' -^ %'°^^lv^* J' ^- \ v/^^XF^* %4 V <, „ % O' ^ T- 6? 'it '^■^' - 1 •/, '^O Q^ 'o^ "bo^ "^^^ ^ .\0 ^.. * -) s o -.^*'" i* ■%,. ../ ^->^;.-' PLANT PROPAGATION Greenhouse and Nursery Practice M^' G^ K A I N S Professor of Horticulture, Peiinsvlnania State College NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 1916 ^3i\i Copyright, 1916, by ORANGE JUDD COMPANY A// Rights Reserved 4i: S^ Printed in U. S A MAY 24 IbiB ICU4331.47 . PREFACE WITHIN the last few years so many discoveries of new facts have been made by plant investi- gators, so many short-cuts and "wrinkles" worked out ])y plant propagators, and so many nursery, green- house and garden methods simplified or made more effec- tive, that books hitherto available on plant propagation are now out of date. Nurserymen and other propagators who have not been able to keep their eyes upon the whole field have been calling for a book which will give them the best of these methods and "wrinkles" in the comparatively small compass of a single volume. At the same time there has been a more and more insistent call for a volume that will not only include the character of information called for by nurserymen and other plant propagators, but also discuss the subject of plant propagation from the standpoint of fundamental principles and include the latest conclusions advanced by investigators throughout the world. With these two main objects in view the author has brought together the latest information on all branches of practical and theoretical plant propagation so as to make a volume that will appeal with equal force to the pro- fessional propagator and to the teacher of plant propaga- tion in agricultural colleges and schools at home and abroad. The former will be most attracted by the new methods and short cuts which will make for efficiency ; the latter will appreciate the convenience of arrangement, the numerous illustrations and the large list of suggested practicums (page 292). To professional propagator, teacher and amateur the plant lists and condensed rules for propagation will also be specially interesting. Literature of propagation is abundant, though much VI PREFACJ-: is necessarily repetitive. The best way to get in touch with the work clone since 1888 is by means of the Jixperi- ment Station Record of the United States Department of Agriculture at Washington. Iliis is a technical review of the world's scientific literature pertaining to agricul- ture. Two volumes, of six monthly numbers each, are is- sued annually at a subscription price of $1.00 a volume, with a restricted free distribution to libraries, government and state agricultural inxestigators, etc. It abstracts and indexes the current agricultural literature, not only of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the ex- periment stations, but the more important periodical and book publications of the world. Extensive and minutely detailed indexes are published semi-annually and assem- bled into combined indexes from time to time. Bv means of Nursery and Florist Industries of the United States (Figures from Census of 1910.) Year Fls. & Pits. Nursery Prods. Acreage 1909 1899 18,248 9,307 96.1 80,618 59,492 Increase % 35.5 Value 1909 1899 $34,872,329 18,758,864 85.9 $21,050,822 10,123,873 Increase % 107.9 Acreage per establishment 1909 1899 $3,286 3,771 $2,132 2,028 Acre value _ _ . 1909 1899 $1,911 2,015 $261 170 these indexes the searcher may easily post himself as to the scientific work reported on any agricultural subject in the least possible time. Tn the ])reparation of this I'RKFACK Vli \olunie free use has been made of the J*2xperiment Station Record, from which many passages have been copied, more or less condensed. Most of those relating to foreign and some concerning American work have been thus secured. The majority of these have been set in small type to avoid too frequent references in the text to the source of information. Where possible the original sources were sought and quotations or synopses made first hand. The work of Lucien Daniel, so frequently presented in this volume, is likely to effect a revolution among tra- ditional grafting doctrines, but this revolution will prob- ably be slow in its movement because it must not be ac- cepted without repeated investigation. Daniel's theories, though based upon facts, are naturally doubted by many plant propagators or are only partly credited. Yet in practice many of them have already been justified. Herr I^indemuth of the Royal University Garden at Berlin has supported some of them by his investigations and other investigators in Europe, Australia and America have thrown additional light upon the general subject of plant ])ropagation. Considering the importance and the extent of the nursery and florist business, as shown by the last census of the United States, it is evident that competition between establishments will keep plant propagators on the qui vive to test new theories and practices and to adopt all those that will tend toward higher efficiency and economy of production. This fact is attested by the very generous response to requests for aid and suggest i(~in made l)y nurserymen in many states. This aid the author gratefully acknowledges. Special thanks are due Mr. B. F. Williamson of New York who dre.w almost all of the pen and ink sketches; to Mr. E. T. Kirk, photographer at the Penn- sylvania State College for many of the photos not special- ly referred to below; to Mr. J. R. Bechtel of the horticul- tural department staff at the college for pictures taken in Vlll TREFACE the Henry A. Dreer g-reenhouses at Riverton, N. J.; to Mr. L. F. Reese and Mr. H. M. Hills, also members of the staff, for many helpful suggestions as to outdoor and indoor propagation respectively ; to the A. T. de la Mare Company of New York for the set of pictures detailing hyacinth propagation ; and to the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture and to experiment stations and propagating estalDlishments which supplied the illustra- tions noted in the list of acknowledgments printed else- where. The author has had too long an experience in writing and editing books and articles to suppose that this volume is perfect. He therefore earnestly requests that readers who note any least error of statement or typography will kindly notify him or the publishers so corrections may be made in subsequent editions. In the hope, however, that such errors are few and that the volume will meet a long-felt need the author confidently commends it to plant propagators and students of plant propagation. M. G. KAINS. State College, Ta., March 1, 1916. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The following individuals, institutions and business houses have supplied the illustrations referred to by figures opposite their names. J. R. Bechtel, State College, Pa., photos taken in greenhouses of Henry A. Dreer at Riverton, N. J. 1, 3, 10, 15, 18, 27, 44. 76, 88, 89, 12(3, 199. Minnesota Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn. 8, 41, 84, 93, 198 The Ball Manufacturing Co., Glenside, Pa. _: 12, .'.0, SO The Cloche Company, New York 17 Royal Palm Nurseries, Oneco, Fla Froiitisl^iece, 2"), 85 Michigan Agricultural College. East Lansing, Mich. 28, 141 (center picture) W. N. Scarff, New Carlisle, O. 29, 100 H. F. Michell, Philadelphia, Pa 51, 94 U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 62, 64, 05, 70 A. T. de la Mare Co., New York 60, 67, 68, 69 Lord and Burnham Co., New York 78, 79, 80 Storrs and Harrison Co., Painesville O. 83, 110, 120 California Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal. 91, 105, 100, 107, 151, 155, 178, 181, 189, 191, 201 Ohio State University Extension Dept., Columbus, O. 103, 117. 170 Harrison's Nurseries, Berlin, Md. 112, 145. 203, 200, 2i:'. Massachusetts Agricultural College, Horticultural Dept., Am- herst, Mass. __- 116, 121. 122, 123, 124, 125, 132 Kelly Brothers, Dansville, N. Y. 128, 211. 212 New York State Experiment Station. Geneva, N. Y. 129, 157, 176, 187, 194 Isaac Hicks and Son. Westbury, N. Y. 131, 139, 144, 148. 154, 100, 164, 183 Maloney Brothers and Wells Company, Dansville, N. Y. 133, 173, 208 X ACKNOWLEDGMENTS SanuK-l I'l-aser, Gencsco, N. Y. 134, 150, 161, 180, 193 Slark Ih-otliers' Nursery, Louisiana, Mo 137, 152, 159, 165, 169 Crccning Brothers' Nursery, Monroe, Mich., 150, 167, 171, 174, 207, 209, 210 Meehan's Nurseries, Dresher, Pa. 185, 197 Chase Nursery Co., Huntsville, Ala. 158 Horticultural Department, Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa. 2, 5, 6, 21, 22, 31, 32, 33, 34, 39, 40, 43, 45, 46, 47, 52, 56, 57. 58, 60, 63, 73, 89, 90, 92, 95, 101, 102, 104, 109, 114, 115, 135, 136, 146, 190, 196, 202. Department of Experimental Pomology, Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa. 182 CONTENTS CHAPTER I Introduction ..... CHAPTER n Germination ..... CHAPTER HI Germination and Longevity of Seeds CHAPTER IV Seed Testing ..... CHAPTER V Potting ..... CHAPTER VI Propagation by Buds — Layerage . CHAPTER VII Bottom Heat .... CHAPTER VIII Cuttage ..... CHAPTER IX ("lasses of Cuttings CHAPTER X Grafiage — General Considerations . CHAPTER XI Is Graftage Devitalizing? CHAPTER XII Daniel's Experiments and Conclusions Page . 1 . 20 . 36 . 40 . 54 . 64 . 86 . 95 . Ill . 131 . 158 . 159 Xll CONTENTS CHAPTER XIII General Points Concerning Fruit Tree Stocks CMAPTER XIV Stock and Cion Handling CHAPTER XV Grafting Waxes, Wound Dressings, etc, . CHAPTER XVI Methods of Grafting .... CHAPTER XVII Methods of Budding .... CHAPTER XVIII Nursery Management CHAPTER XIX Laws Affecting Nurser^^ Stock Suggested Practicums Index to Plant List General Index . , . . Page 170 191 221 227 255 269 287 292 309 319 Condensed Cultural Instructions Tables Page 1 Annuals and Perennials Grown From Seed . 300 2 Woody Plants .... . 302 3 Evergreens .... . 303 4 Vines . , , . . . 303 5 Hardy Perennials . 304 6 Bulbs, Corms and Tubers . 304 7 Greenhouse and House Plants . 305 8 Ferns ..... . 305 9 Palms ..... . 306 10 Water Plants .... . 306 11 Orchids ..... . 307 12 Cacti ..... . 308 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Frontispiece, Slat Shed in Florida Nursery Making Cuttings in Big Commercial Greenhou Tiger Lily and Bulblets .... Pricking Out Plants in Shaded Cold Frames Cracked Soil ...... Weeding Potted Plants in Cold Frame . Spotting Board ..... Lath House for Summer Propagation . Germination in Cloth .... Brush Screen to Shade Plants Out of Doors Pricking Out Seedlings in Flat Pot Plunging ..... Two Styles of Plant Protectors or "Forcers" Characteristic Forms of Seedlings . Seed and Bulb Drying Shed . Shades for Outdoor Propagating Beds . Cutting Frame ..... Glass Protectors for Outdoor Planting . Propagating Bench Shaded with Newspapers Deep Planting Effects .... Row Makers and Firming Board . Kentucky Coffee Tree Seedling Students at Pennsylvania State College . Dibbles, Their Use and Abuse Paper Plant Protector .... View in Florida Nursery Seed Study Cards ..... Nelumbium (Lotus) Propagation . Vegetable Plant Beds .... California Privet in Ohio Nursery . ^^'rinkles in Growing Plants in l^lats Two Styles of Trowels .... Effective Means of Hastening (iermination xiii Page se 2 3 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 21 22 23 24 26 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 34 37 38 39 40 41 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIUNS Fiff. Page 'S'S Rhizomes . . . . 34 Potting Rooted Geranium 35 Small Scale Seed Testing . 36 Elaborate Propagating Oven . 37 Simple Propagating Oven 38 Sand Box Seed Germinator .^ 39 Labels and Methods of Marking 40 Box Method of Steam Sterilizing Greenhouse Soil 41 Sterilized vs Unsterilized* Soil 42 Frames for Straw Mat Making 43 Work in the Cutting Bench ... 44 Potting Soil Mixed and Under Cover . 45 Sifting Soil for Potting .... 46 Greenhouse Soil Sieves .... 47 Tomato Plants in Pa^^er and Earthenware Pot 48 Wrong and Right Ways to Eill Pots . 49 Shutters for Covering Hotbeds and Cold Frames 50 Removing Plant From Pot . 51 Pot Storage Out of Doors . 52 Flat Full of Plants Ready for Transplanting 53 Common Layerage .... 54 Tricks in Transplanting .... 55 Layering of Various Kinds . 56 Black Raspberry Rooted Tip . 57 Homemade Layering Pot 58 Chinese Layers ..... 59 Styles of Layering Pots .... 60 Strawberry Plants Ready for Setting . 61 Trimming Strawberry Roots . 62 Tulip Planting in Washington State . 63 Classes of Bulbs ..... 64 Hyacinths Pro]:)agated Naturally . 65 Knife Used to ''Scoop" Hyacinth Bulbs . 66 Hyacinth Pr(»])agation .... ()7 flyacinth Propagation .... 68 Hyacinth Propagation .... 42 43 44 44 44 45 46 LIST OF ILLLSTKATiOJSIS Vie. 69 Scooped Hyacinth Biill)s 70 Bulb "Scooping" Machine 71 Sweet Potato Propagation 72 Fire-Heated Hotbed for Sweet Potato Plant Starting ..... 73 Irish Potatoes Sprouting 7-4 Straw Mat for Covering Hotbeds and Cold Frames ..... 75 Making a Concrete Hotbed . 76 "Sweat Box" for Propagating . 77 Pipe Warmed Hotbed . 78 Single Light Melon Frame , 79 One Light Forcing Frame 80 Hotbed "Knocked Down" to Show Constructi 81 Glass-Covered Cutting Frame 82 Sweet Potatoes and Vine 83 Two Styles of Cold Frames . 84 Shifting Plants .... 85 Propagating Sheds in Florida Nursery 86 Garden Flat and Plants Grown in It 87 Stock Plants of Croton . 88 Propagation by Means of Cuttings . 89 Red Raspberry Sucker Plants 90 Method of Potting 91 Formation of Roots 92 Odd \\'ays of Starting Cuttings . 93 Packing for Shipment . 94 Tile-Bottomed Greenhouse Bench . Double Pot of Cuttings . A>ntilated Cutting Pot . Nursery Beds .... Blackberry Plants .... Cutting Ready for Burying . Transplanting ALichine in Operation Carnation Cuttings Odd Ways of Starting Plants from Cuttings Gcxxseberry Cuttings , . . , 79 80 81 82 83 86 87 88 89 89 90 n 90 91 91 92 93 94 96 97 98 99 100 102 103 10 ^ 105 107 108 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. Page 104 Students in the Pennsylvania State College Greenhouse ...... 117 105 Callusing Bed for Cuttings and Root Grafts 118 106 Plan of Callusing Bed 119 107 Stand for Making Graft and Cutting Bundles . 120 108 Root and Bulb Storage Cellar on a Hill Side . 121 109 Potting 122 110 Field Planting of Potted Dahlias . . .123 111 Green Wood for Cuttings .... 124 112 Budding Nursery Stock 126 113 Various Styles of Watering Pots . . . 127 114 Bryophyllum Leaf 128 115 Rooted Gloxinia Leaf ..... 129 116 Sections of Grafts ...... 131 117 Side Graft 132 118 Winter Course Students Making Root Grafts 134 119 Precocious Cleft Grafts . . ^ . . .135 120 Tree Peddlers' Sheds at Nursery , . .136 121 Diagrams of Graft and Bud Cross Sections . 137 122 Section of Apple Grafts 138 123 Plum Grafts Showing Continuous Layers [ of New Wood 139 124 Cherry Cion on Plum Stock . . . '. 140 125 Defective Pear Bud Graft on Quince Stock . 140 126 Propagation in Greenhouses .... 142 127 Weeping Mulberry on Erect Stem . . . 143 128 Digging Two- Year Nursery Trees by Horse Power 144 129 Cuttings and Whip Graft . . . .145 130 Two-Year Spy Budded Trees . . . .147 131 Burlapped for Shipment .... 147 132 Greatly Magnified Section Through Young Graft 148 133 Steam Tree Digger in Big Nursery . . . 150 134 Uniform Block of One- Year Budded Bartlett Pears 152 135 Stages of Cleft Grafting 154 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XVll Fiff. Page VUi Young Apple Root Graft . . . .160 137 Graft Wrapping Machine . . . .161 i:{8 Grafters' or Biulders' Kit . . . .161 139 Digging Large 'l^'ees for Shipment . . . 162 UO Cutting on Dahlia Tuber .... 164 141 Swellings Due to Graftage .... 165 142 Bordeaux Mixing for Small Nursery . . 166 143 Handy Style of Tree Caliper .... 167 144 \\hy'Root Pruning Is Desirable . . . 168 145 Tree Digger at Work in Pear Nursery Row 170 146 A\'ire Protector Against Mice and Ral)bits . 172 147 Bundles of Cions for Shipment . . . 173 148 Planting a Burlapped Evergreen . . . 174 149 Heeling-in Trees for Winter Storage . . 177 150 Peach Pit Planter 178 151 Graft Planting 179 152 Nursery Tree Digger ..... 179 153 Moving Large Trees ..... 180 154 Transplanting in Loose Soil .... 181 155 Herbaceous Grafting and Budding . . . 182 156 Hand Method of Planting Nursery Stock . 184 157 Grape Grafting ...... 185 158 Negro Women Are Largely Employed in Southern Nurseries ..... 187 159 Stages in Grafted Apple Tree Production . 188 160 Large Trees Are Conveniently Handled by Truck 190 161 Spading in Nursery Stock . . . .192 162 First Pruning of Budded Tree . . .193 163 Street Tree Specifications .... 194 164 Trimming an Ornamental Tree for Form . . 197 165 Bundle of Whole Root Grafts . . . .198 166 Grafted Chestnut Bearing at Two Years . . 199 167 "Sprouting" Budded Nursery Stock . . 201 168 Three Unusual Styles of Grafting . . .202 169 Unpacking and Heeling-in Nursery Stock . 203 170 Bark Gra'ftin- in A^arious Stages '. . . 205 XVlll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. 171 Trees Stacked in Frost-Proof Nursery Cellar 172 English "Cleft" Graft . 173 Packing Nursery Stock for Shipment 174 Nursery Storage House Scenes . 175 Three Methods of Bench Grafting Grapes 176 Grafted Grape Vine 177 Grafting Conifers .... 178 Grafted Grapes .... 179 Two Styles of Crown Grafting 180 Trencher and Row Marker . 181 Gauge for Cutting Grape Stocks . 182 Nursery Tree Pests 183 Large Trees Baled for Shipment . 184 Smith's Improved Method of Grafting 185 Skein of Raffia .... 186 Inarching ..... 187 Popular Grafting Methods . 188 Various Styles of Grafting Knives . 189 Tongue Grafting .... 190 Students Planting Root Grafts 191 Whip Grafts with Too Much Callus 192 Nursery Dibbles .... 193 Firming Newly Planted Grafts 194 Grafting and Budding Tool Kit . 195 Side and Terminal Grafts 196 Newly Sprouted Cleft Graft . 197 Large Tree Caliper 198 Packing Shrubs and Trees in Bale . 199 Bottle Grafting .... 200 Uncommon Methods of Budding . 201 Graft Planting Methods 202 The Process of Shield Budding 203 Securing Bud Sticks 204 Various Styles of Budding Knives . 205 Bud Sprout Tied to Stock . 206 Cold Box Method of Storing Cion Wood 207 Methods of Digging Nursery Stock LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XIX Fig. I'agf 208 Modern Method ui Digging- Nursery Stock . 270 209 Up-to-date Nursery Spraying ( )uttit . . 274 210 Trees in Fumigation House Ready for Fumi- gation ....... 276 211 Apple Tree Grades 281 212 Sour Cherry Trees 283 213 Digging California Privet with 10-Mule Team 288 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. Plant propagation is the multiplication or increase ill number of plants in the perpetuation of the species. As applied by man, it includes knowledge of the proper time, place and manner in which best results may be secured. Fundamentally it is based upon (a) certain natural laws or principles which constitute the science, and (b) certain methods of manipulation which con- stitute the art of the processes as a whole. 2. Art and science contrasted. — Art is merely the knowledge of methods without reference to reasons whereby results may be secured. It therefore implies skill gained through practice. Science deals with the underlying reasons for certain forms of procedure, and the conditions which affect the process without consid- ering the skill involved in manipulation. To illustrate: A workman in a nursery (Fig. 110) may easily transplant 4.000 potted dahlia plants in a day of 10 hours without knowing anything specific of the underlying principles; whereas, the proprietor may know the principles and give proper orders for their application without being able to transplant half as many plants in the same time, yet he may be a master workman because of his knowledge of both the art and the science. The art is best acquired by following the example of a skilled workman ; the science best from books and instructors. 3. Natural and artificial methods. — All methods em- ployed by man are adaptations or improvements upon natural methods, instances of the application of which may be found in nature. For this reason they should hardly be called artificial, though they are often so termed. 4. Natural methods of propagation differ in the three general classes of plants. Annuals and biennials all propagate themselves by seeds, of which they usually pro- duce an abundance. They are not propagated artificially 2 J'l.ANT I'KOI'ACA ri()\' l)y any asexual nu-lliods; ("irsl, he-causf tlu' ahiindaiioc of sci'd obviates llu- need of doiiij^' so, and, second, heeause few of llieni (an l)e so pi'opaj^aled vviMionI dillienlly. Many warm (Innate plants nsed for" ornamental hed- <\\u^ in ^ardi'ns (colens, j^eraninm, aeliyranthes), thouj^h pereimiais in their native eonntries, are made to live as "sloi-l< plants" (llf)) iVoni year to year in j^reenhouses lliou^li out of doois tliey are lreat(.'d as annuals. They are, iherefore, so propaj^aled. I'erennials may or may not ])ro])a.L;ate hy seeds. They ma\ , Iheicfore, he propa,L;ate(| hy one or the other or hoth these methods accordini; to eoiu'enienee, economv or some other consideiat ion. W hen they do not pro])aj.;at(.' FIG. I— MAKINC CUrilNCS IN KIC COMMF.RCIAl. GREENHOUSE Tlio tuiiii on tho left is iloin;; llu- "i'oiit;li work"; tin- nuiii on the liKht is "Hnishini;." hy seeds, they do so by buds, of which they ii"enerall>' pro(luei> an ahundauee. either Ujion the branehes and sometimes the leaxes, or on roots or other undergTound l)ails. Thus, while the parent i)erennial ])laut may die. man (and sometimes the plant itself) may take advan- tam" of either its si'eds or its buds in peri)etuation. iWTKUDlK "HON 3 I'"()r iiistaiuc. llic undtTKrouiifl stems of (|iiack grass and bind- weed are cai)alile of producing a new plant from every joint, as every farmer and gardener knows to iiis sorrow. Again, should it lie deemed necessary, the California i)ig tree which at the estimated age of r>,()()0 years is steadily becoming extinct, thanks largely to human activity, might be given another 5,()()()-year start by propagat- ing it from its buds by cuttings (iMg. 99). The process might again l)e repeated "id centuries later and so on without a limit. nntpi;^A FIG. 2— TIGER LIl.Y AND BUI.BLETS I. Notice bulblets in leaf axiles. 2. Bulblets rooting a few days after falling of! plants. 5. Life cycles of plants. — Every plant normally passes l.hrougli a lite cycle or history. The seed gernihiates or sprouts; the plant vegetates, blooms, bears seed and I sooner or later dies. Lite cycles varv in duration from I "■■■■" 4 PLANT PROPAGATION centuries (big trees, giant redwood of California and cer- tain species of oak and pine). Under normal (or natural) conditions, the duration of the life cycle of any species may vary considerably because perhaps of inherited vigor or environment or both. For instance, in a sowing of garden carrots a few plants may "run to seed" the first season, though the general life cycle of this veg- etable is two years ; conversely, some annuals, as radish, may fail to seed the first year, but send up flower stalks the following season. Such cases are, however, exceptional. So far as know^n, no plant lives indefinitely, though by the application of certain methods of propagation exist- ence may be continued beyond the duration of the normal life cycle of the plant so treated. For instance, the geranium, which is normally a warm climate plant, easily killed in cold climates by frost, may be propagated liy means of cuttings, and thus not only its numbers increased indef- initely, but its life thus extended by asexual generation. In one sense this is not strictly extending the life cycle of the individual plant, for the original stem and roots are generally thrown away as having served their purpose. Because all plants normally reach the limits of their life cycles, some method of propagation is necessary if they are to be perpetuated ; otherwise they will be lost. To prevent this contingency among flowering plants, nature usually provides ample seed, though in some cases asexual methods have been developed. Strawberries propagate by means of runners (102) ; certain dogwoods by stolons (123) ; black raspberries by layers (9G) ; houseleeks by rosettes (126) ; cannas by rhizomes (122) ; banyan trees by aerial roots from limbs; mangroves by their "knees" or prop roots; Irish potatoes by tubers (128) ; and so on. 6. The term environment is used to include all the ex- ternal influences that, as a whole, affect a living organism in any way. Among the principal factors that make up environment are heat, light, moisture, and food supply. 7. Duration of life cycle determines the three general groups of plants ; annuals, biennials and perennials. INTRODUCTION 5 a. Annuals complete their cycle in one season or less — oats, radish, cosmos, purslane. 1). Biennials require two growing seasons, or parts of two — hollyhock, turnip, mullein. The root lives through the winter of a cold climate or has a dormant period in a warm or arid one, and resumes activity when -conditions again 1)ecome favorable to growth. Before the second season of growth closes they mature their seeds and die. c. Perennials live from year to year and produce seed FIG. 3— PRICKING OUT PLANTS IN SHADED COLD FRAME The men have to bend over to the level of their feet to place the plants in the soil in front of them. or fail to do so. They are divided into three classes — herbaceous, woody, and shrubs and trees, a. Herbaceous perennials have perennial roots but annual tops — aspara- gus, peony, saccaline, bindweed, b. Woody perennials have perennial roots but biennial stems — the bramble fruits (raspberry, blackberry, dewberry), c. Shrubs and trees are woody in both root and stem, and persist from year to year without a definite loss. PLANT I'KUPAGATION 8. Plant propagation methods, of which there are many, naturally divide themselves into two general classes de- pendent upon whether seed bodies (spores or seeds) or buds are used. Propagation by spores is so nearly akin to that by seeds that the two are usually classed under the one head — Seedage. Because propagation by means of seeds is dependent upon the previous action of the reproductive organs (pistils and stamens) it is called sexual; that by means of buds, in which no such action occurs, is termed asexual. This terin is also extended to plant reproduction by true and adventitious buds. H(,. 4 cRACKhh soil, 9. Spores are asexual. Bad physical condition due to lack of USUally One-Cellcd, reprO- \ egetable matter. Such soil dries out deeply , ■ i j • r n because of the cracks. ductlVC bodlCS Ot tlOW- erless plants. A striking difference between them and seeds is that they contain no embryo. While reproduction of plants from spores is not dependent on sex, as in flowering plants, the process is, practically speaking, a sexual one. (Compare Seeds, 10.) To illustrate, the black or brown spots (called sori) beneath the fronds of many ferns, produce hundreds or thousands of spores. These germinate on moist surfaces and produce small plant bodies (prothalia) each of which develop two distinct growths, an arche- gonium and an antheridium, which correspond respectively to the pistils and the stainens of flowering plants and are, therefore, the essential organs of reproduction in flowerless plants. When, during the process of growth, an antheridium unites with an archegonium, a sperm cell from the former fertilizes the egg cell in the latter and a little plant is produced — a fern, a moss, a mushroom, or some other flowerless plant, according to the species. Spores are of interest to the horticulturist because they produce f^rns, mosses, mushrooms, fire-fanging fungi (137), and many plant diseases such as apple scab, wheat rust, black knot of cherry and plum, downy mildew of grape, etc. 1NTK()|)IU"II()>: 7 10. Seeds arc fertilized ovules, structures which when mature include rudimentary plants (embryos) protected while dormant by seed coats and containing nutriment either in or around the cotyledons to supply the needs of growth. Since the production of seeds is due to the fertilization of ovules by pollen, the process is called sexual; hence the term sexual reproduction is often extended to include seedage. In beet, chard, and some FIG. 5— WEEDING POTTED PLANTS IN COLD FRAME other plants, the "seeds" are really the dried fruits or capsules which contain several to many seeds (p. 49). 11. Seeds vary greatly in size from that of the dust-like orchid and begonia to that of Seychelles cocoanuts, which sometimes Aveigh 40 pounds, and are 18 inches in girth. 12. The micropyle is a minute opening through the seed coats. Through it the pollen tube enters the ovule and the radicle emerges during the process of germina- tion. Often it is almost invisible until the seeds begin to 8 PLANT PROPAGATION gerniinate. In Lima bean it is seen close to the liilum. 13. The hilum of a seed is the scar left by the separa- tion of the seed from the placenta of the ovary. 14. The embryo usually consists of three parts ; cotyle- dons or seed leaves ; plumule or rudimentary stem w^ith its attached leaves between the cotyledons ; and the cau- licle or first internode or length between joints of the stem below the cotyledons and above the true root. 15. The number of cotyledons is used to divide plants into three classes : Monocotylcdonous, or plants with only one cotyledon (asparagus, lily and grasses such as corn and bamboo) ; dicotyledonous, plants with two cotyledons (radish, marigold, dandelion) ; and polycotylcdonous, plants with more than two cotyledons (pine, spruce.) 16. Farm and garden crops are almost all grown from seeds. Irish potatoes and sugar cane produce more or less seed, but this is not used except to develop new varieties. Jeru- salem artichoke, sweet potato, tarragon and horseradish (17) no longer naturally produce seed, so must be propagated by asexual methods. Tree and small fruits do not come true to name or variety from seed ; the seedlings are almost always inferior in some way or ways to varieties propagated asexually. 17. Horseradish from seed. — A Hungarian experimenter has pro- duced horseradish seed by ringing. Two types of plants were pro- duced. Had their origin not been known they woukl hardly have been classed as the same species. Hence the author concludes that horseradish is only a hybrid and that the contrasting forms result from breaking this hybrid into its original types. 18. The essential organs of flowers are the pistils which contain the ovules or unfertilized and undeveloped "eggs," and the stamens which contain in their anthers HG. 6— SPOTTING BOARD Above, making holes; below, dibbling-in seedlings. INTUODUCTION 9 the pollen necessary to fertilize the ovules. Usually petals and sepals (non-essential organs) are associated with the essential organs, either for protection or to attract insects, htimming birds and other creatures upon which fertilization of many plants depends. Some flowers, such as lizards-tail, are naked ; that is, they have neither petals nor sepals, at least during the fertilizing period. Others, such as snowball and hydrangea and the ray flowers of many composites, often have neither pistils nor stamens. They are, therefore, called sterile. 19. The pistil consists of two essential parts, the stigma and the ovary. It may or may not have a style or stalk joining these two parts; or rather, when the style is very short it is said to be sessile. 20. Ovules are small growths on the interior walls of the ovaries. They usually consist of two layers, which inclose the embyro sac. This sac consists of several cells, one of which is the Qgg cell. 21. Fertilization of flowers is the rendering viable of ovules by the pollen. It is almost always between plants of the same species, and usually between flowers of dif- ferent plant individuals. When plants of different species or genera unite by means of the pollen of one fertilizing the ovules of another, the resulting plants are called liybrids. Comparatively few tree fruits will hybridize, but several of the bush fruits and many ornamental plants have done so. Almost always hybrids of trees and shrubs must be propagated asexually. Examples of hybridization are Kieffcr, Le Conte and Garl)er pears, Rogers' grapes, wild goose plum, Wilson blackberry, Shaffer rasp- berry and many varieties of roses, cannas, begonias, gladioli, fuchsias, etc. 22. The fertilization process in flowers is essentially as follows: Ripe pollen is discharged from the anthers in the same or some other flower, generally of the same species. It reaches the "ripe" or receptive stigma of the pistil either through the agency of wind, insects or some lO PLANT PROPAGATION other way peculiar to the individual species of plant. The stigma being moist, sticky or hairy when receptive, holds the pollen grains until they germinate. In ger- mination they extend growths downward through the style to the ovary, where they reach the ovules, which they enter through small openings called micropylcs (one in each ovule). After entrance, the sperm cell con- tained in the pollen grain unites with the egg cell of the ovule, and the ovule, now said to be fertilized, develops into an embryo plant covered with the ovule wall, which develops into the seed coat of the ripened seed. FIG. 7— LATH HOUSE FOR SUMMER PROPAGATION This provides partial shade and helps retain moisture in the soil. 23. The ripened ovary with its seed is called the peri- carp or seed case. It may be simple, as in pea and radish, or complex, as in plum and raspberry. Botanically speak- ing, the ripened ovary with, in some cases, other parts united to it, is called the fruit. Horticulturally speaking, ;l fruit is an edible pericarp. In some instances the edible part is the seed case (peach, cantaloupe) ; in others, the seed itself (corn, almond) ; again, it is mainly the swelled flower calyx (apple, pear) ; and yet again the swelled receptacle with the seeds (strawberry, blackberry). 24. Seeds contain plant food in the cotyledons or other parts to support the seedling plants during germination and until they are able to support themselves. Not until INTKODUCTION II the radicle has formed root hairs can plant food be taken from the soil (or other medium in which the seedlings are being grown) ; and not until the plumule has formed green leaves can such plant food be worked over to form FIG. 8— GERMINATION IN CLOTH The seeds are laid in rows on the cloth kept damp by sand in the tray below. plant tissue, lentil then the seedling lives on the food stored in the seed by the parent plant. This food in- cludes starches or sugars, cellulose, fat, proteids or liquids or combinations of two or more of these materials. Fully ripened dry seeds are highly resistant to outside influences; in some cases (squash, pine) continuing vital 12 PLANT PROPAGATION or viable for many years (p. 49). It must be remarked, however, that the stories about the germination of seeds taken from ancient tombs, as from the pyramids of Eg-ypt, are untrue. Among the seeds so delivered to the gullible is Indian corn, which, being an American plant, was not known to the ancient Egyptians ! 25. Seed dissemination is accomplished naturally in three general ways — wind, water and animals. Wind plays an important part in transporting very light seeds, especially such as are provided with append- ages which buoy them up. Willow, poplar, thistle, dan- delion, milkweed, sycamore and similar seeds are thus carried long distances. Wind also helps carry heavier seeds provided with wings that whirl or flutter in the air •' I'' 'I'lii _ '.MJ^' *' "■ 1 . . I- ' I I '". , > I L \,\"iv.'-;,-, .„,^ ' •J^<)#>j'y;2iGi^^?l^^ -,,/,•:;•• ,..^^ "■•■'■■ FIG. 9— BRUSH SCREEN TO SHADE PLANTS OUT OF DOORS Used mainly for slow-sprouting seeds and plants such as conifers. and thus check descent more or less. Maple, elm, white- wood, box elder, basswood, ash and other winged seeds may be carried several hundred or thousand feet, depend- ing upon the strength of the wind. Water transports seeds that float readily much greater distances than it does those that sink. Among the best examples are apples, walnuts and acorns. Water also transports seeds that are carried by wind and by animals. It is, therefore, the most general agent of the three. Animals carry seeds in one or the other of three ways : either, first, attached to their bodies (burs, beggar-lice, stick-tights, Spanish needles, etc.) ; or, second, in their intestines, where the juices of digestion fail to break down the protective coverings of the seeds (blackberry, cherry, INTRODUCTION I3 pokeweed, plum, etc.) ; or, third, by burying them for later use as food and then failing to dig them up. Squir- rels are perhaps most active in this way: they bury im- mense numbers of nuts and acorns. Man in his various activities is the greatest of all seed distributors. Consciously and purposely he collects seed in all parts of the world and transports it to places where FIG. 10— PRICKING OUT SEEDLINGS IN FLAT Note the "spotting" board for spacing the plants evenly. it is to be planted ; unconsciously he carries weed seeds in bedding and packing, on ships and trains. He may accidentally or purposely mix such seeds with valuable ones and thus introduce them where the shipments are distributed. The progress of the race westward from India. Assyria, Palestine, Egypt, the Mediterranean and Northern Europe to America and Australasia may thus be traced by weeds and cultivated plants carried by man. 26. Seed transportation is conducted upon an extensive scale bv scores of wholesale and retail seed merchants in 14 PLANT rKOPAGATION all parts of the world. The rules herein presented (29), especially those concerning moisture and heat, are fol- lowed with great care. Seeds such as acorns are very difficult to transport long distances. Usually thick- coated and bony seeds require moist, confined air; thin- shelled ones, dry conditions. For shipping to or through the tropics seeds are usually sealed in tin cases or oiled packages. Most seeds, however, sent through ordinary cool climates, after being thoroughly air dried, need be placed only in cotton sacks, large paper packages or nianila envelopes. Apple, pear and other small seeds are often mixed with powdered charcoal. Often more satisfactory results may be secured by growing the seedlings of species very difficult to ship in the seed form and shipping these either actively growing in wardian cases or dormant as nursery stock. The former method is not much practiced ; the latter is the favorite method of nurserymen. 27. The rest period of seeds is that interval between the apparent maturity of the seeds upon the parent plant and the time when the seeds will germinate under con- ditions normal to the species. Such seeds apparently cannot be made to sprout earlier. A majority of garden seeds will sprout within a month of the time they mature ; a few almost without any delay. It is no uncommon thing for seeds of cereals to sprout while still in the head, should the weather be wet for a considerable time at harvest. The mangrove normal- ly sprouts its seeds while still attached to the parent plant. The rest period is pot'°plun"ging r^3.\\y a time of chemical change or a, pot in soil, b, dibble, ripening of the foods stored in the seeds. It may be broken by drying, freezing, chemicals, or by freezing and thawing. INTRODUCTION 15 Howard and Whitten of Missouri planted about ^00 species of seeds representing 51 genera to determine whether seeds in general are capable of germinating immediately after ripening if placed in favorable conditions. Seeds of grass, lily, pink, mallow, legume and composite families seem to have no rest period, while rose, cashew and vine families have a pronounced one. in general seeds of woody plants have a more pronounced rest period and are more dif- ficult to force into growth than seeds of vegetable and other her- FIG. 12— TWO STYLES OF PLANT PROTECTORS OR "FORCERS" 1, closed paper-sided protector with glass top. 2 and 3, forcers in field use. 4, open-sided protector with adjustable glass front which allows of ventila- tion. FIG. 13— CHARACTERISTIC FORMS OF SEEDLINGS Top, left to right: Spinach, salsify, bean, salsify. Second row: Beet, corn sunflower, lettuce. Third row: White oak, garden pea, lettuce, onion. Bottom row: Sunflower, cardoon, fennel, carrot. 16 IXI KdDL'C'TION 17 baceous plants. Variation in lcn,utli and intensity df the rest iH'ridil is greater l)et\veen S])ocies than within species. Etherization tend;- to stiinuhite seeds into early growth and to increase the percentage of total germination. Soaked and stratified seeds are more strongly affected by ether than are dry seeds. A l;3-hour exposure to ether seems the most favorable dose to force seeds to germinate. 28. Handling fleshy fruit seeds. — Seeds of many fruits must 1)c freed from their fleshy or pulpy coverings before they can be stored or planted. When there is no danger of injury to them the fruits may be crushed or grovtnd. For instance, apples are so treated, the pomace mixed with water and allowed to stand until the pulp has par- tially fernienled. 1'he process requires a week to two or three, dependinj^- mainly upon the temperature and the character of the i)ulp. The seeds become separated from the pulp and sink to the bottom. An occasional vigorous stirring aids the process of separation. The ptilp is fi- nally poured (dt, the seeds collected, re- washed and dried. Soft fruits, such as blueberries, raspberries, strawber- ries, and cranberries, are often treated in this way, though they are perhaps as often handled like tomatoes, cucum- bers, melons and other fruits, merely crushed under water and then washed, the pulj) being skimmed off and the seeds allowed to settle. Sometimes the separation requires chemical treatment to get rid of unnecessary membranes. For instance, the membranes of persimmon seeds may be easily removed after a soaking in weak caustic potash solution (a stick to a pailful of water). 1-Vesh ashes, lime and lye arc of great help in freeing many seeds of their resinous coverings. 29. Points to remember about seeds. — In Bulletin r)S of the Bureau of Plant Industry, J. W. F. Duvel writer in substance as follows, except where brackets are used : A. Seeds are living organisms and must be properly treated to get good results when sown. [They are dormant creatures. Or to use an analogy, they are comljined physical and chemical laboratories which need only the proper conditions of moisture, heat and o.X3'gen to get them in operation. | i8 PLANT PROPAGATION P). The most important factors that determine vitaHty are ma- turity, harvest weather conditions and ways of harvesting and curing. C Immature seeds soon after rii)ening usually sprout well, but if stored lose vitality rapidly ; well-matured seeds harvested under favorable conditions should keep long. D. Seeds harvested in damp weather have less vitality than those harvested in dry weather. E. Seeds once injured never regain full vigor. F. While proper curing is of the utmost importance, great care is needed to prevent heating, since this reduces vitality. FIG. 14— SEED AND BULB DRYING SHED Temporary poles and racks are placed on the permanent poles G. The life of seed varies with the family, genera and species; but there is no relation between the longevity of plants and the viable period of the seed they produce. Some seeds lose their vitality in a few weeks or months [California poppy], others live for years [melons, cucumbers]. H. With special precautions the life of seeds may be lengthened within reasonable limits. I. Certain seeds retain their vitality better in some sections than in others ; i. e., climate plays an important part. J. Moisture is the chief factor in determining the longevity of seeds under commercial conditions. K. The bad effects of moisture are heightened where the tem- perature is high. Often vitality is destroyed in a few weeks or INTRODUCTION I9 inoiitlis vvlicn seeds are stored in a moist, warm climate; hut where the storage is dry. normal temperature ranges are not so important. L. The majority of carefully dried seeds can stand long exposure to a temperature of !)8, hut 102 to 104 for a similar time will kill them. In a moist air 8() will soon cause injury. M. Seeds to he sent to a moist climate should he shipped in air- tight packages, but they must he dry hefore heing sealed. N. Seeds under ordinary storage conditions respire most freely when moisture is present, hut respiration is not necessary to their life, ])ecause they may he successfully kept even better for a time under conditions unfavorable to respiration. CHAPTER II GERMINATION 30. Germination, botanically speaking, is the resump- tion of growth by the dormant embryo or young plant in the seed. Popularly it is the sprouting of seeds, the first step in vegetation. To enable the seed to ger- minate it must have a perfectly developed embryo, and be mature or nearly so. It must not be too old for its species (p. 49). It is complete when growth has rup- tured the seed coats and the embryo has emerged. 31. How seedlings grow. — Seedlings push through the soil by the extension of their radicles or hypocotyls, aided in some cases by their cotyledons. When the descending parts have taken hold of the soil by means of their root hairs, or by lateral root growth, upward growth begins. Though in some cases (pea, oak, Fig. 13) the cotyledons descend, or at least remain beneath the surface to help anchor the seedlings, they usually "come up" above the surface (bean, radish), and often turn green and perform the functions of true leaves (maple, tomato, nasturtium). In the former case the cotyledons contain large quantities of food which nourish the plantlets; in the latter the role of nurse is dropped as soon as they turn green. Often while the first true leaves are expanding, the roots contract and extend laterally, thus drawing the little plants deeper in the soil and anchoring them firmly. 32. Growth in length is due to cell division and develop- ment at the growing point ; that of girth, by cell division and development of the cambium and contiguous cells. 33. Hypocotyl or caulicle, the first internode or part of stem below the cotyledons and above the radicle or beginning of the true root. 20 (;i:kMixA'n()x 21 34. Radicle, that part of the embryo below the eot\le- dons, including- the caulicle and the nascent root; by some botanists restricted to the extreme point of the caulicle from which the root develops. 35. Factors of germination. — (lermination depends uj^on four factors: \iabilit\, water, free oxygen and FIG. 15— SHADES FOR OUTDOOR PROPAGATING BEDS 1. Lath shade. 2. Cloth on frame. The shades may be lifted in dull weather to accustom the plants to the sun. PLANT PROPAGATION ])i-()])CT heat. The seed of each species, and even some varieties of a single species of plant, seem to demand different degrees or quantities of one or more of these factors to produce best results. The most favorable combination of these factors for each kind of seed is, therefore, called the optimum for that species. Age and stage of maturity of the seeds exercise more or less influence upon germination. Presupposing viability, which means ability to live, the steps or stages of ger- mination are : 1. Absorption of moisture by the seed. 2. Conver- sion of stored food under favor- able temperature into sugars by enzymes or natural ferments. 3. Stimulation of the embryo cells into growth. 4. Bursting the seed coat by the swelled embryo, etc. 36. Water is necessary in ger- mination because plant food must be in solution to be of service to the embryo. It is, perhaps, more important than oxygen and heat because too much or too little may prevent germination. Therefore, in practice, it requires careful regulation. Generally it reaches the seed through the soil, though many seeds and spores sprout on any surface moist enough, or any material which will supply their needs. In nature there are many variations. Cocoanuts will sprout among rocks where thrown up by the sea, their roots sustained by the "milk" while searching perhaps several yards for crevices in which to secure a hold and food. Countless kinds of seeds blown by wind or carried by water sprout among mountain rocks where both soil and water are in very small supply. Spanish moss seeds ger- minate on the limbs of trees. Mistletoe does this also, but the sprouts take parasitic root in the tissues of the tree to which they attach themselves. Still water retards germination. In the case of buckwheat grown experimentally, most seeds sprouted in 24 hours in running water, but those in still water took two days or more. FIG. 16— CUTTING FRAME FOR WINDOW A handy device for school- rooms. GERMINATION 23 37. Temperature variations inlluencc seeds in gerniiiia- i'lon less than do those of moisture. Koth, however, should be a\oided. Seeds will stand much heat and cold if dry, but if wet, frost may injure them and heat may "cook" them. In seed storage, everything promotive of decay must be avoided. Especially must the seed be kept FIG. 17— GLASS PROTECTORS FOR OUTDOOR PLANTING At left, F, panes of glass fitted together by wooden top. At right, continuous plant forcer: A, wire for ridge; a, h, outside; c, inside; B. wire to hold side panes at d and e; C, making section; D, completed section; E, continuous row. as dry as possible. The room may be even hot, provided it is not damp. This rule applies to small as well as large quantities of seeds. Often corn, wheat and other cereals improperly dried before shipment heat in transit and are ruined both for seedage and food. Sometimes the heat is great enough to cause great losses in ware- houses and ships, in some cases even starting fires by spontaneous c()ml)Ustion. 38. Time of sowing out of doors, as well as depth, influences temperature. Seeds planted deeply in spring may rot because they are too cold ; and those planted shallow in summer may continue dry and thus fail to sprout. Hence early spring sowing of any kind of seed should be shallower than that of the same kind in late spring or summer. No general rule can be given, be- 24 AN'I' I'KoPACA'riON cause each species has its own preferences; but large seeds may be sown two to four times their diameters and small ones only slightly covered — just enough to hide them from the light. Fresh and strong seeds may be sown deeper than old or weak ones, because the seed- lings should reach the surface with less dilhcultv. FIG. 18— PROPAGATiiNo BENCH SHADED WITH NEWSPAPERS Notice the burlap curtains beneath the bench. These gi\e several degrees of bottom heat when lowered. 39. Light hinders some seeds from sprouting (poppy, adonis, larkspur), but has no apparent efifect upon others. Its influence upon germination is not fully understood. Seeds of mistletoe, Spanish moss and many orchids ger- minate as well in light as in dark places, perhaps even better. For these reasons it is considered advisable to shade fine seeds and spores while germinating. Nothing is to be gained by the reverse process. When covered with soil they are usually shaded enough, but when sown upon or very near the surface they sprout better when shaded at least partially. Parsley, thyme, mar- joram and other slow-sprouting and small seeds do best OKUMIXAI IU.\ -'5 in the open under shade. This is, however, more be- cause of controlled moisture than of light. Paper and muslin are popularly used for shading. (Figs. 15, 18.) When the plantlets have two or more true leaves the shade may be removed. 40. Influence of sunlight on seed germination. — Experiments in Germany show that in nearly every instance seeds subjected to direct rays of the sun were retarded in s^ermination, although the effect on the total germinative ability was not influenced in any appreciable degree, the total number of germinations in each lot being practically the same. One lot was germinated wholly in the dark, another re- ceived sunlight 44 days, while the control lot was germinated out of the direct rays of the sun. 41. Seedlings grown without light.— A. Bergerstein, a German in- vestigator, grew seedlings of more than 100 species of gymnosperms to determine the effects of light and darkness on them. His general conclusions are that except Ciiiikyo and Epiicdra the seedlings be- come green even in the dark. The rapidity of coloration varies with the temperature. Cycas and Zainia. even under favorable tempera- tures, failed to develop chlorophyll in the total absence of light. Among many conifers, chlorophyll is formed in the dark, both in the cotyledons and the hypocotyl (except in Larix). Araucaria pro- duced it in branches developed while in the dark several weeks. In Abies and Ccdnts the embryo, even in dormant seeds, contains chlorophyll. In other species the seedlings begin to turn green be- fore the seed coat is broken or shortly after the emergence of the radicle. Conifer seedlings in the dark have shorter roots and cotyledons, but larger and thicker hypocotyls than similar plants grown in the light. 42. Oxygen is usually in ample supply for germination. It is always present in soils neither tightly inclosed nor water soaked. Water plants (lotus, water lily) have special ability to germinate under water. 43. Depth to plant. — Deep planting is unfavorable td germination, first, because the supply of oxygen is re- stricted and, second, because the seedlings may be unable to reach the surface, especially if the soil is hard. Under glass the same species of seeds may be planted at twice the (lci)th employed in the open. After planting, the soil should be firmed' lightly ( Fig. 20) to avoid washing when ^vatering. If the soil is hard and likely to bake, apply a light mulch of old compost in the rows. 26 ]?LANT PROPAGATION FIG. 19— DEEP PLANTING EFFECTS Seeds planted all at one time. 44. Very small seeds (begonia, thyme) are merely dusted on the soil in a seed "pan" which is sunk in moist sand or moss, water never being applied directly. (Fig. 95.) Sometimes the reverse method is practiced — the water being contain- ed in an interior pot In each case the water seeps through the porous pot and keeps the soil moist. Seeds the size of celery are often watered after sowing liy standing the pans in shallow water until the surface soil becomes moist. By these methods the watering is quickly done Avithout danger of washing the seeds out of the soil. Too much water is as bad as too lit- tle, because the soil becomes water-logged and the seeds decay. Dampness throughout the whole soil is all that is needed in a seed bed, except for aquatic plants (water lily, rice). A wet surface over a dry soil is very bad be- cause the roots cannot grow properly. Hence seeds and seedlings should be watered from below whenever pos- sible. For large numbers of seeds and for big seed beds, watering with a hose (or sprinkler) is necessary. Never should a strong stream or an open hose be used for such work, because these may either wash out or bury the seeds, pack the soil or do all three. Florists and gardeners who grow many plants under glass use great care in watering seeds. They aim to keep the soil moist, not wet, and never logged, because and B, row markers; C, firming hoard GEKiMl NATION -7 excess moisture tends to weakening and danipinj^-olf (78) of seedlings. 45. Aids to germination. — Most seeds properly handled germinate freely ; but seeds of certain families, the Um- belliferie especially, are slow (parsley, carrot, celery, parsnip, etc.). These and hard, bony seeds (48) allowed to dry out too much may fail entirely unless treated prior to sowing. Their treatment seeks to soften or break the seed coats so the embryos may emerge. 46. Enzymes used experimentally in some cases increased the per- centage of germination when the seeds were soaked several hours in a solution of some active enzyme or enzymes; the vigor of the young plantlets was often enhanced at the same time ; within limits these good effects increase witli the strength of the solution ; diastase seems to be the most useful ; tomato seeds seem to respond es- pecially well to diastase. 47. Chemicals, usually di- lute, or weak acids or alkalies, are sometimes used for seeds with hard, bony coats affected neither by soaking nor freez- ing. They soften the shells so water may enter. Vinegar aids the seeds of bramble fruits (blackberry, raspberry, etc.). Sulphuric acid (com- mercial strength) is some- times used for cotton, alfalfa and clover seeds, the soaking lasting two or three to 20 min- utes (Fig. 21). Thorcuigh washing with water after the soaking is essential, care must be diluting the acid. The acid may be poured slowly into the full volume cif water, but the reverse order must not be followed because the acid will "fly." The acid must not touch the skin or fabrics, because it burns. G. 2t— KENTUCKY COFFEE TREE SEEDLING Oreat SuIphurlc aciJ made this develop- , . ment in 40 days. exercised m 28 PLANT PROPAGATION The acid method is found in nature ; for seeds of many fruits are softened by the acids of the fruits themselves or by those in the stomachs and intestines of birds and animals that eat the fruits (barberry, cedar, cherry, mulberry, thorn, etc.). 48. Mechanical helps are used for seeds whose coats are too hard to be affected by any of the methods so far described. Filing or boring holes in Abyssinian banana. FIG. 22— STUDENTS AT PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE 1. Setting cabbage plants. 2. Student vegetable gardens. Dairy barn in rear. Each student does his quota of work in the field. From 125 to 150 plan and tend their gardens each spring semester. GERMINATION 29 moonflower, canna and wild cucumber is often done. The object is to let water in to the cotyledons. Lotus seeds not kept in water from time of ripening have also to be treated thus ; but if kept immersed as in nature, they will sprout readily under favorable conditions. 