UNITED STAT ^. FQQ. SCHOOLS ■ EDMOND S.MEANY >- 1 Class _£X22 Book Copyright N^__l COPYRIGHT DEPOSrr. UNITED STATES HISTORY FOR SCHOOLS THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO . Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO From the Statue by Augustus St. Gaudens in Lincoln Park. Chicago Abraham Lincoln, UNITED STATES HISTORY FOR SCHOOLS BY EDMOND S. MEANY PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON PRESIDENT OF THE MOUNTAINEERS; AUTHOR OF " VAN- ■ COUVER'S discovery of PUGET SOUND " AND " HISTORY OF THE STATE OF WASHINGTON " WITH MANY MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1912 AH rights reserved Copyright, 1912, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1912. Norfajooli ilrtas J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. ^^ ICIA30539« MO. I? PREFACE The Committee of Eight of the American Historical Association, in its final report (1909) on " The Study of History in the Elementary Schools," impressed upon writers and teachers of American history that they should keep the European background constantly in mind. In other words, American history is but a part of world his- tory and can best be understood when presented as such. In this book especial effort has been made to conform to that sane and timely suggestion. Not only have the events usually considered as the European background received attention, but so also have such events as the in- dependence of Latin America, the expansion of Canada, and the awakening of the Orient. The treatment of all such events has necessarily been brief, but enough of the facts are given to provide the pupil the essential perspec- tive to enable him to realize his own country's develop- ment in relation to the rest of the world. A glance at the table of contents will show that a natural plan of division and grouping of the materials has been adopted. As suggestions for References and Home Readings a few easily obtained books are cited in each chapter. All controversial questions are treated in a spirit of fairness. The author has aimed to give the text a deep human interest, but he believes that, in so doing he has not sacrificed accuracy. It was once the style to place the humanizing anecdote or illuminating biographical fact in vi Preface fine print as a footnote. There are no fine-print notes in this book. But the choice morsels are not omitted. They are woven into the general fabric to illuminate the text itself. In preparing the book for publication I have had help from my colleagues, Professors Edward O. Sisson, Edward McMahon, and Vernon L. Parrington, in the University of Washington, and from Miss A. L. Rouse with The Mac- millan Company. To each of them I wish to acknowledge my gratitude for kindly interest and numerous suggestions for improvements in the text. EDMOND S. MEANY. University of Washington, Seattle, November, 1911. SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHERS The attainment of a proper perspective is the aim of every earnest teacher of history. The day has passed when the relatively easy but slavish work of memorizing lists of names and dates will suffice for real training in this important field of knowledge. Every aid is of value which will enable teacher and pupil to grip the meaning, the movement, the perspective of history. The chief aid here offered along this line is the arrangement of the materials in eight principal groups or periods. This is a distinct departure from the older and less natural plan of grouping the facts around the wars and the administrations of the Presidents. The "Period of Discovery and Settlement" is followed by the " Expansion of the Colonies." The "Securing of Independence" is followed by "The Critical Period," which embraces only six years. Those years, from 1783 when our independence was secured to 1789 when the Constitution was put in force, were so full of meaning to the rest of our history that John Fiske's name for the period is fully justified. The next two periods are each forty years in length. The first, from Washington to Jackson (i 789-1 829), is called " Testing the Constitution." In this period the government was organized. Chief Justice Marshall's great decisions were given to interpret the Con- stitution and the laws, political parties were formed and reformed, new areas were acquired in the Louisiana and Florida purchases, the Missouri Compromise was adopted, viii Suggestions to the Teachers and the Monroe Doctrine was announced. These and other events there treated show the test to which the Con- stitution was submitted. The forty years from Jackson to Grant (1829- 1 869) contain such events as the awakening of the West, introduction of the spoils system, contest over nuUification, destruction of the bank, settlement of the Oregon question, war with Mexico, Compromise of 1850, Secession, Civil War, and Reconstruction. This period surely deserves the title " Straining the Constitution." The time from 1869 to the present is divided into two periods whose names are self-explanatory : " The United States a Greater Nation," and " The United States a Greater World Power." The table of contents shows in outline how the forty-five chapters have been arranged under this natural plan of subdivision. The perspective of each section expands into that of the chapter and of each chapter into the group or period and, as shown above, the right groups make clear the perspective of the whole work. Wars have influenced American history. There was a time when textbooks indicated that the Revolution, the Mexican War, and the Civil War, with a few connecting paragraphs, were about all that were necessary to record. Such treatment now seems ridiculous in the light of the splendid achievements of peace. In studying the wars themselves the idea of proper perspective must be held firmly in mind. Besides the heroics there must always be remembered the burdens and the awful sorrows of such struggles, not only of those on the fields but of those in the homes as well. The numerous maps and illustrations have been carefully selected to assist the two main objects of the text : first, the orderly movement of American history, and, second, Suggestions to the Teachers ix the relation of that movement to the rest of the world. The teacher should supplement these aids with any other pictures available, and especially with additional maps. The correlation of history and geography is of the highest pedagogical value. Have your pupils draw maps on paper or blackboard and then have them discussed in class. Keen and helpful interest can be aroused in such exercises by selecting maps of disputed boundaries, important battles, first roads, or other items in or near the locality of your school. The chronological tables and the study questions will be found helpful in reviews, but the teacher should not hesi- tate to use other questions. In doing this, however, let your attitude be that of a leader and not that of a detec- tive. Never dishearten a pupil by unfair or trick questions. Another exercise that will prove of interest and value is to have your advanced pupils show some of the contrasts between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution, both of which are among the documents in the Appendix. Words difficult of pronunciation have no place in a book of this character. It is not possible, however, to avoid the difficult names of men and places. The pronunciation of these is carefully indicated in the index. By causing the pupil to make frequent use of the index for this and other obvious purposes you will encourage the desired " dic- tionary habit," as well as increase the value of the book and its work. Outside reading by teacher and pupil for each lesson is highly desirable. At the beginning of each chapter will be found works for reference and for home readings. These lists arc made brief for a purpose. It would have X Suggestions to the Teachers been very easy to supply longer lists. In practice it is found that the long lists are more confusing than useful. A few good books have been selected, and the citations to them are carried through from chapter to chapter. The acquisition and famihar use of those few books will prove far more practicable and beneficial in the average school than would a chance reference now and then selected from a long bibliography. The few books cited from chapter to chapter and the prices at which they may be obtained from any bookseller are as follows : — American History, by Roscoe Lewis Ashley, Head of the Depart- ment of History in the High School of Pasadena, California $1.40 Source Book of American History, by Albert Bushnell Hart. Pro- fessor of History in Harvard University .... .60 An Introduction to the History of Western Europe, by James Har- vey Robinson, Professor of History in Columbia University . i .60 The Men who made the Nation, by Edwin Erie Sparks, Presi- dent of Pennsylvania .State College ..... .50 Source Readers in American History, edited by Professor Albert Bushnell Hart ; four volumes : Volume I. Colonial Children ...... .40 Volume II. Camps and Firesides of the Revolution . .50 Volume III. How our Grandfathers Lived . . . .60 Volume IV. The Romance of the Civil War . . . .60 Pioneer History Stories, by Charles A. McMurry ; three volumes : Volume I. Pioneers on Land and Sea 40 Volume II. Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley . . .40 Volume III. Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the West 40 It is thus seen that for the expenditure of a small sum a good working library of reference may be obtained. Other books and poems are cited at the head of the chap- ters. They are easily obtained in any community of American homes. Teachers desiring more complete bib- Suggestions to the Teachers xi liographies can obtain an abundance of help from such a standard work as Channing and Hart's Guide to the Study of American History. Persuade your pupils to begin the collection of indi- vidual libraries. They may have to begin by saving and classifying clippings from newspapers and magazines. Whatever the beginning, the growth of the boy's or the girl's library in American history will prove one of the surest ways of awakening and holding interest in the sub- ject so fundamental to good American citizenship. If you are a teacher in a rural school, you will find this book a complete working tool, but you should be willing and ready to use all the aids provided in the book. You should also be willing, if necessary, to spend some of your own money for the few reference books indicated above. If you are in a city school, surrounded by good libraries, you can do all the rural teacher does and much more, for you can draw on the world's storehouse of knowledge in collected books. Prepare for each lesson from the best sources available and do not rest content unless you feel each day that you have helped some young American minds to have greater respect for truth, greater love for home and Nation. \ TABLE OF CONTENTS I. PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT CHAPTER PAGE I. Why Europe explored the Oceans . . . i II. America is Found and Named .... 8 III. Explorations and Settlements by Spain . . 24 IV. England secures Virginia 37 V. Settlement of New France and New Netherland 50 VI. First New England Colony and New Sweden . 57 II. EXPANSION OF THE COLONIES VII. Growth of Virginia 68 VIII. Southern Neighbors of Virginia .... 78 IX. Increase of New England Colonies ... 88 X. The Dutch and Quaker Colonies .... loi XI. New England United 114 XII. Expansion of New France 124 XIII. Home Life and Institutions 129 XIV. Struggle for the Mastery in North America . 146 III. SECURING INDEPENDENCE XV. The Wrangle over Taxation . . . .170 XVI. First Half of the Revolution . . . .189 XVII. Second Half of the Revolution . . . .213 XVIII. Winning the Victory of Peace (1781-1783) . . 230 XIV Table of Contents IV. "THE CRITICAL PERIOD" (17S3-1789) CHAFTER XIX. The Independent States .... XX. The Weak General Government XXI. Building the Strong Constitution . PAGE 238 V. TESTING THE CONSTITUTION XXII. Organizing the New Government . . . 257 XXIII. Relations with the Outside World . . 269 XXIV. Political and Industrial Events (i 798-1 808) 280 XXV. The War of 1812 293 XXVI. Development following the War XXVII. The Expanding West . XXVIII. America's New Neighbors . XXIX. Five Years of Rapid Change . 312 319 325 332 VI. STRAINING THE CONSTITUTION XXX. The Jacksonian Era XXXI. A Decade of Expansion and Invention (1840 1850) XXXII. A Decade that led to War (1850-1860) XXXI II. Secession and Civil War .... XXXIV. First Year of the Civil War . XXXV. Second Year of the Civil War XXXVI. Third Year of the Civil War. XXXVII. Fourth Year of the Civil War XXXVIII. Reconstruction 343 353 378 398 407 421 431 438 449 Table of Contents XV VII. THE UNITED STATES A GREATER NATION CHAPTER PAGE XXXIX. Adjustments and Progress .... 460 XL. Celebrations and Labor Troubles . . . 469 XLI. New States and Territories . •. . . 481 XLII. Broader Views 490 VIII. THE UNITED STATES A GREATER WORLD POWER XLIII. Spanish-American War XLIV. The Larger World . . . . XLV. National Duties and Opportunities 498 508 521 APPENDICES I. Declaration of Independence II. Articles of Confederation . III. Constitution of the United States IV. Table of Presidents V. Table of States and Territories INDEX 539 543 554 570 571 573 PAGE MAPS The World as known in 1490 ..... Map showing Routes of Cokimbus and Other Discoverers Map showing the Voyage of Magellan and his Ship Captain John Smith's Map of New England English Colonies in America prior to 1763 (^color) Map of the West during the Revolution Boundaries obtained by the United States, 1783 {color^ Western Land Claims {color) ..... United States in 1800 {color) ..... Western United States when Fremont was a Pathfinder United States in 1853 {color) ..... United States (1861) showing First and Second Secessions of Slave States {color) ...... . facing ip"] The United States in 1909 {color) .... . facing /^i,() Relief Map of the United States 480 Territorial Growth of the United States {color) . between 490 and 491 The World with special reference to United States and Depend- ent Territories {color) ..... between 520 and 521 PAGE . 10 17 20 48 .fa -iiig 171 216 .facing 27,/^ u 234 u 280 . facing 378 MAPS IN THE TEXT Toscanelli's Map United States in 1790 . Overland Trails . Map of the Cumberland Road United States in 1820 . Territory affected by the Missouri Compromise United States in 1840 . Adoption of Manhood Suffrage Free and Slave Areas (1844) Free and Slave Areas (1857) 260 287 315 321 323 355 362 391 392 I Period of Discovery and Settlement CHAPTER I WHY EUROPE EXPLORED THE OCEANS References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 1-22; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 334-340, 347-35° • Home Readings. — Brooks's The Story of Marco Polo ; Fiske's Dis- covery of America ; Hale's Stories of Discovery ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. I., pp. 1-3; Prescott's Ferdinand and Isabella ; Wright's Stories in American History. 1. First Discovery of America. — Eric the Red was one of those hardy Norsemen who made wonderful voyages of conquest and discovery a thousand years ago. He had a son, who is often referred to as "Leif the Lucky," but whose proper name in history is Leif Ericson. This young man is entitled to the credit of having discovered America nearly five hundred years before the eventful voyage by Columbus. Those Norsemen were as bold seamen and as brave warriors as the world has known. In open boats, propelled by sails and oars, they traveled fearlessly thou- sands of miles from their homes. In this way they had gone from Scandinavia to Iceland (870) and then to Green- land, which name they used in the hope that it would at- tract settlers. In reality that bleak land is green for only United States History for Schools a short time each year. From Greenland Leif Ericson sailed, in the year looo, southward to a land covered with timber. It was certainly a much better place than Green- land. They found corn growing and grapes in abundance. Ericson and his crew spent the winter in the new land, and as they sailed away. i?? they called it " Vinland the Good." The Norsemen returned to Vinland ( 1007), but probably the savage character of the natives caused them to abandon such trips after that second voyage. The exact situa- tion of Vinland is unknown. It may have been in Labra- dor or it may have been in New England, Those voyages were made so long ago that we are fortunate in having any accurate in- formation of them saved for us. That was before the days of printing. The Norse- men saved their records in the form of stories or sagas. These were handed down from memory by generations of Saga men. While the voyages to Vinland were fresh in the memory of those who had known Ericson, Adam of Bremen visited Denmark (1047). When he went home, he put the story in his book. That old book is important, for its account corresponds well with that handed down by the Saga men. The Norsemen's story of Vinland appears in the Saga of Eric the Red. It was handed down from -^vfi J«^^^•>^:.:% %W^ Ship of the Norsemen. Why Europe explored the Oceans 3 memory for three centuries before it was written in a book (1305)- For a long time the honor of discovering America was withheld from the Norsemen. There are two reasons for this : they did not follow up their discovery with a permanent colony, and Europe knew little or nothing of those voyages of looo. In China, Japan, and other countries of eastern Asia, there are claims that America was discovered by those Orientals hundreds of years before the work of the Norsemen. It may be that the future will establish some of those claims, but, even so, they cannot dim the credit due those hardy Norsemen. For precisely the same reason is credit for real discovery due Columbus, notwithstanding the voyage of " Leif the Lucky." 2. New Era dawning in Europe. ^ — ^ While the Norsemen boldly sailed forth from the coasts of Scandinavia to un- known seas and lands, the Mediterranean Sea remained the principal center of the world's commerce. Such had been the case in ancient times when Greece and Rome were dominant, and it continued so, under changed condi- tions, through the Middle Ages. As the differing circum- stances increased in number and importance, the people of Europe gave more and more of their attention to the At- lantic Ocean. Many of those changes reached a climax in the last half of the fifteenth century. This fact has caused writers to fix in that period the beginning of modern history, as distinguished from the older divisions of medi- eval and ancient history. Among the changes referred to were the increased knowledge of the Orient brought about through the Crusades and the travels of Marco Polo, the use of gunpowder, the invention of printing, and the obstructions raised in the old paths of trade by the Turks 4 United States History for Schools and other Mohammedan peoples. These facts not only in- fluenced conditions at the dawn of a new era in Europe, but they also had much to do with the beginnings of American history. It will be well to study a few of the most important events that helped to transfer Europe's center of interest from the Mediterranean Sea to the At- lantic Ocean. 3. Results of the Crusades. — Inspired by religious zeal, thousands of men, and in one case thousands of children, traveled from Europe in the effort to rescue from unbe- lievers the Holy Land and more especially the Grave of Jesus. The men bore upon their breasts the figures of a cross, and hence these marchings were called Crusades, that word coming from the Latin crux, meaning cross. There were nine crusades from 1095 to 1277, and besides making more energetic the life of the Christians in Europe, the marching, shipbuilding, sailing, and fighting gave them more confidence in their abilities and strength. The sur- vivors of those armies brought home and spread among their neighbors a new desire for the spices, silks, and jewels they had found among the people of western Asia. Such Italian cities as Venice, Genoa, Florence, Pisa, and Amalfi had long enjoyed a trade in Oriental goods. These were brought by caravans of camels to some port on the Medi- terranean and were then shipped to the merchants in those cities who would in turn ship them for exchange to other countries. The returning Crusaders helped on this trade by greatly increasing the demand for the goods. 4. Marco Polo. — Two Venetians traveled far into Asia, and on their second journey one of them took his son, Marco Polo, then but twenty years of age. The lad be- came a favorite of Kublai Khan, a great ruler who made Why Europe explored the Oceans 5 use of the young man's talents. After spending nearly thirty years in that interesting country, which he called Cathay, he returned to Venice (1295) and gave the world one of its greatest known books of travel. He told of all the wonders he had seen or had heard about. One of those wonders was an island called Cipango, where the temple was roofed and the floors paved with gold " a good two fingers thick." All this made more people anxious to travel to such a land and to trade with such a people. 5. Gunpowder. — ^The people of China had for centuries been using powder for bombs and rockets. When intro- duced into Europe, it was first used for fun and for cere- monies. Then it was used in wooden cannon to frighten horses in battle. When it was used in weapons, about 1375, it speedily made j.,,,,,. i.,,,,,, ,,,. cannon. the iron armor of the proud knight of no avail. It was one of the principal agencies that helped to destroy the feudalism that had dominated the Middle Ages. 6. Printing. — Not many people could afford to have libraries when all the books were written or copied by hand and for that reason cost large sums of money. It was a great improvement when short books were carved on wood and printed from blocks. In 1454 John Guten- berg, of Mainz, began printing from movable type. This came in the midst of the revival of learning, which charac- terized the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries. Soon books began to multiply, intelligence increased, and the nations found new inspiration and new strength when 6 United States History for Schools each possessed the beginnings of a literature in its own language. 7. The Fall of Constantinople. — The growing trade in Oriental goods had been grievously taxed by the Moham- medans who had spread their dominion along the northern coasts of Africa and from Syria, through Asia Minor, to the gates of Constantinople. The Turks, one branch of the Mohammedans, laid siege, and in 1453 the great city fell into their hands. It became necessary for Europe to fight stubbornly against further Mohammedan invasion. It was highly desirable, also, that a way should be found to the spice lands of India by which the extortions of the Mohammedans could be avoided. 8. Cape of Good Hope. — For years the brave seamen of Portugal, encouraged and helped by Prince Henry the Navigator, sailed along the shores of Africa seeking a way to India, and in i486 Dias found the way, far to the southward. From his experience there he called the point of land " Cape of Storms," but the king of Portugal, rejoicing over the great success, promptly changed the name to Cape of Good Hope. The route to India was found, but it was appalling in length and in danger. A dozen years passed before a voyage to the spice lands was completed. In 1498 Vasco da Gama anchored in the Bay of Calicut. 9. Conquest of the Moors. — Seven centuries before Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, Spain had been conquered by another branch of the Moham- medans, known as Moors. They had crossed into Spain from the northwestern shore of Africa (712) and in twenty years made themselves masters of Spain. It took seven hundred and sixty years for the Spanish Christians to re- Why Europe explored the Oceans 7 conquer their own lands. By the marriage of Queen Isa- bella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Leon two of the struggling Spanish armies were united, and the Moors were compelled to take what proved to be their last step in Granada. While besieging the enemy there in the spring of 1492, the Spanish camp was visited by an Italian mari- ner, who sought aid from the king and queen for a plan very dear to him. He wanted to find a way to India by sailing west from Europe. His request for aid was refused, and he started back with a heavy heart toward the monastery La Rabida, where he had left his little son Fernando. The Spanish armies were victorious. The Moors were conquered. There were great rejoicings and thanksgiv- ings. In the midst of them some one suggested that the rejected mariner be brought back. It was done. Since it seemed to the Spanish sovereigns that they were chosen of God to protect and to spread His faith, it was agreed that the mariner should be helped to carry the Gospel to the peoples of far lands. It was in this way that the early work of Spain in the new world took on something of the character of a crusade. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Trace on a map Leif Ericson's probable route to America. 2. What was the center of the world's activities in 1450 ? 3. How did the Crusades affect trade ? 4. What made Marco Polo famous ? 5. What were the first uses of gunpowder ? 6. Why was the invention of printing important ? 7. How did the Turks' conquest of Constantinople aiTect trade ? 8. Of what does the name of the Cape of Good Hope remind you ? 9. How did the conquest of the Moors in Spain help toward the discovery of America ? 10. Trace the old trade routes to the Orient and show the need of new routes. CHAPTER II AMERICA IS FOUND AND NAMED References. — Ashley's American History, po. 24-38; Hart's Source Book, pp. 1-6; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 350-352. Home Readings. — Hale's Stories of Discovery ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. I., pp. 4-12 ; Irving's Columbus; King's De Soto in the Land of Florida; McAIurry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. I., pp. 122-160 (Columbus), 161-185 (Magellan), 222 -226 (Ponce de Leon) ; Mackie's With the Admiral of the Ocean Sea. 10. Christopher Columbus. — The Italian mariner was Christopher Cokimbus, a native of Genoa. In his boy- hood he had studied drawing, geography, and astronomy. He had been a sailor on the Mediterranean. In 1440 he was wrecked off Cape St. Vincent and reached shore s America is Found and Named by aid of a plank. He made his way to Lisbon, where he became a map maker. There he met and married the daughter of an Italian navigator, who was under the patronage of Prince Henry the Navigator. He went to ClIRISrOPlIKR COLUMliLsi. live for a time at the home of his father-in-law, who was then governor of Porto Santo. There Columbus was able to study many old maps and charts. For years the behef that the world is a sphere had been growing. No one had yet sought to prove this by sailing westward. Just c:^ '^ '1 TW- Vis ^ : — ^y^ ■Sr 'i,,^^ ^4 4 '^ i-.J ^^ 221; xV' s >&: 21 .-. America is Found and Named 1 1 when Columbus decided to do this is unknown, but it was probably about 1474. He had the map of ToscaneUi, the famous Italian geographer, and believed it was correct in placing the East Indies about where the West Indies really are. Columbus did not have the means to furnish and man the necessary fleet. He sought aid from Genoa, Portugal, Venice, France, and England. He had confidence and enthusiasm for his plan, but he had often met with ridicule from learned men who heard him. The king of Portugal, whose seamen were slowly exploring along the coast of Africa, sent a secret expedition westward to test the idea of Columbus. They returned without sighting land. Ten long years Columbus endured these rebuffs, and then he secretly left Portugal for Spain toward the end of 1484. He had splendid devotion for his great plan, but he had to wait a little more than seven years longer before the needed help was given. He had two good friends in Spain. These were Marchena, the Superior of La Rabida, and Garcia Fernandez, the learned physician of Palos. These with others brought about the intercession with the sovereigns and finally secured success. 11. The Great Voyage. — When Queen Isabella gave her approval to the plan, she became enthusiastic and re- mained the best friend Columbus had during the rest of her life. She furnished fully half the money needed for the voyage. Two decrees were issued, one of great help, the other a hindrance. The helpful decree required the town of Palos to furnish within ten days two caravels and to provide money for the pay of the crews. Palos had in- curred the monarch's displeasure and these boats were exacted as a penalty. The boats were finally furnished ; 12 United States History for Schools but the angry town officials took ten weeks instead of ten days to obey the decree. The harmful decree was one that excused from punishment at law any one who would join the crews. This welcome to criminals and debtors disgusted many honest mariners, who shunned the idea of sailing with such companions. At this crisis the enter- prise was helped by two brothers named Pinzon. They Famous Fleet of Columbus. were wealthy men and they came forward with their money and their influence just as both were greatly needed. The fleet, when completed, consisted of three vessels. Though but small caravels, they are probably the most famous vessels in the world's history. The largest caravel, the Santa Maria, was only sixty-five feet long and twenty feet in breadth. She had a small cabin, while the other America is Found and Named 13 two, the Pinta and the A^iha, were open boats with high prows and sterns, the better to ride the waves. Cokimbus commanded the Santa Maria as well as the fleet. The captains of the other two boats were the Pinzon brothers. They sailed from Palos on August 3, 1492, and headed for the well-known Canary Islands. From there the voyage was in unknown waters, and it was not long before the sailors became anxious to turn back. All kinds of fears and superstitions troubled them, and at one time they threatened a mutiny. But the courage of Columbus was equal to every occasion. He held his crews to their work. Early on the morning of October 12 they sighted one of the Bahama Islands. They had found the new world. Co- lumbus thought he had found a part of India, and so he called the natives there Indians, a name that has been used ever since. Columbus said the natives could be converted to the holy faith by gentle means, so he gave them red caps and beads. They were delighted and swam out to the boats with parrots, balls of cotton thread, and javelins. These were bought with glass beads and hawk's bells, and in this way was begun the great trade with American Indians. Some of the people had bits of gold hanging from their ears or pierced noses. Columbus asked where they got it. Even in 'this search of gold he was moved by lofty ideas of religion. He wrote these words to the king and queen : " For I have before protested to your Highnesses that the profits of this enterprise shall be employed in the conquest of Jerusalem, at which your Highnesses smiled and said you were pleased, and had the same inclination." They touched at a number of islands. On Christmas Day they were at Hayti, which they called Hispaniola. 14 United States History for Schools Here the Safita Maria was wrecked, and Columbus built a fort of the wreckage and left a small colony. He called the place La Navidad, Spanish for The Nativity, which we express by the word Christmas. Columbus with the remaining two caravels left the little fort in January and reached home in March, 1493. The king and queen heaped upon him honors, titles, and favors. He had certainly brought great glory to the flag of Spain. 12. Some Effects of the Voyage. — The whole of Europe was greatly interested in the news that Columbus had re- turned from his voyage crowned with success. One of the first things Spain did was to seek the approval of the church. On May 4, 1493, Pope Alexander VI. issued his famous bull, or decree, approving the work of Spain. He divided the world by declaring that a line in the ocean one hundred miles west of the Azores should be the bound- ary. All lands found east of that line should belong to Portugal on account of that nation's work along the coasts of Africa, and all lands west of that line should belong to Spain on account of the discoveries by Columbus. Portugal was not wholly satisfied with the division, and in 1494, by the treaty of Tordesillas, Spain and Portugal agreed on a new line farther west, so that Portugal could claim more of the lands that might be found. France and England were far from satisfied with such a division and soon made efforts to get parts of the lands for themselves. Spain and Portugal, however, followed up their advantage with vigor. 13. Columbus and his Followers. — The magical effect of the great voyage was seen in Spain when Columbus prepared for his second voyage. Instead of trouble in get- ting men for a small fleet he found a swarm of grandees America is Found and Named 15 and adventurers clamoring for places in the seventeen vessels of his new fleet. Great piles of baggage were left at the docks to be plundered by the mob when the crowded vessels sailed away. They did not care for the loss of the baggage, for they felt sure of reaching Cipango and Cathay, where they would enrich themselves with gold and silks described by Marco Polo. They started in September, 1493, and Columbus did not return until June, 1496. The little colony at La Navidad had been destroyed by Indians, but a new one was estab- lished on the same island and was called Isabella, in honor of the queen. This became headquarters for the Spanish explorers. They visited numerous islands and sent part of the fleet home with glowing accounts of wealth soon to be realized. At one place, which the natives called Colba and which we now call Cuba, Columbus had eighty of his men take an oath that they could walk on dry land from that place through India to Spain. But the promise of gold was not fulfilled, and the great admiral heard that evil reports had been sent home about him, so he sailed back to Spain in the Nina. His third voyage was disheartening. Columbus lost con- trol of affairs and finally was sent home in chains as a prisoner. The nation was aroused and some of his honors were restored. He made his fourth and last voyage to find the waterway that he was sure would lead to Cathay from the lands he had seen. In this, of course, he was disappointed. He arrived home in November, 1504. A few days after his return, his best friend. Queen Isabella, died, and Columbus failed to get his properties restored to him. He died in 1506, still cherishing the belief that he had found the outer edges of Cathay. i6 United States History for Schools One of the most famous of those who followed in the track of Columbus was Americus Vespucius, who made four voyages, two under the flag of Spain and two under that of Portugal. There was a delay of two years between the second and third voyages of Columbus, and during that time Vespucius made his first voyage, starting in 1497. Like Columbus, he explored among the islands and along the northern shores of South America. His voyages for Portugal were made to the shores of Brazil. 14. John Cabot and his Son. — Columbus was born in Genoa, Ves- pucius in Florence, and John Cabot was granted citizenship in Venice (1476), though his exact birthplace is unknown. Italy can well be proud of having furnished to the world these three great dis- coverers. Cabot had become a subject of England, resid- ing at Bristol, when (1497) King Henry issued a decree authorizing him to search for islands or provinces in the eastern, western, or northern seas. This shows that, though England was still a Catholic nation, her king was not will- ing to abide by the Pope's division of the new lands between Spain and Portugal. Between May and August of 1497 Cabot sailed westward, found the coast of Labra- Americus Vespucius. America is Found and Named 17 i8 United States History for Schools dor and explored its shores. The next year his son Sebas- tian sought a northwest passage to India. Though his record is now disputed, he claimed that he came to the region of icebergs and then worked his way southward along the shores probably as far as Chesapeake Bay, and made several landings to trade with the natives. These voyages were not followed up by England, but many years later they were made the important bases for claims to territory. That King Henry VII. was a stingy monarch is shown by his telltale account book, in which is written : "To him that discovered the new isle, ^ lo." 15. The Name of America. — While Columbus and the other discoverers still clung to the idea that the new lands were parts of Asia, Vespucius wrote a letter from Lisbon to his friend Lorenzo de Medici in 1503. He made two voyages for Spain and was preparing for the second under the Portuguese flag. He said the lands he had visited dur- ing his first voyage for Portugal were new countries, and it was proper to call them a new world. This was a big and wonderful idea. The letter was printed and rapidly spread over Europe in many Latin and German editions. Maps began to show the lands as Novus Mtmdus, the Latin for New World. Martin Waldseemiiller, a German professor of geography, published a little book (1507) and a map, in which he said that as the three parts of the earth — Europe, Asia, and Africa — were named for mythical women, this new, fourth part should be named for the man who had found it and he suggested Amerige, or America. The idea of a new world and the name America applied only to the lands in the south. Those in the north were still deemed a part of Asia until Mercator made his famous map (1540), extending the name America over both continents. America is Found and Named 19 16. Balboa. — This bankrupt Spanish nobleman followed in the track of Columbus to retrieve his broken fortunes. He first visited the coast of Darien (1500) and went there with a colony in 1 509. After four years of trouble in the col- ony, he placed himself at the head of a revolt and- hearing of a great sea and land of gold, he marched inland. In Septem- ber, 1 5 1 3, he saw the great ocean, which he called the South- ern Sea. He took possession of the sea and all the lands it washed for the king of Spain. 17. Ponce de Leon. — In the same year (15 13) the Spaniards made their first dis- covery of land that was afterwards to become a part of the United States. Ponce de Leon, seeking a rumored fountain of perpetual youth, found the land on Easter Sun- day. In honor of the day, the Spaniards' re- ligious festival of flowers, he called the place Florida. 18. Magellan. — This Portuguese in the employ of Spain sailed on his famous voyage in 15 19 to find a way to India around the southern end of the new world. The passage he found between the islands and the mainland he named Straits of Saint Ursula and Her Eleven Thousand Virgins. This shows him to have been a man of piety, but later Fernando Magellan. 20 United States History for Schools America is Found and Named 21 his own name was substituted and ttie world called the place Straits of Magellan. He found such storms that, on reaching smoother water in the open sea, he gave Balboa's Southern Sea its new name. Pacific Ocean. He dis- covered the Philippine Islands, but unfortunately he lost his life there at the hands of the natives. One of the officers. El Cano, took command of the survivors and brought them to Spain (1522). This officer was presented with a map of the world in the form of a globe, on which was inscribed: "You first sailed round me." Not only did this voyage prove that the earth is a sphere around which vessels could be sailed; it proved also that the sphere is a large one with two oceans and great masses of land lying between Europe and Asia. 19. French Discoveries. — As early as 1500 there were French fishermen at work off 'the shore of Newfoundland. They caught fish, but they did not explore or take posses- sion of the land. In 1524 Verrazano, for King Francis I. of France, sailed to the new world and coasted from Cape Fear to Nova Scotia. Then ten years elapsed before the next French expedition came to America. In 1543 Jacques Cartier discovered and named the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The next year he sailed boldly into that gulf on his way to China. Finding that the gulf ended in a river, he sailed up the river until he was stopped by rapids. Still believing China was just beyond, he called the obstruction Lachine [The China] Rapids. On the north bank of the river he had found a steep hill which he called Montreal or the Royal Mountain. He stayed so long at this interesting work that the ice caught his ship and during the long winter twenty-four of his men died of cold and sickness. He and the other survivors 22 United States History for Schools reached home in the spring of 1536. This voyage gave France her chief claim to territory in the new world. 20. Dutch Discoveries. — At the beginning of the seven- teenth century the Dutch were the greatest shipowners and traders in the world. While PhiHp II. of Spain HEM:\ 111 DhiiN (iN llll. klNlR lllAl |:i;AR.S lllS NaMK. was making war upon them in the Netherlands, their merchant ships were securing rich trading posts in the Orient. To find a safer route to India they hired Henry Hudson, an Englishman, to explore for them. This captain with his ship Half M0071 entered what we now know as New York harbor in August, 1609. He sailed up the river that has since borne his name as far as the present Albany. Later the Dutch made this voyage the basis of their claims in America. Poor Hudson ! England would not allow him to resume his work for the America is Found and Named 23 Dutch. He then sailed under his own country's flag and discovered an enormous bay, which also bears his name. There his crew mutinied and turned him adrift in a small boat. He was never heard of again. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What do you most admire about the character of Columbus ? 2. From what countries did he seek aid ? 3. Why was the aid refused for so many years ? 4. What boats had he on the first voyage ? 5. Trace the route of that voyage on a map. 6. Where was land first seen ? 7. What land did he suppose he had found ? 8. Under what flag did the Cabots sail ? 9. Who caused the use of the name America for the new lands ? ID. What lured Balboa to his great discovery ? 11. How did tlie name Florida get a place on the map ? 12. What geographic facts did Magellan's voyage prove ? 13. How did the Frencli get a foothold in America ? 14. What was Hudson looking for when he found the American river that bears his name ? CHAPTER III EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS BY SPAIN References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 30-33 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 6-8 ; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 387-436. Home Readings. — Drake's Indian History for Young Folks ; Hart''s Source Reader, Vol. 1., pp. 12-25; Henty's By Right of Conquest; Longfellow's Hiawatha; Lummis's Spanish Pioneers; jMcMurray's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. L, pp. 186-211 (Cortez), Vol. U., pp. 202-218 (De Soto), Vol. HL, 225-248 (Coronado) ; Monroe's Flamingo Feather; Prescott's Conquest of Mexico, and Conquest of Peru; Wal- lace's Fair God. 21. Edges of American Geography. — Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands established more or less valid claims in North America through the work of their dis- coverers. Each nation sought and hoped to find a way to the lands of the Orient, rich in spices, silk, and gold. Not one of them knew the great size of the North American continent. They did not know that the St. Lawrence River flows from a wonderful group of large lakes instead of com- ing from China. One by one the other rivers that flowed into the Atlantic were explored to see if the Orient was not just a short distance away. Later, of course, they were to learn that those rivers flowed from a range of mountains which we know as the Appalachian Range. Much later they were to learn that far, far to the westward was another and much larger mass of mountains, now known as the Rocky Mountains, and that between those mountains lay huge areas, — the Ohio, Missouri, and Mississippi valleys, — all 24 Explorations and Settlements by Spain 25 drained by the mighty Mississippi River into the Gulf of Mexico. Other brave captains were to sail along the Pacific shore of North America, and, while they were to find a number of fine harbors, not one opening would be found, as they fondly hoped, to lead from one ocean to the other. When those European nations began to plant their first colonies in the new world, they knew only a few edges of North American geography. 22. The Native Peoples or Indians. — Before studying the struggles and triumphs of the European colonists it f «*i ;* 'M^*" ^^' . km An Indian's Hcime. would be well to learn what kinds of people were here be- fore those colonists came. Those who were most advanced toward real civilization lived in Mexico and Peru. They had wonderful gardens and practiced irrigation. They built roads and had large, strong houses of stone, though 26 United States History for Schools they had no iron for tools. Their history, so far as known, is exceedingly interesting, but they lived in other lands than those that became the United States. Those who lived north of Mexico and south of British America were divided into many clans and families, and these were again divided A Birch-bark Canoe. into still more numerous tribes. It is not known where these people came from or how long they had lived in America when the Europeans found them. In the Missis- sippi Valley many mounds have been explored in which have been found relics, the mute records of a people who may have been there ages before the Indians, or who may have been only the ancestors of the many scattered tribes Explorations and Settlements by Spain 27 who were living on the lands at the time of the voyages of Columbus and his followers. Most of these people lived the simple lives of hunters and fishermen. They had no domesticated animals except dogs. Their only agriculture consisted of little patches of corn, beans, and squash. The men were hunters and war- riors. The squaws cut the wood, cooked the food, made the clothing, and performed all the other drudgery around Primitive Weapons of the Indians. the rude homes. It is clear that there had been many wars between the great families and even between tribes of the same families before the arrival of the Europeans. The Indian's training in the forest and in warfare produced some qualities that made him helpful and others that made him harmful to the colonists. 28 United States History for Schools He taught them how to hunt and trap the birds and animals for food and clothing. He often shared his slender store of corn with hungry neighbors, and he pointed out plants that were good for medicine. On the other hand, when angry, he knew how to creep noiselessly through the forest without breaking a twig so that he could spring with his awful war whoop on an unsuspecting enemy and strike him down with a tomahawk. He soon learned the use of guns and knives and became increasingly dangerous as he Picture Writing by Indians. saw that the colonists with their homes, farms, and fences meant ruin for his own life of hunting and trapping. The Indians were numerous enough and strong enough in every instance to destroy the first colonies. They did so in some cases, and the main reason that they failed in others was their lack of organized effort. Only on a few occasions were many Indians united under one leadership against the white men. It is true that the war parties often attacked and destroyed outlying hamlets. The story of the tomahawk and scalping knife is a terrible chapter in American annals, but if it is looked at from the Indian's point of view, it is also terrible that one Explorations and Settlements by Spain 29 people was driven from its home and killed to make room for another. 23. The Reformation. — The white men who were ex- ploring the edges of America and learning something of the native peoples there were also experiencing changes in themselves on account of the deeds and thoughts of peoples in Europe. It has already been stated that the invention of printing from movable type came in the midst of the period marked by new learning. When that learn- ing made men's minds more free, they began to pay at- tention to matters of church government. This brought about the Reformation. The Pope not only ruled in re- ligious matters, but he also had great political power and was often in disputes or struggles with the emperor and kings. In the clashes of authority over these powers it came about in 1409 that there were three who claimed to be Popes at the same time. Councils of the church restored order out of this chaos and earnest men within the church favored reforms of beliefs and practices. Some of the re- forms were called heresies and not a few of their advocates were tried and executed. The executions most often took the cruel form of burning at the stake. In Germany, an Augustinian monk named Martin Luther had shown such ability in distussing religious questions that he was invited to become professor of theology in the new university at Wittenberg. The custom was to post up theses for discus- sion, and one day Luther posted upon the door of the castle church ninety-five theses against one of the decrees from the church at Rome. This was in 15 17, between the discoveries made by Balboa and those made by Magellan. Luther had no idea that his act was to begin an epoch in world history. Germany was ripe for religious revolt. 30 United States History for Schools and this posting of the theses was taken as a signal. Efforts were made to punish Luther, but he had powerful friends and escaped. There had been many reformers before him and there were many who came after him, but October 31, 15 17, when the monk nailed to the church door his famous theses, is taken as the beginning of the great Reformation. The church was permanently divided. Many new creeds were developed, a series of wars fol- lowed, and the his- tory of Europe and of America was pro- foundly influenced. 24. Conquest of Mexico. — While these changes were going on in Eu- rope, Spain contin- ued her work in America. When the Spaniards had made themselves masters of His- paniola, Cuba, Porto Rico, and other islands, as well as of the Isthmus of Panama, they used these places as starting points for new conquests and new colonies. Ponce de Leon, when he discovered Florida, was governor of Porto Rico. Then Governor Velasquez heard of the coast of Yucatan and the prospect of much gold there. He sent HKKNAN COKIEZ. Explorations and Settlements by Spain 3 1 his lieutenant, Hernan Cortez, to conquer the place for him. Cortez landed near the present site of Vera Cruz, conquered the native tribes, burned his own ships and marched inland to do or die. Montezuma, ruler of the Aztecs, thought these white men with their wonderfully strange animals (horses) were gods and welcomed them into the capital, Tenochtitlan, now known as the City of Mexico. Later the people revolted, but the city was re- gained, and in 1522, three years from the start, the Span- iards were in complete possession. Cortez achieved great wealth and fame. Governor Velasquez felt himself cheated, and died, it is said, of a broken heart. Mexico became the center from which the Spaniards secured their greatest contact with lands that later became parts of the United States. 25. California Named. — Soon after Balboa discovered the Southern Sea, a Spanish novelist wrote a sort of Robin- son Crusoe story about an imaginary island, which he called California. When Cortez sent out from Mexico some ex- plorers to find new lands, one of his captains reported the finding of land which Cortez declared must be that island of California, and he so named it. Later it was found that it was not an island, but a peninsula. Still the name re- mained. By 1 543 the whole of California was discovered. The Spaniards were slow in planting colonies on those northern shores of the Pacific, as they were negligent of the northern Atlantic shores. One reason for this was that the court astrologer, in his mistaken wisdom, had told the Spanish king that gold could be found only in the tropics and it was foolish to seek it elsewhere. - 26. From Florida to Mexico. — After Ponce de Leon had lost his life in Florida, Panfilo de Narvaez led a well- 32 United States History for Schools equipped expedition to that coast (1528). The Indians led them farther and farther with tales of gold just beyond. The remnant of the party, coming back to the coast, used their stirrups and swords to make a little forge, and finally built some crude boats. In these they sailed for Cuba. They missed the way and all were lost but four men. Cabeza de Vaca and three companions escaped on the shore of Texas. They were captured by Indians, separated, and taken as slaves into the interior. Later they came together on the coast, escaped from the Indians, and wandered into Mexico, where they met other Spaniards and were thus rescued after their most remarkable adventures. 27. Great Expedition of Coronado. — Rumors had reached Mexico of seven rich cities to the north named Cibola. De Vaca and his companions confirmed these reports, and in 1540 Coronado started north well furnished with men, horses, and supplies. The Seven Cities of Cibola i)roved to be only the stone dwellings of the Zuni Indians. While they had corn, pottery, and interesting relics, they had no gold or silver. The dream of wealth vanished, but the travelers found the Grand Canon of the Colorado and explored probably as far as the present state of Kansas. Most of the men perished, and the horses lost on the prairies were probably the beginning of the bands of wild horses from which the Indians got their first numbers of those useful animals. 28. Discovery of the Mississippi. — While the four sur- vivors of the Narvaez party were escaping from the Indians and wandering toward Mexico, another army of men was preparing to land on the treacherous shores of Florida. Ferdinand de Soto gathered six hundred men and he had for this trip two hundred horses. Among other ample Explorations and Settlements by Spain 23 supplies he took a drove of live hogs to be killed, as needed, for fresh meat. They landed at Tampa Bay in 1539. They all expected to become rich in a short time, but in this they were to be disappointed like the others who had sought wealth in the same region. They were strong enough in numbers and equipment to march as they pleased through the Indian country, and there were many occasions that tested their courage. In spite of their strength and bravery this band of Spaniards left a most miserable record of downright cruelty toward the Indians, whom they enslaved and tortured. Three eventful years were spent in the wilderness. They marched through Florida and Georgia, then through the whole length of Alabama to Mobile Bay, then diago- nally through Mississippi, when, in the spring of 1541, they came in sight of the greatest river of the earth. They were the first civilized men to behold the Mississippi River in all its grandeur. They crossed into Arkansas and swept around into Louisiana, coming back to the Missis- sippi near the mouth of the Red River. Then in May, 1542, De Soto died and was buried in the river whose dis- covery has made his name immortal. The survivors made their way down the stream in little boats to the friendly coast of Mexico. When rescued, there were less than half of the original proud army. These were sick and starved, unable to raise the battered swords to which some of them still clung. 29. First Settlement in the United States. — Florida, in spite of the early failures there, was to be the scene of the first settlement of the Spanish pioneers. But that first city was not to be planted without further bloodshed. In France those who accepted the new creeds of the u 34 United States History for Schools Reformation were called Huguenots, which was at first a term of reproach. They were content with quiet enjoy- ment of their simple prayers and hymns until 1555, when the first Protestant church was estabhshed in Paris. Other churches quickly multiplied, and soon designing nobles got control of the organization and began to use it for politi- cal purposes. Civil war broke out (1562) and lasted for more than thirty years. At the outbreak of that civil war Admiral Coligny de- termined to provide a home in America for the Huguenots. He sent Jean Ribault with thirty men, who (1562) built a log fort at the site of Port Royal, South Carolina. They soon became discouraged and homesick, and started home in a crude little boat they had made of logs. They were picked up by a passing ship and carried to England. In 1564 Coligny sent a larger party, who picked a place on St. John's River in Florida. Jean Ribault arrived with re- enforcements, and it looked as though the colony would succeed. But the Spaniards claimed P'lorida, and they especially hated to have it taken by heretics. Pedro Menendez was sent with a fleet to drive the French away. To the south of the French settlement he planted a fort and called it St. Augustine. Ribault had sailed away to attack the Span- iards, but encountered a storm and was wrecked. Menen- dez marched to the French fort, killed nearly all of them, and hung upon a tree a sign which read : " I do this not to Frenchmen, but to Lutherans." Ribault's shipwrecked men were then found and killed, a few being spared for slavery in the Spanish galleys. A French Catholic, De Gourgues, could not endure this outrage to his countrymen, so he sought revenge. He Explorations and Settlements by Spain 35 sailed to the old French fort, where he found Spanish sol- diers as a garrison. These he hanged to a tree and over their heads put this sign : " I do this, not as to Spaniards, but as to assassins." Not feeling strong enough to attack the fort at St. Augustine, he sailed away and left the Span- Sr. AuiHsuM., (ii.nKsi Ci rv in tiik UN'riKH Statks. iards in charge of Florida. St. Augustine, founded in 1565, is the oldest city in the United States. It was the result of terrible tragedy. The second city in the United States was also of Spanish origin, but its beginning was much more peaceful. It was a mission for the conversion of Indians in New Mexico and was called Santa Fe, or Holy Faith. It was founded much later (1605). STUDY QUESTIONS 1. When the first colonies were planted, what did the European na- tions know of American geography ? 2. What Indians were most advanced toward civilization? how did most of the Indians live? how did they behave toward the white men, as friends and as enemies ? ^6 United States History for Schools 3. How did the Reformation influence American history ? 4. Why was Cortez able to conquer Mexico with such a small band of followers ? 5. How did California receive that name ? 6. Trace on a map the wanderings of De Vaca and his three companions. 7. What did Coionado seek on his expedition? what did he find ? 8. Trace on a map De Soto's route of travel. g. How was the first settlement of Europeans planted in what later became the United States ? CHAPTER IV ENGLAND SECURES VIRGINIA References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 40-44 ; Harfs Source Book, pp. 9-15 ; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 460-464. Home Readings. — Barne's Drake and his Yeomen ; Cooke's Stories of the Old Dominion ; Eggleston's Pocahontas and Powhatan ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. I., pp. 25-31 ; Henty's Under Drake's Flag ; Long- fellow's Sir Humphrey Gilbert ; McMurry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. I., pp. 47-67 (Raleigh), 68-102 (John Smith), 103-107 (Popham's Settlement), 108-121 (New England Named), Vol. III., pp. 201-224 (Francis Drake) ; Scott's Kenilworth. 30. England breaks a Partnership with Spain. — Like all other nations of Europe, England was deeply affected by the Reformation. Henry VHI. (1509 to 1547) went to the defense of the church and wrote a book against Luther. For this the Pope granted him the title " Defender of the Faith," used ever since by British sovereigns. But King Henry afterwards broke from the church in political matters which later tended to bring about a change in faith as well. His son, Edward VL, was a Protestant king (1547 to 1553). This king was succeeded by his sister, Queen Mary. She was not only a Catholic, but she became the wife of King Philip H. of Spain, one of the strongest Catholic monarchs of his day. The union of Spain and England through this marriage was ended (1558) by the death of Queen Mary. Great efforts had been made to 37 38 United States History for Schools stamp out heresy. Queen Elizabeth came to the throne as successor to her sister and ruled forty-five years (1558 to 1603) as a Protestant queen. ()l 1 I N 1:1 1/ \BETH. King Philip tried his best to win Queen Elizabeth for his wife, but she steadily refused him and managed to keep peace between Spain and England for thirty years. It England secures Virginia 39 was not always easy to keep the peace. British seamen were becoming bold plunderers of the Spanish plate fleets. Those vessels returning from America loaded with gold and silver that had been wruna; from the natives of Mexico and AuTouRAPii OF Queen Elizabeth. Peru were called plate fleets. They were rich prizes for the plunderers. 31. Sir Francis Drake. — This most famous of sea rovers in the time of Elizabeth was sometimes called the Sea King of Dover. In 1477 he started on what turned out to be the first trip around the world under the flag of England. The fleet at first consisted of five vessels, but when Cape Horn was rounded and the Pacific Ocean reached, all had deserted or were wrecked but one, — the Golden Hind, — which Drake himself commanded. This vessel he loaded down with gold and silver which he took from helpless Spanish vessels which he encountered. He sailed along the American coasts as far as Oregon and repaired his vessel in a bay of California. He called the coast Nova Albion. He sailed home by way of the Cape of Good 40 United States History for Schools Hope and was then a famous and wealthy man. Queen Elizabeth knighted him for his great achievement. England now had claims, by right of discovery, on both coasts of America, but she had no settlement on either coast. The work of Drake, and of Frobisher and Davis, Sir Francis Drake. who sought a northwest passage through America, stirred up much interest in the new world. 32. Raleigh attempts a Settlement. — Queen Elizabeth shared the awakened interest in America and granted a charter to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, allowing him to trade and make settlements in the new lands. His voyages failed, and in one of them (1583) he and all his crew were lost. His rights fell to his half brother. Sir Walter Raleigh, famous as a courtier and as a brilliant man in that time of great men. He sent two ships (1584), and when they returned, the captains declared the country they had visited was beautiful and rich. It was named Virginia in honor of the virgin life of the queen. In 1585 he sent out a colony of one hundred. They began work on Roanoke Island, but soon became discour- England secures Virginia 41 aged, and when Sir Francis Drake anchored there, they persuaded him to take them home. Raleigh's money was giving out, but he got help from friends, and sent another colony, which started for Chesapeake Bay, but landed, as the others had done, on Roanoke Island. Here was born Virginia Dare, the first white child born in the United States. Gover- nor John White went back to England for aid, but when he returned to Ro- anoke Island (1590), not a vestige of the colony could be found. This was, indeed, a dreary end of Raleigh's brave and determined efforts. There were others who sailed to Amer- ica and traded with Indians, but the first English colonies were to be planted by com- panies rather than individuals. In the meantime England was facing danger at home. 33. The Invincible Armada. — Elizabeth was ruling as a Protestant queen, which fact was, of course, hateful to Philip II. of Spain, whose wife had been the Catholic Sir Walter Raleigh. 42 United States History for Schools ' queen of England. And there were other English things that were hateful to Philip. When his father, Charles V., the mightiest sovereign of his times, grew weary of his cares and retired to a monastery (1556), he gave to his brother Ferdinand the title of emperor and the crown of Austria, and to his son Philip he left the crown of Spain and the Netherlands. Charles had been a powerful em- peror, but after his day the title of emperor was almost an empty one. Philip II. exercised real power as a king. In fact, he was the most powerful Catholic king of the six- teenth century. He used the wealth from America and Cathay to enforce that power. When the English sea rovers plundered his ships, it interfered with his plans, and, of course, he hated that. One of his plans was the stamp- ing out of heresy and the heretics in the Netherlands, The northern provinces (now Holland) were Protestant, and there Philip maintained a reign of terror (1567 to 1573). Eighteen thousand persons were tried by military tribunals and condemned to death. In 1579 the Union of Utrecht proclaimed the independence of the seven northern prov- inces of the Netherlands, but it took twenty years to secure recognition of that independence. During the years of hardest struggle the Protestant powers in England insisted on sending help to the brave and hard-pressed neighbors in the Netherlands. Philip hated this more than any of the other offenses of England. When Elizabeth refused to marry him, Philip supported the claims of Mary Stuart, Catholic claimant to the throne of England. Mary was queen of Scotland. She was also the widow of King Francis II. of France. While the religious contest was apparent in this case, it also became a political contest as a menace to Elizabeth's crown, and she finally consented to have Queen Mary beheaded (1587). England secures Virginia 43 The execution of Queen Mary and the aid sent to the Netherlands were the pretexts on which King Philip de- clared war on England. He prepared a fleet so strong that it was called the Invincible Armada. While the ships were being built, Sir Francis Drake drew near a Spanish port, and setting one of his own ships on fire, sent her blaz- ing into the midst of the new Spanish ships. By this act it was said that Drake had " singed the beard of the Spanish king." When the great fleet sailed for England (1588), the English captains in smaller boats but with superb sea- manship gave a fine exhibition of their valor. A storm sent many of the Spanish ships to wreck on the islands. The rest crept back to Spain and the king dismissed the subject of the defeat by saying to the leader : " I did not send you to combat the elements." 34. Gosnold's Colony. — England was now stronger than ever. The merchants were organizing companies for com- merce in different parts of the world. Soon they were to establish the first permanent English colonies in Amer- ica. Before they did so, one more effort was made on the old plan. Bartholomew Gosnold in 1602 landed at a place called Cape Cod, from the number of codfish found there. South of that cape on Chuttyhunk Island, in the mouth of Buzzard's Bay, he built the first house in Massachusetts. The settlers cut logs for a cargo and also dug quantities of sassafras roots to be sold as medicine in England. After all this work, the colonists were tired and sailed back home. The expedition failed to found a colony, but the captain had sailed directly from England without taking the longer route to the West Indies. It was thus helpful as the pioneer of a shorter way from England to America. 35. London and Plymouth Companies.— While England 44 United States History for Schools was becoming stronger as a nation, conditions arose that produced great distress at home. Disbanded soldiers re- turned by thousands from the European wars. There was little work for them to do. Hundreds of farms were changed to sheep pastures, as profits in wool excelled those from other crops. This increased the number of unemployed by depriving the farm hands of work. One man or boy could shepherd a flock over lands where many had worked tilling the ground. At such a time it was natural to look on America as a land of promise. Two companies of merchants were formed, one in London and one in Plymouth in 1606. They obtained a charter from King James, who had come to the throne on the death of Queen Elizabeth (1603). It was evident that the king and these companies were determined to plant English settlements in the new world. The shores claimed to have been visited by the Cabots more than a hundred years before were divided between these two companies. The London Company could colonize between Cape Fear and the Potomac, the Plymouth Company between Nova Scotia and Long Island, while the strip from Long Island to the Potomac was overlapped in the charter, thus being construed to be open to both companies. The original charter allowed the companies to establish settlements within those bounds and for one hundred miles inland from the shore. One fifth of all gold and silver found was to go to the king. The settlers were required to place all the product of their labor in a common warehouse for the benefit of the whole colony. The king was evidently anxious to retain as much control as possible, so it was arranged that the govern- ing council should remain in England. This council could appoint another council to remain in America. The coun- England secures Virginia 45 cil in America could elect its own president, but the settlers themselves were to have no voice in their own government, 36. Jamestown. — The first colony sailed in 1607 under the management of the London Company. There were Ruins ok Jame,stown. no women or children in the party, and it might be said there were few real settlers among the one hundred and five men. They were mostly gentlemen and adventurers who were lured by the hope of securing abundant wealth in a short time. That they little knew the serious nature of their undertaking is seen from their quarrels while cross- ing the sea. They went so far as to imprison John Smith 46 United States History for Schools on shipboard, and events later proved that he was the most sensible man of them all. It was May, 1607, when they sailed into Chesapeake Bay and up a river they called James, in honor of the king. On a low peninsula, thirty-five miles above the mouth of the river, they landed and called their new home Jamestown, also in honor of the king. The life of Englishmen in America had begun. It looked, how- ever, as though this colony would fail as the others had. The adventurers found no gold, though they spent most of their time searching for it. Those who knew how to work had no mind for it. They roamed about, hoping to find the rivers whose sands were gold. The first president of the branch council in America could not control affairs and the second was also a failure. Captain Newport, on landing the settlers, had gone back to England. In 1608 he returned with more settlers, and John Smith was chosen president of the council. 37. John Smith. — The man who had been imprisoned was made leader of the colony. He laid down one simple rule: " He that will not work shall not eat." Smith knew what kind of work was needed. There were gar- dens and fields to cultivate, cabins to build, fishing and hunting to be done, and trading with the Indians for food. It was a blunt truth he sent to the council in England when he wrote that thirty gar- deners and diggers-up of trees' roots would be worth a Captain John Smith. England secures Virginia 47 thousand of such men as were then in the colony. Smith thus saved the colony at a critical time, and he probably saved the settlers from Indian attacks. He had from the first made friends with the natives and, though captured and carried to Chief Powhatan, he managed to win his freedom. He became interested in the chief's daughter Pocahontas, who became the friend of the white settlers, one of whom, John Rolfe, she married. She visited Eng- land and was lavishly entertained there. To this day there are many Americans who are proud of tracing their kinship back to Pocahontas. The council did not send the kind of men that Smith needed, and he did his best to keep those that were sent engaged on tasks that were necessary but which they by no means relished. It was a misfortune to the colony when it lost its stern ruler. Smith was injured by the explosion of a bag of gunpowder, and returned to England. 38. Starvation.^ — The winter of 1609-16 10, after Smith had left, was a severe test for Jamestown. The Indians be- came troublesome and began to cut off the settlers. Not enough cabins had been built for shelter, and death from disease and exposure resulted. By spring the colony had dwindled from five hundred to only sixty. It is no wonder that this sorry remnant started down the river to sail for homes in England. Before leaving the river they were met by Lord Delaware, the new governor, who had come with recruits and supplies. All turned back to Jamestown with renewed courage. 39. New England Named. — The same year that Jamestown was settled (1607) George Popham took a colony of one hundred and twenty settlers to the northern portion of the big grants, but the winter at the mouth of the Kennebec 48 United States History for Schools I yt- 51 S^:- o* O^ 4:' = 1-^ t- 3 f ;'.,.;,' 1 ll<=>*'-' <:>» 2 ,, lifs- EO*&'*W' i'^- -'^^i. ■9 Oil I IK, ^ i 5of3 England secures Virginia 49 was so severe that the attempt to colonize there was given up. When John Smith recovered from his accident, he could not get employment from the London Company because he had sent home no gold or profits from James- town. He then persuaded some merchants to fit him out for a sailing venture to America. He examined the coast from Penobscot to Cape Cod, made a map of it, and called the region New England. Before this newly mapped region of New England received its first enduring colony, people other than Englishmen had made settlements to the northward. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. How did Queen Elizabeth keep peace with Spain ? 2. Name some of the results of Drake's voyage around the globe. 3. Why did Raleigh's attempts at settlement fail ? 4. Why did Spain's Invincible Armada fail? 5. Gosnold's colony failed ; what item of success came of it? 6. Trace on a map the areas granted the London and Plymouth companies. 7. What reason would you assign for Jamestown's success where other colonies had failed ? 8. What do you count the greater services rendered by Captain John Smith ? CHAPTER V SETTLEMENT OF NEW FRANCE AND NEW NETHERLAND References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 86-94; Hart's Source Book, pp. 14-17- Home Readings. — Irving's Knickerbocker History of New York ; Mc- Murry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. I., pp. 1-34 (Champlain), 35-46 (Hudson) ; Parkman's Pioneers of France in the New World. 40. Settlement of New France. — After Cartier had dis- covered the St. Lawrence (§19), he obtained from the king of France a charter to make a settlement there (1541). Associated with him was Sieur de Roberval, After each of the leaders had spent a winter in that cold country, their attempts at colonization were aban- doned. The French civil war, already referred to (§ 29), was ended by the elevation of Henry of Navarre to the throne as King Henry IV. It was under this wise ruler that New France, or Canada, was first settled. An attempt was made at Port Royal, now Annapolis, Nova Scotia. The king had granted (1605) a large area called Acadia to the 50 Samuel de Champlain. Settlement of New France and New Netherland 51 Sieur de Monts, but the attempt to settle a colony in that year failed, and not until 1610 was the effort successful. In the meantime Samuel de Champlain, an associate of De Monts, had sailed up the St. Lawrence River in 1608 and settled a colony at Quebec. This was the first real settle- ment, and Champlain is loved and honored as the father of New France. 41. The French made Indian Enemies. ^ None of the pioneers in America knew half as well as the French how to make friends and helpers of the Indians, but at the very beginning of their settlements they made one blunder in this respect, which endured to hurt them over and over again during their whole experience in New France. That blunder was in making enemies of the Iroquois. Those were the most crafty and warlike Indians in the United States. They occupied both banks of the Hudson, along the St. Lawrence from Montreal and along the shores of Lakes Ontario and Erie, a huge wedge-shaped territory embracing all of New York and parts of northern Pennsyl- vania and northeastern Ohio. They were called the Five Nations because as a group they embraced the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. Later their kinsmen, Tuscaroras, joined them from the south, and they were called the Six Nations. The first Indians encountered by Champlain were Hu- rons. They became his friends and, being at war with the Iroquois, persuaded him to help them in battle. Going southward for that purpose, Champlain discovered the beautiful lake that has since borne his name. The battle took place about where Fort Ticonderoga was afterwards built. Champlain himself wrote a fine account of the con- flict of July 29, 1609. The Iroquois went on shore and 52 United States History for Schools Settlement of New France and New Netherland ^^ cut down trees for a rude fort. The French and the Hu- rons tied their canoes together and spent the night on the water. The next morning the brave Iroquois, with their bows and arrows, their spears and armor of skins and strips of wood, boldly faced for the first time men with guns. Two of their chiefs fell from Champlain's first shot, and when others fell on all sides, they saw that their arrows were no match for those wonderful sticks that threw out fire and death. They fled in dismay and were savagely pursued through the woods, many being killed and others taken prisoners. Champlain says his Indians feasted and danced, and then: "After going some eight leagues, towards evening they took one of the prisoners, to whom they made a harangue enumerating the cruelties which he and his men had already practiced towards them without any mercy, and that in like manner, he ought to make up his mind to receive as much. They commanded him to sing, if he had courage, which he did ; but it was a very sad song." This was the first conflict between the French and the Iroquois, but its memory sank deep in the minds of the Indians. They became friendly with the Dutch and later with the English, but when the French sought to approach the Hudson or the Ohio, they always had to fight the Iroquois. 42. The Fur Trade. — The French found no gold in their new lands, but they did find furs. In Europe there has always been a good market for furs at high prices. The Indians were by nature expert trappers and hunters. They were eager to trade furs for guns, knives, hatchets, blankets, and for the hawk's bells, beads, and red caps that Columbus had first introduced into American trade. At 54 United States History for Schools first the Indians brought their furs to the settlements, but later the white men would take trading goods and go out into the wild lands to meet the Indians in their hunting grounds. These men became known as Coureurs de Bois, or Rangers of the Woods. Many of them took Indian squaws for wives. They sought only furs, a harvest of the wilderness, and thus did not dis- turb the Indian ways of life. It is no wonder that they got along better than others with the wild men. 43. Indian Missions. — King Henry IV. of France had issued the Edict of Nantes (1598), by which it was arranged that Catholics and Prot- estants could worship at home with- out persecution. So when New France was settled, the Huguenots did not have to seek freedom to wor- ship there. But the Catholic priests were anxious to convert the Indians. For this purpose they risked their lives with a courage and a spirit of self-sacrifice that have never been surpassed. The annals are full of their heroic achievements. The " Black Gowns " needed only a cabin for home and church. They did not disturb, in fact they helped, the wild fur trade. Often the mission- aries led the way for the Rangers of the Woods. Most active among these priests were the Jesuits. It has been said of New France : " Not a mountain was climbed, not a lake discovered, not a river was turned but a Jesuit led the way." French Missionary THE Indians. Settlement of New France and New Netherland ^^ 44. Settlement of New Netherland. — While the north- ern pioneers of the Netherlands were struggling against Philip II. of Spain for their independence, they were fortunate in having a strong and noble leader in William of Orange. He was so successful that a price was put upon his head. He was assassinated in 1584 and was succeeded by his son Prince Maurice in the office of Stadt- holder. Under young Maurice and his strong ministers great progress was made. The Dutch East India Com- pany was organized, and in 1609 the Hudson River was discovered. At that time, as already stated (§ 20), the Dutch were the greatest traders in the world. When Hudson reported the beauty of the river, the fertility of the soil, the abundant forests, and especially the friends he had made with the Indians who were anxious to trade furs, the merchants of Amsterdam were prompt to act. The next year after the discovery of the river they planted a little trading post on Manhattan Island (1610). The neighboring coasts were explored and mapped, and the region was called New Netherland. Other trading posts were established and thrived. For a time one was maintained near the present site of Phila- delphia. In 1623 the Dutch went up the Hudson River and established a fort which they called Fort Orange, in honor of the hero of their wars. Later the English changed that name to Albany. Of all these posts, the one on Manhattan Island succeeded best. As it grew into a village, it received the name of New Amsterdam. 45. The Indians sell Manhattan Island. — Hudson be- gan the friendship with the Indians, which the traders carefully cultivated. The trade gave promise of great results, so the Dutch formed a company called the West ^6 United States History for Schools India Company to control it. The first governor sent over was Peter Minuit, who promptly completed in 1626 a famous bargain with the friendly Indians. He bought Manhattan Island, where now stands the city of New York. It is hard for one living in the present time to believe that the Dutch gave and the Indians gladly accepted as the price some goods and trinkets valued at about twenty-four dollars of our money. It was scarcely one sixth of a cent an acre for what is now the most valuable real estate in America. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. When and by whom was the first settlement made in New France ? 2. Why was Champlain's first Indian battle unfortunate to the interests of France in America ? 3. Why did the French succeed in trade with the Indians ? 4. How were the missionaries helpful to French trade ? 5. What attracted the Dutch to America ? 6. Was the purchase of Manhattan Island from the Indians a fair bargain ? CHAPTER VI FIRST NEW ENGLAND COLONY AND NEW SWEDEN References.- — Ashley's American History, pp. 44-49; Hart's Source Book, pp. 18-32 ; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 465-483. Home Readings. — Austin's Standish of Standish ; Dix's Soldier Rigdale ; Fiske's Beginning of New England ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. I., pp. 133-136; Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair; Longfellow's Courtship of Myles Standish; Webster's Plymouth Oration. 46. The First New England Settlers were Pilgrims. — While the Dutch were planting trading posts in New Netherland (§ 44), Captain John Smith was mapping and naming New England (§ 39). Before the Dutch had gone so far as to establish Fort Orange or to purchase Manhattan Island from the Indians, the Pilgrims had planted the first successful colony in New England. For many reasons this was the most interesting of all the first colonies. Its members were exiles for conscience' sake. As such they were not to be frightened by savage Indians or by cold winters. In England the church begun by King Henry VIII. became known as the Protestant Episcopal Church. It has always been so closely related to the government that it is often called the Established Church of England. By the beginning of the seventeenth century the church was so strong and was deemed so essential that the gov- ernment required every one to attend the services and to support the church by paying taxes levied for that purpose. There were these three classes of worthy citi- .57 58 United States History for Schools zens who objected : first, the Catholics, who were opposed to attending and supporting a church in which they did not beheve ; second, the Puritans, who got that name because they beheved in the church but continually sought to purify many of the ceremonies ; third, the Separatists, who despaired of purifying the ceremonies and separated from the church so as to worship in the manner they thought best. Those who ruled the church were cruel. They punished, persecuted, and sometimes hanged those who disobeyed the church rules and laws. The Separatists suffered these severe penalties, and when one group fled to Holland and then to America, seeking a place to worship as their con- sciences dictated, they obtained the name of Pilgrims. 47. Migration to Holland. — The Dutch were fighting so vigorously for freedom of worship that they allowed per- fect freedom to others of Protestant faith though of differ- ent creed. Knowing this, one congregation of English Separatists in the village of Scrooby, in Nottinghamshire, decided to avoid further persecution at home by moving to Holland. They settled (1607) near Leyden, where for a dozen years they enjoyed comfort and freedom. At the end of that dozen years they decided to move to America. There were two main reasons for that decision. In the first place, they knew if they remained permanently in Holland, their children would learn the Dutch language and later would marry into Dutch families and, in time, all would become more Dutch than English. Being proud of their own language, their own history, and their own race, they preferred to go to new and wild lands owned by Eng- land and there rear families according to ideas approved by Pilgrims. The second reason was that Europe was First New England Colony and New Sweden 59 entering on another religious war, and their quiet homes were likely to be disturbed by the awful struggles and pillage of warfare. That war was destined to be the worst of all the religious wars, and it was to endure so long that in history it was to be known as the Thirty Years' War, 48. Pilgrims start for America. — Though the decision to go to America was reached, it was no easy matter to 'rill-, I'AMiMS MayJio2ver. complete arrangements for the start. The only English settlement in America was at Jamestown. These Sep- aratists would not be welcome there on account of their religion. At one time they planned to go to the Hudson River and settle among the Dutch, but that plan was given up. They decided to get a foothold near the fiudson. 6o United States History for Schools James I. would not give them a charter, but he agreed not to interfere with them. Failing to get a charter, permis- sion was obtained from the London Company to settle on their grant in America. The Pilgrims were poor and had no money to hire the necessary vessels or to buy supplies. A company of merchants agreed to supply these essentials, but on rather hard terms. Every man of the colony was to work six days each week, and at the end of seven years all the product of the labor was to be divided equally be- tween the company and the colony. The pastor of this congregation was John Robinson. He was a fine character, greatly loved by his people. As it was impossible for the entire congregation to go on the first trip, he decided to remain with those left in Holland. So it was Pastor Robinson, who bade the little vessel Speed- zvell farewell as she sailed from Delftshaven, Holland, in July, 1620. She was bound for Southampton, England, where she was to join the Mayflozver. Both vessels started early in August with about one hundred and twenty pas- sengers. They had not gone far when the Spcedivell began leak- ing so badly that they put back to Plymouth for repairs. This happened a second time and then some of the pas- sengers were transferred from the Speedwell to the May- flower, and that famous little vessel started alone on the memorable voyage, leaving Plymouth September 12, 1620. She carried one hundred passengers. 49. Landing of the Pilgrims. — The voyage was rough and the storms drove them out of their course. They started for lands near the Hudson, but they first sighted the shore at Cape Cod. Their permission was from the London Company to settle in what was then known First New England Colony and New Sweden 6i as Northern Virginia. Cape Cod was in New England and belonged to the Plymouth Company. The Pil- grims decided to settle there even if they did not have permission. They anchored in Provincetown harbor, inside of Cape Cod and then explored for a convenient landing. Strangely enough they selected the place that Pil(;rims Landing at Plymouth. Captain John Smith had named Plymouth harbor in honor of the very same English harbor from which the Pilgrims had sailed. December 21, 1620, this harbor was reached and the landing begun. On the beach was a granite bowlder, which was used in making the landing. It is still carefully preserved in the center of a beautiful monument. It is visited by thousands each year, and Plymouth Rock is loved as one of the important monuments in American history. 62 United States History for Schools 50. Xiie Mayflower Compact. — Before the landing was made, some members of the party let fall some remarks to the effect that, once on shore, they would do as they pleased. This waywardness thus voiced was disliked by the more sober-minded leaders and members. A compact or agreement was drawn up and all were required to sign it. This simple compact is sometimes pointed to as the first constitution in America. It proclaimed the settlers' loyalty to King James of England and bound them to enact just and equal laws for the general good of the colony. After the compact was signed, John Carver was elected as the first governor. 