INTRODUCTIO I AMERICAN HISTORY \VOODBURN 5/- MO RAN Class --J^^-^-ru- Book n Copyright N' COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. INTEODUCTION TO AMEEICAN HISTORY BY JAMES ALBERT WOODBURN Professor of American History and Politics in Indiana University AND THOMAS FRANCIS MORAN Professor of History and Economics in Purdue University LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. FOURTH AVENUE & 30th STREET, NEW YORK PRAIRIE AVENUE & 25th STREET, CHICAGO 1916 .W15 COPYRIGHT, I916 BY LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. m 24 1916 7^ PREFACE "-- It is not possible for a pupil to take up the study of y American history intelligently without knowing something 4^.^^ of the European background. Events and conditions in Europe throw light upon the early history of the United States. This little book is intended to furnish that Euro- ^ pean background. By making use of it the pupil will be able to take up, in a more satisfactory way than would ) otherwise be possible, the formal study of American history in the seventh grade. It may seem somewhat strange at first thought that an introduction to American history should extend so far back into the history of Europe, but the fact is that the roots of our history strike far back into European soil. The book fulfills the requirements of the Committee of Eight of the American Historical Association and, in , ad- dition, presents an introductory chapter on ''The Dawn of History." If it is desired to adhere strictly to the recom- mendations of the Committee the first chapter of the book should be omitted. We believe, however, that a study of this chapter will add very greatly to the effectiveness of the course. Acknowledgments are due for the following pictures in the book: to The Commercial Museum, Philadelphia, for ''Model of a Phoenician Vessel"; to The Encylopaedia Bri- tannica Corporation, New York, for "Xerxes Watching the Battle of Salamis" and "Phidias Building the Parthenon"; to the Mentor Association, New York, for "Coronado on the March," "Magellan Landing at the Philippines" and "Cartier at Montreal"; and to Mr. G. A. Reid, Toronto, for "The Coming of the White Man. " James Albert Woodburn Thomas Francis Moran iii CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. The Dawn of History 1 II. The Rise of the Greeks 18 III. The Greeks as Writers 30 IV. The Greeks as Builders and Artists 44 V. Greek Life and Character 50 VI. The Spread of Greek Civilization 58 VII. The Romans as the Successors of the Greeks 67 VIII. The Romans Conquer the We]st 79 IX. Rome, The Capital of the Empire 88 X. Christianity in the Roman Empire 96 XI. The Germans, the Successors and Heirs of THE Romans 102 XII. The Spread of Christianity 112 XIII. Alfred and the English 122 XIV. The Coming of the Normans 133 XV. King John and the Fight for English Liberty 143 XVI. English Life in the Middle Ages 149 XVII. Pilgrims and Explorers 158 XVIII. The Beginnings of Discovery 176 XIX. Columbus Seeks a Route to India 188 XX. The Successors of Columbus 220 XXI. The Beginnings of Conquest 233 XXII. England as a Rival of Spain 246 XXIII. France as a Rival of Spain 257 V vi CONTENTS XXIV. The Dutch Fight against their Ruler, the King of Spain 266 XXV. Englishmen Join in the Fight against Spain . 270 XXVI. The Early Attempts of the English to Found Colonies in North America 282 Suggestions to Teachers 295 Index 305 LIST OF MAPS PAGE The Early Oriental World {Colored) facing 4 The Persian Empire 15 Greece in Ancient Times 19 Colonies of Greece {Colored) facing 58 Alexander's Empire 65 Rome and Carthage 73 The Roman Empire at the Height of Its Power {Colored) . . between 90, 91 Europe in the Early Centm-ies of the Christian Era 103 England in the Middle Ages II3 Normandy and Southeast England in 10(36 136 The Routes of the Crusades {Colored) facing 162 Trade Routes to the East I77 The Known World at the Time of Columbus 191 The Voyages of Columbus 214 The Discoveries of Columbus 215 Early Voyages of Discovery and the Pope's Line of Division .... 221 Magellan's Expedition, 1519-1522 227 Early French Settlements 232 The Scene of the Conquest by Cortez 237 The Route of De Soto's Expedition 241 Drake's Voyage around the Globe 255 The Flight of the Spanish Armada 280 French, Spanish, and English Explorations in America up to 1600 . . 283 Early Settlements of the EngHsh, French, and Spanish in the New World 291 vu INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER I THE DAWN OF HISTORY America **The New Part." In thinking about the United States of America we should always bear in mind that our country is a part of the ^^New World." Before Columbus made his famous voyage of discovery in 1492, the great American continents, stretching almost from pole to pole, were unknown. No one had dreamed of the ex- istence of this great body of land. Parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa had been known for centuries and these three parts are now called the ^'Old World." The naming of this ''New Part" took place in 1507. It came about in this way. Martin Waldseemiiller, a German college professor, in writing the introduction to a geography, suggested that the newly discovered continent be named America in honor of Americus Vespucius, to whom he gave the credit of discovering it. He spoke of the continent as the ''new" or "fourth part" of the globe; Europe, Asia and Africa being the other three. Now in thinking about this "new" or "fourth part" of the world, we should remember that the history of the New World is based upon that of the Old. The men who built homes and founded colonies in the New World came from various parts of the Old, more particularly from Europe. And they brought with them their tools and 2 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY machines, as well as their knowledge of art and agriculture, of government and religion, of science and invention. The history of the Old World was thus carried over and continued in the New. The American colonist in his new home did not begin all over again. His history in the New World begins where it left off in the Old. This same thing would occur at the present time if a group of your neigh- Rameses and His Lions Rameses, the great Egyptian king and conqueror, lived about 1350 b.c. He is represented here in a great triumphal procession with his lions at his side. bors and friends should emigrate and make homes in some new land. They would carry with them certain parts of their civilization and we are going to learn that the Ameri- can Colonists did likewise. The Roots of American History. Since the roots of American history extend back into the soil of the Old World, we should know something of the history of this Old World if we would understand the history of our own THE DAWN OF HISTORY 4 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY country. We should know in a general way what men did and learned and thought, before America was discovered in 1492. The Cradle of Our Civilization. The history of the world begins with the people of the far East or the Orient, as it is called. The cradle of the world's civilization was in the valleys of the Nile and Euphrates Rivers, two of the most wonderful and interesting river valleys in the world. Here history begins with the Egyptians and Chaldeans. Let us glance for a moment at the early achievements of these eastern nations. The Egyptians. There was a very good reason why an early civilization should spring up on the banks of the Nile River. The climate was mild and the soil fertile and it was very easy to obtain food and clothing there. One could get a living almost without working at all. Each year when the heavy rains came in the mountains, near the sources of the river, the Nile overflowed its banks and left a layer of fertile mud over all the surrounding country. Grain was scattered broadcast in this rich loam and one of the ancient writers tells us that it was trampled into the ground by cattle, goats and sheep. The result was a bountiful harvest, almost without labor on the part of the farmer. Egypt was called ''The Granary of the Medi- terranean World" and often furnished food to other peoples besides her own. You will recall the story of Joseph and the other sons of Jacob who went into Egypt to purchase corn when famine had stricken their own land. Grain, however, was not the only crop raised by the early Egyptian. In his garden he had peas, beans, radishes, lettuce, cucumbers, and onions. In his vine- THE DAWN OF HISTORY 5 yard he raised an abundance of grapes from which he made his own wine. He also raised clover for his cattle and flax for his clothing. If you could take a peep into his barnyard, you would see sheep, cows, goats, pigs, ducks, geese, and pigeons, as well as antelopes, gazelles, and storks. Chickens were not known to him and he did not domesticate the horse until a later time. Some of these animals, however, were not much like those to be found now on an American farm. The pig, for example, was very thin and scrawny, more hke the wild hogs or ^^razor-backs" which ranged at one time through our forests. Since the water for the farmer's fields came all at once, it was necessary for him to store up a part of it for future use, so the Egyptian built reservoirs and canals and irrigated his land in much the same way that some of our Western farmers are doing at the present time. One of these reservoirs was known as Lake Moeris. It was many miles in diameter and was found to be in perfect condition when examined by a Roman engineer, two thousand years after it was built. These old Egyptians made things in a very substantial way. As it was so easy to make a living, the Egyptian found it possible to turn his attention to other things. He was especially skillful in architecture. His buildings were, as a rule, massive and very durable. The best example of this kind of architecture is the Great Pyramid of Gizeh, which is still standing, although built about five thousand years ago. This huge structure, the largest in the world, covers thirteen acres of land and is four hundred and eighty-one feet high. It contains more than two million blocks of 6 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY stone, some of them weighing more than fifty tons. Its faces were beautifully polished and its joints so nicely fitted together that they could scarcely be seen with the naked eye. Thirty years of the hardest kind of labor Building the Pyramids were required to build this pyramid. The blocks of stone were quarried in the mountains, dragged down to the Nile, and then conveyed on rafts to the site of the pyramid. All this was done by hand. The horse was not in use among the Egyptians and hoisting machinery was apparently not known. These pyramids were the tombs of the kings. THE DAWN OF HISTORY Upon his private dwelling, however, the Egyptian did not spend very much time or labor. He lived in a rude house, consisting of a wooden frame covered with clay, dried in the sun. These houses were very perishable. But the Temple of Karnak, one fourth of a mile long, still exists as a splendid and impressive ruin after en- during the storms of thou- sands of years. In science, for a beginner the Egyptian did wonder- ful things. The flood washed away his boundary lines each year; hence he had need of geometry and surveying in order to fix the line fences. The clear climate and the level plains were favorable to a study of the heavens; hence, he made advances in astron- omy. He calculated the length of the year to be nearly three hundred sixty- five and one fourth days and divided it into months, thus making the calendar which, with a few minor correc- tions, we use to-day. He foretold eclipses, knew the points of the compass, used the decimal system, invented a good system of weights and measures, and measured time by The "Hall of Columns," Temple OF Karnak Only the ruins remain now of this wonderful structure. The picture shows how it must have looked in the days of Egypt's greatness. These gigantic columns were built entirely by hand and decorated with curious pictures and writing. It must have taken the labor of thou- sands of men for many years. 8 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY means of the sun-dial and the water-clock. In arithmetic he used figures as high as millions, and in constructing his buildings, he used the principles of the arch, the lever, and the inclined plane. When we review the civilization of ancient Egypt we are almost tempted to say that there is ^'nothing new under the sun." Egypt certainly made a good beginning and we should remember that the Nile River was at the foundation of her prosperity. An old Greek writer called Egypt, "the gift of the Nile," and certainly the Nile River largely made Egypt what she was. The Chaldeans. The little tongue of land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers was occupied in very ancient times by another important people, the Chaldeans, or the Babylonians, as they are sometimes called. This is one of the most famous little strips of land in the world. It has been called, "the graveyard of empires and nations," because so many different peoples lived and died on the little peninsula. The civiUzation of Chaldea was much like that of Egypt. The life of the people in old Chaldea was based upon her two great rivers in much the same way that the fife of the Egyptians was based upon the Nile. Agriculture was the principal occupation and the land was made exceptionally fertile by irrigation from the rivers. In fact, the crops were so marvelously large that the old Greek historian, Herodotus, who traveled in Chaldea, said that he was afraid to tell the whole truth about them for fear people would not believe him; and Herodotus, as you may find out sometime, did not hesitate to tell some pretty big stories about what he saw. THE DAWN OF HISTORY 9 Brick-making, next to agriculture, was the most impor- tant industry. The Chaldeans, unlike the Egyptians, did not have stone for their buildings and used brick almost entirely. These bricks were made from clay which was very easy to get in this country. Some of the bricks were dried in the sun, and others baked in kilns. On the whole, they made rather poor building material, and yet the Chaldeans built some notable buildings from them. The Tower Temple, for example, rose in the shape of a pyramid, story after story, above the plain and was used as a temple for religious worship and for observing the stars, as well. From these rude bricks were also made the famous elevated gardens, in imitation of mountain scenery. The most noted of these were the ^'Hanging Gardens," built by the King Nebuchadnezzar for the pleasure of his queen, who formerly lived in the Median mountains and hungered for mountain scenery. These famous gardens were considered, as you know, one of the '^ Seven wonders of the world." In science, the Chaldeans were as far advanced as the Egyptians and in some respects, more so. They were also exceedingly practical in making use of their scientific knowledge. They invented the potter's wheel and used the arch in the construction of aqueducts. They knew the use of the lever and pulley and devised a good system of weights and measures. They divided time into years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes and seconds and measured it by the sun-dial in the day time and by the water-clock at night. They predicted echpses, made maps of the heavens, and marked out the course of the sun. This was not a simple thing to do. Would you think it an easy task to go out into the night and study the stars as 10 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY the Chaldeans did without teachers, books, or instruments, except those of the simplest and rudest kind? Of course, some of this was a very crude kind of astronomy, and had to do with fortune-telling by means of the stars, but we should remember that even the English people attempted The Hanging Gardens of Babylon to tell fortunes by the stars as late as the time of Queen Ehzabeth, in the sixteenth century. Egypt and Chaldea, then, as the ''twin sources of the world's culture" made many notable contributions to THE DAWN OF HISTORY 11 civilization which we in America are making use of at the present time. When we get our first ghmpse of these people away back in ancient times we discover that they were not barbarians by any means. The Phoenicians. These two nations, however, are not the only ones that were prominent in the dawn of history. The Phoenicians were also important. They lived on the narrow strip of ter- ritory, one hundred and fifty miles long and ten to fifteen miles wide, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea (see map facing p. 4) . Here with their backs to the Leb- anon mountains and their faces to- wards the sea, they came, naturally enough, at a very early time to be sea- faring men. They were the sailors, traders, and colonizers of the ancient oriental world. As early as 1500 b.c, the Medi- terranean was dotted with their ships — small open boats propelled by oars and sails. They almost had a monopoly of the sea. The north star was called the '^ Phoenicians' Star," because it guided the course of the Phoenicians' boats. At that time the mariner's compass which is used on all ships now-a-days was not known. In these frail Model of a Phoenician Ship These swift and trim little boats were the first carriers of commerce on the Mediterranean Sea. They were propelled by sails and oars and weathered many fierce gales. 12 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY vessels the Phoenicians traversed every part of the Medi- terranean Sea and even ventured out at times into the Atlantic Ocean. In their trading journeys by land and sea they brought amber from the Baltic, tin from Britain, and ostrich feathers from Ethiopia. Some of the products of Phoenicia were famous the world over. The cedars of Lebanon, for example, fur- nished excellent ship timber and made the tallest and the straightest masts; the glass of Sidon, beautifully colored, cut and polished, was eagerly sought every- where; and the purple dye, made from a snail or shell- fish found near Tyre, was used to color the robes of kings and queens. The Phoenicians also took large contracts from neighbor- ing peoples. They built ships and rented or sold them; they made a voyage around Africa for the Egyptians; they built the bridges across the Hellespont over which an army of a million Persians invaded Greece; and they furnished some of the material and did a large part of the finer work on Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem. The greatest importance of the Phoenicians, however, does not lie in what they made or in what they found out for themselves. The most important thing they did was to take the inventions and ideas of other peoples and spread them far and wide. For this reason they have been called ^'the missionaries of civilization." For ex- ample, they obtained the alphabet, probably from the Egyptians, and, having made some improvements upon it, gave it to the Greeks; the Greeks gave it to the Romans and the Romans handed it down to the Germans and other peoples of modern Europe. Thus, the Phoenician THE DAWN OF HISTORY 13 alphabet with its twenty-two characters is the basis of the alphabet which we are using to-day. The Hebrews. The Hebrews were also an interesting Building Solomon's Temple The Temple at Jerusalem was one of the most famous buildings in the world. It was built by King Solomon with the assistance of skilled workmen from Phoenicia. The Phoenicians also furnished some of the buildmg material. and important people in this early time. They were mostly shepherds and therefore different from the three peoples already described. While the civilization of Egypt and Chaldea was based on their great rivers and 14 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY that of Phoenicia upon the sea, the foundation of Hebrew civihzation was rehgion. The Hebrews did very httle to advance the material civihzation of the world. They were not ^'mighty builders," like the Egyptians, or great traders like the Phoenicians; they were not famous in science or art, or invention, but they have the proud distinction of being the great moral and religious teachers of the world. Nations before them had religions of various kinds but the Hebrews were the first to worship one supreme God. This constituted a purer and more elevating form of religion than any other. After a time the religion of the Hebrews developed into Christianity and thus became the religion of a large part of the people of the world. The Hebrews also gave us the Ten Commandments, 'Hhe noblest brief collection of the laws of right living that has come down from the ancient world.'' When we consider the writings of the Hebrews and their religious influence upon the civilized world, we must give to this nation a high place among the historic peoples of ancient times. The country which the Hebrews occupied was known as Palestine and lay south of Phoenicia (see map facing p. 4). It was a small country, only one hundred and fifty miles long and one hundred miles wide — a mere dot on the face of the globe — and yet within these narrow bounds great things were done by such Hebrew kings as Saul, ^Hhe mighty man of valor," David, ^Hhe sweet singer of Israel," and Solomon, proverbial for his wisdom. And still greater things were done by the Hebrew prophets and teachers. Interesting stories of these great men are to be found in the Old Testament. THE DAWN OF HISTORY 15 The Persians. And now a word about another eastern people — the Persians. These were also quite different from the other peoples already mentioned. They did not seem to care much for art or literature. Their architecture was rather poor and they did not do much in science. They were, however, noted in another direction. They ^t\_^ The Persian Empire were famous as soldiers and governors. They were the empire builders of their day. Persia was at first a small dis- trict of country lying near the Persian Gulf (see map facing p. 4). But under its famous kings, Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius, it expanded into a great empire, extending from the Indus River on the east to the Aegean Sea on the west — a distance of more than three thousand miles. 16 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY It was from five hundred to fifteen hundred miles in width and had a population of seventy-five million — ■ three fourths as many people as there are in the United States to-day. If it could be moved to the westward, the Persian Empire would cover more than one half of the map of Europe. It embraced all of the known world except India and China on the east and Greece and Carthage on the west. The Persians, then, were the conquerors, rulers, and governors — the Romans of their day. We are not inclined in these days to praise a conqueror who takes possession of the country of a weaker nation, but it should be said in favor of these Persians that they united the East under a much better form of government than it had ever known before. The tribes which had been warring with each other for centuries were compelled to live together in peace and harmony under Persian rule for two hundred years. With this period of peace came prosperity and advancement in civilization. The Persians also did many things to bind together their vast empire. They made good roads — better than were ever built before. The most famous of these was the Royal Road, extending from Susa to Sardis, a distance of fifteen hundred miles. Along this famous highway there traveled great crowds of people, representing scores of surrounding tribes. Some of these people rode on tire- less Bokhara ponies, or horses, while others trudged along with donkeys or camels, laden with goods for some distant market. Government messengers, mounted on swift Ara- bian horses, often made the fifteen hundred miles, which is nearly half way across the United States, in six days. Ordinarily it took about three months to make the journey. THE DAWN OF HISTORY 17 An old Greek traveler marveled at the speed with which the royal messengers, changing horses and men at short intervals, could carry the mail. He thought it very remarkable that they never stopped for wind, rain, or the darkness of night. What would he say if he could see a present-day mail train like ^^The Twentieth Century Limited," flying from New York to Chicago, a thousand miles; in twenty hours? This train does not stop for rain or darkness, either. In this brief account of these Eastern peoples among whom was the '^ cradle of our civilization" we can see how far back in the history of the world are the roots of the American life of to-day. Although these five empires and nations declined and fell centuries ago, many of their achievements are still in existence. The architecture of the Egyptian, the agriculture and industries of the Chal- deans, the commercial genius of the Phoenicians, the religion of the Hebrews and the military and governing skill of the Persians, all have lent aid to us in the United States. They ^4it the torch" of civilization and passed it on to the nations farther west. Europe now becomes the scene of action. After these eastern nations had passed away, Greece became the center of the world's civilization to the study of which we shall now turn. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. What we know of the history of Egypt goes back four thousand years before Christ. It has been nearly two thousand years since Christ lived, making about six thousand years of recorded history. Represent on the blackboard these six thousand years by a Une, allowing one inch to each century. 2. Mark ofif the time since the birth of Christ. Call that part of the line to the left B.C. (Before Christ), the part to the right A.D. (Anno Domini, or in the Year of our Lord, meaning since Christ was born). 18 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 3. Mark off on the line the part covered since the *' New World " was known as such. 4. The United States as a nation is less than one hundred and fifty years old. Mark off on the line the part covered by United States history. Now study your line carefully to see what it shows. 5. Tell at least one thing for which we are indebted to each of the five early nations mentioned in this chapter. Show the connection, if you can, between their daily life and ours. Think carefully. 6. What is meant by " The Cradle of Civilization " and " The Missionaries of Civilization " ? PRONOUNCING LIST Aegean, e-je'an Herodotus, he-rod'o-tws Americus Vespucius. a-mer'i-ciis Israel. iz'ra-6l v6s-pu'shi-us Karnak. kar'nak Bokhara, bo-ka'ra Lebanon, leb'd-non Cambyses. kam-bi'sez Nebuchadnezzar. n6b'lJ-kS,d-n6z'ar Chaldea. kal-de'd Palestine, pares-tin Cyrus, si'rits Phoenicia. fe-nish'I-d Darius, dd-ri'ws Susa. soo'sa Ethiopia. e'th6-6'pl-d Sardis. sar'dls Euphrates, u-fra'tez Tigris, tl'grls Gizeh. ge'z6 Waldseemiiller. valt'za-mul'er Hellespont, hgl'les-pont CHAPTER II THE RISE OF THE GREEKS ^'Our laws, our literature, our religion, our art, have their roots in Greece.^' — Shelley. While the Persians were welding together a great empire in the East, the most interesting and most important nation of the ancient world was growing up in Greece and the surrounding islands. Here was the first home of culture in Europe. THE RISE OF THE GREEKS 19 Greece, **The Heir of the Orient." Greece has been called the ''heir of the Orient"; this means that Greece inherited the civilization of the eastern nations. She developed it to a still higher degree of perfection. Greece Greece in Ancient Times is a peninsula jutting out into the sea. She thus came into contact with Phoenician commerce and other currents of civilization coming from the East. The journey from Phoenicia to Greece was both short and easy. It was not difficult for sailors, even without the use of the mariner's compass, to find their way from island to island and 20 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY finally to the mainland of Greece. For this reason, the islands of the Aegean Sea have often been called ''stepping stones." Greece thus faced the Orient and was the first European country to profit by the civilization of the East. She was the first to extend ''welcoming hands to the bearers of the world's best gifts." But the Greeks had also developed a most beautiful civilization of their own. They were not mere imitators. They were a bright, alert and quick people. They had good minds and lively imaginations and they lived in one of the most beautiful countries of the world. The sea, the rivers, the mountains and the lakes, combined with a transparent atmosphere and temperate climate to make living in Greece pleasant and even joyful. And so on Greek soil there grew up a freer and better civilization than any which had existed in the East. There was, as we shall see later, a greater freedom in religion, art, government, and modes of living than the Oriental nations ever saw. It is for this reason that the people of to-day admire Greek civilization so much and have profited so largely by it. Patriotism and Public Spirit. In the first place, we admire the Greeks for their fine patriot- ism and unselfish public spirit. The Greek was always ready to fight for his country and to sacrifice himself, if necessary, for the public welfare. We admire any man who has good principles and high ideals A Greek Warrior THE RISE OF THE GREEKS 21 and is ready to fight for them when necessary. This the Greek did. The Wars with the Persians. There is abundant evi- dence of this patriotism and pubUc spirit in the wars which the Greeks waged against the Persians. When a nation is victorious in arms and has had a taste of con- quest, it is very difficult for it to stop fighting. After the Persians had conquered everybody in the East, they cast their eyes towards the West and fastened them upon Greece. Now, when one nation wishes to make war upon another, it is usually easy enough to find a cause for doing so. The Persian War began in this way. When the Persians were subduing Greek cities in Asia Minor, some years before, the Greeks of Athens — the Athenians — ■ sent assistance to their kinsmen. The result was the looting and burning of Sardis, the Persian capital. King Darius was terribly angry and it is said that he appointed a herald to cry out to him three times each day, ^^Sire, Remember the Athenians." And he did remember the Athenians. The First Invasion (492 B.C.). He gathered together a large army and fieet and sent them against Greece. They accomplished nothing, however, as the vessels were dashed to splinters in a terrific storm off Mount Athos. Darius began his preparations anew. Before starting out a second time, however, he sent messengers to the Greek cities asking them for '^ earth and water" in token of their submission to the power of Persia. The messengers received their earth and water from the Greeks in this way: they were cast into a pit at Athens and into a well at Sparta and told to help themselves to all the earth and 22 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY water they wanted. The Persian king was insulted by this, of course, and so the fight was on. The Second Invasion (490 B.C.). The fleet and army went directly to Greece and the army was landed on the Plain of Marathon, near Mount Pentelicus and some twenty or twenty-five miles from Athens. Here, the Athenians went out to meet them and to engage them almost single-handed. Sparta had promised to give assistance and when the Persian hosts were sighted, Phidippides, a swift Athenian runner, was sent to that city over one hundred fifty miles of rugged road to notify the Spartans to hasten to the scene of the battle. The Spartans, however, declined to come, saying that it was against their law to start out upon a military expedition before the full of the moon. This probably was not the real reason for their refusal. It is likely that they were not particularly anxious to help the Athenians, their old rivals, out of a tight place. The Athenians, therefore, with about ten thousand men, were compelled to face the victorious Persians, with five or possibly ten times that number. The Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.). The Greek hearts were strong, however, and Miltiades, their leader, used splendid strategy. He marched his men out boldly and rapidly to encounter the enemy. When about an arrow's flight distant from the Persian ranks, the Greeks broke into a run and were upon the enemy in an instant. The Persians were surprised and confused and their arrows had little effect upon the heavy armor of the Greeks. The long spears of the Greeks, on the other hand, played havoc with the Persians. The battle was soon over, and six THE RISE OF THE GREEKS 23 thousand four hundred Persians lay dead upon the field. Only one hundred ninety-two Greeks were killed. Again Phidippides, although weary from fighting in the battle Battle of Marathon and possibly not yet wholly recovered from his long run to Sparta, was sent to convey the news to Athens, twenty- two miles away. He raced over the rough roads of the mountains, entered the city, and after shouting, ^'Ours is the victory," fell dead in his tracks. The Third Invasion (480 B.C.). Beaten, the Persians sailed away to their home in Asia, only to return again 24 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY ten years later. In the meantime, the great King Darius had died and was succeeded by his son, Xerxes, a vain braggart with far less ability than his father. King Xerxes called together a council of the nobles and said to them, in a boasting way: ^'I propose to bridge the Helles- pont and march through Europe and set fire to Athens for burning Sardis. By reducing Attica and Greece, the sky will be the only boundary of Persia." He determined to hurl the whole strength of the great Persian empire against Greece, and spent four years in active preparation for the expedition. He collected an army of probably five hundred thousand men and a fleet of twelve hundred ships. Mind- ful of the disaster off Mount Athos, he caused a canal to be cut across the isthmus at this point for the passage of his ships. This took three years. Now, with his motley horde, gathered together from forty-six different tribes and nations, he was ready to advance. Side by side with his well-disciphned Persians were the dark-skinned Ethio- pians, clad in the hides of beasts, and savages from Central Asia. To transport this huge throng from Asia to Europe was no easy task. He caused pontoon bridges to be con- structed across the Hellespont — bridges of boats lashed together with planks. The rough sea broke the first of these bridges, whereupon Xerxes flew into a rage and caused the Hellespont to be flogged on account of its naughtiness. Shortly after, the troops passed in safety to the other side, with the Hellespont apparently on its good behavior. The Battle of Thermopylae. The outlook for the Greeks was gloomy enough, but they met the attack like men. THE RISE OF THE GREEKS 25 This time the Spartans led and their King Leonidas, with three hundred Spartans and a few thousand alhes, met the advancing Persian host at Thermopylae. Here, the Persians attempted to enter central Greece through a narrow pass, twenty feet wide, which separated the moun- tains from the sea. Leonidas and his brave men disputed the passage and the battle raged for three days. The whole Persian army could not dislodge the stubborn Greeks in the narrow pass. Xerxes charged the pass time after time only to be repulsed. He even sent the flower of his army, the '^Ten Thousand Immortals," against Leoni- das, but all in vain. Finally, a traitor showed the Persians a secret path by which they crossed the mountains and attacked the Greeks in the rear. Leonidas, seeing that the day was lost, permitted his allies to seek safety in flight, but he and his noble three hundred stood their ground and fought until not one of them was left alive. A short time after the war, a monument was placed upon the hillock where these brave men made their last stand and this inscription was carved upon it: '^ Stranger, go and tell the Spartans that we lie here, having obeyed their word." Leonidas and his Spartans were defeated at Thermopylae in one sense, but in another they won a brilliant victory. The Spartan law would not permit retreat and Leonidas and his men, preferring death to dishonor, sacrificed themselves upon the altar of duty — ^'examples for all time of courage and patriotic devotion." The Athenians Flee to the ** Wooden Walls." Athens, and in fact all of Greece, was now at the mercy of the Persian conquerors. Xerxes bore down upon Athens, bent upon taking his revenge. What should the Athenians 26 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY do? Wliere should they turn? The priestess, presiding over the Oracle at Delphi, who was supposed to foretell future events, had prophesied that the Athenians would find safety behind ''wooden walls." Some, therefore, wished to hide behind the wooden palisades of a fortified hill called the Acropolis, and others to flee to the forests; but Theniistocles, a wise and able leader, persuaded them that the ''wooden walls" meant the sides of the ships. Accordingly, Athens was deserted and more than two hundred thousand people were carried in ships to Salamis and other islands in the vicinity. Xerxes and his army then proceeded to pillage and to destroy the abandoned city. The Sea-Fight at Salamis. The Greek fighting men, in the meantime, had gone on board their ships and were waiting an opportunity to attack the Persian fleet. The Greeks had nearly four hundred ships and the Persians twice as many. The ships, you know, were propelled by oars. Theniistocles saw that it would be to his advantage to fight the battle in a narrow place where all of the Persian ships could not be used at one time. So he managed to bring on the attack in the narrow strait which separates the island of Salamis from the mainland. In addition to the immense size of the squadron, Xerxes had famous sailors from among the Phoenicians and Egyptians. He was, therefore, supremely confident of victory; and, in order that he might enjoy the battle to the fullest extent, he caused a golden throne to be built on the hillside from which he could view the spectacle. But it is probable that the great king did not especially enjoy the entertainment. The battle lasted from morning until night and the Persian fleet was utterly routed and one half of it THE RISE OF THE GREEKS 27 destroyed. The victorious Athenians then returned to their plundered city and repaired the damage done by the invaders. The poet, Byron, who was always an ardent Battle of Salamis admirer of Greek life and character, wrote the following lines about this great sea fight: ^'A King sat on the rocky brow Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis; And ships by thousands lay below, And men in nations, — all were his. He counted them at break of day, And when the sun set, where were they?" 28 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Final Defeat for the Persians. One more battle and the Persian Wars were over. The stubborn valor of the Spartans and the brilhant, dashing skill of the Athenians routed another immense Persian army near Plataea, in Central Greece. It is said that out of two hundred and Xerxes Watching the Battle of Salamis sixty thousand Persians engaged in this battle, only three thousand got back to their homes in Asia. The Greeks lost about one hundred and fifty men. The war was over. The small flying remnant of the Persians was glad enough to escape to Asia, and no Persian army ever again invaded Greece. The Real Result of the Persian Wars. Now, what did this victory mean? It meant much to Greece, of course, but vastly more to the civilized world, and it means much to us. In a word, it meant that the free and elevating THE RISE OF THE GREEKS 29 civilization of Greece was to dominate Europe, instead of the narrow and oppressive spirit of Persia. Two different kinds of civilization were contending at Marathon and the better kind fortunately prevailed. We in America are now following Greek rather than Persian ideals. The victory also made Greece a world power and gave her confidence in her own strength and character. It also inspired her to great things in art and literature during the "Golden Age" of Greek history, which you will read about in a later chapter. In short, the Greeks and, more particularly, the Athenians found themselves during the wars with Persia. As one of their historians said at a later time: ''The Athenians are the only people who succeed to the full extent of their hope, because they throw them- selves without reserve into whatever they resolve to do." Every educated Greek felt that he was a useful and neces- sary part of the state. When the Athenian boys became eighteen years of age they took the following oath: "We will never bring disgrace to this, our City, by any act of dishonesty or cowardice, nor ever desert our suffering comrades in the ranks. We will fight for the ideals and sacred things of the City, both alone and with many; we will revere and obey the City's laws and do our best to incite a like respect and reverence in those above us who are prone to annul or to set them at naught; we will strive unceasingly to quicken the public's sense of civic duty. Thus in all these ways we will transmit this City not only not less but greater, better and more beautiful than it was transmitted to us." This oath of citizenship, taken by the young men of 30 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Athens, cannot be repeated too often and should be known by heart by every American citizen of to-day. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. Compare Greece with Egypt as to industries and character of people. Compare Greece with Chaldea. 2. Why did you want the Greeks to win in the struggle with Persia? 3. How do you account for the success of the Greeks? 4. What does the map in this chapter show you? PHONOUNCING LIST AcropoUs. d-kr6p'6-lls Phidippides. fl-dlp'i-dez Athens. ath'6nz Platea. pld-te'd Athos. ath'6s Salamis. sal'd-mls Attica. at'I-kd Sparta, spar'td Leonidas. le-5n'I-dds Themistocles. the-mis'to-klez Marathon. mar'd-th6n Thermopylae. ther-mop'I-le Miltiades. mll-ti'd-dez Xerxes, zurk'zez Pentelicus. p6n-t6ri-ktis CHAPTER III THE GREEKS AS WRITERS The Greeks won many laurels on the battle-field, but they won still greater victories in the field of literature. There are some immortal names in the list of Greek writers. Homer's is one of these. He made poems about the siege of Troy. Do you remember the story? The son of Priam, king of Troy, came to Greece, once upon a time, and carried away Helen, the wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. Helen was the most beautiful woman in all Greece and was greatly beloved by her people. The Greeks, therefore, looked upon this act as a national insult THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 31 Homer 32 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY and gathered together from all quarters to recover Helen and to punish the Trojans. They were a famous body of men. Agamemnon, 'Hhe king of men/' and brother of Menelaus, was in supreme command. The terrible Achilles, the most powerful single-handed fighter among the Greeks, was also there, and so was Odysseus, the most cunning, shrewd, and crafty of them all. They assaulted the walls of Troy for ten years without avail, and finally captured the city by means of the famous stratagem of the ^'wooden horse." Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. The poems of Homer are the ^' Iliad" and the ''Odyssey." The Iliad tells the story of the last part of the ten years' siege of Troy and portrays the terrible wrath of Achilles against his chief, Agamemnon. The Odyssey tells of the wanderings and adventures of Odysseus, or Ulysses, as he is sometimes called, while on his way back from Troy to his home in the island of Ithaca. He had many mishaps. On one occasion, he and his men were driven by a storm upon a land where the Cyclops dwelt. These Cyclops were a race of savage giants with one eye in the center of the forehead. Their king was the terrible man-eating Polyphemus. When he discovered the ship-wrecked strangers within his domain, he took them home with him to his cave in the hillside. In this cave he also kept his sheep. Polyphemus was a cannibal and immediately set about devouring the com- rades of Odysseus. After he had made away with six of them, Odysseus gave him what wine he had left in his sacks and made him drunk. He then destroyed the single eye of the giant, making him totally blind. Odysseus and his companions then tried to ride out of the cave on the THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 33 Ulysses and Polyphemus backs of the sheep, but Polyphemus discovered their trick by feeHng along the sheep's backs as they went out and threw the men into the cave with a thud. Later they swung themselves under the huge bodies of the sheep and thus rode out of the cave to safety. After getting into the open air, they lost no time in putting out to sea. As they pushed away from the shore, however, they could not resist the temp- tation of hurling back a derisive shout to old Polyphemus, who stood disconsolate some little distance away. The great giant was so angered by this that he snatched off the top of a nearby mountain and hurled it with tremen- dous force in the direction from which the voices came; but he threw too far. The huge mass went over the boat and struck in the sea on the other side. The Greeks were awed into silence and the waves from the great mass of earth and stone slowly washed them back to the shore — almost to the very feet of blind Polyphemus. Needless to say Odysseus and his brave men now kept very quiet until Polyphemus had wandered off to care for his sheep. While the ''Iliad" is a story of war, the '^ Odyssey" is a story of peace, or rather of adventure. Homer appar- ently gets his hero into trouble in order that he may show his craft and cunning in getting out. And so it goes, year after year. Finally, after twenty years of wandering, Odysseus reaches his home in the disguise of a beggar. 34 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Many old friends fail to recognize him but his faithful dog, Argus, recognizes his master instantly and dies after giving him a most cordial welcome home. His wife, Penelope, was also there to greet him. She had remained faithful to Homer Chanting His Poems The traveling bard or minstrel sat down by the wayside or on the street corner and recited his odes to the tune of a lyre. People gathered, listened for a time and then went on their way. him during all these years, although besieged by more than one hundred suitors who told her that the Greeks who had gone to Troy were all dead many years ago. Although these poems were composed a thousand years before the Christian Era, they are considered by many to be the finest poems ever written. They were not put into THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 35 writing for many hundreds of years after their composition. In fact, at the time of Homer, the art of writing was not known to the Greeks. Homer was probably one of the traveUng bards or minstrels of the time, who went about reciting poetry at festivals and meetings of various kinds. In this way the poems were handed down for several centuries by word of mouth. After being reduced to writing, they were read by the fireside and studied in the schools. The Greeks often called Homer "the poet/^ on account of the great esteem in which they held him. Sophocles. The Greeks had another kind of poetry, known as the dramatic. This was intended to be acted upon the stage. The greatest of the dramatic poets was Sophocles, who was born near Athens about 495 B.C. He lived to be ninety years old and wrote more than one hundred plays. He was always fond of his native town and speaks of it in one of his plays as the place ''where the nightingale haunts the green glades, where narcissus and golden crocus bloom, where the springs of clear water never fail." To the Athenians he seemed, "a man loved by the gods," and he was worshiped by them as a hero after his death. The production of a great play in the city of Athens must have been a very beautiful and inspiring spectacle. The theater was semi-circular in shape with seats cut into the solid rock of the hillside. It was open to the sky and had no scenery aside from the rugged mountains and the blue sea. In this vast arena, thirty thousand people often sat from morning until night, listening to the sublime lines of the old Greek tragedies, and often moved to tears. Pericles, one of the wisest rulers of Athens, gave the people 36 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY free admission to the theater, because he looked upon it as a means of education, rather than of entertainment. In the United States we have several theaters built upon the Greek plan though not quite so large. There is one at The Theater of Dionysus at Athens The famous theater is here represented in its best days with the audience upon the benches and the actors on the stage. The mountains are plainly visible in the distance through the clear, pure air. the University of California, another at the University of the City of New York. There are also others. Prose Writers: Herodotus. Let us now turn for a moment to the prose writers. The first great writer of Greek prose was Herodotus, known as ^Hhe father of his- tory." He was a Greek of Asia Minor, born in 484 B.C. which was nearly two thousand years before America, THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 37 or the '^New Part" of the world, was discovered. He was an intimate friend of the dramatic poet, Sophocles. His main work is a history of the Persian Wars. From this history we gather almost all that we know about these Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N.Y. Greek Theater at University of California Students of the University of California sit in this theater, as the Athenians did in ancient times, and enjoy plays of various kinds. The uniform climate makes this possible. great conflicts. Before writing his history, he traveled over almost the entire civilized world, from Babylon to Italy. His book is a book of travel, almost as much as of history. It abounds in anecdotes and stories about people and places and is intensely interesting reading. 38 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Thucydides. The greatest Greek historian, however, was Thucydides, born about 471 B.C. His work is not so gossipy and entertaining as that of Herodotus but it is vastly more reUable and accurate. He tells the story of the great war between Sparta and Athens, usually called the Peloponnesian War, which began in 431 and lasted for twenty-seven years. He gives us a notable description of the plague or ''Black Death," which broke out in Athens after the people from the country had crowded within the walls of the city. Another part of his history is the ''Funeral Oration," a sort of Memorial Day address delivered by Pericles in honor of those who fell during the first year of the war. Thucydides was a patriotic and public-spirited Athe- nian, but he was rather harshly treated by his fellow citizens. In the early part of the war, while he was in command of the fleets, a city was taken which it was thought he should have protected. He was charged with using the fleet to protect his own gold mines instead of the city which fell. It now appears that he was innocent of the charge, yet he was removed from his command. We are not certain that he was banished from Athens, yet he may have been. It is certain that he was absent from his native city for tw^enty years after this event and that during this time he was traveling and studying prepara- tory to writing his great history. He was proud of his book when finished and said: "My history has been composed, not as the exploit of an hour, but as a posses- sion of all time." He was right. His history was never more valuable than it is to-day. Many modern historians think it a model of its kind in many respects. THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 39 Demosthenes. ''Among no other people has pubHc speaking been so important and so effective." There were two reasons for this. In the first place, a man who wished to enter public life was obhged to be a pubhc speaker. Athens was governed by the great assembly which con- sisted of all male citizens over eighteen years of age. The men who addressed the assembly stood upon a high rock or throne, and thousands listened to them. On the hill- sides of rainless Greece the air is so rare that the human voice carries easily for even more than a half mile, making it possible to address thousands of people through the ear as we now address them by our newspapers through the eye. The orator had far more influence in Greece than he has in such modern countries as England and the United States. Man of the present day is influenced by what he reads, probably more than by what he hears. In the second place, a man in a lawsuit in Athens was compelled to plead his own case. He had to speak for himself. He could not hire a lawyer to do the talking for him, as we do. He could, however, hire the lawyer to write a speech for him to be delivered by himself. This was often done, so that, taking it all in all, the gift of public speaking was more valuable in Greece than in any other country before or since. Greece had many fine orators, but Demosthenes was by far the greatest of them all. He was also the ''greatest master of Greek prose," and some think him the greatest orator the world has ever produced. When a boy, he seemed to have none of the qualifications of the orator or statesman. He was shy and retiring in disposition, his voice was weak, and his body frail and awkward. When 40 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY he was quite young, his father, a wealthy manufacturer, died and left a large amount of property, which was promptly stolen by the guardian of the young Demos- thenes. The boy determined then and there to study oratory in order to be able to bring the thief to justice. This he did with marked success, but he had a very hard time in becoming a good public speaker. He worked industriously. He put pebbles in his mouth in order to increase the distinctness of his speech and he practiced before the roaring waves of the sea. In order to improve his style he wrote out the history of Thu- cydides eight times; and yet notwithstanding all of this, he met defeat after defeat. The Athenian audiences were accus- tomed to good speaking and were very critical, so they howled him down and he went away in sorrow to mope by the seashore. But he re- turned later and moved that same audience to anger, to laughter, and to tears. Demosthenes was not only a great orator, but a patriotic statesman, as well. Athens had a free government — a government by the people — and Demosthenes saw that Philip, the king of Macedonia, was attempting to bring all Greece under his despotic sway. He then became the champion of Greek freedom, just as Patrick Henry and Demosthenes at the Seaside THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 41 James Otis at a later time became the champions of American freedom. He delivered twelve stirring, scathing and thrilUng speeches, known as the ^'PhiHppics," in which he exposed the schemes of Philip and urged the Athenians to take the lead in the stand for Greek independence. Athens, he said, was the natural leader of Greece, but she must gain the confidence of the Greeks by being worthy of it. He himself took his place as a common soldier in the ranks in the war that followed. Although Philip won the battle and gained control of all Greece, the Athenians were not unmindful of the great debt which they owed to Demosthenes, and it was proposed that he be given a golden wreath of honor by the state. A jealous rival, Aeschines, raised a legal objection and the case came to trial. Demosthenes appeared in his own defense. Aeschines had accused him of a desire to become king and to destroy the liberties of Athens. Demosthenes made reply in the greatest speech which he ever dehvered — possibly the greatest speech ever delivered by any one. It is called the ^^ Oration on the Crown," and in it he reviewed the acts and motives of his whole life. He won his case. Aeschines was crushed and immediately de- parted from Athens. Demosthenes fell a martyr to his lost cause. Eang Philip took possession of Athens, abolished the government by the people, and demanded that certain Athenian leaders, who had opposed his plans be surrendered into his hands. Demosthenes, of course, was one of these. Rather than place himself in the power of the Macedonian king, Demosthenes took his own life by poison. ''Had but the strength of thy arm, Demosthenes, equalled thy spirit,'' 42 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY said a man of the time, ^^ never would Greece have sunk under the foreign yoke." Aristotle. The Greeks had still another kind of prose literature, called philosophy. The term philosophy in- cluded all kinds of prose writing with the exception of history and oratory. The greatest Greek philosopher, and one of the greatest thinkers of all time, was Aristotle. He was born about 384 b.c, not far from Mount Athos, where the Persian fleet was destroyed. His father was a physician, and the young lad was sent to Athens for his education. Here he was placed in the school of the eminent teacher and philosopher, Plato. He made such rapid progress that the master called him '^the mind of the school." Aristotle was a cool, calculating thinker and much given to the study of facts. He studied almost everything — plants, animals, logic, grammar, physics, mathematics, astronomy, government, history, — and wrote very exten- sively. He was an ardent seeker after the truth and loved it for its own sake. He used to say, ^' Plato and truth are both dear to me, but it is a sacred duty to prefer truth." In his writings on politics, he tells us what, in his opinion, an ideal state ought to be. It should contain, he says, twenty thousand inhabitants, all educated by the state. Each man should be a land-holder of moderate means and each one should have a share in the govern- ment. The free-man should give his whole time to the government and military affairs, and there should be slaves to do all the ordinary work. He would prohibit the taking of interest for the use of money. It is plain THE GREEKS AS WRITERS 43 that Aristotle had many admirable features in his ideal state, but some of them we should object to at the present time. It is difficult to estimate the influence of a man like Aristotle, but it is certainly true that for hundreds of years his writings dominated the thinking world. The scholars of the Middle Ages looked upon him as an author- ity and he has influenced modern thought more than any other man of the ancient world. In his writings, he summed up the best thought of all preceding ages and, adding his own contributions to it, he handed it down to later times. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. Compare the Greek theaters with ours as to: a. Plan of building. b. Seating capacity. c. Length of play. d. Kind of play given. e. Size of audience. 2. Why is oratory not so necessary for leadership now as it was in Demosthenes' time? Consider well in answering this question, the means of reaching the people now and then. The Greek orator stood upon a high platform, under a clear sky, and reached, with his voice, thousands of people. Have we a better way of reaching the people? PRONOUNCING LIST Achilles. d-kll'Iez Odysseus, o-dls'us Aeschines. 6s'ki-nez Odyssey. 6d'i-sl Agamemnon. ag-a-m6m'n6n Peloponnesian. pero-po-ne'shan Aristotle. ar'Is-tot"! Penelope, pe-nero-pe Babylon. bab'I-lon Pericles. p6r'i-klez Cyclops. sl'kl6ps Plato, pla'to Demosthenes, de-mos'the-nez Polyphemus, pol'i-fe'mws Hiad. iri-ad Priam. pri'Sm Ithaca. Ith'd-ka Sophocles, sof'o-klez Macedonia, mas'e-do'ni-d Thucydides. thu-sld'l-dez Menelaus. mgn'e-la'ws Ulysses, u-lis'ez 44 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER IV THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS Although, as you know from reading the last chapter, the books written by the Greeks are very important, the buildings, statues, and paintings which they created are equally important. It has been well said of Greece that The Acropolis in its Best Days ''her true service to mankind and her imperishable glory lie in her literature, her philosophy and her art." The Acropolis. The center of Greek art and architecture was Athens, and the center of Athens was the Acropolis, or the large flat-topped rock upon which the old city was THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 45 built, so that it could be easily defended from savage enemies. A stairway of sixty marble steps was later built leading up to the top of this famous rock. Here is to be found in ruins the most beautiful collection of buildings ever constructed. From them we can read again much of the story of the Greeks. Greek Architecture. The visitor to the Acropolis might see three different kinds or orders of architecture, distin- guished from each other by means of the columns which were used. The Doric column is short and stout, without a base and without ornament of any kind. It is the simplest and strongest of the three orders. The Ionic column is more slender and has some ornamentation. It always has tw^o spiral rolls or whorls, as they are called, at the top. The Corinthian column is the most slender and most highly ornamented of all. The capital, or top, is made to represent the leaves of a plant. The Parthenon. The building which always calls out the greatest admiration of the visitor to Athens is the Parthenon. This temple was probably the most beautiful building ever constructed. It was built of white marble, taken from the quarries of Mount Pentelicus, which were owned by the state. Certain parts of the building were painted in harmonious colors and the faces of the statues were sometimes tinted in a life-like manner. A large part of the pleasing effect of the building was due to the ab- sence of straight lines. Practically all of the lines were slightly curved. '^ There is not in the entire temple a straight line of any considerable length J ^ Although the curves are all so slight that in most cases they cannot be detected by the naked eye, they relieve the building of that stiffness 46 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY which results from the use of straight hues. The Parthe- non illustrates the ^' chief features of Greek architecture — simplicity, harmony and refinement, the union of strength and beauty." After gracing the hill-top for more than two thousand years, the Parthenon was wrecked in the seventeenth century. During a war it was used as a powder house, and a shell from the enemy's gun caused an explo- The Parthenon in the Time of Pericles sion. Parts of it now stand simply as a noble ruin. One can easily see, however, traces of its former beauty and can realize that ^'it is the most perfect piece of architec- ture ever created by human hands." Phidias. The beautifully sculptured decorations of the Parthenon made up a large part of its beauty and it seems very fortunate that the world's greatest sculptor was pres- ent in Athens to take charge of the world's most artistic building. Phidias, the greatest sculptor of all time. THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 47 Phidias at Work on the Parthenon 48 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY planned the ornamentation of the Parthenon and did a part of the work with his own hands. The most noted piece of statuary in or about the building was the statue of Athena, placed on the inside. This statue was thirty-four feet in height; its core was made of wood, the visible parts of the body were made of ivory, the hair and draperies of gold, and the eyes of precious stones. It was paid for out of the booty taken by the Athenians at the battle of Salamis. Many of the pieces of statuary taken from the Parthenon after its destruction are now in the British Museum in London. The masterpiece of Phidias, however, was the colossal statue of the god Zeus, at Olympia. This was of tremendous size and was considered one of the "Seven wonders of the world." The Greeks considered it a calamity to die without seeing it. ^'See Zeus and die" was a common saying among them. Statues of Athletes. Greek sculptors were fond of carv- ing statues of athletes and of representing scenes from great athletic contests, like the Olympic games. The Greeks were a well developed race, renowned for grace and manly beauty, and the sculptors liked to reproduce these Statue of the Goddess Athena In her right hand she holds a statue of the Winged Vic- tory, six feet high, and her left rests on a shield. THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 49 traits in marble. One of the best statues of this kind is the Discobolus, or Disc-thrower of Myron. The athlete is represented in the act of summoning all his strength to give the discus a tremendous hurl. The muscles are tense, the body beautifully poised, and one almost expects to see the discus sail through space for a distance of one hundred and fifty feet. We almost wonder why he does not throw. Painting. In painting, the Greeks were not so famous Statue of Zeus Zeus was the chief of the Greek gods. as they were in sculpture, and not many samples of their work have come down to us. Some of the Greek painters, however, had repu- tations for doing wonderful things. It was said that Zeuxis painted a bunch of grapes which the birds tried to eat, and that Apelles painted a horse which looked so lifelike that real horses saluted it with a neigh. The Discobolus or Disc-throweh 50 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. Compare the largest building you know with the Parthenon. 2. Do you know any modern building that resembles the Parthenon? Describe it. 3. Do you know any buildings with Ionic, Doric, or Corinthian columns? 4. Write a letter to an art company asking for illustrated catalogs. You will probably find therein pictures of the Frieze of the Parthenon. The Frieze is an ornamental band on the halls or under the eaves. What is the subject matter of the Frieze? 5. Why did the Greek sculptors so often choose athletes and athletic games as subjects? Keep this question in mind as you read the next chapter. PRONOUNCING LIST Apelles. d-p6l'ez Myron, mi'ron Athena, d-the'nd Olympia. 6 \im'pl-d Corinthian, ko-rln'thi-dn Parthenon, par'the-non Discobolus, dis-kob'o-lws Phidias, fld'i-as Doric. dor'Ik Zeus, zus Ionic. i-6n'Ik Zeuxis. zuk's!s CHAPTER V GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER In order to appreciate still more fully what the Greeks did for us, it will be necessary to see how Greek boys and men were educated and what their ideals of life were. Unfortunately, the position of woman among the ancient Greeks was not high. This fact is a blot upon an other- wise beautiful civilization. The boys were very carefully educated, but almost no attention was paid to the girls. The Spartan boy was educated for the army. His body was well trained, but his mind was not. The Athenians GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER 51 had a better kind of education. They gave their boys a good physical and athletic training, but they trained their minds as well. The Athenian boy studied reading, writ- ing, arithmetic, geometry, drawing, and music. The writ- ings of the poet Homer and of the lawyer, Solon, were studied, but foreign languages were looked upon with dis- dain. The boy was also taught to play upon the harp and flute, and to sing and to recite poems. The Greeks thought that music had a good moral effect upon the nature of the boy, and they were probably right. The school hours were very much longer than ours. The schools opened at sunrise and closed at sunset. The teachers did not seem to believe in spoiling the child by sparing the rod, as corporal punishment was inflicted for very slight offenses. The teachers also had their troubles, you may be sure. Plato speaks of some of his pupils as sharp, witty, insubordinate, and unmanageable little animals. While there are many examples of treachery and dis- •honesty in Greek life, as there are in the life of every nation, as a rule Greek ideals were high. The Greek loved a good manly contest, had a taste for the beautiful, and was inclined to be temperate and moderate in all things. He avoided extremes and exercised a splendid self-control. Let us glance for a moment at a few of the finest types of manhood produced by the life and education of Greece. Aristides is a ''man whose character is a shining light in the ancient world." During the Persian Wars, he was banished from Athens through no fault of his own. Some of his fellow citizens voted against him because they were tired of hearing him called ''Aristides the just." He was 52 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY of a forgiving disposition, however, and when his country- needed him in time of war, he returned and insisted upon fighting for Greek Uberty. He fought nobly against the Persians, both at Salamis and Plataea. Socrates is one of the finest characters of ancient Greece. '^True wisdom," said Socrates, '^is to know what is good and to do what is right." He was a searcher after the The Physical Education of the Greek Youth The Athenians beheved in having a sound mind in a sound body. Their young men were fond of running, wresthng, throwing the discus, and other athletic sports. truth and thought more deeply into the affairs of life than other men. He had a very high idea of God and refused to worship the gods which the Greeks had made of stone and bronze. As a result, he was tried on a charge of intro- ducing strange gods and of corrupting the youth of Athens. He was convicted and sentenced to drink the fatal cup of hemlock, which he did with the utmost composure, while GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER discoursing upon the immortality of the soul. The Athe- nians of the time were not wise enough to understand his message. Pericles. Pericles was a man of action. He was what we would call, in these days, a man of initiative. He could do things and get results without being told exactly how they should be done. He was somewhat hke Lieu- The Mental Education of the Greek Youth The young Athenian received instruction from some of the greatest men in Greece, such as Plato and Aristotle. tenant Rowan, of the United States army, who carried the message from President McKinley to General Garcia, with- out being told where Garcia was. He did not know at the time, but he found out. Pericles was '^ first in war and first in peace." He ruled Athens during her most brilliant period, but he ruled her because, by his eloquence and common sense, he was able to persuade the Athenian assembly to adopt his plans. He adorned Athens and the 54 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Acropolis by erecting beautiful public buildings and creat- ing fine works of art. He also built fortifications and other defenses for the city. As an orator, Pericles was spoken of Age of Pericles A Greek orator is standing on the rostrum and attempting to persuade the people to adopt his views. At this time the Greeks were not governed by a king but by a pubhc assembly. as the Zeus of Athens, '' rolhng fateful thunders from his tongue." He died of the plague in Athens in 429 B.C., while defending his native city against the attacks of Sparta, the rival city in Greece. GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER 55 Pericles Pericles was for a time the first citizen of Athens. He beautified the city with public buildings, encouraged its artists and literary men and provided for its defense. 56 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Solon was a famous lawyer. While ruler of Athens, he drew up a splendid constitution and body of laws and suc- ceeded in getting them adopted. He was the greatest lawyer among the Greeks. He made his laws binding for a hundred years and compelled all citizens to take an oath to obey them. But, like many modern officials, he was pestered so much by those who wished to have the laws changed, that he went away on a visit of ten years to Egypt, in order to escape his tor- mentors. When he returned, he saw his mistake. His laws were not be- ing enforced, as there was no one in Athens to enforce them, and the government had fallen into confusion — almost into anarchy. We, in the United States, sometimes enact good laws and apparently expect them to enforce themselves — as much a mistake now as in Solon's time. We have read the stories of several Greeks who became great. And we have learned that the Greeks had the right to think for themselves and to act as they thought right. Each of these men was great because he lived up to a noble ideal. Aristides had a strong sense of justice and fairness; Socrates and Aristotle had visions of higher truth which Diogenes in His Tub GREEK LIFE AND CHARACTER 57 other men did not have; Pericles had a lofty and prac- tical patriotism; Phidias had a great religious purpose in his work; Solon had a strong sense of right and wrong, and Demosthenes prized the liberty of Athens. The latter was very bold in speaking his sentiments. It was his prac- tice ^Ho hew to the line and let the chips fall where they would." Now, while there were black sheep in the Greek flock, there were very many of the other kind — as white as the marble of their own Pentelicus. An old cynic phi- losopher, named Diogenes, lived in a tub and was in the habit of going about the streets of Athens at noonday with a lantern in his hand, looking for an honest man. Do you think there was anything wrong with his lantern or with his eyes? QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. Are the ideals for which these fine old Greeks stood, worth holding out as ideals to the boys and girls of our day? 2. Pericles was an advocate of the " City beautiful." How could the city or town in which you Uve be made more beautiful? Would it be nec- essary to build Parthenons and to pay thousands of dollars to bring this about? 3. Which one of these old Greeks do you admire most? Why? 4. Name four famous Greeks and write a one-word picture of each. PRONOUNCING LIST Aristides. ar'Is-ti'dez Socrates. s6k'rd-tez Diogenes. dl-6j'e-nez Solon. So'lon Garcia, gar-se'a 58 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER VI SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION "With Alexander, the stage of Greek influence spreads across the world.'' — Mahaffy. We should now fix it firmly in our minds that Greek civihzation and Greek learning were not confined to that small country now called Greece. In the course of time Greek culture spread over the entire ancient world. Like thistledown its seeds were wafted everywhere. Greek Colonies. The spread of Greek civihzation was brought about, in part, by the founding of colonies. There were three reasons why the Greeks founded colonies. In the first place, the population of the country had increased and an overflow took place. There was a '4and hunger" among the Greeks and also a spirit of adventure. Greece was a small country, with a rugged and broken surface and a soil which was not very fertile. In the second place, some of the Greeks were not happy under the oppression of the home government and, like the Pilgrim Fathers, they sought freedom in other lands. Again, many of the col- onies were due to the growth of commerce. After the decline of the Phoenicians, the Greeks became the leading commercial nation of the world. Colonies and commerce usually go hand in hand. These colonies were free cities, not under the control of the mother country. They were bound to the mother city only by ties of sentiment and by a common rehgion and / 1^. \ /r^ -^ ^ / \? V. ( -v / r^l" *< f ) y Y ^ / &l /yp{ ^ s < i / v~^ u> 1^ ]/ ) / •^ / tl /i / V ^' <■ H / X i \% ^li y( /^^ 07 »« / — -W—^iS^ I ^ / ' T~ft1s / S »— ^y^ S n /I ^. H -&% f 1 T U )fl ^? .^ 'S>i >d%" c2 \ ^t0^ V" r:^M ■f SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION 59 language. When colonists were about to set out to make homes in a new land, they asked the approval of the Delphic Oracle, and also took with them the sacred fire from the altar of the mother city. From this sacred spark a fire was kindled upon the hearth of the new city. If you will look at the map, you will see that the Greeks founded colonies over a very wide area — from the eastern shores of the Black Sea on the east to Spain on the west, and from Russia on the north to the Sahara Desert on the south. In addition to this, Alexander the Great, the famous conqueror, founded Greek cities in the East all over the old Persian Empire and even beyond its bound- aries. Many of these colonies later became great cities, but the important fact about the whole matter is this, wherever a Greek colony was established, it became a center of Greek civilization. ^'It bore the blossoms and fruit of Greek culture." The people spoke the Greek language, sang the Greek songs, worshiped the Greek gods, and lived the Greek life of freedom. Alexander the Great did more than any other one man to spread the civilization of Greece. He is an interesting and in most ways an attractive figure in history. He was the son of that Philip, king of Macedon, against whom Demosthenes hurled his powerful ^'Philippics." His mother was a semi-barbaric princess from a wild tribe. Alexander was a peculiar combination. He had the strong will and the mihtary ability of his father, coupled with the warm sympathy and the fiery temper of his mother. From his teacher, the famous Aristotle, he got his love of Greek culture, and from Homer, his favorite author, he obtained 60 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY his love of heroic warfare. He knew the ^'Ihad" by heart and looked upon Achilles as his ideal warrior. At the age of twelve, he conquered and tamed the fiery steed, Bucephalus; at eighteen, he led his father's troops in battle; and at twenty, he succeeded his father on the throne. At this time, he was a strong, vigorous, hand- some, and well-educated young man. He was also a very likable person. During his father's campaigns, it is said that Alexander frequently murmured because he feared there would be no worlds for him to conquer. Now at his father's death (336 B.C.) his great opportunity came and he determined to punish the East for the injuries and insults of the Persian Wars. Before starting out, it was necessary to set things in order in Greece, where certain cities had re- volted against his rule. Thebes was one of these, and to show that he meant business and would not be trifled with, he destroyed every house in the city, except that of the poet Pindar, and sold the inhabitants into slavery. He then started out upon his eastern conquest — one of the most remarkable expeditions in the world's history. He halted at the plains of Troy to do homage at the grave of Achilles, his ideal warrior. He then passed on to Gordium, where he cut the '^Gordian Knot." Passing through Tarsus, which centuries later was the home of the Apostle Paul, he came to Tyre, the famous city of Phoe- nicia, and demanded its surrender. The Tyrians refused his demand and for seven months held out nobly. Tyre was situated on an island about a half-mile from the main- land, and Alexander proceeded to build a wall or causeway, two hundred feet wide, from the mainland out to the island. SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION 61 Alexander the Great The young and handsome conqueror of the East is recognized as one of the world's greatest military geniuses. While not an admirable man in every respect he did much to spread Greek civilization. 62 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY He proceeded vigorously. He drove piles and dumped in stones, dirt, logs, and trees to fill up the space. While Defeat of Darius by Alexander It was Alexander's ambition to conquer the world and as the Persian Empire was still the chief power in Asia, it was this empire that he set out to conquer. A third Darius was now ruHng in Persia. Although Darius had twenty times as many men as Alexander had, Alexander defeated him in three great battles. After the third battle Darius was killed by some of his own men as he was trying to escape. doing this, the Tyrians harassed the Greeks in every pos- sible way. They hurled missiles of various kinds at them and pulled the trees and logs out of their places in the SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION 63 wall. The Greeks then hung up hides of animals to pro- tect their workers from the attacks of the enemy. They also built towers for their sharpshooters, but these the Tyrians burned in a rather ingenious way. They filled old ships with pitch and other combustible material and, setting them on fire, pushed them out against the towers and burned them down. Tyrian divers also fastened ropes to the trees and logs in the wall and pulled them from their places. Alexander, however, finally suc- ceeded in building the wall out to the island. Here he had an- other fierce fight. A wall had been built all around the edge of the island. This Alexander pro- ^ Soldier^^of^^Alexander's Ceeded to demolish by means of The Macedonian phalanx was battering rams. But he had no ^ '°^^^ a''\''^ "^J •^H''^'' ^ deep and a thousand m hne. easy task. The defenders lowered They were armed with spears. This body moved in a mass blocks of stone to ward on the and nothing could withstand 11 r j-i, rr^x. it on level ground. It plowed blows of the rams. The ropes through armies Hke a great from which the blocks were sus- ^^^^^me. pended were cut by scythes, and then iron cables were used. Bags of sea-weed were also lowered to deaden the blows of the rams, and red-hot metal and white-hot sand were hurled against the Greeks as they attempted to scale the wall. Finally, Alexander succeeded in battering down the wall, but right here he met another surprise. He found that while he was breaking the outer wall, the 64 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Tyrians were building an inner one to take its place. This one he battered down also, and so, after a long siege, entered the city. The Tyrians retreated to the roofs of their buildings and threw rocks upon the heads of the Greek invaders. But they were finally compelled to submit and their city, which they had defended so well, was wiped off the map, and the flat- topped rock was used only as a drying place for the nets of fishermen. Alexandria. From Tyre, Alexander pushed down into Egypt. The most notable thing that he did there was to found Alexandria, which came to be the most important commercial and educational city of the world. Before this time, the site was a hiding place for pirates. At a later time, it became a city of five hundred thousand inhabi- tants and the center of the world's culture. Here was the famous Museum, an institution something like a modern college or university, with its lecture rooms, art galleries, botanical gardens, and famous library, with its seven hun- dred thousand priceless manuscripts. It became the haunt for the famous scholars of the world. Eratosthenes calcu- lated the circumference of the earth to be twenty-eight thousand miles. Another scientist showed that the sun is the center of the solar system and that the earth rotates on its axis. Euclid wrote his geometry; another mathe- matician used calculus, and one of the scientists almost proved the circulation of the blood. It was many hun- dreds of years before the world again saw such remarkable progress in science and learning as that which received its inspiration from Alexandria. It is not too much to say that the geographers and scientific men of Alexandria SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION 65 66 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY aided greatly in the discovery of America. They made the great work of Columbus possible. In every sense, Alexandria was a wonderful city. It ''seemed fragrant with all the riches of Greek thought and song." Here, Alexander was buried at the early age of thirty-two. His career, though short, was wonderful. He never refused to fight and he never lost a battle. Yet his great work was not in fighting battles, but in spreading Greek civihzation. There are some who think that he did more for the world's civilization than any other human being. One writer says, ''No single personahty, excepting the carpenter's Son of Nazareth, has done so much to make the world we live in what it is as Alexander of Macedon." QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. Compare the methods employed by Alexander in the siege and capture of Tyre with the methods used in the recent European war. 2. How did the geographers and scientific men of Alexandria aid in the discovery of America? 