49. Stratification is a modification of nature's method (tf handling hard-shelled seeds. In cold climates the seeds are broken open by frost ; in warm ones by the moisture usually abundant during the so-called winter FIG. 23— DIBBLES, THEIR USE AND ABUSE a, flat-bladed, wide style; b, homemade "punch" dibbles; c, pot-plunging dibble; d, root-graft planting dibble; e, trowel style; f, dibble made from spade handle. A, right way to use dibble, when pressing soil from bottom of hole to top. B, wrong way — pressing soil from top and leaving air space around roots. or rainy season. Stratification consists in fully exposing the seeds to the action of the weather. The common practice is to place the seeds in shallow boxes in thin layers alternated with layers of sand or sifted soil. These boxes, covered with galvanized hardware cloth (one-half inch mesh) to keep out squirrels, mice and other crea- tures, are then placed flat on the ground out of doors so they will be moistened by rain and snow and will freeze and thaw as frequently as possible. The same method 30 PLANT PROPAGATION is practiced in warm climates where moisture in effect takes the place of frost. This process of stratification depends for its utility upon the osmotic passage of water into the seeds which are thereby softened so the embryo can easily emerge. In cold climates frost splits hard-shelled seeds, which in nature are kept moist by the pulp around them (peach, walnut) or by fallen leaves which cover them (hickory, chestnut). Many hard-shelled seeds FIG 24— have a seam through which water en- PAPER *^''^- Perhaps the majority of such PLANT PROTECTOR sccds, if placcd iu the soil and kept there through the winter, would be suf- ficiently soft by spring, even without frost action, to ger- minate readily. 50. Stratification to maintain moisture in seeds (apple, cherry) is often practiced even in cold climates. If such seeds were allowed to dry out they would be useless. Hence, as soon as gathered they are stratified, often 12 to 18 inches deep, so they will not sprout but will keep moist until the autumn, when they are dug up and strat- ified in the usual way. (Compare 54.) 51. Nurserymen's stratification method. — Nurserymen often stratify peach and plum seeds in shallow, bowl-like pits or in trenches which hold many bushels.These are covered with sand and protected as already described till spring. The seeds are then sown after the sprout has made a little growth. This method is better than sowing the seeds in the nursery rows during the fall, because the seeds can be better protected from animals and also be- cause soil prepared in spring is less likely to bake than that prepared in the fall. 52. When to plant stratified seeds. — Stratified seeds should always be planted early in spring before germina- tion starts, because many species sprout while the ground is still cold (pear, beech, oak, apple). If sprouting starts GEKMINATIUN 31 before sowing", the percentage of loss will be high. Hence the seed bed should be prepared the previous fall so as to lose no time in spring. Peach and plum seeds do not suffer as much as do apple and pear seeds. Should il ever be necessary to sow the seeds, especially of small kinds, such as apple, strawberry, raspberry, while the soil is wet and cold, it is a good plan to open furrows and cover the seeds with well-decayed, fibrous compost, saw- dust or similar material, so as to prevent baking. A good mixture for this purpose is rotted sod, sharp sand and cow manure which has been rotted a year or more and turned over twice or oftener to secure uniformity. 53. Necessity of freezing. — Whether freezing is neces- sary to cold climate seed germination is not decided. It does not, however, injure the seed germs but often helps in removing natural obstructions such as hard shells. Hence, it is preferred to cracking by hand, necessarily a slow and risky process. 1 10. 25— VIEW IN FLORIDA NURSERY Shifting; palms, a very important process in plant yrowing. 3-' PLANT rUOPAGATION 54. Soaking of seed is often employed as a substitute for stratification, the dry seed (locust, apple) being cov- ered with water from half a day to two or three days before sowing. This is of special use in cases where the seeds have become unusually dry. Many nurseries now store their peach pits dry from harvest time through the winter until within two weeks of planting time, when the seeds are placed in l)arrels of water. Since imported H(j. ^(S -SHHb STUDY CARDS In each circle punched in cardboard seeds are placed; at left, corn o( various kinds; at right, clovers. The cards are then covered with glass and fas- tened together with adhesive tape or passepartout. apple seeds do not reach the United States before mid- winter, they are generally soaked two or three days, and then placed in stout cotton bags between cakes of ice and kept thus until planting time arrives. Due to the impracticability and uncertainty of the latter process, many nurserymen in this country prefer to buy dormant ap])le, cherry and other seedling trees from abroad (159). These are planted in nursery rows and later budded to the desired \aricties. (iI:km I .\ a I k i\ 33 55. Soaking of farm and garden seeds (peas, beans, cclcf}', corn) is common, hut i^ood results are less com- mon than is ]U)]nilarly su])])ose(l, for the soil should be decidedly moist and the soaking" discontinued as soon as the seeds ha\'e swelled. When kept in water longer, and when placed in soil too wet, decay is almost sure to occur; and if placed in soil that is too dry they may dry out and fail to grow in conse Island caulillower growers never pay less than 75 cents an ounce for seed, all of which is purchased in large lots on contract by their co-operative association. The lowest retail price quoted by a well-known seed house is 00 cents an ounce for an old standard variety; the highest, $7.00, but this is for a new variety. Among farm crops that suffer because of low vitality seeds are clover, blue grass, corn and wheat ; among garden crops, cabbage, cauliflower, onion, turnip, parsnip, lima bean, celery. Hence their high price. 60. Seed in the tropics.— Many kinds of seed deteriorate rapidly in tropical climates; instances of 90 per cent germination immedi- ately on gathering with only 50 per cent a month later and zero at three months. Lettuce is said to lose vitality in a few weeks. 61. The principal influences that affect vitality of seed are kind of seed, climate, maturity, age and method of storage. 62. Age of trees seems to influence seed vitality; fir trees about 150 years produced highest vitality seed by French experimental tests. Powdered charcoal is recommended as packing for such seeds as lose their vitality when shipped long distances. 63. Acorn and nut vitality. — Many nuts and acorns quickly lose their vitality when dried ; therefore, they should be either planted soon after maturing or stratified in moist but not wet sand, soil or moss and kept in a cool place. Dr. T. H. Hoskins reports perfect germination of butternuts stored in a loft four or five years ! The longevity of seeds is well illustrated by the following in- stance. At Columbia, Mo., white clover seed which had been buried about six feet deep under a race track for 35 years, was found, upon being uncovered, to germinate freely. CHAPTER III GERMINATION AND LONGEVITY OF SEEDS 64. Size of seed generally produces proportionate seed- lings, not only as to species but as to specimen. A mere glance at a lima bean would suggest that the seedling would be many times larger than a begonia seedling. The same generally holds true of the larger, heavier specimens as compared with the smaller, lighter ones of the same species. Galloway found that large radish seed germinates more quickly and certainly, and produces marketable plants sooner and more uni- formly than small seed, while small seed gives proportionately larger plants than does large seed, though not to an extent believed to be advantageous in practice. Another investigator found that pea plants from large seed bloomed four days earlier than those from small, and produced marketable peas four days earlier and the main crop five to six days earlier. Beans acted similarly. 65. Large seed in plant production — M. B. Cummings of Vermont reports a series of experiments with seeds of sweet peas, sweet pumpkins, Hubbard squash, lettuce, beans, parsley, radishes, spinach, garden peas and other plants to determine the relative value of large and small seeds on plant production. The experiments, as a whole, show a distinct advantage in using large and heavy seed. Sweet peas gave earlier bloom, a larger number of blossoms, and a larger number of blossoms of good quality. The plants were also heavier and more prolific and thrifty. Small squash and pumpkin seed gave a larger number and greater total weight of fruit, but were markedly inferior as to number and weight of ripe fruit. Large lettuce seed produced larger seedlings, an increased weight of edibly matured plants with better heading capaliility. earliness and uniformity. Of the crops tested, garden peas alone showed little or no difference when the seed was harvested as green peas. There was a slight gain for plants from large seed allowed to mature. Large bean seed gave an earlier product, but was slower in germinating. 66. Delayed germination. — When conditions are nor- mal, many seeds will sprout in less than three days (mus- tard family) ; others seem to require three or more weeks (parsley family) ; still others do not germinate for a GI'.KM I XA 1 l().\ WD 1,1 ).\(,l- A I I N ( M' SI". 37 }t'ar or more (holly, tliorn, niounlain ash), "rhcsc dif- fercncfs may be due to the form of the stored food, thi- character of the seed coats, the nature of the plant, the dryness of the seeds or of the soil, etc. h"or instance, ginseng seeds, if sown as soon as ripe, should sprout the following spring; if dry they may take 18 months or FIG. 28— VEGETABLE PLANT BEDS 1. Celery for transplanting. 2. Seedling lettuce plants. The plants are kept free from weeds and are thinned and transplanted as mav be needed. 38 PLANT PROPAGATION more. Clover and alfalfa "hard seeds" are slow unless treated with snl])huric aeid as already indicated (47). 67. Delayed germination, according to W. Crocker, an English investigator, is due to the structure of the seed coats rather than to that of the embryos, as popularly believed. Those coats which ex- clude water are slower than those which exclude oxygen. In nature, growth of delayed seeds results from decay of the seed coats by longer or shorter exposure to germinative conditions. In garden practice, advantage is often taken of difference in time of sprouting by sowing quick-germinating and slow-sprouting seeds in the same rows, the former to act as markers of the positions of the rows so cultivation may start at the earliest possible moment. The markers must always be sown very thinly. Radish is a favorite for this purpose, because it sprouts and matures early. FIG. 29— CALIFORNIA PRIVET IN OHIO NURSERY This ornamental is one of the leading hedge plants today. 68. Re-germination of seeds. — Popular opinion is wrong in the belief that seeds once dried after germination are useless for sowing or are necessarily killed. Certainly they are not quite as good, but they may sprout again fully as well as the first time and produce just as good plants. Nowoczek made re-germination tests under tem- peratures varying between 60 and 68 degrees with results (;i:km iNAiioN AM) i.().\(;i:\i TV of ski-:ds 39 that show that corn, ra])e, flax, peas, l)uckwheat, onion, radish and some other seeds will re-germinate several times. Therefore, should drouth follow sprouting, it will not necessarily indicate that the sprouted hut dried seed.s of these crops will fail to germinate again under favor- able conditions. Re-germination Tests Number of Times an J Percentage of Germination 1st time 2d 3 a 4th 5th 6th 7th Wheat Barley Oats 70% 85 90 98 95 88 85 87 70% 78 83 96 55 78 41 38 57,, 77 66 27 30 10 3 31% 40 62 14 17 9 3 25% 33 40 3 1 10% 17 27 1% 4 8 _ Rape Flax - Red CIo\ er Peas - FlC. 3(i--WRlNKLES IN GROWING PLANTS IN FLATS I. Flat with paper pot fillers and galvanized steel bottom (shown above). The plants are ready for setting without loss of roots. 2. Plants taken from Hat. CHAPTER IV SEED TESTING 69, Specialists divide seeds into two classes — those whose botanical purity can be determined from the speci- mens themselves and those which can be judged only bv the plants they produce. Most farm seeds belong to the first class ; most garden seeds to the second. Hence, the former are the more easily tested and their val- ue for sowing more accu- ratel}- judged beforehand. With the latter the point of most importance is true- ness to name and strain. Of course they must ger- minate, but gardeners would rather have low vitality seed of good stock than high vitality seed of poor stock ; for though they might get only 25 per cent of plants from a sowing, these would be of the type they desire ; but even 90 per cent in the other case might mean no sale for the product. Most good seedsmen, therefore, test their stock. The importance of this was recently told the writer by a prom- inent seedsman whose firm took a contract to furnish a canning fac- tory with a large quantity of best seed. The seed firm was obliged to t)uy the seed to fill the order. No test was, therefore, possible prior to filling the contract. The seed proved to be so inferior that the seed firm promptly met the loss of $1,200 when the canning company made complaint. 40 FIG. 31— TWO STYLES OF TROWELS Left, properly cared for; properly right, im- sI':i-:l) 'i'ics'I'inc, 41 70. The value of "trial grounds" to seedsmen and to the public cannot be oxcrcstiniatcd. The firm's stocks and those of competitors are grown side by side, and as the season advances, critical observations are made, with the result that inferior stock is discovered and disposed of in ways that will do no harm. 71. The importance of seed analysis is threefold: a, seeds are the most varial)le materials farmers have to buy; b, weight for weight they are the most costly; c, the success or failure of the immediate crops and often of several generations of crops depends largely or perhaps even wholly upon the character of the seed. Hence seed testing is almost essential to the modern farmer who must leave no ])oint to chance. Borlase furnishes an example in the following table and comment : A'auk (IF Seed Analysis Illustrated £ ■^ - ./I to •0 » (O-D c-o 5 ~ i! 5 -0 ^ - u s III 1 ■> 3 *25 *20 *18 97.1 7.S.6 60.3 1.7 13.4 28. 1 J. 2 8.0 11.6 213,620 172,920 132,660 8,906 8,64(1 7,37o *Price approximate, hence "nuitfher good seed for a cent" also approximate. riG. 32— EFFECTIVE MEANS OF HASTENING GER.WINATION Seedlings under inverted Mower pot. 2. Seedlin;;s under pane of jjlass 42 PLANT PROPAGATION If only 10,000,000 seeds are sown to the acre, Sample 1 would provide over :.'0 weed seeds to the square yard, while Sample No. 3 would distribute 240. But notice also the number of good seeds ob- tained for a cent and figure out how much is being paid for inferior and weed seeds in each case; then judge the help that pure seed will be in preventing weed growth on the farm. The Canadian Department of Agriculture found that "red clover" seed sold in Ontario contained 6,000 to 15,000 weed seeds to the pound and in alsike as high as 23,550 to 49,830. An American sample of alfalfa gave 6.8 per cent or about 32,5()0 seeds in a pound of weed seeds, including 5.490 of dodder (see C, 72), one of the worst of weeds, because, being parasitic, it kills all the alfalfa it reaches. In certain parts of the United States, it is stated, clover seed tailings are some- times used on the farm, the clean seed being sold. Such tailings have been found to contain over 273,000 weed seeds to the pound. Such seed will soon make any farm a weed paradise. 72. Losses due to low- grade seeds are evident from the examples cited. These may be grouped under the following heads: A. Direct loss on the purchase. B. Loss of crop due to in- sufficient good seed sown to the acre, with possible total loss in worst cases. C. Loss due to direct destruction of crop because of intro- duced parasites such as dodder and broom rape. FIG. 33-RHizoMEs j^ Ncccssary cost of ex- 1. Iris showing old rhizome at left and . rlpanincr tViP af-f-rl new at right. 2. Rhubarb rhizome. ^^ <^ CJCdnnig^ inc bCCU SliKD TliSTINC. 43 crop, perhaps even for several years, due to the introduction of weeds. E. Damage caused l)y introduction of new weeds, which may spread over the farm or the district. F. l.oss (hie to insect and fungous pests introduced with the seed. A. Direct loss following the pur- chase of low-grade seeds may be due to one or both of two factors : (1) reduced quantity of seed true to name, and (2) poor germinating capacity of the seeds. Usually low quality seeds are poor in both ways. B. When truly high-class samples of seed are bought, less seed is need- ed for a given area than when low- grade samples are used. When a low-grade sample is sown unwitting- ly, the result may be a poor stand, which may be overcome by strong growing weeds, many of which may have been introduced with the seed. Sometimes the whole field may have to be plowed and re-sown, thus causing loss of cultivation, one lot of seed and much time, the last, per- haps, most serious, except the equiv- alent loss of money. C. The loss due to parasites may be calculated from the statement l)y M. Marre that a single dodder stem may spread so rapidly in three months as to kill clover or alfalfa on an area of about 30 square yards! By experiment, dodder seed has licen found to germinate when only lialf ripe! The seeds of the dodder and broom rape may lie dormant in the soil for several years. D. Introduced weeds may make necessary extra cultivation as well as extra cleaning of the sef^d croj). E. See comment above (F). F. See comment above (C). On every count, therefore, low- grade seeds are undesirable at any soil. 3. Fimjing in pot FIG. 34 — POTTING ROOTED GERANIUM 1. Ready to fill. 2. Filling in 44 I'LA.XT rKUl'AGATIUN FIG. 35— SMALL SCALE SEED TESTING price. Low price is almost surely an index of low quality. 73. Questions to consider in testing seed i. Is the seed to be purchased truly named? If not, it should be refused. Seed pur- porting to be Tri folium re- pcns (white clover) but really T. parvifloruiii (a worthless clover species) should be re- fused and the seller perhaps sued for fraud. Species can usually be identified, but va- rieties must generally be grown before they can. 2. Is the seed fresh or old? Old seeds may be treated to make them look fresh, but that won't put life in them. When mixed with new seed they reduce the value because they are probably dead. This trick of the trade is far less practiced than formerly. It constitutes a fraud and is pun- ishable by law. Mere number of years does not necessarily make seed "old." Some seeds (see table p. 49) retain vitality ten or more years. They properly de- serve still to be called "fresh" if they germinate well. Repu- table seedsmen, after testing their "returned" seeds offer the good samples for sale again. This is perfectly legitimate. 3. Has a cheaper seed been mixed V.'ith the desired kind? a, galvanized iron earth tray; a, Yellow trefoil seed superficially plants in pots; B, water tank filled by resembles, and is sometimes used funnel, F; C, chamber heated by lamp, J ,, . J 1 „i„:i ^ D; b, b, air intakes; E, removable top. to adulterate, red and alsike > > > > > ^ Gia33 Giasa clovers and alfalfa. Cock's-foot grass seed may be adulterated with meadow fescue or perennial rye grass and charlock seed, per- haps baked to kill it so its seed- lings will not betray the fraud, may be mixed with cal)l)age, rape ancl similar seeds. 4. How pure is the sample? The percentage of seeds true to name is of great importance. The impurities should be identified— ■eods and their species, seeds of other cultivated plants, cliaff, bits -ELABORATE PROPAGATING OVEN ^^ ■^3 *4£.tj<..H:. AJt*jfcA^iiAA. Sarid r "t FIG. 37- -SIMPLE PROPAGATING OVEN With dimensions at 2 feet high the of Stem, leaf and pods, dirt, etc. .lilass wnuid be 10x12 inches. Verv liad wccd sccds sluuild be SEED TESTING 45 named. "Rubhish" impurities are of small consequence compared U) weed seeds, especially if bad; for instance, a sample of clover '.)'.) per cent pure and with 9!) per cent germination, would be unsatis- factory if it contained dodder. 5. What does the seed weigh? Generally heavy seeds within the limits of the species are best. 6. Are the seeds dry? Well-dried seeds keep best and give best results. 7. Where did the seeds originate? Seeds from some countries or e\ en localities may be better or poorer than from others. 8. What percentage will germinate? And at what rate or "strength" ? 1). \Vhat percentage are "hard" seeds? Perhaps this will not be considered as serious a question as formerly when the sulphuric acid method (47) comes into more general use. FIG. 38— SAND BOX SEED GERMINATOR The wires divide the surface into squares in which the seeds are placed. 74. Simple conveniences in seed testing include a pocket lens to examine small seeds ; sheets of stout white paper or cardboard on which to spread seeds for examina- tion ; a spatula-like piece of hardwood, bone or celluloid to separate the seeds ; tweezers to pick out small seeds ; a small scales for weighing- phials of truly named culti- vated plant and weed seeds with which to compare seeds to be examined ; gummed labels for numbering or nam- ing samples ; blotting paper, strips of flannel, and clean sifted sand for gennination tests. A small germinator may be made by wetting sand in a 46 PLANT PROPAGATION soup plate, placing blotting- paper or flannel on this, then the seeds to be tested next, a second sheet of blotting paper and finally an inverted soup plate to check evapora- tion (Fig. 35). For small seeds. Petri dishes used by bacteriologists are more convenient than soup plates, be- cause they take up less space. A warm room will supply the needed heat. Seed pans and flower pots placed in trays of water or otherwise kept damp are useful in a FIG. 39— LABELS AND METHODS OF MARKING A, C, L \arious sizes of florists' labels. B, old label rotted off at bottom without losing name. D, zinc label with writing almost illegible after a year or more of use. E, G, H, nurserymen's labels for fastening to trees etc. F, old label showing wrong way to write name, thus losing the important part, the first syllable or two, by decay. J, nurserymen's label printed on botlj sides for quickness in handling. larger way. For more extensive work, as in schools and colleges, germinating ovens (Figs. 86, 87) will be found more convenient and useful. 75. Conducting a seed test. — Representative samples of the seed to be tested are taken from the sacks or bins of seed. These are mixed to secure uniformity. A small sample of this composite sample is weighed, spread out and the good seed separated from the bad and the various si-:i-:i) ii.M iM, 47 impurities, each by itself. Then each lot is weighed and the percentage of purity computed. From the pure lot thus separated, 100 or 200 seeds are selected and placed in a gern.lnator so they do not touch each other. In due- time under favorable conditions, sprouting will follow and the percentage of germination may be determined. To calculate the true value of the seed, multiply the per- centage of purity by the percentage of germination and divide by 100. For instance, suppose a sample to be 90 per cent pure and have 80 per cent germination ; i)0 X 85 -^ by 100 r= 83.8 per cent. That isl 100 pounds would contain 83.3 pounds of pure, germinable seed and 16.7 pounds of dead seeds, weed seeds, dirt, etc. What man in his right senses would pay for the latter? 76. The longevity of seeds, the percentage of germina- tion and the purity of the sample have much to do with the resulting crop. In the table on page 49, the per- centages of purity and germination (by Duvel) arc high averages in high-grade seed ; the figures (years) on longevity are from Vilmorin. As an indication of the importance of securing high-grade seed the following instance si)eaks for itself. 48 PLANT PROPAGATION SEKl) Tl'.STINC. 49 CiKRMINATION' AND I.ONCJKVITY OF SI'.KDS [Purity and Germination figures from Duval; Longevity from Vilmorin.] Per Ctnt Per Cent >. a m'> Kind of Seed >. ,§ M > .^ S c t. «. E Is u U) 3 o-a U c ^ ^S 0, O <:j a, J lants need shade. Lath shutters (big. 49). in general use, are placed on in\erte(l ])ots large enough to raise them above the jjlants. In hot, sunny weather. news])a])er or cheesecloth is used for additional shade for three days to a week at first, being placed early and removed late in the daw but gradually shortening the time shaded. 6o PLANT I'KOPAGATION Sand to the depth of one-half to one inch on the bencli aids greatly in the retention of moisture as well as in placing the pots level. Repotting dangers. — It seems to be a rule that plants grown in the open ground attain larger size than those grown in flower pots ; also that those grown in large pots grow larger than those grown in smaller and smaller ones. Experiments have proved that the greater the number of repottings the smaller the plants so treated. 88. Tomato propagation.— In Maryland, 83 varieties of tomatoes were grown experimentally, some in the usual way of transplanting, some from seed sown direct in 4-inch pots imbedded in earth and the seedlings thinned. There was loss by damping-off among the FIG. 50— REMOVING PLANT FROM POT A, placing the hands; b, rapping pot on hsnjh to loosen ball of earth; c, plant separated from pot. transplanted plants, but none arnong the pot grown. These latter suffered no loss or check when moved to the field; the transplanted plants were slower to start and to bloom. With 72 of the 83 va- rieties the pot plants yielded more than the others, and among the 10 greatest yielders nine were potted. The average yield on an acre basis was 12^ tons, against 10^4, an increase more than enough to pay for the labor. The potted plants, as a whole, produced about twice as much fruit prior to August 15 as the others — 5'.) bushels, against 30. [This is of special interest from a market standpoint, because of higher prices early in the season. 1 Each of the 20 best earlv producers gave greatest j'ield from the potted plants. 89. Transplanting lettuce and other plants experimentally in Wis- consin in the greenhouse seems to warrant the general conclusion that transplanting does not promote earliness nor increased yield, flnce transplanting, as of cabbage plants, from seed bed to field, or "pricking off" as commonly practiced in the greenhouse, is neces- sary to economize room, but repeated transplanting of vegetable plants is not advisable. rOTTlNG 6i 90. "Shifting" is the trade Icnn for transferring- potted l)lants to larger-sized pots. At a g-lance the trained man can tell when shifting is needed; the novice may "knock out" the plants to examine the roots. This is done as shown in Fig. 50, the top of the pot being rapped smartly on the edge of the bench. If the roots form a network around the earth, especially if they are dark colored, they must be shifted to avoid becoming "pot- bound." 91. In knocking out plants for shifting, only one rap is FIG. 51— POT STORAGE OUT OF DOORS This being placed adjacent to the cold frames and hotbeds saves much time and labor. usually needed ; more waste time. Plants should never be shifted while the soil in the pots is either very wet or very dry ; only when dry enough to crumble beneath thumb and fingers. Pot-bound plants need special at- tention (92). Pots should be free from caked dirt and fairly clean. After removal from the small pots, each plant is "shouldered" ; i. e., part of the surface soil is rubbed off so fresh soil may take its place in the larger pot in which it is to be placed. C2 PLANT I'ROPAGATION Plants, soil, pots and flat being ready, the workman puts enough soil in the bottom of the pot to have the top of the ball of earth around the plant on a level with the rim of the pot. The plant being so placed by the left hand, the right hand hlls in soil; the pot is then grasped as in motion 4 al:ove (86), raised slightly and rapped twice on the bench, the thumbs pressing the soil as in motion 5, first in one i)osition then in the other. The un- pressed earth is then firmed in the same way and the shifted plant set in the flat at the right. Expert shifters with two boys to keep them supplied with material and to remove shifted plants easily shift 5.000 plants a day. FIG. 52— FLAT FULL OF PLANTS READY FOR TRANSPLANTING Canned tomato boxes make three convenient-sized flats each, when sawed apart twice around the sides. Shifts should be from small pots to the next size larger. Never skip a size in the fall, though sometimes with quick-growing suljjects in spring a size may be skipped; that is, a plant in a three-inch pot may be placed in a five-inch size, or a four-inch in a six. Usually a size at a time is best, particularly in commercial estab- lishments, where the aim is shipping-. A\Mien pots become larger than four-inch, and even in that size for shrubbery plants, drainage is necessary. "Crocks" ; that is, broken flower pots, are the orthodox things. A large piece is placed over the drainage hole in the pot and smaller pieces above to the dejjth of an inch in five and six-inch pots and twice as much in larger sizes. Pots larger than I'OTTIXC; ^>3 three inches should l;e set on gravel, cinders ur other loose material to insure drainai^e. i2. Pot-bound plants, those which have been checked 1 \- remaining too long in the same pots and have been thus checked in growth, need special attention. Be- fore knocking out. the surface soil should l)e scraped clean to remove "moss" and some of the sour soil. After knocking out, the hard ball of earth should be crushed between the palms of the hands, perhaps broken by raps of the closed hand. The plants may then be replaced in the same pots with additional fresh soil. In most cases, however, it is better to stand the plants, pots and all, in water, say half an hour, and then wash and work out the earth in water either in a tub or in a gentle stream. After washing, the plants should be placed in pots one or FIG. 53— COMMON LAYERAGE A, the branches are bent down and buried. B, the layer enlarged to show wound to hasten root production. two sizes smaller than those they have been in. vShrtib- bery plants should be pruned back. Plenty of shade but little water is needed until the roots "take hold" and danger of wilting has passed. The appearance of new growth is the favorable sign. 93. Flat, a shallow box in which seeds are started and seedlings grown until large enough for pricking out (81) or transplanting, usually of a size easy to handle when lilled with two to four inches of soil. It is con- \enient to have flats of some standard size that will fit the bench or hotbed space without waste. CHAPTER VI PROPAGATION BY BUDS— LAYERAGE 94. Layerage is the rooting of stems while still attached to the parent plant. The rooted pieces are cut ofif to form new plants. Many species propagate themselves naturally by various modifications of layerage and many which cannot readily be propagated from cuttings (black raspberry) easily do so by means of layers. Layering is one of the easiest and most popular methods of propa- gation. The parent plant supplies food to the layer until this is capable of caring for itself. In outdoor practice the operation is best performed in early spring. Grape, bitter sweet, Virginia creeper, honeysuckle and other vines when trailing on the ground become imbedded more or less in earth and take root at the nodes. Blackcap raspberry stems arch them- selves till their tips touch the earth, when the terminal buds turn upward, and roots are produced from the thickened ends. Other buds near the tips send out shoots which also take root. 95. Styles of layering. Layering is practiced in many FIG. 54— TRICKS IN TRANSPLANTING a, b, and e, dotted lines show parts of tops removed; C, and d, show method of handling "leggy" plants 64 rkOPAGATlUN 15V I'.L'DS — LAVKKACE ^>5 ways, chief anions^' wliicli arc : Simple, conipoutid or ser- pentine, conlinuous, mound or stool, I'hinese or pot. 96. Simple layers (Fig. 55) are made by Ijending and covering- the branches with more or less soil. In general, a shallow and short trench or a small hole is made in the earth and the branch pegged or weighted down in it prior to being covered with soil to the depth of two or three inches but with 6 to 12 inches of the extremity of the shoot uncovered to draw sap and elaborate plant food. To hasten root formation the stems are often wounded FIG. 55— LAYERING OF VARIOUS KINDS A, ordinary layering; a, layering pegs; B, continuous layer; C, serpentine layer (alternate nodes pegged down). D, mound or stool layer. at the points to be covered. W'ounding may he done by scraping the bark or cutting through the cambium layer on the lower side of the branch below the bud or shoot to grow, or it may l)e by severely twisting the branch at this ])oint. Hacking with a knife near the nodfe is also often done. These woundings tend to form adventitious buds on which root growth in asexual propagation depends. So many species and varieties of shrubs may be prop- agated by simple layering that it seems probable any woody plant ca])able of being bent to the earth can be thus propagated. (Currant, gooseberry, golden bell.) Black raspberry canes and shoots cannot be made to root well when covered at more than their tips. (Fig. 50.) AMien the tips are about ready to take root they 66 r-LANT J'KorACA'llON should be anchored with pebbles or clods of earth to prevent whipping about by wind. This is especially important where the ground is hard and dry. Since this method is the only one practiced in propagating l)lack raspberries, it is sometimes called tih laycriiuj. In the fol- lowing spring the rooted tips are severed for i)lanting with about six inches of the stems to serve as handles. 1 he buds from which the new canes are to develop must not be set deeper than the surface of the Snil. 07. Compound or serpentine layers (Fig. 55) are made by cov- ering the stems at several points alternating witli other points not C()\ered. The method is most frequently used for propagating N'incs and other long supple stems. Management is the same as for simple layers. 98. Continuous layers (Fig. 55) are made from plants which root FIG. 56-BLACK RASPBERRY rcadilv whcu tlic wholc branch ROOTED TIP - . . ... White spot near center is the CXCCpt the tip IS buned With ""* ''"'^- three or four inches of earth. Since the buds on most plants will not develop into shoots if buried, only a few plants are adapted to this form of layering, among them red osier, willow, high Imsh cran- berr}' and snowball. 99. Modified continuous layering, popular in propagat- ing varieties and species of grapes and other vines that do not root readily from cuttings, is practiced as fol- lows: In spring new canes are laid in open trenches two or three inches deep and pegged down. \\'hen the buds have developed shoots, the opposite sides of the parent canes are wounded at the nodes and earth is drawn over the canes and the bases of the shoots. After PROPAGATION I!V P.rDS [.AVERAGE 67 having taken root the canes are cut on each side of a rooted node bearing a shoot. 'J'hus as many i)lants may be se- cured as there are shoots. 100. Chinese or pot layers (Fig-. 58), used ahuost wholly in greenhouse practice, are made on up- right stems which cannot l)e readily bent as in simple layering or covered at their bases antl treated by the mound method. It is of sjiecial use for re-rooting plants with stems that have become "leggy" Wm (drac;ena, oleander, croton, rhododen- dron, rubber plant, pandanus). It is also of service in making the 1)ranches of such plants take root. FIG. 57— HOMEMADE LAYERING POT While still growing in their natural positi(Mi, the stems are wounded, usuall}- by girdling or notching, and bound with earth, moss or some other moisture-holding material held in place with raffia or cloth bands. Until roots have developed, the bandage and its contents are kept moist by watering when necessary — r an eas\- •matter in a greenhouse. Roots push out from the upper side of the girdle or notch. As soon as they ha\e filled the ball of moss the stem is severed below the wound and planted usuall\ in a flower pot. Sometimes the leafage is reduced, as in FIG. 58— CHINESE LAYERS A favorite way to increase crotons 68 PLANT PROPACiATION transplanting. Often special flower pots with open sides (Fig. 57) are used in this method; but as good results are secured with moss alone as with them. 101. Mound or stool layering (Fig. 55), which consists of burying the bases of shrub stems deeply with earth, thus forcing the striking of roots, is of special utility in propa- gating short-stemmed and stiff-branched shrubs. Quinces, English gooseberries and Paradise apple stocks are so grown. When many plants are desired, it is common the previous season to cut down the shrubs to be used thus so as to produce numerous shoots close to the ground and the center of the shrub. Preparatory to covering, these shoots are wounded close to the ground so roots will be produced quickly in abundance. One sea- son's growth is usually enough to make plants capable of being used for setting out. The advantage of the method is that strong, stocky plants are thus produced. 102. Runners (Fig. 60), special, branches formed by strawberry and produce little clusters of leaves at from which, under favorable conditions, roots are devel- oped and thus new plants formed. All that is necessary to have the roots develop is to anchor the rosettes of leaves with clods of earth or pebbles for a few days. Often the runners are made to root in 2 or 2 H -inch flower pots plunged full depth in the strawberry bed and filled with good soil. Such plants usually give better results than those allowed to grow without this restriction, because there is little or no loss of roots when the potted plants are transplanted. Four to eight plants may be produced in succession by one runner; but since the later ones are considered inferior and weak because they have less time in which to grow, only the first one or perhaps two rosettes on any one runner are allowed to grow for making 1 STYLES OF LAYERING POTS usually creeping some other plants, each second node PUUI'ACATION IJY 15UDS — LAYERAGE r,9 plants citlier to transplant or to bear fruit. In field practice no such care as this is taken, the ]>lants being allf)vved to root freely within the limits of the matted or hedgerow width. As in all other asexual methods of propagation, runners i)roduce the same variety as the parent plants from which thev are formed. 103. Rapid strawberry propagation. — C. Gazeau, a French in- vestigator, claims that strawberries may be rapidly propagated thus : FIG. 60— STRAWBERRY PLANTS READY FOR SETTING 1. Potted runner plant three weeks after taking root. 2. Plant typical of those used in spring setting. This has grown naturally in the field. 3. Same plant as in 1 with earth washed off, compared with plant of same age but not potted. When the runners first develop terminal buds with rosettes of leaves, they are layered with only the leaves exposed. Thus they are protected from accidents and the weather and are in most favor- able conditions for rooting. In about two weeks roots will have formed and the runners extended. These extensions may be rooted similarly and the operation repeatec six oi eight or even more times. Mother plants ofte i develop six or eight runners, so this would mean 36 to 48 plants thus far. But the first rooted layers will also de- velop secondary runners soon after the primary ones have struck root and these secondary runners may be treated Hke the primary ones. Thus the number of plants would be limited almost wholly by the season, the efforts of the propagator and the space at command. But then the tertninal buds may l)e used for making cuttings as soon 70 PLANT PROPAGATION' as the rosettes have two well- formed leaves, the runner being cut close to its mother plant and the cuttings placed in a propagating 1)e(l. The author finds cuttings less successful than layers, the jihints being less vigorous and slower to multiply. Only about 35 per cent as many cutting plants can be made as layer plants in a given time. In such work the original mother plants were set about six feet apart each way the previous autumn in a deeply worked and heavily manured bed. The growing season may be lengthened by using cold frames. Intensive culture is essential, so is watering with liquid manure. Plants produced by this method were exceedingly vigorous and yielded abundantly the following year, whereas by the ordinary field method, they did not bear wdl until the second year from taking root. 104. Bulbs are usually subterranean, specialized buds composed of short rudimentary axes inclosed in trans- formed and thickened leaves or bulb scales filled with food. Usually they are formed at the bases of the stems, though they often develop from i)uds inside the parent bulb, generally in the axil of a bulb scale. They are common among plants which have a long resting period, as in arid regions, though they also occur among plants of other regions. FIG. 61— TRIMMING STRAWBERRY ROOTS FIG. 62— TULIP PLANTING IN WASHINGTON STATE 1. Making furrows. 2. Placing bulbs. As good bulbs are produced in Puget Sound district as in Holland. The industry is in its infancy PROPAC.ATIltX i;V I'.l'DS LAN' i:UA(_iF, 71 The trade uses the term "Dutch l)ull)s" to designate those species which come commercially fnim Holland (hyacinth, tulip, narcissus, etc.), blossom in early ,>i)rini;, and after their leaves die down remain dormant until the autumn, when they develop roots lor the following- season's flowers. Hence the importance (1) of jdanting them early in the fall so root growth will be strong before winter sets in, and (2j of allowing the leaves to die naturally so the bulbs will store ample food. 105. Bulblet, bulbel, bulbil, bulbule, are terms concern- ing which authors do not agree, h'or instance, one defines "hulbels" as borne attached to the mother l)ull), and bulb- lets as borne above ground, generally in a leaf axil. Another applies "bulbel" to the latter delinition and says that bulblet is synonymous with "bulbil." In this book no distinction is made; "bulblet" is most used. 106. Separation is plant ])ro])agation by \egetative parts FIG. 63— CLASSES OF BULBS I. Scaly bulb of tiger lily, 2, solid bulbs (corms) of gladiolus and tuberose and tunicate buib of onion. 3, tunicate bulh of onion in cross section showing the sheathing bulb leaves. 72 PLANT PROPAGATION that naturally detach themselves at the close of the grow- ing season and become or develop new plants. 107. Bulblets are produced from transformed flower buds on stems above ground by top onions, garlic and some other plants ; from transformed leaf buds in the axils of the leaves by tiger lilies (Fig. 2) ; and below ground around the bases of "mother" bulbs. FIG. 64— HYACINTH PROPAGATED NATURALLY On left, bulbs as offered for sale. Other groups of bulbs naturally splitting up into smaller ones. 108. Bulbs and corms often form a few bulblets or cormels (respectively) around their bases. Sooner or latter these grow to normal flowering size. The larger ones may be separated after the plants are dug. It is. however, usualTy better to leave the small ones attached to the main bulbs until they are large enough to produce flowers the followinsf season. I'U()1'A(;ai KIN v.y lams — i,a\ i:i-■ 60 ri HC 72— FIRE-HEATED HOTBED OR SWEET POTATO PLANT STARTER A sectional view through side; B, ground plan; C, cross sections; D, general outside view; E, construct'on; F. detail. PKOPACATION V.\ lUDS 1,A^'I•:RA(;I•: «3 t)f ihc gTowinj^ season of the iiulixidual species. Each season they push forward and also develop tiowering stems and lea\es (May apple, achillea, Solomon's seal, Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, etc.). Lily-of-the-valley is one of the commercially most important crown-bearing plants. Its "pips" are annually imported from Europe by the million to supply the demands of florists. Until needed for forcing, the pijis are generally cold stored. HIG. 73— IRISH PUTATCtS Sl'ROliTING At left, tuber sproutinK in cellar; middle, one sprouted in full sunlight; right, tuSer planted in soil. 126. Rosette, a cluster of lea\cs or other organs ar- ranged somewhat like the petals of a d()ul)le rose; for instance, the radical leaves of dandelion and carrot, the stolons of houseleek. 127. Rough division is often practiced when herbaceous perennials grow too thick (])hlox, rhuliarb, peony, iris) ly digging up and cutting the clumps in pieces with a rharp spade. The best pieces are re-planted. Many shrubs (snowball, lilac, barberry) are so treated. This, 84 PLANT PROPAGATION the crudest form of division, is little practiced in a com- mercial way, more in home gardens. 128. Tubers are short, thickened parts of subterranean branches (Irish potato, dahlia) stored with plant food, largely starch, to start new plants at the beginning of the next growing season or other period of stress. An- other view is that parent tubers serve as water res- ervoirs, since experiment has shown that they are heavier after the plant has grown several weeks than before growth starts, due to accumulation of water during plant growth. Often thickened roots (sweet potato) are popu- larh^ classed with tubers. Botanically the distinction is that true tubers have "eyes" or buds, whereas thickened roots do not. In practice, true tubers (Irish potato) are often used for making cuttings, whereas thickened roots (sweet potato) are generally planted whole, either direct in the field or in hotbeds (Figs. 72, 80), and sprouts taken from them for transplanting. When tubers are planted whole, just as broken from the parent plant, the process is called division ; but when cut in pieces, each bearing one or more eyes, it is called cuttage (138). From the eyes shoots are developed. Roots form at the bases of these shoots (Fig. 73), not from the tuber itself. As growth progresses special stems are produced above the roots and swell into new tubers Tubers are most frequently found in arid climates, but are by no means rare in moist ones. Like bulbs, some are hardy, some tender. Hardy species (Jerusalem artichoke) do best left in the open ground until spring; tender ones (dahlia, potato) must be dug in fall and stored in a cool place not too dry nor too moist, otherwise they will either shrivel or mold. When true tubers are cut (dahlia) each piece must have at least one bud, because such tubers do not produce adventitious buds, but when thickened roots (sweet potato) are cut and placed in a prop- agating bed, adventitious buds develop and produce stems. Roots almost never grow from the tubers or the cuttings themselves, but from the bases of sprouts. The shoots may, therefore, be removed and planted separately, as is almost always done with sweet potato and often in increasing stock of new varieties of Irish potato. Other shoots soon develop from the tubers, and the process may be re- peated several times. Pseudo-bulbs of orchids are similarly handled. 129. Hastening growth of potatoes may be done in three wavs summarized by the Rhode Island Station as the result of experiments thus : a, by planting sets in pots in greenhouses and transplanting i'Ut)i'A(;Ai'i().\ i;v nuDS — i-Avi-:KAt;i': arali\elv little attention was necessary in watering. 141. Rooting cuttings in dry climates — Because the relative hu- midity in dry climates is low, as in parts of the Pacific Coast states, special methods are necessary to make cuttings of certain plants (roses, for instance,) take root. Florists have had good success with the following method: Hotbeds with 18 inches of fresh manure and three inches of sand are covered with glass beneath a frame covered w-ith burlap to provide shade and reduce air circulation. Only one daily watering is usually necessary. At this time, the sashes are raised one at a time to reduce loss of humidity. FIG. 89— RED RASPBERRY SUCKER PLANTS . Note way new plants develop from roots and the attempts made by the plants to produce new ones. 142. Cuttings require a moist air of proper tempera- ttire and sometimes bottom heat (132). This general statement ai)plies with special force to cuttings and growing parts. Heat and humidity must be carefully regulated to suit the species or variety of plant being propagated, because the demands of each vary more or 100 PLANT PROPAGATION less. Many devices, some of them very simple, have been adopted for regulating both heat and moisture. 143. Moisture regulation is accomplished usually by propagating frames and boxes of various forms, the com- monest being that of a hotbed but smaller. In all the principle is that of confining the air. In a small way a flower pot or a flat may be inverted over the cuttings, (Fig. 32) or a pane of glass (Fig. 32) or a bell jar placed above them. By tilting these more or less the humidity FIG. 90— A1ETH0D OF POTTING 1. Right hand partially filling soil into pot, left hand seizing rooted cutting. 2. Ready to plant. 3. Filling pot. 4. Finishing. and the circulation of air may be easily regulated. What- ever is used should admit light in varying degree. 144. Callus, the new formation of cells upon an injured surface ; for instance, at the lower end of a stem cutting, or the cut surface of a layer or of a root graft. 145. Stock plants are grown in greenhouses and nurseries merely to supply cuttings, cions, layers, or buds for propagation. 146. "Blind eyes" are shoots which do not produce flowers. They are common on roses and some other CUTTAGE 10 I plants grown under glass. Many propagators think the}' will produce llowcrlcss plants. 147. Blind vs. flowering wood. — L. C. Corbett tested this I)elief that "bUnd wood," is inferior to "flower wood" in the propagation of roses Each year for live years wood was selected respectively from these two classes of shoots to test the cumulative effect of prop- agation through a series of years. As to rootmg ability and growth, little difference was noticed. During the lirst year the Howoring wood plants produce ir.d per cent more flowers than plants prop- agated from l)lind wood, but during the next two years the per- centage decreased instead of increased. The percentage of flowers on the latter also decreased, l)Ut not in so great propi^rtion. As a result of these experiments the author concludes that where bloom rather than stock plants is desired, the flowering wood is decidedly the better, but the cumulative effect of projiagating roses from one or the other year after year is not marked. 148. Suckers are leafy shoots produced from adven- titious buds on the underground parts of plants. The term is sometimes applied (1) to aerial roots or holdfasts of orchids and other epiphytal plants and (2) to shoots which sprout from the trunk. Properly, how- ever, these last are water sprouts (149). 'Suckers often follow injuries by bugs, tools, etc., to the roots, also from weakness or decrepitude in the tree head, or be- cause of excess of plant food at the point whence they arise. All plants that produce them may be easily prop- agated by cuttings of the producing parts. For instance, certain kinds of plum and cherry stocks must be carefully handled to prevent sucker formation ; but for plant prop- agation the stools of blackberries, red raspberries, etc., are often severely root pruned by thrusting a sharp spade full depth of the blade into the soil around the plant so as to cut the roots six or eight inches from the stool and again farther out. Every cut piece wnll produce a plant. Instead of using a spade the stools are often removed and the ground deeplv cut with a disk harrow run in two directions at right angles across the field. See Root Cuttings (162). 149. Water sprouts are shoots or limbs of one season's growth produced from latent or adventitious buds on trunks and branches of well-established trees, mainly near where limbs have been removed. See Suckers (148). lUJ I'LANT PROPAGATION Loth water sprouts and suckers commonly follow over- pi uning. They show an undesirable loss of balance between root system and top. In cold climates water sprouts often winterkill. Therefore, they are best re- moved promptly and with clean cuts. Where practical, careful root pruning will tend to overcome this condition. 150. Origin of roots in cuttings, — In making stem cut- tmgs the usual practice is to "cut to a node" ; i. e., stems are cut just below buds. The reason for this is that with most plants a larger pro- portion of cuttings will "strike root" than if the cuts are made farther away from the nodes. True buds of themselves, however, exercise-no in- fluence in the production of roots, for if buried in the earth or other me- dium, they do not grow. The reason roots form best near the nodes is believed to be that stem tissues at such points are richer in plant food stored there to assist the bud should it start growth. \\'hile many stems made into cuttings will root at any point, it is a rule that roots arise most freely at or very near the bases of the cuttings, whether "cut to a node" or not. Root origin is always in adventitious buds, usually formed beneath the bark or the callus, but always in the primarv (meristematic) tissue, the center of the cambium laver. This tissue is composed of undififerentiated cells. Adventitious buds may develop in any part of a plant FIG. 91— FORMATION Grape cuttings showing callus, showing roots. OF ROOTS 2. Others ( I "i I Ach: 103 where there is an epidermis with primar}^ tissue beneath. The change which leads to the formation of adventitious buds always follows an unusual condition of plant growth FIG. 92— ODD WAYS OF STARTING CUTTINGS 1. Short geranium cutting rooted. 2. Cactus cutting rooted. Both cuttings fastened to toothpicks. such as hisufficient assimilation of elaborated food by the plant or an injury of some kind. Thus adventitious buds may be called emergency buds, because they seek to preserve the pla'Tt when endangered. This orovision of nature has given rise to manv of the 104 PLANT PROPAGATION asexual methods of plant propagation (cuttings, layers, etc.). Buds formed at the bases of stem cuttings readily push through the callus, but often roots push through the epidermis, even high above this point. 151. Buds are of two general kinds, true or normal and adventitious. A true bud, sometimes called a "brood bod}^" is a growing point in normal position on a stem. It may develop into leaf, flower branch, cluster of leaves, or of fiowers, or of both leaves and flowers. 152. Adventitious buds are developed at unexpected points from certain cells in the cambium layer in roots, stems, or leaves. Under favorable conditions anv of these i 10. 'Jo—lWCKl'SG lOR SHIP.MEM 1. Mail order method. 2. Express package. CUTTAGE 105 cells may develop buds which may develop into either roots or sprouts, according- to their position or the neces- sity of the case. Familiar examples on roots are red raspberry and blackberry ; (mi stems, pome and stone fruits ; on leaves, bryophyllum. 153. Leaf buds are undeveloped branches bearing- rudi- mentary leaves specially modified for protection. They develop into branches, which under faxorablc conditions FIG. 94— TILE BOTTOMED GREENHOUSE BENCH This is one of the best styles of bench bottom — because so well drained and so lasting. of growth, mature other buds in the axils of the leaves and usually one or more at the extremities. Flower buds develop one flower or several, with or without leaves. As to position, l)uds are lateral, axillary, etc. 154. Latent buds are normal buds in normal positions but dormant beyond the usual time (a month, a year or more). They are called into growth by some peculiar stimulus. Many of the buds on the lower third or more of the annual growth of trees and shrubs become latent during the second year but start growing if the upper loG I'LAiXT rROl'AGATlON part is cut off. Lateral buds are situated on the sides of branches, usually in the axils of the leaves. A terminal hud is situated at the extremity of a branch or stem. Usually only one is in this position, but sometimes (lilac) there are two or even more. Axillary buds are produced in the axils of leaves. 155, Roots on stem cuttings form on the end normally nearest the root of the parent plant. Stems appear on the other end. Botanists call this phenomenon polarity. With root cuttings the plan holds good ; the end nor- mally nearest the top of the plant will produce a stem, and that farthest away, roots. Some species may be com- pelled to take root when reversed but growth is puny and of short life. If horse-radish cuttings are inverted, they will start late, roots from the "root" end and stems from the "stem" end, but the resulting roots will be small, irregular and unsalable. Hence horse-radish growers generally cut the upper ends of their cuttings square across, and the lower ends oblique so the planters may see which end should be placed uppermost. 156. Shipping cuttings and plants. Plants require fresh air just as animals do. If seeds, bulbs and plants are packed moist in air-tight boxes, they may be asphyxiated or may perish through putrefaction. Growing plants will live a considerable time without light if they can get fresh air and if light and air are good they will stand a rather wide range of temperature. The best method to pack many plants is to knock them out of their pots and roll the earth l)alls in oiled paper, tied above and below. They may then be packed tightly and upright with a lit- tle wet moss between the balls in wooden boxes deep enough to protect the tops. Across the tops of the balls between the rows, strips of batten should be placed and nailed through the sides of the boxes. Perforated zinc on top of the l)Oxes held down by battens may be placed for long-distance shipments. Finally the boxes should be labeled "Living plants. Keep cool. This side up." CUTTAC.K 107 If to Ijc sent by sea, llie further caution is necessary "Keep away from salt water." Plants so packed may be sent half around the world. On arrival, especially if dr}', they should be soaked, root and top, for a day or two before being planted. If woody plants are badly dried they may be buried in moist earth for a week to a month with fair prospects of revixing'. 