51. Governor Bradford and Myles Standish. — Soon after the JMayJioivcr sailed back to England, Governor Carver died. In his place was elected one of the great characters in New England history, William Bradford. Some idea of the love and respect entertained for this man may be had from the fact that for thirty-six years following his first election in 1621 until his death in 1657 h^ '^^s continuously reelected. For five of those years he begged off, but during all the others he served his people in that office. Myles Standish was one of those truly great men who could be stern and courageous as a soldier, gentle and kind as a helper of the sick or needy. As captain of the little army he cooperated with the wise governor in pro- tecting the colony from Indian attacks. Governor Carver had made a treaty of friendship with Chief Massasoit, which was kept by the Indians for more than fifty years. Chief Canonicus of a neighboring hostile tribe sent Gover- nor Bradford a rude and savage message of war. It was a bundle of arrows tied together with the skin of a rattle- First New England Colony and New Sweden 6^ snake. Governor Bradford took the snake skin and, stuff- ing it full of powder and bullets, sent it back as his answer. The chief abandoned his idea of war at that time. 52. The First Winter a Hard One. — At no time in the history of America has greater bravery been shown than that exhibited by the Pilgrims during the first winter. They had landed in the month of December. They had no experience in building houses of rough logs cut by themselves from the forest, and yet they began that hard work at once. Later they learned how to make such cabins warm by chinking the crevices with mud and moss, but the first one must have been a very poor shelter. They did not then know how to hunt the wild animals for fresh food and for furs to make warmer clothing. The cold, hunger, and sickness were terrible. Just half the number of that little colony died that first winter. In face of such bitter sorrow not one of the surviving Pilgrims returned to England when the A fa rj?07tii^r sa.[\ed back in April, 1621. They would not desert the graves of their comrades in that wilderness. They would succeed there or die in the effort. Such noble spirits richly deserved success, and the memory of the Pilgrim Fathers has justly become one of the most highly prized and most sacredly cherished of the inherit- ances bequeathed to this nation from the past. Dress of a Puritan. 64 United States History for Schools 53. Independence of Plymouth. — The Pilgrims were independent of church officers. By electing their own governor and making their own laws, they were inde- pendent of the councils and officers in England, which was not true of the colony at Jamestown (§ 35). On the other hand, the Pilgrims had agreed to work every day but Sunday and divide the results of seven years of such work with the merchants who had furnished the money for the first voyages. In 1626, before the seven years had ended, the Pilgrims took their savings and borrowed some more money in luigland at high rates of interest and in that way bought out the claims of those merchants. From that time the settlers were free to build and own their houses, to till their own fields and to engage in the business of fishing or fur trad- ing on their own accounts. 54. New Sweden in America. — As the settlement of America proceeded, all the nations in Europe became more and more interested. Sweden was among those ambitious for new colonies. In 1638 her statesmen sent out a colony which settled near the present site of Wilmington, Dela- ware. They called the place Christina, in honor of the queen of Sweden. They bid fair to prosper and built other posts, but New Sweden lasted less than twenty years. The Dutch in New Netherland claimed from the first that the lands taken belonged to them. Their protests were Dress of a Puritan. First New England Colony and New Sweden 65 ignored until 1655, when a little Dutch army surprised the settlements and conquered them. It is said that in that little war there was much loud talking but no iighting or bloodshed. 55. The Thirty Years' War in Europe. — In the seventy- three years, from 1565 to 1638, five nations of Europe — ■ Spain, France, England, the Netherlands, and Sweden — had secured footholds in the North American portion of the new world. Before taking up the study of how those colonies increased in number and in strength, it would be well to learn a little of the conditions in Europe. Those conditions produced many of the results which we call American history. As already stated (§ 47), the Thirty Years' War was the worst of the religious wars. It was brought about through efforts to settle the differences between Catholics and Prot- estants in Germany. Quarrels over church property led to riots and these led to war. The emperor represented the Catholic side. He did not have a large army, but he employed a Bohemian nobleman named VVallenstein, who agreed to supply an army without pay or expense. He would plunder the countries attacked. He and his army became a terrible scourge. They killed, burned, robbed, and pillaged everywhere. As they marched through North Germany, the Danish king tried to stop them; but was de- feated. Then one of the most remarkable men of his time appeared. This was the great Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. He defeated Wallenstein in the battle of Liatzen (1632), but unfortunately the king was killed in the moment of victory. It was probably the greatness achieved by Gustavus Adolphus which caused Sweden to seek expansion by planting a colony in America. V 66 United States History for Schools The emperor was gaining ground fast after the death of the Swedish king and would have succeeded in his war had it not been for an unexpected enemy. Cardinal Riche- lieu, the great CathoHc minister of France, feared that the emperor, if successful, would be a powerful enemy of France. So he put politics above religion and sent French armies to fight on the side of the Protestants. In 1645 commissioners met in Westphalia to arrange for peace. The arguments lasted for three years, but in 1648 what is known as the Peace of Westphalia was signed and the Thirty Years' War was ended. That is one of the greatest treaties in the world's history. Since that treaty there have been no more religious wars. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Why are the settlers of Plymouth called Pilgrims ? 2. Why is the Mayflmver one of the most famous of ships ? 3. What was the nature of the Mayflower compact ? 4. What do you admire most al)Out Governor Bradford and Myles Standish ? 5. Why did not the Pilgrims leave after the first hard winter ? 6. How did Plymouth become independent ? 7. What impelled Sweden to get a foothold in America? how did she lose it ? 8. Show why the Treaty of Westphalia was important. 870 1000 1095-1277 1295 . 1375 • 1450 . 1453 • CHRONOLOGY Norsemen discover Iceland. Discovery of America by Leif Ericson. Period of the nine Crusades. Marco Polo's return from Cathay. Use of gunpowder in weapons. Invention of printing. Conquest of Constantinople by the Turks. First New England Colony and New Sweden 67 [486 . 1492 . '497 ■ [507 . 1513 ■ [517 . [519-1521 [524 . [528 . 1534 • '539 • [540 . [541 . 565 • '579 • 1 584-1 590 1588 . [606 . 1607 t6o8 . [620 1626 [638 1648 Dias discovered Cape of Good Hope. Conquest of the Moors in Spain. Tlie great voyage by Columbus. Voyage by Vespucius. Nortii America discovered by John Cabot. America received its name. Balboa discovered Pacific Ocean. Florida discovered by Ponce de Leon. Martin Luther posted his theses. Magellan's expedition encircled the globe. Conquest of Mexico by Cortez. Voyage to the new world by Verrazano for France. Narvaez's expedition to Florida. Jacques Cartier discovered Gulf of St. Lawrence. De Soto landed in Florida. Coronado's great expedition through New Mexico. Discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto. St. Augustine, first city in the United States, establisiied. Drake called California Nova Albion. Raleigh's attempts to colonize America. Destruction of Spain's Invincible Armada. Formation of the London and Plymouth companies. Founding of Jamestown. Founding of Quebec by Champlain. Hudson discovered Hudson River for the Dutch. Discovery of Lake Champlain. Landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth. Indians sold Manhattan Island to the Dutch. New Sweden begun in Delavvare. End of the Thirty Years' War. II Expansion of the Colonies CHAPTER VII GROWTH OF VIRGINIA References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 73-76 ; Hart's Source Book. pp. 33-37 ; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 483-492. Home Readings. — Cooke's Virginia; Drake's Making of Virginia and the Middle Colonies ; Fiske's Old Virginia and Her Neighbors ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. I., pp. 71-79, 149-152, 157-159; Johnston's To Have and To Hold. 56. Virginia's New Charter of 1609. — The sorry rem- nant of the Jamestown colony after that awful winter experi- ence of 1609-1610 had started for England when they met the new governor, Lord Delaware, and turned back (§ 38). While they returned to the same old Jamestown cabins, they were really going to a new colony. The Company had obtained the new charter of 1609. This gave them much more land and increased their power. Their lands were to extend along the shore for four hundred miles, two hundred each way from Old Point Comfort, and " up into the land throughout from sea to sea, west and northwest." Nobody knew-in 1609 how far it was from sea to sea, but later Virginia placed great stress on that extensive grant. Besides the new lands the Company was allowed to send out a governor with ample power to rule the settleinent. Governor Delaware soon resigned and was succeeded by 68 Growth of Virginia 69 Governor Dale. He was a stern old soldier and is some- times referred to as a tyrant. But he kept peace and order in the* community. By working instead of quarrel- ing and wastefully searching for gold the colony began to prosper. He introduced an important reform. He gave small pieces of land to some of the settlers and allowed certain days on which they could work on the little places for themselves. All their labor was not for the common storehouse as before and enterprise soon increased. 57. Tobacco proved a " Gold Mine." — From the first discovery by Columbus it was known that the natives in this new world had a peculiar plant whose dried leaves they prized for smoking. Many of the explorers took home specimens of the plant, and the people of Europe were growing fond of its fumes. Though from the first there were sensible people who opposed its use, there were also many who were ready to pay good prices for their supplies of tobacco. At first the tobacco was ob- tained from the Indians, who knew where to find it growing wild. When the Jamestown settlers began to work their little fields, it was found that tobacco could be cultivated like cabbages. This made a wonderful change. Here was a crop that would bring surer wealth than hunting for gold mines. Ground was cleared for new tobacco fields and for a while the streets of Jamestown were planted for the same crop. From that time Virginia had a commerce that produced an increasing profit. For a long time tobacco was used for money. Even the preachers and teachers were paid at so many pounds of tobacco for a month's work. When it was found that wives were scarce in the settlement, ninety were practically bought with tobacco. That number of 70 United States History for Schools young women were sent to Virginia by the London Com- pany. It was figured out that the fare of each one could be paid with one hundred and twenty pounds of tobacco. When the vessel arrived, the young men appeared at the landing with the tobacco, and each walked away with a young woman to the home of the clergyman for the wedding. 58. Negro Slaves and Broad Plantations. — Besides giv- ing new life to the colony at Jamestown, the growing of tobacco had other far-reaching results. Labor was needed for the fields and for curing and packing the tobacco leaves. At first poor boys and girls were sent from Eng- land to work until they became of age. Then men were sent who were to work for seven years to pay for their passage across the ocean. These were called indentured servants. In August, 1619, a Dutch vessel arrived at Jamestown and, as the record says, "sold us twenty Negars." This was just the kind of cheap labor needed by the tobacco growers. The slave trade flourished. The slaves were secured on the coast of Africa at small cost, hundreds were crowded into a single vessel, and, though many died and were thrown into the ocean, great profits were made by the sale of the remainder in America. The world at that time did not see anything wrong in this horrid traffic in human beings. The other result of tobacco culture was the creation of broad plantations. It was found that tobacco soon ex- hausted the soil. So each grower sought wide acres. He preferred to farm on the bank of a river so he could have his own landing. There he could receive his goods and manufactured articles from Europe and pay for them by loading tobacco into the same vessel at the same land- Growth of Virginia 71 ing. The profits he could use to buy more slaves and more land and to build finer mansions. This kind of life made rich planters, but did not help to build up large cities. 59. Self-government in Virginia. — In the same year (16 19) when the first negroes were sold in Jamestown a much more glorious event occurred. Governor Yeard- ley, who was then in office, obeyed the orders of the London Company by calling for an assembly of the settlers. Virginia then comprised eleven settlements, which were called boroughs, an English term for town. A citizen of a borough was called a burgess. The assem- bly that was called was to consist of two representatives from each borough, and it was called the House of Bur- gesses. This was the first representative assembly in America. It was to have great influence in shaping political events in the new world. It was recognized by the people in England as a great advance toward liberty. The chance to own land and to grow tobacco had- insured the success of Virginia. Now they were to have the great boon of making their own laws and regulating taxes. In one year after this great reform the population in- creased from 600 to about 4000. The London Company was in earnest about granting self-government to its Virginia colony. Two years after the experiment was tried, on July 24, 162 1, the Company adopted a formal ordinance setting forth more firmly and in greater detail the plan of the representative govern- ment. This ordinance may be called the second stepping- stone toward the American Constitution, for it came eight months after that compact (§ 50) signed in the cabin of the Mayfloiver. 72 United States History for Schools 60. An Angry King and Hostile Indians. — There was some English politics mixed up in that granting of the germ of self-government to Virginia. King James I. believed strongly in the theory of " the divine right of kings " to rule as they thought best. Some members of the London Company were among those who opposed the arbitrary rule of the king in England. To help their cause they decided to sow seeds of greater liberty in America. All this angered the king. The Indians in Virginia had been peaceful for a number of years and the white men had grown a little careless about danger of attacks, when suddenly, on March .22, 1622, the war whoop was sounded, and in one day three hundred and forty-seven men, women, and children among the scattered colonists were killed. The other settlers rallied and punished the Indians so severely that they re- mained quiet for a score of years. It was a serious blow. Many plantations were deserted and some settlers, panicstricken, returned to England. Above all, it gave a pretext to the angry king, who brought charges of mismanagement against the Company. In June, 1624, the King's Court rendered a decision declaring the London Company's charter " null and void," thus tak- ing the colony away from the Company just as it was in shape to realize good profits from its eighteen years of work and investments. Virginia was then made a royal colony under the direct rule of the king. James I. was preparing to show Virginia his plan of rule when he died (1625), and was succeeded by his son, King Charles I. 61. Cavaliers and Roundheads in England and America. — During the twenty-four years of this new king's reign many exciting and interesting events took place in England Growth of Virginia 73 and America. He was even more arbitrary and stubborn than his father. He had so much trouble at home that he paid Httle attention to Virginia except in the appointment of governors. Governor Harvey was driven out of his office for offending the Virginians (1635), and Charles I. asserted the divine right of kings by putting him back in office. He soon sent a new governor, however, in the person of Sir William Berkeley, who proved a stern ruler. Under him only Episcopalians were welcome in Virginia. All others were banished. The king's arbitrary rule also af- fected other colonies in Amer- ica, for it drove Catholics and Puritans to seek liberty of worship in new lands. At home the king was quarrel- ing with his people and Parlia- ment. There grew up two parties. One was royalist and supported the king. They were called Cavaliers and wore fine clothes and long hair. The other party was composed mostly of Puritans. They supported Parliament and, be- cause they wore the hair cropped, were called Roundheads. The quarrels led to civil war in which the Roundheads were victorious. The king was captured and beheaded (1649). England became a republic, and the leader of the Round heads, Oliver Cromwell, was ruler with the title Lord Pro- tector of the Commonwealth. Though Cromwell was a wise and successful ruler, the A Cavalier in Virginia. 74 United States History for Schools Cavaliers were not comfortable in England. Many sought refuge in America. Virginia was the only place for them to go, as Virginia remained friendly to the cause of the From the puiiitlng by Van der Plas.s. OliveiI Cromweli,. king. Large numbers removed to that colony. They were educated and gentlemanly. They were warmly welcomed. From these Cavaliers have sprung some of the finest and most patriotic families of America. Growth of Virginia 75 62. Cromwell's Treaty with Virginia. — Cromwell did not relish the idea of Virginia's branding as a traitor any one who justified the killing of King Charles. Nor did he like the idea of Cavaliers being so warmly welcomed there. He sent out commissioners with warships. Gover- nor Berkeley prepared to give them battle, but a treaty was arranged. Virginia got even greater liberties, for she could now elect her own governor and council, as well as members of the House of Burgesses. The gates were opened to both Puritan and Cavalier, and there followed a period of contentment and prosperity. 63. A Blow to Liberty in Virginia. — England grew tired of the rule of the Puritans. When Cromwell died, it did not take long to bring back the slain king's son, who was crowned (1660) as Charles II. He was known as the " Merry Monarch." The anniversaries of the event were celebrated for more than a hundred years as " Restoration Day." The joy in England was reflected in Virginia, where Berkeley was again elected governor. He had been out of office since the Cromwell treaty (1651). All but Episcopalians were again banished, and the right to vote was restricted to property holders. The Burgesses then refused to call a new election and continued themselves and Berkeley in office for sixteen years. Berkeley was as secure in America as his king was in England. All this was indeed a move backward for the liberty-loving. Virgin- ians, and it led finally to resistance. Cromwell had enacted a navigation law (1651), requiring the colonists in America to deal with English merchants, and patronize English ships and no others. He had not required Virginia to obey this law, but King Charles 11. enforced it rigidly. The king went even further in his 76 United States History for Schools reckless disregard for the rights of Virginians. He gave the whole colony to two of his favorite courtiers, Lord Ar- lington and Lord Culpepper. If the action of the Bur- gesses was a blow to liberty, this action of the king was a royal theft of their remaining rights. In the end the colo- nists won their cause in spite of the king's opposition. 64. Bacon's Famous Rebellion of 1676. — In addition to being a despot, Governor Berkeley sought to become a rich man through the fur trade with the Indians. This in itself would have been no crime if he had respected the rights and safety of others. But the Indians began attacks on settlers, and fearing to spoil his profits, the governor refused to send out troops. Then a wealthy and influential young leader, named Nathaniel Bacon, sought a commission from the gov- ernor to lead volunteers against the Indians. The governor refused, and Bacon led forth his men without a commission and punished the hostiles. The governor proclaimed Bacon and his men "rebels" and started to pursue them. Virginia was thoroughly aroused by this condition of things, and so strong was the demand for the election of a new House of Burgesses that the governor had to yield. Bacon was triumphantly elected a member of the new assembly. A number of reform laws were at once enacted. The Indians evidently knew the governor was on their side. They became bolder than before. Still the stubborn governor refused a commission to Bacon, and so he and his men again marched against the Indians. This time, after defeating the savages, Bacon marched his little army to Jamestown, where the governor's militia was located. It looked as though the despot and his " rebel " would fight it out. Bacon was not afraid, but he did not want a war between the settlers themselves. He seized some of the Growth of Virginia 77 wives of the governor's friends and placed them in front of his troops. They were called the " White Apron Bri- gade." The governor did not dare give the order to fire. That night property owners set fire to Jamestown and the governor fled. Just as victory seemed within his reach, Bacon suddenly sickened and died. Governor Berkeley returned for a cruel revenge. He condemned and hanged twenty of Bacon's leading men. King Charles 11. grew sick of the reports from Virginia. He said, "That old fool has put to death more people in that naked country than I have here for the death of my father." In disgust he summoned the gov- ernor to England, and then, for rebuke, refused to see him. It is said that the governor thereupon died of a " broken heart." From Bacon's Rebellion to the Declaration of Independ- ence was a span of just 100 years. Who can measure the influence of the small event upon the larger one ? While Virginia was developing, other American colonies were being planted and expanded. For the sake of clearer ideas of the growth of the different sections we will next study those nearest Virginia, the ones that are called her neighbors. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. How did Virginia's new charter differ from the old? 2. Why was tobacco an important crop? 3. Show how tobacco and slavery encouraged plantation life in Vir- ginia. 4. Show the importance of Virginia's securing a local assembly. 5. Show how an Indian battle changed Virginia's form of govern- ment. 6. What was the nature of Cromwell's treaty with Virginia? 7. Show how liberty wavered in Virginia. 8. Name the causes and results of Bacon's Rebellion. CHAPTER VIII SOUTHERN NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA References. — Ashley's American 'History, pp. 59-61, 75-76; Hart's Source Book. pp. 48-51, 65-67, 71-73. Home Readings. — Fiske's Old Virginia and Her Neighbors; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. I., pp. 63-66, 79-80, 143-144, 155-157. 65. The Catholic Colony of Maryland. — One of the im- portant events referred to (§ 61) as occurring in the reign of King Charles I. was the founding of the colony of Maryland, named in honor of the king's wife, Queen Henrietta Maria. George Calvert, the first Lord Balti- more, was a prominent English Catholic. He grieved over the persecution of his fellow-Catholics in England and tried to secure a new home for them in Newfoundland. This having failed on account of the severe climate, he se- cured from Charles I. a grant of part of Virginia. Balti- more died, but his son Cecil Calvert succeeded to the grant and to his father's title of Lord Baltimore. He sent two younger brothers with three hundred settlers up the Po- tomac River. They bought an Indian village, paying for it in axes, hoes, and cloth. They called the place St. Mary's and at once decreed that men of all religions would be wel- come. Thus in 1634 the Catholics founded the first Amer- ican colony in which perfect toleration was established from the very beginning. 66. Lord Baltimore as a Proprietor. — The English colonies in America were of three classes : charter colo- nies, royal provinces, and proprietary colonies. Virginia 78 Southern Neighbors of Virginia . 79 passed from a charter colony into a royal province and narrowly escaped becoming a proprietary colony. Mary- land was the first one established as a proprietary colony. On receiving the grant, Lord Baltimore agreed to recog- nize the supremacy of the king by delivering to him two Indian arrows every year and by giving him one fifth of all the gold or silver found or mined in the colony. Aside from these slight reservations, Lord Baltimore was the owner and master in Maryland. But, in addition to being powerful, Lord Baltimore was also a charitable and wise man. He wanted every one to enjoy the religious freedom that had been denied to him and his friends at home. So he threw the gates of his colony wide open to the op- pressed of all creeds. He wished all to enjoy political freedom, and so he promptly yielded up his own supreme control and gave the settlers in his colony self-government from the first. These kind and wise measures attracted settlers of a fine quality. The industrious farmers soon had crops to sell and to exchange for goods from England. 67. Poor Reward for Kindness. — - The Indians gave almost no trouble to the settlers of Maryland. They were always treated fairly, and as a result they kept the peace. But the land of Maryland had been carved from the big grant of Virginia. This displeased the older colony. The Episcopalians of Virginia did not like the Catholics of Maryland. And then there was an influential fur trader, named William Claiborne, who had established a trading post on Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay. . When it was found that this island was in the new grant of Maryland, the Virginia trader refused to give up possession and he was driven out by force. When the Puritans were driven out of Virginia, they 8o United States History for Schools were welcomed into Maryland. They built a town that became a rival of St. Mary's. It was first called Providence, but the name was later changed to Annapolis. In all fairness those Puritans ought to have remained friendly with their Catholic neighbors, but when the Puri- tan party in England cut off the head of King Charles, the Puritans in Maryland turned against the Catholics. They joined with Claiborne, who sought revenge for the loss of his island. They captured St. Mary's. Claiborne became one of Cromwell's commissioners and began to readjust things in Maryland. No Catholic could now be elected to office, and they were even denied the freedom of worship. In 1655 another battle went against the Catholics. It was a gloomy time for the original settlers of Maryland, but help came from an unexpected source. Oliver Cromwell, the Puritan ruler of England, was a just, as well as a stern, man. He restored the colony to Lord Baltimore. Virginia gave Claiborne other property in place of his lost island, and it seemed as though the renewed tranquillity and prosperity would not be disturbed again. But Lord Baltimore lost the colony and regained it once more. When James II., who succeeded his brother Charles II. as king (1685), had disgusted the people and was driven from the throne in 1688, the Protestants in Maryland took the colony out of the hands of the proprietor. William and Mary, who ruled England jointly as king and queen after 1688, made Maryland a royal province. The colony was later restored to the Baltimores and remained a proprietary colony down to the time of the Revolution. 68. Colonies named for King Charles. — The Latin form for the name Charles is Carol/is, and from this Latin form was obtained the name Carolina. As Maryland Southern Neighbors of Virginia was carved out of the northern part of the Virginia grant, so Carolina was taken partly from the southern portion of the old Virginia and partly from what the Spaniards claimed as Florida. The first settlers had moved in from Virginia and made their homes around Albemarle Sound (1653). Ten years later King Charles II. rewarded eight of his favorite courtiers by granting them an im- mense tract of land in America, embracing all of what is now North and South Carolina, Georgia, and a piece of Florida. While Maryland had one proprietor, Carolina had eight. Before they sent out any colonists, some settlers moved on to their land from another quarter. They were Englishmen who moved across to Carolina from Barbados. The eight proprietors thought they would build in America a colony on scientific principles, so they engaged the philosopher John Locke to draw up a plan. When he had finished, he called it the " Grand Model," but it was really a grand failure. In that plan there were to be many officers, but the people were to be no better than live stock. They could not leave the land, and in fact if a piece of land was sold, the people were to be sold with it. No man who was brave enough to be a pioneer settler would be coward enough to endure such a scheme as that. It is needless to say that the " Grand Model " was a failure from the time it was written. 69. How there came to be Two Carolinas. — In 1670 a settlement was planted near the mouth of the Ashley and Cooper rivers. This was called Charles Town, in honor of King Charles II. Its name was later changed to the shorter name of Charleston. This town grew 82 United States History for Schools into one of the wealthiest and strongest cities of the South. The settlement got a governor of its own, and Albemarle in northern Carolina also got a governor. The settlers were independent in spirit, and when the governors misbehaved or became tyrannical, they were driven from ofhce. The proprietors then sent the Quaker governor, John Archdale, to govern over both colonies. But the proprietors later had more trouble with the settlers and in 1729 they sold their colony to the king. The division was made into North and South Carolina, and the two remained as loyal provinces until they became independent states of the Republic. 70. Different Development in the Two Carolinas. — Though the Carolinas had a similar start, were owned by the same group of proprietors, and part of the time lived under the same governor, it is surprising how differently was developed their colonial history. Both enjoyed religious freedom, and through the independent spirit of the people both also enjoyed a large measure of political freedom. But the life and work of the people were different. In North Carolina there were many small farms. Those farmers had few slaves. While they grew some tobacco, their principal income was from the pitch and turpentine which they got from the trees of the pine forests. It is from this fact that the people of North Carolina to this day are proud to call themselves " Tar Heels." They were stanch lovers of liberty and were among the first to approve a declaration of independence. In South Carolina plantation life reached its highest development. Slavery increased rapidly, and just before the Revolution there were more black men than white ^ Southern Neighbors of Virginia 83 men in the colony. The rich planters lived in Charleston most of the time and employed overseers to look after their slaves at work on the big plantations. The Charles- ton homes were mansions. Their owners were generous and hospitable. They wore fine clothes and kept the best of horses and coaches. All this made Charleston the gay- est and richest city in the South. These rich planters secured all the lowlands near the shores and later men had to go back into the hills for homes. Those hill men had to struggle for their proper share of political power. Those struggles made of the men watchful citizens, whose children were destined to influence later events. The crops raised by the planters in South Carolina had something to do with the differences in colonial life. In 1693 the governor received a present from a sea-captain. It was a small bag of rice from Madagascar. The swampy soil and the warm climate were just right for such a crop. The little bag of seed multiplied itself so rapidly that South Carolina became a great exporter of rice. In 1741 the daughter of Governor Lucas planted seeds of the in- digo plant. Frost and wornis killed the sprouts from the first two plantings, but the third time the plants lived and a new industry of great importance was born in South Carolina. It was a most valuable crop until science taught people how to get blue dyes from coal tar. Cotton was also a crop in South Carolina, but it was not an important one until after the Revolution. Its effect on the lives of the planters and their slaves will be considered later (§ 258). 71. Many Kinds of People. — We have seen how the Thirty Years' War made great disturbances in Europe (§55) and sent many people to America. In the same way the civil war in England (§61) sent away Cavaliers and 84 United States History for Schools Roundheads to seek homes in new lands. From these and similar causes there flocked to the Carolinas many kinds of people. While the English were in the majority in North Carolina, there were many others, such as Scotch-Irish, Swiss, Germans, and Scotch Highlanders. There was a similar mixture of races in South Carolina, but that colony also got a valuable increase to its in- dustrious population from still another source. These were French Huguenots. Louis the Magnificent, king of France, had one of the longest reigns in history, as he was on the throne for seventy-two years, from 1643 to 1715- He was warlike and greedy for land. He was a Catholic and punished the Protestants, or Huguenots. They were living under the Edict of Nantes, which gave them some protection, but in 1685 that protection was removed when the Edict was revoked. Persecutions became unbearable and many Huguenots fled to America. Not a few of them settled in South Carolina, whose descendants have ample reasons for being proud of their forefathers who were pioneers in America. 72. Georgia, Last of the Southern Colonies. — Years ago it was the custom to put men in prison when they could not pay their debts. It is a terrible thing now to think of such a condition, for the misery was unspeakable. If a man could not pay his debts while free, he certainly could not pay while locked up in jail. His family would suffer for food and the filled jails made heavier taxes for those who could pay. General James Edward Oglethorpe, a brave and noble soldier, did not like the idea of a man be- ing imprisoned for owing a dollar or more. He began an agitation to arrange a plan for such men to be given a new chance in life by moving them to America. Some friends Southern Neighbors of Virginia helped him. They got a charter for land between South Carolina and Florida and named the place. Georgia, in honor of King George II. Oglethorpe and his friends raised half a million dol- lars and promised the unfortunate men whom they were trying to help free homes, free tools, and a free passage over the ocean. Others besides the debt- ors tried to get some of those •1 Ci. T [AMIS Kl)\\\Kl) (.)< II IllOkll. benefits. In 1733 -^ the first settlement was made at Savannah. The last of the English colonies was begun. The Spaniards did not like the English way of crowding Florida's boundary farther and farther southward, but Oglethorpe brought more settlers and established Frederica (1736) as an outpost against Spanish claims. 73. War between Spain and England. — When Spain and England began war in ( 1739), General Oglethorpe promptly marched from his colony to capture the Spanish town of St. Augustine. He failed, and the Spaniards then tried to capture Frederica. Oglethorpe's smaller army drove them off and he made another unsuccessful effort to capture St. Augustine. One thing these battles settled was that 86 United States History for Schools Georgia was there to stay, and the Spaniards would have to keep hands off. 74. The Missionary Quality. — Among the early visitors to Georgia were John and Charles Wesley, founders of the Methodist Church, They came to Georgia as missionaries to the Indians. As the founding of Georgia was also a sort of missionary work for the poor, both liquor and slaves were forbid- d e n. U n f o r t u- nately the people did not cling to these two prohibi- tions. The farmers began to raise rice, indigo, and to- bacco. They found it cost them much more to raise their crops by pay- ing for labor than it cost their neigh- loiiN \\i:.si.i';v. , • o X.1- /^ bors m bouth Car- olina who owned slaves. The bar against slavery was re- moved and so was that against rum. Georgia prospered as a proprietary colony until 1752, when it became a royal province and remained such until the Revolution. While Virginia and her neighbors were making all this progress, many events were taking place in Southern Neighbors of Vlrgniia 87 the other colonies. Those events will be studied under the two groups, New England colonies and the Dutch and Quaker colonies. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What attitude did tlie Catholic colony of Maryland , assume toward other faiths ? 2. What did Lord Baltimore do about local government in Mary- land ? 3. Show how Lord Baltimore lost and regained his colonies. 4. What sort of government did the first proprietors of Carolina propose? 5. How did there come to be two Carolinas ? 6. How did the Carolinas differ one from the other ? 7. What kind of peoples settled in the Carolinas ? 8. Why did Oglethorpe plan the colony of Georgia ? CHAPTER IX INCREASE OF NEW ENGLAND COLONIES References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 49-59; Hart's Source Book, pp. 37-41, 45-48. 51-57. Home Readings. — Drake's Making of New England ; Fiske's Begin- ning of New England ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. 1., pp. 32-37, 67-70, 136-140. 75. Massachusetts Bay Colony. — Plymouth was the pioneer colony in New England (§§ 46 to 53). The vigor- ous determination and the success of those Pilgrim Fathers could not fail to attract attention among the Puritans in England as the rule of King Charles I. became more and more arbitrary. He quarreled with Parliament and defied that agency of his people by levying taxes to suit himself and by punishing people who refused to pay them. Strange as it now seems, that ruthless king was induced to grant a liberal charter to a newly organized company of Puritans. Perhaps he hoped to find it cheaper to favor their going to America than to keep the bold Puritans in English prisons. Before the charter was secured, some leading men of wealth among the Puritans formed a company and bought from the successors of the old Plymouth Company, that had been organized in 1606, a tract of land in New England along the coast from three miles south of the Charles to three miles north of the Merrimac River. They sent out a colony under John Endicott as leader. This colony named their place of settlement Salem, meaning Hope. 88 Increase of New England Colonies 89 The next year (1629) the company was increased by the addition of a large number of other leading and influential Puritans. The company was incorporated under the long name of the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New England. It was this new company that got the favorable charter from King Charles. Under that charter the company and its colonists were given unusual freedom. The freemen of the company could choose their own governor, deputy, and " assistants," as the first legis- lators were called. They could make their own laws, the only restriction being that those laws must not conflict with the laws of England. Of course matters of religion and education were also in their hands. 76. The Great Immigration. — In the year 1630 a thou- sand immigrants came to New England. The leader, John Winthrop, brought one fleet of eleven ships with over seven hundred immigrants. They brought with them ample supplies, including horses and cattle. John Winthrop was chosen governor. He was an honest, upright, fearless man and is justly one of the best beloved characters in early American history. As Salem was overcrowded, new towns were at once founded. These included Charlestown, Cambridge, Watertown, Roxbury, and Boston. The last one, Boston, soon became the capital. The Pilgrims were all poor men, but many of these Puritans of the new settlements were rich. They included strong men who would have been natural leaders in Eng- land if they had not been made exiles for conscience' sake. Francis Higginson, the minister and teacher, was a gradu- ate of Cambridge University, as was also Pastor Skelton, who had been driven from his pulpit in England because of his Puritan beliefs. It was said : " God sifted a whole 90 United States History for Schools nation that He might send choice grain over into this wilderness." 77. A New Church Established. — The Puritans were not Separatists like the Pilgrims. They believed in puri- fying the Church of England. Failing to do that in Eng- land, they did not wish to risk a failure in America. So they decided on independent government of the church. Each congregation should govern itself without bishops or other officers as in the English church. This was the origin of the Congregational Church. But these Puritans did not want any other creeds except their own in their towns. They would not tolerate other forms of religion. They went even further. Among their first laws was one providing that no man could be a voter who was not a member of their churches. Thus the church and state were united in Massachusetts. 78. The Town and the Government. — The keynote of government in Massachusetts was the town. There were two reasons why they settled and remained in towns. The first was to secure protection from Indian attacks and the second was to be near the meetinghouse, or church, the center of their religious and political life. The governor, deputy governor, and the eighteen assist- ants met each month to perform the duties put upon them at the quarterly meeting of the freemen or voters. These quarterly meetings were called Courts of the Quarter Ses- sions. There were also annual meetings called the Gen- eral Courts. They were attended by the voters as well as by the officers. There ought to have been no political trouble where every freeman had an equal voice in the government. But in 163 1 the assistants decided to hold office until they were removed by the freemen. They pro- Increase of New England Colonies 91 ceeded to levy taxes to build a fort at Cambridge. In that same year (163 1) the people of Watertown objected to that tax, claiming they would become slaves if they submitted to taxation without representation. The General Court decided that Watertown was right, and it was arranged soon afterwards that each town should have two represen- tatives in the General Court. These representatives were called deputies, and with them should sit the governor, deputy governor, and the assistants. This new General Court, or legislature, was to look after the general govern- ment, while the towns would continue to exercise authority in local matters. The General Court continued to meet as one house until 1644, when an important change took place. In a dispute that arose through a lawsuit over a lost pig, it was decided that they would have two houses for their legislature. The assistants were to form one house, a sort of Senate, and the deputies were to be the House of Representatives. 79. Political and Religious Troubles. — All was not peace and harmony in Massachusetts. The cruel Thirty Years' War was filling many graves in Europe on account of dif- ferences in reUgion. Charles I. was having difficulty in playing the part of tyrant in England, and much of his troubles arose from the stubborn way the people insisted on their rights. At the same time the Puritans made trouble for themselves through stubborn methods in church and state. Those who believed the new legislature was becoming too aristocratic pulled away to form new settle- ments where the old town meeting would govern. They were drawn toward the fertile valley of the Connecticut River. We shall see later how their new settlements grew into another colony. 92 United States History for Schools Complaints reached England that the Puritans were rigidly enforcing their new church laws and were setting up an entirely independent government. King Charles did not like this, and he demanded that Massachusetts give up her charter. Of course the Puritans were frightened over the prospect of losing their liberties, but they were by no means cowards. They delayed answering the king's demands and used the time to build forts, collect guns and ammunition, and to drill _ the militia. If they had to fight, they proposed to be ready. Before the king could carry out his plans against Mas- sachusetts, civil war broke out in England (§ 6i)and such troubles for the colony were postponed. Roger Williams, the able minister at Salem, gave offense to the strict Puritans as an ardent Separatist (§ "j"]^ and by preaching that men ought not to be punished for staying away from church or for holding different views than the church on religious ques- tions. At that time it was believed that men should be punished for such things, and the doctrine preached by Roger Williams was deemed to be dangerous. The Gen- eral Court gave him a trial, and by a close vote it was decided that he must go back to England. He was warned of the decision and in the winter (1636) he escaped into the Roger Williams. Increase of New England Colonies 93 wilderness and lived with the Indians, who were his friends. We shall see that he later founded a new colony. Roger Williams was not the only one whose preaching disturbed the Puritans. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson also preached a doctrine that some did not like. She drew fine lines about persons in a " state of grace." The colony was divided on this exciting subject, and even some of the min- isters took sides with Mrs. Hutchinson. Finally, in 1638, she was banished from the colony. 80. First Schools and Printing. — As early as 1635 a public school was begun in Boston. At first the schools were for the teaching of reading and writing so that no child would grow up who could not read the English Bible. Later the grammar schools were ordered by the General Court for towns able to support them. The Puritans loved education. Many of them were graduates of the English universities, especially Cambridge. In 1636 the General Court voted a grant of four hundred pounds for a college at Newtown. This seems a small sum in these days of millionaires' endowments, but that sum was equal to a whole year's tax of the little colony, and it would amount to about $10,000 in our present money. Two years after its foundation a minister named John Harvard died at Charlestown. In his will he bequeathed his library of three hundred and twenty volumes and about seven hundred and fifty pounds in money to the new college. As a mark of gratitude for these fine gifts, the General Court ordered the new college to be named Harvard College. It is the oldest college in the United States. To keep alive the memory of the old English university the name of New- town was changed to Cambridge. In this town of Cam- bridge there was also set up the first printing press in the English colonies (1639). 94 United States History for Schools ^^^^^^\\J^>vh^U. John Winthkof. Increase of New England Colonies 95 81. The Body of Liberties. — The religious and fac- tional disturbances made men feel that their rights were not sufficiently defined. To cure this defect two min- isters — John Cotton of Boston and Nathaniel Ward of Ipswich — drew up codes, or bodies of written laws. The code prepared by Ward was adopted (1641) under the name of The Body of Liberties. Here was an effort to get equal justice for all. The code contained one hun- dred laws. Some of them were laws from England and some were taken from the Bible. One curious provision in words that seem queer now was as follows : " Everie marryed woeman shall be free from bodilie correction or stripes by her husband, unlesse it be in his owne de- fence upon her assalt." 82. Founding of Connecticut. — We have seen (§79) how political friction caused a migration from Massachu- setts to the Connecticut Valley. The Dutch of New Nether- land believed this was their land. They had built a little fort at Hartford, but were surprised, when sending a vessel to that port (1635), to find an English settlement at the mouth of the river. John Winthrop, Jr. , who represented two English noblemen, Lord Brook and Lord Say and Sele, was sent to establish a colony on lands granted to them. He took parts of the two lords' names and formed Saybrook as the name for his town. He stopped the Dutch from going up the river. Thomas Hooker, pastor of the church at Cambridge, led a party of Puritans, who believed in more democratic government than they were finding in Massachusetts, by an overland route to the Connecticut Valley. There were one hundred men, women, and children in the party. For two weeks they tramped through the woods, driving 96 United States History for Schools their cattle before them to their new homes. Other pastors followed, and by 1636 they had begun the three towns of Wethersfield, Windsor, and Hartford. The citizens of these three towns met in Hartford (1639) and drew up a written constitution, which is one of the landmarks in American history. It is more important than the Mayfloivcr compact (§ 50) or the Virginia ordi- nance for representative government (§ 59). In fact, historians claim this Connecticut constitution is " the first written constitution known to history that created a government." Massachusetts objected, but in spite of that the colony of Connecticut was established with a government of its own. The governor and magistrates were to be elected by the freemen, and with two deputies from each town, made up the General Court, or legisla- ture. A man did not have to belong to the church to be a voter, as was the case in Massachusetts. 83. The Pequot Indian War (1637). — Before the con- stitution was adopted, the colony freed itself from danger of Indian attacks. The Pequots did not relish the idea of the white men crowding into their lands. They planned to kill the white settlers and were trying to in- duce the Narragansett Indians to attack the Massachu- setts settlers. It was then that Roger Williams showed what a big man he was. Driven from Massachusetts, he was an exile among those Narragansett Indians, and yet he succeeded in persuading them not to attack the white men who had driven him away. Hearing that the Pequots were planning war early in 1637, the three Connecticut towns sent ninety men under Captain John Mason. The night before starting on the. march was spent in prayer. The little army with some friendly Increase of New England Colonies 97 Indians and with some soldiers sent by Massachusetts destroyed the Indians' homes, killed many of them, and made it impossible for that tribe to offer any further resistance. 84. The Colony of New Haven. — It has been stated (§ 61) that King Charles I. had so much trouble at home that he paid little attention to America. We have seen the three new towns organized into the colony of Con- necticut. This was done without a charter. While that new government was being organized another new colony was planted in the same region, and this, also, was done without a charter. It was strictly a Puritan colony. The two leaders were an able and influential minister, John Davenport, and Theophilus Eaton, a wealthy English merchant. Arriving in Boston, they heard of a good place for a town near the Dutch settlement and the people who had come with them agreed to settle there. In 1638 they formed their new town and called it New Haven. Being very devoted members of their church, they agreed to be governed by the laws of Moses, as set forth in the Bible. Theophilus Eaton was elected governor, and he was so well liked that he was reelected every year until his death, twenty years later. This strict town drew other Puritan settlers of the same kind, who quickly planted the new towns of Guilford, Milford, and Stamford. In 1643 the towns united into the colony of New Haven and agreed to continue the strict church rules in government. Only church members were allowed to vote or hold office. Each town had seven magistrates who were called the Seven Pillars of the Church. Before regular courts were organized they tried all petty cases and administered the local town 98 United States History for Schools affairs. The General Court, or legislature, consisted of the governor, deputy governor, council, and deputies, or representatives, of the towns. These officers were all elected by the votes of the freemen or church members. 86. Two Colonies Nortli of Massachusetts. — Though the London Company planted the colony of Virginia, the Plymouth Company (§ 35) did not plant a single colony. It issued patents for others to use its lands. Before giving up all claims to the lands, some of its members wished to retain a part for themselves. Among these were Sir Ferdinando Gorges and Captain John Mason. Gorges was especially anxious to build up a province of which he would be proprietor. Both these men were Episcopalians and had no love for Puritans. The king granted them the land between the Merrimac and Kennebec rivers, and they called their grant Maine. The two proprietors divided the grant (1629). Mason got the western portion, which he called New Hampshire. Gorges became Lord Proprietor of the province or county of Maine. The principal town he planted was Saco. He never visited Maine, but was represented by his son Thomas, the deputy governor. Efforts were made in vain to induce wealthy men to settle in Maine. Those who came were representatives or servants of companies engaged in the business of fishing or of fur trading. In his old age Gorges drew up a wonderful constitution for his province. There were to be offices enough for nearly every one of the settlers ; private citizens would have been scarce. But nothing came of the scheme. The colony languished and was finally absorbed by Massa- chusetts. New Hampshire had a similar experience, except for Increase of New England Colonies 99 the fact that other settlers had gone there before Captain Mason became proprietor. Those settlers were fur traders from Plymouth, exiles from Massachusetts during the troubles over the preaching by Mrs. Hutchinson, and fish dealers from England. The new proprietary town was Portsmouth (1630). Though this town grew in im- portance, the others remained independent and out of sympathy, on account of religious differences. Like Maine the colony was absorbed by Massachusetts. 86. Roger Williams founds Rhode Island. — We have seen how Roger Williams was exiled from Massachusetts on account of his religious beliefs ( § 79) and how he pleaded with the Indians to spare his enemies (§ 8^). In the spring of 1636 this exile, with five of his disciples, established a town at the head of Narragansett Bay and called it Providence, intending it as a " shelter for persons distressed in conscience." He had a bitter time alone in the forest in the middle of winter until he found the camp of his friend Chief Massasoit. When his five friends came to him in the spring and he was able to begin a new town, it is no wonder that he called the place Provi- dence. He had suffered for conscience' sake, and so he started his government by allowing perfect freedom in matters of religion. It was the only really tolerant colony in New England. When Massachusetts began to expel the followers of Mrs. Hutchinson's new creed, Williams invited them to his settlement. A party of them came in 1637 ^^'^ settled on Aquidneck Island, afterwards called Rhode Island. They called their town Portsmouth ; unHke Williams, these people were so strict in their beliefs that a portion of the party drew away and started the town of Newport, also on lOO United States History for Schools Rhode Island. The two towns united as the colony of Rhode Island. Warwick was a new town just south of Providence. In 1644 Roger Williams went to England and obtained from Parliament a very favorable charter for the Provi- dence Plantations. The people were allowed to make their own laws and they were to enjoy complete religious freedom. People of all forms of belief flocked to the new col- ony. It was too much to hope that perfect harmony should exist in such a mixed community in that day of strict church rules. The Rhode Island towns broke away and got an independent charter, but Roger Williams made peace with them and got a charter from King Charles II. (1662) which was so favorable and so much appreciated that it was kept as the constitution until 1842, long after the Providence Plantations had become one of the United States under the name of Rhode Island. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Show how the Massachusetts Bay Colony got a favorable charter. 2. What kind of men fled to America for conscience' sake ? 3. How was the Congregational Church begun ? 4. Show how the town governed in local matters and how a legis- lature of two houses was developed. 5. What disturbed the harmony in Massachusetts .'' 6. How did the public schools begin ? 7. What was the '' Body of Liberties '' ? 8. State the importance of Connecticut's first constitution. 9. Show how Roger Williams interceded with his Indian friends for his white enemies. 10. Show how New Haven began as a strictly religious settlement. 11. Show how Maine and New Hampshire began as proprietary colonies. 12. Why did the people flock to the new colony of Providence Plantations 1 CHAPTER X THE DUTCH AND QUAKER COLONIES References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 63-73 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 42-44, 58-65, 67-71 ; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 493-494- Home Readings. — BuelFs William Penn ; Fiske's Dutch and Quaker Colonies; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. I., pp. 81-89, 140-142, 144-148, 159-162; Roberts's New York; Irving's Knickerbocker History of New York. 87. How the Dutch encouraged Settlement. — We have seen the Dutch getting a foothold on the banks of the Hudson River, calling the region New Netherland and naming their principal town New Amsterdam (§ 44). They were just as hopeful and ambitious as the other colonizers. They realized that they had enemies. Unlike the other colonists, they did not count all the Indians among the enemies, for they made friends with most of them by fair and honest treatment. The enemies that worried the Dutch were the French in the north, the New Englanders in the northeast, and the Virginians and others in the southwest. As a safeguard against these enemies, and to strengthen the colony, the West Indian Company of Holland made a tempting offer to its mem- bers. Any one who would take at least fifty settlers to America would be made a patroon or patron. Each patroon was to receive a large tract of land. His settlers were to live on his plantation. They would not have to pay taxes for ten years. They would receive tools and I02 United States History for Schools stock for the farm free of cost and would also have the services of a preacher and teacher. This looked very good, but there were serious restrictions as well. The settlers were not allowed to leave the land for ten years. They were also denied the right to vote or hold office, and the right of trial by jury was also denied them. On his own plantation the patroon made the laws and was gover- CosTUMES OF Dutch Colonists. nor and judge to his settlers. To make matters worse, the settlers had to sell all they raised to the patroon, and if they wished to grind grain for food, they had to do it at the patroon's mill. This made a rich class of patroons, who were more pow- erful and wealthy than many of the princes of Europe. They lived on their large estates in the summer, and in winter they made New Amsterdam a gay and fashionable The Dutch and Quaker Colonies 103 town. This was much Hke the condition in Charleston, South Carolina (§ 70). But at the same time the patroon system made the Dutch settlers discontented. 88. Governor Peter Stuyvesant. — Of the four governors in the history of New Netherland, the last one, Peter Stuy- vesant, was the most interesting and important. Mrs. Van Rensselaer says he had " a stern, clean-shaven face, a long drooping nose, a bald crown, partly covered by a skull cap, long side-locks, a steel cuirass, a scarf, a broad linen collar with a cord and tassels." He was brave and honest, but he was also strict and stubborn. Before he came, the discontented people had been de- manding the right to vote, and to have some measure of self-government. He did not believe in allowing every- body to vote, for, said he, " In that case a thief would vote for a thief, and a smuggler for a smuggler." He was also a strong believer in the Dutch Reformed Church, and he growled at the number of people in New Netherland who belonged to other churches. As a nation the Dutch be- lieved in religious toleration. Knowing this. Huguenots, Jews, Baptists, Quakers, Puritans, and Scotch Presbyte- rians had settled in New Netherland. The new governor went so far in his opposition as to fine a Baptist preacher ^500, and each of those who went to hear, him $100. He whipped and banished Quakers. The people objected to these measures so strongly that the governor was compelled to allow every one to worship God as he thought best, and he was also compelled to allow the people to elect a commission of nine men to help him rule. In 1653 New Amsterdam was given its own city government. This did not help much, as the governor was allowed to appoint all the officers. I04 United States History for Schools 89. Further Objections by the People. — Taxes levied without their consent was one of the things the settlers op- posed. Governor Stuyvesant levied a new tax and brought on more objections. He proposed to build a wall across the end of Manhattan Island. The wall was to be on the north edge of the town, and was intended as a military de- fense for the homes of the citizens. It was built in spite of the objections, and from it has come the name of the present Wall Street, the financial center of the United States. The governor's farm was on the east side of the island, and the road leading to it he called the " bowery lane," which is the origin of another famous street in New York City. The objections to the new tax were so strong that the governor allowed a convention of delegates from eight towns to discuss matters. He did not like the blunt way in which they expressed themselves and sent the dele- gates home. The governor was quick-tempered, but the people were patient. 90. New Netherland becomes New York. — The people who were so long denied their just rights were in no mood to fight for their governor or their colony. Before they knew of any outbreak of war between Holland and Eng- land, there appeared at New Amsterdam (1664) an Eng- lish fleet. The commanding officer sent the governor a demand to surrender, offering favorable terms. The old governor was furious. He tore up the paper and declared he would fight. But the Dutch citizens learned that the English promised protection of life and property, freedom of worship, and a representative government. All they had struggled for so long was now in easy reach. They refused to obey Governor Stuyvesant. Although still of The Dutch and Quaker Colonies 105 fighting temper, the governor knew he could not fight the fleet alone. Then the Dutch mothers appeared before him and begged him not to endanger them and the chil- dren by a fight. The governor yielded. The Dutch flag was hauled down from the fort and the English flag took its place. Charles New Amsterdam. II. claimed that the region was really English on account of the discoveries by the Cabots (§ 14). He gave it to his brother James, Duke of York. As soon as the " conquest " was completed, the name was changed from New Nether- land to New York, and the city's name was also changed from New Amsterdam to "His Majesty's Town of New York." In like manner Fort Orange was changed to Albany. 91. The Good Promise Broken. — The people who re- io6 United States History for Schools joiced over the prospect of local self-government were doomed to years of further disappointment. The " Duke's Laws " announced by the English Governor Nichols in 1665 did not contain provisions for the promised representa- tive government. They did allow freedom of worship, trial by jury, and the election of town officers, but no part was given the people in the making of their own laws. The people still struggled for their rights. They sent an earnest petition to the Duke of York. He was opposed to representative governments, but was constrained to grant the request in 1683. There was rejoicing in New York over the good news. The first assembly of eighteen members passed good laws and drew up a document called the Charter of Liberties, which they sent to England for the duke's approval. But Charles IL died in 1685 and his brother, the Duke of York, succeeded to the throne as King James IL He at once became a tyrant to the people of New York. The Charter of Liberties was denied, and the new king also took away the representative assembly he had granted as the Duke of York. 92. New York acts when James II. is Dethroned. — New York had more reason than any other colony in America for hating King James II. He was also hated in Eng- land. After three years of tyrannical rule, the people of England drove him from the throne and called King William and Queen Mary to rule over them. When this news reached New York, a tradesman named Jacob Leisler seized the government. He had little education and was ill suited for the business of government. He made many mistakes, but managed to hold control for three years. In 1691 a new governor was sent to New York. Leisler was tried for treason and condemned. It The Dutch and Quaker Colonies 107 is said tl c new governor was intoxicated when he signed the death warrant of Leisler. Many people sympathized with the merchant's honest efforts. They opposed his execution, and for many years there were factions in New York on account of the unfortunate trial and execution. Wilham and Mary soon granted the representative assembly, and the long struggle for self-government was ended. 93. New Sweden becomes Delaware. — It has already been related how Sweden obtained a brief foothold in the new world and held it until the Dutch under Governor Stuyvesant "conquered " their settlement (§ 54). Nine years after this conquest New Netherland itself was con- quered (1664) by the English. The " three lower counties on the Delaware " then became the property of the Duke of York. Maryland desired to secure these " counties," but WiUiam Penn was a personal friend of the Duke of York and he succeeded in purchasing them for himself. He desired them to give his colony of Pennsylvania a better outlet to the sea. The people, wishing an independent existence, got an assembly of their own and a deputy governor. In 1693 the union with Pennsylvania was again brought about. Ten years later the colony once more obtained its own assembly and continued independent to that extent until the Revolution. It was not wholly independent, however, for it was under the same governor as Pennsylvania, their own executive being only a deputy governor. 94. New Jersey a Gift from the Duke of York. — The land from the Hudson to the Delaware was counted a part of New Netherland. The Dutch had settled the io8 United States History for Schools town of Bergen there as early as 1618. The settlers bought their lands from the Indians and felt secure. When the Duke of York received New Netherland, he promptly gave part of it to two personal friends, Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. He called the territory New Jersey because Carteret had defended the island of Jersey against the forces of Cromwell during the civil war in England. 95. New Jersey divided into Two Colonies. — The two proprietors divided their gift and Berkeley took what was called West Jersey. East Jersey went to Carteret. The settlers who bought lands from the Indians refused to pay rent to the new proprietors of the colonies. The dispute led Berkeley to sell West Jersey to William Penn and some other Quakers. The Quakers gave such a liberal form of government that four hundred Quakers left Eng- land (1677) and settled Burlington in West Jersey. Not realizing much of success, the heirs of Carteret sold East Jersey to William Penn and his friends. Though both parts were then owned by the Quakers, they were governed separately for a time. 96. The Jerseys united into a Royal Province. — William Penn had to argue his case against his friend, the Duke of York, for the duke wanted to take back his gift of the Jersey lands. Penn won his case and held the colonics until the Duke of York became King James II. As king he took the colonies and placed them under Governor Andros of New York. When King James lost his crown in that "Glorious Revolution" of 1688, Andros also fell from power in America. New Jersey went back into the hands of the Quaker proprietors. These proprietors grew tired of the disputes of the set- tlers over the payment of land rents, and in 1702 they The Dutch and Quaker Colonies 109 surrendered their proprietary rights. New Jersey again became a royal or crown province, though in part a de- pendency of New York, since both colonies were under the same governor. The colony had its own assembly, and its own local government, and all the liberties that other favored colonies possessed, except that of having its own governor. The colony prospered with its population of Quakers and representatives of other creeds. In 1738 New Jersey got its own governor and then continued as a regular royal province down to the time of the Revolution. New Jersey's last colonial governor was the son of Benjamin Franklin. 97. " Children of the Light," or Quakers. — It has been shown how in the Reformation (§23) the Christian church was divided and how the separation occurred in England (§ 30). The divisions were soon multiplied, and many new creeds arose in different lands. One of the most remark- able of these creeds was begun by George Fox. His father was such a devoted member of the Church of England that he was called the " Righteous Christian." Young George was given a careful rehgious training, but at an early age he was convinced that every man should be guided by the "inner Hght," or the " inward voice." His followers called themselves " Children of the Light." Fox was twenty-five years old when he began his troubled career as a preacher. It was in 1649, the very year in which the victorious Puritans beheaded King Charles I. The Puritans and the Presbyterians were in control of church matters then, but they could not endure this new " firebrand." Fox was frequently put in prison. His preaching was mostly to crowds of poor folks, and many of them were so affected that they trembled and fell to the ground. In this way came the name of Quakers. no United States History for Schools 98. William Penn, Quaker. — The most important con- vert to the faith was WilUam Penn, the son of Admiral William Penn of the English Navy. The Admiral tried to give his son a fine education and sent him to Oxford. But the boy had imbibed Quaker sentiments, and when the gov- WiLLiAM Penn. ernment of King Charles II. started to remove instructors for religious reasons, young Penn joined other students in some rough ways of expressing disapproval. Penn was banished from Oxford. He had quarrels with his father, because, as a Quaker, he would not take off his hat to him, or to the king, or to the Duke of York, or to anybody else. The Dutch and Quaker Colonies 1 1 1 Young Penn began to preach and was often put in prison. He was reconciled with his father, and when the Admiral died (1670), the son, then twenty-six years old, inherited a fortune, which included fifteen thousand pounds, due from King Charles II. to the Admiral. 99. The Charter and the Name of Pennsylvania. — We have already seen how Penn and some other Quakers had bought the Jerseys (§§ 95-96). The Quakers were cruelly persecuted in England, and these leaders wanted safe homes for their followers. Penn's writings, especially his greatest book, entitled " No Cross, No Crown," gained him reputation even among those who hated his religion. He was also known to be brave and honest. His interest in getting homes for his people in America was a noble one. Finally the king agreed to pay his debt by granting Penn's request for a tract of land. When the boundaries were finally settled, the tract contained about forty-five thousand square miles. Penn suggested that the land be called " Sylvania," on account of the forests known to be there. The king con- sented, but insisted on adding the word " Penn," in honor of the dead Admiral. Penn objected and tried his best to prevent his family name receiving such prominent recogni- tion. All his objections failed, and the name of Pennsyl- vania came to stay. 100. Penn liberal to All White Men and Indians. — The founder of this new colony had suffered much for his religion. He therefore decided that in Pennsylvania there should be perfect freedom of conscience. Knowing that people loved freedom of government as well as freedom of conscience, he decided that the people themselves should rule. A large colony of settlers at once moved to Pennsylvania. 112 United States History for Schools Penn visited his colony (1682) and the next year laid out a plan of a city which he called Philadelphia, meaning brotherly love. Under a tree he met the Indians and made a treaty with them, buying their interest in the lands and making them many fine presents. That treaty was faith- fully kept by the Indians for sixty years. If those Indians liked any white man and wished to praise him, they would say he was as good as William Penn. The tree under which the treaty was made was known as the Treaty Elm. It was blown down (18 10) and a monument now marks the place. 101. The Liberal Government. — The government which Penn established for his colony was true to his promises of freedom. As a proprietor he owned the lands and would name the governor, but each settler as he became a landholder or taxpayer should have the right to vote, and the voters should elect the members of the council and the assembly. In that way the people made their own laws. There was also freedom of worship. The first laws pro- vided for kind treatment of the Indians, that prisoners should be treated humanely, that each child should be taught a trade, that trial by jury should be extended to Indians as well as to white men, and that death should be the penalty for only two crimes, murder and treason. In Eng- land at that time the death penalty was inflicted for many lesser crimes. 102. Troubles over Boundaries and Quitrents. — The proprietor of Maryland and the proprietor of Pennsylvania had no way of knowing at first the precise line that divided their properties. The dispute began at once and Penn went back to England to settle the trouble (1684). It was not easily settled. In fact no agreement was reached un- til 1732, years after Penn's death. In 1776 Charles Mason The Dutch and Quaker Colonies 113 and Jeremiah Dixon, of London, mathematicians and sur- veyors, came to America and surveyed the boundary line three hundred miles long. Along the line were placed stone markers. On one side of each stone was carved the coat of arms of Lord Baltimore, and on the other that of William Penn. This was one of the most famous boundary lines in America, for later the " Mason and Dixon Line " was re- ferred to as the boundary between North and South (§324). The liberal government attracted all kinds of people in large numbers. Friction with the Quakers might naturally be expected. But the colony was very prosperous and the settlers had few serious troubles. One thing did rankle, however: Penn and his heirs were proprietors and, as such, were entitled to small quitrents from the landholders. The settlers wanted to own their farms and homes outright and objected to continual rents, however small. Quarrels over this question lasted through the colonial times. STUDY QUESTIONS 1 . Why were Dutch settlers discontented under the patroon system ? 2. What kind of governor was Peter Stuyvesant ? 3. Why did the Dutch settlers welcome English rule in New Neth- erland ? 4. Trace the change from New Netherland to New York. 5. How were the settlers disappointed under the English ? 6. Who granted New York self-government ? 7. What measure of independence did Delaware get before the Revolution ? 8. Trace the division of New Jersey and the reunion into a royal province. 9. How did the Quakers get their name and by what other names were they known ? 10. What do you most admire about the character of William Penn ? 11. What did the Indians think of Penn ? 12. Show how the government of Pennsylvania was liberal. CHAPTER XI NEW ENGLAND UNITED References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 76-84. Home Readings. — CogswelFs Regicides ; Eggleston's Life in the Eighteenth Century, pp. 32-39 ; Guerber's Stories of the Thirteen Colo- nies. 103. "The United Colonies of New England."— The sturdy Puritans who sought more democracy by going out of Massachusetts to plan new homes in the Connecticut Valley (§ 82) faced Indian trouble and war (§ 83) at once. They were also threatened by the Dutch, who claimed the lands. The French also threatened from the north. In the year of the Pequot war (1637) the people of Connecticut sent a request to Massachusetts for the formation of a defensive union. This request was renewed in 1639 and again in 1642. By that time the king and his Parliament were so deep in their quarrel that civil war seemed sure to come. In that case it would be wise for the colonies to be ready for defense, not only against the Indians, but against the Dutch and the French as well. The decision to unite came just in time to admit the new colony of New Haven (§84). The four colonies in the " United Colonies of New Eng- land " were Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. Their representatives met in Boston and in May, 1643, formed a written constitution, making a "league of friendship and amity for offense and defense." A federal commission of eight members, two from each 114 New England United 115 colony, was provided. The commission was to elect a president from their own number, but he should have no other power than that of presiding officer. The board was to meet once a year, unless called together oftener by emergencies. All war expenses were to be levied against each colony according to its number of men and boys between sixteen and sixty years of age. In case the board could not agree on the business before it, the question at issue was to be sent around to the legislatures of the four colonies for decision. The colonies were to administer their own local affairs as before. 104. Duration of the Confederation. — This union of the New England colonies was destined to last forty years, and part of that time it exercised great influence. It could not enforce its decrees, but the need of united effort gave it strength. Maine and Rhode Island tried to become mem- bers, but were refused. Rhode Island was too much mixed as to religious questions, and Gorges, the proprietor of Maine, was too much a friend of the king. Massachusetts had more people than the combined population of the three other colonies in the confederation. She naturally wanted more delegates on the board. Though denied in this, Massachusetts, from her size and importance, was the real leader. The union was disbanded in 1684. The people had learned many lessons about the strength of union and about the necessity of yielding some points where the good of all was in question. Those seeds would produce a good harvest later when a larger union was to be formed. 105. Quakers preach in Boston. — The Puritans had a great dread of Quakers. In 1656 there was a day of fast- ing and prayer in Boston because news had come of the strange things done by Quakers in England. A few ii6 United States History for Schools months later Boston was amazed to learn that two women had come to town as Quaker missionaries. They were arrested, their books were burned, and they were kept in jail until the ship that brought them was ready to sail, when they were sent back to England. Others came. They were not frightened by having their ears cut off, by being branded with hot irons, or by being driven into the wilder- ness. They never resisted punishment. They stubbornly preached the gospel of the " inner Hght." Finally the Puritans seized four stubborn missionaries, one of whom was a woman, and hanged them on Boston Common. This was the climax. The king insisted on stopping such punishments, and many people in Boston also took sides against the ruling Puritans. From that time on toleration slowly won its way in the Puritan colonies. 106. New Haven and Connecticut United. — The colony of Connecticut had bought the town of Saybrook (1644), and thus extended itself along the river to the sea. Later John Winthrop, Jr., was chosen governor of Connecticut. All the time of the civil war in England and during the time of the English Republic (i 649-1 660), the New Eng- land colonies were left very much to themselves. But when King Charles II. was crowned (1660) EngHsh in- terest in America was revived. King Charles thought he had good reasons for hating the two colonies of Massa- chusetts Bay and New Haven, The Massachusetts Bay colony had grown strong and stubborn. She became al- most defiant of the king. But New Haven had given another reason for royal dis- favor. She was hiding and protecting two men whom the king wanted to execute. When his father. King Charles I., was tried, condemned, and beheaded, the judges who New England United 117 condemned him were called regicides, or king-killers. When the new king was crowned, two of these fled to New Haven. They were Goffe and Whalley. The officers of King Charles II. pursued them, but the minister of New Haven preached a sermon, taking his text from the Bible (Isaiah xvi. 3): "Hide the outcasts; betray not him that wandereth." The people understood the hint of the minister, and the regicides were hidden. Connecticut was in a position to reap a big advantage from this hatred toward her two nearest neighbors. She sent Governor Winthrop to England to get a charter. King Charles saw his chance to weaken the influence of Massachusetts by making Connecticut stronger. He could at the same time punish New Haven for screening the regicides. So he took away New Haven's independence by uniting that colony with Connecticut, and he then gave to the larger Connecticut a most favorable charter. So prized was that charter that Connecticut would not give it up, even after she became one of the United States, but kept it as her constitution until 18 18. 107. How Massachusetts was Defiant. — When the union of the four New England colonies was made (1643), Massa- chusetts became the leading power in that union and was jealous of any power from England. As civil war broke out in the home country, the General Court of Massachu- setts decreed that any one raising troops for the king would be punished. Though Cromwell was a friend of the Puritans, Massa- chusetts boldly established a mint (1652), and for thirty years coined " pine-tree shillings." She was also haughty and refused when Cromwell's commissioners asked for troops in a proposed attack on the Dutch at New Amster- ii8 . United States History for Schools dam. However, she did consent to allow volunteers to be raised if any could be found. When Charles II. came to the throne, Massachusetts waited two years before proclaiming him king. Then Massachusetts saw she was bringing trouble upon herself and sent agents to arrange peace with the king. He sent back word that he wanted certain things done, and Massa- chusetts, fearing a threat at her liberties, complied in part. It was at this time that King Charles gave favorable charters to Connecticut and Rhode Island. 108. King Philip's Indian War (1675). — Old Chief Mas- sasoit had faithfully kept the treaty he had made with the Pilgrim Fathers (§ 51). When he died, his son, known as King Philip, became Chief. He saw that his people would be destroyed if the white men were not driven away. He made a league with neighboring tribes and led them in an awful war that lasted two years. No quarter was asked or given on either side. Many white settlers were killed and scalped. But the war went against the Indians and their power was forever broken. That part of New England was never again troubled with Indian attacks. In this war the white men showed that they could be as cruel as the Indians. King Philip's wife and only son, a boy nine ' years of age, were among those captured and sold as slaves in South America. The Chief's heart was broken. He was ready to die. Shortly afterwards he was killed. His hands were cut off and sent to Boston, and his head was set up on a pole in Plymouth, where it remained for twenty years, a warning to other enemies. 109. Massachusetts absorbs Other Colonies. — The at- tempts by Mason and Gorges to establish the proprietary colonies of New Hampshire and Maine did not succeed, and New England United 119 we have seen how they were absorbed by Massachusetts (§ 85). But Massachusetts was not allowed to hold the lands in peace. The heirs of Mason and Gorges made trouble. Finally Massachusetts bought the Gorges claim (1677) for twelve hundred and fifty pounds, and managed the colony under the Gorges grant without making it a part of Massachusetts. In 1679 the king made New Hampshire a royal province, but when one of the governors, Edward Cranfield, became tyrannical, he was driven out of the colony (1685), and Massachusetts again absorbed it. Soon afterwards New Hampshire was once more made a royal province and re- mained so until the Revolution. 110. Massachusetts loses her Charter (1684). — King Charles H. tried to keep down the power of Massachusetts by building up the strength of Connecticut (§ 106), but Massachusetts continued her defiance (§107), and when the king wished to conquer New Netherland (1664), in order to give the land to his brother James, Massachusetts refused to help. The king knew tha't the Puritans allowed no one to vote or hold office but members of their own churches. He knew they did not tolerate Church of England men. He was told they even planned independence. Finally his hatred reached a climax (1684) when he took away the colony's charter and made it a royal province. 111. New England under Tyrant Andres. — King Charles II. died before he could establish a new royal government for Massachusetts. He was succeeded in 1685 by his brother, King James II. The new king was worse than his brother had been. He was an ardent Catholic and he hated Puritans and other sects. He loved and proposed to exercise absolute power as king. His brother had taken 120 United States History for Schools away the charter of Massachusetts. He now proposed to take away those of Connecticut and Rhode Island so he could unite all of New England under one royal govern- ment. To accomplish his object, he sent over, as his repre- sentative, Sir Edmund Andros, who richly earned the Charter Oak. name of tyrant. Andros came to have the widest experi- ence as governor of any man in the history of America. He was governor of New England from 1686 to 1689, and part of that time he was also governor of New York and New Jersey, and later ( 1692) he was governor of Virginia. When he arrived in 1686, as governor of Massachusetts, Plymouth, New Hampshire, and Maine, he at once de- New England United 121 manded the charters of Rhode Island and Connecticut. Rhode Island obeyed, but Connecticut refused. Andros went to Hartford (1687) to get the charter, but it was hid- den in a hollow oak tree, ever after known as " Charter Oak." The loved old tree was blown down in 1856, and many pieces of it are still saved in Hartford for relics. An- dros could not get the charter, but he declared it dead and ordered the word Finis (end) on the record. He then pro- ceeded to govern the colony as its master. The next year (1688), the authority of Andros, was extended over New York and New Jersey. The despot now held sway from Delaware Bay to New France. Arbitrary taxes were levied ; land grants were annulled; private property was un- settled ; commons and parks were seized and given to the governor's friends ; Congregational churches were taken for Episcopalian services ; the legislatures were abolished. The town of Ipswich started a protest against the unjust taxation. Rev. John Wise was arrested for taking part. At his trial he was told : " Mr. Wise, you have no more privileges left you than not to be sold as slaves." Sir Edmund Andros. 122 United States History for Schools 112. Tyrant Andros in Jail. — The people of Old England did not like the tyranny of James II. any more than did the people of New England like that of his representative, Andros. The people of England drove the king from his throne in what they called the " Glorious Revolution," The news of this event reached New England in April, 1689. Bells were ringing ; drums were beating ; fires were blazing on Beacon Hill ; rejoicing, as well as determination, was manifest everywhere. The tyrant was arrested and imprisoned. Connecticut brought her charter from its hiding place ; Rhode Island got her old charter back and was happy ; and in New York a tradesman seized power and held it for three years ( § 92). 113. Massachusetts gets a New Charter. — Massachusetts, like Rhode Island, wanted her old charter restored, but in- stead of that she was given a new one in 169 1. In giving this new charter the government of William and Mary re- tained Massachusetts as a royal province, and under the one charter were grouped, as the new province of Massa- chusetts, the old Massachusetts Bay colony, Plymouth, Maine, and Arcadia. While the legislature was restored, the king was to appoint the governor, who was given the power to veto any laws he did not approve. The old rule that only church members could vote was abolished. All forms of religion were to be tolerated. All this was very different from the old Puritan government, but it was to re- main in that form down to the time of the Revolution. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What colonies comprised "The United Colonies of New England" ? 2. What were the best results of that confederation ? New England United 123 3. What result came from Boston's punishment of Quakers ? 4. How did the colony of New Haven lose its identity ? 5. Show how Massachusetts defied the king. 6. What was the cause and what the result of King Philip's Indian war ? 7. What colonies did Massachusetts absorb ? 8. How did Massachusetts become a royal province ? 9. Show how Governor Andros was a tyrant. 10. How did the new charter of Massachusetts differ from the old ? CHAPTER XII EXPANSION OF NEW FRANCE References. — Hart's Source Book, pp. 96-98 ; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 495 "SOS- Home Readings. — McMurry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. H., pp. 1-15 (Joliet and Marquette), 16-53 (La Salle), 54-67 (Hennepin) ; Parkman's Struggle for a Continent. 