3. Was Alexander justified in attacking Thebes and Tyre? 4. Draw from memory a map of the Greek colonies. 5. Draw from memory a map of Alexander's March. 6. Why did people like Alexander? 7. What were some of the civiUzing influences that Alexander extended throughout the world? PRONOUNCING LIST Bucephalus, bu-sef'd-lws Gordium. gor'di-wm Delphic, del'flk Oracle, or'd-k'l Eratosthenes, er'd-tos'the-nez Tarsus, tar'sws EucUd. u'klid Tyre, tir ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 67 CHAPTER VII THE ROMANS AS THE SUCCESSORS OF THE GREEKS Rome conquered Greece hut Greece in turn conquered Rome. " The conquered led captive the conquer or. ^^ — Roman Poet. Greek civilization "was borne into Asia on the chariot of a con- queror, while it was brought into Italy in the chains of a captive.'' The Romans, Empire Builders. You will remember that the Greeks planted colonies on all sides of the Me- diterranean Sea. The Greeks, however, never took pos- session of these countries. They simply built their city-colonies but made no attempt at conquest. Even the colonists themselves were not under the control of the mother country. The Greeks, aside from Alexander, seemed to have no desire for empire or for conquest. The colonies were as free as the mother country. Now, however, there arose in the west another people of a very different kind. They were empire builders, somewhat like the Persians, and delighted in taking land by conquest. These men were famous soldiers and governors, and in the course of a few centuries, they took possession of all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. These people were called Romans, and one writer has called the Mediterranean Sea a ^' Roman lake." Let us see how this nation began and how the Romans built up their great empire. The Founding of Rome. Do you recall the story of Romulus and Remus and the founding of the city of Rome? 68 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Romulus and Remus were twin boys who were thrown into the Tiber River by a wicked king. They drifted ashore and were rescued and reared by a kind-hearted shepherd. When they became men, the story says, they founded the city of Rome (753 b.c), near the spot where their rescue took place. They soon quarreled, Remus was killed and Romulus became the first king of Rome. " The Seven Hills of Rome." According to tradition, the first settlement was on the Palatine Hill. Soon, how- ever, with an increase in population, the city spread to the other hills, six in number, and Rome became 'Hhe mistress of the seven hills." At first, the Romans could not occupy the valleys between the hills because they were wet and swampy, but later they were drained and made habitable by means of immense stone sewers. The new city was easily defended from its enemies and was favorably situated for the purpose of trade. It was near the Tiber River and, being eighteen miles from the sea, was not in easy reach of pirates. Rome, because of her position, soon grew strong enough to extend her con- quering sway over Italy and, later, over the entire Mediterranean world. Rome^s Brave Defenders. The spirit of Rome's war- riors was more important than her position on the hill- tops. Do you recall the story of Horatius at the bridge? Lars Porsena, an Etruscan king, was bearing down from the north upon Rome with a mighty army. The city seemed doomed, but did not despair. Horatius Codes, with two companions, met the enemy at a narrow wooden bridge, over which the Etruscans attempted to pass into the city. Horatius, deserted by his two men, held the ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 69 bridge until the Romans tore down the part back of him, and thus cut off the Etruscans from the city. The enemy then called upon him to surrender, but instead he threw himself into the Tiber, with his heavy armor on, and swam in safety to the fields on the other shore. He was received HORATIUS AT THE BrIDGE with great shouts of joy, and later a statue, representing him holding the entire Etruscan army at bay, was erected in his honor. Cincinnatus at the Plow. To the north and east of the Romans there lived a people called the Aequians. With these also the Romans waged a war, and, according to the story, were getting the worst of it. The Roman army was entrapped in a valley and about to be destroyed, when the 70 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY country turned to a simple farmer for deliverance. Cin- cinnatus was a distinguished soldier who had retired to a small farm a few miles from Rome. The Senate now made him Dictator and a messenger was sent to urge him to come to Rome at once and raise an army for the defense of the city. When the messenger arrived, he found Cin- cinnatus plowing in the field. Upon receiving his mes- sage, the old soldier left his oxen standing in the furrow, went directly to Rome, raised an army, captured the entire force of the Aequians, and sent it ^^ under the yoke.'' The yoke consisted of a spear, supported on two other spears, thrust into the ground. Passing under the yoke was the greatest humiliation that could befall a spirited soldier. He had to bow low in token of subjection. Cincinnatus was given a great triumph when he returned to Rome. A procession moved along the principal streets and escorted the triumphal car, in which the great general rode, clad in splendid robes. When this was over, he laid aside his purple garments, resigned his commission as Dictator, and went back to the simple life of his four- acre farm. The great strength of Rome lay in such citizens as Cin- cinnatus. At the time of our Civil War, tens of thou- sands of American citizens left their plows standing in the furrows and fought for the preservation of the Union. After the war was over, they, like Cincinnatus, quietly returned to their former duties. Such men as these make a nation great. The Romans knew no such word as ^^fail" and by 275 B.C., or about fifty years after Alexander's death, they had possession of all of Italy from the Rubicon to Sicily. ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 71 The Wars with Carthage. Could the Romans remain contented in Italy? By no means. While Rome was growing strong in Italy, another great power was spring- ing up on the coast of Africa, opposite Sicily. By the time that Rome had obtained possession of the Italian penin- IloMAN Soldiers These men conquered the world for Rome. sula, Carthage had secured two thousand miles of sea- coast in north Africa. The Mediterranean world was too small for both of them and Cato, a Roman leader of this time, concluded every one of his speeches with the words, '^ Carthage must be destroyed." Carthage was finally de- stroyed by Rome, but not without a mighty struggle. 72 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Hannibal. The Romans waged three wars with the Carthaginians and the greatest hero of these wars on the Carthaginian side was Hannibal. Hannibal came from a fighting family and one that hated the very name of Rome. When but a boy of nine, his father took him F^H ^^1 w& II ■■ HH 1 f ^1 V r^ Lj i B; K^\ 1 9 ^V 1 '*H^HKy A * ^'^^«l ■H'^tt ^p^i ll ^^•31 k ■> f r^"- iiimBBB ■ The Boy Hannibal Swearing Enmity to Rome before the altar of one of their gods and asked him to take an oath of everlasting hostility to the Romans. This he did and how well he lived up to his oath we shall soon see. Hannibal was a truly wonderful man and one of the most skillful military leaders of all time. He combined courage with prudence. His body apparently never be- came tired and his mind was always alert. He could ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 73 '% %. ;d o r\. A ^A ^: ■^,'- » '^J :% #>•" fcvise.r i. ■%'4-. /" \ l'> 1j -^^4 >?:^ S5 "'^..i #c^ ^ /- OM I i J^^ >s m 3J w < t*i '^ ' J» S3 a fu cc 74 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY endure extremes of hunger and cold when necessary. He ate and drank in moderation and often worked both day and night, sleeping only when there was nothing else to be done. He would wrap himself up in his cloak and he down on the ground, wherever he happened to be, and sleep in the midst of the sentinels of the army. He dressed as a plain officer, but carried splendid weapons and always rode the best of horses. Hannibal Crosses the Alps. Hannibal conceived a bold idea. He resolved to beard the Roman lion in his den, or, in other words, to carry the war to the very gates of Rome. So he took his army, went into Spain, crossed the Pyrenees Mountains and the Rhone River, and began to climb the Alps. This was a very difficult task. The way was steep, narrow, and icy and beset with all sorts of obstacles. The natives watched his prog- ress and rolled huge bowlders down the mountain sides upon his train of pack animals. In this way he lost a large part of his provisions. His elephants, too, were not on their good behavior, and caused him a great deal of trouble. But he finally came to the summit and looked down upon Italy. He probably had his oath in mind when he said to his men, ''Yonder in the distance lies Rome." He reached the top of the mountains, but he had paid the penalty. He started with sixty thousand men. He now had less than one half of that number, and these were hungry and worn out and their horses were tired and lame. Hannibal's strong heart, however, never faltered. There was no Roman commander who was anything like a match for him and he out-generaled the enemy on every hand. ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 75 At Lake Trasimenus, near Rome, he set a trap for the enemy. He took an unusual route across the marshes, wading for four days and three nights through mud and mire. He then threw himself upon the surprised Hannibal Crossing the Alps Romans, killed the commander, and destroyed their entire army. After the battle, his men talked of dining in the city of Rome within a few days. The Battle of Cannae (216 B.C.). He then pushed on to Cannae in southeast Italy where he fought his greatest 76 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY battle. The Romans, now thoroughly frightened, had raised an army of eighty-six thousand men — the largest Roman army ever put into the field up to this time. Now Hannibal had only fifty thousand men, but as one writer remarks, ^^ Hannibal's brains were worth forty thousand Roman soldiers." It seemed so. Hannibal planned the battle, and the Romans seemed to fall right in with his plans. He not only defeated the Roman army, but he crushed it utterly. It is said that seventy thousand Romans were slain at Cannae and that every house in Rome was in mourning. Hannibal sent to Carthage a peck of gold rings, taken from the fingers of Roman knights who fell in the slaughter. The Roman Spirit. The Carthaginians won other vic- tories under the splendid leadership of Hannibal, but were the Romans defeated? By no means. They hung on and triumphed in the end. The Roman generals were not so able as the Carthaginian, but the Roman citizens were rehable and steadfast. They endured to the end and finally triumphed. The Destruction of Carthage (146 B.C.). The Cartha- ginians were finally worn out and Hannibal went back to Carthage, after maintaining an army in a foreign country for sixteen years. The Romans pressed after him and ''carried the war into Africa." They finally took Carthage in 146 B.C. They massacred the inhabitants, pillaged and burned the city, and cursed the very land upon which it stood. This was the sad ending of a proud city. Greece Made a Roman Province. The wars with Carthage furnish a good example of the way in which the Romans conquered the Mediterranean lands. Greece be- ROMANS AS SUCCESSORS OF GREEKS 77 came a Roman province in the same year in which Car- thage was destroyed. The fall of Corinth in Greece was the final event of that war. When the city was captured the Roman Consul caused most of the men to be put to death. The rest of the people became slaves. After pil- laging the city, the Consul burned it. He then sent several ship-loads of statues and paintings to Rome. Many of these works of art were made by the great sculp- tors and painters of Greece. When the ships were setting out for Rome, Mummius, the Roman commander, warned the sailors that if they destroyed or injured any of the works of art on the voyage, 'Hhey must replace them with others of equal value." Would it be an easy task to replace a statue by Phidias, or a painting by Apelles? And so the Roman army stalked along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Nothing could stop the Roman soldier. He might be defeated at times, but he hung on with bull-dog grip and usually triumphed in the end. The Building of a Fleet. The great energy and re- sourcefulness of the Romans are well illustrated by an event in the wars with Carthage. In the early part of the war, the Romans had no fleet worthy of the name and they saw at once that they must have war-ships, if they expected to make any headway against ^Hhe sons of the Phoenicians." So they took as a model a Carthaginian ship which had been wrecked upon the Italian shore, and in sixty days they made one hundred just like it. Fur- thermore, they fitte'd out their ships with drawbridges which could be thrown over the decks of the enemies' 78 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY vessels and spiked down, thus lashing the two vessels together. They believed that, in a hand-to-hand fight, they could defeat any other soldiers in the world. They proved themselves equal to the task. It is now easy to see that Rome was made great not by her seven hills or by the Tiber River, not by the vast extent of territory over which she held sway, nor the many tribes and nations which she ruled, hut by the splendid valor and the patriotic spirit of her citizens. She conquered many tribes, absorbing their strength; she gathered military skill from contact with the Carthagin- ian; she grew rich from the granaries of Africa; she ab- sorbed the freedom, grace, and scholarship of the Greeks, and welded all of these into a splendid valor and a patriotic citizenship. It meant something to be a Roman citizen. ''To be a Roman was greater than to be a king." A Roman Ship Vessels like this carried the commerce and the soldiers of Rome to all parts of the known world. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. You have already seen how Greek civihzation '* was brought into Asia on the chariot of a conqueror." Watch carefully in this and suc- ceeding chapters to see how it "was brought into Italy in the chains of a captive." THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 79 2. Compare Hannibal's attack on Rome with Alexander's siege of Tyre. Which expedition do you think was more difficult? 3. What is patriotism? Can we love our country without hating others? 4. Did you notice anything about the rise of the Greeks that was like the rise of the Romans? 5. What are the important names and places in this chapter and why? PRONOUNCING LIST Aequians. e-kwi'ans Mummius. mum'I-Ms Cannae, kan'e Palatine, pard-tin Carthage, kar'thaj Punic, pu'nik Cato. ka'to Pyrenees, pir'e-nez Cincinnatus. sin'si-na'tws Remus. re'mMs Corinth. kor'Inth Rhone, ron Etruscan, ^trus'kan Romulus, rom'u-lws Hannibal. han'I-bal Sicily, sis'i-li Horatius Codes. h6-ra'shI-Ms ko'klez Tiber, ti'ber Lars Porsena. lars p6r'se-na Trasimenus. tra'se-me'nws CHAPTER VIII THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST Let us now turn our attention to the Romans in the West. After conquering the eastern Mediterranean coun- tries, the Romans turned their arms against the Gauls, in what is now France, against the Germans beyond the Danube, and against the Britons in England. From our standpoint, the spread of the Romans in the West is important because these western peoples had most to do with the discovery and colonization of the American continent. Caesar in Gaul. Roman rule and Roman civilization were carried into western Europe by Julius Caesar, the 80 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY greatest man of the Roman world. Caesar was a member of one of the oldest and proudest of the aristocratic fam- ilies of Rome. But he believed in giving the common people their rights, and so became a great popular leader. He increased his popularity, year after year, by giving entertainments to the masses of the people. He amused them from time to time by giving sham battles on the Tiber and gladiatorial fights in the arena. The people liked him and he was elected to one office after another until finally he became Consul, the highest official in the land. In the year 58 b.c. he led an army into Gaul and pro- ceeded to make a conquest of that country. Here he and his men fought bravely, and, in the course of a few years, he had conquered all the land now known as France, Belgium, and Holland. In doing this, however, he met men worthy of his steel. Vercingetorix, Chief of the Gauls. The greatest of these was Vercingetorix, a noble young Gaul. He was a spirited patriot and was unwilhng to submit to Roman rule. He, therefore, raised a revolt against the power of Caesar and attempted to drive the Romans out of his native land. He tried to starve out the Roman army by burning sup- plies and destroying towns. No less than a score of cities were ablaze on a single day and the Romans were in the midst of a sea of flame. One city was spared and here the Gauls took refuge and defended themselves for about a month. Finally, Caesar dashed against it in the midst of a driving rain and captured the town. The in- habitants, men, women, and children, were massacred. Vercingetorix was making some headway, however. He THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 81 Julius Caesar Julius Caesar was a great Roman general, statesman, orator, and writer. 82 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY met and defeated Caesar — the only time that Caesar was ever defeated in an open battle. In another battle, Caesar was captured but later he was rescued by his men. Caesar now redoubled his efforts and Vercingetorix was compelled to take refuge in the hill-top city of Alesia in eastern Gaul. Caesar laid siege to this place, but found the task a very difficult one. But, finally, the organized Vercingetorix and his Soldiers strength and skill of the Romans began to prevail over the great numbers and savage bravery of the Gauls. Ver- cingetorix, seeing that the day was lost, went to the camp of Caesar and gave himself up as a prisoner, in order to save his followers from slaughter. Caesar took his noble captive to Rome, where he graced the triumphal proces- sion and was later put to death in a dungeon. He was the THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 83 best fighter the Romans had met in a hundred and fifty years and deserved a better fate. A monument was erected to his memory on the site of his heroic stand. The Germans. While in Gaul, Caesar also came into contact with the dreaded Germans. The Romans had The Meeting of Caesar and Ariovistus' Ariovistus proposed to share the territory of Gaul with the Romans. Caesar rejected this proposition and war followed. The Roman soldiers were so frightened by the warlike appearance of the Germans that they hesitated about entering the battle. It was here that Caesar remarked that if all other soldiers failed him he would face the foe with the Tenth Legion alone. The battle was fought, the Germans were defeated, and Ariovistus escaped across the Rhine River in a small boat. heard alarming stories about the great size and terrible appearance of these people and were not at all anxious to meet them in battle. So when Ariovistus, a German king, crossed the Rhine River into Gaul to seek homes for his people, the Roman soldiers were greatly alarmed. But 84 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Caesar was equal to the occasion. He said, ''If no others will follow me against the Germans, I shall go forward with the tenth legion alone." The flattered tenth legion said that it was ready to march, and others went also. The result was that Ariovistus was beaten in battle and was driven back to his home in Germany. Caesar in Britain. We must follow Caesar into still another country. While he was campaigning in Gaul, some of the Britons living in the country now known as England, aided the Gauls against the Romans. The Gauls and Britons belonged to the same race, and the Britons probably came to the conclusion that if the Romans conquered the Gauls, their turn would come next. Caesar also had heard numerous stories about the wealth and beauty of the island and probably had some curiosity to see the country for himself and possibly to add it to the domain of Rome. Therefore, one day in August, 55 B.C., a crowd of half- naked barbarians with painted faces saw Caesar's ships put into port near the modern English town of Deal. The Britons tried to prevent them from landing, but to no avail. After defeating the natives in several skir- mishes and losing some of his ships in a great storm off the British coast, Caesar prepared to go back to Gaul. He robbed the harvest fields of the Britons to get food for his army, and then sailed away. In the following summer he returned to Britain with a larger force of men. This time he landed twenty-two thousand soldiers without opposition on the part of the natives. When he began his march inland, however, the Britons fell upon him. Nevertheless, he pushed as far THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 85 north as the Thames River, chastising the Britons, and burning their huts as he went. The Britons, no doubt, breathed a sigh of reUef when, a few weeks later, they saw his boats vanish in the distance. They were content The Landing of the Romans in Britain to allow the Gauls to fight their own battles after that. Caesar wrote an account of his experiences and observa- tions in Britain and with this account the written history of Britain begins. The Real Conquest of Britain. It cannot be said, how- 86 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY ever, that Caesar made a conquest of Britain, or that he added it to the Roman Empire, for he did neither. He found the island and told the Romans enough about its resources and people to arouse their curiosity and to make them wish to have it as a part of the empire. And yet for a hundred years they took no steps in this direction. Finally, in 43 a.d., they began a systematic conquest of the island which extended over many years. After a long period of fierce fighting, the Romans got possession of all of that part of the island known as England and built great walls near the Scottish border for defense against the war- like peoples of the north. Roman Civilization in Britain. When the Romans came into Britain, they brought other things with them besides their swords. They lived there for three hundred fifty years and brought Roman civilization with them. They built towns over all the island and in these towns were temples, theaters, and fine buildings — better ones than the Britons had ever dreamed of. They also drained the marshes, cleared away the forests, and built roads which have lasted even to this day. Four great Roman roads spread out from London and led to important parts of the island. The Romans also built great walls for defense and some parts of these still exist. They taught the Britons to cultivate their land in a better way, to make better clothes, and in every way to live better. A Roman villa, with its baths, works of art, and general refinement, was an object lesson in civilization to the rude Britons. In religion, there were marked changes. The Britons, with their Druid form of worship, offered up human beings as sacrifices in their dark groves. The THE ROMANS CONQUER THE WEST 87 Romans brought with them their gods and temples, and later Christianity appeared in different parts of the island. The man who had most to do with the spread of Roman power in the West was Julius Caesar, the greatest man ever produced by Rome and one of the greatest in all history. It should be remembered that wherever the Romans went they brought Roman hfe, industry, art, religion, law, and literature with them. They also taught a plan of organized government which has made possible safe living in great cities. Rome gave to the world and to us an idea of the importance of citizenship. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. You have seen in this chapter how the Roman Empire is spreading. Have you also noticed that Caesar, the Great Roman Empire builder, did his great work in the century preceding the birth of Christ, and the begin- ning of the Christian religion? Keep this in mind in the next few chapters. 2. Which do you think had the better ideas about empire building, the Persians or the Romans? 3. Which would you rather be, a citizen of the Roman Empire or of the British Empire of to-day? Why? 4. What was Rome's greatest contribution to the world? 5. Compare Caesar with Hannibal and note the differences. Why was Caesar greater than Hannibal? PRONOUNCING LIST Alesia. d-le'si-d Gaul, gol Ariovistus. a-rfo-vis'tws Julius Caesar, jdol'i-ws se'zdr Danube, dan'ub Rhine, rin Druid. droo'Id Vercingetorix. vur'sln-j6t'6-riks 88 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER IX ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE Crossing the Rubicon. At this point we are just a httle ahead of our story and must retrace our steps for a few moments. While Caesar was winning land and laurels in Gaul, some other leaders of the Roman State were becoming exceedingly jealous of him. His enemies induced the Senate to order that he should give up his whole army upon a certain day or be declared a public enemy. Instead of giving up his army, he marched with it upon Rome to chastise his eneixiies. This was a very serious thing to do and Caesar was well aware of it. It was against the Roman law for any one to enter Italy without laying down his arms at the boundary. And when Caesar came to the Rubicon River, which separated his province of Gaul from Italy, he hesitated. But finally exclaiming, '^The die is cast," he crossed the river, and with a loud blast of his trumpet, called upon his troops to fol- low. This they did and marched with Caesar against the city of Rome. Here Caesar quickly scattered his enemies and was soon the master of the city. He next defeated his enemies in Egypt and in other parts of the East. After one of his battles, he sent his famous message to Rome, ^'Veni, vidi, vici" (meaning, '^I came, I saw, I conquered"), which indicates the rapidity with which he acted. He was now master of the Roman world, and became, in reality, the first Emperor of the ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE 89 Roman Empire. He did not live long, however, to enjoy his power, as he was cruelly murdered in the Senate Cham- ber at Rome (44 B.C.), in the fifty-sixth year of his age. His former friends, jealous of his great success, fell upon Caesar Crossing the Rubicon him with their daggers, and he dropped, pierced by twenty- three wounds. A Roman historian tells us that the people looked upon him as a god and that a comet which blazed in the sky for seven days was thought to be the soul of Caesar as it entered the kingdom of heaven. 90 . INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY And SO, slowly but surely, the Roman army took pos- session of the countries from England to Egypt and from the Danube to the great African desert. The Romans were defeated at times, but they fought with that grim determination which finally crowned them with success. The City of Rome. Julius Caesar was succeeded in power by his grand-nephew, Octavius, or Augustus, as he is better known. This young man of nineteen was a youth of remarkable abil- ity, and during his reign Rome enjoyed 'Hhe Golden Age" of her prosperity. Augustus was Emperor for some years both before and after the birth of Christ, and during that time Rome reached the pinnacle of her greatness. The ^^Age of Augustus" in Rome corresponds to the ''Age of Pericles" in Greece. At the close of his reign, Augustus boasted that he found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble. Some of the wonders of this city of marble are worthy of our attention. The Forum. The Forum was the architectural center of the city. It was a large, open space and corresponded in some respects to the Acropolis at Athens. It was the scene of the old market place of the early days, but later ^ ^ \ ^^|Hk,^i| ^^r^MKjif ^^^^^^^1 m a^^:; W 1 ^^^^^^^^Hll f^'ej \ ^gm ^ Augustus Caesar ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE 91 92 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY became the center of a mass of beautiful and inspiring buildings, including palaces, theaters, circuses, baths, tombs, triumphal arches, columns, and other monuments. These were enlarged copies of the buildings which the Romans found in Greece. Some of these were in the Forum, others The Pantheon The above picture was taken from a photograph of a small model, showing how the Pantheon looked in the "Golden Age." near it, and still others scattered about in different parts of the city. The Pantheon. One of the most beautiful buildings of Rome was the Pantheon, or the ''Temple of all the gods." It was built by Augustus and may be said to be the Roman Parthenon (see page 45). The Coliseum. The Romans were very fond of fights and contests of all kinds, but were not always fair sports- ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE 93 men. They loved the sensational and brutal form of con- test. One of the Emperors built the famous Coliseum, which was the scene of gladiatorial contests and fights between wild beasts and men. The most savage animals that could be found were procured for this purpose from K Gladiatorial Combat When one of the fighters had his opponent at his mercy he looked up to the spectators to see whether or not they wished to have his hfe taken. Holding the thumbs up was the signal for sparing the life of the vanquished man while holding the thumbs down indicated that he should be put to death. distant forests and deserts. The effects of these shows were degrading and brutalizing, and yet the crowds went wild over them. The prize fight and the bull fight of the present day are about all that remain of this low form of recreation. The Circus Maximus, or Great Circus, was built for sports and contests of various kinds, chief among them 94 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY being the chariot races. The Circus was two thousand feet long and six hundred feet wide, and would seat four hundred thousand people. The chariot races were a most thrilling spectacle. Daring and reckless drivers drove the fastest horses that could be procured. Usually they drove seven times around the course, a distance of four miles. The turns were short for such terrific speed and very fre- quently horses, chariots, and drivers fell into a tangled A Chariot Race heap. In fact, the drivers, instead of attempting to win the race on its merits, often tried to ^' spill their opponents.'' The Public Baths were among the finest of the Roman buildings. They were beautiful and spacious structures with granite and marble columns and floors of fine mosaic. Much of the marble used was brought over from Greece. In addition to the baths and swimming pools, there were gymnasiums, lounging rooms, art galleries and reading rooms, and halls for conversation. These baths were club houses for rich and poor alike and became the social cen- ters of Rome. i ROME, THE CAPITAL OF THE EMPIRE 95 In addition to these public buildings, the Romans built fine roads, aqueducts, and private dwellings. The founda- tions of some of these roads are still solid after a lapse of two thousand years. The aqueducts brought water from the surrounding hills to the city for use. The aqueduct was made of stone and was built with a slight incline towards the city and never with ups and downs as we now lay our water pipes. Mountains were leveled and valleys were bridged over for the passage of the waterway. Education. In education, as in many other things, the Romans imitated the Greeks. In fact, Greek teachers were found in Roman schools and in Roman private fam- ilies. The Romans, however, made one very great im- provement upon the education of the Greeks — they educated their girls to some extent, at least as well as the boys. The schools were private, not public as with us, and a small fee was paid by the pupil. The boy entered school at the age of six or seven, and was taught reading, writing, and arithmetic. At a later time he was taught Greek, rhetoric, oratory, and philosophy. It was considered very important that the boy be able to speak in public and he was given frequent exercises to this end. The school work began before sunrise and the discipline, like that of the Roman army, was exceedingly severe. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. What effect had the bmdmg together of the Mediterranean world into one great empire upon the spreading of Christianity? 2. If there is some one in your community who has visited Rome, ask your teacher to invite him to come and talk to your class. Get him to tell you about the Forum, the Pantheon, the Coliseum, the Baths of Caracalla, the great Aqueducts, etc. Be ready to ask him questions. 96 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 3. How did the education of the Roman boy differ from that of the Greek boy? 4. Have you ever visited the capital of your state or nation? Rome was a beautiful city, but Washington is beautiful also. PRONOUNCING LIST Caracalla. kar'd-kard Forum, fo'rwm Circus Maximus. sur'kiis mtlk'si- Octavius. 6c-ta'\'i-ws m us Pantheon. pSn-the'on Coliseum, kol'i-se'wm Rubicon, roo'bi-kon CHAPTER X CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE Just at the time when the Roman empire was at the height of its power under the Emperor Augustus, the founder of Christianity was born in Bethlehem, a httle village in Judea. There he went about teaching the doc- trines of his new religion, and after his death his followers carried on the work. Paul and other apostles went to Athens and other important cities of the Roman Empire to spread the new faith. Persecution of the Christians. There were many reli- gions in the Empire and Rome tolerated them all as we do in our country. The Roman emperors, at first, took no notice of the Christians. The believers in the new religion were drawn, for the most part, from the lower classes of society, and almost no attention was paid to them by the governing classes. They did not seem to be worthy of notice. Soon, however, the Christians came to be looked upon as an objectionable body of people and i CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 97 were called '^haters of mankind." They refused to wor- ship the gods of the Romans. To them that was idol- worship and a sin. The Christians held secret meetings and this fact also aroused suspicion against them. The pagans accused them of many crimes, including canni- balism, and many believed that famine, pestilence, and other calamities were sent upon the Romans by their The Last Prayer The Christians in Rome, under some of the Emperors, were compelled to undergo cruel tortures. Here we see a group of them about to be sacrificed to wild beasts before a vast crowd in the Coliseum. gods because of the offenses of the Christians. Soon the Christians came to be despised and feared by some of the Emperors. Wicked emperors, like Nero, persecuted them almost for the fun of it, and good men, hke Marcus Aurelius, did so as a pious duty. The Persecutions of Nero. The young Nero was only seventeen years of age when he became Emperor and he 98 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY was more interested in dancing and other forms of amuse- ment than he was in anything else. He, therefore, turned over the government to others for a time. It would have been better for the Christians and for all concerned if he had kept his hands off altogether. But he did not. A large part of the city of Rome was burned during Nero's reign, and the Emperor, because of his peculiar antics, was accused of setting it on fire. He seemed to enjoy the burning very much and an old story tells us that he played his harp while the city burned. In order to ward off suspicion from him- self, he accused the Christians of setting the fire and pro- Nero Watching the Burning of Rome ceeded to punish them for it. They were tortured very cruelly. A Roman historian tells us that ''in their deaths they were made the subjects of sport; for they were covered with skins of wild beasts, worried to death by dogs, and being covered with pitch were biu-ned to serve for torches in the night. Nero offered his garden for this spectacle." The Roman people showed signs of pity for the sufferers, but the cruel Emperor did not relent. This outburst against the Chris- tians was not entirely on reUgious grounds and did not extend beyond the city of Rome. CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 99 Christianity grew, however, in spite of persecution. It may have grown more rapidly because of it. The Chris- tians were very aggressive. They beheved that it was their holy duty to convert all men to their faith. The new religion also had something to offer which the old pagan religion did not have. It was the first religion to teach universal brotherhood, that the soul of the slave was as good as the soul of an Emperor, and it recognized no caste or class distinction. It also taught par- don for sins and the immortality of the soul, or the life after the life on earth. Many poor and op- pressed souls found comfort and solace in the teachings of the Christians. Christianity grew steadily and Christian teachers appeared all over the Empire. Constantine and the Flaming Cross. Finally Constan- tine became Emperor in the early part of the fourth cen- tury. He was a masterful man with splendid insight into the problems of government. He saw the growing power of the Christians and probably wished to have their assist- ance in his wars. He was also friendly to the doctrines of Christianity, and it is said that while on a military cam- CONSTANTINE SeES THE FlAMING CrOSS IN THE Sky 100 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY paign, he saw in the heavens a flaming sign of the Cross, with the words upon it, ''By this sign you shall conquer." It is said that he made a vow to accept the God of the Christians in case of success. He won his battle and was immediately baptized into the Christian faith. This story may or may not be true, but it is certain that Constan- tine became a Christian and made Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire. Now that Christianity had the official endorsement of the Emperor, it spread rapidly in all parts of the Empire. Many thrilling stories could be told of the work of devoted missionaries of the Christian Church, if our space per- mitted. Perhaps you wdll recall some of these stories and possibly you may have time to read some in other books. Summary. Let us now sum up briefly what has been said in the last few chapters. Greece inherited the civili- zation of Egypt, Phoenicia, and other oriental countries. She adopted the best of this civilization, improved upon it, and handed it on to her successors, the Romans. As the Romans conquered country after country in their trium- phal swing around the Mediterranean, they found every- where the seeds of Greek culture, planted by Greek col- onists. They also captured Greek cities, such as Corinth, and carried away their art treasures to Rome. They studied the writings of the great Greek authors and employed Greek teachers in their schools. In this way, the Romans adopted and absorbed the civilization of the Greeks and carried it into every nook and corner of the Mediterranean world. The Romans were very different from the Greeks. The Greeks were men of thought, while the Romans were CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 101 men of action. The Greeks delighted and excelled in poetry, history, oratory, philosophy, sculpture, painting, and architecture, while the Romans were at their best in conquering and in governing. They excelled in the so- called practical things, while they imitated Greek art and literature. They built roads and aqueducts, sewers and temples, which are in existence at the present day. Their greatest original contribution to civilization, however, was in law and government. The government and patriotism of the Greeks were narrow. They were limited to a single city. The Romans made them world-wide. It was a very fortunate thing that Greek and Jloman civilization came into contact. They worked well together. The Romans added what was lacking in the Greeks and between them they gave much to later civilization. They are among the ''makers of America.'' Many of our government buildings in Washington are patterned after Greek models. Greek and Latin are taught in our schools. Greek art abounds in our art galleries. Our engineers have studied the roads, sewers, and aqueducts of Rome. Roman law is taught in our universities. The alphabet used on this page and the numerals at the heads of the chapters are Roman; and last, and by no means least, it was the Romans who brought the Christian religion to those nations who discovered and colonized the United States of America. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. How do you account for the marvelous spread of the Christian re- ligion in spite of the bitter persecution? 2. The catacombs of St. Calixtus on the famous Appian Way, a short distance out from Rome, may be visited to-day. Here you will see the underground rooms in which the early Christians worshiped when it meant death to admit being a Christian. 102 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 3. Why was Constantine's conversion of so great importance? 4. Why was it fortunate that Greek and Roman civiUzation came into contact? Name as many Greek gifts to the world as you can. 5. Do not forget the names of some of the famous old Greeks and Romans. Go back to previous chapters and make a Ust of at least six of each nation, adding to their names what it was that they did that made them so notable. PRONOUNCING LIST Appian. jip'I-an Judea. joo-de'd Calixtus. ka-lIks'to6s .^ Marcus Aurelius. mar'kws 6-re'lI-^s Constantine. kon'stan-tin Nero, ne'ro CHAPTER XI THE GERMANS, THE SUCCESSORS AND HEIRS OF THE ROMANS "From these four sources — Greece, Rome, Christianity, and the Germans — are derived the principal elements of our modern civilization,'^ — George B. Adams. We now bid good-bye to the Romans and seek an intro- duction to their successors and heirs, the Germans. After the Roman had conquered the world, he seemed to have nothing else to do. So he gave himself up to ease, idle- ness, and luxury. He became indolent and sluggish, both in body and in mind. He seemed to lose his old-time vigor and patriotism and to care more for gambling, chariot races, gladiatorial shows, and the tricks of politics. There was fighting enough to be done, of course, but he preferred to hire some one to do it for him. A nation made up of such men cannot last long, so we will now see how the Romans were compelled to step aside and give way to the vigorous and hardy Germans. THE GERMANS 103 The Germans. While the Romans were building up a great empire about the Mediterranean Sea, another and a very different people had their homes east of the Rhine l.L.POATES CO., N.Y. Europe in the Early Centuries of the Christian Era and north of the Danube River. These people were called Germans. In one sense these Germans were not worthy successors of the Romans, but in another sense they were. They were not so highly civilized as the Romans — in fact, the Germans at this time were rude barbarians — 104 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY but they had the fresh vigor, the red blood, and the brains which later made them the leaders of Europe. The country of the Germans at this time was not invit- ing. It was rough and rugged and covered, for the most part, with dark forests and unhealthful swamps. The climate was severe and living was hard. The people lived A German HoMi^.^iKAD The early German lived an independent life in the forests and among the mountains. He was a good fighter and a bold hunter. in rude huts, huddled together in little clusters, somewhat like the wigwams of an Indian village. They made a living by hunting, fishing, caring for their flocks, and by a very primitive kind of agriculture. The German was fair, tall, and strong and enjoyed fighting rather more than working. He loved freedom, THE GERMANS 105 was a man of his word, and had many other substantial quaUties. On the other hand, he was fond of gambhng and addicted to drink. He worshiped heathen gods, prom- inent among which were Woden, the god of the sky, and Thor, the god of thunder and Hghtning, from whom we derive the names of our days, Wednesday and Thurs- day. The German Invasion. It was natural enough that these restless barbarians should cast longing eyes at the wealth and civilization of the Roman Empire. The beautiful fields, the fine homes, and the mild climate attracted them and soon they began to make forays and inroads into various parts of the Roman world. Now, while the Romans conquered other peoples, they never made much headway against the Germans. Julius Caesar, it is true, drove Ariovistus, the Germanic chieftain, back into his forests and punished his followers, but gen- erals like Caesar were very scarce in Rome in the later days. Even Augustus tried to make a conquest of the Germans but was compelled to give it up. In the year 9 A.D., he sent his general. Varus, at the head of an army against the Germans. Hermann, the great Germanic chieftain, however, rallied his people and destroyed the Roman army in the Teutoberg Forest. Augustus was sorely grieved and cried out in despair, ^^Oh, Varus, Varus, give me back my legions." Varus could not do so, how- ever, as the bodies of his soldiers were scattered widely over the country and their bones had been left to whiten in the German forests. The Battle of Adrianople (378 a.d.). After the Romans stopped sending armies against the Germans, the Germans 106 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY began to send armies against the Romans. The tables were turned and the Romans were now fighting on the defensive. The first great German invasion of Roman territory came about in this way. The Goths, a German tribe, were Uving at peace north of the Danube River. Sud- The Victorious Germans Returning from Teutoberg Forest denly the terrible Huns appeared from Asia, fell upon them, and drove them from their homes. These Huns were a fiendish set of stunted, blood-thirsty men. They were almost dwarfs in size, but their small bodies were filled with a terrible vigor. Small beady eyes ghstened in their yellow, weazened faces. Their faces were also beardless and scarred. It was their custom to burn the faces of their boys with hot irons in order to make them fierce in appearance. When these hideous dwarfs appeared upon the Danube THE GERMANS 107 the Goths were thrown into confusion. About two hun- dred thousand of them huddled on the north bank of the river and implored the Roman Emperor to permit them to cross over. Permission was granted and a huge German colony was formed within the limits of the Roman Empire. The Romans began at once to plunder and oppress the fugitives, and the Goths immediately took up arms and defeated them in the famous battle of Adrianople. The em- peror was killed and a large part of his army destroyed. This victory encouraged the Goths and made them feel as much at home in the empire as if they had a right to be there. Meanwhile the Huns were *^'*'^' not idle, as we shall now see. ^ ^ Attila and the Huns. After their victory over the Goths, the Huns settled down in what is now Hungary and be- came a strong power. Their king, Attila, built a log cabin for a capitol and was looked upon as the leader of his race, both in Europe and in Asia. Attila was a terrible man, and he set out upon a campaign of death and de- struction in Gaul. An army of these fierce little fiends, riding on their fleet ponies like a cyclone, slaughtered men, women, and children, destroyed crops and applied the torch to cities as they went. It looked as though this storm- cloud of destruction might sweep over all western Europe, but fortunately the Romans and the Germans united to check the course of the Huns, a common enemy. The Battle of Chalons (451 a.d.). They met Attila a 108 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY short distance from Chalons and there fought one of the fiercest and most decisive battles known to the history of the world. It was war to the knife, with no quarter given or asked. The battle made a vivid impression upon the people of the time, and we are told that ^Hhe blood from the thousands of wounds swelled to a torrent the brook which flowed through the field of battle." It is impossible to tell what would have happened to the world Attila, "The Scourge of God" if the Huns had won the battle of Chalons, but it seems certain that the march of civilization would have been stopped for a time, if not forever; and this is why this battle is so important. Attila was defeated and driven out of Gaul, but he appeared in Italy during the following year. People flew from his presence as they would from a prairie fire. Some of those who escaped with their lives sought refuge among the islands of the Adriatic Sea. This miserable settlement afterwards became the great and picturesque city of Venice. Attila then pressed on and threatened Rome, but the good i THE GERMANS 109 bishop, Leo, induced him to spare the city. He finally left Italy and died soon after, and the great empire of the Huns fell to pieces. With the Huns out of the way, the Germans found it a much easier task to get possession of the Roman Empire. The Germans in Britain. While the Germans were taking possession of the Roman Empire, even remote Britain was not overlooked. Just about the time the Germans and Romans were combining to crush the Huns at Chalons, little bands of Germans, known as Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, began to emigrate to Britain from the northern part of Germany. You will remember that about a hundred years after the visits of Julius Caesar to Britain, the Romans added to the empire the country which we now call England. The Romans remained in control of England until 410 a.d., at which time the Germans under Alaric, a talented young noble who had been elected chieftain, were attacking Rome. This made it necessary to recall the Roman sol- diers from Britain in order to defend the capital city, and so the island of Britain was turned back again to the con- trol of the native inhabitants. These inhabitants had, however, been protected so long by the Roman army that they did not know how to protect themselves. They were, therefore, an easy prey for the savage tribes around them. The Picts from Scotland and the Scots from Ire- land plundered and killed the weak and defenseless Britons. They hardly knew what to do, and, in their despair, they asked the Romans to send back their soldiers to protect them. This Rome could not do, as she had more serious business on hand. Just at this time, so the story goes, a no INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY band of Jutes under their leaders, Hengist and Horsa, landed in the southeastern part of Britain in what is now the county of Kent. These Jutes were reckless rovers and pirates, ever ready to plunder or to fight. To them the Britons turned for assistance. They asked them to join in the war against their fierce neighbors. The Jutes agreed, turned in, and lent a hand. The result was that the combined Britons and Jutes were successful. Just at this point, however, a very unexpected turn took place. The Britons thought that since the fighting was over the Jutes would go their way rejoicing. But the Jutes could not see it in that way. They said that they liked the country and the climate much better than they did their own frozen north and that they had decided to stay and to make themselves at home in Britain. And so they stayed. Not only this, but their relatives and friends came trooping after them and continued to come for one hundred and fifty years. By that time, the new- comers had possession of all the land now known as England, and the movement, known in history as the Anglo-Saxon conquest, was complete. It should be re- membered, however, that the Germanic people never ob- tained possession of what we now call Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. The inhabitants of these latter countries were called Celts, of whom we shall learn more later on. The Roman Empire becomes a German Empire. And so the Germans were grabbing territory in all parts of the Roman Empire, and finally they brushed aside the Em- peror Augustulus and put their own chieftain, Odoacer, in his place. The Germans fought many other battles on Roman soil, but the one great and important thing to be re- THE GERMANS 111 membered is, that, little by little, the Germans overran the whole Roman Empire and that in 476 they put one of their own number upon the throne at Rome. At this date the empire ceased to be Roman and became German. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. Suppose the Huns instead of the Germans had been successful in overturning the Roman Empire, what difference would it have made? 2. The quotation at the beginning of the chapter is a fine one. Are you ready to say what each of these four sources has given to our modern civilization? 3. The Romans, Germans, and others seemed obliged to do a great deal of fighting. CiviUzed nations are still fighting. Do you think the time will ever come when nations will settle their difficulties without warfare? 4. Why were the Htms feared so much? 5. What can you say about Attila, Adrianople, Chalons, Picts, Scots, Jutes, Angles, Saxons, Goths? 6. What was the Anglo-Saxon Conquest? PRONOUNCING LIST Adrianople. ad'rl-an-o'p'l Picts. pikts Alaric. al'd-rik Teutoberg. toi'to-biirg Attila. at'i-Id Thor. thor Augustulus. 6-gus'tu-lws Varus, va'rws Chalons, sha'lon' Venice, ven'is Goths, goths Woden wo'den Odoacer. o'do-a'ser 112 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER XII THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY " In a truer sense, perhaps, might it be said of the Germans than of any other people that they were the heirs of all the ages. All the past was their inheritance.^' — George B. Adams. "The torch of knowledge which antiquity had kindled had fallen from the hands that held it, and burned but feebly on the ground." The Dark Ages. Now let us ask, what effect did these German invasions have upon the civihzation of the Roman Empire? It received a marked setback, as we might ex- pect, in more ways than one. The Germans were, for the most part, barbarians and only a very small fraction of them had been converted to the Christian religion. They were not interested in books or works of art and they scoffed at the refining influences of life. It seemed for a time as if the lights of learning had been snuffed out by the hands of these rude, barbaric Germans. The masses of the people were not being educated and the writing of books had almost ceased. This state of things lasted for several centuries and this period is commonly known in history as ^'The Dark Ages." We shall see later, how- ever, that these ages were not really so ^^dark" as they appeared to be. While the German seemed to be a destroyer, he really made the civilization of the empire, in the end, better than it was before. The Germans had the barbarism of "a. young and pure race, not that of a debased and de- THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY England in the Middle Ages Walker cl uot^jvcieii sc. This map shows the scene of the battle between WiUiam, the Duke of Normandy and Harold, the King of England. It also shows the location of Canterbury, the home of the famo\is Canterbury Cathedral. A little to the east and north of Canterbury is the landing place of St. Augustine and his forty monks and also of the Jutes under Hengist and Horsa. To the west of Canterbury is Runnjnmede, where King John signed the great charter. 114 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY graded one." You may have seen a town or city that was swept by a fire or destroyed by a tornado. The ruins w^ere sickening to look upon, but if you visited that same place a few years later, you would probably find it built up much better than it ever was before. So it was with the Roman Empire. The Germans destroyed a great part of Roman civilization, but they preserved more than they destroyed and made their own additions to it. It is important to remember that Roman learning and law added to German liberty and virtue made a strong combination. The Spread of Christianity. One of the most powerful forces in rebuilding the civilization of the empire was the spread of Christianity. In connection with this work, we find the names of many great leaders in the Christian Church. St. Augustine and his Forty Monks. The story of St. Augustine and his band of forty monks will illus- trate the way in which the missionaries carried the Gospel of the Cross to the German tribes. Gregory was a pious monk who was afterwards known as Gregory the Great, on account of his notable work for the Christian Church. WTiile passing through the slave market of Rome one day, he saw some beautiful fair-haired boys being offered for sale. He asked who they were and where they came from and whether or not they were followers of Christ. He was told that they were Angles from England and that they and their people were still heathens. ''Not Angles, but angels," said Gregory, ''and the praise of God will yet be sung in their land, so that their fair souls may some day become angels in heaven." Some years later, this same Gregory became Pope of Rome and he still remembered the fair boys in the market- THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 115 place. He accordingly sent St. Augustine, another monk, with forty companions, as missionaries to the land of the Angles. This small band of pious men landed in the county of Kent in 597, where the Jutes, Hengist and Horsa, had landed nearly one hundred and fifty years be- fore. Now it so happened that the king of Kent was Ethelbert, and that his wife. Bertha, was a Frankish prin- cess and a Christian. So when St. Augus- tine sent word to the king that he had come to tell him and his people about Christ, Ethel- bert received him kindly, but insisted that the meeting be held in the open air, so that no harm could be done him by the magic of the strangers. The monks then came into the presence of the king and queen, chanting the Litany and bearing a large silver cross on high and a rude picture of Christ, painted upon a board. St. Augustine then explained the new religion to the king and his attendants. Ethelbert listened attentively to every word of the missionary and then said: ^'Fair are your words, but also new and strange. I may not forsake the gods of my fathers, but as for my people they may believe whatsoever they will and no man shall hinder them." Gregory and the English Slave Children 116 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY St. Augustine and his companions then settled down in Canterbury to teach and to preach the Gospel of Christ. At first they used Queen Bertha's chapel, but later an old church of the Roman times was repaired and became the predecessor of the present famous Canterbury Cathedral. Other buildings were erected and the little religious colony spread and prospered. The monks lived an exceedingly simple life, preaching to all who cared to listen to them and giving no thought to the accumulation of riches. In the course of time, Ethelbert and thousands of his people were baptized into the Christian faith, and fifty years after the coming of St. Augustine almost all of England had been rescued from heathenism. "The civihzation, arts, and letters which had fled before the swords of the English conquerors returned with the Christian faith." Missionaries to the Germans. Other missionaries were doing the same kind of work among the Germans. In the course of time all of the Germans cast aside the worship of Thor and Woden for that of Jesus Christ. The recep- tion of these missionaries was not always so pleasant as that of St. Augustine and his companions. Sometimes they were put to death in a most painful and brutal way. This, however, did not check the progress of Christianity. It really seemed to hasten it. ''The blood of the martyr is the seed of the church." The murder of one missionary made his companions more eager than ever to spread the Gospel. The Cathedrals. One of the most beautiful results of the spread of Christianity over Europe was the building of the famous cathedrals of the Middle Ages. Americans w o B C I THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 117 traveling in Europe always make it a point to visit some of these great buildings. The Cologne Cathedral in Germany is one of the finest specimens of Gothic archi- tecture in the world. It was begun in the eleventh cen- tury and finished in 1880. Some of the cathedrals were Romanesque in stjde, with rounded arches and domes, while others were Gothic, distinguished by the sharp, pointed arch, the tall slender spire, and profuse ornamentation. The cathedral at Durham in England is a good example of the Romanesque. The Monasteries. The monks were religious bodies of men who lived together in monasteries. Sometimes they lived secluded from the outside world and again they mingled with the people. These monks lived under very strict rules of discipline and usually took vows of "poverty, chastity, and obedience." The monks were also the best farmers of their day. Some of of the order known Cologne Cathedral them, especially those as Benedictines, were hard workers. They cleared off the forests and drained the swamps and changed useless and desolate regions into beautiful and fruitful fields. The monks were also the most zealous missionaries of the time and had much to do with the conversion of the Germans. The Monks as Educated Men. The monks performed 118 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY still another great service. In the quiet of their cloisters they preserved the learning of the Roman world. They, together with the priests, were the best educated men of the Middle Ages and the monastery became the center of education. Schools were established by the monks and many of these later became the famous universities of Europe. Printing was not known in the Middle Ages and Writing Room of a Monastery the monks preserved and multiplied books by copying them by hand. If they had not done this, probably most of the books written by the great Greek and Latin authors would never have come down to us. In doing this work, some of the monks became very skillful. They would take a sheet of parchment and line it with a straight- edge and awl. They would then print the copy, making each letter by hand, and with the greatest of care. A space was left at the head of each chapter and in this some monk having artistic abihty painted a picture or an THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 119 ornamental letter, called an ^illuminated capital." The copying of an entire book was a very slow process and some- times occupied many months. The monks spent a certain time each da}^ in the writing room of the monastery. Here absolute silence was the rule. If a worker wanted some material, he made a sign to the master. No word could be spoken. In addition to all of the above, the monks cared for the sick and gave alms to the poor. In doing the work of charity, the women, who were called nuns, were also a great assistance. In some instances the monastery and the nunnery resembled our modern hospitals. One of the most famous monasteries in Europe was situated at St. Albans, about forty miles northwest of London. The Work of Charlemagne. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, probably did more than any other one man to rebuild the civilization which the early Germans had torn down. Charlemagne was a tall, muscular man, who de- lighted in all forms of athletic exercises. He was a fine rider, a skillful hunter, and an expert swimmer. His great strength and good health undoubtedly helped him very much in governing his empire. You will recall that the Germans set aside the Emperor Augustulus and put Odoacer, one of their own chieftains, in his place. Now, Charlemagne may be looked upon as a successor of Odoacer. On Christmas Day, 800, he was crowned by the Pope as Emperor of the Roman Empire in the west, which was now in reality a German Empire. It was his ambition to bring all the German peoples to- gether into one great Christian empire, and he was re- markably successful in doing this. He did so much good 120 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY that he was looked upon as the ''Hero of the Middle Ages." He improved the government, extended the church, and educated his people. He urged the clergy to Charlemagne Being Crowned Emperor be more studious themselves and also to gather together the children, both of serfs and freemen, and teach them to read. Large numbers of schools were established in this way and some of them became famous. He also established what was known as the ''School of the Palace," THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY 121 Charlemagne 122 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY for his own children and those of the nobles about the court. He placed an Englishman, named Alcuin, at the head of the school and imported distinguished men from Italy and other countries as teachers. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. Compare the Roman Empire of Caesar's day with Charlemagne's Empire. 2. Observe on your map the three divisions of the Empire. Of what importance has the middle division been in the recent European War? 3. How did "the German really make the civiUzation of the empire in the end to be better than it was before " ? 4. What do we owe to the church of the Middle Ages? 5. The '* Book of Kells," made by the monks we have been studying about in this chapter, is said to be the most beautiful book in the world. Would you not hke to find out more about it? 6. Who was the "Hero of the Middle Ages"? Why? 7. What great purpose did the "Monastery Writing Room'* serve? 8. Who said, "Not Angles, but Angels"? 9. Who was St. Augustine? PRONOUNCING LIST Alcuin. arkwin Hengist. hen'gist Benedictine, ben'e-dik'tin Horsa. hor'sa Cologne, ko-lon' CHAPTER XIII ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH We must now leave the story of the continent of Europe and go over to the British Isles and see what was taking place there. You will remember that the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes came from what is now the northern part of Germany and took possession of England, in the so-called Anglo-Saxon conquest. The native Britons were either put to the sword or driven over into Wales or Scotland ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 123 or across to Ireland. A few may have been kept as laborers and household servants. These Germans did not invade Britain all at the same time, but came stringing along for a hundred and fifty years, a few boat-loads at a time. Each little company had its own chieftain or king, so that England was not under the rule of one head but of many heads. The Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, however, were all Germans, and so after a time these petty kingdoms began to unite. At one time there were seven, known as the Heptarchy. A little later the number was reduced to three, and finally all England was united under one head. King Alfred. One of the earliest and greatest of Eng- land's kings was Alfred. Alfred was the Charlemagne of his country and is known in history as Alfred the Great. These two men, Charlemagne and Alfred, were the pillars of light in the Dark Ages. Alfred was born at Wantage, in England, in the year 849. When a boy of seven, his father, who was king of England, took him on a visit to Rome. Here they re- mained a year and Alfred was greatly interested in every- thing that he saw. The city, with its great buildings, was much finer than anything which he had ever seen in his native land. Alfred and his father were also pre- sented to the Pope and received by him with great honor. Alfred was not a robust boy, but he was very fond of hunting and later became a valiant leader in war. He was also interested in books and learning, even when he was quite young. The story is told that his mother was accustomed to read poems to him and to his four brothers. They were greatly interested and the mother promised 124 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY a beautiful set of the poems to the boy who should first learn to read. Alfred, though the youngest, won the prize. In those days, very few boys — or men for that matter — outside of the churches and monasteries could read or even write their own names. At the age of twenty-two, Alfred became king. He took his duties very seriously. It is said that he gave eight hours a day to sleep, food and exercise, eight hours to public business, and eight to religious and church work. By doing his work in this systematic way, he accomplished a great deal in his comparatively short lifetime. The Coming of the Danes. Alfred's great military work was the fighting of the Danes. For many years before the beginning of his reign, the Danes had been coming to England. They came in much the same way that the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes had come some time before. The home from which they came was also near the old home of the followers of Hengist and Horsa. The Danes, too, were very much like their predecessors. They were barbarians and worshipers of Thor and Woden, and being heathens, they had no respect for churches or mon- asteries. These they plundered on every hand and car- ried away gold and silver ornaments, costly vestments, King Alfred Learning to Read ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 125 Alfred the Great Alfred is looked upon as one of the greatest and best kings of England, one great wish was to be of service to his people. He succeeded. His 126 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY and jeweled vessels. They also drove away flocks of sheep and took grain from the barns for their food. At the time that Alfred became king, these pagan Danes were threatening to take possession of all of England. Alfred took the field against them in person. He built boats and he has sometimes been called the '' Father of the British Navy." He also reorganized the land army, march- ing one half of the men against the enemy and leaving the other half to till the land. Alfred and the English fought bravely but the Danes drove them back and the good king was compelled to flee for refuge into the swamps of Somerset. Here he lived in the humble hut of a cowherd, unknown to the kind people who had given him protection. One day, it is said, the wife of the cowherd had put some loaves of bread to bake over the open fire before which Alfred sat, thinking of his sad plight and planning some method of escape for his people. The loaves began to burn and the odor of the burning bread caused the good woman to enter the room and upbraid Alfred for his carelessness. ^' You, man," she cried angrily, '^you will not turn the bread when you you see it burning, but you will be very glad to eat it when it is done." An old English writer puts the rebuke in this way: — ''There, don't you see the cakes on fire? Then wherefore turn them not? You're glad enough to eat them When they are piping hot." The Battle of Wedmore (878). Maintaining this dis- guise for some time, Alfred finally completed his plans for the attack. He came out of his hiding place, and rally- pi td 2 ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 127 ing his men, defeated the Danes in the battle of Wedmore (Wet Moor). He was not able to drive them out of the country, however, and so he made a treaty with them, giving them all of the northern and eastern parts of ^p^^l^^^H 1 ■'*■>. •:»»i!>«i----'"' ■ King Alfred and the Burning Cakes England — a district which was later known as the Danelaw. Alfred*s Works of Peace. King Alfred, however, was greater in peace than he was in war and did many things to improve the condition of his people. In the first place, he revised the laws of England and made them more just and uniform than they had ever been before. ''Those 128 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY which seemed to me the most right," he said in speaking of his laws, 'Hhose I have gathered together, and rejected the others." One of his laws was this: ''If any one dig a water pit, or open one that is shut up and close it not again, let him pay for whatever cattle may fall therein." Many of his laws, naturally enough, in this rough age, had to do with criminal offenses, but the penalties were merciful. His ambition was to have just laws and upright judges. He also saw to it that the laws were en- forced. It was said that if golden apples grew upon trees by the roadside during Alfred's reign, no one would dare to pick them. Alfred, like Charlemagne, was a devoted friend of edu- cation. He established many schools and brought in learned churchmen and others from Wales, France, and Germany to teach in them. One famous school was attached to his court for the benefit of the young nobles. One of the most noted teachers brought in from the outside was good Bishop Asser, who came from Wales. It was this bishop who taught Alfred himself to read Latin. Alfred was also active in religious matters. Churches and monasteries had suffered greatly at the hands of the pillaging Danes, and Alfred set about vigorously to repair the work of destruction. He rebuilt old churches and abbeys and constructed several new ones. He also had the missionary spirit. When Guthrum, king of the Danes, was defeated at Wedmore, Alfred compelled him to become a Christian. Guthrum was bap- tized and became the guest of Alfred for several weeks, during which time there was much feasting and rejoicing. ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 129 Alfred as an Author. Alfred's services to literature were also notable. Indeed, Alfred's writings and trans- lations have been called the beginning of prose literature in England. He learned Latin from Bishop Asser long after he became king, and translated several books into English and wrote introductions to them. Among other works, he translated a '^ History of the World." This was a notable service to the Enghsh people who were not able to read Latin. But Alfred was extremely modest about it. He said, ^'Do not blame me if any know Latin better than I, for every man must say what he says and do what he does according to his ability." There was really no necessity for such an apology as that, since Alfred's English style was excellent. It is really difficult to stop telling about Alfred because he did so many good things. But what he was was just as important as what he did. He was a lovable, devout, simple, and sincere man. A recent writer says, ''In all the records of him that exist, there is not a single statement that puts a blemish upon his great and good character.'^ He died in the year 901, at the age of fifty- two, and now lies buried in Winchester Cathedral in southern England. Canute Becomes King (1017). We have noticed that Alfred defeated the Danes at Wedmore but that he was not able to expel them from England. According to a treaty which he made with them, they were to occupy the Danelaw and to acknowledge him as their overlord. This arrangement seemed to work well and the wild Danes were being tamed. They were adopting the manners and customs of civilized hfe and were becoming more like Alfred's people. 130 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Things went well during the lifetime of Alfred, but one of his successors was a weak king, called Ethelred the Unready. In Ethelred's time, a great horde of Danes came and set about to take possession of the entire country. Ethelred did not care to fight as Alfred had done so he bought off the Danes; that is, he gave them money on condition that they leave England. They did leave En- gland according to their agreement — but they returned the very next year and in greater numbers than ever. The result was that not many years after, Ethelred and his family were compelled to flee from England and the Danes placed one of their number, King Canute, upon the throne. Canute was now king of England and Denmark at the same time and, although he had a very difficult task to perform, he did remarkably well. He ruled England for eighteen years in a kind and fatherly way and treated his English subjects just as well as he did the Danes. AVhile Canute was a just and fair man, however, he expected to be obeyed. It is said that on one occasion the king seated himself on the beach and noticed that the tide was rising and coming in his direction. He com- manded it to stop in these words: '^O Sea, I am thy lord. My ships sail over thee whither I will, and this land against which thou breakest is mine; stay thou thy waves, and dare not wet the feet of thy lord and master." But the tide came in and wet the royal feet and Canute was so chagrined that he vowed he would never wear the crown again. But while Canute was a wise and good king, his two sons who succeeded him were very different from their father and upon the death of the second of these, in 1042, ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 131 the Danish Hne came to an end. There seemed to be no other man of the Danish royal house who would make a good king and so the Witan, the assembly of the wise men, chose Edward, son of Ethelred the Unready, to be the king of England. The Northmen in America. We have noticed that the King Canute and His Courtiers Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Danes were swarming out of their homes and making new homes in other lands. While the Danes were taking possession of England, their kinsmen from the Scandinavian peninsula were also roving the seas. These sea-rovers are called Vikings, not because they were kings, but because they lived on a vik, or bay. They plowed the seas in long, swift, canoe-like boats with high prows, sometimes bearing the head of a 132 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY dragon or other animal. Their boats were driven partly by sails and partly by oars. The shields of the rowers were hung over the side of the boat and the hardy Vikings sometimes escaped, after being defeated in a sea-fight, by swimming away under the protection of their huge shields. It was a band of these Vikings, usually called North- NoRSEMEN Landing in America men, or Norsemen, who came to America about five hun- dred years before Columbus did. Leif Ericson, known as Leif the Lucky, after stopping at Iceland and Greenland, where his people had already founded colonies, sailed to the coast of North America. He named the place ^'Vin- land," because of the abundance of wild grapes which he found there. Leif and his companions, about thirty in number, spent the winter in Vinland and founded a colony. THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 133 Their colony was abandoned later and no trace of it has ever been found. In fact, its exact location is still a mystery, but it was probably somewhere within the pres- ent boundaries of Rhode Island or Massachusetts. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. Why are Charlemagne and Alfred called "the pillars of light in the Dark Ages"? 2. Could you see in Rome to-day any of the great buildings Alfred saw more than a thousand years ago? 3. What do you think was Alfred's greatest service to England? 4. Did Alfred do anything which is of benefit to us at the present time? 5. Why do we not give credit to Leif Ericson and the Northmen for the Discovery of America, rather than to Columbus? 6. Name some of the kings who succeeded Alfred. What did Alfred's influence and contact with the Pagan Danes do for this people? 