157, Media used for rooting cuttings have great in- fluence upon the regulation of both moisture and tem- perature, especially the former. They should be porous so excess water will readily drain away ; second, be retentive of cap- illary water so there will always be moisture enough to supply the cut- tings with all they need while callusing and making roots; third, they must not bake or crust after watering. For outdoor work a well-drained light, sandy loam of moderate richness usually gives best results ; heavy soil and muck poorest. Ft)r indoor use, sphag- num moss, cocoantit fiber and specially prepared soils are all used to some extent, but the great ma- terial is river or builders' sand. The grade used should be sharp, clean and as free as possible from organic matter. If the greater portion will pass through a sieve of eight meshes to the inch, l)Ut not through one of say 25, the range will be about right. Some propagators prefer sand near the coarse limit of this range, some near the fine limit. To prevent damping-ofT (78) and other troubles the sand shcnild either be sterilized (80) or freshly dug from a deep pit so as to be as free as possi1)le from organic matter. -Whatever material is used the container must be well drained. When cutting benches have bottoms of small FIG. 95— DOUBLE POT OF CUTTINGS 105 PLANT PROPAGATION tile (Fig-. 94), enough drainage is provided between the tiles ; but with wooden benches it is often necessary to bore holes in the boards and to protect these with pieces of flower pot or to stuff sphagnum moss loosely into them and the larger cracks between the boards. Other- wise too much sand will wash down and be lost and the cuttings may suffer. For best results, water in media for rooting cuttings, as in soil for crops, should be in the form of thin films around soil or sand particles. The finer the particles the larger the quantity of water that may be held and usually the harder will the soil pack — lx)th undesirable in a cutting bed. The familiar example to illustrate the for- FiG 96— "^^^ point is of a cube. This has six sides, ,rc,v,T., .-OT. but cut in half the bulk has not been in- VENTILATED i , , r i i CUTTING POT creased though two new surfaces have been added and the possible film area thus in- creased one-third. Repeated sub-division thus increases the surface area without increasing the bulk. Hence the high water-holding capacity of fine sand and soil. 158. Double pots are often used for small lots of cut- tings because of their convenience (Fig. 95). In a large pot is placed a liberal handful of "crocks" (91), clinkers or other drainage material. Sand is added to a depth sufficient to admit a small pot set upon it so the rims of both pots are on a level. The drainage hole of the smaller pot is plugged so no water can escape, except by seepage through the sides or by evaporation. After adjusting the smaller, sand is placed between the two pots, the smaller filled with water and cuttings stuck in the sand for rooting. The water in the little reservoir seeps out and keeps the sand moist but never too wet for the cuttings. Scarcely more attention is needed than to kee]i the little pot full of water. 159. Shading, especially of newly made greenwood and leaf cuttings, is essential to success because the moisture CUTTAtlE ICXJ in the cuttings themselves must not be greatly de- pleted. This would l)e the case were all the leaf surface allowed to remain or that retained exposed to free cir- culation of air, moist though that of the propagating house may be. The usual plan is to cover cuttings or frames containing them with newspaper (Fig. 18). Factory cotton and cheesecloth are also used more or less (Fig. 15). These materials are all placed where the sun strikes the beds. 160. Screens for seedlings are perhaps best made by a picket machine which binds builders' lath with woven strands of wire. These screens are quicker made, cheaper, more flexible, durable and easier handled than those nailed toeether. no n.AN'l' PROPAGATION IIG. yV-NUKSHKY BEDS t. Hand forking the soil is generally necessary because the beds are narrow. 2. Right and wrong method of weeding. The man on the right has his foot in the bed. CHAPTER IX CLASSES OF CUTTINGS 161. Plant parts to use. — Cuttings may Ije made from any plant part that has a primary tissue (meristem). They may l)e divided into four groups, dependent upon the parts used: 1, Roots; 2, root-stocks and tubers; 3, stems ; 4, leaves. As in all other kinds of asexual propa- gation, cuttings reproduce the same variety as the parent plants from which taken, bud variations or "sports" exceipted. 162. Root cuttings may be made from true roots of any plant species which naturally produce suckers (osage, orange, poplar, willow. red raspberry, trumpet creeper, dracaena, horse- radish, plumbago, bou- \ardia). The roots are cut in pieces usually three inches long, either stored in moist moss or sawdust or placed di- rectly in the propagating bed. With most cool climate plants the rooting is done out of doors without artificial heat; with warm climate subjects bottom heat in greenhouse or hotbed is required. Plants in the former group are often handled with bottom heat to get best results or shorten time. Blackberries and red raspberries, especially when stock is scarce, are often increased commercially by root cuttings (Fig 98). Roots one-fourth inch or even smaller in diameter are dug in fall, cut in pieces one to three inches long, packed in green saw- dust or moist sand, stored in a cold ])ut frost proof cellar till spring and the callused ones then planted like peas, not closer than an inch asunder in furrows wide enough apart for horse cultiva- tion. They make salable plants by fall. When an extra demand 111 FIG. 98— BLACKBERRY PLANTS A, root-cutting plant; B, sucker plant. 112 PLANT PROPAGATION is expected the cuttings are sometimes started in heated propa- gating beds in fall so plants may be ready for sale in spring. In the South they are often made in spring and planted in the open. Pear, apple, cherry and peach root cuttings may l)e grown in frames with bottom heat, but this inethod has never been very popular with nurserymen because graft- age (192) is considered more economical. Root cuttings are open to the objection that they do not always transmit variegation though they do perpetuate the va- riety otherwise. It must also be re- membered that the root will propa- gate its variety ; that is, if roots of a grafted plant be selected, those FIG. 99-CUTTING ^^^^" ^'"^"^ ^^^^^^^ ^hc UuioU will READY FOR BURYING produce "scedlmg-stock plants, while those above that point will grow plants of the cion A^ariety. 163. A sport or bud variation is a plant or plant part, as a twig, which unexpectedly shows a character differ- ent from that of the variety or species or the balance of the plant. Usually this character cannot be reproduced by seed but is almost always propagated asexually. Even then it is still called a sport. The term is not commonly applied to monstrosities or deformities, but to more or less attractive and apparently normal characters, as doubling of flowers on single-flowered plants, variega- tion and other changes of the color on green plants, etc. Bud variations may be the starting point of new varieties or of reversions to earlier forms. 1C4. Tubers and tuber cuttings, because of their food content, can live long after growth starts liefore the new l)lants may be able to take food from the soil. In potato plant formation the eye sends a shoot through the soil to air and light. Then roots begin to form near the base of the shoot. These roots secure food though the plantlet con- tinues to draw upon the food stored in the tuber. lu CLASSI':.S OF ( TTTINC^ n.^ liiiic special shoots cmcrs^c from the steins, extend short distances and hitcr thicken to form tnl)ers. For com- mercial planting;, Irish potato tubers are ustially cut in pieces, each containing- at least one eye or bud. If cut ill rough an eye each half eye may produce a shoot and be somewhat earlier than the other eyes in the same piece. Cutting-s are often slig-htly dried and allowed to sprout in the lig-ht. which produces short purple shoots (Fig-. 73) FIG. 100— TRANSPLANTING MACHINE IN OPERATION The boys place plants alternately between a pair of jaws which open at resulaled intervals, close and set the plants in the soil. Each plant may be watered at ihe same time. that develop more rapidly than do unsprouted eyes. They apparently do not rob the tubers of plant food as do the white shoots formed in the dark. Irish potato tuber cutting's, each piece including at least one "eye," are dropped in the ground and allowed to take their course. Much discussion has arisen as to the proper size of piece. Fxperiment in many states and under numerous soil and other cultural conditions seems to favor moderate-sized tubers and cuttings rather than over-sized ones and single eve pieces. 114 I'LAN'l' J'KOI'AC.A'JIOX Since llie sweet pcjlalo is a true root and therefore without buds it produces sprouts from adventitious buds most abundantly, as a rule, at the stem end. The shoots take root as do those of Irish potato, but roots may also develop from the potato itself. The sprouts are "slipped" off with roots attached and planted in rows by hand or with transplanting machines (Fig. 100). Should they not have roots at the time of planting, they soon overcome this apparent handicap in favorable soil. Sweet potato propagating beds are either mildly warmed manure hotbeds or heated by flues (Fig. 72) in permanent beds. Stem cuttings of certain tuber-bear- ing plants (potato) do not develop new plants, but tubers either at the bases of cuttings or in the axils of leaves above ground. New plants will devel- op from these tubers. Leaf cuttings of some kinds also do this. 165. Rhizome cuttings, made from underground stems (achillea, canna, rhubarb), are treated like tuber cut- tings. Two l)ad weeds accidentally propagated in this way are cjuack grass and perennial morning glory (liindweed), every joint of which is capable of producing a new plant. 166. Stem cuttings are of three kinds: 1, dormant, ripe, mature or hardwood ; 2, green, immature, soft wood or succulent ; and 3, an inter- mediate class, semi-hardwood. 167. Styles of mature cuttings. Ma- FiG. 101— CARNATION turc wood cuttiugs may be made of any length, but 6 to 10 inches is the usual ^' al^^Root^d''^" range for those with more than one bud. With perhaps the majority of species so propagated, two nodes and one internode CLASSICS Ol'" ( I 11 IXC. " 115 are preferred, tlioiigli willi sliort-jointed plants such as Delaware !j;rape, currant and plum, several nodes may be used, in which case all but the top bud or buds — those above or at the surface of the soil — are cut or rubbed off to prevent the fcjrmation of shoots from below ground. Satisfactory growth of cut- tings does not depend on number of buds; single buds in many species give as good results as when several are used. In the cutting bed all long mature wood cuttings are set vertically w^ith a bud or two above the surface. 168. Single eye mature wood cuttings are often made FIG. 102— ODD WAYS OF STARTING PLANTS FROM CUTTINGS 1. Sectional leaf cutting of begonia. 2. "Whole leaf" cutting of begonia. 3. Cactus cutting fastened to toothpick to be kept steady in cutting bench. when stock is scarce or costly in two popular ways. In the first case the wood is cut half way between nodes, the cuttings laid flat with eyes upward in the cut- ting bed and covered with an inch or so of soil. In the other style cuts are made, one a little above the bud and the other a couple of inches below. These cuttings are thrust vertically in the bed as far down as the buds. In each case the cuttings are generally started with bottom heat under glass about three months before work could be done out of doors. From the start the sand must be kept moist. Shadinir is often necessarv. \\hen the leaves ex- ii6 IM.AiX'l' PROPAGATION panel, sprinkling' ninst be frequent to prevent wilting. In four to six weeks the plants may be potted. Species, variety, season and locality, all influence results. 169. Mature wood cuttings may be made at any time. With plants growing in the open the great majority are made for planting in spring. Many of these are cut only a short time before being planted ; many more are cut in fall and stored over winter in bundles buried in a well-drained sandy knoll, or stored until spring under cover in moist soil, sand, sawdust or moss. The chief advantages of the last- named plan are that the bases callus over before planting time and pos- sible v/inter injury is avoided. Oc- casionally (currant, gooseberry) cuttings are made as soon as the wood is mature and the leaves begin to fall. They are then callused and fall planted, thus gaining a good deal of time. Winter mulching of fall-set cutting beds is essential to success, because heaving and settling of soil under alternate freezing and thaw- ing break the tender roots. With short-jointed plants, little care is taken to cut the lower end FIG. 103— to a l)ud, but with long-jointed ones GOOSEBERRY CUTTINGS bcSt rCSUltS follow CUttiug jUSt 1)6- low nodes. It has also l)een noticed that grape cuttings with more than two buds give better root systems than do those with two buds or only one, since roots are developed at each buried node. Only the top bud is left to produce a stem, the others being rubbed ofif. Long, mature wood cuttings are usually set obliquely in the cutting bed so as not to be too deeply covered. Another advantage of this is that CI.ASSl'.S OK Cri'liNGS I I in poorK- drained soil and in cold, wet seasons rools will form hcUcr than if cullini;s arc set vertically. Ilcncc gra])e cuttings with two buried nodes usually make better plants than those with only one bud buried. FIG. 1U4— STUDENTS IN THE rENNSYLV.^Nl.A STATE COLLEGE GREENHOUSE 1. Each student has his own bench space where he does "head house" work. 2. In the forcing house each one has his own beds to tend. The boys arc working on radishes. i8 PLANT PROPAGATION 170. Evergreen mature wood cuttings, esi)ecially of cone-bearing plants (arbor vitie, juniper and retinospora) are fall planted under cover in sand either in a cool greenhouse or some other cover. Usually they take root slowly, sometimes a full year (yew^, juniper), but continue green if properly shaded and watered. After rooting they may remain in the flats till the following season for out-of-door planting or may be potted. The cuttings, usually four or five inches long, are always made of well-ripened wood some- times two, three or even four years old. The needles or leaves are cut from the lower two-thirds of the stem with a sharp knife. They should never be pulled or rubbed off. Remaining leaves are not covered with soil. Probably all cone-bearing trees may be prop- agated by cuttings. It is not, however, profitable to grow pine this way; seed is cheaper. Spruce cuttings are very slow to root (12 to 18 months) so fine varieties are generally grafted. FIG. 105— CALLUSING BED FOR CUTTINGS AND ROOT GRAFTS In this the bundles of grafts and cuttings are placed in fall or winter for spring planting. 171. Rose cuttings of dormant wood are largely used both out of doors and under glass. When to be grown out of doors the cuttings are made about six inches long from mature wood in the fall before severe freezing weather comes. Bundles are stored in sand over winter and planted in spring in V-shaped trenches with only one bud showing. Rich soil produces strong plants in one sea- son. When grown under glass the cuttings are made in November or December and planted in sand in cold frames or cool greenhouses. I'y b>bruary or March they may be potted. W hen warm weather arrives they are planted in rich soil. 172. Ringing roses to facilitate cuttings propagation was done experimentally by Greiner, a French investigator, who found that such cuttings strike root much more readily than do ordinary ones. The stems of the parent plants were ringed in July or August. By November the wounds had callused. The method is recommended for varieties difficult to propagate by ordinary cuttings. Several rings made at proper distances apart to get right-sized cuttings may 1)6 made on the same branch. 173. Cuttings from grafted grapes. — F. Baco, a French investiga- tor, has proved that with certain varieties of grapes used as cions, CLASSICS Ol'' (I I I I .\(,S 119 i^rafting not only causes spccilic variations l)Ut tliat these varia- tions maj' he i)eri)etuate(l hy cuttings. V^ariations in the vegetative liarts also seem to he accompanied hy variations in the root system. 174. Browning of grape cuttings 'is due to hacteria and is con- sidered a disease, hut P. \'iala and L. Ravaz, French investigators, say it is without pathoU^gical effect. Externally the cuttings re- tain their normal color and when grafted readily make unions. They root well and produce vigorous hranches. The hacteria are never found in the new growth no matter how ahundant in the cuttings, nor do thev descend into the stock in case of grafting. 175. Dwarf plants from cuttings.— In France cuttings' taken from the tips of hranches of plants which have reached full development but have not produced flowers, will take root under proper condi- tions and produce flowers without much further growth. If the FIG. 106— PLAN OF CALLUSING BED Notice the position of the bundles. They form calluses best when set upright. plants to he dwarfed produce hoth terminal and axillary flowers, the cuttings should he taken from the least-developed flower liranches. The cuttings should be made about an inch under a node in each case. Chrysanthemums, asters, roses, and several greenhouse plants have been thus dwarfed. 176. Callus pits (Fig. 106) are excavations in which ciitting-s are buried for a few weeks or months prior to planting. They must be made on well-drained knolls fully exposed to the sun so the greatest possible use may 120 rLAKT PROPAGATION be made of natural l)()ttom heat. For short periods in fall and spring, bundles of cuttings are buried upright with their butt ends upward to hasten callusing. Depth will be governed by length of cuttings and season ; a covering of two to six inches of sand or friable soil is enough. Because the upper ends of cuttings are placed downward the buds are kept cooler than the butt ends FIG. 107— STAND FOR MAKING GRAFT AND CUTTING BUNDLES The tier around each stem shows where the graft has been made. When the rack is full the loose raffia is brought up and tied around the bundle. and, therefore, do not sprout even under fairly favorable conditions for starting growth. Fall-callused cuttings may be dug up and stored in cellars over winter. Fresh hardwood sawdust from green wood is considered the best material in which to store mature wood cuttings because it has just the right humidity and retains moisture so well ; watering is rarely necessary. The storage room must be kept cold but above freezing point. If warm the packing material may dry out rapidly. Watering may cause cuttings to heat CLASSES OF CUTTINGS 121 and sprout long before they could l)e planted in spring", ilence there would be loss. 177. Burying hardwood cuttings bottom end upwards from a few days to a few weeks in spring before setting in the cutting bed takes advantage of heat in the upper laxers of soil. It is of particular advantage with cuttings slow tt) take root ; for instance, certain varieties of grapes, such as Norton and Delaware. Usually, for convenience in handling, the cuttings are tied in bundles (Fig. 107) of FIG. 108— ROOT AND BULB STORAGE CELLAR ON A HILLSIDE Shelves are used for such plants as cannas, dahlias, gladiolus, placed in boxes. Potatoes and other roots are generally stored in piles or bins. 100 and buried tops downward in a sandy knoll fully ex- posed to the sun and only two or three inches deep. Often frames are used (Fig. 106). Sometimes cuttings are so treated in fall and taken up for cellar storage when the ground begins to freeze hard; sometimes they are stored without this previous treatment, but buried in spring for a few weeks before planting. Hardwood cuttings grown out of doors do best when of medium (six or eight inches) rather than extreme length l)ecause tlic}' arc warmer from the natural bottom heat. 178. Semi-hardwood cuttings, those of nearly mature but still green wood, are used to propagate many hard- 122 I'LANT rUOPAGATION wood trees, shrubs and vines such as rose, lilac, diervilla and h_vdrangea. For outdoor work they are made usually before midsummer; indoors, during- late winter. They are cut and treated about the same as are hardwood cutting's. Frequently they are secured in summer after the buds have developed and the wood is nearly mature. Two to five buds are usually allowed. The cuttings are. set only a couple of inches deep at most in frames sheltered from sun and wind. Until the roots have formed they are kept closely covered and are often sprinkled to keep the air about them humid. 179. Grape cutting stoiage experi- ment — A bundle of grape cuttings was placed in dust as soon as made, another in sand, a third half in sand, and a fourth in the same cellar but without protection. In spring when planted in the nursery, best results were secured with the dust-stored cions, next best with those in sand and poorest with those left uncovered — only about 20 per cent of dust- stored cions. 180. "June-struck cuttings" are made from the young shoots of various hardy shrubs such as ])rivet, weigela and hydrangea. The two to three-inch cuttings partly stripped of their leaves .,s .... ,>,„... ^ are started under glass. Thev 3. Firming tiie plant ^^^^^^^ |^^ ^^j.^ carcfullv shaded I-IG. l()9-POTTlNG I. Placing the drainage !n tlie pot. 2. Placing the rooted cuffing and the soil, in the pot. CLASSICS Ul'- CUTTINGS 123 and watered. Rooting is rather slow, a month or more often being necessary, (iood plants may thus he grown, plants which after wintering in cold frames, may be set in the open the following spring. This is a (juick method of increasing stock, since more or less cuttings of green wood may be made from the plants in the latter part of the season and grown indoors during the winter. 181. Transplanting outdoor grown cuttings should occur at the close of the growing season, if there is time between the ripening of their wood and the approach of winter for them to become established. In such cases FIG. 110— FIELD PLANTING OF POTTED DAHLIAS 1. Italian laborer who sets 4,500 plants in 10 hours. 2. Gang of men he leads. winter mulching is necessary. When maturity is late, spring planting is advisable. AlwaA's liberal space should be given so the i:)lants will have ample food and dc\elop symmetricall}'. In some cases, jdants may be sold at one year old ; in others, at two years. Cutting plants should never be allowed to remain in ilic nursery rows more than one growing season. If they are there will lie serious loss of roots when dug. 182. Green wood or soft wood cuttings are more widely used than any other kind because they strike root easily, are readily rooted under glass and the great majority of plants, whether soft or hard wooded, can be propagated 124 PLANT PROPAGATION by them, in amateur window gardening they are often called "slips," because they are the side shoots pulled or "slipped" otf the main stems and branches of plants. The term is not used in commercial practice since "cut- ting" covers the whole idea. Bedding plants — alternan- thera, achyranthes, coleus, geranium (Fig. 92), verbena, ageratum, and salvia — are so propagated. Green wood cuttings are also made of dahlia, sweet or Irish potato sprouts when stock is costly or scarce, tubers l)eing started in the usual way, the stems cut wh^n large enough, and placed in a cut- ting bed. Soft grow- ing tips of many orna- mental shrubs and other hardwood plants are treated thus at the right stage of develop- ment. 183. Requisites for green wood cuttings. — The primary requisite for success with green wood cuttings is vigorous health in the parent plant. Failure is almost certain otherwise. Second, when bent the wood must be in such condition that it will not crush but snap, leaving a clean Ijreak across the stem with nothing but a little epidermis connecting the broken part with the stem below (Fig. 111). This is a lieginner's test; experienced propagators recognize the right stage of development at a glance. 184. Stem parts used for green cuttings. — Propagators dispute whether terminal or twig tip cuttings will give better results than those lower down. Doubtless cut- tings made from main stems and each with a terminal bud will give most satisfactory results, l:)Ut this is rather 1)ecause of their vigor and vitality than because of the FIG. Ill— GREEN WOOD FOR CUTTINGS a, just right; b, too old. CLASSIilS OF eiTTINGS I25 mere presence of terminal buds. Therefore, when there is a jj^ood supply of plant material, propagators usually gather t»nly the tips of the shoots (Fig. Ill) for making green wood cuttings. Especially is this the case with bedding plants that have been growing in the open air. Such plants arc either transplanted to the greenhouse or cut close to the ground and taken to the work room, where terminal growths are made into cuttings and the balance thrown away. During the winter stock plants (145), as also the first rooted cutting plants made from them, have their terminals removed to make new shoots. Such i)lants often produce growths of 3 to 10 inches, depending largely on species and variety. When such growths are cu^ and propagated by midwinter they produce bedding plants for outdoor setting by spring. 185. Making green wood cuttings. — Green wood cut- tings are usually two to four inches long and have at least one leaf. When several leaves are allowed to remain they are cut more or less to reduce transpiration of water. Usually the cuts are made just below the nodes, but with many subjects this is unnecessary, as soft wood cuttings will often strike root at any point covered with soil, though most roots come near the base of the cut- tings w^hether or not cut near a node. When cuttings are very short, they are often tied to toothpicks (Fig. 92) so they will "stay put" in the propagating bed. 186. Removal of leaves from green wood cuttings, as also from transplanted plants, is not essential to success, but is an aid, since it checks transpiration of water and, therefore, the danger of "flagging" or wilting. Entire stripping of leaves as compared with leaf-surface reduc- tion should be avoided, as the assistance of some leaf sur- face is helpful to root formation, prox'idcd proper mois- ture control is practiced. Various subjects do best under various treatments ; for example, coleus should be severely Stripped, geranium rather less, alternanthera very little. 126 PLANT PROPAGATION 187. Bedding green wood cuttings. — Since green wood cuttings are usually more easily injured than are those of mature wood, they are handled more carefully. When large quantities of one kind of plant are made the usual practice is to drop them as finished into water to pre- vent wilting. The propagating bed is prepared by level- ing ofif and soaking the sand. Then a narrow board or "straight edge" is placed across the bed from aisle to FIG. 112— BUDDING NURSERY STOCK Notice the tiring position of the budders. This is the usual attitude, though some budders work on their knees. CLASSES OF Cl'TTlNGS 127 back and a wooden knife or a large hibel sharpened on one edg-e thrust ()l)liquely in the sand (Fig". 43) to tlie recjuired depth l)eside the board at the l)ack of the l)ed and (h^awn toward the aisle, thus making a trench with a vertical and solid sand wall on one side and an i)l)lique rather Iciose one on the other. The board is then removed, the cuttings placed at proper intervals against the \ertical wall and loose sand from the other side jiressed against each with the fingers (Fig. 43). After all are in position the bed is drenched with a fine rose sprinkler to settle the sand. Newspapers are then spread FIG. 113— VARIOUS STYLES OF WATERING POTS A, adjustable to any position; b, reaches far; c, common style; d, long- necked form without nose; e, common style but with long neck. i)\er the cuttings (Fig. 18) to check transpiration and e\aporation for a week or two. Strong sunshine is very injurious until the cuttings have made roots (Fig. 91), because the stems cannot take up water and because the leaves give off moisture more or less rapidly. Hence the necessity for great care in watering and shading, the former to keep both sand and cuttings moist ; the latter to keep the air around the leaves humid. In a small way green wood cuttings may be started in flower pots, saucers or soup plates two-thirds filled with sand and then kept brimming full of water. Bottom heat, when necessary, may be supplied at the back of the kitchen stove. It is not essential to shade these plates even when set in full sunlight. Another method of placing "soft wood" cuttings in the sand bed is to press the edge of a window pane vertically i_'8 PLANT PROPAGATION into the sand. Insert the cuttings at proper intervals in the neat trench thus prepared and tighten the sand al)i)ut them by gently tamping it with a brick or a heavy wooden block (Fig. 20). Lay a thin board, of any desired width, between the rows of cuttings, on the sand with one edge against the preceding row, using the other edge as a guide for the glass. Prepare other trenches similarly. This insures a neat bed with level surface. FIG. 114— BRYOPHYLLUM LEAF With young plants in notches of margin. 188. Tomato cuttings grown experimentally out of doors have given more, earlier hut smaller fruits than seedlings ; indoors seedlings were decidedly superior. 189. Keeping soft cuttings alive for long periods. — G. W. Oliver has successfully transported herbaceous cuttings from dis- tant places as follows: A layer of cuttings is arranged, upper leaf surface down, without crowding, on a pane of glass and covered CLASSES OF CUTTINGS 129 I with two or three inches of fine, damp spliagnum moss evenly dis- tributed. A second layer of cuttings is placed on the moss with the upper surfaces of the leaves facing upward and covered with a second pane of glass. The two panes are pressed iirmly and made into a package hy tying. By keeping the moss moist and giving plenty of light, the cuttings carry well, provided the ma- terial is healthy. When the journey is long the cuttings are often rooted on arrival. With the moss only slightly dampened, cions and bud-sticks of rare plants have kept well long under the same treatment. 190. Sugar cane cuttings have been shipped long distances when treated with bordeaux and then packed in damp charcoal. 191. Leaf cuttings. — ^Leaves of cer- tain plant.*^ may l)e made to produce new plants. Some of these are planted whole, others cut in various ways. In certain cases (rex begonia) the new growth arises from adventitious buds, but in others (various ferns) it coiues from true buds which originate in the stems. True buds may form on the leaves before being cut from the parent plant {Bryophylhim calyciniim) or afterwards (rex l)egonia) ; normal in the former case, adventitious in the latter. Temperature and moisture condi- tions are the same for leaf cuttings as for soft wood cuttings. While many plants may be made to reproduce by leaf cut- tings (cabbage, lemon) few can be profitably so propagat- ed. The process, in some cases, detroys variegation in the progeny; e. g., while certain variegated iv}- geraniums may be reproduced by soft wood cuttings, they become l)lain green when leaf cuttings are used. In some cases whole leaves are used as cuttings, in others the leaves are cut in pieces. A whole leaf of be- gonia is placed flat on the i:)ropagating bench with a short piece of its petiole buried in the sand. Cuts are then made across the main veins in various places and the leaf either pegged down or held in position with a little FIG. US- ROOTED GLOXINIA LEAF J 30 PLANT TROPAGATION sand. If contact with the sand is good and if moisture and temperature conditions are right, little plants will be produced at the wounds and also where the veins start to branch at the leaf base. When large enough to handle conveniently, they may be potted. With costly or scarce stock begonia leaves are often cut from their bases outward to the margins, thus form- ing somewhat fan-shaped or triangular pieces two or three inches long and an inch or so wide. In this case the stalk is cut ofif close to the leaf blade and the l^asal third of the blade also cut from one edge to the other l)y a straight slash. This base is then cut into wedge-shaped pieces with a rib in the middle of each and a small part of the petiole at the lower end. The triangular pieces thus formed are placed stem end down in a cutting bench. Soon young plants form at the lower points (Fig. 102). Bryophyllum leaves, in greenhouse practice, are laid flat on the propagating bench. Soon they form little plants from most of the notches on their margins (Fig. 114). In Bermuda and other moist climates, such plants will form even Avhen the parent plants or the mature leaves are hung on the walls of a room. The same thing often occurs in greenhouses. AA'hole gloxinia leaves are used, the stems being placed in the sand. Unlike the other cases cited, neither stems nor leaves usually take root, but a little tuber forms at the base of each leaf stem. Such tubers are then dried and after a "rest" planted like other tubers. Fig. 115 shows a leaf cutting that did take root, but did not form a tuber. It might have done so if allowed to remain longer in the cutting bench. Hyacinth leaves placed in a propagating bed soon develop bulblets at their bases. Treatment of these is the same as for those grown bv other methods. CHAPTER X GRAFTAGE— GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 192. Graftage, which includes grafting, budding and inarching, is the natural or artificial process of making a part of one plant unite with and grow upon the roots of another. A graft may, therefore, be considered as a cutting which unites some of its tissues with those of another plant or plant part with or without forming either callus or roots, as always happens when cuttings are developed into independent plants. 193, As a horticultural process, graftage is of very ancient origin. In his Natural History (Vol. 2 pp. 477 to 485) Pliny about 2,000 years ago, wrote about it as common practice, but its methods have been kept largely as trade secrets or mysteries until within the last half century or so. Pliny says the art was taught by nature. But he goes too far, for he declares that cherry has been FIG. 116— SECTIONS OF GRAFTS 1. Plum cleft graft. 2. Bud grafts one and three years old. Note old stock wood and continuous layers of young tissue. 132 PLANT PROPAGATION found growing on willow, sycamore on laurel, laurel on cherry and so on. Such cases, except as noted (207), are not grafts at all but are merely trees of one kind growing in soil held in crevices of another kind — cases by no means rare. 194. Stock — any plant part, usually root or stem, in which a bud or a'cion is inserted to propagate a plant species, variety or strain. 195. Cion — any plant part, usually of a stem, inserted in a stock for propagation. It may consist of one bud with little or no wood, as in budding, or of one or more buds with one or more inter-nodes, as in grafting. 196. Objects of graftage. Graftage may be used : 1, To alter plant character by modifying wood, foliage, or fruit produced. 2, To develop branches, flowers or fruit where they are lacking on trees or shrubs. 3, To enhance FIG. 117— SIDE GRAFT 1. Stock, chisel and mallet; 2. Incision made and graft wrapped; 3. Waxed, completed graft — cion at right. GRAFTAci': — (;i:\i-:kai, t()xsii)i:KAri()XS 133 the vig-or of defective or exhausted -trees and shrubs by influx of fresh sap. 4, Tu facilitate rei)roduction of monoecious or diiecious i)hints l)y grafting- in cions of the lacking sex. 5, To propagate and preserve varieties of countless woody and some herbaceous plants which cannot be conveniently reproduced by other means. 197. Necessity for graftage. Since seedage is quicker and cheaper, graftage is rarely employed to propagate species, and then only stich species as produce seed spar- ingly under cultivation are so reproduced. For similar reasons cuttage and layerage are preferred for most shrubs. Graftage finds its chief a])plication, therefore, in the propagation of varieties and strains of woody l)lants that do not come true from seeds and that cannot l)e cheaply or conveniently enough g'rown from cuttings, layers or by other asexual methods. All our named varieties of tree fruits, nuts and many ornamentals such as azaleas and roses (not all roses, by any means) are propagated by one or more methods of graftage. As in other asexual methods, graftage will produce the same variety as the parent tree or shrub, bud sports excepted. For these reasons graftage is a necessary business process, because nowadays planters demand stock true to a definite standard of quality, size, trueness to type and ability to meet other requirements which can be met, at least among- woody and many herbaceous plants, only l)y asexual means, among which graftage has been proved by commercial nurseries to be the most economical. If this were not so, other methods would be followed; for the nurserymen are human enougfh to choose the methods that give results most satisfactory to all concerned ; other- wise they could not long be in the business. Hence we find pome fruits still largely root-grafted in winter (though budding is gaining in popularity), pit fruits bud- ded in summer, currants grown from spring-set cuttings — each kind of plant propagated by the method that suits it best and most economically gives best results. 134 r, R A FT AG !•: — GEN ERAI. CO N S I UERAT ION S '35 198. Unreliability of seeds. — Graftage of some other asexual process is necessary also because seeds cannot be relied upon to produce varieties of tree and l)ush fruits or of many shrubs, herbaceous perennials and other plants true to name, the reason being that the ty])e has not been fixed by that method as in the case of many vegetables, annuals and some perennial flowers. For instance, if seeds of the Northern Spy apple (l'.)9) or of Salway peach were sown, all we might be able to say of the young trees grown would be that they were respectively apple and peach trees ; possibly not one would resemble the parent enough to deserve the name Northern Spy apple or Salway peach. The cause of this lies in the fact that from prehistoric time flowers of fruits have naturally cross pol- linated. perhai:)S usually not been fertilized by their own pollen nor perhaps even by that from other flowers in the same cluster or yet the same tree, but from some tree of a different variety, ^^'ind and insects are the chief carriers of the pollen which impresses parental characters upon the ovules in the flowers of our Northern Spy apple or Salway peach so the seedlings may be better, but the overwhelming chances are they will not be even as good. This form of reproduc- tion, continued for countless centuries, has mixed things up so that seeds cannot be relied upon in the classes mentioned. The exceptions are so conspicuous that they prove the rule. Among peaches the Honey group, grown to some ex- tent in Florida, and the Heath Cling come fairly true to type from seed. Among apples it is said the Duchess of FIG. 119— PRECOCIOUS CI. EFT GRAFTS Lower cion set five apples the first year and the upper two had several fruits the second year. 136 PLANT PROPAGATION Oldenburg, the Yellow Transparent and some other Rus- sian varieties do the same thing. In spite of much dis- cussion two or three decades ago it seems settled now that the influence of pollen does not noticeably affect the character of the fruit which contains the cross-pollinated seed. But this is a topic which does not concern the present discussion. FIG. 120— TREE PEDDLERS' SHEDS AT NURSERY Each peddler has a numbered shed where he makes up his packages of trees bought from the nursery. 199. Northern Spy seedlings — W. T. Macoun of Canada grew 100 Northern Spy seedlings concerning which this summary is presented : 35 per cent resembled the parent in general appearance, 12 per cent in form, 39 per cent in flesh, 19 per cent in color, 3.5 per cent in flavor and 28 per cent in no marked resemblance. Most of the seedlings, like the parent, were late in coming into bearing. This investigator concludes that the Spy is one of the best parents to use in cross breeding, since it has impressed its good character- istics on a large proportion of its progeny, although a self or nearly self-sterile variety. 200. Importance of graftage.* — Graftage, while one of the most impc^rtant of horticultural processes, is one of ♦Paragraph 200 has been considerably condensed from Technical Bulle- tin No. 2, by F. A. Waugh, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. ckAirAcii — c;i:m:kal l'onsidickatidns 137 the most intricate. Because of its importance and the dif- hculties in solving- its i)rol:)lems it has given rise to much study and many theories often Imsed on imperfect obser- \ations in disregard of obvious and simple facts. (Iraftage is said to be the union of a cion with a stock. .So far as nurseryman and fruit grt)vver are concerned this is the prime aim. Success or failure from their standpoint depends upon the nature of this union. The terms good and poor unions, are among the commonest in horticulttiral parlance; yet their meaning is generally FIG. 121— DIAGRAMS OF GRAFT AND BUD CROSS SECTIONS A, cleft graft three years old; B, bud graft at three years; C, separateness of lcIIs in stock and cion. (Black parts in A and B represent stock; in C, the cion.) conjectured. The easy statement that stock and cion grow together does not satisfy the question, //ozc do they unite? The i)oj)ular idea is that the union is like the knit- ting of a broken bone, also that both stock and cion produce new tissue which commingle more or less as liuman skin does after the surgical operation of skin grafting. But both these suppositions are vague and far from the truth. Possibly in herbaceous grafting where soft growing tissues are used there may be unions of these characters, but even in such cases the blending seems to be purely local; for original stock and original cion maintain their individuality — each will produce fruit after its kind. 138 PLANT PROPAGATION In graftage of mature wood such a blending is impos- sible; for with the exception of the cambium layer both stock and cion consist almost wholly of dead heart wood and dead bark which cannot unite with anything. It is different to say the cambium layers of stock and cion unite. But even this statement does not exi)lain hRj. 122— SECTION OF APPLE GRAFTS 1. Transverse section. 2. Longitudinal. the process, though it leads in the right direction, for the cambium and a few layers of cells on each side of it are the only part of an exogenous stem really alive. Upon it depends the possibility of a graft union. Even naked eye examination of cross or transverse sections of successful grafts several years old will show (1) that cion and stock have not united and (2) that wood produced after the union is as continuous as in an nngrafted stem. At least in the layers that bury a graft junction whatever dift'erence there may be is not appar- ent. The truth of the diagram (Fig. 121) is fully sup- GRAFTAGli GENERAL COXSIDEKAIIUNS 139 ported l)y photographic cross sections of both i^ rafted and hndded stems (Fig-. 116). In every case the line of demarcation between stock and cion and also the continuous envelopes of new tissue may he clearly seen. Thus it is evident that: 1. Stock and cion d(j not unite; they remain distinct. 2. Annual layers produced after ijrafting: do net unite in the common meaning of that FIG. 123— PLUM GRAFTS SHOWING CONTINUOUS LAYERS OF NEW WOOD The old wood in the specimen on the right has been partly eaten out by ants. term; each is complete and continuous. 3. In hardwood graftage "union" of stock and cion is different in its physical nature from the sense of common speech. These simple obvious conclusions suggest questions and doubts which do nnich to disguise the main facts. For instance, the horticulturist knows that when a pear cion is grafted on a quince stock, every bud aboxe the union av'11 produce pears and every one below, quinces. But there is a division (and there must be) between 140 PLANT rkOPACATION the two kinds of wood ; what is its nature? How definite is it? Is it physically strong or weak? Would answers to these questions be more than speculations? It must be remembered, however, that such answers are beyond the conclusions cited al)o\e and that the facts so far presented are not affected l)y the following discussion. Sections of graft s (Fig. 124) show that in spite of the longitu- dinal continuity of the annual layers there is sometimes a plainly vis- il)le line of demarca- tion between the wood of stock and cion at right angles to the longitudinal growth, yet reveal the secret of FIG. 124— CHERRY CION ON PLUM STOCK Notice continuous annual layers of wood. doei: not the microscope individual cells which compose the tissue. One can nearly always see less with the microscope than with the naked eye ! In the section shown in Fig. 132 and magnified about 1,000 times, the little knot near the middle accidentally shows one point on the line of junction, but the vessels and the cells run from end to end without interruption. So it is harder than ever to see where stock ends and cion begins. Hence those gardeners who have lieen dreaming of producing new kinds of f'G- 125— defective pear bud graft plants by grafting must °^ ^^"'^^ ^^^'^ needs wake Un * for no f^obahly due to incompatibility of stock and i ' cion. Notice cleanness of break. isr. ■ill ^^^ ' '«^»|j^ Kv^-'.i-l Hmpih ^k^^^M ^^^B^f^r^ ^^^^1 ^^ ^.«r--^^ 1 ■JL\I '^"'flH 1 ^^^SliS IH^^I 1 H5^^'-'' ■II HIH ■- I GKAKTAGE GKX i:RAL tOXSlDKRATIONS I4I matter how closely the two kinds of cells may be against each other their contents never mingle to produce a new cell. Every cell is the production by division of some other cell ; never the product of fusion of two parent cells (Fig. 121). The commingling of stock and cion cells is purely l)h3'sical, not physiological. In budding, merely a form of graftage, the layers of new growth are continuous — just as in the graft. A suc- cessful bud graft cut (Fig. 116) shows precisely the same conditions as in grafting, except that the line of demarca- tion is less easy to see. The physical strength of unions is often discussed by horticulturists, many of whom claim that this is a point of weakness (201). Others claim that a successful graft union is the strongest point of the stem. Common obser- vation shows that the region of graftage is more or less swollen by the deposition of woody tissue, and cross sec- tions at such points show very close-grained wood. Often when grafts are cut open and dried the tissues check and split less at the junction point than above or below, thus showing extra strength of fibers. Observa- tion also shows that when winds break ofif branches in old orchards a majority of the fractures occur not where the grafts have been made but at other points. Yet grafts do sometimes break even after years of ap- l)arently health}- growth. \\Miy? Possibly because of physiological unlikeness or aversion (if such a term may be permitted). The wound heals slowly or poorly; loose primary or scar instead of stronger tissue fills the space and weakness follows. Clairgeau pear on qumce and domestica plum on peach are familiar examples. But set- ting aside such cases, if stock and cion are congenial to each other and if the cion (or bud) grows at all, the union should be good. Poor manipulation will cause many failures of grafts to grow, but will rarely affect strength of union in grafts which live. All degrees of ])liysical strength may be seen in graft unions from those k* ' ■-'1^- ill FIG. 126— PROPAGATION IN GREENHOUSES 1, Orchids on benches and in hanging pots. 2. Cyclamen large enough for sale. 3. Geraniums by the 10,000 in a large commercial plant. 142 GRAKTAci': — (;i:.\'i:kal e-()Xsii)i':KATTONS 143 stronger than tlie coiitis^nous parts of the same stems to those incai)a])lc of hohlin,^- themselves in place. 201. Physical strength of graft unions. From the standpoint of plant anatomy and physiology grafts ma\- be weak in several ways. 1, Physical weakness at point of union; 2, cion leaves may find it difficult to elab- orate sap taken up by stock roots ; 3, stock roots may iind difficulty in assimilating plant food elal)orated by the leaves ; 4, there may be an interruption in the upward flow of sap due to faulty connection of the xylem (203) vessels at the point of union ; 5, a similar one in the downward flow, due to faulty union of the phloem (202) ; 6, the quantity of sap taken up by the root may be too much or too little for the proper supply of the cion ; 7, the amf)unt of elaborated sap from the cion may be either too much or too little for j)roper feeding of the stock. Concerning these points N. O. Booth of the Oklahoma station has been conducting experiments upon which he has made a progress report from which the following points are takeii. Unfortunately, a fire destroyed later material and data, so the i)reliniinary report is ol)liged to stand by itself. Physical weakness is a difficult question because of the variation between 'different trees and different unions of stock and cion. To test it, the wood of 10-year-old 127-\\ EHPIN(, AH I, BERRY ON ERECT STEM CRAI'lACI-: — CI'.Xl-.KAl. (OX SI I H-.KATTOXS 145 trees was tested as to its ])liysiral strength by a machine used for such pnr])nses. Except in the last case cited FIG. 129— CUTTINGS AND WHIP GRAFT 1. a, straight cuttings; b, c, mallet cuttings; d, heel cutting. These methods are all used for grape propagation. 2, whip or tongue graft; a, stock; b, cion prepared; c, stock and cion fitted properly; d, parts tied together; e, com- pleted by waxing; f, whip graft on root. T4^ PLANT PROPAGATION he-low, the tests were ])uri)()sely made within three weeks of the tree felling, because it was believed green wood rather than seasoned represents more nearly conditions in growing trees. Test of Transverse Breaking Strength At union Above union point, lbs. point, lbs. Plum, first block 2,540 4,750 Plum, second block 3,160 4,950 To eliminate possible discrepancy due to the breaking point of the union being closer to the ground, and hence possibly in softer wood, the next block was broken above and below as well as at the union. Test of Transverse Breaking Strength At union Above union Below union point, lbs. point, lbs. point, lbs. 3,300 8,260 4,100 2,560 7,940 Apricot, first block Apricot, second block Tensile strength of one-half-inch strips of apricot : No. 1 broke at union with 1,330 pounds pull; above, 1,550; No. 2 broke slightly below union with 2,870 pounds pull, sl'ghtly above 1,770, but would not break at union. Test of Transverse Breaking Strength At union Above union point, lbs. point, lbs. Apricot, seasoned four months 1,930 4,355 The results, Professor Booth points out, "are very posi- tive and it does not seem at all likely that further tests will invalidate the statement that for many trees the point of union is a real and evident weakness. It is true, how- ever, that all three trees tested were apparently strong, had made vigorous growth and had never broken in any way. They were about eight inches thick and about 10 years old. For orchard purposes this weakness does nc^t appear to be of importance. There is also no question but that the thickening of the trunk, which usually shows at the point of union, may lessen materially the weakness of the trunk at this point." 202. Phloem, that portion of a fibro-vascular bundle in plants containing the bast and sieve tissue. In exogens GRAFTAC.R Cl'.X I:R.\I, (( )XSI 1)I:UA TK )NS 147 it is ;il\va)s sharply (Iclincd from llic rcniainiiii;- portion (xylcni, 2(y->) by a layer of cainbiuni. The inner bark is derived from the ])hl()eni, the wood from the x}lem. The elaborated plant food from the leaves passes down and is distributed by the phloem. FIG. 130— TWO YEAR 203. Xvlem, or woody portion of a SPY BUDDED TREES £, , , 11 1 ■ 1 „<- "^^ fibro-vascular bundle which contains A, stem cut at 15 inches and grafted. B, Uncut. This shows that top- working checks growth. It also delays bearing. the larger continuous air- holding vessels and the walls of whose cells are often thickened and lignified. The xylem is separated from the phloem (202) by the cam- bium, when there is any. and it usually occupies the side of the bundle toward the center of the stem. \\'ater with the mineral compounds in solution passes up through the xylem to the leaves. 204. Limits of graftage. Theoretically botanists and nurserymen have limited graftage to the exogens, plants which have a cam- bium layer in a definite re- gion beneath a bark layer; for the process depends upon the intimate union of ... , . , root pruned for two or more years to this layer l^etWeen stock have large bunches of short fibrous roots. and cion. FIG. 131— BURLAPPED 1 UR SHIPMENT Trees so handled have usually been ,^r .1 I r- 1 They are almost sure to grow when ( )f the 101 ,'^A_ 148 PLANT rUOPAGATION orders, 890 genera and 4,200 species listed in Gray's Field, Forest and Garden Botany, 110 orders, 650 genera and 3,000 species come under this ruling and (theoretically) may be grafted, while the balance, the endogens which lack the cambium sheath (oat, bamboo, palm) cannot be grafted. \\'ith experimental exceptions (Chapter XII) this is so. Among exogens botanical relationship seems in most cases to be fundamental to success in graftage which is usually easy between varieties of the same species (apple FIG. 132— GREATLY MAGNIFIED SECTION THROUGH YOUNG GRAFT, Round mass of scar tissue near center merely accidental. Upon apple) and often between closely related species (pear upon quince, or plum upon peach). Sometimes species more remotely related than the genus will prove successful; for instance, apple or pear (Pyrus) upon thorn {Crater gus). But rarely, and then mostly experi- mentally, can distantly related species be grafted suc- cessfully ; probably not at all from a business standpoint. A few instances may emphasize these points. While pear is commercially grafted upon quince to form dwarf trees, apple is seldom or never so treated, and quince CKAI 'TACl'. (;i..\i:k.\l. CONSIDl-.KAIIO.XS I _|i , does iK)t succeed on citlicr i)car or .ipple; j^ooseherrx' ma' he .grafted upon only one species of currant {Ribi's aurcum ) but currants do not succeed on gooseberries ; apples succeed commercially only upon apple stock ; peaches and ])lums will each g-row upon the other. For years Prunet tried to make chestnuts grow upon oak in the hope of ])reventing" certain diseases. His conclusions are that the plan will not succeed commercially, though he was successful in many instances. Daniel and others have made many remarkable grafts between distantly related species, so the theory that species must be more or less closely related has been knocked on the head. But from a commercial standpoint, the theory is still operative and probably will continue to be. While species of the same genus may be grafted suc- cessfully, it may not be profitable so to do. From a physiological standpoint the best index of success is the general thriftiness of the plant so produced; from a business standpoint, the fact that nurserymen and other ])lant propagators stick by the methods that make them most money. To be successful, stock and cion must both unite firmly without seriously checking plant ac- tivity and continue growth until normal fruit is ripened. 205. Common rules of graftage. Graftage in one form or another and with various species of plants may be done during almost any month provided the method be adapted to the time of year and to other conditions. Always it is essential that the parts fit snugly. Prefer- ably the cambium layer of the cion should be in intimate contact \yith that of the stock. This layer is most active during- early spring when the buds are swelling and the leaves are expanding. A second period of activity occurs usually soon after midsummer, but sometimes not until early fall, dependent largely upon the amount of moisture in the soil. During these two periods wounds heal most rapidly and union betw^een stock and cion is most cer- tain. At other times, since the cambium becomes firmer 150 rLANT PROPAGATION p.iul less distinct because of the development of other tis- sues from it, the union of stock and cion is less sure. At such seasons it is also more important to cover the wounds to prevent or check loss of moisture from the wounds. Wax (285) is usually used in outdoor work where the wood itself is cut, but where only the bark is cut, as in l>udding, it is necessary to bind only the bark firmly over the bud and the wound until the union is complete. Then the bindings must be cut to prevent strangulation. FIG. 133— STKAM TREE DK.i.l.K' IN HKi i-JI !<.Sr.KY Steam tree diggers are used only in the largest nurseries. They are very satis- factory It is an erroneous theory that cleft grafts will die if the adjacent bark of the stock is wounded seriously. The liark serves scarcely a greater purpose than that of ]:)rotecting the tissues beneath. Cions often grow in the almost total absence of the bark of the stock, provided ])roper protection is given and the formation of new bark thus encouraged. It is necessary that each cion have at least one sturdy bud. As a rule, only mature buds, or those approximately mature, are employed, though in herbaceous grafting A'ounger ones may be used. Cions may be inserted in whole or piece roots, crowns, trunks, branches ; in fact, GRArxAcr-: — cenkrai. considkrations 1 51 any ])art that will meet the re([uirenieiUs of cion milri- tiiin, as tubers of dahlia, potato, sweet i)otato. 'l"he \va_\' of setting- may vary from merely placing a bud beneath the bark to inserting a woody cion in the wood of a stock, as in cleft grafting. Again the work may be done with dormant specimens at any time of year or upcMi active wood during the growing season. The methods and variations are countless ; but in general only a few are simple and quick enough to be of wide or general use. The others are more for the specialist and for finicky sub- jects which the average nurseryman, gardener or florist will not "fuss with." CHAPTER XI IS GRAFTAGE DEVITALIZING? 