114. The Great Lakes Explored. — In the years between 1607 and 1691 the English colonies had expanded up and down the Atlantic coast. New Sweden and New Nether- land had disappeared and had become the English crown colonies of Delaware and New York. Spain still held Florida, and France occupied the St. Lawrence. Between those points all was English. As New France was an ambitious and troublesome neighbor on the north, it is well to study now the expansion of the first colony planted by Champlain (§§ 40-43). The great fact to be remembered about this expansion of New France is the exploration westward around the Great Lakes to the Mississippi Valley. The discovery and exploration of the Great Lakes re- quired many years of hard work by strong and fearless men. The natural gateway to those lakes was closed to the Frenchmen by that battle with the Mohawk tribe of the Iroquois on Lake Champlain in 1609 (§ 41). To avoid those hostile Indians the French explorers turned from the upper St. Lawrence and traveled up the Ottawa River. It thus happened that Lake Huron was the first 124 Expansion of New France 125 of the lakes discovered. Lake Ontario was the next dis- covered, Superior next, and then Lake Michigan. They had long heard of Lake Erie, but that was so near the homes of the Iroquois that it was the last one discovered. It was not navigated, except by a few Rangers of the Woods, until 1669. 115. The French reach the Mississippi (1673). — Champlain, as governor of New France (1622-1635), en- couraged these explorations and the planting of new fur trading posts. His successors did likewise, and in the course of the work the explorers and traders heard of a great river in the West. In 1672 Father James Marquette and Louis J-oliet were sent out to search for the river. With five companions in two birch bark canoes they paddled up Lake Michigan to Green Bay. They entered the Fox River and went on to an Indian camp, where they learned of another small river that flowed into the large one. This new river they called the Wisconsin. They paddled down the Wisconsin until June 17, 1673, when they came out upon the great" Father of Waters." They paddled down the Mississippi, past the mouth of the Mis- souri, past the Ohio, and on near the mouth of the Arkan- sas, when they turned back. Though the great river had been discovered more than a hundred years before by De Soto (§ 28), this was in itself a wonderful discovery and meant much to the colonists of France. 116. La Salle names Louisiana. — Five years were al- lowed to pass before the French king gave authority to Robert de la Salle to " discover the western part of New France." From 1678 he worked four years at the great task. From Green Bay he made his way to the Illinois River, and near the present city of Peoria, Illinois, built a 126 United States History for Schools fort, which he named Crevecoeur (heartbreak) and left a companion in charge while he returned to Canada. Com- ing back, he found his companion and workmen gone. He spent a winter looking for them. Failing to find them, he Robert Chevalier de la Salle, resolutely set out on the Mississippi in February, 1682, while the river was full of floating trees and ice. With grim determination he kept on until he came to the waters of the Gulf of Mexico. He took possession of the whole region for King Louis XIV. of France, and in his honor he called the land Louisiana. In the meantime Father Expansion of New France 127 Hennepin had explored the upper Mississippi to the Falls of St. Anthony, where now stand St. Paul and Minneapolis. Two years later La Salle led a party by sea to colonize Louisiana. They missed the mouth of the iVIississippi and landed on the coast of Texas. Part of the little colony, surviving disease, was led by La Salle toward the Illinois River. Some of them reached that river, but the great leader was murdered on the way. 117. The Chain of Forts. — The two greatest water highways to the interior of North America were then in the hands of the French. These were the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi River. They tried to unite and hold these vast tracts of land by a chain of forts and trading posts, first around the Great Lakes and then down the Mississippi Val- ley. In 1695 Kaskaskia was built, Detroit, Vincennes, and others followed. Later New Orleans was built ( 1718) near the mouth of the Mississippi River. The weakness of the scheme was the effort to hold such large areas by such small and widely separated forts. 118. French Colonial Government. — The French set- tlers apparently did not desire and certainly did not have King Louis XIV. oh Pr\nce. 128 United States History for Schools any voice in their government, as was the case in the Eng- lish colonies. The French colonial government was pater- nal. They all looked to the king for authority and support. Louis XIV. would sometimes aid the colonies generously, and then for years he would neglect them. Where farming was carried on at all, it was done by habitants, or cultivators, who paid small rents to the seign- iors, or lords of large estates. The local government was in the hands of judges, priests, and captains of militia. The governor represented the king and exercised the greatest authority in the colony. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. How did the French explorers approach the Great Lakes ? 2. In what order were the lakes discovered ? 3. Show how the French explored the Mississippi River. 4. How did the French propose to hold New France and Louisiana ? 5. What kind of government did the French settlers have ? CHAPTER XIII HOME LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 104-124; Hart's Source Book, pp. 74-95, 108-123. Home Readings. — Earle's Child Life in Colonial Days ; Earle's Home Life in Colonial Days ; Earle's Costume of Colonial Times ; Hart's Source Reader, Wil. L, 38-63, 91-130 (Indians), 152-155, 165-233; Irving's Sketch Book ; Scudder's Men and Manners One Hundred Years Ago. 119. Colonial Boys and Girls. — From the time James II. was driven from the throne of England (1688) to the time France lost her possessions in America (1763) there were four colonial wars whose results were important. But however important those results were, the Hfe of the Eng- lish colonists and what they learned to think about and to do were of much greater importance. We will therefore turn our attention now to the experience of the colonists at home and in public. From Georgia to Maine there was almost every kind of boy and girl that can well be imagined. Their lives were as different as were the colonies founded by their fathers and mothers. In the sunny South the children had a gay time. On ponies of their own they rode over their fathers' plantations or, when safe from Indians, made journeys to other plantations. As babies they were cared for by negro " mammies " and later had great fun with little negro playmates. They enjoyed the Maypole and other dances. There were not many schools in the South, as the homes K 129 ijo United States History for Schools were far apart, but the planter hired private tutors for his children or arranged with the clergyman to give them les- sons. As the boys grew to be young men, many of them were sent away to the schools and universities of England. The Puritans of New England were shocked at the ideas of dancing and frivolous gayety. But the New England children were not wholly deprived of fun. There was maple-sugar making in the early spring. In the summer y™™""i""i"i"'i I" rHK NKW ENGLAM) I'KIMEK. there were fishing and swimming ; in the fall nut-gather- ing ; in the winter skating and sleighing. There were fewer slaves in the North, but the white boys and girls often played with the children of friendly Indians. The children lived in towns and each town had its public school, which took up much more time of the boys and girls than was required by the tutors in the South. The men and women of the North worked much harder Home Life and Institutions 3^ than .those of the South. The men cleared the forests for their fields, cut logs for houses, used the rifle to protect their homes and to get game for food. As soon as the boys were big enough, they had to help in this work. The women spun yarn and wove cloth. They often had great enjoyment at quilting bees, where the girls joined in the ^5:=::= I o 4- i^x-ii^C 6- iV . i^ V vrx work that was made into play. Often the men, women, and chil- dren all joined in a rollicking good time at husking and barn-raising bees. Between these two groups of North and South were the Dutch children of New York, the Quaker children of Pennsylvania, and the Catholic children of Maryland. They had games and pastimes of their own, but these were not as gay as those in the South or as stern as those in the North. Schools were furnished for them at an early day, and from them, as from the other sections, grew up a splendid har- vest of patriotic men and women. 120. The Colonial Home. — There was one thing that all the colonists experienced alike. When they first landed, they were in a wilderness, and the first thing they needed was shelter. The log-cabin home was in each case the beginning of the town or settlement. Each family brought some furniture, but not by any means enough. Benches and stools served for chairs. Tables in the cabins were hinged so they could be swung up to the roof and out of An Old Sampler. 132 United States History for Schools the way when the meal was over. One daughter of a pio- neer has said : " Father drove some pegs in the logs behind the door. Those were for our wardrobe, but we didn't need many pegs, for we only had enough clothes for every day's wear." As those few clothes were worn out, the settlers, especially in the North, prepared clothes from deerskins, stitched with sinew, just like the Indians. Often plates were made of wood and cups of the hard shells of gourds. Light was furnished from the blazing logs on the big fireplace or by a rude lamp made from a cup filled with fish oil, from which dangled a sputtering wick of twisted rags. These gave place to candles when tallow could be obtained. They had no matches, and if the fire went out, one of the boys would be sent to borrow a few glowing embers from a neighbor. From year to year wealth increased and the homes improved. Good sub- stantial frame houses supplanted the log cabins, and in every community the more successful men built mansions. These were sometimes made of brick and stone. They were never gaudy ; they were just large, strong, and comfortable. These houses were so well built that now, two centuries later, many people admire the "colonial" style of architecture. Into these fine homes came many luxuries, such as beautifully carved furniture, clocks higher than a man's head, rare china and silver dishes, quaint candlesticks and solidly bound, well- printed books. Spinning Whekl. Home Life and Institutions 133 As the people became rich they disclosed the fact in those luxuries for the home, and also in their fancy and elaborate clothing. The men wore powdered wigs, velvet coats, knee breeches, silk stockings, and big silver buckles A Cui.oNiAL Mansion. on the shoes. Ladies wore dresses of velvet, silk, and satin. The old record tells of Dutch matrons in New York who wore eight fine dresses, one over the other, so everybody could see at once that they had lots of good clothes. 121. The Colonial Church. — There were all kinds of churches and creeds in the colonies. They varied greatly in strictness, but the Sabbath was everywhere well ob- served. The strictest church goers were in New England. The churches were often far from comfortable. In the winter there was no heat unless the worshiper brought a heated stone or a little tin box containing a charcoal fire. If one drowsed in warm summer weather, he would receive 134 United States History for Schools a thump on the head from a long pole in the hands of one of the officers. But whatever the creed, the colonist had great respect for his church, and the minister of each com- munity was always looked up to as the intellectual, as well as the religious, leader. 122. The Colonial College. — The ministry was the one profession that fond parents wished their boys to enter. It was late in the colonial period when law and medicine won respectable standing in the estimation of the colonists. Colleges were needed, therefore, to train ministers that a true knowledge of the Gospel " might not perish from our midst." The first college established was Harvard (1636) in Cambridge (§ 80). The second was in Virginia (1693), the College of William and Mary, whose graduates have numbered thousands, including many famous men. The third was Yale (1701), established by Connecticut because Harvard had grown too lax to please the stricter Puritans. After a lapse of nearly half a century, there sprang up a number of colleges until every Northern colony had at least one. These were Princeton (1746) in New Jersey; King's (1754), now Columbia, in New York; University of Penn- sylvania (1755) in Philadelphia; Brown (1764) in Provi- dence; Dartmouth ( 1 769) in New Hampshire; and Queen's (now Rutgers) (1770) in New Jersey. Although the colonists everywhere struggled for the principles of self-government, they had not developed the idea of equality. In the churches the best pews were held by the most influential families. A similar case was seen in those colonial colleges. When John Adams grad- uated from Harvard (1744), his name appeared as number fourteen in a class of twenty-four. If the alphabetical ar- rangement had been used, his name would probably head Home Life and Institutions 135 the list, as it begins with A. No one then dreamed he was going to be the President of the United States; his family was not as influential as others, and so his name was placed more than halfway toward the foot of the list. The studies in those colleges were not nearly as numer- ous, nor as difficult, as those in the American high schools of to-day, and yet they iitted hundreds and, in time, thou- sands of young men for successful and brilliant careers as statesmen, lawyers, doctors, ministers, teachers, and busi- ness men. 123. Means of Travel. — The slender trails through the woods used by Indians or wild animals were the first high- ways for the colonists, who used them, as the Indians had done, in quest of food and furs. These trails developed into bridle paths and later into roads. But the colonial roads were wretched, and the rich man's "coach and six" . often needed the si.x horses to pull the heavy coach through the mud. Most of the towns were on rivers or bays. To them boats were the favorite means of travel. The early settlers of Maryland depended upon Chesapeake Bay for a way to visit each other. One of them complained that they were shut off from their neighbors by storms, and all they had to eat for a season were terrapins, oysters, and canvasback ducks ! 124. Business in the Colonies. — There was very little manufacturing in the South. All the labor, slave and free, was needed to care for the valuable crops of tobacco, rice, and indigo. It was a great and joyous day when the ship came to the planter's wharf. There was unloaded an abundance of all kinds of goods needed for the year, and as soon as these were unloaded, the return cargo of farm 136 United States History for Schools products was loaded. So much was the labor needed for the crops that the planter imported from England even the coarse stable brooms that any Yankee boy could have made. In Pennsylvania some ships were built, some fur trade was carried on, but the principal business was the raising and grinding of grain. In New York the fur trade was the greatest source of wealth. In New England much yarn and cloth was made, but always in the homes instead of in fac- tories, as at present. New England was also the greatest builder of ships, and this meant many trained carpen- ters, ropemakers, and sailmakers. It was folly to build ships unless they could be used, and their use made com- merce. This commerce provided labor for many people and produced wealth for many merchants. The greatest item in this commerce was fish. Car- goes of codfish were sent every year to England. In the State House in Boston at the present day there hangs the figure of a large codfish, the symbol of the Commonwealth's first commercial success. The colonials also sent out ships on whaling cruises, which were profitable. Often the captain would sell his ship as well as his cargo and then return to build another in New England. The world would now condemn one branch of profitable trade, though it was considered proper enough in that time. A captain would get a cargo of sugar and molasses in the West Indies, which he would take to Pine-tki:e Shilling. Home Life and Institutions 137 New England. There it would be made into rum. He would take the rum to Africa and exchange it for slaves. These slaves he would sell in the West Indies and buy more sugar and molasses. Of course, big profits were made at each point of this triangular commerce. 125. Pirates and Smugglers. — Pirates flourished in that day. It was too often deemed right for a ship of one na- tion to rob and plunder a ship under another flag. This developed boldness and reckless disregard for law, so that wicked men did not care what flag a ship carried so long as they could get riches for themselves. Murder was added to robbery, and pirates became a great dread to the American sailors. When King William sent the Earl of Bellamont to be governor (1695) he told him that piracy had become a dis- grace to the colonies. " I send you, my Lord, to New York," said the king, " because an honest and intrepid man is wanted to put down these abuses, and because I believe you to be such a man." The governor sent Captain William Kidd to punish the pirates, but he became the worst pirate of them all and was after- wards arrested and hanged. Smugglers were by no means as bad as the pirates. In fact, many very good people were smugglers. England's Navigation Laws were thought to be very unfair. As the colonists had no representative in Parliament, where ^'"'' ^™^'^^- those laws were made, they thought the only way open to them was to disobey or avoid the laws. In that way they became smugglers. 126. Punishment of Criminals. — Smugglers were usually 138 United States History for Schools screened by their neighbors, for all hated the Navigation Laws; but pirates and others were severely punished. We have seen how Penn's government decreed that only mur- der and treason were to be punished by death (§ loi). In other colonies there were a dozen crimes for which men, when convicted, were hanged. For other crimes the officers used the cruel pillory, stocks, branding iron, and duck- ing stool. All these punishments were inflicted in public places so all could see and know the disgraced wrongdoer. It must have had a miserable effect on the colonial children when allowed to wit- ness such spectacles. The good example of William Penn treating prisoners humanely has long since been followed throughout the United States. 127. The Witchcraft Craze (1692). — It seems incredible that such brave and independent people as the colonists would allow themselves to be worked up to a frenzy over such a strange belief as that in witches, but such a thing really happened. In Salem a witch craze broke out. It was only necessary for some one to suspect another of being a witch to start a trial. Many innocent people, so suspected, were thrown into prison, and before the frenzy died away, nineteen were condemned and hanged as witches. 128. Number and Kinds of People. — In 1700 the popu- lation of the English colonies numbered about 250,000. In half a century, up to 1750, the number had increased to about 1,370,000. The great majority of these people were English, but, of course, there were still many Dutch Home Life and Institutions 139 in New York, and some Swedes had remained in Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. There were Scotch-Irish and Scotch Highlanders in the mountains of Pennsylvania and South Carolina. There were Huguenots, especially in the South, and a few Irish and Jews. During the struggles of Frederick the Great of Prussia against Austria for the leadership of the Germans a large number of Germans came to America. Some of them settled in the Hudson and Mohawk valleys of New York, but more still settled in Pennsylvania. Some of their descendants are now wrongly called " Pennsylvania Dutch." The population at that time included more than 200,000 negro slaves. The largest cities in 1750 were Boston, Philadelphia, New York, Baltimore, and Charleston. But the people had not crowded into cities, as they have since done. They had built towns and hamlets along the banks of most of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic, and all of their settle- ments lay between the mountains and the sea. In 1750 the English government decided that the colonies were getting too strong and independent. It is important to note that just as they decided to try to make the colonies obey the Navigation Laws and bear some part of the government's expenses, the people of the colonies began to cross the mountains and build their first homes in what was then the " Far West." Those Western settle- ments had a considerable part in colonial struggles, and subsequently the line of the " Far West," or the frontier, was gradually extended until it reached the Pacific Ocean. 129. Slaves and their Treatment. — Every civilized nation now looks upon slavery, the ownership or traffic in human beings, as a wrong and hateful thing. But in the time of the colonies and for long years afterwards such was not 140 United States History for Schools the case. When the moral law awakened consciences to the idea that slavery was wrong, men were found who SIMON SHURLOCK: iv. 6, All mafters of vefTch, and others, are forbid to carry them, or either of them, awa;, as the/ iliali anfwec it at their peril. ^SS^ Ran away, on the firft of M.Tch inft. fioiTi ihe I'ubicribfr, «n Ti- njcuni Kldnil, in Cheftcr county, an Irifn fervsnt l^d, about 16 years old, iiauKni | Jofeph MulJin, about five ffCt high, ^lort brown hair, black eyes, thin face, dowi) look, and has but very little to fay J by his bfhaviour he may be taken for a fool— Jiad on when he vtjnt ;'.wdy, an oKI blanket coat, an, and their Po/kn/y, for lur .ind rja\ AMEN Non-Intercourse. 176 United States History for Schools October 5, 1765. There they adopted the " Declaration of Rights and Grievances." The principal rights set forth were that they were subjects of the British crown, and as such could only be taxed by the consent of their own legis- latures. The grievances cited were the illegal taxes and the attack on the right of trial by jury in the admiralty courts. They did not aim at independence. They simply in- sisted upon their rights as British subjects, and from that Congress they sent an address to the king and petitions to Parliament. 165. Opposition by Newspapers and Merchants. — The Stamp Act was to go into effect on November i, 1765. As that day drew near, the newspapers published issues in mourning bands of black. The Pennsylvania Journal had in one corner a picture of a skull and crossbones, around which were the words : " An emblem of the effects of the stamp. Oh ! the fatal Stamp." The editor said he would stop publishing his paper "in order to deliberate whether any methods can be found to elude the chains forged for us." The merchants made written agreements not to buy any goods in Great Britain. The people joined in these agree- ments. That was a blow that soon made many of King George's merchants at home angry, for it interfered seri- ously with a profitable trade. 166. Repeal of the Stamp Act (1766). — Americans dis- covered that they had powerful friends in England. Chief among them was William Pitt, who made a famous speech in the House of Commons, in which he said : "The gentle- man tells us, America is obstinate ; America is almost in open rebellion. I rejoice that America has resisted. The Wrangle over Taxation 177 Three milHons of people so dead to all the feelings of lib- erty, as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, would have been fit instruments to make slaves of the rest." Of course such a speech was immensely popular in America. It was also popular in England. The people there were tired of all the trouble over taxing colonists without their consent, and there were many Englishmen who believed, with William Pitt, that British liberties were also in danger from that kind of taxation. At the end of the sharp debate Parliament repealed, the Stamp Act. When the king went to give his royal assent there were great crowds who cheered along the street. When the report reached Boston, a handbill was hastily printed telling about the " Glorious News " and also telling the colonials how the news had been received in England, as follows: "There were the greatest rejoicings possible in the City of London by all ranks of peojjle, on the total repeal of the Stamp Act, — the ships in the River dis- played all their colors. Illuminations and bonfires in many parts. In short, the rejoicings were as great as was ever known on any occasion." 167. It was not a Total Repeal. — The repeal of the Stamp Act was forced upon the king and his " friends " by the people at home and in the colonies. He did not like it and to appease him another act was passed at the same time. It was called the " Declaratory Act." The declaration was that Parliament still had the right to legis- late for America "in all cases whatsoever." Benjamin Franklin told the British ministers that those " resolutions (Declaratory Act) of right would give the colonists very little concern, if they are never attempted to be carried into practice." lyS United States History for Schools 168. How the Revolution was hastened by the Gout. — No Englishman was more loved by the people than was William Pitt. Hope ran high when it was decided that he would again take office. Two unfortunate things hap- pened at that critical time. Pitt accepted the title of Earl of Chatham, and the " Great Commoner " became a mem- ber of the House of Lords. That step cost him much of his influence with the people. At the same time he was afflicted with the gout. He became so ill that he would not allow the members of the Cabinet to talk with him, and he even refused to see his sovereign when the king went so far as to pay to his statesman a personal visit during the troubled times in America. The colonials would have listened to Pitt as to no other Englishman, and Pitt, sympathizing with them, might have found a way to avoid trouble. But his illness threw the work into the hands of others who by rash measures in- creased the trouble. It is quite likely that independence would have come in time, but it now seems certain that the Revolution was hastened by Pitt's attack of the gout. 169. The Townshend Acts (1767). — Franklin's word of caution (§ 167) was ignored, and the Declaratory Act was put into force the year after it was passed. Charles Town- shend, the minister who took the lead while Pitt was ill, said he kaew a way to get a revenue from America, and he declared : " England is undone if this taxation of America is given up." While he was working out his plan. New York, through its legislature, declined to furnish food and supplies for the British soldiers sent there. As soon as this was known in England, Parliament declared the action of the New York legislature to be null. Such severe action frightened the colonials, who saw in it an attack on their liberty to make their own laws. The Wrangle over Taxation 179 Townshend's plan had three parts. First, New York was punished by having her assembly suspended. This was a new and dangerous thrust at the most important of colonial institutions. Second, to enforce the navigation acts and collect customs duties, a board of commission was appointed. Third, a new tax was levied. The colonials were required to pay duties on all glass, paints, paper, and tea. It was estimated that this tax would produce forty thousand pounds a year, and the money was to be used to pay the salaries of colonial governors and judges. 170. Samuel Adams and the Circular Letter. — Samuel Adams of Massachusetts is called the " Father of the Revolution." When Patrick Henry delivered his oration against the Stamp Act in Virginia (§ 162), Samuel Adams also delivered a great speech against the Act, in Faneuil- Hall, " the Cradle of Liberty." Against these new Town- shend Acts Adams started a new and effective kind of resistance. He drew up a circular letter, which was adopted by the Massachusetts legislature and sent to the other colonies. This produced united action of protest against the new tax. The king and his ministers were furious. They issued commands to the governors to send to their homes every legislature that adopted such a protest. They also ordered British troops to Boston and demanded that the agitators be arrested and sent to England for punishment. The troops arrived, but the commands of the king were not obeyed by the governor. 171. Repeal of the New Tax (1770). — The legislatures protested and sent petitions to Parliament. The people refused to buy the taxed goods. The opposition, though much more orderly, was quite as sincere as that against iS^" r:v,:c\i St.itcs llistorv tor Schools the Si;ini p Act had been. Instead of forty thous;\jid pounds, the first year under the law produced only sixteen thousand pounds, and it cv^st tilieon thous,uui pounds to collect that smu. l>esides tliat, the government had paid one hundred and seventy thousand pounds tor the expenses of the sol- diei-s in America. It was clear that the law w.is a failure, h was appealed, but once more the government tried to SxUe its power of taxation bv ret;\ining the tax on tea. This was a stupid blunder. Such tax would yield no great revenue and it would keep alix'x'! the opposition. 172. Violence in the Colonies. — If the rej>eal of the tax had Kvn conipicio. some cause of trouble would still re- main so long as the British kept the soldiers in America. Those in Boston had a a^llision with the people. A squad of soldiers were marching thi\>ugh the streets whei\ they were n\et by a mob. Both sides became abusive. Snow- balls and stones w oi o tha^wn, and finally the soldiers tired a volley killing tive n\en. This is now known in histv^ry as the " Boston Mass;K"R\" though the name is much too big for the event. That tight occurrevernor the people's demand that the troops be taken out of Boston. The soldiers were removed tv^ an island in the harlx^r. The king's soldiers also had trouble with the j^eople in New York and North Carv>lin;u In 1773 a rx>\*al re\-eaiue vessel called the CTas/^^ mn aground while chasing a smug-gler otT the shore of Rh^xle Island. She was attacked and burned by armevl men. The colonial otlicers made no attempt to punish the men for this act ot violence. ITS. Committees of Corre^vxMuionce vi77i\ — Samuel The Wrangle over Taxation i8i / Adams ()ri,i;inalc(l an iiinoci-nl plan whicli had very im- |)()itant results, lie persuaded llie Boston town nieetini^ to appoint a loinniitlee to correspond with other towns in Massaclnisells. All liie towns would ihus learn what was <;"()in};" on throughout the colony. 'This plan was soon ex- panded so that each colony was connnunicatinj;" with every other colony throuL;h connnittces oi correspondence. There was then no Conj^ress lor united action. 'I'hese conniiittees took the place of such a union. 174. "Boston Tea Party." — The tea tax was clung to that Great liritain nn't^ht save the right to tax the colonies. But the colonials were willing to get along without tea lather than pay such a tax. In the meantime the Ivist India C'oinpany was suffering from the loss of trade in the lea they brought from the Orient. The home gov- ernment tried to force the colonials to buy. The officers removed the larger ])ait of the duties in hjigland, and thus allowed the tea to be reshipped and sold in America at a price lower even than in ICngland itself, l^ut to buy would be acknowk;dging the right of Great Britain to collect the tax, and the colonials knew it. When the ships arrived in America, there was great op- position. I^'rom some places the ships were sent back at once. The most famous case was in Boston. A large town meeting was held (1773), and a demand was made that the tea be sent back to l^ngland. That was refused, and the meeting continued into the evening, when sud- denly the ])eople were startled by hearing an Indian war whoop. The meeting adjourned and followed to the wharf a band of men disguised as Indians. Without destroying other property they dumped into the harbor the contents of three hundred and forty-two chests of tea. It was per- 1 82 United States History for Schools fectly clear that the colonials would not submit to illegal taxes, even a small one on the single luxury of tea. On the other hand, this form of violent opposition was also illegal. The colonials knew that, and so they hid them- selves in the disguises of Indians. 175. The Home Government strikes Back (1774). — No king, no ministers, no members of Parliament, could possi- bly excuse the colonials for those violent acts. The Ameri- can friends in Parliament could and did say that Parhament was largely to blame for trying the illegal taxes, but they could not excuse the burning of the warship Gaspee or the destruction of the tea and other private property or the abuse and rough treatment of soldiers and officers. King George and his ministers, thoroughly aroused and angry, had no trouble in persuading Parliament to strike back. The mistake they made was in trying to punish one set of illegal acts by another set of acts equally objectionable. These acts took the form of five harsh laws. The first law was meant as punishment for the famous tea party. The port of Boston was to be rigidly closed to all trade until the town of Boston made humble submission to the home government. Edmund Parker, an American friend in Parliament, objected to this law because it punished the innocent with the guilty. The second law v^'as to punish the entire colony of Mas- sachusetts by taking away some of the liberties set forth in the charter. This was a serious blow at the very founda- tion of the colony. If it succeeded with Massachusetts, no other colony could feel safe from a similar blow when Parliament was ready to strike. The third law provided for sending certain prisoners to England for trial. The Wrangle over Taxation 183 The fourth law was a new scheme for compelling the colonists to furnish shelter and supplies for the British soldiers. The fifth law was called the Quebec Act. This was intended to keep as friends of Great Britain the French Canadians by giving them greater liberties. There was King George III. of England. nothing about this to complain of, but the same Act attached to Quebec all the Ohio country between the Ohio River, the Mississippi River, and the Great Lakes. The old Eng- lish colonies claimed that land under their charters, their 184 United States History for Schools pioneers were settling there, and this law was intended to stop those new settlements and to wipe out the colonies' claims to the lands. 176. A Crisis in America. — All this trouble, all this wrangle, was about taxation. Although there were blame and stubbornness on both sides, it was clearly seen that the strain between the colonies and the home government was fast approaching the breaking point. At this crisis the Committees of Correspondence proved their usefulness. Every colony was quickly informed of the new laws and of the plans to meet the attacks by Par- liament. The Virginia legislature adopted a resolution saying that the day Boston's port was closed would be observed as a day of "fasting and prayer" in Virginia. For that action the royal governor of Virginia dissolved the legislature. The Committee of Correspondence then took its place, and Patrick Henry proclaimed : '" We must fight. I repeat it, sir, we must fight." George Washington agreed to raise a thousand men, feed them at his own expense, and march to the relief of Boston. Expressions of sympathy and promises of help poured into Boston from other towns and colonies. General Gage arrived in Boston as the new military governor of Massachusetts. He brought four regiments of British troops. On June 17, 1774, the Massachusetts legislature being in session, Samuel Adams introduced a resolution calling for a Colonial Congress to discuss these new and oppressive measures. General Gage heard what was proposed and sent a hurried messenger to deliver his proclamation dissolving the assembly. The messenger found the door locked. He knocked there in vain. The door was not opened until the resolution was adopted- The Wrangle over Taxation 185 When the new governor's proclamation was read, the assembly was dissolved. The Massachusetts Committee of Correspondence took its place and sent messages about the proposed congress to all the other colonies. Every colony approved the plan, and New York asked Massachu- setts to name the time and place for assembling. Mas- sachusetts named Philadelphia as the place and September I, 1774, as the time. 177. First Continental Congress (1774). — The royal gov- ernors were watchful. They did not favor the idea of a Colonial Congress. One assembly after another was dis- solved as soon as it proposed to choose delegates to the Congress. The people then held meetings or conventions, so that every colony but Georgia managed in some way to name delegates. Everywhere leading men were selected, such as George Washington and Patrick Henry of Virginia, Samuel Adams and John Adams, the famous cousins from Massachusetts, Roger Sherman from Connecticut, and John Jay from New York. This was by far the most important meeting ever held in America up to that time. When it was called to order in Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia, on September 5, the del- egates were first afraid to have the meeting begun with prayer because they did not believe that Puritans, Episco- palians, Quakers, Catholics, Presbyterians, Baptists, and others could join in a prayer led by any one minister. At that point Samuel Adams declared that he was ready to be led in prayer by a patriotic clergyman of the Episcopal church then living in Philadelphia. Such a word from Puritan Massachusetts was like magic to the meeting. From that moment it was clear the colonies were ready to lay aside all differences over creeds in the presence of the 1 86 United States History for Schools threatened attacks upon their liberties. They probably felt that if they lost their liberties, they would lose their churches as well. A few of the leaders were already in favor of independ- ence, but the great majority beheved in simply protecting their rights as British subjects. So the first Congress con- tented itself with the adoption of a series of addresses to the people of the colonies, of Canada, of Great Britain, and to the king. To these addresses was added a declaration of rights. All these papers were very carefully written in dignified language. The delegates then pledged them- selves not to import any goods, especially slaves or tea, from Great Britain. Every colony was asked to join in this move. It was known as the " Association." It was greater than any other effort to defeat the taxes by stopping trade. It was then agreed that if Parliament did not act favor- ably upon their addresses, a second Congress would assem- ble in May, 1775. 178. Great Compliment from William Pitt. — In the House of Lords William Pitt, then Earl of Chatham, made a strong speech, in which he paid the colonials a great compliment, as follows : "When your lordships look at the papers, when you consider their decency, firmness, and wisdom, you cannot but respect their cause and wish to make it your own. For myself, I must declare and avow, that in all my reading and observation, — and it has been my favorite study: I have read Thucydides, and have studied and admired all the master states of the world, — that for solidity of reasoning, force of sagacity, and wisdom of conclusion, under such a complication of circumstances, no nation or body of men can stand in preference to the general congress at Philadelphia." The Wrangle over Taxation 187 179. The Soft Message got a Hard Answer. — The king and his minister were in no mood to deal gently with the colonies. The Congress was looked upon as a rebellious body. Instead of framing an answer to those mild ad- dresses sent by the Congress, Parliament passed laws de- claring Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and forbidding the colonies to trade with Great Britain or the West Indies or to take any part in the fisheries of New- foundland. The wrangle over taxation had brought the mother country and her colonies close to the verge of war. The colonists felt sure that if they submitted to illegal taxation, all their other liberties would soon be gone. So they re- sisted to the end. At that time it was not realized in the mother country that if the government succeeded with such illegal taxes in the colonies, they might soon be levied upon the people of Great Britain as well. More than a hundred years afterwards, Great Britain's minister to the United States declared (1879): " Englishmen now under- stand that in the American Revolution you were fighting our battles." STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Show how a new king made more difficult the British problem in America. 2. What was a " writ of assistance " ? 3. Why did the colonists oppose the Stamp Act ? 4. What was done by the Stamp Act Congress ? 5. Show some of the forms of opposition to the stamps. 6. Tell why the repeal of the Stamp Act was not complete. 7. How did. Pitt's illness hasten the Revolution ? 8. Describe Townshend's threefold plan for taxing America. 9. Of what use was the Adams circular letter ? 10. Why was the tea tax a blunder ? 1 88 United States History for Schools 1 1 . How did the colonials learn of each others plans ? 12. Describe the "Boston Tea Party." 13. Show how the home government sought to punish the violence of the colonials. 14. Tell of the sympathy extended to Boston when her port was dosed. 15. Describe the First Continental Congress. i 16. How were the soft messages answered ? CHAPTER XVI FIRST HALF OF THE REVOLUTION References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 154-173 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 144-15 1. Home Readings. — Abbot's Blue Jackets of '76 ; Bryant's Seventy- Six ; Cooper's Lionel Lincoln ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. IL, pp. 183- 227 ; Henty'.s True to the Old Flag ; Holmes's Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill Battle ; Longfellow's Paul Revere's Ride ; Sparks's Men Who Made the Nation, pp. 79-118 (John Adams). 180. Hostilities begin at Lexington (1775). — "Stand your ground. Don't fire unless fired upon. But if they mean to have a war, let it begin here." Thus spoke Captain Parker to his " Minute Men " at Lexington on April 19, 1775. Since then the words have been carved on a granite bowlder marking the place where those "embattled farmers" lined up at Lexington. Any one standing there to-day and reading those famous words must thrill with the thought of being on the spot where the actual fighting of the American Revolution was commenced. Across the street from the granite bowlder is still stand- ing the quaint old wooden house in which John Hancock and Samuel Adams were roused from sleep on that eventful morning. The alarm was given by Paul Revere, the famous messenger of the Revolution. When the Massa- chusetts assembly was dissolved, the Committee of Cor- respondence did the best it could until a Provincial Congress was formed. At this Congress John Hancock 190 United States History for Schools' was president and Samuel Adams was the leading spirit. This Congress made arrangements for twenty thousand men to be ready to fight at a minute's notice. They be- came known as "Minute Men." General Gage heard that John Hancock and Samuel Adams were staying with a friend in Lexington. He sent British soldiers to arrest them and to proceed then to Concord to capture the arms and ammunition the Minute Men had collected there. In some way the Americans found out the plan, a beacon was hung in the belfry of the Old North Church, and the signal was caught by Paul Revere. He and William Dawes, another mes- senger, dashed out over the roads on horseback, shouting, " The Regulars are coming ! " Hancock and Adams were saved, and the Minute Men gathered on Lexington Green. When the troops found the Minute Men lined up for battle, the British fired and killed seven of them. The troops then hurried on to Concord. They destroyed some of the am- munition, but most of it had been carried away to safety. At Concord Bridge the troops again met the Minute Men, who came flocking in from every side. The fight was severe and earnest. Men were killed on both sides and the British troops started back toward Boston. Now the Minute Men had the advantage. They hastened from the fields, hid behind logs or rocks, and shot the retreating soldiers. The Minute Man. From a Statue b y Daniel Chester French. First Half of the Revolution 191 The two thousand British troops kept hurrying their march until it became a confused rush for safe quarters at Boston. They had lost three hundred of their men, while the Americans had lost but one hundred. The Americans followed the British troops to Boston. Others came in from all the country side until there were sixteen thousand of them. The siege of Boston by the Americans had begun. 181. Second Continen- tal Congress (1775). — Before the battle of Lexington had occurred the colonies had chosen delegates to the Second Continental Congress, for they knew Great Britain had answered their addresses with more harsh measures. The delegates met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, and elected John Hancock president. The delegates then knew all about Lexington and the siege of Boston. The Congress decided that the colonies must unite in re- sisting the mother country and to do so must raise an army of twenty thousand men. Right there was given another evidence of united feeling like the case of the prayer in the First Continental Congress (§ 177). This time John Adams of Massachusetts proposed George Washington of Virginia as commander in chief of the Continental army. iNDKrENDKNCE HAI.I. AT PH I lAI iKM'll I A. 192 United States History for Schools As before, this showing of mutual trust had a good effect. In accepting the position Washington disclosed his modesty by declaring he thought it was too great for his abilities. He also manifested his great patriotism by saying he would keep an account of his expenses, which Congress would no doubt refund, but for his own services he would not expect any pay. The great leader served his country through the war without a salary. No wonder the people loved and clung to such a leader ! 182. The Attacks on Canada (1775). — Among those addresses adopted by Congress (§ 177) was one to the people of Canada. It was hoped to enlist those people in the fight against illegal taxes. It was also hoped to secure Canadian help as the war approached. Both hopes were vain. From bitter experience in the past New England knew the importance of the line of attack by way of Lake Champlain. So, while the siege of Boston was going on, Ethan Allen of Vermont and Benedict Arnold of Con- necticut were sent with troops who captured Forts Ticon- deroga and Crown Point. Later Montreal was captured and in December Montgomery and Arnold tried to cap- ture Quebec. In this they were defeated. Montgomery was killed and Arnold was severely wounded. 183. Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775). — The British government sent General William Howe to Boston to suc- ceed General Gage. As soon as he arrived he saw the importance of securing control of Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill, from which an enemy could shoot can- non balls into their camps in Boston. The Americans also saw the advantage of those hills. Before the British took up a position there, fifteen hundred Ameri- cans, led by Colonel Prescott, began to throw up intrench- First Half* of the Revolution 19J ments at night. In the morning the British general was surprised to find, what he had feared, the enemy on those hills. With twenty-five hundred soldiers General Howe marched against the rude fort of earth. Colonel Prescott cautioned his men to " Wait until you can see the whites of their eyes." As the British troops drew near, they re- ceived a terrible volley and those who survived retreated. Colonel Prescott had been joined by General Warren and General Putman. The British then set fire to Charlestown and started for a second attack on the hills. The Ameri- cans used up all their powder, but they still fought with bayonets and by using their muskets as clubs while they retreated. The British won, but they had left one thousand of their troops dead on the field. The Americans lost four hun- dred and fifty, including the brave General Warren. The British awoke to the fact that the Americans knew how to fight. The Americans were encouraged to find their re- cruited Minute Men were as brave as the veterans in the British army. Washington, when he heard of the kind of fighting that was done, declared : " The liberties of the country are safe." 184. Washington takes Command. — As Washington passed north from Philadelphia to take command of the army besieging Boston, he was heartily welcomed by each town through which he passed. As he drew near New Haven, the people marched out in a procession to receive him. Part of the parade was made up of Yale College students, a sophomore in the lead, playing a fife. His name was Noah Webster. As a junior he left college to join his father's company and fight for independence, but 194 United States History for Schools he did not become famous until years afterwards wiien he published his great dictionary. In Cambridge, near Harvard University, there is still standing a prized old elm tree. It is said that Washington stood under its branches when he officially took command of the Continental army on July 3, 1775. Many of the Minute Men had gone home. The others were undisci- plined. Washington kept the British troops shut up in Boston while he drilled his men and collected ammunition and suppHes. 185. The Siege of Boston a Success. — Boston was the center of interest. The British aimed the first attacks at that town, and after the first battles the Americans gained strength by being able to hold the British troops there by siege. Washington continued the siege for eight months. He could not drive the British out of Boston without can- nons. During the winter General Knox succeeded in dragging fifty cannons on ox sleds, for about two hundred miles, part of the way through the wilderness, to Cam- bridge. These were some of the British cannons captured at Fort Ticonderoga (§ 182). Early in March (1776) Washington took possession of Dorchester Heights on the southern edge of Boston. The Americans quickly dug intrenchments and planted their cannons in position. General Howe had to fight or get out of Boston. Howe did not want another battle like that of Bunker Hill, so he embarked his soldiers in the British ships and sailed away for Halifax (March 17, 1776). With him went about one thousand citizens who sympathized with the king's side. Among the refugees were many good and able men who did not believe in the separation from Eng- land. There were such people in all the colonies. They First Half of the Revolution 195 were called Loyalists and sometimes they were called Tories. In England the Royalist party was called Tory and the opposition was called the Whig party. Those in America who believed in resistance were sometimes called Whigs, and sometimes Patriots. Of course the king called them Rebels. There was great rejoicing when Washington marched his triumphant army into Boston. Congress voted the leader a gold medal for his victory. 186. British attack in the South. — It was well known that among the Scotch Highlanders and others in South Carolina there were many loyal Tories. The British therefore planned to take advantage of their presence by trying to capture the rich city of Charleston. Clinton moved down with troops from the North, and other troops were sent from England under General Cornwallis. They found the city defended by a rude fort of logs on Sullivan Island in the harbor. Colonel Moultrie in the fort with his brave Southern neighbors fought so stubbornly that the British gave up the attack. The fort was then named Fort Moultrie. 187. Who were Rulers of Europe. — A new nation was about to be born in America. On the threshold of that great event it is well to glance briefly at the conditions in Europe. There was a new king in France. In 1774 Louis XV. died and was succeeded by Louis XVI. He was proud of his ability as a hunter. In his palace was a cabinet con- taining lists of all the birds and animals he had killed. He was also fond of making locks. He kept a locksmith named Gamin, and the two would hide away from the Court to work at the forge. He left affairs of state to his 196 United States History for Schools ministers. Some of them were wise, but in the end they brought about a terrible tragedy. Maria Theresa was still Empress of Austria. At the same time Joseph II. was king of Hungary and Bohemia, and he was also Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He tried to introduce reforms, but the people were not ready for them yet. Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, ruled forty-six years, until 1786. Just half of his reign was devoted to wars. The other twenty-three years were given to works of peace. These works should be remembered even more than his wars. He drained marshes, built roads, improved educa- tion, and made the nation strong and prosperous. Russia had become a power in Europe. The ruler was one of the world's remarkable women, Empress Catherine II., called " the Great," who reigned thirty-four years (1762- 1796). Russia, Austria, and Prussia united in a disgraceful com- bination when they began to divide Poland (1772) and take parts of that kingdom for themselves. 188. Conditions in Great Britain. — The one country of Europe most interesting at that moment was Great Britain. She was at peace with all the world. She had a popula- tion of eight millions, and, of course, could muster an enor- mous army. Her manufactures had increased, she led the world in commerce and she ruled the sea. Before the Americans had any navy whatever. Great Britain used one hundred and thirty cruisers to carry the British army to New York. She could raise immense sums of money by taxes. Part of that money she used to buy German soldiers, Hessians, for thirty-six dollars a head, as if they were horses. The Hessians were brave and honest soldiers, but First Half of the Revolution 197 Great Britain's use of them greatly increased the anger of the Americans. The British Parliament was divided on the American question, but the king had one determined thought. Said he, " Every means of distressing America must meet with my concurrence." 189. Fighting Strength of America. — Against the eight millions of population in Great Britain there were but three millions in the colonies. Of these five hundred thousand were slaves. There was at first no navy, and the army ran as low as five thousand men at one time. A serious source of weakness was the desire of the colonies to manage their own militia forces instead of combining them all in the Continental army. Another weakness was the small amount of money America could raise compared with Great Britain. These weaknesses, however, were more than made up by the bravery and patriotism of the soldiers and their officers, especially of Washington, the peerless leader, who never despaired, who never made a serious blunder, and who held the confidence of the new and strugghng nation. 190. Birth of the New Nation. — Even after the outbreak of hostilities there were many good people in America who believed the colonies ought to remain parts of the British Empire. But when the king sent over increasing armies, including the hired Hessians, the leaders were convinced that a peaceful settlement was no longer possible. Congress hesitated about taking the final step. As late as July 8, 1775, another petition was sent to the king. The answer was a royal proclamation of a rebellion in America. Congress then began to act by getting ready for united resistance and a government separate from Great Britain. 198 United States History for Schools On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia offered this resolution : — "Resolved, That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dis- solved." The question was too important for haste. Action on the resolution was delayed for nearly a month. But in case the resolution was to be adopted a declaration would be needed to announce the fact to the world. So a committee to draw up such a paper was appointed. It consisted of Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and Robert R. Livingston of New York. Jefferson was asked to write the paper and submit it to the other members of the committee. When they received the copy, they had few corrections to offer. To Jefferson belongs the full credit of writing one of the great documents in world history. Congress adopted Lee's resolution on July i, and three days afterwards (July 4) the officers signed the Declara- tion of Independence. The first signature was by John Hancock, who wrote in big bold letters, "so the king of England could read without spectacles." He then said, " We must be unanimous ; we must hang together." To this Franklin made his witty reply, " Yes, we must all hang together, or else we shall all hang separately." That was the feeling at the time. It was really five years later that the last signatures were placed upon the grand old document. The act of declaring independence First Half of the Revolution 199 was kept quiet for some time to avoid " hanging sepa- rately." Years afterwards a beautiful myth was written, declaring that the Declaration had been received with glad acclaim and that its signing had been answered by the ringing of the bell in the old Pennsylvania State House (Independence Hall). The American people have shown their love for such dramatic patriotism by ac- cepting that myth as truth. The old bell is loved by all Americans as the " Liberty Bell." It may still be seen in old Independence Hall in Philadelphia. It was twenty- four years old on the day it was claimed to have an- nounced the birth of a nation. When it was cast no one could foretell its mission, yet the designer had helped to lay the foundation of the beautiful legend by placing upon the metal these words : " Proclaim liberty throughout the land unto all the inhab- itants thereof." 191. Strategic Value of the Hudson. — Everybody knew that hard fighting would follow the Declaration of Inde- pendence. The most apparent military problem of the war was the control of the Hudson River. This was rec- ognized by the New England Minute Men, who rushed off to capture Ticonderoga and Crown Point (§ 182) after the battle of Lexington. Those forts would stop an in- LiBERTY Bell. 200 United States History for Schools vasion to the Hudson from the north. Washington knew the British would strike at New York so as to control the middle colonies and to provide a way for the British to come down from Canada and thus separate New England from the Southern colonies. Therefore, soon after driving the British out of Boston (§ 185) Washington took an army to New York and built Fort Washington and Fort Lee on the opposite sides of the Hudson River. His surmise was correct. In the summer General Howe and his brother Admiral Howe arrived at New York with a fleet and an army of thirty thousand men. Washington was on Long Island with his army of eighteen thousand men. General Howe landed on August 27 and defeated part of the American army. Ad- miral Howe then brought his ships to prevent Washington's retreat from the island. During the night, protected by a heavy fog, Washington accomplished the remarkable feat of taking his army across the river in small boats. 192. Treachery and Defeat for the Americans. — Although General Howe was slow, he had plenty of troops and ships to carry out the British idea of securing New York. After some fighting along the northern edge of New York, he captured both Fort Washington and Fort Lee with about three thousand American prisoners. Washington was skillful enough to escape with part of his army, crossed the river, and marched into New Jersey to prevent the British from capturing Philadelphia. Before leaving New York, Washington had placed half of his army in command of General Charles Lee at North Castle. Needing every available soldier for the defense of Philadelphia, Washington ordered Lee to bring up his troops. Lee was second in command. He was jealous of First Half of the Revolution 20I Washington and wanted to succeed him as commander in chief. He refused to obey, and that compelled Washington to retreat farther into New Jersey to save his own troops from capture. 193. Nathan Hale, the Patriot Spy. — During the campaign around New York, Washington was anxious to learn of the enemy's strength and plans. He called for a volunteer to undertake the dangerous work as a spy. Captain Nathan Hale, a brilliant young graduate of Yale College, but twenty-one years of age, volunteered and was ac- cepted. Disguised as a royalist schoolmaster he visited the British camps, got all the information wanted, and was returning to Washington when he was captured. He had made notes of the numbers of troops and maps of the forts. When he was taken before General Howe, those papers were found hidden in his shoes. The British gen- eral ordered him to be hanged as a spy before sunrise the next morning. Young Hale asked to see a chaplain, but Nathan Hale. From the Statue by Frederick MacMonnles in New York 202 United States History for Schools was refused. He asked for a Bible and was again refused. He then wrote letters to his home and to his betrothed sweetheart These letters the cruel jailer tore up before the young man's face. But he had splendid courage. Just before death he spoke those words that true Americans will always remember to his honor : " I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." 194. The Gloom over Washington's Retreat. — The jealous treachery of General Lee had caused Washington to make haste in his flight. He was closely pursued by a rnuch larger force of British troops. He burned bridges to delay them, and still on many occasions the Americans would be leaving one side of a town as the British entered at the other side. Washington's army was dwindling. Many of his soldiers had worn out their shoes. Many bloodstained footprints were left in the snow. By that time he had but three thousand men. Gloom settled down on the country. What hope was there in a small army running in distress from a superior enemy ? The end of the war was surely close at hand. The British felt sure of speedy success. Lord CornwalHs was so confident that he went to New York to pack his baggage for a trip to England. Washington, still undaunted, pushed on to the Delaware River and started to send his army across into Pennsyl- vania. He knew the British would soon follow, so he seized all the boats for nearly a hundred miles up and down the river. When the British troops did arrive, they had to sit down and wait for the river to freeze so they couldcross on the ice. 195. Great Joy over the Victory at Trenton. — General Lee marched into New Jersey, but while asleep in a tavern First Half of the Revolution 203 some distance from his troops he was made a prisoner by a small body of British dragoons. General Sullivan then took command of the American troops and soon found a way to join Washington. The leader then had about six thousand men, and he at once planned a bold enterprise. He had noticed that the British had divided their forces and left parts in different portions of New Jersey. He would surprise a body of Hessians left in Trenton. Washington took twenty-four hundred picked men, and on Christmas night began crossing the river. Blocks of ice in the swift stream made it hard work, but there were Massachusetts fishermen in the army. They manned the boats, and by four o'clock in the morning the army started on the nine-mile march to Trenton. The jolly German soldiers had been enjoying Christmas, wholly ignorant of the kind of tricks Santa Claus might play on them in Amer- ica. By daybreak they were awakened by the sounds of battle and very soon they were all prisoners. Washington had not lost a man. The country, in gloom and despair, did not believe the good news. But just as soon as it was found to be really true a wave of great joy swept over all the colonies. 196. Robert Morris wins a Money Victory. — It was ex- tremely important for Washington to keep his little army together. At the end of the year many of the men would be entitled to go home. They knew they were sadly needed there, for the wives and children had no food. The only thing to keep them in the army was pay in good money to send home. Congress had been printing paper money called " Continental currency," but it had become of so little value that " Not worth a Continental " was a by-word, Washington wrote his troubles to his friend 204 United States History for Schools ROHEKT MURKIS. Robert Morris, a successful merchant of Philadelphia, and begged him to send fifty thousand dollars in good, hard money. On New Year's morning (1777) Morris roused his Philadel- phia neighbors from their beds and soon had the money on its way to Washington. Morris had saved the army at a critical hour. 197. " The Old Fox " slips out of a Trap. — Lord Cornwallis was aston- ished when he heard of the battle of Trenton. He quit packing his bag- gage and struck out for New Jersey. Leaving a guard at Princeton, he moved on to Trenton. On the night of January 2, 1 j'j'j, a small creek south of Trenton separated the camps of Washington and Cornwallis. The British general said, " At last we have run down the old fox and we will bag him in the morning." Washington left a few men to keep camp fires burning and to " make believe " building trenches, while he stole around the Cornwallis camp to Princeton, There Wash- ington personally led the attack on the British guard. Five hundred prisoners were captured, and Washington led his army into safe winter quarters near Morristown. In the morning Cornwallis found " the Old Fox " had slipped from his trap. He then heard of the battle of Princeton and of Washington's safe retreat. He decided to fall back near New York for fear his own supplies would be cut off by the crafty Americans. 198. Valuable Recruits for America. — The unequal strug- gle of the Americans against so powerful an enemy, and First Half of the Revolution 205 especially the brilliant record of Washington's little army, excited the sympathy and admiration of liberty-loving men throughout the world. Some went so far as to offer their own services to the cause. Chief among these was a French nobleman, nineteen years of age, the Marquis de Lafayette. He arrived in the summer of 1777, and at once became the friend of Washington as well as a trusted and efficient officer in the American army. La- fayette brought with him a military expert, Baron de Kalb, who also became an officer in the American army. Two prominent Polish patriots, Generals Kosciusko and Pulaski, joined the group of valiant foreign helpers, and Baron Steuben of Prussia taught the American soldiers much military science. At first he had a hard time and com- plained of it. The Americans were by their forest train- ing the best marksmen in the world. But the forest had also given them a spirit of free- dom. The Prussian drill master said : " In Europe I tell the sol- dier to do this and he does it. In America I must tell the sol- dier why I want it done before he will do it." 199. The British Plan for 1777. — This time the British govern- ment proposed to make sure of dividing the colonies by se- curing control of the Hudson River. General Burgoyne with an army of eight thousand men was to march from Canada to the Hudson by way of Lake Champlain. General St. Lcger with another army was to Marquis de Lafayette. 2o6 United States History for Schools go to Lake Ontario and from Oswego march to the Hudson by way of the Mohawk Valley. General Howe was to send an army up the Hudson from New York. The three British armies were to meet at Albany. That was a strong plan, and if successful would certainly prove serious to the American cause. Washington must have known of this plan, for, on quitting winter quarters at Morristown, he marched into New York State. 200. General Howe captures Philadelphia. — Why Gen- eral Howe abandoned his part of the Hudson River cam- paign and chose, instead, to capture Philadelphia was a mystery. It remained a mystery for eighty years (§ 207). Washington was surprised when he learned of the change of plan, and he hastily marched southward to protect Philadelphia. As Howe's fleet sailed along the coast it was heralded by patriotic signal fires and messengers. General Howe called Philadelphia the " rebel capital." He was anxious to capture it, but he was afraid to sail up Delaware Bay, so proceeded to march overland from Chesapeake Bay. Washington had been watchful and decided to check the British at Brandywine Creek. The British greatly outnumbered the Americans. Washington lost the battle (September 1 1, 1777) and among his wounded was young Lafayette. However, Washington retreated in good order and continued to delay the British. He entered Philadelphia, where the people were anxious for another effort before the city should be given up. Washington marched out for another battle, but a drenching storm wet the powder of both armies and the battle was not fought. Congress moved out of Philadelphia and Howe entered the city in triumph (September 26, 1777). Washington at- tacked him at Germantown (October 4), but was driven First Half of the Revolution 207 back and then went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. The great value of Washington's campaign around Phil- adelphia is best understood when it is remembered that Howe was prevented from finishing the capture of that city early enough to send the needed help to Burgoyne up the Hudson River. 201. Our New Flag at Fort Stanwix. — In marching from Oswego General St. Leger encountered the Americans in Fort Stanwix and began a siege. The brave defenders rushed out against part of the British troops and captured five British flags. These they hung upside down and above them was flying a rude flag made of scraps of red flannel and white and blue cloth. It was the first appearance of the stars and stripes, recently adopted by Congress. Be- fore that there had been a number of flags used, including one of the stripes bearing the figure of a rattlesnake and the warning words : " Don't tread on Me." When General Schuyler heard of the siege at Fort Stan- wix, he sent Benedict Arnold to help, and General St. Leger retreated to Oswego. His part of the British plan was a failure. 202. Burgoyne at first Successful. — At the time Howe was sailing from New York to capture the "rebel capital," Burgoyne left Canada with his fine army and with the best collection of cannons yet seen in America. He captured the strong fort of Ticonderoga, and when the news was told to King George, he clapped his hands and shouted : " I have beat them ; I have beat all the Americans." It was a brilliant start and Burgoyne marched toward the Hudson with every promise of success. He had no way of know- ing that St. Leger would fail and that Howe would not perform his part of the programme. 2o8 United States History for Schools 203. The Battle of Bennington. — General Schuyler, in command of the Americans, was busy burning bridges, cutting trees across the roads and making them as difficult as possible. Burgoyne found the way as bad as a wilder- ness. Part of the time he could not make more than a mile a day with his troops and cannons. His horses were worn out with the hard work and his supply of food was run- ning low. Just then he heard of a supply both of food and horses which the Americans had collected at Bennington, Vermont. He sent a thousand Hessians to capture the supplies. He did not know that General John Stark was there with a thousand undrilled but brave men and Seth Warren, also, with five hundred frontiersmen. It is re- ported that when the Hessians came in sight. Stark called out, " There they are, boys ; we beat them to-day or Mollie Stark's a widow." In the battle that followed the Hessians were beaten. All but about one hundred were killed or captured. Burgoyne had lost a valuable part of his army and he had also "lost" the needed supplies. Washing- ton, when he heard of the battle, called it a " great stroke." 204. Surrender of Burgoyne (October 17, 1777). — Gen- eral Burgoyne was in a terrible plight. St. Leger had failed, the Hessians had lost at Bennington, and, above all, his messages to Howe and Clinton had brought none of the promised help from New York. The American General Lincoln with New England troops cut off his supplies from Canada. Nothing remained but to fight his way down the Hudson. He was defeated in the battle of Bemis Heights (September 19) and the battle of Stillwater (October 7), and when surrounded at Sara- toga, he surrendered (October 17) his entire army of six thousand men to General Horatio Gates. First Half of the Revolution 209 One of the shameful things of the whole war was the action of Congress when it took the command of this army away from General Schuyler and gave it to General Gates just as the victory was in sight. The credit of the victory belongs not to General Gates but to Schuyler and to Benedict Arnold and Daniel Morgan, who were splendid leaders in the fighting. Morgan was from Virginia and commanded five hundred sharpshooters. There was a boastful story about those wonderful sharpshooters to the effect that any one of them could toss an apple into the air and shoot all the seeds out of it before it reached the ground. The surrender of Burgoyne and the battles that just preceded it are usually grouped under the one name of battle of Saratoga. 205. Importance of the Battle of Saratoga. — The battle of Saratoga is ranked as one of the important battles in the world's history. It was the turning point in the American Revolution. It produced three important re- sults : — First, it allowed the Americans to retain control of the Hudson River and thus prevented the separation of New England from the rest of the colonies. Second, it caused the king to offer America peace on any terms short of absolute independence. Third, it caused France to enter the war openly against Great Britain and in favor of America. 206. The Conway Cabal. — We have seen that General Charles Lee was jealous of Washington and disobeyed his orders (§ 192). General Gates was also a jealous man (§ 218). He was not only willing to accept all the un- earned glory of Saratoga, but he even tried to use that 2IO United States History for Schools glory to crowd himself into the position held by Wash- ington. The unmanly scheme was joined by friends of the two disgruntled generals. Among them was a man named Conway. When the people awoke to the trick, they called those schemers the "Conway Cabal," and turned with greater devotion to the reserved, dignified, and patriotic Washington. 207. Why Howe broke up the Plan of 1777. — General Charles Lee was not a relative of the patriotic Lees of Virginia. He was a "soldier of fortune" from England. He had a wonderful experience throughout the world and had everywhere quarreled with his superior officers. When he was captured by the British (§ 195), the Americans, ignorant of his real treachery, thought only of his military talent and deemed his capture a great loss. He had been put on a ship to be sent to England for trial, when Howe received a letter from Washington offering to exchange five captured Hessian officers for General Lee. After a year of correspondence Great Britain consented to exchanging Lee as a prisoner of war. During the long wait Lee again displayed his treachery. He drew up in writing a plan of campaign for General Howe. He was to capture Philadelphia, and the Hudson River was to be left for Burgoyne and St. Leger. After the disaster at Saratoga Howe was ashamed to acknowl- edge that he had disobeyed his government's orders on the advice of such a man as Lee. Eighty years later (1858) and long after the death of General Howe there was found the telltale paper in the handwriting of Lee. The mystery of Howe's disobedience was then revealed (§ 200). 208. The Dreary Winter at Valley Forge. — In spite of First Half of the Revolution 211 the glorious victory at Saratoga, Washington's army at Valley Forge could not realize that the turning point in the war had been reached. The soldiers suffered terri- bly. Washington complained tO Congress that nearly three thousand of his men were unfit for dujy because they were barefoot and had little clothing. Food was scarce and the log huts furnished poor shelter against the frost and snow. One good thing was done in the midst of the gloom. Baron Steuben drilled the men so well that when clothing arrived, they marched forth an army ready for hard fighting. There is a tender Quaker story of Valley Forge. Isaac Potts on drawing near the camp heard a voice, and peer- ing through the woods, he saw Washington on his knees in the snow, his cheeks wet with tears, praying to God for help and guidance. On reaching home. Potts exclaimed to his wife : — " George Washington will succeed ! George Washington will succeed ! The Americans will win their independ- ence ! " " What makes thee think so, Isaac } " " I have heard him pray, Hannah, out in the woods to- day, and the Lord will surely hear his prayer. He will, Hannah ; thee may rest assured He will." STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What were " Minute Men," and how did they behave at Concord and Lexington ? 2. How did Washington approach his task as military leader ? 3. Why did the colonials aim at Canada ? 4. Show how the defeat at Bunker Hill was really a victory for the Americans. 5. Describe Washington's journey from Philadelphia to Cambridge. 212 United States History for Schools 6. Tell of the siege of Boston. 7. For whom was Fort Moultrie named ? 8. Who were the principal rulers of Europe in 1776 ? 9. Discuss the fighting strength of Great Britain and America in 1776. ID. Tell how the Declaration of Independence was framed, signed, and announced. 11. Why was the control of the Hudson River important ? 12. Describe the treachery of General Charles Lee. 13. What were the last words of Nathan Hale, the patriot spy ? 14. Why was Washington's retreat a cause for gloom ? 15. How did he transform that gloom into a burst of joy ? 16. Describe the money victory by Robert Morris. 17. Why did Cornwallis call Washington "the Old Fox" ? 18. Tell of the famous recruits from Europe. 19. Why did General Howe abandon the Hudson River campaign ? 20. Tell of the new flag at Fort Stanwix. 21. Why was the battle of Saratoga one of the world's decisive battles ? 22. What is meant by the Conway Cabal ? 23. Describe the dreary winter at Valley Forge. CHAPTER XVII SECOND HALF OF THE REVOLUTION References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 173-182 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 1 51-160. Home Readings. — Bryant's Song of Marion's Men ; Churchill's Richard Carvel; Cooper's Spy; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. II., pp. 229-309; Lessing's Two Spies; McMurry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. II., pp. 124-149 (George Rogers Clark) ; Mitchell's Hugh Wynne; Sparks's Men Who Made the Nation, pp. 191-150 (Robert Morns) ; Thompson's Alice of Old Vincennes. 209. France becomes America's Ally. — The Americans knew that France still "hated England, though the two countries were then at peace. France could not so soon forget the treaty (1763) she called "The Shameful." As soon as the Declaration of Independence was signed, therefore, Congress sent agents to France seeking aid against England. These agents were Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee. Franklin had become fa- mous through his " Poor Richard's Almanac " and other writings. The French people manifested great regard for him. He wrote home that he saw everywhere in the shop windows of Paris images of himself in plaster and even in cookies and cakes. For two years these agents got help in secret. France sent money and shiploads of clothing and ammunition. It was not such a secret as it was supposed to be, for it was mentioned in debates in the British Parliament. Still Great Britain did not want war with France and both countries just pretended it was a secret. But after the 213 214 United States History for Schools battle of Saratoga France was convinced that America had a chance to win her struggle and then she came out into the open. She acknowledged the United States of America to be an independent nation, signed a treaty of alliance (February 6, 1778), and prepared to send a fleet of warships and an army of four thousand men to aid the American cause. 210. Great Britain awake at Last. — If Great Britain thought she was punishing the colonies as unruly children, she was certainly aroused by the action of France into a realization that there was a real war on hand. Before it ended, she had Spain and Holland as additional enemies. Great Britain ruled the sea, but she had colonies to defend in all parts of the world. At one time she had in those widely separated wars more than' three hundred thousand men under arms. As soon as she declared war against France she tried to make peace with America. She re- pealed the hated and illegal taxes and all the other measures that had brought about the troubles in the colonies. She offered peace on almost any terms if the colonies would only remain parts of Great Britain. If this had come ten years before during the taxation troubles, all might have been different. The offer came too late. The colonies had determined to be free and independent states. 211. Philadelphia abandoned by the British. — General Howe was succeeded by Sir Henry Clinton as commander of the British forces in America. Hearing that the French fleet was on its way, Clinton marched out of Philadelphia to get most of his troops together in greater safety at New York. Washington followed to strike the best blow he could at the retreating army. General Charles Lee had been exchanged and was then with Washington's army. Second Half of the Revolution 215 He opposed Washington's plan, but when Lafayette was given charge of the attacking troops, Lee changed his mind and Washington let him take Lafayette's place. As the battle of Monmouth (June 28, 1778) was about to be a fine victory, Lee ordered a retreat. Lafayette notified Washington, who rode up in time to order a bayonet charge and save the day. He ordered the traitor Lee to the rear, and soon afterwards he was dismissed from the army. The British left the wounded on the fields at Monmouth and hurried into New York. Washington stretched his army from Morristown, New Jersey, to West Point, New York. He thus had the British army partly surrounded. The American guard left at Philadelphia was in command of Benedict Arnold. 212. George Rogers Clark in the West. — For two years (1778 and 1779) Washington and Clinton spent most of their time watching each other around New York, but during that time important events were taking place in the West. The British hoped to keep that region wild (§ 159) for the use of Indians and for their own profitable fur trade. Such a plan would also help them shut in the rebellious colonies between the mountains and the Atlantic. But bands of brave men, called frontiersmen or backwoods- men, had gone over into those Western lands led by such famous hunters as Daniel Boone, John Sevier, James Robertson, and George Rogers Clark. To check these settlements in the West, the British stirred up Indian enemies. The Iroquois, who had so long fought the French, were used by the British against colonists of their own race. Horrible massacres were the result in Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania, and in Cherry Valley, New York. Washington sent an army under General Second Half of the Revolution 217 Sullivan to punish those Indians. He burned about forty Indian villages and completely destroyed the power of the Iroquois in New York State. Hamilton, the British governor in the Ohio country, offered a price for white men's scalps. The Indians spread terror in that re- gion. Against them, and especially against their British leaders, George Rogers Clark marched his little army of backwoodsmen. In the spring of 1 778 Clark and his two hundred men built flatboats and floated down the Ohio. If they could capture the British forts, they could hold the country and'control the Indians. Some hunters served as guides when they left the river to march against Kaskaskia. This IlUnois fort they surprised and captured. They also captured Cahokia, and the garrison at Vincennes sur- rendered without a fight. 213. Courageous March in Midwinter. — Hamilton was surprised at Clark's victories. At Detroit he gathered an army of white men and Indians. He marched down against Clark's smaller force of pioneers. He easily captured Vin- cennes and probably would have captured Clark and the George Rogers Clark. 21 8 United States History for Schools other posts if he had marched at once. But he decided to wait for spring. He cut his garrison at Vincennes down to eighty men. Of course Hamilton would expect reenforce- ments, including his Indians, in the spring. Clark was a long way from home. There was no way for him to get help. He therefore decided on a bold undertaking. Vin- cennes was two hundred and forty miles from Kaskaskia. Clark proposed to march his men that distance in mid- winter. It was a terrible journey. For days the men walked through water and floating ice up to their breasts. Food was scarce and during the last two days there was no food at all. They were desperate and attacked the fort with such vigor that Hamilton and his garrison sur- rendered. The armies were small, but it was still a great victory. The whole Ohio country was in possession of the Ameri- cans. The way was opened for the westward movement of a new nation, an expansion, the record of which is one of the marvels of the world. 214. " Mad Anthony " and " Light-horse Harry." — The regular highway from New England to the South crossed the Hudson River at King's Ferry. The Americans sought to protect the route by a fort on each side of the river. On the west side the fort was at Stony Point. Soon after it was built, the British captured it. This was a serious matter and Washington selected one of his most dashing generals to retake it. This was General Anthony Wayne. It was said of him : " Where Wayne went there was fight always; that was his business." On account of his dash and bravery he was called " Mad Anthony Wayne." He surprised the fort at Stony Point, and captured it in a night attack by a hand-to-hand fight with empty guns and fixed Second Half of the Revolution 219 bayonets. For this he received a gold medal from Con- gress. Paiilus Hook, now a part of Jersey City, was fortified by the British, who used it to worry the farmers and settlers of New Jersey. Washington sent against this fort Major Henry Lee, one of the Virginian Lees, who was known by the affectionate name of " Light-horse Harry " on account of his swift-moving cavalry. He captured Paulus Hook and got one hundred and sixty prisoners. He also received a gold medal from Congress. 215. Beginning of the American Navy. — Great Britain's sea power gave her an immense advantage over the Ameri- cans. Her fleets could blockade any port they chose, they could move armies long distances while the Americans could not hope to catch up by the slower travel on land. Those fleets could also keep the armies supplied with food, clothing, weapons, and ammunition from England, while the Americans got their supply with great difficulty. When the French joined the war. Great Britain had much greater need for her sea power. Not only must she watch and fight the French fleets, she must also guard her many posts and colonies. But Great Britain was worried on the sea by the Ameri- cans as well as by the French. Most of this work was done by privateers. These were private ships whose cap- tains got letters from Congress authorizing them to fight or make prizes in the name of the United States. If they were captured, those letters would entitle them to be treated as prisoners of war, but if they had no letters of that kind, they would have been treated as pirates. The prize money was shared by the crews, and, though risky, the service paid so well that thousands of New England fishermen and sailors ■2 20 United States History for Schools entered it. British merchants began to complain about the war because they lost so many valuable cargoes to those American privateers. 216. John Paul Jones captures the Serapis. — But the greatest victory on the sea for the Americans was that of John Paul Jones, who is sometimes called the " Father of the American Navy." In a small ship called the Ranger he startled Great Britain by saiHng among the British Isles and making rich cap- tures. After the French treaty he got a few French ships and named one Bon Homme Richard, in honor of his friend Benjamin Franklin, whose pen name was " Poor Richard." In this ship, off the coast of England, he fought the duel with the British man- of-war Serapis, which made his name famous for all Begun in the evening (Sep- tember 23, 1779), the fight raged on into the night. When the deck was covered with dead and wounded, the rigging shattered, the ship leaking, Jones was asked if he " had struck," to which he replied, " I have not begun to fight." As the two ships, fighting like demons, touched each other, Jones lashed them together. One or the other must yield or both would sink fighting. The Serapis caught fire, the Richard was slowly sinking, and still they fought. At last the British captain surrendered. The loss of the John Paul Jones. time in the annals of the sea. Second Half of the Revolution 221 one ship would not cripple the strong British navy, but Great Britain, as well as the other nations of the world, would have greater respect for such courage and such de- termination to win independence as the Americans had displayed in that duel. 217. Captain James Cook in the Pacific. — During the long strife on land and sea there was one British captain who was not molested by privateers or French cruisers. This was James Cook, who did so much for scientific navi- gation and geography by his three great voyages of dis- covery in the Pacific. On the last of these voyages (1778) he discovered and named Cape Flattery, the northwestern corner of the United States, Cook's Inlet in Alaska, and other geographical points. His reports of the furs to be obtained on that western coast helped to start a great rush of fur traders into that region. Early in 1779 Cook was killed in an unfortunate quarrel with the natives of what he had called the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii). 218. Clinton turns British Attention to the South. — As matters stood in the North, Clinton could hope for no great success there. He had failed to stop New England's communications with the South, and Washington held the strong fort at West Point. He decided to turn attention to the South. Georgia was weak, and there were many English sympathizers, or Tories, in the two Carolinas. By conquering and holding those regions he would at least cut off that much from the new United States. The British had already conquered Savannah (1778), but an American army, under General Lincoln, held Charles- ton. Using England's ever ready sea power, Clinton took a large army south and easily surrounded Lincoln's army of three thousand men, which was compelled to surrender 222 United States History for Schools (May 12, 1780). Clinton then left Lord Cornwallis in command while he sailed back to New York. General Gates, the official victor at Saratoga, was sent by Congress to take the place of the captured Lincoln. As he left, his friend General Charles Lee said to him, " Take care that your Northern laurels do not change to Southern willows." Sure enough, they did. Camden was a strong point where the Southern roads met. He tried to secure it, but Cornwallis attacked him and so nearly de- stroyed the American army (August 16, 1780) that Gates fled for his life, and soon after left the army. It ought to be remembered that, with all his faults (§ 206), Gates had many good qualities. Soon after the war he freed all his. slaves and provided for those who needed help. He and his wife freely spent a fortune of more than four hundred thousand dollars helping Revolutionary officers and soldiers, A big monument at Schuylerville, near Saratoga, New York, contains statues of Gates, Schuyler, and Morgan. There is a fourth niche for a statue. It is empty. Under it is the name of Arnold. 