7. What was ''The Witan"? PRONOUNCING LIST Asser. as'er Wantage, won'taj Canute, kd-nut' Witan. wit'an Guthrimi. giith'riim CHAPTER XIV THE COMING OF THE NORMANS We must now turn our attention to still another inva- sion from the north. While the Danes were swooping down upon England, other Northmen from the Scan- dinavian peninsula were ravaging the northern coast of France. Finally, these sea-rovers and pirates became bolder and in 845 they sailed up the Seine River and captured the city of Paris. They plundered and laid waste the country in exactly the same way that the Danes 134 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY did in England. Finally, one of the kings of France, known in history as Charles the Simple, made a bargain with them very much like that which Alfred had made with the Danes, a few years before. He gave to the Norse leader, Rollo or Rolf, as he is sometimes called, a large tract of land in the northern part of France on condition that he and his men promise to aid him in war and also to accept the Christian rehgion. This was agreed to by the Northmen (912) and they settled down in their rich and pleasant country and became very prosperous. They also laid aside their barbarous ways and adopted the lan- guage and the refined manners and customs of the French. Their country took the name Normandy and they them- selves came to be called Normans. Edward *' The Confessor." Now let us go back to England for a moment. We have already noticed that Edward, the son of Ethelred the Unready, was elected king of England by the wise men to succeed the last of the Danish kings (1042). Edward was well liked by everyone, but he was not a strong king. He was thirty years of age when he came to the throne and twenty-five of those years had been spent in Normandy. He was really more of a Norman than an Englishman and he brought with him a host of relatives, noblemen, and other friends from Normandy to fill the high offices in England. While Edward was a timid man, he was also a very religious one and came to be known as Edward '^The Con- fessor," or Edward ''The Saint." The most notable thing which he did was the founding of Westminster Abbey in the city of London. The Abbey was a Christian church and monastery combined, and is now one of the most THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 135 famous buildings in the world. Edward lies buried in this Abbey, as do scores of England's most famous men, including Tennyson and Gladstone. The Norman Conquest (1066). After a mild reign of twenty-four years, Edward died in the year 1066. Upon his death-bed he recommended as his successor a great warrior and states- man, named Harold. Harold, however, was not a member of the royal family, and yet upon the following day, the Witan, or the wise men, met and elec- ted him King of England. William the Con- q u e r r . At this time, William was the Duke, or the leader of the Nor- mans. He was Edward the Confessor's first cousin and claimed that Edward had promised the crown to him upon his death. It is probable that Edward had done so, but the crown was really not his to give, and appar- ently Edward changed his mind before he died. William also claimed that Harold had promised to help him to become king of England. William was very angry when Westminster Abbey 136 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY EN (gland 3 Oxfculi St. Albans *^^ he heard that Edward had died and that Harold had been made king. He was hunting when the news came to him, and he is said to have become "speechless with rage." He dropped his bow and made ready to lead an army into England. Harold knew. perfectly well that William would come to England to measure swords with him and so he placed an army on the southern coast of England to watch for his coming. Several months passed by and William failed to appear. Finally, when the harvest time came, Har- old's army, made up largely of farmers, went to their homes to gather in the grain. The coast was thus left without defenders, and when William finally appeared in September, he landed his men without opposition. Harold, however, came a Uttle later to meet him, and the armies met at Senlac, near Hastings, in southern England. The Normans, with their bows and arrows, were making ready to meet the Saxons with their battle- axes. When William was putting on his armor, he put the back side of it in front. His men were alarmed as they thought that a very bad omen. William, however, was equal to the occasion and remarked as he was making the change that he thought it a very good omen, Route of AVilliam the Conqueror ' Normandy and Southeast England in 1066 < 1-1 m < THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 137 for on that day a Norman Duke was to be changed into an Enghsh king. The Battle of Senlac (October 14, 1066). The battle was long and hard. It lasted all day, with great loss of life. Harold was killed and the Eng- lish were put to flight. As soon as Harold lay dead upon the field, Wil- liam became the master of England and it is said that he sat quietly down among the dead on the battlefield to eat and drink. The vis- itor to this battle- field now sees the remains of what was once apparently an imposing building. These ruins are all that remain of an abbey built by William to commemorate his victory. The ruins stand on the spot where Harold fell. William Made King of England. After his great vic- tory at Senlac, William marched north, crossed the Thames River, and estabhshed his camp a few miles from the city of London. While here, noblemen, churchmen, and others came out from London, and invited him to William the Conqueror Reviewing His Troops 138 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY come into the city and be crowned. It is needless to say that William accepted the invitation and entered the city. On Christmas Day, 1066, he was elected king by the Witan and crowned in the famous Abbey founded by Edward the Confessor. WiUiam the Conqueror thus became the founder of a new line of kings, known as the Norman kings. Many Normans also came to England with William and made their homes there. This brought about a number of changes in English life. New words were introduced into the English language and changes were made in the laws and in the church. The coming of the Normans was a good thing for England in many ways. The Normans were more refined and polished than the English, and the combination of ''Norman brightness and charm" added to ''English solidity and strength" proved to be a remark- ably good one. We should remember, however, that the main stream of civilization in England still continued to be English and not Norman. The civilization of England is a mixed one. The early Britons gave something to it; the Romans did also; the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes made their contribu- tion; the Danes made theirs; and, finally, came the Normans with their valuable contribution. The most im- portant of these elements, however, is the Anglo-Saxon, as we shall have occasion to see later. The Reign of William. Wilham was a very stern and harsh ruler but, on the whole, a very good one. A strong hand was needed in England at that time to keep the nobles in check. When William gave an order, he insisted upon being obeyed. "He was so harsh and cruel, '^ says an THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 139 old writer, ''that no one dared withstand him." In order to keep his people in subjection, he built fortresses in every town of importance, which he put in charge of his own men. The most noted of these is the famous Tower still standing in the city of London. ** The New Forest." In some ways William was selfish and unjust. Next to war, he loved hunting, and in order to have large shoot- ing grounds, well stocked with game, he established what is known as ''The New Forest." This was in Hampshire in the southeastern part of England. Here, in order to make room for his deer and other game, he drove the people from their homes and destroyed their villages. He seemed to care more for his game than for his people, and it is said that "he loved the tall deer as though he had been their father." William the Conqueror died after ruling England for twenty-one years; and when he died it was found to be very difficult to purchase six feet of earth for him for a grave, because the people disliked him so much. William the Second. Wilham the Conqueror was suc- ceeded on the English throne by one of his sons, known as The Tower of London The London Tower was a kind of fortress and prison combined, located on the Thames River. Many noted men and women were imprisoned in this building. It is now used as a military- museum and as a barracks for the soldiers. 140 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY William Rufus, or William the Red, on account of his big red face. This William was a good soldier and a skillful hunter and kept his nobles in fairly good order, but not much else that is good can be said of him. He was vain and extravagant and spent the people's money very freely for his own base pleasures. He was also cruel and his habits were not good; so that when the charcoal man brought his body in his cart from the New Forest to Winchester for burial, there were no tears shed over it. Henry II. Some of the early kings of England were good and some bad but one of them, Henry the Second (1154-1189), was particularly wise and just. Although Henry was a wise and good king, his last years were full of sadness. Men rebelled against him and his sons were among the number. When he found the name of John, his favorite son, at the head of the list of those arrayed against him he gave up the fight. ''Now let things go as they will," he said in sorrow, ''I care no more for myself or the world." A few weeks later he died — some said of a broken heart. King Richard the Lion-hearted. The good Henry was succeeded on the throne of England by his son Richard, the famous crusader, known in history as ''Richard the Lion-hearted." The new king was thirty-two years of age, tall, handsome, and kingly in bearing, and was soon looked upon as a national hero. He was a fine soldier, a good speaker, and a man of great muscular strength and courage. But he also had a terrible temper and was cruel and not always honest and truthful. In one sense, Richard's reign is not important but, in another sense, it is. Richard was king of England for THE COMING OF THE NORMANS 141 ten years, but spent only eight months of that time in England. The rest of the time he was on the continent of Europe or in the Holy Land leading Crusades by which it was hoped to wrest Jerusalem and the sepulchre of Christ from the hands of the infidel Turks. He cared little for England. There is an old saying that while the cat is away the mice will play. And so while Richard was away on the Crusades, or the "Holy Wars of the Cross," the people of En- gland began to think of their rights and liberties and to desire a part in the govern- ment. A few years later, as we shall soon see, these desires bore rich and abun- dant fruit. Richard had a wild and turbulent career. After squeezing all the money that he could out of his English subjects, he set out with the crusaders for the Holy Land; and while he did not succeed in capturing Jerusalem, his marvelous feats of strength and daring struck terror into the hearts of the people of the East. He became a kind of bogey-man and for centuries Arab mothers were accustomed to frighten their children into silence by saying, ''Hush, here comes King Richard." On his way home from Palestine, his ship was wrecked upon the coast of Italy. Richard then determined to Richard "The Lion Hearted," King of England 142 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY continue his journey overland. He put on a disguise and announced himself as ^^Hugh, the merchant," wherever he went. He did this because he was afraid of falling into the hands of enemies. Finally, his identity became known and he was cast into prison where he remained for a year. He was at last released upon the payment of an enormous ransom by the people of England. He then returned home and was received with wild enthusiasm as a popular hero. But in two months he was off again fighting against the King of France and others. Finally the news came to him that a large amount of gold had been found buried on an estate in southern France. Richard immediately appeared upon the scene and de- manded a large share of it. Upon being refused, he laid siege to the castle and determined to take the money by force. One day, while riding his horse near the castle, he was struck by an arrow from the wall and mortally wounded. A short time after, and before the king died, the castle surrendered and Richard in a fierce outburst of temper, ordered that every man, woman, and child within the castle should be killed except the man who shot the fatal arrow. Calling this unfortunate man be- fore him, he asked, ''What have I done to you that you should kill me?" ''You have killed my father and my two brothers and have taken all their property," was the prompt reply. The man was set free. A short time after, Richard died and was buried at the side of his father in Westminster Abbey. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. Read in any good encyclopedia a description of the Tower of London, or of Westminster Abbey, and report to the class. Try to make clear the THE FIGHT FOR ENGLISH LIBERTY 143 age, size, and historical importance of the Abbey. Be sure to tell the class about the coronation chair and the "Stone of Scone." Make clear how different the Abbey is from our churches. There in the Poet's corner is the bust of one of our great poets, one whom you know and love. See if you can find out who he is. 2. Why was it necessary for William the Conqueror to use harsher methods than did Alfred? 3. Why is the Norman Conquest a turning point in Enghsh history? 4. Name some of the notable characteristics of Richard "The Lion- hearted." Why was he so called? 5. Can you tell the difference between the Normans and the Danes? Were they relatives? What did each bring to England? PRONOUNCING LIST Arab, ^r'ab Scandinavian, skan'di-na'vt-dn Jerusalem. je-roo'sd-l6m Seine, san CHAPTER XV KING JOHN AND THE FIGHT FOR ENGLISH LIBERTY As soon as the lion-hearted Richard had breathed his last, his younger brother, John, became king of England. It is not a pleasant task to tell the story of King John, as he was the worst king that ever sat on the English throne. John had been disloyal to his father, Henry, and, as we read in the last chapter, had brought that good king in sorrow to his grave; and when his brother Richard was fighting for the Holy Land, he tried to get his kingdom away from him. He had a bad reputation before he be- came king and, when he ascended the throne, he more than lived up to it. John had trouble with the king of France, the Pope, and almost everyone else that he had any dealings with. 144 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY The king of France seized John's French possessions and when John called upon his barons to march with him to recover them, they refused to do so. John and the Pope quarreled over the appointment of an archbishop of Canterbury. John wanted one man and the Pope favored another. John was stubborn and the Pope placed England under the Interdict; that is, he prohibited all church services in that country. There was to be no church bell, no marriage, no funeral, no mass. He also declared John excommunicated, or cast out of the Roman Church. To cap the climax, he took the kingdom away from John and then gave it back to him on condi- tion that he pay the Pope one thousand pounds per year for it. John agreed to all of these humiliating conditions and the money was actually paid for a number of years. John kept on going from bad to worse, until finally the nobles and clergy thought the time had come to call, ^'Halt." The Great Charter (1215). A large number of the lead- ing men of England had a meeting to talk over their grievances. They came to the conclusion that they would compel the king, by force of arms if necessary, to govern England according to the old and historic laws. The demand was made and John refused it without considera- tion. His opponents, however, were not to be put aside. They marched upon London, gathering strength as they went, and when they reached that city, they found the gates thrown open to them. The nobles, clergy, and common people — all but a few personal friends — had deserted John and he was compelled much against his will to accept the terms submitted to him. 3 > Q g > THE FIGHT FOR ENGLISH LIBERTY 145 John met his people on a small island in the Thames River, near Runnymede, and signed the Great Charter (Magna Charta) on the fifteenth of June, 1215. This Charter was a very bitter pill for the king to swallow and it is said that John was speechless with rage and tore his hair when about to sign it. Another account says that he expressed his feelings by rolling on the floor and gnawing a stick. This Charter is the most important document in English history and Englishmen prize it greatly. It is as important to the English as our Declaration of Independence is to us. In fact, it is a sort of Declaration of Independence and it has been called ^Hhe corner-stone of English history." There is nothing new in the Great Charter. It simply contained a statement of old rights and liberties. Some of the kings, and John in particular, seemed to forget that the people had any rights and the Great Charter proved to be an excellent reminder. Some of its more important provisions may be stated as follows: I. No tax shall be levied in the kingdom without the consent of the people. II. No one shall be imprisoned or banished or pun- ished in any way, unless convicted by a jury of his fellow- citizens. III. To no one will we sell, to no one will we deny or delay right or justice. These provisions meant that in the future, when a king wanted money, he would have to ask the people for it and not simply levy a tax as John and Richard had done without consulting anybody. Some kings also threw men into prison and kept them 146 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY there for years without any trial at all, or, in some in- stances, after a very unfair trial. The Great Charter now provided that a man accused of crime should have a speedy trial before a jury and should not be compelled to bribe the judges in order to escape unjust punishment. , John, of course, never had any thought of living up to the Charter and said so plainly a short time after signing it. He knew that he would have to fight, so he hired some soldiers to fight against his own people. Defeat was staring John in the face when his end came. The exact cause of his death is not known. It may be that a large quantity of peaches and beer which he consumed did not agree with the royal stomach. Some say that he was poisoned by an enemy. However, the cruel and despotic John passed off the scene and very few tears were shed. The House of Commons (1265). When John died, he had a little son named Henry, who was nine years of age. This little lad became king of England and was crowned Henry the Third. During the early part of his reign, of course, he had no part in the government, but when he became a man, he wanted to have his own way about everything. He resembled his father in many ways. He was a chip off the old block and did not seem to learn anything from the disastrous experiences of his father. He was more French than English and loved to have foreigners in office and about his court. He also lavished money and favors upon them. This money he wrung from the people in the form of taxes. There was a clause against this in the Great Charter which he had taken a solemn oath to uphold. But that did not seem to worry Henry very much. THE FIGHT FOR ENGLISH LIBERTY 147 Henry was also more obedient to the Pope of Rome than most of his people wished to see him. They pre- ferred to be more independent. Simon de Montfort. Just at this time, a great man appeared as the champion of the people against the king. This man was Simon de Montfort, sometimes called Earl Simon. Earl Simon was a member of an old French family which had come to England some time before, and he had married the sister of the king. He was called Simon the Righteous. An old English ballad runs, '^He hates the wrong, he loves the right." Earl Simon had his faults, many of them, but he was a brave man and a lover of liberty and a fine soldier. When King Henry became unbearable, the people tried to put some restrictions upon him as they had upon his father at Runnymede. It was all to no avail, however, so the noble Earl raised an army and took the field against him. The battle was fought in southeastern England. Earl Simon was victorious and captured the king and the entire royal family. With the king in his power, Simon de Montfort had control of the entire government. He made one change which proved to be of great importance. The Great Council which represented the people in the government was composed up to this time of nobles and clergymen, exclusively. Earl Simon said that the common people, the plain citizens without titles, should also have a voice in the government. And so he called a meeting of Par- liament, as the Great Council was now coming to be called. To this ParHament he invited the nobles, the clergy, and the common people as well. This was the be- 148 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY ginning of the House of Commons in England (1265) and Simon de Montfort was its founder. Parliament. The word ^^ parliament" comes from a French word which means to speak. It therefore means a place where things are spoken about or discussed and Houses of Parliament This beautiful building covers eight acres on the banks of the Thames River in London. It is the home of England's law-making body. debated. When the commoners first appeared in Parlia- ment, they were snubbed and scoffed at and did not have much influence. At first, they sat in the same room and debated matters of government with the nobles and clergy. But, after a time, they sat in a chamber by themselves and came to be called the House of Commons, while the cham- ber made up of the nobles and clergy came to be called the House of Lords. These two Houses now constitute ENGLISH LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 149 the governing body of England and correspond to our Congress, which also consists of two houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. We in the United States take it for granted that the people shall rule. You see in this chapter at what cost this right was maintained, which to these people was as dear as it is to us. You know, of course, that this struggle of the people is an old, old one and that it is still going on in many countries to-day. 2. What effect do you think this successful resistance by the people of England had, when at a later date their rights were seriously threatened? 3. When another tyrannical King of England trespassed on the sacred rights of the EngUsh Colonies in North America they resisted and won their independence. This was the beginning of the United States. 4. Is the Magna Charta of any importance to Americans? PRONOUNCING LIST Parliament, par'li-ment Simon de Montfort. si'mon demont' Runnymede. run'i-med fort Thames, temz CHAPTER XVI ENGLISH LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES The Romans loved the city; the Germans the open country. While the Romans had possession of the em- pire, it was dotted from end to end with cities and towns. The Romans loved city life and found their greatest en- joyment and culture within city walls. When the Germans overran the empire, however, a great change took place. Many of the cities were de- stroyed during the German invasions and many more were abandoned and left to tumble into ruins. A few great 150 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY cities, like London, continued to the present day and, as civilization advanced, new cities were built or old ones were revived. Near the close of the Middle Ages, the city was an important factor in the civilization of the time. The City of the Middle Ages. The city was the center of the best civilization and the greatest activity. In the first place, it was the home of art. Here was to be found the best in architecture, sculpture, and painting. The city seemed almost like a fairy land, with its gild halls, palaces, cathedrals, and ornamental gateways. The city was also prominent in trade and commerce with distant points. Such cities as Antioch, Genoa, and Venice were extremely important commercial centers. And it should be remembered that commerce consisted of an interchange of ideas as well as an interchange of goods. The city also, in connection with the university, became the home of education. Oxford and Cambridge are En- gland's oldest and most famous universities. Oxford was probably founded in the reign of Henry the Second, to whom we have already referred, and is now one of the most noted institutions of learning in the world. It is made up of twenty-four or twenty-five different colleges, situated in the beautiful and interesting old city of Oxford. The colleges were founded at different times, some of them being added in quite recent years. Each college has its own courses of study, its own athletic teams and boat crews, and maintains its independent individuality in many ways. The athletic contests between Oxford and Cam- bridge Universities are among the great events of the year. The teams competing in these contests are made up of the picked men from the different colleges. ENGLISH LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 151 The city of the Middle Ages was small as compared with that of the present day. London had twenty-five thou- sand people, while the ordinary city had from fifteen hundred to four thousand. Some of these, like the famous old city of Chester, near Liver- pool, were very picturesque, as they nestled behind their strong walls. The Gilds. The most important or- ganization of the medieval city was the gild. The Mer- chant Gild was made up of merchants, land owners, trad- ers, and others, en- gaged in similar pur- suits. The purpose of the gild was to promote the welfare of its members along all Hues. The gilds sometimes did works of charity. A Section of a Medieval City One of the laws or rules of the gild was this: ''If any of the brethren shall fall into poverty or misery, all the brethren are to assist him by common consent out of the chattels of the house or fraternity, or of their proper own." It was also provided that when a member died, his fellow gildsmen should ''bear the body and bring it to the place of burial.'' 152 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Another kind of gild was the Craft Gild. These craft gilds were made up of such craftsmen as the millers, bakers, shoe- makers, dyers, skinners, weavers, and the like. Sometimes there were as many as fifty different kinds of craft gilds in the same city. You have probably come to the con- clusion by this time that these gilds were somewhat like the labor unions of the present day. They regulated wages and the hours of labor. They prohibited working at night in certain crafts and devoted large sums to the work of charity among their members. While the craft gilds corresponded to the labor unions of the present day, the merchant gilds resembled, to some extent, the employers', merchants', and manufacturers' associations of the present time. All of these different kinds of gilds attempted at times to gain control of the governments of the cities and they were able to do so in many instances. The Village. The village was a collection of houses somewhat smaller than the city or town. The houses were usually poor and mean. Sometimes they had only one room and were without proper light, heat, or ventila- tion. In consequence there was much disease among the people. Sometimes the cattle were housed under the same roof with the family. The people who lived in these vil- lages cultivated the land on the outskirts or pastured their cattle there. Some of the land was owned by individuals and some of it in common — as our parks are owned to-day. The people were not very good farmers and sometimes raised only eight or nine bushels of wheat or rye per acre, where thirty or more bushels are raised to-day. ENGLISH LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 153 Feudalism is the name which has since been given to a peculiar system of land-holding of those days. A noble- man or lord owning or controlling a large tract of land let it out to farmers for cultivation. These farmers paid rent for the use of the land and this rent was often paid in the form of military service; that is, the farmer fought in the A Feudal Castle army of his overlord for a certain number of days each year. The feudal lord, as the overlord was sometimes called, also exercised control over the men under him and in many instances actually governed them. The Castle. In the center of a large plantation, and often upon some sightly hill-top, the castle of the feudal lord was built. These castles, in some respects, resembled fortresses and were very strongly built for purposes of defense. They were made of stone and the walls were 154 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY sometimes several feet in thickness. The donjon or keep was the strongest part of the castle and here the defenders retired when hard pressed. Gunpowder would, of course, have shattered these walls like egg-shells, but the bow and the spear could do little against them. Around the castle was the moat or wide ditch, filled with water and spanned by a drawbridge. This drawbridge could be pulled up against the side of the castle in case of attack. The windows and doors were rather easily defended, as they were mere slits in the wall. The tourist who travels in Europe at the present day views with interest the ruins of many ivy-mantled castles and towers of the Middle Ages and listens with rapt attention to the blood-curdling tales of the fierce fights which took place about them. Sir Walter Scott, in the beautiful story entitled ^^Ivanhoe," gives us a good picture of the medieval castle and its surroundings. Amusements. The nobles who lived in these castles were very fond of hunting and hawking. When not fighting, they were very likely to be in pursuit of game. The greyhound and the falcon, or hawk, were in almost constant use. Ladies were also devoted to hawking. There were not nearly so many amusements as we have. Chess and backgammon were played. Strolling minstrels often helped to pass the long evenings in winter with their songs and tales. But most of the amusements that we enjoy to-day were unknown then. Chivalry. Chivalry was called ^Hhe flower of feudalism." The great lords who lived in these castles usually belonged to an order known as the Knights. These knights were bold and brave and true; and chivalry came to mean ENGLISH LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 155 gallantry. The education of the boy for knighthood began at the age of seven. From seven to fourteen he was called a page, and from fourteen to twenty-one, a squire. The lord of the castle gave the boy a training in military affairs and the ladies instructed him in religion and the rules of pohte behavior. The squire attended his lord in battle, The Great Hall of a Medieval Castle Banquets and entertainments of various kinds were held in. this, the principal room of the castle. carried weapons and armor for him, and even took a part in the fight if his master needed his help. At twenty-one, the squire became a knight. The ceremony used in con- ferring knighthood was solemn and impressive. The young man prepared himself by a long fast and medita- tion. He then listened to a sermon on the duties and obligations of the knight. Then kneeling, he took a vow to defend the church, women, the weak, and those in distress. Armor was then given him and his sword was 156 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY buckled on. Then the lord who had charge of the cere- mony struck the lad upon the shoulder with the flat side of his sword and said, ''In the name of God, of St. Michael, and of St. George, I dub thee knight; be brave, bold, and loyal." The knight was expected to be "gentle, brave, courteous, truthful, pure, generous, hospitable, faithful to his engage- ments, and ever ready to risk life and limb in the cause of religion and in defense of his companions in arms." Do you recall the story of Lancelot, the ideal knight? The standard of knighthood was very high and some failed to live up to their vows. In such cases, the false knight was put through a process, known as the " cere- mony of degradation." His spurs were cut from his boots with a heavy axe, his sword was broken, and the tail of his horse was cut off. He was then dressed in the clothes of the grave, the funeral service was read over him, and he was solemnly declared to be "dead to the honors of knighthood." The Tournament. When the knights were not fighting for religion or defending their ladies, they pined for amuse- ment. This was found in the tournament — which was not much like the tennis tournament, for example, of the present day. The tournament of the Middle Ages was a sham battle between knights, mounted on horses, and armed with blunt swords or pointless spears. The oppos- ing sides rushed at each other and tried to unhorse their opponents and break their dummy weapons. A joust was a contest between two knights. The contest took place in the "Lists" or large open space, surrounded by immense throngs of spectators. The attendance at some of the ENGLISH LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 157 tournaments where famous knights fought was very large and sometimes noted knights came from foreign countries to ''enter the Lists." The prize was often a simple gar- land or a wreath of flowers. At times the tournament was brutal enough, but it was A Tournament a vast improvement upon the gladiatorial and other con- tests of Rome. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. This is what King Arthur says of the oath he required of his Kiiights: "I made them lay their hands in mine and swear To reverence the King, as if he were Their conscience, and their conscience as their King, To break the heathen and uphold the Christ, To ride abroad redressing human wrongs. To speak no slander, no, nor listen to it, To honor his own word as if his God's, 158 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY To lead sweet lives in purest chastity, To love one maiden only, cleave to her. And worship her by years of noble deeds, Until they won her." Tennyson's " Guinevere " in Idylls of the King. What changes would you make in this to meet modern conditions, so that it might well be made the guide to conduct for true gentlemen to-day? 2. Select a site in your neighborhood for a castle. Then read a good description of some castle and reconstruct it on your site. 3. Why do we not have feudal castles in the United States? 4. Compare our modern cities and villages with those of the Middle Ages. PRONOUNCING LIST Antioch an'tl-ok Tournament, toor'nd-ment Genoa. j6n'6-d CHAPTER XVII PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS The early Christians thought it a pious privilege to make pilgrimages. The object of the journey might be the shrine of some saint, or, better still, the tomb of Christ in Palestine. Great benefits were expected from these visits. The weary pilgrim sought his souFs salvation in this way and, in some cases, he expected to be cured of disease. Sometimes he traveled, staff in hand, many long and weary miles through hostile peoples before reaching his destination. He then spent several days in prayer at the shrine of the saint, made an offering of money, and then set out upon his homeward journey, blessed with a peace of mind. Sometimes these pilgrims walked or rode on horseback overland and at times a passing vessel car- PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 159 ried them a part of the way. They were often on the road for months at a time. Saint Thomas of Canterbury. A good example of the pilgrimages were those which were made to the shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury. St. Thomas was the most famous churchman of his day. He was well educated and took a prominent part in the government of England be- fore becoming an archbishop. A very interesting story is told about this good man. Henry II was very fond of his able assistant and gave him lands and gifts of various kinds. At this time, Thomas showed few symptoms of piety or religion, but Uved in a worldly and showy way. After a time, King Henry wanted to make Thomas Archbishop of Canterbury — a position which would place him at the head of the church in England. Thomas did not want the position and declined it, but Henry insisted and Becket, as he is sometimes called, was ordained a priest and became the Archbishop of Canterbury. Thomas now changed his mode and manner of life com- pletely. He put aside worldly things and became a pious and devout churchman. Soon a conflict arose between the archbishop and the king. Thomas was the champion of the church and thought that it should be independent of the government. Henry, on the other hand, said that he, as king, should rule over the church as well as the state. The king and the archbishop were both very posi- tive men and the quarrel between them became very bitter. Thomas was afraid of being murdered and fled to France. Later he returned to England and took up his fight anew. Finally, the king, in a fit of anger, exclaimed, ''What 160 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY cowards have I brought up in my house that not one of them will rid me of this low-born priest!" His men took him at his word, although Henry did not intend that they should. Henry was in Normandy when he gave vent to this outburst of temper and four knights who heard it The Murder of St. Thomas a Becket secretly vowed to put the archbishop out of the way. They immediately crossed over to England by different routes and had another meeting there. With a small group of followers, they went to Canterbury and killed the archbishop with their swords, on the very steps of the altar in his own cathedral. A tremendous outcry went up from all Europe. The king was sorry for his hasty remark and shut himself up PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 161 for several days, refusing to see any one or to eat food of any kind. The Pope also was shocked and went into seclusion for a time. The people mourned for Thomas as a martyr to the cause of the church and he was imme- diately put upon the list of English saints. He was buried at Canterbury and thousands of pious people made pilgrimages each year to worship at his tomb. The great poet, Chaucer, in his ''Canterbury Tales," written two hundred years after the murder of Becket, relates in an Jtarf^- ■'" * w^s^a^s^^ c„ . . ■' Pilgrims Going to Canterbury interesting way the various stories which different pilgrims told while on their way to Canterbury. But if people went by thousands to worship at the shrine of St. Thomas, how much stronger would be the yearnings of pious Christians to kneel and pray at the tomb of the Savior, himself. All through the Middle Ages, such pilgrimages were made to the Holy Land. Sometimes the pilgrim went by himself and sometimes great crowds went together. In 1064, seven thousand people, led by an archbishop, went to Jerusalem in a single company. The Crusades. For several centuries, Syria and the 162 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Holy Land were in the possession of the Arabs. These men were comparatively mild and had some sort of respect for holy things and sacred places. As a consequence, the pilgrims to the Holy Land were well treated and were allowed to come and go in peace; but in the eleventh century a great change took place. The wild Turks from Asia overran Syria. These men were somewhat like Attila and his terrible Huns and had no respect for the Christian religion or for civilization. They took a fiend- ish delight in ruining holy places. Christian churches were burned or turned into stables and the pilgrims were mocked and persecuted at every turn. Just at this time, also, a change came over the church itself. In the early years the leaders of the church had preached the Gospel of peace; now, the leaders were telling the faithful to buckle on their swords and fight for their religion. So when the pilgrims returned from the Holy Land, with stories of abuse and persecution, and a recital of the ruin of holy places, the cry went up that the sepulchre of Christ should be rescued from the hands of these awful Turks. At that moment, the peaceful pilgrim became a w^arrior and the pilgrimages became crusades. The pious people of the time, as they read their Bibles, saw that the Hebrews waged wars against the heathen at the command of Jehovah. Why then was it not their pious duty also to turn their swords against the heathen? There was, as we have said, great indignation in Europe as the pilgrims returned from the Holy Land and told of their sufferings at the hands of the Turks. Pope Urban II had long meditated over the injuries and insults which •H X O a H P3 Kr> O a o C > o m PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 163 had been heaped upon the Christians and came to the conclusion that it was not right that the tomb of the Savior should be in the hands of cruel infidels who had no respect for his teachings. His soul was much troubled and he called a meeting at Clermont in France (1095) to see what could be done. The Pope addressed the meeting and made a most wonderful speech in which he depicted the cruel wrongs and urged his hearers to act at once. This speech has been called ^^one of the greatest triumphs of human oratory.