206. Points involved in discussion. — Nowadays we hear little discussion as to whether or not graftage is a de- vitalizing process. Perhaps this is largely because of investigations made at various domestic and foreign ex- periment stations and teachings of agricultural colleges and schools at home and abroad. But even so late as the early nineties, discussion was rife and even such well- known writers as Burl)idge of Ireland and Bailey of the United States took opposite sides. Beginning about a decade later Lucien Daniel and other European inves- tigators began to present results of their exhaustive studies which as yet seem to have made little impression in America. As Daniel is copiously quoted in this volume, it is thought advisable to i)resent the picture of conditions as they existed in the early nineties before he began to publish his findings. Therefore the next few paragraphs have been condensed from an address by Bailey before the F^eninsula Horticultural Society at Dover, Delaware, in 1892. To the popular mind graftage seems mysterious. People look upon it as akin to magic, opposed to nature. Strange, for the operation is simple! The process of union is nothing more than the healing of a wound. It is not more mysterious than rooting of cuttings. Natural grafts are fairly connnon among forest trees. Occasionally union is so complete the foster stock entirely sup- ports and nourishes the other. Stem cuttings, however, are rare among w^ild plants ; in fact, there is in the North but one common instance: certain brittle willows whose twigs drop in moist places and sometimes take root. Why is union of cion and stock anj^ more mysterious or unusual than rooting of cuttings? Is it not simpler and more normal? A wounded surface heals over to protect the plant. When two wounded surfaces of consanguineous plants are closely applied, nothing is more natural than that the nascent cells should interlock and unite. But why bits of stem should throw out roots from 1.53 154 PLANT PROPAGATION their lower portion and leaves from their upper portion when both ends may be to every human sense exactly alike, is a mystery. . It does not follow from these propositions that graftage is a de- sirable method of multiplying plants, but simply that direct and positive evidence is needed. Much has been said concerning the merits of graftage. Opponents have made sweeping statements of the perniciousness of the system. Discussion started in an English journal from an editorial which opened as follows. FIG. 135— STAGES OF CLEFT GRAFTING 1. Sawing limb to form stock. 2. Making the cleft. 3. Placing the cions. 4. Waxing. 5. Cion growing. In this case both cions grew, but one was accidentally iM-oken off. "We doubt if there is a greater nuisance in the whole practice of gardening than the art of grafting. It is very clever, it is very interesting, but it will be no great loss if it is abolished altogether. It is for the convenience of the nurserymen that it is done in nine cases out of ten, and in nearly all instances it is not only needless, Init harmful. ... If we made the nurserymen give us things (ni their own roots, they would find some quick means of doing so." For two years discussion continued, and many excellent observers took part. Some of the denunciations of graftage are [condensed and the statements of various writers run together] as follows : IS GRAFTAGE DEVITALIZING? 155 "Grafting is alvvaj'S a makeshift, and very often a fraud. It is in effect a kind of adulteration. Grafted plants are open to all kinds of accidents and disaster, and often soil, climate or cultivator are blamed for evils which originated in the nursery. If, in cer- tain cases, grafting as a convenience must he resorted to, let it he root grafting, so that eventually the cion will root itself in a natural way. Toy games, such as graltinir and budding, must be abandoned and real work begun on some sensible plan. Any tree that will not succeed on its own roots had better go to the rubbish pile at once. We want no coddled or grafted stuff when own-rooted things are in all ways better, healthier and longer lived." These quotations show the positiveness with which graftage has been assailed. As presumption is in favor of any universal prac- tice they possess extraordinary interest. The assumptions underlying these denunciations are three: 1. Citation of instances in which graftage has given pernicious re- sults. 2. Affirmation that the process is unnatural. 3. The state- ment that own-rooted plants are better than graft-rooted plants. 1. Citations of injurious effects of graftage are usually confined to ornamental plants, commonlj' the tendency of stocks to sucker and choke grafts. Conversely, in numerous instances it does not occur ; for instance, in peach, apple, pear, and many other fruit trees, and in very many ornamentals. In fact, it is probably no more common than is. suckering of plants grown from cuttings; for instance, cutting-grown or sucker-grown plums. These remarks apply wath equal force to all citations of the ill effects of graftage; the cases simoly show that the operation is open to objections in the partic- ular instances cited ; no proof that with other plants graftage may not be a success. Graftage has been indiscriminately employed, and there ha\e been many failures, but this does not prove the process wrong. If there are plants upon which graftage is success- ful the ODeration itself is not wrong, however many cases there may be to which it is not adapted. 2. That graftage is unnatural, and therefore pernicious, is a fallac3^ There is nothing to show it is anything more unnatural than making cuttings. If naturalness is proved by frequency of occurrence in nature, then graftage is the more natural. But the whole discussion of mere naturalness of any operation is aside from the question; for every garden operation — transplanting, pruning or tillage — -is in some sense unnatural ; yet these "unnat- ural processes" sometimes increase plant longevity and virility. 3. An assumption hi 1 with dogmatic positiveness by many writers is that own-rnMi'd plants are better than foster-rooted ones. If mere rarity ( r lack of occurrence in nature is no proof of perniciousness, tl e statement admits of argument just as much as any other topii^- The citation of ill effects of graftage is no i)roof that own-roo'.ed plants are better if there should still remain cases in which no injurious effects follow. If it is true tiiat "own-rooted things are in all ways infinitely better, healthier, and 156 PLANT rkUPAGATION longer lived" than foster-rooted plants, and if "grafted plants of all kinds are open to all sorts of accidents and disaster," then the proposition should admit of abundant proof. The subject may be analyzed by discussing the following questions: a. Is the union always imperfect? b. Are grafted plants less virile, shorter lived than own-rooted ones? a. It is well known that the physical union between cion and stock is often imperfect and remains a point of weakness through- out the life of a plant (201). ^But this is not always true. Scores of plants make perfect physical union with other plants of their own species, or even with other species. Therefore, these alone are the plants that should be grafted. The best proof that can be adduced that the union may be physically perfect, is in the micro-photograph published by Prof. C. S. Crandall. [Similar ones are shown on pages 138, 140.] The cells are knit together so completely it is im- possible to determine the exact line of union. Professor Crandall also figures a microscopic section of an apple graft in which the union is very poor, but this graft is made in a different manner, another proof that operation should be suited to subject. These were grafts made upon nursery stock. It would appear that if the union were good at the expiration of the first year it would remain good throughout the plant's life. In order to test this point two apple trees 1.5 years old and over six inches in diameter grafted at the surface of the ground in the nursery, were split into many pieces in the presence of two critical observers, but no mark whatever could be found of the old union. [Similar con- ditions may be seen on page 148.] b. Are grafted plants shorter lived than others? It is evident that a poor union or an uncongenial stock will make the resulting graft weak, a further proof that indiscriminate graftage is to be dis- couraged. But these facts do not affirm the question. Many persons hold that any asexual propagation is in the end devitalizing, since the legitimate method of propagation is by means of seeds. This notion appears to be confirmed by Darwin's conclu- sions that the ultimate function of sex is really to vitalize and strengthen the offspring following the union of characters or powers of two parents ; for if the expensive sexual propagation invigorates the type, asexual propagation would seem to weaken it. It does not follow, however, that because sexual reproduction is good, asexual increase is bad, but rather that one is as a rule better than the other, without saying that the other is injurious. Some plants have been asexually propagated for centuries with appar- ently no decrease of vitality. This fact, however, does not prove that the plant may not have positively increased in virility if sex- ual propagation had been employed. The presumption is always in favor of sexual reproduction, a point which everyone will admit. Here is where graftage has an enormous theoretical advantage over cuttage or any other asexual multiplication : the grafted plant springs from sexual reproduction. If the union is physically perfect, as is frequently the case, there is reason to suppose that IS GRAFTACili UKNITALIZING ? I 57 grafting between consanguineous plants is better than propagating by cuttings or layers. In other words, graftage is really sexual multiplication; so if seeds have an advantage over buds in forming the plant foundation, graftage is a more perfect method than any other artificial practice — in fact the nearest approach to direct sex- ual reproduction. So when seeds cannot be relied upon wholly, as they cannot, for the reproduction of many garden varieties, graftage is the ideal practice ; always provided, of course, that it is properly done between congenial subjects. It is not to be ex- pected that the practice is adapted to all plants, any more than is the making of cuttings of leaves or of stems, but this fact cannot be held to invalidate the system. Is there direct evidence to show that "grafting is always a make- shift," a "toy game,"' that "grafted plants are open to all sorts of accidents and disaster," that "own-rooted things are better, healthier, and longer lived"? These statements allow of no exception; they are universal and iron-bound. If the questions were to be fully met, we should need to discuss the whole art of graftage in all its detail, but if there is one well-authenticated case in which a grafted plant is as strong, as hardy, as vigorous, as productive and as long lived as seedlings or as cutting plants, we shall have established the fact that the operation is not necessarily bad, and have created the presumption that other cases exist. An instance will serve. In the forties about 100 apple trees were grown from seeds on a Michigan farm, but as most of the fruit was poor or indifferent the trees were top-grafted in the most desultory manner, some being grafted piecemeal with some of the original branches allowed to remain permanently, while others were entirely changed over at once; a few of them grafted on the trunk when as large as broomsticks, the whole top having been cut off when the oper- ation was performed. A few trees which chanced to bear toler- able fruit were not grafted. Many of the trees died from indeterminable causes ; fully half of the de^iths have been seedling trees for many years as vigorous as the grafted ones. Of the trees that remain the grafted specimens are in every way as vigorous, hardy and productive as the others. Some of these trees have two tops, one grafted shoulder high in the earlv days, the other in the resulting top many years later. Those trees which contain both original branches and grafted ones in the same top show similar results — the foreign branches are in every way as vigorous, virile and productive as the others, and are proving to be as long-lived. This positive experiment compassed by the lifetime of one man shows that own-rooted trees arc not a'ways "infinitely better, healthier, and longer-lived" than grafted plants. The illustration may be considered typical of thi)usands of orchards, containing various fruits in all parts of the country. The fact may be cited that the old seedling orchards about the country are much more uneven and contain more dead trees or vacant places than ccmmcrcial grafted urchards of even the same 158 PLANT PROPAGATION age. This is due to the struggle for existence in the old orchards hy which the weak trees have disappeared, while the grafted or- chards, heing made up of selected varieties of known virility and hardiness, have remained more nearly intact. If the seedling or- chards have suffered more than the grafted ones it must be because they have had more weak spots. The universal favor in which graftage is held in America is itself a strong presumption in its favor. Growers differ among themselves as to the best methods of performing the operation, but an intelligent American will not condemn the system as nec- essarily bad or wrong. Of the vast number of grafted and budded trees sold annually by nurserymen probably half die from various causes before they reach bearing age, but graftage itself plays a small part in the failure, as may be seen in the case of grapes and small fruits, which outnumber the tree fruits in nursery stock, and of which less than one-half reach maturity, and yet these are cutting- grown plants. It is in nineteen cases out of twenty the care- lessness of the grower which lirings failure. It is impossible, if one considers the facts broadly and candidly, to arrive at any other conclusion than this : Graftage is not suited to all plants, but in those to which it is adapted — and they are many — it is not a devitalizing process. CHAPTER XII DANIEL'S EXPERIMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS 207. Functional capacity of plants. — Daniel gives the following broad generalizations on the relationship be- tween absorption, assimilation and transpiration in plants. By functional capacity is meant the processes involved in the absorption and utilization of crude ma- terials by the plant. If the function of absorption or the total absorption from external surroundings be repre- sented by CA, and the functional capacity of consump- tion or total consumption at the points where the sap is used up be represented by CV, then in a plant in com- plete equilibrium as regards its general nutrition CV= CA and ^ =1. If, however, aerial consumption is greater than the usual subterranean absorption, then the formula P^ > 1. This corresponds to growth in dry or poor soil. \\ hen absorption is greater than consumption, as in moist or rich soils, the formula becomes —§^ < Conditions similar to these are sometimes brought about by grafting. The cicatrization of the grafted plants and the intercalcated tissue between stock and cion interfere with the condition of sap, modifying it both in quantity and quality. These modifications of the cion are equivalent to growth in a drier, poorer medium than the normal. In grafting it is also necessary to keep in mind the relative functional capacities of the two grafted plants. For example, if the functional ca- pacity of consum])tion is greater in the cion than in the stock this condition becomes exaggerated by the scar of cicatrization when the two plants are grafted, and the graft either fails to take or makes a poor growth, cor- responding to that in poor dry soil. The chance for mak- 169 i6o I" LA NT rRUPACATION ing a successful graft in such a case is increased if the development of adventitious roots from the cion is en- couraged, so that assimilation may correspond more closely to a normal absorption of the cion. 208. Graftage laws. — Daniel draws the following con- clusions from certain of his experiments: 1, The relative affinity or difference of functional capacities between stock and cion at different periods of the symbiosis plays a very important role in the success, .duration, and biology of all grafts. 2, Environ- ment, weather, etc., particularly sud- den changes of environment, have com- siderable reaction on the whole, a re- action greater than in normal plants. 3, Various irregularities like diseases result from faulty nutrition, due to badly chosen grafts. 209. Disease due to grafting. — A study of grafts l^etween various species of Solanum (pepper, tomato, eggplant, etc.) has led Daniel to conclude that many of the physiological troubles of plants commonly considered as dis- eases are in reality due to the em- ployment of antagonistic stocks and cions. 210. Grafts are of two classes,* anatomical (grafts l)y approach) and physiological (true) ; the latter divided into two groups, ordinary and mixed. In the ordinary the stock is deprived entirely of its assimilating apparatus (the green parts) and the cion of its absorbing parts (the roots). Tn the mixed graft proper the stock may preserve part or all of its assimilating apparatus and the cion part or all of its absorbing apparatus. In grafting by ap- proach success is attained when the two plants grow together in an enduring manner so that if separated a wound is formed. The graft proper is said to succeed when, after having lived a certain time on the stock, the cion produces fertile seeds. FIG. 136— YOUNG APPLE ROOT GRAFT This is student work 952. *L Daniel, Rev. Gen. Bot. 12, summnrized in E.\. Sfa. Record, Vol. 12, pp. 947,- __ ; i)AMi:i.'s i;.\i'i:ki M i:.\ I s and (o.xn.rsroxs 161 The coiulilions of success oi grafts arc uf two kinds, extrinsic (conditions independent of the nature of the plant— as soil, tem- perature, etc.) and intrinsic (conditions dependent upon the peculiar nature of the plants grafted, as method of cicatrization, analogy and botanical relations. The extrinsic conditions neces- sary to observe by approach are: 1, .V temperature suf- ticient to produce primary tissue; 2, prevention of all conditions which cause rotting or drying of the cicatrized meristem (pri- n.ary tissue) ; and :J, maintenance of adherence of the wounds by the aid of ligatures susceptible of being loosened progressively with the growth of the plant. 211. Cicatrization. — Plants cicatrize their wounds either by simple drying of the cut tissues and neighboring cells or by regeneration of tissues by the aid of the primary tissue. All methods have failed with the mono- cotyledons and cryptogams experi- mented upon. Hence Daniel concludes that grafting by approach is impos- sible with plants that cicatrize their wounds by desiccation of the wounded cells and neighboring tissues ; i. e., are incapable of regenerating tissue. In order to learn whether only plants with cambium may be grafted, as generally believed, Daniel worked with many monocots and cryptogams and secured a perfect cicatrization by the tongue graft with gladiolus, day lily (Finikia cordata), Caladium, white lily {Globba coccinea) and several others, even with one of the club mosses (Sclagiiiella arborca). The success of these grafts shows that grafting by approach is possible with certain monocots and that the presence of the cambium layer is not always necessary to the success of all grafts by approach. 212. Analogy. — The difference in hardness and the histological nature of woods may not be an obstacle to anatomical union. .\ natural, distinct cicatrization occurred between grafted oak and beech, and between fir and linden, oak and ash united by their stems and oak and walnut by their roots. Rose and grane have also been united. Nevertheless, the graft by approach does not always succeed between plants so different- Daniel tried in vain to graft horse chestnut on common chestnut. i *■ m ^^ i FIG. 137 -GRAFT WRAPPING MACHINE A great time saver FIG. 138— GRAFTERS' BUDDERS' KIT Tools, cions etc., are carried tluis. l62 PLANT PI«)PAGATION FIG. 139— DIGGING LARGE TREES FOR SHIPMENT 1. Forks are used to reduce injury to the roots. 2. Roots are wrapped in moss and straw. i)A.\ii:i/s i:xim;kii\ii:.\is axd t tJXCLLSioNs ir)3 Accumulation oi reserve material in ve.i^etative plant parts lias no special importance in grafting, as jjroved hy grafting turnip and cabbage, kale and kohl rabi, Brussels sprouts and kohl rabi, and kohl rabi and cauliflower. [These plants, though very different in form as cultivated, are all, except turnip, varieties of one species, Brassica olenwca — M. G. K ]. Even grafting by approach between roots of lettuce and aged salisfy succeeded, though the inulin of the salsify did not circulate in the lettuce cells. If the cell contents of one of the plants approached are toxic for the other, the graft fails. If a large and a small variety are grafted on each other the larger will develop to the detriment of the smaller, which will re- main nearly dwarf. Plants of different forms, like kale and cauli- flower [see bracket note above], may make good unions. Plants in active growth may be grafted by approach on plants at rest; e. g., seedling cabbage several weeks old was grafted in spring with lierfect success on a turnip whose root was fully formed. Grafting by approach succeeds between annuals, biennials, and perennials; also between biennials and perennials. The fact that fir and linden, and Aralia Spuiosa and A. Sicboldii were grafted by approach shows deciduous and evergreen plants may be intergrafted. 213. Extrinsic conditions. — With grafts proper all extrinsic con- ditions are present, but in cutting ofl the top of the stock and sup- pressing the absorbing apparatus of the cion, there is danger of the death of both plants. Another fundamental extrinsic condition of success must be maintenance of life in the two plants till suc- cess is complete.. The cion is sometimes preserved by being placed in water as soon as made to prevent its drying out, keep the surface clean, and prevent the formation of sugar or other ma- terial on the cut surfaces. This might interfere with the free pas- sage of sap from stock to cion. In order that the cion may grow its turgescence must be re- established. This is secured by the imbibition of the crude sap of the stock by the cells of the cion, and occurs more quickly ac- cording as the crude sap is presented in considerable quantity, but also more quickly if the initial turgescence of the tissues of the cion has not been diminished during the preparation of the graft and its being put in place. This explains why it is necessary to operate quickly and why cuttings are often made under water where the cion preserves much of its turgescence and produces good results. It also accounts for the good effects of wax-like material used in open air grafting; the utility of the collar graft, because the osmotic force is strongest at this level; and the im- portance of the time of day in operating, because the osmotic force varies, being strongest in the evening (hence the greater success then). The re-establishment of turgescence in the graft is con- sidered fundamental to success, therefore it is impossible to graft parts incapable of retaining turgescence or which do not possess it. 214. Intrinsic conditions.— In the graft proper plants incapable of regenerating their tissues cannot be grafted. In gladiolus and 164 I'LAXT rKUPAGATIOiX Funkia cases cited above, the anatomical cicatrization was effected by the parenchymatic tissues. No Hber or fibro-vascular structure was observed to form between cion and stock. Thus the transport of sap was hindered, and sooner or later both parts died. By util- izing the aerial roots of some monocots to supplement the absorp- tion of the cion, success was attained with several plants. This shows that failure of grafts with monocots capable of regenerating their tissues is due to insufficient vascular communication, since it becomes possible when a complimentary apparatus is supplied. Plants with active cambium layers, which may be inarched, cannot always be grafted by the graft proper, since the common European bean (Pabia) and the kidney bean, which graft easily by approach, have always failed when grafted by the graft proper, no matter what precautions were taken. Differences in wood and bark are not ob- stacles to success in the graft proper. Thus there is a great difference in the thickness and strength of saffiower and annual sunflower; between sunflower and Jerusalem artichoke; young cabbage and root of turnip ; root of cultivated carrot and that of fennel ; neverthe- less, these [pairs of] plants united perfectly. These same facts were observed with trees ; the graft succeeded between chestnut and oak, pear and hawthorn, quince and hawthorn, in spite of marked differences in the barks. From these and other grafts it is concluded that hard- ness, density, and elasticity of wood are second- ary in the success and duration of grafts, but it is not the same with conduction. When the differences of sap conductions are too great, grafts will not succeed; e. g., lilac and ash, cherry and almond, Cotoneaster and chestnut, which grow the first year, then die without fructifying. The duration of the graft is then very variable and depends for its value on differences in conduction between cion and stock. Thus pear grafted on quince endures for a shorter period than pear on pear seedling [the Yeoman's dwarf pear orchard at Walworth, New York, bore profitable crops for over 50 years! M. G. K.] When the differences of conduction are too great between plants, the mixed graft is sometimes used successfully where the ordinary graft fails. By using it Daniel united J^enwuia pracalta and Xan- thium macvocarpum, which failed by ordinary grafting. Daniel has succeeded in grafting plants whose cell contents pre- sented very marked differences; e. g., Chicoreaceas and Euphor- biacese, which have different latex contents. Previously it had been held that plants with milky juice could not be grafted. Grafts were made to determine what influence reserve material in plants may have on grafting. The easy grafts on roots of car- FIG. 140— CUTTING ON DAHLIA TUBER i)A.\ii:i.s i;.\n-.uiMi:xTS Axn conclusions i^S rot and parsnip show that the presence of reserve material is no (il)stacle to success. Those of tomato on potato, annual sunflower 1111 Jerusalem artichoke, etc., show that the formation of tubers on the stock takes place even when the cion is incapable of pro- ducing tubers itself. In grafting in September a young cabbage on a purple-topped turnip, which would have begun to thicken its root, in October, the thickening came in the April following, when the cion became plethoric. It is, then, the cion which by its mode of nu- trition commands the function of reserve material in the stock. FIG. 141-S\VELLINGS DUE TO GRAFTAGE 1. Large growing apple on small growing stock. 2. Swelling of tissues at point of union. 3. Pear on small growing stock. The inverse graft of plants susceptible of forming tubers on a plant which does not yield tubers may be realized. Daniel suc- ceeded in grafting Hclianthus loetiftonis, a species with an enlarged rhizome, on H. Animus, an annual species which does not form tubers. 'The cion grown entirely above the soil was unable to form tubers. The reserves passed into another form in the stock, which took a development altogether abnormal and became very ligneous. Potato grafted on eggplant and on tomato has been ob- served to form aerial tubers and thus store up its reserve material. 215. Analogy in habitat seems to be a more or less important fac- tor. Thus Phlox dccnssata, which grows in humid soils, has not been successfully grafted by Daniel on P. sitbiilata, which grows on dry soils; though parsley, which prefers a dry soil, succeeds when grafted with Sison ammonium, which prefers humid soil. In the case of trees, pears are grafted on quinces in rich soil and on pear seedlings in poor soil, etc. Different soils, then, are not the most serious obstacles to success in grafting, but they seem to have more or less marked influence on the duration of the graft. If a dormant ligneous cion is grafted on an active ligneous stock, success follows, but does not follow if conditions are re- versed. With herbaceous plants, an active cion may be grafted on 1 66 PLANT PKOrACATlON a (lunnant stock and succeed. When cion and stock do not come into activity about the same time, the graft may succeed, but its duration will be shortened. In order to study the limits of the possibility of grafting, experi- ments were made with Rosacese, Umbelliferce. Leguminoss, Crucif- erie, Solanaceae and Compositsc. With Rosaces, Leguminosse and Crucifera; the limit of grafting seems to be confined to genera of the same tribe. With Solanacese and Umbellifers grafts were successfully made between different tribes. With Compositse the limit seems to be the sub-family. 216. Herbaceous grafting has been successfully practiced ex- perimentally by Daniel,* with pea on bean, cabbage on kohl rabi, turnip, stock and other re- lated plants, fennel on wild carrot, carrot on parsnip and vice versa, celery on parsnip, winter lettuce on wild prick- ly lettuce, spring lettuce on salsify, salsify on scorzonera, toadtlax on snapdragon, al- mond, peach and prune on cherry. This experimenter also found : that grapes will unite between genera of t-lG. 142— BORDEAUX MIXING FOR SMALL NURSERY One of the upper barrels contains blue stone stock solution, the other lime solution. The tubs are used to dilute these solutions. The lower barrel mixes these two solutions which then pass as one to the spray tank through a sieve. A larger hose would be a decided improvement. ♦Extended summary in Experiment Station Record, Vol. 5, p. 1089. i)ANii:i-s i-:xi'i-:kimi:nis and concli'Sions \C)y the same (inKr; .'.', liollDW-slcininfd annuals unite, wliile the pith is functional; :i, uitli trees the union is easily made and the swelling at the point of union is reduced to a minimum; 4. root grafting of herbaceous plants is most successful ; 5, duration of grafted plants is more or less modified by the graft, a, annuals f)n biennials or perennials continue to be annuals, i. e., at the end f)f the growing season they die and cause the partial or total death of the stock; b, biennial grafts with rare exceptions remain biennial on both biennial and perennial stocks and induce the death »f the stocks ; c, perennial grafts on annual or biennial stocks die with the stocks, but may be used as grafts on perennial stocks prior to this event. G, herbaceous grafts are less resistant to cold than are mature wood grafts; 7, time of flowering is slightly re- tarded among annual grafts, and at least for the first year among biennials and perennials ; 8, stock and cion are influenced reciprocally -sometimes cion controls stock, sometimes vice versa, and some- times both classes of cases may be found in the one kmd of graft but with different specimens. 0, Cul- tivated varieties grafted on wild ones generally show deteriorated quality in the fruit; 10, seed produced in such cases (9, just mentioned), some seedlings revert to the wild type and largely lose value as food plants, hence it is concluded that inferior stocks should not be selected for '^rafting when seed is to b saved for planting ; 11, reserve food of a stock is rarely utilized by the graft of a plant of another family. Circulation of liquids in grafted plants presents two extremes to consider: 1, cases where water absorbed by the stock passes m small quantity into the coin; and 2, where it is abundant. In the former (the commoner) the cion makes less vigorous devel- opment but flowers and fruits more abundantly than in Case 2 where the vessels are larger, the sprouts more vigorous and the flowers and fruits less abundant, as in the case of a tree too well nourished. .At tirst these phenomena are physical, but later chem- ical changes modify the cell contents as shown by starch or sugar formation under the influence of the graft in certain cases. 217. Reciprocal influence of stock and cion. — Daniel has dem- onstrated both direct and indirect influences of stock on cion in grafted ])lants. From his .experiments he deduces that variations in the graft may be due to changes in nutrition or may be specific; that is, they may appear in particular characters of stock and cion more or less independently of environment. The effects of graft- ing on the general nutrition mav be shown in four wavs. 143— HANDY STYLE OF TREE CALIPER 1 68 PLANT PROPAGATION FIG. 144— WHY ROOT PRUNING IS DESIRABLE 1. Roots of evergreen as ordinarily grown in nursery. 2. Dotted line shows where plant would be "dug with loss of roots. 3. Evergreen root pruned as shown at 2 but after new roots have developed. Such plants are well worth their extra cost. nANii:i."s i:xi'i:k]mi:xts and ioxci-L'Sions 1C9 1. Tlie size of the vegetative organs of stock and cion may be modilied. It a herbaceous plant is grafted on itself, the general nutrition is interrupted in inverse proportion to the activity of the cambium layer at the time the operation is performed. The same principle applies in the case of grafts between different plants of the same variety. In the case of grafts between plants of different varieties, species or genera, the reciprocal reactions are much more complicated by the imperfect functional adaptations. In herbaceous grafts the callus has ihe same effect on the cion as would placing it in arid soil — it is dwarfed. In determining what species of the same order may be successfully grafted, similarity of habitat is of more importance than relationship. In the case of ligneous plants, geot- ropism (21!)) is a cause of variation, although this has generally been denied heretofore. It is also shown that a branch that has lost its negative geotropism does not always regain it if grafted on the main axis of the stock, at least in the case of the pear. 2. The flavor of the edible parts, size, chemical coinposition or season of development, may be modilied. If the union is perfect, grafting in general produces a change of flavor in the edible parts of vegetative organs, either in the nature of improvement or de- terioration in (|uality. There is almost always a reduction in size of the part which sometimes fails entirely to develop in edible form. For the operation to have ])ractical interest, the diminution in size must be compensated by increase in quality. When the edible parts belong to the reproductive organs, grafting herbaceous plants may or may not cause the enlargement of the pericarp of fleshy fruits or of the seeds in dry fruits. There is no known prin- ciple of general application. The flavor of the fruit depends mainly on the completeness of the union and the quantity of sap the cion receives. This principle applies to ligneous and her- baceous plants alike. ii. The development of the reproductive organs of the cion may be accelerated or retarded. The flowering season of the cion may be affected very dift'erently, according as the plant is annual, bien- nial or perennial, according to the age and nature of the cion, and according to the kind of graft employed. Grafting may induce variation in the arrangement of flowers, in the season of opening or falling of the petals, or in their color. 4. The relative resistance of stock and cion to parasites and other injurious organisms or substances may be modified. The principal parasites that attack grafts before the union is com- plete are molluscs, worms, sowbugs, insects and molds. These parasites may aft'cct stock and cion differently. The parasites that attack grafted plants after the union is complete, are in the order of the extent of their ravages, insects, myriapods, fungi, and otlicr vegetative parasites, and molluscs. The more imperfect the union of stock and cion, the more serious are the attacks: so much so that their extent and severity may be said to be a cri- terion of the degree of perfection of the syml)iosis. PLANT ri.;()i'A(;.\j loM FIG. 145— TREE DIGGER AT WORK IN PEAR NURSERY ROW Tlie digger passes under the nursery row and the trees are lifted and carried tp the packing or storage quarters DANIEL S KXPEKliMliMTS AND CONCLUSIONS 171 218. Reasons for the above effects. — The tlieory by which Driiiiel seeks to explain these facts is in hrief as follows : The nutrition of stock and cion is modilied hy two causes which may act in the same or contrary directions. These are (1) the callus conse(|uent on the operation, and (2) the difference between the peculiar func- tional capacities of stock and cion, such as differences in structure, special diastases, differences in composition of tiie crude or the elaborated saps, etc. The phenomena pr xluced are dependent, not only on the nature of the plant, but intimately so on environment. From this theory certain conditions of success in grafting may be deduced. The protoplasm of stock and cion must not, as a result of the operation, be modilied beyond that definite point at which poisoning sets in or at which the essential properties of the living substance, as nutrition and motility, are destroyed. De- struction of the protoplasm may result from either of two causes : (1) action of plastic or waste products brought together suddenly, causing immediate poisoning or gradually causing slow poisoning. These products may give rise through mutual reactions to other injurious products. (2) Deficiency or excess of water in stock or cion consequent upon grafting. Daniel demonstrates the insufficiency of the hypothesis of relationship and that of similarity in composition of elaborated saps to account for the success of a graft or to explain its variations. He reports a large number of experiments, each illustrating a dif- ferent variation, produced directly by a mutual reaction of stock and cion. Specific variations differ much in degrees according to the nature of the plant and even according to the part of the cion. The principle applies alike to herbaceous and woody plants. Specific variations result in a more or less complete blending of the characters of stock and cion ; or more strictly, these char- acters appear side by side but separate and distinct. 219. Geotropism, the tendency of plant parts to grow downward toward the center of the earth, as in ordinary roots. Negative geotropism (apogeotropism) is the growing away from the earth, as in ordinary stems. 220. Transmission of grafted cnaracters by seed. — From certain experiments Daniel concludes that variations iipro7'cd /» n certain re- spect, it ntnst he (jrafted on a stock superior in this respect. 222. Germplasm, the coiitiiuiously living- substance of an organism. It is capable of reproducing both itself and the somatoplasm, or l)ody tissue, in giving rise to new individuals. It is the Substance, or Essence, or Life which is neither formed afresh, generation after generation, nor created or de^'eloped when sexual ma- turity is reached, but is present all the time as the potentiality of the individual, before birth and after death, as well as during that period we term "life" between these two events. The somatoplasm, on the other hand, has no such power. It can produce only its kind — the ephemeral, the perishable body or husk, which sooner or later completes its life cycle, dies and disintegrates. The germ])lasm. barring accident, is in a sense immortal. 223. Somatoplasm, the body tissues as a whole. See- (iermplasm (222). CHAPTER XIII GENERAL POINTS CONCERNING FRUIT TREE STOCKS* 224. Effects of stock on cion.— [With few exceptions] all fruit trees are consorts of two individuals, stock and cion. So far fruit growing has been carried on with little or no regard to their interactions. Yet there is no doubt that each reacts upon the other and that all grafted fruits are influenced for better or worse by the stocks upon which they are worked. To this fact those who have given the matter study now agree, though there is little accord in the explanations ofi'ered to account for the various effects. In short, about all we really know is that plants often get out of gear in the adjustment of cion to stock. Why and how, remain for the most part to be determined. Since we cannot find clear-cut analyses of the eff"ects of stock on cion, it is small wonder that fruit flowers give little attention to stocks. After centuries of fruit culture, we actually do not knt)w what the best stocks are for many fruits. Further to com- l)licate the situation, trees are profoundly modified by soil and climate, the modifications not infrequently being confused with those caused by the stock. Our fragmentary knowledge of stocks being thus a thing of shreds and patches, few are willing to break away from time-worn dictums, so continue to plant trees without attention to the reciprocal influences of stock and cion. Briefly, influences are as follows : 225. Influences of tree fruit stock on cion. — i. Stock modifies form and size. Altered size and form of tree resulting from grafting cannot be said to be due wholly to diminished vigor and not at all to debility. Rather, the cion takes the size, form and somewhat the peculiarities in habit of growth of the stock. Thus, the scraggly Red Canada apple worked on Northern Spy assumes, somewhat, not wholly. Spy characteristics of growth ; pear on quince takes quince size; apple on Paradise or Doucin, the size and form of these stocks. Increased size rarely, if ever, occurs. 2. Adaptability of species or variety to soil may be changed by stock. Peach when worked on plum may do well on heavy soils where on their own roots they would be worthless. Conversely, ])lum can be adapted to light soils by working on peach, thriving still better on Myrobalan in most soils. Everything points to maz- zard rather than mahaleb for both sweet and sour cherries. Ninety- *Foot note: Paragraphs 224 to 233 are condensed from an address by Prof. U. P. Hedrick of New York, before the New York State Fruit Growers' Association. X76 geni-:kai. points concerning fruit trer stocks 177 nine trcts mit of a liiimlrcd arc on inalKlcI) slock as tlicrc is less loss. LlicTiy on niazzard should cost twice as nuicii, hut is worth the price. Mahalel) is sometimes hetter than mazzard in shallow or wet soil. Possil)ly this is the most inportant intluence of stock on cion, for through it many fruits, which would not thrive, in some cases would not live, on their own roots, can he grown in unfavorahle soils. The use of stocks to overcome soil adversities demands much more attention than has heen given. 3. Through the stock, plants may be made to endure incompatible climates. It would be too much to say that hardiness as an in- herent c|uality is transmitted from stock to cion, but it is very cer- tain that increase in vigor imparted by some stocks gives greater hardiness to grafted i)lants. In the case of late-growing apples worked on Hibernal or Oldenberg stocks greater hardiness results, because the cion matures earlier than it would upon its own roots FIG. 149— HEELING-IN TREES FOR WINTER STORAGE and is therefore better able to withstand the winter. Again, slight obstructions to the sap flow imposed more or less by union of dif- ferent tissues of stock and cion may cause the cion to ripen earlier and thus bring about greater hardiness. Some plants, as peach, must have a warm soil ; therefore, peach does better on plum in cold soils than on its own roots. 4. Stocks, if diseased, may impart the disease to cions, as when peach stocks infested with peach yellows or "little peach" are budded with health}' buds. 5. Productiveness of tree is often increased by stock, paradoxically enough, either by increasing or by decreasing plant vigor. Trees sometimes fail to fruit well because of too much wood growth, in which case grafting on less vigorous stocks checks growth and makes for productivity: thus w-e may explain the greater fruit- fulness of some dwarf apples and pears. On the other hand, a fruit may be too weak in growth to be fruitful, hence grafting on a stock which imparts vigor may make it more pro- ductive. 6. Time of maturity of both wood and crop may be changed somewhat by stock — hastened on the one hand or retarded on the 178 PLANT I'ROl'ACAIION other, according to wlictlicr stock ripens earlier or later than cion. It follows, of course, that keeping ciualit}- is aftected in the same degree as maturit}'. From what is known on this subject we are warranted in saying that earliness is promoted only when the stock ripens its wood earlier than the cion; lateness, when the stock wood ripens later. 7. Color of fruit may be changed by stock. There is little evi- dence to substantiate the claim that the characteristic color of a fruit is changed by the stock, but, as all know, color is heightened by earliness and lessened by lateness in the maturity of a variety. In cases, then, in which stock influences time of maturity, color may be more or less changed. 1 know of a Mcintosh orchard the fruit of which is much brighter in color and matures nearly two weeks earlier than Mcintosh on standard stocks, apparently because grafted upon Oldenburg stocks. 8. Size of fruit is often increased by stock. I cite only pear on quince as an example. Many others might be adduced. 9. Stock afifects eating qualities' of fruit on cion. Larger, crisper, FIG. 150— PEACH PIT PLANTER 1. Natural wild peach pit; 2, Canning factory pit, not good for planting; 3, HoDoer of machine. Most nurserymen contend for the "natural" pit as against pits of cultivated varieties secured from canneries. (;i;.\i:k.\L i-oixrs coxc kk.x ixc i-urrr iki-.i-: s■n)c•K^ '79 FIG. 151— GRAFT PLANTING juicier fruits uf a variety can lie .s^mun un sunie stncks tlian ou (>thers, making them more palatal)le. Sweetness and sourness de- pend on amount of sugar and acid; these, in turn, are influenced l)y health, vigor, time of maturity and nutrition, all of which are intlucnced I)y stock. A variety may, therefore, he sweeter or sourer on one stock than on another. There is noth- ing to show that flavor is changed. 10. Some stocks shorten the life of the trees of which they are a part. Apples on pears and pears on apples are short-lived trees. Bartlett is short- lived when top- worked on Kieflfer. As a rule, grafting weak-growing species on vigorous stock shortens the tree life. 226. Influence of grape stocks on cions. — Much more is known about influence of stock on cion in grape-growing than on tree fruits. To epitomize : Experimenters of established reputation hold that very appreciable differences may be noted between the chemical and the physical composition of grapes, grafted on various stocks and fruit of the same variety on its own roots. Among the effects claimed the following are quoted : Fruit of grafted vines is larger, has bigger seeds, thinner skin, berries are less numerous, juice is more copious, is usually both more acid and sugary, is less rich in phosphate, more highly charged with nitrogenous mat- ters, has little tannin, less color and the color is less stable; vines are more fruitful ; fruit ma- tures earlier. These differ- ences varj- in different cases. In an experiment with grape stock for American grapes carried on for eleven years at the New York station ma- terial differences were found between grafted and un- grafted vines, all included in the above summary. 227. Influence of cion on stock — Cion in its turn has a decided influence on stock. For example, the form of roots is much changed by the cion. Thus, in starting ap- ples in a nursery we bud on seedlings which unbudded would ha\e root systems much the same, but at dig- ging time the roots of the -j-j^g knife cuts the roots at 12 to 18 inches various \arieties are as below the surface. FIG. 152— NURSERY TREE DIGGER \ 1 80 PLANT I'KOPAGATION FIG. 153— MOVING LARGE TREES L Estimate size of tree by that of man above center of picture. 2. Notice the tackle and the size of the man. 3. Sixteen horses were needed to haul this free. GHNICKAl. rcJlX'IS lt)M i:U\l.\(i FRUIT TKF.Ii STOCKS l8l (livLTsc as the varieties IIiliiiscKls ; Red Ablraelian, fur iiislaiue, lias an exceedinj^ly lihruus rmit sjstein witli few lap nxUs, uliilc Oldcnburj; and J'anieusc gR)\vn on either side of the Red Astrachan row, are almost destitute of root liltcrs, having instead deep tap roots v.iili two or three prongs. Nurserymen declare the weaker the top growth and the sparser the foliage of a variety, the more dei'ci'jnt is the root growth. 228. Plant chimeras or "graft-hybrids." — To the general rule that stock and cion retain their identity there is a seeming exception in the pseudo-hybrids or plant chimeras of experimenters. When, after grafting, cion buds fail to grow and an adventitious bud arises at the junction of stock and cion, including cells from both parts, we have what for many years was known as a graft-hybrid, but is now more accurately called a plant chimera. In a case of this kind the cells from stock and cion reproduce themselves, sometimes the wood of one covering the other like a glove, or it may be the wood of the consorting pair grows side by side in parallel parts throughout the plant. These plant chimeras are more or less familiar in apples half sweet, the other half sour; or in which a portion of the apple is red or yellow and another russet. They are probably more often found in citrus fruits than in any others. It is pos- sible that the cells of two consorting parts do actually blend in some cases, forming a true hybrid. Not improbably some of the many so-called strains of fruit described by those seeking to improve plants liy Inid selection are plant chimeras. 229. Explanations for reciprocal effects. — Plant physiology does not help us much in elucidating the inlluence of grafting. The- oretically, from the anatomy of plants, w'e can expect nothing more in grafting than the adhesion of graft to stock. The tissues below the union are those of the stock; above it, those of the cion. Yet there is some reason to suspect that definite substances pass from one to the other in the consorting parts of a grafted plant and produce specific effects. Thus, w-hen a cion with variegated foliage is grafted on a normal stock, shoots which spring from the stock below the graft are variegated. Or, if deadly nightshade be grafted on tomato, the poison, atropine, passes down into tomato root and stem. But curiously enough, if the variegated plant or the nightshade be used as a stock, variegation in one case and atropine in the other do not pass upward into the cions. An ingenious and not at all improbable reason for some of the influence of the stock upon the cion was offered in the I'Yench Academy of Science [by Le Clerc du Sablon]. The speaker had FIG. 154 — TRANSPLANT- ING IN LOOSE SOIL l82 PLAXT I'ROl'ACA'l'lOX made analyses of i)car trees two years old from the graft on quince and pear stocks to determine the relative quantities of plant foods stored in the steins of the two sets of plants. It was found that during autumn and winter reserve matter was markedly more abundant in the stem on quince stock. In spring, therefore, the pear on quince was enabled to furnish more food matter for fruit formation and crop production was greatly increased. iVgain, reserve food in stems is nearer the fruit than in roots and is thus possibly more readily utilized. If these experiments are accurate we may find the best stocks are those whose roots store the least quantity of reserve-foods and so force the accumulation of re- serve matter in stems. Unquestionabh^ some effects of stock are due to altered nutri- tion — possibly to insufficient nutrition of stock or cion. Much evi- dence points to disturbance of nutrition as the chief cause of the FIG. 155— HERBACEOUS GRAFTING AND BUDDING I, herbaceous buds; 2, herbaceous grafts. Summer methods of propagating grapes on green canes. None of the herbaceous methods so far tested in California ha\e been veiy successful. effects of grafting. It may be that food elaborated by the foliage of the cion is different from that the stock would have had with its own foliage. It has been suggested that difference in specific gravity of stock and cion sap may be a disturbing factor. But these explanations are not sufiicient to cover all phenomena arising from grafting. Truth is we have for the most part only certain isolated facts to explain which we must rely upon inferences which have the greatest amount of probability in their favor from the knowledge of the case. It remains for someone to tell why. 230. Why "nurserymen bud or graft trees. — Important though the effects of stock are on cions, any and all are but incidental to the true explanation for a two-part tree for practically all orchard plants. At the proper season in every nursery an army of expert workmen graft or bud so dexterously, precisely and rapidly that their work is little short of marvelous. What are the reasons for (ii'.Ni'.kAi, roiNis coxt'i-.ux i.\(; i-'i()sc. Winter Nelis, Sheldon. Washington, Marie Louise. ( ian- sel's Bergamot, Josephin de Malines, Dix, nunmore and ['aradise. These are worked on one of the \aricties that do make better unions on riuinre than on pear; for in- stance, A n g o u 1 e m e. Louise Bonne. \^icar, Cdout Morceau, Raster. Diel. Amalis and Au- tumn Long Green. ^ Al- ways in double working dwarf pears both opera- tions must be as near the ground as possible, so only an inch or two of the first pear wood shall be left when the double work is complete. Popu- lar apple "go-betweens" are Northern Spy. Tol- man, Ben Davis and Delicious Amonjr nlums '■'G- i64-trimming an ornamental I -Ombard is perhaps ^1^;^ j^^^ ^^y |,e sold when 25 or 30 feet tall. most in favor. 257. Origin of pear stocks. — Pear seed is secured in France from the perry (pear cider) ])resses. It is several times as expensive as apple seed, because each seed must be picked from the core by hand. Most pear stocks used in America are grown in France. Our nurserymen jire- fer them because thev are started in seed beds and trans- ])lanted while still small. This tends to make their roots 198 TLA XT rROPAGATION branch and to make them superior to untransplanted stock, both for budding and grafting. Many American nurserymen consider Japanese stocks stronger than French ones, but French nurserymen won't use them because fruit growers there are prejudiced against them. Some pear seed, chiefly from Kieft'er trees, is collected in Maryland, Delaware and New Jersey canneries and used in the United States, but nurserymen consider seed from Japan to be l)etter. Though most of the Japanese pear seed- lings are imported from Japan, some arrive from Holland and France. 258. Pear propagation. —Standard pears are generally propagated by whip grafting (305) on whole stocks at the crown. Only a small part of the lower end of the tap root is cut off. The cion is shorter than in most apple grafting — about four inches. Wax- ing is necessary. When These are about 9 inches Ions, the most . i^ • • J^,,p I'nrlnorQ nnrl convenient length for handling l^l^ls IS QOUe mcioors, and when the wood is fairly warm, injury from the warm wax is avoided by dropping the grafts as waxed into cold water, after which they are made into bundles and stored like apple-root grafts. Greater care is needed in planting because of their length. Larger percentages of these grafts will grow than would in the case of ordinary root grafts in which the loss is counted at about 50 per cent. FIG. 165— BUNDLE OF WHOLE ROOT GRAFTS STOCK AM) CIOX IIAXDI.IXO 199 259. Spring-budding pears. — in Marylaml Japanese seedling pear stocks were placed in a hotl)ed in early April in six inches of sand. The manure and sun heat made the sap start so tliat in eight days the stocks were ready, to 1)ud by the orcHnary method. They were taken to a warm room, budded with Mikado pear buds and idaced back in the sand to "take." In about eight more days, all liaving taken nicely, they were transferred to damp sawdust to l)revent further growth till they could be set in the nursery a few days later. During summer, under good culture, they grew about two feet, and by fall were large enough tg transplant in orchards. The method is practica])le on a large scale. 260 Peach stocks are secured from .seeds ustially strati- fied the previous winter and sown in spring. Seerl con- sidered best comes from seedling trees in the mountain- ous parts of the Carolinas and adjacent states, ( )klahoma and Arkansas. Pits from the canneries are not favored In' some nurserymen. Init are extensixcly used by others. Pits are sometimes planted in fall in nursery rows, but since seedlings may have difficulty in breaking through the soil in si)ring, this plan is not generally ])opular. Usual- ly the pits are stratified as soon as received in fall or early winter, the object being to have them freeze and split. On a small scale stratify- ing may be in shallow boxes of sand or soil, but, on a large scale, basin- like pits large enough to hold several ])ushels are made in soil. Earth is thrown over the seeds and kept moist or frozen all winter. If planted without being stratified only a small ])ercentage of seeds will sprout the first season, the bal- ance continuing the following year or two. 261. Plum stocks. — Nurserymen dififer widely in their preferences of plum stocks, depending mainly on cost, ease of working, and adaptability of cion to stock. Myrobalan is the leading general purpose stock, though FIG. 166 — GRAFTED CHESTNUT BEARING AT TWO YEARS 200 I'LAXT PROPAGATION Japanese and peach are often preferred for sandy soils, Americana for American varieties and St. Julien, though costly, for Domestica and Insititia. Mariana is still used in the central southwest, but in most other sections is unpopular because it makes poor unions. In Europe, myrobalan is considered a dwarfing stock which produces short-lived trees; in America it is widely preferred because it produces larger and liner two-year trees than do other stocks. In the South, however, it suckers badly, and in the prairie states it winterkills. Its cheapness, ease of budding and general perfection of unions are strong points. Because of its variability there are many "true" and "false" mybrobalans among nursery- men. Formerly stocks in France were grown from cut- tings ; now apparently from seed. St. Julien has been claimed to produce longer-lived, thriftier, hardier, deeper-feeding trees which sprout less than those on other stocks ; but its cost, hardness to bud, poor growth and liability to fungi in the nursery are against it. Horse plum is now "wholly superseded." Peach is largely used for many varieties of plum to grow on warm, sandy or gravelly soils. It conduces to quick growth and early bearing and the roots produce no sprouts. Budding is easy, the trees make vigorous nursery growth, probably at less cost than on any other stock. Japanese varieties do especially well on peach. For Domestica and Insititia varieties it is not so valuable because of poor unions and tender roots. Varieties said not to unite well Avith peach are: Lombard, Damson, Yellow Egg and Washington. Peach borers are some- times trouljlesome on peach stocks. Mariana appeals more to nurserymen than to fruit growers, because it readily strikes roots from cuttings, and nursery growth is ideal. Growers favor it less than formerlv, and it is declining in popularity because it has a dwarfing efifect and is prone to sucker. Americana seedlings are the onlv ones that will with- STOCK AND ClON HANDLING 20I Stand the rigorous northwest winters. They are used only for native varieties. It is not known how success- fully other plums can be grown on them, though \V. & T. Smith of Geneva, N. Y., report their use as satisfactory. As yet they are expensive, so they are not likely soon to compete with myrobalan and peach stocks. Their chief fault is their suckering habit. Munsonia is reputed to be "pre-eminently adapted for low, wet lands." Kerr believes P. hortulana excellent because it never suckers. P. Angustifolia, var. IVatsoni ])romises to be a dwarfing species, P. bcssyi, according to Hansen, also dwarfs varieties worked on it, but is hardy FIG. 167— "SPROUTING" BUDDED NURSERY STOCK Men standing are foremen; men kneeling are removing all branches except th; bud shoots. and produces precocious and prolific trees. For top- working Domestica, Lombard is probably best. The sooner done the better because slow and crooked growth is common with late working. Early spring grafting and late summer budding are best. 262. Cherry stocks. =■= — Despite the antiquity and the im- portance of the cherry, the question of stocks is un- settled. Fruit growers favor mazzard ; nurserymen, mahaleb, which they consider fit, at least, for sweet, and best for sour kinds. Further, they say it is impossible to grow cherries on mazzard at prices fruit growers are ♦SynoDsized from The Cherries of New York by Hedrick. 