219. The Treason of Benedict Arnold. — In sharp con- trast to the glory won for his adopted country by John Paul Jones (who was a native of Scotland) was the blot of treason put upon the new flag of his native land by Bene- dict Arnold. He had richly earned a fine reputation for bravery and skill as an officer. He was given command of the guard at Philadelphia (§ 21 1) because the wounds re- ceived at Saratoga unfitted him for field duty. The life in Philadelphia was the cause of his downfall. He lived high, got in debt, and was court-martialed for some dis- honest transaction. The verdict called for a reprimand from the commander in chief. Washington loved Arnold Second Half of the Revolution 223 as a soldier. His reprimand was therefore robbed of all stinging words. But Arnold felt that he was unfairly treated. He wanted revenge and he wanted money, so he planned a great crime. He told Washington his wounds still troubled him and asked for command of the very important fort at West Point. When he got command, he began a long series of negotiations with Clin- ton at New York for the purpose of betraying the fort into the hands of the British. Major Andre was returning to New York from an interview with Arnold when he was captured by Americans. In his stockings were found the papers that caused him to be hanged as a spy. The fort at West Point was saved. Arnold, warned in time, escaped to the Brit- ish. He became an officer against his own countrymen. After one battle he had a captured Yankee captain brought before him. " What do you suppose," asked Arnold, " the Americans would do with me if I were captured ? " The prisoner squared his shoulders, and, look- ing Arnold in the face, replied : " What would they do .'' They would cut off the leg that was wounded at Quebec and give it a military funeral. The rest of your body they would hang to the nearest tree." Major John Andre. 224 United States History for Schools Like traitors everywhere, Arnold was despised by all honest men. He went to England at the end of the war and probably never knew another happy day. When he felt death approaching, he called for his American " regi- mentals " and said: "Let me die in the old uniform in which I won my battles. May God forgive me for ever putting on any other." 220. Cornwallis checked in North Carolina. — As soon as he had defeated Gates, Cornwallis marched into North Carolina. He was checked and turned back into South Carolina by an unlooked-for event. Knowing there were many Tories in the mountains of South Carolina and the southern part of North Carolina, he had sent a force of twelve hundred men to enlist their active support for the British side. As the army reached King's Mountain, they were met by a body of hastily collected backwoods- men. It could not be called an army, but the men were of the forest and were splendid marksmen. They sud- denly began shooting from three sides (October 7, 1780). The leader of the British was killed, and his entire force was either killed or captured. Cornwallis could not risk another such stunning blow and hastened back to South Carolina. 221. '* The Swamp Fox " and Others. — Clinton thought that most of the people of South Carolina were Tories. In this he was sadly mistaken. Before sailing for New York, he had sent word into the interior of the state that those who did not help restore the royal British government would be treated as traitors. This produced a horrible condition of irregular warfare between the royalists and patriots, men who had been neighbors, though they had not agreed on the purpose of the war. In those fights the Second Half of the Revolution ^ 225 Americans or patriots were led by such men as Pickens, Sumter, and Marion. They had small but swift forces of men, and no one could tell when or where they would dash out of a swamp or a forest to strike a blow. No British for- aging party was safe from attack. Marion was called "the Swamp Fox." Sumter's name was given to a fort that became famous in later years. When Clinton heard of what was done by such leaders and their men, he must have been ashamed of the letter he wrote from Charleston to the British ministry. In that letter he wrote : " I may venture to assert that there are few men in South Carolina who are not either our prisoners or in arms with us." 222. General Nathanael Greene in the South. — Quakers do not believe in war. Nathanael Greene, a native of Rhode Island, was brought up a strict Quaker. Though he was expelled from that church when he joined the army, he still loved the simple Quaker religion. He was one of the very best officers in the American army, and had the full' respect of Washington. After the Arnold treason Greene was placed in command of West Point. He was there but a short time when he was ordered south to take the place of the defeated Gates. The Southern army was badly broken up and discouraged. The British army was strong, elated by success, and ably led by Lord Cornwall is, Lord Rawdon, and the dashing cavalry leader Tarleton. The British started for North Carolina, and Tarleton rushed on ahead with eleven hundred men. Greene divided his forces so they could move more quickly and have a better chance of getting food. One part of his army, under Mor- gan, met Tarleton at Cowpens (January 17, 1781) and in- flicted a loss of two hundred and thirty killed and wounded and took six hundred prisoners. Q 226 United States History for Schools Cornwallis was furious at this heavy loss. He dropped all his heavy luggage and gave chase to Morgan. Greene brought his force up to Morgan's and retreated toward the north, where he expected reenforcements. When they arrived, he turned and gave Cornwallis battle at Guilford Court House (March 15, 1781). It was a British victory, but almost as bad as a defeat. Cornwallis had lost many men, and he was so far from his base of supplies he could not afford to follow Greene for another battle. He turned toward the coast at Wilmington, and Greene wrote to Washington that he would go into South Carolina and reconquer that state or make Cornwallis follow and fight him there. Greene was not only brave and skillful in attack, but he was a master of successful retreats and often robbed the enemy of the full fruits of victory. After Cornwallis started for Virginia, Greene marched south. He did not win every battle, but he gradually wore out the British troops until they all sought the shelter of their fleets and forts at Charleston and Savannah. With the exception of those two cities he reconquered all of South Carolina and Georgia. 223. How " the Boy " Lafayette escaped Cornwallis. — CUnton sent Arnold into Virginia to do all the damage he could, and Washington sent Lafayette to check him. Lafayette was successful until Cornwallis arrived with his larger army and gave chase. He sent off a letter in which he said : " The boy cannot escape me," but the letter was captured and " the boy " had no mind for being caught. He got reenforcements from the north and from the French fleet. He then turned his successful retreat into an advance. Cornwallis went to Yorktown, as Clinton 228 United States History for Schools had ordered him to be ready to send help in case the French fleet and army should combine with the Americans to capture New York. 224. The Climax at Yorktown, October 19 (1781). — The time had come for the French to strike their heaviest blow. General Rochambeau had arrived with six thousand troops and was with Washington. Clinton expected the attack. But the French fleet went to Chesapeake Bay, and then Washington seized on a sudden and bold plan. Leaving a guard to watch the Hudson, he started with most of his own army and the French troops to join Lafayette and to capture Cornwallis. He had planned so secretly and moved so quickly that he had got to Maryland before Clinton saw the plan. The British fleet was then sent from New York to attack the French fleet, but was repulsed. Lafayette had cut off the line of retreat, and when Washington arrived, Corn- wallis and his army of eight thousand men were surrounded. There were sixteen thousand American and French troops on land. There was a French fleet in the harbor. CornwaUis and his army surrendered (October 19, 1781), and the American Revolution was practically ended. It is no wonder that Congress, on hearing the glorious news, adjourned and went to church in a body to offer up prayers of thanksgiving. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. State some of the reasons why France helped the Americans. 2. Why was Great Britain's offer of peace rejected? 3. Why did the British leave Philadelphia? 4. Describe the campaign of George Rogers Clark in the West. 5. How were the names "Mad Anthony " and " Light-horse Harry" obtained ? 6. Describe the beginning of the American navy. Second Half of the Revolution 229 7. Describe the great victory by John Paul Jones. 8. What was the cause and what the resuh of Benedict Arnold's treason ? 9. Where did Captain James Cook render his greatest service for the world ? 10. Tell how Gates found ''Southern willows." 11. Why was the battle of King's Mountain important? 12. How did Marion, Pickens, and Sumter fight? 13. What kind of general was Nathanael Greene? 14. How did Lafayette outwit Cornwallis? 15. Why is Yorktown called the climax of the Revolution? CHAPTER XVIII WINNING THE VICTORY OF PEACE References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 183-186 ; Hart's Source Book, pp.161-163. Home Readings. — Ford's The True Benjamin FrankHn ; Morse's John Adams ; Scudder's George Washington. 225. The News of Yorktown in Europe. — " It is all over ! " exclaimed Lord North, the Prime Minister of Eng- land, when he heard of Yorktown. While it did turn out that the fighting in America was really ended, the struggle was not " all over " by any means. The stubborn King George III. declared he would rather lose his throne than see America independent. He changed his mind on that point a little later, but the terms of peace were not easily settled. It is quite as important to learn about the great victory of peace as it is to study the battles of war. Before the battle of Yorktown was fought, Spain and Holland had been drawn into the war with America and France against Great Britain. Those three nations of Europe would be delighted with the great victory in America. But as they were parties to the war, they knew they would have to be parties to the peace. 226. America's Peace Generals. — As Great Britain's king was angry and stubborn, and as there were many questions about the rights of the new nation that would have to be considered, it was important that America should use her best statesmen to do the work. The vener- Winning the Victory of Peace 231 able and able Benjamin Franklin was still in Paris. Con- gress selected as his helpers John Adams and John Jay. It took nearly two years of hard work to secure the final treaty of peace, but when the paper was signed at last, the statesmen had won a victory just as great as any won by Washington, his officers, and men. 2 2 7. The Statesmen dis- obey Congress. — France had been so helpful that Congress, out of gratitude, ordered the statesmen to make no treaty . , „ Benjamin 1 k \Nki in. without first con- sulting the French government. But the statesmen found that France desired to keep America a small nation so she might herself regain some advantage in the new world. The younger men, Adams and Jay, decided to disobey the orders of Congress by dealing with Great Britain directly and without consulting France. After it was all completed, they sent the adroit old Franklin to explain to the French ministers and to calm their indignation. A preliminary treaty was signed (November 30, 1782), and, while that did not wholly settle matters, it meant that 232 United States History for Schools the war in America was almost at an end. The British soldiers remained in New York, but it seemed sure that an understanding with the mother country was within reach. 228. Would America have a King ? — The people of Europe expected America to choose a king as soon as she got her independence. They knew of Washington's peer- less leadership and they expected he would be the king. That had been the way of the world up to that time. Besides nobody thought it at all possible that a republic could suc- ceed over so large a territory. The same idea was held by many people in America, and the new nation was in real danger of being turned into a mon- archy. The govern- ment under Congress was weak. It could not raise money to pay the army. The officers and soldiers were angry. They selected Colonel Lewis Nicola, an old and loved officer, to invite Washing- ton to become king (1782). Evidently the army was ready to take part in another revolution, if necessary, to put Washington on the throne. Washington replied to the Nicola letter in such strong terms that there was left not a John Adams. Winning the Victory of Peace 233 shred of doubt of how he hated the very suggestion of an American monarchy. Jefferson afterwards said, " The moderation and virtue of a single man prevented a revolu- tion." 229. Washington's Spectacles. — The army was growing more and more dissatisfied at the neglect of Congress. General Knox wrote to Benjamin Franklin: "If justice is done to the army, they will become the bees and lambs of their communities ; but if not, the tigers ! " Early in 1783 (March 10) a call was issued for a meeting of officers to decide what should be done. Affairs looked black. Wash- ington decided to go the meeting and calm the anger. He wrote out his remarks. As he opened the paper he took out his spectacles. " You see, gentlemen," said he, " I have grown both blind and gray in your service." He begged them to do nothing that would dim the glory they had won on the field and to make one more effort to get justice from Congress. The officers were deeply moved and did as he asked. That time Congress acted favorably toward the army, and a great danger was again averted by Washington. 230. The King's Personal Rule Defeated. — While Wash- ington was standing like a wall of granite against accept- ing kingly power himself or allowing it to be conferred upon any other man in America, King George HI. was straining every nerve to keep what he believed was his right to rule as he pleased in the American colonies. The whole war had been a denial of that right. A final treaty of peace would be the end of such personal rule. The king knew it, but he was at last compelled to accept a new ministry friendly to America. 231. Final Treaty of Peace (September 3, 1783). — The 234 United States History for Schools » — three statesmen won their great triumph when the final treaty was signed. The United States of America was fully recognized as an independent nation by the mother country. That it was a great peace victory is shown by the fact that we retained the large area from the mountains to the Mississippi River conquered by George Rogers Clark and his frontier soldiers. We also retained fishing rights on the Newfoundland banks. In order to make peace more general, Great Britain gave Spain her old province of Florida. The new United States therefore extended from Florida to the Great Lakes and from the Mississippi River to the Atlantic Ocean. John Adams took up his duties as first United States Minister to Great Britain. 232. Washington goes back to his Farm. — When the peace was declared in America, the British soldiers left New York (November 25, 1783), which city had been in their possession throughout the war. Washington then prepared to quit his work as a soldier. He gathered his officers and said to them : " With a heart full of love and gratitude, I now take leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy as your former ones have been glorious and honorable. I cannot come to each of you to take my leave, but I shall be obliged if each one of you will come and take me by the hand." They had all learned to love, honor, and respect their great leader. As he finished speaking, each one stepped forward and in silence clasped his hand. Probably not one could have spoken without sobbing at that sad moment. Then Washington hurried away to Congress in session O « fH * g O = Winning the Victory of Peace ^35 in Annapolis. William Gordon, an English minister in this country at that time, tells how the galleries and floor of the hall were crowded with ladies and gentlemen, all anxious to see and hear the great Washington. He was dignified, though much embarrassed by the attentions shown him. He read a fine address to Congress, in which were these words : " I consider it as an indispensable duty to close this last act of my official life by commending the interestsof our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them to His holy keeping. Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great theater of action, and biddin": an affectionate farewell to this august body, under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life." Mount Veknon. 236 United States History for Schools He refused all pay for his eight years of service, and went straight to Mount Vernon, his beautiful home on the Potomac River, where visitors can to this day see the books and furniture he used, the garden he planted, and all the scenes he loved. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. How was the news of Yorktown received in Europe? 2. Why did America's peace generals disobey Congress? 3. Tell how Washington refused to be the American kmg 4. How did Washington persuade his officers to be patient? 5. How was the king's personal niie defeated? 6. Show the greatness of the jieace victory. 7. Describe Wasliington's farewell to his officers and to Congress. CHRONOLOGY 1763 . . Proclamation of Quebec. 1765 . . Stamp Act. Stamp Act Congress. 1766 . . Repeal of the Stamp Act. 1767 . . The Townshend Acts. 1770 . . Tax on tea retained. Boston Massacre. 1772 . Destruction of the revenue vessel Gaspee. 1773 . . Boston Tea Party. 1774 . . Home government adopted harsh measures. First Continental Congress met in Phiiadelpliia. 1775 • • April 19. Hostilities begun at Lexington and Concord. Second Continental Congress. Capture of Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. June 15. Washington appointed commander in chief. June 17. Battle of Bunker Hill. 1776 . . March 17. British troops left Boston. Attack on Fort Sullivan repulsed. July 4. Independence declared. Winning the Victory of Peace 237 1776 . . August 27. Battle of Long Island. December 26. Battle of Trenton. 1777 . . January I. Morris raised money for Washington's troops. January 3. Battle of Princeton. Arrival of Lafayette. June 14. Adoption of flag by Congress. September 11. Battle of Brandywine. September 26. Howe entered Pliiladel])hia. October 17. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga 1778 . . February 6. Treaty of Alliance witli France. George Rogers Clark conquers Western forts. British vacate Philadelphia. Captain James Cook's discoveries in the Pacific. 1779 . . September 23. John Paul Jones captured the ^'frrt/zV. 1780 . . August 16. Battle of Camden. Treason of Benedict Arnold. October 7. Battle of King's Mountain. 1781 . . January 17. Battle of Covvpens. Marcii 15. Battle of Guilford Court House. October 19. Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. 1782 . . Washington refused to be made king by the army. November 30 Preliminary Treaty of Peace. 1783 . . .September 3. Final Treaty of Peace. Washington went back to his farm. IV " The Critical Period J^ CHAPTER XIX THE INDEPENDENT STATES References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 189-199 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 164-166. Home Readings. — Fiske's The Critical Period ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. ni., pp. 1-18 ; Stone and Ficketfs Days and Deeds, pp. 16-36. 233. Name of the Period. — The Revolution had lasted a little more than eight years from the battle of Lexington (April 19, 1775) to the Treaty of Peace (September 3, 1783). The six years that followed from the Treaty of Peace to the organization of government under the Con- stitution were so full of doubt and trouble, even after Washington had removed the threat of a monarchy, that John Fiske, the historian, has called them the " Critical Period." 234. The Change from Colony to State. — As soon as the Declaration of Independence was signed, the colonies realized that they Dress of a lady were changed from colonies to states. IN 1776. There would be no more royal governors sent over to them from England. They would have to elect and support their own governors, officers, and legislatures. 238 The Independent States 239 Rhode Island and Connecticut were satisfied to organize their new state governments by using their old charters as constitutions. The other colonies adopted new constitutions, and organ- ized new state governments. Many of the best men were proud to serve in the new offices, for they felt that they were laying foundations for great com- monwealths. 235. Each State had its Problem. — Each state was proud of its history and its work. Each had great ambition for future growth and prosperity. But the war had left each a serious prob- lem to solve. That problem consisted of three parts : first, to repair the dam- ages inflicted by the war; second, to pay their debts ; third, to retain their liberties. 236. The Problems create Jealous Quarrels. — Time and patient toil would be needed to repair the damages of the war. There was no way to bring back the soldiers who had fallen. The widows would bear their sorrow for a few years until they could join their hero-husbands in the other world. But the orphans would soon be old enough to aid the other workers in rebuilding the burned houses, barns, and fences. The states would have gladly paid their debts if they had had the money. There was very little coin in the country. On the other hand, there was too much paper money. Each state printed so much money that it declined in value. The people in one state would not accept the Dress of a Gentle- man IN 1776. 240 United States History for Schools paper money of another. There was httle chance to pay debts, with real money scarce and paper money in such bad condition. In their anxiety to retain all their liberties, the states became jealous of the power of Congress, and they also became jealous and mean in their dealings with each other. New York levied a tax on vegetables from New Jersey and on firewood from Connecticut. New Jersey tried to get even by putting a heavy tax on a lighthouse New York Coach of the Old Days. had generously built on Jersey soil, and Connecticut tried to cut off all trade with New York. One writer has said the states were like a barrel of thir- teen stout staves without a hoop to hold them together. 237. A Debt Rebellion in Massachusetts. — There was great trouble over the attempts to collect debts. The sheriffs seized the farmers' horses and cattle, and many men were arrested for not paying debts. The farmers were honest, but times were so hard they could not pay. Two thousand of them were led by Daniel Shays (1786) against the courthouses in western Massachusetts, where The Independent States 241 they stopped all lawsuits for debt. They became violent, and tried to get arms and ammunition to start a war. It was a serious matter, and greatly alarmed Washington when he heard of it. After seven months of such disturbance, the militia drove the farmers to their homes and the " Shays Rebellion " was at an end. 238. Land Claims of the States. — The lands lying west of the mountains were still looked upon as wild or open lands. There were some settlements of pioneers there, and a few were trying to form new and independent states. To whom did those lands really belong ? That was a great question after the war. New York claimed a large part of the Ohio country on account of a treaty she had made with the Iroquois Indians. They had conquered the other Indians there, and so claimed the right to cede the lands to New York. Six other states (Massachusetts, Connecticut, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia) claimed parts of the Western lands on account of the grants, usually "from sea to sea," in their original charters. But there remained six other states (New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Mary- land) which had no such claims to put forth. However, they set up a different kind of claim. They held that those lands had been won from the British during the war by the united effort of all the states. The lands should there- fore belong to all the states. We shall see how the argu- ment won (§241), and if there was a hoop to bind the thirteen staves (§ 236), it was the joint ownership of those lands. 239. The Green Mountain State. — The feeling of local independence was manifested in another way. The people in the northeastern part of New York State had decided to 242 United States History for Schools withdraw from New York and form a new state of their own (1777). They had no legal right to do that, and the act was not recognized. Still they were stubborn about it, and somehow got along without a legislature and without sending delegates to Congress or to the New York legis- lature. They kept up that free and independent sort of existence until the new state was finally admitted to the Union (1791). During the Revolution they furnished brave soldiers who took pride in the pet name of " Green Mountain Boys." So when they sought a name for their new state, they chose a compound French word meaning " Green Mountain," and called it Vermont. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What name has been given the six years from 1783 to 1789 ? 2. When and how did the colonies change to states ? 3. How did the new states show their jealousy ? 4. What happened when efforts were made to collect debts in Mas- sachusetts ? 5. Who claimed the lands in the West ? 6. How did Vermont become a separate state? CHAPTER XX THE WEAK GENERAL GOVERNMENT References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 200-201 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 166-177. Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader, Vol. HI., 39-42 ; Sparks's Men Who Made the ISFation. pp. 1 51-180 (Hamilton). 240. A Congress but No Constitution. — We have seen (§§ 1 77 and 181) how the First and Second Continental Con- gresses were organized simply by sending from the colonies delegates to devise ways for united action in resisting the mother country. There was no general constitution giving Congress authority to do anything. Before independence was declared, the resolution was sent to the colonies to get their consent or advice. After the Declaration of Inde- pendence, and after the war began, Congress, from the nature of the case, had to assume certain powers. For example, it had to appoint a commander in chief and other officers of the army, to send agents to France for help, and to issue letters to the captains of private vessels who were ready to fight for the cause. Congress could not levy taxes. The states alone could do that, so Congress had continually to ask the states for money. When money was scarce. Congress did the same as the states, and printed paper money which soon became of no value. The " Continental Currency " was a great series of promises to pay, but there was no power behind them to make the promises good. 243 244 United States History for Schools 241. The First Constitution. — When the committee was appointed to draw up the Declaration of Independence (§ 190) another committee was appointed to frame some kind of a constitution, or, as they called it. Articles of Con- federation. That was a hard question to settle. The committee reported one week after the Declaration of Brooklyn's First Fire Engine (1785). Independence was signed, but the debate lasted for more than a year. Even after Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, four years elapsed before the last state would give its necessary approval. During those years Congress had to struggle on without any constitution at all. The one state that stood so firmly opposed was Mary- land. The cause of objection was the claims of those The Weak General Government 245 seven states to the Western lands (§ 238). Maryland insisted that those lands belonged to all the states. After years of dispute, the states gave up to the nation their claims to the lands, and Maryland ratified the Articles of Confederation. That first Constitution of the United States went into effect March i, 1781. 242. Character of the New Government. — Under that first weak Constitution the government had to finish the war and conduct public business during the troubled times following the Treaty of Peace. The important questions to be decided would have been a big task if the govern- ment had been strong, and, of course, the task was much greater because the government was weak. There was no money, and the army was making threats. That was one serious problem for the new government. Other problems included the making of laws for the Western lands, the regulation of commerce, the raising of revenue, and the dealings with foreign countries. The Continental Congress could give advice to and ask favors of the states, but it could not enforce its orders Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress could enact certain laws, but it had no executive power to compel obedience. Professor Hart of Harvard says the one was a "head without a body" and the other was a "body with- out a head." Congress tried to do everything by committees. If a hospital was to be built, if an order was to be issued, if a loan was to be raised, a committee was appointed for each purpose. Professor Van Tyne of the University cf Michigan says the Revolution was conducted by a "debat- ing society." 243. Beginning of the Cabinet. — The first evidence of 246 United States History for Schools breaking away from the weak system of committees for this, that, and the other thing was when Congress appointed secretaries for Foreign Affairs, War, and Finance. When peace came the Secretary of War had little to do, but the others were kept busy. Robert R. Livingston and, later, John Jay , both of New York, were the Secretaries of Foreign Affairs, and Robert Morris (§ 196) of Penn- sylvania was Superin- tendent of Finance. 244. The "Magna Charta of the West." — By far the greatest law passed by Congress during the Confeder- ation was the "Ordi- nance of 1787." Three years before (1784) Thomas Jefferson had introduced into Con- gress a plan to govern the new Western lands. Though Jefferson was a Virginia slaveholder, his plan prohibited slavery in those lands. His proposed law was not enforced, and by 1787 the need for a law was much greater, because many settlers had gone into the Ohio country from New Eng- land and elsewhere. To meet this need Congress passed the law which is known as the "Ordinance of 1787." Continental Paper Money. The Weak General Government 247 This " Ordinance " was to be the basis of a government for the Northwest Territory, formerly called the Ohio country. It was a large area. Out of it have since grown the great states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The five important provisions of the " Ordi- nance " were as follows : — First, it provided for complete religious freedom in the territory. Second, it safeguarded the people's rights to the benefits of habeas corpus, trial by jury, and proportionate representation in the legislatures. Third, it provided a way for new states to be made from the territory, thus beginning the government's policy toward territories. Fourth, it provided for the establishment and encourage- ment of schools, saying that religion, morality, and knowl- edge are " necessary to good government and the hap- piness of mankind." Fifth, it prohibited slavery in the territory. These provisions were so strong on the side of freedom that the "Ordinance of 1787" is sometimes called the " Magna Charta of the West." That is a high compliment, for Magna Charta is one of the oldest ( 1 2 1 5 ) foundations of English liberty. 245. Weakness of the Government Recognized. — Many people recognized the weakness of the government, and we shall soon see how they made efforts to give it greater strength. After the " Shays Rebellion " (§ 237) a speaker in a Massachusetts convention said : " People took up arms ; and then if you went to speak to them you had the musket of death presented to your breast. They would rob you of your property, threaten to burn your houses ; 248 United States History for Schools obliged you to be on your guard night and day. — How terrible, how distressing was this ! — Had any one that was able to protect us come and set up his standard, we should all have flocked to it, even though it had been a monarch." How Hke an echo does this seem from the time (§ 228) when the army wanted to make Washington a king ! STUDY QUESTIONS 1. How did Congress secure money during the Revolution ? 2. What delayed the adoption of the Articles of Confederation? 3. In what way was Congress in the Confederation period like a " debating society " } 4. What were the beginnings of the American Cabinet ? 5. Name the provisions of the " Magna Charta of the West." 6. Did the people recognize the weakness of their government ? CHAPTER XXI BUILDING THE STRONG CONSTITUTION References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 201 -209 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 175-180. Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader, Vol. HI., pp. 45-79; Irving's Washington ; Longfellow's The Building of the Ship ; Stone and Fickett's Days and Deeds, pp. 36-53. 246. Alexander Hamilton. — Alexander Hamilton came to this country from the West Indies when he was but six- teen years of age. He proved to be one of the most re- markable boys, and later one of the wisest men, in American history. At some of the exciting meetings just before the war Hamilton swayed great audiences with his wonderful eloquence, though he was still a schoolboy in age. Before he was twenty he had organized a battery of artillery, and became its capable captain in the war. Through this service and by his speaking and writing, he attracted the attention of Washington, who made him a member of his staff. While giving splendid service in that position, he found time to write many letters to prominent men urging the need of a stronger government. 247. The Annapolis Convention (1786). — Virginia and Maryland had problems to solve, like the other states (§ 236). The rights of navigation on Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac River were in dispute. Commissioners met at Alexandria to consider that question. Washington's home was near that town, so they consulted him. They found so many questions of trade to consider that it was 249 250 United States History for Schools From the Statue by William Ordway Partridge. Alexander Hamilton. decided to invite all the states to send delegates to a trade convention at Annapolis. Hamilton saw that this was a good chance to advance Building the Strong Constitution 251 the idea of a stronger government, so he persuaded New York to accept the invitation. The convention was a dis- appointment, as only five states sent delegates, and Hamilton was the only one of the three New York delegates who attended. Still Hamilton persuaded the little convention to do one important thing. That was to issue an invitation for all the states to send delegates to another convention at Philadelphia for the purpose of strengthening or amend- ing the Articles of Confederation. 248. The Great Convention in Session (1787). — The idea of such a convention met with considerable opposition. Congress was timid, and the states were afraid of losing some of their power if they consented to a stronger general government. New York was opposed ; but Hamilton's eloquence prevailed, and New York accepted the invitation. Just at that time the debt rebellion (§ 237) broke out in Massachusetts. That was a timely argument in favor of a stronger government. Every state, except Rhode Island, sent delegates, and when they arrived (May 25, 1787) it was found that the ablest men of each state had been selected. Washington was there, and was made president of the convention. The venerable and loved Franklin, eighty-one years of age, was there to render a last service to his country. For nearly four months the convention remained at work in secret sessions. When they had finished, it was found that they had not amended the Articles of Confed- eration, as was at first proposed, but that they had framed a new constitution. It is reported that a number of dele- gates gathered around the chair of old Dr. Franklin, who said : " I understand artists, in painting, find it diffi- cult to distinguish between a rising and a setting sun. 252 United States History fof Schools During our long sessions, amid my hopes and fears, I have wondered whether that picture above the president's chair was a rising or a setting sun. Now that our work is done, I am pleased to believe it is a rising sun." 249. Some of the Provisions. — Many great and scholarly volumes have been published to explain what the Consti- tution means and where its provisions came from. The simplest explanation is that the Constitution came from the experiences of the people. In the home country they had had the king, his ministers, the House of Lords, the House of Commons, the courts, and the local parish boards. In the colonies they had governors, councils, assemblies, courts, and town or county boards. These experiences taught them to frame a Constitution providing for the executive, legislative, and judicial departments of govern- ment, and to leave all local matters for the states to man- age for themselves. The executive was to consist of the President. He was to be assisted by a group of secretaries, which is now called the Cabinet. For fear the President might die while in office, a Vice President was provided in order that he might at once take up the duties of President. It was made the duty of the Vice President to preside over the Senate. The method of choosing the President was not easily settled. The plan to allow him to be chosen by the Senate was rejected, because that would be too aristocratic. The plan to let the people choose him by direct vote was rejected, because that would be too democratic. The case was compromised by adopting an indirect form of election. Each state was to choose electors equal in number to the combined number of senators and representatives to which the state was entitled. Those electors were to vote for and elect the President and Vice President. Building the Strong Constitution 253 There was much trouble over the legislative department. Before that, each state had had but one vote in Congress. In that way the small states had as much power as the large ones. The small states did not wish to lose that power. A compromise was reached. They would have two houses. In the Senate each state would be equal, with two senators ; in the House of Representatives each state would be represented according to its population. Of course the larger states would here have greater power. It was also thought there would be less hasty legislation if there were two houses. Before the convention Jefferson and Washington discussed the question at supper. Jeffer- son favored a Congress of one house. " Why," asked Washington, " did you pour that tea out in the saucer .'' " " To let it cool." " Exactly so. That is why we should have two houses. To let the laws cool before they are passed." In the judicial department the Constitution provided that there should be a Supreme Court and such other courts as Congress might provide by law. 250. Compromise on Slavery and Commerce. — As trade quarrels between the states were among the chief reasons for seeking a stronger Constitution, it was provided that trade between the states should be free, but that Congress should have power to regulate such commerce as well as that with foreign countries. Congress was also given control of tariff and revenue laws. While arranging these matters, the ques- tion of slavery came up. A great war for freedom and in- dependence had been won, so the delegates apparently did not like the idea of slavery. At any rate, the word " slave " does not appear in the original Constitution. Slaves are 2 54 United States History for Schools there mentioned as " other persons." In giving Congress control of commerce an exception was made that the im- portation of "such persons " (slaves) must not be stopped before 1808. The South did not want their slaves counted for purposes of taxation, and the North did not want them counted to give the South more representa- tives. A compro- mise was reached by which only three fifths of the " other persons" should be counted for the purposes both of direct taxation and of representation. 251. Approval by the States.— When the convention had finished its work (September 17, 1787), every one of the delegates pres- ent signed his name to the new Constitution. But before it could go into effect at least nine of the thirteen states must approve or ratify it. There then began long and bitter struggles in many of the states. Washington, Hamilton, Madison, and Jay were the principal leaders in favor of the adoption. and fpicedi}y wiH be piibliftiedj THE FEDERALIST, A Colletehandfatne Volume duo- decifiio, I and delivered to fubfcribers at the moderate price rfene dollar i A fe-w copies tviJl be prsnled on JUperJine rojal ivriting pa- per t price ten Jbillmgt. No rnony required till diffverj. .7? render this 'work more complete, mill he eiddedf luitkout any additional txpence, PHILO-PUBLIUS, i.y^fl "THE Articles bf ' the Convention y At agreed upon at FbilaJelpbis, Septem- ber 17th, 178;. , Building the Strong Constitution 255 Washington's great influence was felt everywhere. Ham- ilton, assisted by Madison and Jay, wrote eighty-six essays strongly in favor of the Constitution. They were collected into a book called the " Federalist," which is still counted one of the greatest books yet written on our Constitution. Madison won a great victory over Patrick Henry for approval in Virginia, but probably the greatest battle of oratory was in New York State. Two thirds of the con- vention was opposed, and yet Hamilton's wonderful logic and eloquence changed enough votes to win. The people of New York City celebrated the event. Sixteen milk- white horses drew through the streets a large *' Ship of State," and under it was painted in bold letters the word " Hamilton." The Constitution was nicknamed " The New Roof," and by February, 1788, eleven states had come under it. During the next two years the other two states (North Carolina and Rhode Island) joined the family and made it complete. 252. Last of the Old Congress. — When the new Consti- tution was adopted, interest in the old Congress quickly died away. And yet it was necessary for that Congress to do three things. First, it voted that the new Constitution was ratified and would therefore take the place of the Articles of Confederation. Second, it arranged for the election of the new Con gress and other officers, and fixed on the first Wednesday in March, 1789, for them to assume office. Third, it fixed upon New York as the place for the new Congress to meet, and for the new government to begin its work. 256 United States History for Schools STUDY QUESTIONS 1. How did Hamilton attract the attention of Washington? 2. What was the result of the trade convention at Annapolis? 3. How long was the Constitutional Convention in session? 4. What were the departments of government provided for by the Constitution ? 5. How did it come about that there are two houses of Congress? 6 Why did they leave the word "slave" out of the Constitution, and what did they use in place of that word ? 7. There was a struggle to have the Constitution approved or ratified ; name some of the leaders on each side. 8. What were the last acts of the old government ? CHRONOLOGY 1781 . . Articles of Confederation ratified. 1784 . . Jefferson's proposed ordinance for the Northwest. 1786 . . Shays's Rebellion. The Annapolis Convention. 1787 . . Northwest Ordinance, " Magna Charta of the West." May 25 to September 17. Constitution framed. 1788 . . Constitution ratified by sufficient number of states. 1 791 . . Vermont admitted as a state. V Testing the Constitution CHAPTER XXII ORGANIZING THE NEW GOVERNMENT References. — Ashley's American History, pp- 209-229 ; Harfs Source Book, pp. 181-188. Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader. Vol. HI., pp. 18-24, 271- 274; Judson's Growth of the American Nation, pp. 103-115; Sjjarks's Men Who Made the Nation, pp. 181-217 (Washington). 253. Washington, the First President. — When the elec- tors chosen for the purpose met to cast their votes for the first President, it was found that every one of them had voted for Washington. He was the only President elected by unanimous vote. W^hen he took the oath of office (April 30, 1789), the judge who administered it shouted : " Long live George Washington, President of the United States ! " and the crowds of people repeated the cry with great earnestness. One who saw the ceremony wrote at that time : " He was dressed in deep brown, with metal buttons with an eagle on them, white stockings, a bag, and sword." The President was a new officer. How should he be addressed in letters or in personal conversation .'' Some favored " Your Excellency " ; others favored "Your High Mightiness." Out of the argument came the simplest of all titles : " Mr. President." s 257 258 United States History for Schools j<*WN ^^ .0r^. r From the Painting by Gilbert Stuart. George Washington. Organizing the New Government 259 John Adams was chosen first Vice President. It is interesting to note that Washington was a soldier from Virginia, and Adams was a statesman from Massachusetts. Thus in the first election both sections of the country were recognized, and so were statecraft and military achieve- ment. The executive department was completed when the President selected the secretaries to compose his Cabinet. Thomas Jefferson became Secretary of State ; Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury ; General Henry Knox, Secretary of War; and Edmund Randolph, Attorney- general. 254. Congress and the Courts. — The President appointed John Jay as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. When Congress had organized for business it began at once to regulate commerce, to create the courts subor- dinate to the Supreme Court, and to pass other useful laws. It called upon Secretary Hamilton for reports on the Public Credit, and that genius wrote five great reports on the laws necessary to make the government strong and effective. 255. The Number of People. — This new government was to serve the people. How many people were there, and where did they live ? The people were not carefully counted until 1790. In that census it was found that the United States had a population of about 4,000,000, and about one fifth of these were slaves. The people had not then crowded into cities, as they have done in more recent times. Philadelphia, the largest city, had about 31,000, and then followed New York, Boston, Baltimore, and Charleston. Most of the people still lived in settlements along the shores of bays and in the river valleys. The 26o United States History for Schools state of Virginia had the largest population, about 532,000. Massachusetts and Pennsylvania came next, with about 330,000 each. 256. How the People Lived. — Surprisingly little change had been made in home life since colonial days (§§i 19-133). The century before 1789 was so filled with struggles against the wilderness and against the home country that little time was left for great inventions or improvements. And yet there were many more settlements and more and better houses. There were better food and clothing:. Some Organizing the New Government 261 of the people who could afford it tried to live in as great comfort and elegance as the richer classes of Europe. 257. Industries. — The Northern states still led in manu- factures. They had many sawmills and gristmills and were beginning to transfer other manufacturing from the work- ers' homes into organized factories, as at present. This important change was begun in 1790. Moses Brown, a Rhode Island Quaker, wrote to Samuel Slater of England about coming to America to set up a mill for spinning cotton yarn or thread : " If thou canst do this thing, I invite thee to come to Rhode Island, and have the credit of introducing cotton manufacture in America." Slater accepted the invitation, and, trusting entirely to his memory, built the wheels and spindles and shafts for the first mill which was set in operation at Pawtucket. This was soon to produce great changes in the whole industrial life of the North. The same year the first cotton mill was built (1790). Jacob Perkins, of Massachusetts, invented a nail machine that could turn out 200,000 nails a day. Before that all nails were made by hand. Asa Whittemore, also of Massachusetts, invented a machine for making wire cards for carding wool. It was said that this machine operated "as if it had a soul." Some ten years before the first cotton mill, Oliver Evans of Delaware invented the grain elevator (1780), and made such other improvements as "effected a revolution in the manufacture of flour." The West was still new, and so cattle raising and agri- culture were about the only industries there. In very early days the mining of iron ore and the making of pig iron constituted an important industry in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, but the making of tools, rails, and engines of the iron was a later development in this country. i6i United States History for Schools In the South hard toil was not relished by the white men at that time, as all labor was performed by slaves and by the poorest white people. Slave labor was not suitable for manufacturing, and so the industrial life of the South was wholly agricultural. Jkit one inventit)n was made there which had greater effect on American history than any other machine known. 258. " King Cotton " and Slavery. — Eli Whitney was born in Massachusetts, and after sixty years of eventful life he died in Connecticut. He was, therefore, a New Eng- lander. After graduating from Yale in 1792, he went to Georgia, and, on finding the offered place of tutor filled, he accepted an invi- tation of General N a t h a n a e 1 Greene's widow to make his home on her estate. It was there t li a t he made his wonder- ful invention. As a boy, during the Revolution, he had earned his living by making nails by hand. He paid his own way through college by that and similar work. He made so many small contrivances for Mrs. Greene that she advised his trying to improve the handling of cotton. At that time there was but little profit En WlIITNF.Y. Organizing the New Government 263 in cotton, because it required a day's work of a slave to separate the seeds from a single pound of cotton. Whitney worked under difficulty, for he had to make his own wire and tools ; but he produced (1793) the cotton <;in, with which a single slave could clean a thousand pounds of cotton a day. Cotton soon became " King." It became the great crop, greater even than to- bacco throughout the South. This was just the kind of crop for the profitable use of slave labor. Though the framers of the Constitution disliked slavery so much they avoided the very word in writing that document, the Southern people now searched the Hible and the pages of history to justify slavery. In this they were joined by Northern men who were also reaping rich harvests in cotton manufacturing. Thus the cotton gin pro- duced in North and South a stronger sentiment in favor of slavery, which influenced the history of the whole country. The prosperity which came from cotton was enormous. Nine years before Whitney's invention a vessel from Charleston landed eight bales of cotton at Liverpool (1784). There it was seized by officers who said America could not produce such a " prodigious quantity." Ten years after the invention we exported 100,000 bales! And each year saw a heavier increase. Macaulay has said : " What Peter the Great did to make Russia dominant, Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin has more than equaled in its relation to the power and progress of the United States." First Cotion Gin. 264 United States History for Schools 259. The Whisky Rebellion (1794). — The whisky crop was not so great as the cotton crop, though there is no denying that it was profitable for those who raised it, and that it has greatly influenced — for the bad — the history of mankind. One way the new government had of raising revenue was to tax whisky. Many farmers in the West had found it unprofitable to haul their grain to market over the long and miserable roads through the mountains. They made the grain into whisky, and obtained greater profits. The new tax cut down those profits. Some of the angry farmers in western Pennsylvania took up arms to fight the officers of the law. Washington sent out troops, who quickly suppressed the "Whisky Rebellion." 260. Poor Transportation Facilities. — Inventive minds had not yet been turned toward improving means of trans- portation, though the steamboat was to make its first ap- pearance in a few years. Between many settlements there were then nothing better than bridle paths or trails. There were no good roads for long distances, and very few bridges. The ferries were poor, and actually dangerous when there was ice in the rivers or hard winds were blowing. At such times there was more real danger in crossing the lower Hudson River than is involved in a journey around the world at the present time. The regular land communication between New York and Boston was by stagecoaches drawn by teams of six horses. By starting at four o'clock in the morning and traveling until ten o'clock at night the coach could make forty miles a day in the good summer weather, and about eighteen miles in winter. In the same time required to make that tire- some trip then, a passenger can to-day travel in comfort across the Atlantic, or by land from New York to San Francisco, or from Boston to Seattle. Organizing the New Government 265 261. Beginning of Political Parties. — With so many people in the country, who had developed colonies into ambitious states, who had fought for and obtained political freedom and independence, who saw their industries ex- panding and increasing, and who had just organized a new and stronger national government, it was perfectly natural there should grow up differences of opinion that would produce political parties. The division came on the ques- tion of how much power should be saved for the individual states and how much should be given to the national government. Those who believed in a strong, supreme national govern- ment became known as Federalists, and those who believed in restricting the national government and keeping the state governments stronger were called Anti-Federalists. Alexander Hamilton, who had done so much to make the national government stronger, was the leader of the Feder- alists, while Thomas Jefferson was leader of the Anti-Fed- eralists. Jefferson feared that if supreme power were given to the national government, it would soon be trans- formed into a monarchy. He demanded that the Consti- tution be strictly construed, and that Congress should exercise only such powers as were actually conferred by that document. (See Constitution, Article I., Section 8.) The followers of these men constituted the two parties. Washington, through his great desire for a strong na- tional government, through his hard work in favor of the Constitution, through his unequaled influence in the coun- try at large, was the real leader of the Federalists. But he did not want to be a party leader. He was opposed to party divisions. For those reasons, Hamilton became the Federalist leader. To show his belief in the whole coun- 266 United States History for Schools try rather than in any one party, Washington invited both Jefferson and Hamilton into his first Cabinet, and he was equally impartial in selecting other officers. 262. Locating the National Capital. — An early evidence of party division was shown when Hamilton undertook to have the general government assume the war debts of the separate states. This would certainly increase the credit of the nation, but it would also make it necessary for the national government to raise large sums of money by some form of taxation. This aroused the opposition of the Anti- Federalists. They did not want Congress to have such an excuse for laying heavy taxes, and besides, they argued that some states had paid their own debts, and this plan would tax them to pay part of the other state debts. They defeated the plan in Congress. Later, however, a compromise was arranged. The capi- tal of the nation was to be located in the South, on the Potomac River ; and this concession gained enough votes in Congress to carry the wise measure by which the nation assumed the war debts of the states. 263. The United States Bank (1791). — The state debts assumed by that compromise amounted to more than $21,000,000. The national debt to France, Spain, and Holland was more than $11,000,000, and the United States owed its own citizens more than $42,000,000. The total debt was more than $75,000,000. This was a staggering burden for the new nation to assume. The debt must be paid from the proceeds of the tariff and the tax on spirituous liquors. Some of the debt would have to be paid soon, and provision had to be made for the interest as it became due. To collect, care for, and pay out so much money was a big problem. Organizing the New Government 267 Part of Hamilton's reports on Public Credit (§ 254) dealt with this very problem. He favored a strong bank to be partly owned and controlled by the nation. Congress fol- lowed his advice by passing a law to create such a bank, and to give it large powers in a money way for a period of twenty years. President Washington hesitated when the law was sent to him by Congress for his signature. It was a big and a new question. He asked for opinions in writing by Jef- ferson and Hamilton, the leaders in his Cabinet. Those opinions are important as showing the nature of our gov- ernment at the time of its organization. Jefferson opposed ^the law, saying that Congress had exceeded its authority, as the Constitution did not grant the power of establishing a bank. Hamilton strongly favored the law, and pointed to the clause of Implied Powers in the Constitution. The President wisely favored Hamilton's argument. He signed the law, and the bank started on a useful career. But this transaction widened the division of the political parties. It is well to get an early and firm grip on that clause of Implied Powers, as from it Congress got all its powers to do such things as are not especially mentioned elsewhere in the Constitution. The clause (in Article I., Section 8) reads : " To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the gov- ernment of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof." STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What title was chosen with which to address the chief executive ? 2. Who is associated with the President in the executive depart- ment 1 268 United States History for Schools 3. Who was the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court ? 4. About how many people were there in the United States when the Constitution went into effect ? 5. Where and how was the first cotton mill built in America ? 6. Name some inventions of that time. 7. What were the industries of the West and South ? 8. What made cotton "King" ? / 9. What was the '" Whisky Rebellion '' ? ID. How did the people travel in those days ? 11. How did there come to be two political parties ? 12. What compromise was arranged when the nation assumed the war debts of the states ? 13. Where in the Constitution was found authority to organize the bank ? CHAPTER XXIII RELATIONS WITH THE OUTSIDE WORLD References. — Ashley's American History, pp 231-243 ; Harfs Source Book, pp. 188-194; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 537-591- Home Readings. — Hale's Man without a Country; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. HI., pp. 317-320; McMurry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. IL, pp. 68-83 (Boone), 84- 103 (Robertson), 104-123 (Sevier), 150-169 (Marietta and Cincinnati). 264. Different Attitude toward the World. — In colonial days the affairs of other countries influenced America mostly through the mother country. It is true that when France persecuted the Huguenots we received many of them here as new and good citizens. From disturbances in Germany, Ireland, and Scotland we received other good citizens. But when Great Britain was at war we were al- most sure that part of the conflict would be carried on in America. Foreign relations of the colonies were in the hands of Great Britain. When the United States joined the family of nations, this was all changed. The new government must deal in- dependently with all other nations. Immediately upon the recognition of our independence we made treaties with other nations, and began to regulate our intercourse and commerce with the world. 265. The Tariff on Foreign Trade. — The new govern- ment had inherited the heavy war debt from the Confed- eration, and had later assumed the state debts (§ 262), and, besides, the government had its own expenses to meet. 269 270 United States History for Schools To raise part of the necessary money a tax was levied on certain goods brought into the country from foreign lands. This tax is called a tariff. It has remained one of the principal sources of government revenue from that day to this. The amount of the tax would, of course, be added to the price of the goods before they were sold. This in- crease on the price of foreign-made goods would allow those who made similar goods in America to ask better prices for their own products. This stimulated the manu- facturing in America, and so that tax is often called a Pro- tective Tariff. 266. The Nootka Incident. — The very year (1789) that Washington took the first oath of ofifice as President of the United States, a Spanish captain seized some English ves- sels at Nootka Sound, on the west coast of Vancouver Island. The Spaniard had gone too far in trying to hold what he thought was Spanish territory. His superior offi- cers in Mexico released the ships and crews. This did not satisfy Great Britain. She demanded that Spain pay heavy damages and relinquish claims to that territory. Both sides prepared for war, but when Spain saw that Great Britain had collected the greatest fleet of warships known in the history of the world up to that time, she yielded and signed the agreement Great Britain demanded. The incident is important to American history for two reasons : First, by retiring southward to the coasts of Cali- fornia, Spain began her American retreat. Second, while preparing for war, both those foreign nations made de- mands upon the United States, whose government was less than one year old. Great Britain demanded the right to march troops through her former colonies so as to strike Spain in Louisiana. Spain wanted aid because she had Relations with the Outside World 271 helped America win her independence. This was a new and serious problem, but the far-seeing Washington decided to risk the anger of both nations by refusing to take sides in that European trouble. We shall see later how that act began an important policy for the government of the United States. 267. The Columbia River (1792). — American captains made their first appearance on the north Pacific coast of America at the time when the Spaniards were seizing British ships (1789). The two captains (John Kendrick and Robert Gray) had come from Boston by way of Cape Horn. Captain Gray went home by way of China and the Cape of Good Hope. He was thus the first man to sail around the globe under the Stars and Stripes. He re- turned to continue the fur trade, and on May 11, 1792, he discovered the " River of the West," and gave it the name of his ship — Columbia. This achievement gave the Amer- icans their first claim to the region that later became known as the Oregon country. 268. Our Relations with France (1783-1793). — The ten years following our treaty of peace with Great Britain saw great changes in France. We have seen (§ 140) how Louis XV. thought France would last long enough for him. It did, but it did not last much longer in the old way. He was succeeded (1774), just before the American Revolution began, by the honest, lock-making King Louis XVL (§ 187). The French people were suffering under a terrible burden of taxation to keep up the luxuries and the wars of the government. During the year (1789) when America was organizing its new government, the French king was compelled to call a meeting of the people's repre- sentatives in what they called the States General. The 272 United States History for Schools kings had been so despotic that they had ignored those meetings for one hundred and seventy-five years. Soon after the assembly met, the people got control of the gov- ernment, and with the cry of " Liberty, Fraternity, and Relations with the Outside World 273 Equality ! " they swept away all the unfair and burden- some privileges of king, nobles, and clergy. This pro- duced one of the most bloody civil wars, one of the most complete revolutions, known in history. When the revolutionists went so far as to behead their king and queen, the other nations became enemies. The new Republic of France found itself at war with a number of these enemies, including Great Britain. To show that they had obtained Equality by destroying titles and privileges, the French people addressed each other as Citizen. Knowing that America would remember the French help in their own struggle for Liberty, and believ- ing that Americans had enough Fraternity to desire that same Liberty for others, the French government sent Citizen Genet to America for aid. 269. Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality (1793). — Instead of going directly to the seat of government and presenting his papers, as any other minister from a foreign country would do, Citizen Genet landed in the South and began agitating. The Americans did sympathize with France. They wore French cockades in their hats, sang French songs, joined clubs, and promised help. Genet started to issue letters to privateers and to raise soldiers for an army. Here was trouble for Washington similar to the Nootka incident, only very rrtuch worse. He counseled with his Cabinet, and then issued his Proclamation of Neutrality, declaring that the United States would take no part in that European war, but would remain neutral. Instantly there arose a great clamor. The people were indignant. Here was our old friend at war with our old enemy; and must we now refuse to help the friend whose aid was T 274 United States History for Schools so valuable to us a short time before ? Genet appealed to the people to remove Washington from the presidency. But Washington was as brave a President as he was a general. He calmly faced the storm of anger, and at his dignified request the French government recalled their indiscreet and impetuous minister. In this crisis Washington proved himself a true American statesman. There could remain no further doubt that the United States proposed to keep free from all European quarrels. 270. A New Treaty with Great Britain (1794). — The President's courage was also tested by the strained rela- tions between the United States and Great Britain. Ten years had passed since the two nations had signed the treaty of peace, and yet neither had found time or con- venience to keep the promises then made. The Ameri- cans had promised to pay certain debts to British subjects, and to try to make good the losses of certain loyalists who had been driven from their American homes during the Revolution. These promises were broken or neg- lected. On her part, Great Britain had promised to remove her troops from Detroit, Niagara, Oswego, and other forts on the frontier. This promise was also neg- lected during those ten years. Each side was at fault about those broken promises ; but Great Britain went farther. She prohibited American trade with the British West Indies. While she and France were at war, she prohibited Americans carrying goods to French ports. She also claimed the right to search American ships and to carry off any sailors who were supposed to be British subjects. The seizures made by Great Britain caused much angry feeling, as well as much loss to the Americans. Relations with the Outside World 275 To settle all these troubles by a new treaty, the Presi- dent sent Chief Justice John Jay to England. The treaty he made was disappointing. Great Britain agreed to vacate those Western forts and to open the British West Indies to trade, but she stubbornly insisted on her Right of Search. Though concluded in 1794, it was more than a year before the treaty was finally accepted. During that time great op- position to the treaty was man- ifested in Amer- ica. Hamilton tried to address meeting in New York, fa- voringthetreaty, but he was driven from the platform by a shower of stones hurled by the angry crowd. Was hin gt on again faced angry people, and when the opposition newspapers held him up to scorn, he said he " would rather be in his grave than in the presidency." 271. The " Men of the Western Waters." — More and ever 276 United States History for Schools more settlers had been finding homes in the Western lands. Through Cumberland Gap in the mountains men had made trails and roads from Virginia and the Carolinas into the valleys south of the Ohio. Men from Pennsylvania and New York had crossed the mountains to the rivers that flow into the Ohio, and men from New England had found a way to the Ohio country through the valley of the Mohawk. They called themselves " Men of the Western Waters." The lands were wide and rich, but next to the lands those waters were most important to the settlers. Those rivers led them to their new homes, and when they began to raise crops they floated loaded boats to the Ohio, down that river and the Mississippi, to the market at New Orleans. The boats used were the famous " Flat Boats," made of lumber hewn from the forests by the farmers. In these boats heavy loads could be floated downstream, but there was no way to push or pull the empty boats upstream, so they were sold at New Orleans for lumber or wood. When the boats and cargoes were sold the farmers would buy clothing, furniture, and other supplies. These would be shipped in some vessel bound for an Atlantic coast port. From such port the farmers would haul them over the mountains to their Western Waters and to their homes. Thus the rivers were the natural highways for the people. They earnestly desired the United States to keep them open and free. New Orleans and half the Mississippi belonged to a foreign nation (Spain), and we shall see some important events connected with that fact. The people along the southern bank of the Ohio organ- ized themselves into an independent state, which was admitted to the Union (1792) with the Indian name Ken- Relations with the Outside World 277 tucky, meaning " At the Head of a River." Four years later another state just south of Kentucky was admitted to the Union (1796). Andrew Jackson was a member of the convention to frame the new state constitution. He pro- posed the name " Great Crooked River State." The name chosen means the same thing in the Indian language — Tennessee. The people in the Ohio country would also soon be ready to form new states. 272. Washington's Farewell Address (1796). — Washing- ton had been twice elected President by unanimous vote. As the time for the third election drew near, he refused to listen to proposals for a third term, but instead he issued to the people his Farewell Address. This is one of the finest documents in American history. In it the great Washing- ton pours out his heart as a father would talk to his chil- dren. He praises and encourages them, and tries to sound, a warning against every form of danger to the country. He especially warns against foreign entanglements. He said : " Observe good faith and justice towards all nations; culti- vate peace and harmony with all." Every American citi- zen can still find inspiration by reading that address. Those who love our schools will find there how Washington also loved and believed in them, for he says : " Promote, then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened." 273. France and the Case of X, Y, Z. — The four years that John Adams was President (1797-1801) witnessed a serious disturbance of America's foreign affairs. We managed to get along with England fairly well under the Jay Treaty, but not so with France. The government of 278 United States History for Schools that country had passed into the hands of five men called The Directory. These Directors declared that America had insulted France by signing that Jay Treaty with Great Britain, and they drove from France the American minister, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. President Adams was firm and courageous in this crisis. He sent John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry to join Pinck- ney in an effort to adjust the trouble with France. The Directory sent three agents to deal with the three Ameri- cans. After many delays the French agents hinted at the necessity of bribe money for the Directors. The Americans rejected the idea with promptness. During the further negotiations the French agents brought up the question again. "You do not speak to the point," said they; "it is money. Money for the Directors." " We have answered that." " What is your answer .'' " " It is No ! No ! Not a sixpence ! " In sending his report home, Pinckney mentioned some- thing about " Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." President Adams gave the report to Congress ; but, instead of mentioning the names of the guilty French- men, he used the letters X, Y, and Z, which letters have since been used as the name of the incident. President Adams became really popular for the first and only time in his life. England published the X, Y, Z papers over Europe, to the injury of France. In America the people were excited. They shouted : " Millions for de- fense, but not one cent for tribute ! " They sang the new song " Hail, Columbia." They also prepared for war. An army was raised, and Washington was drawn from his Relations with the Outside World 279 retirement at the loved Mount Vernon to take command of it. The navy under Commodore Truxton captured two French frigates. The people were anxious for the war to continue. But President Adams heard that affairs had again changed in France. Napoleon Bonaparte was practically in power there, and American agents would be respectfully treated. Adams, without consulting others, sent agents to France, and the trouble was quickly adjusted. He then bravely faced a storm of disapproval, and calmly declared : " I desire no other inscription over my gravestone than this : Here lies John Adams, who took upon himself the responsibility of the peace with France in the year 1800." STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What is tariff ? 2. What attitude did Washington assume during the trouble called the "Nootka Controversy" ? 3. Why was the discovery of the Columbia River important ? 4. What did the French revolutionists ask of the United States ? 5. What did Washington's proclamation of neutrality mean ? 6. How did Jay's treaty test Washington's courage ? 7. Who were the " Men of the Western Waters " ? 8. What did Washington do instead of becoming a candidate for a third term of the presidency ? 9. What is the X, Y, Z case ? CHAPTER XXIV POLITICAL AND INDUSTRIAL EVENTS (1798-1808) References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 243-257 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 1 94-2 1 1 ; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 592-608. Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader, Vol. HI., pp. 81-142 ; Mc- Murry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. HI., pp. 1-39 (Lewis and Clark) ; Sparks's Men Who Made the Nation, pp. 218-254 (Jefferson). 274. Laws against Editors and Foreigners (1798). — The wave of popular feeling dtiring the trouble with France caused the Federalist party then in control of Congress and the government to go to an unfortunate extreme by enacting the Alien and Sedition Laws. There were a number of editors in America who were Frenchmen. They were probably excited by the stirring events in France. At any rate they published abuse of Adams and the Federalists. The new laws were aimed at those French- men principally. The Alien Law gave to the President alone power to send out of the country any foreigner whom he considered dangerous to the government. By the Sedition Law any one could be punished by fine and imprisonment who attempted to bring contempt upon the government by speaking or writing. Instead of bringing strength, these extreme laws brought defeat to the Feder- alist party. 275. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. — Jeffer- son's Anti-Federalist party, or Democratic Republicans, were strongly opposed to the Alien and Sedition Laws. To express this disapproval two sets of resolutions were 280 Political and Industrial Events (i 798-1 808) 281 adopted. One set, drawn by Madison, was adopted by Virginia, and the other set, drawn by Jefferson, was adopted by Kentucky. These resolutions were not laws, but they exercised a strong influence on American history until the Civil War. They declared that those obnoxious laws were unconstitutional. The Kentucky Resolutions went so far as to claim that the states had the right to declare null any law of Congress which was unconstitutional. If that were true, the states and not the nation would have supreme power. 276. Death of Washington. — During the trouble over the Alien and Sedition Laws the FederaHsts and the nation lost their greatest leader. Washington died at Mount Vernon on December 14, 1799. His death was mourned, not only in America, but throughout the world. In Paris the flags were all at half-mast. Napoleon said: " Washington's name will be loved and honored when mine is forgotten in revolutions." The Duke of Wellington, when hanging up a picture of the great American in his English home, said: "Not only was Washington the greatest, but he was also the most majestic, man in history." He was buried at Mount Vernon, and to this day whenever a boat passes up or down the Potomac, a salute is given to the sleeping " Father of his Country." 277. The City of Washington. — After the compromise to locate the national capital in the South was accepted (§ 262), Washington himself selected the place on the bank of the Potomac above Mount Vernon. The tract was ten miles square, and was called the District of Columbia. There were no houses there. Engineers and architects were engaged to lay out streets and plan buildings. It is said that the national capital is the only American city 282 United States History for Schools that was begun with a blank sheet of paper. The new city was called Washington, and the seat of government was moved there in 1800. 278. John Marshall, Chief Justice (1801). — One of the most important acts of John Adams as President was the Thomas Jefferson. promotion of his Secretary of State, John Marshall, to be Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He held that exalted position for thirty-four years (i 801-183 5), and by his won- derful talent and legal learning did much to strengthen the national government. He was pious, modest, and amiable. Political and Industrial Events (1798-1808) 283 He was tall and rather awkward, but the fruits of his mind have placed his name among the great ones of the world. It is said that he solved the greatest problems before him "with giant ease." 279. Thomas Jefferson. — The state of Virginia had many noble sons of whom she is justly proud. Among the greatest of them was Thomas Jefferson. He was no soldier, nor was he an orator. During all his eighty years of life he never made a speech more than ten minutes long. He did most of his work with the pen. And what a pen he did wield ! He wrote and schemed and framed laws always for the good of the masses. He has been called a " Conspirator for the Welfare of the People." Few statesmen in the whole history of America have had the confidence of the people in greater measure than Jefferson. He resigned as Minister to France to become Washing- ton's first Secretary of State. He was Vice President under Adams, and in 1801 he became President. His elec- tion made a big change in the politics of the United States. For twelve years the Federalists had had control of the government ; but that party had been badly discredited through the Alien and Sedition Laws and other measures. Jefferson's Democratic-Republican party rode into power on the promises of a strict construction of the Constitution and of greater economy in government. And that party retained power for many years. 280. Napoleon Bonaparte. ^It is too often thought that Napoleon's wonderful career was confined wholly to the old world. He came into American history in a number of important ways. We have seen how he made peace with the United States (§ 273). Soon after that he made peace 284 United States History for Schools with Great Britain, and began to plan great things for France. To recover part of his country's losses of Ameri- can territory, he forced Spain to give back Louisiana. He proposed to send out an army and settlers to create another " New France." To secure a base of operations, he sent an army to sub- due the island of San Domingo. That army met two surprising foes. One — Toussaint L'Ouverture — was such a skillful native general that he was called the " Black Napoleon." The other foe was the yellow fever. The French army failed on this first part of its journey, and never got to New Orleans. This was a disappointment to Napoleon, for he knew that, if war should break out with Great Britain, he could not defend Louisiana. 281. The Purchase of Louisiana (1803). — The people of the West were deeply interested in the ownership of Louisiana. Before it was known that France had secured the province, the Spaniards there had refused to allow the Americans to continue their use of the harbor of New Orleans. The angry Americans proposed to raise an army to march on New Orleans and capture it. Jefferson was always interested in the West. He sympathized with those people in their new trouble, and ordered Minister Livingston in Paris to try to purchase New Orleans. Growing anxious over the delay, he sent James Monroe as a special envoy to assist Livingston, and declared : " The day the French occupy New Orleans, that day we must marry ourselves to the British fleet and nation." The American offer to buy New Orleans came just at the right time for Napoleon. The war with Great Britain was about to be renewed. He would rather see New Orleans in the hands of America than to see it captured Political and Industrial Events (1798-1808) 285 by the ancient enemy of France. Besides, he needed money. So he surprised the Americans by offering to sell them not only New Orleans, but the whole province of Louisiana, for ^15,000,000. Jefferson knew that there was no provision in the Con- stitution for such a transaction. He called a meeting of the Cabinet, and proposed to try to have the Constitution amended. The Cabinet convinced him he could not get such an amendment approved at once, and he would have to act under the treaty-making power of the President. This he did, the purchase was made, and the area of the United States was more than doubled. By this very fortunate act, Jefferson himself demonstrated that if the United States was to become a great nation its power must be enlarged in spite of the theories of " strict con- struction." 282. The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1803-1806). — Jef- ferson's deep interest in the West was manifested as early as 1783, when he wrote a letter to George Rogers Clark asking if that hero of the West would not like to lead an exploration from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. Next, while United States Minister in France, Jefferson tried to help John Ledyard, a remarkable Yankee of roving disposition, who wanted to explore the far West in America. The plan failed, but when Jefferson came home he per- suaded the Philosophical Society of Philadelphia to send out a small expedition. That failed also, but Jefferson kept watch of the young Captain Meriwether Lewis, who had volunteered for the work. Jefferson, when he became President, made Lewis his private secretary. When he was satisfied that Lewis was the right man, he planned the exploring party with that young captain as its leader. For 286 United States History for Schools greater safety in case of sickness or accident, Lewis ob- tained permission to share the leadership with his friend Captain William Clark, a younger brother of George Rogers Clairk. The party consisted of the two leaders, nine young men from Kentucky, fourteen soldiers, two French watermen, an interpreter, and a black slave belonging to Captain Clark. In the early spring of 1804 they started up the Missouri River, and late in September, 1806, they re- turned to St. Louis. They had followed the Missouri to its source, crossed the Rocky Mountains to rivers flowing into the Columbia, and then down that river to its mouth, where they spent the winter in a camp built of logs which they named after the Indian tribe there — Fort Clatsop. They discovered and named rivers and mountains. Their explorations did much to strengthen American claims in the region of the river discovered by Captain Gray (§ 267), as well as to make known much of the land purchased from France. 283. The Barbary States as Pirates. — American com- merce had expanded to all parts of the world. There was one place where the Stars and Stripes were not respected. FromStatiK li\ II Indians greet Lewis and Clark IN Oregon. Political and Industrial Events (1798-1808) 287 This was in the Mediterranean Sea, along the northern coast of Africa. There were a number of little govern- ments there, such as Morocco, Algeria, Tripoli, and Tunis, often called the Barbary States. They were Moham- medan, and felt free to attack any defenseless ship of a Christian nation. They stole the cargoes and made Overland Trails. slaves of the sailors. In all this they were no better than common pirates. European nations bought off the pirates by paying large sums of tribute money. It is sad to relate that while we were shouting " Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute," we were follow- ing the European custom of paying tribute to those pirates. Part of the money was raised by churches when stories were told of American sailors held as slaves. The pirates were never satisfied. The Pasha of Tripoli declared war 288 United States History for Schools against the United States (1800) because we would not send more money. This was too much for Yankee pride. Even though President Jefferson was opposed to a navy and to war, he sent a squadron that defeated Tripoli (1805) and frightened the other Barbary States so that they re- spected the American flag. 284. Aaron Burr's Conspiracy. — Aaron Burr is an ex- ample of a man of fine family and unusual talent being ruined by a lack of proper moral ideals. His father was a noted clergyman, and president of Princeton College. His mother was the daughter of another famous clergy- man, Jonathan Edwards. Young Burr wanted to be a "man of the world," ^nd through that ambition came his ruin. He was a brave ofificer in the Revolution, and later became a lawyer. In the election of 1800 he was chosen Vice President under Thomas Jefferson. Just as his term was ending, he tried to be elected governor of New York. He was bitterly opposed by Hamilton, and challenged him to fight a duel. Burr killed Hamilton, and was denounced by the people as a murderer. He fled from New York, and began a wild scheme to conquer Texas and Mexico to make an empire for himself. The capital was to be at New Orleans. When he planned to add to his "empire " a western portion of the United States he was guilty of treason or conspiracy. He was arrested, but was acquitted after a famous trial. Though at one time rich and influen- tial, he was shunned in his last days, and died in poverty. There was one bright gleam in his black hours. His daughter Theodosia, whom he almost worshiped, clung to him through his deepest troubles. 285. Robert Fulton's Steamboat. — Robert Fulton was an inventor by nature. When only thirteen years old he Political and Industrial Events (1798-1808) 289 invented paddle wheels for a fishing boat. He also had a talent for painting, and was sent to Europe to study. There he gained some reputation for his art, but much more for his inventions. These included improvements for bridges and canals, manufacturing machin- ery, and even the begin- nings of a submarine boat and torpedoes. While Fulton was busy in England and France, John Fitch of Connecti- cut invented a rude little steamboat. He was so discouraged at not get- ting money to perfect his invention that he com- mitted suicide. Before he died he wrote these words : " The day will come when some more powerful man will get fame and riches from my invention." Robert Fulton was that " more powerful man." He bought an engine in England, brought it to America, built the Clermojit, and paddled it by steam power up the Hudson from New York to Albany (one hundred and fifty miles) in thirty-two hours. That was a great day ( March 1 1 , 1 807) for New York and the world at large. Thousands of people gath- ered to see the boat they thought was " helpless as a log." They called the boat "Fulton's Folly." But when the pad- dles in plain view on the sides of the boat began to turn, u R(_)i;ekt Fulton. 290 United States History for Schools and the boat started upstream against the current, there arose a glad shout of approval: "She moves ! She moves ! " t-^_AAl V""!-^, Second Boat by Fitch. Whoever deserves the credit of having made the very first application of steam to transportation, we know that Fulton's steamboat made a practical application of the Third Boat by Fitch. power that influenced the entire world. It was far greater than a victory in war, for it increased the power and advanced the civilization of the whole human race. In a relatively Political and Industrial Events (1798— 1808) 291 short space of time there were steamboats on the principal rivers, lakes, and even on the oceans. 