^' ^^When Jesus Christ summons you to his de- fense," he exclaimed, '4et no base affectation detain you in your homes; whoever will abandon his house, or his father or his mother, or his wife, or his children, or his inheritance, for the sake of His name, shall be recom- pensed a hundred fold and shall possess life eternal." At this point, the enthusiasm of the vast throng burst all bounds and a great shout went up from all sides, ^'It is the will of God! It is the will of God!" Men fas- tened crosses upon their clothing to indicate the fact that they had enlisted in the ^^Holy Wars of the Cross." Here, then, at Clermont was started a movement known as the Crusades, which continued for two hundred years. The First Crusade (1096). But Palestine was thou- sands of miles away — a long, difficult, and dangerous jour- ney — and men could not set out without making some preparation. Peter the Hermit. And just at this point, we must stop for a moment to tell the story of Peter the Hermit. It was once thought that this Peter, a pious monk, was the man who started the whole crusade movement. We 164 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY know now that he was the preacher, but not the originator , of the Crusades. It was said that Peter, a native of France, went to Palestine on a pilgrimage and saw with Petek the Hermit Preaching the Crusade his own eyes the persecutions of the western pilgrims. He came back with his soul on fire, went to the Pope, and, falling upon his knees before him, begged permission to preach a crusade against the Turks. The Pope gave his consent and Peter went about in fields and streets and PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 165 along country roads — everywhere he could get people to listen to him — and delivered his message. His figure became a famihar one, as, clad in his long, monkish robe, he rode upon his ass and held the crucifix on high. His preaching reached men's hearts. It had an electrical effect and men by tens of thousands enlisted for the march on Palestine. The Pope also preached the crusade and promised that those who took part in it should be richly rewarded. He said that a man who was really sorry for his sins should have 'Hhe joy of eternal life, even if he died before the army reached the Holy City." Preparations were being made for this First Crusade, but things did not move rapidly enough to suit the men who had been inflamed by the preaching of Peter. They became impatient and could be restrained no longer. Consequently a great horde of them — men, women, and children, some say eighty thousand — started off under the leadership of Peter the Hermit and a wandering knight, known as Walter the Penniless. They started overland for Constantinople, going through Germany and Hungary. They were entirely unprepared for such an expedition as this and thousands of them died by the roadside of hunger, disease, and exposure. Only a small remnant reached Con- stantinople and these were made short work of by the Turks. This was the sad ending of the ill-fated First Crusade. In the meantime, preparations for the real Crusade were pushed with vigor. In 1099, about three hundred thou- sand men turned their faces towards the East. They suffered terribly. About one half of their number perished 166 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY on the way. The survivors, however, pushed on to Jeru- salem. They went into raptures of joy at the first sight of the Holy City. They knelt down, kissed the earth, and took off their shoes, recognizing the fact that they were treading on holy ground. Then, advancing with bare feet and uncovered heads, they sang ''Jerusalem, lift up thine eyes, and be- hold the Uberator, who comes to break thy chains." An at- tack followed and the city fell. The Turks were slaugh- tered without mercy. One of the crusaders wrote a letter home and de- scribed what took place as follows: The War Machinery of the Crusaders Gunpowder was not known at this time. In- stead of cannon the crusaders used great ma- chines, like huge bows worked by windlasses, to hurl rocks against the walls of fortified towns and castles. ''And if you desire to know what was done with the enemy who were found there, know that in Solomon's Porch and in his Temple, our men rode in the blood of the Turks up to the knees of their horses." The Kingdom of Jerusalem. Now that Jerusalem was taken, it was necessary to set up over it a new form of PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 167 government. This was done by the crusaders, and God- frey, a sincere and devoted knight, was placed at its head. Godfrey was called 'Hhe Defender of the Holy Sepulchre," as he refused to be called king. ^'I will never wear a crown of gold in this Holy City," he said, "where my Lord and Master wore a crown of thorns." Then the crusaders broke ranks and scattered. Some of them remained in the East, while others returned by many different routes to their homes in Europe. The Third Crusade. In less than a century, Jerusalem was again lost to the Christians. The city was captured by Saladin, the famous Sultan of Egypt, in 1187. The news of the fall of Jerusalem rang throughout Europe like a bugle call to arms. The result of this was the Third Crusade — in some respects the most famous of them all. This crusade was led by three great men — Philip, the King of France, Frederick, Emperor of Germany, and Richard the Lion-hearted, King of England. Nothing of importance was accomplished. Numerous misfortunes be- fell the expedition. The Germans took the overland route and their Emperor was drowned, while attempting to cross a swollen stream. Most of the Germans became disheartened and returned to their homes. The French and English took the sea route and after two years of fruitless fighting about Jerusalem, they too gave up in despair. The lion-hearted Richard, as we have already seen, had many mishaps while on his way home. The Children's Crusade (1212). The height of folly in the whole crusading movement, however, was reached in the Children's Crusade. A French peasant boy, named Stephen, twelve years of age, got it into his head that he 168 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY was called by God to lead a crusade of young children against the infidel Turk. He sounded his call and many small boys and some girls enlisted under his banner. Some of the older people thought that the project was all right and quoted the Scriptures to the effect that "a. little child shall lead them." Others thought that the whole thing was inspired by the devil. At all events, a band of German children, estimated at from twenty thousand to forty thousand, gathered together and marched over the Alps to Italy. Nothing could hold them back. ^'Even bolts and bars," says an old writer, ''could not hold them." These children, most of them no older than Stephen himself, marched along the shores of Italy, expecting to find a pathway to Jerusalem miraculously opened to them. They expected the sea to part for their passage, as the Red Sea had parted for the passage of the children of Israel out of Egypt. No such pathway appeared, and a large part of the little ones either feU by the wayside or died from the hardships of the march. A sorry and weary little band reached Rome and made a call upon the Pope. The Pope received them in a very kind and fatherly way. He saw the folly of the whole attempt and persuaded the children to return to their homes and to set out again upon their crusade after they became men. Such was the fate of the German boys and girls who embarked in this crusade. The French children, about thirty thousand in number, met at Marseilles with Stephen himself as their leader. The youthful captain* rode in great pomp in a chariot, surrounded by his body-guard. The poor little ones knew PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 169 nothing of the difficulties of the task which they were about to undertake. They had no idea of the distance to Jerusalem and whenever they came within sight of a city, the cry went up, ^'Is that Jerusa- lem?" They were also led to think that when they got to Marseilles, the sea would open and per- mit them to pass through dry shod. But it did not and many of them re- turned to their homes. Some five thousand of them started on ship- board, however, for the Holy Land. There happened to be two traveling merchants in Mar- seilles at the time and these men offered to take the children by boat to their destination. Five thousand of them were packed in seven small ships, but they never reached Pales- tine. A part of them went to the bottom of the sea when two of the ships were wrecked in a storm, and those who sur- vived were sold as slaves in Alexandria and other cities. And so the Children's Crusade ended in disaster and suffering. The Children's Crusade 170 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY These Crusades were spread out over a period of two hundred years. There were four great Crusades and as many more of lesser importance. Religion was, of course, the main-spring of the whole movement, but many en- listed for other reasons. The restless knights loved to fight, and adventure and danger were the spice of their lives. Some, too, joined the Crusades on account of the wealth which they hoped to secure by plundering the heathen. Serfs joined for their freedom, debtors to be free from debt, and criminals to escape punishment for their offenses. But on the whole, religion was the motive which sent wave after wave of the population of Europe against the East. The Results of the Crusades. Now, what about the results of the Crusades? Were they successful or not? Did they accomplish anything of real and lasting value? In the first place, it must be admitted that the Crusades were a failure in so far as their immediate object was concerned. They failed in their attempt to snatch the Holy Sepulchre from infidel hands. The crusaders did, of course, get possession of Jerusalem but they soon lost it and never got it back. In fact, Jerusalem has remained in the possession of the Turks to this day. From that standpoint, the Crusades were a failure. In an indirect way, however, untold benefits resulted from them. In the first place, the people of the East — aside from the Turks — were more cultured and learned than those of the West and so the Crusades were important in an educational way. Up to this time, the people of the West had not traveled very much. As a rule, a man lived and died in the village or hamlet in which he was born and PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 171 knew little or nothing of the great outside world. Now hundreds of thousands of men traveled thousands of miles and came into contact with a civilization higher and better than their own. And they profited by it, too. They brought many new ideas home with them. One of the most useful of these was the Arabic system of notation, which soon displaced the more clumsy Roman system. If you were a bookkeeper, how would you like to keep your accounts in Roman numerals? They brought home with them the use of the cross-bow, the drum and the trumpet, and such fruits and vegetables as the apricot, watermelon, and garlic. They also learned the use of the windmill and set up mills in large numbers all over Europe, but more particularly in Holland where they were used to pump the water out of low places which were needed for cultivation. They returned with a taste for spices, silks, wines, dyestuffs, glassware, and the fine jewels of the East. They also began to decorate their homes in imitation of the luxurious ones which they had seen in the East. In fact, the Crusades increased the interest in art of all kinds. Constantinople was the home of much of the art of the Eastern world and these crusaders saw art treasures such as they had never seen before. In one instance they showed their appreciation of art in a rather crude and barbarous way. When retiring from Constantinople, they carried off some, famous bronze horses and placed them over the portico of St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice. Napoleon took them from this cathedral at the time of his campaign in Italy, but they were returned at a later time. Now one of the sights of the city of Venice is the famous ^'Horses of St. Mark's." 172 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY The Crusades also gave a new life to commerce and built up important trading cities, such as Venice, Pisa, and Genoa. The westerners also obtained the mariner's com- pass from the Arabs, and this instrument aided greatly in commerce and geographical explorations. It may be said that ''the horizon of Europe was immensely widened by the Cru- sades." Travel will broaden and educate any person who travels with his eyes open. The Travelers: Marco Polo. The crusaders also wrote home to their relatives and friends, and returning crusaders brought tales of the wealth and civilization of the great East. These stories made the travel- ers and the explorers of the time wish to know more of this interesting country. It was the Cru- sades that stirred such men as Marco Polo to action. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the East was visited many times by men from Europe, but prob- ably the most famous of these travelers was Marco Polo. Marco Polo was a member of an old and aristocratic family of Venice. His father and his father's brother were engaged in trade on a large scale and traveled extensively A Venetian Ship One of the routes of trade from the East led to Venice and the valuable products of this eastern trade were carried to various parts of the Mediterranean world in proud little ships like the one represented in the picture. PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 173 in the pursuit of their business. On one occasion, the two brothers set out to visit their business house in Constanti- nople. After attending to their affairs at that place, they went on to the Crimea and from there to the court of the great Khan, in the northwestern part of China. This Chinese ruler had never seen European gentlemen before and was charmed by the two cultured and polite Venetians. After several years spent partly in business and partly in exploration, the Polos returned to their home in Venice. The experiences of this trip made them all the more eager for an- other one, and in 1271 the two brothers again set out for China, this time to be absent twenty- four years. They also took with them Marco Polo, then a boy of seventeen, who was eager for the novel experience. It took them four years to get to China, but they finally found their old friend, the great Khan, at a city near the northern end of the great Chinese Wall. When they first arrived, they did not find it easy to con- verse with the natives. But the young Marco applied himself to study and was soon able to speak and write several of the Asiatic languages. He entered the ser- vice of the great Khan and remained in it for seven- teen years. During this time, he made official trips up and down the vast domains of his master and pene- trated into the heart of Asia, where even now Euro- Marco Polo 174 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY peans very rarely go. This was a very interesting and valuable experience. After having been away from home for twenty-one years the Polos felt hke returning. The great Khan, however, did not wish them to go, but they started, nevertheless, in 1292 and reached Venice three years later. When they came into their native town, after an absence of twenty- four years, nobody knew them. Like Ulysses and Rip van Winkle, they had changed a great deal in personal appear- ance. When they set out upon their journey, Marco Polo was a stripling of seventeen. He was now a man of forty-one. It is no wonder that people did not recog- nize the travelers in their '^shabby clothes of Tartar cut.'' They had, in fact, long been given up as dead. Soon after their return, they invited in a few old friends to have dinner with them. After the dinner was over, they brought out three coats and proceeded to rip open the welts and seams. Out fell diamonds, rubies, emeralds, sapphires, and other valuables — the spoils of twenty-four years of trade and travel. These, we are told, ^^had all been stitched up in those dresses in so artful a fashion that nobody could have suspected the fact." As soon as the Venetians were convinced that the three long-lost Polos had really returned, the whole city turned out and flocked to their home to greet and to embrace them. Three years after his return from China, Marco Polo was seized and cast into prison while fighting for his native city against Genoa. He remained in prison for a year and during that time he wrote his famous book, entitled ^'The Book of Ser Marco Polo, concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East." This book was an exceedingly PILGRIMS AND EXPLORERS 175 valuable one as it gave the men of Europe much new information concerning the geography and resources of a great and rich country. A short time after this, another interesting book appeared. This was called, ^'The Voyage and Travels of Sir John Mandeville." Now, Sir John was a rank impostor who never really traveled in the East at all, but he led people to beUeve that he had by publishing a book made up of the writings of eastern travelers. All of these books had glowing stories to relate. They told of silver walls ''and golden towers," of precious stones and fountains of youth, and of immense palaces paved with gold, ''like slabs of stone, a good two fingers thick." These accounts were read with a relish by Europeans and, naturally enough, made them anxious to increase their trade with the East and to know more of that wonderful country. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. Do you see how these pilgrims and explorers were making it easier for Colimibus and his men to undertake their great work later? 2. Trace on your map the routes of the crusaders and Marco Polo's route to China. 3. Find out if you can whether we have anything to-day like these pilgrimages. 4. Report to your class on the work of Peary, or Amundsen, or Scott. 5. Who inspired the Crusades and how? 6. In what ways did the Crusades benefit the world? 7. What caused King John to quarrel with the Archbishop of Canterbury? 8. What does this chapter show in regard to the condition of the world outside of England? 9. Do you think the Crusades really started the discovery period? PRONOUNCING LIST Buddhists. bood'Ists Constantinople. k6n-stan'tl-n6'p'l Chaucer, cho'ser Crimea, kri-me'd Clermont. kl6r'm6nt Khan, kan 176 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Mandeville. man'de-vil Pisa, pe'sa - Marco Polo, mar'ko po'lo Syria. slr'I-ct Marseilles, mar-salz' Urban, tjr'ban CHAPTER XVIII THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY The Northmen. We have already noticed that while the men from northern Europe were making voyages in differ- ent directions, some of them came to America (page 132). These men came to Iceland in 867 and founded a colony in Greenland a few years later. They then came to what is now known as North America. These men were not, however, in any true sense the discoverers of America. When they returned to their Scandinavian homes, they told the story of their voyage, but it apparently aroused but little interest. It was very much like a hundred other voyages which these daring Northmen had made at about that same time. The people did not realize the impor- tance of the voyage and soon forgot all about it. So nothing came from the so-called ''Norse discovery of America." The journeys of Marco Polo were much more important. In his book, he gave the Europeans a good account of the greatness and the riches of the East. He also added to their geographical knowledge of the eastern countries and of the Pacific Ocean. He returned from China by way of the Pacific and the Persian Gulf, and so knew what he was talking about. The Polos were the first Europeans to make a voyage upon what we now call the Pacific Ocean. THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 177 Trade with the East. One of the most important re- sults of the Crusades and of the journeys of Marco Polo and other eastern travelers was the increase in trade be- tween Europe and the East. There were three principal C. of Good R or C- of Storms i Trade Routes to the East routes of trade, over which eastern goods were brought to European markets. The northern route led from the eastern part of China to Genoa by way of the Caspian and Black Seas and Constantinople. The central route went from India to Antioch by way of the Persian Gulf and the Tigris and Euphrates valley. The southern route led from India to Venice by way of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. 178 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY For centuries Europeans toiled up and down these routes with boat and caravan. They carried woolen cloth, hnen, black lead, wine, and glassware to the East and received in exchange fragrant spices, black pepper, cotton cloth, silks, perfumes, ivory, pearls, sapphires, diamonds, and other articles of great value. Over these long routes the rich products of the East were carried upon the backs of camels, mules, or horses, and even upon the backs of men. The long caravans of the merchants toiled slowly and painfully over mountains, through valleys, and across deserts, in the midst of snow, ice, or burn- ing sands, until their precious burdens were finally placed on shipboard at some Mediterranean port. This was a dangerous business. Sometimes the caravans were plundered by wild Asiatic tribes, again ships fell into the clutches of pirates, and now and then an entire cargo went to the bottom of the sea during one of the furious Mediterranean storms. Yet the profits in this east- ern trade were enormous and enough of the goods reached their destination to make Venice and Genoa, the rival cities, immensely wealthy. The Fall of Constantinople (1453). But while the mer- chants were reaping rich profits, an event occurred which changed the current of the world's history. Constanti- nople fell into the hands of the Turks. These Turks were turning their armies against the city of Constantine when the Crusades started in Europe. The crusaders Part of an Eastern Caravan THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 179 checked the progress of the Turks and for several cen- turies kept them from capturing the city. But after a time the crusading spirit died away and the Turks laid siege to Constantinople and captured it in 1453. As a result of this, the eastern trade route leading to Genoa by way of Constantinople, was cut off. Business was ruined and Columbus probably saw grass and weeds grow- ing in the streets of his native city. It was now plain that, in a very short time, the Turks would cut off all of the overland trade routes between Europe and the East. And so the merchants faced a crisis. The eastern trade was a rich prize and they could not afford to lose it. Something had to be done and the men of Europe said, ''A new trade route must be found to the great East J ^ The Water Route to the East. The new route would evidently have to be a water route, as the Turks were rapidly taking possession of the land. And there were other reasons, too, for preferring a water route to a land route at this time. Travel on the water was easier than upon the land and this was especially true, since the cru- saders had brought back to Europe a knowledge of the use of the mariner's compass. Sea navigation was now much safer than it ever had been before. The Revival of Learning. This problem of finding a new route to India was one of the most important and difficult ones that the men of Europe were ever compelled to face. Year by year the eastern trade was increasing and year by year the grip of the Turks was tightening upon the trade routes. It was really a desperate situation and the solution was exceedingly difficult on account of the scanty geographical and scientific knowledge. 180 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY It was exceedingly fortunate that this great problem appeared just when it did. If it had come at an earlier time — for example, at the time when the Norsemen came to America — it undoubtedly would not have been solved; the mind of Europe would not have been equal to it. The gloom of the Dark Ages still covered the land. But now a great change had taken place. The Dark Ages had passed away and were followed by one of the most bril- liant periods in the whole history of Europe. This period is usually called the ^'Revival of Learning/' because men seemed to wake up after the long sleep of the Dark Ages. This revival began in Italy, but soon spread out over all Europe. Men studied literature and science with a tremendous eagerness and soon the revival extended to other lands. There was a revival in art, and a revival in commerce, in navigation and in the study of geography. Gunpowder was invented and "made all men the same height." That is, the small man with a gun became the equal of the large man, who hitherto had the advantage of his size. Printing by means of movable types was in- vented at this time and served to multiply books, to make them cheaper, and to put on record the results of the Revival of Learning. Men read and studied and thought, and were eager for travel by land and water. The spirit of enterprise and adventure was in the air. Men were more wide-awake than they had been for centuries and this period is sometimes called the "New Birth," because the world seemed to be born again. Taking it all in all, it seems very fortunate that the problem of a new route to the East confronted Europe just when it did. THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 181 Portuguese Voyages. Although we do not now look upon the Portuguese as one of the leading nations of Europe, they were a very important people in the fifteenth cen- nJJhM li,. : fc \^ H <» mgigfti jg^ ^# ^. ■ • *"?' # N: '5 ^ If ^^.IJ ;*"-\ ' fyS-5Uj i'"-^^^ ^9 R^ * ^X;i M. . /, 1 . Mi- I 1 III W ''*'■ '^IffifflBlL^fiLU* ^ '' - M ttiiiWiitii'"- ^^P ^ ,<" ■■ .'---wtjg :| 9 . *.j^ a-' -i^- ^1 ■—■-■-■• ■^'■-■,.^./ Gutenberg Showing His First Proof Gutenberg was the inventor of printing by means of movable type. His invention, coming as it did at the close of the Dark Ages, marked a turning- point in civilization. tury, and especially so in matters relating to the sea. In fact, the Portuguese may be looked upon as the succes- sors of the Vikings, as they were the first people since the Northmen to undertake sea voyages on a grand scale. The Sea of Darkness. It required a bold mariner with a stout heart to make an ocean voyage in those days. 182 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY The ships which the Portuguese and Spaniards were using were not so swift nor so seaworthy as the Uttle boats which the Northmen had used five hundred years before. The sailors' instruments were also crude. The mariner's com- pass was in use and the astrolabe, a new instrument for finding the latitude of a ship at sea, had been invented. Some of the Imaginary Terrors of the Sea of Darkness But, in general, it may be said that the equipment of the navigator was not very good. It is certain that a sea cap- tain of to-day would shudder if asked to venture upon the ocean under such conditions. And yet the lack of good instruments and staunch ships was not the only thing that kept men off the sea. The Atlantic Ocean had a bad reputation. It was called the **Sea of Darkness," and many shrank from it and shud- THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 183 dered much as children do at the sight of a house which is said to be '^haunted." Men did not really know very much about the ocean, but they imagined a great many dreadful things. They knew that the weather became warmer as they went towards the south and so they came to the conclusion that the water must be boiling under the equator. The heat of this ^' fiery zone/' as it was called, would melt the pitch from the crevices of their ships and send them to the bottom. They also feared a sea-worm, or borer, which ''could eat through the strongest oaks,'' and thus wreck the ships of the mariners. To add to all these terrors of the deep, there was supposed to be some- where in the Indian Ocean a mountain of load-stone, whose magnetism drew the nails from the vessels and thus caused them to fall apart. The more remote parts of the ocean were supposed to be inhabited by terrible monsters known as gorgons and chimeras. An old pic- ture represents one of these monsters gliding up the side of the ship and grabbing one of the sailors from the rig- ging. Then again, ships sailing out of port seemed to go down hill, as the tops of the masts were the last to dis- appear. Upon noting this fact, some asked, ''How will it be possible for these ships to make their way up the hill again when they wish to return to port?" When we consider all these queer beliefs and strange notions, is it to be wondered at that the men of the Mid- dle Ages did not care to sail far out of the sight of land upon the Atlantic? Prince Henry the Navigator. There were some men, how- ever, in those days who could not be held back by frail ships, crude instruments, or sea monsters. These men were the 184 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY bold Portuguese sailors of the fifteenth century, under their splendid leader and teacher, Prince Henry the Navigator. Prince Henry is one of the great characters of the period and has a wonderfully interesting story. He was one of the younger sons of a good king of Portugal and was born in 1394. At the age of twenty-one, he went with the Portuguese army to fight against the Moors in Morocco. While there he heard a great deal about the land and the productions of the East, as well as about the eastern trade. He came to the conclusion that a sea route would be of great importance to Portugal and, in fact, to all of Europe. In ad- dition to the commercial bene- fits derived, he hoped to build up a great Portuguese empire in the East and to convert millions of people to the Christian faith. When he returned from Morocco, he was offered several important military positions, but he declined them all, in order to devote himself to his great project. In order that he might not be disturbed, he left the royal court and the society of Lisbon and sought the seclusion of a lonely promontory on the southern coast of Portugal. Here on the promontory of Sagres, a '4onely and barren rock, jut- ting out into the ocean," he gave himself over to a study of his great problem. In this lonely spot, thought at one Prince Henry the Navigator The man who prepared the way for the discovery of the New World. THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 185 time to be the western-most limit of the habitable world, Prince Henry built an astronomical observatory and founded a school for the instruction of naviga- tors and geographers. His own study room was in a high tower where he pored over his problems in as- tronomy and navigation until far into the night. Sailors coming into port often saw the faint light streaming from his little window. His motto was, ''Desire to do well," and he seemed to live up to it admirably. In addition to being an enthusiastic scientist. Prince Henry had money enough to enable him to carry on his work. The central idea of his plan was to find a route to India by sailing around the continent of Africa. As a beginning. Prince Henry's men crept cautiously down the western coast of Africa, using the islands as stepping-stones. In the gloom of the Dark Ages, the Madeira Islands and the Canary Islands had been for- gotten for a thousand years. Now they were rediscov- ered. The men pushed on, mile after mile, down the coast, and were greatly encouraged by the long stretch of coast- line towards the east, but when after passing the Gulf of Guinea, the coast again turned to the south, their hearts fell within them. They were filled with doubts because they did not know the shape of the African continent and hence were not sure that they could sail round it at all. Some of the geographers thought (none of them had any definite knowledge) that Africa terminated in a southern cape and that it would be possible to sail from Portugal to India. Others held that the Indian Ocean was a closed sea — not connected with the Atlantic — and that it was impossible to sail around Africa. Some even thought that 186 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY the African coast might extend as far south as the pole. So, as these sailors journeyed on one weary mile after another in a southerly direction, they became very much discouraged, but they did not give up their undertaking. Henry died in 1463, but the king of Portugal was his nephew and a very intelligent man and so the work went on. Some people complained that the African expeditions were costing too much money, but when the sailors brought back great quantities of gold and numerous natives from Africa to be sold in the slave markets, they seemed to be satisfied. Diaz Finds the Southern Cape (1487). The crowning glory of these Portuguese voyages was that made by Bar- tholomew Diaz, in 1486 and 1487. Diaz left Portugal with three small vessels in August of 1486. After sailing four hundred miles beyond the Tropic of Capricorn, he was driven directly south by high winds for thirteen days without being in the sight of land. After the wind ceased, he turned towards the east, expecting to see the shore. When he failed to sight land, he turned to the north and finally caught sight of the coast more than two hundred miles east of the Cape of Good Hope. He had rounded the southern cape without knowing it. He then sailed four hundred miles farther east, out into the Indian Ocean and was well on his way towards India, when his worn- out crew refused to proceed farther. Diaz then turned back. If he had been a Columbus or a Magellan, he probably would not have done so. On the homeward trip, Diaz passed near the southern cape and named it the ''Cape of Storms," on account of the wind and waves which dashed against it. When he made his report of THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 187 the voyage, however, the king of Portugal struck this name off the map and put in its place the one more familiar to us — the ''Cape of Good Hope." He had a hope that his men had solved the great problem and had found the long-sought-for route to the Indies. This was a memorable age. Diaz returned to Lisbon in December, 1487, after an absence of nearly a year and a half. During that time, he traveled thirteen thousand miles and exploded many of the myths and superstitions which hung over the sea of darkness. He encountered no fiery zone and he got back up the hill again without difficulty. It might also be well to remember that one member of his party on this voyage was Bartholomew Columbus, a younger brother of the famous Christopher. The Spaniards Seek a Route to the East. The Span- iards were also an enterprising people, and, while the Por- tuguese were seeking a route to the East, they were by no means idle. In fact, there was a great race between the Portuguese and the Spaniards to see which should reach India first. The Portuguese had made a good start under Diaz, but they had not yet reached the goal. Now the Spaniards, under the guidance of Christopher Columbus, tried to find a route to India in an entirely different direc- tion. We shall read the wonderful story of Columbus in the next chapter. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. Trace the three principal trade routes to the East. 2. Suppose Diaz had gone on until he reached the East Indies, would Columbus still have tried to find a different route? Keep this question in mind in the next chapter. 3. If you made the trip to-day by water from Genoa to India what route would you use? Why did not some one try this route then? 188 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 4. Why was the capture of Constantmople a turning point in history? 