202 PLANT PROPAGATION willing to pay. No systematic attempts have been made to settle the controversy. The mazzard or wild sweet cherry (Prumis avium), used for centuries as a stock, grows 30 to 40 feet tall with trunks often 18 inches in diameter. In America it is tender to cold, but grows vigorously. Its seedlings, im- ported from France, are badly attacked in nurseries by fungi, but it produces uniform trees and fruit. Mahaleb (Pntiuts mahalcb) is a thick, slender-branched bush with inedible fruits, differing markedly from both sweet and sour cherries. The wood structure "one FIG. 168— THREE UNUSUAL STYLES OF GRAFTING A, bow grafting of vine; a, cion; b, ligature to increase pressure of cion to stock-' c tiglitly wound ligature to check sap flow; d, e, slits for insertion of cion. ' B,' saddle graft: f, stock; g, cion; h, parts fitted together; C, veneer graft; i, stock; j, cion; k, parts fitted and tied; 1, graft after union. would expect to differ very materially" from that of sweet and sour cherries so that even if the union proved normal there would be difficulty in the passage of solu- tions between stock and cion. this cherry is propagated almost wholly from seed, though it may easily be grown from layers, cuttings and suckers. The American supply comes from P'rance. Mahaleb seems to have been used in the United States since abtuu 1850, first as a dwarfing STOCK AAM) eiOX ! I AN I )L IXC. 203 Stock l)Ut now for all purposes. I'robably 9") per cent i>l' our cherries are budded on it. W'h}? Doubtless it is easier to make better-looking nursery trees on mahaleb than on mazzard, and it is cheaper. Mazzard has the faults of its s]iecies — capriciousness as to Soils, climates. cuIti\ation. pruning, diseases and insects; malialeb is atlapted to wider range of soils, is hardier t(j heat and cold, less i)articular as to tillage, will stand FIG. 169 — L'NPACKING AND HEELINIMN NURSERY STOCK This work should be done immediately on arrival of stock, unless trees are in prime condition and can be planted at once. If shriveled or dry the trees should be soaked in water two or three days before planting. more pruning, is less susce])tible to insects and is not badly afifected b}?- shot-hole fungus. It is more easilv worked, both as to actual l:)udding and to length of sea- son. It also rijjens its trees l)etter and may thus he dug earlier than trees on mazzard. Fruit growers in their turn find trees on mahaleb stocks hardier, though not as hardy as might l)e wished; 204 PLANT rUOPAGATION more dwarf; more precocious as to bearing; as good as to size of fruit borne ; poorer in union than mazzard ; bet- ter adapted to diverse soils, especially light ones; also to shallow culture; shorter lived; less productive and profitable under equal conditions of soil and climate than trees on mazzard, this last being the consensus of o])inion among the great cherry regions of California, Oregon, A\'ashington, Michigan and New York. 263. Other cherry stocks. — Few fruits have such a wealth of other stocks to choose among, yet have been tried so little. Russian cherries, come fairly true from seed, and make good orchard plants on their own roots. Only sour kinds should be used — Bessarabian, Brusseler Braune, Double Natte, George Glass, Lutovka, Early Morello, Osthein and Vladimir. These, it is believed, would have some dwarfing effect. Ostheim and Morello have been used successfully in the North Mississippi \'alley. Bird, pin or pigeon cherry {Pruiiiis pcnnsyl- vanica) is often used as a hardy stock for cold regions and as a makeshift, since it dwarfs the trees and suckers badly. In the Northwest the sand cherry (P. pumila) is used in cold, dry regions for sour cherries. It is as easy to work as mahaleb and its seedlings are large enough to set in nursery rows the following spring for August budding. Winter-rooted cuttings set in the nursery with two to four inches growth can also be budded in August. This species has made good unions with hardy cherries by budding and does not dwarf the trees more the first five years than does mahaleb. In Japan the Dai-Sakura, supposed to be a variety of P. pscudocerasus, grown by nurserymen from mound layers and cuttings for stock, has a somewhat dwarfing influence on European cherries. It should be tried in America. Among the many other stocks available some have already been introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture. Probably several of these or the others mentioned, will prove better than mazzard and mahaleb. Cherries are usually budded ; they may be more or less STOCK AND ClON HANDLING 20 = easily root grafted, though perhaps not as profitably. Whole roots are generally used, the union being made at the crown. In the cold Northwest the work is done with the intention of making the trees own-rooted. Cherry buds are generally taken from nursery stock. Apparently varieties do not wear out, since old kinds have lost no characters accredited to them, even centuries ago ; nor does taking buds from vigorous, mature trees or even decrepit trees seem to make a difference— all alike produce the variety. Hence, _the hypotheses that fruit trees degenerate and that they may be improved by bud selection finds no support in the cherry. 264. Cherry grafting.— At the Canadian Experimental Farms root gratts of Morello on commercial stocks gave poor results; crown grafts good ones. For budding, the bird cherry (P. pennsylva- iiica) gave so much sap that Inuls did not unite well 265. Cherry grafting and budding.— Cherry cions, according to a writer m the Gardeners' Chronicle, should be cut at least two months before graftmg and buried in a sheltered frost-proof place Established stocks are budded in July, not at the base, but at the exact height of the head Stocks that fail to take are grafted the following spring, when the stocks are headed back as close to the ground as convenient and whip grafted, cions being about five inches long, bound with raffia and covered with prepared clay I I(J. 170— BARK GRAITINC, IN \'AR10US STAGES 1. Stock. 2, cions set and tied. 3, cions wa.xed. 4 all but two cions grew. ' Jion. 5, results: 206 I'LAiNT rKOl'AGATlON (clay and fresh horse manure). A point is made abo\c and heli)\v the bandage to shed water. In less than a month the buds should start. The shoots are brittle and need staking. 266. Rose stocks are sometimes grown from seeds sown as soon as ripe or stored in the hips till spring; hardy species outdoors, tender ones under glass. Layers and root cuttings are often used, but semi-mature stem cut- tings from forced plants in midwinter under glass are most popular. Manetti and multiflora stocks imported FIG. 171— TREES STACKED IN FROST PROOF NURSERY CELLAR This is the plan followed by the largest nursery companies of the North from Europe are most popular. In America the former are most widely used. They must have their buds re- moved to prevent sprouting, which they will otherwise surely do. Budding in America is done cl<»se to tlie ground, but in Europe the popular "tree" roses are made bv inserting the buds at three or four feet. ]\fultiflora is a producer of quick results. Its spring-made cuttings are readv for budding in six months. Home-grown seed- lings usually require two years to reach budding size. STCK'K AXDCIOX 1 1 A .\ I )| .1 .\ ( ; J07 Wiiilcr graltiiis^- with durnumt wcod makes g-ood pot I)lants of liyhrid perpetual varieties. Rosa nibigiiwsa (sweet ])riar), A', zcatsoiiiaita, and several other species are used to some extent. Usually the shield method of huddino-, l)ut sometimes veneer grafting, is employed. 267. Hybrid stocks for roses.— A writer in American Card en in. 1 considers Manetti stocks (popularly used) unsuited to American clmiatic conditions. Where perfect hardiness is required he has found Rosa setigera, R. IVicliuraiana and R. rubicjinosa superior; for, he says, "all make good, deep roots, and are little affected by dry weather when established, and are not at all disposed to sucker. ' The best of all stocks he considers to be a cross between Uothilde Soupert and Crimson Rambler, both varieties of R. Multi- flora. These stocks are exceptionally vigorous, do not sprout, and are easily budded and in hardiness little inferior to the native species The roots are easily splice-grafted, but the stems are not so satis- factory for grafting, h'or tree rose effects he prefers to bud high on strong sweet briar shoots and trim of¥ all other shoots as soon as the bud has formed a fair top _ 263. Grafted roses for forciiig.-A. B. Scott has grown half a dozen varieties of torcing roses on their own roots and on manetti stocks. Since all but American Beauty and Perle des Jardins did much better as grafts, he concludes that grafted roses make strong, vigorous plants much quicker than roses on their own roots, produce as many, if not more flowers, of which a lareer proportion are extra line, and the plants are said to have more vitality. Manetti is considered best for stocks. 269. Citrus propagation.— Kach principal citrus section and sod has its preference of stocks. In the heavv. moist fertile soil of Louisiana and Mississippi. Cifnts t'rifoUata a deciduous species, leads because of its vigor and hardiness, which are imparted to the cion because it becomes dormant in fall. In northeastern Florida tri- fohata also leads, though some of the more lustv-grow- mg stocks give good results in deep sandy lands, 'in cen- tral Florida, on sandy soil, rich in vegetable matter. ])()mel(. stock does best, though the sour\irange gives a hardier tree. In South Florida rough lemon is far in the lead. It is a rampant grower which does well on soils ahnost sterile for other stocks. 'Hie fruit it grows from cions worked on it is likely to be coarse. On heavy soils free from limestone, pomelo and sour orange do' well, 208 PLANT PROPAGATION though the trees are rather slower but produce better ripening, smoother fruit. Lime stocks make trees sen- sitive to cold and give too many failures. Investigation has show^n that for Florida, orange grow- ers prefer rough lemon stock for "high pine" lands. Sour stock is considered better than sweet stock for all kinds of land. In Louisiana, sour stock is preferred by about 90 per cent of the planters. California growers who have tried sweet and sour stocks side by side on a large scale give data which warrant the conclusions: 1, that sour stock trees make more thrifty growth ; 2, are freer from disease and are fully resistant to "foot rot"; 3, less liable to injury by cold while young; 4, the quality of the fruit is not impaired. FIG. 172— ENGLISH "CLEFT" GRAFT A, Improper angle for large cuttings, should not be parallel but slightly away from long side; B, ditto for small cuttings; C, D, proper angle for tongues; E, F, uniting and tying. Orange on Citrus trifoliata stocks in California have made good growth in open culture. Satsuma and other varieties of the Man- darin class at five to nine years old were eight to ten feet high. This stock appears to resist drouth especially well, and the varieties of orange and other citrus fruits grafted on it appear to stand 10 degrees more cold than on other stocks and also to come earlier into bearing. Seeds from only mature specimens should be saved for growing seedlings. It should be plump. Culls and drops allowed to rot are used, the seed being washed out and air dried after sifting in a strong stream of water. A\'hen the ground is warm enough the seed is sown in \\l) CK IX II .Will. I NT. 209 SdiUlKTu I'lorida and tlu' West Indies as carl}' as De- cember, hut in northern hlorida. Louisiana and California not till Fehruary or March. Cultivation is the same as for garden crops. By fall following the seedlings will he () to 12 inches tall and one-fourth inch thick. A tree digger ma}- he used to lift them for transi)lanting in nursery rows, where they are kept free of soil crust and weeds. 270. Citrus stocks may be propagated by stem or root cuttings of fairly mature wood, but they are not as satis- factory for budding as are seedling trees because they grow slowl}- and are more irregular. Budding, grafting r . M . ^ --■ ft- - B ^^1 ■T'^I^ FIG. 173— PACKING NURSERY STOCK FOR SHIPMENT and inarching are all used more or less ; the first is most popular. Dormant budding is usually done in late autumn or in spring after vigorous growth has begun, other budding may be done at almost any time during the growing season. Bud sticks are generally cut and stored a few days or even weeks before budding, because it is believed a larger percentage will grow. The process of budding is practically the same as for peach, except that the cross cut is made at the lower end of the longitudinal cut. "Lopping" the tops of the stocks is done about three weeks after the budding to force the buds to develop shoots. The cuts, made about two inches above the 2IO PL.\N-|' I'ROI'ACAIIOX MG. 174— NURSERY STORAGE HOUSh .S( tNl-.s Above, trees in the storage cellar bundled ready for baling and boxing; below, btles and boxes ready for shipment. Sl"( )< ■ K A \ 1 ) ( ■ l( » X H A N 1 )IJ X ( ; 21 I buds. (K) 111)1 r()nii)lctcly sc\cr the lops, which arc bent ()\cr. One nietliod is to bend the tops nf one idw toward. sa\' tlie south end, and tht)se of the next toward the mirth, so the cultixattJi* may go up one inter-rt)w s[)ace and down the next without serious interference. The to])s remain attached till the si)r(>nts are say IT) inches tall. Another method, dependent somewhat upon placing the nursery row^s in pairs about three feet apart, with wider inter-rows between the next pair, is to lop the tops of the pairs into the narrow middles and leave them there as a mulch until early fall. Some nurserymen favor this, because thev belie\'e a better grDWth <»f sprouts is thus FIG. 175— THREE METHODS OF BENCH GRAFTING GRAPES A to e, vvhipgraft; f to i, grafting with galvanized wire; j to n, Champin graft. secured. 'J he wider inter-rows are cultivated. In every case when tops are finally cut off, the stubs are cut oft' smoothly, ch^se to the buds, to favor healing without scars. Staking the young trees is necessary, because the unions are at first weak. 271. Grape grafting is usually a necessity only (T) for working t)ver undesirable varieties or seedlings to desired kinds and (2) for growing European varieties in regions where the phylloxera (280) exists. The former, scarcely a nursery practice, is made by cleft grafts below the soil surface, without tying or waxing, but with earth mounded 212 PLANT rkOPAGATION' over the union and up to the upper bud. The latter is done in a variety of ways (Fig. 175). The reason for doing it is that American stocks, the ones always used, are less susceptible to phylloxera injury than are European varieties. Care must be taken to prevent root- ing of the cions, else no advantage will follow grafting. Attention is called to grape-grafting experiments in the paragraphs which follow. Contrary to general belief, Daniel declares that the character of the cion graft and of the wine produced from the fruit is often changed, largely because of the difference in nutrition as a result of callusing the grafted parts and the consequent difficulty of sap circulation. By taking advantage of such changes, Daniel believes that it will be possible to produce new varieties by grafting so as to combine the good qualities of French fruit with the phylloxera resistance of American sorts. Grape growing by direct producers (those on their own roots) is considered most desirable, so they should be sought by grafting. Degrully, a French scientist, has pointed out that variations in vines, due to grafting, should not cause apprehension. The thou- sands of acres reconstructed on American stocks still thrive and produce abundantly 20, 25 and 30 years after grafting. Variations due to grafting, he maintains, are as yet only of scientific interest. 272, Effects of vine grafting. — Because of agitation, the Society of Agriculture of France appointed a committee to investigate ef- fect's of grafting on yield and quality of grapes and wine. The committee concluded that where the factors of adaptation and af- finity of stock and cion, as well as other necessary conditions for successful grape culture, have been realized, there appears to be nothing to warrant the claims that grafting has a deleterious effect on yield and quality of product. 273. Experiments in grape grafting — Tn California, experiments in grape propagation warranted the following slightly condensed conclusions (Cal. Exp. Sta. Bui. 127) : 1, A cutting graft of suit- able variety makes as large and vigorous growth as a simple cutting, so by bench grafting no time is lost in establishing a resistant vineyard. 2. Resistant varieties difficult to root but easy to graft when old should not be bench grafted. .3, Care in callusing, plant- ing and treatment in nursery and especially in keeping the grafts moist from the time they are made till they are in the callusing bed, (Fig. 105) will enable even an inexperienced grafter to obtain at least 60 per cent of good, grafted plants. 4, Callusing in sand insures more perfect unions and a larger percentage of successful grafts than planting directly in the nursery. 5, The moisture of the callusing bed should not be excessive, and the temperature should be relatively warm. 6, The growing grafts should be STOCK AM) ( lOX HANDLING 213 watched closely in order to see that the roots of the cions are re- moved before they become large, and that the raffia is cut I)efore it strangles the graft. 7. The English cleft graft (Fig- I7:i) is preferable to the Champin graft (Fig. 175). because it gives more perfect unions and can be made with more accuracy and rapidity. 8, Cions of two eyes are preferable to those of one eye, as they give more chances of success. !), Rupestris St. George seems to be remarkably adapted to California soils (except the heaviest clays) and conditions, and is to be preferred to any variety yet tested wherever deep penetration of roots is possible and desirable. 10, All the eyes of the Ritl^csiris stock should be cut deeply and care- fully. 11, A vigorous and large-growing I'inifcra cion promotes an equally vigorous growth of Rupestris St. George used as stock. 274. Bench grafting of grapes experimentally reported by Hed- rick of the New York state station presents the following main features : The grafted grapes were more productive than those on their own roots ; they were a few days earlier; the 19 varieties employed were all congenial to the three stocks used. Samples of the stocks used are shown at 1, Fig. 157. Two eye cuttings six to eight inches long were taken in the fall and buried in sand till needed in late March, when the work was done. Roots were cut back to an inch for convenience in handling by whip grafting (Fig. 157). Grafts on the previous season's wood gave many suckers ; those on the original much fewer. After the operation the grafts were stored for callusing until planting time. All three of the stocks used — Clevener, St. George and Gloire — are recommended for trial commercially, and three others suggested as promising ; viz., Riparia Grand Glabre, and two hybrids between Vitis riparia and J\ rupestris known as 3,306 and 3,309. During the growing season, shoots from the stock (Fig. 157) and roots from the cion (Fig. 157) must be re- moved at least twice ; the earlier the better. 275. Bench-grafting cuttings is unhesi- tatingly recommended by Biolitti of California for the following reasons cion are young and of the same size; unions are therefore strong and permanent. Grafting may be done under conditions favorable to rapid and effective work, in any weather, during three or four months, on rainy days when other work is not pressing or cannot FIG. 176— GRAFTED GRAPE VINE Note shoot growing from stock below union at label. Both stock and 214 ri.ANT I'KOl'ACAriON be done. One man who tliorouglily understands all details can oversee several unskilled workmen, making it possible to employ cheap labor for much of the work. Cultural conditions are more easily controlled. There is less danger of inferior results due to excessively wet or dry weather during the growing season. Tn the nursery the vines can be cultivated, irrigated and generallj' attended to much more perfectly than in the field. Rigid selection of vines .for planting can be made, rendering it possible to have nothing in the vineyard but strong plants and perfect unions. As perfect stands can be obtained in vineyards the first year in any soil or season as when planting ordmary non-resistant vines. Unions of vines can be placed exactly where wanted. Land where the vineyard is to be planted can be used for other crops one year longer than when field grafting is adopted. All cultural operations during the lirst year are much less expensive than in vineyard grafting, as they are spread over a much smaller area- Two acres of nursery will produce enough bench grafts to plant 100 acres of vineyard. In shijrt, starting a resistant vine- yard by means of bench grafts is much better than by any other method used at present, because it is least costly and gives best results. This is true whether the bench grafts are produced at home or bought at present market rates. Growers are earnestly cautioned, however, against planting any but first choice bench grafts ; second and third choice are little better than field grafts- All that can be said in favor of nursery grafting and bench grafting roots, is that vines so produced are fairly good when bench grafting is impracticable. These methods permit root grafting with stocks which, owing to rooting difficulty, are very difficult to bench graft as cuttings. By their means resistant cut- tings too small to bench graft may be utilized, and a larger percent- age of well-grown grafted vines obtained from the nursery. On the other hand, as the stock is at least two years old when grafted, there is reason to fear that with some stocks many unions will fail as the vines become older. The vines are larger when taken from the nursery, thus increasing cost of removal. There is little if any gain from growth over bench grafts wdien vineyard' planted. Finally, the method requires a year longer, and is more expensive. 276. Grafting resistant grape stocks. — F. Gillet olitained best FIG. 177— GRAFTING CONIFERS a, stock, b, cion in English "cleft" graft, b, English method for cypress, juniper, etc. STOCK AX 1) f ION IIANDLIXG 21 rosiills willi riparia stocks. One and t\vo-j-car rooted cuttings were used in preference to plain cuttin.gs, because of a gain of one year and because a larger ])er cent will grow, in licld jiractice lie used rooted cuttings just grafted and rooted resistant stock in alternate rows. \\ Idle be secured JS.") to i)() per cent of the former, only (>() jicr cent of the latter grew, and tbcse produced very few grapes tlie year set out ; the former gave eight to eleven pounds a plant. Mr. Gillett considers bcncli grafting resistant vines the best, clieapest and quickest way to reconstruct a vineyard or start a new one. 277. Influence of grape stock on cro'p. — L. Ravaz, a French in- vestigator, reports ~8 vears' c(jnsecutive yields of two varieties of European grapes grafted on various American stocks. Though much decadence is noted in the vines grafted on certain stocks, the decline in yield and vigor is attributed to such causes as variation in resistance to ])iiylloxera (:-'8()), unseasonable weath-er, lack of adaptation to soil, etc., rather than to inlluence of grafting and old age. The general deduction is that under proper conditions grafted vines do not deteriorate with age more than do ungrafted ones. 27S. Grafting green grape vines.— In Rumania the tongue graft has lieen successful with green wood not less than one-fourth inch diameter at the point grafted, and the wood of both stock and cion hard enough to be with difficulty compressed between thumb and linger. The usual precautions of mature wood grafting must be observed. After union the grafts may be handled like cuttings, or roots may be started by layering on the stocks below the grafts. The advantages claimed are: The method simplifies the operations by obviating stratification of both stocks and cions; 2, it is cheaper and a larger percentage of grafts succeed ; 3, the chance element is reduced to a minimum; 4, it seems to promise greater success with varieties diflicult to unite when mature. 279. Seedling vines as cions. — Trabut suggests that new varieties of grapes may be quickly brought into fruit by grafting the seed- lings on green shoots of established vines. He has secured suc- cessful results by the following method : In early June the seed- lings which had only their cotyledons, were cut as for ordinary cleft grafting and inserted in the tips of green shoots wdiose ends were wrapped with small paraffined bands secured with rafiia. The completed grafts were then covered with jiaraffined paper bags to preserve humidity. In about two weeks the parts united and the cions grew vigorously. By October the unions were almost invisible and the canes often 10 feet long. 280. Phylloxera, a plant lou.se which in its nymph stage feeds on roots of grapes, and forms galls on the leaves, the latter being the most conspicuous sign of infestation. The insect does little appreciable damage to American species of grapes, hence these are used as stocks for European varieties, which are so seriously attacked that, except in California where the insect was tinknown until 2l6 PLANT PROPAGATION recently, all attempts to grow European grapes in America during more than 200 years resulted in failure. When American ^•ines were taken to Europe, the insect practically ruined the grape industry, as it has since threatened to do in California. American grape stocks seem to be the only salvation. 281. Root-grafted vs. budded trees. — For many years fruit growers and nurserymen have discussed the relative advantages and disadvantages of whole root, vs. piece root vs. budded trees, largely without experi- mental evidence. Arguments have mostly been generalized statements, only too often warped by individual preju- dice or pocketbook. Before summarizing the experiments recently published, some lead- ing opinions should be cited and methods outlined so the reader may choose what ap- peals to him. Tl:e following points must be borne in mind. Nursery budding upon spring-set stocks is dene during summer, but no growth occurs till the follow- ing season (.'Ul). The stocks before being planted in tlie nursery are trimmed for obvious reasons. In whole-root grafting the cions are crown set and roots similarly trimmed. In piece-root graft- ing several bits of root are used, the top piece with a crown, the other pieces without any. These latter are, of course, smaller. Thus piece- root grafting creates a problem of its own because of the varying sizes and vigor of the pieces. Piece-root grafting may therefore be said to be unfairly pitted against both budding and whole-root graft- ing, which under equal conditions are equally valuable methods of propagation. Differences of growth characteristic of each method result from differences of stock trimming, not methods of propagation. Even casual observation will show differences in root development between budded and root-grafted trees, the latter being more hori- zontal, prolonged and shallower on one side of the tree than the FIG. 178— GRAFTED GRAPES A, effect on resistant stock of allowing cion to take root; a, resittant slock small hs- cause cion has rooted at c; B, \ ine in which cion has not been allowed to root. Note smooth union at b in each case. STUCK AM) tIO.\ HANDLING 217 former, when dug from the nursery row — all this apart from differences characteristic of variety. Such differences are due to differences in stock cutting. Doubtless if stocks were cut alike for both budding and root grafting development would be closely similar; for when short pieces of root with few lateral branches are used they must grow differently from long roots with numerous branches In strong stt)cks where only the tips are cut off and bud- ding performed root development is largely if not wholly lateral, whereas when small pieces arc used growth is mainly downward. Hence the theoretical conclusion that at a given nursery age, whole-rooted trees have naturally and necessarily longer and stronger roots than those grown from piece roots. When root pieces are very small the resulting trees will be small at the end of the first growing season. Hence nurserymen often cut back the tops so as to secure stout, straight bodies which show no trace of the growth ring between seasons, and which do not branch too low or send up a crooked leader from a lateral bud, due to the winterkilling of the terminal one. li the trees are sold as two years old there can be no objection to this practice, but if the age is reckoned from the cut, an injustice is almost surely done the fruit grower, because greater quantities of roots are removed at digging time than would be the case with true one-year trees. The lirst season's growth should always be high enough to form a good tree body of the right height, whether or not the fruit grower is a believer in low or high-headed trees. Budded trees of the same age as root-grafted ones grown in the same field usually average larger, the difference diminishing in pro- portion as the length of the root stock p'ece increases. Similarly their root systems go deeper and show more synnnetry, but these characteristics also lessen as the root stocks lengthen. It must not be concluded from the discussion so far presented that budded trees are necessarily superior to root-grafted ones, though it is probably a fact that large numbers of trees produced FIG. 179— TWO STYLES 01- CROWN GRAFTING A, slot of bark removed for cions a, b; B, cioiis fitted in place; C, completed L;raft; D, slot of wood and bark removed; c, cion cut to triangular wedge to fit slot in stock; E, stock and cion fitted; F, completed graft; G, slot making or "inlaying" tool. 2l8 ^ PLANT I'KOI'AGATION from small, short and weak stuck pieces are decidedly indi-ffcrent and even distinctly poor. The point is that the two methods form trees whose roots at least are different in appearance and develop- ment. Opinion seems to be general among fruit growers and nurserymen that budded trees root more deeply than do root- grafted ones and make longer-lived trees when transplanted to the orchard. It is therefore concluded that more depends upon the handling of stocks at the time of performing the operations than upon the method per se. In the northwestern states where trees on their own roots are preferred, piece-root grafting is not only more economical of stocks, but has the merit that the cions soon take root in the orchard, and the trees be- come 'own-rooted" (242). In other sections budded stock is perhaps better than root- grafted trees of the same age and grown under the same conditions; at least as dug in the nursery. *Neverthe- less as good trees can be grown by the grafting meth- o'd. As to results in the or- chard the following para- L'raphs will be interesting. 282. Whole vs. piece root vs. buds ill apple propaga- tion. — During the past de- cade or two work has been done at experiment stations in Pennsylvania, Oregon, Kansas and Alabama, to determine the relative value of whole and piece roots and budding. After 10 or more years reports show that differences must be measured by decimal fractions to be discovered at all. In Pennsylvania after a decade of work, according to J. P. Stewart, trees propagated on top-piece roots are slightly in the lead in all respects, with those on whole roots second. In Alabama, trees on bottom pieces of stock roots show a slight superiority at the close of the second season, with those on top pieces second, and whole roots third. In Oregon, trees on whole roots were slightly ahead at the close of the fourth season, in the single variety remaining at that time, with those on top-pieces again second. In Kansas M trees grafled uu wliole roots averaged one-tentli inch larger in trunk ciiameler, at the end of 10 years' orchard o-rowth Uian 30 trees Iniddcd in the usual manner on wnole roots. They in turn averaged one-llfth inch larger than 10:2 trees, mvolv- -TRENCHER MARKER AND ROW Used to mark rows for nursery stock planting. STOCK AND ClON IIANDLIMG 219 iiig some additional varieties propagated on piece roots. No dif- ferences in growth or vigor were obscrval)le in the orchard. In another Kansas experiment three varieties of 400 trees each, on whole roots, were compared by Judge Wellhouse with 400 of the same varieties on two-inch piece roots. In the latter case, the young trees had developed considerable numbers of roots directly from the cions, thus making the trees largely own rooted, while no cion roots were developed on whole-rooted trees. After 19 years in the orchard, the only difference observed was in the greater number of sprouts from the whole-rooted trees. From all these data it is olnious that none of the present forms of propagation has any material advantage over any other. It may be of distinct advantage to get rid of the seedling root alto- gether, either by using the shortest roots practicable and then cut- ting them off during transplanting after roots have developed above, or possibly by a direct rooting of the cions. FIG. 181— GAUGE FOR CUTTING GRAPE STOCKS This insures accuracy as to length. The base of the cion is placed against the adjustable crosspiece end the LU.iing moved back and forth till a bud comes just to the right of the guide line when it is cut off flush with the edge of the hoard. Thus lU-inch ir.terr.ode is secured above the top with only l]^ inches maximum variation in total length. Elimination of seedling roots would at least obviate the numerous ill effects of poor unions. It would also reduce the opi)ortunity for crown-gall infections, eliminate the possibility of harmful in- tlucnce of variable seedling stocks upon cions, and make it possible to develop delmite and standaid root-systems, with which injuries from root ai)his and kindred difficulties might well be greatly re- duced or entirely eliminated. This important array of advantages, all of them practical, is by no means imi)ossible of attainment. 283. Selection of cions is of prime importance in graft- in^-. Xoiic hut tlioi-oui^lil}- mature wood, cut while the huds are fully dormant, .should ever he used. Preferahly it should he one year old. thoug'h sometimes two-year and e\'en three-year wood gi\es g-ood results. Pithy and soft wood is worthless for grafting'. Cions may he packed in damp moss or sand and stored in a cool cellar until buds 220 PLANT PROPAGATION on trees exposed to the weather begin to break. If the moss is too wet the cions will become water soaked and worthless. When cutting cions from cion sticks the low- est few inches should be discarded, because the buds are inferior and may not start at all. The tips are often im- mature and should also be discarded. 284. Shipping cions long distances. — The following method of shipping mango cions from Ceylon, India, to Washington, D. C, recommends itself to shippers of other cions. The cut ends of the cions were covered with collodion, the bud sticks dipped in clay mud, packed with a small amount of moist coir (refuse cocoanut fiber) and forwarded in cylindrical tin tubes. CHAPTER XV GRAFTING WAXES, WOUND DRESSINGS, ETC. 285. Grafting wax. — The great majority of the many recipes for grafting wax vary only in the proportions of the three ingredients, resin, beeswax and hard cake beef tallow or linseed oil, sometimes used instead of tallow. These variations are largely due to personal preference, though in some cases the consistency of the finished wax is thus purposely varied. For soft waxes the proportion ^ i i ] ^ k E^^^^"^ -X t M ^ X 1 P^ \1 \ mm ^554 FIG. 182— NURSERY TREE PESTS 1. Hairy root and crown gall. 2. Woolly aphis. of tallow should be increased ; for tough ones, that of beeswax. Thus any formula may be varied to secure wax for any kind or character of use indoors or out. As a rule, liquid waxes are less popular in America than in Europe, where also pitch waxes and grafting clay (fresh cow manure free from straw, three parts ; clay or clay loam, seven parts and cow hair half a part) are more in use than here. In the table which follows the first formula is l)robably the most popular. The functions of grafting wax are to protect the injured tissues from decay and 221 222 PLANT PROPAGATION weathering and to prevent losses of plant juices by evap- oration. Hence soft wax is better than hard, because it may be fitted more closely to the wood and into chinks. Large wounds should first be trimmed of ragged edges, then swabbed or sprayed with bordeaux mixture and finally covered with wax. The resin and beeswax waxes are all started alike ; the materials previously made into small lumps may all be placed in the pot together, but preferably the resin is melted over a very gentle fire first and the other ingre- dients added. Boiling must be avoided. After stirring to make uniform, the melted mixture is poured into a tul) of cold water and flattened out so it will cool evenly. When cool enough to handle, it is kneaded and pulled till the color resembles molasses taffy. To prevent its sticking to the skin, the hands are kept greasy. Should lumps FIG. 183— LARGE TREES BALED FOR SHIPMENT 1, wagons are used for short hauls. 2, twenty-five maple trees make up th'.s carload. CKiU'TING WAXES, VVULM) DKILSSINGS, ETC. 2>j occur (because of improper handling), it may be re-melted and re-worked. Usually the wax is made into balls or sticks for convenient use. It will keep indefinitelv Lmseed od for makmg grafting waxes must be free from adulterations such as cottonseed oil. Alcoholic waxes are considered too soft to stand the heat of American summers. They melt and run. For winter work for covering wounds and for bridge graftinc^ their softness is an advantage. To make them the resin IS melted slowly, tallow added and the kettle removed from the fire. When cooled somewhat, alcohol (and tur- pentine when in the recipe) is added. Stirring continues from the adding of tallow till the mixture is nearly cold. FIG. 184— SMITH'S IMPROVED METHOD OF GRAFTING a h ;,hir • '^e'^ff'^e ''r>nd" sraftmg; B, large branches with graft in position n'li^H r. p■^''^ graft; C, small branches grafted ready for waxing D com-' pleted graft; E. large graft one year old; F, small graft one year old 286. Waxed string used in root grafting is made bv placing balls of No. 18 or 20 knitting cotton in hot resin wax, turning them for a few minutes, removing and let- ting them drain and cool. Before immersing, the outside end of each ball should be definitely located^where it can readily be found, else unwinding will be difficult. This string is used mainly for tying root grafts. It is strong enough to make a tight wind, yet weak enough to brcak xyithout hurting the hands. It does not need to be tied, since it readily sticks. 224 PLANT PROrAGATION 287. Waxed bandages may be prepared in the same way as waxed string. They are best made of old cotton sheets or similar cloth torn in strips of any desired width and wound in rolls like tape. For l:>inding large wounds, as in bridge grafting, they are excellent. Popular Grafting Waxes Is c — . JO o o .S c a 3 Remarks Pounds Pounds Pounds Pint Ounce Table- spoons 1 3 3 2 - - - J. J. Thomas's wax 2 4 2 1 - - - Cheaper than No. 1. 3 4 2 - 1 - - Increase oil for softness. 4 6 2 - 1 - - Increase oil for softness. S 1 1 ounce - - 5 1 Melt resin, add tallow, remove from fire and stir in liquids gradually. Can or bottle. Apply with brush. 6 4 1 1 - - - Somewhat harder than No. 2 7 6 1 - 1 - - Brush on thickly while hot. 8 6 1 1 - - - Use v\arm indoors. 9 4 1 - li - - Raw oil. A hard, warm- weather wa.x. 10 4 to 5 Uto2 - 1 toU - - An outdoor wa.x. 289. Rubber strip in grafting. — R. B. Rogers, an English experi- menter, has found pure rubber electric wire insulation strip use- ful in grafting. It is bought as rolls. The grafts are fitted as i-.sual, the strip stretched well and wound tightly so as to cover the e.xposed part, exclude air and hold the cion tirmly in place. A strin four or live inches long and one-half inch wide is enough for ordinary grafts. Rubber solution should be used to make the ends stick. Strip need not be removed, since it stretches and rots with graft growth. Old strip quickly spoils in the sun. 290. Wrapping grafts with "cloth, rubber, waxed paper, plain lb read, waxed thread and plain thread with the unions waxed, were experimentally tried by the government to determine the effect on crown gedl. From the large amount of data it is concluded that I GRAFTING WAXIIS, VVOIXD DKICSSI N'GS, I:TC. --J w lapping rcilucfs injury, the bcsl material being riibljcr, then clulli (uliicli gave the largest percentage of sniDotli healthy trees;. Cliitli is also clieaper. 'I'hc investigators strongly oppose wrapping with thread and llicn waxing. 291. Bass, ihc inner ])ark of I)assvvood, has until re- cently been ii.sed in greenhouses and nurseries to tic l)Iants. btuls and grafts. RafHa has almost replaced it. 292. Raffia, the lower epidermis of a Aladagascar palm {Raffia ritffia), peeled in narrow strips and dried, is extensively used in America and Europe for tying vines, flowers, celery and in graftage. It is soft, strong enough for the purposes, and not quickly altered by moisture or temperature. Because of its cheapness it has displaced bass in nursery and green- house practice. Its chief fault is its ten- dency to roll when dry. Moistening overcomes this. As received from abroad, it is in plaits or skeins. Fig. 185 shows one of these unraveled. 293. Grafts in moss and charcoal. — R. C. de Briailles has simplified grape bench grafting by the following plan : As the grafts are made they are placed in a box containing a three-inch layer of damp moss and charcoal (three to one) and covered with another layer about half as deep. So on till the box is nearly full, the remaining space being filled with packing. The box may thus be ship- ped or the grafts treated at once by a room warmed to 50 or 60 FIG. 185— SKEIN OF RAFFIA being placed in degrees. Within 24 hours the buds start lo swell, and in a week may be one-half inch long, when the moss is removed for inspection. If all is well, new packing is applied about half as thick. If any grafts are rotting, the whole are exposed for 24 hours and then covered. If too dry, a thicker layer of packing is added and t!ie box stood in water of the room temperature till the packing is moistened nearly up to the callus. The tops of the grafts must not be wetted, else rotting may follow. Watering thus once a week will be enough. In two or three weeks the grafts will have callused and leaf J2() PLANT rUOPACJATION i;ri)wlli will have started. The plants may then be hardened oft and transplanted in the held. Aflvantages of this method are that grafting is simplihed, sinee no tying is needed, the grafts are placed in the box as made without unnecessary handling, a development of vegetation is secured in three weeks equal to that of two months by ordinary outdoor prac- tice, a more perfect union and callus are secured and disbudding of the stock is unnecessary. 294. Dressings for tree wounds.— Fruit growers have long used paints, tars, waxes and other substances as coverings for wounds on trees. The New York state station reports results of experi- ments with white lead, white zinc, yellow ocher, coal tar, shellac and avenarius carbolineum. The summary of Bulletin 396 by Howe is slightly condensed in this and the next paragraph. In all cases undressed pruning wounds have healed more rapidly than those whose surfaces have been protected. The first season shellac seemed to exert a stimulating influence on wounds, but the second season this disappeared. Of all materials used shellac was least injurious, but it adheres to wounded surfaces poorest of all. Car- bolineum and ocher caused so much injury that neither should be used. Coal tar not only caused injury, but quickly disappeared, either through evaporation or absorption. White lead and zinc caused some injury when applied, but the wounded tissues recovered rather quickly, and at the end of the first year the injury was not very marked; at the close of the second season it had nearly dis- appeared. These two are the best protective substances used, and of the two white lead is the better. Nothing is to be g^ined in treating wounds by waiting before applying the dressings. The treatment of peach tree wounds with any of the substances caused so much injury that it may be said peach wounds should never be treated with any of them. This may be inferred for other stone fruit trees. There is nothing lo show in the experiment that it is worth while to treat wounds large or small with any of the substances in common use. Had there been a longer period of observation, it might have been found that wood exposed in the larser wounds would have been somewhat saved from decay which often sets in on exposed wood of fruit trees. It may prove to be worth while, therefore, to cover large wounds, in which case white lead is undoubtedly the best dressing to u.se. CHAPTER XVI METHODS OF GRAFTING 295. Classification of graftage. — Graftage methods nat- urally fall into three general classes: 1, Inarching, or grafting by approach, in which the cion is not severed from the parent plant until after union is complete ; 2, cion grafting, or true grafting, in which a twig with at least one bud is placed upon or in a stock ; and 3, bud grafting, or, to use its popular term, budding, in which only one bud is placed beneath the bark of the stock upon the surface of the young wood. 296. Inarching, or grafting by approach (Fig. 186), which is often placed in a class by itself, may for convenience be treated here. The only point that distinguishes it from other styles in this grouping is that the cion is not separated from the parent plant until after union is complete. In other words, inarching consists in making one plant unite with another while still growing on its own roots. A small slice of stem of both stock and cion (Fig. 186, D), is cut with FIG. 186— INARCHING a sharp knife, and the A. stock; B, cion; C, stock and cion CUt SUrfaceS brOUgllt tO- bound together; D, cuts on stock and cion „„iU^„ „„A +:^A (^^.^,^ . to hasten union. gcthcr and tied hrmly 227 228 PLAN'L' rROPAGATIOiX until Llicy ]ia\c united, in outdoor practice waxing and staking are usually necessary to prevent drying and working loose. After union is complete the l)ase of the cion and the top of the stock are cut away. \\hiic this is undoubtedly the original or natural method of grafting (since all grafts in the forest are formed in this way either between two trees or two limbs of the same tree), it has comparatively limited application in business horticulture, because other methods are less cumbersome and more economical of time and space. It is used, however, in Europe and else- where in the making of co'rdons, espaliers, etc. In orchards where Y-crotches have been allowed to form it is also useful in establishing living braces between the arms of the Y. For ornamental purposes it has been used in the Boboli gardens at Florence, Italy, where an avenue 100 yards long has been arched over by European oaks FIG. 187— POPULAR GRAFTING METHODS 1, Bridge or repair graft, cions at left; 2, cleft graft. A, cions, B, cross section showing insertion of cions at opposite ends of cleft in stock; c, transverse section showing vertical position of cions; d, finished graft. Mi':iii()i)S ()!• cKAFriNC. 229 whose tops lia\c hccii uiiilcd liy iiiodilicd iiuiixliiiii;, iIil' clitfcrcnce heiiij^" tluit ncilhcr cioii hclovv the union nor stock al)o\c have been cut, hut both allowed to grow. In the topics, inarching- is used for propagating the mango. Seedlings are grown in hve or six-inch flower pots and placed on stands beneath trees to furnish cions and within easy reach of branches to be united, as already described. After union the potted trees are grown for a time in the nursery before being set in the orchard. Various citrus fruits and camelias were formerly in- arched, but are now mostly veneer grafted. Inarching on young seedlings, according to Oliver, has proved superior in simplicity, rapidity and results to inarching on plants in tive and six-incii pots, it has a wider range of adaptability than budding and requires less skill. The seedling may be used cither as stock or cion. Nurse plant propagation is a special form of seed- ling inarch in which the plants develop a strong aerial root from the base of the cion in about 18 months after the union of certain tropical fruits (mangosteen on related species of Garciiiia) was considered complete and the stock top and seedling root had been severed. This root pierces the ground, after which both top and roots develop rapidly. The method has not been fully tested, but has been announced for other experimenters to test. 297. Inarching. — Daniel concludes from many series of experi- ments with unrelated plants (kidney bean and cocklebur, kidney bean and castor bean, sunflower and melon, cabbage and tomato, chrysanthemum and tomato, Jerusalem artichoke and black night- shade, coleus and acaranthus, cineraria and tomato, aster and phlox, coleus and tomato, maple and lilac, zinnia and tomato) that "the old idea that only plants belonging to the same family can be grafted on each other does not apply to j;rafting by approach." The most perfect grafts in these experiments were made between plants nearest alike in vigor and vegetation. The nature of the tissue of the different plants also played an important role. Tomato and cabbage and artichoke and nightshade gave good unions on account of their herbaceous nature and rapid growth, while aster and phlox, somewhat advanced in growth, and year-old maple and lilac united with difficulty except on very young shoots. 298. Grafting classified as to position. — So far as posi- tion is concerned, grafting- may be classified as : 1, root grafting, in which only a root is used as a stock; 2, crown grafting, in which cions are inserted in stocks at the collar; 3, trunk or stem grafting, in which they are set in the tree below the branches ; and 4, top grafting, in 230 PLANT PROPAGATION wliich the work is done among the limbs. Methods of inserting the cions may vary in all these classes. 299. Cion graftage is of three general kinds: bridge or repair grafting, root grafting and top grafting. 300. Bridge or repair grafting sometimes erroneously called inarching, is not properly a propagation process, but it may well be discussed here, because it may be the means of saving valuable trees which have been injured by mice, rabbits, hogs, human carelessness or accident. Unless the girdle has cut through the sap wood it is an error to say that bridge grafting is necessary to establish connection between root and top ; for the upward current of sap passes through the sap wood and not through the bark. It is correct, however, to say that the bridge es- tablishes a connection between top and root, for the downward flow of elaborated sap is through the bark layers. As soon as the wound is discovered the operation should be performed. If the injury occurs in winter the wound should be protected to prevent drying. In spring when the buds begin to swell the grafting should be done. The operation is performed as follows (Fig. 187) : The injured, and perhaps dry bark, on both upper and lower edges of the wound is pared back to living tissue. Several cions are cut long enough to extend a little beyond these trimmed edges, and inserted beneath the bark both above and below, thus making little "bridges" across the gap. The ends of the cion are cut obliquely, to insure fitting of the cambium layers of cions and trunk. It is often a help to bow the cions outward slightly, because the spring thus formed aids in holding them in place. But these and other minor details may be left to individual preference. If placed an inch or so apart around the trunk, enough cions should succeed to save the tree. Both wound and cions should be completely covered with grafting wax, preferably made warm so as to fit into every chink and thus exclude air and water. In a few years the cions will grow together and in time lose their identity in a smooth trunk. METHODS 01-- ('.KAFTING 231 Ijridge ti;rcifting is a makeshift method not to he com- pared with proper protection of trunks by keeping- animals out of the orchard, by avoiding accumulation of grass, straw, etc., in which mice might form nests, and by using trunk protectors — splints, tarred or building paper, but preferably one-half-inch galvanized hardware cloth — around the trunks until the trees have developed rough ])ark (Fig. 146). Such methods will prevent the necessity of bridge grafting except in cases of unusual accident. FIG. \i -VARIOUS STYLES OF GRAFTING KNIVES A, closing blade propagating knife with bone bark lifter; B, C, nursery grafting knives, blades stationary; D, pocket grafting knife. \\'hen the girdles are narrow — say only one to three inch.es — no bridging may be necessary. In such cases, however, it is well to err on the safe side by covering the wound with grafting clay (half clay and fresh cow manure) and bandaging this in with cotton cloth, or by using grafting wax as described above. Often such wounds will heal over in a single season. 301, Root grafting, perhaps the most generally prac- ticed nursery method, is usually performed by means of the whip or tongue graft, a method employed only with small stocks generally one or two years old. It is often- est done during winter in a cool, humid room. Should the air be too dry or too warm, the grafting wood may be injured by drying. Never should the work be done near a stove or a radiator for this reason. When necessary 232 PLAN I KOI'ACAIION FIG. 189— TONGUE GRAFTING How to hold knife. to use a warm room, slocks, cions and finished g'rafts should l)c kci)t coNcred with damp rags or burlap. 302. Grafting knives (J'^ig. 188) may be of any thin- bladed, sharp-edged style ; at least for whip graft work. For herbaceous and other delicate grafting a budding knife will answer. It is too light for most other methods. The knives popular in nursery practice have fixed wooden l)lades and cost about $2.50 a dozen. 303. Whole-root grafts. — When roots of seedling trees are used for grafting, just as they come from the soil, except perhaps for trimming and slight shortening, the resulting trees are said to be "whole-root grafts." To make such trees the graft is placed at the crown, so the term "root graft" is erro- neously used, the proper term being "crown graft." The roots are by no means "whole" ; first, because a good deal has unavoidably been left in the ground when the seedling was dug, and second, because the roots must be shortened so the finished graft will not exceed nine inches and thus be too long for best handling in the nursery. The seedling roots are either single tap-roots four to six inches long, or shorter where several branches occur near the crown. Usually the lat- eral roots are cut ofif close to the main root, otherwise the grafts are difficult to make and to handle both in bundling and in planting. 