286. Law against the Slave Trade. — It has been seen (§ 258) that " King Cotton " changed the sentiment about slavery. Still there were many people who knew that it was wrong. President Jefferson said : " I tremble for my country, when I reflect that God is just." There were also many who believed that slavery as it existed in America was right and just, but the stealing of human beings in Africa and selling them in America was wrong. They hated the slave trade. The compromise in the Constitu- tion (§ 250) fixed on the year 1808 as the time when such trade could be stopped. As the year drew near. Congress passed a law to stop the importation of slaves after the first day of the year mentioned in the Constitution. 287. Ohio becomes a State. — No part of the United States would respond more heartily than the West to the ideas of greater freedom and to the quickened impulse of the steamboat. The West was "free soil" (§ 244), and those "Western Waters " would be as open to the steamboat as to the clumsy and slow flatboat. Ohio was the first state in the Old Northwest ready for admission, and she led the way into the Union (1803) four years before Fulton's Cler- mont paddled its first trip up the Hudson. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Did the Alien and Sedition Laws do what was expected of them? 2. If the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions had prevailed, what would have been the relation between state and nation ? 3. Where is Washington's tomb, and how do people still show re- spect for his memory ? 4. Why is the name of John Marshall famous ? 5. Why was Jefferson called a '* Conspirator for the Welfare of the People " ? 292 United States History for Schools 6. Why did Napoleon sell Louisiana to the United States ? 7. Show how the Lewis and Clark expedition was important to the whole country. 8. How did the United States treat the pirates of the Barbary States ? 9. What do you consider was the cause of Aaron Burr's failure ? 10. Tell some of the results of Fulton's successful steamboat. 11. When was the importation of slaves made illegal ? CHAPTER XXV THE WAR OF 1812 References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 257-275 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 212-225 i Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 608-624. Home Readings. — Eggleston's Big Brother ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. HI., 217-256, 274-315; Holmes's Old Ironsides; Key's Star- spangled Banner ; Sewell's Midshipman Paulding. 288. Napoleon Bonaparte becomes an Emperor. — When Napoleon Bonaparte decided to sell Louisiana to the United States (§ 281), he had already become First Con- sul for life, and in imitation of European rulers he used but the one name — Napoleon. The French people were almost unanimous in giving him the new power and title. He had fairly earned them, for he had beaten the enemies of France, had spread republican ideas to other parts of Europe, and had undertaken amazing works of peace. These works of peace constitute Napoleon's true title to greatness. He dug canals, built bridges, and made roads — wonderful roads. The roads he built through the Aljjs were marvels of engineering skill, and were used until re- placed by railroad tunnels. He remodeled and beautified Paris and other French cities. His greatest work was the Code Napoleon. For this work he engaged five of the best French lawyers, who gathered and harmonized all the old and new laws into one code. Here was saved the fruit of Liberty harvested with such awful bloodshed in the French Revolution. He also made peace with the church, and arranged for the government to pay the sal- aries of all clergymen, Catholic and Protestant. 293 294 United States History for Schools In the midst of all this good work new enemies appeared, and an attempt was made against the life of Napoleon. The people then voted again to increase his power by- crowning him Em- peror of the French, which was done with imposing ceremo- nies (December 2, 1804). 289. New Wars in Europe. — Great Britain was the one power that stood across Napoleon's path. He hoped to conquer that nation in one way or an- other. It is said that when he closed the sale of Louisi- ana he exclaimed: " I hav^e this day given to America a priceless heritage, and to England a maritime rival that will sooner or later sweep her from the seas." He made a strong effort himself to conquer Great Britain. He gathered a large army at Boulogne on the English Channel, and built an immense number of flat-bottomed boats to carry the troops across for an invasion of England. Then he waited for his chance. He said : " Masters of the Channel for six hours, and we are masters of the world." William Pitt, the younger, was at the head of the From an etching by J. David from the portrait by L. David. Napoleon Bonaparte. The War of 1812 295 British government. He stirred up the other European governments to oppose this French oppressor. Russia and Austria started armies on the march. With the Admiral Nelson. swiftness for which he was noted, Napoleon marched his great army to the new attack, and defeated the combined enemies. He then organized Germany in such a way that 296 United States History for Schools the Holy Roman Empire expired, after an existence of some eighteen hundred years. While Napoleon won victories on land, he suffered defeat on the sea. Lord Nelson, the great British hero, met the combined French and Spanish fleets off Cape Trafalgar (1805), and almost completely destroyed them; but Nelson, greatest of English admirals, was killed at the moment of victory. 290. Napoleon's Substitute for a Fleet. — The disaster at Trafalgar removed Napoleon's last hope of successful attack upon Great Britain. He then resorted to a new scheme by issuing two " Decrees " in which he declared the ports of Europe were blockaded, and prohibited all nations from trading with Great Britain. That nation was " Mistress of the Sea," but Napoleon would try to starve her to submission by cutting off her commerce and supplies. Great Britain met the new attack by retaliation in the form of " Orders in Council," forbidding all nations to trade with France or with countries controlled by France. 291. American Commerce Crippled. — While the Euro- pean nations were fighting, they needed food and other supplies. American commerce was reaping the harvest. The United States was a neutral power, and as such felt free to carry goods at " war-time " prices to either France or Great Britain. This profitable business was stopped by those blockading orders, when both French and British warships began to seize American ships. Great Britain was not satisfied with her control of the sea. She became very arrogant in the exercise of that control. She set up the claim : " Once an Englishman, The War of 1812 297 always an Englishman." The Americans denied this, and claimed that a British subject might become a citizen of the United States by naturalization. American sailors got better pay and better treatment than British sailors. It often happened that a British captain would lose his crew in American ports. Some of those deserters got fraudu- lent papers of naturalization. That was dishonest, and to that extent the Americans were themselves to blame for part of their trouble. Great Britain's arrogance consisted in her searching American vessels and helping herself to any seamen she wished if the men could not prove they had been born in America. This was the cause of the War of 18 12, but before that war began, Great Britain had searched nine hundred American vessels and had carried off four thousand seamen. The worst case of all was when the British warship Leopard stopped the American warship CJicsapeake and took off four men, one of whom was hanged as a deserter (1807). President Jefferson ordered all British warships out of American ports, and Great Britain sent a rather tardy apology. 292. The Embargo and the Non-Intercourse Act. — Peace was very dear to the heart of Jefferson. It was with re- luctance that he had sent a fleet against the Barbary States (§ 283) and consented to the building of new warships at that time. To meet these new commercial troubles he favored the act of Congress (1807) called the Embargo. This was a law to prevent American ships from leaving their home ports. It was an effort to starve Great Britain and France by keeping at home all American supplies while those countries were at war with each other. The law threw thousands of sailors out of employment, and 298 United States History for Schools ruined all business that depended upon shipping. The sailors and shipowners would much rather risk capture on the seas than suffer want and idleness in port. Farmers also suffered when the foreign markets for their crops were closed. Jefferson and his followers were firm in their policy, and New York and New England grew desperate. There was talk even of rebellion. The leaders in Congress finally persuaded Jefferson that his loved Embargo policy must be abandoned, but it was agreed that the repeal should not take place until March 4, 1809, the day that Jefferson should go out of office. The place of the Embargo was to be taken by the new Non- Intercourse Act. This provided that America should not have intercourse or commerce with Great Britain or France, though trade might be resumed with all other nations. This law might have brought relief to American commerce if Great Britain and France had been willing to respect the neutral American flag. 293. Serious Problems for the New President. — The day that the Embargo was repealed, Thomas Jefferson was succeeded as President by James Madison. Jefferson had followed Washington's noble example by declining a third term in that exalted office, but Jefferson's successor was a personal friend and close political follower. In fact Madi- son had been his principal Cabinet adviser as Secretary of State. He thus brought to the presidency the same ideas on foreign affairs. Though the Non-Intercourse Law for- bade our trade with France and Great Britain, the new President hoped to settle the troubles and reopen trade with one or both of those warring nations. In this there seemed early promise of success when the British Minister at Washington told the President that Great Britain would The War of 1812 299 no longer molest American ships if we would agree to send our produce to Great Britain and her friends and refuse trade with France. This was good news. A thousand American ships, loaded and waiting, as soon as the Presi- dent spoke the word, " spread their white wings, like a flock of long-imprisoned birds, and flew out to sea." The disappointment was keen. Great Britain said her minister had no right to give such a promise, and trade was again stopped. A swindler by the name of Henry told President Madison that he had been employed by the British in Canada to persuade New England to secede from the Union and join Can- ada. He showed a package of letters as proof of what he claimed. Madison bought the letters for the United States for $50,000, but they proved to be fraudulent. The problems with the French side were made difficult by a trick which Napoleon played. He had been seizing American ships because he said they were aiding Great Britain. He agreed to stop all that and respect the Ameri- can flag if trade with Great Britain ceased. The Americans accepted this new chance, but when a number of ships had reached French ports. Napoleon broke his word and gave orders to seize them all. James Madison. 300 United States History for Schools 294. First American Fort on the Pacific Coast. — While our commercial troubles were drawing us to the verge of war, an important event occurred in a remote part of America. John Jacob Astor of New York had made a for- tune in the fur trade. He made up his mind that a fort or trading post at the mouth of the Columbia River would command a vast and new region for the fur trade. He organized the Pacific Fur Company, and sent out two ex- peditions, one by sea and the other by land. A log cabin fort was built at the mouth of the Columbia River (1811), and over it floated the American flag. In honor of Mr. Astor the fort was called Astoria. This added one more element to our right of possession in that region. Gray in the Columbia (§ 267) had given the element of discovery ; Lewis and Clark (§ 282) had given the element of explora- tion ; and Astor gave the element of occupation. 295. Indian Conspiracy under Chief Tecumseh. — The Indians in the Ohio country were stirred up by Chief Tecumseh in an effort to drive the white men out of their hunting grounds. William Henry Harrison was leader of the army that met and defeated the Indians in the battle of Tippecanoe (181 1 ). Chief Tecumseh later helped the British; and many believed he had been urged On by British agents in this conspiracy, which increased American ill-will toward Great Britain. 296. Greatest Cause of the War of 1812. — While the United States might stagger along with her crippled com- merce until France and Great Britain should wear each other out or sign a treaty of peace, the continued arrogance of Great Britain (§ 291) in searching American ships and kidnapping American sailors became unbearable. The feeling in America grew more and more bitter toward Great The War of 1812 301 Britain. Two young leaders from the South — Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Caro- lina — urged a war, believing the United States could easily win by capturing Canada. In the summer of 18 12 Con- gress declared war against Great Britain. This was ac- complished by members from the South and West. The North, especially New York and New England, opposed the war. 297. The United States unprepared for War. — Great Britain had a thousand warships in her navy, more than all the rest of the nations combined. The little navy of the United States consisted of about a dozen vessels. Our army was small and undisciplined. Worse than all else, we were not united in the purpose of the war. New Eng- land had the greatest wealth, and through her disapproval of the war the government would find it difficult to raise money for war expenses. Moreover, the conflict might have been avoided, for at the last moment Great Britain with- drew her obnoxious " Orders in Council," and offered peace. But she insisted on her right to search our ships, and America rushed on into the war with the one cry of " Sail- ors' Rights." 298. The World amazed at American Victories. — Great Britain ruled the seas. She was accustomed to win victories there. The world was also accustomed to look for such results. No one dreamed of an American victory. Great was the surprise, therefore, over the first naval duel of the war. The Constitution, now affectionately known as " Old Ironsides," commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, met the British warship Giierricrc of equal strength, and in half an hour conquered her. Hull took his prisoners to Boston, where he and his men were feasted in Faneuil Hall. Con- 302 United States History for Schools grass voted the captain a gold medal, and gave the crew fifty thousand dollars prize money. The battle was a great blow to British pride, and elated the Americans. Out of fifteen such duels the Americans, by superior skill of seamanship and gunnery, won twelve. Great Britain sent a large portion of her enormous navy to blockade American ports, and soon locked in harbors the few American warships. The work on the sea was then taken up by American privateers, who preyed on British commerce. About twenty-five hundred British merchant- men were captured during the war by these privateers. 299. Hull's Surrender of Detroit. — As the conquest and annexation of Canada were parts of the war plan, General William Hull, an uncle of the gallant captain of " Old Ironsides," was ordered to march his troops from Ohio to be ready to strike Canada a blow from Detroit. He had to cut roads for about two hundred miles through the forest. Before the news reached General Hull the Canadians knew all about the declaration of war. They had obtained reenforcements, Indian and white, and had cut off Hull's source of supplies. General Brock on the British side then demanded Hull's surrender. Without firing a shot, Hull hung up a white tablecloth, and surrendered his army and the fort (August 16, 18 12). For this Hull was convicted of cowardice by a court martial, and was sentenced to be shot. President Madison pardoned him on account of his brave record in the Revolution. Years afterwards the real reason of his surrender was learned. The woods were filled with Indians. If he had not surrendered, the women and children of Detroit would have fallen victims to the savage tomahawk and scalping knife. Historians now believe Hull was justified in his surrender. The War of 1812 303 300. Checking the British Advance. — After securing Detroit, the British captured Fort Dearborn, which stood where is now the city of Chicago. This looked as though Canada would annex the Ohio country, instead of being itself annexed to the United States. General Harrison was sent into the field to drive the British out of Detroit. His advance guard was defeated at River Raisin, and there was again tasted the bitterness of savage warfare. The Indians tortured and massacred the wounded prisoners. General Harrison's success, after this partial defeat, de- pended on the control of Lake Erie. 301. Perry's Remarkable Victory. — The British knew of the value of controlling Lake Erie, and were preparing a fleet for that purpose. To meet that fleet Captain Oliver H. Perry, then twenty-eight years old, took crews of men to the shore of the lake, and cut down trees in the forest, with which he built five ships. To these he added four others, and his fleet was ready for business. He named his flagship Lazf- rcncc, in honor of Captain James Law- rence who had died in the ship duel of the Shannon and CJiesapcake. That captain's last words were : " Don't give up the ship." So Perry displayed those words on a flag at the peak of his ship Lawrence. During the battle (September 15, 18 13) the Lawrence yizs, cut to pieces. But eight of Perry's crew were left unharmed. If he remained there he would be captured and the battle would be lost. Taking his younger brother and the survivors of his crew in a small boat, he started for his next best ship, Oliver H \/ vkn Pfrr\. 304 United States History for Schools the Niagara. He stood up in the boat with the flag in his hands. The British tried their best to sink the boat. Some of the oars were sphntered with shots ; young Perry's cap was torn with bullets ; but the Niagara was safely reached. The fight was renewed with such vigor that the British surrendered. Perry then wrote on the back of an old letter his famous message to General Harrison : " We have met the enemy, and they are ours." This was the first time in history an entire British fleet had surrendered. The splendid victory had important re- sults. General Harrison at once attacked and defeated the land forces. Among the slain on the British side was the wily Indian Chief Tecumseh. The Old Northwest was then safe to the Americans. 302. New British Campaign Planned. — Great Britain had her hands full of trouble in Europe, but she had no idea of stopping the war in America. She probably wished to recover the control of Lake Erie, and she certainly wished to punish America for another transaction. During the struggle on the New York frontier the Americans had captured York (now Toronto), capital of Canada West, and had burned the public buildings. General Dearborn, the American commander, promptly denounced this mean action of his troops, but it is likely the British did not hear of his words. For in the year 1 814 the British planned a strong attack from Canada by the old Lake Champlain route, attacks on American ports on the Atlantic shore, especially the national capital, and an attack by way of the Mississippi River. While maturing these plans, a turn was made in the European war that allowed Great Britain to throw more of her strength against America. 303. Downfall of Napoleon. — Napoleon was dominating The War of i8ia 305 Europe to such an extent that the other peoples feared his Empire threatened to become the "tomb of the Nations." Russia had been the friend of France, but broke that friendship on account of Napoleon's blockade. Napoleon decided to march against Russia (18 12) with a grand army of nearly four hundred thousand men. The Russians retreated, devastated their own lands; and two days after the French entered the great city of Moscow mysterious fires broke out everywhere. The city was reduced to heaps of ruins. Napoleon then began his awful retreat through Russian snows. The suffering was frightful. The march and retreat cost the French army two hundred and fifty thousand lives. The aUied powers thought the time had come to crush Europe's tyrant ; but Napoleon gathered another army, many of whom were mere boys, and made heroic efforts to win. At Leipzig so many countries were represented in the combined enemies of Napoleon that it was called the " Battle of the Nations." The battle lasted three days. Napoleon lost. The armies poured into France. Paris surrendered (March 31, 18 14), and Napoleon gave up his crown. He was banished to the little island of Elba in the Mediterranean. Great Britain then had plenty of ships and men to use against America. 304. Battle on Lake Champlain. — Before the news of Napoleon's downfall reached America, another attack was made on Canada by way of the Niagara River region. The battle of Lundy's Lane was a stubborn one, and the Americans retreated to their own side of the river. After that, the idea of conquering Canada was given up, and the Americans soon faced a serious threat of inva- 3o6 United States History for Schools sion by way of Lake Champlain. As in the case of Lake Erie (§301), the British fleet on Lake Champlain was superior to the American. The British also had a land force of fourteen thousand men. The Americans had less than two thousand men, but they were strongly in- trenched near Plattsburg. Thomas Macdonough in com- mand of the American fleet won a complete victory, on hearing of which the British land forces retreated into Canada (September 11, 1814). 305. Capture of the American Capital City. — Admiral Cockburn arrived in Chesapeake Bay with his British fleet conveying an army in command of General Ross. The army was landed and marched toward Washington City. At Bladensburg, a few miles from Washington, they met with some slight resistance, after which President Madison and other officers fled as the British marched into the capital city. The President's untouched dinner was eaten by the invaders. Going to the House of Representatives, one of the leaders stepped to the Speaker's chair and cried : " Shall this harbor of Yankee Democracy be burned.? All for it say 'Aye.'" The "Ayes" had it; the torch was applied not only there but to the other public buildings as well. Since then English historians have denounced that act as barbarous, even though it was in retahation for the Americans' act at York (§ 302). 306. "The Star-spangled Banner." — Elated with the success at Washington, the same invaders tried to capture Baltimore, but Fort McHenry by stubborn resistance saved the city, and the British sailed on farther south. During the march toward Washington the British had captured and carried off a friend of Francis Scott Key, who undertook to get the friend released. President The War of 1 8 1 2 307 Madison ordered a boat to be put at Key's disposal. General Ross consented to release the prisoner, but he ordered Key to be detained on a British warship while the fort was being bombarded. All night he watched "the rocket's red glare" and in "the dawn's early light " (September 13, 18 14) he strained his eyes to see if the flag was still there. In his great joy he wrote on the back of a letter the words so dear to Americans, — the national anthem, " The Star-spangled Banner." 307. Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814). — The Creeks were powerful and intelligent ludians whose homes were in western Georgia. They would have joined the Te- cumseh conspiracy if the time had seemed ripe. Having watched and waited, they planned to strike while America was at war with Great Britain. They captured Fort Mimms, near Mobile, and massacred four hundred men, women, and children. Andrew Jackson was sent with backwoodsmen troops to punish them. Jackson had a maxim : " Until all is done, nothing is done." He fol- lowed up small victories until he fought the one big battle of Horseshoe Bend, in which the Creek power was crushed. 308. The Hartford Convention (1814). — The national government conducting the war was .in control of the Democratic-Republican party. The state governments of New England were in the control of the Federalist party. There were sharp differences of opinion about the war. New England opposed it from the first. The opposition grew until a report was made to the Massachusetts legis- lature (February, 18 14) which contained words similar to the Virginia Resolutions of 1798 (§275), as follows: "Whenever the national compact is violated, and the citizens of the State oppressed by cruel and unauthorized 308 United States History for Schools laws, this legislature is bound to interpose its power and wrest from the oppressor his victim." When the British captured the national capital, it seemed as though the time had come to stop the war and to make New England's protest heard. A convention was called at Hartford. After considering the matter for three weeks, the delegates published a report saying that the Constitution had been violated by the war, sub- mitting amendments to the Constitution to protect a minority of states against a majority, and demanding that the New England states be allowed to keep the national customs duties collected in their own ports. A committee of three was sent to Washington City to de- liver the report and demands. The danger in this strained situation suddenly vanished when news was received that a treaty of peace had been signed. 309. The Battle of New Orleans (January 8, 181 5). — After the battle of Horseshoe Bend (§ 307), General Jack- son had increased his reputation by the capture of Pensa- cola, and he was next ordered to defend New Orleans against a heavy attack which was expected there. Jackson re- cruited his army up to six thousand men by gathering in countrymen with their muskets, negroes, and even convicts from the prisons. With this motley crew he built a rude fort of logs, cotton bales, and banks of earth. Great Britain sent Sir Edward Pakenham with an army twice as large as Jackson's and composed of seasoned veterans from the wars against Napoleon. Pakenham and twenty-six hundred of his men were killed. The American loss was only eight killed and thirteen wounded. Jackson was a national hero. All that slaughter of brave British soldiers could have The War of 1812 309 been saved if the telegraphic cable had been invented in time, for the treaty of peace had been signed two weeks before. The news of the treaty was brought to America by a saihng vessel several weeks after the battle of New Orleans. 310. The Treaty of Ghent (Christmas Eve, 1814). — As was the case at the end of the Revolution (Chapter XVIII.), there was a victory of peace to be won after this war of 1812. As the war broke out. Napoleon was preparing to invade Russia (§ 303), and the Emperor of Russia did not like to see Great Britain waste her strength on a minor war at such a critical time. He therefore offered to arbitrate the trouble or patch up a peace. President Madison was perfectly will- ing, and sent Albert Gallatin and James A. Bayard as special envoys to assist John Ouincy Adams, the Ameri- can Minister to Russia. Madison had been too hasty. When our commissioners arrived in St. Petersburg, they were surprised to find that Great Britain had refused the peaceful offer of Russia. Some months later Great Britain announced that she would send agents to talk of peace at some neutral city of Belgium. Ghent was chosen. The United States added Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell to the other three com- missioners. Before the commissioners of both sides came together the European wars were ended by the downfall Albert Gallatin. 3IO United States History for Schools of Napoleon. Great Britain then had plenty of ships and men ready for the American war. She was not particu- larly anxious for peace. The negotiations were continued for nearly five "•■■"ppn^-^'w months before a conclusion was reached, and the treaty was signed on Christmas Eve (1814). 311. Terms of the Peace. — We had been fight- ing for " Sailors' Rights," but not a word was said of that question in the treaty. Yet the practice of kidnaping our sailors stopped, because Great Britain did not need them in times of peace. After the terms of peace were agreed to, arrangements were made to fix the boundaries between the United States and Canada. Both nations agreed to use their best endeavors to stop the slave trade. One other important provision was that each side would give back to the other any conquests made during the war. Ojfice of the PhilaJelpfiia OcntUt, Feb. Mthr". Laus Deal Glorious News ! ! ! PEACE. An eipress pa«ei1 IhittUy this morning for the Soutl.w.rH. Ha ^. .ugb > « iLii er gated rruTnight, at New- York, which Wfr^Iivbred to Mr. Havens, who, politely shewed us iu conteuls, which are as follow ; " A BifiHsh Sloop of War,' with >fr. Carrol, and a Treaty of PEACE has just arrived— signed on the24lh December. When the Express letk New-York, at eleven cTlock, la«i night, the city was brillianUy UJu. minated. Kr No Mail from Vew-Orleani. i Peace of 1814. The War#of 1812 311 This was made to include Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia River, which had been transferred to the British and by the treaty was to be restored to the Americans. When the peace was concluded, John Quincy Adams be- came United States Minister to Great Britain, just as his father had become Minister at the conclusion of the Revo- lution (§ 231). STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Describe some of Napoleon's works of peace. 2. Where was Napoleon weak an'd Britain strong? 3. How was America's commerce injured? 4. In what way did America seek to overcome the " decrees " and " orders " of France and Britain ? 5. How was the first American fort planted on the Pacific coast? 6. Why was America willing to fight for " Sailors' Rights "? 7. What is a privateer ? 8. Why did Hull surrender Detroit ? 9. Describe the battle of Lake Erie. 10. How did Napoleon's downfall affect the war in America ? 1 1. Describe Macdonough's victory on Lake Champlain. 12. On what ground did the British excuse themselves for burning the American capital buildings ? 13. Tell how and by whom "The Star-spangled Banner" was written. 14. What was Jackson's maxim in war? 15. Why did the New Englanders hate the war? 16. What was the Hartford Convention? 17. What were the results of the battle of New Orleans? 18. How was the treaty of Ghent negotiated, and what were its terms ? CHAPTER XXVI DEVELOPMENTS FOLLOWING THE WAR References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 275-284 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 226-231. Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader, Vol. III., 321-340; Sparks's Men Who Made the Nation, pp. 255-281 (Clay). 312. Feeling of National Pride. — During the ten years following the wiir (18 15- 1825) a number of important events occurred. Some of them changed the spirit of the American government, some of them tested the strength of the Constitution, all of them influenced the l;yes of the people and were thus part of the country's history. One of these important results was the immense increase in the Americans' feeling of national pride. No nation can succeed unless the people are proud of its history and its aims. The war had revealed to the people their strength, their skill, and their courage. What they had done they could do again if occasion should arise. New England was strong on the sea. New York and the South were strong on land ; what one section lacked the other could supply, and the nation as a whole was worthy the people's pride. Great Britain had found that her former children had grown much 'Stronger than she suspected. She learned that from that time on she would have to respect the new nation. The other nations of the world were surprised at America's showing in the unequal contest, and they were quite willing to be counted friends of the United States. 312 Developments Following the War 313 This new respectful attitude of foreign nations made the Americans' pride in their own nation all the greater. 313. The Growth of Factories. — Strange as it may seem, the years of war and battles witnessed a large increase in the number of wheels and spindles in peaceful industry. This is not so difficult to understand as at first appears. Just before the war a number of important inventions had been made in America (§§ 257-258), and others had been imported from England, During the times of the Em- bargo, the Non-Intercourse Act (§ 292), and the war ship- ping did not cease entirely, but it was made very dangerous. It was also found that it was difficult to get from foreign factories the guns, ammunition, and supplies needed in the war. Under these conditions the shipowners thought it would be wiser to invest their money in factories instead of building more ships. In this way the splendid water- powers in New England were " harnessed," and many factories of cotton and woollen goods were put into suc- cessful operation. In Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey the manufacture of iron goods increased. At the end of the war the United States was no longer a nation " of farmers, fishermen, and fur-traders." Those occupa- tions still flourished, but the United States had also become a manufacturing nation. 314. Industrial Revolution in England. — Great Britain had had one serious war after another, and while those dis- turbances were going on abroad, the Enghsh people at home had experienced troubles of a different kind. In- ventions were responsible for the greatest of these troubles. Stockings had been knit by hand before the knitting frame was invented. After the machine was in use, hundreds of knitters were thrown out of work. Many laborers had 314 United States History for Schools found work threshing grain by hand the whole winter through until the threshing machine took away their em- ployment by doing the work in a few days. All these idle workmen were angry, and when peace came in 181 5 Eng- land was in the midst of industrial war, for the workmen were breaking the new machines whenever they could be reached. Years elapsed before the idle knitters and threshers and others found new ways to earn their living and to adjust themselves to the new ways of manufacturing. 315. America's New Protective Tariff (1816). — In spite of the machine breakers England had accumulated vast quantities of goods during the war. As soon as the war was ended, a flood of those goods poured into American markets. The imports into the United States jumped from ;^ 1 2,000,000 in 18 14, the last year of the war, to i^ 1 06,000,000 in 18 1 5. The war had kept foreign goods out of the market, and the American factories had started and prospered. As soon as the war ended, the markets were filled with foreign goods and the American factories faced a gloomy prospect. Then Congress, after a long, earnest debate, adopted the Protective Tariff Law (18 16) to en- courage home manufacturing. 316. Recharter of the United States Bank (1816). — An- other business result of the war was the recharter of the United States Bank. With difficulty Hamilton had secured the first charter (§ 263) for twenty years (1791). When that charter expired (1811) the Democratic-Republicans were in power, and they opposed it. All through the war the state banks issued paper money, which declined in value, and money matters were in a bad way. President Madison changed his mind on this matter after the war. He recommended, and Congress granted, a recharter of the Developments Following the War 315 Bank for another twenty years. This was one of the evidences that the old "strict construction" ideas of Jeffer- son's party were giving way before the need of national strength. 317. Roads, Canals, and Rivers. — The " strict construc- tion " ideas received another twist on the subject of internal improvements. Everybody conceded that better roads, canals, and improved rivers and harbors were desirable, but according to " strict construction " the states, and not the nation, must provide them. As early as 1806 the United States had begun the Cumberland Road, but it was explained Map of the Cumberland Road. that that road would open up the Western lands, and the sale of those lands would bear the expense. The move- ment of troops in the war had been greatly hindered by poor roads. So, when the Bank was rechartered. Congress passed an act authorizing the expenditure of ^1,500,000 on roads, canals, and the improvement of rivers. But Presir dent Madison was not ready to go so far. He vetoed the bill. New York State promptly undertook to use her own funds in the construction of the famous Erie Canal to connect Albany with the Great Lakes. That great work was completed in eight years. President Madison's veto did not stop work on the Cum- berland or "National Road." By 1820 it had b^en built 3i6 United States History for Schools from Cumberland, Maryland, to Wheeling, where it met the new steamboats on the Ohio River. It was planned to build the road on to the Mississippi River. After spend- ing about $7,000,000 the road had reached Illinois (1838), when work ceased on account of the belief that railroads would make wagon roads unnecessary. 318. Beginnings of American Literature. — There had been poems, essays, pamphlets, and books published in colonial times, but the real beginning of a national literature is usually placed at the National Awaken- ing after the War of 18 12. The North American Review was established in 181 5, and from that date there have been in America increasing numbers of men and women who have given serious attention to literature. In an early number of the new magazine appeared the poem "Thanatopsis," by Wil- liam Cullen Bryant. Washington Irving was the first to win recognition abroad, through his quaint and humorous " Knickerbocker's History of New York." James Fenimore Cooper, with his "Spy" and his " Leatherstocking Tales," showed that an American could write novels of real worth. 319. *' The Era of Good Feeling." — We have seen in the work of the Hartford Convention (§ 308) that the New England Federalists had changed places in politics with the Democratic-Republicans of the South by insisting that Developments Following the War 317 a minority of states ought to have protection from the majority in the nation. We have also seen through the protective tariff (§ 315), the recharter of the Bank (§ 316), and the "National Road" building (§ 3i7)that the Democratic-Republicans were also changing places in politics by abandoning some of their ideas of " strict con- struction," adopting the ideas of the Federalists for a stronger national government. The differences between the two political parties were breaking down. All this was made particularly clear when James Monroe be- came President (18 17). He was well known throughout the na- tion. He was a student of Wil- liam and Mary's College of Virginia when the Revolution broke out, and, though only a boy, he joined the patriot army and gained a reputation as a brave soldier and a successful officer. He had held many of- fices after the war, and was Secretary of State under President Madison. As soon as he became President, he made a tour through New England. Washington, Knox, Hamilton, Greene, and many other heroes of the Revolution had died, but in every New England village and city there were still survivors. These were all de- lighted to meet an old officer who had become President. They brought out their tattered old flags, their faded uni- forms, their muskets and swords, and gave Monroe en- thusiastic greetings. Memories of the old glories increased James Monroe. 3i8 United States History for Schools their joy in the nation's new life. The papers proudly called it the " Era of Good Feeling." The parties seemed to melt together. When Monroe came 'up for reelection, it was found that every electoral vote was for him. But there was one stubborn elec- tor. He voted for John Quincy Adams, because he was unwilling that any later mortal should " stand in the shoes " of Washington by receiving every vote. Monroe thus lacked one vote of being unanimously elected (1820). Before another five years had passed, party divisions again appeared, and the "Era of Good Feeling" had passed. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Why were Americans more proud of their nation? 2. How did the war increase manufacturing? 3. How did some Enghsh workmen beha\e toward the use of new machines ? 4. What kind of a tariff law did America enact in 18 16, and why? 5. How did "strict construction" ideas change as to the Bank ? as to internal improvements? 6. Who were some of the pioneers in the field of American litera- ture? 7. What is meant by the " Era of Good Feeling "? CHAPTER XXVII THE EXPANDING WEST References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 284-290 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 231-241. Home Readings. — Drake's Making the Great West ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. III., pp. 143-171 ; Roosevelt's Winning of the West. 320. Rapid Settlement of the West. — Many of the events we have studied caused settlements in the West to increase rapidly. The purchase of Louisiana (§ 282) re- Emigration to the Western Country. moved a foreign neighbor and opened the Mississippi to free navigation.. The Lewis and Clark exploration (§281) made known avast area beyond the Mississippi. Fulton's 319 320 United States History for Schools steamboat (§ 285), the " National Road," and the Erie Canal work (§ 317) made travel westward easier. It was at first doubted that a republic could succeed with as many as thirteen states (§ 228). What would become of the republic with all that West filled with people ? It would certainly be a test of the Constitution. 321. The Purchase of Florida (1819). — We did not need more land when we bought Florida, but there were other reasons that made it very desirable to acquire that territory. In the first place, it would complete our control of the At- lantic seaboard from Maine to the Gulf of Mexico, and along that gulf to Louisiana. That was reason enough, but there was still a stronger one. Florida belonged to Spain. The Spaniards had not planted many settlements, and Florida was poorly governed. North of Florida was Georgia, which then extended west to the Mississippi. Indians from Florida crossed into Georgia and made trouble. Those Indians received firearms from the Span- iards, and were often led in their murderous raids by irresponsible white men. General Andrew Jackson was sent to stop those Indian troubles. He was just as vigorous as ever. He con- quered the Indians, and hanged two Britons who had been helping the Indians. He then captured Pensacola, and put an American garrison there. This was going so far it looked as though we might have trouble with Great Britain and Spain. But John Ouincy Adams, as Secretary of State, smoothed matters over and framed a treaty with Spain by which we secured Florida on the payment of five million dollars. 322. Admission of New States. — After the Louisiana Purchase (1803), the President was authorized by Congress The Expanding West 321 to take possession of the enormous domain. The next year it was divided into Upper and Lower Louisiana. The next change was when Louisiana was admitted as a state (1812) and Upper Louisiana became Missouri ter- ritory. Indiana was the second state to be admitted (18 16) from the Ohio country. The following year a new South- ern state was admitted (18 17), taking the Indian name (James Monroe's Administration) Spaniab Po9», EogUsb Poas. Mississippi, said to mean " Father of Waters." Then fol- lowed another Northern state, Illinois (1818), and another Southern state, Alabama (1819), also an Indian word, mean- ing " A Place of Rest." It will be noticed that these new states, beginning with Ohio (1803) (§ 287), were in pairs — one in the North followed by one in the South. That did not happen by accident. Each state was entitled to two members in the United States Senate, and so the 322 United States History for Schools people of the South planned to keep up their votes in the Senate by having a new Southern state ready as often as a new Northern state was admitted. This would enable them to protect their interests, especially slavery. 323. Slavery up to 1820. — Right in the midst of the " Era of Good Feeling " ( § 319) the slavery question stalked forth to divide the people. Jefferson said it was " like a fire-bell in the night." " King Cotton " had made slavery more important to many people of both North and South (§ 258). Congress prohibited the importation of slaves (§ 286), but that law was often evaded, and good people in both sections were growing disturbed over the evil. The American Colonization Society was organized (1816) to send free negroes back to Africa. Th^t the South was interested in this work is seen from the fact that James Madison and Henry Clay were among those who served as presidents of the society. The " Magna Charta of the West " (§ 244) had prohibited slavery in the Old NorthvVest; but what about the lands in the Louisiana Purchase ? Would slavery be allowed there ? That question was the " fire-bell in the night." Louisiana was admitted as a slave state, but it would be a different matter when the northern portion of the Louisiana Purchase became ready for statehood. 324. The Boundary Line of Slavery. — On account of the " Magna Charta of the West," the Ohio River became the natural boundary of slavery. The states north of that river were free, and those south of it were slave. Maryland was a slave state, and Pennsylvania was free. The bound- ary between the two was known as the Mason and Dixon Line (§ 102). That line extended to and along the Ohio River completed the boundary line of slavery from the The Expanding West 3^3 Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River. Where to fix the boundary of slavery beyond that river was the burning question of the hour. The North, by its larger number of people, had the majority in the House of Representatives, but the power was equal in the Senate, for on the admis- sion of Alabama (1819) there were eleven slave states and eleven free states. The South could not keep that balance of power in the Senate if the northern or wider end of the Louisiana Pur- chase were to be cut up into free states by hav- ing the boundary of sla- very extended westward from the mouth of the Ohio River. The North contended that that was the natural line to draw, and the South contended for equal rights in the new lands. 325. The Missouri Compromise (1820). — The people of Missouri asked that they be ad- mitted as a slave state (18 1 8). That request brought on a long and bitter debate in Congress. Some of the land of the proposed state was south, but the most of it was north, of the accepted Ohio River boundary if extended beyond the Mississippi. At the same time Maine decided to separate from Mas- sachusetts' control, and she asked for admission to the Union. The House of Representatives passed the bill, but Territory AlTpctoil MISSOIKI COJim A AJdeU to .Miss.ntn 324 United States History for Schools the slave power in the Senate defeated it. The South was willing to admit Maine as a new free state if Missouri were admitted at the same time as a slave state. At last a compromise was reached by which the slavery boundary west of the Mississippi was fixed on the parallel of 36° 30', which was the southern boundary of the proposed new state. All north of that hne should be free, with the ex- ception of Missouri, which was to come in as a slave state as the people had requested. The two states, Maine (1820) and Missouri (1821), were then admitted to the Union, and the balance of votes in the Senate was still maintained. For his work in this and other compromises, Henry Clay got the name of " The Great Peacemaker." At that time it was fondly hoped that it was to be a permanent peace on the slavery question. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Name some of the things that hurried the settlement of the West. 2. What were the reasons for the purchase of Florida ? 3. Why were new states admitted in pairs ? 4. Why did Jefferson refer to slavery as "afire-bell in the night" ? 5. Trace on the map the boundary line of slavery. 6. Describe the Missouri Compromise. CHAPTER XXVIII AMERICA'S NEW NEIGHBORS References. — Ashley's American History, pp 290-292 ; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 634-641 . Home Readings. — Encyclopedia articles on Miranda, Bolivar, Saa Martin, O'Higgins, Hidalgo ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. HI., pp. 24-28. 326. Napoleon's "Hundred Days." — Through the dis- turbances before, during, and after the War of 1812, Amer- ica obtained a number of new neighbors, and with them much new responsibihty. The causes of these important changes can best be understood by first getting a brief view of events in Europe. During the French Revolution King Louis XVI. had been executed (§ 268), and the frenzied revolutionists had also killed his only son, the prince. Though that unfortunate boy had never sat on the throne, history calls him Louis XVII. It was, there- fore, as Louis XVIII. that the uncle of the murdered prince was put on the French throne by the powers of Europe when they accompHshed the downfall of Napoleon (§ 303). It was a different throne from what it had been before the Revolution. The king had to recognize that the people had gained a constitution and great liberties. And yet at the outset he alarmed the people by claiming the throne to be his " by the grace of God," and trying to restore old royal powers. Seeing the discontent of the French people, Napoleon left his island exile and marched toward Paris. The king sent Marshal Ney to seize Napoleon. Ney promised to 325 326 United States History for Schools bring him to Paris in a cage, but when he saw his old com- mander he fell into his arms and marched with him back to Paris, The king fled, and Napoleon entered the palace as Emperor of the French. He wanted peace with Europe, but the other nations prepared their combined armies for war. With his old energy, Napoleon gathered an army of one hundred and thirty thousand men to strike his enemies, and there resulted at Waterloo (June 18, 181 5) one of the world's greatest battles. In vain the French columns were hurled against the British squares. Commanding those squares, the Duke of Wellington stood ankle-deep in the gravel, earning the title of " Iron Duke." He was wishing " for Blucher or for night." Napoleon's Old Guard, who knew how to die but not to surrender, left their dead on the field. Blucher arrived with fresh Prus- sian troops. The French lost. Napoleon fled to the coast and tried to escape to America. He was captured by the British, and sent, a prisoner of war, to the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic. From his leaving Elba to Waterloo was just a hvuidred days. So history calls that period Napoleon's " Hundred Days." 327. The " Holy Alliance." — Czar Alexander I. of Russia was very religious. He drew up an agreement for the rulers of Russia, Austria, and Prussia to sign. It was written in very religious terms, and they agreed to govern their peoples as "branches of one Christian nation." Out of courtesy the other European rulers signed the agree- ment, and they called themselves the " Holy AUiance." Very little was done by this alliance, but other meetings followed, called "congresses," in which representatives of the rulers undertook to rearrange the map of Europe and America's New Neighbors 327 to undo much that was accomplished since the French RevoUition. There was nothing "holy" about those " congresses," but as most of the same rulers were repre- sented in the new agreements, the compacts were often wrongly referred to as of the " Holy Alliance." The " congresses " used the European armies, when necessary, to put the old kings back on their thrones and to suppress all movements toward popular hberty. Great Britain had taken a leading part in overthrowing Napoleon, but she withheld her sympathy from those "congresses." 328. Latin America. — America's new neighbors were the republics formed from Spain's possessions in Mexico, Central America, and South America. Spain had not given her colonies satisfactory government. The people had no part in the government. Officers were sent from Spain, and those officers grew rich from plunder. The people desired a change, but they did not see a good chance to move until the crown of Spain was seized by Emperor Napoleon, who put his brother Joseph on the throne (1808). Revolts began in different parts of Latin America. Patriot leaders arose, such as Miranda, San Martin, O'Higgins, Hidalgo, and Bolivar. The latter from his great achievements was called "The Liberator." Slowly the Spanish troops were overcome, until the whole region acquired its independence (1823). 329. England opposed to the European " Congress." — The king of Spain, who got back his throne when Napoleon's power was crushed, was ruling with a high hand, and col- lected soldiers to be sent to save his colonies in America. Those soldiers rebelled (1820), and then the "congress" ordered France to restore the Spanish king's authority. The large French army succeeded in doing that, even 328 United States History for Schools though Great Britain had objected. The " congress " next proposed to compel the revolted Spanish colonies to re- sume their obedience. At that point the " congress " hesitated, for Great Britain was " Mistress of the Sea." 330. Russia in America. — As those " congresses," with the nations' armies behind them, ruled Europe in ruthless fashion, they departed farther and farther from the noble „ ideas of the first "Holy Alliance." Czar Alexan- der I. of Russia also de- parted from his thought of being guided wholly by the spirit of " brotherly love." He took advantage of the disturbances in Spain and Latin America ( § § 328-329) to issue from his throne a remarkable decree, or ukase (1821). What we know as Alaska was then known as Rus- sian America. It had been discovered for Russia by Vitus Bering (1741), and was occupied by a Russian fur monopoly. By his remarkable ukase Alexander declared that he owned the Pacific coast of America from the frozen seas in the north to the Umpqua River in the south. That claim included all of the Oregon country. Although the European "congress " might consent to such a claim, there were two nations that would not consent. The Oregon country belonged jointly to Great Britain and the United States, and they objected strongly to the Czar's decree. Emperor Alexan Ri America's New Neighbors 329 331. The Monroe Doctrine (1823). — The United States Congress met as usual on the first Monday in December. According to the established custom, President Monroe submitted his annual messao:e setting: forth the conditions Gkorge canning. As he appeared in the House of Commons in 1826. of the country and referring to the questions that needed attention at the hands of the lawmakers. Without realiz- ing it at the time, President Monroe made certain state- ments in that message about the purpose and policy of the government which were at once accepted as having as 330 United States History for Schools much force as if they had been laws of Congress instead of a simple message from the President. The President was telling Congress about the Czar's claim to American lands and also about Europe's intention to interfere with America's new neighbors, the Latin- American republics. He then set forth three principles, as follows : — First, the time has passed for European nations to plant further colonies on the American continents. Second, Europe must not interfere with American affairs. Third, America will not interfere with European affairs. Those three principles set forth in the President's mes- sage constitute the Monroe Doctrine. Its announcement had a wonderful effect. The Latin-American republics went wild with joy, for it meant that the United States would thenceforth defend their independence. In Great Britain the statesmen and newspapers approved the Doc- trine in the most glowing language. Daniel Webster said that in America " one universal burst of enthusiasm per- vaded all bosoms." This Doctrine gave the United States new and great re- sponsibilities. It would prove a severe test of the Constitu- tion to accept those responsibilities in addition to the prob- lems of the rapidly growing nation. One thing ought not to be overlooked. It was of immense advantage at that crisis to have kept Great Britain at our back. No so-called "congress" of Europe would dare to interfere with a com- bination of Great Britain and the United States. 332. Two Treaties with Russia. — Czar Alexander soon realized that he had overdone the matter of American claims, and decided to withdraw his claims to the Oregon country. He first made a treaty with the United States America's New Neighbors 331 (1824), fixing his southern hmits in America at 54° 40'. The next year (1825) he made a similar treaty with Great Britain. Those treaties left Great Britain and the United States as joint owners of the Oregon country. We shall hear a little later about that boundary line of " Fifty-four Forty." STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Where was ended Napoleon's '"Hundred Days" ? 2. What was the '' Holy Alliance " ? 3. What did the '"congresses" which succeeded the '"Holy Alli- ance " try to do ? 4. Why did Spain's colonies in America want independence ? 5. What was the importance of Britain's opposition to the European " congresses " ? 6. What dominion did Russia claim in America? 7. Show how the Monroe Doctrine met the claim of Russia and pro- tected the new American republics. 8. What became the southern l)oundary of Russia's American claims after the two treaties of 1824-1825 ? CHAPTER XXIX FIVE YEARS OF RAPID CHANGE References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 295-298 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 242-244. Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader, Vol. HI., pp. 28-33; Morse's John Ouincy Adams ; Sumner's Andrew Jackson. 333. Election of John Quincy Adams (1824). — Thomas Jefferson was the first President chosen by the House of Representatives, on account of no choice by the Electors. (See Constitution, Article 11., and Amendment XH.) John Quincy Adams was the second President chosen in that way, but the results were very dif- ferent. Jefferson succeeded in being reelected, and in being succeeded by his close political friends. Adams had a troubled administration of one term, and was succeeded by his strongest political opponent. The " Era of Good FeeHng " had passed. American political life turned on this administration, as a door turns on its hinge. John Quincy Adams had a fine education. He was a graduate of Harvard, and was once chosen as a professor in that institution. He had a brilliant career as statesman and diplomat, and had been Secretary of State during the 332 John Quincy Adams. Five Years of Rapid Change ^^3 two terms of President Monroe. His father, former Presi- dent John Adams, was still alive in 1824. What a fine thing it would be to receive congratulations from such a father, on being elected President of the United States ! He earnestly desired to attain the goal, and yet about that he was like all other members of the remarkable Adams family — honest, blunt, and stubborn. When Edward Everett asked him if he would not do something to help his own election, he replied: "Absolutely nothing." He almost missed his great desire. When the electoral votes were counted, it was found that Andrew Jackson had the highest number. It was not a majority, however, and the election was transferred to the House of Representatives. There Henry Clay asked his supporters to vote for Adams, who was thus elected. Much bitterness resulted from that contest, and it was increased when Henry Clay was given the important office of Secre- tary of State. 334. New Political Parties. — There were four candi- dates for the presidency in 1824, but they were all of the Democratic-Republican party. The Federalist party was dead. The Alien and Sedition Laws ( § 274) had crippled it, and the Hartford Convention ( § 308 ) had killed it. In the "Era of Good Feeling" ( § 319) there was but one party, the Democratic-Republican party. But just as soon as John Quincy Adams was elected, party divisions ap- peared again. The three great public questions that caused the divisions related to internal improvements, the United States Bank, and the tariff. Andrew Jackson became the leader of the old Demo- cratic-Republican party, which held that roads, canals, and improved rivers or harbors, and other internal improve- 334 United States History for Schools ments were good, but that they ought to be made by private companies, or by states. That party said the Con- stitution did not permit Congress to use national funds for such work, and held that the United States Bank was un- constitutional. And they favored a low tariff for revenue only, and then took the new and shorter name of Demo- cratic party. That name has lasted to the present time, Henry Clay and President Adams were leaders of the other side, which took opposite views of the three big pub- lic questions. They favored internal improvements being made"by the nation instead of by the states. They favored the United States Bank, and they also favored a high pro- tective tariff. Since they stood for a stronger national government, they took the name of National Republican party. A little later this name was changed to the old Revolutionary name of Whig party, and later still that party was merged with others into the Republican party. 335. New Men in Command. — Another change of this period was the passing of control out of the hands of the older men. As Jefferson grew old he was called " The Sage of Monticello." His advice was sought and followed by Presidents Madison and Monroe. On the Fourth of July, 1826, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams died. They had worked together on the Declaration of Independence that was signed just fifty years before. Their death on that anniversary impressed the people with the solemn thought that the old leaders had gone. They must seek new leaders to solve their problems of state and national gov- ernments. 336. Bunker Hill Monument. — The people were also reminded of the growing distance from that "olden time" by the laying of the cornerstone of Bunker Hill Monument Five Years of Rapid Change 335 (1825). At that ceremony Daniel Webster gave one of his great orations. The occasion was made more interesting by the presence of the venerable Lafayette. 337. The Last Visit of Lafayette. — Congress, by unani- mous vote, requested President Monroe (1824) to invite Lafayette to visit this country. He came, and spent four- teen months visiting each of the twenty-four states and the battlefields on which he had helped America win her independence. He loved America and Americans. His only son had been named in honor of George Washington. Congress voted Lafayette a gift of $200,000 and another of twenty-four thousand acres of public lands as tokens of the nation's gratitude for his services. He was delighted to render one more service by going to Venezuela to pre- sent one of Washington's swords to Simon Bolivar, " The Liberator" of South America. Lafayette was received with enthusiasm everywhere in America. He took part in the opening of the Erie flanal, and as his boat passed under a bridge the school children threw upon him a shower of flowers from the bridge. 338. The Erie CanaL — Governor De Witt Clinton took the lead when Congress decided it was not the duty of the nation to build the Erie Canal (§ 317). He persuaded the state of New York to undertake the work with her own funds. There were many people of the state who were staggered by the size of the task. They knew that Lake Erie was about six hundred feet above the level of the Hudson River, the distance was three hundred and sixty-three miles, and there were rivers, swamps, and hills to be crossed. One doubter asked the Governor if he thought he could make water run uphill. He said he could do better than that. He could build locks and make 22^ United States History for Schools the water Hft the boats over the hills. The whole scheme was ridiculed and called " Clinton's Big Ditch." But the Governor kept at it, and in 1825 he had the pleasure of participating in a big celebration over the completion of his great work. When water was turned in at the Lake Erie end, the news was sent to New York City by a queer sort of telegraph. Cannons had been set 'ive miles apart along the whole way. One after the othei was fired until the signal was received in New York. Governor Clinton made the journey in the first boats. He was greeted as Erie Canal at Buffalo. a hero, and when he reached the Atlantic at the mouth of the Hudson River he emptied into the ocean a keg of water he had brought from Lake Erie to commemorate the union of the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean. 339. Results of the Canal. — All the results that came from the buikling and use of the Erie Canal will probably never be known. Some of the most important ones can Five Years of Rapid Change 337 be stated briefly. The West was brought closer to the East. A barrel of flour cost ten dollars in money and three weeks in time if hauled by team from Albany to Buffalo. When the canal was opened, the barrel of flour could be shipped in one week, and the cost was thirty cents. That great difference increased enormously the business of hauling freight and passengers. New towns grew up along the canal. Many more people sought homes in the West. The city of New York was made richer, and soon became the metropolis and financial center of the nation. And, still further to justify Governor CUnton's faith, the cost of the canal was paid back by a small toll or tax on the boats using it. Other states and cities began to plan canals and roads leading to the fruitful harvest fields of the West ; but A.N l'._\KL\ IJAV •'LlMliKU" iKAlN. most of their plans were abandoned when a new kind of transportation put in its appearance. 340. The Railroad. — When steam was applied to ma- chines of different kinds and to boats, men began to plan "steam wagons." John Macadam, a Scotch surveyor, had 22^ United States History for Schools invented a new kind of road made of broken rock, and "macadamized " roads became fashionable. It was thought that *' steam wagons " could be run over those good roads or on rails of wood or iron. George Stephenson began in- ventions along that line in England. Later the inventions were brought to America and improved. There was an interesting incident about the beginning of American rail- roads. The venerable Charles Carroll of Carrolton, Mary- land, was the last survivor of those who had signed the Declaration of Independence. When more than ninety years of age, he firmly grasped a spade to break ground for the proposed railroad (1828). As he threw the earth to one side, he said : " I consider this among the most im- portant acts of my life, second only to that of signing the Declaration of Independence, if second even to that." Great changes were wrought some years later when the railroad was made practicable. 341. The Panama Congress (1826). — The bitterness of poHtical feeling during these changing years was clearly shown in the stormy debates over the Panama Congress. Bolivar wished to form a league of all the Latin-American republics, and from a generous impulse the invitation was extended also to the United States. The idea fascinated Secretary of State Henry Clay, who gave his energies toward securing an acceptance of the invitation. He won after a severe struggle. One Democrat revealed the politi- cal nature of the opposition when he said : " If they had only taken the other side of the question, we would have had them." One debate was so bitter that it led to a bloodless duel between Henry Clay and John Randolph of Roanoke. Randolph was very slender. He appeared at the duel dressed in loose, flowing flannels. Clay's bullet pierced Five Years of Rapid Change 339 the flannels, but missed Randolph, who fired in the air, say- ing : " You see, Mr. Clay, I do not fire at you." He then extended his hand to Clay, and the duel was over. Nothing came of the Panama Congress. But those debates helped on Jackson's campaign for the presidency. 342. The " Tariff of Abominations " (1828). — The tariff caused three important changes at this time. First, it caused the Southern states, especially South Carolina, to believe that, being agricultural, their section was injured by the tariff, while the North was benefited and was out- stripping them in wealth and population. Second, it caused Vice President Calhoun to make a complete change from a Nationalist to a States' Rights man. He was the strong leader of that side, and revived interest in the old Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (§ 275) by his new declaration that South Carolina could nullify the tariff laws within her own borders. Third, it showed New England that her principal interests were in manufactures and a high tariff to protect them. Webster became a strong protectionist. President Adams was from New England. He desired reelection. It was to his interest to favor New England's request for a higher protective tariff. The Southern leaders knew this, and as they could not defeat the bill outright, they took the other plan of running the tariff up so high that the President would have to veto it. In this they were deceived, for the President signed the bill with all its faults. It was such an extreme law that it was called the " Tariff of Abominations." 343. Election of Andrew Jackson (1828).— President Adams had been honest, industrious, and successful. He made more commercial treaties with foreign countries than 340 United States History for Schools all the former presidents combined. And yet he worked under great disadvantage. His own party was just being organized (§ 334), and the Democratic party was strongly opposing him and using every possible scheme to discredit him and to advance Jackson. Clubs were organized and political work was continued through the whole four years. General Jackson had earned the name of " Old Hickory " while leading his soldiers. Everywhere he went the crowds cheered for " Old Hickory." At the anniversary of the battle of New Orleans (January 8, 1828) there were recep- tions for the hero all along the Mississippi River, reaching a climax at New Orleans. At the election Jackson was triumphant, and John C. Calhoun was reelected Vice President. 344. Beginning of Temperance Work. — It is encourag- ing to notice that during all the excitement over politics, slavery, and changing conditions in general, earnest men and women were turning attention to temperance work. The " American Society for the Promotion of Temper- ance " was organized in 1826. Twenty-five years later Maine became the first prohibition state (1851). STUDY QUESTIONS 1. How was John Quincy Adams elected President ? 2. How were party divisions renewed during his administration ? 3. What were some of the evidences that the old leaders had gone ? 4. How was Lafayette's visit received ? 5. How was the Erie Canal built ? 6. What were some of the results of the canal ? 7. What was the " steam wagon " ? 8. How did the Panama Congress reveal the bitter political feeling in the United States ? 9. What was the " Tariff of Abominations " ? 10. Describe the enthusiasm for " Old Hickory." 11. Describe the beginnings of temperance work in America. Five Years of Rapid Change 341 1789 1790 1791 1792 1793 1794 1796 1797 1798 1799 1801 1803 1804 1805 1806 1807 1808 1809 1811 CHRONOLOGY April 30. Washington inaugurated President. Cabinet appointed and government organized. The Nootka incident. French Revokition begun. First Census showed about 4,000,000 population United States Bank. Kentucky admitted to the Union. Columbia River discovered. Eli Whitney invented cotton gin. Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality. Whisky Rebellion. Jay's Treaty with England. Tennessee admitted to the Union. Washington's Farevk^ell Address. March 4. John Adams inaugurated President. Alien and Sedition Laws. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. December 14. Death of Washington. John Marshall made Chief Justice. March 4. Jefferson inaugurated President. Ohio admitted to the Union. Purchase of Louisiana. Lewis and Clark expedition organized. Napoleon became Emperor of the French. Tripoli defeated. Lord Nelson's victory at Trafalgar. Scheme of Aaron Burr. Napoleon's Decrees. March 11. Fulton's steamboat a success. Great Britain's Orders in Council. Embargo passed by Congress. Law against importation of slaves. March 4. Madison inaugurated President. Astoria, first American post on the Pacific. Battle of Tippecanoe. Louisiana admitted to the Union. 34^ United States History for Schools War declared against Great Britain. August i6. Hull's surrender of Detroit. Napoleon's invasion of Russia. 1813 . . September 15. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. 1 81 4 . . Napoleon gave up his crown. > Macdonough's victory on Lake Champlain. Washington City captured by the British. September 13. ''Star-spangled Banner" written. Jackson's defeat of Indians. Hartford Convention. December 24. Treaty of Ghent signed. 1S15 . . Januarys. Battle of New Orleans. June 18. Battle of Watei-loo. End of Napoleon's "Hundred Days." Machine breaking in England. "North American Review" established " Holy Alliance." 18 1 6 . . New Protective Tariff. Recharter of the United States Bank. Indiana admitted to the Union. 1517 . . March 4. Monroe inaugurated President. Mississippi admitted to the Union. 1518 . . Illinois admitted to the Union. 1819 . . Purchase of Florida from Spain. Alabama admitted to the Union. 1820 . . Maine admitted to the Union. Missouri Compromise. 1 82 1 . . Missouri admitted to the Union. Ukase of Czar Alexander. 1823 . . Spanish-American republics independent. Monroe Doctrine announced. 1824 . . Treaty with Russia fixed boundary at 54° 40'. 1825 . . March 4. John Quincy Adams inaugurated President. Webster's oration at Bunker Hill. Erie Canal finished. 1826 . . Panama Congress. Temperance society organized. 1828 . . Breaking ground for first railroad. Election of Andrew Jackson. VI Straining the Constitution CHAPTER XXX THE JACKSONIAN ERA References. — Asliley's American History, pp. 298-31 1 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 244-260. Home Readings. — EgglestoiVs Hoosier Schoolmaster ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. III., pp. 173-215 (Indians), 341-370; Sparks's Men Who Made the Nation, pp. 282-317 (Jackson). 345. Testing and Straining the Constitution. — From the first inauguration of Washington to that of Jackson ( 1 789-1 829) was a period of forty years, which period has in this book received the name "Testing the Constitution." The testing came from the growth and expansion of the nation, from new problems at home and abroad, from the Monroe Doctrine, from the rise and fall of political parties, and from numerous other sources. The next period of forty years, from the iirst inauguration of Jackson to that of Grant (i 829-1 869), has here been called by the name " Straining the Constitution." There are a number of interesting and important events to study in that period which did not strain the Constitution ; but the name is chosen because of seven events that did, as the Spoils 343 344 United States History for Schools System, Nullification, Destruction of the Bank, Slavery Dispute, Secession, Civil War, and Reconstruction. Those events certainly did strain the Constitution, as will be seen when those topics are studied. 346. The New President. — There is nothing dull about the life of Andrew Jackson. He is one of the most inter- esting and important characters in American history. Born in 1767, he had only a boy's memory of the Revolu- tion, but that memory had great influence on his character. The spirited boy refused to clean a British officer's boots. He and his brother were carried off as prisoners. Small- pox broke out in the prison, and the Widow Jackson hur- ried to the place to care for her boys. She died there, and Andrew Jackson from that day hated the British ; and at the same time he imbibed a sacred love for his mother's memory and a great respect for all good women. Being very poor and an orphan, his friends appren- He had no chance to go Andrew Jackson. ticed him to the saddler's trade, to school, and he was so ignorant that he asserted that the earth was not a globe, but was flat. Later among his rough, backwoods associates he declared that he " wouldn't give a The Jacksonian Era 345 cent for a man who couldn't spell a word more than oneway." Jackson was the first man to rise from such humble origin to the exalted position of President of the United States. It is not known how many fights and duels Jackson took part in ; they have been listed at from twelve to one hundred. As a soldier, and especially at the battle of New Orleans, he had become a national hero. His rough life made for him many enemies, but he also had many devoted friends. These became so numerous and so energetic that he was elected President by their help. The people knew that, while he was rough, he was also absolutely honest and fearless. 347. Jackson's Election a " Revolution." — In the forty years before Jackson's time there had been six presidents. Each one of them, except Washington and John Adams, had held the office of Secretary of State. One politician declared : " Unless we break this Secretarial Dynasty, we will be bound by it forever." Jackson was a good hand at breaking things, so he was used to break that "dynasty." All of the other presidents had been statesmen ; Jackson was only a soldier. All the other presidents were from the East, — Virginia and Massachusetts, — but Jackson was from the West — Tennessee. What Emerson called "the nervous rocky West" had its first effective voice in Andrew Jackson. From that time on the active and vigorous people of the West, with their freer lands and freer ideas, were to have an ever increasing influence on the political life of the nation. But the greatest change or " revolution " resulted from Jackson's actions in regard to emptying and filling public offices. 346 United States History for Schools 348. The Spoils System. — New York State was at that time in control of a group of politicians called the " Albany- Regency." One of the leaders of that group was Martin Van Buren, who became Jackson's Secretary of State. Another leader was United States Senator Marcy, who boldly told the Senate that in New York State " if they are defeated, they expect to retire from office. If they are successful, they claim, as a matter of right, the advantages of success. They see nothing wrong in the rule that to the victor belong the spoils of the enemy." Jackson declared he was not a politician, but if he were one he would be a New York politician. From that source came the " Spoils System " in American politics. None of the other presidents had looked upon public offices as " spoils " of victory. Even during the four years of bitter opposition to John Quincy Adams, that President refused to remove his opponents from office. In one year after his inauguration Jackson removed seven hundred and thirty officers, including even the last survivor of the " Boston Tea Party." Many people believed that the republic was surely being ruined ; but the new ad- ministration insisted that every officer must be a Jackson Democrat. It took many years to repair the damages resulting from that evil system. Now large numbers of the pubhc officers are on the Civil Service list. They get their places by competitive examinations, and merit counts for more than political service. 349. Orators battle for and against the Union. — We have seen how the tariff caused John C. Calhoun to make a complete change in pohtics (§ 342). He was reelected Vice President, and as presiding officer of the Senate he had to sit, an unwiUing umpire instead of participant, in Amer- The Jacksonian Era 347 ica's greate&t battle of orators. The " Tariff of Abomina- tions " was the indirect cause of the great debate. South Carohna was preparing to follow the advice of her leading statesman, Calhoun, in an attempt to nullify the tariff law within the Umits of that state. If that attempt proved successful, the Constitution would really be broken to pieces. Senator Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina was the elo- quent champion of the States' Rights side, and Senator Calhoun, WKr.srKK, and Ci.av, Daniel Webster of Massachusetts was the leader on the side of the Union. As the debate progressed, people came from miles around and crowded the galleries and halls of the Capitol to hear the great orators. John Fiske has said that Webster's "Reply to Hayne" is the greatest oration that has fallen from human hps since the masterpiece of Demosthenes, " To the Crown." A little later Calhoun resigned from the vice presidency, so he could return to the Senate and take up the debate against Webster. Because South Carolina was trying to 34^ United States History for Schools declare a law of Congress to be null and void, this crisis is known as Nullification. 350, Jackson and Nullification. — Before Calhoun re- signed, the States' Rights men wished to have the Presi- dent as well as the Vice President on their side. They knew he was a Southerner as well as a Westerner, but they did not know how he stood on the question of States' Rights. They invited him to a banquet, and when it came his turn to propose a toast, he startled the guests by propos- ing : "The Union, it must and shall be preserved." If there remained any Hngering doubts as to where the Presi- dent stood, he dispelled them soon afterwards. A con- gressman, about to return to South Carolina, asked the Presi- dent what greeting he wished to send to the people there. " Tell them," said Jackson, " I will hang to the nearest tree the first man I lay hands on who is guilty of treason to the United States." Webster's eloquence and Jackson's firmness led the nation safely past the crisis of Nullification. It remained for Henry Clay, the " Peacemaker," to bring in a compromise on the tariff law, and the danger was over. It should here be noted that South Carolina neglected to learn what the other Southern states would do when she took the lead. Not one of the other Southern states approved of Nullifica- tion, and some of them strongly opposed the stand of South Carolina. 351. Another " Fire-bell in the Night." — During this time (January i, 183 1) there appeared in Boston the first number of a newspaper called "The Liberator." Its avowed purpose was to liberate the slaves. The editor was a deeply earnest young man, William Lloyd Garrison, who declared in the first issue of his paper : " I am in earnest — I will not The Jacksonian Era 349 equivocate — I will not excuse — I will not retreat a single inch — and I will be heard." He kept all those promises, though it was hard work. At first he slept in the basement where he printed the paper. He stirred up hatred every- where. There came to him showers of threatening letters, and the state of Georgia offered $ 5000 for his arrest. He was mobbed in the streets of Boston, stripped of nearly all his clothing, and was dragged along the street with a rope around his waist. He was rescued by the police. Still he did not " retreat a single inch," and he was "heard." The movement against slavery grew and spread all over the North and West. 352. New Political Methods. — Jackson's first term ended in 1832. It was then seen that the new political parties (§ 334) were thoroughly organized. For the first time national conventions were held. The National Republi- cans nominated Henry Clay and adopted the first national platform. In this the new party favored the protective tariff, internal improvements, and the United States Bank, and denounced the spoils system. The Democrats did not adopt the new idea of a platform, but they nominated Jackson for another term, and nominated Martin Van Buren for Vice President. They won the election, and at once decided that the victory meant that the people were opposed to the Bank. 353. Destruction of the Bank. — On file in Washington City there are papers in Jackson's handwriting which show that he had made much progress in his work of self-educa- tion. Many of the papers refer to the Bank question and indicate his strong objections to a renewal of the charter (§ 316). He voiced his objections in public addresses, he vetoed a bill for a new charter, and yet the people were 2SO United States History for Schools not prepared for his violent action. He believed the Bank was unconstitutional. He sympathized with the people, who thought such a wealthy corporation was hard on the poor man. Above all, he objected to the officers of the Bank taking part in politics. He destroyed the Bank by removing from it the millions of dollars the government had deposited. 354. " Pet Banks " and " Wildcat Banks." — These high- handed actions are always credited to the President instead of to other officers, and rightly so, too, for Jackson declared that he himself "took the responsibility." He often con- sulted a group of friends instead of his legal advisers in the Cabinet. These friends were known as Jackson's " Kitchen Cabinet." Jackson and his friends selected certain state banks to receive the large government funds. There was a wild scramble for such favors. It was a time of great speculation, and those who controlled the cash could get rich quickly. The banks that Jackson favored were called " Pet Banks." When the big United States Bank was destroyed, there was no safe control of money matters. State banks sprang into existence everywhere. They were called " Wildcat Banks," as they issued large amounts of paper money, and often without resources with which to make the money good. But, such as it was, the paper money was plentiful. Jackson got the credit of producing lots of money for the common people. Speculation increased, especially in Western lands. The government, under the law of that day, sold its lands for a dollar and twenty-five cents an acre. New towns, canals, and railroads were planned, and anybody could get rich by obtaining government land near those improve- The Jacksonian Era 351 ments. In the last year of his administration " Old Hickory " made a discovery. The government lands were being paid for in the paper money of those state banks. He issued the " Specie Circular" (1836) demand- ing hard money, gold or silver, for the lands. 355. The Panic of 1837. — The whirlwind was reaped by Martin Van Buren. He became President in 1837, and declared that he hoped to conduct the government on the same lines as his illustrious pred- ecessor. Gold and silver were scarce. Many people had plunged into the speculation and incurred debts which they could not pay. They became bank- rupt. Merchants failed. The state banks failed on every side, including some of the " Pet Banks," with government funds on hand. The panic of 1837 was one of the worst in the history of America. There were bread riots in New York, and there was suffering everywhere throughout the country. 356. The Independent Treasury (1840). — Van Buren had a stormy and unsatisfactory administration of four years. He wisely proposed the establishment of an independent treasury so that the government could take care of its money without depending on the banks. The people did not like the idea. They said the government demanded hard money and was going to build a treasury for it, while they had to take soft or paper money and look out for it them- selves. Still the year before his term expired the Presi- Martin Van Buren. 35^ United States History for Schools dent secured the passage of the Independent Treasury law. The Treasury is located at Washington City. At present there are nine branches or sub-treasuries, located in New- York, Chicago, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Boston, St. Louis, Cincinnati, New Orleans, and Baltimore. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Why do we use the terms ''Testing" and "Straining" the Constitution ? 2. State your hkes and dislikes of Jackson. 3. Why was his election called a " revolution "? 4. What was the " Spoils System " ? 5. Describe the Webster-Hayne debate. 6. What stand did Jackson take on Nullification ? 7. Why was " The Liberator " like another " fire-bell in the night "? 8. How was the National Bank destroyed? 9. What were "Pet Banks "? 10. What caused the panic of 1837? 11. What was the Independent Treasury? CHAPTER XXXI A DECADE OF EXPANSION AND INVENTION (1840-1850) References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 31 1-336 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 260-279; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 642-654. Home Readings. — Brooks's Boy Settlers ; Harris's Uncle Remus ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. HI., pp. 33-38; Vol. IV., pp. 1-39; Mc- Murry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. HI., pp. 40-93 (Fremont), 94- 113 (Gold in California), 165-200 (Parkman with the Sioux); Mun- roe's Golden Days of '49, Sparks\s Men Who Made the Nation, PP- 338-346 (Webster). 357. A Log Cabin Elec- tion (1840). — We have seen how Jackson's elec- tion was apolitical "rev- olution " (§ 347) because there were so many new elements in it. He was succeeded by his friend Van Buren, who was an Eastern man, and who lost the support of the West through troubles growing out of the panic. He was nominated for a second term, and the Na- tional Republicans, then known as Whigs, nomi- William henry Harrison. 2A 353 354 United States History for Schools nated for their ticket General William Henry Harrison, the Indian fighter (§ 295), and John Tyler. A Democratic politician declared that if Harrison had a log cabin in Ohio and a barrel of cider he would not care for the White House. The Whigs caught up the idea at once, and there were soon processions through the towns with little log cabins and barrels of cider on wagons. Enthusiasm ran high. The marchers shouted : " Van ! Van ! is a used-up man ! " and the other cry : " Tippe- canoe and Tyler too ! " The Whigs were suc- cessful. Harrison was elected, but he died just one month after he was inaugurated. He had grown old ; he had not spared himself in the campaign ; and after in- auguration a swarm of office seekers worried him into the grave. For the first time a Vice President succeeded to the presidency. 358. Vigor of the West. — It was a greater West that rallied so strongly to the side of Harrison than the West that had shouted for Jackson. Black Hawk, the Indian chief who disputed the white man's possession of Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin, was defeated (1832) and driven farther west. Fort Dearborn on the southwestern shore of Lake John Tyler. A Decade of Expansion and Invention 355 Michigan had gathered to itself enough cabins and houses to be called a town when it took the name of Chicago (1833). There were many other new towns and cities in the West. Foreign people were coming to the United States at the rate of more than sixty thousand a year. Many of them went at once to the new lands of the West. Indiana had more than 600,000 population ; Illinois, 400,000; and Mich- igan, 200,000. The people had increased so fast that two new states were organized — -Arkansas (1836) and Michigan (1837). UNITED STATES IN 1840. (.Martin Van Buren's Administraticnli r~| T.rrilorie, EnBli* Po»s. |inHlR«ii. ofTeiai It should be noticed that the slavery balance of power was still preserved, Arkansas being slave and Michigan free. There were then twenty-six states, thirteen on each side of the slavery question. 