mentioned. The illustra- tions show a seed enclosed by the arillus, and the latter separated as it occurs in the trade, both in natural size. The arillus separated from the seed and dried, becomes flattened as in the figure ; it is multi-cleft almost to the base, into a number of lobes and each lobe in turn is more or less irregularly cleft into flattish, broad or narrow, wavy or contorted bands ; the larger drawing shows an unbroken piece of mace spread out after having been softened by soaking in water, in natural size; orange-brown, somewhat brittle and often broken ; odor and taste fragrant, aromatic. — c. 7 to 9% volatile oil, fixed oil, some resin, etc. — u. As a condiment or spice; stimulant, carminative. Dose : 0.5 to 1.5 grams. 538 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. PARTS OP PLANTS NOT EASILY RECOGNIZABLE AS SUCH. We come now to the last general group of vege- table drags showing organic or cell structure, which we divide as follows : Parts of plants not eas- [ ^ ole -- • • \ • • • • • _• ■ £9. ilv recognizable as I Cufc ' or otherwise altered.. 70. y recognizable as . Cylindrical sticks, rounded at the ends, looking somewhat like Bologna sausages, about 15 cm. long and 2.5 to 4 cm. thick, 546 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. very hard, dark reddish-brown, slightly mottled and comparatively smooth; or in sub-globular or flattened cakes having the same external appearance as the sticks; fracture uneven, somewhat glossy, reddish- brown, but paler than the external surface, not homo- geneous, but mottled and marbled from fragments of seeds enclosed in their darker-colored seed-coats; odor feeble but peculiar, reminding of chocolate, and taste bitter astringent. — c. Partly soluble in alcohol or water, yielding a brown solution with either men- struum. The important constituent is caffeine, of which the drug contains from 4 to 5%. — u. Guarana resembles tea and coffee in its effects; it is used mainly to relieve sick headache. Dose : 1 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract or elixir. Carbo Ligrii. N. Charcoal, Vegetable Charcoal. — o. Charcoal prepared from soft wood, very finely powdered. The charcoal made from small willow or poplar shoots is most esteemed. — ». Charcoal retains the shape and structure of the wood from which it was prepared, but consists only of the carbon together with the mineral substances which constitute the ash when wood is burned. As usually met with by the retail pharmacist, vegetable charcoal is a fine black powder which should be free from grit, and should leave, when burned with free access of air, not more than 7.5% of ash; tasteless and odorless. — c. If properly prepared it should contain no uncarbonized wood, which may be tested by boiling 1 gram of charcoal with a mixture of 3 cc. 5% solution potassium hy- drate (liquor potassae), and 5 cc. of water; after boil- ing for several minutes, filter ; complete carbonization is shown by the filtrate being colorless or nearly so. — C Used in the arts and manufacturing as a deodor- izer and decolorizer. When taken internally it ab- sorbs some of the gases and fluids in the alimentary tract, and is useful in heartburn, eructations of gases NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 547 or sour fluid, flatulence and dyspepsia. Dose: One or two teaspoonfuls mixed with water. ASPIDIUM. Powdered vegetable charcoal may be readily dis- tinguished from powdered animal charcoal by inciner- ation, leaving less than 7.5% of ash, while animal charcoal leaves about 85% of ash; moreover animal char- coal has a dull black color and is gritty. Aspidinm. The peeled stipes have been al- ready described and figured under | Group XV, but the arrangement of 1 1 the bundles in the rhizome may be U seen from these drawings, which rep- resent a portion of the tip of a rhi- zome with the stipes trimmed off, and a piece which has been peeled and trimmed, such as is found in this drug when it comes into trade peeled. Finger Orris is herewith figured. As only choice pieces of the rhizome of Florentine Orris can furnish 548 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. this kind of orris, it is sometimes considered to be a better variety than the ordinary drug; but for perfum- ery, etc., it is altogether unnecessary to use this drug. It is used only for teething infants, but the rubber ring is better and more cleanly. GROUP LXXI. TRICHOMES. The word "trichome" means an outgrowth from the epidermis-cells of the plant, and includes vegetable hairs in all their modifications, as root-hairs, woolly hairs, prickly hairs, glandular hairs and glands, sim- ple hairs, branched hairs, etc. ; vegetable hairs used in medicine are of single cell thickness, thus differing from corn-silk, for example, which might by some be mistaken for vegetable hairs ; sometimes a hair be- comes developed into a thickened portion, when it is a glandular hair, and in some cases the hair structure is no longer readily perceived for it has developed into a more or less rounded structure and is then called a gland. Only a careless observer might look here for saf- fron or corn-silk, but the spores of lycopodium and of corn-smut might very easily be mistaken for glands. All these substances are therefore mentioned here, with reference to the pages where they are described. The drugs of this group are best examined under a fairly high magnifying power of the microscope, al- though their identity can be established without this aid. Vegetable glands: Granular, mobile, brick-red pow- der ; no odor and little taste Kamala. Brownish-yellow to yellowish- brown powder; aromatic and bitter JLnpulfnnm. NCTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 549 Vegetable hairs: Delicate white curling hairs, from 2 to 4 cm. long Gossypinm. Glistening, brownish-red silky powder, consisting of hairs about 2 to 3 mm. long Mncnna. Curling, glossy-brown, soft and delicate hairs, from 2.5 to 5 cm. long Penghawar, 132, 553. Liable to be taken for trichomes: Irregular, brown-black masses, partly membranaceous, partly pulverulent Ustuago, 124. Light-yellow, very mobile powder . Lycopodinm, 127. Hardly liable to mistake: Separate stigmas, or three attached to a style, linear-tubular, about 3 cm. long ; deep orange-brown with reddish tinge Croons, 436. Tufts of soft, silky, thread-like, yellovish fibers, about 15 cm. long ; the ends often matted to- gether and dark-brown zea, 438. Kamala. N. Kamala, Glandules Rottlercz. — o. Glands and hairs from the capsules of Ma/lotus Philippinensis {Rottlera tinctoria); Enphorbiacecz. — H.India, China, Philippine Islands, etc. — ». To the unaided eye Kamala appears as a granular, mobile, brick-red powder, slightly gritty under the teeth ; burns similar to lycopodium when blown through a flame; not readily miscible with water; imparts but little color to water even when boiled in it, but yields a deep-red solution when alkalies are added, or in alcohol or ether ; under the microscope the powder is seen to consist of irregular oval or round glands (more or 550 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. less opaque as in a) mixed with colorless or brownish hairs arranged in stellate clusters (d); when cleared with dilute liquor potasses the gland appears as in b y and when crushed under the cover-glass there are seen a colorless enveloping membrane and 60 to 80 little bladder or sac-like vesicles which were attached to each other at a common center and which contain a red substance ; nearly devoid of odor and taste. — c. About 80% resin, rottlerin, etc. It should leave only about 3% of ash; a larger proportion of ash is due to adulteration with earthy matter, which some- times constitutes the bulk of the drug. — u. Taenicide and purgative. Dose : 5 to 10 grams. Very pronounced grittiness under the teeth should lead us to suspect adulteration; it is always best to examine this drug with the microscope to determine its quality. I^iipiiliiium. N. Lupulin. — o. Glands from the axis and bracts of hops, the strobiles of Hamulus Lupulus; Urti- cacece. — h. Cultivated. — 1>. When fresh, a golden- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 551 yellow, afterwards brownish-yellow to orange-brown powder, consisting of minute granules or mushroom-shaped glands, which contain a yellow balsamic fluid in a reticulate cellular membrane; odor aro- matic, taste bitter. — c. 3% volatile oil, resin, etc.; should not yield more than about 10% of ash on incineration. — u. Stimulant tonic ; anodyne, especially on genito-urinary organs. Dose : 0.3 to 1 gram. Gossypium. w. Cotton. — o. Hairs from the seeds of Gossypium herbaceum; Malvacece. — h. Cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical countries. — i>. Delicate, white, soft, curling hairs, consisting of one-celled filaments vary- ing in length from about 2 cm. ( u short staple") to 4 cm. ("long staple") and about 0.05 millimeter thick. These hairs are simple ceils and though round when fresh in the pod, collapse when gathered and dried, and then present a spiral and band-like appearance under the microscope. Odorless and tasteless, and 552 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. insoluble in water, alcohol, ether and solutions of caustic alkalies. — c. Mainly cellulose, about 10% fixed oil and some inorganic matter ; it leaves about 1.5% ash. — u. For preparing collodion, absorbent cotton and various surgical dressings ; also for filter- ing, etc. By boiling in weak solution of caustic lye the oil is saponified and removed, and this purified cotton is known as "absorbent cotton", because it absorbs moisture with great avidity. Mucima. jr. Pili Stizolobiiy Cowhage. — o. The hairs from the pods of Mucuna pruriens (Stizolobium pruriens} ; Leguminosce \ — h. East and West Indies. — ». Glis- tening, brownish-red, silky powder, seen under a lens to consist of stiff, pointed and barbed hairs about 2 to 3 mm. long; odorless; they penetrate the skin very readily and cause severe itching which is aggravated by rubbing or scratching, but is relieved by wetting with water which softens the hairs. — C. A little tannin and resin. — u. Formerly used as a vermifuge, but now seldom employed, except per- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 553 haps by dishonest horse-traders who are said to make broken-down horses appear spirited by apply- ing cowhage to the anus or genitals. Pencil a war. N. This substance is known by various names : Pi It Cibotii, Penghawar Djambi, Cibotium, Paku- Kidang or Pulu. — o. and h. It consists of the hairs from the fronds of many varieties of ferns growing in Sumatra; mainly varieties of Cibotium, as C. Baromez, C. Djambianum y etc., all of which, as Berg conjectures, may be merely varieties of Poly- podium Baromez. Paku-Kidang is from Alsophila luriddy and other Javanese ferns. The hairs of Cibotium glaucum and other varieties of Cibotium come from the Sandwich Islands, and are known as Pulu or Pulu-Pulu. — ». All of these ferns yield hairs which resemble each other closely, the drug consisting of glossy, golden-yellow or bronze-colored, 554 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. curled and jointed, several or many-celled hairs which are from 1.5 to 2 cm. long, collapsed or flat- tened in sach a way that the hairs appear to be twisted at the juncture of the separate cells ; odorless and tasteless. — c. A little tannin, resin, etc. — U. Hemostatic, acting probably mainly or altogether in a mechanical manner by affording support to a forming clot. GROUP LXXII. EXCRESCENCES OR GALLS. Galls are peculiar excrescences or tumors produced by the stings of various insects on many different plants; the female insect bores a hole with her ovipositor and deposits her eggs, and the stimulation or irritation produced thereby causes an abnormal cell-proliferation which results in the formation of the gall. Within this gall the ovum of the insect is hatched and forms a larva or grub which feeds on the surrounding vegetable tissue, so that a cavity is formed near or at the center of the gall ; the grub finally develops into a perfect fly or insect which eats its way out, so that a tubular canal is formed from the central cavity to the outer surface. It is sometimes stated that galls are best before the insect has eaten its way out ; those galls are supposed to be best which have no hole on the outer surface ; such galls are supposed to be the "blue", "green" or "black galls", while those with holes in them are supposed to be mainly "white galls". The writer is convinced that the gall (what there is left of it) after the insect has eaten a hole to the surface, is just the same as the gall without such a hole ; of course, it is lighter; but as with the man who bought a pound of Swiss cheese and complained of the large holes in it, and wastold by the grocer that after he had eaten the cheese he should return the holes and the grocer would return full value for whatever the holes might NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 555 weigh, so the lightness of perforated galls is com- pensated for by the greater number to the pound ; what there is of the perforated gall is as good as an equal weight of one that is not perforated. When a gall is gathered and dried before the insect has matured the latter dies and the gall remains un- perforated. Bound, hard, more or less nodu- lated, about 2 cm. in diameter; dark-colored; often with round holes Galla. Irregularly lobed, hollow, thin- walled, slightly downy or smooth, brownish Chinese Galls. Similar to last, but hairy and grayish Japanese Galls. Round, spongy, orange or yellow- ish-brown, up to 5 cm. or more in diameter . American Galls. Galla. n. Galls, Nut-galls. — o. Excrescences on Quercus lusita?iica (Cupulifercz) caused by the punctures made by the female of Cynips Galla tinctorial, while depositing her eggs. — h, The Levant. — b. The 556 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. illustrations show galls whole and in section, with and without holes, all natural size. Galls are globu- lar, about 1 to 2 cm. in diameter, nodulated on side opposite point of attachment, otherwise smooth, heavy, hard, often with a perforation extending from the central cavity; externally dark olive-green, or bluish-brownish-green, or blackish-green ; internally yellowish-gray, darker towards center; fracture brit- tle and granular; the cavity in center has a hard wall and occasionally contains a dead grub or imperfectly developed insect, or in case the insect has escaped, the debris caused by it; odor none and taste very as- tringent. — c. From 40 to 75% tannin and 2 to 3% gallic acid, etc. — u. Astringent. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. Mainly used for making tannic and gallic acids. Dark-colored and heavy nut-galls are usually good, and light-colored, light and spongy galls are usually inferior. This difference does not appear to be de- pendent on whether the gall is perforated or not, and there is no difference between galls with holes and without holes, other things being equal. Aleppo (or Syrian) galls are best, and these are figured above. For the manufacture of tannic and gallic acids galls from different sources are also employed. For in- stance, Chinese galls which are hollow, irregularly lobed, thin-walled, usually grayish-brown and slightly downy, nearly smooth; see illustration in natural size. Japanese galls resemble the Chinese, but are rather more downy, and grayish in color; both are occasion- ally closed and peduncled at base. NCTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 557 American galls from Quercus lobata, are large, up to 5 cm. in diameter, orange or yellowish-brown, spongy and very astringent. Galls from sumach and other plants are also employed in manufacture and in tanning, but only the Aleppo (Syrian) oak-galls described above are of special interest to the pharma- cist. VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT CELLULAR . STRUCTURE. A small portion, the merest shred, of a cellular drug put on a microscope slide and cleared with a drop of liquor potassae, covered with a cover-glass, then examined under the microscope, will show cel- lular structure ; if it does not show this, it is a drug showing no cellular structure, and may be either an animal or a vegetable drug. If of animal origin, it will probably cause a strong or disagreeable odor when burned on a hot stove lid, or in a flame, while if it is a vegetable drug, the products of combustion are odorless, or at least not of the peculiar character which distinguishes burning animal matter; the test being, in fact, the same that is applied by every housewife to determine whether the cloth she has bought, or of which she has a sample, is really woollen or not. The test is not always applicable, however, because a few animal substances may pro- duce little or no odor on burning, while the reverse is true in regard to a few vegetable drugs. However, the test will almost always enable us to say whether the non- cellular drug under examination is a vegetable drug or not, the microscope having de- termined already that it is non-cellular. The drugs of this general class may be divided into two subdivisions, according to their appearance under the microscope, for some of them show regular and organic structure, although not cell- structure: Non-cellular vegetable dra g s{^^ nU /74to-S 558 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. GROUP LXXI I I. DEFINITE GRANULES UNDER MICROSCOPE. This group comprises the starch grains; as these are only part of the cell-contents, and as "cellular structure" means "composed of cells", it is evident that starches have no cellular structure, although they have organic structure. The nature of starch and its relation to the plant economy is supposed to have been studied in the les- sons on botany, but a few words of recapitulation will not be amiss. Starch is plant-food which is stored up for future use. It is formed from the inorganic food of the plant by the chlorophyll-bodies in sunlight ; it ceases to be formed when the plant is in the dark. After having been formed in the green part of the plant, it may undergo a change into glucose and be conveyed to other parts of the plant, even those that are in the dark under the soil, as in the tubers of the potato, for while it cannot be originated from in- organic elements by protoplasm in the absence of light (or even in the light, for it requires chlorophyll, not protoplasm, to form it) it can nevertheless be de- posited by protoplasm from the solution of glucose in the cell-sap. An extremely small grain of starch is first deposited consisting of starch-cellulose; within this is then deposited a softer particle of starch con- sisting of stareh-granulose which forms the hilum, and then around this hilum there are deposited, by intussusception, alternating layers of the denser starch-celluloae and the softer starch-grannlose, thus giving the starch grains the appearance of being made up of concentric layers around the hilum, which lat- ter is usually excentric. According to the needs of the growing plant, these starch-grains, once they have been formed by the chlorophyll-bodies, can be changed to sugar and re- formed and redeposited elsewhere, as often as it may be necessary. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 559 Starch grains are usually rounded or oval, but if a cell is crowded with many grains, they may assume more or less angular forms; the size of the starch grains may vary from about -^ of a millimeter, in potato starch, to ^ido ol a millimeter, in a variety of chenopodium; but the grains may also vary in size in the same plant, as we find, for example, quite small and quite large grains in the tuber of the potato, while the grains of starch in the seeds of Indian corn are remarkably even in size. Moreover, the general appearance or shape of the grains of starch is sufficiently characteristic in certain plants, to enable us to identify them under the microscope. That starch grains are colored blue by iodine, and that they polarize light, giving a "polarization-cross", has already been explained. Starch is insoluble in water, alcohol or ether; if boiled in water, it swells into a jelly-like paste, but does not dissolve. There is little difference between the various starches as far as their use is concerned, and there- fore the cheapest source is usually utilized, so that potato and wheat starches are mainly used in Europe, while corn-starch is extensively employed in America. For special purposes, however, wheat, rice, arrow-root and other starches are used, and a short description of these trade articles will be given. Most of the starches are white powders, but in bulk they often occur in peculiar prismatic columnar pul- verulent lumps, as in ordinary laundry starch, or in peculiar grains, as in sago or tapioca. Starch-grains are fairly characteristic in appearance under the microscope, and although it might be difficult or im- possible to determine the origin of any single granule, the appearance of a microscopical field of them is characteristic. The different starches figured are all enlarged at the same rate, about 250 diameters, so 560 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. that it will be seen that the size as well as the shape is of diagnostic valae in identifying these drugs. The student will do well to study also the starches of turmeric, beans, peas, etc., because these sub- stances are sometimes used as adulterants for pow- dered drugs of various kinds. It must be recalled to mind, that in examining powdered drugs the same rule holds good that is used in examining whole drugs, namely, that we determine the structure and appear- ance of the pure drug, then if there is anything pres- ent that is not of the pure drug, it must be an adul- teration or admixture, in which case we reject the drug, no matter whether we can determine what the adulterant is, or not. Starches are used as food; in medicine as demul- cents ; and extensively in the arts, for sizing, in laun- dering, etc. The more important starches have microscopical characteristics, as follows: Polyhedric granules often adherent in clusters; uniform, with well- marked hilum Com Starch. Lenticular or oval, medium-sized and small granules; layers and hilum indistinct Wbeat Starch. Ovate, medium-sized, layers and hilum distinct; hilum at broad end and often cracked or cleft. . -Arrowroot Starch. Ovate, large, layers very distinct ; hilum at narrow end, small, but distinct . Potato Starch. Polyhedric or angular, very small, uniform; hilum and layers in- distinct Rice Starch. Medium-sized, ovate, oblong, ellip- tic or irregular, often truncate at one end; layers and hilum dis- tinct, the latter generally cleft. . . Sago starch. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 561 Medium-sized, irregular, often mul- ler-shaped granules; layers indis- tinct ; hilum near rounded end. . . Tapioca starch. In microscopical appearance most of the starches are in powder or in lumps that are easily reduced to powder by pressure between the fingers, but the fol- lowing appear in peculiar lumps : Small, round, pearly, white or brownish, opaque or slightly translucent lumps , sago. Irregular lumps, white and opaque, or slightly translucent Tapioca. Maydis Amyliim. Iff. Cornstarch. — o. The fecula of the seed of Zea Mays; Gr amine . Granules polyhedric or angular from mutual compression within the cells, often adherent in clusters, uniform in size, with large, well-marked central hilum but indis- tinct layers ; white ; odorless and tasteless. Tritici Amylnm. N. Wheat Starch. — o. The fecula of the grain or seed of Triticum vulgare; Graminece. -H. Cultivated in temperate ' zones. — d. White powder ; the granules rather small or medium-sized, but mixed with many quite small granules with but few of intermedi- 562 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. ate sizes; lenticular or oval; layers and hilum in- distinct; odorless and tasteless. Marantse Amylum. N. Arrow-root. — o. The fecula of the rhizome of Maranta arundinacea; Marantacece {Cannacecz). — H. West Indies; culti- vated in tropical coun- tries. — b. Light white powder, or pulverulent lumps; produces a pecul- iar crackling sound when a package of it is compressed; should be odorless and tasteless, but is sometimes musty, when it should be re- jected. The granules are of medium size, ovate, oblong, sometimes truncate, with delicately marked layers, and a broader end, the hilum generally cracked or cleft in stellate or cross-shaped manner. distinct hilum near the TUBERI SOLAN! AMYLUM. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 563 Tubori Solani Amylnm. jr. Potato Starch. — o. The fecula of the tuber of Solatium tuberosum; Solanacecs. — h. Cultivated gen- erally. — 1>. White powder or pulverulent lumps; the granules large, ovate or oblong, frequently in twin-granules, layers very distinctly marked, the hilum small and near the narrower end, and rarely cracked or cleft. Oryzse Amylnm. M. Rice Starch. — o. The fecula of the grain or seed of Oryza saliva; Gvaminecr. — h. Cultivated gener- ally. — d. A very fine white powder; the granules are very minute, by far the smallest of the commercial starches, poly- hodric or angular, uniform in size, layers and hilum indis- tinct. — u. Owing to the ex- treme fineness of powdered rice starch this variety of starch is most generally em- ployed in the manufacture'of toilet articles, such as face-powders, etc. Sago. several M. Sago. — o. The fecula of varieties of sago palms, different varie- ties of Metvoxylon, Rap h i a , Sagucrus, P/iosnix, Cycas, m^S^jt/ Z ami a , etc. ; but usually ascribed to M etro xy I o n Sagu (Sagus Rumphii) and other palms; Palmes {Pa Im a ce cz). — h. Tropical countries. — ». The word "sago'' refers to the product of a process i 564 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. of treating starch (any starch) so as to form the pecul- iar grains so well known under this name; so that, while sago is mainly prepared from the starch of various palms, it has been made from potato and other starches. The process consists in heating the still moist starch at a temperature of 60° to 70° C, by which many of the grains are changed, becoming gelatinous masses; after having been thus heated, the mass is granulated and dried, thus forming the little round, pearly, white or brownish, opaque or slightly translucent lumps which constitute the trade article. While most of the granules are altered by this pro- cess, some of the granules remain unchanged, and these appear under the microscope as medium-sized, oblong, elliptic, irregular granules, often truncate at one end; layers and hilum both distinct, the latter often cracked or cleft. — u. Altogether for culinary pur- poses ; as diet for the sick or invalids. Tapioca. . n. Tapioca. — o. The fecula of the rhizome of Manihot utilissima {Jatropha Manihof); Euphor- biacece. — H. Brazil ; cultivated in tropical countries. — ». The starch from one variety of this rhizome (cassava starch) is mixed with a poisonous milky juice, which is removed by washing; the poisonous sub- stance is volatile and if a little remains in the starch it is dissipated in the cook- ing. The starch is pre- pared for the market in a manner similar to that in which sago is prepared, but it is not granulated in the same manner. Tapioca is in irregular, hard, white, rough grains or lumps, opaque or slightly diaph- NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 565 anous, with most of the starch granules changed in shape; the unchanged granules of starch are medium- sized, irregular, often muller-shaped, with indistinct layers, and the hilum near the rounded end. — U. Altogether for culinary purposes; as diet for the sick and invalids. AMORPHOUS VEGETABLE DRUGS. To a certain extent, although not altogether, the basis of grouping these drugs is their chemical con- stitution. In regard to quite a number of the drugs of this class, there may be reasonable differences of opinion whether we are to consider them as drugs or as preparations. If we consider them as drugs, they must be described in works on pharmacognosy ; if as preparations, they should be described in works on pharmacy. Thus, some authors describe citric acid as a drug, others do not ; we will therefore recall the definition given for the word "drugs" at the outstart of these Notes: "Drugs are the organic substances used in medicine or in the arts in the crude form in which they are brought into trade." For example: Catechu is made by boiling chips, etc., of a tree in water, straining and evaporating the decoction to solid extract consistence; this is done where the tree grows; the wood is not sent into trade, but this ex- tract is the crudest form in which we get the article ; catechu i3 therefore a drug. Extract of logwood is made in precisely the same way as is catechu, but the wood is imported (this is therefore the drug) and the extract is made here or in Europe (where also the wood is im- ported), and the extract is therefore a preparation. On the other hand: Extract of licorice is exten- sively manufactured from the roots where the roots are grown and it is sent into market from there; it is therefore like catechu and may be called a drug; but enormous quantities of the root (drug) are imported and manufactured into extract in this country ; the 566 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. extract is therefore like the extract of logwood, a preparation; what then is it? a drag or a preparation? We will call it a drug, but others have just as much right to deny that it is a drug ajid they may call it a preparation. No apology is necessary, therefore, if drugs are enumerated here that others may not recognize as drugs, nor if the contrary is the case. If any error is made, it is better to describe too many articles as drugs, rather than to omit important ones. Formerly the author of these Notes classified drugs of this class as "Mixture of granular and formless material" and "Homogeneous under microscope" (following Schleiden in this regard) ; the first of these groups included, for example, opium, because the epidermal cells of the poppy capsules are necessarily included. However, this is clearly an accidental, even though unavoidable, admixture, and the opium itself is homogeneous in structure. If a vegetable drug of cellular structure is placed in water it will swell, but it retains its structure ; if a non-cellular amorphous vegetable drug is placed in a proper solvent, water, dilute alcohol or alcohol, it does not retain its shape, but disintegrates, and any accidental cellular or other impurities or debris will sink as a sediment, if there be any. It is therefore not necessary to retain the above-mentioned distinc- tion, and drugs of this class are grouped as follows: AMORPHOUS VEGETABLE DRUGS. Acids 74. Juices 75. Extracts 76, Sugars 77. Gums 78. Gum-Kesins . 79. Eesins c 0. Oleo-Resins 81. NCTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 567 Balsams 82. Volatile Oils : • 83. Fixed Oils 84. Peculiar Concrete Substances 85. Coloring Matters 86. GROUP LXXIV. ACIDS. Only two acids can fairly be called drugs, citric and tartaric; all other acids, such as acetic, benzoic, carbolic, crude pyroligneous, salicylic, etc., are more properly called preparations. Colorless, right- rhombic crys- tals, deliquesce in moist air; acid taste Acidnm Citricnm. Colorless monoclinic prisms, or crystalline crusts; permanent in air ; acid taste Acidnm Tartaricnm. Acidnm Citricnm. N. Citric Acid. — o. Usually prepared from the juice of the lemon, Citrus Limonum {Rutacece, Auranti- acece) y but also from the fruits of other varieties of Cit- rus (limes). — h. Cultivated in sub-tropical countries. — ». Colorless, translucent, right-rhombic prisms; efflorescent in warm dry air and deliquescent in moist air ; odorless, and with an agreeable, purely acid taste. — c. Admixture of tartaric acid may be detected by dissolving 1 gram of citric acid in 5 cc. of a solution of potassium acetate (1 in 3), then adding an equal volume of alcohol; the solution will become turbid if tartaric or oxalic acid is present. See also pha'rmacopceial tests. — u. Refrigerant; also used in making various pharmaceutical chemicals. Dose: 0.3 to 2 grams. Acidnm Tartaricnm. W. Tartaric Acid. — o. Prepared from argols (crude cream of tartar), a peculiar substance deposited on 568 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. the inside of wine-casks during the fermentation of wine. — i>. Colorless, translucent, monoclinic prisms, or crystalline crusts ; more commonly found in the drug-trade as a white powder; permanent in the air; odorless, and with an agreeable, purely acid taste. — c. See pharmacopoeial tests for purity, etc. — V. Refrigerant ; also used in making various pharma- ceutical chemicals. Dose : 0.3 to 2 grams. GROUPS LXXV and LXXVI, INSPISSATED JUICES AND EXTRACTS. Group 75 includes substances which are fluids in the living plants, and which are obtained by making incisions, etc., when they exude, after which they are inspissated to solid extract consistence. But we arbitrarily limit this group to such inspis- sated juices that dissolve more or less completely in water, for otherwise gutta percha, caoutchouc, crude turpentine, Peruvian balsam, etc., would also be "juices". A strictly scientific classification in pharmacognosy should be based on physical characteristics that can be recognized in the drug itself, so that a classifica- tion of volatile oils adopted by one author as "from rhizomes, from woods, from barks, from leaves, from herbs, from flowers, from fruits, from seeds, from oleo-resins, from stearopten, from resin" can be of no value whatever in pharmacognosy, because it is impossible to tell by a mere inspection or examina- tion of an unknown volatile oil, from which of these sources it was obtained, leaving out of consideration the fact that when a "resin" can yield a volatile oil, it is not a resin, but an "oleo-resin". So the above definition of inspissated juices, that they are more or less completely soluble in water, is not sufficient to sharply define this group from the next group, the extracts. Extracts are solid plant- NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 569 cell contents, and are dissolved out from their vari- ous plant-sources by boiling in water, then evaporat- ing to solid extract consistence. They also dissolve more or less completely in water. There is no distinctive characteristic by which we can differentiate drugs of the two groups except, in a general way, the greater solubility of extracts in water alone, and these two groups might have been placed together, possibly with more propriety than to keep them separate. It must be admitted that other writers, Maisch for instance, had good cause to make one group of "Extracts and Inspissated Juices"; on the other hand, it adds much to the students' under- standing of the nature of the individual drugs if they are grouped as is done here. In order, however, to avoid any difficulty that might arise from an inability to distinguish the drugs of these tsvo groups by any physical characteristics, they are enumerated and compared with each other in one synopsis or descriptive list. Of course, the preparations known as "sued" or "juices" (of the British pharmacopoeia) have nothing in common with this group in a system of pharma- cognosy. They are "preparations". Guarana might readily be taken for an extract or inspissated juice, unless a bit of it is examined under the microscope, and it is, in fact, grouped with these drugs by Maisch. It is included in the synopsis, with reference to its proper group. Inspissated Juices (Group LXXV) : Irregular subglobular cakes, brown, with remnants of leaves or rumex fruits adher- ing ; heavy narcotic odor opium. Hard, orange-brown, opaque masses, with resinous fracture; odor suggests saffron Aloe. 570 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Small, angular, shining, brittle pieces, ruby-red, transparent in small fragments; odorless.. Kino. In quarter-sections of plano- convex cakes, or in irregular pieces ; grayish-brown Lactucarium. Extracts (Group EXXVI) : Irregular broken masses, brittle, dark-brown; sweetish astrin- gent taste Catechu. Bark-brown, almost black cakes or fragments; often cakes en- closed in paper-boxes Logwood Extract. In round black sticks with an impression of trademark at one end; or in large, black masses or lumps; very sweet.. jLlquorice Extract. Sometimes in flat, scaly frag- ments ; more commonly as a thick extract-like mass, in jars French Lactucarium. Apt to be mistaken for an extract: Cylindrical or cake-like masses, very hard, reddish-brown ; Odorless Guarana. (See Guarana, Group LXX. ) Opium. N. Opium, Thebaicum. — o. The concrete, milky exudation obtained by incising the capsules of Papaver somniferum; Papaveracece. — h. Western Asia ; cultivated. — i>. The milky juice which exudes when incisions are made in the poppy capsules, be- comes concrete and turns brown in color ; it is gath- ered and formed into lumps, which are wrapped in poppy leaves and packed with rumex-capsules. Opium is in subglobular lumps or cakes, irregularly angular from mutual 'compression, being packed NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 571 while still somewhat moist; the leaves and sometimes rumex-capsules adhere to the outer surface ; varying in color from chestnut-brown to dark-brown and in consistence from quite dry and rigid to semi- plastic, according to the amount of moisture re- tained; granular in fracture, and mixed with shreds of the epidermis of the capsules ; odor heavy narcotic and taste nauseous bitter. — c. The most important constituent is morphine, of which opium in its usual moist condition should contain not less than 9% ; when dried and powdered, opium should contain from 13 to 15% of morphine, and the average of this, or about 14%, may be obtained by mixing opium of higher assay with a proper quantity of opium of lower assay. In addition to morphine, opium con- tains about 10% of narcotine, about 0.2 to 0.7% codeine, and about 15 other, unimportant, alkaloids. — U. Narcotic, anodyne, anti-spasmodic, hypnotic ; used also to check discharges from the bowels. Dose for adults: 0.05 to 0.1 gram; should be given to chil- dren with great caution. It is usually better to give in divided doses, even to adults. In large doses, opium is a narcotic poison. Anti- dotal treatment consists in prompt evacuation of the stomach, preferably by means of stomach pump or tube, keep patient awake by walking him about, cold douches, flagellation if necessary, and by giving stimulants internally, such as strong coffee, alcoholic liquors, and atropine subcutaneously. Varieties: Turkey opium, also called Constanti- nople or Smyrna opium, is the usual trade article, as described above. Egyptian opium in flattish cakes, Persian opium in sticks wrapped in paper, and Indian opium put up in large balls wrapped in a thick case of poppy leaves, or in cakes wrapped in oiled paper, are not met with in ordinary trade. Adulterations are mainly of a mechanical char- acter, such as imbedded leaden shot or bullets, peb- 572 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. bles, etc., but gum, starch, extract from poppy plants, etc., have also been used. The assay must determine the quality of any given lot of opium. Aloe. N. Aloes. — o. Obtained from several varieties of Aloe (nat. ord. : Liliacecz) by cutting off the leaves, allowing the juice to exude without pressure, and then evaporating to solid consistence. — h. As men- tioned further on, in connection with different varieties of Aloes. — i>. Irregular or broken lumps, different shades of brown, opaque in mass, but in thin layers translucent to transparent ; fracture more or less distinctly conchoidal, varying from dull waxy to resinous ; odor peculiar, reminding of saffron, and taste intensely bitter. — c. Aloin varies in quantity in different aloes, from 16 to 25% in Natal aloes, to none at all in Cape aloes; resin, 60% in some aloes, trace of volatile oil, etc. — u. Active purgative, em- menagogue. Dose: 0.1 to 0.5; for drastic effects, the dose is sometimes increased to 1 gram. The following are the more important varieties of aloes occurring in the trade : Aloe Socotrina, Socotrine Aloes; from the Island of Socotra and Eastern Africa; obtained from A. Per- ryi; brought into trade usually in monkey-skins. The interior sometimes still moist, yellowish or orange-brown, not greenish; translucent; odor rather pleasant. Considered the best variety of aloes. Aloe Barbadensis, Barbadoes Aloes; from the Island of Barbadoes ; obtained from A. vera; brought into trade mainly in gourds. Deep orange-brown; odor peculiar, differing from Socotrine aloes. Con- sidered to be a good variety of aloes. Curasao aloes, a variety of Barbadoes aloes, gathered and prepared from A. vulgaris ', A. spicata and other varieties of Aloe, in the Dutch West Indies, comes into trade in old boxes and irregular packages. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 573 Aloe Capensis, Cape Aloes; from Southern Africa, Cape of Good Hope; obtained from A. spicata and other varieties of Aloe; comes into trade in boxes or skins. Blackish-brown or olive-black; odor disagree- able. The poorest variety of aloes, used almost ex- clusively for veterinary purposes. Kino. N. Kino. — o. The inspissated juice, from incisions in the trunk of Pterocarpus Marsupium; Legumi- nosce. — h. East Indies. — i>. Small, angular, brittle pieces, glossy, brownish-red in larger fragments, ruby-red and transparent in small splinters or on the edges of the larger fragments; odorless, with' sweetish astringent taste, becoming plastic and adherent to the teeth when chewed, and coloring the saliva deep-red. — C. Kino-tannic acid, coloring matter, etc. ; should be almost completely soluble in alcohol and at least 80% should be dissolved by boiling water. Kino con- tains pectin, etc., and its solutions, such as tincture, etc., are very apt to gelatinize. — u. Pleasant astrin- gent, especially in diarrhoeas of children. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Several varieties occur in the trade, of which the one mentioned above is the best and the most usual ; it is known as Malabar Kino. West Indian Kino, or Jamaica Kino, is from Coccoloba uvifera; Polygonacecz; dark brown-red and almost completely soluble in both alcohol and water. South American Kino, or Caraccas Kino, is from the same plant as the West Indian variety, but seems to be prepared in a more slovenly manner ; it con- tains more impurities. African Kino was from a variety of Pterocarpus, but is no longer found in the trade. Australian Kino, or Botany Bay Kino, is from Eucalyptus resinifera and other varieties of Eucalyp- tus; Myrtacecz. It varies in characteristics, is often 574 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. very much contaminated with impurities, as bits of bark, etc., and is seldom used. Xiactiicariiim. N. Lactucarium, German Lactucarium. — o. The concrete milk-juice of Lactuca virosa (nat. ord.: Composites), obtained by incision and gathered when partially dry or con- crete. — h. Prepared in Scotland, England, France and Germany; the variety mainly used in this country is "German" Lactucarium. — ». The juice appears to be collected in small saucer- shaped vessels, and when nearly hard is cut into four pieces ; this makes the pieces appear as quarters of a saucer-shaped cake, as shown in the illustration; or it may occur in irregular fragments of larger cakes broken up; grayish-brown to dark reddish-brown ex- ternally, whitish-gray within, with waxy fracture; odor heavy narcotic, taste bitter. — c. Lactucin, caoutchouc, resin, etc. Partly soluble in alcohol and ether; yields nearly half its weight to boiling water, making a deep-brown solution. Diluted alcohol dis- solves about 40% of the drug. — u. Anodyne, soporific or hypnotic; similar in action to opium, but much less active and reliable. Dose : 0.5 to 1 gram ; has been given even up to 4 grams. See also Lactucarium Gallicum, a little farther on. EXTRACTS. See remarks and synopsis of group on page 568. Catechu. ST. Catechu, *Cutch, Terra ■ Japonica. — o. An ex- tract prepared from the heart- wood of Acacia Catechu; Leguminoscs. — h. East Indies. — i>. In irregular NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 575 masses and fragments, dark-brown, fracture brittle and glossy when freshly made ; often contaminated with fragments of leaves, etc., due to the fact that the inspissated juice is poured on layers or mats of leaves to cool and harden; nearly odorless, with sweetish and very astringent taste. — c. About 35% catechu- tannic acid ; should not yield more than 6% of ash. — U. Astringent. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. Catechu pallidum. Pale Catechu or Gambir, is an entirely different article, obtained from Uncaria Gambir; Rubiacece. The leaves and small twigs are boiled in water and the decoction is evaporated to solid extract consistence. It comes into trade in ir- regular lumps or small cubes, about 2.5 cm. in size; reddish-brown externally and lighter-colored within, with a brittle and dull fracture; odorless, sweetish- bitter and astringent taste. — c, U. and dose, as above. Pale catechu is not much used in this country. Hsematoxyli Extractuni. N. Logwood Extract. — o. Made by evaporating a decoction from chips of the heart- wood of Hczma- toxylon Campechiatium (nat. ord. : Leguminoscz} to dry extract consistence. See also Haematoxylon, page 173. — i>. Brittle, dry cakes of deep ruby-red color, without odor and with sweetish astringent taste. As a trade article or drug, it usually occurs in circular cakes enclosed in paper boxes, prepared by pouring the extract, when sufficiently evaporated to congeal, into the boxes as moulds and letting the extract harden in the boxes. — c. Tannic acid and a peculiar coloring principle, hematoxylin. — u. A mild astrin- gent. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Also used in dyeing textile fabrics. Glycyrrliizse Extr actum. N. Liquorice Extract, Liquorice, Licorice. — ©. Made by evaporating a decoction of the roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra (nat. ord. : Leguminosce') to dry 576 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. extract consistence. See Glycyrrhiza, page 173. — B. This extract is manufactured in enormous quanti- ties, both at the places where liquorice root is grown, and in this country, most of it being consumed in the manufacture of chewing tobacco. For this purpose it is furnished in casks, boxes, etc., into which the ex- tract is poured and in which it cools and hardens. For the drug-trade the extract is moulded into round sticks, about 1.5 cm. thick and about 15 cm. long, with usually a trade-mark or manufacturer's brand stamped on one end, which is flattened and broad- ened thereby. The extract is black, with brittle, glossy, conchoidal fracture ; no odor, very sweet taste. — C. The sweetness depends on glycyrrhizin. — c Demulcent, expectorant. Mainly used in pharmacy and medicine as an excipient, to disguise the tastes of disagreeable medicines. Iiactucarium Gallicnm. nr. French Lactucarium, Thridace. — o. The juice of the tops of Lactuca virosa, obtained by expression, or an extract obtained in the usual manner, inspissated to dry extract consistence. — d. Occurs in the trade in thin flat brown cakes, or, as it is hygroscopic, more frequently as a dark-brown pasty mass, like thick solid extracts. Odor slightly narcotic, taste bitterish. — U. Similar to those of true lactucarium, but weaker and even less reliable. Used almost exclu- sively as a cheaper substitute for true lactucarium. GROUP LXXVII. SUGARS. Sugars are sweet to the taste, soluble in water, forming syrups, and soluble in dilute alcohol. It is not necessary to say much about the different kinds of sugars or saccharine principles, because that be- longs to chemistry rather than to pharmacognosy ; a few words on this subject will therefore suffice. NCTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 577 Cane sugar, Saccharose or Sucrose, from sugar cane, sorghum, sugar beet and sugar maple; Grape sugar, including dextrose or grape sugar and levulose, or fruit sugar, from grapes and fruit, but commercially from starch of corn and cereals; Mannite, contained in manna; Maltose, produced by the action of malt on starch ; and Lactose, or milk sugar, from the whey of milk. In this connection the saccharine substances of animal origin must be remembered, namely sugar of milk (see page 38) and honey (see page 42). White, hard, crystalline granules; very sweet Saecharnm. Cylindrical crystalline masses; transparent, and very sweet Rock Candy. Yellowish granules or masses ; or thick, viscid, transparent paste; Sweet Glucose. Flattish, yellowish- white, porous flakes; honey-like odor and Sweet taste * . . . . Manna. Cylindrical crystalline masses; yellowish-white, opaque; sweet- ish Saecharnm Iiactls. Syrupy, sweet, aromatic, some- times granular liquid Mel. Saecharnm. W. Sugar. — o. and H. From the cane of Saccharum officinarum (Graminecs)y cultivated in Southern United States, West Indies, Africa, Hawaiian Islands, and other tropical and sub-tropical countries; from Sorghum saccharatum and other varieties of Sor- ghum (Graminece), cultivated in the Northern temper- ate zone; from the sugar beet, Beta vulgaris (Cheno- podiacece), cultivated in temperate parts of North America and Europe; from the sugar maple, Acer Saccharinum {Sapindacece~), cultivated in Northern 578 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. United States and Canada. The sugar beet is the most important source of sugar, the sugar cane com- ing next in importance. — i>. Sugar, or "granulated sugar", occurs in white, dry, hard, crystalline gran- ules, permanent in the air, soluble in one-half its own weight of water; odorless, and with a pure sweet taste. — u. Demulcent, lenitive; mainly used for sweetening. Rock Candy is cane sugar crystallized in large cylindrical or irregular masses, usually around a string or stick; either colorless, or colored pink. It is simply a pure sugar. Clarified (yellowish) and brown sugars contain small quantities of molasses ; they are granular, not crystalline, and very sweet. Inferior granulated sugar often has a yellowish tint, which is removed or "bleached" by adding ultramarine or Prussian blue to the sugar; sugar whitened thus is apt to cause bluish precipitates in preparations made from it, and chemical syrups are apt to spoil more readily than when pure granulated sugar is employed in making them. When sugar is crystallized from its solution, a cer- tain proportion of it remains as uncrystallizable sugar in the solution and this constitutes "syrupus fuscus", molasses, or sugar-house molasses. Crude maple sugar usually comes in round or rec- tangular cakes, of a yellowish-brown color, with an agreeable aromatic odor and a very sweet, peculiarly pleasant flavor. Sacctiarimi Uvenm. N. Glucose, Grape Sugar. — o. Can be made from grapes or fruits, but is made in a much cheaper man- ner by boiling starch for some time with dilute sul- phuric acid, then neutralizing the acid with calcium carbonate, filtering the solution and evaporating the filtrate. — 1>. Whitish or yellowish masses or gran- ules, inodorous, less sweet than cane sugar. Also NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 579 furnished in the form of a thick, viscid, paste-like mass. — u. Same as of cane sugar, for which latter it is often used as a harmless and cheap substitute or as an admixture, especially in the manufacture of candies and confections. Solutions of glucose are more apt to ferment than solutions of cane sugar, and glucose is therefore less fitted for making the pharmaceutical and chemical syrups. Manna. N. Manna. — o. A concrete saccharine exudation from incisions in the stem of Fraxinus Ornus; Oleacecz. — h. Mediterranean countries. — ». "Flake Manna" : In flattish, somewhat three-edged pieces or "flakes", up to 20 cm. long and 5 cm. broad, although usually much smaller; porous, crystalline, easily broken; yellowish-white externally, white within; odor aromatic, remindiug of honey, and taste sweet, slightly bitterish and acrid. In a less valuable variety of manna, the flakes are broken and more or less agglutinated, forming irregular lumps; less white, more yellowish to yellowish-brown; otherwise like flake manna. — c. About 90% mannite in the best varieties, glucose, etc. — u. Lenitive, demulcent, laxative. Dose : 5 to 25 grams. "Sorts Manna" or "Manna in Sorts" consists of more or less agglutinated masses, showing tears with crystalline structure, but few fragments of flakes; often brown, and always inferior to flake manna. A fat, viscid, brownish manna with neither frag- ments of flakes or tears, and showing no crystalline particles, should be rejected. GROUP LXXVI I I. GUMS. In many trees a peculiar change of the cell-wall in the barks takes place under certain circumstances, re- sulting in the formation of gum. Incisions or acci- 580 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. dental injuries to such trees are followed by an exuda- tion of a peculiar material, intended apparently by nature as a means of closing the wound and protect- ing the tree against injurious influences (from bacteria causing decay) or too great a bleeding or loss of sap. Gums have an insipid taste, are soluble in water, or swell in water, forming either a liquid mucilage or a jelly-like paste ; they are insoluble in alcohol and are precipitated from watery solutions by alcohol. When a gum, resin, or other substance exudes in round or oval grains or lumps, and these lumps re- main separate, they are known as "tears"; if they exude in flat band-like pieces, these pieces are called "flakes". Gums from various trees, peach, cherry, the mez- quite trees of Texas, etc., have been used, but are not regular articles of commerce although they may per- haps be met with as adulterants occasionally. Dex- trin, made from starch, is used as a substitute for gum arabic in the manufacture of cheap mucilages for pasting. Indistinct, transparent, crackled, colorless to yellowish tears; soluble in water Acacia. In wavy and curved flakes, whitish, translucent; swells in water Tragacantha. Acacia. N. Acacia, Gum Arabic. — o. A spontaneous exuda- tion from the stems and branches of Acacia Senegal; Leguminoscz ; probably also from other varieties of Acacia, as A. vera, etc. — h. Africa. — i>. Eoundish, crackled tears, or angular fragments of tears, with a brittle, vitreous, sometimes iridescent fracture; trans- parent and nearly colorless in small tears that are not crackled or in thin fragments, but more or less opaque from numerous minute fissures in the larger tears; varying in color from nearly colorless in the best varieties to yellowish or brownish in inferior NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 581 grades ; odorless ; taste mucilaginous and insipid. — C. About 14% water; arabic acid combined with calcium, magnesium and potassium, sugar, etc. Acacia is soluble in water and forms a mucilage with it. — u. Demulcent ; used for emulsifying and in the arts. Poorer varieties of acacia are darker-colored, al- most brown, but all varieties yield a perfectly white powder. The faintest sourish odor, when moist breath is blown over it, indicates an inferior gum. Tragacantiia. w. Tragacanth. — o. Exudes spontaneously and from incisions in the stem of Astragalus gummifer and other varieties of Astragalus; Leguminosce. 582 NOTBS ON PHARMACOGNOSY. — H. Western Asia. — i>. Flake Tragacanth: In bands or flakes of various sizes and widths, more or less wavy, carved and contorted, marked with par- allel lines, white or yellowish-white, translucent, horny, tough; odorless and insipid. — c. Consists mainly of bassorin, and a compound of gummic acid with calcium that is not identical with that found in Acacia. About one-half of this gum (the bassorin) is insoluble in water, merely swelling into a gelatinous mass or paste. — u. Demulcent; used to make pill- masses, pastes, etc. Tragacanth in sorts consists of irregular, more or less dirty fragments or small tears, often mixed with foreign material, peach or cherry gum, etc. GROUP LXXIX. GUM-RESINS. The fluids from which these drugs are formed, exist in the plants as emulsions (milky juices, latex) either in intercellular spaces or spurious ducts, or in true ducts having their own walls. They consist of a resinous constituent, soluble in alcohol but not in water, and a mucilaginous substance (gum) soluble in water but not in alcohol; in the plant these con- stituents are mixed with water, as emulsions. Usually they also contain a little, fixed oil, some in- organic substances, etc. After they have once been dried, as in the drugs, it is not always possible to re- make the emulsion by mere addition of water and trituration, implying therefore that some chemical changes have or may have taken place during the drying of the latex from which they were formed. Some authors (Berg and Maisch,for example) have grouped gum-resins according to whether they con- tain small quantities of volatile oil or not, but the amount of this constituent is not sufficiently large in any of them to be of much importance. Gamboge, NCTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 583 scammony and euphorbium contain no volatile oil ; the others contain from mere traces to a few per cent of it, according to the age of the drug, losing this constituent in the course of time, unless kept in tight containers, and even then it will gradually become less. Deep reddish or orange-yellow cylin- drical solid or hollow pieces, or cakes; bright lemon-yellow when wetted Cambogia. Greenish-black or dark-grayish, more or less porous masses. Scammoiiinm. Irregularly roundish tears, often hol- low or enclosing spines or fruit parts; yellowish or yellowish-brown. Euphorbium. Brownish, slightly sticky mass; con- taining whitish tears imbedded in a pinkish-brown substance; very fetid odor Asaf oetida. In separate tears, or masses, dirty white to pale-brown externally, with bluish-white opalescent fracture; peculiar odor and bitter taste Ammoniacum. Tears or masses, friable, reddish- brown, with fatty or waxy f racture . Diyrrba. Yellowish translucent tears, generally rough and powdery on the outer sur- face from attrition Olibamun. Small, whitish to yellowish-brown translucent tears, with peculiar odor and acrid bitter taste Gaibannm. Cambogia. jr. Gamboge, Gummi Gutti. — ©. A gum-resin ob- tained from Garcinia Hanburii; Guttiferce. — H. Southeastern Asia, in Camboja, Annam and Siam. — D. The milk-juice exudes from incisions and is 584 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. gathered in bamboo joints ; when sufficiently dry the bamboo is split off and the gamboge is in cylindrical, sometimes tubular pieces (pipe gamboge) 2.5 to 5 cm. in diameter, showing