304. Piece-root grafts are made from cions six or seven inches long and bits of root only three or two inches long. First grade, or number one, apple seedlings often make three and sometimes four pieces, though the average would probably be not more than 250 piece stocks to the 10(^ roots as bought. Number two seedlings will rarely reach 150 pieces to the 100 roots. When stock is costly or MI'Il'llODS OK CRAFTING 233 scarce nurserymen sometimes lengthen the cion and shorten the roots even to IjX inches. One of the so- called advantages thus gained is that the cions develop roots after the grafts have been planted. The chief ef- fect, then, of the root piece is to act as a nurse until the cion is able through its own roots to care for itself. Short pieces have been specially popular in the prairie states where, because of severe winters, roots as well as tops must be hardy. The practice there has been com- mon to make cions 8 to 12 inches long, to use a very short root piece and to plant as deep as the top bud. By FIG. 190— STUDENTS PLANTING ROOT GRAFTS Ten thousand to thirty thousand made annually at Pennsylvania State College. the time the tree is dug the nurse root will have fallen off or may be cut away. Thus trees are secured on their own roots and are considered superior to those in which the seedling roots are of unknown hardiness. Some varieties of apples readily take root from cuttings, but root grafting is favored, because there is less troul)le from having to operate several methods often at busy times of the year. 305. Making root grafts. — The whip or tongue method 234 PLANT PKOFAGATION is almost universally employed in the making of root grafts. A long oblique cut (Fig. 189) is made at the base of the cion. Then a sloping and very slightly curved cut is made half way between the lower end of this first cut and the center of the twig. Its direction is upward in the wood but not exactly with the grain. The knife blade is forced in not less than one nor more than one and one-half inches. Generally both cuts are made before the cion is cut from the cion stick. By this means the length of cions may be accurately gauged. Roots or stocks are cut in the same way, about three inches long, except as noted. The top piece is cut at or perhaps one-half inch above the crown or collar. Stocks and cions are then accurately and snugly fitted together so the tongues interlock and with the cambiums in contact. It is well that the diameters of stock and cion be approximately equal, though large stocks and small cions if properly fitted will give good results. Since it is usually impossible to have both sides of cion and stock come even, the cambiums on only one side need touch each other. When sloping and tongue cuts are made properly, stock and cion will fit together without over- lapping ends of bark, which might not grow together and might thus present a point of infection for decay or dis- ease. Crown gall (Fig. 182) or root knot, the chief enemy, seems unable to get a start except through a wound of some kind. Overlapping tongues mean imperfect unions and unhealed wounds for one or more years. After adjustment, stock and cion are bound together with knitting cotton, either waxed or not. Four or five turns around each end of the fitted parts are enough. To avoid tying, some operators pass the first turn or tw^o over the end of the string and draw the other end through the notch between stock and cion and snap ofif with a sudden jerk rather than a steady pull. Those who use waxed thread merely cross the last turn or two over the previous turns and break without tying or passing through the notch. The least possible quantity of thread MliTUODS OF C.UAFTING 235 of, say, No. 18 or 20 size should be used — just enough to keep the parts in place until the grafts are planted. In order that the thread may decay quickly, it should not be waxed. Indeed, some propagators contend that binding is a disadvantage because they claim that as the callus forms and the stem expands the cord cuts the soft tissues and thus favors the entrance of crown gall and hairy root (Fig. 182). Therefore, they leave the grafts un- wrapped, but use extra care in fitting the parts together. 306. Graft wrapping machines are coming into use in some of the larger nurseries because they economize time and cost and do work said to be superior to hand wrapping. In a circular describing the "Reed-Bell" machine the following passage (condensed) occurs : FIG. 191~WH1P GRAFTS WITH TOO MUGH CALLUS An account carefully kept during several weeks of a grafting season shows the machine-wrapped grafts cost, on an average, five cents a thousand for twine, 11 cents for wrapping, a total of 16 cents a thousand; a saving of 34 cents a thousand over calico wrai)ping. But what is of ni.irc ini])ortanrc, the tension of the thread may be adjusted to wrap the graft so tightly that it may be taken by the root, thrown or shaken without risk of loosening. 236 PLANT PROPAGATION oz^rciD In many tests, either root or cion has broken, rather than loosen or break at the splice. Hence in planting, grafts may be handled almost like cuttings without fear of breakage, resulting in the saving of thousands of trees. 307. Root graft storage is the same as storage of cut- tings (176, 177), the grafts being tied in bundles of 100, each bundle being correctly labeled with the name of the variety before being placed in damp, green sawdust, sphagnum or sand in a cold but frost-proof room or cel- lar until spring. Unless the temperature is below 40 degrees, and unless well ventilated, there is danger that the grafts may heat, rot or sprout and thus be ruined. During the several weeks until planting time the wounds callus (Fig. 191) and the parts grow together so that when planted spongy tissue covers the points of contact. Planting of root grafts in nurseries is done as soon as the ground can be worked in spring, the soil being fitted by deep plowing (preferably the fall before) and by several harrowings before being marked out. Three methods of setting are in vogue— dibbling, furrowing and planting with machines. In each case the grafts are set so the top bud of the cion is iust above the surface. Dibbling (Fig. 23) is done only in small nurseries or where only a few grafts are to be planted. Besides its slowness it is objectionable because of the risk of leaving air spaces around the lower ends of the grafts, thus effectively preventing growth. In its practice, holes about eight inches deep are made in the ground eight or nine inches apart with iron bars or pieces of rounded 2x4 scantling six feet long, sharpened to long points at their lower ends. In these holes the grafts are placed and earth j^ressed against them full length with large dibbles (Fig. 192). nii)lclc(l in u single season, thus lessenings the chances of decay. In sucii cases only one cion is needed. When large stocks are used it may be necessary to keep the cleft wedged apart so as not to squeeze the cion too much. Such wedges should be ])laced in the heart wood and cut ofif even with the face of the stub. 313. Grafting irons are of two general forms ; one sug- gesting a sickle with its point reversed aufl thickened to form a four or five-inch wedge, the other a straight shank with blade on one side and the wide wedge at the end on the other. (Fig. 1!)4. ) The former, usually homemade, is more of a splitting tool, useful for straight- grained wood ; the latter, sokl by nursery and seed houses, rather a cutting tool suitable for gnarly stocks F'fi- 196— NEWLY T ' . . , , . SPROUTED CLEFT GRAFT In waxmg, tmie may l^e saved m ^ote upward trend of twigs, cold weather if the wax is kept wann and soft in hot water. A cabinetmaker's glue pot is very handy for liquid waxes to be brushed on wounds. In weather warm enough to keep wax fairly soft, application with the hands is to be pre- ferred, since every crevice can thus be surely filled. To prevent wax from sticking to the skin grease the hands well. Solid wax is best applied when worked out by the hands into ribbons of, say, one-eighth inch thick. Start- ing at the top of the cion, the ribbon is pressed against and into the crack down the side of the stub, less being needed below than above. Next a ribbon is wound around the point where stock and cion join and pressed down well. The second cion is similarly treated. Finally the parts of the stub still exposed are covered Avith a spoon-shaped piece of wax. care being taken to 242 I'l.AXr I'ROl'ACATIOX use plent}^ to fill the top one-fourth inch or more of the cleft, and to cover tlie edges all around. I^y this method much better covering', to sa}' nothing of time saving, can be secured than by dabbing and patting the wax in place. Many grafters also put little bits of wax on the upper ends of cions if these have been cut off. Cleft grafting is the method most used in top working large trees, a line of work practiced by manv men who charge a fixed rate, usuall}' two or three cents a stub for the numl)er of successes toward the close of summer. \\ hen the size, condition and shape of trees are favorable and when extensi\e preliminar}- pruning is not necessary, an expert grafter can make and wax an average of perhaps 600 stubs in a 10-hour day. In top working an old tree, keen judgment is needed to re-shape the top. It is popular opinion that never should more than a third of the top be removed and grafted in any one year ; a fourth or a fifth v/ould be better. Always the general outline of old trees should be followed and branches smaller than two inches used when possible, since the cions succeed and wounds heal best in such cases. It is usually advisable to cut the principal stubs at rel- atively equal distances from the axis of the tree and then select minor side limbs. In handling trees with thick tops, care must be exercised to leave sufficient shade to protect the bark from sun scald. Better cut out all large branches that must be removed before the grafting is begun, because they are sure to develop excessively if left after the removal of the limbs for grafting. Thus bare pole-like limbs may be prevented. It is well to err on the safe side by having too many than too few stubs, because the excess may be cut out later. Young trees — say two or three years old from planting — may be top worked much more quickly, because a larger part, in fact even the whole top. may be removed at one fell swoop and grafted. mi:tiic)I)s of gkai-jixg -M3 NcNcr should a huri/oiUal linilj imniediatcly beneath atiuiher one l)e grafted, because the tendency is for grafts lo grow upward (Fig. ]9()) rather than outward. Sinii- hirl}-, when horizontal or nearly horizontal lim1:)s are to be grafted, the cleft should never be vertical, always hori- ;ince it throws more ])Iant lood into tlie cion. In a niodihcation of the alK)\c pK-in, used in root-g'raft- iui^" ji^raj^es and some otlier phints, tlie stock instead of the cion is cut wedge shape and is tlirust into an ol)lique cut made upward in the cion. 317. Crown grafting or inlaying (Fig-. 179) is a form of grafting- in wdiich a sniall sli\er of WMiod is cut out of the stock and a cion similarly cut is fitted in its place. It has special \-alue for grafting- grapes and other "curlv," grained woods. Since the necessary tying- is slow, cleft •grafting- (812) is better for straight-grained stocks. Another objection to inlaying is that the growing cions must be tied to pre\'ent being broken off by wind. \\'hen this care is taken the method results in good unions and excellent growth. In the most popular form the stock, being cut off scpiare as in cleft grafting, has one or more V-shaped grooves, large above and tapering below, and made down- ward, either with a knife or an inlaying tool (Fig. 179. G). In these grooves the cions cut to fit are placed and tied, and, if in the open air. are waxed. The tier should be weak and perishable, so it will decay and break before danger of strangling the cion might occur. Raffia, bast and No. 18 or No. !20 knitting cotton are all good. Winding should be vcrv tight. 318. Modified crown grafting.— Cions lieariiiR two Inuls are cut licginning just below the lower bud and on the opposite side. The stock is prepared as for splice grafting, the cion being inserted under the bark and at the tip of the stock. The union is said to form very rapidly and without enlargement. 319. Notch grafting (Fig. 179D) is a modification of in- laying, in wdiich the stock, though cut off as in cleft graft- ing, is not split, and in which the wood may or mav not be cut to receive the cion. Tt is best used in spring when the bark separates readily from the wood. In one case a saw with wide-set teeth is used obliquely dowmward to make one or more slots in the stock, and cions cut on 248 TLA NT PROrAGATIOX tvvo sides to tit snugly arc inserted and waxed. For best results the cut surfaces of cion should not be parallel, but slightly wider apart outside than in- side, so the cions may be pressed in place both from above and from the side toward the center of the stock. This form of notch grafting has the advantage of making the cions about as firm as in cleft grafting without wounding the stock nearly so seriously. Two other forms (Fig. 179, A), often called bark graft- ing, start the same way, but instead of notching the wood, the cion, in one case cut to a thin wedge, is thrust between bark and wood, tied and waxed ; in the other, narrow strips of bark about one inch long are removed and the cions, cut with a shoulder opposite a well-developed bud. are set in the notches, tied and waxed. In tying it is well to use one-half-inch tape soaked in grafting wax and to bind tightly, to prevent injury by accident. Both stub and upper tips of cions should be covered with wax. 320. Smith's improved graft, an English method. — Ac- cording to a writer in the Gardeners' Chronicle, cions of one or two-year wood of fruit trees are given a three- fold grip on the stocks (one-half to one and one-half inch in diameter), which becomes covered the first year. Fig. 184 shows the defects of the old mode of "rind" graft- ing; Figs. 184, B, C, show the preparation of the stocks — one small, the other large. In Fig. 184, D is the finished graft waxed, and in Figs. 184, E, F, the efifect of one year's growth. This plan ofifers more than ordinary resistance to wind. 321. Splice grafting the easiest method of all, is done by making an oblique cut across both stock and cion, as if making the first cut in whip grafting, but not forming a tongue in either part. The two pieces, being of approximately equal diameter, are placed together so their cut surfaces match and are then tied and waxed. The method finds its most useful application to small tender shoots which cannot be safely split. METllOUS OF GRAFTING 249 322. Cutting-grafting, as its name implies, is a union of a graft with a cutting, a special case of which is root grafting already described (305). Plants hard to propa- gate by cuttings are often grafted upon cuttings of other varieties or related species which root readily. When the work is done outdoors in spring the grafts are usually ready to have the stocks removed by fall, the cuttings having rooted ; and when done in fall under glass they are ready by spring. The nurse plant may be removed little by little or all at once, according to the case in hand. A modification of the method is to let the cion ex- tend downward into wet moss or a bottle of w^ater (Fig. 199). This is used where stock and cion are more or less uncongenial or are slow to unite. Various birches, magnolias and mulberries are handled in this way. 323. Grafting tubes (like laboratory test tubes), about ^V^ inches long and one inch wide have been used with good re- sults for propagating shrubs and trees at the Swedish Agricultural College. Each graft-cutting is covered with a tube, the lower end of which is pressed into damp moss. Any convenient method of grafting is used (whip, splice, etc). Grafting wax was abandoned because as good results were secured without it. The plan gave good results in sand beds, flower pots and in open air. Among the subjects which did well out of doors were rose, maple, alder, birch, beech, fir, gooseberry, currant. 324. Herbaceous grafting, mainly by means of veneer, saddle and cleft methods, is very easy. Any plant with semi-succulent stems, such as coleus, chrysanthemum, geranium and the shrub-like begonias, can be grafted. Both stocks and cions should have passed the watery stage and become as firm as for the making of cuttings. After adjusting the two parts the graft should be bound with raffia, placed in a propagating frame and kept in a H| JLi FIG. 199— BOTTLE GRAFTING Used for difficult subjects. 250 I'LAA' T i'KOi'AGATK) N humid atmosphere for perhaps a week. Wax is thus dis- pensed with ; indeed, it is thought to be a detriment. Some propagators bind moss around the wounds, but there is likelihood that roots will develop as in pot layer- ing and the parts fail to knit together unless they are first bandaged. It is possible to giaft shrubs and trees while the shoots are herbaceous, but this plan is not popular. Conifers (pines and spruces), and some de- ciduous trees (walnut) are occasionally saddle or cleft grafted in mid to late spring, bound with waxed cheese- cloth and shaded with manila sacks. a FIG. 200— UNCO.M.V.ON METHODS OF BIDDING A, annular or ring; b, terminal; c, plate; d, H-budding; e, Mute; f, prong; g, chip. ' Ct, Experiments at Cornell University have shown that the wood must be somewhat hardened to secure best results. Soft, flabby shoots are likely to be injured in the operation, and the union does not occur readily. Cleft and veneer styles were most satisfactory. In most cases it is necessary only to bind the parts with raffia. 325. Grafted potatoes.— E. Laurent, a Belgian investigator, grafted light and colored flesh potatoes on each other by various methods, but after three years of experimenting found no color from a violet variety in the tubers of the light-fleshed stock. 326. Grafting beets has been experimentally done to increase the seed yield of desiral)le varieties. The mother beet root is sprouted. When the off'-sets at the crown are about three-fourths inch long they are removed with some of the flesh and inserted in new beets just below the crown, in cuts cnrresi)onding to the form of the cions. In one experiment 4S oft'-sets were secured from one "mother" and 31 of these grew into lirst-class plants, each of which vieldcd a normal amount of seed. MiriMlODS OI' C.RAFTINC. 25 I Beets are very easy to graft, nearly every graft has been suc- cessful in European experiments. The color boundary line between stock and cion is clearly marked, red varieties not blending with white ones. Grafted beets are slightly dwarfed, as are also other plants, thus supporting Daniel's contention that one efifect of grafting- is to dwarf growth, another to retard the flowering season and in some cases to render plants more subject to pest attack. Potatoes witli smooth, green skin and deep eyes grafted on those with thick, rough, lirown skin and shallow eyes often bore both kinds of tul)ers, stimetimes parts of each kind on the same tuber. 327. Potato grafted on tomato experimentally produced no tubers and the tops, although they bloomed freely, bore no seed balls. Tomato on potato bore a fair crop of apparently normal tomatoes and a few tubers which, however, did not grow when planted. 328. Eggplant grafted. — \'an Hermann asserts that the only practical \va}- to grow eggplant during the rainy sea- son in Cuba is to graft it on Solannni tortnm, a wild species employed by the Cuba Experiment Station. 329. Cactus grafting. — Grafting, says an Iowa experimenter, hastens the flowering season of cacti, places trailing species on strong stocks at any desired height where their flowers may be seen to better advantage. It also prevents injuries from over- watering. Healthy stocks and cions readily unite when in the actively growing season for them. The beginning of this period is best. Top working alone sh(juld be done ; root grafting never, since the cion will itself strike root if in contact with soil. Cleft grafting is most popular, but whip grafting may be used with better results on slender species, and saddle grafting with thick ones. Ball species maj' be cut square across and the similarly cut cion litted on top. Both should be about the same size. Strings over the cion and under the \)oi will hold the two in place. Another favorite way is to hollow the cion, sharpen the stock and tit the two. somewhat as in flute l)udding. \\'axing is unnecessary. Watering should be sparingly done for a few days. Grafting greatly increases the number of flowers, hastens the flowering season and often augments plant vigor by checking the downward flow of food. 330. Mixed graftage, a French method, differs from the ordinary methods in that a few shoots are allowed to grow permanently upon the stock but kept pruned suf- ficiently to i)re\ent their seriously checking the growth of the cion. P)\' its means a successful union of sweet cherry (Pntinis a-riiim) and cherry laurel (Pniuiis laiir- occrassus) as a stock was readily made. This is con- 252 PLANT PROPAGATION sidered a difificult one, because the former is deciduous, the latter evergreen. Daniel, the author, concludes from his experiments that: 1. Mixed graftage should be used with plants pre- senting marked differences, as between evergreen and deciduous subjects ; 2, the stock does not influence the FIG. 201— GRAFT-PLANTING METHODS A, planting with dibble; D, dibble pushing soil against graft f; D, position of dibble for next thrust of soil; S, loose soil in bottom of hole; B, planting in trenches. cion as much as in ordinary graftage ; 3, such character- istics as may be attributed to environment (height, vigor, resistance to parasites, etc.) are affected less by the stock also; but, 4, characteristics peculiar to the variety of the stock (flavor, form of fruit, color of flowers, etc.) mix with those of the cion much more readily by this method than by the ordinarv methods. 331. End-to-end grafting, a new and not fully tested METHODS OF GRAFTING 253 French method, gave a low percentage of successes but excellent unions in California. In operating it stocks and cions of equal size are cut at slight angles (about 70 degrees), and each pair fitted together by a piece of stiff galvanized wire pushed into the pith of both parts. Bioletti considers this method "especially promising for machine grafting." In experiments at the Good Hope Agricultural College, it was found that skillful grafters could make oOO end-to-end grafts an hour, while 100 an hour with the tongue graft was quick work. Students who had never grafted before could make 120 an hour, against 15 tongue grafts. In the field the two methods produced about equal percentages of vines when made by skillful men. Un- skilled men secured almost as good results with end-to-end grafts as did the skilled men, while the tongue grafts proved almost total failures. Roots were less numerous on the cions of end-to-end grafts, thus facilitating removal. Results on the whole favored the end-to-ond method. 332. Grafting green grape vines has been successfully practiced by J. Zawodny, a German experimenter, who did the work in May, June and early July, when the stocks were in luxuriant growth, by making the graft obliquely through a node. 333. Saddle grafting (Fig. 168) is especially useful for propagating small growing shoots. The cion, split by an upward cut, is placed upon the stock cut on each side to form a wedge. Tying and waxing finish the job. Its most popular application is to cions with terminal buds with wood too soft or weak to be easily whip grafted. 334. Adjuvant graft.— Couderc of France contends that the life of grape vines may be prolonged by using two stocks to one cion. His experiments show that companion stocks have a greater period of duration than either of the stocks used alone. By using a series of "adjuvant" stocks he has flowered and fruited vine cuttings the hrst year. This was accomplished by grafting a stock having one internode and a good root system under each eye of the cutting, which remains horizontal. The plan is suggested to overcome phylloxera attacks, which the author claims occur even with American species. 335. Fruit bud grafting.— C. Trebignand, a French investigator, has found that vigorous trees which fail to produce fruit may be grafted w-ith fruit buds from other trees in August or September and fruit obtained the following season. 336. Grafted conifers, especially pines and firs, are never as suc- cessful as seedlings, because they rarely niake a perfect leader and symmetry is sacriliced. Thuias, ])i()tas, junipers, cypresses and ret- -254 I'LAX I I'ROPAGATION inosporas may be usefully increased by grafting. Stock for first and second is American arbor vitse (Tliuia occidentalis) ; for the next two red cedar (Jnni^cnis z'irginica) ; for cypress family use funereal upright cypress {Cypressiis semperi'irens) ; for larch use common larch. In March on stocks esta1)lislied in pots use "leader" cions; cut stocks about half tlirough, make a tongue half way down the cut. Prepare cion similarly, leaving growing point intact. Fit stock and cion accurately, bind with raffia, cover with prepared clay (28o) and place under staging for a couple of days. Then smear union again with clay and plunge in a propagating case for a couple of weeks. Avoid excess of water, but sprinkle occasionally with a fine rose. After hardening place in nursery bed with soil heaped over union. To prevent annoyance from needles, cut with shears; don't pull out. 337. Mango budding, according to G. W. Oliver, an American ex- perimenter, is best done when the new leaves are not far enough developed to show bright green, because the bark is then easiest re- moved. The thick part of the stem, a few inches above ground, is the best place, a rectangular piece of bark about IVi inches long lieing removed for a similar piece of two-year-old wood containing a central bud of the desired kind to replace it. After fitting the bud, a light coat of liquid grafting wax, rich in resin, is brushed on and the bud tied in place with raffia. The stem just above the bud is then wound with an 8-inch strip of wrapping paper and tied in place as a protection. As stocks, moderate sized two to three- year-old seedlings are best. Stems one inch or slightly more give liest unions. Higgins of Hawaii finds that patcli budding (Oliver's method) is superior to inarching, but can be done only when both bud wood and stock are in active growth, a condition rarely found in both at the same time. Shield budding with inverted T gives better results and is quicker than patch budding. It may be used when the bud wood is not in active growth. CHAPTER X\'1I METHODS OF BUDDING 338. Bud grafting is so special a form of graftage that it is generally called biiddiiii:;. It is a form in which a single bud with little or no wood is applied to the cam- bium of the stock (always growing in normal position), usually beneath the bark. Alany species of plants are propagated by either l)udding or grafting; others do better by one and not the other method, but there is no general rule l)y which decision can be made, though thin-barked plants with copious sap generally succeed best when grafted or when buds are used at the time of smallest sap flow. Thus "throwing out," "strangula- tion" or "drowning" of the bud may be obviated. Budding is widely popular for propagating fruit trees, especialh' the stone fruits, which are almost always budded rather than grafted. Roses, lilacs and many ornamental trees are similarly treated. In nurseries it is perhaps more extensively employed than is grafting. The usual season for budding of peach and plum in the North is from midsummer to early fall ; in the South a month or six weeks earlier. I^hus southern nurserymen have an adxantage over northern (^nes. because they save practically a year's time, and the trees, if well grown, are just as good as northern grown trees. June budded trees may be fall planted in the South the same season as budded ; later ones not till the following fall, because the buds remain dormant till sjjring. 339. Dormant budding in early s])ring is done to a limited extent in a few southern states. In the North, cherries and apples are usually btidded in June and July, though sometimes not till August. \\'ith fully dormant buds saved as for grafting cions (307), budding may be 255 256 PLAXT PROPAGATION done as soon as the bark loosens in spring-. It is essential to speed and success that the bark lift readily from the wood. Clear, dry weather also favors the work. 340. Shield budding is by far the most important method practiced in America. It is so called from the form of the bark of the cion bud — an elongated oval. In popular parlance the bud with its surrounding bark as cut is called the "bud" (Fig. 202). Essentially the operation consists in inserting a bud cut from a twig of the desired variety beneath the bark of a stock cut in the form of a T or a cross and lifted gently to receive it. The bud is then tied in place, but the binding cut in ten days or two weeks, to prevent "strangulation" of the bud, which pushes into growth when conditions are favorable. Shortly after, the top of the stock is cut off, so all food from the root will develop the budded top. In many respects the small details differ in the hands of different budders ; for instance, height and length of vertical cut, position of cross cut, cutting of bud and method of tying. 341. When stocks are budded. — Peach and other stone fruit seedlings, being of rapid growth, are usually large enough in the North to bud a little after midsummer. Apple and pear seedlings grow one year where the seeds are sown. The following s])ring they are transplanted to other nursery rows after the unavoidable shortening of roots. All that grow large enough between June and September are budded that season. The age of the stock is then forgotten, because it is of no consequence in the finished tree, whose age dates from the time when the buds or cions grow. Thus peach budded this year in the North in August starts to grow next spring, and by the following November has become a "one-year" tree, though 15 months have elapsed since the budding; but a tree budded in the South in June of this year becomes a "one-year" tree when only five months old in November this year. In each case the trees may be sold for fall or Mirr lions oi- iu'ddinc 257 for s])riiig" planting- as "one-year" trees, though the south- ern stock is usually not ready soon enough for fall ])lant- ing in tiie North. Apple, pear and other transplanted stocks are "dressed" or trimmed prior to setting- in the nursery; that is. both root and top are shortened a quarter or a third. This i)revents the re-formation of tap roots and FIG. 202— THE PROCESS OF SHIELD BUDDING 1, Making vertical cut; 2, making cross or T cut; 3, cutting the bud; 4, bud inserted in stock; 5, tying; 6, finished work with bud tied in place. makes the roots branch. It also favors the development of a sturdy top, because the number of shoots is reduced. The effect of the former development is to make a more easily dug and transplanted tree; that of the latter, one more readily handled. 342. Preparing the stocks. — To be budded without dif- ficultv stocks should be one-half inch in diameter or larger, though in nursery practice those three-eighths 258 PLANT PROPAGATIOX inch are also budded. A day or two before the budding, boys or girls rub the leaves and twigs off the lower four to six inches of the stems, so they will not impede the budders. If longer ahead of budding than three days, the bark will "set" and thus hinder speed in budding. Buds are set as near the ground as the operator can work — -one inch or two. This brings the union so low that the unavoidable crook in the stem is inconspicuous. It also permits setting the tree in the orchard slightly lower than in the nursery. Best results in the northern hemi- sphere are claimed to follow setting the buds on the north side of the stocks so the sun will not shine directly on them. Doubtless in the southern hemisphere, the southern side will give best results. 343. Budding wood for summer work al- wavs consists of well- hardened wood of the present season's devel- opment and of the va- riety it is desired to propagate. The twigs, which should be about one-fourth inch in diam- eter at their bases, are severed from the par- ent trees and the leaf blades cut off. The leaf stems may be shortened to about one-half inch so as to serve as handles when the buds are being placed in the stocks. After trimming, the twigs are called "bud sticks." They may bear half a dozen to two dozen buds developed enough for use, but FIG. 203— SECURING BUD STICKS Such wood should be cut from bearing trees to be sure of variety. MI'.IIIODS ()1- lU'DDIXC 259 the average is probabl}- al)uut ten. The leal l)uds near the tips of the twigs are generally not mature enough to be safe to use, so the}- and the flower buds are thrown away. Flower buds are plumper and more pointed than leaf buds, so are easily recognized. The buds are cut from the bud sticks with a thin- bladed, razor-edged knife, usually as follows: With the bud stick held in one hand (Fig. 202), the knife is started about three-fourths inch alcove or below the bud, accord- ing to the preference of the operator, and a cut through the bark into the wood is made toward the operator's body until a bud with about an inch of bark and wood is almost severed from the twicf- The knife is then with- FIG. 204— VARIOUS STYLES OK BUDDING KNIVES A, florists'; B, D, knives with closing blades and bone bark lifters; C, E, closing Mades without bark lifters; F, G, H, styles of stationary bladed nursery buddin? knives. 260 PLANT PROPAGATION drawn and the other buds treated in the same way until all that are fit for budding have been cut but left attached to the twigs. The bud sticks are then usually dipped in water, wrapped in wet cloth and taken to the nursery row for budding. Many operators prefer to cut the buds fresh as they are needed, because there is less risk of drying. The chief advantages of the plan outlined are that it saves time, and less high-priced labor than that of the actual budders can do the work. The buds as needed are cut from the bud stick with a single motion. For years budders have disagreed as to the advisability of removing the little chip of wood beneath the bark of the bud as cut from the bud stick. No experiments seem to have been tried to prove its use or harm. Many budders pry it out with the tip of the knife blade or by twisting the stick as the bud is being cut. No difiference is apparent in the resulting trees whether or not this wood is removed. It would seem that the wood might help to hold moisture until the bud has united with the stock, but that if removed the cambium layers would grow together more quickly. If the bud is cut thick, the older parts of the wood doubtless do not unite, though the younger parts probably do ; so it may be well to cut at least this dense part. 344, Budding knives are of many styles, and operators have their pronounced preferences, but probably the one most used in the big commercial nurseries for field vv^ork is in Fig. 204. It costs about $1.75 by the dozen. The budding knife should be made of the finest steel, have a thin blade about two inches long; the cutting edge, kept razor sharp, should extend from front to back in a quarter circle. The blade should be set in a light, convenient handle, which may be stationary or slotted to receive it.. The straight part of the blade is used for general pur- poses, such as bud cutting, and the curved end for making incisions in stocks. Many budding knife handles extend into a thin bone, ivory or celluloid, spatula-shaped blade ^n■:TIT()l)s ()!■ m-nnixo 267 used to lift the hark of tlie stocks. Prol)al)ly the great majority of expert hudders ha\e no use for such a device; they raise the bark witli the knife hhule. 345. Making the incisions. — In making- a sk)t for the bud to tit in, two cuts are necessary. Neither must pene- trate deeper than through the l)ark. The first is usually placed near the upper end of the second, with which it makes a cross. The second generally made extends about one and one-half inches lengthwise of the stock, the rounded end of the knife being used. Some budders pre- fer to place the cross cut below (270). So far as results are concerned, one is probably as good as the other. Placing' the bud in position may be easier for one man to "bud up" and for another to "bud down." After the corners of bark in the angles of the cross are lifted slightly to split the liark from the wood through the cambium, the bud ma\' be inserted and gently pressed into place by the fingers, which grasp the leaf petiole handle. If any part of the bud sliver protrudes from the slot, it should be cut ofif. for unless the entire piece is closely applied to the stock wood and is covered by the bark, it may make a poor union, or not unite at all, with the stock. When the bark lifts readily no such trouble will be experienced, for the bud will slip into place with- out trouble (Fig. 202). 346. Tying follows. — Raffia (292), the most widely used tier, is cut in lengths of about a foot prior to the work. Until raffia displaced it, bass (291) was the leading tier, though carpet warp, yarn and other soft strings were also used, and are still to some extent. The hank of raffia, held near its middle between both hands, is placed against the lower end of the vertical cut. The hands are then moved to the rear of the stock where they exchange the ends, which are made to cross each other. The crossing is repeated in front over the cut but higher up than the first round. So on till the whole cut is covered, only the bud being left visible. Three or four double rounds 262 PLANT rROPAGATION complete the ligature, which is tied at the top. In another method of tying, the raffia is wrapped around the stock twice or thrice at the bottom of the bud and twice at the top, where it is tied in a single knot. Some operators can make better speed by passing one end of the raffia under the other at the last round. The bud itself must not be covered, else it might "strangle." 347. Cutting the ligatures. — Strangling may even yet occur unless the raffia around the buds is cut within three weeks of the budding. The usual way is to draw a budding knife up- ward through the windings on the side of the stock opposite the bud and let the cut pieces fall off. Since the tier is very in- elastic, it will not "give" with the growth of the stem and the setting bud, so, unless it is cut it will either kill the bud or force it to "break," i. e., grow. For success in the cold climates, however, the bud, to winter over, must be wholly dormant until spring, otherwise it will probably winter- kill. Stocks which, at tier-cutting time, are shriveled and brown instead of green and plump, may be re-budded. If warm and wet weather in the fall starts the buds there is little remedy, though some sprouts may be saved by head- ing them back; others may survive the winter if covered by snow. 348. Spring care of budded stock. — As soon as the stocks begin to put forth leaves in spring their tops should be cut off 4 to 6 inches above the bud. which will still be dormant. Thus all plant food taken up by the roots will be forced into the bud. In about two weeks when the bud has developed a shoot an inch or more long the stub of the stocks is cut within one-half inch above the Inul. Some nurservmen cut the stocks only once. BUD SPROUT TIED TO STOCK ..A Mi:i'iioL).s oi' iiui)i)i.\(; 263 hut a larger enough percentage of successes follow the two-cutting plan to make it fairly popular. In good soil and with a good root system, the huds, depending on the species, will develop shoots 2 to 5 feet tall, or even more by fall. Sprouts must be rul)bed off the stocks whenever they appear and the bud shoot en- couraged to grow straight and forkless, and all the leaves on the shoot should be allowed to remain. With crooked and weak-growing varieties tying may be nec- essary. For convenience in doing this work stock stubs are often left on orna- mental trees, seldom on fruit trees, because of its expense, to act as stakes against which to tie the l)ud sprouts (Fig. 20r)). Fxcept in mixed graft- ing (380), shoots on the stock must not be allow- ed to grow or they will rob the bud shoot of food and develop even stronger shoots. Toward the end of the growing season these stubs must be carefully cut close to the union of bud and stock. 349. In "June bud- ding," stocks one-fourth to one-third inch in diam- eter are favored. Instead of stripping the lower part of the stocks completely of leaves, as in north- ern budding, a few leaves are left below the point of bud- ding to serve as feeders. Because of the heat of the soil surface, in hot, dry climates, it is customary to place the buds an inch or two higher than in northern practice. To avoid the sudden and violent check to growth which FIG. 2U6- -COLD BUX .MhTHul) OF STORING ClON WOOD The wood is kept cold till needed. The method gives better results than the ordi- nary ones. 264 PLANT PROPAC.ATION would follow removal of the whole top early in the sea- son, several cuts of the top are made so the bud shodt will not have too great a strain put upon it. Sometimes the stock tops are bent over, or broken (270), twisted or par- tially stripped of leaves and twigs or otherwise treated so the bud shoot will gradually accustom itself to its work. In due time, of course, the stock is cut oiT. The ligatures must be cut sooner than in the North, say in a week to ten days, depending on how vigorously the stock is grow- ing. Instead of ratfia or bast, strips of somewhat elastic cotton are sometimes em])loyed as tier, because they "give" more with trunk expansion. 350. Summer budding of apples. — Apples, pears and other tree fruits are often summer budded, but the stocks have grown in the nursery row a year or two. Some- times the buds used are dc^rmant, having been cut and stored, like cions for cleft grafting (312), sometimes cur- rent season's growth. This plan is annually becoming more popular, partly because the nurserymen think they thus get better trees than by grafting and partly because the nurseryman is thus enabled to keep his men busy to l)etter advantage by extending the work over a longer period. For top working trees, either those that failed to "take" the previous season or those established in or- chards, this method also has its obvious advantages. The buds grow as do cions in cleft grafting, so a full season's time is gained. 351. Plate budding (Fig. 200) — Instead of making one longitudinal cut in the stock, two of equal length are made parallel. The upper ends are then joined by a cut and the bark lifted, thus forming a rectangular flap still attached below to the stock and 1 inch to V^ inches long. A bud on a piece of bark, but with no wood, is cut to fit the space, inserted, covered by the flap which is made to cover it, and tied. From then forward treatment is the same as for shield budding (340). Two slight modifica- tions of this method may be noted : The flap may be MKTIUJDS OF lU'DDlXG 265 split SO a part may be fitted on each side of the bud, or it may be shortened so the bud itself will not be covered, l)ut only that part of the cion bark l)elovv the bud end. 352. Prong, spur or twig budding is shield budding, modified by the use of a short spur or twig instead of a bud and removal of the upper part of the stock. The bark of both stock and cion are cut in the same way. English walnuts while dormant are often budded tlnis in Cali- fornia. This form resembles grafting in the removal of stock above bud at the time of budding, and in the use of grafting wax over wounds to prevent drying and en- trance of decay. In budding thick-barked subjects, such as walnut, wood beneath the bud bark must be almost all removed, so the cambium layers will come in better con- tact than if it is left. The little piece of wood that ex- tends up into the prong should not be cut out. 353. H-budding (Fig. 200) is a form of plate budding in which the cross-cut is made about midway between the ends of the longitudinal cuts, thus forming two flaps be- tween which the bud is placed. Because the bud may thus be covered both above and below, a better fit of bud to stock can be secured. 354. Chip budding (Fig. 200) consists in cutting a mor- tise in a small stock and inserting a one-bud chij) of bark with a little wood cut to fit snugly. This is held in po- sition by tying, and is usually waxed. It is used while the stock is dormant in spring before the bark will slip. 355. Flute budding (Fig. 200) is a development beyond plate budding, because in it a rectangular piece of bark in the stock is removed entirely and replaced by a bud- bearing piece of bark cut to fit the space. As a rule this work is done in late spring on plants with very thick bark. Tying is. of course, needed as in shield budding (340). 356. Veneer budding, a synonym for flute budding. 357. Annular or ring budding (Fig. 200), the same as flute budding except that a ring of bark is removed from the stock, which must be rather small, bv makinc: two 266 PLANT rUOPACATlON parallel cuts one-half inch to one inch apart around a stock, joining these by a cut at right angles, removing the ring, fitting in a bud-bearing piece of bark and tying as in shield budding. This method is popular for budding pecan and walnut. The work is best done in summer when the bark peels readily. The buds must be taken from twigs rather younger than the stocks. 358. Whistle or tubular budding, another modification of flute budding, consists in slipping off an inch or so of bark at the end of a shoot and replacing it with a similar piece bearing a bud of a desired variety. 359. Budding old peach trees — For old peach trees that re- quired new wood an Australian experimenter sharpened a piece of bone like a lead pencil, fitted it to a handle, made incisions in the bark of 10-year-old trees and fitted buds in the holes. The buds were held in position by small pieces of leather, held in place by upholsterers' enameled gimp pins, which did not rust and which liecame loose as the buds swelled. An advantage claimed is that the method does not interfere with bearing while the buds are being matured. Neither clay nor wax is needed. 360. Stock sucker's influence — H. M. Stringfellow of Texas found that when a peach tree was budded high (18 inches) and developed a sucker below the bud, the branch from the bud gradually failed and died. He also noted that where cions on budded stock were planted deep enough to send out their own roots, dwarling and even killing of the stock roots followed. He therefore recommends high budding (12 to 15 inches from the ground), in order to secure long-lived budded trees, because this, he contends, will allow rea- sonably deep planting without burying any part of the cion. 361. Winter budding of peaches in Texas, according to R. H. Price, was experimentally done by the following method : Cuttings were taken when the sap was dormant. A slide of bark was cut down the stock, but left attached at the lower end. Part of the top of the loose strip was then cut off, the bud of a desired variety fitted over the cut place and l>ound on firmly with raffia. The stocks were then kept in sphagnum moss till spring, when they were planted. All but one of the 50 made strong shoots during the growing season. 362. Top working peach. — When peach trees begin to fruit and are found worthless, the question is. Will it pay to top work them? Experience has ])roved that usually time and money will be saved by pulling them out if over four or five years old rather than "dehorning" them, waiting till Avater sprouts or other limbs in desira1)le po- METHODS OF JiUODlXG 267 sitions are large enough to ])ud, and then running the risk of failure of the buds to "take" and of possible Ujss through accident or disease. New trees require only three or four years to come into bearing; but at least as much time is required with top-worked trees plus the likelihood of ha\ing poorer trees in the end. I 268 PLANT PROPAGATION FIG. 207— METHODS OF DIGGING NURSERY STOCK I, An extreme case of "the good old way" with nursery spsdes. 2. Tht new with fteani power and wire cables. CHAPTER XVIII NURSERY MANAGEMENT 363. Value of nursery stock. — From the preface the extent of the nursery business in the United States may be seen. The acre return in 1009 is averaged at $261. Doubtless many nurseries paid less than this, and probably a fair proportion paid more. If 10,000 good trees can be grown to the acre and sold at an average of 20 cents (and they can be), the return would be $2,000, which, divided by four years — two for stock growing and two for rest — the income would be $500 a year. Ex- penses are heavy, however, partly because nursery lands usually command high rent (sometimes $100 a year), and partly because of the necessary equipment and the skilled labor needed in the business, as may be judged by the general discussion in this volume, so there is not as much money in nursery stock as may at first appear. 364. Laying out a nursery. — Since horse cultivation is necessary, nurseries should be laid out with turning ground 12 feet wide at opposite ends of the rows, and cross alleys at convenient distances both for the removal of stock and for labeling. In most nurseries the rows vary from 100 to 300 feet long, but in large ones they are sometimes a quarter of a mile long. 365. Shelters are advisable where the prevailing winds are strong. They help protect young bud and graft shoots from being broken or blown off and aid the trees to grow straight. Where natural shelter — a hill or a wood to windward — is not available, mixed shelter belts of deciduous and evergreen trees, placed beyond their root reach of the nursery rows, will serve well. Low grounds, though sheltered, are not desirable because usually frosty. Everything that will cause snow drifts among the stock should be avoided. 269 270 I'LANT PROPAGATION 366. Digging stock may be done at any time the ground can be worked after the leaves fall and before the buds swell in spring, except when the temperature is below freezing. In a small way nursery spades may be used to lift individual trees. On a larger scale a furrow may be thrown away from the trees on each side of the rows and then spades used. In big commercial nurseries the tree digger (Fig. 152) is drawn by horses (Fig. 213) or by wire cables attached to drums operated 1)y steam or gaso- FIG. 208— MODERN METHOD OF DIGGING NURSERY STOCK The el cables wound on the drums by the engine draw the digger from end to end of the nursery rows. line engines. Nursery spades of steel and wood and costing several dollars each, and made strong enough to stand heavy strains, are generally worked in pairs or threes (Fig. 207) around and a foot or more from the bases of the trees. The blades, at least 15 inches long, are thrust full depth in the soil under the trees, which are lifted by leverage, care being taken to cut or break the roots as little as possi])le. 367. Nursery soils and their care. — Best nursery stock is usually produced on heavy soils, those in which clay rather than sand predominates. Of course, if level, so NUKSi:UV MANAGIiMENT 27I much the better. Thorough drainage, either natural or artificial, is essential because nursery trees "don't like wet feet." At least one season prior to planting nursery stock, the land should be devoted to some (preferably in- ter-tilled) farm crop — corn, potatoes, mangels, cabbage, etc. — so it will have had deep and thorough cultivation. Since the nursery crop usually requires two or more years, the land must be in prime condition when the trees are started in it. Otherwise the crop will be mediocre, if not poor. Since sales of fruit trees, at least, depend upon age, size, caliper, etc., growth must be sturdy and quick; with ornamental trees and shrubs price is fixed scarcely at all by age, but more by the size of subject. Hence land too poor to produce good fruit trees may yet be suitable for producing ornamental stock. It is generally conceded that soil which has just pro- duced a crop of nursery stock should not be devoted to nursery stock again without a "rest" ; this, too, in spite of the fact that instances of success under repeated crop- \nng may be cited. Cherries and apples often produce a second crop of good trees without a rest between, and plums have been known to do well for 5, 10 or even more crops when the ground has been well manured. Pears rarely do well twice in succession. Nurserymen, there- fore, change their land and in many cases rent what they need for terms of several years. The New York state station, after analyzing large numbers of nursery trees, presents the following state- ment based upon the table condensed below: [From the table] it will be seen that since, upon an average, it requires from three to four years to grow a crop of nursery stock, cereals make a far greater demand upon the soil than does nursery stock, and it is a matter of common observation that removal of a tree crop leaves the soil in excellent condition for cereals. PLANT PROPAGATIOX Phosphoric Acid and Potash Removed from Soil by Various Crops Nursery Stock, 1 1 tons , One ton Wheat Grain Rye •• Barley " Oats •' Maize " '. . Wheat straw Rye •• Barley " Oats " Maize " 368, Effects of nursery crops on soil. — Roberts of Cor- nell University has published analyses of nursery stock to show what plant food is removed by the four leading- kinds of fruit trees. The quantities appear in the follow- ins: table : Pounds of Fertilizing Compounds Needed by Nursery Stock Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash Apples Pears Peaches Plums 29.07 lO.U 19.73 24.83 7.83 13 33 22.42 5,42 11.75 19.75 4.42 11.50 The significance of these ligures can best be appre- ciated by a comparison with those of other crops ; for instance, silage corn. This crop grown in drills yields 12 to 20 tons an acre and will repeat the performance on manured land, fully as well, at least once. Yet, to quote Roberts's statement, "The amount of green corn necessary to remove an equal amount of fertilizing ingredients per acre, taking the average of the . . . nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash . . . removed by an acre of trees (three years' growth), would be 4,779 pounds." Nursery trees are, therefore, seen to take only small amounts of plant food from the soil. Nursery lands, it is reasoned, should supply three to ten times the plant food needed by the trees. Experience also supports XURSERV MANAGEMENT 2/3 this deduction from the analyses and shows that good crops of potatoes, beans, wheat, etc.. are secured after land has been "treed." Why not nursery stock? The reason is not a chemical but a physical one. The very methods of thorough and deep tillage necessary to pro- duce good trees injure the soil texture by '"burning up" the vegetable matter, a result most noticeable in heavy soils, the very ones which produce best nursery stock. As a rule no system of cover cropping and none of ma- nuring between the rows is practiced, so there is neither protection of the soil during winter nor renewal of vege- table matter while the trees are growing — one to three or more years. Then, too. when the trees are dug their roots go too, and since the work is usually done in the fall, frequently when the ground should not be worked at all, the soil must pay the penalty ; namely, puddling more or less serious the following spring and summer and refusal to "work up" again for nursery trees until after a rest in grain, hay or pasture. 369. Cover crops for nursery lands. — Since the nursery lands are usually heavy, it would seem that sweet clover should have special value in bringing them back quickly into good heart, because this plant burrows deeply and opens up the soil well besides adding con- siderable humus, both by its decaying roots and its tops, when these are turned under. Perhaps it would reduce the resting period to two or three years, as against three to live or even more under common practice. If cover crops, such as crimson clover, buckwheat and rve, were grown between the rows and plowed or disked under in early spring, the evil effects on the land would also be lessened. Coarse manure certainly has helped where applied between the rows in autumn or spring, but among nursery stock it is not always convenient to apply. It should, therefore, be liberally added after a nurserv crop has been harvested. A second crop could thus be planted within two years with good prospects of success. 274 .Vi'RSKRV M.\x.\r.ian:xT 275 Commercial fertilizers ma}' (jfteu be ai)plied to nursery stock with profit. Usually nitrogen is needed in liberal supply to insure strong- growth. Considerable quantities can be secured from legumes, hence the advisability of growing a crimson clover cover crop. \\'hen the trees are showing yellowish leaves on poor spindling growth, a top-dressing of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, about 300 pounds an acre, during late spring or early summer, will help matters considerably, but the tillage should be good so the soil nitrogen may be utilized first. Nitrogenous fertilizers must be used with great caution, otherwise they may force too succulent a growth. This, especially if produced near the close of the season, might not ripen. The trees would thus be subject to winter injury, they would transplant with greater dififi- culty and be unsatisfactory to the planter. 370. Winter protection of nurseries. — From over 100 replies to cjueries concerning behavior of nursery stock in a very severe winter in the Northwest states and adjacent Canada it is deduced that the results of injuries suggest (1) the value of snow as a covering for nursery stock, (2) the advisability of planting nurseries as far as practicable on north slopes, (3) interspersing nursery blocks with evergreen windbreaks extending east and west. Next to snow as a cover is litter, for which oats, buckwheat, peas, vetches, or mammoth clover are advised as catch crops, the clover only for wet seasons. 371. Storing nursery stock in frost-proof winter quar- ters is popular with a majority of the large nurseries, ])ecause it is believed that the stock is in better condition to thrive when dug in the fall and stored at an even tem- perature approximating the freezing point than when allowed to stand in the nursery and ])e subjected to wide temperature fluctuations. Besides this is the great ad- vantage that packing may be done under favorable con- ditions. But whether the trees are actually better when they reach the fruit grower is an undecided point. 276 ni'Ksi:kn' ^[axack.mknt 277 Winter sttnagc should be al a uniform temperature of 28 to 30 degrees. At this temperature little ventilation is necessary, loss of vitality from drying is slight, the tendency to mold is minimized and packing the roots with dam]) material or spraying with water less. 372. Spraying nursery stock is as necessary as is spray- ing of fruit trees. xMost of the fungous troubles and insect enemies that attack the same kinds of trees in the orchard may be expected, so the same preventives and remedies should be employed. Power sprayers are made specially for nursery work. (3ne of these is shown in Fig. 209. 