359. One Invention that helped the West. — There were a great many inventions in this period that helped the 2^6 United States History for Schools world at large, but some of them were particularly helpful to the West on account of the peculiar needs of that section at the time. One of these was the reaper. Cyrus Hall McCormick was a Virginia boy who invented two valuable plows, and then with his own hands built the first practical reaping machine that was ever made (1831). He made improvements on his machine, but had to go to the West to get a big enough field for his enterprise. He built large War Dance by Indians. works in Chicago (1847). .Before that invention grain was harvested with scythes and sickles. The new machine did the work of many hands, and did it better. In England such inventions led to machine-smashing riots (§ 314), but conditions were very different in the West. There were miles upon miles of new lands waiting for the plows and reapers. There was abundant work for all. What the cotton gin did for the cotton crop in the South (§ 258) the reaper did for the grain crops in the West, except for this A Decade of Expansion and Invention 357 difference : the reaper worked more in the interest of free- dom than did the cotton gin. William H. Seward said : "Owing to Mr. McCormick's invention, the line of civiliza- tion moves westward thirty miles each year." McCormick was highly honored at home and abroad. He was made an officer of the French Legion of Honor and a member of the French Academy of Sciences for " having done more for the cause of agriculture than any other living man." 360. Machines for threshing Grain. — Just as in the case of the reaper, the American farmers welcomed the threshing machines. It was slow and laborious work to maul the kernels of grain out of the heads with the old-fashioned flail. Some farmers trod it out with the tramping feet of horses. Even then the work was only half done, for the grain must be tossed in the air to let the wind blow away the chaff. A cylinder with rows of teeth was formed to tear the kernels from the heads. Then a " fan mill" was invented to sift the grain and blow away the chaff. The two machines were then united, and soon the threshing machine was invented. This, with the reaper, helped the farmers to conquer the prairies more rapidly and to gain greater profits from their crops. 361. Some Other Useful Inventions. — Amasa Goodyear was the first to make the hayforks of spring steel instead of wrought iron, but his son's inventive mind ran in a different line. The name of Charles Goodyear will forever be associated with rubber. At first rubber was used to erase pencil marks. Goodyear devoted his life and the fortunes of friends to an effort to make rubber more useful. Shoes could be made in winter, but the material would melt in summer. Goodyear's family was in want, he was often in jail for debt, and he even sold his children's school- 2^S United States History for Schools books to get money for his experiments. He was called "an India-rubber maniac," and he was described as "a man with an India-rubber coat on, India-rubber shoes, an India-rubber cap, and in his pocket an India-rubber purse and not a cent in it." He kept on until he won success. Others obtained riches from his patents. He got no riches, but was accustomed to poverty. Before he died he was honored in England, France, and America. The whole world has been greatly benefited by his inventions. Robert Hoe came from England to America, and began making hand printing presses. His son, Richard March Hoe, continued the business, and in- vented wonderful improvements to printing machinery until newspapers could be printed, cut, and folded as fast as the eye could follow. Papers like the New York "Sun" were en- ^^^ larged and sold for a cent a copy. '^ People were bewildered by such prog- ress. Elias Howe was the son of a Massa- As Howe's sewixng chusetts farmer. He got work in a Machine WAS Invented. factory at fifty cents a day, and at spare moments he worked on an invention which appeared in 1845 as the first sewing machine. His patents earned for him more than two millions of dollars. Friction matches were invented in England (1836), and when the invention was brought to America boys were no longer sent to the nearest neighbor's home to " borrow a little fire." On the monument of Dr. William T. G. Morton are these words : " Before that discovery, surgery was agony ; A Decade of Expansion and Invention 359 since, science has controlled pain." This refers to the dis- covery of the use of inhaling vapor of ether to deaden pain before a surgical operation (1846). Dr. Horace Wells had already used " laughing gas " (1844) for a similar effect in extracting teeth. Millions of sufferers have had cause to be grateful for those two discoveries. 362. Coal and Iron. — The coal and iron industries were early developed in small ways (§313)- When hard coal, or anthracite, was first found in Pennsylvania, it was sup- posed to be too hard to use as fuel, so it was used as gravel on roads. Its use as fuel brought important changes in the manufacturing business. The use of iron also advanced rapidly. Canals and railroads were built to handle the increasing business. Pittsburg became the center of the coal and iron trade of the United States, and Pennsylvania advanced to the rank of second state in the Union. 363. The Railroad Improved. —As already stated (§ 340), George Stephenson has the credit of inventing the railroad locomotive in England. Peter Cooper made the first loco- motive in America (1830), and devised a most important improvement on the English locomotive. The device enabled the locomotive to travel over a relatively sharp curve. Before that improvement the engine could haul cars on straight rails, but the road had to stop at the first hill or tunnel through it.' After the invention the road could curve around the hill. It could be built through the mountains. It could reach and serve the West. By 1840 there were nearly three thousand miles of railroads in the United States. Passengers and freight were carried from Boston to Buffalo, and in ten years more the distant city of Chicago was reached. It was then easier to travel those great distances than to go from New York to Boston at the 360 United States History for Schools time of framing the Constitution. There was no longer so much doubt as to whether the republic could suc- ceed over so large an area. Iron rails and steam brought the states ever closer together, and helped to increase the volume of business from day to day. The stagecoach and freighting teams were no longer supreme. The in- crease of freight in the United States has been so great that if the railroads all stopped and the freight were moved by teams, it would cost more in one year than the construction of all the railroads has cost. 364. The Electric Tele- graph. — It is now well known that the railroads could not move many trains with speed or safety without the use of the electric tele- graph. That invention was made by Samuel F. B. Morse, an artist and pro- fessor of literature. He was assisted by Alfred Vail, in whose father's shop the instrument was perfected. It was a big undertaking to build and equip a long line, and needed the help of some government. After waiting four years Morse was rewarded by help from Congress. The first telegraph line in the world was built from Washington to Baltimore, and on May 24, 1844, Professor Morse, sur- rounded by many of the chief officers, stepped to the in- strument in the Supreme Court Room. He ticked a brief Samuel F. B. Morse. A Decade of Expansion and Invention 361 message, and it was at once sent back to Washington — " What hath God wrought ? " Those four words from the Bible announced one of the greatest achievements in the world's history. 365. Express. — William Frederick Harnden began to carry packages in a hand bag from Boston to New York (1839). It soon grew in volume as a business. On his monument in Mount Auburn Cemetery near Boston, Harn- den is called " Founder of the Express Business in America." 366. Steamships. — Engines and boilers were so im- proved, steamboats so much increased in power, and coal was found so much better than wood as fuel for such work, that the Sirins and the Great Western crossed the Atlantic (1837) as steamships, and the Hudson's Bay Com- pany sent the steamer Beaver around into the Pacific Ocean for use in the fur trade on the northwest coast of America. While the railroad linked the states more closely together, the steamship did a similar work for the nations. John Ericsson, who came to America from Sweden, was a wonderful inventor. When only eleven years old, he made, with his own hands and from plans he had drawn himself, a miniature sawmill. He invented many things. Under orders from the United States he drew designs for the warship Princeton (184O, to be equipped with his newly invented screw propeller. The success of that one boat changed the navies of the world and caused changes also in the plans of merchant steamers. Very soon a " side-wheeler " on the ocean was not to be seen. All became propellers. 367. The Growth of American Literature. — Noah Web- ster, who while a college student had helped to welcome 362 United States History for Schools Washington to New Haven (§ 184), was one of the most famous literary men in America. After many years of hard work he had published his great dictionary. Before that the best dictionary of the English language was Johnson's, pubUshed first in London in 1755. Americans found it much at fault, for it omitted many words that were common in the United States, such as "congress," " savings bank," " prairie," and others. Webster's dictionary at once took the place of the older work. Following such pioneers as Irving, Cooper, and Bryant (§ 318) came such poets and writers as Whittier, Long- fellow, Lowell, Holmes, Poe, Emerson, and Hawthorne. Audubon published his beautifully illustrated work on the "Birds of North America," Catlin drew pictures of Indians A Decade of Expansion and Invention 2^3 for his book, and George Bancroft wrote the first history of the United States. 368. Better Schools. — The newer states of the West had strong ideas of the rights of citizens. They held that every free man should have the right to vote, while in many of the older states there were restrictions on voting. Some- how free voting always encouraged free schools. The West had such schools from the early days of settlement. Free schools also increased in the East. The South did not develop public schools as early as the other sections, but there grew up a large number of private schools and academies in the South. Besides the increased literature, better schools, more magazines, and cheaper newspapers, there was an addi- tional agency of education for the people in the Lyceum or lecture courses. Thousands of people were enabled to hear addresses from the most talented men of the country. 369. The Mormon Religion. — Joseph Smith, *a native of Vermont, while living at Palmyra, New York, announced that he had received from an angel some golden plates, on which were engraved characters which he translated into the Book of Mormon. He organized a new church. With some of his followers Smith moved to Ohio, then to Mis- souri, and finally to Illinois, where he established the " Holy City " of Nauvoo. He called the new organization the Church of the Latter Day Saints. The industry of his flock and their devotion to their church did not protect them from enemies. Smith was killed by a mob in Illinois, and Brigham Young became the leader. The Mormons moved to the far West to make a new home out of reach of their enemies. They settled at Salt Lake, Utah (1848), and by great industry soon transformed a desert into a 364 United States History for Schools fruitful garden. Trouble pursued them even to that new- home, until they wisely decided to give up the evil practice of polygamy. 370. Division of the Churches. — A division occurred in the Congregational Church, when the Unitarian Church was organized, and there were other divisions ; but the most significant divisions were those during the period from 1840 to 1850. The dispute over the slavery question became so bitter that even church members came close to quarrels. The great churches, like the Methodists and Baptists, and later the Presbyterians, divided into Northern and Southern churches of those denominations. The South- ern branches favored slavery, and the Northern just as strongly opposed it. 371. The Abolitionists. — That division of the churches was one of the " signs of the times." People in all walks of life were divided on the slavery question. Garrison was mobbed in Boston (§ 351), but his work went on, and those who opposed slavery increased in number throughout the North and West. Those who wished to free the slaves, to abolish slavery, were called " Abolitionists." For a long time it was a term of reproach, for even in the North busi- ness men wanted to stop the agitation so that business would continue to prosper. They said the agitators were troublesome theorists. But the Abolitionists continued to agitate. The bitterness increased. There were not many Abolitionists in the South. The people there were strongly opposed to the agitators in the North. The most outspoken ones in the South were called " Fire-eaters." 372. John Quincy Adams and the " Gag Rules." — After John Quincy Adams left the presidency, he was sent to Congress from Massachusetts. He remained there so long A Decade of Expansion and Invention 365 and was so forceful in debate that he was called "Old Man Eloquent." One favorite form the Abolitionists had of fighting slavery was the sending of petitions against it to Congress. The people of the South were opposed to this form of attack. Some people of the North were also op- posed to it. The House of Representatives adopted rules (1836) against allowing such petitions to be read in Con- gress. When the vote was being taken on those " Gag Rules," Adams arose, and amid cries of " Order ! " he de- clared they were in violation of the Constitution and the rights of his constituents. Of course he voted " No " with the minority. For nine years he kept up the fight, often single-handed, until the rules were repealed (1845). Such a brave fighter was sure to win the respect of friend and foe. On February 21, 1848, the grand old man, nearly eighty-one years of age, was at his seat in the House of Representatives when he fell to the floor in a stroke of paralysis. Democrats and Whigs rushed to his side with sympathetic sorrow. He was carried to the Speaker's room, where he died two days later. His last words were : "This is the last of earth. I am content." 373. "Dorr's Rebellion " (1842). — The restrictions on voting (§ 368) caused a disturbance in Rhode Island that is known as Dorr's Rebellion. That state still clung to its old colonial charter after all the other states had adopted constitutions. Under that charter no man was allowed to vote who was not a property owner. Under the lead of Thomas W. Dorr the non-voters adopted a constitution and elected Dorr governor. The property- owning voters objected. Both sides rushed to arms, but Dorr's men deserted him when United States troops ap- peared on the scene. Dorr's '* government " fell, but the ^66 United States History for Schools lesson was not lost. A constitution was adopted, and the people got more rights. The disturbance then quieted down. 374. Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842). — Another war was threatened between Great Britain and the United States, on account of the disputed boundary line between Canada and the United States. An effort had been made to settle the dispute by the treaty of 18 18, but the terms were not clear enough, and both sides continued to dispute. Lord Ashburton, the British Minister to the United States, and Daniel Webster, Secretary of State in President Tyler's Cabinet, framed a treaty to settle the dispute. The boundary was fixed along the northern part of Maine and along the forty-ninth parallel from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. The land of Old Oregon, west of the Rocky Mountains, was still open to settlers from both na- tions. 375. "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" — The northern boun- dary of the Old Oregon Coun- try was fixed by two treaties with Russia at 54° 40' of north latitude (§ 332). When the campaign of 1844 approached, James K. Polk, the Democratic candidate, came out boldly with the demands of " Fifty-four Forty or Fight," and " All of Oregon and All of Texas ! " Polk was elected, but his campaign pledges were kept in ways that must have been surprising even to himself. James K. Polk. A Decade of Expansion and Invention 367 We did not get the " Fifty-four Forty " boundary, nor did we fight for it. On the other hand, we not only got all of Texas, but a vast area in addition, and before that trans- action was finished we did have a war. 376. The Oregon Country. — The United States had good claims to part of the Oregon Country (§ 294), and Great Britain recognized that fact at the end of the War of 1 812 (§ 311). But Great Britain also had just as good claims based on discovery, exploration, and occupation. By two treaties (18 18 and 1827) the two nations agreed that the Oregon Country should remain open to settlement by people from either or both countries, leaving to the future the settlement as to which flag should remain there permanently. The British Hudson's Bay Company had many trading posts and many settlers. The Americans had a few mission stations and many settlers, but all of them south of the Columbia River. It was therefore a compromise when the treaty (1846) finally settled the mat- ter by continuing the forty-ninth parallel boundary from the Rocky Mountains to the sea. That compromise treaty was a triumph for the Americans. It was made possible by the missionaries, and more especially by the pioneers who were making their homes in the new lands. Those homes were counted stronger "possession" than the fur-trading posts of the British. Before the treaty was signed, there were about seven thousand American pioneers in Oregon. The importance of that expansion is realized when it is remembered that out of the Old Oregon Country have since been organized the large states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and parts of the states of Montana and Wyoming. The total area was three hun- dred thousand square miles, or more than six times as great as the large state of New York. 368 United States History for Schools 377. The Lone Star Republic becomes the State of Texas. — -The people of the South were very anxious to have Texas annexed to the United States, because it meant that from that area at least one large state, and possibly several smaller ones, would be added to the Union far enough south to insure their being in favor of slavery. The North was opposed to the plan, and delayed action. Texas had been a part of Mexico, but seceded (1835), and at once asked for admission to the United States. When the question came before President Van Buren, he refused to give his consent, for he felt sure it would bring on a war with Mexico. That nation still claimed the seceded state. Texas then organized a government of her own, and called it the Republic of Texas. The flag of this republic had a single star, and so people called it the " Lone Star Republic." Northern opposition to annexation began to weaken when it was learned that. European nations were courting the friendship of Texas. Some feared those European nations might secure possession and make Texas one of their colonies. Then came Polk's successful campaign, with the ^cry of " All of Oregon and All of Texas ! " In the first year of his administration Texas was admitted to the Union as a slave state (1845). 378. Balance of Power in the Senate Restored. — Florida was admitted to the Union the same year as Texas (1845). That destroyed the balance of power, for there were then fifteen slave states against thirteen free states. In the Senate the slave states had a majority of four votes. The admission of Iowa as a free state (1846) cut that majority down to two votes. Two years later Wisconsin was admitted (1848) as a free state. The balance of A Decade of Expansion and Invention 369 power was restored for what proved to be the last time. In a few more years the free states got the majority and held it. 379. Cause of War with Mexico. — At the very time that the Secretary of State and the British Minister were fram- ing the peaceful treaty to settle the dispute over Oregon, a different kind of problem was being considered in the Secretary of War's office. Texas claimed the Rio Grande as her southern boundary. Mexico claimed the Nueces River. That left the southern corner of Texas as disputed land. President Polk sided with Texas, and sent General Zachary Taylor to protect American interests in that region. When the Httle American army refused to leave, the Mexi- cans crossed the Rio Grande and killed every man of a small scouting party (April 23, 1S46). President Polk sent a message to Congress in which he stated that the Mexicans " invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil." Congress at once declared war against Mexico (May 13, 1846). One member of Congress was not satisfied that the blood was shed on " our own soil." He introduced some resolutions asking for information about the exact spot where the blood was shed. Those resolutions are known as the " Spot Resolutions." The congressman who in- troduced them was Abraham Lincoln. He was then a Whig, and the Whigs were opposed to the war ; but after it was begun they voted for supplies and men to finish it. 380. The Battles of " Old Rough and Ready." — General Taylor was affectionately called " Old Rouah and Ready " by his men. He did not wait for Congress to declare war. As soon as his scouting party had been attacked, he gave battle to the Mexican army and defeated it at Palo Alto A Decade of Expansion and Invention 371 (May 8) and at Resaca de la Palma (May 9, 1846). The Mexicans then retreated to their own side of the Rio Grande, and Taylor followed them. After resting and get- ting recruits he attacked the strong Mexican city of Mon- terey. Four days of desperate fighting were necessary to capture that city (September 24), The Mexicans had bar- ricaded the streets, made forts of the houses, and fought bravely, but finally lost the battle. Taylor sent part of his army south to meet General Scott; and the Mexican leader. General Santa Anna, thought that the time had come to conquer Taylor's weakened army. He marched to the attack with a force four times as large as the American army. But the Ameri- cans had a strong position at Buena Vista, and after a whole day of stubborn fighting (February 23, 1847) ^^^ Mexicans retreated. That was Taylor's last battle. He returned to the United States and was hailed as a hero. 381. California and New Mexico Conquered. — Among the plans of the American government were the protection of American interests on the Pacific coast and the possible conquest of land there. A small fleet of warships was. sent to the coast of California, and John C. Fremont, the " pathfinder," who was exploring overland roads to the coast, was ordered to help protect American interests. There was not much fighting. The small Mexican forces were subdued, California was conquered, and the Stars and Stripes floated over a new region that would soon prove a wonderland. General Stephen W. Kearny was ordered to seize Santa Fe. With an army of eighteen hundred men he accom- plished his object without opposition. After becoming master of New Mexico he marched to California and helped to complete the conquest of that region. 372 United States History for Schools 382. General Winfield Scott in Southern Mexico. — The Mexicans were not completely conquered by General Taylor's victories in the North. General Scott, after nine days of fighting, took the city of Vera Cruz (March 27, 1847) and the fortress San Juan de Ulua, called the " Gibraltar of Mexico." Starting over the mountains toward the capi- tal, he was resisted at the mountain pass of Cerro Gordo, where he won another victory (April 18). During the summer he completed the march to the city of Mexico, and around that great city fought five stubborn battles. All were victories, but they were won at great loss of life. He finally marched his army into the city in triumph (Septem- ber 14, 1847), and raised the Stars and Stripes in the enemy's capital. 383. End of War. — When the city of Mexico was taken the war was practically ended. It had lasted two years. It was remarkable that the Americans had won every bat- tle, though in each case the Mexican army was the larger. The expansion caused by the annexation of Texas and the conquests from Mexico brought an area of nearly one mil- lion square miles, or about one third of the present United States. After acquiring so much land, the United States could afford to be generous. When the treaty of peace was signed (1848) the United States agreed to pay Mexico fifteen million dollars, " in consideration of the extension acquired by the boundaries of the United States," as the words of the treaty put it. We also agreed to pay certain claims against Mexico which amounted to about three mil- lion dollars. Peace was restored, and it was thought that the boundaries were permanently settled. But a dispute arose over the southern boundary of what are now Arizona and New Mexico. The United States settled this dispute A Decade of Expansion and Invention 373 by acquiring more land (1853) and paying Mexico ten mil- lion dollars more. 384. The Wilmot Proviso. — Early in the war the anti- slavery people were alarmed over the possibility of obtain- ing a large area of land that would be open for the extension of slavery. David Wilmot, a Democratic representative from Pennsylvania, introduced a measure to exclude slavery forever from any lands that we might acquire from Mexico. This became known as the " Wilmot Proviso." It did not become a law, but it raised a question over which there was long and bitter debate. 385. Other Results of the War. — Besides enormously expanding the republic and raising a new storm of debate on the slavery question, the war gave training to a large number of young men who were to become noted officers in the next war. Some of those young men were Ulysses S. Grant, Robert E. Lee, William T. Sherman, " Stonewall " Jackson, George G. Meade, Jefferson Davis, Isaac I. Stevens, and George E. Pickett. They were all on one side in the Mexican War. They would be on different sides in the next war. General Zachary Taylor, as one result of the war, was nominated for President by the Whig party, and was triumphantly elected (1848). There was a curious twist on the slavery question in that election. The Whigs, whose majority was in the free North, chose for their candidate Taylor, a Southerner and slaveholder. The Democrats, whose majority was in the South, chose Senator Lewis Cass, a Northerner who held no slaves. In selecting the popular war hero, Taylor, the Whigs set aside their two best statesmen, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, each of whom was the favorite of many people for the high position of President. 374 United States History for Schools 386. " Gold ! Gold ! Gold ! " — While the agents of the two repubHcs were drawing up the treaty of peace in Mexico, a man rushed through the streets of the village of San Francisco, his hat in one hand, in the other a bottle filled with yellow nuggets, shouting wildly : " Gold ! Gold ! Sutter's Mill in California. Gold!" Sure enough. The great discovery was made just as California became American territory. Captain John A. Sutter was a native of Switzerland who had a large grant of land on American River about one hundred miles northeast of San Francisco. While one of A Decade of Expansion and Invention 375 his men was digging a mill race, he found lumps of gold. The news spread like fire in the dried grass of a prairie. In one year more than eighty thousand men fiocked into the rich new "gold diggings." They risked the dangers from Indians, starvation, and accident by crossing the plains and the mountains. They risked the danger from tropical fevers by crossing the Isthmus of Panama to get to San Francisco. They risked dangers at sea by the long voyage around Cape Horn. They risked all and dared all for a chance to dig a fortune out of the ground. Many people came to the " diggings " from Europe, but most of them journeyed from other parts of the United States. The rapid growth of California in people and business affected the whole nation. Before studying those results it is best to glance briefly at affairs in Europe. Three hundred thousand people were coming from there into the United States every year at that time. 387. The Year- of Revolutions in Europe (1848). — The February (1848) revolution in France, by which Louis Philippe lost the throne and Louis Bonaparte became President of the restored republic, started a convulsion throughout PZurope until, as one writer said, not a day passed without a constitution being granted. France retained the republican form of government for about three years, when Louis Bonaparte became emperor with the title of Napoleon III. (1852). Austria and Germany were torn by the revolution. Prince Metternich of Austria, who had ruled Europe through the "Holy Alliance" and the "congresses" (§ 327) that followed, was driven from Vienna, and the Emperor fied to the Tyrol. Representatives of German countries came together to organize a German empire. 376 United States History for Schools The king of Prussia consented to give his own people a constitution, but when the popular parliament offered him the imperial crown, he called it a " crown of mud and wood" and declined it. Those who favored greater liber- ties were suppressed, and many of them fled to Switzerland, England, and America. Italy was struggling for independent existence, but the Austrian army was too strong, and more years were neces- sary — years of planning, struggling, and fighting. In England the people demanded a charter of greater liberties. More men wanted the right to vote. They were called " Chartists." Though they were not successful at the time (1848), their agitation caused much alarm, and most of the reforms they demanded were afterwards granted. Many participants in those popular movements in Europe came to America, and naturally took sides against slavery, which was then in the minds of all. One great German, Carl Schurz, came at that time after escaping from a Ger- man prison. He lived to have the pleasure of being sent back to Germany as the United States Minister. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Describe the election of William Henry Harrison. 2. Show how the West had grown. 3. What was the importance of McCormick's reaper ? 4. Describe the first threshing machines. 5. Why does the name ''Goodyear'" always suggest rubber? 6. What invention does the name " Hoe " suggest ? 7. Name some other inventions of this period. 8. Show the importance of coal, iron, railroads, telegraph, express, and steamships. 9. Who were some of the American writers ? 10. How were the schools improved ? A Decade of Expansion and Invention 377 11. How did the Mormon church begin ? 12. Why did the older churches divide ? 13. What was an "Abolitionist " ? a " Fire-eater" ? 14. What did John Quincy Adams do about the '• (iag Rules " ? 15. What was " Dorr's Rebellion" ? 16. What was meant by '* Fifty-four P'orty or Fight"? 17. How was the ownership of Oregon settled? 18. What lands did Oregon then embrace ? 19. How did Texas join the Union? 20. How was the " Balance of Power " restored for the last time ? 21. What caused the Mexican War? 22. Describe the victories of General Taylor. 23. How were California and New Mexico conquered ? 24. How did General Scott capture the Mexican capital ? 25. What were the boundaries when the treaty was signed ? 26. What was the " Wilmot Proviso " ? 27. What were the results of gold discoveries in California ? 28. How did the European revolutionary movements of 1848 affect America ? CHAPTER XXXII A DECADE THAT LED TO WAR (1850-1860) References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 339-363 , Hart's Source Book, pp. 279-296. Home Readings. — Butterworth's Log Schoolhouse ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. in., pp. 265-270; Vol. IV., pp. 41-115; Longfellow's Slave's Dream ; Smead's Memorials of a Southern Planter ; Sparks's Men who made the Nation, pp. ZAI-yjl (Greeley) ; Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin ; 'Whittier's Slave Siiips. 388. Character of the Decade. — The slavery question was dominant for a period of ten years (1850-1860). It colored and inspired the literature of the time. It formed the themes for orators, preachers, debaters, and newspaper men. It influenced politics in the states and the nation. It was supposed to have been settled by compromise, but the debates broke out afresh with greater fury a short time after the compromise. It might truthfully be said that that was the Slavery Decade of American history. 389. California Another " Fire-bell in the Night." — The fear that much of the new lands conquered from Mexico would be opened to slavery caused the North to rally round the " Wilmot Proviso" (§ 384). They became ever more stubborn against such an extension of slave territory. The South was just as active on its side. Many Southerners went to California, but the Northerners were in the majority. While the officers of the army were still in charge, the people sent delegates to a convention at Monterey (1849) ^o form a constitution for a new state. 378 A Decade that Led to War 379 They did not propose to go through the form of waiting as a territory. When the constitution was finished, it was found to be against slavery. The whole world had its attention drawn to California on account of gold. That new constitution drew the attention of the people of the United States, north and south, in the same direction for political reasons. 390. The Issue closely Drawn. — John C. Calhoun, leader of the South, declared that if California were admitted as a free state, arrangements must be made for another slave state. The nation could not exist unless the balance of power was retained. Senator Chase, a free-soil Democrat from Ohio, declared that the public domain must be kept free of slavery. Calhoun urged his followers to prepare for resistance, as the South was stronger then than it would ever be again. President Taylor was still " Old Rough and Ready." Though he was a Southern slaveholder, he declared that the people of California had the right to say for themselves whether they would have a free or a slave state. He favored the admission of the state under its new constitution. There were many people who were disgusted with the whole agitation. They were merchants and manu- facturers who were getting rich from the business stimu- lated by the California gold. But the leaders knew that it was much more' important for the future to settle those big political questions than to secure a few fortunes while the gold harvest lasted. 391. Trouble threatened in Texas. — There were other questions besides California that demanded attention. One of these was the claim of Texas to certain lands in New Mexico. President Taylor expressed his willing- ness for New Mexico to adopt a constitution just as 380 United States History for Schools California had done. Then Texas started to raise an army to assert her ownership of the disputed lands. President Taylor promptly issued orders for an army to resist the Texans. Southern members of Congress called on the President, and expressed a fear that Southern officers ,- _. in the army would not obey his orders. " Then," said Tay- lor, "I will command the army in person, and any man who is taken in treason against the Union, I will hang as I did the deserters and spies at Monterey." That sounded just like "Old Hickory," some eighteen years earlier (§ 350). There was then a pause in warlike preparations, and the "Great Peace- maker " appeared upon the scene for the last time. 392. The Compromise of 1850. — Henry Clay, the "Great Peacemaker," was seventy-three years of age. He had been three times a candidate for the presidency, and was greatly disappointed that he had not been elected. Many other people were also disappointed for the same reason. Clay had given his country nearly half a century of valu- able service in other positions. He had made treaties ; he Zachary Taylor. A Decade that Led to War 381 had been chosen United States senator four times ; he had been elected to the House of Representatives six times, and each time was chosen Speaker ; and he had served four years as Secretary of State under President John Quincy Adams. He was one of America's most eloquent orators, and was a loved political chief. He thought war was near in 1850, and he pleaded for a peaceful compromise as he had never pleaded before. Daniel Webster was another of the great orators. He also had rendered valuable service to his country, and was disappointed at not reaching the highest office. He wished to prevent war, and in one famous oration in the Senate, known in history as the "Seventh of March Speech," he advocated Clay's compromise. But Webster was from Massachusetts, and the North accused him of deserting the cause of freedom. The " Quaker Poet," Whittier, wrote " Ichabod " to express his resentment. Clay's compromise sought to settle all the impending disputes. It embraced the following five points, the first two in favor of the North, the others in favor of the South : ( I) California was to be admitted to the Union with her free constitution ; (2) the slave trade (but not slavery) was to be abolished in the District of Columbia ; (3) in the lands obtained from Mexico, outside of California, the settlers were to be left free to determine for themselves whether or not they would have slaves; (4) Texas was to be paid ten million dollars for the lands she claimed in New Mexico ; (5) Congress was to enact a strict fugitive slave law. As the bill to enact these measures carried so many items it was called the " Omnibus Bill." 393. Two Deaths during the Debate. — The debate and work of committees on the compromise lasted from 382 United States History for Schools January to September. Senator Seward was opposed to any compromise with the evil of slavery. He declared that in such matters conscience was a " higher law " than the Constitution. In the midst of the debate John C. Calhoun, leader of the South, died, and in a few months the nation also lost its President. For the second time a Vice President succeeded to the higher office. The compromise was com- pleted, and Clay was satisfied. With the idea that the slavery question was permanently settled, the nation was lulled to sleep for a short time. 394. The Panama Canal Treaty. — While the compromise was being debated, Secretary of State Clayton concluded with Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, the British Minister, a treaty (1850), by which the United States and Great Britain should have joint control over any canal that might be built across the Isthmus of Panama. The great increase of traffic by that route on account of the gold discovery in California made it seem as if a canal would soon be built. 395. The Presidential Campaign of 1852. — The Whigs again set aside their statesmen, and nominated another mili- MiLLARD Fillmore. A Decade that Led to War 3^3 tary hero — General Winfield Scott. The Democrats nom- inated General Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire. The Free Soil party was more outspoken than ever against any bargains with slavery. Many Whigs were dis- gusted with their party for accepting the Compro- mise of 1850. The Dem- ocrats alone seemed satis- fied with their party, with their candidate, and with the compromise. They won an easy victory. Be- fore election day arrived, both Henry Clay and Daniel Webster were dead. The old leaders were gone, but new ones quickly took their places. Jefferson Davis became spokesman for the South, and Charles Sumner became one of the leaders of the North. 396. Defeat of the Fugitive Slave Law. — The Fugitive Slave Law passed by Congress as part of the Compromise of 1850 was a strict measure. No longer were state officers and courts to be used for the capture and return of runaway slaves. Under the new law the United States officers and courts were to be used. A United States marshal could call on any citizen to help him. The Southerners were watchful of what they believed were their rights; but, while some were anxious to allow the Franklin Pierce. 384 United States History for Schools slavery troubles to slumber, there were many others in the North who grew more determined every day in their efforts to defeat the Fugitive Slave Law and ultimately to abolish slavery. In the border states the capture of slaves pro- duced a class of men known as " slave hunters," who used bloodhounds and other cruel means to catch the runaways for the rewards offered. Farther north the officers who captured negroes were often mobbed, and the slaves were snatched from them, to be hurried away to places of safety. Some of the Northern states passed Personal Liberty Laws to give the slaves trial by jury and other protections which were denied by the Fugitive Slave Law. The South claimed that the North was in this matter nulhfying a law of Congress. 397. The Strange Underground Railroad. — Probably the most effective plan for obstructing the Fugitive Slave Law was the secret scheme known as the " Underground Railroad." It was called "Underground" for the good reason that it could not be seen, and yet colored passengers traveled on it for long distances. Some sympathetic white man would guide runaways at night to a friendly house, or "station." There the slaves would be given food and shelter until another favorable night arrived, when they would be hurried to the next "station." On that kind of " Underground Railroad " thousands of slaves were moved to safety and freedom in Canada. 398. "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852). — No story has had more immediate effect on history than Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel entitled " Uncle Tom's Cabin." With strong and dramatic pathos it told the story of slavery as seen in the very worst locality, the border states — scenes of the bloodhound slave-hunting parties. Farther A Decade that Led to War 385 south there were thousands of slaves who knew nothing of bloodhounds, and who lived happy and contented lives with their masters. But in the border states there was enough cruelty and misery to justify the book. More than two hundred thousand copies were sold in one year. It was read everywhere, in Europe as well as in America. No one will ever know how many Northern people were influenced to become Abolitionists by reading that story. Rufus Choate said : " That book will make two millions of Abolitionists." The South hated the book, of course, and many in the North abused the author because her book was a peace disturber. William Lloyd Garrison wrote to Mrs. Stowe : " All the defenders of slavery have let me alone and are abusing you." 399. Commodore Perry in Japan (1854). — Though not connected with the slavery dispute, an important event in American history occurred at the same time. Com- modore Matthew C. Perry, a brother of the hero of Lake Erie (§ 301), secured a treaty of friendship and commerce with Japan. That country had for centuries pursued the policy of seclusion, but the American " Sailor Diplomat " broke down all obstacles and opened the door through which the people received friends and information that have helped Japan become a much greater power in the world. Japan has cherished the memory of Commodore Perry, and has remained friendly to America. Since that time it has been necessary for the Americans to look to the Orient as well as to Europe to obtain a proper appre- ciation of the expanding history of their own nation. 400. Eyes turned toward Cuba and Central America. — The Southern leaders did not give much attention to the new treaty with Japan. It was much more important 386 United States History for Schools to them to get control of lands that might be developed into slave states. Bold and venturesome men made ex- peditions into Central America and tried to secure areas south of Texas. No Southern state gave authority to such men, or to their schemes, but the North was suspicious that the expeditions were parts of a general Southern plan. In regard to Cuba the case was different. The Southern leaders urged upon President Pierce the annex- ation of that island. The President was not sure of his ground. He did not know how such a step would be viewed by the rest of the world. He hit upon a novel way of getting help to solve the problem. He asked the United States ministers in Great Britain, France, and Spain to hold a meeting in Europe, to consider the question, and to give him the benefit of their advice. The three ministers met at Ostend, Belgium, and drew up a report (1854) for the President, saying it was their opinion that the acquisition of Cuba would be an advantage to the United States, and if Spain would not sell the island it would be justifiable to seize it rather than to have it fall under the control of negroes, as had happened in San Domingo. The report of the three ministers became known as the " Ostend Manifesto." Its advice was not followed by the President, and its only effect was to increase the bitterness of the slavery dispute. 401. Repeal of the Missouri Compromise (1854). — In spite of all the irritations over the Fugitive Slave Law and other slavery troubles, the nation as a whole was trying to rest, when, all of a sudden, Stephen A. Douglas " threw a bone of contention among the sleeping dogs of war." Douglas was a small man physically, but a large man in intellect. He was called the " Little Giant." A Decade that Led to War 387 He was a Democrat, but represented the Northern state of Illinois in the United States Senate. A majority of his party believed in slavery, but, being also a Northerner, he had to modify his course on that question. He came out strongly in favor of " Squatter Sovereignty." The wild lands of the West were unsurveyed, and settlers could not get title. But they could " squat " on claims and wait for the surveys. Douglas said these "squatters" should have the right to say "yes" or " no " on the slavery ques- tion. So he surprised the nation by declaring that the Compromise of 1850 (§ 392) had repealed the Compromise of 1820 (§ 325), and that the rest of the land in the Louisiana Purchase was open to slavery if the settlers or " squatters " there so desired. He introduced a bill to organize that region into the territories of Kansas and Nebraska with the question of slavery left open. The bill became a law. The compromises were repealed, and a contest was bound to follow. 402. The Struggle in Kansas. — The anti-slavery men were furious over the Kansas-Nebraska law. Douglas was hooted in the streets. He declared that on a trip from Washington to Chicago he was lighted on his way by the flames from burning effigies of himself. Since Congress by passing the law had given the challenge for freedom or slavery in Kansas, both North and South pre- pared for action. The South had the advantage of nearness, and from Missouri hurried pro-slavery settlers into Kansas, who called their town Atchison, in honor of Senator Atchison of Missouri. In New England there was organized the "Emigrant Aid Society." The settlers sent out by that or- ganization were refused passage through Missouri. They 388 United States History for Scliools went around by way of Iowa. When they arrived in Kan- sas, they called their town Lawrence, in honor of Amos A. Lawrence, treasurer of the " Emigrant Aid Society." Settlers increased from both sides, and other towns were established. The settlers expected trouble, and went on their journey fully armed. One of the Northern men who was earnest in the agitation was the famous Henry Ward Beecher. The boxes of guns and ammunition collected for the emigrants were with grim humor said to contain " Beecher's Bibles." Before one year had passed, the pro-slavery settlers, aided by voters from Missouri, elected a delegate to Con- gress and members of a territorial legislature. Laws were passed establishing slavery and punishing with death any one who helped slaves to escape. Though the forms of law were complied with, the free state men called the government illegal because it had been made by the help of " Border Ruffians " from Missouri. The free state men met in Topeka and adopted a free constitution and at- tempted to form a government of their own. 403. Senator Sumner Assaulted (1856). — Senator Doug- las introduced a bill to admit Kansas to the Union. Sena- tor Sumner opposed the bill in a speech entitled " The Crime against Kansas," in which he denounced Senator Douglas and Senator Butler of South Carolina. A few days after the speech, while Sumner was at his desk writ- ing, Preston S. Brooks, a nephew of Senator Butler, and himself a representative from South Carolina, assaulted Sumner with a cane. It was a severe beating over the head from which the senator suffered for three years. This occurrence greatly increased the bitterness of feeling throughout the country. A Decade that Led to War 389 404. " Bleeding Kansas." — While Congress was excited over the attack on Sumner, a small civil war occurred in Kansas. Pro-slavery men attacked Lawrence, burning houses and murdering. John Brown led an attack of re- prisal, and killed an equal number of pro-slavery men. United States troops, under Colonel E. V. Sumner, dis- persed Brown's band and drove the "Border Ruffians" back into Missouri, restoring temporary peace. From such events people called the state at that time " Bleed- ing Kansas." 405. Reorganization of Political Parties (1856). — The Democratic party was strong in numbers and in having definite purposes, but there were many Northern Demo- crats who did not agree with the party majority on the slavery program. Likewise the Whig party had many men in the South who were willing to regulate slavery but not to abolish it. Finding no comfort in either of these older parties, the Abolitionists had organized the Free-Soil party. And there was still another party, that was gaining ground. It was a secret party, and was started (1848) on account of the large number of for- eigners coming to this country (§ 387). Their motto was "America for Americans." To questions about the na- ture of the party, the answer always was : " I do not know." They got the name of the " Know Nothing " party. They were successful in seven states, and elected governors and congressmen, but, as a party, became divided over the slavery question. The opponents of the extension of slavery finally combined into a new party, which took the name Republican. This new party nominated John C Fremont, the "pathfinder," for President, and, though the Democrats 390 United States History for Schools elected their candidate, — James Buchanan, — the election showed that the Republicans were the second strongest party. The Whigs were unknown as a party after that election. The contests were thenceforth to be between the Democrats and the RepubHcans. 406. Business Panic of 1857. — Political hfe and social life showed marked changes through the slavery contest. At the same time, but from wholly different causes, the econoniic life of the nation was disturbed. The harv^est of gold in California had induced the building of railroads faster than they were needed in the West; manufacturers had made more goods than they could sell ; merchants had bought more than they could pay for ; a day of reckoning had come. In August, 1857, the Ohio Life and Trust Company of Cincinnati failed through the fault of its New York agent. That was like a signal for others. Failure succeeded failure all over the country. A few banks were able to pay all demands upon them. One of these was the famous Chemical Bank of New York City, which had also weathered the storm in the similar panic of 1837 (§ 355)- 407. The Dred Scott Decision (1857). — The financial James Buchanan. A Decade that Led to War 39^ disturbance was over in about a year, but the next dis- turbance, political in nature, was far more serious, and was not fully settled until a terrible war had been fought. This disturbance was caused by a decision rendered by FREE AND ^ SLAVE AREAS ) o (18-14) the United States Supreme Court in a case that involved a slave. The slave, named Dred Scott, belonged to an army surgeon who had taken him to Illinois and then to Minnesota territory and then back again to Missouri. Friends of the slave helped him take his case into court, where it was contended that the slave had gained his freedom through residence on the free soil of Illinois and Minnesota. The case was appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States, where a majority of the jus- tices approved the decision of Chief Justice Taney. The decision had three important points: (i) a slave was not a 392 United States History for Schools "person," but only property; (2) a slaveholder had the right to take his slaves into any territory or state as if they were horses; (3) Congress had no right to exclude slavery from any territory, and, therefore, the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional. 408. Effect of the Decision. — Not only did the decision throw open to slavery the rest of the Louisiana Purchase, but also the large Oregon territory, which had adopted Slave Territories laws prohibiting slavery. It was also asserted that even the free states might be invaded by any man who wished to take his slaves with him. This angered the North, and many people declared they would not obey such a decision. The South was vigilant for its rights, and pressed forward to take advantage of the decision. It ought A Decade that Led to War 393 to be remembered that Chief Justice Taney, in rendering the decision, was not actuated by personal feelings, for he had liberated his own slaves some years before that time. 409. Slavery lost in Kansas (1857). — The angry free state men were not disheartened by the Dred Scott deci- sion. They put forth all the more energy. They even got control of the territorial gov- ernment of Kansas. But before giving up power the pro-slavery men in Kansas held a convention at Lc- compton to frame a consti- tution, and then asked Con- gress for admission to the Union. Senator Douglas knew that the free state men were then in a majority in Kansas, and, true to his " Squatter Sovereignty " theory, he opposed and de- feated President Buchanan and the rest of the Demo- crats who favored the admis- sion of Kansas as a slave state with the Lecompton constitution. Kansas continued as a territory, and awaited further developments. 410. A Challenge to Stephen A. Douglas. —The time had come (1858) for Douglas to be reelected senator or give place to another. His brave stand against President Buchanan on the slavery constitution for Kansas had won him strength in Illinois, and even the anti-slavery men in Stephen A. Douglas. 394 United States History for Schools the East asked the Illinois Republicans not to oppose Douglas. But those Republicans decided that Abraham Lincoln was their choice for senator. In accepting that nomination Lincoln made a speech that startled the whole nation. He declared : " A house divided against itself cannoi stand." In other words, the country could not erxist half slave and half free. " I do not expect the house to fall," said he ; " but I do expect that it will cease to be divided." Douglas attacked Lincoln's speech before a large audi- ence in Chicago. Lincoln was present, and the next night mad€ answer. Other speeches followed, and then Lincoln challenged Douglas to debate the questions of the hour before the voters of Illinois. The challenge was accepted. 411. The Lincoln-Douglas Debate (1858). — There fol- lowed seven debates between these two masters of the art. Those debates constitute one of the most memorable inci- dents in American history. Crowds came on foot, on horseback, in wagons, or in trains, any way to get to the meeting places and to hear the contests. Douglas rode in a special car ; Lincoln often rode on a dusty freight train. Douglas held high office ; Lincoln was just an Illinois lawyer. Douglas was short, squarely built, and well groomed; Lincoln was tall, slender, and awkward. Doug- las was met with brass bands and committees ; Lincoln marched to the platform without such aids to enthusiasm. But Lincoln answered the senator's arguments, and drove home his own points so strongly and made his opponent answer so many leading questions that when the debates were finished three things had been accomplished : — I. Douglas had won enough votes to send him back to the Senate. A Decade that Led to War 395 2. Douglas had answered Lincoln's questions in such a way as to widen the division in the Democratic party. He became the leader of the Northern Democrats, but the South would no longer follow him. 3. Lincoln became a national figure. Before the de- bates he was unknown outside of Illinois. His showino- against the famous " Little Giant " brought him invitations to speak in Ohio and New York. Even the presidency might come within his reach. Of course Lincoln was disappointed in not securing the senatorship. In referring to the defeat he said : " It hurts too bad to laugh, and I'm too big to cry." Douglas de- clared that he had met in Congress the best debaters in America, and there was not one he would not rather meet again than Abraham Lincoln. 412. New States and New Resources. — The North and the West were growing rapidly, even during the noise of approaching war. Minnesota was admitted to the Union (1858), and was followed the next year by Oregon (1859). Counting California, there were then three new free states admitted after the balance of power had been restored for the last time (§ 378). Wonderfully rich silver mines were discovered in Nevada (1859); two of them were called "Bonanza" because of their great wealth of silver ore. One group of those mines yielded more than two hundred and fifty million dollars. At the same time Colonel Drake drilled the first success- ful oil well in Pennsylvania (1859). Since then the oil found in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, New York, Te.xas, CaHfornia, and elsewhere in the United States has produced wealth almost too great to be estimated. 413. John Brown's Raid (1859). — After his participation 396 United States History for Schools in the Kansas troubles (§ 404), John Brown of Osawatomie disappeared from view. His next appearance was worse than a "fire-bell in the night" (§§ 323, 351, 389); it was more like an explosion of dynamite. He made a raid into Virginia, seized the government buildings at Harper's Ferry, and called on the slaves to rise and be free. A slave uprising was more feared in the South than war, pestilence, or any other form of danger. The horror of Brown's scheme was instantly felt throughout the South. The people there felt that the North was ready for any kind of attack. Colonel Robert E. Lee was sent with troophJ, ^TKoah^ ^Cr^.^^ of <^?Ul.«cu^/g.-eyrt,j^><^ 7>v,£,.-l,>ve>-7^ -^, Oyiy^ct "t^iCt, ,^^,o£t.v>f,>^ -Ky-iycZt^ Lincoln's Letter to Mrs. Bixby. war. In the same month of his second election Lincoln wrote with his own hand that tender letter to Mrs. Bixby, who had lost five sons in the war. 470. Sherman's March North. — While Lincoln was pre- Fourth Year of the Civil War 443 paring for his second inauguration, Sherman marched north from Savannah. He encountered General Johnston at Goldsboro and defeated him. He then left his army at Goldsboro and went to City Point on the James River for consultation with General Grant, who was still besieging Richmond. Sherman's army prevented any chance of Lee's escape to the southward. 471. Fall of Richmond (April 2, 1865). — On Sunday morning a Confederate officer entered St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Richmond, and handed President Davis a message from Lee saying he was going to leave Richmond. Davis hastily left the church, and soon after fled from Richmond into North Carolina. Grant had made a general assault upon Petersburg and captured it. The next day (April 3) he entered Richmond. Lee had retreated to the west. His men saw that the end was near, and were disheartened. Many of them threw down their arms and went to their homes. 472. Lee's Surrender at Appomattox. cavalry had raided the districts around Richmond, destroy- ing the supplies of Lee's army. As the retreat began, Grant followed hastily to end the war by capturing the Confederate leader and his army. Lee consented to meet Grant at Appomattox to talk over terms of surrender. When Grant said the officers should not be humiliated by being required to give up their side arms and that the men who owned their horses might take them home for the " spring plowing," Lee said such treatment would be Philip H. Sheridan. General Sheridan's 444 United States History for Schools appreciated by his men. The surrender was completed. Grant gave orders to issue food to the hungry Confederates. He also ordered that all cheering cease and that nothing but respect should be shown their conquered fellow-coun- trymen. Grant's splendid attitude endeared him to the Southern soldiers. Lee went back to his home in Rich- Last Reception by President Lincoln. mond, laid away his uniform, and set a fine example by at once becoming a loyal citizen of the republic. A few days later, on learning of Lee's surrender, General Johnston surrendered his army to General Sherman, General Johnston in his last orders to his troops said : " I earnestly expect you to observe faithfully the terms of pacification agreed upon, and to discharge the obligations of good and peaceful citizens as well as you have performed the duties of thorough soldiers in the field." Fourth Year of the Civil War 445 473. The Old Flag at Sumter. — As the anniversary of the fall of Fort Sumter (April 14) approached, General Anderson took the same flag he had been compelled to haul down, and raised it again over the ruined walls. That act was taken to mean that the Civil War had lasted exactly four years. 474. Death of President Lincoln. — Profound relief spread over the entire country when Lee surrendered and it was known that the war was ended. In the midst of rejoicing there TH E IHESIPENT IS DEA D! WAR DEPARTMENT, Washiiigton, April 15, 1865. To MAJ. GEN. DEK. Abraham Lincoln died this morning at 22 minntes after Seven o'clock EM. STANTON. Sec. of War. came an awful shock of sorrow. Lincoln was assassinated. A secret plot had been formed to murder the President, Vice Presi- dent, the Cabinet offi- cers, and General Grant. Secretary Seward was badly wounded and almost killed. The others escaped, except the President, who was shot through the head while seated with friends in Ford's Theater. He was carried into a house across the street, where he died early the next morning (April 15, 1865). Booth, the murderer, was pursued and killed ; four others of the conspirators were hanged and four imprisoned. Thousands of mourning citizens viewed the remains of their dead President as pauses were made by the funeral train on the sad journey to his old home in Springfield. His neighbors had not seen him since he had spoken his tremb- ling farewell, a little over four years before (§419). With 446 United States History for Schools broken hearts they received his body for " its long rest at home." Throughout the world there was an awakening to the grandeur of Lincoln's character. In London, " Punch " had been ridiculing him (§ 461) for four years, but on the news of his death that paper published the picture of a coffin bearing the name of Lincoln. At its head was the figure of " Columbia " bent in grief, and approaching was the figure of " Britannia " bearing a wreath of flowers. The paper published a poem, one verse of which was : — "Beside this corpse, that bears for winding sheet The stars and stripes he lived to rear anew, Between the mourners at his head and feet, Say, scurrile jester, is there room for you ? " In splendid strains the poem then told how they had come to know the real worth of Lincoln, Later Maurice Thompson showed how the South had also learned to love the man, when he wrote his poem beginning : — " May one who fought in honor for the South Uncovered stand and sing by Lincoln''s grave?" 475. The Grand Review. — The Confederates' govern- ment was gone. They had no capital to march to, but they took a sad farewell of their beloved leaders, and hastened to their homes. About a million troops of the Union armies were taken to Washington for a last march in review. Vice President Andrew Johnson had become President. He, with army officers and other distinguished men, stood for two days reviewing the marching columns. The sight was seldom if ever equaled. The veterans were soon mustered out, and returned to their homes to resume their work as citizens of the reunited nation. Fourth Year of the Civil War 447 476. Two Noble Commissions. — It will never be known just how many lives were lost during the war. The total is estimated as more than half a million. A majority of the deaths occurred from disease and exposure. Two commissions of noble-hearted men and women did all that was possible to reduce the loss of hfe. These were the Sanitary and the Christian Commissions. One pre- pared hospital supplies and comforts for the men. The distant and sparsely settled territory of Washington worked with enthusiasm on hospital supplies, as that was the only way those so far away could help. In all states and territories such work was gladly contributed. The Christian Commission sent rehgious and bodily help into every possible corner of the struggle. It made little difference if the uniform was "blue" or "gray," the wounded and suffering were helped. The government gave aid to both these commissions. 477. Enormous Money Cost of the War. — It is simply impossible even to estimate the enormous cost of the war in money. Through the wise and energetic work of Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury, the govern- ment kept up its supply of money ; but at the end of the war the national debt had risen to $2,800,000,000. Enor- mous as that figure is, it does not include the expenditures and losses of states, cities, and individuals. Then there were the great expenditures and losses of the Confederate government, states, cities, and individuals in the South. 478. Money and Banking. — The government borrowed large sums of money on interest-bearing bonds or promises to pay at the end of long terms of years. In addition the government issued interest-bearing bills, or paper money, and about four hundred million dollars of non-interest-bear- 44^ United States History for Schools ing bills. These were called "greenbacks." They de- creased in value, and made trouble for many people. The banks also issued paper money until stopped by the gov- ernment. This was done when the new National Bank law was framed (1863). A bank to become national had to deposit in the Treasury United States government bonds equal to two thirds of the bank's capital, and then the bank could issue paper money equal to ninety per cent of the bonds it had deposited. That plan gave security to the bank's paper money, and at the same time made a market for the bonds. A heavy tax placed on the paper money of all other banks except national ones drove such money out of use, and caused the banks to adapt themselves to the National Bank law. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What kind ot campaign did Grant start against Richmond ? 2. Describe Slieridan's campaign in the Shenandoah Valley. 3. How did Sherman capture Atlanta ? 4. Describe his march to the sea. 5. Describe Lincoln's second election. 6. How did President Davis receive the news that Richmond was to be vacated ? 7. How did Grant treat Lee at Appomattox ? 8. When was the same tattered flag again raised at Sumter ? 9. Describe the death of Lincoln. 10. What was the Grand Review ? 1 1 . What kinds of work had been done by the Sanitary and the Christian Commissions? 12. What do you think of the money cost of the war? 13. How were money issues and banking improved during the war? CHAPTER XXXVIII RECONSTRUCTION References. — Vshley's American History, pp. 431-447 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 336-351. Home Readings. — Hale's Mr. Merriam's Scholars ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. IV., pp. 381-418; Turgee's A Fool's Errand. 479. The North and South. — In the North there were many homes in mourning over the loss of dear ones on the battlefields, on the marches, at sea, and in prisons. Taxes were high and hard to meet, for many breadwinners were away from home fighting to preserve the Union. And yet, in a way, the North was prosperous. New farms spread over the West, new railroads were built, and new factories grew up, protected by the heavy war tariff. Nevada poured out so much silver that its increased population was re- warded by admittance to the Union (1864). Gold was dis- covered in the Northwest, and two new territories were organized, — Idaho (1863) and Montana (1864). It was all sadly different in the South. Except Gettys- burg the battles were all fought on Southern fields. The destruction of property was appalling. The loss of life was even worse than in the North, because the proportion was greater. Added to the sorrow in the bereaved homes was the misery of a devastated country. Plantations were ruined. Slaves were freed. What should be done with the millions of negroes .-* People who had been rich were poor. Women had cut up their carpets for soldiers' blan- 2G 449 450 United States History for Schools kets. The churches had given their bells to be cast into cannons. On every side were evidences that the country was prostrate. With magnificent courage the people set to work to repair the damages as best they could. One of the first needs was the restoration of law and order. To secure these the government must be restored or " reconstructed " so the states of the South would again 'be parts of the nation. This ought to have been a simple thing to do after the war was ended, but mistakes and misunderstandings made it very difhcult. 480. Policies of Lincoln and Johnson. — Lincoln wanted full for- getfulness and full res- toration for the seceded states as quickly as they would agree to support the Constitution and the laws of Congress. He had proceeded far enough to recognize new governments in Arkansas, Louis- iana, and Tennessee. The new President, Andrew Johnson, held the same ideas on the subject, but there was a very great difference be- tween the two men. Johnson had also come from a humble home, and was ruggedly honest. But he did not know how to get along with men. He was stubborn and headstrong. He had been a War Democrat, and the majority of Congress Andrew Johnson. Reconstruction 451 was Republican. Instead of proceeding cautiously, as Lin- coln would have done, to win support for his plans, he pushed ruthlessly ahead. Congress had proposed the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution (February i, 1865) to abolish slavery. The President recognized the seceded states as fast as they reorganized and agreed to the Amend- ment. 481. Policy of Congress. — When Congress assembled in December (1865), the members were angry over two con- ditions. The first was the condition arising from the promises and arrangements made for reconstruction by the President without a thought of what Congress might plan or desire. The second was the fact that the legisla- tures in some Southern states had hastened to pass laws to restrain the recently freed slaves. To the Southerner such restraint seemed absolutely essential, if the white man was to continue to live in the South. But to Northern congressmen, those laws for restraint looked like efforts to defeat the dearly bought results of the war. In that angry temper Congress proceeded to adopt its " Thor- ough " policy of reconstruction. The seceded states were to be treated as outsiders. " A Territory by coming into the Union becomes a State, and a State by going out of the Union becomes a Territory." Congress would disci- pline those states before they were received back into the national family. 482. Congress and President Quarrel. — Congress passed a law extending the limit of the " Freedmen's Bureau " and giving that Bureau greater powers in the South in helping the liberated negroes to enter upon the enjoy- ment of their new rights. Men who interfered with the freedmen's rights were to be tried by military courts, and 45^ United States History for Schools some troops were still kept throughout the South. Presi- dent Johnson vetoed the new law. Not content with that, he referred to Congress with bitter contempt in a public speech, and Congress at once planned to pass laws over his veto. The President made more bitter public speeches against Congress for passing laws in defiance of the Execu- tive. The undignified quarrel grew worse from day to day. 483. The Fourteenth Amendment. — Congress proposed (1866) the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, making invalid all debts or obligations " incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States." That meant the Confederate states could not legally pay their war debts. It also defined the rights of citizens. The seceded states would have to adopt that amendment before Congress would admit them back into the Union. 484. The French driven out of Mexico. — The govern- ment accomplished some work, in spite of the troubles over the quarrel between Congress and the President. One such piece of work was the maintenance of the Monroe Doctrine. At the close of the war our protests against French occupation of Mexico (§ 435) were made more pointed by sending troops to the border of that country. The French troops then withdrew, and Emperor Maxi- milian, who decided to defend his new throne, was cap- tured by the Mexicans, condemned, and shot (June 19, 1867). 485. The Atlantic Cable. — Since Professor Morse had invented the electric telegraph (§ 364), men had dreamed of ways to send messages across the ocean. Cyrus W. Field of New York organized a company that invested several millions of dollars before the first cable was laid across the Atlantic (1858). Messages were sent for a few weeks, Reconstruction 453 and then the cable broke. Mr. Field formed a new com- pany, and the Great Eastern, the largest steamer of that time, laid a new cable from Ireland to Newfoundland. On July 27, 1866, messages were again sent and received, and no interruption has since occurred. Europe and America no longer seemed so far apart. 486. Purchase of Alaska (1867). — Another important event of that troubled time was the treaty negotiated with Russia by Secretary of State Seward by which the United States bought for $7,200,000 the region known as Russian America. Its name was soon changed to Alaska. Seward was roundly abused for buying that " region of icebergs and polar bears." On his deathbed Seward said that some day the purchase of Alaska would be called the greatest achievement of his life. In fulfillment of that prophesy the city of Seattle has reared a statue of Seward out of gratitude for his wise statesmanship in securing that great storehouse of fabulous wealth. 487. The President on Trial. — The unfortunate quarrel between Congress and the President grew more bitter, and finally reached such a pitch that the House of Represen- tatives, acting under the Constitution (Article II., § 4), brought him to trial, charging him with " high crimes and misdemeanors." The Senate acted as jury, and the Chief Justice presided. This is the only time a President of the United States has been put on trial. For two months (1868) the case was fought. At the end thirty-five senators voted for conviction, and nineteen voted against it. A two thirds vote was necessary, and so conviction failed by one vote. 488. Election of Grant (1868). — Congress had restored to the Union all but four — Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi, 454 United States History for Schools and Texas — of the seceded states when the time came to elect a new President. The Republicans approved the Congressional plan of reconstruction in their platform, and nominated General Grant as their candidate. In spite of his lack of tact and his stubbornness, President Johnson was honest and fearless. He deserved friends, and he had them, but they were not numerous enough to get him a nomination. Instead, the Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour of New York. General Grant was elected by a large majority, — two hundred and fourteen electoral votes to eighty. One new state, Nevada, voted for President in this election for the first time. The law admitting the state (1867) was one of those passed by Congress over President Johnson's veto. 489. The Fifteenth Amendment. — - A week before Gen- eral Grant was inaugurated, Congress proposed the Fif- teenth Amendment to the Constitution forbidding the United States or any separate state to deny the right of citizens to vote " on account of race, color, or previous con- dition of servitude." The adoption of this amendment was made necessary for the readmission of the four states still out of the Union. Those four states complied with all the requirements of Congress, and the Union was again complete (January, 1870). 490. " Carpet Baggers " rule the South. — Not all the trouble of Johnson's administration took place in or around Washington. By the three amendments to the Constitu- tion (§§ 480, 483, 488) the slaves had been declared free, then citizens, and then voters. The Freedmen's Bureau, the army and civil officers appointed by the government, undertook to establish the negroes in their new rights. Unscrupulous white men from the North, whose main in- Reconstruction 455 terest was in what money they could make out of the situa- tion, flocked to the South to secure offices and to " lead " the negroes in politics. Many of these had no other bag- gage than what they carried in the old-fashioned valises or "carpet bags." They were therefore called "Carpet Bag- gers." A few Southern white men joined them in their miserable work, and they were despised under the name of Capitul of the United States. " Scalawags." During the process of reconstruction the former white citizens who had been Confederates were pre- vented from voting in their own home cities. Negroes were elected to the legislatures, and were guided by the rascals. They voted heavy taxes and heavy bonded debts for the states. Much of the money found its way into the pockets of the " Carpet Baggers " and " Scalawags." The real citizens were powerless while their loved states, spoiled 456 United States History for Schools by war, were being again spoiled by thieves in the guise of legal officers. Not all the white officers were rascals, nor all the negroes dupes ; but there was enough of both evils to make an appalling total of wrongdoing. 491. Ku-Klux Klan. — In some states the white men by peaceful means got control of the governments. In others forceful intimidation was resorted to, especially by a secret society called Ku-Klux Klan. By ghostly threats and by actual violence negroes were kept from voting or holding office. Not a few murders are charged to this movement before it was finally stamped out. 492. End of the Period of Strain. — The period called " Straining the Constitution "(§ 345) came to an end with the administration of President Grant. The nation had been greatly expanded by conquest and purchase. The number of citizens had been enormously increased by foreign immigrants and by taking over four million freed slaves. The Constitution had been strained and amended. Slavery was the greatest cause of strain, and slavery was gone. With it had also gone belief in the theories of States' Rights and Secession. The reunited nation would face new prob- lems with abundant hope and courage. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What were the conditions in the North after the war? in the South ? 2. What were the reconstruction policies of Presidents Lincoln and Johnson ? 3. What was the " Thorough " policy of Congress ? 4. What caused the quarrel between the President and Congress ? 5. What did the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution provide ? 6. How were the French driven out of Mexico ? Reconstruction 457 7. Who was responsible for the Atlantic cable ? 8. How was Alaska acquired by the United States ? 9. How did the trial of the President result ? 10. Who was elected President to succeed Johnson ? 11. What was provided in the Fifteenth Amendment to the Con- stitution ? 12. Who were " Carpet Baggers," and what did they do ? 13. What was the Ku-Klux Klan ? 14. What had disappeared at the end of the period of '"' Straining the Constitution " ? CHRONOLOGY 1829 . . March 4. Jackson inaugurated President. Spoils System begun. 1831 . . Garrison published first issue of " The Liberator." McCormick invented reaper. 1832 . . Battle of Orators on the Nullification issue. 1833 . . Jackson destroys United States Bank. Fort Dearborn became Chicago. 1835 • • Texas seceded from Mexico. 1836 . . Arkansas admitted to the Union. 1837 . . Michigan admitted to the Union. March 4. Van Buren inaugurated President. Panic. 1839 • • Express business begun. 1840 . . Independent Treasury created by Congress. 1841 . . March 4. William Henry Harrison inaugurated President. 1842 . . Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island. Webster-Ashburton Treaty concluded. 1844 . . Morse sent first message by telegraph. 1845 • • Texas annexed by joint resolution. Howe's sewing machine invented. Florida admitted to the Union. March 4. Polk inaugurated President. Texas admitted to the Union. 1846 . . Treaty dividing Old Oregon Country. Mexican War begun. Iowa admitted to the Union. 458 United States History for Schools 1846 . . Wilmot Proviso. 1847 . . March 27. Vera Cruz captured. September 14. General Scott entered city of Mexico. 1848 . . Treaty of Peace with Mexico. Gold discovered in California. Wisconsin admitted to the Union. Mormons settled at Salt Lake, Utah. Year of revolutions in Europe. 1849 • • March 4. Taylor inaugurated. California adopted a state constitution. 1850 . . " Omnibus Bill " Compromise. California admitted to the Union. Panama Canal Treaty. 1852 . . "Uncle Tom's Cabin." 1853 . . March 4. Pierce inaugurated President. 1854 . . Commodore Perry's treaty with Japan. Ostend Manifesto. Missouri Compromise repealed. 1856 . . Republican party organized. 1857 . . March 4. Buchanan inaugurated President. Dred Scott Decision. Panic. 1858 . . Minnesota admitted to the Union. Lincoln-Douglas debate. 1859 . . Oregon admitted to the Union. Silver in Nevada. Oil in Pennsylvania. John Brown's Raid. i860 . . Election of Lincoln. Secession by South Carolina. 1 861 . . Other states seceded and formed Confederacy. March 4. Inauguration of Lincoln. Kansas admitted to the Union. April 12. Fort Sumter bombarded. Call for volunteers. July 21 . Battle of Bull Run. Confederate commissioners taken from British steamer Trent. Reconstruction ^ 459 1862 . . European invasion of Mexico. February i6. Surrender of Fort Donelson. March g. Battle between Monitor and Merrimac. April 6-7. Battle of Shiloh. April 25. Capture of New Orleans. May 31. Battle of Seven Pines. August 29-30. Second battle of Bull Run. September 17. Battle of Antietam. Emancipation Proclamation. December 13. Battle of Fredericksburg. 1863 . . May 2-3. Battle of Chancellorsville. West Virginia admitted to the Union. July 1-3. Battle of Gettysburg. July 4. Siege of Vicksburg culminated. September 19-20. Battle of Chickamauga. November 24-25. Battles of Chattanooga. Grant made lieutenant general. 1864 . . Sherman's success in Georgia. Grant started toward Richmond in May. Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley. Nevada admitted to the Union. 1865 . . April 2. Fall of Richmond. April 9. Surrender of Lee's army. April 15. Death of Lincoln. May 23-24. The Grand Review. 1866 . . The French driven out of Mexico. Completion of the Atlantic cable. Congress proposed Fourteenth Amendment. 1867 . . Nebraska admitted to the Union. Purchase of Alaska. 1868 . . Attejiipt to impeach President Johnson. 1869 . . Fifteenth Amendment proposed by Congress. March 4. Grant inaugurated President. VII The United States a Greater Nation J- CHAPTER XXXIX ADJUSTMENTS AND PROGRESS References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 447-460 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 353-360. Home Readings. — McMurry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. HI., pp. 1 14-164 (Powell in Grand Canyon); Morse's Abraham Lincoln, Vol. H., Chapter VIII.; Rhodes's History of the United States, Chapters XXX.-XXXII. 493. First Railroad across the Continent. — Soon after President Grant was inaugurated, an interesting ceremony took place at Ogden, Utah (May 10, 1869). Wires were so arranged that each blow of the hammer as it fell upon a spike was recorded by telegraph all over the country. It was the last spike in the first railroad across the conti- nent. The Union Pacific Railroad had been built from Omaha to Ogden, 1029 miles, and the Central Pacific Rail- road from San Francisco to Ogden, 878 miles. By driving that last spike the two ends were brought together, and the road was completed. To help build the road the gov- ernment had granted (§430) 25,000,000 acres of pubhc land and $55,000,000 in money. Enormous as those figures seem, the benefits to the nation were even more enormous, for the West was stimulated to more rapid de- 460 Adjustments and Progress 461 velopment, and business with the Orient and other Pacific countries also demonstrated the value of the railroad. 494. Weather Bureau. -The government was acting wisely in helping to build the "first railroads and in encour- 462 United States History for Schools aging agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce. As a further aid the Weather Bureau was established (1870) to study weather conditions and to give warrning of approach- ing storms. There is no way to compute the enormous value of property saved from destruction on land and sea by the warnings from this useful branch of government service. 495. Destructive Fires. — No warning signal was given for the terrible visitations of fire. PInormous damage was done by forest fires in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota (1871), and in the autumn of the same year Chicago suffered a loss estimated at $200,000,000. The next year Boston was visited by a fire that destroyed property valued at $80,000,000. These losses aggravated the financial panic that came soon afterwards. 496. Geneva Award in the Alabama Case. — " It is as much a part of the integrity of a man's character that he permit no wrong to be done him as that he do no wrong." The same is true of nations. The United States felt a wrong had been done by France in violating the Monroe Doctrine (§ 331) by invading Mexico (§ 435), and a show of force was made. France withdrew her troops (§ 484). The United States felt that a wrong had also been done by Great Britain in allowing Confederate cruisers to be built or outfitted in her ports (§§ 452-453), and pay was demanded for the damages wrought by those cruisers. The two nations reached a wise and famous agreement, known as the Treaty of Washington (1871), by which those claims and other pending disputes should be settled in a peaceful way. The President of the United States and the Queen of Great Britain should each name one arbitrator, and three others should be named, one' each by the King of Italy, the Adjustments and Progress 463 President of Switzerland, and the Emperor of Brazil. The five were to meet in Geneva, Switzerland, and pass upon the claims. The decision reached was that the United States should receive $15,500,000 for the damages done by the Alabama and other cruisers that had sailed from Brit- ish ports. Great Britain accepted the decision and paid the money. 497. The San Juan Case. — The same great treaty sub- mitted the disputed San Juan boundary to Emperor Wil- liam of Germany as arbitrator. He decided in favor of the United States, giving to the territory of Washington an interesting and valuable body of land known as the San Juan Archipelago. Each nation had kept a camp of sol- diers on San Juan Island for more than ten years while the dispute was going on, and it was most fortunate that a decision was reached without a conflict. 498. The Dominion of Canada. — They were triumphs of peace ; but there was another reason for rejoicing over those arbitrations. Canada had been practically transformed into a new British neighbor for the United States. Upper Canada and lower Canada had been drifting along without much idea of real union, strength, and expansion. When the British Parliament passed the " British North America Act " (1867), the provinces luiited into the Dominion of Canada; and in that way a large British nation was created with great prospects of its own ahead, though it gladly and proudly retained its place as part of the British Empire. In General Grant's term the Americans saw their new neigh- bor begin a wonderful expansion westward by the organiza- tion of the provinces of Manitoba (1870) and of British Columbia (1871). 499. Presidential Election of 1872. — The regular Re- 464 United States History for Schools publican convention placed General Grant at the head of its ticket to give him a second term. But there was much dissatisfaction over the harsh treatment by Congress of the former Confederate leaders. The " Liberal Republicans " believed that those leaders should all be restored to full rights of citizens. They held a convention, and nominated the great editor, Horace Greeley. Though he had opposed slavery with, all his might, and had been a Whig and a Republican, he was indorsed by the " National Democrats." The contest was an earnest one, and General Grant won. The great editor died soon after his defeat. There were a number of other parties and candidates in the field. The regular Democrats had a candidate, the new Prohibition party had its first national platform and ticket in this elec- tion, and likewise the Labor party made its appearance. This last party declared in favor of paper money, an eight- hour labor law, and a law to keep Chinese laborers out of America. 500. Labor Unions. — The vast increase in the numbers of workers in mines and factories and on railroads had re- sulted in the formation of unions or societies for the purpose of putting forth united effort toward securing better pay, better hours, and laws that would furnish proper protection to the workers. At first such unions were local. Later they were extended so as to be national in scope. Another development was the organization, through delegates or membership, of general societies that would unite the forces of the unions. Such a general organization was the "Knights of Labor" (1869), which grew to a membership of a million. Such a society of earnest and determined men would certainly wield great influence on business and politics. Adjustments and Progress 465 501. Corporations. — At the same time that the workers were forming unions, capital was also combining in the form of companies or corporations. Many of the works undertaken, such as railroads, canals, large mines, and factories, were too great for any one man's capital. To achieve success, men combined their resources by forming corporations. The interests of the two combinations of One of Chicago's Grain Elevators. labor and capital later came into conflict, producing serious and unfortunate disturbances. 