longitudinal impressions or lines of the inner surface of the bamboo ; fracture shallow conchoidal, glossy; yields a bright yellow powder and becomes bright lemon-yellow when wetted; no smell, but taste acrid. This is the best variety of gamboge; a somewhat less valuable kind, because more liable to be adulterated, is gamboge in cakes, which, however, corresponds otherwise to the above description. — c. 65 to 80% resin (cambogic acid), about 4% wax, 1 % ash and the remainder gum ; the gum therefore varies inversely as resin is more or less plentiful. — u. Active hydragogue cathartic. Dose : 0.05 to 0.25 gram. Scaiiimoniiuii. N. Scammony. — o. A resinous exudation obtained from the living roots of Convolvulus Scammonia; Convolvulacece. — h. Western Asia. — d. In irregu- lar, angular masses or in circular cakes, externally greenish-black or dark-grayish, darker internally and more or less porous, as if it had been frothy when exuding, breaking with an angular resinous fracture; odor somewhat cheese-like and taste slightly acrid. — C. From 75 to 95% resin, the balance mainly gum. The medicinal value depends on the resin alone, and as the drug is almost always more or less impure or adulterated, only the resin ought to be employed. Scammony sometimes is found containing less than 25% of resin. — u. Hydragogue cathartic. Dose: 0.05 to 0.25 gram. E n pli or bi ii in . N. Euphorbium. — o. A gum-resin obtained by making incisions in the stem of Euphorbium resini- fera; Euphorbiacecz. — H. Morocco. — ». Irregular, NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 585 conical or round tears or drops, about the size of a pea to the size of a hazelnut, brittle, yellowish or yellowish-brown, internally lighter-colored, opaque or slightly translucent ; nearly odorless, taste very acrid. The powder is a violent sternutatory. — C. About 38% resin, 22% euphorbon, 18% gum, etc. — U. A drastic emetico-cathartic, but not used inter- nally. The acrid resin renders plasters made from euphorbium rubefacient and vesicant. Asafoetida. N. Asafetida. — o. A gum-resin obtained from the living root of Ferula foetida (Narthex Asafoetida) ; Umbelliferce. Probably also from other varieties of Ferula. — h. Persia, Thibet and other countries on the Arabian Sea. — ». The finest asafetida is in ir- regular firm masses, neither hard and dry, nor soft and sticky ; externally yellowish-gray to brownish- gray, internally milk-white when first broken but changing gradually to yellow, pink, purplish-red or brown, and showing tears imbedded in the mass, the tears undergoing the color changes slower than the mass in which they are imbedded; should be free from admixture of bark and other foreign impurities ; odor very disagreeably fetid (wherefore it is called Teufelsdreck in German), and taste bitter. — c. From 3 to 9% volatile oil, 20 to 30% of gum, and 50 to 70% of resin; when triturated w r ith water it yields a white emulsion. — u. Nervine, antispasmodic and carminative; an ingredient of most table sauces. Dose: 0.2 to 1 gram. Asafetida in tears is best, but scarce. Asafetida in masses is most plentiful, the better kind often con- sisting mainly of whitish tears, imbedded in or ag- glutinated by a comparatively small amount of the somewhat softer pinkish-brown substance. This is the kind described above. Dry, hard, dark-brown, dirty or sticky asafetida, 586 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. as well as one which shows a brown color in the fresh fracture, should be rejected. Ammoniacu m . N. Ammoniac. — o. A spontaneous exudation from the stem and root of Dorema Ammoniacum ; Urn- belliferce. — h. Persia and Turkestan. — ». In round- ish or irregularly globular tears, from 2 to 6 mm. or more in diameter, sometimes agglutinated into small masses, pale yellowish-brown externally, breaking with a conchoidal fracture, and on being freshly broken bluish-milkwhite and opalescent within; hard at ordinary temperature, but softening by the warmth of the hand ; odor peculiar, balsamic, and taste bitter, nauseous and acrid. — c. From 4 to 4% volatile oil, 60 to 70% resin, about 20% gum, etc. When triturated with water it yields a white emul- sion. — u. Antispasmodic and blennorrhetic, resem- bling asafetida in action. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. Ammoniac deteriorates with age, and dark-colored gum-resin with but a faint odor should be rejected. Cake ammoniac is a variety of ammoniac that ex- udes spontaneously (or from the stings of insects) from the roots of the plant, and usually contains vegetable impurities, sand, earth, and tears of am- moniac, agglutinated into a brown mass ; it should not be used for medicinal purposes. Myrrha. N. Myrrh. — o. A gum-resin obtained by spon- taneous exudation from the bark of Commiphora {Balsamodendron) Myrrha; Burseracece. — h. East- ern Africa and Southwestern Arabia. — ». Eoundish translucent, friable, reddish-brown tears or irregular masses, rough and powdery on the outer surface (from attrition) with waxy or fatty fracture, some- times marked with whitish veins ; balsamic odor and bitter, acrid taste. — c. 2 to 4% volatile oil, 25 to 40% resin and 40 to 60% gum, etc. When triturated with water, myrrh yields a brownish-yellow emulsion. XOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 587 — U. Tonic, blennorrhetic, expectorant and emmena- gogue. Dose : 0.25 to 2 grams. Clean, semitransparent pieces ought always to be selected for medicinal use, and dark, opaque pieces should be rejected. Olibanum. If. Olibanum, Incense, Frankincense. — o. An ex- udation from the bark of Boswellia Carterii and other varieties of Boswellia; Terebinthacece. — h. Eastern Africa and Arabia. — ». Round or oblong tears of various sizes, but generally averaging about 15 mm. in length, covered with a whitish dust formed by the attrition of the pieces, hard, brittle, with waxy fracture, pale reddish-yellow, translucent; when masticated it softens and forms a whitish emulsion with the saliva; odor balsamic and taste bitterish. — C. 4 to 7% volatile oil, 50 to 70% resin, 30 to 40% gum, etc. — u. Stimulant blennorrhetic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. Mainly used in plasters, fumigating pas- tilles, or in incense for church use, Galbanum. N. Galbanum. — o. A gum-resin -which exudes spontaneously from the lower part of the stem of Ferula galbaniflua, and probably other varieties of Ferula; Umbelliferce. — h. Persia. — d. In separate tears from the size of a pin's head to that of a pea, but more commonly more or less agglutinated into lumps ; light yellowish to greenish-brown externally, internally paler in color, but rarely whitish ; softens from the warmth of the hand ; odor very peculiar, strong, balsamic, and taste bitter and acrid. — c. 6 to 9% volatile oil, 60 to 65% resin, 15 to 20% gum, etc. When triturated with water it yields a whitish emulsion. — u. Stimulant blennorrhetic. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. Mainly used externally in plasters ; irritant and suppurative. 588 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. GROUP LXXX. RESINS. Authors are not agreed on the proper methods of grouping resins, oleo-resins and balsams, or in their definitions of what these substances are. For in- stance, what we shall call oleo-resins are called "balsams" by Berg; substances which we shall call "balsams" are included in "resins" by Berg and Maisch ; we will therefore define what we mean by these several groups in the introductory description of each group, but must consider the general facts now, so that we may understand the relation of these various substances to each other. It is probable that in the vast majority of all plants a substance is formed which is of the nature of what is generally called a "volatile oil" ; 'while this name is not strictly correct or scientific, none of the terms suggested as substitutes for it have ever met with popular acceptance. Volatile oils are odorous vola- tile liquids, which cause greasy stains upon paper, re- sembling those produced by fixed oils, but differing from the latter by disappearing when the stained paper is heated. They are freely soluble in or mis- cible with alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzin, benzol, fixed oils and bisulphide of carbon, but only to a very limited extent in water. Most of them exist ready formed in the plants, but some few, as oil of mustard and oil of bitter almond, are produced by peculiar fermentative processes of certain plant-elements in presence of water. Volatile oils are usually obtained from their plant sources by distillation, but sometimes, as in the case of orange and lemon oils, by mechanical methods. These oils may undergo a peculiar change, termed resinification, either while still in the plant-cells, liv- ing or dead, or after they have been separated, in their containers. The resin which is formed during NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 589 this change (oxidation) may remain in solution in the unchanged volatile oil, when the mixture of the two constitutes an oleo-resin; this fluid solution of resin in volatile oil may be obtained by making in- cisions, etc., in the plant, and may come into trade as oleo-resin (also called "terebinthina" or "turpen- tine") as in the case of copaiba or Canada turpen- tine ; or it may exude spontaneously and the volatile oil may then evaporate, leaving the resin alone as a solid exudation on the outer surface of the stem or other part of the plant ; or the resin may be deposited in the cells of the plant (often in special cells or containers, which are termed "resin-ducts", "resin-cells", etc.), in which case they may be ob- tained for trade by heating the wood or other plant-part which contains the resin, or by dissolving out with some solvent and then evaporating the sol- vent ; or by precipitating the solution of resin in alco- hol or other solvent by pouring into water, decanting after settling and recovering the solvent by distilla- tion from the water. The oleo-resin existing in the plant may also con- tain benzoic, cinnamic or similar aromatic acids, and whether gathered in the liquid form, as an oleo-resin containing these balsamic acids, or as resins with the volatile oil evaporated, the result is a "balsam" ; the characteristic which makes it a balsam being the presence of the balsamic acid or acids, not the pres- ence or absence of the volatile oil. To come now to the consideration of this group, the resins. Resins are solid substances, fusible at a com- paratively low heat, decomposable at a high heat, combustible, burning with a sooty flame, insoluble in water, soluble in the same solvents as volatile oils, while some are also soluble (saponifiable) in alkaline liquids and ammonia. The latter kind of resins act chemically as acids and are termed resin-acids. Most resins consist of a 590 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. mixture of resins which can be separated and which have different chemical properties ; in such cases they are distinguished by prefixing Greek names of letters, thus "alpha-resin' 7 , "beta-resin", etc., those having the most active behavior as acids being designated by the first letters. Some of the commercial resins retain insignificant quantities of volatile oil, or contain traces of a bal- samic acid, as occasionally in dragon's blood, but not enough of either constituent to make them either oleo-resins or balsams. The following resins exude from plants, either spontaneously or in consequence of incisions, punc- tures by insects or other injuries : Mastic, sandarac, dammar, copal, dragon's blood, and occasionally guaiac resin ; lac is a mixture of exuded resin and im- bedded insects ; amber is a fossil resin ; rosin is a residue from the destination of a volatile oil from an oleo-resin; and guaiac resin is often prepared by melt- ing the resin from the heart-wood by fire. Only a few of these drugs are of any importance as medi- cinal agents ; most of them are only used in the arts, for making varnishes, etc. Roundish, pale yellowish, trans- parent, brittle tears; becoming plastic when chewed Masticbe. Elongated, pale yellowish, trans- parent tears; crumbling when chewed Sandaraca. Roundish, yellowish or strawcol- ored transparent masses ; harder than rosin Dammara. Irregular spherical or angular, yel- lowish to brownish pieces ; trans- parent ; hard Copal. Brittle, dark-reddish-brown, opaque lumps. Resina Draconis. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 591 Brittle, dark-reddish-brown sticks ; often wrapped in palm leaves. . . .Resina Draeonis. Irregular brittle masses, or large tears; greenish- brown to reddish- brown Guaiaci Resina. Small twigs surrounded by a brown- red resinous substance * . . Lacca. Thin, brittle, brown or reddish- brown scales Lacca Roundish or flat, pale yellowish to brownish-red pieces; dull exte- rior, glossy transparent within . . Snccmmn. Yellowish or brownish, transpar- ent, brittle masses Resina. Mastictae. N. Mastic. — o. A concrete resinous exudation, ob- tained by incisions in the stem of the male plant of Pistacia Lentiscus; Anacardiecz \ — h. Greek archi- pelago, Island of Ohio, and other Mediterranean countries. — ». Globular or elongated tears, about the size of peas, covered with a whitish dust (from attri- tion), pale yellowish, transparent, with vitreous fracture; brittle, but becomes plastic when chewed (differentiation from sandarac) ; balsamic odor, espe- cially when warmed, and a mild terebinthinate taste. — c. Trace of volatile oil, 80 to 90% alpha-resin, solu- ble in cold alcohol, 10% soft, sticky beta-resin, in- soluble in cold alcohol ; mastic is completely soluble in ether, but only partially soluble in alcohol. — U. Mild stimulant, but used almost exclusively for filling teeth, making varnishes, etc. Mastic in sorts consists of tears that are gathered from the ground after having dropped from the stem of the tree ; it is a mixture of tears, often agglutinated and mixed with bits of bark, sand, earth, etc. Mastic is sometimes adulterated with sandarac ; the tears of the latter are of about the same appearance. 592 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. but more elongated, and they crumble when chewed. Sandaraca. N. Sandarac. — o. A spontaneous, concrete, resin- ous exudation from the stems and branches of Callitris quadrivalvis; Coniferce. — m. North-west- ern Africa (the whole of Barbaiy). — ». Elongated, hard, brittle tears, about 5 to 15 mm. long, covered with a whitish dust (from attrition), pale yellowish, transparent, with vitreous fracture ; crumbles when chewed (differentiation from mastic); odor and taste slightly terebinthinate and balsamic. — c. Three resins, differing in solubility ; soluble in ether and hot alcohol, partly soluble in volatile oils and chloro- form. — u. Mainly for fine varnishes. Dammara. jsi. Dammar. — ©. and H. A spontaneous concrete exudation from Agathis Dammara, a tree of the East Indian islands, and Agathis aus traits, a tree of New Zealand ; Coniferce. — ». Transparent colorless to straw-colored roundish masses, with vitreous con- choidal fracture; softer than copal, but considerably harder than rosin; nearly odorless and tasteless. "Kauri gum", the New Zealand variety of dammar, is often in large lumps; it also often has a faint green- ish tint. — c. Several resins, of which one constitut- ing about 60% of the drug is soluble in alcohol. — U. Used exclusively for making varnishes. Copal. N. Copal. — o. A spontaneous, concrete resinous exudation from several varieties of Trachylobium, Hymencea and Guibourtia; Leguminosce. — H. Africa, West Indies and South America. — 1>. Irregular, spherical, flat or angular pieces, almost as hard as amber, transparent or translucent, varying from al- most colorless or pale yellowish, to yellowish-brown and reddish-brown ; with vitreous conchoidal frac- ture; becomes changed or decomposed by melting; NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 593 odorless and tasteless. — ©. Several resins of different solubilities, but all not readily soluble in cold alcohol or oil of turpentine. — u. For making varnishes. Some authors state that copal is also found in a fossil state ; Maisch, for instance, says this of both copal and Kauri gum, or New Zealand dammar, which latter resin is occasionally sold as copal. Berg, how- ever, gives very weighty reasons for doubting that copal ever occurs as a fossil substance. Resin a Draconis. N. Sanguis Draconis, Dragon's Blood. — o. A spon- taneous resinous exudation from the fruits of Calamus (Dczmonorofis) Draco; Palmecz. — h. Borneo, Suma- tra, and other East Indian islands. — d. Occurs in the drug-trade usually in dark, brownish-red, opaque sticks, about 1.5 cm. thick and up to 30 cm. long, wrapped in palm-leaf and tied with thin strips of cane, or fibers of bast; the fracture is dull, irregular, and somewhat brighter colored than the external sur- face. It also occurs in cakes, or irregular lumps, of the same general appearance as that in sticks, but apt to be mixed with impurities. The best variety is in tears, varying in size from that of a pea to that of a hazelnut, or even up to that of a walnut; usually cov- ered with a red dust (from attrition), and gives a deep- red mark on paper. This variety is not often met with. Odorless and nearly tasteless. — c. About 90% of a red acid resin, 2% fatty matter, 5% mineral sub- stances, etc., with occasionally traces of benzoic or cinnamic acid (?); it is almost completely soluble in alcohol, chloroform, benzol and alkalies. — u. Mild stimulant, occasionally used in plasters. Mainly used for making varnishes and lacquers. Similar substances were formerly obtained from Draccena Draco in the Canary islands; from Ptero- carpus Draco in the West Indies ; Draccena schiz- antha, in the island of Socotra; from Croton Draco in 594 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Mexico, and from other sources, but only the above described article from the East Indian islands is now to be found in the trade. Gtiaiaci Resina. N. Guaiac Resin. — o. A concrete resinous exuda- tion, obtained spontaneously or by making incisions in the bark of the stem of Guaiacum officinale; Zygophyllacecz. Or the resin is melted out of the heartwood of this plant by means of fire, or by boil- ing shavings of the wood in salt brine and skimming off the resin as it rises to the surface. — h. West Indies and Northern parts of South America. — ». 1. In roundish or ovate tears, 1 to 2.5 cm. in diameter, covered externally with a greenish dust (from attri- tion), internally transparent, greenish or reddish- brown, breaking with a glossy conchoidal fracture; softens by the heat of the hand, but becomes tough when chewed; odor feebly aromatic, reminding of vanilla, taste somewhat acrid. 2. In irregular brittle masses, formed by the agglutination of smaller lumps or tears, also generally with a greenish dust on the outer surface, with a vitreous fracture, but trans- parent only at the edges or in thin pieces or splinters; otherwise with the characteristics of guaiac resin in tears. — c. About 15 to 30% impurities, consisting of fragments of bark, etc. ; about 80% resin, consisting of a small quantity of guaiacic acid and several resins (alpha-resin, beta-resin, etc.) ; guaiacol, and other constituents. Soluble in alkalies, alcohol, acetone, ether and chloroform; the alcoholic solution is col- ored blue on the addition of oxidizing agents, ozone, ferric chloride, chlorine, chromic acid, etc. — u. Diaphoretic, diuretic, alterative, stimulant. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram three times a day. Lacca. N. Lac, Shellac. — o. A peculiar resinous substance, consisting of resins exuded from various plants in NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 595 consequence of the slings from the female insects oi Coccus Lacca; Hemiptera. As the resins exude they are formed into cell-like structures, mixed with cer- tain excretions and coloring matters from the insects which live in these cells. The best and most highly colored lacs inclose the dead insects. The plant from which lac is mainly produced is Aleurites lacci- fera {Euphorbiacecz), but also from other trees be- longing to the Urticacece. — h. East India and East Indian islands. — i>. Lac occurs in the trade in sev- eral forms, so that the different varieties must be separately described. 1. Stick-lac. The original form in which the drug is obtained. After the exudation has been formed as above described, the small branches die; the female insects also die after each having deposited 20 to 30 ova in its cell ; the encrusted twigs are gathered before the eggs have developed into insects, as in the latter case the young insects consume the red sub- stance of the dead mother insects, thus decreasing the value of the lac. Stick-lac consists of these twigs surrounded by the reddish-brown resinous exudation. 2. Seed-lac. In irregular grains and fragments, consisting of the lac as above described, but sep- arated from the twigs. "8. Lump-lac. Stick-lac melted into lumps, after having been deprived of its coloring matter. 4. Shellac. Same as the last except that the lac is poured out, while melted, on large leaves, quickly covered with another leaf and pressed into thin shell- like tablets or scales. This is the variety that is mainly used by druggists. Thin, glossy, transparent or translucent yellowish to dark-brown fragments or scales; brittle and pulverizable; odorless and tasteless. €. Coloring matter (lac dye) about 4% ; about 50% alpha-resin, soluble in alcohol and ether, brown, and melting readily; beta-resin, soluble in alcohol but not in ether, hard; gamma-resin, melting readily, 596 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. crystallizable, uniting readily with bases; delta-resin, soft, readily fusible, very soluble in alkalies, alcohol and ether ; and epsilon-resin, insoluble in cold alco- hol, ether and alkalies, softens in boiling water, but melts only at higher temperatures and is decomposed thereby. The enumeration of these resins is made to illustrate the method of using the Greek letter-names and not because these 5 resins are of any special im- portance. — u. Lac is used as a dye; the resin, ex- hausted of its coloring matters, is used for sealing wax, varnishes, etc. Sncciimm. X. Amber (the ancient "electron")- — o. A fossil exudation from extinct varieties of coniferous trees, especially from Pinites succinifer (Picea succinifera) ; Conifercz. — h. It is found in soft-coal beds in Prus- sia, but has been found in other European countries : Sweden, England, Holland, Germany, Poland, France, Italy and Spain ; also in Asia, in Siberia, and in North America and Greenland. The important commercial source, however, is probably a coal- formation under the Baltic Sea, as the amber is found washed up by the waves on the southern coast of this sea, especially after storms ; it is also dug out of the sands of the beach, where it has accumulated in the course of ages. — ». Eoundish or flat pieces, the out- side usually worn and dull but capable of receiving a high polish, hard, brittle, with a vitreous conchoidai fracture, colorless or pale yellow ("amber-colored") to reddish-brown, and varying from brilliant trans- parency through all grades of translucency to opac- ity ; inodorous and tasteless, but gives off fragrant vapors when heated. — c. Succinic acid, traces of volatile oil and several resins. The "oil of amber" used in pharmacy is not a constituent of amber, but is a product of the destructive distillation of this drug. — u. Mainly used in the arts; the waste chips and raspings resulting from the making of NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 597 . beads, jewelry, ornaments, mouth pieces for pipes, etc., and the inferior opaqae and dirty pieces are used for fumigation, for making succinic acid and oil of amber, and for making varnishes. Resina. N. Resina Pint, Resin, Rosin, Colophony. — © Obtained as a residue in the distillation of oil of tur- pentine from the oleo-resinous exudation which is obtained by incisions in the stems of Pinus palustris and other varieties of Pinus; Coniferce. — h. United States. In Europe a similar substance is obtained from various pine, larch and spruce trees. — ». After oil of turpentine has been obtained from common turpentine, the residue which remains in the still is rosin ; this, while still hot, is drawn off into rough barrels, where it hardens. For use it is broken into fragments, by chopping off the staves of the barrel and breaking up the mass within. It then forms brittle, amber-colored transparent masses, angular, with conchoidal resinous or vitreous fracture ; it melts readily ; odor and taste slightly terebinthinate. — C The anhydrid of abietic acid, converted into abietic acid by dilute alcohol ; resin is soluble in alcohol, ether, volatile oils, fixed oils and fats, chloroform, benzol, glacial acetic acid and alkalies. — u. Mild stimulant, used in ointments and plasters; also in making soaps, wagon or axle grease, etc. The lightest-colored and most transparent rosin is most highly esteemed, and darker-colored and less clear rosin is considered inferior. GROUP LXXXI. OLEO-RESIXS. For a description of. the nature of the drugs of this group see the introductory remarks for Group 80. Oleo-resins vary from fluids to soft or plastic solids. The word "balsam" is sometimes, but erroneously, 598 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. we think, applied to oleo-resins; its use should be confined to oleo-resins or resins containing balsamic acids. Transparent, more or less viscid liquid ; yellowish-brown ; peculiar odor and bitter acrid taste Copaiba. Tough, plastic, nearly solid yellow- ish mass; terebinthinate odor and taste Terebinthina. Soft yellowish mass, granular with- in; odor fennel-like and taste terebinthinate Eiemi. Thick viscid, clear, transparent, pale-yellowish liquid ; odor tere- binthinate Terebinthina Canadensis. Thick viscid liquid, similar to last, but turbid Terebinthina Ten eta. Yellowish-brown opaque mass; plastic by warmth of hand, brit- tle when cold; conchoidal trans- lucent fracture Pix Bnrgnndiea. Dark reddish-brown opaque mass ; brittle when cold ; fracture resin- ous, translucent, conchoidal Pix Canadensis. Thick, sticky, viscid, blackish- brown liquid ; empyreumatic tere- binthinate odor Pix IJqnida. Copaiba. N. Copaiva; often, but erroneously, called Balsam Copaiva. — o. An oleoresin obtained by incising or boring into the stems of Copaifera Langsdorffii and other varieties of Copaifera; Leguminoscs. — h. Brazil, and along the Orinoco river in Venezuela and Northern part of South America. — i>. A transparent or translucent, more or less viscid liquid ; yellowish to yellowish-brown color; peculiar aromatic odor and NCTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 599 bitter acrid taste. — c. About 45 to 55% volatile oil, but sometimes much more, sometimes less; about 50% hard alpha-resin, the proportion varying in- versely as the amount of volatile oil varies; about 1J% sticky beta-resin, etc. Copaiva is soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzin, volatile and fixed oil, etc. ; remains transparent when shaken with one- third of its volume of ammonia water, and it solidifies with about one-sixteenth of its weight of magnesia. — U. Stimulant blennorrhetic, diuretic, diaphoretic and expectorant. Dose : 0.5 to 3 or 4 grams. Para Copaiva is best; light-colored, transparent, and contains from 50 to 90% volatile oil. Maracaiba Copaiva is darker-colored, sometimes turbid, contains from 25 to 50% volatile oil, and solidifies more readily with magnesia. Terebinthina. N. Turpentine. — o. An oleo-resinous exudation from the stems of Pinus palustris and other varieties of Pinus; Coniferce. It exudes spontaneously but is mostly collected in hollows or boxes cut into the sap- wood of the tree. — h. United States. In Europe a similar substance is obtained from various pine, larch and spruce trees. — d. Rarely comes into trade as the liquid which it is when it exudes from the trees; as found in the trade some of the volatile oil has been lost or has resinified, and turpentine then is in a yellowish plastic opaque mass; becomes solid in the cold so that it can be broken with a granular fracture, as if it contained small quantities of water; odor peculiar (gives rise to the terni"terebinthinate") and taste bitter and acrid. — c. 20 to 30% volatile oil, which, when separated by distillation constitutes the oil of turpentine or "spirits turpentine" of trade; the anhydrid of abietic acid, other resins, traces of succinic acid, etc. See also Resina> group 80. — U, Not employed internally, but only in plasters, etc. 600 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Elemi. W. Elemi. — o. The source of this drug, as it now occurs in trade, is not positively known, but it is probably derived from Canarium commune (Burser- acece), from the stem of which it is derived by making incisions. — ». A yellowish, resinous mass resem- bling solidified granular honey in consistence ; when old it becomes harder, and even friable ; odor strong, suggesting a mixture of oil of turpentine, oil of fennel and oil of lemon, and the taste is pungent and bitter. — c. About 10% volatile oil, 60% amorphous resin, 25% crystallizable resin, etc. — u. Stimulant, irritant. Used only in plasters. Terebinlhiiia Canadensis. N. Canada Turpentine, Canada Balsam, Balsam of Fir. — o. Obtained by puncturing the vesicles which form on the bark of Abies balsamea; Conifercz. — H. Canada and Northern United States. — d. A per- fectly clear transparent liquid, of about the consist- ence of honey, viscid, pale-yellowish with sometimes a faint greenish tint ; odor pleasantly terebinthinate and taste bitterish acrid. — c. About 25 to 30% vola- tile oil, the balance being mainly resin, or several resins. When exposed to air, the oil gradually dis- appears, leaving a hard and perfectly clear mass; soluble in ether, chloroform and benzol, and partly soluble in alcohol. — u. Medicinally it is seldom used, although it is a stimulant blennorrhetic. It is mainly employed in making fine photographic var- nishes, for mounting microscopic preparations, etc. A very similar turpentine is obtained from Abies Menziesii, which is called Oreg-on Balsam of Fir. It resembles Canada turpentine, but becomes opaque and granular with age. I have made hundreds of lantern slides, which were painted with transparent oil paints and then sealed with solidified Canada tur- pentine. Most of these are beautifully clear, al- though some of them were made more than thirty NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 601 years ago. But quite a number made in exactly the same way, and sealed with the resin obtained from a certain lot of balsam, have gradually become opaque from the formation of stellate clusters of crystals, and it is possible that they were sealed with Oregon bal- sam of fir. I regret that I cannot tell how to distin- guish this from the true Canada turpentine, as such knowledge would save many slides and microscopic preparations from being ruined. Reliable wholesale houses can probably give assurance on this point by knowing from which region they have obtained the article. Venice Turpentine is also similar to Canada tur- pentine, but is always slightly turbid. It is obtained by boring holes in the stem of Larix Etiropcza (Coni- fercz); these holes are closed with plugs, and every few days the accumulated oleo-resin is drawn off into bottles. It is darker-colored, usually with a pro- nounced greenish tint, and always less transparent than Canada turpentine. Pix Burg-uiHliea. N. Burgundy Pitch. — o. A purified oleo-resin, ob- tained from the oleo-resin of Picea {Abies) excelsa and Pinus pinaster {Pinus Abies), both belonging to the natural order Coniferce; the oleo-resin exudes spontaneously and after being gathered is melted, water being occasionally added ; it is then strained, and the process of repeatedly melting with added water and straining, finally removes all impurities and nearly all of the volatile oil, so that Burgundy pitch is almost reduced to mere resin ; in fact, Berg enumerates it among the group of resins. — h. In mountainous regions in Southern Europe. — i>. Dull yellowish or reddish-brown, opaque or slightly trans- lucent mass; hard, friable, breaking with a vitreous conchoidal fracture, even brittle when cold and yet plastic enough to gradually run together into one mass and to acquire the shape of the vessel in which 602 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. it is kept, and to assume a level surface as a liquid would ; aromatic odor, taste terebinthinate but not bitter. — c. Volatile oil in varying proportions, water, and resin. — u. Stimulant, irritant; used only in plasters. Pix Canadensis, or Canada Pitch, Hemlock Pitch, sometimes erroneously called Hemlock Gum, is ob- tained from the bark of aged and decaying trees of Tsuga {Abies or Finns') Canadensis; Coniferce. The bark is stripped off the trees, broken in small pieces and boiled in water, the adherent oleo-resin rises to the top and is skimmed off, purified by a second boiling in water, again strained and allowed to separate from the water and harden. It is hard, brittle, yet quite plastic, dark reddish- brown, almost odorless and tasteless, and is used precisely like Bur- gundy pitch. Pix Liqnida. N. Tar, Pine Tar (as distinguished from coal-tar). — O. An empyreumatic oleo-resin obtained by de- structive distillation from the wood of different varieties of Finns; Coniferce. — h. United States. Similar products are also prepared in Europe, but the native article supplies our trade. — ». A thick, viscid, sticky, blackish-brown liquid, opaque in bulk, trans- parent in thin layers; becomes thicker, granular and more opaque; odor strongly empyreumatic and tere- binthinate, taste acrid empyreumatic and bitter- ish. — c. The composition is variable. Tar contains a volatile oil, crude acetic (pyroligneous) acid, pyro- catechin, acetone, phenols, creosote, etc. Tar is in- soluble in water, but imparts to it a small proportion of its constituents ; it sinks in water. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, volatile oils, fixed oils and fats, and in solutions of potassa and soda. — u. Stimulant blennorrhetic in doses of 0.03 to 1 gram ; externally in ointments, plasters, etc., when it acts as an irritant and parasiticide. NCTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 603 North Carolina and Swedish tars are esteemed as best. Birch tar is a similar substance, made from the wood of Be tula alba; Cupuliferce. It contains a large proportion of pyrocatechin, and is esteemed on ac- count of its pecular odor which is well known as the odor of Eussia leather. Beectj tar is made from the wood of Fagus Syl- vatica {Cupuliferce) and is generally considered as the best source for obtaining creasote for internal use. Juniper tar, oil of cade or Oleum Cadinum, is de- rived from the wood of Juniperus oxycedras; Coni- fercz. It is more liquid than pine tar and has a some- what different odor. GROUP LXXXII. BALSAMS. As already explained in the introductory remarks to group 80, balsams are either resins or oleo-resins in combination with balsamic acids — with either one or more of benzoic, cinnamic or other analogous acids, for instance. It is true that this is not the uni- versally accepted definition for "balsam", and that the word balsam is used by some authors, Maisch, for instance, for oleo-resins with balsamic acids and by Berg for oleo-resins with and without balsamic acids (thus making the w T ord synonymous with oleo- resin), and in both cases making the presence of the volatile oil the characteristic of a balsam. If it is de- sirable to distinguish between oleo-resin and balsam, as Maisch does, and if the presence or absence of aromatic or balsamic acids is made the basis of such differentiation, then every argument would apply equally as strongly in favor of differentiating between resins with and resins without balsamic acids ; and if the presence of these acids in oleo-resins is held to constitute the characteristics of "balsams", then the 604 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. presence of the acids is the important feature and not the presence of the oil, and therefore a resin contain- ing these acids should be called a balsam also. This is done in the classification used in these notes. No important practical gain is achieved by making dis- tinction between the two kinds of balsam, and we therefore make none. A solid brown mass with whitish tears imbedded in it; strong bal- samic odor Benzoimim. Nearly solid yellowish-brown sub- stance of uniform consistence; strong balsamic odor Balsamum Tolutannm. A thick, syrupy, brownish-black liquid; somewhat smoky bal- samic odor . . Balsamum Periiviaiiimi. Thick, viscid, gray, opaque, semi- solid substance; with agreeable balsamic odor Sly rax. Thick, brownis h-y e 1 1 o w, clear liquid, or almost solid substance; Odor balsamic Liquidambar. Benzoimim. N. Benzoin. — o. A resinous balsam obtained by making incisions in the stem of Styrax Benzoin; Styracece. — h. Sumatra, Java and Siam. — i> Lumps or irregular masses of a yellowish-brown resinous substance in which tears are imbedded which are milky-white within ; gives off fumes of benzoic acid when heated; odor agreeably balsamic, taste aro- matic but somewhat acrid. — c. 12 to 20% benzoic acid, about 80% of resins, some cinnamic acid, vanil- lin, etc. Benzoic acid is obtained from benzoin by sublimation, but is also obtained from other sources, and especially from hippuric acid (the urine of horses and cows). — u. Stimulant blennorrhetic, NOTES 'ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 605 expectorant. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Also for tooth- washes, cosmetics, etc.; mainly for making benzoic acid. There are three principal kinds of benzoin: Siam Benzoi?i in tears, consisting of separate tears, about 2.5 cm. in diameter, externally pale red- dish-brown, internally waxy and milk-white ; in small fragments translucent; very agreeable vanilla-like odor. This is the best variety of benzoin. Siam benzoin in masses, composed mainly of tears, as just described, but agglutinated and held in solid masses by a reddish-brown or brick-red resin. Both kinds of Siam benzoin dissolve almost en- tirely in moderately warm alcohol. Sumatra or Penang benzoin is in grayish-brown to chocolate-colored masses, without any distinct tears; odor agreeable but fainter than that of Siam benzoin. It contains about 10% cinnamic acid and correspond- ingly less benzoic acid; also pieces of bark, etc. Balsamnm Tolntaxumi. N. Tolu Balsam, Tolu, Balsam of Tola. — o. A bal- sam which is obtained by makiug deep Y-shaped in- cisions in the bark of Myroxylon toluifera; Legumi- nosce. — h. Venezuela and New Granada. — B. A light-brown, slow-flowing resin, soft enough to yield to the pressure of the finger, but not viscid or sticky ; assumes the shape of the container and attains a levels surface; in cold weather it becomes brittle; odor very agreeably aromatic, taste aromatic, not acrid. — c. About 1% volatile oil (tolene), cinnamic acid (but little benzoic acid), benzoate and cinnamate of benzyl, one resin readily soluble in alcohol and one resin not soluble in alcohol, etc. — u. Mildly ex- pectorant, but only used for flavoring purposes, in syrup, as an ingredient of chewing gums, etc. Balsamnm Pernviannm. N. Balsam of Peru. — o. A balsam, obtained from 606 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Myroxylon Pereira; Leguminosce. It is obtained by first beating the bark of the tree with the back of an axe, leaving strips of sound bark between the parts bruised ; the bruised bark is charred with torches five or six days afterwards and a week or so later it can be readily removed or falls off; the bare wood is then covered with rags which absorb the exuding balsam, and when saturated these rags are taken off, gently boiled in water in which the balsam sinks, then ex- pressed. — ». A liquid having the appearance of sugar-house molasses, brownish-black, in thin layers reddish or orange-brown and transparent; smoky balsamic odor and bitterish acrid taste. — c. About 60% of cinnamein or benzylid cinnamate which is an oily aromatic liquid, about 30% resin, about 6% cin- namic acid, benzoic acid, etc. With age it resinifies, so that the proportion of resin increases, and it darkens in color. Soluble in alcohol and chloroform ; partly soluble and miscible with fixed oils and fats. — C. Sometimes used internally as a stimulant blen- norrhetic in doses of 0.5 to 2 grams. But mainly used as an ingredient of ointments for chilblains, sore nipples, ulcers and itch. Slyrax. N. Storax. — o. A balsam obtained by boiling and pressure from the inner bark of Liquid atnbar orien- talist Hamamelidece. — m. Asia Minor. — i>. Semi- liquid, gray, opaque, viscid substance, from which a heavier dark-brown, transparent stratum separateson standing; odor balsamic, taste balsamic acrid. — c. Styrol, cinnamic acid, styracin and other cinnamic ethers, resin, etc. — u. Stimulant expectorant, blen- norrhetic. Dose : About 1 gram several times a day. Mainly, however, externally, as an ingredient of liniments and ointments. JLiqnidambar is a similar substance, obtained from Liquidambar styraciflua; Hamamelidcz. This tree is found in the United States, Mexico and Central NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. ■ 607 America. Liquidambar, or Sweet Gum, varies from a clear, thick, brownish-yellow fluid to a transparent yellowish-brown resin, which breaks with a resinous fracture when cold; plastic by the warmth of the hand ; odor balsamic, resembling storax, and taste balsamic acrid. — c. About 54% cinnamic acid, resin, aromatic oily substance, etc. — r. Like those of Storax. GROUP LXXXIII. VOLATILE OILS. The nature of volatile oils has been described in the introductory remarks to group 80. It is a ques- tion whether these substances should be considered as drugs and I am inclined to hold, that, with per- haps a very few exceptions they should rather be held to be preparations. It is certain that they cannot be recognized by the ordinary physical characteristics, which enable us to recognize other drugs; nor can the quality be judged by their appearance, as we can do more or less satis- factorily in the case of other drugs. The identity (not the quality or purity) of volatile oils can be recognized from an organoleptic property, the odor, but this cannot be described nor can an idea of it be conveyed by words. To say that oil of coriander has the odor of coriander conveys no idea to one who has not smelled coriander. The tests for purity are partly optical, by observing their behavior on polarized light, some of them rotating the plane of polarization to the right when they are called dextro- gyrate (dextrogyre), while some others rotate the plane of polarization to the left when they are called levo-gyrate (levogyre), while yet others are optically inactive ; other tests are physical, as for instance, their specific gravity ; the color is an organoleptic test, and moreover, is very variable, since nearly all volatile oils are nearly colorless when fresh, while 608 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. many become yellowish, reddish, dark-red to dark- brown and even dark-blue when older. Volatile oils frequently resinify and become thicker as they be- come older. They should therefore be kept in well- closed containers. The main tests for purity, how- ever, are chemical, and volatile oils are therefore treated of at length in works on pharmaceutical chemistry or on pharmacy, and in colleges of phar- macy they are considered by the professor of phar- macy and not by the professor of materia medica and pharmacognosy. For these reasons volatile oils will not be consid- ered at length in these Notes, but the source and uses only will be mentioned in the briefest possible manner. For physical and chemical characteristics the student is referred to Remington's, Coblentz's or Caspari's Pharmacy, or one of the Dispensatories. In all cases where no medicinal uses are stated the oils are mainly employed as perfumes in the manu- facture of perfumery, soaps and cosmetic articles gen- erally, but the same use is also made of many of those which are mentioned as medicinal agents. Probably the only volatile oil that need be men- tioned as a drug, is oil of turpentine. A clear, limpid liquid with tere- binthinate odor Oleum Terebintbinse. Oleum Terebinthinse. N. Oil of Turpentine, Spirits of Turpentine, gener- ally spoken of as "turpentine." — o. Obtained by distillation from the oleoresin of various kinds of Pinus; Coniferce. — h. The South-eastern States of the United States furnish the oil of turpentine used in this country. — ». A clear, limpid, neutral liquid, with a terebinthinate odor and bitterish terebinthin- ate taste. — c. It is the type of the terpenes, or hydro- carbons: C 10 H T6 ; bromine and powdered iodine act violently on it; it ignites on being added to a mix- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 609 ture of sulphuric and nitric acids. — r. Asa stimu- lant blennorrhetic ; it has a peculiar and almost specific action in typhoid fever, in which it is very highly esteemed. Dose: 0.3 to 2 cc. Also used as a vehicle or solvent in paints, varnishes, etc. Oil of Allspice, Oleum Pimentcz; obtained by dis- tillation from the fruit of Eugenia Plmenta; Myr- tacece. Stimulaut, stomachic and carminative. Dose: 0.2 to 0.3 cc. (3 to 5 drops). Oil of Amber, Oleum Succini; obtained by the de- structive distillation of amber, afterwards rectified. Stimulant and antispasmodic. Dose : 0.3 to 0.5 cc. (5 to 10 drops). Oil of Anise, Oleum A nisi; obtained by distilla- tion from the fruits of Pimpinella Anisum; Umbelli- fercz. Stimulant, carminative. Dose : 0.3 to 0.5 cc. (5 to 10 drops). Oil of Bay, Oil of Myrcia, Oleum Myrcicz; a vola- tile oil distilled from the leaves of Myrcia acris; Myrtacecz. Used in making bay rum. Oil of Bergamot, Oleum Bergamotlae; obtained by expression from the rind of the fresh fruit of Citrus Bergamia; Rutacece {Aurantiacecz). Used as a perfume. Oil of Bitter Almond, Oleum Amygdalcz Amarcz; produced by distillation from bitter almonds macer- ated with water, the oil being formed by the re- action of water on amygdalin by the intervention of emulsin; amygdalin and emulsin are constituents of the seeds of Prunus Amygdalus; Rosacecz. Acts as a powerful depressant, like hydrocyanic acid. Dose : % of a drop, cautiously increased until an effect is noticed. Also used as a flavor in weak dilutions. See, also, oil of mirbane. Oil of Cajnpnt, Oil of Cajeput, Oleum Cajuputi; dis- tilled from the leaves of Melaleuca Leucadendron; Myrtacecz. Stimulant, carminative ; in colic ; exter- 610 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. nally in rheumatism, etc. Dose : 0.3 to 1 cc. (5 to 20 drops). Oil of Caraway, Oleum Cart; distilled from the fruits of Carum Carui; Umbelliferce. As a flavor, and as a stimulant carminative; prevents griping. Dose : 0.05 to 0.5 (1 to 8 drops). Oil of Cardamom, Oleum Cardamomi; distilled from the seeds of Elettaria repens; Scitaminece. Used as a flavor. Oil of Cassia, Oleum Cinnamomi; a volatile oil dis- tilled from the bark of Cinnamomum Cassia, derived from undetermined species of Cinnamomum; Lau- rinecz. Carminative; in colic, etc. Dose: 0.05 to 0.3 cc. (1 to 5 drops). Oil of Ceylon Cinnamon is similar, but not often used. Oil of Citron eiia, Oleum Andropogonis Nardi; ob- tained by distillation from Andropogon Nardus; Graminece. Used as a perfume. Oil of Cloves, Oleum Caryophylli; obtained by dis- tillation from the unopened flowers of Eugenia aro- matica; Myrtacecz. Stimulant, aromatic and carmin- ative ; also local narcotic in toothache from carious teeth. Dose : 0.05 to 0.3 cc. (1 to 5 drops). Oil of Copaiba, Oleum Copaibae; obtained by dis- tillation from Copaiba, Stimulant and alterative, blennorrhetic and anti-gonorrhceic. Dose: 0.05 to 0.75 cc. (1 to 12 drops). Oil of Coriander, Oleum Coriandri; obtained by distillation from the fruit of Coriandrum sativum; Umbelliferce, Carminative, but used mainly as a delicate and agreeable flavoring agent in elixirs, etc. Oil of Cnbeb, Oleum Cubebce; distilled from the un- ripe fruit of Piper Cubeba; Piperacecz. Stimulant, blennorrhetic and anti-gonorrhceic. Dose: 0.5 cc. (about 8 drops), gradually increased as necessary. NCTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 611 Oil of Bill, Oleum Anethi; distilled from the fruit of Anethum graveolens; Umbelliferce. Carminative. Dose : 0.05 to 0.25 cc. (1 to 4 drops). Oil of Eucalyptus, Oleum Eucalypti; obtained by distillation from the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus; Myrtacece. Antispasmodic and antineuralgic. Dose: 0.3 to 0.5 cc. (5 to 10 drops), in capsules. Oil of Fennel, Oleum Foeniculi; distilled from the fruit of Fceniculum vulgare; Umbelliferce, Carmin- ative, antispasmodic. Dose : 0.3 to 1 cc. (5 to 15 drops). Oil of Fieabane, Oil of Canada Fleabane, Oil of Erigeron, Oleum Erigerontis; obtained by distilla- tion from the fresh-no weriug herb of Erigeron Cana- dense; Composite?. Acts like oil of turpentine in diarrhoeas, dysentery and hemorrhages. Dose: 0.5 to 1 cc. (10 to 15 drops) in capsules. Oil of lhiang-iniang, see Ylang-Ylang. Oil of Juniper, Oleum Juniperi; a volatile oil dis- tilled from the fruit of Juniperus communis; Coni- ferce. Stimulant, carminative and diuretic. Dose: 0.3 to 0.5 cc. (5 to 10 drops). Oil of Lavender Flowers, Oleum Lavandula; dis- tilled from the flowers or flowering tops of Lavan- dula vera; Labiates. The best oil is made from the flowers alone. Mainly as flavor or perfume. Oil of Lemon, Oleum Limonis, Oleum Citri; ob- tained by mechanical means from the rind of the fruit of Citrus Limonwn; Rutacece (Aurantiacece) . Used as a flavor. OU of Lemon Grass, Oleum Andropogonis; distilled from Andropogon citratus and other grasses of the genus Andropogon; Graminece. As a perfume. Oil of Mace, Oleum Macis; distilled from the aril- lus of Myristica fragrans; Myristicaceae. For flavoring. 612 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Oil of Mirbane, Nitrobenzol, Artificial Oil of Bitter Almonds; a synthetic product. As a perfume and flavor. Oil of Mustard, Oleum Sinapis volatile; a volatile oil obtained from the seeds of Brassica alba (Cru- ciferae) by maceration with water and subsequent distillation. The oil does not exist in the seed, but is produced by the decomposition of sinigrin (potas- sium myronate) under the influence of myrosin, an albuminous ferment, in presence of water. Used as an external stimulant and counter-irritant. Oil of Neroli, is the best grade of Oil of Orange Flowers, which see. Oil of Nutmeg, Oleum Myristicae, Oleum Nucis- tae aethereum; a volatile oil distilled from the seeds of Myristica fragrans; Myristicaceae. Carminative in doses of about 0.1 to 0.2 cc. (2 to 3 drops), but mainly employed as a flavor. Oil of Orange Flowers, Oleum Aurantii Flores, Oil of Neroli; distilled from the fresh flowers of the bitter orange, Citrus vulgaris; Rutaceae (Auranti- aceae). Used for flavoring and perfume. Oil of Orange Peel, Oleum Aurantii Corticis; a volatile oil obtained by expression from the rind of the bitter orange, Citrus vulgaris, or the sweet orange, Citrus Aurantium ; Rutaceae (Aurantiaceae) . Used for flavoring and perfume. Oil of Origanum; commercial oil of origanum is oil of thyme, which see. Oil of Patchouli, Oleum Pogostemonis, distilled from the leaves of Pogostemon Patchouli; Labiatae. Used in perfumery mainly on account of its confer- ring lasting properties on other more delicate and evanescent perfumes. Oil of Pennyroyal, Oleum Hedeomae; distilled from the leaves and flowering tops of Hedeoma pulegi- oides; Labiatae. Carminative and emmenagogue. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 613 Dose: 0.1 to 0.5 cc. (2 to 10 drops). Used also as a local application to keep away mosquitos. Oil of Peppermint, Oleum Menthae Piperita c; ob- tained by distillation from the whole plant Mentha piperita; Labiatae. Stimulant carminative in flatu- lence, colic, etc. Dose: 0.1 to 0.3 cc. (2 to 5 drops). Oil of Rhodium (genuine) is said to be obtained from the root (wood?) of Convolvulus scoparius (?) or from Genista Canariensis (?), authors not agree- ing on the subject. Commercial oil of rhodium is said to be a mixture of 1 part of oil of rose with 20 parts oil of copaiba; it is used as a lure or bait for rats and other animals, and is also said to be used by tamers and trainers of animals. Oil of Rose, Oleum Rosae, Otto of Roses, Attar of Roses; obtained by distillation from the fresh flowers of Rosa Damascena; Rosaceae. Used for flavoring and perfumery. Oil of Rosemary, Oleum Rosmarini; a volatile oil distilled from the leaves of Rosmarinus officinalis; Labiates. Stimulant carminative in doses of 0.1 to 0.3 cc. (2 to 5 drops), but mainly used as an external stimulant in liniments. Oil of Roe, Oleum Rut. A white, waxy substance, harder than tallow, softer than wax ; odorless and tasteless. — c. Made up of hydrocarbons between C 24 H A0 and C 27 H 56 ; sp. gr. about 0.877; it is not affected by strong mineral acids and is therefore used to seal stoppers in bottles and carboys containing the latter. — u. Medicinally, none; in the arts it is used in many ways, as in paraffined paper, making candles, etc. Oleum Lauri. n. Laurel Oil. — o. A fixed oil obtained by macer- ating the mashed fruit of Laurus nobilis {Laurinece) in hot water for several hours and then expressing. — H. Levant and Southern Europe. — ». Of the con- sistence of butter or ointment, granular, green color; with a strong odor of the fruit; taste aromatic, spicy, bitter. — c. Sp. gr. about 0.85 to 0.90; laurin, olein, volatile oil, etc. — sj. Used in liniments and oint- ments. A use not generally mentioned is, that it is obnoxious to mosquitoes ; moreover when mixed with pennyroyal oil the latter is not as readily dissipated as when it is applied in the form of an alcoholic spirit or solution. Pennyroyal oil mixed with laurel oil has been found an excellent protector against mosquitoes by the author on his fishing trips. Oleum Cocois, or Cocoa Nut Oil, is obtained in tropical countries from the seeds of Co cos nucifera {Palmece) by boiling in water and expressing. It is 620 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. white, of the consistence of butter, and has a dis- agreeable odor because it becomes rancid so rapidly that it is rare to meet with a sample of fresh oil. Only used in the manufacture of soaps and hair oils, and to some extent in cosmetic preparations. Oleum Palmse, or Palm Oil, is obtained in tropical countries from the fruits of Elceis Guineensis {Palmecz) by boiling the fruits in water and express- ing. It is harder than butter and orange-colored; odor violet-like, agreeable; easily becomes rancid and offensive. Used for making candles, soaps, etc.; not an article in the retail drug-trade, but much used by printers. Petrolatum. N. Petrolatum, Vaseline, Cosmoline, etc. — o. Sim- ilar to that of paraffine, which see. "A mixture of hydrocarbons, chiefly of the marsh-gas series, ob- tained by distilling off the lighter and more volatile portions from petroleum and purifying the residue when it has the desired melting point" (U. S. P.). — ». Of the consistence of a cerate or ointment ; yellowish, with a slight greenish fluorescence. The substance may be prepared, however, of any consist- ence, from a liquid condition to that of a stiff cerate. In pharmacy it is mainly employed as a base or vehi- cle for ointments and therefore petrolatum of the consistence of an ointment {petrolatum molle, melt- ing point about 40° to 45° C, sp. gr. at 60° C. 0.820 to 0.840) or of a cerate {petrolatum spissum, melting point about 45° to 51° C, sp. gr. at 60° C. 0.820 to 0.850) is most frequently used. Oleum Amygdalse Expressum. w. Almond Oil, Sweet Oil of Almonds. — o. A fixed oil expressed from the seeds of Prunus Amygdalus (Amygdalus communis); Rosacea? . Made from both sweet and bitter almonds, but mainly from the bitter variety; the press-cake of bitter almonds is then macerated with water and oil of bitter NCTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 621 almonds distilled from it; the press-cake of sweet almonds is ground and sold as "almond meal" as a cosmetic. — m. Cultivated in the Orient, Mediter- ranean countries and California. — ». Thin, clear, pale-yellow oil with nutty odor and bland taste. — €. Mainly olein, a little palmitin ; sp. gr. about 0.918. — U. Demulcent, slightly laxative. Dose: 5 to 15 cc, best in emulsion. Oleum Gossypii. Bf. Cotton Seed Oil. — o. The fixed oil expressed from the seeds of Gossypium herbaceum {Malvacecz) is purified and bleached. — h. Subtropical countries; mainly Southern part of United States. — d. Pale yellow oil, without odor and with a bland nutty taste. — €. Olein, palmitin, and yellow coloring prin- ciple ; sp. gr. about 0.922 to 0.925. — jj. Demulcent. Mainly used for culinary purposes, for making sub- stitutes for lard, etc. Oleum Uui. N. Linseed Oil. — o. A fixed oil expressed from the seeds of Linum tisitatissimum; Linecz. — b.. Culti- vated in the Levant, Europe and United States. — D. A yellowish to yellowish-brown limpid oil with peculiar odor and bland taste. — c, Mainly linolein, which makes it a "drying oil", some palmitin, myristin, etc. ; sp. gr. about 0.935. — u. Seldom used internally, but occasionally used externally as an in- gredient of Carron Oil, or lime liniment, used as an application in burns, as a protective. Mainly used in paints, varnishes, etc. Bosied Linseed Oil is prepared by boiling linseed oil with so-called "dryers", such as litharge, red lead, sugar of lead, manganese dioxide, etc.; this renders it a better drying oil, but care must be taken that boiled linseed oil is not used internally instead of pure linseed oil, as the boiled oil is poisonous. Linseed oil is often used as a laxative in cases of colic in horses, cows, etc., and cases are on record 622 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. where the administration of boiled linseed oil has proved fatal to such animals. Oleum Olivse. N. Olive Oil, Sweet Oil. — o. A fixed oil obtained from the fruits of Olea Europcza; Oleacecs. There are several grades of this oil : Virgin Oil, obtained by cold pressure; a second grade oil, obtained by- mixing the press-cake with hot water and again ex- pressing; and an inferior oil obtained from the resi- due of this second pressing after it has undergone fermentation. This last grade of oil is mainly used in the manufacture of Castile soap. — h. Asia and Southern Europe. — »- Pale yellow or light-greenish- yellow oil ; peculiar odor and sweet, nutty taste. — C. Mainly olein, some palmatin, etc.; sp. gr. about 0.915. — u. As a table or salad oil ; as a demulcent; externally in emollient and cosmetic preparations. Bland fixed oils resembling olive oil in appearance and sometimes used for adulterating olive oil, some- times used as substitutes, but comparatively seldom employed under their own proper names, are made from mustard seeds, walnuts, pecans, etc. The latter especially is a fine salad oil, and when it can be obtained is esteemed more highly than the best olive oil. Oleum Rieini. N. Castor Oil. — o. A fixed oil expressed from the seeds of Ricinus communis ; Euphorbiacece \ — h. Cul- tivated. — j>, A viscid, nearly colorless oil; odor mildly nauseous, taste bland, but afterwards acrid and nauseous. — c. A peculiar modification of olein called ricinolein, palmitin, an acrid principle, etc.; sp. gr. about 0.965. — u. Laxative, in large doses purgative. Dose : 5 to 25 cc. Oleum Sesami. N. Benne-Seed Oil. — o. A fixed oil obtained by ex- pression from the seeds of Sesamum Indicum and its variety 6". orientale; Sesamece. — h. India ; culti- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 623 vated. — D. A yellowish fixed oil, limpid, transpar- ent, odorless, with a bland nut-like flavor. — c. Olein, palmitin, stearin, etc.; sp. gr. about 0.922. — ij. Like those of olive oil. Oleum Tiglii. N. Croton Oil. — o. A fixed oil expressed from the seeds of Croton Tiglium; Euphorbiacece \ — h. India and Philippine Islands. — D. A more or less viscid fixed oil, the viscidity increasing with age, varying in color from yellow to dark reddish-brown, the color deepening with age ; odor peculiar, taste dis- agreeable, acrid and irritating. — c. Glycerides of various fatty acids, such as tiglinic, palmitic, stearic, lauric; the purgative, vesicating and suppurant prop- erties depend upon a substance containing a fatty acid resembling ricinoleic acid; sp. gr. about 0.95. — U. Drastic cathartic. Dose: 0.05 to 0.1 gram, best given in an emulsion with some mild demulcent oil. Externally croton oil is counter-irritant, vesicant and suppurative. GROUP LXXXV. PECULIAR CONCRETE SUBSTANCES. A number of substances that do not conform to the characteristics described under the previous groups of non-cellular vegetable substances are placed in this group, although they do not resemble each other markedly and, in fact, have no general characteristics in common. The group is therefore based on con- siderations of convenience mainly. White, translucent, crystalline masses ; peculiar penetrating odor and bitterish pungent taste Campbora. In cakes, balls, hollow bottle- shaped or irregular pieces, black- ish-brown, very elastic caoutetioiic. Grayish or yellowish-gray masses, streaked interiorly; not markedly elastic Gutta Percba. 