373. Fumigation house. — For nursery use the fumiga- tion house should be a permanent structure of wood, con- crete or brick, lined with gas-tight material and located some distance from dwelling houses and live stock quar- ters. It should be used for no other purpose, and its gas-holding capacity should be tested at least once every six months. Preferably it should have doors on oppo- site sides, so wagons may be driven in (Fig. 210), fumi- gated without unloading, and hauled out after the opera- tion, thus effecting a saving of work and of time. Pref- erably one of the doors should face the prevailing wind, so the breeze will remove the gas quickly. The doors on the lee side should be opened first, to reduce the rush of gas that would occur in the reverse case. As a further precaution the means of opening should be well to one side of the door opening, so men will not have to expose themselves to the gas. 374. Fumigating cions may be the means of preventing insect troubles on nursery stock. An air-tight box, 3 feet long. 2 wide and 2j/-< high, contains 12j^ cubic feet, for which y^ ounce of 98 per cent cyanide of potassium. 3 ounces sulphuric acid and 8 ounces water will be suffi- cient for a single charge. The box should be made of heavy and wide matched stufT and be battened at all corners. Every crack must be plugged tight with white lead. The lid, which should have at least two cleats in- 2/i> PLANT PROPAGATION side, should fit snugly upon strips of live rubber one inch wide and one-fourth of an inch thick and provided v^ith a hasp for padlocking when closed. In one of the front corners a metal tube two to three inches in diameter and 18 inches long should be fastened, so it cannot shift its position and so its upper end will be. say one-quarter or one-half inch below the lid when closed. Through this the charge of cyanide is to be dropped in the glass or crockery vessel containing the acid and water placed just before the box is closed and locked. To do this a short glass tube containing the charge and closed at one end with paper or muslin tied over it is lowered by means of a string through a hole in the lid and the metal pipe already mentioned. When it reaches the liquid the hole in the cover is plugged tight with (preferably) a rubber cork. To prevent loss, this plug should be fastened with a string to the lid. On both bottom and sides of the box, cleats one-half or three-fourths of an inch thick, four to six inches long and, say, six inches apart, should be placed "broken jointed," with spaces of one to two inches between their ends, so the cuttings will be separated a little from the box walls, and so the gas will have free circulation around the sides, top and bottom. The cions should be laid in loosely — never packed snugly. One or two racks made of the cleat stufT may be placed between layers of cuttings when the box must be filled very full. All cions must be dry before being placed in the box. otherwise they may be damaged. Forty-five minutes is long enough to do the work. Then the lid may be lifted, the cions allowed to air for, say, 30 minutes (less if a strong breeze is blowing), and finally washed in water. Avoid inhaling the gas ; it is deadly. 375. Greenhouse fumigation experiments have been conducted in rose and carnation houses at the New Jersey station with 98 per cent potassium cyanide at the rate of five-eighths ounce to 1,000 cubic feet. The tempera- NL^KSKKV iMA\A(;|':mi:i\t 279 turcs in the rose luniscs varied from (i'J to DO; in the car- nation houses 54 to 60. The length of fumigation was 16 to 17 minutes. Ciood results in destroying aphis were always secured in the rose houses, though sometimes the foliage was slightly injured; in the carnation houses, many aphis lived through the fumigation. Later experi- ments showed that fumigation for green aphis on carna- tions is not likely to prove successful at temperatures below 60 unless the three-fourths ounce of cyanide is used to 1,000 cubic feet and the time of fumigation in- creased to 30 minutes ; perhaps not even then. 376. Nursery tree trimming. — Stockiness is one of the main points nurserymen aim to secure in their trees. To obtain this they give the trees plenty of space, usually not less than nine inches in rows three feet apart for small trees, and 12 inches and 3^ to 4 feet for large kinds which are to remain in the rows not over two years. Greater space is usually needed for longer periods. The first year the leaves should not be rubbed from the tree stems, or the trees will grow too slender and too tall. Should branching start too low, or should there be Y-crotches, trimming will be needed. By fall of the first year stock budded in the North the previous summer and that started from root grafts in the spring, should be four or more feet tall. That budded in the South in June should be as tall or taller. In the spring the height is usually reduced to three or four feet to form the head. Some nurserymen head as low as 2 feet, or even 18 inches, to meet the increasing demand for low-headed trees. Shortly after heading back the earth is hoed away from the trunk bases and all sprouts from crowns and roots cut off. The leaves that appear on trunks and branches should not be removed, because they are needed to ripen and develop the ad- jacent wood and to help supply the roots with plant food. The practice of rubbing them off early in the season can- not be too strongly condemned. Trees deprived of these 280 I'l.AXT I'KOl'ACAIIOX leaves are forced io develop other leaves higher up, thus tending to make top-heavy, weak, spindling trunks. Cutting otT undesirable shoots on the trunk shortly after midsummer is a very different thing. By that time they will have fulfilled at least a large part of their func- tion and can thus be spared with less disadvantage to the appearance and the well-being of the trees. Moreover, their removal at tliat time will not usually force extra top growth, because the trees will be busy ripening up the wood they formed quickly in the first half of the season when moisture was more abundant in the soil and condi- tions better favored quick development of wood. If the cuts, in removing the undesirable twigs men- tioned, are made with a sharp knife close to the trunk, they will heal o\'er by October, ^^'hen the cutting is over the fewest number of leaves on trunk and branches should be sacrificed. 377. Cost of nursery stock. — Prices of nursery stock vary almost as greatly as do the catalogs. Cultivation, fertilization, spraying, trimming, training, root pruning, method of digging and packing, age and size of tree, and a dozen other factors influence price. The cost of speci- mens should always be reckoned on the basis of quality. Often a high-priced tree is cheap at its price, and often a low-priced tree is expensive even as a gift. The initial cost is in most cases a mere trifle when compared to the after value of the specimen as a producer of fruit or l)eauty. Far better estimate the nurseryman and his business methods than compare or contrast his ])rices with those of his competitors. Such factors as trueness to name, plumpness and quantity of roots, and thorough- ness of packing are beyond price. 378. Buying and handling nursery stocK,* — In ordering one should emphasize especially the necessity of trees being true to name, thoroughly healthy, properly mature, and full of life. By the last is meant they should be dor- *Synopsis of article !n Pennsylvania Station Bulletin by J. P. Stewart. N UKSKin" M AX ACKMENT 281 inant but in strong-, living condition when received by the grower, not shriveled or discolored, nor show other evi- dence of premature or improper handling. [Straight stock is specially desirable.] The union of graft or bud should be good, and the roots should be free from all evi- dence of woolly aphis [San Jose scale], crown-gall or hairy root disease. The particular form of propagation — whether whole or piece-root (282) — is immaterial so far as orchard growth is concerned, also the region in which the tree is produced, so long as the tree is sound and of the right variety for the locality involved. One-year-old trees of good size [4 to 6 feet tall], neither stunted nor overgrown, are usually best. Never should thev be older than two years from bud or graft. The advantages are that one-year trees usuallv cost less to buy, to ship and to plant, are more readily shipped and transplanted, those fit for sale are sure to be strong grow- ers, and their heads can be formed as desired. If older trees are preferred, however, their limbs should be properly separated, well distributed around the trunk and located approximately at desired heights. It is best to deal direct with responsible nurseries and to order early, submitting requirements to several firms for bids. The trees may bo held at the nursery, subject to order at planting time. Where winters are not too se- vere, fall planting is advisable, otherwise plant in spring as soon as the ground is fit. though it may be done later if the trees are kept satisfactorilv dormant. When re- FIG. 211— APPLE TREE GRADES XXX, at left; XX, middle, X at right. The XX grade is prob- ably the most popular with com- mercial growers. 282 PLANT PROPAGATION ceived the trees should be examined and heeled-in at once. Roots should be shortened back to 6 or 8 inches and those broken or bruised removed with a smooth cut above the place of injury. This pruning is often done before heeling-in. (Figs. 149, 169.) The heeling-in may be done [on a large scale] by plow^- ing two or more deep furrows, preferably east and west, so the trees can be leaned south or southwest, at an angle of 30 to 40 degrees, thus to escape sun scald. They should be completely unpacked, all straw and other ma- terial likely to attract mice removed, and then be laid along the furrow in a single row or layer. The roots and a third or more of the tops should be covered immediately with earth, which must be packed thoroughly around the roots. This covering may be done at least partly with the plow. Successive layers may be laid when needed. The place should be well drained. Where there is likely to be damage from mice, the whole area should be sur- rounded with furrows or ridges of earth. 379. Tree grades. — It is greatly to be regretted that the public considers mere straightness, girth and good appearance the indices of nursery tree quality, because this has largely helped to eliminate many of the best va- rieties of fruit from the nurserymen's lists, their places being taken by varieties that normally grow straight. Of course, the difficulty of cultivating and handling sprawl- ing and crooked trees has also helped. No economical amount of care will make such varieties as Rhode Island Greening and Canada Red apples or Winter Nelis pears assume the straight and narrow form that Baldwin, Northern Spy and many other varieties assume with min- imum attention. Again, the demand has been for large trees, because of the belief that bearing will come earlier than with small ones. Unless trees have been transplanted or ro(^t pruned in the nursery, this is usually an error, mainly because of unavoidable root losses in digging. It is only N uusKKV M A x .\( ;i:m knt 283 human nature, then, that the nurserymen grow and sell what the public demands — size and looks first rather than vigor, health and form characteristic of the variety, as well as trueness to name. Needless to say, a first-class tree should be true to name, well grown, mature, old enough but not too old for planting, have a perfectly healed union of stock and cion or bud and have smooth, clean, bark free from blemishes and disease, have a strong, stout trunk and good roots characteristic of the variety and also free from dis- ease and insect injury. The leaves should have been allowed to fall naturally, not be stripped off to ''hasten ripen- ing." They are needed to ma- ture the wood. The tree will drop them at the proper time. Mere height is not alone a rec- ommendation ; far better a rather short stocky tree with nu- merous branches well placed low down on the trunk. Those not needed can be easily cut out, but if not present new ones may be hard to get where wanted. Young, rather than old trees, as a rule, will give better results in customers' hands and thus establish good feeling toward the nurserymen. Yery slender trees are usually undesirable. Nursery trees are universally measured by height, and diame- ter (caliper'), about two inches foWe%u° ^ ^^^'' ^'^^^' ^' ^ above the bud or crown. Roth dimensions \ ary with amount and character of trimming. 380. Standardization of nursery stock grades. — The following standard of grades of nursery stock, made of- ^ \ ilL^^^ L t^ w>^' FIG. 212— SOUR CHERRY TREES Left, XXX, 5 to 7 feet; Middle, 284 PLANT I'KOrAC.ATION ficial by the American Association of Nurserymen, pre- supposes that all grades of trees shall be of fair shape, branched, and well rooted ; that caliper measurements shall be taken two inches above the crown or the bud; that some exceptions may be made on such varieties as are known to the trade to be light growers (for instance, Yellow Transparent and Duchess apples, Seckel pears, English Morello cherries, etc.), or due to weather condi- tions which may affect tree growth, but that such excep- tions shall be noted in the printed price list or the corre- spondence of the grower's sales. Standardization of Grades Kind Inch Feet ("and up") Apple 11-16 and up 5 Apple % to 11-16 4 Apple Vz to % 31/2 Apple % to 1/^ % whips included Cherry % and up 4% Cherry %' to % 4 Cherry Vz to % 3 Cherry % to 1/2 2i^ Standard pear %. and up 5 Standard pear %' to % 4 Standard pear % to % SYz Standard pear % to % 3 Dwarf pear % and up 3 Dwarf pear %' to % 3 Dwarf pear ^ to % 21/^ Dwarf pear % to */4 2 Two-year plum % and up 5 Two-year plum % to % 4 Two-year plum V2 to % 3% Two-year plum % to i,4 3 One-year peach, plum, apricot 11-16 and up 5 One-year peach, plum, apricot 9-16 to 11-16 t One-year peach, plum, apricot 7-16 to 9-16 3 One-year peach, plum, apricot 5-16 to 7-16 2 ft. 5 in. 381. In packing plants for shipment, care must he taken to prevent drying out, heating, freezing and breakage during transit. For economy's sake, packages should be light and strong and the packing material light, cheap and respectively retentive of moisture or capable of resisting wet for plants Avhich demand one or the other. For mail .shipments, the most popular materials include sphagnum or chafif. oiled or paraffined paper, express paper, stout twine, pot and tree labels, shipping tags, cardboard, cor- NURSKUV MANAGEMENT 285 rugated paper and light wooden boxes. For express and freight, all the above list may be included, also burlap, baskets, crates, heavy wrapping paper, excelsior, straw, cord, rope and packing cases, the largest preferably iron bound or battened. To save postage, as little moist packing as possible must be used. This must not be wet, or the package will be refused l)y the post office. Legal weights of mail packages must not be exceeded. The roots must be washed free of earth, straightened, laid close together, tops all pointing one way to form bundles of three or four inches in diameter. They must be covered with one- half inch of damp moss and wrapped first in oiled or parafifined paper, with the tops loose but the roots snugly wrapped. By rolling the bundle diagonally and turning in the corner of the paper, tying may be avoided. To finish, the bundle should be wrapped completely in manila l)aper; tied securely around center once or twice and across the ends, the address written on the package and also on a shipping tag, fastened preferably where the strings cross. For basket and crate packing in warm weather, the plants are left with their tops visible in the bundles made as above and stood upright on excelsior, which is also packed around the sides. Burlap or cotton cloth is used to protect the bundles in baskets ; battens serve the same purpose in crates. In cold weather the packing is in- creased and the tops covered completely. Heavy shipments are packed in large boxes, the larger trees in two or three inches of damp cut straw or similar material and fastened in place with battens nailed through the sides. Small trees, shrubs and berry plants, are placed in their order of size till the box is full, packing and battens being used as necessary to fill the box solid full, so there will be no shifting in transit. After the cover is nailed on it should be marked "TOP" in large letters and the address painted or inked on with a brush. 286 PLANT PROPAGATION Trees and plants so handled may be shipped thousands of miles with confidence that they will arrive in good con- dition and give satisfaction to buyers. CHAPTER XIX LAWS AFFECTING NURSERY STOCK 382. Enactments, general. — During recent years, laws have been passed by various countries and states regu- lating- the sale and shipment of nursery stock, which must be inspected and certified by a duly authorized officer. The United States, the 48 states individually, and Can- ada, have such laws ; but, because these differ more or less, nurserymen's associations have recently been work- ing in conjunction with the American Association of Economic Entomologists to secure the passage of a uni- form law for the United States and Canada and for the various states. At the present writing, though much progress has been made, the campaign is only well begun. A synopsis of the present operative laws of the United States and of Pennsylvania follow : 383. United States nursery stock law. — Whoever plans importing nursery stock from a foreign country should first secure a permit from the Federal Horticultural Board of the United States Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C. A broker or a commission mer- chant may take out a permit in his own name or act as agent for the actual purchaser. The importer must see that each package on arrival at the port of entry bears the proper certificate of foreign inspection and also see that each is marked in accordance with the law (Sections 3 and 4). On arrival of the stock, and before unpacking or re-shipping, the Secretary of Agriculture and the proper state inspectors must be notified (Section 2, regu- lation 8) and given proper data. The Federal board will supply pam])hlets covering all cases. 384. Nursery stock by mail from foreign countries (in- cluding florists' stock, cuttings, grafts, cions, buds, bulbs, 887 288 PLANT I'ROPAGATION LAWS AFFECTING NURSERY STOCK 289 roots which may carry plant pests) may be achnitted to the mails only when certified by the state or government inspector to the effect that the forwarding nursery has been inspected within the year and has been found free from injurious insects. The only exceptions to this rul- ing are shipments to the Office of Seed and Plant Intro- duction at Washington. 384. In Pennsylvania nurseries must be inspected an- nually or oftener. No nurseryman, agent, broker or dealer may legally sell or ship stock without inspection certificate. Fumigation certificates must accompany shipments from other states. The word "fumigated" stamped or stenciled on a certificate of inspection is not enough per sc; it must be part of the certificate granted. Nurserymen in other states must file affidavits on blanks, supplied by the State Economic Entomologist at Harris- burg, that their stock shipped into Pennsylvania will be properly fumigated before shipment. Dealers in nursery stock will be granted certificates upon filing statements that they will buy such stock only from growers and nurserymen who hold valid certificates of inspection. Transportation companies must reject uncertified stock from out-state points. 386. Uniform nursery inspection legislation. — In sub- stance the bill favored by the American Association of Nurserymen and the American Association of Economic Entomologists provides for a horticultural inspection board of three or five members in each state; for the aj)- pointment of these members, at least one of whom shall be an active grower of nursery stock ; defines the terms "nurseryman," "nursery," "nursery stock," "dealer" and "agent" ; designates the control of inspection matters, treatment of diseases in nurseries or other localities ; authors' appointment of deputy inspectors, all working under the direction and control of the board, in which the nurseryman will have a voice ; provides for a bond to be filed by the inspector to cover both acts and omissions of 290 PLANT PROPAGATION inspector and deputy and so conditioned that if the nurseryman suffers loss by reason of an unjustifiable act of inspector or deputy, and secures a court judgment, he may get his money by collecting on the judgment against the bond; prescribes the usual duties of inspectors; pro- vides for inspection of nurseries and the usual certificates and for appeals to the board itself should anyone feel aggrieved at the acts of the inspector. It has been the idea to incorporate in this law enough rules and regulations to bring enforcement as near as possible on a uniform basis in the various states, and leave no more than necessary to the discretion of the local state officials. • 387. Diseases of nursery stock.— Nursery stock, particularly pears, cherries, plums and apples, is especially subject to fungous dis- eases producing (1) in the case of seedlings, ripened wood, so buds cannot be inserted, or an imperfect union of bud and stock and (2) a stunted development due to the annual early loss or drying up of the leaves. These diseases can be prevented by fungicides — bordeaux especially. It costs about 25 cents a 1,000 for one-year and two-year trees, and 35 to 40 cents for three-year trees, or 85 cents to $1.00 for the three years for 1,000, or one-tenth cent each. 388. Damages from tree sales. — In New York a new law details causes for court action to secure damages for trees improperly named. Such damages may be re- covered in civil action by the ptirchaser of fruit-bearing trees at any time prior to the third bearing year, provided the purchaser notifies the seller as soon as he has reason to believe the trees untruly named. The seller shall have the burden of proof in establishing his claim that any contract or part thereof exempting him from liability or limiting his liability was agreed to by the purchaser. In every case of sale of lots of 25 or more trees, the seller must at once furnish the purchaser a copy of the contract, which shall bear a specially worded statement, embodying the above ideas as to action to recover damages. The seller must also supply the purchaser with an itemized list of the shipment, giving name of county, state where LAWS AFFECTING NURSERY STOCK 29I the trees listed were grown, age of trees, name and ad- dress of person for whom grown, if requested by letter or in writing on the contract by the purchaser at time of purchase. Within five days after receipt by the pur- chaser of the trees and the list thereof the purchaser shall compare and notify the seller of any discrepancy between the list and the labels on such trees. SUGGESTED PRACTICUMS General Hints Studeni„ should l)e required to keep notes on each exercise, a separate sheet being devoted to each practicum. Sketches, whenever possible, should be called for and marked ac- cording to the story they tell rather than to any art they reveal. In many cases several drawings will be needed to show the various stages of development. Students should, therefore, leave ample space beside the first sketch, so all may be placed together. Where time will permit, contests will be found to stimulate interest in the work. Such should be easy to arrange in making cuttings of a certain kind of plant, in potting, making root grafts, in budding, etc. The main points that count in such contests, are accuracy, neatness, speed, number of plants growing at a stated time. In making notes of work done, tabular forms will be found help- ful and concise. For instance, with cuttings the following plan is sug- gested by Dr. W. L. Howard of the University of Missouri: Record of Cuttings Name -o c Za. of ■za ■a (5l 4, Remarks Geranium Coleus Seedage 1. Sterilising soil. — Secure surface soil from several places where weeds have been seeding freely — fence corners, neglected barnyards, etc. Add fine sweepings of a barn floor to get more seeds. Also add sour and moldy soil, from the greenhouse so as to get damping off fungi, etc. Mix thoroughly and sift out debris. Moisten as if for potting and turn over once daily for a week or more to give seeds a chance to absorb moisture. Divide into two or more lots, one to be steamed, another baked, a third treated with formalin, others to be treated in two or more of these ways but one left without treatment. Provide each student with at least two seed pans, one to contain untreated soil, the others each a sample of soil treated in one or more of the ways suggested. Label the seed pans, place in a warm greenhouse and note the results at stated intervals for say a month. The notes taken may be marked as in an examination. 2. Botanical classification. — Examine a considerable number of species of seeds to determine which belong to monocots, dicots and poly- 292 SUGGKSTED PRACTICUMS 293 cots. Among the best are: Alfalfa, asparagus, barley, beans, beets, broom corn, l)uckwhcat, cabbage, canna, castor bean, clover, corn, cow- pea, cncunibi-r, eggplant, endive, fennel, leek, lettuce, millet, morning glory, mustard, nasturtium, oat, okra, onion, parsnip, pea, peanut, pepper, peppergrass, pine, pumpkin, radish, rhubarb, rye, sage, salsify, spinach, spruce, sunflower, tobacco, tomato, turnip, wheat. Weed seeds may well be included also. Most of these will have to be soaked or even germinated before they can be handled satisfactorily. The idea should be so to familiarize the student with the truly named seeds that he can identify the various kinds in mixtures of say 50 species — this as an examination. 3. Germination test. — Select 50 or preferably 100 seeds from any convenient number of species of seed ; place in a seed tester or in soil for sprouting; note the rate, date, number and strength of those that sprout in given times and estimate the \alue of the seed upon the basis of price and percentages of strong and weak seeds. (The same seeds used in this practicum may be also made to serve in other prac- ticums if desired.) 4. Germination studies. — Note, 1, the length of time required by seeds of various kinds to sprout in a seed tester or preferably in baked or steamed soil. 2, Note the appearance of the seedling, vrhat it does with its seed coats, its cotyledons, whether the cotyledons func- tion as true leaves or only as storage organs, length of time before true leaves are developed. As an examination, seedlings of any con- venient number of species may be placed before each student for iden- tification. No "catches" should be included. For instance, should a student identify "collard" or "cauliflower" as "cabbage," he should be marked perfect, because both seeds and young seedlings of such are so closely alike that no one can distinguish one from the other. 5. Accelerating germination. — Divide a definite number of seeds into two equal lots and plant one treated (as below), the other untreated, side by side for comparison of rates of germination. A. Soak in water — bean, pea, corn, radish, cabbage, beet, cucumber, pumpkin, wheat, oat, parsnip, carrot, spinach, tomato, sunflower. B. Immerse in five or six times their volume of strong sulphuric acid in a test tube or wide- mouthed bottle and stir or shake till all the seeds are wet. Let stand 5 to 20 minutes, then wash in preferably running water for fully five minutes. Plant at once. Kentucky coffee tree, cotton, honey lo- cust, locust, Abyssinian banana, canna. C. Pour enough boiling water to cover, say, a pint of seeds and allow the whole to cool in a closed ves- sel. Select samples for the class to compare in germination with dry seeds of the same kinds. D. File or cut notches in canna, moon flower, Abyssinian banana, wild cucumber, morning glory and lotus. Plant these side by side with untreated seeds. E. Soak peach, plum, cherry, walnut, butternut, hickory and similar two-valved, hard-shelled seeds a few days : freeze and thaw part of them several times and plant some of each lot in comparison with dry ones. 6. Rc-genuination of seeds. — Select 100 or 200 seeds of, say, 10 kinds of seeds — wheat, oats, peas, beans, corn, radish, dandelion, melon, onion, pepper, spinach, tomato, buckwheat, clover — and germinate them. When the sprouts are one-half to three-fourths inch long, dry them in an airy drawer for, say. a week. Rub off the brittle sprouts and re- germinate. Note how rapidly or slowly this occurs, also how many times it may be done with the various species. 7. Large vs. small seeds. — Count 100 large and lOO small seeds from an unwinnowcd sample of, say, radish, turnip or mustard — the 204 PLANT PROPAGATION first preferred — and sow them thinly in rows side by side in a green- liouse bed or out of doors. Make careful notes to determine whether or not there are individual differences in favor of one or the other, also whether one set of differences might outweigh the other set in value to a business grower. 3. Pricking out. — With small wooden dibble, cut at the end to form a V about one-eighth inch across and one-fourth inch deep, lift seed- linffs of begonia, mignonette, pansy, etc., from the seed pans and space them about an inch apart each way in flats filled with loose, fairly rich soil ; water, place on greenhouse bench and shade with newspaper a few days. 9. Fill flats with soil. Use a spotting board and a dibble to mark holes one to two inches apart ; lift cabbage, tomato, pepper, eggplant or similar sturdy growers from their seed pans or flats and prick them in with the dibber, first making a hole deep enough to hold the roots, second placing the plant in the hole, third, pressing the soil against the roots from bottom to top. When flats are full, place on greenhouse bench, water and shade. Layerage 10. General note. — Outdoor subjects can be treated only during the growing season ; many indoor ones may be used to demonstrate the principles. 11. Simple layers. — Compare rates of rooting of subjects whose stems are twisted, notched or cut at the nodes with those not so treated. Which makes best plants in least time with various subjects — currant, gooseberry, golden bell, mock orange, deutzia, etc. ? 12. Tip layers. — Bury and anchor black raspberry tips and dew- berry canes at various stages of development and note what stage is necessary for securing new plants. Also bury some stems, as in simple layering, to see if they will take root. How many plants can be se- cured from one cane, and in what ways? 13. Compound or serpentine layers.— Bend last year's canes of a vine so alternate parts each containing a node shall be buried or in the air. Wound the under sides of the buried nodes on some canes, but leave those on others unhurt. Note the time required to secure rooted plants by both methods. Vines to use : Grape, trumpet and Virginia creepers, Dutchman's pipe, Boston and English ivy, etc. 14. Continuous layers. — In shallow trenches cover shrub branches or vine canes completely except a few joints at the tips. Some may be wounded, as above (11), others not. Use very light soil, or a mixture of moss or muck and soil in some cases, to cover the canes and compare with the ordinary soil of the trench. Snowball, high bush cranberry, low-growing willows, red osier (Cornus stoionifera) 15. Mound layers. — Have each class, 1, cut back bushes to develop numerous shoots for mound layering the following year; 2, make mound layers of the shrubs cut back the previous year; and, 3, dig and cut apart the rooted layers the next spring. Thus, if the plants are in three adjacent rows, each class will need only one prac- ticum period of two hours to cover the whole method, part of the time to prepare or cut back the subjects in one row, part to bury the stems similarly produced in the next, and part to finish the work. Gooseberry, Paradise apple, quince and shrubs as above (14). 16. Chinese, air or pot layers. — Notch, girdle or ring stems of leggy or branchy plants in humid greenhouse, bandage with a bunch of wet sphagnum in cotton cloth and keep moist till roots have formed. SUGGESTED PRACTICUMS 295 I'hen discard bandage, cut stem close to wound, remove some leaves, and plant in flower pot. Sviitable subjects: Dracrena, pandanus, rub- l)er plant, croton. 17. Runucrs. stolons and off-sets. — Anchor rosettes of leaves produced by strawl)erry, buck1)ush, houseleek, etc., in soil outdoors or in xrecnhousi- and sever from parent plant when rooted. Compare plants grown thus in pots with those grown near-by in the open ground or on greenhouse bench. Separation 18. Cut a bulb of each class in half from top to bottom and another from side to side, each through the center. Make drawings to show formation of various parts. (Easy and cheap bulbs: 1, tulip or hyacinth, 2, tiger or Easter lily, .3, crocus or gladiolus.) 19. After tops have died down in spring and any time until midautumn, dig up bulbs of any spring blooming bulb. Note and make drawings of the way bulblets are produced. 20. Do same with various lily species. 21. In fall, when tops of gladiolus, montbretia, tigridia, and other summer blooming bulbs have turned yellow, do same thing. 22. In midsummer collect bulblets in leaf axils of tiger lily, make cross and vertical sectional drawings of some and plant others in moist soil at various depths from surface to three or four inches deep. Note results. 23. Wound and handle bulbs as described (115) and note results. (Classes in consecutive years may do various stages of work as sug- gested under exercise in mound layering.) Division 24. In spring, dig up and cut in pieces with spade large clumps of rhubarb, phlox, iris, etc. ; plant the cut parts and note results. 25. In fall dig up clumps of canna or dahlia, store in dry warm quarters till late winter, then cut apart so each piece will have at least one "eye" or bud, and plant in pots in warm greenhouse. 26. From late August to early October dig up, divide and plant peony clumps. 27. In spring cut up clumps of plants mentioned in 24, but by method given in 25. Cuttings 28. In autumn, after the leaves fall, make cuttings of mature wood, bury some tops up, others tops down out of doors and side by side : store some in various media (sand, dust, moss, powdered charcoal) and some imcovered in a humid, cold but frost-proof cellar: make other cuttings in spring, bury some butts up, other butts down for two or three weeks : plant all lots side by side, previously having made notes of their condition. Show in tabular form the results secured after six weeks or two months' growth outdoors. Choose both easy and difficult subjects : willow, alder, maple, elder, currant, hickory, apple, pear, qiu'nce, Japanese phmi, American plums of several species, European I)lum. peach, poplar, elm, catalpa, gooseberry, lilac, grape, etc. 29. Root cuttings. — In fall dig well-established blackberry or red raspberry, "stool" at least a foot from the outside all around ; shake out earth ; cut roots of one-eighth to one-half inch in diameter 296 PLANT PROPAGATION into two-inch lengths ; store in green sawdust in cold, humid cellar till spring ; then plant horizontally an inch deep in sand. 30. Fill up hole left in 29 ; thrust spade full depth of blade ver- tically in soil at intervals of six inches from hole so as to form circles around the hole and thus cut the roots that remain ; compare plants so produced with those made as in 29. 31. Secure cuttings as in 30, but after a month's callusing grow in greenhouse. Compare with plants of 29 and 30. 32. In spring root prune, but do not remove "stool," by making three or four circles with the spade around the stool as in 30. Note results. 33. Tuber cuttings. — Cut an Irish potato into pieces so each piece will have at least one "eye," another a good deal of flesh, a third very little flesh, a fourth cut through the middle of a good bud. Note differences in plants produced, and if desired, in resulting crop. 34. Cut a tuber from end to end and from side to side, plant the pieces shallow in sand near together and note any diflferences. 35. Plant one sweet potato whole, another cut in half length- wise and a third crosswise in warm greenhouse or hotbed, the cut pieces cut side up and down respectively. Cover with half inch of sand. Note results and any differences. 36. Grcenzvood cuttings.— Make "soft wood" cuttings of any green- house plants available, part cut at, part just above, and part just below nodes ; leave all leaves but the bottom ones on some ; remove all but the top two or three on others ; on still others, remove bottom ones and cut back the others fully two-thirds, leaving the growing tip bud in each case. Shade some with paper, leave some unshaded. Vary the ex- periments otherwise as desired and note results. 37. Evergreen cuttings. — In October make cuttings of arbor vitse or spruce four or five inches long. Cut (don't pull) off foliage from three-fourths of the base, plant in flats of sand immediately and set away in cool place. Keep shaded, moist, not wet. If out of doors, examine to see if rooted six to twelve months from planting. If in- doors with bottom heat they may root in less than two months. Try both plans and decide which is the better and why. 38. Mature wood cuttings.— In fall make two and three bud cuttings of grape from last season's growth. Bundle up, label and bury, or store in damp moss, etc., to callus. In spring plant some ol)liquel3', some vertically, some with two buds and some with only one bud showing, in a frame out of doors or in the open field. Note dif- ferences. 39. Cut similar canes (38) an inch or so on each side of a bud to make single-eye cuttings less than three inches long. Bury and handle as above, except that in planting place some cuttings with the eye in various positions from horizontal to vertical and at varying depths in Ihe sand down to, say, three inches. Note differences. 40. Make heel and mallet cuttings and handle as in 38. 41. Compare mature wood cuttings of Americana, domestica, Mariana, triflora and other species of plums. Which strike root most easily? 42. After making cuttings as in 38, store some under varying con- ditions of moisture and temperature. Which conditions produce best results? 43. Plant some cuttings made as in 38 in fall where they are to remain. Mulch some, but leave others bare. Compare each lot with the other, and at close of growing season with plants produced by the 38 method. SUGGESTED I'KACTICUMS 2»^7 •44. Leaf cuttinys. — Make leaf cuttings of rex begonia by both irethods described (191). ■45. Lay bryophyllum leaves flat on sand in propagating ijcncli. I Mace a tittle sand on each to hold in i)lacc. Note differences between wounded and unhurt leaves. 46. Bury stems and one-third of gloxinia leaves in propagating sand. Take up and examine various si)ecimens at intervals of a week or two luitil little bulbs are formed. 47. Try the same experiment, but with the upper halves of leaves. 48. Try similar experiments to those of 44 with cabbage and lemon leaves. 49. Plants produced by leai'cs. — Fasten a mature leaf of bryophyllum on the wall or a post in a humid greenhouse and leave undisturbed a month or six weeks. Make notes of what happens. Try other leaves at the same time in a dry room and make comparative notes. Potting 50. Try planting in wet pots ; dirty pots ; new, dry pots ; new l)ots soaked overnight but dried so no water is visible on them. Also with soil so dry it will pour; soil so wet it will form a clod in the hand, and soil "just right." 51. B. Lift seedlings with as many roots as possible from pre- viously watered flats and plant in two-inch pots. Place on one-half inch of sand in greenhouse bench, water and shade. 52. Lift cuttings from propagating bench when they have roots, preferably about one-half inch long, plant as in 51. 53. Water a lot of plants sadly in need of shifting from two- inch pots to a larger size several hours before, others immediately be- fore, and others not until after shifting to three-inch pots. Note dif- ferences in ease of handling and results in plant growth. After two to four weeks make critical examination of roots and soil in pots treated each way. Describe findings and draw conclusions. 54. Re-plant some plants purposely allowed to become pot- bound ; 1, by gently or forcibly breaking the soil and re-potting ; and 2, by washing out the soil before doing so. Compare the methods. Grafting 55. In November or December from correctly named bearing trees select cions six to nine inches long, some among the bearing parts, others from water sprouts (not the suckers). Store until ready for grafting. 56. Make enough grafting wax to supply needs of class for all kinds of work during college or school year. 57. In midwinter make some whole-root, some piece-root grafts, vising some of each class of cion wood in 55. Store finished grafts till spring. Note differences between the two classes of wood, both in grafting and in later results. 58. In spring plant root grafts made in 56. 59. In spring when the buds begin to swell make cleft grafts using some of each class of wood secured in 55. Make examinations of work each week for at least a month. Some of these grafts may be made at the crowns of trees that failed to take buds the previous year, others among the tops of trees in bearing. 60. Similarly practice bark grafting. 298 PLANT PROPAGATION 61. Similarly practice the notch method. 62. Toward spring confine some rabbits or mice aroimd the trunks of seedling or worthless apple trees 3 to 10 years old, and if necessary by withholding food force them to girdle the trees. When the wounds arc large enough remove the rabbits and protect the wounds from drying out till the buds of peach and other trees earlier than apple begin to open, then bridge graft. 63. In the greenhouse or out of doors, practice inarching on any convenient plants. 64. Herbaceous grafting. — Select vigorous, potato and tomato plants of early varieties about nine inches high. Cut the former stems square across about four inches above ground and split them about 1J4 inches downward. With a sharp knife cut a four-inch tomato cion from the growing tip and make its lower end wedge-shape, to fit the cleft in the potato stem. Tie snugly with raffia and wrap with damp sphagnum. Shade a few days. Note results weekly till the plant matures or dies. Perform a similar operation with tomato as stock and potato as cion. Make critical notes. 65. Callitsing of grafts. — Make grafts of various kinds — splice and cleft at the collar, whip on root, side on root — and after wrapping or waxing according to the method employed, cover with two or three inches of moist sand on the greenhouse bench. In a week or ten days note what has happened and make comparisons. If thought desirable, plant in five-inch pots a week or two later and note results still later. 66. Making and storing root grafts. — In autumn or early winter, make any convenient number of whole-root and piece-root grafts; tie in bundles of one kind each ; label with variety name, date and stu- dent's name, pack in moist sand and store in a cellar till spring. Make notes ; plant and continue note taking as to development and compar- ison as to growth. Budding 67. Practice dormant budding in spring on seedling stocks grow- ing in nursery rows one or two years. 68. In midsummer, or somewhat later, select bud sticks from truly named peach trees and shield bud in seedling stocks grown during the same season. 69. In June or early July practice the same method on apple or cherry stocks. 70. Within two weeks cut the raffia around all but one or two of the best-looking buds. Make examination of each at intervals of a week and note results. Packing Plants for Shipment 71. Mai! shipment of plants. — Place the washed plants with their roots parallel and together in a close pile. Cover all around with, say, one-half inch of sphagnum. Wrap with oiled paper and tie with string at each end. Cover with manila paper, tie with stout cord. Write ad- dress on package and also on a shipping tag to be fastened to the pack- age. A test of good packing is to have the plants in good condition a week or ten days later when unpacked. 72. Packing express shipment. — Tie loose plants (e. g., cabbage, to- mato) in bundles of 10, 25, 50 or 100, so as to be easily counted and not to be too bulky — say four or five inches in diameter. Have a little \vet moss in the center of each bundle. If plants are in pots, water SUGGESTi:i) PKACTICUMS 299 freely an hour or two before lifting. Roll each bundle separately in paper in such a way as to need no tying. Place one-inch layer of damp, not wet, moss on bottom of proper-sized baski't. Stand bundles upright and close together on moss. Pack moss between bundle and sides of basket. If plants are short, cover with burlap sewed or tied on ; if tall, draw tops together, cover around sides, leave open at top in warm weather, but in cold cover all. In cold weather a closed box is a better package. 73. Pocking plants for mail delivery. — Pack several kinds of plants from three to four-inch pots to go by mail (see Exercise 71). Place a package in each of. say, three or four sets of adverse conditions likely to be encountered in an actual shipment — a hot, a cold, a dry, a moist room — during a week. Then unpack, note results and see how many plants will grow when planted under favorable conditions. 74. Pack bale of trees or shrubs for freight or express. — Select dor- mant trees or shrubs of various sizes. Tie and label each variety sep- arately. Dip roots of each bundle in thin mud. Lay large trees on floor or ground first ; fit smaller ones in ; tie with binding twine ; on floor spread burlap big enough to cover whole bundle ; put wet chaff, sphagnum or sawdust three inches deep where roots are to be ; place roots on this, draw up sides of burlap and fill in more packing where needed to make three-inch packing all around roots : sew together or use three-inch nails as pins ; tie with rope or stout binder cord ; fasten on two addressed tags in different parts of the bundle. 75. Box packing for cold zvcathcr. — Tie dormant trees as in bale packing. Treat active plants as in basket packing. Line a box with two or three thicknesses of paper. Cover bottom with three inches of moist chaff or sphagnum. Place large tree bundles on bottom, nail one- inch boards through box sides to hold trees from shifting. Place shrubs and fasten similarly. Cover with two or three inches of damp, cut straw. Lay in the active plants previously wrapped and fasten so they won't shift during shipment. Fill two inches of the top with packing. Be sure to make box contents feel solid with packing before nailing on cover. If packing is too wet, there is danger of heating. It should be merely moist. 76. Heeliiig-in. — In a trench one foot deep and wide and any de- sired length, place fruit tree roots, tops pointing obliquely to south side. Cover with earth from the other side of the trench and pack firmly. Place other rows of trees, then shrubs and lastly berry plants — even strawberries. Cover tops of trees and shrubs wholly with soil. Stake position of rows. Leave no material that will serve for mouse nests. In spring note results. TABLE 1 ANNUALS AND PERENNIALS GROWN FROM SEED CONDENSED CULTURAL INSTRUCTIONS For Flower Seeixs* The letter opposite the plant name refers to the iirojjer paragrajih in the list which follows. Abrnnia A Abiitiloii N Acacia S Acliillea V Acroclinium M Adlumla G Adonis F Ageratum F Agrostemma A Alyssum F " perennial. .V Amaranthus A Ampelopsis V Anchiisa V Anemone V Angelonia N Antirrhinum A AcLuilegia V Aralia N Arctotis A Aristolochia V Arnebia A Asparagus Aolum F Valerian V Verbena A Vinea N A'iolet C A'irginian Sto<^k ..U Viscaria U Wallflower V Wistaria V Kinnia ....F * Used by permission of Peter Henderson of New York. GENERAL RULES ..av7b..^:'^;ltri:;'ii;^ i5;.Xs!;;l'^^i,[^^^i^^s!'' rollowingge„er.l rmc^ and notes deep.^^'"''*^ mentioned as necessary to grow seedlings, flats should not be over 2% inches Seeds should be covered not more than four times their diameters. Unless otherwise stated, seeds should be firmed in the soil, as shown in Fig. 7. Never let seedlings become dry. Transplanting of seedlings is done when two or three true leaves have formed. A fn.'"- n"^'^ '" 8''«'fn''""se. hotbed, or light window of dwelling in temperature of *^ 60 to ,0 degrees. Cover and firm the seeds. Water with fine spray. Transplant 1 "' ""t in garden after danger from frost Seed may also be sown in open ground after danger from frost is over. B ?n",,,'"fin'''l<" "^ ''^H' ^''" .'■" ef<^e"l":use. hotbed, or light window, in temperature of " 50 to 60 degrees, at any time except during hot weather (spring nionths preferred) Merely press the seed into the soil with firming board; rub a lit le liX soiT hro"'^h a fine sieve over them until covered not deeper than 1-16 of an ich VVatIr with fliio «'n''^--.J"".''''''"'-,l '"'''' ">""' '" fl^'s. Pot off as soon as large enough Shifr as nnu nil with roots until the sizes of the pots are 6 or 7 inches. enougn. snirt as pots /^ For early flowering, sow in fall in bed of fine, well-nulverizert egged down in September will root in a year or less. G Mature cuttings in fall in well-drained pots of peaty soil in propagating bed Keen cool during winter. Give gentle heat in spring. Pot rooted plants singly, aiid crow in mild but close heat till established. Harden off in fail. *" J-J Mature wood cuttings in late summer in sand, in cold frames or cool bouse. Tai'.i.k 4— MNES Actinidia Akebia Ampelopsis Apios Aristolo<'hi» Bignonia Celastrus t'lematis Decumaria Euonymus Hiinitilus llionuea Lonicera. Lycluin Periploca Rose, Climbing Wistaria Seed.s in late winter or early siiring: lajers during spring or summer: mature wood cuttnigs m summer or fall, in mild heat: greenwood cuttings in winter. 304 PLANT PROPAGATION Table 5— HARDY PERENNIALS Acanthus Cassia Haemodorum Polygon atum Achillea Catananche Hedysarum Polygonum Aconite Centaurea Hepatica Poteutilla Acorus Centranthus Heracleum Acta?a Cerastium Hesperis Ranunculus Adonis Chelone Heuchera Rheum .Ajuga Chrysanthemum Hollyhock Rudbeckia Altha?a Cimicifuga Houstonia .\lvssum Clematis Hyssop Salvia .Amsonia Clintonia Sanguinaria Anchusa Coreopsis Saponaria Anemone Saxifraga Anthemls Apios Delphinium Diantlius Dicentra Dictanuius Digitalis Dodecatheon Doronicum Dracocephalum Liatris Scabiosa Shepherdia Aquilegia Arabis Arenaria Linaria Lobelia Lychnis Silene Silphium Sisyrinchiiun Armeria Arnica Artemisia Arundo Lysimachia I^thruni Mandragora Stachys Staphylea Statice Stokesia Asperula Menisperinum Asphodeline Echinopa Tansy Auijretia Elecampane Miseanthus Thalictrum Auricula Epimedium Trillium Baptisia Eryngium Eupatorium Oenothera Trollius Bellis Uvularia Bocconia Pentstemon Bnltonia Gaillardia Phalaris Verbascum Borago Galega Phlomis Veronica Gentiana Phlox Callirrhoe Geum Platycndon Wormwood Campanula Gynerium PodophyllUTn Caryopteris Gypsophila Polemoniuni Yucca Sow the above named species (1) outdoors after danger of frost in beds of finely pul- verized, light soil, transplant to permanent place when large enough to become established before cold weather; (2) or sow the seed between midsummer and early fall in cold frames, protect over winter, and plant the seedlings in the spring: (3) start the seeds during midwinter in the greenhouse, transplant to small plots, and shift when rooted. In case three, plants kept growing sturdily will usually bloom the first season. Table 6 —BULBS, CORMS AND TUBERS Agapanthus Allium .A .B .E D D .E .E .E .E .A .A .A .B .C .A B .B .E Crocus Dahlia Dicentra Dioscorea Eranthis Eremurus Erythronium Eucharis ...B ...A ...E ...E ...E ...E ...E ...E ...B Helleborus Hemerocallis Hippeastrum 'Hyacinth Iris A A A B B B .B .F .B .B .B .B Ornitliogalum . Oxalis Pa?ony Polianthes .... Puschkinia Ranunculus . . . Richardia Scilla Sparaxis Tigridia Trillium Triteleia Trilonia Tulipa Zephyranthes" . . ...B ...B Alstrnemeria Amaryllis Aniorphoiihallus , Anemone ...E ...B ...B ...A Apios Astilbe Begonia Hdussingaulia .,. Uravoa Caladium Canna Chiiinodoxa ("i)lchicun\ Convallaria Kniphofla Leucoium Lilium IMilla Muscari Narcissus ...C ...B ...E ...E ...E ...D ...D ...B ...B Fritillaria Funkia Galanthus Galtonia Gladiolus ...A ...A ...B ...B ...B * See 115 for special treatment. /^ Seeds. Offsets, tubers, or divisions of old plants early in spring. CULTURAL INSTRUCTIONS 30s B Seeds. Bulbt'ls or offsets fall planted under glass, or spring planted out of doors. CTuImth. dried or rested. Divido largo, healthy ones. Keep potg In moderate night teniiicrature; syringe onee or twice daily. IJ Seeds. Offsets or divisions at any time. F. Seeds. Division of roots fall or spring. p Uulbels as soon as possible after foliage matures. Table 7— GREENHOUSE AND HOUSE PLANTS Abutilon ...A Begonia IJouganvillea . liouvardia . Caladium Calla Canna Carnation .... rhrysanthemum Clerodendron A, Clevia Cobnea Coleus Colocasia Dieffenbachia . Eueharis ...A ...F .B, C .C, G ...C ...C ...A ..H C, E ...A ...8 ...G ...G ...D . . . A Polianthes Plumbago .... Richardia Sanseveriera . . Smila.x Swainsona Thunbergia . . Acalypha Acanthus .... jVchyranthes . . . Agapantlius ... Ageratum Allamanda .... Aloysia Alternantbera Alyssum Amaryllis ...B ...C ...A ...B ...A ...B ...B ...A ...A ...D ...C ...A B ...B Geranium . . . Hibiscus Hydrangea . . Jasminum .. Lantana . . . . A ..A, H A ..B, F A A ...E ...E ...A ...H ...D Tuberose Vallota ...D n Anthericum . . . Antirrhinum ... Moon-flower . Pandanus . . . Passiflora ... I'elargonium . B ..B. E A A Asparagus Aspidistra ...C ...E A \ erbena ...A c Zephyranthes . ...D A [rilwe sori!* *=""'"^^ "' ""y t'"'"^' """■■• «''™ temperature; after rooting pot in B Green woodcuttings, warm temperature: late winter or early spring. C ^ot division or root cuttings; autumn or early spring. IJ Off-sets or divisions; whenever mature enough to remove. E Division, crown, or suckers at any time. Y* Semi-mature wood cuttings, warm temperature. G Tubers, dry or resting, moderate temperature; syringed daily at least once. I"! Semi-mature wood cuttings, fall, winter or spring. Low temperatura. Table 8— FERNS Aerostichnm Adiantuni A Alsophila Anemia Aspidium Asplenium A Botrychium Cheilanthes Civotium Cyathea Cyrtonium Cystopteris 'Davallia *Dicksonia Doodia Doryopteris Gleichenia Gymnogramma A Lastrea I.omaria *Lygodium Nephrodium "Nephrolepis Onychium 'Osmunda *Platycerium Platyloma *PoIypodium Polystichum Pteris Scolopendrium ••Selaginella A ' Propagated largely by division. Propagated by short cuttings in pots or pans in early spring. Steam steriHzed soil at high temperature to destroy fern enemies. 3o6 I'l.WI I'Ui 11' NCAIION Soil mixture: Two parts facli parcloii Icaiii and peat (or leaf iiioltl) and ono part rlean, sliarp sand. Usb only stcrilizcil (linilcd and cooled) water for watering. Bu.v onl.v best grade spores. Sow in Mareli. .Inl.v. or October, fse cans 12 inclie.s .S(iuare and 4 inches deep, or G-incli % pots, eadi a lliinl toll cif drainage (cinders). Press soil tlrmly in pots or pans. Pass surtaee Ijalf ineli tlirouKli ',H-incli .-icreen. level, jiress and water. Wait four liours before dustins spores on snrlace. l"se no nioie siiores for 12-lncli pan than will pile on a 14-incli circle. Have no lnee/.e wliile .sowmi,'. Don't cover with soil. Place shaded sash over fianic and keeii closed tell uerniination starts, then give air. little at flr.st. more gradually till fronds apiieai and are hardened enoUKh to have sash removed. Use no water for first two oi' more wccUs. Weed out undesirable plants. When pot surface is covered with little ferns. iiricU out in clnmiis of three t" six just level with surface of other flats. When chnnjis have three or four fronds, transidant singly in other lians or flats, and later into 2 or 2',4-inch pots. A Certain ferns (among them species and varieties of genera marked A in the list) bear detachable buds, bulhlets. or plantlets on fronds and pinna?. These, iilanted in well-drained seed pans, usually take root in less' than two weeks. Others may be divided just before the plants start to grow. Taiili. ()— 1V\L^IS Acanthophfenix flinostigm^i 1 Iyo|ihorh:o Pinanga Acanthorhiza 'Coc(..3 HyphaMio *Pecctocomia Acrocomia Corypha Pritchardia Archonphcenix Cycas J uba?a Ptychosperma Areea Cyphophoeiiix Arenga Cyphospernia Kentia Rapliia Astrocarpum kentiopsis Rhapidophyllum Attalea Dictosperma Khapis Bidvmosperma Latania Rhopalostylis Dion Licuala Boscheria «Bactri9 Diplothemium Linospadix Bacularia Drymophlftus Livistonia *SabaI Borassua Dyp..is l.odoicea Scheilea Brahea Seaforthea Elfpis Martinezia Erythea Maxiliininia Thrinax Calamus Euterpe ♦Trachycarpus Calyptrogyne *Caryota *Geonoma Ceratolobus Ceroxylou Certostachys Chamaedorea Chamserops Hedyscepe Howea Hydriastele Oreodoxa 'Phrenix Phytelephas Verschaffeltia '■Walliehia Washingtonia ' Easily grown from suckers. Sow seeds thickly. V^-iuch deep, in sandy loam in .P™l'agar'"e /''^nie '" .T^"™ fj^.f "J' house Give plenty of heat and moisture. SoTiie species require two or three weeks to geminate others t^vo months, still others three. yeais Possibly the J""*"'-'';,^'^''^, "fo ^o (47) may shorten these longer times. Kee|, night temperature 55 '» 6^ ^ , ,^fj.'" 'V 7.5 Supply ample water. Prick otf in small pots when first leaves are well foimed. and shift to Targer sizes slowly, but as needed. Use friable compost of rotted sod and stable manure, with peat, leaf mold and sand. Table io— WATER PLANTS Acorus A Alisma B Aponogeton ... .8, C Cabomba A, B Caltha A, B C.viierus A, B Eichhornia ... .A, B J uncus A JussiiTa (.fussieua) B Limnanthemum ..B Limnocharis A, B, E Ludwigia B Lyriopliyllum . . . . B Nelumbium A*, B, F N'ymphwa B, F Oroiitium A, B Ouvirandra ... .A, B Peltandra A. B Pontederia ... .A, B Sagittiiria A, B Saururus H Seirpus (Juiicus)..A Traiia B Tyiiha A, B Victoria Q Zizania B < Seeds sliould be cut to admit water. y^ Division in spring. cri.'irKAi. ixsTKrc'noNS 307 R Nt'wly liijo swds in imls iiluiigi'il in ■niitor, uiiUtr glass. ^1 Off-sets at any tiiiio. n Division after flower. F. ItuiiiKTs. or sloliii. p Cuttings of rhizome (12 inches long), kept under water when out of doors. GKeep seeds wet from ripeninK till .sown. I'lace in sandy loam in pots. Immerse 2 inches dee|) in water never less than 80 degrees, in well-lighted tank, near the glass. f^ Sow in moist loam. Table ii— ORCHIDS Acanthephippium A Hroiiglitonia ... ...A Dendrobium . . . ..B Phalus . ,.A Aeeras .A liulboijliyllura . ...A "»Disa ..A »*»l>hala;nopsi3 ..B Ada .A ...A .B A ...B ***Saccalobium Satyrium .... B Aganisia ...A .