5. Why was Prince Henry's work so valuable? What did Diaz's voyage find out? 6. Tell something about the following: Cape of Storms, chimeras and gorgons, the Norse discovery, " Desire to do well." PRONOUNCING LIST astrolabe, as'tro-lab Guinea, gin'l Bartholomew Diaz, bar-thsro-mu Madeira, md-de'rd de'as Magellan. md-]eVdn Canary, kd-na'ri *' Morocco, mo-rok'o chimera, kl-me'rd Sagres. sa'grgs gorgon. gor'gon CHAPTER XIX COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA " The first voyage of Columbus is a unique event in the history of mankind. Nothing like it was ever done before, and nothing like it can ever be done again. No worlds are left for a future Columbus to conquer J' "To sail the seas was in those days a task requiring high mental equipment; it was no work for your commonplace skipper. '^ "Human courage has never been more grandly displayed than by the glorious sailors of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries." — John Fiske. While the hardy seamen of Prince Henry were making their plans on the high promontory, Christopher Columbus was puzzling over the same great problem, in a somewhat different way, in the quiet seclusion of one of the Madeira Islands, three hundred miles out from the mainland. It is interesting to watch the progress of this race for the Indies. COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 189 Christopher Columbus 190 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Christopher Columbus was born of humble parents in the city of Genoa, Italy, about the year 1446. His father was a woolen weaver and the young Columbus also called himself a ^^ wool- worker of Genoa." We know very little about his boyhood, but it is evident that he did not at- tend school very regularly. Very few boys did so in Italy at this time. Some say that he attended a university, but there does not seem to be very good proof of this. He tells us himself that he went to sea at fourteen, but he probably returned at intervals and studied astronomy, mathematics, and geography. He was especially fond of geography and liked to draw maps. He became so skill- ful in this respect that he made maps and sailing charts and sold them to the navigators of the time. There was a brisk demand for these things, because sailors were pushing out to sea on all sides. He also made voyages himself. At times, we find him upon merchant ships in the Mediterranean, and again fighting Turkish pirates in eastern waters. Christopher Columbus had a younger brother, named Bartholomew, who was really as good a sailor as he and some think a better map and globe maker. When a young man, Bartholomew went to Lisbon because he was interested in the great work of Prince Henry and his men. Bartholomew also took a part in the African voyages and, as we have already noted, he was with Diaz on his memo- rable voyage around the Cape of Good Hope. A short time after Bartholomew went to Lisbon (1470) Christopher Columbus, attracted by the same means, turned his face towards the Portuguese capital. He too saw the tremendous importance of the work which Prince COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 191 Henry was doing and wished to have a part in it. He tells us himself that he accompanied some of the expedi- tions down the African coast. Columbus, however, did not give his entire attention to navigation while in Lisbon. A short time after coming to that city, he attended mass in the chapel of the Con- Map of the Known World in the Time of Columbus vent of All Saints and there met a young woman, named Felipa, who afterwards became his wife. Felipa was a member of an old and aristocratic family and her father was a famous Itahan navigator. He left a number of maps and sailing charts which fell into the hands of Columbus and were a great assistance to him. Soon after his marriage, Columbus went to a small estate owned by his wife's family in Porto Santo (the Holy 192 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Port), one of the Madeira Islands, three hundred miles out to sea. Here, in quiet seclusion, he meditated upon the great problem and made plans for his western voyages. Many sailors on their way back from Guinea and other parts of the African coast touched at Porto Santo, and from these men Columbus eagerly sought all the in- formation he could get. Columbus became impatient, however, to be back at the center of things and so returned to Lisbon. At the time of his return, every one was talking and thinking of the African voyages and of the water route to India. Alfonso V, king of Portugal, was greatly interested in the whole scheme. It was about this time that the Portuguese sailors brought back the news that the African coast turned south at the Gulf of Guinea. This was rather discouraging information and Alfonso thought of trying to find some other way to India. So he wrote a letter to Toscanelli, the Italian, who was perhaps the most famous astronomer and geographer of his day, and asked him if he thought it possible to find a shorter route than the one which his sailors were seeking down the African coast. Toscanelli sent in reply a long letter to the king and enclosed a map of his own making, showing India and China directly west of Spain. This letter was dated June 25, 1474. Columbus Seeks Information from Toscanelli. Colum- bus heard about this letter to the king and he too asked Toscanelli to give him what information he could in regard to the route to the East. Toscanelli replied by sending to Columbus copies of the letter and map which he had previously sent to the king of Portugal. COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 193 Columbus must have devoured this letter with great eagerness. ToscanelU told him that China and Japan lay to the west of Spain, and could undoubtedly be reached by sailing directly westward. He did not know, of course, anything about the existence of the great American continent, and was also mistaken in regard to the size of Asia. He thought that Japan was located in that part of the globe occupied by Mexico and was therefore much nearer to Spain than it really is. He regarded the western voyage as a splendid idea. He said to Columbus in a second letter, ^^I regard as noble and grand your project of saihng from west to east. . . . When that voyage shall be accomphshed, it will be a voyage to powerful kingdoms and to cities and provinces wealthy and noble, abounding in all sorts of things most desired by us; I mean with all kinds of spices and jewels in great abundance.'' Columbus must have been greatly elated when he read these words writ- ten by one of the ablest scientific men of the time. He prized these letters very highly and took the map with him on his first western voyage. Columbus Seeks Money for His Voyage. Columbus obtained information from other sources also — both from men and from books. The next thing to do was to obtain money to fit out his expedition, and he found it far easier to get information than to get money. Naturally enough, he first appealed to the king of Portugal for aid. The king at this time was John II, a nephew of Prince Henry, and hence interested in the whole problem of a water route to the Indies. But Colum- bus came to him only a short time before Diaz started 194 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY on his famous voyage and the king said that he could not afford to undertake any voyages in addition to those down the African coast. He did, however, submit the plan of Columbus to a number of his learned men and asked them what they thought about it. Most of them said that the plan was visionary and absurd and that no attention should be paid to it. A few of them, nevertheless, defended the ideas of Columbus, but King John gave him no financial assistance. However, he stooped to a trick most unworthy of a king. He tried to steal the grand idea of Columbus. He took the sailing plans which Columbus had submitted to him and dispatched a vessel in haste and secrecy with instructions to sail west from the Cape Verde Islands and see if India could really be reached in that way. The sailors' hearts were not in the enterprise and they soon returned to Lisbon, scared half to death. They were sure that Columbus's plans were all moonshine. ''You might as well expect to find land in the sky," they said, ''as in that waste of water." When Columbus found what a shabby trick the king had tried to play on him, he left Portugal in anger and disgust and went to Spain for the purpose of asking aid from the King and Queen of Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella. He took with him his httle son, Diego, who was then four or five years of age, and left him with an aunt in a small town near Palos. His wife he never saw again, as she died soon after his departure. Columbus in Spain. Columbus appeared in Spain at a very unfavorable time. The Spanish monarchs had other business on hand. They were trying to keep the Moors from their door. These terrible Moors had invaded Spain COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 195 about eight hundred years before and the Spaniards, after much fighting, had not been able to dislodge them. The Spanish monarchs were now engaged in another desperate attempt to drive them out of Spain and had no time to listen to Columbus. They were following the army about from place to place and holding court wherever they happened to be. Everything was in confusion and Fer- dinand and Isabella were more intent upon packing the Moors, bag and baggage, back to Africa than in making voyages to unknown lands. However, they referred the plans of Columbus to cer- tain learned men for their opinions. As usual, the scholars were divided. Some of them said that the plan was a crazy one and ridiculed Columbus as a madman, while others, some of them priests, thought that it might be well to give his plans a trial. But the committee was so hopelessly divided that no decision was reached. Weary of waiting, Columbus left Spain (1488) and went to Lisbon to see his brother Bartholomew, who had just returned from the Diaz expedition to the Cape of Good Hope. The news that the Portuguese had been successful in rounding the Cape made him all the more impatient to try his plan for a western voyage. He had already asked aid from Portugal and Spain, and some think from Genoa. He now sent Bartholomew to place the matter before the kings of England and France. On his way to England, Bartholomew was captured by pirates and delayed for a while, but he finally reached London and laid the plans of his brother before the king. But the king (Henry the Seventh), although interested in the scheme, was very slow about spending money in doubtful r 196 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY voyages and did not come to an immediate decision. Bartholomew could not wait and pushed on to France. By the time that Bartholomew went to France, Chris- topher had returned to Spain in the hope that some change for the better might have taken place. In this he was again disappointed. The Moors were still holding their own against the Spaniards and large parts of the country were being laid waste by flood and famine. The monarchs had no time and no money to give to '' visionary" and ''crazy" enterprises. They thought Columbus was a ''crank" with some wild idea in his head. Columbus then entered the Spanish army, and fought with great bravery against the Moors. At the same time, he tried to interest wealthy men in his plan, but nothing practical came of the attempt. He spent two years in this way. No one would listen to him. The whole country was gathering its strength for a mighty effort against the Moors. Their famous stronghold, Granada, was to be seized and "the whole country was in a buzz of excitement." Columbus tagged about, following the camp and court from place to place, but all to no avail. Disgusted and discouraged to the last degree, he made up his mind to quit Spain and to lay his plans before the King of France. Bartholomew, as we have already seen, had set out for both England and France, but Christopher had not heard a word from him since his departure. Columbus was growing old under the weight of his years and his disappointments and was undoubtedly becoming somewhat peculiar in personal appearance as well as in his actions. This led some people to think that his mind was unbalanced. "For some years now," says John COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 197 Fiske, ^Hhe stately figure of Columbus had been a famil- iar sight in the streets of Seville and Cordova, and as he passed along, with his white hair streaming in the breeze and his countenance aglow with intensity of purpose or haggard with disappointment at some fresh rebuff, the ragged urchins of the pavement tapped their heads and smiled with mingled wonder^ and amazement at this madman." Seventeen years had passed since Columbus had written to Toscanelli, asking his opinion of the western voyage, and during that time he had labored incessantly, but had apparently accomplished nothing. Now as he took his little son, Diego, by the hand and set out for France, his thoughts must have been gloomy enough. An ordinary man would have given up in despair. As he journeyed along the road, it is said that the little boy became hungry and thirsty and that the two travelers stopped at a monastery, a short distance from Palos, and asked for food and drink. Here the prior, or head man of the monastery, fell into conversation with Columbus and was greatly interested in his plans. He was a broad- minded man and called in other learned men to listen. They were also impressed, and the result was that the good prior, who knew the queen well, wrote her a letter in behalf of Columbus. The queen gave ear at once and invited the prior to come to the royal court and to bring Columbus with him. In due time the two men appeared in the Spanish Court, near Granada, and once more Columbus set his case eloquently before a council of learned men. This time, the scholars looked with rather more favor than formerly upon the project. Several of 198 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY the priests approved his plan and the queen promised to take up the matter as soon as Granada had fallen. The Fall of Granada. Fortunately, they had not long to wait. Columbus went to Granada again to ask aid in December, 1491, and on January 2, 1492, the Moors sur- rendered the stronghold. While all of Europe was rejoic- COLUMBUS BEFORE QUEEN ISABELLA ing that the hated Moors had been overthrown, the queen and Columbus attempted to come to an agreement in re- gard to the voyage. They failed. Columbus put his terms so high that the queen would not accept them. He wanted to be admiral of the ocean and ruler of such heathen countries as he might discover and to have one eighth of the profits of the voyage. He hated the Turks and wished to use the profits of his expedition in driving them out of Jerusalem. COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 199 The Agreement. The queen and Columbus could not reach an agreement and so the latter mounted his mule and rode out of Granada, determined to seek aid from the King of France. Some of the queen's advisers immediately rushed to her and convinced her that Spain was losing a valuable opportunity in permitting Columbus to go to France. A messenger was accordingly sent on a swift horse to summon Columbus back to the court. The courier overtook him about six miles out of Granada and induced him to go back to the city. Upon his return an agreement was quickly reached. The queen practically accepted the terms of Columbus and the agreement was signed April 17, 1492. Columbus was overcome with the joy of the moment and, with tears in his eyes, made a vow that he would use the profits of the expedition in rescuing the Holy Sepulchre of Christ from the hands of the Turks. Preparations for the Voyage. Columbus immediately went to Palos (May 14, 1492) and began the preparations for his great voyage. His bold project almost struck the people of the little seaport town dumb with amazement. They shuddered at the very thought of the sea of dark- ness and recoiled from the terrors of the "flaming zone." Columbus thought that a voyage of twenty-five hundred miles would bring him to the Indies. If the real distance — twelve thousand miles — had been known, the sailors would have shuddered still more. As it was, it was very difficult to induce any one to undertake the voyage. Men had their debts abolished and criminals were released from jail on condition that they embark with Columbus. Three small vessels were made ready. The largest of 200 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY these was the Santa Maria, the flag-ship of Columbus. The second in size was a faster boat, called the Pinta, and the smallest was the Nina, or the ' ' Baby." Finally, every- thing was in readi- ness. All was excite- ment in the little seaport town. Busi- ness was stopped and men thought only of the myste- rious and dangerous voyage. The hard- ened mariners, about to sail, attended mass and confessed The Ships of Columbus The three ships of Columbus look like play- things when compared with a modern ocean liner. The largest was only 65 feet in length and 20 in breadth. their sins, in order to be prepared for the worst. One hundred and twenty men, in- cluding ninety sail- ors, a physician, and a surgeon, went on board after tearful good-byes, and on Friday, August 3, 1492, an hour before sunrise, the ships set sail. By nightfall. A Modern Steamship The modern ocean steamship is a marvel of speed and comfort. The boat represented above is more than 15 times as long as the largest one of Colum- bus and crosses the ocean in a trifle more than four days. It took Columbus about seventeen times as long. they were forty-five miles away. COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 201 Let us try to make a mental picture of the great navi- gator, as he stood on the deck of the Santa Maria, peering out into the western darkness. He is said to have been '^a man of noble and commanding presence, tall and power- fully built, with fair, ruddy complexion and keen, blue-gray The Departure of Columbus eyes that easily kindled; while his waving white hair must have been picturesque." He was also ^^ courteous and cordial in his dealings with men" and charming in his conversation. But at the same time, he had ^'an indefinable air of authority about him." He expected his orders to be obeyed. In addition, he had ^Hhat divine spark of religious enthusiasm," which ani- mated the best of the crusading heroes. Such was the great Italian navigator at the time of his departure from Palos. And what was his service to the world? He was not the first to find out that the earth is a globe and not a flat surface. That was done by the 202 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Greeks two thousand years before Columbus was born. Neither was he the first to suggest the idea of a western passage to the Indies. Toscanelh and others had talked about that, and at the time of Columbus the idea of a western route to the East was ^'in the air." Even Aris- totle, eighteen hundred years before the time of Columbus, had said that ''between the end of Spain and the begin- ning of India the sea is small and navigable in a few days." What, then, was the great service of Columbus? It was this. He was the first man who had the supreme courage to push boldly out into the Sea of Darkness in search of the new route which other men were merely talking about. ''What if wise men, as far back as Ptolemy, Judged that the earth like an orange was round, None of them ever said, 'Come along, follow me, Sail to the West and the East will be found.'" The First Voyage (1492). Columbus sailed directly to the Canary Isles, where he remained for some time making repairs on the Pinta. The ship's rudder was broken and he suspected that some of her sailors had broken it so that they and the ship might be sent back to Spain. Some of the sailors were already tired of their bargain and shud- dered at the thought of turning west from the Canaries. While they were delaying at the Canaries, a volcano on one of the islands erupted violently and they were sure that this was a very bad omen. There was a rumor also that Portuguese sailors were lurking in the nearby waters for the purpose of capturing Columbus and of carrying him off to Portugal. The little vessels set out from the Canary Islands on the sixth day of September. The sea was calm enough, COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 203 but the crew was much disturbed. Their minds were filled with dismal forebodings and the farther they went, the louder became the grumbhng. In order to keep them as quiet as possible, Columbus did not tell them the real distance which the ships sailed each day. He always sub- tracted something so that the sailors should not know their real distance from Spain. All eyes were eagerly watching for every sign of life or land. A few days out from the Canaries, they saw a large piece of a ship's mast and probably wondered what the fate of the ship had been. A few days later, they saw two birds; then they ran into an immense prairie of sea- weed, alive with fish and crabs. The speed of the vessels was checked and they were afraid for a time of running aground. This was a false fear, however, as weeds grow in this locality on the surface of water which is more than two miles in depth. Next 'they saw a flock of sand-pipers, and a little later they were sure that they sighted land in the distance. After they had finished singing a song of praise to God for their success, they saw that the ^'land" was clouds in the sky. They sailed on through heavy rain and storms, saw flying fish and birds of various kinds, and sighted flocks of wild ducks at night, flying over their heads. In the meantime, the trade winds were hurrying them on towards the west. Would the wind change its direction and waft them back again to their homes? The sailors thought not and some of them suggested that it would be a good idea to push Columbus overboard and then say that he had tumbled off the ship while gazing at the stars. The com- plaints became louder and more dangerous. Finally 204 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Columbus stood up in all his dignity and told his men that it was useless for them to complain, as he had started out to find the Indies and that, with the help of God, he would keep on until he found them. On the very next night, at ten o'clock, a light was seen moving to and fro in the distance. Four hours later — at two o'clock on the morn- ing of October 12, 1492 — land was distinctly seen in the moonlight. A little later the sails were dropped and the men waited eagerly for the day to dawn. Columbus was on the threshold of a new world, but was not aware of it. At daybreak, he went ashore on one of the small coral islands of the Bahama group and took possession of the land in the name of the king and queen of Spain. He named the island San Salvador (Holy Savior) and called the inhabitants of the locality '^ In- dians,^' because he thought he had reached the Indies. Strange sights greeted the eyes of the Spaniards. The landscape was beautiful, but the trees were very different from those of Spain. The sailors were greatly excited. They thought they had reached the rich East and saw priceless fortunes almost within their grasp. Sailors, who a day or two before were plotting to throw the great ad- miral overboard, now kissed his hands and humbly begged his pardon. Columbus spent about three months beating about among the islands and exploring new coasts. He came to Cuba and thought that he was on the mainland of Asia and not far from the kingdom of the great Khan of whom Marco Polo had written. In fact, he sent two messengers to the great monarch to bring him messages of greeting and good will from the king and queen of Spain. Instead of a great city of oriental splendor, how- COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 205 206 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY ever, with golden palaces and marble bridges, they found villages of naked savages, in the midst of humble patches of corn, potatoes, and tobacco. It is here too that Europeans first saw men smoking. The leaves of the plant were rolled up in the form of a tube, somewhat resembling the modern cigar, and hghted at one end. These tubes were called tobaccos. The use of tobacco was introduced into Europe not long after. The First Colony. Columbus next went to the island which we now call Haiti, but which he called the ^'Spanish Isle." Columbus was charmed by the beauty of the place. The trees were so tall that they seemed to touch the sky and the notes of the nightingale and other birds echoed through the otherwise silent forests. The Indians told him that the island contained '4arge mines of fine gold" — at any rate, he thought they told him this. He never could be quite certain of what the Indians said because they conversed by means of signs and mutterings. Being delighted with the island, Columbus determined to establish a colony there. The lumber for the fort and storehouse was furnished in a most unexpected way. On Christmas morning, before daybreak, the Santa Maria went onto a sand bank and was dashed to pieces on the beach. Her boards and timbers were used in the con- struction of a rude building. Fortunately the cargo and provisions were saved, thanks to the prompt assistance of the Indians. About forty men, including artisans, a tailor, and a physician, were left behind in the new col- ony with provisions and seeds enough for a year. This colony was the first white colony in the new world, if we except the Norse settlement in Vinland. A few years COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 207 later (1498), Bartholomew Columbus founded Santo Domingo on the island of Haiti in honor of his father. This is "the oldest European settlement in the New World which still exists, ^^ the first colony of Columbus having vanished within a year. There was another reason for the founding of the colony, aside from the wreck of the Santa Maria and the general desire to occupy the land for Spain. The commander of the Pinta, who was unfriendly to Columbus, suddenly dis- appeared with his ship and no trace could be found of him. It is thought that he wanted to get back to Spain before Columbus did and thus get the lion's share of the glory for finding the route to the Indies. After the wreck of the Santa Maria and the departure of the Pinta, Columbus had left only the Nina, the baby ship of the fleet, and this tiny vessel would not be able to carry the entire party back to Spain. The Journey Home. On the fourth of January, 1493, the Nina set out for Spain. Two days later, she met the Pinta off the northern coast of Haiti. The commander of the latter boat hastened to explain that a storm had driven him out to sea and that he really had no thought of deserting his comrades. Columbus never quite believed him, yet the two vessels now set out for Spain together'. The homeward passage was not an easy one. The trade winds compelled the ships to take a more northerly course and, just before reaching the Azores, they were caught in a storm which raged furiously for four days. No one thought that the frail vessels could weather such terrific gales and Columbus feared that he might go to the bottom of the sea without being able to give Ferdinand 208 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY and Isabella an account of his great voyage. He there- fore wrote upon parchment two reports of his expedition and directed them to the king and queen. Each of these he wrapped in cloth and wax and encased in a barrel. One of them, he threw into the sea and the other, he kept on shipboard. Finally, the land appeared — an island of the Azores — and Columbus sent some of his men ashore to give thanks for their safety from the storm by saying their prayers in a small chapel. They were promptly arrested and held for several days. Columbus finally succeeded in getting the governor of the island to release them. A little later, another terrible storm broke over the Nina and she was driven to the coast of Portugal and found safety by running into the mouth of the Tagus River, on the fourth of March. The news soon spread that Columbus and the Spaniards had returned from the Indies and there was excitement in the air. Great crowds overran the vessel and swarmed about the docks, craning their necks to get a glimpse of the Indians which Colum- bus had on board. It is said also that the surrounding water could not be seen "so full was it of the boats and skiffs of the Portuguese." Some of the Portuguese, feeling that the Spaniards had beaten them in the race for the Indies, were exceedingly surly and wanted to have Colum- bus put to death. Fortunately, better counsel prevailed and no attempt was made upon the life of the great mariner. Four days after his arrival, the king of Portugal sent a very polite note asking Columbus to visit him at the royal court. The invitation was accepted. About nine years COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 209 before, Columbus had visited this same royal court and had asked assistance from this same king and his plans had been rejected by the learned men of the court as ''empty talk" and ''mere prattle." Things had changed since that time. Now Columbus with becoming dignity reminded King John that he was too late — that he had let the golden opportunity slip by. Some of the men about the court thought it would be a good idea to pick a quarrel with Columbus and then run him through with a sword. But King John would not listen to the sug- gestion. After remaining in Portugal for nine days, the Nina put out to sea again and dropped anchor in the harbor of Palos, two days later, the fifteenth of March, 1493. The news of Columbus's return ran like wild-fire about the town. The relatives of the sailors rushed to greet them. People forgot all about their business and gathered in eager groups to listen to the tales of the sailors. The whole town turned out. Bells were rung and chants of praise were sung to the Lord for deliverance from the terrors of the Sea of Darkness. The Surprise. About nightfall, when the bells were ringing and the people were surging up and down the streets, with lighted torches in their hands, another familiar looking vessel dropped anchor in the harbor. Men peered at her through the gathering darkness. She was no other than the Pinta. The two ships had been separated in the storm off the Azores and each thought that the other had been lost. The meeting was a happy one and March 15th thus became a notable day in the history of Palos. 210 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Columbus at the King's Court. The weeks following Columbus's return were the happiest time in his whole hfe. He was summoned to the royal court at Barcelona and his journey there was like a triumphal procession. Crowds of people stood by the roadside to get a glimpse of the great navigator as he passed with his stuffed birds, Columbus at Barcelona live parrots, and wild Indians which he had brought back from the Indies. At the royal court, he was received with the highest honor. The king and queen awaited his com- ing ^'on a richly decorated seat, under a canopy of cloth and gold." They rose when he appeared and made him take a seat at their side. This was the highest honor which they could confer upon him. The Pope's Line (1493). Ferdinand and Isabella at once informed the Pope of the voyage of Columbus and COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 211 told him that the inhabitants of the land which he had found off the coast of Asia were well fitted to receive the Christian religion. They also asked him to define the rights of Spain in the new territory so that there would be no quarrel with Portugal. This the Pope did by his famous Line of May 4, 1493 (see map, page 221). He said that the Spaniards should have all the heathen lands which they might discover west of a meridian drawn one hundred leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands and that the Portu- guese should have similar rights on the east side of this line. In the following year, the two nations agreed by treaty to place the '4ine fence" three hundred and seventy leagues west of the islands. It was still supposed to be in mid- ocean, but really was not, and the blunder unexpectedly gave Brazil to Portugal. The Second Voyage (1493). Columbus, however, did not spend much time in the ease and luxury of the royal court. He began preparations at once for his second voyage and sailed — this time from the port of Cadiz — on the twenty-fifth of September, 1493. This expedition was not much like the little terror- stricken one which had sailed from Palos the year before. This time there were seventeen ships, carrying fifteen hun- dred men, together with horses, sheep, cattle, vegetables, grain, grapevines, fruit trees, and almost everything else that might be needed in a new colony. The ships stopped at the Canaries and added calves, goats, pigs, chickens, as well as orange, lemon, melon, and sugar-cane seeds to their cargo. No women accompanied the expedition. Every one on board thought that he was to sail directly to the Indies — the land of jewels and spices. Some 212 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY thought was also given to the welfare of the souls of the poor benighted heathen. A priest was appointed ''Vicar of the Indies" and he was probably the first to say mass on the western shores. It was also planned that the good Vicar was to have the assistance of native mission- aries. Six of the savages, brought over by Columbus were still living and these had been baptized in Barce- lona with Ferdinand and Isabella as godfather and god- mother. These men were to aid in the conversion of their people. One of them, however, died soon after his bap- tism and was said by the Spaniards to be the first Indian to enter the portals of heaven. It was not very difficult to get men for this voyage. Columbus wanted only twelve hundred, but fifteen hun- dred insisted on going and the ships were overcrowded. Many nobles and other distinguished men were in the company. Land was sighted early in November and Columbus proceeded to cruise about among the islands of the Carib- bean Sea. Here he met repulsive cannibals who killed a few of his men with poisoned arrows. He touched Porto Rico and then went to the site of the colony founded on the island of Haiti, the year before. He entered the harbor late at night and fired a salute from the ship's cannon. They hstened. There was no sound, save the echo of the gun. The place was deserted. About mid- night, some Indians in a canoe came out to Columbus's ship and got on board. The redmen explained that some of the colonists had died of disease and that others had married Indian wives and moved away. At daybreak, Columbus went ashore and saw enough to convince him COLUMBUS SEEKS A ROUTE TO INDIA 213 that his colonists had been massacred by the Indians. Not a man of them ever appeared and no one to this day knows exactly what became of the forty men left on the island. ^'This was the gloomy welcome to the land of promise.'^ Columbus selected a new site for his colony — a little farther to the east and on the north coast of Haiti. Here he planned a town which he called ''Isabella" in honor of his queen. Quite a town was laid out, and public buildings were made of stone and private ones of wood and straw. But the work was hard for those not used to it and many became ill and some were terribly homesick also. To make matters worse, Columbus fell sick and the out- look for Isabella was not a rosy one. The strain upon Columbus had been intense for many years and his illness was very serious. He was sick for five months and was unconscious for a part of the time. One day when he regained consciousness he was surprised to find his brother Bartholomew standing at his bedside. He had not seen him since the day he had started to seek aid from the king of England, six years before. It was a joyous meeting. The two brothers were exceedingly fond of each other and now Bartholomew would be of untold assistance to Christopher in starting the new colony. The Return to Spain (March, 1496). After remaining in the New World for nearly three years, Columbus went back to Spain in the spring of 1496, leaving his brother Bartholomew in command of the colony. He had two boats with about two hundred homesick Spaniards and thirty Indians, including a captive Indian prince, with a gold chain weighing six pounds hanging about his neck. 214 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Columbus's reception in Spain this time wa-V ^>T!ft ^ CHIN A^J^c>»r P ^ C ,i'''i^ / INDIAN \C/ffir:,^^ ^^„-''' I AUSTRALIA ■ f; Drake's voyage. St r.of Magellan Drake's Voyage around the Globe suddenly into a port, plunder the ships lying at anchor, go on shore and seize the stores of gold, silver, and precious stones, and then quickly sail away, leaving his victims dumbfounded and with their pockets turned inside out. Finally, he came opposite the present site of San Francisco, seeking now for a passage through the con- tinent by which he might return to England. Finding none, he sailed westward across the Pacific, through the East Indies, and back to England by way of the Cape of Good Hope. 256 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY This was the second voyage around the globe. The Pelican had followed in the wake of Magellan's ship, the Victoria. She '^was loaded with bars of gold, boxes of precious stones, and tons of silver, amounting in value to some four million dollars." This rich booty was divided among the promoters of the expedition and the queen and Drake himself had large shares in the Spanish wealth. It might be interesting for a moment to take a glance at the boyhood of Sir Francis Drake. The hulk of an old ship, moored off an English dockyard, was the boyhood home of Sir Francis. Here he heard the sailors sing their songs and listened with rapt attention to tales of adven- ture on the sea. He grew up to be a sturdy and self- reliant lad and found employment on a ship sailing from France to Holland. While in Holland he saw the cruel way in which the king of Spain oppressed his Dutch sub- jects and came to hate him very cordially for it. At a later time, Drake and Hawkins, his relative, were com- pelled to seek the shelter of a Spanish port in the Gulf of Mexico. Here the Spaniards attacked them and destroyed one half of their ships, although they had promised not to harm them. From that time on, Hawkins and Drake took great delight in goading the Spaniards wherever they found them. We shall meet Sir Francis Drake later when he sets out to ''singe the beard of the King of Spain." QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. Compare Magellan and Drake as to route, purpose, and results of expeditions. 2. Read in any good history of England an account of Elizabeth's reign. "Was she a "good and strong ruler"? Would she be so considered to- day? FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 257 3. Is there any geographical exploration going on at the present time? See, if you can, a copy of the "National Geographic Magazine." It is in all Hbraries. 4. Do you think Spain had just cause for complaint against Drake and Hawkins? 5. Why did Spain seem to be the rightful possessor of most of the New World? 6. Why was Raleigh the favorite with Queen EUzabeth? What is the most important work that he did? PRONOUNCING LIST Chili, chiri Ponce de Leon, pon'tha da la-6n' Coronado. ko'ro-na'do Raleigh, ro'll Peru, pe-rdo' CHAPTER XXIII FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN Poor Spain was beset by enemies on every side. Not only England, but France as well, wished to share in the profits and glories of the New World. Spain was like a dog with a juicy bone. She soon found other nations snarling about her and ready to grab her prize. Wars between France and Spain in Europe. At the time of which we are speaking, Charles I was king of Spain and Francis I king of France. These two mon- archs looked at each other with jealous and hostile eyes and their subjects were almost equally unfriendly. Both Charles and Francis wished to be elected Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Charles was chosen and Francis, greatly disappointed, nursed his grievance. He made an attack upon Charles whenever he had an oppor- tunity and for twenty-three years kept up a running fight against the emperor. A large part of the fighting was 258 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY done in Italy and it was in these wars that Chevalier Bayard became known to the whole civiUzed world. Chevalier Bayard. Bayard was a member of a noble French family who entered the service of the Duke of Savoy as a page. While in the service of the duke, he obtained an excellent training in the duties of the soldier and also became skillful in the use of weapons. He was so skillful in war, and so brave in personal combat that he became known as the '' Invincible. '^ In one great battle, in which the king had command in person, Bayard fought bravely and contributed largely to the victory which saved France. After the close of the contest, the king requested that he himself be made a knight and that the knighthood be conferred upon him by the brave Chevalier. ''Bayard, my friend," said the king, ''I wish to-day to be made knight by your hands, because you have fought on foot and on horseback in many battles and are reputed to be, above all others, the most worthy." Bayard hesitated to comply with this request because he did not feel himself worthy to bestow knighthood upon his king; and so he replied: ''Sire, he who is king of so noble a realm is a knight above all other knights." To this the king simply answered, "Come, Bayard; make haste." Whereupon Bayard drew his sword, conferred the order of knighthood upon Francis and then said, "Assuredly you are the greatest prince who ever was made knight. God grant that in the war you shall never take flight." He then flourished his sword in the air and said as he put it into the scabbard that he would always cherish it as a "sacred relic, honored above all others," because it had been used in knighting his king. FRANCE AS A RIVAL OF SPAIN 259 While fighting for his king and country in northern Italy (1524), he was mortally wounded while conducting an almost hopeless retreat. His men by whom he was so greatly beloved were about to carry him from the field, 'i M^ ? ..J^g W^^ 1 Pr ^,1'" * k- iff* pi^yi-. \ *;; Ml II "''^^^ I^M,. -"^^ mi ^^y if '■ .^w gP'^" i ^ W^mfm% £jx l^''^' r^ /^^;^V .^, i^Mp^ "^"'^^^ WM '^ wf'^Kf'w^Kf^^LjT^^^^^Knn^w^^ IriW. -. '^*'*^ ff ■ j^' ^ S; ^^l ^^I^^^HH J '• -ii^ iw ii '^ *J ■ -^^ A ' W^ > ^m ■- CENTRAL AMERICA L I POJTES CO , N Y French, Spanish, and English Explorations in America up to 1600 reason for England's delay was the fact that she was not strong enough upon the sea before the defeat of the In- vincible Armada to defy the power of Spain. Now, how- ever, things had changed. The Protestant Reformation had taken place and England had become a Protestant country. The Pope's decrees were no longer considered binding. It should also be noted that since the defeat 284 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY of the Armada, England was no longer afraid of the Spaniards upon the sea. The Seamen. The Enghsh people of this time were more active and enterprising than they had ever been before and their action and enterprise were best reflected in the daring deeds of their briUiant seamen. It was during this reign, as we have seen, that Sir Francis Drake, the man who ''singed the beard of the King of Spain," made his famous voyage around the globe. Martin Frobisher and John Davis had carried the English flag to the extreme northwest in searching for the passage to India and Captain John Hawkins, the founder of the Eng- lish slave trade, had befriended the woe-begone Huguenot colony on St. John's River in Florida. These daring sea- men, however, were intent upon exploration, gold hunting, and the plundering of Spanish ships, and apparently gave little or no thought to colonization. Gilbert and Raleigh. But while the Drakes and the Hawkinses looked upon the planting of colonies in the American wilderness as a rather prosy business and would have none of it, there were other men of the time who saw great possibilities in the colonization of the New World. The pioneers in the English colonization of North America — the fathers of the English colonial idea — were Sir Hum- phrey Gilbert and his step-brother. Sir Walter Raleigh. These men saw that there was more wealth, in all proba- bility, in the fertility of the soil than there was in the mines of the new world. Gilbert, a bright English lad, was born near Dartmouth, about twenty years before Ehzabeth became queen. He went to college at Oxford and then entered the army, EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 285 where he was briUiantly successful. The New World attracted his attention, and he wrote a book about the discovery of a passage to China and India. At a later time (1578), he asked the queen to give him permission to establish a colony in North America. The queen com- plied with his request and gave him the first colonial charter ever granted by an English monarch. This char- ter gave him permission to take possession of any lands in North America, then unsettled, and in return for this privilege he promised to give the queen one fifth of all the gold and silver which he might obtain. He was to rule absolutely over his colony, subject only to the wishes of the queen. The most important clause in this docu- ment yet remains to be men- tioned. The charter guaranteed to Gilbert and his followers all of the rights and privileges of Englishmen. In other words, the members of the new colony were to have the same rights and privileges which the people of England possessed at that time. It was for these same rights and privileges that our forefathers fought two centuries later in the American Revolution. It is not too much to say that the charter granted to Gilbert con- tained the germ of the war for American independence. The First Voyage. With this precious document in his possession, Gilbert set out for Newfoundland in 1579 with Sir Humphrey Gilbert 286 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY a small fleet of vessels. He was accompanied by his step- brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, a handsome, brilUant, and attractive young man of twenty-six, who had just returned from fighting as a volunteer in the Netherlands. Both Gilbert and Raleigh had visions of the future greatness of America. They also believed, as did Sir Francis Drake, that the best way to dispose of the Span- iard was to whip him upon the sea. They also thought that England should have colonies in America for pur- poses of trade and to serve as outposts against Spain in time of war. It will be remembered that the Spanish Armada had not yet been defeated, but these two far- seeing men were able to look into the future and foresee the deadly contest which was certain to take place between England and Spain. They wanted to be ready for that contest when it came. Gilbert, apparently, did not care to follow the frozen trail of Frobisher in the northern latitudes but set out for Newfoundland, attracted, no doubt, by the rich fisheries of that locality. Nothing came of this voyage. The ships were buffeted about by severe storms, one of them was destroyed in a fight with a Spanish warship, and the rest were compelled to return to England. Another Voyage (1583). Not daunted by this rough experience, Gilbert set out upon another voyage to New- foundland as soon as he could procure the necessary men, money, and ships. In 1583, he sailed from Plymouth harbor with a small squadron. Raleigh and other friends furnished the capital for the expedition, and the queen sent him a gold anchor as a token of good-will and esteem. EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 287 In August, Gilbert sailed into the harbor of St. John, where Cartier had been nearly fifty years before. He found about four hundred ships in the vicinity, most of them owned by the Spaniards and the Portuguese and all of them engaged in fishing. Calling the fishermen to- gether, he went ashore and set up in their presence a column with the armor of England upon it and then proceeded to take possession of the island in the name of his queen and country. Again the storms came on and shattered his fleet, but after some repairs he proceeded to explore the southern coast of the island in search of a suitable site for a colony. Near Cape Breton, another tempest tossed him about and his largest vessel was smashed against a sunken rock. Nearly one hundred men were lost. Gilbert, however, found safety in a tiny vessel. He now had only one ship, in addition to the little skiff in which he himself sailed, and this was loaded with worthless rock, which was sup- posed to contain silver ore. The two ships started home- ward and again a September gale tossed them about. The commander of the companion ship, being greatly alarmed, shouted across the waves to Gilbert that they were all Hkely to be lost. But the cool and fearless navigator, sitting quietly with a book in his hand, shouted cheerily back to his panic-stricken mate:, '^The way to Heaven is as near by sea as by land." Longfellow tells the story in this way: '^ Beside the helm he sat: The book was in his hand. 