602. Panic of 1873. — Corporations increased their capital and planned new enterprises. Railroads were being built faster than business demanded. The Northern Pacific Railroad Company obtained a large land grant from Con- gress to build another line to the Pacific Coast. People wanted to get rich quick, and put their savings into rail- road stocks. In the midst of this feverish time of specula- 466 United States History for Schools tion came the heavy losses by fire (§ 495), and at the same time the government drew a hundred million dollars of " greenbacks " out of circulation by redeeming them, and sixty millions of gold went to Europe because we were buying more goods than we were selUng. 503. Natural Gas. — One thing that helped to restore " good times " was the discovery of natural gas in Pennsyl- vania (1874), and later in Ohio, Indiana, and elsewhere. This cheap fuel was used in manufacturing, for cooking and for lighting streets. 504. Coinage Law of 1873. — In the midst of the panic Congress passed a law that aggravated the situation. The silver mines of Nevada and elsewhere were producing such quantities of that metal that many European nations ceased coining silver. The new law of Congress did the same thing for the United States. The people de- clared that it was done in the interest of the rich bond- holders, and the cry for the restoration of the " dollar of our daddies " became a part of the political agitation. 505. Resumption of Specie Payment. — As usual in panics, people hid the gold and silver money. Green- backs declined in value, as some of them were not redeem- able in gold or silver. Congress passed a law (1875) to redeem the " greenbacks " in gold or silver. This at once raised the value of the paper money, which circulated freely, as people did not care to change it into gold or silver when they knew they could do so at any time they wished. 506. A Bridge and a Jetty. — Two grand enterprises planned by one man helped to restore " good times." James B. Eads was an inventor and a great engineer. While only a boy ten years of age, he had modeled Adjustments and Progress 467 sawmills, fire engines, and steamboats. During the Civil War he built ironclads for the government on the Mississippi River. After the war he built the magnificent steel arch bridge across the Mississippi at St. Louis ( 1 867-1 874). In that bridge is one clear span of five hundred and twenty feet, called one of the finest specimens of metal arch construction in the world. The same engineer then got permission to build a jetty at the mouth of the Mississippi River. Bars of sand and mud had interfered with commerce, and there was grave doubt as to the outcome of the engineer's plan. He triumphed, and the mighty river has since swept clean its own channel where the jetty was built. New Orleans and all the country tributary to the Mississippi were greatly benefited. 507. Indian Troubles. — The advance of civilization into the West brought clashes with the Indians during General Grant's administration. The Modoc Indians in Oregon refused to remain on their reservation, and a short war ensued (1872). When gold was found in the Black Hills of Dakota, the Sioux Indians objected to the rush of miners that disturbed their hunting of the buffalo and antelope. Disputes led to war, and an army was sent to subdue the Indians. In a battle in Montana General George A. Custer, largely outnumbered, was defeated (1876). He and all his officers and men were killed. The Indians then scattered, and quiet was restored for a time. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. When was the first raih'oad across the contuient completed? 2. What service does the Weather Bureau render .'' 3. How did England pay for the neglect of duty? 468 United States History for Schools 4. Describe the peaceful solution of the San Juan case. 5. How was the government of Canada changed? 6. Describe the organization of labor unions and of corporations. 7. What caused the Panic of 1873 ? 8. What changes were made in money laws? 9. Describe the engineering works of Captain Eads. ID. Where did General Custer lose his life? CHAPTER XL CELEBRATIONS AND LABOR TROUBLES References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 460-472 ; Fairbanks's The Western United States; Hart's Source Book, pp. 360-365. 508. The Nation's Centennial (1876). — While some still suffered from "hard times," and while Indians were fight- Silt . r..?, , ' '/ M^\-. Court OF Hon(.»u \i 1111 \\i>i:ih'> ('ommmw I M'osrnoN, Chicaoo, ing against the advancing line of civilization in the West, the nation put on her best attire to serve as host at Phila- delphia to representatives of all the nations of the world. At Fairmount Park in that city seventy-five acres were covered with large buildings of glass and steel in which 469 470 United States History for Schools were collected exhibits of industry, art, and natural re- sources from everywhere. It was the Centennial Exhibi- tion to celebrate the one hundredth birthday of the Declaration of Independence. The exhibits made clear the wonderful advances made in the hundred years. Hand labor had given place to a multitude of machines of various kinds. Two novelties, thought by many to be nothing more than interesting toys, were the electric light and the telephone, each destined to rapid development into most useful and widespread service. The progress of the nation was also manifested by the admission to the Union of another Western state, Colorado, which is called the " Centennial State." 509. The Disputed Election (1876). — The joy over the Centen- nial Exhibition did not prevent the people from holding in memory the troubles growing out of money, labor, and political conditions. The Democrats had elected a majority of the House of Representatives (1874) and pro- posed to elect Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, President in 1876. The Republicans nominated General Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio. The election was very close. " Car- pet Baggers " still had control in some Southern states, and their " returning boards " in South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana sent in the votes of those states for General Hayes. If those votes were all counted, the result would stand one hundred and eighty-five for General Hayes and one hundred and eighty-four for Mr. Tilden, a majority of Samltp:l J. Tilden. Celebrations and Labor Troubles 471 one for the Republicans. But the Democrats of those three states claimed they were cheated by the " Carpet Baggers." It was a difficult situation. The Senate was Republican and the House Democratic. It was finally decided, without authority in the Constitution, to form an " Electoral Commission " consisting of five senators, five representatives, and five justices of the Supreme Court. When they were all selected, it was found that seven were Democrats and eight were Republi- cans. The decision was reached, by strict party vote, that General Hayes was elected. The passing of this serious political crisis without civil war was most fortunate. 510. President Hayes a Patriot. — General Hayes had a brilliant record as a Union officer in the Civil War. As soon as he was inaugurated as President, he showed that he was also a brave patriot in times of peace. He knew that he had been elected by the " Carpet Baggers," and that they, in turn, held power in the South by the help of Federal troops. One of the first things the new President did was to issue orders withdrawing those troops from the South. The "Carpet Baggers " at once fell from power. The Southern states be- came thoroughly Democratic, known as the "Solid South." 511. Railroad Strikes (1877). — The great work of Cap- tain Eads on the Mississippi jetty (§ 506) was completed during the administration of President Hayes (1879), but while it was going on, workers in other places entered upon serious strikes ( 1 877). There were about one hundred Rutherford B. Hayes. 4.J1 United States History for Schools James A. Garfield. and fifty thousand raihoad men and miners who took part. The violence of the strikes centered at Pittsburg, where ten milhon dollars worth of property was destroyed before the President sent government troops to restore order. 512. Civil Service Reform (1883). — The need of civil serv- ice reform was brought to the attention of the nation by a very sad event. General James A. Garfield of Ohio, a hero of the Civil War, had worked his own way upward from the hum- ble position of canal boy, and had been elected President to succeed General Hayes. Soon after inauguration he was shot (July 2, 1881), and lingered in painful suffering until relieved by death (September 19, 1 881). The shot had been fired by Guiteau, a disappointed of- fice-seeker, who was executed for his crime. To relieve future presidents from such dangers as far as possible. Congress passed the Civil Service Reform Act (1883), which provided that many offices should be filled by competitive examinations instead of by presidential appointment. Vice President Chester A. Arthur of New York, who had become President on the death of President Garfield, Chester A. Arthur. Celebrations and Labor Troubles 473 gladly approved the act, and helped forward the needed reform. 513. Four Evidences of Increased Wealth. — More than one hundred thousand persons were made homeless by the floods when the Mississippi River overflowed its banks (t882) in Louisiana. The great suffering was quickly re- lieved by the contributions from other sections, showing Brooklyn Bridge. that the nation was wealthy and generous enough to repair damages on even so enormous a scale. The completion of the Suspension Bridge from New York to Brooklyn (1883) was another evidence of the country's strength and skill. That bridge is one of the world's triumphs of engineering. It is more than a mile in length, required fourteen years in construction, and cost about fifteen million dollars. 474 United States History for Schools The patronage of the post office had grown so great that the government reduced letter postage (1883) from three cents to two cents for each letter. The government also felt rich enough to begin the ex- penditure of large sums of money on the navy. After the Civil War the navy had consisted mostly of wooden ships, sadly out of date. The change came when four new steel cruisers were ordered (1883), and from that time the out- lay for the navy has increased to enormous proportions. 514. The Cotton Centennial (1884). — Splendid evidence that the South had recovered from the ravages of war and was sharing in the nation's advance in wealth and industry was shown in the Cot- ton Centennial Exhibition in New Orleans (1884). The " Centennial " in this case cele- brated the seizure of those eight bales in Liverpool (§ 258) be- cause the "prodigious amount" was tho\ight to have been smug- gled. This exhibition, a hundred years later, showed that " Cotton was King," but it also showed that the South had great wealth in other forms of agriculture, in lumber, in factories, in coal, iron, and other mines. It showed that the negroes and the white men were sharing in the prosperity, and that free labor was many times better than slave labor had been. The exhibition also showed that the South had courageously taken up the large burden of education. Schools were maintained everywhere for the white children, and separate Grover Cleveland. Celebrations and Labor Troubles 475 Kfy^' ones for the black children. Enlightenment and industrial progress were marching hand in hand. The nation could well afford to take pride in what the Cotton Centennial disclosed to the world. 515. A Democratic President. — During the Cotton Cen- tennial year the Democrats elected the first President of their party to hold office since the Civil War. Their suc- cessful candidate was Grover Cleveland, who had become a national figure through his record as Governor of New York. The term of four years following his inauguration ( 1885) was a time of serious labor troubles, out of which, directly or indi- "^^S^ rectly, grew important laws. 516. Death of General Grant. — While Grover Cleveland was being inaugurated, General Grant was suffering with what proved a fatal illness. He had invested his money in a business that failed. He then set to work on his " Memoirs," the sale of which would bring his wife and family an income after he was gone. Bravely he wrote messages of love to his wife, and little greetings to the crowds who watched and hoped for good news. No battle tested his courage more than that last struggle. After his death (July 23, 1885) New York erected a magnificent Grant's Tomb in New York. 476 United States History for Schools tomb of white granite, overlooking the Hudson River. Every visitor to the tomb may read the grim soldier's most famous sentence. The four words should be remembered and cherished by every American. They are : " Let us have peace." 517. Industrial Peace Needed. — The labor unions and societies (§ 500) had grown stronger, and were seeking to improve their condition. Their influence was strong enough to secure from Congress a series of laws to restrict the coming of undesirable classes from foreign countries. One of those laws excluded contract laborers (1885). That is, corporations could no longer bring in numbers of miners or other laborers under contract to do certain work. On the Pacific Coast the Chinese laborers were the cause of much agitation and trouble. Riots broke out in Puget Sound cities (1885) that were finally quieted with United States troops. The year 1886 is called the "Year of Strikes." Start- ing with the street car men of New York, the strikes spread west and south. In Chicago forty thousand men left work. Great armies of strikers paraded through the streets. The handling of freight and the delivery of goods were brought to a stop. When the policemen attempted to preserve order at a meeting in Haymarket Square, a dynamite bomb was thrown among them, resulting in the death of seven officers and the wounding of sixty others. When arrested the ringleaders were found to be foreigners who belonged to a small but dangerous group called An- archists. They were against all forms of government. Four of the leaders were hanged. For the Knights of Labor there arose as a rival a gen- eral organization of workers in the American Federation Celebrations and Labor Troubles 477 of Labor, organized at this time (1886). Organized labor strongly disapproved the horrible methods used by those Anarchists in Chicago. 518. Combinations and Trusts. — Besides the " strike," the workers liad used another form of attack called the " boycott," by which they refused to have dealings with what they called " unfair" firms or factories and by which they sought to prevent others from having such dealings. Against the "strike" and the "boycott" the employers used the "lock-out" and the "black list." By these they closed their shops and factories to the workers or locked them out, and wrote the names of the leading strikers on lists which were sent to other employers to prevent such leaders from getting work. The telegraph and telephone made such lists effective over wide areas. Besides these contests with labor, capitalists were mak- ing big combinations. Smaller companies were being ab- sorbed. It is true that much saving resulted by these combinations cutting down competition, but a revolution was resulting in business methods. As the combinations grew in size, they became " trusts," and these threatened to become monopolies. States began to pass laws, but as such state laws could not reach from one state into another, it became necessary for the nation to act under the provision of the Constitution (Article I., Sec. 8) giving Congress power to regulate commerce " among the several states." 519. Federal Laws. — As the greatest evil growing out of the combination of capital seemed to be connected with the great railways, Congress passed (1887) the act creat- ing the Literstate Commerce Commission to prevent the railways from discriminating for or against shippers or 47^ United States History for Schools cities. Later Congress passed (1890) the Sherman Anti- Trust Law to prevent combinations in restraint of trade. Congress also showed an interest in labor by creating the Department of Labor (1888) to gather information about all conditions of labor and to render any other possible assistance. -After that the United States Commissioner of Labor was often called upon to help settle disputes between laborers and employers. Congress also passed a law to exclude from the country Chinese laborers (1888). The Chinese were faithful workers, and were always peaceful. The argument against them was that they worked for low wages, lived on a few cents a day, and went back to China as soon as they had saved enough to support them there. In other words, they competed with white laborers, cheapened labor, and gave nothing to the country in return. 520. Presidential Succession Law. — Soon after election Vice-President Thomas A. Hendricks died (1885). If President Cleveland should then die, there might be con- fusion for a time. Congress passed the Presidential Suc- cession Law (1886), by which it was provided that if the President and Vice President should both die, the presi- dency should go to the Secretary of State ; and if he should die, it would go to the next Cabinet officer, and so on, the rank being according to the time the Cabinet office was created. This made the order as follows : Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney- General, Postmaster-General, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary of the Interior, Secretary of Agriculture, and Secretary of Commerce and Labor. The last two offices were created after the law was passed, but they take their place in the succession. Celebrations and Labor Troubles 479 521. The Statue of Liberty. — One pleasant event that took place in President Cleveland's administration was the unveiling of the French sculptor Bartholdi's large statue of " Liberty Enlightening the World " on Bedloe's Island, New York Harbor (1886). The statue is one hundred and fifty-one feet high, and the pedestal is one hundred and fifty-five feet high. It is the largest work of the kind ever completed. The famous " Colossus of Rhodes," one of the " Seven Wonders of the World," was a miniature by comparison. The huge bronze figure of Liberty holding aloft the torch was the gift of one hundred thousand Frenchmen, who contributed the necessary two hundred thousand dollars. The pedestal cost three hundred thousand doHars, and this sum was contributed by citizens throughout the United States. Such a magnificent gift ought to help perpetuate the friendship between the two republics — France and America. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What were two " toys" at the Centennial Exhibition.? 2. Describe the disputed election of 1876. 3. How did President Hayes end the rule of " Carpet Ba(^<^ers " in the South ? 4. Tell how the death of President Garfield aided Civil Service Reform. 5. Describe the Suspension Bridge. 6. When did the new American navy begin? 7. What was the most cheering exhibition at the Cotton Centennial ? 8. What four words of General Grant should we all remember? 9. Why might 1886 be called the " Year of Strikes "? 10. What is the difference between " boycott " and " black list "? 11. Can the state or the nation control trusts? 12. Name some important Federal laws of that time. 13. What is the Presidential Succession Law? 14. Describe the statue of "Liberty Enlightening the World." CHAPTER XLI NEW STATES AND TERRITORIES References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 474-485 ; Hart's Source Book, pp. 366-372 ; Fairbanks's Tlie Western United States. 522. The Vanished Frontier. — As we have seen the settlers moving westward over the Alleghany Mountains, through the Ohio and Kentucky regions, through the Mississippi and Missouri river valleys, over the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Coast, there was always a western frontier. There was hunting of buffalo and other large game, and there was fighting with Indians. When the pioneers took up their claiins and began farming or stock- raising, the buffalo disappeared, and the Indians gave their last battles, the ferocious Apaches being among the last to be subdued (1886). The frontier had vanished. Farmers began to build villages, factories and business houses came, and the villages grew into towns and cities. Good public lands were scarce, and many had not obtained farms. So when Oklahoma, a part of Indian Territory, was thrown open to settlement, there was a wild rush across the border to grab the good lands (April 22, 1889). The settlement was so quickly accomplished that the next year saw the creation of Oklahoma Territory. 523. Six New States. — The older western territories had long been asking for admission as states. There was no question like the balance of slavery power to be con- sidered, but Congress was slow to act on such requests. 21 481 482 United States History for Schools However, in 1889, one Enabling Act was passed by Con- gress to admit four new states. Dakota Territory was divided into North and South Dakota, and the other two states were Montana and Washington. The next year (1890) Idaho and Wyoming were admitted, making a total of forty-four states. 524. Centennial of the Constitution. — Philadelphia had celebrated the hundredth anniversary of the framing of the Constitution ( 1 887), but the cen- tennial of beginning govern- ment under the Constitution was celebrated in New York (1889), where Washington had taken the oath as first President (§253). There was a grand naval parade and a military re- view by the new President, Ben- jamin Harrison, and this was followed by a fine procession representing the trades and in- dustries. This, like the many exhibitions held in the country, reflected the great progress made by the nation since the time when Washington was President. 525. The Pan-American Congress. — In the year of the Constitutional Centennial (1889) the United States invited all the republics of Mexico, Central and South America to send delegates for a conference at Washington City. The Greek word Pan means all, so that word was used in the name of this conference — Pan-American Congress. The idea was something like the Panama Congress of sixty -three years before (§ 341). The two main objects of Benjamin Harrison. New States and Territories 483 the Pan-Ameri- can Congress were to improve business rela- tions by better understandings and by reciproc- ity treaties and to urge the re- publics to settle their disputes by arbitration in- stead of war. Several other such congresses have since been held. Out of these plans has come the Bureau of American Re- publics at Wash- ington, for which Andrew C a r- negie has erect- ed a beautiful home called the " American Pal ace of Peace." One example of the growing idea of arbitration in South America is the treaty between the republics of Chile and Argentina (1903). Those two Statue of Christ in the Andes. 484 United States History for Schools republics have placed on their boundary line in the lofty Andes a large statue called " Christ of the Andes." On the pedestal are engraved these words : " Sooner shall these mountains crumble into dust, than Argentines and Chihans break the peace which at the feet of Christ the Redeemer they have sworn to maintain." 526. New Pension Bill (1890). — The United States as a nation stands for liberty ; it ought also to be the leading nation in advocating peace. It has been slow to go to war, and has always been generous during and after its wars. No nation has been so generous to its defenders as has this republic toward the veterans of the Civil War. The Pension Law (1890) increased the sums paid to the injured soldiers and sailors until the total amounted to more than a hundred million dollars a year. 527. The McKinley Tariff (1890).— The tariff was the main issue in the election of 1888. The Democrats favored a tariff for revenue only, while the Republicans favored a high protective tariff. The Republicans won, and Congressman McKinley, chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means, had his name given to the new tariff law, which fact helped to make him President afterwards. In the years immedi- ately following the new law's enactment there were succes- sions of " good times," " hard times," celebrations and failures. 528. Centennial of the Patent Office (1891). — The nation has always prided itself on its large supply of Yankee me- chanical genius. A good time to call the world's attention to the abundance of American inventive talent was the centennial of the United States Patent Office. The first patent granted (1790) was for a process of making potash for the manufacture of soap. In the hundred years that New States and Territories 485 Thomas A. Edison. followed the office had issued more than four hundred and fifty thousand patents. Just a bare list of the titles of those patents would fill several good-sized volumes and would also show a wonderful variety of inventions. Some of the important ones have already been mentioned. Among others were those to make travel safer and more comfortable, like the palace sleeping and dining cars, the West- inghouse air-brake, automatic elec- tric signals, the interlocking safety switch, the automatic car coupler, the vestibule train, steel steamers with water-tight bulkheads and twin screws, new and more powerful engines, and the electric searchlight. Agriculture was helped by the self-binding reaper and harvester and the easily made fences of plain and barbed wire. Electricity was applied to a great number of use- ful machines. Many inventions were made first for pleasure, and afterwards grew into im- portance for business as well as pleasure. Among these were the bicycle and the "horseless car- riage." 529. Columbian Exposition (1893). — While the centen- nial of the Patent Office was being celebrated, the nation and the forty-four states were preparing to exhibit the results of all those inventions and of other forms of progress in Bicycle. 486 United States History for Schools an enormous exposition at Chicago. It was to commemorate the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America AUTOMOlilLK. by Columbus, and therefore was named the Cohmibian Ex- position. Nearly every nation on earth was represented, and it was in every sense a " World's Fair." Nearly twenty- seven millions of people visited the exhibition. Main Building of the Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia, i 530. Political Change. — The President who "opened" the Columbian Exposition was Grover Cleveland. He was New States and Territories 487 the only American President whose two terms were sepa- rated by the term of another President. Many of the states had adopted (1892) the Australian Ballot Law, by which the voter could receive an officially printed ballot and go into a booth to prepare it in secret. Before that the "bosses" could watch and see that their "men" voted as they were told, and employers could send agents to spy on the voting of their laborers. But this great law to protect each man's secret ballot was not the cause of Mr, Cleveland's second election. The Democrats had kept up their campaign on the "tariff for revenue only " (§ 527), and it was on that issue that the election turned. The people were growing dissatisfied with the workings of the high protective tariff. One of the first things done by the new administration was to prepare a new and lower tariff law, which was known as the Wilson Tariff Bill. 531. Panic of 1893. — Right in the midst of the joy over the great Columbian Exposition the country was afflicted with another panic or season of " hard times." As before, banks and business houses failed ; thousands of unemployed formed " bread lines " to receive food from the charitable. Distress was widespread in other countries as well as in the United States. One development of this panic was the " Coxey Army." A horse dealer named Coxey started to lead an "army " from Ohio to the national capital (1894) to demand relief for the unemployed. Similar " armies " marched from the Pacific coast and Texas. They begged or stole bread, and in some cases captured railroad trains to help them on their way. The " armies " disbanded with- out accomplishing their objects. 532. Silver Laws. — President Cleveland was courageous. In his first term he had vetoed hundreds of bills which he 488 United States History for Schools thought were against the interests of the people. He now- thought that the coinage laws needed attention, and he called a special session of Congress (1893) to amend those laws. In the former panic (1873) Congress had stopped the coinage of silver money (§504). Five years later (1878) the Bland Silver Bill was passed over the veto of President Hayes. It made silver money a legal tender for debts, and directed the government mints to coin from two million to four million silver dollars each month. It was still thought that there was not enough money in circulation, and the Sherman Silver Act (1890) required the Secretary of the Treasury to buy four million dollars' worth of silver bul- lion each month, and pay for it with Treasury notes or paper money having legal tender quality, and being redeemable in coin. In 1893 the Director of the Mint reported that the greatly increased production of silver had caused it to decrease in value. The special session of Congress called by President Cleveland repealed the purchase clause of the Sherman Law, thus stopping the government's buying the four mil- lion dollars' worth of bullion each month. This made the silver question still more prominent as a political issue. 533. Civil Service Reform. — President Cleveland was a strong friend of civil service reform. He added thou- sands of offices to the hsts which should thereafter be filled by competitive examinations. It was a brave and high- minded act, for the distribution of those offices was counted a strong factor in helping to keep a party in power. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. How was it seen that the American frontier had vanished ? 2. How was the centennial of the Constitution celebrated ? 3. What is the Pan-American Congress ? New States and Territories 489 4. Describe some American patents. 5. What was the Cokimbian Exposition ? 6. Describe the Panic of 1893. 7. What did Congress do with silver in 1893 ? 8. How did President Cleveland act toward civil service reform ? CHAPTER XLII BROADER VIEWS References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 485-494; encyclope- dia articles on Bering Sea Arbitration, Hawaii, Venezuela Arbitration, Forest Reservations. 534. The Bering Sea Arbitration (1893). — There were a number of events in President Cleveland's second term which gave the nation broader views by bringing it into closer con- tact with outside powers. One of these was the Bering Sea case. When we purchased from Russia (1867) the terri- tory of Alaska (§486), we acquired as part of Russian Amer- ica the Pribilof Islands in Bering Sea. Those islands con- tain the remarkable " rookeries," or breeding grounds, of the fur-bearing seals. The government leased to a company the privilege of hunting seals there under certain restrictions. But the mother seals would leave the young on the islands and swim miles away for food. Foreign hunters or " poach- ers " would kill those mother seals and there was danger that the entire herd would be wiped out. The United States arrested a number of those foreign hunters, and brought the case to a settlement. It was left for decision to a commission of seven men chosen by the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Norway and Sweden. The decision was that the United States did not own and could not control the whole of Bering Sea ; but the other nations would cooperate with the United States in pro- tecting the seals from destruction. 490 (The different Scales used should be noted with particular care.) eOfiMAYdc 60.|ll.r Broader Views 491 535. The Republic of Hawaii Created (1894). — The Hawaiian Islands lie at the " Cross-Roads of the Pacific." They were discovered by Captain James Cook (1778) and named Sandwich Islands in honor of the Earl of Sandwich ; but later the native name of Hawaii was restored. Ameri- can missionaries settled there (1820), and in time the American influence became strong. Most of the trade of the islands was with America. The native Queen was de- posed (January, 1893), and a provisional government sent commissioners to Washington, asking that the islands be annexed to the United States. President Harrison sent to the Senate a treaty of annexation, but before the Senate could act upon it President Harrison's term expired. President Cleveland was opposed to annexation. He with- drew the treaty from the Senate, and sent a new Minister to Hawaii, requesting that the Queen be restored to the throne. The provisional government not only refused to restore the Queen, but went farther, proclaiming the Republic of Hawaii (July 4, 1894). President Cleveland later recognized Hawaii as an independent republic. 536. Venezuela and the Monroe Doctrine. — Great Britain and Venezuela had been disputing for many years over the boundary of British Guiana. Generally speaking, the peo- ple of the United States knew or cared but little about that boundary dispute in South America ; but they were suddenly startled into a deep interest in the subject by President Cleveland's message to Congress (1895). The President told about the long-standing dispute, and said that Great Britain had declined the offer of the United States to settle the dispute. It seemed as though Great Britain was about to violate the Monroe Doctrine. The President's message implied war if that violation occurred. 49 2 United States History for Schools Congress gave the President power to ascertain the true boundary. This boldness surprised Great Britain, and that nation agreed to arbitrate the dispute. The decision (1899) gave British Guiana most of the lands in question, but the portion given to Venezuela contained the gold mines that had helped cause the dispute. 537. Presidential Election of 1896. — Politicians declared that the panic and " hard times " were caused by the Democrats and their low tariff law. This attracted atten- tion to William McKinley, whose name was attached to the last high protective tariff bill (§ 527). The Republicans nominated him at the head of their ticket, and promised the workingmen a new high tariff bill and a "full dinner pail " if he became President. But the tariff was only one of the issues. The other related to silver. Many people believed that the " hard times " were caused by the lack of enough money as a circulating medium, and that the times were made worse by the repeal of the Silver Purchase Law (§ 532). The Republicans declared against the free coinage of silver except on agreement with the leading nations of the world. The Democrats adopted a platform favoring a " tariff for revenue only" and also favoring the free coinage of silver at the legal ratio of sixteen to one, " without waiting for the aid or consent of any other nation." They nominated for President William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska. This William McKinley. Broader Views 493 nomination was indorsed by the Populist party, which believed in government ownership of railroads and tele- graph lines. Some Democrats who did not believe in the free silver platform nominated a separate ticket. The con- test was between Mr. McKinley and Mr. Bryan, and was one of the most spirited ever seen in the country. Mr. Mc- Kinley was elected. Another Western state had its first chance to vote for a President in this election. Utah had been admitted to the Union (January, 1896) as the forty- fifth state. 538. Forest Reserves. — Just before his term of office ended, President Cleveland celebrated Washington's Birthday (Feb- ruary 22, 1897) by launching the government permanently into a new and extensive line of business. He issued a proclamation creating thirteen forest reserves. President Harrison had proclaimed a number of such reserves after the law was enacted (1891) providing for them ; but this new proclamation made it clear that the government would begin to save and manage most of the remaining forest lands within the public domain. In a similar way the gov- ernment has set aside as " Playgrounds for the Nation " magnificent national parks containing the Yellowstone Valley, the Yosemite Valley, Mount Rainier, and the Cali- fornia Big Tree Groves, as well as the Olympic Mountain Range, in the state of Washington, which is a " national monument." William Jennings Bryan. 494 United States History for Schools 539. New Tariff and Increased Business. — The Republi- cans kept faith by enacting the Dingley Bill as the promised high protective tariff law. It levied duties on wool and certain other materials which the Democratic tariff law had admitted free. American merchants enjoyed an enormous increase in the business of shipping goods to other coun- tries. In the year 1898 more than five hundred million dollars' worth of American goods were expor':ed. That same year witnessed a great stampede to Alaska following the discovery of rich gold fields in that territory. 540. New State Constitutions in the South. — The white people of the South, wishing to get stronger control of their state governments, amended their constitutions or adopted new ones, embodying provisions that voters must be able to read a section of the Constitution and to pay a certain amount of taxes. These and other provisions are intended to prevent the uneducated negroes from control- ling the elections. 541. Greater American Cities. — Of all the growth of states, of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, railroad build- ing, and commerce, none has surpassed the wonderful growth of American cities. It was not uncommon for cities to double or even quadruple their population from one census period to another. The largest of these cities, the metropolis of the republic, is New York. On New Year's Day, 1898, the new charter of " Greater New York" went into operation. With its population of three and one half milHons it then became the largest city in the world except London. As these cities are still growing rapidly, it is plain that one of the greatest problems before the American people is that of the clean and properly governed city. Professor Ely of the University of Wisconsin has said the watchword should Broader Views 495 be : " The city, a well-ordered household." There is no higher call for the patriot than to work for better city government. 542. City Sanitation and Conveniences. — As the cities o-rew, there came numerous conveniences. Traffic arrange- FLATIRiiN r.lll.lM ^A " Skyscraper"). ments are necessary in large cities. The old horse cars gaVe way to cable and electric car lines, and in the larger centers there were built elevated and subway lines 496 United States History for Schools to relieve the crowded streets. Soon those lines reached beyond the city boundaries, and developed thousands of suburban home settlements. The invention of the passen- ger elevator made it possible to erect larger hotels and very tall business blocks called " skyscrapers." These buildings, as well as humbler homes, were supplied with telephones, gas, electric lights, water, and in some cases hot water and steam heat. Beginning about the time of the Centennial Exhibition, there developed the profession of sanitary en- gineering, and there began a more general use of scientific plumbing in houses, not only for water and gas, but for sew- age as well. It became the duty of city governments to insist upon sanitary conditions in and about the homes as well as in the streets and alleys. For the added health and pleasure of the people cities provided parks, play- grounds, and in many cases free bathing facilities. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What was the result of the Bering Sea Arbitration? 2. How was the RepubHc of Hawaii created? 3. How did President Cleveland apply the Monroe Doctrine to Venezuela's dispute with Great Britain ? 4. What was the issue, who were the principal candidates, and what was the result in the presidential election of 1896? 5. What is a forest reserve or national forest? 6. How have the Southern states remodeled their constitutions? 7. How have American cities become great problems? 8. How has city life been improved? CHRONOLOGY 1869 . . May 10. First transcontinental railroad completed. Knights of Labor organized. 1870 . . Weather Bureau established. 1871 , . Treaty of Washington, arbitrations. Expansion of the Dominion of Canada, Broader Views 497 1873 . . Coining silver money stopped ; panic. 1874 . . Natural gas discovered in Pennsylvania. Eads's bridge at St. Louis completed. 1875 . . Resumption of specie payment. 1876 . . Centennial Exposition. Colorado admitted to the Union. 1877 . . March 4. Hayes inaugurated President. Fall of the "Carpet Baggers." Railroad strike at Pittsburg. 1 88 1 . . March 4. Garfield inaugurated President. 1883 . . Civil Service Reform Act. Letter postage reduced to two cents. Suspension bridge completed. New navy begun. 1884 . . Cotton Centennial at New Orleans. 1885 . . March 4. Cleveland inaugurated President. 1886 . . Statue of Liberty in New York harbor. "Year of Strikes." American Federation of Labor organized. Presidential Succession Law. 1887 . . Interstate Commerce Commission created. 1888 . . United States Department of Labor created. Chinese Exclusion law. 1889 . . March 4. Benjamin Harrison inaugurated President. Pan-American Congress. North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington admitted to the Union. 1890 . . New pension law. Idaho and Wyoming admitted to the Union. McKinley Tariff Law. 1891 . . Centennial of the Patent Office. 1893 . . Revolution in Hawaii. March 4. Cleveland inaugurated President. Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Bering Sea Arbitration. 1895 • • Monroe Doctrine enforced in Venezuela boundary dispute. 1897 . . Large forest reserves created. March 4. McKinley inaugurated President. 2 K VIII The United States a Greater World Power CHAPTER XLIII SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 497-508; Hart's Source Book, pp. 373-390. Home Readings. — Lodge's War with Spain ; Roosevelt's Rough Riders. 543. The Trouble in Cuba. — In beginning a study of the Spanish-American War it is well to recall that soon after the United States had purchased F'lorida (18 19) (§ 321), the Monroe Doctrine (§ 331) was announced (1823), showing the attitude assumed by the United States in defense of the new republics formed by Spain's revolted colonies in Mexico, Central America, and South America. That reduced Spain's American possessions to Cuba and Porto Rico. Both islands are near the United States, and on several occasions the question of acquiring Cuba was agitated in this country. Especially was this question made prominent by the " Ostend Manifesto " (§ 400), when three American ministers in Europe advised the acquisition of Cuba by purchase or by force. In the light of such history it would be natural for Spain and other nations to watch with suspicion any action taken by the United States in regard to Cuba. On the other hand, the United States had duties to perform. 498 Spanish-American War 499 Cuba was a neighbor. Many American citizens had business interests there. Those citizens were entitled to protection in their just and fair rights. Spain had not been wise in her colonial policy. She gave her colonists no part in their own government, but sent rulers from Spain who grew wealthy from the trade and taxes of the colonists. That was why the many colonies revolted, and that was why Cuba tried so often to get her independence. In 1895 the Cubans began another revolt, which proved to be the last one. They adopted the watch- word " Cuba Libre ! " (** Cuba Free ! "), and determined to die or be independent. Spain sent an army of two hun- dred thousand men under the cruel General Weyler, who drove the country people into camps and burned their houses to starve them into submission. While suffering with hunger, they still cried, " Cuba Libre ! " 544. American Kindness Suspected. — Congress acted upon President McKinley's recommendation, and appro- priated fifty thousand dollars for the relief of suffering in Cuba, and an equal sum was raised by kind-hearted Ameri- can citizens. The famous president of the Red Cross Soci- ety, Miss Clara Barton, though nearly seventy years of age, led members of that society to Cuba on errands of mercy. All this angered Spain, as she claimed that her Cuban " rebels " would surrender if it were not for the sympathy and help extended to them by Americans. However, the American sympathy compelled Spain to change her cruel General Weyler for the milder General Blanco. Though conditions were improved, the Cubans did not cease to fight and shout, " Cuba Libre ! " 545. The Approach of War. — The American govern- ment did not want a war with Spain. It was not prepared 500 United States History for Schools for war. The navy did not have coal or ammunition enough for even a short campaign. President McKinley did all in his power to maintain peace. But the American people were aflame with indignation over accounts of butchery and inhuman treatment of people at our very threshold. In the midst of such a feeling there occurred a terrible catastrophe. The United States had sent the battleship Maine to Havana harbor to watch over and protect American interests there. Without a word of warn- ing that vessel was blown up (February 15, 1898), and two hundred and sixty-six American officers and sailors were killed in the explosion. The American people, angry before, were now clamorous for war. It was not surely known who was responsible for the explosion, but a board of inquiry decided that it was caused by a submarine mine. It was firmly, though perhaps wrongly, believed that Spanish officers were responsible. War alone could atone for such a crime ; still President McKinley sought ways for a peaceful settlement. 546. War declared (April, 1898). — President McKinley sent a lengthy message to Congress (April ii, 1898) review- ing the history of troubles in Cuba. In speaking of the Spanish war in Cuba at that time he said he had already told Congress : " It was not civilized warfare ; it was ex- termination. The only peace it could beget was that of the wilderness and the grave." And again : "In the name of humanity, in the name of civilization, in behalf of en- dangered American interests which give us the right and the duty to speak and act, the war in Cuba must stop." He then left the matter in the hands of Congress, saying: " I have exhausted every effort to relieve the intolerable condition of affairs which is at our doors." Spanish-American War 501 Congress in a joint resolution (April 20, 1898) declared that Cuba was free, that Spain must withdraw her troops, that the United States would take charge long enough to restore order, when the island would be given over to the Cubans to devise their own form of government; and the President was authorized to use the entire land and naval forces of the United States to accomplish those objects. This was practically a declaration of war. Two days later the President proclaimed a blockade of the ports on the northern coast of Cuba. He also called for two hun- dred thousand volunteers, and sent telegraphic orders to Com- modore George Dewey at Hong- kong. There was enthusiastic response to the call for troops. Every state asked for the chance to send more regiments than had been apportioned to it. In the same generous way did the people respond when it came to a question of money. The gov- ernment wanted to borrow two hundred million dollars to pay the war expenses, and offered only three per cent interest per year. The people came forward with seven times the amount asked. 547. Remarkable Battle of Manila Bay (May i, 1898). — Spain had a fleet of eleven warships in the Philippine Islands. If in the war that fleet should sail for the Pacific Coast of America, there was little to stop a wholesale de- struction of such cities as San Francisco and Seattle. Commodore Dewey, an officer who had been with Admiral Georce Dewey. 502 United States History for Schools Farragut at New Orleans in the Civil War (§ 443), had six warships and a messenger boat. On receiving tele- graphic orders he sailed from Hongkong for Manila, and there destroyed the entire Spanish fleet. The Spaniards were brave. They fought until their boats' sank, and they lost twelve hundred men, killed and wounded. The Americans did not lose a ship nor a man. Only eight were wounded, and those not seriously. In three days Commodore Dewey had taken the naval station of Cavite and destroyed the Spanish fortifications. He had estab- lished hospitals, and was taking care of two hundred and fifty of the Spanish sick and wounded. "At this unsurpassed achievement," said President McKinley to Congress, " the great heart of our nation throbs, not with boasting or with greed of conquest, but with deep gratitude that this triumph has come in a just cause and that by the grace of God an effective step has thus been taken toward the attainment of the wished-for peace." Farragut was given the rank of Admiral after the Civil War, and Dewey was given the same highest rank in the navy after Manila. Troops were sent under General Mer- ritt to cooperate with Admiral Dewey. After a combined attack the city of Manila was taken (August 13, 1898). 548. Cervera's Fleet " Bottled." — The fear in the Pacific seaports vanished after Dewey's victory, but there arose great alarm in the Atlantic seaports when Admiral Cer- vera left the Cape Verde Islands with his Spanish fleet headed for American waters. No one knew whether he would try to relieve Havana to save Cuba or attack American ports. He chose Santiago on the southeastern coast of Cuba as a safe hiding place from which to plan his campaign. This harbor had a very narrow mouth, Spanish-American War 503 easily protected, and was further protected by surrounding highlands. Commodore Schley, with his " flying squad- ron," discovered the fleet and blockaded the harbor. Cervera's fleet was said to be "bottled," but as it might escape at night it was decided to put a " cork " in the " bottle " by sinking the old coal ship Merrimac across the narrow channel. When volunteers were called for, Lieutenant Richmond P. Hobson and seven brave sailors responded. It was a bold deed to steam into the jaws of the Spanish forts and fleet. One of the Spanish shots broke the rudder of the Merrimac, and when she was sunk she lay lengthwise and only partiaUy closed the channel. The volunteer crew escaped in a small boat, and became prisoners in the hands of the Spaniards, who gave them the kind treatment brave men deserved. 549. The Blockade and the Land Battles of Santiago. — Captain Sampson arrived off Santiago with an additional fleet. He had chief command. One of his battleships was the Oregon, which was built on the Pacific Coast and made the long voyage of thirteen thousand miles around Cape Horn and reported for duty without losing an hour for repairs. While the blockade was maintained, a strong land force was sent to Cuba under General Shaffer. One spec- tacular and efficient portion of this force was the " Roosevelt Rough Riders," recruited from cowboys of the West and college men of the East. There was hard fighting through tropical forests. Heat and disease would kill more Ameri- cans than Spanish bullets, so it was decided to leave behind the heavy artillery rather than drag the big guns over the miserable roads and pony paths. The fortifica- tions must be taken by assault. The results were the two battles up the steep heights of El Caney and San Juan 504 United States History for Schools (July I, 2, 1898). Tangles of barbed wire and all other obstacles were overcome, and the Spanish troops were driven into the city. The Americans, victorious on the hills, could take their time to bring up large guns for use against the Spanish fleet in the harbor below. 550. Sea Battle of Santiago. — Captain Sampson went down the coast for consultation with General Sh after. During his absence he left Commodore Schley in command of the blockading fleet, with orders to watch the harbor closely. Admiral Cervera decided not to risk his fleet's capture from land attacks, and surprised the American fleet by steaming out of the harbor (July 3, 1898). The Spanish fleet of six warships had no chance whatever against the American fleet of eleven superior ships. In a few hours of battle at full speed the Spanish vessels were destroyed, with a loss of six hundred men killed and thirteen hundred captured. The Americans lost one man killed, and one was severely wounded. No serious harm was done to a single one of the American ships. When the burned hulks of the Spanish cruisers that had been run ashore were examined, the scorched bodies of gunners were found at their stations, where they had died fighting with superb courage. Sampson and Schley were made rear admirals after the victory of Santiago. 551. Surrender of the Spanish Army. — Soon after the destruction of Cervera's fleet, Santiago surrendered with an army of twenty-two thousand men. The war was ended in that eastern part of Cuba. General Miles led an army into Porto Rico, and was preparing to end the conquest of that island when news reached him that a peace was being negotiated. 552. Conquest of Guam. — Lying east of the Philippines Spanish-American War 505 is another archipelago, called Ladrones. The principal island of the group is Guam. It was captured (June 21, 1898) by an American fleet on its way to the Phihppines. It is reported that when the Americans fired a shot the Spanish commander of the fort sent word that he was much obliged for the salute, but he had no powder with which to return it. He was informed it was not a salute but war, when, of course he surrendered. 553. Annexation of Hawaii. — After the republic of Hawaii had been formed (1894) on the refusal of the II II 1 1 \icr.' United States to annex the islands (§ 535), the hope was still held that they would some day become a part of the larger republic. As the war advanced, the importance of those islands was recognized as never before. Congress adopted a resolution of annexation (July 7, 1898), and at Honolulu was seen the interesting ceremony of hauling down the flag of the little republic and raising in its place the Stars and Stripes (August 12). Two years later the islands were organized into the territory of Hawaii, having a legislature and local government of its own and a delegate to represent it in Congress. 5o6 United States History for Schools 554. Treaty of Peace. — One of the first acts of war is the withdrawal of each nation's minister from the capital of the other. Spain therefore had no minister at Wash- ington to begin negotiations for peace. But the Minister of France agreed to represent Spain. The first draft of a treaty was signed (August 12) just the day before the city of Manila was captured (§ 546). The news, with orders to cease fighting, was telegraphed to all armies and fleets. Each of the two nations then sent five com- missioners to Paris, and those ten men framed the final treaty of peace (December 10, 1898). There were three principal points in that treaty: — (i) Spain gave up all claim to Cuba. (2) Spain ceded to the United States Porto Rico, the island of Guam, and the Philippines. (3) The United States agreed to pay Spain twenty million dollars for the Spanish government buildings in the Philippines. 555. Results of the War. — Probably it will never be known how much the war cost Spain in men and money. Besides such terrible losses, Spain also lost her last foot of soil in the new world she had discovered and of which she once owned so large a part. The United States lost about four hundred and thirty men killed in battle, and many others who died of disease. The money cost of the war amounted to about one hundred and thirty milhon dollars. By acquiring such large and widely scattered territory, the United States entered upon the experience of being a greater world power. This brought new and difficult problems of government, as well as grave responsibilities. Externally the war and its final results raised the United States in the esteem of all other nations. Internally the Spanish-American War 507 war revealed to the people of the United States three things: (i) that they faced new destinies as their country secured possessions "over seas"; (2) that they possessed marvelous strength in men and resources capable of quick Natives and Cattle in the Philippine Islands. use in time of war; (3) that the people were again thor- oughly united, for Union and Confederate veterans and their sons had rallied with enthusiasm under the one flag at the first sound of war. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Why did the Cubans revolt against Spanish rule? 2. Why was American kindness suspected? 3. Describe the loss of the battleship Maiiw in Havana harbor. 4. How did President McKinley strive for peace? 5. How was war declared? 6. Describe the battle of Manila Bay. 7. How was Cervera's fleet " bottled " ? 8. What was the result of the battles of Santiago on land? on sea? 9. How was the island of Guam captured? 10. How did the United States secure Hawaii? 1 1. How was the treaty of peace arranged? 12. Name some results of the war. CHAPTER XLIV THE LARGER WORLD References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 508-523; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 654-687. Home Readings. — Egerton's Origin and Growth of EngHsh Colonies ; encyclopedia (later editions) articles on different nations, special his- tories, and magazine articles ; Grififis's America in the Far East ; Keinsch's World Politics, Part i. 556. The Change to Imperialism. — The nineteenth was a century of nationalism; the twentieth has started as a cen- tury of imperialism. The United States had no emperor to justify the use of the word " imperialism," but the substance of the condi- tion is present neverthe- less, even if the imperial ruler is not. Just glance back over the history we have been studying. In 1800 Jefferson was elected President. At that time Florida was foreign land and the Mississippi River was the western boundary. Pioneers were building log- cabin homes in the Ohio Valley. The century that followed was certainly one of nationalism as we ex- Theodore Roosevelt. 508 The Larger World 509 panded to the Pacific Ocean and strengthened our govern- ment over the whole wide domain. In 1900 the United States had entered upon a new career by beginning the management of colonies " over seas." In this sense the United States had taken its place among the world powers at the dawn of the century of imperialism. United States history is only a part of world history. It is therefore well to glance briefly at the other nations' entry into this changed condition. 557. The Awakened People. — Following the "year of revolutions " in Europe (1848) (§ 387) there came a period of reaction, and some kings sought to restore their supreme control. But the people had made a start toward securing constitutions, and the second half of the nineteenth century saw those nations growing great and strong in proportion to the powers secured by the people. Not kings, but a united people, make a nation. When the nations awakened to this fact, they discovered strength undreamed of before. 558. Unity and Expansion of Germany. — Prussia and Austria were rivals for the leadership of the German states. Napoleon had united most of these in the Confederation of the Rhine. The king of Prussia became president of that Confederation, and as such led the other German kings and princes with their armies in the war against France known as the Franco-Prussian War ( 1870). While these armies were besieging Paris (1871) the German kings and princes held a famous meeting in the Palace of Versailles, and there proclaimed the king of Prussia as Emperor William I. of united Germany. For many years German citizens had been emigrating to other countries. They were lost to Germany, as they did not form German colo- nies. About a dozen years after obtaining unity, Germany 5IO United States History for Schools changed her policy (1884). She acquired control in Africa of territories larger in extent than Germany herself. She also acquired territories in the Pacific-Ocean, such as a part of New Guinea, rechristened Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, and the islands of New Britain and New Ireland, rechristened Bismarck Archipelago. When Spain was defeated in the Spanish-American War, Germany bought from her the Caroline and Ladrone islands (1899). During the cen- tury of nationalism Germany had developed wonderfully in manufacturing and commerce, in statesmanship, phi- losophy, and literature. The German nation was abun- dantly equipped to take a prominent place among the world powers in the century of imperialism. 559. Ambitions of France. — We have seen how France attempted to change the republic of Mexico into an em- pire (§§ 435 and 484). Emperor Napoleon III. was ambi- tious to increase the rank of France among the nations. Though failing in Mexico, he secured a firm foothold in Indo-China ( 1 862),and later the French territory was greatly increased along the borders of Siam. France had controlled Algeria in northern Africa from an earlier time (1830), and, after losing valuable lands in the Franco-Prussian War, there developed a desire to repair the loss by new colonies in Africa. The territories adjacent to Algeria were seized, and also vast areas elsewhere in Africa, including that part of the Sahara Desert lying between Algeria and the Sene- gal River. France also acquired large groups of islands in the southern Pacific Ocean. One of the most impor- tant of these islands is New Caledonia. After having passed through many exciting changes, France is now a republic, and, like the United States, enters the new cen- tury with the substance of imperialism without the form of empire. The Larger World rn 560. The World-wide British Empire. — England was the "mother country" to the United States. Frequent refer- ence has been made to the growth of the British Empire, which constitutes one of the greatest themes in world his- tory. The many parts of the empire do not bear the same relations to the crown, nor were those parts acquired in the same way or at the same time. A record of the expansion of the kingdom of England into the British Empire would comprise much of world history for a long period. It will only be necessary here to trace briefly some of the chief events. It will be recalled that in North America a few provinces expanded into the large and pros- perous Dominion of Canada (§ 498). At the time that Canada was conquered from the French (1763) Great Britain also strengthened her hold on India. That re- gion was governed by the British East India Company until the terrible mutiny of native troops (1857), after which the government was placed in the hands of 'a sec- retary of state in London. The control was more com- plete when Queen Victoria received the additional crown of Empress of India (1877). Great Britain started to use the newly discovered Aus- tralia as a place to send prisoners ; but the great land soon attracted free colonists, who organized separate provinces. These flourished until, following Canada's example, they combined in forming another large British nation 'called the Commonwealth of Australia (1901). Near Australia, and throughout the Southern Pacific, are many islands under British control. ^ During the troubles growing out of the French Revolu- tion, Great Britain took under her protection the Dutch colonies at the southern end of Africa ; and when Napoleon 512 United States History for Schools abdicated (1814) those Cape colonies were ceded to Great Britain by the Netherlands. The Dutch colonists moved farther inland, and organized the Orange Free State and the Transvaal Republic. The discovery of rich gold mines (1885) destroyed the peace of the Dutch. Foreigners rushed in, and war resulted between the Dutch and the British (1899).* For more than two years the unequal struggle continued. The Boer armies were defeated, and the colonies are now British. Another great federated nation, like Canada and Australia, is destined to flourish in South Africa. The dream of a "Cape-to-Cairo" railroad will yet be realized. Egypt is nominally an independent nation under the protection of Great Britain ; but there seems little doubt that British protection in this case is evolving into British dominion. Taking into account the nations and colonies under the British flag, that great empire now has more citizens or sub- jects than were ever before under a single sovereign in all the history of the world. Surprising unity of feeling was shown during the war in South Africa, when enthusiastic citizen soldiers in British Columbia, New Zealand, Aus- tralia, and other distant lands offered their services to the empire. The largest political idea now before the British people is the federation of the empire with an imperial Parliament having representatives from all the British nations and colonies. 561. Creating the Nation of Italy. — At the middle of the nineteenth century Italy was badly divided. Some provinces were called papal states and were ruled by the Pope; some thought themselves independent; and some were protected or controlled by France or Austria. Just one, Sardinia, had a constitutional ruler, King Victor Emanuel The Larger World 513 II. In that king's name the new Italy arose. Just as Chancellor von Bismarck was the nation maker in Germany, so Count Cavour was the essential constructive statesman of Italy. Cavour is reported to have said : " I cannot make a sonnet, but I can make Italy." The king and his states- men were assisted by the enthusiastic services of Gari- baldi, the dashing leader of fighting men. Watching the changes in Europe, these men added one Italian province after another to Sardinia. They longed to regain the ancient city of Rome for their capital. Still watching Europe, they were prompt to act when the Franco-Prussian War broke out (1870), and French troops were withdrawn from Rome. The city was entered by the Italian armies, and the Pope's temporal power, or rule over the papal states, was declared at an end. Italy, though a little late, was also ambitious for colonies in Africa. She got a foothold on the shore of the Red Sea, and sought to enlarge it by es- tablishing a protectorate over Abyssinia. To this King Menelik objected, and his troops drove the Italian army back with great loss (1896). 562. Austria-Hungary. — In losing to Prussia the leader- ship of the German states (§ 558) Austria-Hungary has taken its place as a great power of Europe ; but at the same time it lost the chance of being a leading world power in the century of imperialism. It is a dual monarchy, with two capitals, Vienna and Budapest, and two parliaments. Through these parliaments the people have had a part-in the government since receiving their constitutions (1867). 563. Russia's Slow Enlightenment. — The huge country of Russia extends along the northern parts of Europe and Asia. The greatest Russian sovereign, Peter the Great (1672-1724), once declared : " It is not land we want, but 514 United States History for Schools water." That is the best key to Russian history. In Czar Peter's time conquests were made on the Baltic, and the new capital, St. Petersburg, was founded. The Russians had adopted the Greek Catholic Church as their national church. In seeking an outlet to the sea the port most de- sired was Constantinople, the ancient home of the Greek Church. That coveted city would have been wrested from Turkey (1853-1856) if Great Britain, France, and Sardinia had not rushed to the Sultan's help and checked the Rus- sians at Crimea. Following this war, one of the greatest events in Russian history occurred, when forty-six million serfs were emancipated(i858-i86i). Slowly but earnestly the people have been reaching out for greater liberties. To develop the thinly peopled regions of Siberia the Russian government built the great railroad to the Pacific Ocean. Japan was compelled to give up part of her con- quests from China (1895), and Port Arthur fell into the hands of Russia. This was a fine harbor, free from ice the year round. Russia had at last reahzed the great Czar's wish for some good outlet to the sea. But Russia lost that harbor and much more in the war with Japan (1904-1905). To pay the costs of that disastrous war the heavy taxes were increased. Discontent spread. It looked Hke a general revolt. The Czar promised his people a national parliament. If the Russian people get control of their government, as have the people of the other European nations, by transforming it into a constitutional monarchy, the world will look for rapid revelation of power. There are many elements of strength there — intellectual, artistic, and economic. 564. Greed for Territory. — David Livingstone, the mis- sionary, lost his life exploring Africa (1873), and his The Larger World 515 work was continued by Henry M. Stanley (i 874-1 877). "Through the Dark Continent" was the title Stanley gave his book of travels. In less than thirty years from the time of those explorations the whole of the " Dark Conti- nent " was divided up among the European powers. There was a season of what James Bryce called " earth hunger." Every unclaimed island was seized. The tropics had been avoided as places for colonizing. Their day had come, for allthe earth was needed, when imperialism was the motive of the nations. China, with her more than four, hundred millions of people, was weakly governed. Why not treat China like Africa ? 565. Sudden Rise of Japan. — In planning to make them- selves masters of China the European nations were taking little heed of one small island kingdom, — Japan, — whose doors had been opened by America ( § 399) some forty years before. All knew that China was weak, but only a few knew that Japan had grown strong. After leading a secluded life for more than two centuries, Japan had become a nation in the true sense. While Great Britain, Germany, France, Austria, and Italy were growing more united, and increasing in strength by giving their peoples greater liberties and better constitutions, Japan was doing exactly the same. Japanese statesmen believed their island empire could become dominant in the Orient just as Great Britain was dominant in Europe. Therefore those statesmen did not relish the idea of European control in China. Japan could not fight Europe, but she could strike a blow nearer home that would fortify her own position. Japan insisted that the empire of Korea be independent. China objected, claiming Korea was really a sub-kingdom of China. Japan startled the world with her successful 5i6 United States History for Schools war against China ( 1 894-1 895). Three ambitious European powers — ^ Russia, Germany, and France — then stepped in and compelled Japan to give up her Chinese conquests and accept money payments from China. Those three European powers were then joined by Great Britain, and the four nations wrung from China certain long-time leases to valuable portions of Chinese territory. Russia's portion consisted of Port Arthur and a strip through Manchuria containing a railroad from Port Arthur northward to Siberia (§ 563). Russia promised that her occupation would only be temporary ; but she spread her troops out on both sides of the railroad, and it looked as though she would occupy Korea. One Japanese writer said : " Korea lies like a dagger ever pointed toward the very heart of Japan." Once in the hands of Russia, that "dagger" w^ould be still more dangerous to Japan. The island empire was nervous, watchful, and patriotic. Japan hoped for an Oriental Mon- roe Doctrine. 566. Revolt in China. — China was humiliated by her defeat at the hands of Japan, but she was more alarmed by the evident intention of European nations to become masters of parts if not all of China. A society called " Boxers " raised a revolt ( 1900) against foreigners. Mission- aries were killed, and the representatives of foreign nations were besieged by a mob in the capital city — Peking, Every nation interested — Russia, France, Great Britain, United States, Germany, and Japan — rushed forward the nearest troops available. They captured and sacked the Chinese capital and rescued the foreign representatives and the surviving missionaries. China was compelled to make apologies and to pay heavy indemnities to the other nations. Years afterwards the United States gave back the money received from China, that it might be used for education. The Larger World 517 567. The " Open Door " Policy. — In reporting to Con- gress the troubles growing out of the " Boxer " uprising President McKinley spoke of "the opening of China to the equal commerce of all the world " (December 3, 1900). For more than two years the American govern- ment through its President and its Secretary of State, John Hay, had been insisting that Great Britain, Russia, Germany, and France should join the United States in a declaration favoring the "Open Door" policy in China. A wave of anger swept over those interested countries when the "Boxer" revolt was made known ; but the United States clung firmly to the policy, and was especially insistent with Russia while that nation was trying to tighten her exclusive grip on Manchuria. All the interested nations agreed to the policy. Russia alone was trying to evade it. 568. The Russo-Japanese War the " Open Door " policy was in the interest of fair treat- ment for all nations, and it was especially in the interest of China, as it would stop further slicing into the territories of that empire. While such work was going on, Japan made a leap forward by securing a treaty of alliance with Great Britain (1902). Japan still hoped for the Oriental Monroe Doctrine, with herself as its protector. She became more watchful, especially of Russia in Manchuria and Korea, and she vigilantly drilled her soldiers and sailors. The war John Hay. America's work for 5i8 United States History for Schools with Russia broke out early in 1904, and lasted nearly two years. The results were a series of most astonishing vic- tories for the Japanese on land and sea. On the invitation of President Roosevelt, envoys of the two empires met at Portsmouth in this country, and a treaty of peace was signed there (September 5, 1905). By that treaty Japan regained Port Arthur. She also got the southern half of Saghalien Island and the right practically to control Korea. Such power and skill seem to jus- tify Japan's hope for the Oriental Monroe Doctrine. One other significant evidence of advance was the announcement, not long after the war, that the printing presses of China and Japan were working night and day to make school books for the children of China. That great country was to follow the example of Japan by securing enlightenment from all the world. 569. The Palace of Peace. — Such expansion, such " earth hunger," such feverish equipment of fleets and armies, would all seem to indicate that the century of imperialism is to witness a terrible war of the nations. But there is . 0, hL^ A J^l^ P l^Bfc A^x/;^''\:||. """-J ^^^IP^# 1 i^lp 'i^ ^ i'l^'"^^^^^ . %, '>!^ ^ 'm. {^■HK"*""^ X\l Admiral Togo. The Larger World 519 another side to the shield. The peoples have obtained con- stitutions. They no longer meekly follow their war-lord kings, nor blindly accept the schemes of ambitious chan- cellors. The telegraph and the railroad, the camera and the printing press, have combined to give the peoples better understandings of themselves and of each other. They are learning that the interests of all are best served by peace. The very largeness, the imperial character, of the nations works to the same end. A war at any place in the world will now be sure to affect the interests of one or more of the large powers. The people of those powers desire peace, and will seek ways to preserve it. Tennyson had a vision of the end of wars when he wrote : — " Till the war-drum throbb'd no longer, and the battle-flags were furrd In the Parliament of Man, the Federation of the World." The fulfillment of that vision began with the Peace Con- ference at The Hkgue, called by Czar Nicholas II. of Russia (1899). That conference and the one that followed it (1907) have not produced a " Federation of the World," but they have produced a court of arbitration, and there are abundant indications that that court is developing into a splendid and enlightened substitute for war. The meetings are held in the magnificent " Palace of Peace," presented by the famous American philanthropist, Andrew Carnegie, who also gave the "American Palace of Peace " (§ 525) and the " Palace of Peace " in Central America. Earnest people in every country are advocating peace. Mr. Carnegie has given generously from his ample fortune to advance this work. He has invited a group of prominent Americans to serve as trustees for the enormous sum of ten million dollars, which he has given to promote the interests of 520 United States History for Schools peace. Civilization is turning from the sword and the gun to the school and the law. STUDY QUESTIONS 1 . What is " imperialism " ? 2. Have tlie people greater powers? 3. How did Germany become an empire? 4. Has France dominions outside of Europe? 5. How has Great Britain become a world-wide empire? 6. How was the nation of Italy created? 7. Why has Austria two capitals ? 8. Why was Russia so anxious to hold Port Arthur? 9. How was Africa " divided " ? 10. Describe Japan's sudden rise as a nation. 11. What caused the revolt in China? 12. What is the ''Open Door" policy? 13. How was the Russo-Japanese War ended? 14. What do we hope to come from the Palace of Peace? CHAPTER XLV NATIONAL DUTIES AND OPPORTUNITIES References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 525-555; Hart's Source Book, pp. 390-392. Home Readings. — Boone's Education in the United States ; Richard- son's American Literature ; Stedman's Poets of America. 570. The New American Lands. — The Cubans were helped to organize a republican government of their own. They have not been wholly successful. The United States has had to help them out of one political tangle, and may have to do so again. Still they have organized good schools. The boys and young men of Cuba, as they attain manhood under free institutions, ought to give their republic a free, strong, and clean government. In Porto Rico the people were glad to become a part of the United States. They have been given a commission form of government, some- thing a little less than that in Hawaii (§ 553). They have a legislature of their own, and a delegate to Congress. The situation in the Philippines was more difficult. Aguinaldo, a leader of the Filipinos, had rebelled against the Spanish government and was in exile when the Span- ish-American War broke out. He then returned, and helped the Americans conquer Manila. He wanted to rule the islands, and raised a revolt against the Americans (1899). After much bloodshed he was captured by strat- egy (1900), and the native insurrection fell. The Filipinos also have a commission form of government, with a legis- lature of their own (1901), and they are allowed two dele- 521 522 United States History for Schools* gates to Congress. The United States government has extended much aid to these newly acquired lands in the shape of good schools, improved sanitary conditions, and greater opportunities for trade and industry. 571. Assassination of President McKinley. — As Presi- dent McKinley's first term was about to end, he was nominated for a second term by the Republicans. The Democrats again nominated William Jennings Bryan, and the issue was again the question of the free and unhmited coinage of silver. A majority of the people voted for President McKinley and the gold standard of money. President McKinley was a kind and lovable man. He trusted the people, and dismissed the guards stationed at the White House to protect him. After his second in- auguration he visited the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York, and held a reception to shake hands with all the people. In that friendly service he was shot down by an anarchist who had concealed a pistol in a hand- kerchief tied around his hand. Anxiously the people prayed for his recovery, but eight days after receiving the wound he died (September 14, 1901). The Vice President, Theodore Roosevelt, took the oath of office and became President. 572. The Panama Canal. — When the Spaniards first dis- covered that the Atlantic and Pacific oceans were sepa- rated by a relatively narrow strip of land at the isthmus, they suggested that a canal ought to be dug. Through the centuries that followed the suggestion was often re- peated. The United States made a treaty (1846) with New Granada (now Colombia) to secure equal and fair treatment in transporting freight or passengers across the isthmus " upon any modes of communication that now 524 United States History for Schools exist, or that may be hereafter constructed." The United States and Great Britain made a treaty (1850) in which the two nations agreed to protect the neutrahty of any line of communication between the two oceans. The United States made a treaty with Nicaragua (1867) looking toward a land or water route across that country. Colombia granted (1878) a concession to Frenchmen who proposed to dig the Panama Canal, agreeing that it should " always be kept free from political influence." The French asso- ciation spent large sums of money on their work, and the United States pushed forward the plans of the Nicara- guan Canal. The United States and Great Britain entered into another agreement (1901) to safeguard the neutrality of the canal to be built and controlled by the United States. The French association had failed, and Congress passed an act authorizing the President to pay forty million dollars for the French dredges and machinery, and to pay for the work already done; but if Colombia would not grant enough land to secure protection for the canal, negotiations should be made with Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Colombia rejected the treaty. The people of Panama then seceded and formed the new Republic of Panama. Under the lead of the energetic President Roosevelt, our government at once recognized the new republic and made a treaty (1903) by which the United States got a strip of land ten miles wide across the isthmus. This will give ample room to build the canal and to police and protect it. In return for the grant the United States paid ten million dollars to Panama, and agreed to pay $250,000 a year, beginning in 191 3. After those arrangements were completed the United States entered upon the great work of constructing the canal. National Duties and Opportunities 525 573. Advance of Irrigation. — The practice of irrigation is very ancient, even in America. Before white men came to this continent the natives of Mexico were using irrigation with success. There has come a time when the white men in America are reviving its use on a large scale. When the vast herds of buffalo were driven off the plains, herds of cattle took their place. The farmers built fences and raised grain. But there were millions of acres in the West covered with sagebrush or bunch grass. Some said those areas were only fit for homes of jack rabbits and coyotes. However, it was discovered that when ditches were dug to turn the water from creeks or rivers on to the land the soil was very fertile. Irrigation companies were organized, and many beautiful and fruitful farms were created in the supposed deserts of the West. Private capital could not do it all, for some of the sources of water were too expensive. Congress took up the work (1902) by arranging that the proceeds from the sales of public lands should be used to reclaim lands that were worthless with- out irrigation. Thousands of fine farms are being created in this way, and in time the government will get back all the money expended on these great enterprises. 574. The New Nationalism. — Irrigation gave a new in- terest to the forest reserves, as they protected the sources of rivers in the mountains. The national forests were therefore increased for the double purpose of conserving the supply of timber and the supply of water. It was also determined to stop the practice of selling coal lands on the public domain, as had been done in the past for very low prices. Those lands were withdrawn, to be held until the nation made some better arrangement for their use. In the same way water power sites were withdrawn. These 526 United States History for Schools new plans especially affected the West, for the lands in the East had long since passed into private ownership. Presi- dent Roosevelt believed earnestly in these new plans, which went by the name of " Conservation of National Resources," and later " The New Nationalism." To consider these and other measures in which the states and the nation were Irrigating Canal, Salt Rixkr \'\i.i 1 \, Ai i/"N\. jointly interested President Roosevelt invited the governors of all the states to meet him in a conference at the White House. These conferences of the governors are sometimes referred to as the "Third House of Congress." They are producing a better understanding and greater feeling of unity throughout the nation. 575. Two Western Expositions. — Two expositions called especial attention to the wonderful development of the National Duties and Opportunities 527 West through railroad building, mining, agriculture, irri- gation, and fruit growing. Both expositions were intended to celebrate the centennials of events in Western history. The first and larger of these was the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis (1904), and the other was the Lewis and Clark Exposition in Portland, Oregon (1905). A third Grand Basin at the Louisiana Purchase Exposi i ion, si. Louis, 1904. exposition was held two years later (1907) at Jamestown, Virginia, to celebrate the three hundredth anniversary of the first successful English colony planted in America. 576. Political Reforms. — - The great changes and growth indicated by those expositions and the development of the " New Nationalism " were accompanied by a number of political changes and reforms in the several states. Wis- consin led the others in working out legal plans for making the railroads and other large corporations bear a more just share of taxation. Oregon took the lead in direct legisla- tion, known as " the initiative and the referendum," whereby 528 United States History for Schools the voters may propose laws for the legislature to adopt, or cast aside laws they do not want, though they had been passed by the legislature. Several states adopted the direct primary law, so the voters could nominate their candidates instead of leaving such work to conventions. Most of such laws include also an opportunity for the voters to ex- press a choice of United States senators to be elected later by the legislatures. Some progressive cities have adopted what is known as the " Recall," which enables them to call a man out of his office if he should prove unsatisfactory. Maine was the first prohibition state. Others have fol- lowed in adopting laws to prohibit the manufacture and sale of intoxicating drinks. Those states are Kansas, Georgia, Alabama, Oklahoma, Mississippi, Tennessee, North Carolina, and North Dakota. These have adopted state-wide prohibition. Still other states have adopted local option laws by which certain towns, cities, or portions of the states may adopt prohibition. Extending the privilege of voting so as to include women is another political reform that has grown steadily. There are five states — Wyoming, Idaho, Colorado, Utah, and Wash- ington — wherein woman suffrage is established by con- stitutions or by laws. 577. Education, Literature, and Libraries. — Education is the greatest agency for promoting betterments and reforms. In such cases the education does not always come from schools, for there are the pulpits, the newspapers, the maga- zines, good books, and the lecture platform. But the school is the starting place, and in America the school has had a most wonderful growth. The public schools are every- where, and the humblest of them are now equipped with choice textbooks, maps, and good teachers. Almost every National Duties and Opportunities 529 city is justly proud of its high school, better equipped in most cases than the colleges were half a century ago. The universities have been treated so generously by states and wealthy citizens who have endowed them that several of them have taken their places in the front ranks with the oldest and most famous seats of learning in the world. We have no national university, but the nation has granted public lands to support state universities, and gives generous support to the agricultural colleges in the various states. Americans love their pioneer workers in the field of literature (§ 367). There is now a long and noble list of literary workers, who have done their full share toward making their fellow-men happier and more en- lightened. Besides those already mentioned, there should be named such novehsts as W. D. How- ells, Henry James, and George W. Cable; such poets as James Whitcomb Riley and Henry Van Dyke; such histo- rians as John Lothrop Motley, William H. Prescott, Henry Adams, John Fiske, Francis Parkman, and Alfred T, Mahan ; such humorists as Samuel L. Clemens and Finley Peter Dunne ; such scientists as Asa Gray, Louis Agassiz, James Dwight Dana, and Simon Newcomb. Closely- related to literature is art, and America has had a fine Hst ^ €^m^^ ■^ . -^ •''?W Andrew Carnegie. 530 United States History for Schools of sculptors, with Augustus Saint-Gaudens at the head, and such painters as John La Farge, Edwin A. Abbey, and John S. Sargent, and such architects as Richard M. Hunt, Henry H. Richardson, and Charles F. McKim. Libraries are the schools for all the people after they have left the ordinary schools. No land has advanced more rapidly than America in the building of free public libraries. Even small towns have their libraries and read- ing rooms, while larger cities have central libraries and numerous branches. Mr. Carnegie has poured out his mil- lions to give libraries to all the cities that needed them. The National Library of Congress has completed its new palatial home (1897), and has become one of the three largest libraries in the world. The public libraries of Bos- ton and New York are among the finest of their kind, and Columbia University, New York, has a model home for a university library. 578. A Few Remarkable Inventions. — Libraries, liter- ature, and education were greatly aided by the invention of the linotype machine (perfected after 1890), by which an operator can sit and cast a line of type by pressing keys as if writing on a typewriter. The cost of print- ing books and newspapers was greatly reduced by that invention. The Roentgen or X-rays have enabled scientists to take photographs through substances. Surgeons can trace and find in the human body bullets or other foreign substances. Many lives have been saved by the use of this remarkable discovery. It was deemed wonderful when man first sent messages by telegraph over wires ; but now they send them through the air without wires by the wireless telegraph inventions c>f Marconi and others. National Duties and Opportunities 531 Man has also conquered the air with his flying machines, dirigible balloons, biplanes, and monoplanes. They are still in the experimental stage, and are taking a large toll of life from those who risk the flights. No one can tell how soon they will be made as safe and as service- able as the automobile, the railroad, or the steamship. 