624 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Light, friable, grayish-green flat- tish fragments; taste acrid bitter Eiateriiim. Camphora. x. Camphor. — o. Crude camphor is obtained by distillation from the chipped wood and branches of Cinnamomum {Laurus) Camphora; Laurinece. The crude camphor is purified by sublimation . — h. China, Japan and India. — d. White, translucent masses having a crystalline structure, tough and not readily pulverizable unless a little alcohol, ether or chloro- form is added ; odor peculiar, strong, penetrating and persistent, taste bitterish pungent. — e. Camphoric and camphoronic acids ; composition of camphor is C 10 H 16 0;it sublimes at ordinary temperatures and volatilizes completely when exposed to the air ; it burns with a brilliant, though smoky flame and leaves no ash; dissolves completely in alcohol, ether, volatile and fixed oils, etc.; sp. gr. about 0.99. — U. Stimulant of the brain and circulation; useful in low fevers and typhoid conditions; also useful in cholera, etc., alone or in combination with opium. Anaphrodisiac and sedative in priapism, chordee, etc. Used externally in bruises, rheumatism, etc." Dose : 0.05 to 0.3 grams ; as an anaphrodisiac or as a sedative in mania, up to 1 gram. Caoutchouc. K. Elastica, India-Rubber . — o. and H. Obtained by exudation from incisions in the stems of various trees, but especially "from the natural orders Euphorbiacece (Sipkonia, Hevea, Jatrophd)> Apocy- nacece {Urceola, Vahea, Landolphia), and Artocarp- acece (FicuSy Urostigma, Castilloa, etc.)" ; Maisch. In India Ficus elastica is the main source of this sub- stance; in Africa, Landolphia florida and other varieties of Landolphia; in South America, Hevea Guianensis and other varieties of Hevea. — ». India rubber occurs in flat cakes, in balls or moulded into NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 625 various hollow bottle-shaped masses ; the latter are made by dipping moulds of clay into the india-rubber while still fluid and continuing this until the layer is sufficiently thick, then breaking the clay mould and pouring out the fragments of clay. Externally caoutchouc is blackish-brown, but internally on a cut surface, it is lighter-colored and sometimes grayish or whitish striated. It is very elastic, odorless and without taste. — c. Consists of a mixture of poly- terpenes; but the principal constituent is a solid hydrocarbon, C 2 o H 32 . Soluble in chloroform, etc. The best method of dissolving is said to be to change it to a jelly-like substance in carbon disulphide and then dissolve this jelly in benzin. With 10% of sul- phur caoutchouc vulcanizes and forms hard rubber. — U. Externally for dressings and plasters. In the arts for making soft and hard rubber goods. Gutta Percha. Bf. Gutta Percha. — o. Obtained from incisions in Palaquium oblongifolium and allied trees ; Sapotacecz. H.Malayan peninsula and islands. — d. In masses of a grayish or grayish-white color, often with brownish streaks, hard, heavier than water, not very elastic, but flexible ; impurities can be removed from it by kneading in hot water. Nearly odorless and taste- less. — c. About 80% gutta (C 20 H3 2)> resins, etc.; soluble in ether, benzol, chloroform, carbon bisul- phide and oil of turpentine ; sp. gr. about 0.98 ; it may be vulcanized like caoutchouc. — u. Like those of caoutchouc. A peculiar substance resembling gutta percha and called * 'chicle gum" is obtained from a Central American tree ; it is used in the manufacture of chew- ing gum. Elaterinm. x. Elaterium. — o. A peculiar substance deposited from the juice of the squirting cucumber, Ecballium Elaterium; Cucurbitacece. The juice is clear when it 626 N0T3S ON PHARMACOGNOSY. first comes from the fruit, but soon becomes turbid from the elaterium which separates from it and is deposited. The deposit is spread in thin layers on muslin and then rapidly dried between sheets of bibulous paper. — i>. In flat fragments of variable thickness, a few mm. thick, irregular size, easily broken, with a granular fracture, grayish or grayish- green, showing the impression of the muslin on one side ; a slight odor suggesting tea, and an acrid and very bitter taste. — c. About 25 to 35% of elaterin; this is the only valuable constituent. Elaterin is a resinoid substance, but, constituting only about J of the drug, the latter cannot fairly be classed with the resins, as is done by some authors. — u. A powerful hydragogue cathartic. Dose : 0.008 to 0.015 gram. Great care should be exercised in writing, reading and dispensing elaterium and elaterinum in order that the two may not be confounded on account of the similarity of their names. Elaterin consists of small, shining crystals, odorless, intensely bitter and acrid and from 3 to 4 times as active as elaterium. GROUP LXXXVI. COLOEING MATTERS. Substances prepared by oxidation or fermentation from various plants ; or by the deposition of sedi- ments from their juices extracted by water. More or less firm, brittle masses; blue to purplish indigo. Small, rectangular, blue or bluish cakes ; colors water blue Litmus A purplish-red powder, imparting a beautiful color to diluted alco- hol Persio. Thick, deep reddish-purple liquid with ammoniacal odor Orebii. Usually an orange-red paste; some- times dry and friable cakes Annatto. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 627 Indigo. X. Indicum, Indigo. — o. The whole plants of sev- eral varieties of Indigofera {Leguminosce) and allied plants are packed in cemented reservoirs a few feet deep, and then covered with water. After ferment- ing for a few days the workmen express the juice from the plants by jumping in the reservoir and treading the mass, at the same time agitating the water to facilitate oxidation. The liquid becomes deep blue and at the proper time is drawn off and al- lowed to deposit the coloring matter. — h. India. — D. More or less firm, brittle masses, of a blue to pur- plish-blue color, showing a bronze or coppery metallic appearance when pressed by a smooth hard body, as by the nail of the finger; odorless and tasteless. — C. Should contain from 70 to 80% of indigo-blue or indigotin. — u. Used only as a coloring agent or dye, and in solution as a test-solution. Litmus. N. Litmus, L,acmus. — o. Made by a process of fermentation from lichens, including Roccella tine- toria and other varieties of Roccella, several species of Lecanora y Variolaria, etc. The juices of the plants themselves are colorless, but become colored during the processes employed, which are under control so that several different and distinct coloring matters can be produced. — h. Mainly made in Holland. The coarsely powdered lichens are mace- rated in a mixture of urine, lime and potash or soda; the liquid becomes first red, finally blue; the liquid is then separated, mixed with calcareous or silicious matter and some indigo, moulded into small cakes and dried. — d. It occurs in rectangular, blue or bluish cakes, 2.5 cm. or less in size, light, friable, granular, and dotted with white saline dots; odor violet-like, taste somewhat saline and pungent. — c. A coloring matter, orcein, which is soluble in water and still more readily in alcohol; as it always contains 628 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. chalk it effervesces with acids. — u. Test for acids and alkalies. In the arts as a dye. Persio, Cudbear, is made in a similar manner, from the same lichens, by macerating in an ammoniacal liquid (urine and lime), but probably more potash or soda is added than when making litmus or orchil. Cudbear is in the form of a purplish-red powder. Used to color elixirs, etc., and in the arts as a dye. Orchil or Archil is make in a similar manner, from the same lichens, but probably by adding but little potash or soda to the urine and lime. It is a thick, deep reddish-purple liquid, but varies in tint, some lots being more some less reddish. Used as a dye. Annatto. 5f. Orleana, Annatta, Arnotta. — o. A reddish pulp surrounding the seeds of Bixa Orellana; Bixineae. The pulp is separated by bruising the fruit, mixing with water, straining, allowing the sediment to deposit and then forming into cakes, which are dried. — h. Guiana and other parts of South America. — D. Usually the cakes are quite soft, forming, in fact, a stiff, pasty mass; occassionally they are dry so that they may be broken, brownish-red, with a peculiar sweetish odor and a saline bitterish taste. — c. A peculiar coloring principle, bixin; another called orellin; etc. — u. As a dye and coloring agent. Often used as a color for butter. --^- #N+ NOTES ON PHAMACOGNOSY. 629 SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS. This synopsis is to be used in connection with the chart, "System of Pharmacognosy", for the deter- mination of drugs in the ordinary business emergen- cies, when a specimen of drug of which the customer does not know the name may be brought in with a de- mand for a drug of the same kind. After a little practice, and especially after the Notes on Phar- macognosy have been studied, this system will as- sist in determining the identity of such a drug. Our failure to recognize a drug is often not because we do not know the drug, but because we cannot recall its name, and, therefore, cannot go to the drawer or con- tainer in which it is kept, and in such a case this synopsis will be of immediate and prompt assistance. Suppose a customer brings in a piece of pomegran- ate rind; we see at once that it is a vegetable sub- stance, and this excludes all animal drugs, or the first eight groups of drugs. We see at a glance that it is not a whole plant (excludes the ninth group), that it is not a cryptogam (excludes groups 10-15), nor any underground form of structure, such as root, rhizome, corm or bulb (excludes groups 16-33), nor is it any part of the stem, such as twigs, pith, wood or bark (excluding groups 34-45), nor is it a leaf-bud, leaf or flower (thus excluding groups 46-57); we now have come to fruits, and the specimen is evidently not a whole fruit (excluding groups 58-64) but a part of fruit, and, therefore, belongs in group 65. Turning now to group 65 in this Synopsis, we find an enu- meration of the drugs which are parts of fruits, and merely reading the names will probably recall the correct name for the drug, but if not, the compendi- ous descriptions will enable us to determine its 630 NOTES ON PHAMACOGNOSY. name. We know it is not lemon or orange peel, and probably even the novice in the drug business knows that it is neither tamarinds nor white pepper, so that we need look up only bael fruit, mangosteen and pomegranate rind, and the description will tell us that it is the latter; but, to make sure, we turn to the page indicated and read the description of the drug, and compare with the drawing, and thus establish the identity. And so for any drug, once we determine what it is; that is, whether it is a whole animal or plant, or a part of an animal or plant, or non-cellular animal or plant substance, or a starch, etc.; and, while this Synopsis and these Notes do not contain all the drugs, it is believed that they contain practically all that are apt to be met with in actual business experi- ence. While this use of the author's System of Phar- macognosy is best made in connection with the Chart, which should hang in a place that is conven- ient for ready reference, yet pages 16-20 of this book will enable the druggist to get at the same results, but with a little more labor and time. The numbers following the names constitute a page index. GROUP I. WORMS. A live aquatic worm Hirudo, 25. GROUP II. INSECTS. Without wings; angular granules . . Coccus, 25. With wings greenish or coppery metallic luster Cantharis, 26. Wings black with transverse yel- low bands Mylaforis, 26. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 631 Wings black with longitudinal yel- low bands Cantli. vittata, 26. Entire insect, brownish-black Blai£a,27. GROUP II I. EGGS. The egg of the chicken Ovum, 27. GROUP IV. PARTS OF ANIMALS WHOUY OR PARTLY SOLUBLE IN ALCOHOL OR WATER. Rolls or flat pieces of tough fibrous tissue lebtbyocolla, 28. Long, thin, membranous ribbons. American Isinglass, 29. Round sacs, hairy on one side, smooth on the other 31 oschus, 29. Long grayish-brown sacs Castoreuin, 30. GROUP V. PARTS OF ANIMALS NOT SOLUBLE IN ALCOHOL OR WATER. Anastomosing fibers Spongia, 32. Flattish, oval, white "bones" Os Sepiae, 33. GROUP VI SOLID NON-CELLULAR ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. Round, white, calcareous stones. . .jLapilii Cancrornm, 34. Yellow, waxy cakes, or lumps. . . . Cera Flava, 35. Thin, round or square cakes, waxy, white Cera Alba. 36. White, semi-transparent, unctuous masses of a crystalline, foliaceous texture Cetaceuiu, 37. Hard, white, somewhat glossy masses Aciclum St earicum, 37. White, solid, fatty masses Seviiin, 37. 632 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Black, gritty powder C artoo Animalis, 37. Brown, unctuous, very odorous powder Moschus, 38. Cylindrical, hard, crystalline masses Saceharum L> act is, 38, Flat, hard, brown, transparent or translucent pieces Colla, 39. Irregular, flat, semi-opaque, yel- lowish-white pieces Colla Alba, 39. Colorless, transparent, rectangular, flexible sheets Gelatina, 39. Opaque, rectangular sheets of frothy texture Gelatin, 40. Clear, colorless flexible shreds Shred Gelatin, 40, Grayish-brownish or blackish odor- ous masses Ambergris, 40. Small, hard, tenacious, odorous masses Hyraceam, 40. GROUP VI I. SEMI-SOUD AMORPHOUS ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. Soft, white, unctuous fatty sub- stance Adeps, 40. Soft, yellowish- white fatty sub- stance Adeps tana?, 41. Semi-solid, unctuous, yellowish or brownish substance Civet, 41. GROUP VIM. LIQUID AMORPHOUS ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. Syrupy, sweet, aromatic, some- times granular liquid Mel, 42. Viscid, gr eeni sh -brown bitter liquid Fel Bovis, 43. Yellowish to brownish fixed oil with fishy odor Oleum Morrnuse, 43 NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 633 Pale yellowish or colorless fixed oil Oleum Aclipis. 43. Pale yellow to yellowish-brown oil . oleum Bubulum. 44 . GROUP IX. HERBS— WHOLE PLANTS BOTANICALLY RECOGNIZABLE. Composite?: Yellowish florets; leaves petiolate, pinnatifid Absinthium, 92. White florets; leaves thrice pinnat- ifid • Achillea, 93. White florets; leaves connate-per- foliate Eupatorium. Yellow ray florets; leaves sessile, spatulate to lanceolate Grinclelia, 94. Yellow florets; leaves linear-lan- ceolate Soliclago, 96. Yellow tubular florets; leaves alter- nate, pinnatifid Tanacetnm, 96. Geniianecz: Two nectaries on each petal Chirata, 97. Labiates: Upper lip arched; stamens 4 Cataria, 99. Corolla small, 2-lipped; stamens 2 Hedeoma, 100. Flowers in axillary whorls; sta- mens 2 I^ycopus. 100. Flowers in corymbose clusters; stamens 4 Majorana, 101. Flowers in dense, woolly, axillary whorls; stamens 4 Marrnbinm, 102. Flowers in small cymes; stamens 4. Melissa, 102. Flowers in obtuse spikes; stamens 4, short Mentha ppt., 103. Flowers in slender spikes; sta- mens 2 Menth. virid., 103. Corolla long, with narrow lip; sta- mps 2 Jlonarda, 104. 634 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Flowers in axillary 1-sided racemes; stamens 4 Scutellaria, 104. Leguminosce: leaves usually absent; stamens monadelphous Scoparius, 105. Lobeliacece: Leaves alternate; stamens united into a tube Lobelia, 106. Papaveracece: Flowers in long-peduncled umbels; capsule linear c helioonium, 107. Ranunculacece: Rhizomes filiform, golden-yellow. . Coptis, 109. Cluster of leaves forming an invo- lucre some distance below the flower Pulsatilla, no. Solanacece: Gray-brown hairy leaves, irregu- larly lobed; flowers, or capsules within persistent calyx, often present Hyoscyamus, 111. Urticacece: Flowers consisting of single sepal inclosing pistil or capsule Cannabis, 113. GROUP X. AI,G^. Thallus filiform, much branched, horny, translucent Ctaondrus, 116. Thallus with large air-vesicles Fueus, in. Thallus round or oval, tough and horny, long, stem-like Laminaria, 118. Mixture of several small s ea- weeds. Corsican Moss, 119 GROUP XI. LICHENS. Irregularly lobed lichens, brown- ish-gray above and grayish-white below Cetraria, 120. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 635 Flat lichen, brownish, with oval prominences on one side and corresponding depressions on the other side Sticta, 121. GROUP XII. FUNGI. Fusiform, purplish-black grains. . . Ersrota. 122. Irregular, brown-black masses, partly membranous, partly pul- verulent rstilaso. 124. White, tough, light masses Ag-aricns. 125. Thin, brown, pliable, velvety sheets Spnnk. 125. Semi-fluid, viscid, frothy sub- stance Yeast. 126. White or yellowish grains Kefir-seed. 126. Round dark-brown masses, pul- verulent within Puff-balls. 126. GROUP XIII. LYCOPODIACE-E. Light-yellow, very mobile powder ryeopoclium. 127. GROUP XIV. EOUTSETACE.E. Jointed, hollow, slender stems, about 60 cm. long; or broken. . . . Eqnisetnm. 