•Vnguloa A Calanthe L:i'lia ...A Sobralia ...A Anoectoehilus ..A B *l'alopogon I.ycaste ..A Stanhopea . . . ...A Ansellia .A *t'alyiiso Aplectrum .A ...A Masdevallia ... Ma.\illaria ..A ..A Thunia Trichopilia . . . .. B Cattleva ...A ...A Barkeria .B .A Cielogyiie t'ompareltia ... ...A ...A Miernstylis Milloina ..B . .A Vanda Vanilla B **Batemannia ... A, B nietia A B Cynihidinni .... Odniit ""o^': <"""s • Seeds. Hand pollination of cultivated orchids is necessary to secure seeds Phnos,- nearly related genera or species where hybrids are desired, because distantly relkted ones may not take to each other, or the offspring may resemble the seed-b'earine narent' Select for the seed-beanng parent a plant of vigorous health, free growth and flowerhig habit, because the oltspriiig usually -'take after the mother" in form but after the ••father" in flower color. To pollinate, place one or more ripe pollen Ses on he rig lU stigma of the lenialo (lower. Seeds require sometimes three to six months but oftenVr a year, to ripen. Sow seed as soon as ripe by dusting on surface of pots or b-iski'fs in winch liealthy plants of the same genus arc grown. Keep moist with verv fine rose t I .seedlings are started. Spring-sown .seed usually sprouts quickest. SoniospWes require a .vear or more o germinate. When seedlings have two or three leaves plant i„ flats o? 3o8 PLANT PROPAGATION Table 12— CACTI Cereus Echinocactua Ecbinopsis Bpiphyllum Mamillaria Melocactus Opimtia Pelecyphora Pereskia Phyllocactus Pilocereus Rhipsalis Sow seeds in sandy soil in semi-shade till sprouting starts; then expose to sun. Water with care. Seeds giva best results particularly with species marked A. Make cuttings, or make off-sets, with sharp knife. Lay in sun or on dry sand till wounds heal and roots start; then pot in sandy soil and syringe daily, or ofteiier. Graft weak or sprawling kinds on strong or erect species (E.g., Peretkia aculeapa, p. Bleo, Cereus Peruvanlus and C. Tortuotus). See 329. INDEX TO PLANT LISTS The numbers refer to the i'Uiiit Lists on the preceding pages. Aaron's Beard. See Hypericum. 2 Abies. 3 Abroiiia. 1 Abutilon. 1, 7 Acacia. I Acalyplia. 7 Acantheijlilpjiiuni. 11 AcantliophiEiiix. 9 Acanthorhiza. 9 Acanthus, 5. 7 Acer. 2 Aceras, 11 Achillea. 1. 5 Achyranthes. 7 Aconite. 5 Aconite. Winter. See Eranthis, 6 Acorus. 5. 10 Acrachinium. 1 Acrocomia. !) Acrostichum, 8 Actaea. 5 Actinidia. 4 Ada. 11 Adam's Needle. See Yucca. 5 Adiantum. 8 Adlutnia. 1 Adonis. 1. 5 Aerides. 11 Aesculus. 2 African Corn Lily. See Ixia. fi African Lily. See Agapanthus. 6 Aganisia, 11 Agapanthus. 6. 7 Ageratum. 1. 7 Agrostemma. See Lychnis, 1 Atlanthus. 2 Ajuga. 5 Akebia, 2. 4 Alder. See Alnus. 2 Alder. Black. See Ilex. 3 Alkanet. See Ajichusa, 1 Allamanda. 7 Allegheny Vine. See Adluniia. 1 Allium. 6 Allspice. Carolina. See Calycantlius, 2 Almond. 2 Alnus. 2 Aloysia. 7 Alsopbila. 8 Alstrcemeria. C Alternanthera. 7 Altha-a. 5 Alum Root. See Heuchera. 1 Alyssum. 1, 5. 7 Amarar.thus. 1 Amaryllis. 6. 7 Amazon Lily. See Eucharis. fl. 7 Amazon Vine. See Uioscorea, C Amelanchier. 2 Aniorpha. 2 Amorfibophallus. 6 Ampelopsis. 1, 2, 4 Amsonic. 5 Anchusa. 1. .5 Andromeda. 3 Anemia. 8 Anemone. 1. 5. 6 Angelonia. 1 Angraecum. See Aerides, 11 Anguloa. 11 Anoectochilus. 11 Anomatheca. 6 Ansellia. 11 Anthemis. 5 Anthericum. G. 7 Antirrhinum. 1. 7 Apios. 4, 5. 6 Aplectrum. 11 Aponogetoni. 10 Apple. May. See Podophyllum, 5 Aquilegia. I. 5 Arabis. 5 Aralia. 1 Arbor Vitae. See Thuya, 3 Arclionophfenix. 9 Arcotis. 1 Ardisia. 7 Areca. 9 Arenaria. 5 Arenga, 9 Aristclochia. 1, 4 Armeria. 5 Arnebia. 1 Arnica. 5 Arrowwood. See Viburnum, 2 Artemisia. 5 Arundo. 5 Ash. See Fraxinus. 2 Ash Berry. See Barberry, 2 Asparagus. 1. 7 Asperula. 5 Asphodeline. 5 Aspidistra. 7 Aspidium. 8 Asphenium. 8 Aster, 1 Aster. Stokes. See Stokesia, 5 Astilbe, 6 Astrocarpum. 9 Atamasco Lily. See Amaryllis. G, 7 Attalea. 9 Aubrieta. .5 Aucuba. 7 Auricula. 1. .") Australian Feather Palm. See Ptycho- sperma. 9 Autumn Crocus. See Colchicum. C Avens. See Geum. 1. 5 Azalea, 2 B Baby's Breath. See Gypsophiia, 1, 5 Bactris, 9 Bacularia. 9 Bald Cypress. See Ta.xndium, 2 309 310 PLANT PROPAGATION JJallooii Flower. 1. See riatycodoii, 5 Uallooii A'iiie, I Ualsam. 1 Bane Berry. See Actaea. 5 Baptisia. 5 Barberry. 2 Barkeria. 11 Barrcnwort. See Eindedhim. 5 Bartoiiia. 1 Basswood. See Tilia, 2 Bastard Indigo. See Amorpha, 2 Batemania. 11 Bay, Giant. See Rliododendron, 3 Bayberry. See Myriea. 2 Bay. Swamp. See Magnolia. 2 Bean. Sacred or water. See Nelumbium, Nymphaea. 10 Beard Tongue. See Pentstemon. 1, 5 Bear's Breech. See Acanthus, 5 Bear's Grass. See Yucca, 5 Beech. See Fagus. 2 Begonia, 1, 6. 7 Bellflower. See Campanula, 1, 5 Bellis, 1, 5 Bell. Silver. See Halesia. 2 Bells, Coral. See Huchera, 1, 5 Berberis. See Barberry. 2 Betonica (Bettony). See Stachys, 5 Betula, 2 Bignonia, 1, 2, 4 Bilberry. See Vaccinium, 2 Biota. See Thuya, 3 Birch. See Betula. 2 Birthwort. See Aristolochia, 1, Trillium. 5, 6 Bittersweet. See Celastrus. 1. 4 Bladdernut. See Staphylea. 5 Bladder Senna. See Colutea. 2 Blanket Flower. See Gailardia. 1. 5 Blazing Star. See Liatris. 5 Bleeding Heart. See Dicentra. 5, 6 Bletia, 11 Bloodroot. See Sanguinaria. 5. Haemndo- rum 5 Blue Beech. See Carpinus. 2 Bluebell. See Campanula. 1. 5 Blue-eyed Grass. See Sisyrinchium. 5 Blue Spirfea. See Car.vopteris. 5 Bluets. See Houston ia, 5 Bocconia. 5 Boltonia, .5 Boneset. See Eupatorium, 5 Borago, 5 Borassus. 9 Boston Ivy (Vine). See Ampelopsis, 4 Botrychium, 8 Bougainvillea. 7 Bounc'ing Bet. See Saponaria, 5 Boussingaultia, 6 Bouvardia, 7 Box. See Buxus. 3 s Box Thorn. See Lycium, 4 Brachycnme, 1 Brahea, !) Brassia, 11 Bravoa. 6 Briar. Sweet. See Rosa. 2 Bridal Wreath. See Spinea. 2 Broom. D.vers'. 1. Scotch. See Cytisus, 2 Broughtonia. 11 Browallia. 1 Brugmansia. See Datura. 1 Br.vonopsis. 1 Buckeye. See Aesculus, 2 Buckthorn. See Rhamnus. 2 Buff.ilo Berry. See Shepherdia. !) Bugleweed. See Ajuga. .5 Bugbane. Bugwort. See Ciniicifuga. 5 Bulhophylhim. 11 Bullrusb. See Juncus, 11 Burlingtonia. 11 Burning Bush. See Eunonymus. 2. 4 Buttercup. See Ranunculus. 5. (i Butterfly Flower. See Schizanthus. 1 Butternut. See .Tuglans. 2 Button Bush. See Cephalanthus, 2 Buxus, 3 C Caljbage Palm. See Areca. 9 Cabomba, 10 Cacalia, 1. See Seneclo Cactus, 12 Caladium, 6. 7 Calampelis. 1 Calamus. 9 Calandrinia. 1 Calanthe. 11 Calceolaria, 1 (^alendula, 1 (^alico Bush. See Kalmia. 3 California Poppy. See Eschscholtzia 1 Calla. 7. See Richardia, 6, 7 Calliopsis. 1 Callirrhoe, 5 Calluna, 3 Calopogon. 11 Caltha. 10 Calycantbus. 2 Calypso, 11 Calyptrogyne, 9 Camomile. See Anthemis. 5 Campanula. 1. 5 Canipernella. See Narcissus. G Campion. Evening. Ro.se. See Lychnis, 1, Campion. See Silene. 1 Canary Vine. 1 Candle Berry. See Myriea. 2 Candytuft, 1 Canna, 1. 6. 7 Canterbury Bells. 1 Caragana. 2 Cardinal Flower. See Lobelia. 1, 5 Carnation, 1, 7 Carpinus, 2 Carya. See Hickory, 2 Caryopteris. 5 Car.vota. 9 Cassia. 5 Chamaedorea. 9 Chaniferops, 9 Chamomile. See Anethemis, 5 Chamomile. False. See Boltonia. 5 Cheilanthes, 8 Chelone, 5 Cherry, Indian. See Rhamnus. 2 Cherry, Cornelian. See Cornus. 2 Chestnut. 2 Cliilean Lily. See Alstrcenieria. C China Aster. See Aster. 1 Castalia. See Nymphiva. 10 Castanea. See Chestnut. 2 Castor Bean. See Ricinus. 1 Catalpa, 2 Catananche, 5 Catasetum, 11 Catchfly. See Silene. 1. 5 Cat-Tail. See Typlia. 10 Cattleya. 11 Ceanothus. 2 Cedar. See Cedrus. 3, ,Tuniperus, 3 Cedrus, 3 Celastrus, 1, 4 Celosia. 1 Celtis. 2 Centaurea. 1, 5 Centranthus, 5 JM)i:X lU I'LAXT LISIS 311 flypsdiihila, 1. ('cnlrfisoiiia. 1 (■|-|ilial:iiitlilis, Ci rustniiii. 5 iVruKilobus. :i Crii-idiplillmn. Ciiinis. 12 t'cKixylou, y Cirtd.stach.vs, 1) Clialk I'lant. ('Iiiiiii:i'cyi)aris. '.i ChiiHiuupin. '2 ('liiiiiiantlius. 2 Cliinodoxa. Cliiistinas Riisi'. S.t IK-IU'Ikhus, fi Cliivsaiitliemuiii. 1, 5, 7 Ciiiik-ifuga, 5 I'iiieiaria. 1 CiiKiuefoil. Seo I'litentilla. 5 Cistus, 3 Cladrastis, 2 Clarkia. 1 Clematis. 1, 4, 5 Cleone. 1 Cletlira. 2 Clerodendrom, 7 Cliaiithus. 1 Clinostigma. 9 (^lintonia, 5 Clivia, 7 ('(>b:oa, 1, 7 Cocfinea, 1 ('(icKscomb, 1. Seo Celosia, 1 (\)Coanut. See Cocos. 9 (•(i(/ Cone Flower. See Kudbeekia. 1. 5 Convallaria, 6 Convolvulus. 1 Coreopsis. 1. '> Cork Tree. See Pbelodendron. 2 Corn Lily. African. See Ixia, G Cornus. 2 Corypha, i) Cosmos. 1 Ciitoneaster. ."> Cowslip. 1. See Primula 1. Caltba. 10 Crakelierry. See Empetrum. o Cranberry bush. See Viburnum. 2 Cranesbill. See Geranium. 1. 7 Crataegus, 2 Crepis, 1 Cress. Rock. See Arabis. 5 [IIS Crowherr.v. See Empetrum. 2 Crowfoot. See Ranunculus. 5. G Crown Imperial. See Kritillaria. C> Cuckoo Flower. See l>ychnis. 1. .5 Cucumber tree. See Magnolia. 2 Cu<-iimis. 1 Cuphea. 1 Cup-plant. See Silphium. 5 Currant. Indian. See Symphoricarpus. Cushion Flower. See Seabiosa. 1. 5 Cyathea. 8 Cyclamen. 1 Cymbidium. 11 Cyperus. 10 Cyphophoenix. Cyphosperma. !i Cyiirepidium. 11 Cypress. Ua)d. See Taxodiuni. 2 C.vprcss Vine. 1 Cyrtonium. .S Cystopterls. 8 Cytisus, 2 !>. Chrysantliemum. I. See lirachvcome. 1 Rocket. 1 fi. Funkia. fi 1. Pink. 1. Dairodil. See Narcissus Dahlia, 1. (i HaLsy. See Rellis. Dai.sy. Swan River, Dame's Violet. Si Daiihne. ;; Datura. I Davallia. 8 Day Uly. See Deiiwrocallis Decuniaria. 4 Deliihinium. 1, ." Dendrium. See Leiophvlhim Deiidrobinm. II Deutzia. 2 iJianthus. 1. See Carnatioi Sweet William. I. 5 Dieentra. 5. G ]*icksonia. .*^ Dictamiiiis, r, Dictyospcniia. !i. See Areca. 9 Di(lyiii(ispcriiia. !) Dielytra. Seo Dieentra. 6 Diervilla. 2 Dieffenbachia. 7 Digitalis, 1, 5 Dimoriihantus. See Aralia, 1 DimorpUotheca, 1 Dion. 9 Dio.scorea. fi Diplothemium, 9 Disa, H Dittan.v. See Dictamnus. ,'5 Dock, Prairie. See Silphium. 5 Dodecatheon, 5 Dog's Tooth Violet. See Erythoroniuiii. fi Dogwood. See Cornus. 2 Dolichos, 1 Doodia. 8 Doronicum. 5 Doryopteris. 8 Dracaena. 1. See Cordvline Dracocephalum. 5 Dracontium. See Amorphophallus. R Dragon's Head. See Dracocephalum. r, Dragon Tree. See Dracaena. 1 Drymophheus. n Dutchman's Pipe. See Aristolochia. 1. 4 Dypsis. 9 Eccremocarims. See Calamiielis. 1 Echinocactus. 12 Echinocystis. 1 Echinops. !> Ecliinopsis. 12 Edelweiss. 1 Eglantine. See Rose. 2, 4 Eiehhornia, 10 Ela^agnus, 2 Ehfis. y Elder. See Sambucus. 2 Elecampane. .5 Elm. Seo I'lmus, 2 Empetium. :i Emjiress Tree. See I'aulownia. 2 Epideiidrum. 11 Eiiimedium. .'i lOiiipliylluiii. 12 Eranthis. (I Kreiiiiirus. li EryiiKiiim (Kryngo), .I 312 PLANT PROPAGATION Erythea, 9 Erythroiiium, G Eschscholtzia, 1 Eucharis, 6. 7 Eulalia. See Miscanthus, 5 Enionymus, 2, 4 Eupatoriuin. 5 Euphorbia. 1 Euterpe, i) Evening rrimrose. See Oenothera, 1 Exochorda, 2 Fagus, 2 Feathered Hyacinth. See Muscarl, 6 Kennel Flower. Se« Nigella. 1 Flowering Feni. See Osmunda, 8 Ferns, 1, 8 Feverfew. See ChDr'santhemum, 1. 5 Fig Marigold (Ice Plant). See Mesem- bryanthemum, 1 Fir. See Abies. 3. Picea. 3. Pinus, 3 Fire-pink. See Silene. 1 Five-flnger. See Potentilla. 5 Flag. See Iris, 6 Flax. See Linum, 1 Fleabane. See Inula, 1, 5 Flower-de-Luce. See Iris. 6 Flowering Onion. See Allium. G Forget-me-not. See Myosotis. 1 Forsythia. 2 Four o'clock. See Marvel-of-Peru, 1 Foxglove. See Digitalis. 1, 5 Frangula. See Rhanmus. 2 Fraxinella. Sea Dictamnus, 5 Fraxinus, 2 Freesia, 6 Fringe Flower. See Schizanthus. 1 Fringe, Mountain. See Adlumnia. 1 Fringe Tree, Fringe, White. See f:hionan- thus, 2 Fritillaria, 6 Fuchsia, 1, 7 Fimkia, Gaillardia, 1, 5 Galanthus, 6 Galega. 5 Galtonia, 6 Garland Flower. See Daphne. 3 Gas Plant. See Dictamnus, 5 Genista, 7. See Cytisus, 2 Gentiana, 5 Geonoma, 9 Geranium, 1, 7 Geulder Rose. See Viburnum, 2 Geum, 1, 5 Gilia, 1 (Jilliflower. See Mathiola, 1 Ginkgo, 2 Gladiolus, 1, 6 (Jleditscliia, 2 Gleichenia, 8 Globe Amaranth, 1 Globe Flower. See Trollius, 2, Kerria, 5 Globe Ranunculus. See Trollius, 2 Gloriosa. 7 Glory-of-the-Snow. See Cluonodoxa, 6 Gloxinia, 1 Goat's Beard. See Astilbe. 6 Goat's Rue. See Galege. 5 Godetia, 1. See Oenothera. 1 Golden Bell. See Forsythia. 2 Gold Flower. See Hypericum. 2 Golden Chain. See Laburnimi, 2 Golden Glow. See Budbeckla, 5 Golden Eod, 1 Gomphrena. See Cclosia. 1 Goumi. See Elicagnus, 2 Gourds, 1 Grape H.vacinth. See Muscari. C Grasswort. Starry. See C'erastium. 5 Grevillea. 1 Groimd Chorrj-. See I'hysalis. 1 Groiuid Nut. See Apios. 5, 6 Gimi. Sour. See Nyssa. 2 Gum. Sweet. See Liciuidaniber, 2 Gymnogranima, 8 Gyneriuni, 5 Gypsophila, 1 H Hackherry. See Celtis. 2 Halesia. 2 Hammamells. 2 Hairbell. See Campanula. 1 Harlequin Flower. See Si)araxis, G Haw (Hawthorn). See Crataegus, 2 Heartsease. See Pansy. 1 Heather. See Calluna, 3 Hedysarum. 5 Hed.vscepe. 9 Helenium, 1 Helichrjsum, 1 Heliotrope, 1 Helleborus. G Hemerocallis, 6 Hepatica, 5 Heracleuni, 5 Hesperus, 5 Heuchera, 1, 5 Hibiscus, 1, 7 Hickory, 2 Hippeastrum, G Hobble Bush. See AMburnum, 2 Holly. See Ilex, 3 Holly. Sea. See Erjnigiiun, 5 Hollyhock. 1, 5 Honey Locust. See Gleditschia, 2 Honeysuckle. See I>onicera, 2. 4, Aquilegia, 1, 4 Hop. See Hamulus. 1 Hop Honibean. See Ostrya, 2 Hoptree. See Ptelia. 2 Horkelia. See Potentilla. 5 Hornbean. See Cari)inus. 2 Horse Chestnut. See Aesculus, 2 Houstonia. 5 Howea, 9 Humea, 1 Humulus. 1. 4 Husk Tomato. See Physalis, 1 Hyacinth, Summer. See Galtonia, 6 Hyacinth, Grape. See Muscari, 6 Hyacinthus, 1, 6 Hydrangea, 2, 7 Hydriastele. 9 Hyophorbae. 9 Hypluene. 9 Hypericimi, 2 Hyssoi), 5 Iberis. See Candytuft, 1 Ice Plant, 1 Ilex, 3 Impatiens. 1. See Balsam. 1 Imperial. Crown. See Fritillaria, G Incarvillea. 1 Indian Fig. See Opuntia. 12 Indian Shot. See Canna. 1 Indigo. Sea Amphorpha, 2 Ink Berry. See Hex, 3 Inula. 1, 5 Xpomcea, 1, 4 INDEX TO PLANT LISTS 313 llKiinopsis. See Gillia, 1 Iris. 6 Iron Wood. See Ostrya, 'Z Itea. 2 Ivy. See Aini)eloi)sis, 1 Ivv. English. 1 \\y, Kenihvortli. See Linaria. 5 l.\ia. 6 J .lacobean Lily. See Amaryllis. 6. 7 .lacob's Ladder. See I'oleinoniuin. 5 .lasminiun. 7 .loe-pye Weed. Seti Bujiatorium, 5 Jonquil. See Narcissus. 6 .lulwea. 9 .Fuglans. 2 .1 uncus. 10 .luno Berry. 2 .lunii)erus (Juniiier). 3 Jussicua (Jussiaja), lU Kalniia. 3 Kaultus.sia. 1 Kenihvorth lv.v. See hinaria, 5 Kfiitia. U Kt'iitiiipsis, U Kfiiia. 2 KiKi|> WetHl. Sw Centaurea. 1, 5 Kriii'hdfla. (j. See Tritoina. 1 1< licit Grass or Weed. See rolygonuiii, 5 Kmhia. 1 Kielreuteria, 2 Kudzu Vine, 1. See Dolichos Labrador Tea. See Ledum, 3 Laburnum, 2 Lady's-Bardro]) Fuchsia, 1 Lady's- Slipper. See Cyprepedium, 11 Lielia, 11 i.anib Kill. See Kalmia, 3 Lantania. 1. 7, 9 Lantern Plant. Chinese. See I'hysalis, 1 Larch. See Liarix, 2 l^rix. 2 Larkspvir, 1. See Delphinium, 1, 5 Lastrea, 8 I.atania. See Livistonia, 9 Lathyrus, 1 Lattice Leaf. See Ouvirandra, 10 Laurel, Giant. See Bhodoc'endron, 3 Laurel. Mountain. See Kalmia, 3 Laurestinus. See A'iburnum, 2 Lavandula. See Lavender, 1 Lavatera. 1 Lavender. 1 i^avender. Sea. See Statice, 5 Layla. 1 l^ead I'lant. Ainorpha, 2 Ledum. 3 Leiophyllum. 3 Lemon \'erbena, 1 lA^ei)achys. St'e Budbeckia, 1, 5 Leptosiphon. 1 Ixnicoium. ti l>«ucothoe. 3 Liatris. 5 l.icuala. a LiRUstnmi. 2 Lilac. See Syringa, 2 Lilitun. 6 Lily. African. See Agapanthus, 7 Lily-of-Uxe-Nile. See Calla. 1 Lily, I)a,v. See Kiuikia, 0. lleinerocallls. 6 Lily-of-the-\ alley. See Convallaria, 6 Lily, Water. See Nymplima, 10 Lily. Plantain. See Funkia. 6 Lily. Homestead Lemon. See Hemerocal- Us. 6 Lime Tree. See Tilia, 2 Linmanthemuni. 10 Linuiocharis. 10 Linaria, 5 Linden. See Tilia, 2 Linospadix, 9 Linum. 1 Liquidambar. 2 Liriodendron, 2 Liver I>eaf. See Hepatica, 5 Livlstonia. 9 Lobelia. 1. 5. 7 Locust Tree. See Bobinia. 2, Gleditscliia, 2 Lodoleea. 9 Ijomaria. 8 London Prido. See Lyclmis, 1, 5 Lonicera. 2, 4 Ixiosestrife. See Lysimaehia. .'5 Lophosiiermum. See Maurandia, 1 Lotus-of-the-Nile. See Nymphfea, 10, Ne- lujnbium. 10 Love-in-a-Mist. See Nigella, 1 Ludwigia. 10 Lungwort. See Mertensia, 5 Lupinus, 1 Ijjcaste. 1 1 Lyduiis. 1. 5 Lycluin. 4 Lygodium. 8 Lyre Flower. See Dicentra, 5, 6 LyriophylUun. 10 Lysimaehia. 5 Lythrum, 5 M Mace. Beed. See Typha. 10 Madeira Vine. See Bous.singaultia, 6 Madwort. See Alyssum. 1, 5 Magnolia. 2 Mahonia. 3. See Barberry. 2 Maiden Hair Tree. See Ginkgo, 2 Maize. See Zea. 1 Mallow, 1 Mallow. Poppy. See Callirhoe, 5 Malopc, 1 Malva. See Mallow, 1 Mammillaria, 12 Mandragora, 5 Mandrake. See Mandragora, 5, I*odoi)hyl- luni, .5 Maple. See Acer, 2 Marguerite (Paris Daisy). See Chrysan- themum. 1. 5 Marigold. 1. See Tatetes. 1. Calendula, 1 MarshmalUnv. See Altluoa. 5 Marslunarigold. See Caltha, 10 Martinezia. 9 Marvel-of-Peru. 1 Masdevallia, 11 Matrimony Vine. See Lycium, 4 Mattholia. 1 Matricaria. 1 Maurandia. 1 MaxiUniinia. Maxillaria. 11 May-Apple. See Pi>doiihyllum. .5 Meadow Kue. See Thalictrum. 5 Meadow Saffron. See Colchicuui, G Meadow Sweot. See Spira;a, 2 Melocactus. 12 Menispermum, 2, 5 Mertensia. 5 Mesembryanthcmum. 1 314 TLAX'J' I'ROPAGATION Mexican Star of Bethlehem. See Milla. G Mezerium. See Daphne, 3 Micliaelmas Daisy. See Aster. 1 Microst.vlis, 11 Mignonette. 1 Mignonette Vine. See Boussingaultia, U Milfoil Achillea, 1. 5 Milla, 6 Miltonia, 11 Mimosa, 1 Mimulus, 1 Mina, 1 Mirabilis. Sea Marvel-of-I'eru, 1 Miscanthus, 5 Moek Orange. See rhiladelphiis, 2 Momordica, 1 Monke.v-flo'.ver. See Mlnuilus. 1 Monk's Hood. See Aconite. 5 Montbretia. See Tritonia. G Moonflower, 1, 7. IiJomcea Moon Seed. See Menispermum, 2, 'i Moorwort. See Andromeda, 3 Morning Glory, 1. See Iponiiea Moiuitain Lanrel. See Kalmia. 3 Mountain Fringe. See Adluniia. 1 Mountain Tobacco. See Arnica, .'i Mourning Bride. See Scal)iosa. 1 Mouse Bar. See Cerastium. 5 Mugwort. See Artemisia, 5 Mulberry, 2 Mullein. 1. See Verbasciuii. 5 Musa. 1 Muscaji, 6 Musk Plant. See Mimulus, 1 Myosotis. 1 Myrlca. 2 Myrtle. Sand. See Leiophylluni. 3 Myrtle, Bunning. See ^■inca. 1 N Na.rcissus. 6 >Jasturtium, 1 Nelumbo. See Xelumbium, 10 Nemesia, 1 Nemopanthes, 2 Nemophilia, 1 Neuga, 9 Nei)hrodium, 8 Nephrolepis. S Nettle Tree. See Celtis, 2 Nicotiana, I Nigella, 1 Xiiiebark. See Siiinea. 2 .N'olana, 1 Norway Spruce. See I'Icea. 3 Nuphar. See Nelunibium. 10, Nymiiluea, 10 Nynii)ha>a, 10 Nyssa. 2 Oak. See (Juercus. 2 Olieliscaria. See RudlH'ckia. 1 Odontoglossum. 11 Oenothera. 1 Old Woman. See Artemisia. 5 Oleaster. See Ebeagnus, 2 Onycliiiun, S Oncldium. 11 Optuitia. 12 Orange, Mock. See riiiladolpbus Orcodora, ') Oniithogalum. ti Orontiuii O.sier OsMimula. b! O.strya. 2 Ouvirandra, in 1(1 Sec Salix, 2. Cornus Oxalis, 1. G Oxydendrum, 2 I'ajonia. 1, 6 Pagoda Tree. See Sophora. 2 Palava, 1 Palma Christi. See Bichinu.s. 1 Palmetto. See Sabal. 'J Pampas Grass. Se« Gynerium. S, Mis canthus, 5 Pandanus, 7 Pansy, 1 I'apaver. See Poppy. 1 Paris Daisy. See Cliysanthemum, 1. ." Parsley. Giant or Cow. See Heracleum, Pasque Flower. See Anemone. 1 Passion Flower, 1. See Passiflora, 7 Paulowiiia. 2 Pea. Perennial. See Ijathyrus, 1 Pea Tree. See Caragana, 2 Pearl bush. See Exochorda, 2 ]'earls-of-Si)ain. See Muscari, 6 Pelargoniiun. 1, 7 Peltaudra, 10 Pelecypbora, 12 Pennisetum. 1 Pentstemon. 1 Pereskia. 12 , I'crilla, 1 Periploca, 4 Petunia, 1 I'haius, 11 l'liala?nopsis, 11 Phalaris, 5 Phellodendron. 2 Philadelphus, 2 Phlomis, 5 Phlox, 1, 5 Phoenix. 9 Phyllocactus, 12 Physalis. 1 Phytelephas, 9 Picea, 3 Pickerel Weed. See Pontederia. 10 Picotee. See Dianthus, 1, Carnation, 1 Pilocereus, 12 I'inanga, 9 I'ine. See Pinus. 3 I'iney. See Paeonia, 1, Pteony, U Pink, 1 Pink, Fire. Wild. See Silene. 1. .-> Pink, Sea. See Statice, 5. Armcria. o Pink, Moss. See I'hlox, 1, 5 Pinus. 3 I'lantain. See Musa, 1 Plantain. Lil.v. See Funkia. G Plantain. Water. See aUlsnia. 10 Platycerium. 8 I'lat.vcodon, 1. 5 Platyloma. 8 Plfctocomia, 9 IMumbago. 7 Plume. Apache. See Geum. 1. .j Phunc. I'oppy. See Bocconia. 5 Podophyllum, 5 I'likcr I'hint. See Kniithofia. G rolemoniuin. 5 I'olianthes. B. 7 I'olyantlius. 1. See I'rimula, 1 f'olygonatum. 5 t'olygoniun. 5 I'olyiiodiiun. 8 I'olysticlium. S I'ontederia. 10 I'lHir Man's Orcliid. See Schiz iiilhus, 1 I'oplar. SiH! I'opuUls, 2 |-o|.py. 1 lXl)i:.\ TO I'LAXT 1>1STS iK-) I'iil>)).v Mall.nv. S.'.- fallirliiie. 5 I'oppy. I'liime. See Boccoiiia, 5 r()l)Ulus. 2 I'urtulara, 1 I'utentilla. 5 rrlekly I'ear. See Opuiitiii, 12 Primrose. See I'riiiuila, 1 I'rimrose, Evening. Oenotlicra, 1 I'riniula, 1 I'rinos. See Ilex. :; I'riteliardia. H I'livet. See I.,iKiistniin. 2 I'seudcit.suRa. '.i IMeliii. 2 I'teris. 8 I't.vcliospernia. 'J I'ueraria. See DdliclKis. 1 I'ulmonaria. See Mertensia. 5 I'u.sclikinia. 6 I'utt.v Root. See Aplectruni. 11 I'vretlnuni. 1. See ('hrysantlienuuii, 1. IJaXKed Uiihiii. See l-.vclmi.s. 1 Raliilx.w Klower. See Iris, G Uannneiilus, (i Raiiliia. "J Ued ("edar. See .lunliieru.s. :! Ueed. CJiant. See Arundo. 5 Heed. (Jrass. See I'lialaris, 5 Rcliniannia. 1 Heiiaiitlieru. Sec Aerides. 11 Ueseda. See Mignonette, 1, Uetiiiiispora. 'i Hliamnu.s. 2 ltlia;:idoplivllinji. U Rl-apis. ;• Rlieuui. 5 Rlu]i.sali.s, 12 Rhodantlie. 1 RhoddeliitdM. 1 RlindiideMdniii, :: Rliniiald.slvlis. M Rliuliarh. See Rheum, 3 Rieliardia. (i, 7 Ric'inus. 1 Robin. Ragged. See Lyclinis. 1, 5 Robiiiia. 2 Roelc ("rcss. See Araljis. 5. Aubertia, Rocket. 1 Rock-ro.se. See ('i.stii.-:. i Rosa. 2 Rosclieria, 9 Rose. 1. 4 Ro.se. Alpine. Sw RlKKiodcndttiii, .". Rose. Cliristmas. See IlelUI)iirus, Rosemary. Sea. See Statii-e. ."> Ro.se. Mo.ss. See Portulaia, 1 Rosin Weed. See Silpliimn, 5 Rndbeckia. 1. 3 llnnniii;,' .Myrtle. See Vinca. 1 Jtiie, Mead.iw. See Tlialictruni, 5 Sabal. Sa<-(alol)ium. 1 1 Sage. See Salvia. 1. ."> Sage, .lervisaleni. See I'hioniis. 5 Sage Palm. See ("yeas, i) Sagittaria, 10 St. Kruno's I.ily. See Antbericuii St. .Tohn's Wort. Stio llypericmii. St. I'eter's Wort. See Symiiliorie Salisburia. See Ciinkgo, 2 Salix. 2 Salpiglo.ssis. 1 Salvia. 1. 5 Sambucus. 2 Sandwort. See Arcnaria, 5 Sanguinaria. 5 Sanseveria. 7 Saponaria, 5 Sassafras. 2 Satyrium. 11 Saururus. 10 Savin. See .luniperus, 3 Saxifraga. 5 Scabiosa. 1. .5 Sclieilea. !• Seliizanthus. 1 Seilla, G Scirpus. 10. See Juncus. 10 Scolopendrium, 8 Seotcli Broom. See ("yti.sus. 2 Screw Pine. See Pandaniis. 7 Seaforthia. 9. See Ptychosperna. 'J Seal Flower. See Dicentura. 5. U Sea Pink. See Armeria, 5 Selaginella. 8 Senna. Bladder. See '.'olutea, 2 Seii.sitive Plant. See Mimosa. 1 Service Berry. See Amelanchier, 2 Sliadbusb. See Amelanchier. 2 Shcepberr.v. See Viburnum, 2 Slie|)herdia, 5 Sibbaldia. See Potentilla. 2. 5 Siberian l"ea Tree. See C'aragana, 2 Silene, 1. 5 Silk Vine. See Periploca, 4 Silphium. 5 Silver Bell. See Halesia. 2 Sinningia. See Glo.xinia, 1 Sisyrinchium, 5 Slipperwort. See Campanula, Calceolaria. 1 Smilax, 1. 7 Smoke Vine. See Adlumia, 1 Snake Root. Button. See Liatris. .">. Snalie Root. White. See Eupatorium. o Snajidragon. See Antirrhinum. 1 Sneezewort. See Helenium. 1 Snowball. See Viburnum. 2 Snowball. Summer. See Hydrangea, 2 Snowljerry. See Symphoricarpus. 2 Snowdrop. See Galanthus, (i Snowdrop Tree. See Halesia. 2 SnowHake. See Leucoium, (i Soapwort. See Saponaria, 5 Sobralia. 11 Solomon's Seal. Sec I'ol.vgonatum. 3 Sojihora. 2 Sorrel Tree. See Oxydendrum, 2 Sour Gum. See Xyssa. 2 Southern Wood. See Artemisia, 5 Sowbread. See Cyclamen, 1 Spanish Bayonet. See Yucca. 5 Sjiaraxis. 6 Speedwell. See Veronica. '> Spindle Tree. See Euonymus, 2, i Spiraea, 2 Spire Lily. See Galtonia, B Siiruce, See Picea. ;!, Abies, 3. Pseudo- tsuga, 3 Spurge. See Euphorbia, 1 SdUill. See Seilla, H S Star-of-ISetblehem. See Ornithogaluni, G Starwort. See Aster, 1 St at ice, 5 J^lb PLANT PROPAGATION Stock. See Matthiola, 1 Stokesia, 1, 5 Stork's Bill. See Geranium, 1, 7, Pelar- gonium, 1, 7 Strawberry Bush. See Euonymus. 2, 4 Strawberry Geranium. See Saxafraga, 5 Strawberry Tomato. See Physalis, 1 Stuartia, 2 Styrax, 2 Succory, Blue. See Catananche, 5 Sundrops. See Oenothera, 5 Sunflower, 1 Susan, Black-Eyed. See Budbeckia, 5 Swainsona. 1. 7 Swan River Daisy. See Brachycome, 1 Sweet Briar. See Rose. 2. 4 Sweet Flag. See Acorus. 2 Sweet Pea. See Lathyrus, 1 Sweet Scented Shrub. See Calycanthus, 2 Sweet Sultan, 1 Sweet William. 1, 5 Sword Lily. See Gladiolus, 1, 6 Symphoricarpus, 2 Symplocos, 2 Syringa. See Philadelphus, 2 Syringa (Lilac), 2 Tagetes. 1 Tamarack. See Larix. 2 Tamarisk. See Tamarix, 2 Tansy, 5 Taro. See Caladium, 6, 7 Taxodlum, 2 Taxus, 3 Tea, New .Jersey. See Ceanothus, 2 Tecoma. See Bignonia, 1, 2, 4 Thalictrum, 5 Thistle. Globe. See Echinops, 5 Thoroughwort. See Eupatorium, 5 Thorn. See Crataegus, 2 Thorn. Box. See Lyolum, 4 Thrinax, 9 Thunbergia, 1, 7 Thunia. 11 Thuya. 3 Tick Seed. See Coreopsis. 1, 5 Tiger Flower. See Tigridia, 6 Tigridia, 6, 7 Tilia, 2 Toadflax. See Linaria. 5 Torenia, 1 Trachycarpus, 9 Trapa, 10 Tree-of-Heaven. See Ailanthus, 2 Trichopilia, 11 Trillium, a, 6 Triplet Lily. See Triteleia, G Triteleia, 6 Tritoma. See Knlphofla, 6 Tritonia. 5, 6 Troll ius. 5 Tropfeolura. 1 Trumpet Creeper. See Bignonia, 1 Tuberose. See Polianthes, 6, 7 Tulipa (Tulip). 6 Tulip Tree. See Liriodendron, 2 Tulepo Tree. See Nyssa, 2 Turtlehead. See Chelone, 5 Typha, 10 U tJlmus, 2 Umbrella Plant. See Cyperus, 10 Umbrella Tree. See Magnolia, 2 Unilaria. 5 Valerian, 1 Valerian, Red. See Centhranthus, 5 A'^allota, 7 Vanda, 11 Vanilla, U Varnish Tree. See Koelreuteria, 2 Veitchia. 9 Verbascum. 5 A'erbena. 1. 7 A'erbena. Sand. See Abronia, 1 Verbena, Scented or Lemon. See Aloysia, 7 A'eronica. 5 A'erschaflfeltia, 9 A'ervain. See A'erbena. 1. 7 A'etch. Bitter. See Lathyrus, 1 A'etchling. See Lathyrus, 1 A'lburnum. 2 A'ictoria. 10 A'inea, 1, 7 A'ine, Smoke. See Adlumia, 1 A'iolet, 1 Alolet. Dame's. See Rocket, 1 A'irgilia. See Cladrastis. 2 A'irginia Creeper. See Ampelopsis, 1, 2, 4 A'irginian Stock, 1 A'irgin's Bower. See Clematis, 1, 4, 5 Viscaria, 1. See L.vchnis, 1 A'olkameria. See Clerodendron, 7 W AVahoo. See Euonymus. 2. 4 AVahlenbergia. See Platycodon, 1, 5 Wake-Robin. See Trillium, 5, 6 AA'all Cress. See Arabis, 5 Wallflower, 1 Wallichia, 9 AValnut. See Juglans, 2 Washingtoiila, 9 Water Lil.v. See Nymphaja, 10, Nelumbium, 10. Victoria. 10. AVaxberry. See Symphoricarpus, 2 AVayfaring Tree. See A'iburnum, 2 AVeigela. See Diervilla, 2 Wliin. See Cytisus, 2 AVhite Cape Hyacinth. See Galtonia, 6 AVhite Rod. See A'iburnum. 2 AVhite Wood. See Liriodendron, 2, Tilia, 2 AVild Bean. See Apios. 4. 5, 6 AVild Senna. See Cassia, 5 AA'illow. See Salix, 2 AVillow. A'irginian. See Itea. 2 AVindflower. See Anemone. 1. 5. G Winter Aconite. See Eranthis, 6 Winter Cherry. See Physalis, 1 AVistaria. 1. 2. 4 Wistaria. Tuberous-Ronted. See Apios, G Witch-Hazel. See Hamanielis, 2 AVolf-Bane. See Aconitem, 5 AVoodbine. See Ampelopsis, 1, 2, 4 AVood Hyacinth. See Scilla, 6 AVormviood, 3 Xanthoceras, 2 Xiphion. See Iris, 6 A'acclniumj 2 Yarrow. See Achillea, 1, 5 Tellowwood. See Cladrastis, 2 Yew. See Taxus, 3 Yulan. See Magnolia, 2 Zea. 1 Zebra Grass. See Miscanthus, 5 ' Zephyranthes, 6, 7 Zinnia, 1 Zizania, 10 Zygopetalum. H INDEX TO PLANT LISTS Propagation ok Vegetables from Seeds 317 Kinds of Vegetables c J3 0. < V a 3 •— > 3 < 4-) 0. Artichoke, French E B B _ Artichoke, Jerusalem — — — ■ A A — — — - - J-' E E A B B B B - - - - - - Balm Basil Beans, bush G G G A C c C A — . — . Beans, pole and lima — — — — A A — — — . — Beets — — E E A B A B A B A — — Borecole or kale Broccoli — E E B B B — . — H H — . Bi ussels Sprouts — — — — B B — — — — Cabbage, all kinds. . . — E E B B B H H G G E G E E E F E E B A B B B A B B B A B B A - - — Carrot Celery and Celeriac. . . - - E C F E C A A C A A A A A C C I - Chervil Chicory Collard — — . — — — — A A A — __ Corn, field — — — A A A — — — — Corn, pop — — . — . A A A — Corn, salad — — F A A A — H — , G G G G E F C E B B C A B B C A B C A G G - - Dill I'.ggplant Endive G G A E B A B B A B B B B B A I — Kohl Rabi l.eek — E E B B B — — Lettuce <4 E F B C r r A 1 J H Mangel F A A A Marjoram H H H K F J A (; . Martynia A . __ Melon, musk G G G E A A T G — — Melon, water G G G E A A T (; — — Mushroom K K I 1, K K K K Mustard M M M A A A — A A M M M — — E A E A C C C — — — — Okra G E G E B A B A A A — — — — Parsley Parsnip — . — F A A A — — — — Pea M E M F E M C E M C B A C A C A M A M M Pepper Peppergrass A/f Potato A A _ M M M E D A D A D — — T I — Radish Radish, winter — — — — — — A A . Rutabaga. . • — — — — — . — — A A — __ Sage — . — F B B — . __ Salsify — — F A — — — A A — Savory — — I-; B B — Scorzonera — ■ — F A A A — — . — Sea kale — — F A A A Skirret E E F B A B A — ■ — I I C H I — Spinach — 3i8 PLANT PROPAGATION Propagation of Vegetables from Seeds Kinds of Vegetables c J3 s D, < 1 a 3 3 ■—1 6C 3 < a c/2 O c Squash G G A E E E A A E B B A A B B A A B A G A G G - - Turnip Witloof - KEY TO VEGETABLE PROPAGATION TABLE ^. Sow in open ground; thin plants to proper distances. B. Sow in garden seed bed and transplant to permanent quarters. C. Sow twice in open ground during month. D. Sow thrice in open ground during month. E. Start in hotbed; plant in open when weather and soil favor. F. Sow outdoors as soon as open ground can be worked. G. Grow only in hotbed or greenhouse. H. Sow in coldframe; protect winter; plant out in spring. /. Sow in open ground; protect with litter during winter. J. Plant in frame; cover with sash and straw mats during cold weather. K. Plant in cellar, barn or under benches in greenhouse. L. Plant out-doors in prepared beds. M. Sow weekly in greenhouse or frame for succession. Note L For last planting of bean, sweet corn, kohl rabi, pea, radish, and tomato use quickest maturing varieties. Note 2. Late sowings of salsify and scorzonera may remain unprotected in ground over winter. Roots will be larger following fall than spring-sown ones. INDEX r;lKe A Acids in germination 27 Annuals, defined 5 Apples, dwarf 195 Apple stock for pear 190 Apple stocks 192 Art, definition 1 B Baco on grape grape grafting.... 118 Bailey, quoted 153 Bailhacke on stocks 189 Bandages, waxed 224 Bass, defined 225 Buds grafted 250 Bergerstein on germination 25 Biennials, defined 5 "Blind Eyes" 100 Booth, quoted 143, 189 Borlase's seed analysis 41 Bottom heat 86 Briailles, de, on graft storing. . . . 225 Bridge grafting. 230 Browning of cuttings 118 Bu;'s, classes of 104 Buds, latent 105 Buds, leaf 105 Bulb, defined 70 Bulb industry in U. S 80 Bulblets, production of 72 Bulblet synonyms 71 Bulb propagation, easter lily.... 73 Bulbs, care of 78, 79 Bulbs, classes of 73 Bulbs, "Dutch" defined 71 Budded stock, spring care 263 Budding annular 265 Budding apples 264 Budding cherry 205 Budding, chip 265 Budding, dormant 255 Budding, flute 265 Budding, H- 265 Budding, June 263 Budding, methods 255 Budding old peach trees 266 Budding, plate 264 Budding, prong 265 Budding, ring 265 Budding, shield 256 Budding, time 256 Budding, tubular 266 Budding, veneer 265 Page Budding, whistle 266 Budding, winter 266 Budding, wood 258 C Cactus grafting 251 Callus, defined 100 Callus pits 1 19 Caulicle, defined 20 Charcoal for graft storing 225 Chemicals in germination 27 Cherry budding 205 Cherry grafting 205 Cherry stocks 201 , 204 Chimeras, plant 181 Cicatrization 161 Cion, defined 132 Cion fumigation 277 Cion, selection 219 Cion shipping, long distance 220 Citrus propagation 207 Close on top grafting 238 Conifer grafting 253 Corbett on "blind eyes" 101 Corm production 77 Cotyledons, number or 8 Cover crops in nurseries 273 Crab stocks 192 Crandall, quoted 156 Crocker, on delayed germination.. 38 "Crocks" defined 62 Crown, defined 81 Cummings, on seed size 36 Cuttage, defined 95 Cutting, storage 122 Cuttings, budding greenwood 126 Cuttings, browning of 118 Cuttings, burying 121 Cuttings, classes of Ill Cuttings, evergreen 118 Cuttings, "flagging'- or 125 Cuttings for dwarf plants 119 Cuttings, influence of climate on.. 97 Cuttings, "June struck" 122 Cuttings, leaf 129 Cuttings, long kept alive 128 Cuttings, mature wood 114 Cuttings, parts used for green.... 124 Cuttings, plant parts used Ill Cuttings, rhizome 114 Cuttings, root Ill Cuttings, rose 118 Cuttings, semi-hardwood 121 319 320 INDEX Cuttings, shipping 106 Cuttings, soft wood 123, 125 Cuttings, stem 114 Cuttings, transplanting 123 Cycle, duration of life 4 Cycle, life 3 D Damages from tree sales 290 Oamping-off 51 Daniel's generalizations 159 Degrully, on grape grafting 212 De Meulder, on hyacinth propaga- tion 75 Depth to plant 25 Dibbling, in grafts 236 Digging stock 270 Division, defined 80 Doucin stocks 194 Double working 196 Dressings for wounds 226 Duvel, seed table 49 Dwarf apple stocks ' 194 Dwarf plants from cuttings 119 Dwarfing 195 E Eggplant, grafted 251 Embryo, structure of 8 English grafting 248 Environment, defined 4 Enzymes in germination 27 "Eyes, blind" 100 r Fertilization of ftowers 9 Fertilization, process of flower. ... 9 Filing seeds for sprouting 28 Fire fanging 93 "Flagging" of cuttings 125 Flat, defined 63 Flower, essential organs 8 Flower pots 56 Fraser, quoted 187 Freezing seeds 31 Fumigation, cions 277 Fumigation, greenhouse 278 Fumigation, house 277 G Galloway, on seed sTze 36 Gazeau, on strawberry propagation 69 Geotropism 171 Germination, aids to 27 Germination, defined 20 Germination, delayed. 36, 38 Germination factors 21 Germplasm 175 Graft breakage 141 Graft, effects on seed 171 Graft hybrids 181 Graft storage 236 Graft-wrappmg experiments 224 Graftage, classification 227, 229 Graftage, defined 131 Graftage, importance of 136 Graftage laws 160 Graftage, limits 147 Graftage, necessity of 133 Graftage, nurserymen's reasons for 182 Graftage, objects of 132 Graftage, rules 149 Graftage, unnatural 155 Graftage vs cuttage 156 Grafted plants short lived 156 Grafted vs seedling orchards.... 157 Grafting, adjuvant 253 Grafting, a makeshift l"55 Grafting, bridge 230 Grafting, cactus 251 Grafting, cherry 205 Grafting, cleft 239, 244 Grafting, crown 247 Grafting, cutting 248 Grafting, Daniel on mixed 252 Grafting, denounced 154 Grafting, end-to-end 253 Grafting, fruit bud 253 Grafting grapes 211, 212, 213 Grafting, herbaceous 166, 249 Grafting, irons 241 Grafting, Smith's method 248 Grafting, mixed 251 Grafting, notch 248 Grafting, produces disease 160 Grafting, root 231 Grafting, saddle 253 Grafting, side 246 Grafting, speed in 241 Grafting, splice 248 Grafting, top 238 Grafting, tubes 249 Grafting, veneer 244 Grafts, classes of 160 Grafts, in moss and charcoal.... 225 Grafts, piece root 232 Grafts, whole rooT 232 Grades of trees 282 Grape grafting 211, 212, 213 Grape, grafting, green 253 Grape stock influence 215 Green, S B., on summer propa- gation 97 Greiner, on rose ringing 118 Growth, cause of length 20 Hansen, quoted 194 Heat, bottom 86 Hedrick, quoted 176, 195, 201 Henderson's, potting record at 57 Hermann, Van, on eggplant grafting 251 Hilum, defined 8 Horse radish from seed 8 Hoskins, on nut vitality 35 INDEX 321 Page Howard, on seed rest period 15 Hyacinth propagation 75 Hybrid, defined 9 Hybridization, asexual 173 Hypocotyl, defined 20 I Inarching 227, 229 Incubator, grafts in 237 Inlaying 247 Irons, grafting 241 Inspection legislation, uniform nmrsery 289 K Kerr, quoted 201 Knives, budding 260 Knives, grafting 232 Knocking-out, defined 61 Ii Layerage, defined 64 Layering, kinds of 64 Laws, nursery 287 Leroux, on apple stocks 189 Lettuce, transplanting 60 Light hinders germination.... 24, 25 Lilies, Easter, from seed 74 Lily disease 74 Lopping tops 209 VL Machine for graft wrapping 235 Macoun, on Northern Spy seedlings 136 Markey's potting record 57 Morse, on dodder 43 Micropyle, defined 7 Moisture regulation 100 Moss for graft storing 225 "Moss," on potted plants 63 Myers, on seed testing 50 Nowoczek, on re-germination 33 Nursery, cover crops 273 Nursery, management 269 Nursery, laws 287 Nursery, laying out 269 Nursery, soils 270 Nursery, stock buying 280 Nursery, stock by mail 287 Nursery stock, cost 280 Nursery stock diseases 290 Nursery stock storing 275 Nursery, winter protection in 275 Offset, defined 81 O Oliver, on keeping cuttings alive.. 128 Oliver, on Mango budding 254 Optimum of growth factors 22 Oven, propagating 89 Ovule structure 9 Oxygen, in germination 25 P Packing, for shipment 284 Paradise stocks 194 Peach stocks 199 Peach, topworking 266 Pedigreed trees 183, 186 Pear on apple stocks 190 Pear on quince 189, 196 Pear, propagation 19S Pear stocks, origin of 197 Pears, spring budded 199 Tears, Yeoman's dwarf 164 Perennials, defined 5 Pericarp, kinds of 10 Phloem, defined 146 Phylloxena 215 Pistil, structure of 9 Plants by mail 287 Plants, shipping 106 Plum stocks 199 Potatoes, grafted 250 Potato, quick propagation 84 Potato, sweet, propagation 84 Pot bound plants 63 Pots, double lOS Potting, care in 58 Potting, dangers 60 Potting, defined 54 Potting, operation of 57 Potting, soil 54 Propagation, classes of 8 Propagation, natural 1 Pricking-out 53 Protection in nurseries 275 Q Quince for pear 196 B Radicle, defined 21 Raffia, defined 225 Ravaz, on cutting browning 119 Ravaz, on grape grafting 215 Reciprocal influence of stock and cion 167 Re-germination of seeds 38 Repair grafting 230 Reviere on stocks 189 Rhizome cuttings 114 Rhizome, defined 80 Ringing roses 118 Roberts, on nursery soils 272 Root grafted vs budded trees.... 216 Root grafting 231 Root grafts, making 233 Root grafts, whole 232 Roots on stem cuttings 106 Roots, origin of 102 322 INDEX Root vs top grafting 237 Rose cuttings '1^ Rose, ringing 118 Rose, stocks 206, 207 Roses, grafted, for forcing 207 Rosette, defined 83 Rubber for grafting 224 Runner, defined 68 S Sablon, Le Clerc du, quoted.. ISl, 196 Scalding seeds 33 Science, definition 1 Scott, on grafted roses 207 Screens for shading 109 Seed analysis 41 Seed, defined 7 Seed dissemination 12 Seed freezing 31 Seed, graft characters from 171 Seed, longevity in Missouri 35 Seed, losses from low grade.... 42 Seed pans 56 Seed, regermination 38 Seed, size influence 36 Seed, soaking 32 Seed, testing 40 Seed-testing conveniences 45 Seed-testing questions 214 Seed, transportation 13 Seed, vitality 34, 35 Seedlings, apple 191 Seeds, fictitious age of 12 Seeds, rest period of 14 Seeds, scalding 33 Seeds, sowing very small 26 Seeds, unreliability of 135 Separation ' ' Shading 108 Shelters 269 Shifting plants 61 Shipping plants and trees 284 Smith Bros, quoted 201 Smith's English grafting 248 Soil for potting 54 Somatoplasm 1^5 Sowing, time of 23 Spore, defined 6 Soort, defined 112 Spraying, nursery stock 277 Standard, defined 191 Standardization of nursery stock. . 283 Stewart, quoted 186, 218 Stock and cion reciprocal influence 167 Stock breeding, necessity for 184 Stock, defined 132 Stock, effect of small growing.... 189 Stock, effects on cion 176 Stock plants, defined 100 Stocks, apple 192 Tnae Stocks, cherry 201, 204 Stocks, citrus 209 Stocks, for fruit trees 176 Stocks, for weeping traes 190 Stocks, French investigators on.... 1S9 Stocks, hardy, for tender varieties 179 Stocks, in top grafting 186 Stocks, peach 199 Stocks, pear 197 Stocks, plum 199 Stocks, quince 196 Stocks, rose 206 Stocks, slow maturing 189 Stolon, defined 80 Stratification 29 Strawberry propagation, rapid.... 69 String, waxed 223 Stringfellow on sucker influence. . . . 266 Sucker influence 266 Suckers, defined 101 T Temperature in germination 23 Tomato propagation 60 Top grafting 23 •* Trabut, on grape grafting 215 Trees, own rooted 191 Trial grounds, value of 41 Tuber cuttings 112 Tuber, defined 84 Tubes grafting 249 Union, physical strength of... 141, 143 V Variation, bud, defined 112 Viala, on cutting browning 119 Vilmorin seed table 49 W Water in germination 22 Water sprouts defined 101 Wax, grafting 220 Wax, use of 150 Wellhouse, quoted 219 Wernicke's hot water experiments.. 33 Whilten, on seed rest period 15 Whole vs piece root 218 Wound dressings 226 X Xylem, defined 147 ■y Yeoman's dwarf pears 164 STANDARD BOOKS PUBLISHED BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO Ashland Building People's Gas Building 315-321 Fourth Avenue 150 Michigan Avenue Any) of these hoo^s Teill he sent fcp mail, postpaid, to any part of the world, on receipt of catalog price. We are alu>a\is happy to correspond with our patrons, and cordially invite them to address us on any matter pertaining to rural books. Send for our large illustrated catalog, free on appli- cation. First Principles of Soil Fertility By Alfred Vivian. There is no subject of more vital importance to the farmer than that of the best method of maintaining the fertility of the soil. The very evident decrease in the fertility of those soils which have been under cultivation for a number of years, combined with the increased competition and the advanced price of labor, have convinced the intelligent farmer that the agriculture of the future must be based upon more rational practices than those which have been followed in the past. We have felt for some time that there was a place for a brief, and at the same time comprehensive, treatise on this important subject of Soil Fertility. Professor Vivian's experience as a teacher in the short winter courses has admirably fitted him to present this matter in a popular style. In this little book he has given the gist of the subject in plain language, practically devoid of technical (and scientific terms. It is pre-eminently a "First Book," and will be found especially valuable to those who desire an introduction to the subject, and who intend to do subse- quent reading. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 265 pages. Cloth. Net, $1.00 The Study of Corn By Prof. V. M. Shoesmith. A most helpful book to all farmers and students interested in the selection and im- provement of corn. It is profusely illustrated from photo- graphs, all of which carry their own story an^' contribute their part in making pictures and text mattet a clear, con- cise and interesting study of corn. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 100 pages. Cloth Net, $0.50 (1) Soils By Charles William Burkett, Director Kansas Agri- cultural Experiment Station. The most complete and popular work of the kind ever published. As a rule, a book of this sort is dry and uninteresting, but in this cuse it reads like a novel. The author has put into it his m- dividuality. The story of the properties of the soils, their improvement and management, as well as a discussion of the problems of crop growing and crop feeding, make this book equally valuable to the farmer, student and teacher. Illustrated. 303 pages. 5^x8 inches. Cloth. . Net, $1.25 Weeds of the Farm Garden By L. H. Pammel. The enormous losses, amounting to several hundred million dollars annually in the United States, caused by weeds stimulate us to adopt a better system of agriculture. The weed question is, therefore, a most important and vital one for American farmers. This treatise will enable the farmer to treat his field to remove weeds. The book is profusely illustrated by photo- graphs and drawings made expressly for this work, and will prove invaluable to every farmer, land owner, gar- dener and park superintendent. 5x7 inches. 300 pages. Cloth Net, $1.50 Farm Machinery and Farm Motors By J. B. Davidson and L. W. Chase. Farm Machinery and Farm Motors is the first American book published on the subject of Farm Machinery since that written by J. J. Thomas in 1867. This was before the development of many of the more important farm machines, and the general application of power to the work of the farm. Modern farm machinery is indispensable in present-day farming operations, and a practical book like Farm Ma- chinery and Farm Motors will fill a much-felt need. The book has been written from lectures used by the authors before their classes for several years, and which were pre- pared from practical experience and a thorough review of the literature pertaining to the subject. Although written primarily as a text-book, it is equally useful for the prac- tical farmer. Profusely illustrated. 5J^x8 inches. 520 pages. Cloth Net, $2.00 The Book of Wheat By P. T. DoNDLiNGER. This book comprises a complete study of everything pertaining to wheat. It is the work of a student of economic as well as agricultural condi- tions, well fitted by the broad experience in both practical and theoretical lines to tell the whole story in a condensed form. It is designed for the farmer, the teacher, and the student as well. Illustrated. Sy^xS inches. 370 pages. Cloth Net, $2.00 (4) The Cereals in America By Thomas F. Hunt, M.S., D.Agri.. Professor of Agron- omy, Cornell University. If you raise Hve acres of any kind of grain you cannot afford to be without this book. It is in every way the best book on the subject that has ever been written. It treats of the cultivation and improvement of every grain crop raised in America in a thoroughly practical ana accurate manner. The subject-matter includes a comprehen- sive and succinct treatise of wheat, maize, oats, barley, rye, rice, sorghum (kafir corn) and buckwheat, as related particu- larly to American conditions. First-hand knowledge has been the policy of the author in his work, and every crop treated is presented in the light of individual study of the plant. If you have this book you have the latest and best that has been written upon the subject. Illustrated. 450 pages. 55^2x8 inches. Cloth $1-75 The Forage and Fiber Crops in America By Thomas F. Hunt. This book is exactly what its title indicates. It is indispensable to the farmer, student and teacher who wishes all the latest and most important informa- tion on the subject of forage and fiber crops. Like its famous companion, "The Cereals in America," by the same author, it treats of the cultivation and improvement of every one of the forage and fiber crops. With this book in hand, you have the latest and most up-to-date information available. Illus- trated. 428 pages. 5^x8 inches. Cloth $1.75 The Book of Alfalfa History, Cultivation and Merits. Its Uses as a Forage and Fertilizer. The appearance of the Hon. F. D. Coburn's little book on Alfalfa a few years ago has been a profit revela- tion to thousands of farmers throughout the country, and the increasing demand for still more information on the subject has induced the author to prepare the present volume, which is by far the most authoritative, complete and valuable work on this forage crop published anywhere. It is printed on fine paper and illustrated with many full-page photographs that were taken with the especial view of their relation to the text. 336 pages. 65^ x 9 inches. Bound in cloth, with gold stamp- ing. It is unquestionably the handsomest agricultural refer- tnce book that has ever been issued. Price, postpaid. . $2.00 Clean Milk By S. D. Belcher, M.D. In this book the author sets forth practical methods for the exclusion of bacteria from milk, and how to prevent contamination of milk from the stable to the consumer. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 146 pages. Cloth .... $1 00 .--^ CS) Bean Culture I!y Glenn C. Sevey, t>.S. A practical treatise on the pro- duction and marketing of beans. It includes the manner of growth, soils and fertilizers adapted, best varieties, seed selec- tion and breeding, planting, harvesting, insects and fungous pests, composition and feeding value; with a special chapter on markets by Albert W. Fulton. A practical book for the grower and student alike. Illustrated. 144 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Celery Culture By W. R. Beattie. A practical guide for beginners and a standard reference of great interest to persons already en- gaged in celery growing. It contains many illustrations giving a clear conception of the practical side of celery culture. The work is complete in every detail, from sowing a few seeds in a window-box in the house for early plants, to the handling and marketing of celery in carload lots. Fully illustrated. 150 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Tomato Culture By Will W. Tracy. The author has rounded up in this book the most complete account of tomato culture in all its phases that has ever been gotten together. It is no second- hand work of reference, but a complete story of the practical experiences of the best-posted expert on tomatoes in the world.- No gardener or farmer can afford to be without the book. Whether grown for home use or commercial purposes, the reader has here suggestions and information nowhere else available. Illustrated. 150 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 The Potato By Samuel Fraser. This book is destined to rank as a standard work upon Potato Culture. While the practical side has been emphasized, the scientific part has not been neglected, and the information given is of value, both to the grower and to the student. Taken all in all, it is the most complete, reliable and authoritative book on the potato ever published in Amer- ica. Illustrated. 200 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . $0.75 Dwarf Fruit Trees By F. A. Waugh. This interesting book describes in detail the several varieties of dwarf fruit trees, their propagation, planting, pruning, care and general management. Where there is a limited amount of ground to be devoted to orchard purposes, and where quick results are desired, this book will meet with a warm welcome. Illustrated. 112 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. • . . . . . ■ $0.50 (6) Cabbage, Cauliflower and Allied Vegetables By C. L. Allen. A practical treatise on tlie various tj'pes and varieties of cabbage, cauliflower, I)roccoIi, Brussels sprouts, kale, colhirds and kolil-rabi. An explanation is given of the requirements, conditions, cultivation aiid general man- agement pertaining to the entire cabbage group. After this each class is treated separately and in detail. The chapter on seed raising is probably the most authoritative treatise on this subject ever published. Insects and fungi attacking this class of vegetables are given due attention. Illustrated. 126 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Asparagus By F. M. Hexamer. This is the first book published in America which is exclusively devoted to the raising of aspara- gus for home use as well as for market. It is a practical and reliable treatise on the saving of the seed, raising of the plants, selection and preparation of the soil, planting, cultiva- tion, manuring, cutting, bunching, packing, marketing, canning and drying, insect enemies, fungous diseases and every re- quirement to successful asparagus culture, special emphasis be- ing given to the importance of asparagus as a farm and money crop. Illustrated. 174 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . $0.50 The New Onion Culture By T. Greiner. Rewritten, greatly enlarged and brought up to date. A new method of growing onions of largest size and yield, on less land, than can be raised by the old plan Thousands of farmers and gardeners and many experiment stations have given it practical trials which have proved a success. A complete guide in growing onions with the great- est profit, explaining the whys and wherefores. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 140 pages. Cloth $0.50 The New Rhubarb Culture A complete guide to dark forcing and field culture. Part I — By J. E. Morse, tlie well-known Michigan trucker and originator of the now famous and extremely profitable new methods of dark forcing and field culture. Part II — Com- piled by G. B. FiSKE. ()ther methods practiced by the most experienced market gardeners, greenhouse men and experi- menters in all parts of America. Illustrated. 130 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . $0.50 (7) Successful Fruit Culture By Samuel T. Maynard. A pi^ctical guide to the culti- vation and propagation of Fruits, written from the standpoint of the practical fruit grower who is striving to make his business profitable by growing the be^t fruit possible and at the least cost. It is up-to-date in ev^ry particular, and covers the entire practice of fruit culture, harvesting, storing, mar- keting, forcing, best varieties, etc., etc. It deals with principles first and with the practice afterwards, as the foundation, prin- ciples of plant growth and nourishment must always remain the same, while practice will vary according to the fruit grower's immediate conditions and environments. Illustrated. 265 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00 Plums and Plum Culture By F. A. Waugh. A complete manual for fruit growers, nurserymen, farmers and gardeners, on all known varieties of plums and their successful management. This book marks an epoch in the horticultural literature of America. It is a complete monograph of the plums cultivated in and indigenous to North America. It will be found indispensable to the scientist seeking the most recent and authoritative informa- tion concerning this group, to the nurseryman who wishes to handle his varieties accurately and intelligently, and to the cultivator who would like to grow plums successfully. Illus- trated. 391 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $i-50 Fruit Harvesting, Storing, Marketing By F. A. Waugh. A practical guide to the picking, stor- ing, shipping and marketing of fruit. The principal subjects covered are the fruit market, fruit picking, sorting and pack- ing, the fruit storage, evaporation, canning, statistics of the fruit trade, fruit package laws, commission dealers and deal- ing, cold storage, etc., etc. No progressive fruit grower can afford to be without this most valuable book. Illustrated. 232 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $1.00 Systematic Pomology By F. A. Waugh, professor of horticulture and landscape gardening in the Massachusetts agricultural college, formerly of the university of Vermont. This is the first book in the English language which has ever made the attempt at a com- plete and comprehensive treatment of systematic pomology. It presents clearly and in detail the whole method by which fruits are studied. The book is suitably illustrated. 288 pages. 5x7 inches, Cloth $1.00 'ID Rural School Agriculture By Charles W. Davis. A book intended for the use of both teachers and pupils. Its aim is to enlist the interest of the boys ot the farm and awaken in their minds the fact that the problems of the farm arc great enough to command all the brain power they can summon. The book is a manual of exer- cises covering many phases of agriculture, and it may be used with any text-book of agriculture, or without a text-book. The exercises will enable the student to think, and to work out the scientific principles underlying some of the most important agricultural operations. The author feels that in the teaching of agriculture in the rural schools, the laboratory phase is al- most entirely neglected. If an experiment helps the pupil to think, or makes his conceptions clearer, it fills a useful pur- pose, and eventually prepares for successful work upon the farm. The successful farmer of the future must be an experi- menter in a small way. Following many of the exercises are a number of questions which prepare the way for further re- search work. The material needed for performing the experi- ments is simple, and can be devised by the teacher and pupils, or brought from the homes. Illustrated. 300 pages. Cloth. 5x7 inches $1.00 Agriculture Through the Laboratory and School Garden By C. R. Jackson and Mrs. L. S. Daugherty. As its name implies, this book gives explicit directions for actual work in the laboratory and the school garden, through which agri- cultural principles may be taught. The author's aim has been to present actual experimental work in every phase of the subject possible, and to state the directions for such work so that the student can perform it independently of the teacher, and to state them in such a way that the results will not be suggested by these directions. One must perform the experi- ment to ascertain the result. It embodies in the text a com- prehensive, practical, scientific, yet simple discussion of such facts as are necessary to the understanding of many of the agricultural principles involved in every-day life. The book, although primarily intended for use in schools, is equally valuable to any one desiring to obtain in an easy and pleasing manner a general knowledge of elementary agriculture. Fully illustrated. 5^2x8 inches. 462 pages. Cloth. Net . $1.50 Soil Physics Laboratory Guide By \V. G. Stevenson and I. O. Schaub. A carefully out- lined series of experiments in soil physics. A portion of the experiments outlined in this guide have been used quite gen- erally in recent years. The exercises (of which there are 40) are listed in a logical order with reference to their relation to each other and the skill required on the part of the student. Illustrated. About 100 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . $0.50 (17) Farmer's Cyclopedia of Aijriculture in ^ A Compendium of Agricultural Science and Prac- tice on Farm, Orchard and Garden Crops, and the Feeding and Diseases of Farm Animals Bj^ EARLEY VERNON WILCOX. Ph. D arib CLARENCE BEAMAN SMITH, M. S Associate Editors in the Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department oj Agriculture THIS is a new, practical, and complete presentation of the whole subject of ag- riculture in its broadest sense. It is de- signed for the use of agriculturists who desire up-to-date, reliable information on all matters pertaining to crops and stock, but more particularly for the actual farmer. The volume contains Detailed directions for the culture of every important field, orchard, and garden crop grown in America, together with descriptions of their chief insect pests and fungous diseases, and remedies for their control. It contains an ac- count of modern methods in feeding and handling all farm s*ock, including poultry. The diseases which affect different farm animals and poultry are described, and the most recent remedies sug- gested for controlling them. Every bit of this vast mass of new and useful information is authoritative, practical and easily found, and no effort has been spared to include all desirable details. There are between 6,000 and 7,000 topics covered in these references, and it contains 700 royal 8vo pages and nearly 500 superb half-tone and other original illustrations, making the most perfect Cyclopedia of Agricul- ture ever attempted. Handjomely bound in cloth. •^3.50: half morocco (xfery sumptuous). ■^4-. SO, postpaid nDAilPC llinn OnUDAIIV 315-321 Fourth Avenue. New York.N Y UnANUt JUUU UUMrlini, Peoples Gas Building, Chicago, IK (19; -"p;SL2!S««s °°°0^33fe3j >« •