'Fear not,' he cried, 'heaven is as near By water as by land.'" 288 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY The storm increased, night fell, and the darkness was intense. Each ship was nervously watching the other. At midnight, the captain, who had shouted the warning, saw the lights on Gilbert's ship suddenly go out. The vessel had sunk and all were lost. The brave Gilbert went to his death, but the ship, bearing the worthless rock, came into port in safety. The Exploits of Raleigh. Sir Walter Raleigh continued to send expeditions to America, after the death of his brave brother. Raleigh, the famous soldier, sea-rover, colonizer, and author, was born in Devon- shire, England, in 1552. He was a student at Oxford Uni- versity and, when a boy of seventeen, had gone as a soldier to France to fight for the Huguenots. After that, he fought against Spain in the Netherlands and then went into partnership with Gilbert in an attempt to found colonies in North America. Fortunately, he was not with Gilbert on his fatal voyage and he was not daunted by the death of his brave partner. He still had faith in America and spent a large fortune in his colonizing ventures. He made up his mind, however, to abandon Newfound- land, and to go to the milder climate of the south; so in 1584, he sent out two ships under the command of PhiUp Amadas and Arthur Barlow. On the fourth of Sir Walter Raleigh EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 289 July, Amadas and Barlow reached the coast of what is now known as North Carolina, where they penetrated Pamlico Sound and visited Roanoke Island. Waving the flag of England over this beautiful place, they took possession of it in the name of their queen. Says Fiske, '^They admired the noble pine trees and red cedars, mar- veled at the abundance of game, and found the native barbarians polite and friendly." They explored the shore for a considerable distance and named the country '^ Virginia" in honor of Elizabeth, the maiden queen. They made no attempt at settlement at this time, but they did try to converse with the Indians and to get information from them in regard to the country. They were not very successful in carrying on conversation with the natives, but they reported when they got back home that they had found the Indians to be ''people most gentle, loving, and faithful." Later colonists had a very different story to tell. The Roanoke Colony (1585). The glowing accounts of these explorers encouraged Raleigh to attempt to plant a colony in southern latitudes. In the spring of 1585, he sent out a fleet of eight vessels, bearing one hundred and eight men bound for the New World. Ralph Lane was to have charge of the colony and Sir Richard Grenville, Raleigh's cousin, commanded the fleet. Grenville scoured the seas and plundered the rich ships of the Spaniards for a time and after narrowly escaping shipwreck on a point of land, which the company named ''Cape Fear," landed his little company on Roanoke Island. As soon as they touched the shore, trouble with the natives began. One of the Indians stole a silver cup and Grenville in retaliation 290 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY set fire to their standing corn. The fight between the redmen and the pale-face colonist was now on. After starting this conflict, Grenville turned over the colony to Lane and sailed away. Lane, a man of energy and good sense, explored the country in search of a suitable site for his settlement. He went some distance into the interior and even tried to find a strait leading to India. The colonists were a shiftless and worthless lot and things did not go well. They could play the pirate or hunt for gold, but tilling the soil was real work and they did not care for it. They were suffering from a lack of food and were beginning to pine for the folks at home when the ''Dragon" Drake suddenly appeared with a fine fleet of twenty- three ships. Lane and his starving and homesick companions were only too glad to be taken back to England. They started on their way rejoicing, but had scarcely gotten out of sight when Grenville sailed into port with suppUes. Much to his astonishment, he found that the place had been abandoned. No living creature appeared in view, although he searched the surrounding country carefully. Leaving fifteen of his men to the rather lonesome task of holding the site of the colony, Grenville departed. ** The Lost Colony. '* Planting colonies in the New World seemed to be up-hill business, and yet Raleigh was apparently not discouraged. In 1587 he sent out another band of colonists to the Carolina coast — this time under the control of John White, an artist. The company included seventeen women and about one hun- dred and thirty men. They intended to stop at Roanoke Island and take on board the fifteen men left by Gren- EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 291 ville and then proceed to the shore of Chesapeake Bay. They touched at Roanoke, but could find no trace of the fifteen men left on the lonesome vigil. The fort was in ruins and deer were quietly grazing on the spot where the colony once stood. The little guard had probably been massacred by the Indians. Instead of going on to the Chesapeake coun- try, White left a company of eighty-nine men, women, and children at Roanoke and went back to England in the same year. Soon after White's return home, the '^Invincible Arm- ada '^ appeared in the Eng- lish Channel. There was now no time to think of anything but the Spanish foe. Sir Walter did not forget his struggling colony, however, and on two dif- ferent occasions he fitted out relief ships to be sent to Roanoke. The ships, however, were either impressed into the service of the government or driven back to port by the Spaniards, and for three years the colony was left to shift for itself. When White did finally succeed in getting to America he was too late. The place was deserted, grass was growing in the fort, and the whole scene was one of desolation. The colonists had gone — nobody has Early Settlements of the English, French, and Spanish in the New World 292 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY ever known where, but a great many guesses have been made. They may have been killed by the Indians, or they may have gone to live with friendly natives. They are spoken of to this day as "Raleigh's Lost Colony." The Landing at Jamestown Here in 1607 was founded the first permanent English colony on the North American continent. Raleigh had now spent his own large fortune and also all of the money he could get from the Queen and other friends and had not succeeded in planting a successful colony on American soil. It was soon seen that the found- ing of colonies was too large and too costly an enterprise for private individuals to undertake. And so companies EARLY ATTEMPTS TO FOUND COLONIES 293 were organized to do the work which Gilbert and Raleigh had failed to accomplish. A body of men known as the London Company was organized for this purpose and these men succeeded in establishing the first permanent English colony on our shores. It was located at Jamestown, Virginia, and the date of its founding is 1607. At this point the history of the English colonies in America begins and our present story comes to an end. In this ^'Introduction to American History" we have tried to show that Europe is the Mother of America. The beginnings of American History are to be found in the Old World. The roots of our history and institutions may be traced to European soil. American history is the continuation and the outgrowth of the history of Europe. American civilization, on the whole, is based on the civiliza- tion of Europe, although it has developed along independ- ent lines and is now very different in some respects from the civilization of the mother country. We cannot, there- fore, understand the history of our own country without knowing something of the history of Europe. We trust that a study of this little book will enable you to under- stand better and to appreciate more fully the wonderful story of your country's history from the founding of Jamestown to the present day. QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS — TO THE PUPIL 1. Neither Gilbert nor Raleigh succeeded in establishing a permanent settlement in America. Why? Was the work they did of no avail? 2. Imagine yourself a member of " Raleigh's Lost Colony." Make a diary showing what really became of yourself and companions. 294 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 3. To-day in this New World Spain's mark is indelibly imprinted on Mexico, and Central and South America. The French influence is felt in Canada. The territory occupied by the United States is the sphere of English influence so, naturally, we have been more interested in following the progress of England. As a result of the Spanish-American War (1898), several miUion people who were subjects of Spain and who speak the Spanish language, have been taken imder our flag. Do you not think it well for the United States to begin to give more attention to Spanish life, customs, and language, in order to do our best for these people? Remember, too, the great advantage it would give the United States commercially in Central and South America, if we imderstood the Spanish better. PRONOUNCING LIST Breton, brgt'un Frobisher. fr6b'Ish-er SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 295 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS This text-book for the sixth grade is an attempt to follow out the recommendations of the Committee of Eight of the Ameri- can Historical Association. The first seventeen chapters show how far back the roots of our history extend and what have been the contributions of the Ancient World to the ''New World." The last nine chapters cover the period of discovery and explora- tion down to the settlement of Jamestown. These points have been emphasized: 1. The steady westward movement, from the five early na- tions dealt with in the first chapter, on to Greece, to Rome, and through the expansion of the Roman Empire to England; the overthrow of the Romans by the Germans; the beginning of modern European States; the revival of learning following the Dark Ages; the discovery of America; and the struggle for su- premacy in the New World. 2. The growth of knowledge of the earth and its people; the changing conception of the shape and size of the earth; the contributions of early peoples to the discovery of America, and the consequent broadening of man's conception of his relation to the world. 3. The contributions of each of these great Nations and peoples to the stream of world civilization. An effort has been made to show clearly how much we at this day are indebted to all the ages that have gone before — that we, here in the United States, are truly ''the heirs of all the ages." This text takes it for granted that the seventh and eighth years will be given chiefly to a serious study of United States history. The treatment has been in the main chronological, without any attempt, however, to give a connected history of any na- tion. The principal aim has been to adapt the material of his- tory to the sixth-grade child in such a way that he may acquire the historical sense and perspective, so that he may feel some- thing of the spirit of history and may have an interest in human progress and development. 296 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY Howsoever excellent any text-hook may he it will not teach itself. It is only the tool in the hands of the pupil by means of which the teacher may guide him into the realization of the aims stated above. So it is thought well in this connection to make some specific suggestions to teachers of history — suggestions most of which are the outcome of actual experience in classroom work. These suggestions are based upon the following behefs: 1. That the material aspects of the past must furnish the foundation. Vivid images of concrete things in the past may best be created by pictures, models, casts, and the Hke. 2. That the particular acts of the children or of their elders must furnish the basis for comprehension of historic acts. These should be supplemented by word-pictures and stories concretely told. 3. That children must be led to think and feel about certain men and acts as these men themselves felt, by: a. Dramatization of historic scenes. h. Writing imaginary letters. c. Imagining themselves present at certain scenes, and re- lating what happened. d. Keeping imaginary diaries. e. Expressing written opinions on certain acts, either de- defending or opposing. /. Learning and reciting parts of famous speeches or poems. 4. Collective facts can only be securely fixed through the massing of particular instances. SUGGESTIONS I. Use of the Recitation Period 1. One of the standards of judging classroom teaching in any subject is the extent to which it provides for the individuality of the child. There is danger in history teaching that it will become merely a ''cramming process" and that the child will have no opportunity to react to the mass of historical information with which he comes in contact. The child's natural curiosity and desire to know more about things should always be en- couraged. So the recitation period, instead of being a time when SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 297 children ''recite'^ facts read from the text, should rather be a time for asking questions and for clearing away misconceptions. Let the recitation period be given over at times merely to finding some five problem which is a felt need on the part of the children, and subsequent periods may be given to having children offer their contributions to its solution. The absence of many fact questions at the ends of the chapters is to be noted. Questions arising from within the children themselves will set the first and most fundamental requirement for sys- tematic study. 2. This period should be used at times to show the children how to use a text. Certain chapters should be read through slowly and critically with frequent reference to maps, diction- aries, pronouncing fist, and other supplementary material. 3. Other chapters, as for instance Chapter XIX on '' Colum- bus," should be read straight through as a reading lesson. 4. This period is the best time for the massing of single details into collective facts, in other words, for the organization of material and the making of summaries. 5. The recitation is also the proper place for fixing the few important dates which pupils need to know. These should be thoroughly memorized. II. Supplementary Material Maps 1. The maps inserted throughout will be found very helpful. 2. The use of the double-size desk outline maps such as are published at trivial cost by the McKinley Pubhshing Co., Philadelphia, is strongly recommended. 3. A map of the world is absolutely necessary. 4. A blackboard outhne map for tracing discoveries and explorations. A. Flanagan Co., Chicago, pubHsh such maps. Pictures 1. Perry Picture Co., Maiden, Mass., have sets of pictures excellent for all periods of history. These cost one cent each. 298 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY 2. Encourage children to bring pictures to school, illustrating points in the lessons. A recognition of many of the world's famous men, buildings, works of art, etc., should be one of the products of history study. Books In the suggestions for teachers on each chapter, certain books are recommended. These are books that should be in the Hbrary of every teacher of history. Many of the children will come from homes well supplied with good books. Encourage them to read from them, to bring them to the class, and to make oral reports on parts read. The Community In almost every community there will be one individual who has visited some of the famous historical shrines. Have the class invite him to talk to them about such places. III. A History Game Let each pupil personify some character with whom all members of the class are famihar, for instance, Christopher Columbus. He should have read from other sources so that when he personifies before the class the individual chosen, he will introduce as much new material as possible. He will not tell the things commonly known about Columbus. The other members of the class hsten for the purpose of identifying him, but no pupil must announce who he thinks it is. He must make the pupil on the floor disclose his identity, by asking him some question such as, *'Are you the man who sailed from Palos in 1492 to find a western passage to the Indies?" To which the pupil on the floor who is personifying Columbus will reply, ''Yes, I am Christopher Columbus." If a question be asked which shows that the one asking it does not know the individual personified, as for instance, "Are you the man who singed the beard of the King of Spain?" then the one on the floor must say, "No, I am not Sir Francis Drake." The questions may also be such as will bring out further information about the individual so as to help the ques- SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 299 tioner to know who it is. As for instance, ''Did you live in the fourteenth century?" The pupil on the floor should answer only by ''yes" or "no," without saying when he hved. No pupil should be allowed to ask a question until he has at least a tenta- tive opinion as to who is personified. The same game may be played for historic buildings and places. The following recommendations on the different chapters are not intended to be exhaustive, but are such as may be carried out by any teacher, and such as do not require extensive or expensive equipment. They are in most cases intended to be merely suggestive, and may be adapted by any teacher to his particular environment and equipment. CHAPTER I 1. Maps. The use of a desk outUne map by the pupil to locate each of the nations as taken up in the text will be found very helpful. On this map he can print the name of the nation, its principal products and industries. He may also locate the important rivers, the "Royal Road," the trade routes of the Phoenicians, etc. Then as a summing up of the chapter, on a line drawn from the site of each nation and extending toward the west, place what this nation has contributed to the world's civiUzation. The teacher may use a larger outKne map to guide and direct the work of the children. 2. Old Testament as a source-book. Use as supplementary wherever it will help, as for instance: a. Story of Joseph and his brothers — richness of land of Egypt. b. Building of Temple at Jerusalem. c. The Ten Commandments. 3. Pictures. Perry Picture Co., of Maiden, Mass., make excel- lent pictures. Have a collection of these and ask the children to look out for pictures bearing on the text. 300 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER II 1. Preparatory to understanding Greek civilization, have the children use their geographies to work out the islands of Greece, the long and irregular coast-hne, the high mountains, and se- questered valleys, and lead them to see the effect of these physical features on the industries and character of the people. 2. Locate on the outline map used with Chapter I: Athens, Sparta, Salamis, Aegean Sea, Marathon, Thermopylae, etc. CHAPTER III 1. If possible get a copy of ''A Reading from Homer" by Alma-Tadema. Let the children imagine themselves the auditors. The scene may be in some measure made real by the teacher reading from Bryant's Translation of the Odyssey. 2. Books. a. Hawthorne's version of some famous old Greek stories — Tanglewood Tales; Riverside Literature Series, Hough- ton, Mifflin Co., Boston. h. Harding, S. B. — Greek Gods, Heroes and Men. CHAPTER IV 1. The Acropolis, and the Parthenon should become so familiar that pupils will always recognize them. Pictures of Ionic, Doric, and Corinthian columns should be used and the distinc- tive characteristics of each pointed out. 2. The children should also become thoroughly famihar with a few of the Greek masterpieces of sculpture, as the Hermes by Praxiteles, the Discobolus by Myron, Zeus by Phidias, etc. Perry Picture Co. furnish pictures of Greek Art and Architecture. 3. Tarbell's ''History of Greek Art." CHAPTER VI On the outline map used with Chapters I and II, have the children mark the location of Greek colonies and trace the cam- paigns of Alexander. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 301 CHAPTER VII 1. Macaulay's ''Lays of Ancient Rome" furnishes splendid material for supplementing this chapter. Read some of these stirring lays to the children. 2. Have children trace on the map Hannibal's route and the spread of the Roman Empire. CHAPTER VIII Use the map every day in developing the lesson. Be sure that the children know what is meant by the Roman Empire. CHAPTER IX 1. Read from Lamb's Tales the story of Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar." 2. Get a copy of "Ben Hur," by Lew Wallace, and read to the children the description of the chariot race. CHAPTER X Have children bring new testaments to class and with maps follow Paul on one of his great missionary journeys. Estimate the number of miles he traveled. See Acts of the Apostles, XV-XXXI. Call attention to hardships he had to endure, to the value of his Roman citizenship, to the speech to the men of Athens, Acts XVII, etc. CHAPTER XI The Nibelungenlied — sometimes called the German Iliad — gives a clear conception of German ideals. Read from some one of the numerous translations the adventures of Siegfried, the hero. CHAPTER XII Eva March Tappan's " European Hero Stories " and Harding's "Story of the Middle Ages" are excellent supplementary books and can be read by the children. These may be used with Chapter XII and following chapters. 302 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER XIII Books. Sidney Lanier's ''The Boy's King Arthur" or any other of the several good King Arthur Stories; Jennie Hall's ''Viking Tales." CHAPTER XIV Some of the more important dates in EngUsh history should be kept before the pupils from now on: a. The coming of the Romans. b. The Anglo-Saxon Invasion. c. The Danish Invasion. d. The Norman Conquest. CHAPTER XV 1. Robinson's ''Readings in European History," Vol. I, "How the EngUsh won the Magna Charta." 2. Eva March Tappan's "European Hero Stories," "Winning of the Magna Charta." CHAPTER XVI 1. Read from Harding's "Story of the Middle Ages," chap- ters describing the hfe in castle and in village. 2. Make a drawing on the blackboard showing plan of castle and the surroundings. CHAPTER XVII 1. See Eva March Tappan's "European Hero Stories," on the Crusades. 2. From the Old South Pubhshing Co., Boston, you may get for five cents, a reprint of Marco Polo's description of Japan and Java. It is in the Old South Leaflets series. CHAPTER XVIII 1. A blackboard outUne map of the world, on which may be traced the voyages and explorations of the next chapters is almost indispensable. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 303 2. Suppose you put the problem of ''Finding a New Trade Route to the East," to the children before they read this chapter. They must have a clear conception of the problem, of the equipment at hand to solve it, its difficulties, etc. It will be necessary for you to read this chapter first so that you may be prepared to show the difficulties as they suggest different solutions. Let them work on it until they are satisfied with their answer. Then let them read this chapter. CHAPTER XIX 1. Washington Irving's ''Columbus," Book 3, describes his first voyage. Extracts from this read to the children will help to make vivid and real the courage required to make a success of his first voyage. 2. Old South Leaflets Nos. 29 and 31, on Columbus. CHAPTER XX 1. Use the blackboard outfine map to trace the routes of these explorers. Different colored crayons may be used for the different nations. 2. Old South Leaflets Nos. 37 and 115, "Voyages of the Cabots." CHAPTER XXI 1. You need now a good outfine map of North America. The children should be suppHed with desk-size maps. Let them trace the explorations of the Spanish in one color and place the date and name on the line. The same map may be used in succeeding chapters, using different colors for different nations. 2. Old South Leaflets, No. 35, "Cortez' account of City of Mexico"; No. 36, "Death of De Soto." CHAPTER XXII Continue the map begun in preceding chapters, writing name and date of the explorer on the line showing his route. Old South Leaflet No. 116, "Sir Francis Drake on Coast of Cafifornia." 304 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER XXIII Old South Leaflet No. 89, '' Founding of St. Augustine." CHAPTER XXIV Let the children consult their geographies on Holland, its location, use of dikes, occupation of people, etc. CHAPTER XXVI Old South Leaflets, No. 118, ''Gilbert's Expedition"; No. 119, ''Raleigh's Colony at Roanoke." INDEX Acropolis, the, 44 Adrianople, battle of, 105, 106 Alaric, 109 Alexander the Great, 59-66; empire of, 64, 65 Alexandrians, 64, 66 Alfred, King, 122-130 Alva, Duke of, 268 Amadas and Barlow, 288, 289 America, discovery of, 198-204 Americus Vespucius, 222, 223 Anglo-Saxons, 124 Architecture, Egyptian, 3, 5-7; Greek, 45-50 Ariovistus, 83, 104 Aristides, 51, 57 Aristotle, 42, 43, 53, 57 Armada, Invincible, 275-281, 283, 291 Athena, 48 Athenians, 21, 25, 38, 52, 53 Athos, Mount, 24 Attila, 106-108, 162 Augustus, 90, 96 Aztecs, 234, 241 Balboa, 224, 225, 233, 246 Bayard, Chevalier, 258-260 "Beggars," 268 Black death, 38 Britons, 84-87, 109, 110 Byron, Lord, 27 Cabot, John, 220-223, 249, 282, 283 Caesar, 79-89, 104, 109 Cambyses, 15 Cannae, battle of, 75, 76 Canterbury, 113; pilgrims to, 161; Tales, 161 Canute, King, 129-131 Carthage, 71-78 Cartier, 229-232, 260 Castles, 153-155 Cathedrals, 116 Chaldeans, 8-10 Chalons, battle of, 107-108 Charlemagne, 119-123, 128 Chaucer, 161 Chivalry, 154 Christianity, in Roman Empire, 96, 97; spread of, 112-122 Cincinnatus, 69, 70 Circus Maximus, 93 Civilization, "cradle of," 4, 17; "missionaries of," 12 Coligny, 260, 281 Coliseum, 92, 93 Cologne, Cathedral of, 117 Colonies, English attempts, 282- 293 Columbus, Christopher, 1, 188-219 Commons, House of, 146 Constantine, 99 Constantinople, 165, 171, 177-179 Coronado, 246, 247 306 INDEX Cortez, 234-240, 246 Crusades, 141, 161-172 Cyclops, 32, 33 Cyrus, 15 Da Gama, 217, 225, 242 Danes, 124-127, 131 Darius, 15, 24, 63 "Dark Ages," 112 De Gourgues, 264, 265 Delphi, Oracle of, 26 Demosthenes, 39, 40, 57 De Soto, 241-243, 246 Diaz, 186, 187, 217 Diogenes, 56, 57 Dionysus, theater of, 36, Discovery, beginnings of, 176-187 Drake, Sir Francis, 254, 256, 272- 280, 284 Dutch, 266-270 Education, in Middle Ages, 117-119 Edward the Confessor, 134-136 Egypt, 4, 5 Egyptians, 4-9, 26 EHzabeth, Queen, 248-254, 272, 273, 281 England, rival of Spain, 246-257, 270-281; efforts to found col- onies, 282-293 English life, 149-157 Ethelbert, 115 Explorers, 158-170 Ferdinand and Isabella, 195, 198, 210, 218 Feudalism, 153 Florida, 261-265 Fort CaroUne, 262, 265 Forum, Roman, 91, 92 France, rival of Spain, 257-265 French explorers, 229-232 Frobisher, Sir Martin, 275, 284 Gaul, 79-84 Genoa, 174, 190, 195 Germans, 83; successors of Ro- mans, 102-111 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 284-287 Gilds, 151, 152 Gladiators, 93 Good Hope, Cape, 186, 187 "Gordian Knot," 62 Greece, 19-30, 76 Greeks, 18-30; as writers, 30-43; as builders and artists, 44-50; as athletes, 48, 49; life and character, 50-57; civilization, 58; colonies, 58, 59, 100, 111 Gregory the Great, 114 Grenada, 196, 198 Grenville, Sir Richard, 289, 290 Gunpowder, 166 ''Hanging Gardens," 9, 10 Hannibal, 72-77 Harold, King, 135, 136 Hawkins, Sir John, 253, 256, 275, 284 Hebrews, 13, 14 Helen of Troy, 30 HeUespont, 12, 24 Hengist and Horsa, 110, 113, 115, 124 Henry, Patrick, 40 Henry the Navigator, 183-186, 190 Henry II, 140, 150, 159 Henry VII, of England, 249 INDEX 307 Henry III, 146, 147 Hermann, 105 HoUand, 266-270 Holy Land, 162-170 Homer, 31-35, 51 Huguenots, 260-262 Huns, 106-108, 162 Iliad, 32-35 Indians, 205, 206, 230 Jamestown, 282, 292 Jerusalem, 166, 169 John, King, 143-146 Jutes, 110, 113, 115, 124, 131 Karnak, Temple of, 7 Knights, 156, 157 Lane, Ralph, 289 Lebanon Mountains, 11 Leonidas, 25 '^ Lost Colony," 290-293 Luther, Martin, 267 MageUan, 225-228, 254 Magna Charta, 144, 146 Mandeville, Sir John, 175 Marathon, battle of, 22, 23 Marco Polo, 172-176 Mariner's Compass, 11 Mary, Queen of Scots, 273, 274 Mediterranean Sea, 11 Menelaus, 30 Menendez, 262-265 Mexico, conquest of, 234-241 Middle Ages, 149-157 Miltiades, 22 Mississippi River, discovery of, 241 Moeris, lake, 5 Monasteries, 117 Montezuma, 235, 236, 240 Montreal, 230 Moors, 196, 198 Nebuchadnezzar, 9 Nero, 97, 98 '^ New World," 1,2 Nile River, 4, 8 Norman Conquest, 135 Normans, 138-142 Northmen, 131-133, 176 Odoacer, 110, 119 Odyssey, 32-35 ''Old World," 1,2 Otis, James, 40 Oxford, 113, 150 Palestine, 14 Panama, 224 Pantheon, the, 92 Parhament, 148 Parthenon, the, 45, 46, 48 Paul, the Apostle, 96 Peloponnesian War, 38 Pentelicus, 45 Pericles, 35, 53-55, 90 Persian Wars, 21-28, 37, 51, 62 Persians, 12, 15-17, 22-26 Peter the Hermit, 163-165 Phidias, 46-48, 57 Philip the Second, of Spain, 267- 274 Philip of Macedon, 40, 41 Philippines, 226 Phoenicians, 11, 12, 19, 26 Picts, 109 Pilgrims, 158-170 Plataea, 28, 52 308 INDEX Plato, 53 Spaniards, 187, 234-245, 246, 253, Polyphemus, 32, 33 260, 274-281 Ponce de Leon, 246 Spanish Missions, 244 Pope's Line, the, 210, 211, 247, Sparta, see Spartans 248, 260, 283 Port Royal, 261, 262 Portuguese, 181-186, 216, 217, 219 Pyramids, 5, 6 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 250-252, 284- 290 Rameses, 1, 2 Revival of learning, 179, 180 Ribot, 261, 262 Richard the Lion-hearted, 140- 142, 167 Roanoke Colony, 289-291 Romans, 67-87 Rubicon, 88 Runnymede, 113 Spartans, 21, 25, 26, 38 Susa, 16 Thermopylae, battle of, 24, 25 Thucydides, 38 ToscaneUi, 192, 193, 197, 219 Tournament, the, 155 Troy, 30, 32 Turks, 162-170 Tyrians, 60-64 Ulysses, 32 Universities, 150 Venice, 172-175 Vercingetorix, 80, 82 Verrazzano, 229 St. Augustine, 113, 114-117, 262, Vikings, 131, 132 264 St. Lawrence River, 229 St. Thomas of Canterbury, 159, 160 Salamis, battle of, 26-28, 52 Sardis, 16 Scots, 109 "Sea of Darkness,'^ 181, 182 Senlac, battle of, 137 ''Seven Cities," 246 Sidney, Sir Philip, 272, 273 Simon de Montfort, 147, 148 Socrates, 52 Solomon's Temple, 12, 13 Solon, 56, 57 Sophocles, 35 ViUage, the, 152 Virginia, 282, 293 Waldseemiiller, Martin, 1, 223 Walter the Penniless, 165 Wedmore, battle of, 126 White, John, 290, 292 WiUiam of Orange, 268-270 WiUiam the Conqueror, 135-139 William II, of England, 139, 140 Witan, 131 Xerxes, 24, 25, 26, 28 Zeus, 49 Zutphen, battle of, 272 Elementary American History and Government For 7th and 8th Years By JAMES ALBERT WOODBURN PROFESSOR OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND POLITICS, INDIANA UNIVERSITY AND THOMAS FRANCIS MORAN PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND ECONOMICS, PURDUE UNIVERSITY The introduction deals with The Old World and The New; 33 chapters are arranged in 9 great periods of history; Appendices as follows: Declara- tion of Independence, U. S. Constitution, Proclamation of Emancipation, Topical Outline by Chapters for the Blackboard, Table of Important Dates, Various Statistical Tables. Full sets of questions, and references for additional reading at close of each chapter. There are 9 maps in color; 42 in black and white, abundant half-tone illustrations, many full page. New Edition. 535 pp. $1.00. The authors seek to explain the America of To-day — its civi- lization, its institutions, its traditions — by leading the pupil through the various epochs of United States history to an appre- ciation and understanding of present-day problems. This point of view has dominated the story of each epoch with the result that the pupil gets an uninterrupted and continuously developing narrative of United States history in which the significant events and characters of each period are adequately treated, proper balance being given to each. While this book is in every respect a complete history of the United States, it provides in addition all the national civics necessary or advisable for grammar grades. This is done not merely by inserting a certain amount of civics with the history or combining the two subjects apart from their connection, hut by correlating the two. In this way both history and government are more forcibly impressed, more easily taught and better remembered. The w^onderful economic growth of the United States is told in four chapters, placed where they belong chronologically. These portray the actual life of the people and show national develop- ment in a real and Hving way. The European background, so necessary to an appreciation of many an important fact in Ameri- can history, and the Westward Development which is treated as a National Movement, are fully given in vivid style. Here only brief mention can be made of the freshness and virility of the authors' style, of their fair and impartial attitude toward religious and political questions and of the logical treatment, all of which has contributed to the popularity and success of the book. LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., PUBLISHERS FOURTH AVENUE AND 30TH STREET NEW YORK THE HORACE MANN READERS By Walter L. Hervey, Ph.D., Member of Board of Examiners, New York City; formerly President of Teachers College; and Melvin Hix, B.S., Principal of Public School No 80, Long Island City, New York City. A new series of basal readers shaped by these controlling ideas : personal interest on the part of children in the doings of children of their own age; personal hunger for stories having continuity, development and variety; and the de- velopment of a personal power of satisfying the literary appetite. The stories, dialogues, poems, and other selec- tions, are almost entirely of new material. This material is varied, and was selected because of its intrinsic interest — ^ action, appeal to self-activity. The les- sons are not mere collections of words and sentences, but have continuity of thought. The pictures being adapted to the text, are distinct aids in teaching children to read. The helps to teachers are varied, time-saving, practical. The method is simple, effective, original. Each book is fully illustrated with black and white pic- tures and several colored illustrations. Primer S .30 Daily Lesson Plans, First Year . . $ .75 First Reader 32 Daily Lesson Plans, Second Year . .75 TW?? Reader'': .' .* i '. .' ! ! l^S ADDITIONAL BOOKS Fourth Reader 55 Practice Primer 30 Fifth Reader 65 Introductory Second Reader . . . .40 Sixth Reader 65 Introductory Third Reader . . . Daily Lesson Plans is the teacher's manual for the first and second years' work with The Horace Mann Readers. Every step of each day's lesson is planned and explained. LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO., Publishers FOURTH AVENUE AND THIRTIETH ST., NEW YORK FEATURES OF THE HORACE MANN READERS The Horace Mann Readers are highly organized — words being developed into independent yet mutually related parts; different stories being related to other stories; the vocabulary of one lesson being related to the vocabulary of the lessons preceding and the lessons following; a system of phonics complete in itself and yet organically related to the reading matter. The principle of self-activity is carefully developed. The action rhymes given impress the children and give variety to the reading lesson. But since reading isn't all poetry, all other phases of sound methods of teaching are employed. Especial attention is called to the system of phonics developed. It is rational and wonderfully effective. The Theory of Multiple Sense Appeal is carefully appHed. Every avenue of approach has been taken — the eye, the hand, the ear — all are used to make the appeal broader and more interesting. No sound psychological precept has been omitted. The Horace Mann Readers have successfully combined all the approved methods of teaching reading. The material is new and varied. The books contain clear and vivid images, whole situations and self activity, which appeals to the child. They also afford the teacher every possible suggestion and convenience in respect to method. Daily Lesson Plans, the teacher's manual for the first and second years' work, gives minute directions for each day's lesson. LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO., Publishers FOURTH AVENUE AND THIRTIETH ST., NEW YORK ALEXANDER'S SPELLING BoOK By GEORGIA ALEXANDER, Supervising Principal of Public Schools, Indianapolis, Indiana. Complete . ... ♦ . $0.25 Part I. For Grades i to 4 . . $0.16 Part II. For Grades 5 to 8 . . $0.20 Also a Syllabicated Edition: Complete Part I. Part II. $0.25 $0.16 $0.20 This book sets a new standard in the teaching of spelling. The words are very carefully graded, both as to difficulty in spelling and difficulty in comprehension. In all the work the pupil is taught the meaning as well as the spelling as being necessary to a thorough mastery of the word. A special effort has been made to render the study of spelling interesting as well as instructive. The book provides work in spelling from the first to the eighth grades, inclusive. The following Opinions of the book (unsyllabicated) are printed by permission: Miss Edith A. Scott, Principal, Training School for Teachers, Rochester, N. Y. — **I have never seen a more sane spelling book than Miss Alexander's. It is right albng the most up-to-date lines. / did not know before that a spelling book could be attractive.*'' Miss Harriette C. Park, Princi- pal, Hubbard Public School, Detroit, Mich.: — "I find it to be far beyond any spellers which I have examined heretofore. I have long wanted the spelling lesson to comprise the words needed in an average child's vocabulary, and here we have it, together with valuable little by-products of word study and memory gems." W. S. Marston, Principal, Uni- versity School for Boys, Balti- more, Md.: — "It is the best book of its kind that I ever saw." D. H. Roberts, Superintendent, Training School,. State Normal School , Ypsilanti , Mich . : — "I know of nothing better than Alex- ander's, and I shall speak of it very freely before the members of our class." Miss Lucy Betters, Principal. Madison Avenue School, Grand Rapids, Mich.:—' 'The Spelling Book has a better content ana method of presentation than any other book I know." LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO., - NEW YORK