12S. GROUP XV. FERNS. Large rhizome beset with the bases of stipes Aspidinm. 129. Frond of fern with triangular leaf- lets and thin, glossy brown stipes Adiantnin. 131. Hard, dark-brown rhizome, beset with short remnants of stipes. . . . Polypodinm. 132. 636 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Fine, silky, glossy, bronze-colored hairs Penghawar, 132. GROUP XVI. ENDOGENOUS ROOTS. Very long, about 4 to 5 mm. thick; brownish Sarsaparilla, 162. Thin and slender, about 15 to 20 cm. long, and about 1 mm. thick . vetiveria, 169. GROUP XVII. WOODY EXOGENOUS ROOTS WITH THIN BARK. Brown or purplish-brown; wood tough Krameria, 170. Blackish-brown and warty; wood in irregular circles or rings Pareira, 171. Wood firm and yellow; taste very sweet Glycyrrhiza, 173. Yellowish-brown; tough yellowish wood Gelsemium, 174. Ivarge, grayish-brown; often with rootlets braided; or chopped in pieces Mettaysticum, 176. Thin pale-brown bark, often scal- ing off and showing white wood. Hydrangea, 177. GROUP XVIII. WOODY EXOGENOUS ROOTS WITH THICK BARK; WITH DUCTS. Long roots, gray bark about one- fourth of diameter of the dry root Apocymim Caiinabimmi, 178. Similar to above, but thinner, brown, and bark about one-sixth of entire thickness Apocymim Amlro- samiifolium, 180. Short brownish-gray sections, wood spongy and bark easily separ- able and flaring at cut ends Stillingia, 182. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. ' 637 GROUP XIX. WOODY EXOGENOUS ROOTS WITH THICK BARK; NO DUCTS. Purplish-brown, wood tough, bark thick Krameria, 182. Small roots, blackish-brown, with thick annulated bark Ipecacuanha, 183. GROUP XX. FLESHY ROOTS WITH DUCTS. Hard, tuberous, irregularly round or pear-shaped, dark-brown Jalapa, 186. With caudex, branched, section marked with concentric lines Taraxacum, 188. With caudex, branched, section marked with radiating lines Ctctaoriam, 189. Hard, yellowish-brown, or gray, bark closely tuberculated Asclepias, 189. Tough, porous sections, with ir- regular bundles Smnbnl. 190. Light grayish-brown, branched root, deeply wrinkled Angelica, 191. Fusiform, yellowish, annulate, often bifid Panax, 192. Fusiform, dark grayish-brown, annulate above, deeply wrinkled .pyretnrMin, 193. Thick, round root with long branches, or sometimes in trans- verse or longitudinal sections. . .inula, 194. Long, spongy or flexible, light-col- ored, usually split lengthwise. . . i^evisticum. 196. Dark-brown, knotty, flattened, with root-scars and transverse rings . . Iniperatoria, 196. Long, slender, yellowish-white, flexible, usually split lengthwise. Petroselinum, 198. Long, yellowish-brown, annulate above, wrinkled and warty be- low Pimpinella, 198. 638 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. GROU P XXB. EX3SHY ROOTS WITHOUT DUCTS. Conical, blackish-brown, tuberous roots, single or joined in pairs. . Aconitiim, 200. Slender, light grayish-brown roots, little branched Belladonna* Radix, 203. Large, round or plano-convex, orange-yellow pieces of roots, peeled Rheum, 205. Several- headed caudex, root branched and keeled, yellowish- gray, wood not cylindrical Senega, 206. Whole, or longitudinally split, dark-brown roots, transversely annulate above Gentiana, 2)7. Transverse sections, greenish-gray bark, yellowish on cut surface. . . €alninba, 208. Grayish-white transverse sections, hard, with prominent radiating and concentric lines Bryonia, 209. White roots, with cork removed, white, mealy and fibrous Althrea, 210. Longitudinal and transverse sec- tions, with projecting white wood- bundles alternating with yellow- ish gray parenchyma Phytolacca? Radix, 210. Long, simple, fusiform root, usually partially broken and doubled up lengthwise Rnmex, 212. Brown-black, horny, somewhat con- torted roots, often split length- wise Symphytum, 213. Long, thin roots, externally rust- brown, internally whitish $aponaria,2i3. Cylindrical, simple, fleshy root, grayish-brown and wrinkled .... i^appa, 215. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 639 Crowned with leaf-bases and cov- ered with a dark purplish foliace- ous bark easily separable from the yellowish wood Alkanna. 215. Longitudinal or transverse slices, pale orange-brown Frasera, 216. GROUP XXII. ENDOGENOUS RHIZOMES WITH ROOTLETS. Iyong, grayish or brownish, deeply wrinkled roots, often over 1 meter long, folded back over a compact rhizome Sarsaparilla. 2.9. Obconical, blackish-gray, with shriveled lighter-colored rootle ts.veratrnm Viride, 220. Thin, branched, straw-colored or pale yellowish, with hair-like rootlets at nodes Coiivallaria, 221. Jointed, deeply-wrinkled, flattish, grayish-brown, annulated with darker-colored markings iris Versi- color, 222 Obconical to sub-globular, annu- late, orange-brown Trillinm, 223. Obconical, grayish-brown, with rootlets on upper part; whitish within Dracontiiim. 223. Bent, orange-brown, with many stem-scars above and wavy root- lets below Cypripeclimii, 224. Whole, or longitudinal slices, yel- lowish-brown, whitish within; annulate Polygoiiatum. 225. Much branched and curved; pale- brown, very hard and tough. . . . Bioseorea, 227. Sub-cylindrical, curved, grayish- brown, with tough, wiry rootlets.Helonias, 227. 640 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Cylindrical, covered with tufts of leaf-bases and numerous pale- colored and soft rootlets . . Aletris, 228. Flattish -cylindrical, reddish- brown, with root-scars in wavy lines on under side calamus, 246. GROUP XXI II. EXOGENOUS RHIZOMES WITH ROOTLETS ; WITH DUCTS. Small, hard, dark-brown, curved rhizome; rootlets all on lower side; a ring of ducts in the sec- tion Arnica, 229. Short, thick, upright rhizome, with many rootlets; with character- istic odor Valeriana, 230. Thin, small rhizome, with remains of stems on upper side, and many rootlets on lower side Serpentaria, 232. GROUP XXIV. EXOGENOUS RHIZOMES WITH ROOTLETS; NO DUCTS. Short, thick, upright rhizome with many rootlets; with character- istic odor Valeriana, 230. Thin, small rhizome with remains of stems on upper side, and many rootlets on lower side Serpentaria, 232. Small, thin, knotty rhizomes, with many brittle rootlets, bright yel- low within Hydrastis, 235. Irregular, knotty, brownish-black rhizomes, with many rootlets which have from 3 to 6 radiating bundles Cimicif nga, 235. Small, knotty rhizome, with sev- eral stem-scars and numerous long rootlets; grayish-brown Spigelia, 237. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 641 Hard, irregular, bent and knotty rhizome, with broad stem-scars and numerous rootlets; yellow- ish-brown Caulophylluni. 238. Rhizome a meter or more long, with small rootlets; brown or yellowish-brown Menisperniiim, 239. Knotty, many-headed caudex with many rootlets; grayish or yellow- ish-brown externally and with white wood Asclepias Incarnata, 240. Blackish-brown, branched and flat- tened rhizome, with many and long nearly black rootlets Leptandra, 241. Thin, long, more or less contorted rhizomes; purplish-brown exter- nally and whitish within Asarnm, 242. Much contorted, tough, knotty rhizomes, with several stems and more or less contorted roots ; light-brown externally and white within Gillenia, 242. Knotty, scaly and wrinkled rhi- zome, with rootlets on under side; brownish externally and whitish within Getim, 243. Very hard, knotty and irregularly branched rhizomes, with thin and brittle rootlets; grayish-brown. . . Coilinsonia, 244. GROUP XXV. CRYPTOGAMOUS RHIZOMES WITHOUT ROOTLETS. Large rhizome, beset with the bases of stipes Aspidium, 129. Hard, dark-brown rhizome, beset with short remnants of stipes Poly podium, 132. 642 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. GROUP XXVI. ENDOGENOUS RHIZOMES WITHOUT ROOTLETS; ELONGATE. Jointed, deeply-wrinkled, flattish, grayish-brown, annulate with darker-colored markings iris Versicolor, 222. Flattish -cylindrical, reddish- brown, with root-scars in wavy lines on the under side Calamus, 246. Very long, thin, straw-colored, hol- low; usually cut into pieces about 1 cm. long Triticum, 248. GROUP XXVI I . ENDOGENOUS RHIZOMES WITHOUT ROOTLETS; SHORT. Flattish, lobed, peeled or unpeeled, brownish, gray or white rhizomes.zingiber, 250. Cylindrical, branched, reddish- brown rhizomes, annulate with lighter-colored wavy leaf-sheaths. Galanga, 252. Cylindrical or oval yellowish-gray rhizomes, deep orange-yellow within Curcuma, 253. Flat, somewhat ham-shaped, gray- ish or white rhizomes, often with similarly shaped smaller lobes attached Iris Florentina, 254 Very hard, irregular, massive tuber- ous rhizomes, reddish-brown, with funnel-shaped stem-scars. . . Chinae Rhizoma, 256. Sub-cylindrical, curved, grayish- brown rhizome without rootlets . Helonias, 227. I4ght-reddish or brownish-gray cir- cular disks, or in longitudinal halves or quarters Zedoaria, 257. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 643 GROUP XXVI I I. EXOGENOUS RHIZOMES WITHOUT ROOTLETS; ELONGATE. Rhizome with thickened nodes, with stem-scars above and root- scars below, glossy brown Podophyllum, 258. Cylindrical, annulate, light, pithy, grayish-brown, bark exfoliating . Aralia > udieaulis. 259. GROUP XXIX. EXOGENOUS RHIZOMES WITHOUT ROOTLETS; SHORT. Flattened, bent upon itself, or broken, dark-brown, hard Bistorta, 260. Dark reddish-brown rhizome, some- what flattened, much wrinkled and twisted Sangumaria. 261. Hard, compact, contorted and tuberculated, umber-brown Geranium, 262. Simple, cylindrical or flattened, externally rough and grayish- brown Tormentllla, 263. Dark-brown, knotty, flattened, with root-scars and transverse rings . . Imperatoria, 196. GROUP XXX. WHOLE TUBERS AND CORMS. Hard, tuberous, irregularly round or pear-shaped, dark-brown Jalapa, 186. Conical, blackish-brown, tuberous roots, single or joined in pairs.. . Aconitum, 200. Ovoid, brownish, wrinkled corms, with a groove on one side Colchicum, 267. Single, round, small, hard, semi- translucent or opaque, yellow or brown tubers; sometimes two con- cavo-convex tubers joined, with a third smaller tuber between them Corydalis, 266. 644 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Oval, slightly flattened or shrunken, semi- translucent and very hard. Salop, 266. GROUP XXXI. SLICED TUBERS. Kidney-shaped grayish-white Slices Colchicum, 267. Transverse slices with dark-gray epidermis and mealy-white sur- faces Arum, 269. GROUP XXXI I. WHOLE BULBS. Large, juicy, greenish or pinkish- white bulbs, the external scales, when present, pinkish-brown Soil la, 272. White bulbs, with stem, coated with a few dry, membranous, white scales enclosing about eight bulblets Allium, 271. GROUP XXXIII. SLICED BULBS. Narrow slices, up to 5 cm. long, often contorted; whitish with yellowish or pinkish tint; slightly diaphanous Scilia, 272. GROUP XXXIV. LEAFY TWIGS. Twigs with obovate or oval, cori- aceous, slightly serrate leaves . . . Gaultheria, 274. Twigs mixed with coriaceous, ob- lanceolate or cuneate-lanceolate leaves, with margin serrate at apex and entire near the base. . (nimaphlla, 276. Twigs and leaves agglutinated into broken masses with exuded gum- resin; leaves lanceolate, dentate. . Eriodyction, 277. NOTES OX PHARMACOGNOSY. 645 Brownish-green twigs with oval, thick coriaceous, and deeply wrinkled leaves; leaves usually detached from twigs Pnoradendron,279. Twigs with scythe-shaped long, light-grayish-green leaves Eucalyptus, 378. GROUP XXXV. SCAI,Y TWIGS. Scales with a longitudinal ridge and projecting gland Thuja, 280. Scales with a longitudinal groove. Sabina. 281. GROUP XXXVI. NAKED OR I/EAFLESS TWIGS. Short, pale, grayish-green pieces of twigs, with smooth-cut ends; usually hollow Dulcamara, 283. Pale-green, five or six-angled stems, with clusters of spines on the edges Cercus, 284. GROUP XXXVI I. PITHS. Slender, cylindrical, sometimes curved pieces, spongy white Sassafras Medulla. 285. Similar to above, but thicker and yellowish in color Sambuci Medulla, 286. GROUP XXXVIII. WHITE WOODS. Coarse, light, white shavings or raspings Quassia, 289. GROUP XXXIX. COLORED WOODS. Greenish-brown raspings, mixed with some white particles Ouaiaci Lignum, 292. 646 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Yellowish or reddish-gray raspings. Jnniperi Lignum, 293. Deep purplish-red or brownish-red shavings, or coarse powder Santaium Rub rum, 294. Red or reddish-brown raspings, the cut surfaces having resinous ap- pearance Fernambuco, 294. Purplish-black orbrownis h-r e d shavings or raspings, often with a greenish-metallic luster Hacmatoxylon,295. Brown or yellowish-brown chips or raspings Lignum Citrinum, 296. GROUP XL. CINCHONA BARKS; BARK WITH ISOLATED BAST-CEIXS. Quills or troughs with brownish- gray cork; brownish-yellow in- ternally Cinchona Flava, 319. Thick, flat pieces, usually without cork, splintery, fibrous, orange- yellow Cinchona Flava, 319. Two kinds, flat and quilled; similar to above kinds, except that color is deep reddish-brown Cinchona Rubra, 321. Quills, smaller than other varieties, grayish-brown externally and in- ternally Cinchona Pallida, 322. GROUP XLI. BARKS WITH BAST RADIAI,I,Y STRIATE. Troughs or simple quills, without cork, both surfaces cinnamon- brown; pungently aromatic Cinnamom. Cass., 326. Thin, papery, compound quills, without cork, externally and in- NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 647 ternally pale cinnamon-colored; pungently aromatic Cimiamom, Zeyl. 327. I^arge troughs or quills, externally with grayish-brown cork, inter- nally cinnamon-brown; pungently aromatic Cinnamom. Saigon., 328. Quills or irregular pieces, dull brownish, with peculiar trans- verse cracks and with white lichens with black spots on outer surface; taste bitter aromatic. . . . c as car ilia, 329. Irregularly curved pieces, cork re- moved, both surfaces reddish- brown with a shade of carmine; longitudinally striate, fracture short and pale-pink or whitish; bitter astringent. Comas, 330. Quills or broken pieces, externally whitish or pale-reddish with white scars, internally whitish; odor cinnamon-like and taste pungently bitterish Canella, 331. Irregular pieces, outer surface often marbled, fragile, soft, rust- brown, with characteristic taste and odor Sassafras, 332. Quills or flat pieces, externally purplish-brown, showing small transverse scars, or rough; in- ternally longitudinally fissured; developing bitter almond taste on chewing Primus Virg., 333. I^ong, coarsely fibrous, pale yel- lowish-brown pieces, often par- , tially broken and folded upon themselves; bitter Simaruba, 336. 648 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. Quills or troughs, externally dark brownish-gray with corky warts, internally orange-brown with narrow, short, longitudinal ridges; bitter astringent Alnus Rubra, 335. Shallow troughs and irregular fragments, cork removed, toughly fibrous internally; both surfaces yellowish-brown Magnolia, 336. Troughs or quills, purplish-brown externally, internally yellowish- white, fibrous in inner layer; bitter astringent Llrlodendron, 337. Thin, tough, flexible bands, flattish or quilled, outer surface blackish, inner pale-brown; mixed with Small roots Rnbus, 339. Thin fragments, outer surface brownish, inner surface yellow; bitter; stains saliva yellow Berberls, 339. Irregular pieces, outer surface pale yellowish-brown with lighter spots, inner surface smooth and brownish-yellow; fracture abrupt, almost waxy Ptelea, 340. Quills or troughs, brownish-gray with whitish patches, marked with minute black dots and scattered small spines; striation obscure Xantliox.ylum, N., 368. GROUP XLII. BARKS WITH BAST TANGE)NTIAI,I,Y STRIATED. Nearly flat massive bark, with thick corky layer deeply fissured; gray or grayish-brown on outer and reddish on inner surfaces. . .Aspldosperma,343. NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 649 Thin flexible bands or quilled pieces; brownish on outer and whitish on inner surfaces ; separable into thin layers Gossvpii Bad. Cort., 346. Long, thin, flexible bands, rolled into bundles, yellowish on outer and silky-white on inner sur- faces Mezereum. 347. Quilled pieces or troughs; ash-gray outer and whitish or pale tawny inner surfaces Enonymns, 348. Flattish pieces or troughs; ash-gray outer and pale-brown or whitish inner surfaces Viburnum Opnlns, 349. Thin quills or troughs, gray-brown outer and pale-brown and striated inner surfaces Cnndiirango, 350. Small contorted quills or troughs, usually irregularly broken; occasionally whole pieces of root; their brownish corky layer usually partially detached and adherent in shreds Rhois Glabra* Cort., 351. Large troughs or flat pieces, smooth, dark-brown and mottled o n outer surface; bork generally absent Jnglaus; stem), 353. Coarse quills, troughs or irregular pieces, toughly fibrous; outer surface gray or blackish-brown with many transverse ridges, inner surface smooth or fibrous . . Piscidia, 354. Thick quills or troughs with coarsely fissured grayish-brown corky layer, or without bork; yellowish-brown and striated 650 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. inner surface Alstonia Constr., 855. GROUP XLIII. BARKS WITH QUADRATICAI,I,Y STRIATED BAST. Thin, tough quills, glossy greenish or yellowish-brown outer surface; bitter astringent Salix, 357. Flat, pale brownish- white pieces with corky layer removed; mu- cilaginous taste Hums, 358. Large, flat pieces or troughs, red- dish-brown externally; fibrous fracture; acrid taste Quillaja, 358. Brittle pieces or small quills, exter- nally yellowish-gray, inner sur- face somewhat darker; often with conchoidal depressions exter- nally Oranatnm, 370. Quills or troughs, cork warty, ash- gray, or wanting; fracture splint- ery, coarsely fibrous Fraxinus, 359. Large troughs or flat pieces, smooth, dark-brown and mottled on outer surface; bork generally absent jugians, 353. GROUP XLIV. BARKS WITH NO STRIATION IN BAST. Heavy, long, flattish pieces or troughs, the bark up . to 15 mm. thick, reddish-brown Cot©, 361, Similar to above, rust-brown, outer surface fissured and shrunken . . . Paracoto, 362. Narrow, brittle fragments, shaved from twigs, about 1 mm. thick, whitish wood adhering to inner surface Prinos, 363. Irregular pieces or troughs, outer NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. 651 surface grayish-brown with trans- verse warts, or reddish-brown patches where grayish - brown cork is detached Hamamelidis Cortex, 364. Troughs or quills, up to 30 cm. long, younger bark mottled, older with rough cork Cascara, 365. Thin bark in rolled quills, exter- nally grayish-brown to blackish- brown with small transverse whitish cork-warts; inner surface brownish yellow Frangula, 366. Thin quills or troughs, glossy purplish-brown with scattered warts and blackish dots Viburnum prnn., 367. Quills or troughs, brownish-gray with whitish patches, marked with minute black dots and scattered small spines; obscure radial striation Xanthoxyl. N., 368. Quills or flattish pieces, brownish- gray with many large conical pro- jections Xanthoxyl. S., 368. Irregular pieces or troughs, exter- nally brown and rough from warts; inner surface pale brown- ish-yellow Chioiiaiilnus, 369. Brittle pieces or small quills, ex- ternally yellowish-gray, inner surface somewhat darker; often with conchoidal depressions ex- ternally Granaium, 370. Irregular pieces, outer surface marbled or grained, fragile, soft, rust-brown; characteristic odor and taste Sassafras, 332. Irregular pieces, outer surface pale 652 NOTES ON PHARMACOGNOSY. yellowish-brown with lighter spots, inner surface smooth and brownish-yellow; fracture abrupt, almost waxy Ptclca, 340. GROUP XLV. RASPED BARKS. An irregular coarse, grayish-brown powder mixed with many tough coarse fibers Quercus Alba, 371. GROUP XLVI. I