579. Great Wealth and Great Charities. — Along with inventions, the gaining and use of lands, and the development of resources came the accumulation of enormous wealth, until America is counted the richest country in the world. Great wealth brings great opportunities and respon- sibilities. It is pleasant to note how some of the great fortunes are being used for the public good. The spirit of charity, of doing good, has grown and expanded in Amer- ica, as have developments in other lines of human thought and endeavor. It ought always to be remembered that great wealth is by no means necessary to the exercise of that noble spirit. Some of the finest gifts of all are the small ones whose givers may be known only by their neighbors. But those who control the largest fortunes . are widely known. It is recognized that their great money power may be used for harm or for good, and their A BiRDMAN's Biplane. ^2^ United States History for Schools attitude toward education and philanthropy is watched. Mention has been made of Mr. Carnegie's large gifts to the work of promoting peace (§ 569) and to the building of public libraries (§ 577). Besides these, his philanthro- pies include the Hero Fund, for the benefit of dependents of those losing their lives in heroic effort to save their fellow-men, or for the heroes themselves if only injured ; the Car- negie Institution of Washington, to encour- age investigation, re- search, and discovery ; and the Carnegie Foun- dation for the Advance- ment of Teaching, to encourage strong men to become college and university professors by providing retiring allow- ances so they need not worry about support in their old age. These great philanthropies represent gifts of about forty million dollars. John D. Rockefeller has given more than fifty million dollars to the General Education Board, about thirty millions to the endowment of the University of Chicago, and millions to other worthy causes. His latest benevolence took the form of a request that Congress grant a charter to create a board of trustees to manage his enormous fortune for the betterment of humanity. It is probably unknown John D. Rockefeller. National Duties and Opportunities ^^3 how much money has been given to good causes by Mr. Carnegie and Mr. Rockefeller. The gifts that are known and pubHshed make the great totals of more than one hundred and seventy million dollars for each one. Mrs. Sage, the widow of Russell Sage, is spending an- other large fortune in benevolences. One of these is the systematic warfare against tuberculosis in New York State. 580. Political Unrest. — The charities and benevolences mentioned, and many others of note throughout the coun- try, have not prevented the people from thinking deeply on political questions con- nected with the control of corporations and on ques- tions connected with the tariff. When President Roosevelt's second term was about to expire, the Repub- licans nominated as a candi- date to succeed him William Howard Taft, and the Dem- ocrats nominated Mr. Bryan for the third time. Mr. Taft was elected, and as the Republican platform promised a reduction of the tariff duties, the new President urged Con- gress to redeem that promise. The contest over that and other questions before Congress caused a division of the RepubHcan ranks into "Standpatters" and "Insurgents." Dissatisfaction spread over the country, and in the election (1910) the Democrats gained a majority of members of the House of Representatives, and a number of governors and legislatures in states where Republicans had held sway William H. Taft. 534 United States History for Schools before. This unrest was shown by poUtical changes of some degree from Maine across the continent to Cahfornia. When Mr. Taft was elected President, the new state of Oklahoma (§ 522) had been admitted (1907) and the citizens there participated in the election. Two other Western states will experience the same change from ter- ritories to states by the time of the next presidential election (19 1 2). Congress made provision ( 191 1) for the admission to the Union of Arizona and New Mexico. One pleasant duty that devolved upon President Taft soon after his inauguration was to press an electric key that opened the gates of the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposi- tion, at Seattle, state of Washington (1909). The princi- pal result of that exhibition was to call the world's attention to the wealth of resources in Alaska. President Taft has shown a fine quality of patriotism by his appointments to the Supreme Court. Called upon to appoint four justices, he selected two Southern Demo- crats and two Northern Republicans, and he advanced to the chief justiceship a Southern Democrat already on the Bench. Both North and South appreciate and applaud such a high American spirit applied to that important branch of our government. 581. Wise Counsel in a Fond Farewell. — Lincoln and other noble men have left the Americans a greater inherit- ance in character than could be represented by any other form of wealth. Boys and girls who are studying their country's history will soon take their places as citizens of the republic. They will do well to cherish the memory of the nation's great men, and, like them, seek to advance the welfare of the whole people. More than a hundred years have passed since Washington died, and yet the ex- National Duties and Opportunities ^^S ample and the words of the great First President still teach their lessons of devotion to the best interests of the whole country. Let us all refresh our feelings of true patriotism with these words from his Farewell Address : — "Citizens by birth or choice of a common country, that country has a right to concentrate your affections. The name of American, which belongs to you in your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriot- ism more than any appellation derived from local dis- criminations." STUDY QUESTIONS 1. How are the new lands being governed by the United States? 2. Describe the death of President McKinley. 3. How did the United States undertake to build the Panama Canal ? 4. What are some of the advantages of irrigation? 5. What is meant by "New Nationalism"? 6. How were the centennials of the Louisiana Purchase and the Lewis and Clark expedition celebrated? 7. Name some of the political reforms now being tried. 8. How are educational facilities being improved? 9. Name some of the late American writers. 10. How have libraries increased? 11. Name some recent important inventions. 12. Name some remarkable American charities. 13. What questions have caused recent political unrest? 14. What is our greatest inheritance as Americans? CHRONOLOGY 1895 . . Revolt in Cuba. Japan compelled to yield Chinese conquests. 1896 . . Utah admitted to the Union. 1898 . . February 15. Maine blown up at Havana. April 20. War with Spain begun. May I . Battle of Manila Bay. 536 United States History for Schools 1898 . June 21. Conquest of Guam. July 1-2. Battles of Santiago. July 3. Cervera's fleet destroyed. Surrender of the Spanish army in Cuba. July 7. Annexation of Hawaii. August 12. First draft of the treaty of peace. 1899 . . Germany acquired Pacific islands. Peace Conference at The Hague. 1900 . . " Boxer " uprising in China. 1901 . . Government of the Philippine Islands organized. Commonwealth of Australia. September 14. Vice President Roosevelt became Presi- dent. Canal treaty with Great Britain. 1902 . . Anglo-Japanese treaty of alliance. United States planned large irrigation works. 1903 . . Creation of the Republic of Panama. United States agreed to build Panama Canal. 1904 . . Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis. 1905 . . Lewis and Clark Exposition at Portland, Oregon. 1907 . . Oklahoma admitted to the Union. Jamestown Exposition. 1909 . . March 4. Taft inaugurated President. Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposition at Seattle. 1910 . . Wave of insurgency or new nationalism swept over the United States in elections. APPENDICES APPENDIX I DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE In Congress, July 4, 1776, The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States OF America, When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, ^ decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happi- ness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to insti- tute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Des- potism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government, The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. 539 540 Declaration of Independence He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and neces- sary for the public good. He has forbidden his Governors to pass I-aws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- fortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, fo' the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihila- tion, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States ; for tliat purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers. He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our People, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace. Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislature. He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his Assent to their acts of pretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world : For imposing taxes on us without our Consent : For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury : Declaration of Independence 541 For transporting us beyond Seas to he tried for pretended offences: For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument fur introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies : p'or taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments : For suspending our own Legislature, and declaring themselves in- vested with Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Pro- tection and waging War against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeav- oured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free People. Nor have We been wanting in attention to our Brittish brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over -us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind. Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do> in the Nj me, and by 54^ Declaration of Independence Authority of the good people of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. JOHN HANCOCK. New Hampshire — Josiah Bartlett, Wm. Whipple, Matthew Thornton. Massachusetts Bay — Saml. Adams, John Adams, Robt. Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. Rhode Island — Step. Hopkins, William Ellery. ConnectictU — Roger Sherman, Sam'el Huntington, Wm. Will- iams, Oliver Wolcott. New York — Wm. Floyd, Phil. Livingston, Frans, Lewis, Lewis Morris, New Jersey — RiCHD. Stockton, Jno. Witherspoon, Fras. Hop- kinson, John Hart, Abra. Clark. Pennsylvania — RoBT. Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benja. Frank- lin, John Morton, Geo. Clymer, Jas. Smith, Geo. Taylor, James Wilson, Geo. Ross. Delaware — C^sar Rodney, Geo, Read, Tho. M'Kean. Maryland — Samuel Chase, Wm. Paca, Thos. Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton. Virginia — George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Th. Jefferson, Benja. Harrison, Thos. Nelson, jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. North Carolina — Wm. Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. South Carolina — Edward Rutledge, Thos. Heyward, Junr., Thomas Lynch, Junr., Arthur Middleton. Georgia — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, Geo. Walton. ^ ^ This arrangement of the names is made for convenience. The states are not mentioned in the original. APPENDIX II ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION BETWEEN THE STATES To all to whom these presents shall come, we the undersigned delegates of the states affixed to our names, send greeting. — Whereas, the Delegates of the United States of America in Con- gress assembled did on the 15th day of November in the Year of our Lord, 1777, and in the Second Year of the Independence of America agree to certain articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts- bay, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New- York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North- Carolina, South-Carolina, and Georgia, in the words following, viz : Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts-bay, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New- York, New-Jersey, Penn- sylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North-Carolina, South- Carolina and Georgia. Article I. The Stile of this confederacy shall be " The United States of America." Article II. Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom and in- dependence, and every Power, Jurisdiction and right, which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the united states, in congress assembled. Article III. The said states hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defence, the security of their Liberties, and their mutual and general wel- 543 544 Appendix II fare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever. Article IV. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friend- ship and intercourse among the people of the different states in this union, the free inhabitants of each of these states, paupers, vagabonds and fugitives from Justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several states ; and the people of each state shall have free ingress and regress to and from any other state, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties, impositions and restrictions as the inhabitants thereof respectively ; provided that such restriction shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any state, to any other state of which the owner is an inhabitant ; provided also, that no imposition, duties or restriction shall be laid by any state, on the property of the united states or either of them. If any person guilty of, or charged with treason, felony or other high misdemeanor in any state, shall flee from Justice, and be found in any of the united states, he shall upon demand of the Governor or executive power, of the state from which he fied, be delivered up and removed to the state having jurisdiction of his offence. Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these states to the records, acts and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other state. Article V. For the more convenient management of the general interest of the united states, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature of each state shall direct, to meet in congress on the first Monday in November, in every year, with a power reserved to each state to recall its dele- gates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead, for the remainder of the Year. No state shall be represented in congress by less than two nor by more than seven members ; and no person shall be capable of Appendix II 545 being a delegate for more than three years in any term of six years; nor shall any person being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind. Each state shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the states, and while they act as members of the committee of the states. In determining questions in the united states, in congress as- sembled, each state shall have one vote. Freedom of speech and debate in congress shall not be impeached or questioned in any Court, or place out of congress, and the members of congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments, during the time of their going to and from, and attendance on congress, except for treason, felony or breach of the peace. Article VI. No state without the consent of the united states in congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance or treaty with any king, prince or state ; nor shall any person hold- ing any office of profit or trust under the united states, or any of them, accept of any present, emolument, oflice or title of any kind whatever from any king, prince, or foreign state ; nor shall the united states in congress assembled, or any of them, grant any title of nobility. No two or more states shall enter into any treaty, confederation or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the united states in congress assembled, specifying accurately the pur- poses for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue. No state shall lay any imposts or duties, which may interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into by the united states in congress assembled, with any king, prince or state, in pursu- ance of any treaties already proposed by congress, to the courts of France and Spain. 2 N 546 Appendix II No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any state, except such number only, as shall be deemed necessary by the united states in congress assembled, for the defence of such state, or its trade ; nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any state, in time of peace, except such number only, as in the judg- ment of the united states, in congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defence of such state ; but every state shall always keep up a well regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutred, and shall provide and have constantly ready for use, in public stores, a due number of field pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage. No state shall engage in any war without the consent of the united states in congress assembled, unless such state be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade such state, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay, till the united states in congress assembled can be consulted : nor shall any state grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declar- ation of war by the united states in congress assembled, and then only against the kingdom or state and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so declared, and under such regulations as shall be established by the united states in congress assembled, unless such state be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, or until the united states in congress as- sembled shall determine otherwise. Article VII. When land-forces are raised by any state for the common defense, all officers of or under the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each state respectively by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such state shall direct, and all vacancies shall be filled up by the state which first made the appointment. Appendix II 547 Article VIII. All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common defence or general welfare, and allowed by the united states in congress assembled, shall be de- frayed out of the common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several states, in proportion to the value of all land within each state, granted to or surveyed for any Person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated according to such mode as the united states in congress assembled shall, from time to time, direct and appoint. The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the several states within the time agreed upon by the united states in congress assembled. Article IX. The united states in congress assembled, shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned in the 6th article — of sending and receiving ambassadors — entering into treaties and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby the legislative power of the respective states shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the ex- portation or importation of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever — of establishing rules for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the united states shall be divided or appropriated — of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times of peace — appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas and es- tablishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no member of congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said courts. The united states in congress assembled shall also be the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two or more states concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any other cause whatever ; which author- 548 Appendix II ity shall always be exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legislative or executive authority or lawful agent of any state in controversy with another shall present a petition to congress, stating the matter in question and praying for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of congress to the legislative or executive authority of the other state in controversy, and a day assigned for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then be directed to appoint by joint consent, commis- sioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing and determin- ing the matter in question ; but if they cannot agree, congress shall name three persons of each of the united states, and from the list of such persons each party shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until the number shall be re- duced to thirteen ; and from that number not less than seven, nor more than nine names as congress shall direct, shall in the pres- ence of congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be commis- sioners or judges, to hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination ; and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day appointed, without showing reasons, which congress shall judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike, the congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out of each state, and the secretary of congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing ; and the judgment and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive ; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pro- nounce sentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner be final and decisive, the judgment or sentence and other proceedings being in either case transmitted to congress, and lodged among the acts of congress for the security of the parties concerned ; pro- vided that every commissioner, before he sits in judgment, shall Appendix II 549 take an oath to be administered by one of the judges of the su- preme or superior court of the state, where the cause shall be tried, " well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, according to the best of his judgment, without favour, affection, or hope of reward ;" provided also that no state shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the united states. All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under different grants of two or more states, whose jurisdictions as they may respect such lands, and the states which passed such grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the same time claimed to have originated antecedent to such settle- ment of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to the congress of the united states, be finally determined as near as may be in the same manner as is before prescribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different states. The united states in congress assembled shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective states — fixing the standard of weights and measures throughout the United States — regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the states, pro- vided that the legislative right of any state within its own limits be not infringed or violated — establishing or regulating post- offices from one state to another, throughout all the united states, and exacting such postage on the papers passing thro' the same as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office — ap- pointing all officers of the land forces, in the service of the united states, excepting regimental officers — appointing all the officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the united states — making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their operations. The united states in congress assembled shall have authority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of congress, to be 550 Appendix II denominated " A Committee of the States," and to consist of one delegate from each state ; and to appoint such other committees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the united states under their direction — to appoint one of their number to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years ; to ascertain the necessary sums of Money to be raised for the service of the united states, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses — to borrow money, or emit bills on the credit of the united states, transmit- ting every half year to the respective states an account of the sums of money so borrowed or emitted — to build and equip a navy — to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisi- tions from each state for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such case ; which requisition shall be bind- ing, and thereupon the legislature of each state shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in a soldier like manner, at the expense of the united states ; and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the united states in congress assembled ; but if the united states in congress assembled shall, on consideration of circumstances judge proper that any state should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number than its quota, and that any other state should raise a greater number of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such state, unless the legisla- ture of such state shall judge that such extra number cannot be safely spared out of the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm and equip as many of such extra number as they judge can be safely spared. And the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the united states in congress assembled. Appendix II 551 The united states in congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regu- late the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and expenses neces- sary for the defence and welfare of the united states, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the united states, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number of ves- sels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander in chief of the army or navy, unless nine states assent to the same ; nor shall a question on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day be determined, unless by the votes of a majority of the united states in congress assembled. The Congress of the united states shall have power to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place within the united states, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration than the space of six months, and shall publish the Journal of their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treat- ies, alliances or military operations, as in their judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each state on any question shall be entered on the Journal, when it is desired by any delegate ; and the delegates of a state, or any of them, at his or their request shall be furnished with a transcript of the said Journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay be- fore the legislatures of the several states. Article X. The committees of the states, or any nine of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of congress, such of the powers of congress as the united states in congress assembled, by the consent of nine states, shall from time to time think expedient to vest them with ; provided that no power be delegated to the said committee, for the exercise of which, by the articles of confederation, the voice of nine states in the congress of the united states assembled is requisite. Article XI. Canada acceding to this confederation, and join- ^^2 Appendix II ing in the measures of the united states, shall be admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this union; but no other colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine states. Article XII. All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed and debts contracted by, or under the authority of congress, before the assembling of the united states, in pursuance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against the united states, for payment and satisfaction whereof the said united states, and the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged. Article XIII. Every state shall abide by the determinations of the united states in congress assembled, on all questions which by this confederation are submitted to them. And the Articles of this confederation shall be inviolably observed by every state, and the union shall be perpetual ; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a congress of the united states, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every state. And Whereas it hath pleased the Great Governor of the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we respectfully represent in congress, to approve of, and to authorize us to ratify the said articles of confederation and perpetual union ; Know Ye that we the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said articles of confedera- tion and perpetual union, and all and singular the matters and things therein contained ; And we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the united states in congress as- sembled, on all questions, which by the said confederation are submitted to them. And that the articles thereof shall be invio- lably observed by the states we respectively represent, and that the union shall be perpetual. In witness whereof we have here- Appendix II SS3 unto set our hands in Congress. Done at Philadelphia in the State of Pennsylvania the 9th Day of July in the Year of our Lord, 1778, and in the 3d year of the Independence of America. Josiah Bartlett, John Hancock, Samuel Adams, Elbridge Gerry, William Ellery, Henry Marchant, Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, Oliver Wolcott, Jas. Duane, Fras. Lewis, Jno. Witherspoon, Robert Morris, Daniel Roberdeau, Jona. Bayard Smith, Tho. M'Kean, Feb. 12, 1779, John Dickinson, May s, 1779, John Hanson, March ist, 1781, Richard Henry Lee, John Banister, Thomas Adams, John Penn, July 2ist, 1778, Henry Laurens, William Henry Drayton, Jno. Matthews, Jno. Walton, 24th July, 1778, John Wentworth, Ji August 8th, 1778, Francis Dana, James Lovell, Samuel Holton, John Collins, Titus Hosmer, Andrew Adam, William Duer, Gouvr. Morris, Nathl. Scudder, 26th Nov., 1778, William Clingan, Joseph Reed, 22nd July, 1778, Nicholas Van Dyke, Daniel Carroll, March ist, 1781, Jno. Harvie, Francis Lightfoot Lee, Corns Harnett, ]no. Williams, Richd. Hutson, Thos. Heywood, Jun. Edwd. Telfair, Edwd. Langworthv, On tlie part and belialf of the State of New Hampshire. On the part and behalf of the State of Massachusetts-Bay. 1 On the part and behalf of the > State of Rhode-Island and ) Providence Plantations. ( On the part and behalf of the ( State of Connecticut. }On the part and behalf of the State of New York. On the part and behalf of the State of New Jersey. I On the part and behalf of the ( State of Pennsylvania. On the part and behalf of the State of Delaware. I On the part and behalf of the ( State of Maryland. On the part and behalf of the State of Virginia. } On the part and behalf of the \ State of North Carolina. I On the part and behalf of tlie ^ State of South Carolina. / On the part and behalf of the \ State of Georgia. APPENDIX III CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1 We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more per- fect Union, establisli Justice, insure domestic Tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. Article. I. Section, i. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and 1 Reprinted from the text issued by the State Department. 554 Appendix III ^^^ within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New- York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one,'^ Mary- land six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies. The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers ; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. Section. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years ; and each Senator shall have one Vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expira- tion of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year ; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make tempo- rary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and. who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice 556 Appendix III shall preside : And no Person shall be convicted without the Concur- rence of two thirds of the Members present. Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to law. Section. 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day. Section. 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business ; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penal- ties as each House may provide. Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, Punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal. Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. Section. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. Appendix III 557 No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time ; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office. Section. 7. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills. Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States ; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections, to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a^ Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Section. 8. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States ; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; To borrow Money on the credit of the United States ; ^^S Appendix III To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes ; To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States ; To coin JMoney, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures ; To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current Coin of the United States ; To establish Post Offices and post Roads ; To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries ; To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court ; To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Oftences against the Law of Nations ; To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water ; To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years ; To provide and maintain a Navy ; To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces ; To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasion's ; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appoint- ment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the MiUtia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings; — And To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. Appendix III 559 Section. 9. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro- hibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it. No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. No Capitation, or other direct, Tax, shall be laid, unless in Propor- tion to the Census or Enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. No Money shajl be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law ; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be pub- lished from time to time. No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, with- out the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present. Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or for- eign State. Section. 10. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation ; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal ; coin Money ; emit Bills of Credit ; make any thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts ; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Im- posts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection Laws : and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into 560 Appendix III any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of Delay. Article. II Section, i. The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress : but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabit- ant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if .such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President ; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote ; A quo- rum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be neces- sary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President. Appendix III 561 The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes ; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States. No* Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligi- ble to the Office of President ; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resig- nation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be Increased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the fol- lowing Oath or Affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." Section. 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States ; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Con- sent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers 2 o 562 Appendix III and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise pro- vided for, and which shall be established by Law : but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as theythink proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session. Section. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor- mation of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Considera- tion such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Minis- ters ; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States. Section. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of. Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misde- meanors. Article. Ill Section, i . The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Com- pensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in Office. Section. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Author- ity ; — to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls ; — to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction ; — to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party ; — to Con- troversies between two or more States ; — between a State and Citizens of another State; — between Citizens of .dififerent States, — between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different Appendix III 563 States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens, or subjects. In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con- suls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall l)e at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. Section. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies,- giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. Article. IV Section, i. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Section. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another Statej shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall 564 Appendix III be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due. Section. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the Junc- tion of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all need- ful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Section. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion ; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. Article. V The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either case, shall be vahd to all Intents and Purposes as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article ; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate. Article. VI All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Appendix III 565 Law of the land ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the Contrary not- withstanding. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judi- cial Olificers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution ; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States, Article. VII The Ratiiication of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so rati- fying the Same. THE AMENDMENTS I Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assem- ble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. II A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. Ill No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. IV The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and eflfects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, sup- ported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ^66 Appendix III V No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. VI In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. VII In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be othenvise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the niles of the common law. VIII Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. IX The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. X The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- tively, or to the people. Appendix III 567 XI The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in la\v' or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State. XII The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the gov- ernment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; — The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one. vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional dis- ability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Qlectors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a 568 Appendix III majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. XIII Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their juris- diction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. XIV Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States : nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num- ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the pro- portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con- gress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Con- stitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or Appendix III 569 rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. Sectiox 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or eman- cipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro- priate legislation, the provisions of this article. XV Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 570 Appendix IV > 1 Ph d< d, d, K li) Ol b. O S 05 H H Two terms. One term. Two terms. Two terms. Two terms. One term. Two terms. One term. One month. 3 yr. II mo. One term. 1 yr. 8 mo. 2 yr. 4 mo. One term. One term. One term, 6 wk. 3 yr. 10 mo. Two terms. One term. 6 mo. 15 da. 3 yr. 5 mo. 15 d. One term. One term. One term. One term, 6 mo. 3 yr, 6 mo. One term. Serving. Q W h < O < z < r^ N 00 00 OnOO M u-)00 "« u-1 a^'-O n I-^ l^ -^ OS 11 00 "-IVO ■w-l u-ivO ^ O I-^OO 00 00 CO 0\ On O O t^ r-^00 OOOOOOOOQOOOCOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOO OnO\ Q O OnvO ^O^OmCOloWmMOsO'^ OnOO u-iu->LorO"-vOCO "OC "- On M CS ro m Tt "^O -i-vO '^ to r--vD VD vO 1^00 O^OO 00 O O O O r-CO CCCO000OO0COCO0O00O0CX30OCOC/)CCC«O0O0C/0 OnOnOnOn o m N iy-iro>-.oO t^t-^t^ i-OO "^"+0 •*" OsOO f) M w O I^ '"'^ t^ r^OO t^ r,-) ro -t LO \-n\0 VOCO r^OsONCO O O OnO O fS M r<-)<-OrOfO'-')Thw-)VO i^t-~t^i^t^t^t^i>.r^r^i:^ t^co oo r^oo C/Doooococ/Dooooooocic/Doo h < . < George Washington . John Adams . . , Thomas Jefferson . . James Madison , . James Monroe . . . John Quincy Adams . Andrew Jackson . . Martin Van Buren . William H. Harrison John Tyler , . . , James K. Polk . . , Zachary Taylor . . Millard Fillmore . . Franklin Pierce . . James Buchanan . . Abraham Lincoln . . Andrew Johnson . , Ulysses S. Grant . . Rutherford B. Hayes James A. Garfield . . Chester A. Arthur Grover Cleveland . . Benjamin Harrison . Grover Cleveland . , William McKinley , Theodore Roosevelt . William H. Taft . , c 5 " N rO ■^ »J-)vO I>-00 ON O w N ro •* ionO 1^00 0\ O « N <^ ■* "^^ »^ Appendix V 571 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES No. Name Admission Gross Area in Square Miles Population, Census OF 1910 Repre- sentatives IN Congress, 19H I Delaware .... Dec. 7, 787 2,050 202,322 I 2 Pennsylvania Dec. 12, 787 45.215 7,665,111 36 3 New Jersey . Dec. 18, 787 7,815 2,537,167 12 4 Georgia . . Jan. 2, 788 59,475 2,609,121 12 5 Connecticut . Jan. 9, 788 4,990 1,114,756 5 6 Massachusetts Feb. 6, 788 8,315 3,366,416 16 7 Maryland. Apr. 28, 788 12,210 1,295,346 6 8 South Carolina May 23, 78S 30,570 1,515,400 7 9 New Hampshire June 21, 788, 9,305 430,572 2 10 Virginia . . June 26, 7S8 42,450 2,061,612 10 II New York . July 26, 788 49,170 9,113,614 43 12 North Carolina Nov. 21, 789 52,250 2,206,287 10 13 Rhode Island May 29, 790 1,250 542,610 3 14 Vermont . . Mar. 4, 791 9,565 355,956 2 15 Kentucky June I, ] 792 40,400 2,289,905 II 16 Tennessee June I, 1 796 42,050 2,184,789 10 17 Ohio . . Nov. '29, 802 41,060 4,767,121 22 18 Louisiana Apr. 30, 812 48,720 1,656,388 8 19 Indiana . Dec. II, 816 36*350 2,700,876 13 20 Mississipp Dec. 10, ] 817 46,810 i,797>"4 8 21 Illinois Dec. 3, 818 56,650 5,638,591 27 22 Alabama Dec. 14, 819 52,250 2,138,093 10 23 Maine . Mar. 15, 820 33,040 742,371 4 24 Missouri Aug. 10, 821 69,415 3,293,335 16 25 Arkansas June 15, 836 53,850 1,574,449 7 26 Michigan Jan. 26, ] 837 58,915 2,810,173 13 27 Florida Mar. 3, 845 58,680 752,619 4 28 Texas . Dec. 29, 845 265,780 3,896,542 18 29 Iowa . Dec. 28, 846 56,025 2,224,771 II 30 Wisconsin May 29, 848 56,040 2,333,860 II 31 California Sept. 9, 850 158,360 2,377,549 II 32 Minnesota May II, [858 83,365 2,075,708 10 33 Oregon Feb. 14, 1859 96,030 672,765 3 'il^ Appendix V STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES Continued No. Name Admission Gross Area in Square Miles Population, Census OF I910 Repre- sentatives IN Congress, 1911 34 Kansas .... Jan. 29, 1861 82,080 1 ,690,949 8 35 West Virginia June 19, 1863 24,780 1,221,119 6 36 Nevada . . Oct. 31. 1864 110,700 81,875 I 37 Nebraska . . Mar. I, 1867 77.510 1,192,214 6 38 Colorado . . Aug. I, 1876 103,925 799,024 4 39 North Dakota Nov. 2, 1889 70.795 577,056 3 40 South Dakota Nov. 2, 1S89 77,650 583,888 3 41 Montana . . Nov. 8, 1889 146,080 376,053 2 42 Washington Nov. II, 1889 69,180 1,141,990 5 43 Idaho . . July 3' 1890 84,800 325.594 2 44 Wyoming July 10, 1890 97,890 145.965 I 45 Utah . . Jan. 4, 1896 84,970 373.351 2 46 Oklahoma Nov. 16, 1907 70,057 1,657.155 8 47 New Mexico Aug. 21, 1911 122,580 327.301 48 Arizona . Alaska Hawaii . Porto Rico Philippines Tutuila Guam . . Aug. 21, 1911 113,020 590,884 6,449 3,435 115,026 77 210 204,354 64,356 191,909 1,118,012 7,635,426 5,800 8,661 The dates of admission for the first thirteen states are the dates when those states ratified the Constitution. The figures of gross areas are those given by the United States Census and include the land and water areas within such states. The electoral vote of each state may be obtained by adding two (for the Senators) to the number of Representatives in Congress. INDEX Abolitionists, rise of, 364. Acadia, captured by the British, and renamed Nova Scotia, 148-149. Acadians, expelled from Nova Scotia, 163. Adams, Charles Francis, United States Minister at London, 428. Adams, John, graduate of Harvard, 134; proposes Washington for commander- in-chief, 191-192; on committee to draw Declaration of Independence, 198; peace-general in Europe, 230- 232; the first Vice President, 259; President, 277; makes peace with France, 279; appoints John Marshall Chief Justice, 282-283 ; death of, 334 ; statistics of, 570. Adams, John Quincy, aids purchase of Florida, 320; President, 332-333 ; op- poses "gag rules," 364-365; death of, 365 ; statistics of, 570. Adams, Samuel, ^'Father of the Revolu- tion," 179; saved from capture, igo; proposes prayers by an Episcopalian, 185. Admission of States, 571-572. Africa, Dutch lose colonies to British, 512; division of , 5 1 4-5 1 5 . Agricultural Colleges, provided for, 410- 411. Alabama, admitted to the Union, 321 ; secession of, 400; statistics of, 571. Alabama Case, arbitration of, 462-463. Alaska, Purchase of, 453 ; statistics of, 572. Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition, 534. Albany, Congress at {1754), 159. Alien and Sedition Laws, 280. Allen, Ethan, capture of Ticonderoga, 192. America, visited by Norsemen, i ; Orien- tal claims of discovery, 3; fighting strength (1776), 197. American Colonization Society, 322. American Federation of Labor, rise of, 476-477- American Flag, first appearance at Fort Stanwix, 207. American Literature, beginnings of, 316; advance in, 361-363 ; increasing work- ers in, 529. American Monarchy, threat of, 232. American Republics, Bureau of, 483. Amherst, General, capture of Montreal, 166. Anarchists, riot by, 476. Andre, (an'dra), Major John, British spy, hanged, 223. Andros, Sir Edmund, becomes tyrant in New England, 119-121; put in jail, 122. Annapolis Convention (1786), 249-251. Antietam (fin-te'tam), battle of, 425-426. Area of States and Territories, 571-572. Argentina (iir'gen-te'na), pact of peace with Chile, 483, 484. Arizona, admitted to the Union, 534 ; sta- tistics of, 572. Arkansas (ar'kan-sa'), admitted to the Union, 355; secession of, 409; statis- tics of, 571. Arnold, Benedict, capture of Ticonderoga, 192 ; wounded at Quebec, 192 ; a hero at Saratoga, 209; treason of, 222-223; death of, 224. Art, advance in, 529-530. Arthur, Chester A., succeeds to presi- dency, 472 ; statistics of, 570. Articles of Confederation, put in force, 244-245 ; conventions to amend, 249- 252 ; end of, 255 ; text of, 543-553- 573 574 Index Astoria, first American settlement on the Pacific Coast, 300 ; restored to Amer- icans, 311. Atlanta, battle of, 439-440. Atlantic Cable, laying of, 452-453. Atlantic Ocean, becomes center of Eu- rope's interest, 4. Austria-Hungary, dual monarchy of, 513. Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia, 76-77. Balboa discovers the Southern Sea, ig. Barbary States, war with, 286-2S8. Barton, Clara, takes Red Cross nurses to Cuba, 499. Beecher, Henry Ward, in Kansas strug- gle, 388. Bemis Heights, battle of, 208. Bennington, battle of, 208. Bering Sea Arbitration, 490. Berkeley, William, is harsh governor in Virginia, 73-77^ Bienville (byaN've'l), Celoron de, seeks to establish French control in Ohio, 155, Black Hills, gold in, 467. Black-list, use of, 477. Blockade Runners, in the Civil War, 428- 430. Body of Liberties, adoption of, 95. Bonaparte, Napoleon, looks toward America, 283-284 ; becomes Emperor, 293 ; cripples American trade, 296- 297 ; downfall, 305 ; his " hundred days," 325 ; defeated at Waterloo, 326. Boone, Daniel, in the West, 215. Border States, sorrow in, 409. Boston, Quakers punished in, 116; siege of, begun, 191 ; end of siege, 194-195. "Boston Massacre" (1770), 180. "Boston Tea Party " (1773), 181. Boycott, use of, 477. Boys in the Colonies, 129-131. Braddock, General Edward, arrival in America, 160 ; defeat and death of, 162. Bradford, William, governor of Plym- outh, 62-63. Bragg, General, at Chattanooga, 434. Brooklyn Bridge, completion of, 473. Brown, John, in Kansas struggle, 389 ; his raid and death in Virginia, 395-396. Brown University, established, 134. Bryan, William Jennings, candidate for the presidency, 493. Bryant, William Cullen, 316. Buchanan, James, faces hard problem as President, 400-401 ; statistics of, 570. Bull Run, first battle of, 411; second battle of, 425. Bunker Hill, battle of, 192-193 ; monu- ment built, 334-335- Burgoyne (bur-goin'). General John, to seize the Hudson, 205 ; takes Ticon- deroga, 207 ; surrender at Saratoga, 208. Burr, Aaron, conspiracy of, 288. Business in the colonies, 135-137. Butler, Benjamin P., at battle of New Orleans, 421. Cabinet, beginning of, 245-246 ; in Con- stitution, 252. Cabot, John and Sebastian, voyages by, 17-18. Cahokia (ca'ho'kia), captured by Clark, 217. Calhoun, John C, becomes leader of States' Rights party, 339 ; favors nulli- fication, 346-347 ; death of, 382. Cahfornia, discovered and named, 31; gold discovered in, 374-375; adopts free constitution, 378-379; admitted to the Union, 381 ; statistics of, 571. Calvert, George, Lord Baltimore, secures grant that becomes Maryland, 78-79. Canada lost to France, 167 ; attacked by colonials, 192; Dominion organized, 463- Canals, interest in, aroused, 315; com- pletion of the Erie Canal, 335-337. Cape of Good Hope, discovery of, 6. Carnegie, Andrew, gives Palace of Peace, 519; building libraries, 530; great pub- lic gifts by, 532-533. Carolina, settlement of, 80-81. "Carpet Baggers," rule of, 454-455. Cartier (kar'tya'), Jacques, discovers Gulf of St. Lawrence, 21. Cass, Lewis, candidate for the presidency, 373- Index 575 Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia, ig6. Centennial Exposition, 469-470. Central America, republics in, 327. Champlain (sham'plan'), Samuel de, founds Quebec, 51; makes Iroquois enemies of the French, 51-53. Cerro Gordo, battle of, 372. Chancellorsville, battle of, 431. Chase, Salmon P., on admission of Cali- fornia, 379. Chattanooga, battles of, 434. Cherry Valley, Indian massacre in, 215. Chicago Fire, 462. Chickamauga, battle of, 434. Chile, pact of peace with Argentina, 483, 484. China, war with Japan, 515; revolt in, 516; "open door" policy, 517. Chinese laborers, excluded, 478. Christ of the Andes, 484. Christian Commission, in Civil War, 447- Church of England, separations from, 57-58. Churches, in the colonies, 133-134; divi- sions in, 364. Cibola (si'bo lo'), Seven Cities of, search for, 32. Circular Letters, aids of the colonials, 179. Cities, largest ones in colonial times, 139 ; growth of large ones, 494 ; sanitation in, 495-496. City of Mexico, battles near, 372. Civil Service Reform, begun, 472; ex- tension under President Cleveland, 488. Civil War, beginning of, 405-406 ; the two sides in, 407-408; advantage of each side, 410; the fourfold plan, 412 ; end of, at Appomattox, 443-444 ; money cost of, 447. Clark, George Rogers, conquers West, 21S-218. Clark, Captain William, explorer, 286. Clay, Henry, interest in slave coloniza- tion scheme, 322; as "peacemaker," 324; Secretary of State, ^S3', fights a duel, 338-339 ; his compromise over nullification, 348; candidate for Presi- dent, 349; his last compromise, 380- 381 ; death of, 383. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 382. Cleveland, Grover, elected President, 475 ; second election of, 487 ; statis- tics of, 570. Clinton, Governor DeWitt, completes Erie Canal, 335-336- Clinton, Sir Henr>', succeeds Howe as commander of British forces, 214; attempts to conquer the South, 221- 222. Clive, Robert, victories in India, 162. Coal, use of anthracite, 359. Coinage, law of 1S73, 466; Sherman law, 488. Cold Harbor, battle of, 438. College of William and Mary, second American college, 134. Colleges, in the colonies, 134-135. Colonial Institutions, origin of, 144. Colorado, admitted to the Union, 470; statistics of, 572. Columbia River, discovery of, 271. Columbia University, established as King's College, 134. Columbian Exposition, 485-486. Columbus Christopher, life of, lo-ii; voyages by, 11-15; death of, 15. Commerce, constitutional compromise on, 254-255 ; Interstate Commission of, 477-478. Committee of Correspondence, 189. Commons, British House of, attains power, 152. Concord, battle at, igo. Confederacy, formation of, 399-400; 408-409. Confederate agents, seizure of, 412. Confederate navy, work of, 428-429. Congress, war policy of, 410; quarrel with the President, 451-452; repre- sentation in (1911), 571-572. Congress at .Albany (1754), 159. Connecticut, founding of, 95-96 ; first written constitution of, 96; absorbs colony of New Haven, 116-117; gets new charter, 117; statistics of, 571. 576 Index Conservation of National Resources, 525- 526. Constantinople (kon-stan'ti-no'p'l), cap- tured by the Turks, 6. Constitution, framing of, 251-254; rati- fied, 254-255 ; clause of implied pow- ers, 267 ; thirteenth amendment to, 45 1 ; fourteenth amendment to, 45 2 ; fifteenth amendment to, 454; centen- nial of, 482 ; the text, 554-569. Continental Congress, first, 185-186; second, igi-192; end of, 243-245. "Continental Currency," paper money, 243- Conway Cabal, opposition to Washing- ton, 209-210. Cook, Captain James, geographic work in the Pacific, 221. Cooper, James Fenimore, 316. Cornwallis, Lord, checked in North Caro- lina, 224; surrenders at Yorktown, 228. Coronado, discoveries north of Mexico, 32. Corporations, formation of, 465 ; ex- tended to trusts, 477. Cortez, conquers Mexico, 30-31. Cotton, influence of, 262-263. Cotton Centennial, 474. Cotton gin, invention by Whitney, 262- 263. Cotton spinning, begun in America, 261. Cowpens, battle of, 225. "Coxey Army," march of unemployed, 487. Creek Indians, crushed in war, 307. Criminals, punishment of, 137-138. Cromwell, Oliver, becomes Lord Pro- tector of the Commonwealth of Eng- land, 73 ; attitude toward America, 75- Crown Point, capture of, iq2. Crusades, influence of, 4. Cuba, conquered by the Spaniards, 30 ; proposed to seize, 385-386 ; trouble in, 498-499 ; declared free, 501 ; aided by United States, 521. Custer, George A., killed by Indians, 467. Da Gama, Vasca, first European to reach India by sea, 6. Dartmouth College, established, 134. Davis, Jeff^erson, in Mexican War, 373; elected President of the Confederate States, 400 ; his call for volunteers, 408. Dawes, William, messenger of the Revo- lution, I go. Deane, Silas, foreign agent of United States, 213. Declaration of Independence, resolution for, ig8; myth about, 199; the text, 539-542. Delaware, becomes an independent col- ony, 107; statistics of, 571. De Soto, Ferdinand, discovers Mississippi River, 32-33- Detroit, fort built, 127; surrender of, 302. De Vaca, Cabeza, journey from Florida to Mexico, 31-32. Dewey, George, at battle of New Orleans, 42 1 ; his remarkable victory at Manila, 501-502. Direct Primaries, laws for, 527-528. "Dorr's Rebellion," in Rhode Island, 365-366. Douglas, Stephen A., proposes "squatter sovereignty," 386-387 ; debate with Lincoln, 393-395 ; defeated by Lin- coln, 396 ; held Lincoln's hat, 403. Drafts, opposition to, 435-436. Drake, Sir Francis, voyage along Pacific coast of America, 39 ; helps to destroy Spain's Invincible Armada, 43. Dred Scott Decision, result of, 390-392. Dutch settlers, struggle for self-govern- ment, 101-104. Eads, James B., builds a bridge and a jetty, 466-467. Education, improvements in, 528-529. Electoral Commission, in disputed elec- tion of 1876, 471. Emancipation, Proclamation of, 427. Embargo, substitute for war, 297-298. England, sends Cabots to New World, 16-18; rival of France, 146-147; part of Great Britain, 152. Index 577 "Era of Good Feeling," 316-317. Ericsson, John, improves steamships, 361 ; invents the Monitor, 415-416. Erie Canal, completion of, 335-336. Europe, Thirty Years' Peace in, 1 51-153 ; year of revolutions in, 375-376. Express, beginning of the business, 361. Fair Oaks, battle of, 424. Faneuil (Fan'el) Hall, " the Cradle of Liberty," 1790. Farragut, David G., at battle of New Orleans, 421-422 ; at battle of Mobile, 440-441- Ferdinand, King of Spain, marries Queen Isabella, 7. P'ield, Cyrus W., lays Atlantic Cable, 452- 453- "Fifty-four Forty or Fight," election cry, 366-367. Fillmore, Millard, succeeds to presidency, 382 ; statistics of, 570. " Fire Eaters," rise of, 364. Fire Nations, Indians of New York and Pennsylvania, 51. Fitch, John, invention of the steamboat, 289-290. Florida, discovery of, 19; becomes Brit- ish possession, 167; divided into East and West Provinces, 1 70 ; purchase of, 320; admitted to the Union, 368 ; se- cession of, 400 ; statistics of, 571 . Foote, Commodore, at Forts Henry and Donelson, 417-418; takes Island No. 10, 419. Forest Reserves, creation of, 493. Fort Donelson, capture of, 418. Fort Duquesne (du-kan'), French estab- lish, 158. Fort Henry, capture of, 418. Fort Necessity, Washington's only sur- render at, 158. Fort Stanwix, battle at, 207. Fort Sumter, in distress, 400-401 ; fired on, 405-406; old flag raised at, 445. France, rival of England, 146-147 ; awak- ened to American interests, 159; lost Canada and Louisiana, 167; Louis XVI becomes king, 195-196; makes alliance with Americans, 213-214; troops and fleet of, at Yorktown, 228; relations with, in 1783-1793, 271-273; incipient war with, 278-279; at war with Great Britain, 294 ; attitude dur- ing American Civil War, 413-415; driven out of Mexico, 452; gives Statue of Liberty, 479; ambitions of, Sio. Franklin, Benjamin, colonial agent at London, 173; on committee to draw Declaration of Independence, 198; secures alliance with France, 213-214; peace-general in Europe, 230-232; in -^ constitutional convention, 251-252. Franklin's plan of Union, rejected, 159. Fredericksburg, battle of, 427-428. Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, IS3, 196. Fremont, General John C, in California, 371 ; in the Ci\il War, 423. French, warned from Ohio country, 157. French and Indian War, begun, 159 ; end of, 162-163. French Revolution, 271-273. Frontenac (fron'te-nak). Governor of New France, 147-148. Frontier, vanishing of, 481. Fugitive Slave Law, defeat of, 383-384. Fulton, Robert, invention of his steam- boat, 288-290. Fur trade, French advances in, 53-54. Gage, General, begins attack on colonials, 190. Garfield, James A., elected President, 472 ; statistics of, 570. Garrison, William Lloyd, begins "The Liberator," 348-349. Gaspee, British revenue vessel burned by colonials, 180. Gates, General Horatio, official victor at Saratoga, 208; good as well as weak qualities of, 222. "Gateway of the West," 157. Geneva Award, 462. Georgia, last of southern colonies to be founded, 84-85 ; secession of, 400 ; statistics of, 571. 2P 578 Index Germany, unity and expansion of, 509- 510. Gettysburg, battle of, 432-433 ; Lin- coln's speech at, 435. Girls in the Colonies, 1 29-131. "Glorious Revolution," in England, 122. Gold, discovered in California, 374-375. Goodyear, Charles, inventions in rubber, 357-358. Gosnold, Bartholomew, attempts to plant a colony near Cape Cod, 43. Gout, Pitt's attack of, hastened the Revo- lution, 178. Grant, Ulysses S., in Mexican War, 373 ; victories at Forts Henry and Donelson, 417-418; at Shiloh, 418-419; at Vicksburg, 433 ; in chief command, 436-437; starts for Richmond, 438; at Appomattox, 443-444; elected President, 453-454; reelected, 463- 464; death of, 475-476; statistics of, 570. Gray, Captain Robert, discovers Colum- bia River, 271. Great Britain, awakened to American in- terests, 1 59 ; new lands and new prob- lems, 1 70-1 7 1 ; adopts harsh laws against colonies, 182-184; hires Hes- sians, 196-197; tardy offer of peace, 214; si ins treaty of peace, 231; in Nootka incident, 270; insists on right of search, 297 ; causes Indian attacks, 300; signs Treaty of Ghent, 309-310; Industrial Revolution in, 313-314; banishes Napoleon, 326; opposes Eu- ropean "Congresses," 327; claims to Oregon, 328; signs Webster- Ashbur- ton Treaty, 366 ; compromises Oregon question, 367 ; attitude during Amer- ican Civil War, 413-415 ; attains world- wide empire, 51 1-5 12. Great Lakes, discovery of, 124-125. Greeley, Horace, Lincoln's letter to, 427 ; defeated for presidency, 464. Greene, General Nathanael, success of, in the South, 225-226. Guam, conquest of, 504-505 ; statistics of, 572. Guilford Court House, battle of, 226. Gunpowder, affects history, 5. Hale, Nathan, the patriot spy, hanged, 201. Hamilton, Alexander, service to America, 249 ; moves for stronger constitution, 250-251; helps to secure ratification of Constitution, 255 ; first Secretary of the Treasury, 259; favors a bank, 266-267 ; killed by Aaron Burr in a duel, 288. Hancock, John, saved from capture, 190 ; first to sign Declaration of Independ- ence, 198, Harnden, William F., begins express busi- ness, 361. Harrison, Benjamin, President, 482; statistics of, 570. Harrison"; William Henry, fights Indians, 300 ; sent against Detroit, 303 ; elected President, 354 ; statistics of, 570. Hartford Convention (1814), 307—308. Harvard College, beginning of, 93, 134. Havana, returned to Spain, 167. Hawaii (ha-wl'e). Republic of, created, 491; annexed as a Territory, 505; statistics of, 572. Hay, John, favors "open door" policy, S17. Hayes, Rutherford B., elected President, 470-471; ends "Carpet-Baggers'" rule, 471 ; statistics of, 570. Hayne, Robert Y., favors nullification, 347- Henry, Patrick, opposes Stamp Act, 174; opposition to Constitution, 255. Hoe, Richard M., invents printing press, 3S8. "Holy Alliance," formation of, 326. Home Life in the Colonies, 129-133. Homestead Law, 410. Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 307. Howe, Admiral, aids his brother General Howe, 200. Howe, Elias, invents sewing machine, 358. Howe, General George Augustus, death of, 164. Index 579 Howe, General William, succeeds General Gage, 192 ; arrives at New York, 200; captures Philadelphia, 206-207 ; mis- led by Charles Lee, 210; succeeded by Clinton, 214. Hudson Bay Company, beginnings of, 149; tries to hold Oregon, 367. Hudson, Henry, discovers Hudson River for the Dutch, 22; discovers Hudson Bay for the English, 23. Hudson River, strategic value of, igg- 200. Huguenots (hu'ge-nots), seek homes in America, 33-34 ; many settle in South Carolina, 84. Hull, General William, surrenders De- troit, 302. Idaho, admitted to the Union, 482 ; sta- tistics of, 572. Illinois, admitted to the Union, 321 ; sta- tistics of, 571. Imperialism, change to, 508-509. Implied Powers, clause of, in the Consti- tution, 267. India, French conciuests returned to Brit- ain, 154; Clive's victories in, 162. Indiana, admitted to the Union, 321 ; statistics of, 571. Indian missions, success of the French in, 54- Indians, culture of, 25-27 ; influence on settlers, 28-29; troubles with, in the West, 467. Industrial Revolution in England, 313- 314- Initiative and Referendum, laws for, 527- 528. . ■ . . "Insurgents," in politics, 533. Internal Improvements, 315. Interstate Commerce Commission, 477- 478. _ Inventions, at the beginning of the nation, 261; the reaper, 355-359; many new machines, 485-486 ; wire- less telegraph and other recent devices, 530-531- Invincible Armada, destruction of Spain's great fleet, 41-43. Iowa, admitted to the Union, 36S; sta- tistics of, 571. Iron, expanding use of, 359. Iroquois, enemies of the French, 51-53; remain friends with the English, 150- 151 ; treaty with, 159. Irrigation, advance in, 525. Irving, Washington, 316. Isabella, Queen of Spain, marries King Ferdinand, 7; town named in her honor, 15 ; death of, 15. Italy, nation created, 512-513. Jackson, Andrew, in Tennessee, 277 ; fighting Indians, 307 ; wins battle of New Orleans, 308 ; fighting Indians in Florida, 320; elected President, 339- 340 ; character of, 344-345 ; against nullification, 347-348; destroys the United States Bank, 349-350; statis- tics of, 570. Jackson, Thomas J. ("Stonewall"), in Mexican War, 373 ; at battle of Bull Run, 411 ; death of, 431. James II, driven from throne of England, 106. Jamestown, first English colony, 45-47. Jamestown Exposition, 527. Japan, Perry's visit to, 385 ; sudden rise of, 515-516 ; war with Russia, 517-518. Jay, John, peace general in Europe, 230- 232 ; Secretary of Foreign Affairs, 246 ; favors Constitution, 254; first Chief Justice, 250; author of treaty with Great Britain, 274. Jefferson, Thomas, wrote Declaration of Independence, 198; first Secretary of State, 259; opposes a bank, 267 ; Pres- ident, 283 ; plans Lewis and Clark Ex- pedition, 285 ; death of, 334; statistics of, 570. Johnson, Andrew, elected Vice-President, 441-442 ; becomes President, 446 ; quarrel with Congress, 451-452; trial of, 453 ; statistics of, 570. Johnston, Albert Sidney, death of, 418- 419. Johnston, Joseph E., before Vicksburg, 433 ; surrender of, 444. 58o Index Joliet (zho'lya'), Louis, travels of, 125. Jones, John Paul, captures the Serapis, 220. Joseph II, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, 196. Kalb, Baron de, aids Americans, 205. Kansas, struggle for, 387-3S8; slavery lost in, 393 ; admitted to the Union, 402; statistics of, 572. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, causes repeal of Missouri Compromise, 387. Kaskaskia, fort built, 127; captured by Clark, 217. Kearny, General Stephen W., seizes Santa Fe, 371. Kentucky, admitted to the Union, 276- 277 ; race for, in Civil War, 422-423 ; statistics of, 571. Kentucky Resolutions, to protect states' rights, 280-281. Kidd, Captain William, becomes famous pirate, 137. "King Cotton," results of an invention, 262. King George's War, 153-154; end of, 154. King Philip's Indian War, 118. King's Mountain, battle of, 224. King William's War, 147-148. Knights of Labor, origin of, 464 ; rivaled by American Federation of Labor, 476- 477- Knox, General Henry, drags cannon to Boston, 194; first Secretary of War, 259- Kosciusko, General, aids Americans, 205. Ku-Klux Klan, work of, 456. Labor, Department of, 478. Labor Unions, formation of, 464 ; dis- approve Anarchists, 477. Lafayette, Marquis de, comes to aid America, 205 ; wounded at Brandy- wine, 206; confronts Cornwallis, 226- 227 ; last visit to America, 335. Lake Champlain, battle of, 305-306. Lake Erie, battle of, 303-304. La Salle, explorations by, 125-127. Lee, Arthur, foreign agent of United States, 213. Lee, General Charles, proves treacherous to Washington, 200-201 ; misleads General Howe, 210; dismissed from American army, 215. Lee, "Light-horse Harry," takes Paulus Hook, 219. Lee, Richard Henry, moves for independ- ence, 198. Lee, Robert E., in Mexican War, 373 ; sent to capture John Brown, 396 ; sug- gested as commander-in-chief of the Union army, 407 ; in chief command of Confederate forces, 424; in battle of Antietam, 425-426; in battle of Gettysburg, 432-433 ; surrender at Appomattox, 443-444. "Leif the Lucky," discovers America, i. Leon (la-on'), Ponce de, discovers Flor- ida, 19. Lewis and Clark Expedition, 285-286. Lewis and Clark E.-tposition, 526-527. Lewis, Captain Meriwether, explorer, 285. Lexington, Revolution begun at, 189. Liberty Bell, myth about, 199. Libraries, great growth of, 530. Lincoln, Abraham, debate with Douglas, 393~39S ; elected President, 396 ; char- acter of, 398-399 ; journey to Washing- ton, 401-402 ; inaugural address, 403 ; his call for volunteers, 408 ; his "white elephants," 412; attitude toward slavery, 426; his proclamation of emancipation, 427 ; speech at Gettys- burg, 435 ; ridicule of, 435 ; elected for second term, 441 ; letter to Mrs. Bixby, 442 ; death of, 445-446 ; statistics of, S70. Livingston, Robert R., on committee to draw Declaration of Independence, ig8 ; Secretary of Foreign Affairs, 246 ; negotiates purchase of Louisiana, 284. Local government, in colonial times, 142- 144. London Company, secures lands in Amer- ica, 43-45- Lookout Mountain, battle of, 434.) Index 581 Louis XIV, King of France, attitude | toward his American colonies, 127-128. Louis XVI, locksmith, King of France, 195- Louisburg, captured by New Englanders, 154- Louisiana, named by La Salle, 125-127; joined to New France by chain of forts, 127; receives new settlers, 151 ; ceded by France to Spain, 167; purchased by the United States, 284-285 ; ad- mitted to the Union, 321 ; secession of, 400; statistics of, 571. Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 526-527. Loyalists, become refugees, 194-195. Lundy's Lane, battle of, 305. Madison, James, favors Constitution, 254-255; President, 298; interested in slave colonization scheme, 322; statistics of, 570. Magellan, Fernando, names Pacific Ocean, 19-21 ; death of, 21. "Magna Charta of the West," 246-247. Maine, founding of, 98-99; admitted to the Union, 324; statistics of, 571. Maine, battleship, destruction of, in Havana, 500. Manchuria, contest for, 517-518. Manhattan Island, bought from the In- dians, 55-56. Manufacturing, growth of, after War of 1812, 313; stimulated by war tariff, 410. Maria Theresa, Queen, successful in war, 153-154, 196. Marion, the "Swamp Fox," 224. Marquette (mar'ket'), Father James, travels of, 125. Marshall, John, becomes Chief Justice, 282-283. Maryland, settlement of, 78-79 ; statis- tics of, 571. Mason and Dixon Line, established, 112- 113; extended, 322-323. Massachusetts, settlement of, 88-8g; has new church, go ; town government, 90; political and religious troubles, 91 ; banishes Roger Williams, 92 ; schools and printing, 93 ; defies the home government, 11 7-1 18; absorbs New Hampshire and Maine, 118-119; loses her charter, 119; under tyrant Andros, 119-121; gets new charter, 122 ; statistics of, 571. Massasoit, Chief, makes treaty with the Pilgrims, 62. Matches, invention of, 358. Mayflower, voyage of the Pilgrims in, 60- 61 ; compact in the cabin of, 62 ; re- turn to England, 63. McClellan, George B., drilling Union troops, 411; in the Peninsular cam- paign, 423-424; in battle of Antietam, 425-426 ; candidate for the presidency, 441. McCormick, Cyrus Hall, invents reaper, 355-357- McDowell, General, in battle of Bull Run, 411 ; defends Washington, 424. McKinley, William, elected President, 492-493 ; tried to prevent war with Spain, 500-501 ; death of, 522; statis- tics of, 570. Meade, George G., in Mexican War, 373 ; in battle of Gettysburg, 432. Mediterranean Sea, center of tne world's commerce, 3. "Men of Western Waters," 275-277. Merrimac, battle with the Monitor, 415- 416. Mexican War, declaration of, 369 ; end of, 372 ; results of, 373. Mexico, conquest by Cortez, 30-31 ; in- dependence of, 327; the French in, 415; downfall of Maximilian, 452. Michigan, admitted to the Union, 355 ; statistics of, 571. Minnesota, admitted to the Union, 395 ; statistics of, 571. Minute Men, 189-190. Missionary Ridge, battle of, 434. Mississippi, admitted to the Union, 321 ; secession of, 400; statistics of, 571. "Mississippi Bubble," its influence in America, 151. Mississippi River, reached by the French explorers, 125 ; strategic value of, 416- 582 Index 417; the Eads bridge and jetty, 466- 467. Missouri, admitted to the Union, 324; conquered by Union troops, 416; sta- tistics of, 571. Missouri Compromise, 323-324; repeal of, 386-387- Missouri Territory, created, 321. Mobile, capture of, 440-441. Modoc Indian War, 467. Mohammedans, invasion of Europe checked, 67. Monitor, battle with the Merrimac, 415- 416. Monmouth, battle of, 215. Monroe, James, negotiates purchase of Louisiana, 284 ; President in Era of Good Feeling, 316-317; statistics of, S70. Monroe Doctrine, announced, 320; meaning of, 330 ; enforced as to Mex- ico, 452 ; V'enezuela case under, 491- 492. Montana, admitted to the Union, 482 ; statistics of, 572. Montcalm, the French general, defeat and death of, 164-166. Monterey, battle of, 371. Montgomery, General, killed at Quebec, 192. Montreal, surrender of, 166. Moors, conquest of, 6-7. Morgan, Daniel, a leader at Saratoga, 209. Mormon religion, origin and growth, 363-364. Morris, Robert, wins money victory for America, 203-204; Superintendent of Finance, 246. Morse, Samuel F. B., invents telegraph, 360-361. Morton, Dr. William T. G., aids surgery, 358- Moultrie, Colonel, honored for holding his fort, 195. Murfreesboro, battle of, 423. National Banks, law for, 447-448. National Parks, creation of, 493. Natural Gas, discovery of, 466. Navigation Laws, efforts to break by smuggling, 137. Navy, United States, beginning of, 219; increased in Civil War, 429-430 ; steel cruisers ordered, 474. Nebraska, statistics of, 572. Neutrality, Proclamation of, 273. Nevada, silver discovered in, 395 ; sta- tistics of, 572. New Amsterdam, growth of, 101-103 ; becomes New York, 105. New France, settlement of, 50 ; joined to Louisiana by chain of forts, 127; colo- nial government in, 127-128. New Hampshire, founding of, 98-99 ; statistics of, 571. New Haven, founding of, 97-98 ; united with Connecticut, 116-117. New Jersey, divided and reunited, 107- 109; statistics of, 571. New Mexico, admitted to the LTnion, 534 ; statistics of, 572. New nationalism, 525-526. New Netherland, settlement of, 55 ; be- comes New York, 104-105. New Orleans, founding of, 127 ; battle of, 308 ; capture of, 421. New Sweden, settlement of, 64 ; con- quered by the Dutch, 65. New York, becomes English colony in place of Dutch New Netherland, 104- 105 ; hatred for King James IL 106- 107 ; statistics of, 571. New York City, riots in, or drafts, 436. Nicola, Colonel Lewis, invites Washing- ton to become the American king, 232. Nootka incident, threat of war, 270-271. Norsemen, discover America, i . North CaroHna, settlement of, 81-82 ; secession of, 409; statistics of, 571. North Dakota, admitted to the Union, 482 ; statistics of, 472. Nova Scotia, becomes British possession, 148-149. Nullification, contest over, 346-347. Oglethorpe, James Edward, founds Georgia, 84-85. Index S^3 Ohio, admittedjto the Union, 291; sta- tistics of, 571. Ohio country, French chain of forts in, iSS; conquered by Clark, 215-218. Oil, drilled for in Pennsylvania, 395. Oklahoma, rush to, 481 ; admitted to the Union, 535; statistics of, 572. "Old Ironsides," naval victory by, 301. "Omnibus Bill," Compromise of 1850, 381. Ordinance of 1787, 246-247. Oregon, admitted to the Union, 395 ; statistics of, 571. Oregon country, claimed by Russia, 328; boundary settled, 367. Orient, goods from, 4-5 ; influence on America, 385. "Ostend Manifesto," relating to Cuba, 386. Otis, James, opposition to Writs of Assist- ance, 172. Palace of Peace, hopes centered in, 518- Sig- Palatinate War, in Europe, 147-148. Palo Alto, battle of, 369-370. Panama Canal, Treaty, 382 ; plan for building, 522-524. Panama Congress (1826), 338-339. Pan-American Congress, 482-484. Panic, in the year 1837, 351; in 1857, 390; in 1873, 465-466; in 1893, 487. Patents, centennial of office of, 485. Peace, Great Britain signs treaty of, 231. Peninsular Campaign, in Civil War, 423- 424. Penn, William, founds liberal colony of Pennsylvania, 110-113; makes treaty with the Indians, 112. Pennsylvania, settlement of, 110-113; Lee's invasion of, 432; statistics of, 571- Pensions, new law for, 484. Peciuot Indian War, 96-97. Perry, Commodore Matthew C, opens Japan, 385. Perry, Captain Oliver H., great victory by, on Lake Erie, 303-304. Perryville, battle of, 423. Pet Banks, use of, 350. Petersburg, siege begun, 438; end of siege, 443. Philadelphia, captured by the British, 206-207; abandoned by British, 214- 215- Philippines, government of, 521 ; sta- tistics of, 572. Pickett, George E., in Mexican War, 373- Pierce, Franklin, elected President, 383 ; statistics of, 570. Pilgrims, migration to Holland, 58; settle in America, 59-61. Pirates, flourish in colonial times, 137. Pitt, William, in power in Great Britain, 162; honored in the name of Pitts- burgh, 163; compliments Americans, 186. Plains of Abraham, decisive battle on, 165-166. Plymouth, landing of the Pilgrims at, 60-61 ; colony becomes independent, 64. Plymouth Company, secures lands in America, 43-45. Pocahontas, friend of the white people, 47- Poland, divided, 196. Political parties, beginning of, 265 ; re- organized, 333-334 ; national conven- tions begun, 349; appearance of new parties, 389-390. Polk, James K., elected President, 366; statistics of, 570. Polo, Marco, travels of, 3, 4-5 ; influence of, 15. Pontiac, Indian chief, war by, 167. Pope Alexander VI, divides the world by a decree, 14. Pope, General, loses second battle of Bull Run, 425. Population, numbers and kinds of people in the colonies, 138-139; in 1790, 259; in 1910, 571-572. Porto Rico, conquered by the Spaniards, 30 ; American conquest, 504 ; govern- ment of, 521 ; statistics of, 572. Postage rates, reduced, 474. 584 Index Presque Isle (presk'eK), French fort, 155- Presidential Succession Law, 478. Presidents, of the United States, statis- tics of, 570. Princeton, battle of, 203. Princeton College, established, 134. Printing, influence of its invention, 5-6; beginning of, in Boston, 93. Privateers, in Civil War, 428-429. Proclamation of 1763, 170. Prohibition, laws extended, 528. Pulaski, General, aids Americans, 205. Quakers, origin of, 109; colonize in America, 110-113; preach in Boston, 115-116; visit Lincoln, 427. Quebec, captured from the French, 166; Province of, created, 170; defeat of colonials at, 192. Queen Anne's War, 148-149. Queen Elizabeth, maintains peace be- tween England and Spain, 38-39. Queen Mary of England, marries King Phihp II of Spain, 37. Railroad, beginnings of, 337-338; great improvements in, 359-360; first trans- continental line, 460-461. Raleigh, Sir Walter, attempts to colonize America, 40-41. Randolph, Edmund, first Attorney- General, 259. Randolph, John, of Roanoke, fights duel with Clay, 338-339- Reaper, invention of, 355-357. "Recall," laws for, 527-528. Reconstruction, policies of, 449-451. Reformation, influence on European and American history, 29-30. Republican party, origin of, 389. Resaca de la Palma, battle of, 371. Revere, Paul, messenger of the Revolu- tion, 189-190. Revolution, begun at Lexington and Concord, 1 89-1 91 ; ended at Yorktown, 228. Riots, in Civil War, 435-436. Rhode Island, founding of, 99-100; Dorr's Rebellion in, 366-367 ; statis- tics of, 571. Roads, poor ones in the colonies, 136; to the West, 315. Robertson, James, in the West, 215. Rochambeau (ro'shaN'bo'), General, with French troops in the American Revolution, 228. Rockefeller, John D., great public gifts by, 532-533- Roosevelt, Theodore, succeeds to presi- dency, 522; end of second term, 533; statistics of, 570, Russia, claims of, in America, 328; treaties with, 330-331; progress of, 513-514; war with Japan, 517-518. Rutgers College, estabhshed, 134. Ryswick (riz'wik). Treaty of, 147. Saga (sa'ga), of Eric the Red, first account of America, 2. Sage, Mrs. Russell, benevolences of, 533. St. Augustine, oldest city in the United States, 35. St. Leger, General, defeated at Fort Stan- wix, 207. Sanitary Commission, in Civil War, 447. San Juan (siin ho6-an') Case, arbitration of, 463. Santa Anna, Mexican general, 371. Santa Fe (san'ta fa'), foundingof city, 35. Santiago (san'te-ii'go), Spanish fleet shut in, 502-503 ; battles of, 503-504. Saratoga, one of the world's decisive bat- tles at, 209. "Scalawags," rule of, 455. Schools, beginning of, in Boston, 93 ; im- provement in, 363. Schurz, Car* refugee from Germany, 376. Schuyler (skl'ler). General, real victor at Saratoga, 209. Scott, General Winfield, in Mexican War, 371-372; defeated for presidency, 383 ; too old for command in Civil War, 436. Seals, regulations for taking, 490. Secession, seven cotton states lead in, 399-400 ; four others, 408-409. " Seven Days' Battles," in Civil War, 425. Index S^S Seven Years' War in Europe, 162. Sevier (se-ver'), John, in the West, 215. Seward, William H., against compromise, 382 ; Lincoln's Secretary of State, 403- 404; action in Trent affair, 412—413; purchase of Alaska, 453. Shays's Rebellion (1786), 240-241. Shenandoah Valley, Sheridan and Early in, 438-430. Sheridan, Philip H., in Shenandoah Val- ley, 438-439. Sherman, Roger, on committee to draw Declaration of Independence, 198. Sherman, William T., in Mexican War, 373; at Shiloh, 418-419; at Vicksburg, 433 ; ''from Atlanta to the Sea," 439- 440. Shiloh (shi'lo), battle of, 418. Silver, law for coinage, 488. Sioux (soo), Indian War, 467. Slavery, constitutional compromise on, 253-254; balance of power in Senate, 321-322; boundaries of, 322-323; agitation, 364-365 ; balance of power restored, 36S; defeat of fugitive slave law, 383-384 ; effect of Dred Scott De- cision, 392 ; Lincoln's attitude toward, 426-427. Slave Trade, law against, 291. Slaves, introduction of, 70 ; treatment of, in the colonies, 139-142. Smith, John, at Jamestown, 45-47 ; names New England, 47-49. Smugglers, flourish in colonial times, 137. Sons of Liberty, organized opposition by colonials, 175. South America, republics in, 327. South Carolina, settlement of, 81-83 ; se- cession of, 399; statistics of, 571. South Dakota, admitted to the Union, 482; statistics of, 572. Spain, in Nootka incident, 270; control of the Mississippi, 276 ; loses American colonies, 327 ; poor policy in Cuba, 499 ; signs treaty of peace, 506. Spanish-American War, begun, 500-501 ; ended, 506. Specie Payment, resumption of, 466. Spoils system, introduction of, 345-346. Spottsylvania (spot'sil-va'ni-a). Court House, battle of, 438. Stamp Act, increases opposition, 172; partial repeal of, 176-177. Stamp Act Congress (1765), 175. Standish, Myles, captain at Plymouth, 62. "Standpatters," in politics, 533. Stark, General Jolm, at battle of Benning- ton, 208. States, creation of, 238; problems of, 239-240; land claims of, 241; ratify Constitution, 254-255 ; statistics of, 571-572. Statue of Liberty, erected, 479. Steamboat, invention of, 288-290. Steamships, improvements in, 361. Steuben, Baron, aids Americans, 205. Stevens, Isaac I., in Mexican War, 373. Stillwater, battle of, 208. Stowe, Harriet Beecher, influence of her book, 384-385. Strikes, by railroad men, 471-472; year of, 476. Stuyvesant (sti'vc-sant), Peter, governor of New Netherland, 103-105. Sullivan, General, punishes Indians, 217. Sumner, Senator Charles, assault upon, 388. Taft, William Howard, elected President, 533 ; appoints new members of Su- preme Court, 534 ; statistics of, 570. Taney (ta'ni), Chief Justice, renders Dred Scott Decision, 390-392. Tariff, provision for. 269-270; law of 1816, 314; "Of Abominations," 339; war increase of, 410; McKinley law, 484 ; Dingley law, 494. Taylor, General Zachary, in Mexican War, 369-371 ; elected President, 373 ; on admission of California, 379; death of, 382 ; statistics of, 570. Tea, tax on, retained, 180. Tecumseh, (te-kum'se), Indian chief, war of, 300 ; death of, 304. Telegraph, invention of, 360-361. Temperance, w^ork for, in America, 340- 586 Index Tennessee, admitted to the Union, 277 ; secession of, 4og; statistics of, 571. Territories of the United States, statis- tics of, 572. Texas, admitted to the Union, 368 ; cause of Mexican War, 369; secession of, 400; statistics of, 571. "The Critical Period," 238. "The Liberator," publication begun, 348. "The Shameful," French name for the Treaty of Paris, 167. "The Star-spangled Banner," 306. Thirty Years' Peace, importance of, to colonies, 149-151 ; in Europe, 151-153. Thirty Years' War, results of, in Europe, 65-66. Ticonderoga, capture of, 192. Tilden, Samuel J., candidate for the presidency, 470. Tobacco, culture of, in Virginia, 69-70. Townshend Acts (1767), 178-179. Transportation, poor facilities of, 264;. improved by the steamboat, 288-290; canals and railroads, 336-337 ; im- proved railroads, 359-360; improved steamships, 361. Treasury, the Independent, law for, 351. Treaty of Ghent (gent) (1814), end of War of 181 2, 309. Treaty of Paris (1763), end of the Seven Years' War, 167. Treaty of Washington, arbitration, 462- 463- Trent Affair, war threatened by, 412. Trenton, battle of, 203. Trusts, rise of, 477. Tyler, John, succeeds to the presidency, 354; statistics of, 570. Tutuila (too''too-e'la), statistics of, 572. "Uncle Tom's Cabin," influence of, 384- 385. "Underground Railroad," in slavery agi- tations, 384. Union, Franklin's plan of, rejected, 159. Union Pacific Railroad, completion of, 460-461. United Colonies of New England, forma- tion of the league, 11 4-1 15. United States Bank, organized, 266-267 ; recharter of, 314; destroyed by Jack- son, 349-350. University of Pennsylvania, established, 134- Utah, admitted to the Union, 493 ; sta- tistics of, 572. Utrecht (u'trekt). Treaty of, 148. Valley Forge, Washington's winter there, 211. Van Buren, Martin, becomes Secretary of State, 345; President, 353; statis- tics of, 570. Venezuela (ven'e-zwe'Ia), Monroe Doc- trine applied to, 491-492. Vera Cruz, battle of, 372. Vermont, the Green Mountain State, 241-242; statistics of, 571. Verrazano (ver'rat-sa'no), voyage to America for France, 21. Vespucius (ves-pu'shus), Americus, voy- ages by, 16 ; name given to new world, 18. Vicksburg, battle of, 433. Vincennes, fort built, 127; captured by Clark, 217-218. Vinland, Norsemen's name for America, Virginia, new charter of, 68-69 ; slaves in, 70; self-government secured, 71; becomes a royal province, 72; cava- liers welcomed from England, 73 ; makes treaty with Cromwell, 75 ; lib- erties threatened in, 75-76; secession of, 409; statistics of, 571. Virginia Resolutions, to protect states' rights, 280. Voters, to whom the right was given in the colonies, 143. WaldseemuUer (val'za-miil'ler), Martin, suggests name of America, 18. Wall Street, origin of, 104. Walpole, Robert, establishes British Cab- inet, 152. War of Austrian Succession, in Europe, 153-154- War of 1 81 2, declaration of, 300-301 ; Index 587 end of, 309; national pride resulting from, 312; issue settled in Civil War, 413- War of the Spanish Succession, in Europe, 148-149. Warren, General, death of, at Bunker Hill, 193- Washington, city of, founded, 281-282 ; captured by the British, 306; danger of capture, in Civil War, 424-425. Washington, George, sent with warning to French, 157 ; only surrender, at Fort Necessity, 158; accepts command of colonial army without salary, 192 ; de- feated on Long Island, 200; victories at Trenton and Princeton, 202-203 ; delays Howe at Philadelphia, 206-207 ; winter at Valley Forge, 211; refuses the American crown, 232-233; goes back to his farm, 235-236 ; President of constitutional convention, 251; the first President, 257 ; issues proclama- tion of neutrality, 273 ; faces angry people, 275; farewell address, 277; death of, 281 ; good advice to Ameri- cans, 534-535 ; statistics of, 570. Washington Territory wins San Juan Islands, 463 ; state admitted to the Union, 482 ; statistics of, 572. Waterloo, battle of, 326. Wayne, "Mad Anthony," takes Stony Point, 218. Weather Bureau, organization of, 461- 462. Webster-Ashburton Treaty, signed, 366. Webster, Daniel, against nullification, 346-347 ; in Compromise of 1850, 381 ; death of, 383. Webster, Noah, escort for Washington, 193-1^4; his dictionary published, 361-362. Wells, Dr. Horace, uses laughing gas in dentistry, 359. Wesley, John and Charles, visit Georgia, 86. West, settlement begun, 215 ; land claims in, by the States, 241 ; " Magna Charta " of, 246-247 ; life in, after the war, 261 ; rapid settlement in, 319-320 ; influence in Jackson's time, 345; vigor of, 354- 355- Westphalia (west-fa'li-a). Treaty of, 66. West Point, Arnold's treason at, 222. . West Virginia, admitted to the Union, 409; statistics of, 572. Wildcat Banks, growth of, 350. Wilderness, battles of, 438. Wilkes, Charles, in Trent Affair, 412. William and Mary, become King and Queen of England, 106. Williams, Roger, banished from Massa- chusetts, 92 ; founds Rhode Island, 99-100. Wilmot Proviso, meaning of, 373 ; North rallies round, 378. Winchester, battle of, 439. Winthrop, John, governor of Massachu- setts, 89. Wisconsin, admitted to the Union, 368; statistics of, 571. Witchcraft, the Salem craze, 138. Whiskey Rebellion (1794), 264. Whitney, Eli, invents cotton-gin, 262- 263. Whittier, the "Quaker Poet," 381. Wolfe, General James, sent to America, 162; death of, at the moment of vic- tory, 166. Woman Suffrage, states adopting, 528. Writs of Assistance, resistance to, 171- 172. Wyoming, admitted to the Union, 482 ; statistics of, 572. Wyoming Valley, Indian massacre in, 215. X Y Z Case, attempt at bribery, 277- 279. Yale College, established, 134; students escort Washington, 193-194. Yorktown, battle of, 228; news of, in Europe, 230. 'T^HE following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects Source Readers in American History SELECTED AND ANNOTATED BY ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, of Harvard University IN FOUR VOLUMES. ILLUSTRATED No. I. Colonial Children = = = Price 40 cents, net No. 11. Camps and Firesides in the Revolution. Price 50 cents, net No. III. How Our Grandfathers Lived = Price 60 cents, net No. IV. 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